UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LI3RARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN STACKS Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/universalassistaOOmoor_0 I THE UNIYERSAL ASSISTANT, AND , COMPLETE MECHANIC; CONTAINING OVER ONE MILLION INDUSTRIAL FACTS, 6ALGULATI0HS, RECEIPTS, PROCESSES, TRADE SECRETS, RULES, BUSINESS FORMS, LEGAL ITEMS, ETC., IN EVERY OCCUPATION, FROM THE HOUSEHOLD TO THE MANUFACTORY, BY R. MOORE. Ellustrated with 500 Engravings. Let us have Facts, real, certain, unmistakable Facts, there can be no Science without them."— ROBERT DICK. Price in Cloth Binding, $2.50 ; in Leather Binding, $3.50. Free by Mail to any Address in the United States, Canada, or Great Britain, by remitting the price to R. Moore, No. 73 Beekman St., New York, U. S. A. Parties will save Ex- press charges by ordering single copies sent by Mail, instead of by Express, CCD. Agents wanted. See next page. i^eb ¥orft: R. MOORE, 73 BEEKMAN STREET. WM. DUNHAM, EDITOR OF "THE MILLER," 69 MARK LANE, LONDON, ENGLAND. TAMES SPIERS, 36 BLOOMSBURY STREET, W. C, LONDON 1882. Ala ska, 7 23 A.M. Albany, 12 13 r.iM. Atlanta, 11 30 a.m. AuRusta, Ga., 11 39 a.m. Baltimore , Md., 12 02 r .M Eanpior, Mel t2 3 3 p.m. Bath, Me., 12 29 p.m. Boston, Mass., 12 24 p.m. Buffalo. N. Y., II 52 a.m. Camb'ge, Mass., 12 24 r.M Charlest'n, S.C., 11 43 a.m, Chicago, 111. , II 17 a.m. Cincinnati, O., 11 30 a.m. Clevelan d, P., 11 41 a.m. Columbia, S.C., 11 44 a.m. Colu mbus, 0., II 36 a.m. Danville, Va., 11 50 a.m. Denv er, Col., 1008 A.m. Det roit, M^ch., 11 36 a.m Dubuque, la., 11 05 A.M. Galveston, Tex., 1049 a.m. Halifax, N. S., 12 54 p.m. Hamilton Ont., 11 49 a.m. Hannibal, Mo., 11 07 a.m. Hartford, Ct., 12 17 p.m. Havana, Cuba, 11 38 a.m. Houston, Tex., 10 44 a.m. Indianap's. Ind., 11 24A.M. Jacksonv'e, 111., 11 07 a.m. Jeff'n City, Mo. ,10 59 A.M. Kalama, W. T.. 8 58 a.m. Kansas City, Mo. 10 49 a.m K noxv'e, Tenn., 11 32 A.M Laramie. Wy T., 10 12 a.m Louis ville, Ky., 11 26 a.i\i Lincoln, Neb., 10 41 a.m. Little Rock, Ak., 10 59 a.m London, Eng., 5 08 p.m. Macon, Ga., 11 37 a.m. Memp's, Tenn., 11 08 a.m Meridian, Miss.. 11 14 a.m Mexico, 10 32 a.m. Milwau'c, Wis., 11 16 a.m Minneapolis, 10 55 a.m. Mobile, Ala., ix 16 a.m. FOR MEASUREMENT OF TIME SEE PAGE 773. Table Showing the Time'ln Various Parts of the World when it is Noon at WASHINGTON, D. C. COPYRIGHT,' 1879, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Moncton, N. B., 12 4-^ p.m. .\Iontreal, Can., 1214 p.taI Nashv'e Tenn., ii N. Haven, Ct., 12 16 p.m. N. London, Ci., 12 20 p.m. New York, 12 12 p.m. N. Orleans, La., 11 08 a.m. Omaha, Neb., 10 44 a.m. Ottawa, Can., 12 05 p.m. Paducah, Ky., 11 16 a.m. Panama, 11 50 A.M. Paris, France, 5 17 p.m. Pensacola, Fla., 11 19 p.m. Philada., Pa., 12 07 p.m. Pittsburg, Pa., 11 48 Port Hope, Can., ii 54 a.m. Pt. Huron,Mch. [1 34 A.M- Portland, Me., 12 27 p.m. Portsm'th, Va., 12 03 p.m. Provide'ce, R.I., 12 22 p.m- Quebec, C an., 12 23 p.m. Quincy, 111., 11 07 a.m. Richmond, Va., 11 58 A.M. Rome, Ga., 11 32 a.m. St. John, N. B., 12 44 P.M. St. Johns, N. F., i 37 p.m. St. Joseph, Mo., 10 50 A.M. St. Louis, Mo., II 07 A.M. St. Paul, Minn., 10 56 a.m^ St. Step'n, N,B., 12 39 A.M. Salt Lake City, 9 40 a.m. Santa Fe, 10 04 a.m. San Francisco, 8.58 A.M. Sauk St. Marie, 11. 31 a.m. Savannah, Ga., 11 44 a.m. Selma, Ala., 11 20 a.m. Shreveport, La., 10 57 a.m. Sioux City, la., 10 42 a.m. Tcrre Haute, 11 18 a.m. Toronto, Can., 11 51 a.m. Vincennes, Ind. 11 17 a.m. Vera Cruz, 10 43 a.m. Vicksb'g, Miss., 11 05 a.m. Wilming'n, NC, 11 58 a.m. Active Agents furnished with permanent and profitable employment every- where selling om- Publications. New Illustrated 128-page Catalogue of nearly 3,000 Standard Bo®l£§, with Contents Pamphlet of the Universal Assi§tant and Complete Meclianic, terms, etc., to Agents, sent free to any address. IS, MOOI&E, 7^ MceUmun gt., Mew ¥ork. & o3 I PREFACE. ,5 This work is issued with the design of supplying very jV important omissions in the author's antecedent writings and compilations. His most fervid acknowledgments are due •v. for the great encouragement accorded to his previous efforts, and the favorable opinions expressed regarding them. Tha result has been that, stimulated by the experience of the past, he has in the present work, made special exertions to present an immense array of rare and most valuable infor- mation relatino: to Commerce and the Industrial Arts. The , vital concerns of health, home, domestic felicity, and other - all-important interests, have also received due attention, and to make the information more comprehensive and com- •, ^ plete, he has quoted largely from his previously published works, wherever he judged it necessary to do so. These extracts include a few items for machinists use, and the diagrams for saw-filing, selected from the " Boston Machin- ist " and Halley's work " On Saw-filing," by permission of the publishers, John Wiley & Son, of New York, together G TREFACE. with a few extracts from the " Watchmakers' Manual," by permission of the Publishers, Jesse Haney & Co, New York. In addition to the matter above alladed to, many valuable tables are now published for the first time, together with much new and most important matter specially adapted for the use of commercial, manufacturing, and mechanical men in both hemispheres. A past experience of many years devoted to the welcome taslc of supplying technical informa- tion to business men, mechanics, &c., has qualified the author to judge regarding their wants, and to act intelli- gently in endeavoring to supply them. His effort has been to act as the harbinger of mechanical improvements and general progress, and he can say without ostentation, that the present work is the result of prolonged and continuous labor ; the best authorities have been consulted, and endea- vors have been made to make it plain, easily understood, and commensurate with the exacting requirements of this progressive age. GENERAL INDEX. PAGE Baking, Cooking and Preserving Receipts 9 Farmers, Stock-owners, Horse-shoers, Liverymen's and Veteri- nary Receipts, Bee-keeping, &c 3L For Lumbermen, Builders, Contractors, Mill-owners, Ship- builders, Ship-owners, Navigators, Quarry-men, Stone-cutters, Merchants, and Business-men 74 Natural, Mechanical, and Scientific Facts, &c 117 For Dyers, Bleachers, Hatters, Clothiers, Furriers 134 Medical Department, Maintenance of Health, &c 147 Grocers, Confectioners and Manufacturers' Department 201 Tanners, Curriers, Boot, Shoe, and Rubber Manufacturers, Marble and Ivory "Workers, Bookbinders, &c 240 Painters, Cabinet-makers, Varnishers, Polishers, Piano and Organ Manufacturers, Gilders, Bronzers, Architects, Builders, Masons, Bricklayers, Plasterers, Kalsominers, Stucco Workers, China Decorators, Potters, Glass-makers, Stainers, &g 253 Watchmakers, Jewellers, Gilders, Colorers, Refiners, Gold and Silversmiths, Burnishers, Diamond cutters, Lapidaries, Sweep- smelters, Enamellers, G water used in fomiin^j the (lonp;h is placed h\ a vessel capable of withstanding a high pressure, and carbonic acid gas l3 forced into it to the extent 10 or 12 atmospheres. Tlic watei will absorb and retain it wliatevcr may be its density, in qnantitiea equal to its own bulk, so long as it is retained in a close vessel under pressure. The flour and salt, of which the dough is to be formed, is next placed in another powerful vessel of a spheroidal form, con- structed with a simple kneading aj^paratus working from without nnd operating through a closely packed stuffing-box. Into this ves- sel is forced a pressure equivalent to that in the aerated water vessel, then by means of a pipe connecting the two vessels, the aerated water is drawn into the Hour and the kneading apparatus is operated at the same time, the water acting simply as limpid water among the flour, forming a pasty mass of the requisite tenacity. The pressure ia now withdrawn, and the gas escapes from the water, and in doing so, raises the dough in a beautiful and rapid manner, the intermixture being thorough and complete. The mixing vessel may have, say, an inter- nal capacity of 10 bushels ; to fill this with the inflated bread dough only 3^ bushels of flour are required. In the intermixture of water with flour the pasty mass measures rather less than half the bulk of the original dry flour, or aljout IJ bushels instead of 3^, the expand- ed dough repre'sents nearly 5 parts gaseous to one solid. The subse- quent baking expands it to a mucli greater extent, making tho proportions of gaseous to solid in all about 10 to 1. It must be self- evident that this bread is very pure, nothing but flour, water, and salt, being used, and reliable experiments have demonstrated that 118 loaves can be made from the same weight of flour Avhich by fer- mentation will make only 105 or lOG, the loss in the latter being caused by the emission of carbonic acid gas through the dough dur- ing the process of fermentation and manufacture. In baking this bread, it has been found necessary to have the heat admitted through the bottom of the oven, with means of regulating the heat of the top, so that the bread is cooked through the bottom, and the heat subse- quently admitted above towards'the last, in order to perfect the top crust. These precautions are taken owing to the low temperature of the dough when placed in the oven, caused by the use, of cold water in the baking process, and the sudden expansion on rising inducing a temperature of 40° Fahr., lower than ordinary fermented dough. This in connection with its slow springing until it reaches the boiling point, renders it desirable to delay the formation of the top crust until the last moment. Another Aerated Bread. — 1. Dissolve 1 oz. o£ sesqui-carbon- ate of ammonia m water, sufficient to make Tibs, of flour into a dough, which must be formed into loaves, and baked immediately. 2. Divide 3 lbs. flour into two portions : mix up the first with water, holding in solution 2 ozs. bicarbonate of soda ; then mix the second portion of flour with water, to which 1 oz. of muriatic acid has been added ; knead each mass of the dough thoroughly. When this is done, mix both portions together as rapidly and perfectly as possible, form the mass into loaves and bake immediately. This bread con- tains no yeast, and is very wholesome. Note. — Carbonate of mag- nesia and muriatic acid chemically combined, form common salt. Healtht Mixed Bread. — Boil 3 lbs. of rice to a soft pulp in water; pare and cook by steam 6 lbs. of your beat potatoes, mash your potatoes and rub them up with rice pulp ; add to the whole 6 BAKING AND COOKINa RECEIPTS. 13 lbs. flour , make all into a dough with water, ferment witli yeast, let It stand a proper length of time,- and then iDlace it in the oven to bake. Akother ExCELiiENT Bread. — Kuead 21 lbs. flour with 9 lbs of pared and mashed potatoes, from which the water has been well Bteamed off previous to mashing : mix together while the potatoes are warm, adding about 3 or 4 spoonfuls of salt. Then add about 3 qts. milk-waiTli water, with 9 large spoonfuls of yeast gradually to Uae potatoes and flour ; knead and work it well into a smooth dough, and let it stand 4 hours before putting into the oven. Fkench Bread.— Take nice rice, | lb. ; tie it up in a thick linen bag, giving it enough room for it to swell : boil from three to four hours till it becomes a perfect paste ; mix while warm with 7 lbs. flour ; adding the usual quantities of yeast, salt, and water. Allow the dough to work a proper time near the fire, then divide into loaves, dust them in, and knead vigorously. Dyspepsia Bread. — The following receipt for making bread has proved highly salutary to persons afflicted with dyspepsia, viz. : — 3 quarts unbolted wheat meal ; 1 quart soft water, warm but not hot ; 1 gill of fresh yeast ; 1 gill molasses, or not, as may suit the taste ; 1 teaspoonf ul of saleratus. For the sake of the industrious house-wife, and not for bakers, as they are supposed to know already, it may be well to state that 30. minutes' baliiug will suffice for 1 lb. loaves and cakes ; and 15 minutes additional for every lb. after the first for larger ones. Thus a 1 lb. loaf requires -| hour, a 2 lb. loaf 2 hour, and a 4 lb. loaf IJ hour, Superior Bread from Buckwheat Meal. — To 2 qts. of sifted buckwheat meal, add hot water enough to wet the same, when suf- ficiently cooled, add 1 teaspoonf ul or more of salt, half a pint of yeast, and half a teaspoonful of molasses ; then add wheat flour enough to make it into loaves (it should be kneaded well) ; and when risen light, bake or steam it three or more hours. If this should get sour while rising, add a teaspoonful of sugar and a little saleratus, dissolved in water. For bread from Indian meal proceed in the samo way, using it instead of buckwheat meal. Corn-Meal Bread, No. 1. — Take 2 qts. of corn meal, with about a pint of (tliiu) bread sponge, and water enough to wet it ; mix in about a half a pint of wheat flour, and a tablespoonful of salt ; let it rise and then knead well the second time ; bake 1^ hours. Corn-Meal Bread No. 2. — Mix 2 qts. of new corn-meal with three pints of warm -water; add 1 tablespoonful of salt, 2 table- spoonfuls of sugar and one large tablespoonful of hop yeast: let it stand in a warm place five hours to rise ; then add 1^ teacupf uls of wheat flour, and a half pint of warm water. Let it rise again 1^ hours, then pour into a pan well greased with sweet lard, and let it rise a few minutes. Then bake in a moderately hot oven, 1^ hours. Corn-Meal Bread, No 3. — Take 2 qts. of white corn-meal, 1 tftblespoonful of lar(i, 1 pint of hot water ; mix the lard in water . stir it well that it may get heated thoroughly, and add one-half pint of cold water. When the mixture is cool enough, add two well- beaten eggs, and two tablespoonfuls of home-made yeast. Bake 1 hour in a moderately heated oven. If for breakfast make over night. Best Boston Brown Bread.— Take 100 lbs. of Indian meal ; 50 lbs. rye meal ; and 10 lbs. flour ; sift and intermix together in the trough ; strain in four gals, molasses ; 2 gals, fei mcnt c>r yeast ; dissolve 1 UAKINO AND COOKING RECEIPTS. lb. soda .md 4 Iba. salt in water and add that. Now add water enough to mix all rather stiff, mixing well and breaking all lumps. Now mix in water enougli to form a batter sufticiently thin to remain even on top : allow it to stand 2 or 3 hour,s after mixing, before put- ting it into the pans and oven, then bake Irom C to 10 hours iu ft slow oven. Boston, on Soft Crackers.— First sift in 4 bairels cif flour into the trough, add 2 pails of stock-yeast, and about 9 pails of Avater ; mix all into a sponge and allow it to stand until it rises and falls twice. The sponge will require about 0 or 8 hours to become ready, if it sours a little, so much the better. Usually it is set about noon for the work next daj"-, and if set warm, for using stoclc yeast instead of ferment, it will come less rapidly. The sponge being ready, add to it from 8 to 10 pails more water ; mix and break the sponge up well, making a stiff dough, and let it stand until next morning. Itia requisite that the dough should be sour, to ensure good crackers. When ready, remove a sample of it sufficient for one ovenful of crackers ; take it to another part of the trough, and add to it from 5 tp 6 lbs. of butter or lard, the proportion to be added to be estimated by the dimensions of the piece so separated ; soda in solution is now to be added, made by dissolving soda, 1 lb. in cold water, 1 qt, and the detached piece of dough may be intermixed Avith 1 pt. of the liquid, representhig 8 ozs. of soda, but the exact quantity required must be ascertamed by the acidity or age of the dough, and the judg- ment of an experienced practitioner. Mix the soda and butter thoroughly into the dough, and put it through the rollers repeatedly or until smooth. Place a sample of this dough in the oven to deter- mine whether or not it contains the proper quantity of soda. When baked, too much soda will induce a yellow appearance, and more dough without soda must be added ; a deficiency of soda will be in- dicated by a sour smell, and in that case more soda must be added. When all is right, the dough is put through the machine, and the succeeding batch of crackers is commenced by selecting another piece of dough and proceeding as above, adding the butter and soda in the required i)roportion, each batch requiring more soda on ac- count of the increasing acidity acquired by long exposure to the air. Another way.— Set the sponge on the previous night, and the next day instead of making dough of it, select a portion of the sponge, adding it to the butter and soda as above directed, working them well Into it, and adding flour enough to make a stiff dough, and it is ready for the break. When you detach part of the sponge to make the batch, add water enough to the sponge, and stir it up with moro flour, thus continuing to renew the sponge as fast as it is used. Soda Crackers are made by the same process, of the same dough ; after using the scraps, add a little more butter, rolling them thmuer and cuttmg them square. Oyster Crackers are made of the same dough, using the scraps also. Butter, Sugar, and other crackers are made the same way, adding respectively butter and sugar. Cream Crackers.— Rub together 14 lbs. flour and 1 lb. butter ; then add 1 lb. pounded sugar, 48 eggs, and flavor ; mix thoroughly, and work it quite stiff and smooth ; roll out quite thin ; cut them with a cutter in the form of a oak leaf ; put them into boiling water and boil till they float ; remove with a skimmer and dry them on cloths, and bake on clean pans without being buttered, iu a warm oven BAKING AND COOKING IlECEIPTS. 15 Cheap Lady Cake. — Break up 2 lbs. butter, mix in 3 lbs. sugar, rubbing well together for 5 or 10 minutes, add 2 pts. whites o£ eggs, a third at a time, beat all up light, then add 4 lbs. flour, and 1 oz. soda, dissolved in 2 pts. miilc, and 2 ozs. cream tartar ; intermix all well to- gether, bake in pans about 1.^ ins. deep, in loaves that will weigh from 2 to 3 lbs., when baked, take out of the pans and frost on the under eide. Mark in slices £ of an inch thick. Frost Cakes. — Beat 2 lbs. butter and 3 lbs. sugar together until quite light, add 30 eggs, 10 at a time, beating after each addition, tlieu a little ext. lemon, add 3 lbs. fiour, stir just enough to mix ; put ia flat, square pans, greased, and bake in a slow oven, when done, frost on the under side and mark in squares. Citron Frost Cake is made similar to the above, with the addi- tion of sliced citron when the flour is added, or preferably put tho citron on the batter after it is in the pans. Bake as the last. Shrewsbury Cake. — Rub 2 lbs. butter, and 2 lbs. of sugar to- gether, add 24 eggs, G at a time, beating them in, dissolve and add twice as much soda as will lie on a dime in a little water, mix in 4 lbs. flour, roll and cut out with any plain or fancy shaped cutter, put on buttered tins, and bake in a moderate oven. Lemon Cake. — Rub together G lbs. of light brown sugar, and 2 lbs. of lard or butter, add 16 eggs, 12 qts. of milk with 2 ozs. of soda dissolved therein, 2 ozs. ammonia, a few drops extract of lemon for flavor, and flour sufficient to make a stiff batter; drop them eitJier with the hand or with a spoon, into scalloped pans, and sprinkle a few currants on the top of each, and bake in a moderate ovon. Rock Cake. — Rub together 4 lbs. sugar, and 8 lbs. of flour, make a hollow in the middle, and add G eggs, 1^ pts. milk, 1 lb. 8 oz. of but- ter, and 2 oz. ammonia, mix all together, roll out aud cut out Mnth a plain cutter, rather thick, put on pans, and witn a fork scratch the top of each until it is quite rough. Bake in a moderate oven. - Cur Cake. — Break up 2 lbs. butter, add 3 lbs. sugar, and IG eggs, a third at a time, beat up light, add 5 lbs. flour, 2 pts. milk, and ammonia 2 ozs., make all smooth by thorough mixing. Bake in small pans in a moderate oven. Wedding Cake. — Rub 4 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. light brown sugar well together, adding 40 eggs, one quarter at a time, beating well, then add 2 pts. molasses, 2 pts. good brandy, 1 oz. each of mace, nutmeg, cassia, and cloves, all well blended in and mixed with the mass, the:> add 5 lbs. flour, 8 lbs. currants, 9 lbs. stoned raisins, and 3 lbs. citron, intermix all thoroughly, j)ut it in pans, spread smooth on top, and \t'n ready for the oven. These materials will make 4 loaves of 9 lbs. each, and will require careful baking for from 4 to G hours in a cool oven, otherwise it will be burnt on the outside. To frost this amouut of cake beat up the whites of 10 eggs in a bowl, with sufficient pulverized siio;ar to render the, mixture stiff enough to spread on the cake, using a wooden spoon (probably 2^ lbs. Aviil be required), beat all to- getlier for 15 or 20 minutes : spread it on the cake, after the latter becomes cool, and set it away until the next day, when another coat of the frosting composition must be applied, aiid the cake set away until the day following to await the final ornamenting. This is ef- fected with the assistance of ornamenting tubes, &c., together with a frosting composition of a much stiff er consistence than that previously used. Note. — One-half, or even one-quarter of the above quantity of cake will be found amply sufficieut for most occasions. 16 IJAIUNG AND COOKING Kl'.CEirTS. Akottikk Wf-ddino Cakk, — UsG 2 Its, sugar, 3 lbs. flour, 8 nutr nic;j;n, 18 Ci^gs, 1 oz. allspice, 1 oz. cloves, 3 lbs. currants, 2 lbs. citron, 3 li)s. HiilUina raisins, a littlo ammonia, and 1 gill brandy. Proceed Avith tlic jiiixtiirc as directed in the foregoing, and bake in a slow oven. CocoAjJi'T Cakks. — To each lb. of grated cocoanuts add 1 lb. of powdered sugar and the wliites of 4 eggs, pnt all in a kettle and cook on tho firo for about 30 minutes, stirring well all the time, and avoid burning, cook to a soft and nnisliy consistence, turn it out and add to each lb. of cocoanut as previously weighed 2 ozs. of llour, Avorking it "vvell into tho mixture. Now put it in well greased pans, selecting a small ijiece in your hands, rolling it round and lay- mg it on the jiaus, x^uttiug them about 1 inch ai^art, to aUow for spread- ing, and bake in a cool oven. Queen Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. sugar and 2 lbs. butter, next add IG eggs, 1 pt. mil]?, 1 oz. of ammonia, stir all well together, then add the flour ; bake in square pans with a few currants on top. Drop Cake. — Rub togetlier 3 lbs. sugar and 1^ lbs. of butter, add 13 eggs, iu 3 different lots, 3 pts. of sour millc, 1-^ ozs. soda, 1| ozs. of ^immonia, flavor with ext. lemon, stir all well together, add flour suffi- cient to make a stiff batter, drop on buttered pans, bake in a quick oven. Molasses Pound Cake. —Mix together 1 gal. molasses, 3 lbs. but- ter, 8 eggs, 2 qts. water, 8 ozs. of soda, and add sifted flour sufficient to make a stiff batter. Bake in small scalloped pans, in a cool oven. Cross Buns. — Work 24 lbs. dough, 2 lbs. sugar, 2 lbs. butter, 12 eggs and a little cinnamon into the dough, and set away to rise; then pinch them off in about 2 oz. pieces; mould them up; pin out; put on pans, and mark them across with a knife, or cross them with strips of dough. Gold Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. butter, and 2^ lbs. brown sugar : add the yolks of 30 eggs, a few at a time, beating all well up ; add 1 qt. milk with 1 oz. soda dissolved in it, stir well up ; and add 4 lbs. flour ; 1 oz. cream tartar ; a little lemon extract ; mix all up lightly, and bake in small pans in a warm oven. New York Sponge Cake. — Beat IG eggs and 2 lbs. sugar together about 5 minutes ; next add 2 ozs. ammonia, 1 pt. milk, and flavor ; mix all ; add the flour, stirring carefully, but sufficient to mix. Bake in little round pans, in a warm oven. Lady Cake. — Rub 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. sugar together until it is qxtite light; then add the whites of 60 eggs, one-fourth at a time, beating well; next flavor with a littlo oil of almonds; stir slightly ; then add 2 lbs. flour and 1 lb. corn starch, and stir up lightly. Bake in a slow oven and turn over and frost on the under side. Ground-rice Cakes. — ^Rub together 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. sugar; add 16 eggs ; beat up thoroughly ; add 2 pts. milk, 4 ozs. ammonia, and flavor with lemon ; stir all up ; add 4 lbs. of rice flour, and mix thoroughly ; drop on buttered pans about the size of an egg, and bake. Cream Cakes. — Take 1 qt. water, and 1 lb. dark coarse-grained , lard; boil together in a kettle, and then stir in 17 ozs. of best quality- flour; boil all 4 or 5 minutes, or until it is quite smooth; then turn it out on a board, and scra^De the kettle with a knife ; now put your paste in the kettle again, witli 10 eggs ; stir well together until all is smooth ; then add 18 or 20 more eggs, or until the batter is of the right thickness ; next dissolve ^ oz. soda in a little water, and mix in thoroughly; drop on pans slightly greased; wash them on top with BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 17 egg, and bako in a quick oven. They "will require IG tc 18 mimites to bake with a proper lieat. Wlaen baked, remove from tl e fire ; si)lit them through tlie centre and fill them vrith the following cream: Place on the fire 1 qt. milk in a kettle, mix 4 oz. flour, 8 oz. Avhito sugar, 4 eggs, and a little salt in another vessel ; when the milk boils, turn in the mixture, stirring briskly ; when it boils, remove from the fire, and flavor with lemon or vanilla as desired. EocK Cakes. — Rub Avell together 6 lbs. flour, and 2 lbs. butter, making a cavity in the middle ; put in 2 lbs, sugar, 2 lbs. currants, 8 eggs, dissolved soda, 1 oz., and a little ess. lemon, with milk sufficient to mix up stiff; now take a four-pronged fork and work of pieces of dough the size of walnuts ; place on pans, and bake in a cool oven. Snow Cakes. — ^Rub 2 lbs. butter and 2 lbs. sugar well together; then add the whites of 24 eggs, 3 at a time; beat up well; add 12 ozs. flour, 2^ lbs. of arrowroot; add the flavor and mix lightly. Make (5 loaves of this quantity, either round or square; put lemon peel on top, and bake in a, cool oven. Moss Caice. — Rub 6 lbs. of flour and 3 lbs. of butter well together then add 2 lbs. sugar, 8 eggs, and flavor with ess. of lemon ; mix well together until smooth and stiff. Now take a piece the size of an egg push it through a sieve, and form it in bunches to resemble moss put on buttered pans, and bake very carefully in a moderate oven to a delicate brown color. New Yokk Lunch Cake.— Rub together 14 lbs. flour, 2 lbs. but- ter; then add 3 qts. milk, 1 oz. soda, 1 oz. tartaric acid, and 8 ozs. ar- rowroot; mix all quite stiff, break it well, and snap them off about as big as walnuts; pin them out; dock them full of holes, and bake on clean pans in a warm oven. Tea Cake.— Rub 12 lbs. of flour and 6 lbs. of butter together; add G lbs. sugar, 24 eggs, 2 ozs. of soda, 4 ozs. cream tartar; flavor and add milk sufficient to make a nice, soft dough; mix up lightly, roll out, and cut with any fancy-shaped cutters, bake in a warm oven. Fancy Cake. — Rub together 4 lbs. sugar and 3 lbs, butter; add 40 eggs in 4 different lots ; add 1 oz. soda dissolved in a little milk ; mix well; then stir in 4 lbs. of flour; 1 oz. cream tatar; a little ex- tract of lemon; mixing all well together, bake in a moderate oven. Raisin Cake. — Rub together 1 lb. butter and IJ lbs. poAvdered sugar; add 18 eggs, one third at a time, beating well in; add J oz. dissolved soda, stirring well in; add a little ext. lemon; 2 lbs. 2 ozs. of flour; 1 lb, 1 oz, sultana raisins; and mix all well together. Bake in a slow oven in pans about IJ inches deep. Pound Cake. — Break up and well mix 1 lb. of fresh butter with 1 lb. of powdered sugar; add 10 eggs, a few at a time, beating up lightly; add lib, of flour ; a very little soda ; mix all so as to make the flour sm.ooth ; bake in a slow oven. Silver Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs, powdered BUgar; add the whites of 30 eggs, in 3 lots at a time; beat up well; add 2 pts, milk with 1 oz, soda ; 6 lbs, flour, 1 oz. cream tartar ; with a little vanilla flavor; mix up lightly and bake as the last. Ginger Snaps. — Put 2 qts. molasses; l-^- lbs. of lard; 3 ozs. ol ground gmger; 2 ozs. of soda, and 1 pt. water, into a bowl. Mix all together; add flour enough to make a stiff dough; then work in 2 lbs. sugar; roll thin; cut in long strips in rolls on the table; cut them off with a knife or cutter the desired size; put on buttered tins; flatten them down a little with the hand, and bake in a slow oven 2 18 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS, GiNOKR Cake.— Put 12 Cfcgfj and 2 pts. crcnm on tlic fire in a cop- per or tin dish; stir until warm; then add 2 lbs. butter; 2 lbs. sugar; 10 ozH. gin<2;cr; allow it to stay on a slow fire and continue stirring till tlio butter is melted; then set* off ; when cold add 8 lbs. Hour; mix up emootli; roll out thin, and cut with a circular cutter; place on pa^er, and bake in a liot oven. Cinnamon Cakks.— Put 12 eggs and G dessert spoonfuls of ro-o water into a bowl ; whisk together, and add 2 lbs. fine sugar, and 1 oz. of ground cinnamon and llour sufficient to make a nice stiff paste; roll them out; cut into any desired shai)e, and bake them on jjapcr, in a slow oven. Seed Cakes. — ^Rub together 1 lb. butter and 2 lbs. flour; then into a hollow in the centre; put 4 lbs. sugar; 2 qts. milk; 4 ozs. caraway seeds, and a little ammonia ; mix up, but do not work it ihuch; roll out ; cut with a small cutter, and bake in a warm oven. SriCE Cake. — Mix together 3 lbs. siigarandl^ lbs. butter; add IJ pts. milk; 15 eggs, a few at a time; ^ oz. ammonia; one nutmeg and a half; | lb. currants; 5 lbs. flour. Mix up well and bake in deep, square pans in a slow oven. New York Fancy Cake.— Rub together 2 lbs. sugar and 1 lb. butter; add 12 eggs a few at a timo^ beat all up well; add | qt. of Bourmilk; lbs. flour; § oz. soda; § oz. cream tartar, and extract of lemon for flavor. Mix up smooth and bake in scalloped ])ans. Machine Jumbles. — Rub together 3 lbs. sugar and 2 lb. 4 ozs. butter ; add 12 eggs a few at a time, beat all up well ; j oz. of ammo- nia; l| pts. milk; a little ext. lemon, and 5 lbs. 4 ozs. of flour; and stir suiRciently to mix. Champagne Biscuits.— Work up 2 lbs. butter in a basin to a thick cream; add 2 lbs, of sugar; 2 lbs. flour; 36 yolks of eggs; 1 oz caraway seeds ; a little salt; whisk up the whites of the 3G eggs and add them; get a sheet of strong paper; fold it in reversed plaits like a fan, to form trenches about ! inch deep; fill a biscuit forcer with par^ of the batter; force out some finger-like biscuits into the trenches about 3 inches long; sifting sugar over them, and bake them of a light-fawn color in a moderate oven. "Cream Tartar Biscuit.— Work in 3 lbs, sifted flour with 2 ozs. butter; add 2 ozs. cream tartar; dish the middle and pour in 1 pt. milk and 1 pt. water, previously adding 1 oz. soda to the milk; mix all up briskly, but don't make it too stiff. Flatten it out; cut with a biscuit cutter; place them on. buttered tins close together and bake in a quick oven. Washington Cake. — ^Rub together 4 lbs. sugar and 2 lbs. 8 ozs. of butter; IG eggs; 2 pts. water and 2 ozs. of ammonia; with flout sufficient to make a suitable dough to roll; cut out with a scalloped cutter, and bake in a warm oven. Brandy Snaps.— Mix up 1^ pounds flour, I lb. butter, | lb sugar, ^ oz. (jloves, and pint molasses. Mix all together and bake. Washington Pie. — Rub together 1 lb. butter, and 1^ lbs powder- ed sugar, add 1 pt. of eggs, a little at a time, beat up well, add oz. soda dissolved in ^ pt. milk ; flavor with ext. lemon, stir up, and add 2 lbs. flour and 1 oz. cream tartar ; mix together, put on pans one- eighth of an inch thick and bake in a quick oven. Another. — Rub together 2 lbs. lard, 3 lbs. powdered sugar, and add 1 qt. eggs, a little at a time, 1 oz. soda dissolved in 1 qt. millc., 2 BAKING AND COOKING RECEirTS. 19 ozs. cream -tartar, a little lemon, extract and 4^ lbs. flour mix all together and bake as above. FiLiiiNG FOR THE ABOVE PiES, — Add to stcwcd and stralncd dried apples, I lb. of sugar to each lb. of apples, boil all together for 2 hour Stirring well ; fill with this, or use cranberry jelly or currant jelly or raspberry jam, or the latter intermixed with stewed dried apples, or apple filling alone is very good. A good filling for sliced apple pies is made by slicing sour apples, bottom your plates add tlie sliced apples with enough powdered sugar to sweeten, adding cinnamon, salt and a little butter, with water until the plate is two-thirds full, then cover with puff-paste, and trim it round in proper style with a knife. Lemon Pies. — Rub together 1 lb. butter and 1^ lbs. flour with cold water suflicient to make a good stiff dough to bottom your plates with, rimming them around with puif-paste, and fill with the following mixture : put into a bowl the juice of 3 lemons, the grated rind of 1 with 1^ lbs. of finely powdered sugar and 9 eggs. Mix thoroughly, and fill your plates with the mixture ; bake in a moderate oven. Another filling. — 3 lemons, G eggs, f lb. sugar, \ pt. milk, with salt and nutmeg. Mix as the last. Another withoxit lemons. — 1 lb. sugar, ^Ib. flour, 10 eggs, Jpt. milk, ^ oz. tartaric acid, a little lemon essence and salt. Frosting for Lemon Pies. — 4 ozs. pulverized sugar, whites of G eggs beaten to a stiff froth and the sugar gradually added to it, intermix thoroughly, cover the pies, top them off with this frosting, run them into a moderate oven and bake them to a nice brown. Short Puff Paste for Pies.— Mix together 4 lbs. flour, 1^ lbs. butter, add 4 eggs, a little salt and 1 pt. water or a little more, work all to a smooth paste, spread out with the hand, put l^lbs. more butter in the middle, fold the dough over the butter, so as to cover it, let it stand 5 minutes, sift flour over the paste and on the slab, roll out to the length of 7 feet and 3 feet wide (for half this quantity one half of these dimensions will be required) Fold it over and turn so that the sides will face you, repeating the rolling twice, when the paste will be fit for use. Common Paste for Ties. — Rub together 4 lbs. flour, and 4 lbs. of lard with salt sufficient ; add just water enough to mix the dough ; it may be better to put flour on the bench, malie a set of it, adding the Bait, lard, water, and stirring together. Paste to cover Pies. — Mix togother 1^ lbs. of lard or butter with 2 lbs. flour witli suflicient salt and water to mix. Cranberry pies should have strips of puff paste across the top, the edges wet, and a strip of puff paste placed aromid the rim, keeping this strip ^ inch outside of the edge of the plate, as it will contract while baking. Custard for Pies. — Put 12 eggs, ^ lb. sugar, ^ oz. salt, and a little ext. lemon into a bowl, beat well together, add 2 qts. milk and strain. Filling for Squash Pies. — Thoroughly clean 5 lbs. of squash, slice it up and stew it ; when thoroughly cooked drain off the water, rub to a mush through a" strainer, then add 1^ lbs. sugar, 6 eggs, 2 qts. milk, I oz. ginger, a little ext. lemon, and salt sufficient. Filling for Mince Pies.— Boil 3 lbs. of chopped meat, clear of bones and tough pieces, chop fine ; peel, core and chop 9 lbs. of good apples, add 4^ lbs. brown sugar, 3^ qts. molasses, 3 ozs. each of nut- meg, cassia, cloves and allspice, 3 lbs. raisins, 1^ lbs. currants, 1^ pts. brandy, 1 gill cider, f lb. salt. Mix all the in^edients together in a vessel, omitting the apples and brandy, intermix well together; tJiou 20 BAKING AND COOKING IIECKIPTS. add them aiid rcdnco to tho proper consistency with water. Cover with a cloth, tyinj? it down tiglitly to prevent evaporation and set away in a cool place for use. ICK CkIs AM M ANUFACTURE.— Beat thc required quantity of ice very fine in a stout baj? or by any other means, and add fine salt in ratio of one part of salt to four parts of ice, mixing thoroughly with a stick. Tack the compoimd neatly in thc freezer around the cylinder to thc top, then put in the cream (which should ho cool) you v/ish to freeze, and, after covering, proceed to turn the crank back- and forth alter- nately 10 or 12 times eacli way until the cream is sufficiently thick to beat, which will be known by tho opposition to the beater, "then turn forward quite briskly for a short space in order to impart an even and good appearance to the cream ; make thorough work of the beating, then remove the beater, fill the pail with ice and salt, and set away to harden. It will not do to introduce additional ice or salt, or allow it to grow stiff Avhile beating, or beat it too much, or to retard the freez- ing process by pouring off water from the melted ice. The right time to beat it is when it is dense enough to rise, or about tlie thickness of light batter, if beaten when rigid the product will not be so Satisfactory. As the cream expands in freezing, tho cylinder should be filled f full and no more. Strawherry and Raspberry Cream Ice. — 1. Pass 3 lbs. of picked strawberries or raspberries through a coarse hair-sieve, add 1^ qts. double cream, 2^ lbs. sifted sugar, mix well together, freeze as above, and mould it. If a deep red is desired, it may be imparted by a few dro])s of cochineal. 2. Ice cbea?.:, Best Quality. — Beat well together 9 eggs with 1| lbs. sugar ; boil 3 qts. good cream, set it off for a short space to cook, then add the sugar and eggs, flavor with vanilla, etc., to suit the taste. Let it cool, i^lace in the freezer and proceed as above. 3. Substitute for cream. — Boil 1 qt. of good milk with 1^ ozs. of - arrowroot, having first brought the milk to the boiling point and mixed tlie arrowroot smooth with a little cold milk, remove from tho fire; add 2 fresh eggs, 8 ozs. of powdered sugar, stir well, allow it to cool and flavor previous to putting in the freezer. 4. Chocolate Cream Ice. — Grate f lb. of the best French choco* late into 1-^ qts. of l)oiling milk, allow it to boil till thick, adding | lb. sugar ; add when cool, Ij qts. cream, stirring well, and empty into the freezer. The addition of 8 eggs and lemon flavor to the above will greatly improve it. 5 . Ginger Ice Cream. — Boil together 1 qt. milk, 1 lb. sugar, 8 ozs. piilverized ginger, and 4 j^olks of eggs, until it commences to thicken. G. Oranrje Cream Ice. — Mix together in a stew-pan, 1 qt. milk or cream, 1 lb. sugar, the juice of 8 oranges, the rinds of 4 oranges rub- bed on the sugar, and 4 yolks of eggs, until the compound begins to thicken ; stir briskly, and strain, freezing when cool, as above. 7. Pine Apple Cream Ice. — Put on the fire in a copper or tin vessel lib. of strained pine apple pulp, 12 ozs. sugar, 1^ pts. milk or cream, and 3 yolks of eggs ; beat sufficiently to thicken, not to boil the cream, strain the mixture into a vessel and set aside to cool previous to freezing. See other formulae for ice cream under the Grocers' Dept. Cream Tartar Biscuit. — Use 2 qts. flour, 2 teaspoonf uls of soda, 2 ditto cream tartar, 2 pts. milk. Mix, and follow tbe ditrectous for cream-tartar biscuit given above, and bake in a wirm oven. BAKING AND COOKINa KECEirTS. 21 CocOANUT Deops. — 1 lb. grated cocoauut, J lb. Tvhito siisar, the whites of 6 eggs, cut to a stiff froth. You must have enough whites of egg to wet the whole mixture. Droi^ on buttered plates, in pieces the size of an egg. FiiENCH Rolls. — 1 ounce of butter, 1 lb. of flour, 1 gill of home- made yeast, 1 egg, milk enough to make a dough. Rub the butter through the flour, beat the egg and stir in, then add the yeast, milk, and a little salt. Knead the dough ; when it is light, mould it out into large biscuits, and bake them on tins. Muffins.— A quart of milk, 2 eggs, 2 spoonfuls of yoast, 2 lbs. of flour, a lump of butter size of an egg — which i.s to be melted in tlio milk — and a little salt ; the milk is to bo warmed, and the ingredients added. Let it rise, and then turn the mixture into buttered pans, and bake to a light brown. Bath Cakes.— MLx well together, 1 lb. flour, | lb. butter, 5 eggs and a cupful of yeast, set the wliole before the fire to rise ; after'it rises, add i lb. wliite sugar, and 1 ounce caraway seeds well mixed in, and roll the paste into little cakes, bako them on tms. No. 1 Cbackees. — Butter, 1 cuj) ; salt, 1 teaspoon ; flour, 2 qts. Rub thoroughly together with the hand, and wet up with water ; beat well, and beat in flour to make quite brittle and hard ; then pinch off pieces and roll out each cracker by itself. Sugar Ckackers. — Flour, 4 lbs.; loaf sugar and butter, of each ^Ib. ; water, l^pts. ; make as above. Naples Biscuit. — White sugar, eggs, and flour, of each 4 lbs. < Lemok Biscuit.— Take 3^ lbs. white sugar, 4 lbs. flour, ' I ounce salcratus, ^ lb. suet, a littlo milk to wet the dough, cut them out about the size of marbles, put them on pans a little greased, and bake them in a hot oven and flavor them with essence of lemon. Abernethy Biscuit. — Take 8 lbs. of flour, lb. of butter, 1 quart of sweet milk, 12 ounces of sagar, 1 ounce of caraway seeds, G eggs ; mix dough of the above, break them in pieces of about two ounces, mould them off, roll them out, prick them and bako them in a moderate oven. Savoy Biscuit. — ^Tako of sugar the weight of 14 eggs, of flour the weight of G eggs, beat the yolks and whites of 12 eggs, separate, grate in the rind of a lemon ; after being in the oven a few minutes grate on some sugar. You may add peach- water, or lemon juice, or any flavoring extract. Ginger Snai'S. — ^Take 7 lbs. of flour, 1 qt. of molasses, 1 lb. of brown sugar, 1 lb. butter, 2 ounces ground ginger, and tlien take 1 gill of water, £ of an ounce of saleratus ; mix them all into doughj and cut them out something larger than marbles, and bako them in a modea-ate oven. York Biscuit.— 3 lbs. flour, ^ lb. butter, | lbs. sugar; wet up, and raise with sour milk and saleratus. Traveller's Biscuit^ — 2 lbs. of flour, I of a pound of sugar, I lb. butter, 1 teaspoonful of dissolved saleratus, milk sufficient to form a dough. Cut up the butter in the flour, add the sugar, and put in the saleratus and milk together, so as to form dough. Knead it till it becomes perfectly smooth and light. Roll it in slieets about i of an inch thick, cut the cakes witli a cutter or the top of a tumbler. Bake in a moderate oven. 22 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. Baking Powdkr for Biscuit, — Bicirbonato of soda 4 lbs., cream of t'lrtar 8 lbs. TIicso ingredients Klionld bo thoroughly dried and uell mixed, and put up proof against dampness. Use al)out 3 tea- spoonfuls to each quart of flour, mix up with cold water or milk, and i)ut it into the oven at once. BiiowN Bread for Biscuits. — Com meal 4 qts., rye flour .3 qts., wheat flour 1 qt., molasses 2 tablespoonfuls, yeast U tablespoou- fuls, soda 2 tcaspoonfuls. Mix during the evening for breakfast. Mince Pies— Meat 1 lb., suet S^lbs., currants, raisins and pluma 2 lbs., one glass brandy or Avme, allspice, cinnamon .'iud cloves to your taste, sugar sufficient to sweeten. Baked in a short crust. Pruit Pies. — For all kinds of fruit ines have your fruit sweet- ened to your taste, and then jDut iu a short crust. Bake in a hot oven. Pumpkin Pie. — Stew the pumpkin dry, and make it like squash pie, only season rather higher. In the country, where this real larikee pie is prepared iu perfection, ginger is almost always used, with other spices. There, too, part cream, instead of milk, is mLxed with the pumx)kin, which gives a richer flavor. Lemon Pie. — 1 lemon grated, 2 eggs, ^ cup of sugar, 1 cup of mo- lasses, 1 of water, and 3 tablespoonfuls of flour. This makes 3 pies. Lemon Pie with three crusts.— A layer of crust, a layer of le- mon, sliced fine, a little sugar, layer of crust again, and sugar and lemon again, then the upper crust. Another Wmj. — 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup sweet millc, 1 egg, 1^ lemon the grated peel and juice, 1 tablespoonful of flour; then after baking, tlie white of an egg beaten, sweetened, and put on the top ; then set in the oven and browned. Crujuj Pie. — Mince any cold meat very finely, season it to taste, and put it into a pie-dish ; have some finely-grated bread crumbs; with a little salt, pepper, and nutmeg, and pour into the dish any nice gravy that may be at hand ; then cover it over with a thi-clc layer of the bread crumbs, and put small pieces of butter over the top. Place it in the oven till quite hot. AVashington Pie. — 1 cup of sugar, third of a cup of butter, half a cup of sweet milk, 1 and a third, cup of flour, 1 egg, half a tea- spoonful of soda, 1 of cream of tartar, lemon flavor. Grease 2 round tins, and put in the above. Bake until done. Then put it on a dinner plate, spread with nice apple-sauce, or sauce of any kind ; then another layer of cake on top. It is nice without sauce, but sauce improves it. Fruit Pie. — 1 cup of sugar, 1 of water, tablespoonful of flour, tea- spoonful of lemon essence (or lemon grated), 1 teaspoonful of cream of tartar, half a teaspoonful of soda, half a cup of dried currants mix and boil, stirring to prevent the flour from settling. Chicken Pie. — Take one pair of good young chickens, cut in small pieces, season with pepper and salt and small strips of salt pork, put in saucepan with water to cover it, boil for half an hour, add flour and butter to thicken the gravy, have ready a large dish, served witli paste,- put all in the dish covered with a good rich paste. Bake for half an hour. Veal Pot Pie. — Take 2 pounds of best veal, cut in small pieces, half pound of salt pork, eliccd thin, four quarts of cold BAKING AND COOKING KECEirTS. 23 water pepper Ckeams for Puddings. — 1. Take equal quantities of sugar and molasses, boil them together, and stir in a littlo flour. 2. Take the juice of an orange, a cup of sugar and the samo of good cream. 3. Good sour cream made very sweet with sugar, ■with or without seasoning, makes a good sauce. 4. Beat 2 eggs well, then add a cup of stewed apples and a cup of sugar. Beef Steak with Onions. — Prepare a rump steak by pounding it till quite tender, season with salt, pepper and fresh butter, put in the steak and fry it, when bro^vn on one side turn over, do not let it scorch, when nicely done take it up, put a little flour over the steak, then add gradually a cup of hot water, seasoned with more salt and pepper, if necessary ; then put tho water over the fire and boil again, and pour over tlio steak. Peel 2 dozen onions, put them ou to boil with about 2 quarts of wfiter an hour hefore the steak is put on to fry. When the steak is done, cut them up, put them in the frying pan, season well with salt, pepper, and hutter, sprinkle with flour, stir all well together, place over tho fire, stir often to prevent scorching ; when they are a little brown and soft, turn them over the steak. Seasoning for Stuffing.— 1 lb. of salt, dried and sifted ; half . an ounce of ground white pepper ; two ounces- of dried thj-me ; 1 oz. of dried marjoram ; and one oz. of nutmeg. "When this seasoning is used, parsley only is required to bo chopped in sulS- cicnt quantity to make tho stuffing green. Tlio proportions are— J pound of bread crumbs ; 3 eggs ; | lb. of suet ; ^ oz. of sea- soning ; and the peel of half a lemon, grated. EcoNOMiCAii Sour. — ^Put into a saucepan one-pound pieces of ctale bread, tlixee large onions sliced, a small cabbage cut fine, a carrot and turnip, and a small head of celery (or the remains of any cold vegetables ), a tablespoonf ul of salt, a tablespoonful of I)ej)per. a bunch of parsley, a sprig of marjoram and thyme. Put these into two quarts of any weak stock, (tho liquor in which mutton has been boiled will do,) and let them boil for BAKING- AND COOKING RECEirXS. 25 two hours ; rub throiTgli a fine liair-siero, add a pint of neAV milk, boil up, and servo at once. Vegetable Soup. — Take a sliin of a beef, 3 large carrots, 3 largo yellow onions, G turnips, | lb. of rice or barley; parsley, leeks, {summer savory ; put all into a soup-kettle, and let it boil four hours ; add pepper and salt to tasto : servo altogether. It makes a good family soup. Vea Soup. — Beef 5 lbs., water 5 qts., G largo carrots, G good turnips, 3 large onions, salt sufficient, put it on a good slow- fire, let it boil 3 hours, then strain all the broth from meat and vegetables, and then add 3 lbs. of sphtpeas to the broth; set it on a slow fire for 2 hours, stirring often, so that all the peas will dis- solve ; take 1 lb. fresh sausage meat, fried to a crisp and fried bread crumbs ; put altogether, add a few fine herbs, and serve hot. rmcASSEE CniCKEKS. — Take 2 large young chickens, cut in small pieces, put in cold water for 1 hour to take all the blood out, then put in saucepan to parboil for half an hour, then take from saucc- jiau drained well, have ready 1 qt. good fresh cream, 2 oz. good butter, 1 oz. of flour, all weU mixed togetlier ; put in saucepan with the chickens ; put on the fire to boil tender ; season with pepper and salt ; served with toast bread in the bottom of the dish. B.ucED Tomatoes. — ^Wash the tomatoes, tako out the seed, malco a dressing of crumbs of bread and onions chox)ped fino ; add salt, butter and pepper. Bake and serve hot. Stewed To3iatoes. — Scald the tomatoes with hot water, tako off the skins, put them in an earthen vessel, strain off the water, and add butter, salt and pepper to tasto. Masked Turnips. — Wash turnips, boil well, tako them up in tlic colander, press out all the water, mash very fino ; season with salt, butter and sugar. Servo hot with trimmings. Hashed Meat.— Tako 2 lbs. of fat corned beef, well boiled and cold ; 1 lb. of well boiled i>otatoes, cold ; 1 largo white onion ; l)ut in chopping tray, mince it fine, put all in saucepan together, add 2 ozs. butter ; pepper and salt to tasto ; add boiling water to make it soft ; set it on a slow fire, stirring it often. When well stewed, serve hot. It makes a fine relish for breakfast. Lobster Salad. — ^Take inside of large lobster, minco fino, tako yolk of 2 eggs boiled hard and mashed fine, with four tablespoou- fuls of sweet oil; pepper, salt, vinegar, and mustard to taste; mix well; add celery or lettuce to taste; thou when serving, garnish with hard-boiled eggs. Succotash. — Tako 1 doz. ears of com, cut tho grains from tho cob, add 1 qt. of Lima beans, and mix with the corn ; put it on to boil in 3 qts. of water with 1 lb. of pork cut; add black pepper and salt to taste. When the water has boiled away to h tho original quantity, serve in a tureen as soup. Maocaroni Soup, — 4 lbs. of lean beef, 4 qts. of water, carrot, turnip, onions ; set it for 4 hours till all mix together ; strain it all through a sieve ; have 2 lbs. of maccaroni broken into pieces of ono inch long ; put all into a saucepan togctherj and let it boil for 10 minutes, and sen'O it hot. Boiled Custakd, oit Mock CKEAJi.—Tako 2 tablespoonfuls com 26 BAKING AND COOKING- RECEIPTS. Btarch, 1 qt. of milk, 2 or 3 eggs, ^ a tcnRpoonful of salt and a Rmall piece of butter ; heat the milk till nearly boilin'; and add tlie starcli, previously dissolved in 1 qt. of milk, then add the eggs, well beaten, Avith 4 tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar ; let it boil up once or twice, stirring it brisldy, and it is done. Flavor Avitli lemon or vanilla, or raspberry, or to suit your taste. Lkmon CiiEAM. — Take a pint of thick cream and put to it tho yolks of two eggs, well beaten, 4 oz. of fine sugar and tho thin rind of a leraou , boil it up, then stir till almost cold ; put the juico of a lemon in a dish or bowl and pour tho cream upon it, stirring till quite cold. FiiuiT Cjieams.— Take ^ oz. of isinglass dissolved in a littlo water, then put 1 pt. of good cream, sweetened to tho taste ; boil it. When nearly cold lay some apricot or raspberry jam on tho bottom of a glass dish and pour it over. This is most excellent. Raspberky Ckea]m. — Put C ozs. of raspberry jam to 1 qt. of cream, pulp it through a lawn sieve, add to it tho juico of a lemon and a little sugar, and whisk it till thick. Servo it in a dish or glasses. To roast fowls the firo must bo quick and clear. If smoky it will spoil both tlieir taste and looks. Baste frequently, and keep a white paper pinned on the breast till it is near dono. TuiiKEY. — A good sized turkey should be roasted 2^ hours or 8 hours — very slowly at first. If you wish to make plain stuffing, pound a cracker or crumble some bread very fine, chop some raw salt pork very fine, sift some sago, (and summer savory, or fiweet marjoram, if you have them in tho house, and fancy them, ) and mould them all together, seasoned with a little pepper. An egg worked in makes the stuffing cut better. ' IJoiLED TuEiiEY.— Clean the turkey, fill tho crop with stuffing, and sew it up. Put it over the firo in water enough to cover it, let it boil slowly — ^take off all the scum. When this is done, it should only simmer till it is done. Put a littlo salt into tho water, and dredge the turkey in flour before boiling. Roast Ducks and Geese. — Take sage, wash and pick it, and an onion ; chop them fine, with pepper and salt, and put tliem in tho belly ; let the goose be clean picked, and wiped dry with a cloth, inside and out ; put it down to the fire, and roast it brown. Duck are dressed in the same w-ay. For wild ducks, teal, pigeons, and other wild fowls, use only pepper and salt, with gravy in the dish. Roast Chicken'. — Chickens should be managed in roasting the game as turkeys, only that they require less time. From an hour to an hour and a half is long enough. BorLED Chicken. — A chicken should bo boiled tho same as a turkey, only it will take less time — about 35 minutes is guffl- cient. Use the same stuffing, if any, and servo it up with parsley, or egg-sauce. Broiled Chicken.— Slit them down the back and season with' pepper and salt ; lay them on a clear firo of coals, tho insido next the fire till half done, then turn and broil to a fine browu color. Broil about 35 minutes. Boiled Pigeons. — Boil them about 15 minutes by themselves ; then boil a piece of bacon ; serve with slices of bacon and melted butter. BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 27 Fisn CnowDER.— Fry a few slices of salt pork, dress .and cut tho fish ill small pieces, pare and slice the potatoes and onions, then place them in the kettle, a layer of fish, then of the fried porlc, potatoes, onions, &c., seasoning each layer with salt and pepper. Stew over a slow fire 30 minutes. Roast Beef. — The sirloin is considered the hest for roasting. Spit the meat, pepper the top, and baste it well while roasting with its own dripping, and throw on a handful of salt. When tho ' smoke draws to the fire, it is near enough ; keep the fire bright and clear. From 15 to 20 minutes to the lb. is tho rido for roast- ing. Beep Boiled.— Tlie round is tho best boiling piece. Put tho meat in the pot, with water enougli to cover it ; let it boil very slow at first — this is the great secret of making it tender — take oi'f the scum as it rises. From 2 to 3 hours, according to size, is tho lule for boiling. Beep Steak. — ^Tlie inside of the sirloin makes tho best steak ; cut about I of an inch thick — have the gridiron hot, put on the meat and set it over a good fire of coals— turn them often. From 8 to 10 minutes is the rule for broiling. Roast Pork.— Take a leg of pork and wash it clean— cut tho skin in squares — make a stuffing of grated bread, sage, onion, pepper and salt, moistened with the yolk of an egg. Put this under the skin of the knuckle, and sprinkle a little powdered sago into the rind where it is cut ; rub the whole surface of tlio skin over with a feather dipped in sweet oil. 8 lbs. will require about three hours to roast it. The Shoulder, Loi2f, or Cnnaj, and Sp^sjre-Rid are roasted in the same manner. Roast Veal.— Pursue about tho same course as in roasting poric. Roast before a brisk fire till it comes to a brown color ; then you lay it down, baste it well with good butter, and when near done, Avith a little flour. Roast Mutton. — The loin, haunch, and saddle of mutton and lamb must be done the same as beef. All other parts must be roast- ed with a quick, clear fire ; baste it when you put it down, and dredge it with a little flour, just before you take it up. A leg of mut- ton of six pounds will require 1 hour to roast before a quick fire. To Boil Eggs. — ^In 3 minutes an egg will boil soft, in 4 tlio whito p.art is completely cooked, in 10, it is fit for a salad. Try their fresh- ness in cold water, those tliat sink the soonest are tho freshest. Sausage Meat. — Take 2 lbs. lean meat, 1 lb. fat pork, chop fine, and mix with 2 tablespoonfuls black pepper, 1 of cloves, 7 of powder cd sage, and 5 of salt. Apple Custard.— T.ako apples, pared, cored, and slightly j5tewed, Bufficient to cover the dish, 8 eggs, 1 qt. of milk ; spice to your taste ; bake it § of an hour. New-England Apple-sauce or Butter. — Boil 2 brls. of new cider down to ^ a brl. Pare, core, and slice up 3 bushels of apples (sweet apples are preferable), and put them, into the cider thus re- duced, and still kept boiling brisMy. Stir the wliole mass constnntly, to prevent burning, till of the consistence of soft butter. A small quan- tity of pulverized allspice, added during tho boiling, is an iiuprovO' 28 BAKIXO AND COOKIxa HECEirTS. nont. Boil in n brass hcttlo, and, wlion clone, put it into a wooden lixkin, or a small cask, and it will keep for years. Arri.ic HuTTKii (rcnnsT/lvania Method). — Boil new cider down to \. Pare, cut, and core equal quantities of Bweet and sour apples. Put the sweet apples in a laigo kettle to soften a little first, as they are the hardest. Add enougli boiled cider to cook them. After boiling * an hour, stirrin^j often, put in the sour apples, and add more boiled cider, witli molasses cnougli to sweeten moderately. Boil until ten- der, stirring to prevent burning. Puck in firkins or stone pots for winter use. iRisn Stew. — Take 4 lbs. good breast of fat mutton, cut in small pieces ; 2 largo white onions ; 10 large potatoes, well peeled and Bliccd ; put all in saucepan together, -ndth fine herbs, pepper and salt to suit ; a little salt pork is a good addition ; \ lb. of flour ; ^ lb. good fresh butter, well rubbed together, and let it boil for ono Lour, and have it well cooked. ArPLB Dumplings. — G eggs, 1\ lbs. of flour, some butter to your taste, and tablespoonfid. of yeast, and sufficient milk to make a dough to roll out ; when raised, cut in small pieces, put in the apples, f and cook for f of an hour ; servo with Avhite sugar or wine sauce. Boiled Poultry. — Take largo chickens, well cleaned with cold water, put in saucepan with water to cover, boil 1 hour ; served with sauce. Hashed Turkey.— Take meat from boiled fowls, chop fine, put in saucepan, with seasonings to suit taste. Served on toast Boiled Maccaroni. — Take 2 lbs., break in smaU pieces, put in warm water to steep 1 hour, drain off, put in saucepan with 2 qts. fresh cream, with grated cheese ; seasoned with red pepper. Strasburo Potted Meat. — ^Take 1^ lbs. of the rump of beef, cut into dice, put it in an earthen jar, with ^ lb. of butter, tie the jar close up with paper, and set over a pot to boD ; when nearly done, add cloves, mace, allspice, nutmeg, salt, and cayenne pepper to taste, then boil till tender, and let it get cold, poimd the meat, with 4 anchovies mashed and boned, add lb. of oiled butter, work it well together with tho gravy, warm a little, and add cochineal to, color then press into siiaU pots, and pour melted mutton suet over tlie top of each. Bologna Sausages.— Take equal quantities of bacon fat and le&u beef, veal, x)orIc and beef suet ; cliox) them small, season with pep- per, salt, &c., with sweet herbs and sage rubbed fine. Have well Avashed intestines, fill, and prick them ; boil gently for an hour, and lay on straw to dry. Ricu Sausages.— Take 30 lbs. of chopped meat, 8 oz. fine salt, 2J oz. pepper, 2 teacups of sage, and 1^ cups of sweet marjoram, jiassed through a fine sieve, or, if preferred, thyme and summer savory can bo substituted for the latter. How to save your Ice Bill.— Get a quantity of empty barrels or boxes during the coldest time in the winter, and put a few inches of water in each; the evening when the cold is most intense is the best time to do this. After the water is frozen solid, fill up agam, repeat the process imtil the barrels are full of solid ice, then roll them into your cellar, cover them up with plenty of sawdust or straw, and your ico crop i3 safely harvested. BAKINa AND COOKING RECEirTS. 29 Charlotte Rcsse. — Take 1 pt. milk, dissolve with heat, 3 oz. isinglass and 1 lb. sugar; add, after it is cool, 1 qt. beaten cream and flour, suit your taste and line out some mould with sponge cake, and put the cream in it and cool. Wine Jelly.— Take 1 pt. water and 3 oz. isinglass, 1^ lb. sugar, the juice of 2 lemons, and dissolve that and let it come to a boil, theii add wine, brandy and spice to your taste, and strain it through a cotton or flannel cloth and put it in moulds to cool. To Make Apple Molasses. — Take new sweet cider just from the press, made from sweet apples, and boil it down as thick as West India molasses. It should be boiled in brass, and not burned, as that would injure the flavor. It will keep in the cellar, and ig said to be as good, and for many xjurposes better, than West India molasses. i^^Acid fruits should be cooked in bright tin, brass, or beU metal, and poured out as soon as they are done. Brown earthen vessels should never be used, as they are glazed with white lead, a poison which very readily unites with an acid. Jellies. — Lemon Jelly. — Isinglass, 2 oz. ; water, 1 qt. ; boil ; add sugar, 1 lb. ; clarify ; and, when nearly cold, add the juice of 5 lemons, and the grated yellow rinds of 2 oranges and 2 lemons ; mix well, strain off the peel, and put it into glasses or bottles ; Hartshorn Jelly. — Hartshorn, 1 lb. ; water 1 gal. ; peel off 2 lemons ; boil over a gentle fire till sufficiently thick ; strain and add loaf sugar, h lb. ; whites of 10 eggs beaten to a froth ; juice of G lemons ; mix well together, then bottle. Isinglass Jelly. — Put 4 oz. isinglass and 2 oz. cloves into 1 gal. water ; boil it down to half a gal. ; strain it upon 4 lbs. of loaf sugar ; add, while cooling a little wine ; then bot- tle. Apply Jelhj from Cider. — Take of apple juice, strained, 4 lbs. ; sugar, 2 lbs. ; boil to a jelly, and bottle. Gooseberry Jelly. — Sugar, 4 lbs. ; water, 2 lbs. ; boil together ; it will be nearly solid when cold; to this syrup, add an equal weight of gooseberry juice ; give it a short boil, cool, then pot it. Currant Jelly. — Take the juice of red cur- rants, and loaf sugar, equal quantities ; boil and stir gently for three hours ; put it into glasses ; and in three days it will concentrate into a firm jelly. Tapioca Jelhj. — ^Wash 8 oz. of tapioca well ; then soak it in 1 gal. fresh water, 5 or G hours ; add the peels of 8 lemons, and set all on to heat ; simmer till clear ; add the juice of the 8 lemons with wine and sugar to taste ; then bottle. Blackberry Jelly. — ^This preparation of the blackberry is moro agreeable than the jam, as the seeds, though very wholesome, are not agreeable to alL It is made in the same way as currant jelly; but the fruit is so sweet that it only requires half the weight of the juice hi sugar. Peab Marmalade.— To 6 lbs. of small pears, take 4 lbs. of sugar ; put the pears into a saucepan, with a little cold water ; cover it, and set it over the fi.re until the fruit is soft, then put them into ccld water ; pare, quarter, and core them ; put to them three tea- cups of water, set them over the fire ; roll the sugar fine, mash the fruit fine and smooth, put the sugar to it, stir it well together until it is thick, like jelly, then put it in tumblers, or jars, and, when cold, secure it as jelly. Preserved CiTR03sr .— Pare and cut open the citron ; clean all out 30 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. except ilio rinrl ; boil till noft. To 1 lb. of citron ndd 1 lb. of sugar, find a lomon to each lb. ; put tlio Hw^nr and lemon together, and boil it till it becomes a syrup, Bkimming it well ; then put the syrup and citron together, and boil it an liour. Scotch Makimalade.— Talce of tlio juice of Seville oranges 2 ptf?., yellow honey, 2 lbs. Boil to a proper consistence. llASPP.BRKY Jam.— Allow a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit, mash tlie raspberries and put them, with the sugar, into your jn-escrving kettle. Boil it slowly for an hour, skimming it welL Tie it up with brandy paper. All jams are made in the game manner. Frbkcii Honey. — White Bugar, 1 lb. ; 6 eggs, leaving out the Ts^hites of 2 ; the juice of 3 or 4 lemons, and the grated vind of 2, and ^ lb. of butter ; stir over a slow fire until it is of the consis- tency of honey. Almond Blano Mange. — Take four ounce of almonds, Fix oz, BUgar, boil together with a quart of water, melt in this two ounces of pure isinglass, strain in a small tin mould to stiffen it, ^hen wanted, dip the mould in hot water and turn it out. Lemon Blanc Mange. — Pour a pint of hot water upon half an ounce of isinglass ; when it is dissolved, add the juice of three lemons, the peel of two lemons grated, six yolks of eggs beaten, add about a good wine-glass of Madeira wine to it ; sNYeeten to your taste ; let it Boil ; then strain it and put it in your moitlds. Molasses Preserves. — Boil 1 qt. of molasses about ten or fifteen minutes to a thickish consistency, then add G eggs well beaten, and a spoonful of flour. Boil a few minutes longer, stirring constantly, then set off the fire, raid flavor with lemon or allspice as desired. Fruit Extracts, &c. — Good alcohol, 1 qt. , oil of lemon, 2 oz. Break and bruise the peel of 4 lemons, and add to them alcohol for a fe-.7 days, then filter. For currants, peaches, raspberries, pine apples, strawberries, blackberries, &c., take alcohol and water half and half and pour over the fruit, entirely covering it, and let it stand for a few days. For essence of cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, vanilla, &c., pulver- ize either article thoroughly, and put about 2 oz. of the resulting pow- der to each pint of reduced alcohol, agitato the mixture frequently for 2 weeks, then filter and color as desired. Measures for Housekeepers. AVlieat flour 1 lb is 1 quart. Indian meal 1 "2 oz " 1 quart. Batter when soft. , 1 1 " Ijoaf sugar, broken 1" .... " 1 " White sugar, powd 1 ' ' 1 oz. " 1 " Best brown sugar lib. 2 oz. 1 qt. Eggs 10 eggs are 1 lb. Flour 8 qts. '•' 1 peck. Flour -i pks. " 1 husiu Liquids. 16 large tablespoonfula are 14 pint. 8 large tablespoonf uls are 1 gill. 4 large tablespoonf uls are % gill. 2 gills are.. 1/2 pint. 2 pints are 1 qt. 4 qts. are 1 gallon. A common sized tumbler lioids 14 * pint. A common sized wine-glass " l^ a gill. 25 drops are equal to 1 teasijooiif ul FARMERS' RECEIPTS. 31 ^ FARMERS AND STOCK OWNERS' DEPART- MENT. Rarey's Directions for Breaking and Training of HoRSESi — In training horses you mnst remember that there are certain natural laws that govern them. For instance, it is natural for him to kick Avhenever'he gets badly frightened ; it is natural for him to escape from whatever he thinks will do him harm. His faculties of seeing, hearing, and smelling, have been given him to examine everything new that he is brought in contact with. And so long as you present him with nothing that offends his eyes, nose, or ears, yon can then handle him at will, notwithstanding, he may be frightened at first, so that in a short time he will not be afraid of anything he is brought in contact with. All of the whipping and spurring of horses for shying, stumbling, &c. , is useless and cruel. If he shys, and you whip him for it, it only adds terror, and makes the object larger than it would otherwise be ; give him time to examine it Avithout punishing him. He should never be hit with the whip, under any circumstances, or for anything that he does. As to smelling oil, there is nothing that assists the trainer to tame his horse better. It is better to approach a colt with the scent of ht»ney or cinnamon upon your hand, than the Bcent of hogs, for horses naturally fear the sceiit of hogs, and Avill attempt to escape from it, while they like the scent of honey, cin- namon, or salt. To aifecta horse with drugs you must give him some preparation of opium, and while he is under the influence of it, you cannot teach him anything more than a man when ho is intoxicated i 82 FARMERS' RECEIPTS. with liquor, Anotlicr thin.cr, yon iniir,t roi-ncmlicr to tront liini Itindly, ior tlusrc you require ol)cdicnco from .luy subject, it is l)eUer toliavo it reudered from a scusc of lovo tluin fear. Yoii sliould he curcful not to eliafo tlio lips of your colt or hurt h'lfi mouth in any Avay ; if you do ho will dislike to have tlio "bridle on. After he is taught to follow you, then put on the harness, ])utting your lines through the shaft straps aloug the side, and teach him to yield to the reins, turn short to the right and left, teach him to stand still before he is ever hitched up ; you then have control over him. If he gets frightened, the lines should he used as a telegraph, to let him know what you want him to do. No horse is naturally vicious, hut always obeys hia trainer as soon as ho comprehends "what ho would have him do ; you must be firm with him at the same time, and give him to under- stand, that you are the trainer, and that he is the horse. The best bit:j to be used ito hold a horse, to keep his mouth from getting sore, is a straight bar-bit, 4^ inches long between the rings ; this operates on both sides of the jaw. while the ordinary suaffle forms a clamp and presses the side of the jaw. The curb or bridoon hurts his under jaw so that he Avill stop before he will give to the rein. To throw a horse, put , a rope 12 feet long around his body in a running noose, pass it down ' to the right fore foot through a ring in a spancil, then buckle up tho left or near fore foot, take u firm hold of youx rope, lead him around FAmiEES* EECEIPT3, 33 until he is tired, give liim a sliovo -u-itlx yonr slioulder, at the same time drawing up the right footwhicli hrin^-^ him on his laiee?, liold liim steady, and in a few moments lie will lie down. Never attempt to hold him still, for the more he scuffles the better. Take your colt into a tiglit room or pen, and with a long whip com- mence snapping at the colt's hind leg, taking care not to hit above the hocks, stopping immediately when the colt turns his head towards you ; while his head is towards you, approach him witli the left hand extended toward him, holduig your whip iu the right, ready to snap him as soon as he tunis his head from you. In this way you can soou get your hands upon him. As soon as you have done this, be careful to caress him for his obedience, and snap him for his disobedience. In this way he will soou learn that he is safest in your presence with, his head towards you, and in a very short time you cannot keep him away from you. Speak Idndly and firmly to liim, all the time caress- ing him, catling by name, and sayhig, " Ho, boy," or " Ho, Dma," or Bome familiar Avord that he will soou lenrn. If a colt is awkward and careless at first, you must bear with him, remembering that we, too, were awkward when young ; allowing him his own way, until by degrees he will come in. If "he is wilful, you must then change your course of treatment, by confining him ia puch a way that he is powerless for harm until he submits. If ho is disposed to run, use my polo check on him ; if to kick, fasten a rope around his under jaw, pass it through the collar and attach it to hig liindfeet. In this way one kick will cure him, as the force of theblow falls on his jaw. If he should be stubborn, lay him down and confine him until you subdue liim, witliout punishing him with the whip. Colts should bo broke witliout blind-bridles ; after tl^ey are weU broke, then you may put on blinds. Bridles without blinds are the best unless you want to speed your horse, then it will be necessary to keep him from seeing the whip. Colts should be well handled and taught to give readily to the rein before they are hitched up. If you hitch them up the first thing and they become frightened, then you have no control over them ; but if you teach them to start, sto]\ and stand at the word before they are hitched, then you can govern them. Cruelty to Horses — Besides the cruel punishment inflicted upon horses, by the careless and heartless driver, he is subjected to se- vere punishment in the winter season, by being comj^elled to take frozen bits into his mouth in cold weather, tearing the slcin from the tongue and the roof of his mouth, producing a heavy inflammation in the mouth and throat ; he gets poor, hidebound, and the sympathetic nerves of the head take np the inflammation, carry it to the head and eyes, frequently producing blindness, and a hundred other diseases. The whip should be used as an instrument of pleasure instead of tor- ture ; and your bits should be wound with flamiel or leather ; so that IK) frozen iron will come in contact with his mouth, lips or tongue. Rarey's Liniment. — Sulphuric ether, 4 ozs. ; hartshorn, 4 ozs., oil of origanum, 4 ozs. ; alcohol, 4 ozs. ; sweet oil, 4 ozs. Shako well before using. For sprains on horses, &c., apply by rubbing and cover with a tight flannel bandage. For headache, rub a httle on thd temples and apply a bandage wet with the liniment to the forehead. Rarey's Wizard Oil.— Oil of origanum, 6 ozs. ; alcohol, G ozs. ; {jpirita turpentine, 1 oz, ; camphor, 1 oz. Shako well beXoro usii^^, 3 31 farmers' KECEirTS. Raeey^s DTRE0TION3 FOR SHOEING HoKSES.— ''Tliero fivG very feT7 blacksmiths that ever once thhik what a complicated piece of machlDery the foot of a horse is, and hy one careless blow tlicy frequently stop the working of this machine. The majority of smiths, as soon as they pick lip a horse's foot, go to work paring the heel, from the fact that it is the most convenient part of the foot, andthere- loy destroy the heel and braces of the foot, causing, in many instances, ■contracted heels. The heels of a L^rse should be well kept up and tho toe down. By lowering the heels you throw the entire weight of your liorse upon the back tendon of the legs, and thereby produce lameness Irom overtaxing a very important set of tendons. By keeping up tho lieel you throw the weiglit ui>ou the wall of the foot. In this position you prevent stumbling, cliclving, 'cek, unless his feet are feverish, then he should be kept in it an hour per day, or until the fever subsides. Another source of injury to horses' feet, IB the habit of patroniziug cheap blacksmiths. If a man can FARMERS RECEIPTS. 35 drive anaJl, he then sets up a sign as a farrier or a veterinary snrgeon, when in fact he knows nothing of the anatomy of the horse' a foot; not having spent any time or money in acquiring the necessary mfor- mation, he can afford to shoe a few shilHngs cheaper than a well-in- formed man, hut tlie patrons of such cheap shoeing are generally the Buff erers. All horse-shoers should be well skilled vetermary surgeons, or there should be a skilful surgeon attached to every shop. Another source of poor shoeing and injury is the loss of elasticity of the frog, refusing to perform its proper functions ; the heel contracts, the foot rolls, and you have a sore horse for ten or twelve months, for it re- quires this long to relieve a horse's suffering from bem-g badly shod. Under the circumstances, the first thing that touches the road or the floor of the stall, should be the frog, and the wall of the foot should be kept cut so as not to prevent it from touching at every step; and no man that owns a horse should ever allow a blacksmith to cut the soles, bars, or frogs of his horse's feet. Nature has adapted the frogs to all description of roads, climates, and weather, without being pared. So man^y horses have been ruined by this process of paring, that there are "now several establishments in this country that manufacture India rubber pads, thinking thereby to supply the wasted frog and the elasticity of the natural foot. The frog is insensible to pressure, and you may place the whole weight of your horse on the fro^ and he will suffer no inconvenience, as maybe seen from shoeing with one of my corn shoes ; besides, this is the only reliable way to cure contracted feet; by throwing the weight upon the frog, you force them up between the walls ; it acts as a wedge, and soon relieves the contracted feet. Smiths should never have their shoes hot when fitting them, as the application of liot iron extracts the oily substauco from the hoof. The amount of cruel j)unishment inflicted on liorses by cross-grain blacksmiths, is another source of poor shoeing. As soon as the horse does not stand the smith gets angry, and com- •mences whipping and jerking the animal, which only adds terror to it, so that he soon refuses to go to the shop if he can avoid it ; it is natural for horses to dislike to be shod, because the hammermg shocks the nervous system, until they are accustomed to it. lie should be taught to stand, and his feet v>'ell handled at home, before he is ever ■brought to the shop by the owner. You then save the horse pounding, and the smith an immense amount of labor that he never gets any pay for, for no man ever thinks of paying anything extra for shoeuig a bad horse. Tlie wall of the foot should never be rasped above the nail holes, and as little below the clenches as possible ; all the rasping and filing but tends to thin and weaken the wall by cutting the fibers of the foot. The nails should be counter sunk into the shoe, so that there will be no chance for the clenches to rise. No horse interferes with the heel or toe ; it is always the side of the foot. The habit of turning the iuside of the shoe under causes a number of horses to in- terfere, that would not if they were shod straight in the inside. Spread the lieelsas wide as possible ; set the outside a little under ; keep the toes full. For clicking horses, raise the heels high, cut the toes Bliort. For speedy cuts, place your toe corks a quarter of an inch to the inside of the centre of your shoe; keep the heels wide apart. For corns, put on a shoe with a prong, for the main rim, so as to cover the en- tire frog, pare the wall lower than the frog, soashia entire weight will be 3G farmers' receipts. thro-vm on tlio froj?. Ilavo tlio inner corlc not quite so sharii as tlio outer one, so tluit if lio stops upon tlio other foot it will not cut it ; make the Blioes as lij^litan i)OHsiblo consistent with good service, as they arc ordinarily made just al)Out too heavy." To Tkicvknt lioKsics KicKiMG IN THE Statx. — Fasten a short trace-chain about 2 feet Ion;?, by a strap to each hind foot A better way is to have tlie stalls made wide enough so that the horse can turn in them easily. Close them 'with a door or bars, and tuni the animal loose. After a while ho will forget the habit, and stand tied without further trouble. To Cuke Broken Legs.— Instead of summarily shooting the horse, in the greater number of fractures it is only necessary to par- tially sling the horse by means of a broad piece of sail, or other strong cloth placed under the animal's belly, furnished with 2 breech- ingsand2 breast girths, and by means of ropes and pulleys attached to a cross beam above, he is elevated, or lowered, as may be required. By the adoption of this plan every facility is allowed for the satisfac- tory treatment of fractures. Lajipas. — ^This consists in a swelling of the first bar of the upper I)alate. It is cured by rubbing the swelling 2 or 3 times a day with ^ 'oz. of alum and the same quantity of double refined sugar mixed with a little honey. Gravel. — Steep % lb. of hops in a quart of water and give it as hot as the horse can stand it. IlALTER PuiiiiiNG. A ncw Way to prevent horses pulling at the lialter, is to put a very small rope u:udcr the horse's tail bringmg tho ends forward, crossing them on tho back, and tying them on the breast. Put the halter strap through the ring, and tie the rope in front of the horse. When the horse pulls, lie Avill, of course, find him- self in rather an uncomfortable position, and discontinue the eHort to free himself. Hide Bound. — To recruit a hide bound horse, give nitrate potassa (or saltpetre) 4 oz., crude antimony 1 oz., sulphur 3 oz. Kitrate of potassa and antimony should be finely pulverized, then add tho sulphur, and mix the whole well together. Dose, a tablespoonful of this mixture in a bran mash daily. To Prevent Horses from Jumping. — ^Pass a good stout surcingle around his body ; put on his halter, and have the halter strap long enough to go from his head, between his fore legs, then through the surcingle, and back to one of his hind legs. Procure a thill strap, and buclde around the leg between the foot and joint, fasten tho halter strap in this — shorter or longer, as the obstinacy of tho case may require. It is also useful to keep colts from running where there is likely to be danger from the result ; if the thill strap should cause any Boreness on the ieg, it may be womid with a woollen cloth, and it would be well to change it from one leg to another occasionally. Big Leg.— To cure, use the "Blistering Liniment" with regularity every tliird hour imtil it blisters. In 3 days wash the leg with liuseed oil. In 6 days wash it clean with soap and water. Repeat every 6 days until the swelling goes down. If there should bo any callo;p left, apply spavin ointment. Soke Breasts. — Tliis generally occurs in the spring, at the com- mencement of plowing. At times tho fault is in having poor old FAEMEES' KECEIPTS. 37 collars, find not having the collar vyell fitted to the horse's breast; and oiten, the hames are either too tight or too loOvSe, There is a great difference in horses about getting chafed or galled, and at times it has seemed to be impossible to Ivcep their breasts from getting sore ; but a thorough application of strong alum water or white oak bark to the breasts of the animal, 3 days before going to work, toughen them so that they will not get sore. Another excellent plan iz, when you let your team rest for a few moments during work, to raise the collar and pull it a little forward, and rub the breast thoroughly with your naked hand. The Check: Rein ok Horses. — ^We desire to register an earnest protest against this barbarous appendage to horses' harness. It re- tards the horse's progress in every position both while he is at worlc, and while travelling on a journey. It is both useless and cruel in every sense of the word, witliout any compensating qualities to recom- mend it. Mr. Angell, of the " Boston Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals," wlio has travelled over a great part of Europe in the interests of humanity to our dumb servants, says, that the use of the check rein is confined to America alone, being deservedly dis- carded every where both in England and on the Continent. The reason why it is so discarded, was very graphically explained by an extensive horse o^vner in Glasgow, as he remarked, in conversation with Mr. Angell, that "We canna get the wark cot o' the horse Avi' the check rein." To check rein a horse, is equivalent to trussing a man's head backward towards his back or heels, and compelling him, while bound in this position, to do duty with a loaded wheelbarrow. Feeding Horses on the Road.— Many persons, in ti-avelling, feed their horses too much, and too often, continually stuffing them, and not allowing them to rest and digest their food ; of course they suffer from over-fulness, and carrying unnecessary weight. Horses should be well fed in, the evening, and must not be 'stuffed too full in the morning, and the travelling should be moderate on starting when the horse has a full stomach. If a horse starts in good condition, he can go 20 or 25 miles without feeding. Tlie provender required by horses while travellmg or engaged in ordinary farm work, per day, may be stated thus : Hay 20 lbs., oats 3 gals., 'water 4 gals. Muddy water is the best for horses, Beeves require 20 lbs. of hay and 6 •>S FAiniElls' RECEIPTS. pals, of water i)cr clay. Quantity -will vary in every case according to the size, condition, brood, &c., togetlier Avitli the kind of worlc iu wliicli tliey are employed. Itou. — To cure a horse affected -with itch, first reduce his daily allowance of food, putting? him on low diet and tiien give him a tea- spoonful of a mixture of equal parts of sulphur and antimony, and at the end of a week or 10 day.s the sores will have disappeared and the horse will be covered with a fine coat of new hair. STOprAGE OF Urink. — Symptouis : Frequent attempts to urinate, looking round at his sides, lying down, rolling and stretching. To cure, fciko h lb. of hops, 3 drs. oil of cami)hor; grind and mix. Mako this into 3 pills. Give 1 every day, with a drench made of a small spoon- ful of saltpetre and 2 oz. of water. This Avill cure as a general thing. To CuKK Balky IIokses. — One method to cure a balky horse is to take him from the carriage, whirl him rapidly around till he is giddy. It requires two men to accomplish this, — one at the horse's tail. Don't let him step out. Hold him to the smallest possible circle. 1 dose will often cure him, 2 doses are final with the worst horse that ever refused to stir. Another plan is to fill his mouth with" the dirt or gravel from the road, and he will at once go, the phDosophy of this being that it gives him something else to think about. Dr. Cole's King of Oils.— 1 oz. green copperas ; 2 oz. white vitriol ; 2 oz. common salt ; 2 oz. linseed oil ; 8 oz. molasses. Boil over a slow fire fifteen minutes in a pint of urine ; when almost cold, add 1 oz. of oil of vitriol and 4 oz, of spirits of turpentine. Apply to wounds with a feather. A very powerful liniment. Sloan's Horse Oint3Ient.— 4 oz. resin ; 4 oz. bees-wax ; lard, 8 oz. ; honey, 2 oz. IMix slowly and gently, bring to a boil ; then add less than 1 pint spirits turpentine ; then remove ar.d stir till cool. Unsui-passed for horse fiesli, cracked hoofs, human flesh, &c. Mexican Mustang Liniment. — Petroleum, olive oil, and carbon- ate of ammonia, each equal parts, and niLx. Merchant's Gargling Oil.— Take 2.^ gals, linseed oil ; 2^ gals, spirits turpentine ; 1 gal. western petroleum ; 8 oz. liquor potass. ; sap green, 1 oz. ; mix all together, and it is ready for use. Arabian Condition Powders. — Ground ginger, 1 lb ; sul])hnret of antimony, 1 lb. ; powdered sulphur, 1 lb ; saltpetre, 1 lb. Mix all together, and administer in a mash, in such quantities as may be re- quired. The best condition powder in existence. Blistering Liniment. — 1 part Spanish flies, finely powdered ; 3 of lard ; and 1 of yellow resin. Mix the lard and resin together, and add the flies wl'ien the other ingredients begin to cool. To render it more active, add 1 pint spirits turpentine. Medicated Food for Horses and Cattle.— Take linseed cake and pulverize or grind it up in the shape of meal, and to every CO lbs. of this ingredient, add 10 lbs. Indian meal ; 2 lbs. sulphurefc of antimony ; 2 lbs. ground ginger, 1^ lbs. of saltpetro, and 2 lbs. powdered sulphur. Mix the whole thoroughly together, put iu neat boxes or packages for sale or otherwise as desired, and you will have an article equal iu value to " Thorley's Food," or almost any other l)reparation that can be got up for the purpose of fattening stock or curijig disease in every aise when food or medicine can be of any use whatever. This aiticio can ]iG fed iu any dcfjired quantity, beginning FAmiEES' RECEIPTS. S9 with a fo-w tablcspoonfuls fit a time, for a horso, mixing it -with his gicain, and in the same proportion to smaller animals, repeating tho dose and increasing the qnantity as tho case may seem to require. I.OTiox roK Mange. — Eoil2oz. tobacco in 1 quart water ; strain ; add sulpliur and soft soap, each 2 oz. For Stuaixs and Swellings.— Strong vinegar saturated with common salt, used warm, is good for strains and reducing swellings, i oz. of white vitriol ; 1 oz. of green copperas ; 2 teaspoonlulsOf gunpowder, all pulverized together, and dissolved in 1 quart of soil; water, and used cold, rubbing iu thoroughly, is one of the best appli- cations knoAvn for reducin<^ swellings. Hoof-Bound Wash. — Spirits turx-)entinG. 4 oz. ; tar, 4 oz. ; whale en, 8 oz. Mix, and apply to the hoofs often. To Toughen Hoofs. — ^^Vash them frequently in strong orine, and turn brine upon the bottoms, and soak a few minutes each time. Sckatches. — Cut off the hair close, and wash the legs in strong soap-suds or urhie, or wash with warm vinegar saturated with salt, and afterwards dress over with a small quantity'- of hog's lard. Coucn. — Quit feeding musty hay, and feed roots and laxative food. Sprinkle human urmo on his fodder, or cut up cedar boughs and mix with his grain ; or boil a sn:iall quantity of flax-seed, and mix it in a mash of scalded bran, adding a few ounces of sugar, molasses, or honey Administer lukewarm. If there should be any appearance of heaves^ put a spoonful of ground ginger once per day in his pro- vender, and allow him to drink freely of lime v>-ater. Si'LiT on Broken Hoof. — Let tlie blacksmith bore two holes on each side of the crack or split ; pass long nails through tlie holes and clinch tiglit. After anointing Avith tho lioof-bound liquid, it will Boon grow together. Colic Cuke.— Bleed freely at the horse's mouth ; then take ^ lb. raw cotton, wrap it around a coal of fire, so as to exclude the air ; when it begins to smoke, hold it under his nose till he becomes easy. To Cuke DisxEMrER. — Take 1^ gals, of blood from the neck vein ; then administer sassafras oil, 1^ oz. Cure, speedy and certain. Founder cured in 24 Hours. — Boil or steam stout oat-straw for half an liour, then wrap it around tho horse's log quite hot, cover up with wcfc woollen rags to keep in the steam ; in six hours renew tlie application, talve 1 gal. of blood from the neck vein, and give 1 quart Ihisecd oil. He may be worked next day. Cuke for Staggers.— Give a mess twice a week, composed of bran, 1 gal. ; sulphur, 1 tablespoonf ul ; saltpetre, 1 spoonful ; boiling sassafras tea, 1 quart ; assafoctida, 1^ oz. Keep the horse from cold water for half a day aftertvards. Klng-bone and Spavin Cure. — Venice tunpentine and Spanish flies, of each 2 oz. ; euphorbium and aqua-annhonia, of each 1 oz. ; red precipitate, \ oz. ; corrosive sublimate, i oz. ; lard, 1^ lbs. PuJ- verize all, and put into the lard ; simmer slowly over coals, not scorchmg or burning ; and pour off, free of sediment. For ring- bones, cut off the hair, and rub_ the ointment well into the lumps once in 48 hours. For spavins, once in 24 hours for 3 mornings. Wasli well previous to each application with suds, rubbing over tho place witli a smooth stick, to squeeze out a thick, yellow matter. Til is lia-s removed very largo ring-bones. 40 FA.EMERS' RECEIPTS. ANOTnr.n Cuhe.— T;ilco sTvcot oil, 4 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 2 oz. ; oil of ist(;iie, 1 oz. ]\lix, and Jipply threo times per day. If the lior.so is over four year old, or in any (^I'se when this isuotHiiOi- cicnt, in addition to it, you AviJl lit a l)ar of lead just above it, wirin,!:? the ends to;^X!ther, so it c,'der. — DraAV about 1 gal. blood from the neck; then drench the horse Avith linseed oil, 1 qt. ; noAV rub the fore-legs long and Avell with water as hot as can be borne Avithout scaldhig, riiYSic-BALL FOR IIORSES.— Barbadocs aloes, from 4 to 5 or 6 drams (according to size and strength of the horse); tailrate of potassa, 1 dram; ginger and Castile soap, each 2 drams; oil of anise, oi" peppermint, 20 drops; pulverize and make all into one ball, with thick gum solution. Feed by giving scalded bran instead of oats, for two days before giving the physic, and during its operation. Physic for Cattle. — Take half onlj'- of the dose above for ahorse, and add it to glauber-salts, 8 oz. ; dissolve all in gruel, 1 quart, and give as a drench. Hoof- AIL in Sheep. — Muriatic acid and butter of antimony, of each 2 oz. ; white vitriol, pulverized, 1 oz. ; mix. Lift the foot, and drop a little of it on the bottom, only once or twice a week. It kills the old hoof, and a new one soon takes its place. Superphosphate of Lime, the greatest Agrtcultural Dts- COA'ERY OF THE Age. — Take a large puncheon, large tub, or barrel, and put into it200 lbs. water; add, very slowly and cautiously, 100 Ihs. of pure sulphuric acid; you must be very careful, AAiihe liaiidliug tlua FAKMEKS' EECEirXS. 45 article, not to let it touch yonr sl^iri or clothiiig, as it will instantly blacken the skiu, and destroy the clothing, wherever it conies in con- tact; and, when mixed with water, it engenders a very mtense heat. I Into this mixture throw 200 lbs. of bones, no matter how old or use-' less they may be. The sulphuric acid instantly attacks and enters into combination with the bones, reducing them to a pasty consistence, and completely dissolving them. Keep under cover, and turn them over occasionally, while the process is gomg on ; and, when com- pleted, dump out the whole contents on the barn floor or on a plat- form of boards, and thoroughly work into the mass four times its bulk of dry bog-earth or dry road-dust; mix; and iDulverize completely with a wooden shovel. The bog-earth acts as an absorbent or drier, retaining the fertilizing properties of the compound, and rendering it easy of uniform distribution. If whole bones are used, it will take six or eight weeks to dissolve them; if they arc broken with an axe, they will dissolve in about three weeks ; il they arc ground ui a bono fnill, four days will be sufficient. This manure is the most powerful fertilizer in existence; and, when made by these directions, it is the clieapest, as one ton is equal to thirty-t^vo tons of barn-yard manure. For top-dressing grass lauds, use 300 lbs. per acre; for corn, potatoes, beans, turnips, &c., apply 450 lbs. per acre in the drill, mixing with the soil; for wheat, rye, oatf^, or barley, 400 lbs. per acre, harrow in- jvith the seed; for buckwheat, ;J00 lbs. per acre. Superphosphate in TwENTr-Fouii Ilouns. — Any farmer who has got an apparatus for steaming food for cattle can mal^e super-^ Eliosphatc in quick style by admitting steam from the boiler into tho arrel containing the water, acid, and ground bones. The heat thus generated quickens the dissolution of tlio bones m a wonderful man- ner; and, if the process is properly conducted, it will not take over ;twenty-four hours in any case. It is indispensable that the barrel bo tightly covered to retain the steam. "Fertilizer for, TonAcco. — Add 40 lbs. of tho best Peruvian (^uano to each 100 lbs. of the superphosphate made by the above receipt, and you will have one of the most powerful fertilizers for tobacco that can be made. If you do not have Peruvian guano, use in- stead 30 lbs. of hen manure to each 100 lbs. of superphosphate, IIo:ME-:MAr>E Poudrette. — Few fertilizers are wasted with tho prodigality of extravagance which attends the use of night soil, whilo the exercise of a little care and attention is all that is required to secure one of the most powerful fertilizers in existence. Night soil Contahis phosphate of lime, which is essential to the gro^vth of animals' bones, and which is not supplied from the atmosphere like carbonic acid and ammonia. In order to receive the droppings in a manageable and inoffensive state, the vault sliould be provided with a largo, tight box made of matched plank, placed to slide on scantling, so that it can be drawn out, by attaching a horse, whenever required. Provide plenty of dry, black loam from the woods or swamps; refuse charcoal, dry peat, or alluvial deposits answer first-rate. Keep them dry, in barrels or boxes on the spot, under cover ; spread a thick layer on the bottom of the receiving box, and at uitervals of a few days throw in a liberal supply of these absorbents on the accumulating de- posit. If a few handiuls of plaster are thrown in occasionally, it wiU suppress unpleasant odors and increase the value of tho manure. 46 FAK-MEKS' liECEirXS. Tlio emptying of slops and dish -u-atcr in tlio bo:: f^liould be strictly proliibitcd. When the box is filled, yoa c;in removo it, and com-crfc it into i)oudrctto. For this purpoHO it must bo worked over with .in nd(lition:il qiKuitity of muclc, or other absorbent, in such proportioiis that it will form, with what luw been previously added, about tlii-oc- quartcrs of the entire compound. The working .should be done under a shed, and the wholo kept perfectly dry. It sliould be shovelled over and muced several times at intervals, and finally Bcreened, and made as uniform throughout as possible; tho liner it is pulverized, and Iho drier it is kept, tho better. Home-made Guako of Uxequalt.t:d Excellence. — Save all your fowl manure from sun and rain. To prepare it for use, spread a layer of dry swam}) muck (tho blacker it is the better) on your bam floor, and dump on it the whole of your fowl manure; beat it into a fine powder with tho back of your spade; this done, add hard wood ashes and plaster of Taris, so that the compound shall bo composed of tho following proportions : dried muck, 4 bushels ; fowl manure, 2 bushels; ashes, 1 bushel; plaster, 1^-bi'shels. Mix thoroughly, and spare no labor; for, in this matter, the elbow-grease expended wUl bo well paid for. A littlo before planting, moisten the heap with water, cr, better still with urine; cover well over with old mats, and let it lio tin wanted for use. Apply it to beans, corn, or potatoes, at the rato of a handful to a hill; and mix with the soil before dropping the seed. This will bo found tho best substitato for guano ever invented, and may bo depended on for briu^in^^- great crops of turnips, corn, potatoes, crimentg of a INTr. ITaskelt. with a niamire prepared after tliig raetliod, wlio iomid it evou superior to siiperpliospliate of lime. How TO DOUBLE THE UiiUAL. QUANTITY OF MAXURE ON A (FA113I. — Provide a good supply of Llaclt swamp mould or loam from 'the woods, within easy reacli of your stable, and place a layer of this, one foot thick, under each horse, Avith litter as usual, on the top of the loam or mould. Remove the droppings of the animals every day, but let the loam remain for two weeks ; then remove it, mixing it with the other manure, and replace with fresh mould. By this sim])le ineans, any farmer can doui)lo not only the quantity but also the quality of his manure, and never feel himself one penny the poorer by the trouble or expense incurred, while tlio fertilizing value of the ingredients absorbed and saved by tlio loam can scarcely bo estimated. Josiah Quincy, jun., has been very successful in Iccepiug cattle in ptables the year through, and feeding tliem by means of soiling. The amount of manure' thus made had enabled him to improve the fertility of a poor farm of 100 acres, £0 that in twenty years the hay crop had increased from 20 to 300 tons. The cattle are kept m a well- arranged stable, and are let out into the yard an hour ortv>^o mornmg and afternoon ; but they generally appear glad to return to theil quarters. By this process, one acre enables him to support three or lour cows. They are fed on grass, green oats, corn fodder, barley^' &c., which are sown at intervals through the spring and summer months, to be cut as required ; but ho remarks that his most valuable crop is his manure crop. Each cow produces 3^ cords of solid, and 3 cords of liquid manure, or cords in all. Five to eight miles from Boston, such manure is wortirfive to eight dollars a cord. From this estimate, he has come to the conclusion that a cow's manure may be made as valuable as her milk. Twenty Dollars' Worth of Manure for almost Nothino. — If you have any dead animal, — say, for instance, the body of a horse,— do not suffer it to pollute the atmosphere by drawing it away to the woods or any other out of the way i)lace, but remove it a short distance only, from your premises, and put down four or five loads of muck or "sods, -placo the carcass thereon, and sprinkle it over with quick-lime, aud cover over immediately with sods or mould sufficient to make, with what had been previously added, 20 good wagon- loads ; and you will have within twelve mouths a pile of manure worth $20 for any crop you choose to put it upon. Use a propor- tionate quantity of mould for smaller animals, but never less than twenty good wagon-loads for a horse ; and, if any dogs manifest too great a regard for the enclosed carcass, shoot them on the spot. Fish Co^ipost, Substitute for Boke-Dust, ISfAiojuB FRoar Fish Refuse, &c. — The fish owes its fertilizing value to the animal matter and bone-earth which it contains. The former is precisely similar to flesh or blood, consisting of 25 per cent, of fibrin, the rest being water ; and their bones are similar in composition to tliose of terrestrial animals. As fertilizing agents, therefore, the bodies of fislies will act nearly in tlie same way as the bodies and blood of animals ; 100 lbs., in decaying, produce 2^ lbs. of ammonia. Hence 400 lbs. of fisli rotted in compost are enough for an acre. The great effect is due to the amiaoniacai portion ; for it renders the herbage 48 FAlOIKrvS' IlECEirTS. dark-grccn, and starts it very rapidly. Oiio of the best composts is made as follows : Driod bo.i^-oartli, loam, or peat, seven barrels ; < liardwcod ashes, two barrels ; lisli, one barrel ; slaked lime, ouo bushel, riaco a tliick layer of the bop^-earth on the bottom ; on the top of this put a layer of the fish, thcji a sprinklin;? of lime, then a a layer of ashes ; on top of the ashes put a thick layer of boj^-earth, loam, or peat ; then another thin layer of fish, lime, and ashes, and so on till your materials are worked in ; then top off with a thick layer of the absorbents, to retain the fertilizing gases. The decompo- sition of the fish will proceed very rapidly, and a very rich coinposl will be the result. It should be shovelled over and over and tiior- oughly intermixed and pulverized. Put this on so as to have 400 lbs. of fish to the acre. It may be applied with the greatest benefit to corn, turnips, potatoes, beans, &c., in the drill, and broad cast on the grass. Sui^erphosphatecanbe made from jiogy-chum, or the refuse of other fish, after the oil Is expressed, by dissolving in sulphuric acid, and afterwards mixing Avith dry loam, precisely as directed for making superphosphate with bones. Whale-oil or the oil of any fish, when made into a compost with loam, and a little lime or wood ashes, yields a very powerful manure, merely mixed with absorbent earth and applied at the end of the month. Impure whale-oil, at the rate of 40 gallons per acre, has ]u-oduccd a crop of 23| tons of turnips per acre ; while ou the same soil, and during the same season, it took 40 "bushels of bone-dust to produce only 22 tons per acre. Ashes from Soil, by Spontaneol's Combustion'. — Make your mound 21 feet long by 10^ feet wide. To fire, use 72 bushels of lime. Pii"st a layer of dry sods"or parings ou which a quantity of lime is spread, mixing sods with it; then a covering of eight inches of sods, on which the other half of the lime is spread, and covered a foot thick, the height of the mound being about a yard. In twenty-four hours it will take fire. The lime should bo fresh from the kiln. It is better to suffer it to ignite itself than to effect it by the operation of water. When the fire is fairly kindled, fresh sods must be ap- plied ; but get a good body of ashes in the first place. I think it may \)Q fairly supposed that the lime adds full its worth to the quality of the ashes, and, when limestone can bo got, I would ad- vise the burning a small quantity in the uiounds, which would bo a great improvement to the ashes, and would help to keep the fire in. Substitute fok BAUN-MAmjuE, — ^Dissolve a bushel of salt in water enougli to slack 5 or G bushels of lime. The best rule for pre- paring the compost heap is, 1 bushel of this lime to 1 load of Bwamp-muck, intimately mixed ; though 3 bushels to 5 loads makca a very good manure. In laying up the lieap, let the layer of muck and lime be thin, so that decomposition may be more rapid and complete. When lime cannot bo got, use unleached ashes, — 3 or 4 bushels to a cord of muck. In a month or six weeks, overhaul and work over the heap, when it will be ready for use. Spriulde the salt water on the lime as the heap £'oes up. Sheep-Dipping Composition. — Water, 1 gal. ; benzine, 8 ounces ; cayenne pepper, 2 ounces. Mis ; make what quantity you require, using these proportions. Dip your sheep and lambs in the composi- tion, and it will make short work of the vermin. Oat ou Wheat Straw made equal to Hay.— Bring 10 gallons FAn:,IERS' PwECEIPTS. 49 •wnter to a boiling heat ; take it off tho fire, and add to it at on.t) 3 gallons of linseed luiground ; let it remain till it gets cold ; theix empty the whole into a cask containing 41 gallons of cold water, and let it remain for forty-eight hours. At the end of that time, -■l; will be reduced into a thin jelly, like arrowroot. Spread out A ':,on straw, and sprinkle it over regularly with the whole of tho Liquid from the cask. The stock will eat it up as clean, and keep as fat on it, quantity for quantity, as they would do on hay. Death fou Vekmix on Plants or Animals. — Pour a gallon of boiling water on one pound tobacco leaves, stram it in twenty minutes ; for vermin, on animals or plants, this decoction is certain death. Remedy for Cueculio in Fruit Trees. — Sawdust saturated in coal oil, and placed at tho roots of the tree, will bo a sure prevent- ive ; or, clear a circle around the tree from all rubbish ; fill up all little holaa and smooth off tiie ground for a distance of at least 3 feet each way from tho tree, then iDlace chips or small pieces of ■wood on the ground within tho circle ; the curculio will take refuge in large numbers below tho cliips, and you can pass aroimd in tho mornings and kill them off. Grafting Wax. — Resin, 1 lb. ; bees-wax, 1 lb. ; with tallow or lard Bufflcient to soften until it can be readily applied Avith thchand; melt. To Cultivate Tobacco. — To raise tobacco, select a sheltered situation, vt^hcre the young plants can receive the full force of tho sun ; bum over tho surface of the ground early in spring (new land is best), rake it well, and sow the seeds : have a dry, mellow, rich soil, ' and after a shower, when the plants have got leaves the size of a quarter-dollar, transplant as you would cabbage plants, 3^ feet apart, nnd weed out carefully afterwards. Break off the suckers from tho foot-stalks, as they appear ; also the tops of the plants when they are Avell advanced, — say, about three feet high, — except those designed for seed, which should be the largest and best plants. The ripeness of tobacco is knowii by small dusky spots appearing on the leaves. The x)lants should then be cut near the roots, on the mornmg of a day of sunshine, and should lie singly to wither. When sufficiently withered, gather them carefully together, and hang them up imder cover to cure and prepare for market. _ To Preserve Potatoes fro^i Rot. — Dust over the floor of tho bin with lime, and put in about G or 7 inches of j)otatoe9, and dust with lime as before, then more potatoes, using about 1 bushel of lime, to 40 bushels of potatoes. The lime improves the flavor of the pota- toes, and effectually kills the fungi which causes the rot. An old veteran farmer, with G3 years' experience, has successfully fought the potato rot in the groimcl, as follows : lie j)la]its them iul the latter part of April, or beginning of May, and in the old of tho moon. When six inches higli they are plastered and dressed out nicely. Now for the secret. When blossoming, take 2 parts plaster,' and 1 part fine salt, mix well together, and ])ut 1 largo spoonful of tills compound as near the centre of eacii hill as possible. When ripe, take them out of the ground, havo them dry when put in tho collar, and keep them in a dry, cool place. Packing Fruits for Long Distances. — Take a box of the propci^ size, soft paipcr, and sweet bran. Place a layer of bran on tho bottom, then each bunch of grapes is held by the_hand over a 5C faiimi:rs' ni:ci:rrTS. filiect of tlio pnpcr ; the iouv coninr.s of tho paper nrc brought np to tlic stalk and nicely secured ; tlien laid on its side in the box, nnd so on until tlie first hiyer is fmislicd. Then dust ou a layer of bran, giving the box a gentle shalce as you proceed. Begin tlic second layer as tlie first, and so on until tlio Avhole is i'uii. The bloom ol' the I'ruit is thus i)rescrved as Ircsh, at tho end of a ;jnurney of 500 miles, as if they wci'C newly fciken from the tree. Is'ever fails to preserve grapes, peaches, apricots, and other fruit. Tiiokley's CoxuiMEXTAi. Fooi).— 'Die following is a formula to make 1 ton of the food: take of Indian meaHWO lbs., locust beans finely ground GOO lbs., best Ihiseed cake 300 lbs., powdered turmeric and sulphur of each 40 lbs., saltpetre 20 lbs., licorice 27 lbs., ginger 3 lbs.,, anise-seed, 4 lbs., coriander and gentian of each 10 lbs., cream of tartar 2 lbs., carbonate of soda and levigated antimony each G lbs., common salt 30 lbs., reruviaa bark 4 lbs., fenugreek 22 lbs., mix thoroughly. Cure for Sweli^ed Bags in Cows.— An excellent remedy for swelled bags in cows, caused by cold, etc., is gum camphor ^ oz., to sweet oil 2 ozs. ; pulverize the gum, and dissolve over a slow^ lire. To Increase the Flow of Milk in Cows.— Give your cow.g three times a day, water slightly warm, slightly salted, in whicli brau has been stirred at the rate of 1 qt. to 2 gals, of water, You >vill find if you have not tried this daily i)ractice, that the cow will give 25 per cent, more milk, and she will become so much attached to the cliet that she will refuse to drink clear water unless very thirsty, but this mess she will drink at almost any time, and ask for more. The amount of this druik necessary is au ordinary water-pail full each time, morning, noon, and night. Avoid giving cows " slops," as they are ]io more fit for tho animal than the human. Home-made Stump Machine. — Take 3 pieces of common joints, put them together iu form like a common harrow, letthigthe tapering ends lap by each other some G inches, making a place for the chain to rest in. Cut off the roots at any distance yon please from the stump, place the machine at one side of the stump, tapering end up; hitch tho chain on the opposite side and pass it over the machine ; then hitcli a good yoke of oxen thereto, and youv.'ill see the stump rise. Another method is as follows: in tho fall of the year bore a 1-inch hole 13 inches deep into the centre of the stump, and put in 1 oz., of saltpetre, filling np with water, and plugging the liole up. In the spring take cut the plug, put in half a gill of kerosene and set fire to it. It will burn out the stump, to the farthest root. Here is another plan : in the fall, with an inch auger, bore a hole in tho centre of the stump 10 inchea deep, and put into it a J lb. of vitriol, and cork the hole up very tight. In the spring the whole*" stump and roots extending all through their ramifications will be found so rotten that they can be easilj'' eradicated. To Sprout Onions. — Pour hot water on the seed, let it remain 2 or 3 seconds, and they will immediately sprout, and come up much earlier. To Renew Old ORcnARDS.— Early in tho spring, plough tho entire orchard, and enrich the whole soil with a good dressing of compost of manure, swamp-muck, and limo ; scrape off the old bark with a deck-scraper, or a sharp hoe ; apply half a bushel of limo, and tlie same of ground charcoal round each tree. Then apply diluted soft soap, or strong soap-suds, on the trunks and FARMERS' RECEIPTS. 51 limbs, Jifi liigh ns a man can reach. Wlicn tho tvoos are in full bloom, throw over them a good proportion of fino slaked lime, and you ^vill reap abundant fruits from your labors. To DiiSTitOY THE MOTXT on Mi lleii. — Dr. AVaterman Rays, " I took two'white dishes (because v/liito attracts their auciitiun in tho night) or deep plates, and placed them on tlic toi» of tlic bivej^, and fiJled tliem about half-full of sweetened vinegar. Tlio next moming I had about 50 millers caught ; the second night I caught 50 more ; the thii-d night, being cold, I did not get any, the fourth night, being very warm, I caught about 400; the fifth niglit I got about 200." To Keep Milk Sweet, aztd Sweeten Sour. Milk.— Fn'£ into tho mUIc a small quantity of carbonate of raagTiesia. To Make Cheap axd Good Vixeg.ui. — To eight gallons of clear ram-water, add G quarts of molasses ; turn the mixture into a clean, tight cask, shake it Avell two or three times, and add 1 pt. of good yeast. PJaco tlie cask in a warm place, and in ten of fifteen days add a sheet of common wrappmg-paper, smeared "with molasses, and torn into narrow strips ; and you will have good vinegar. The paper is necessary to form tho " mother," or life of the liquor. Mu. Culley's Red Salve, to cuee the Rot in Sheep.— Mix 4 oz. of the best lioney, 2 oz. of burnt alum reduced to powder, and ^ a ijomid of Armenian bole, Avitli as much train or fish oil as will convert these ingredients into the consistence of a salve. Tho l)onoy must first be gradually dissolved, when tho Annenian bole must ho Etirred in ; afterwards the alum and train-oil are to be added. To I]\iPiio\T3 THE Wool of Sheep, by S^ieaiung.- Immediately after tlie sheep are shorn, soak tho roots of the avooI that remains ail over with oil, or butter, and brimstone ; and, 3 or 4 days afterward, wash them with salt and water. The wool of next season will not bo much finer, but the quantity will bo in greater abundance. It may be depended upon, that the sheep will not bo troubled with the scab or vermin that year. Salt water is a safe and effectual remedy against maggots. To Mark Sheep withoitt In-tttut to the Wool. — To 30 spoonfuls of linseed oil, add 2 oz, of litharge, 1 oz. of lampblack ; boil rJl together, and mark tho sheep therewith. To PitEVENT THE Fly IN" TuENiPS. — Vvom experiments lately made, it has been ascertained that lime so-\vn by hand, or dis- tributed by a machine, is an infallible protection to turnips against the ravages of this destructive insect. It should be applied as £oon as the turnips come up, and in tho same daily rotation in which they were sown, Tho lime should bo slaked immediately before it is used, if the air be not sufficiently moist to render that operation unnecessary. Coloring for Cheese. — The coloring for cheese is, or at least should be, Spanisii anjiatto ; but, as soon as colormg bcc^imo general in this c>oimtry, a color of an adulterated kind v%'as exposed iov sale in almost every shop. The weight of a guinea and a half of real Simnisb annatto is sufficient for a clieeso of fifty pounds* weight. If a considerable part of the cream of the uiglit's milk be taken for butter, more coloring will bo requisite. The leaner the cbeese is, the more coloring it reqxiires. Tho manner of using UBRARY ^ UNlVERSnt OF fllWOl^ 52 FAll.AlKRS 11 i:ci:ii'Ts. .iniiritto is to tlo up in n, linon r.ao; tlio quantity docmcd pufflciciit, and put it into ^ \)t. of ■\v;irm water over night. Tliis inlusiou is j)nt into the tub ot milk in tho morning witli tlio vcnuet iufnsion : tlippin^ tho ri\ii into tlio millc, and rubbing it against tlie palin or tlio hand as long as any color runs out. Tho yolk of egg will color butter. TiiK GuicAT Secrkts roK TRArrixf! Foxes and ornKn Game. — jMusk-rat inusk and nknnk musk mixed. (Jan be ])rocured at tlio druggists, or from the animals themselves. To bo spread ou the bait of any trap. Tliis receipt has been sold as liigli as .1^75. Another, cosliiifj $50, for minks, &c. — Unslaked lime, ^ lb. ; sal-ammoniac, 3oz., or muriate of annnonia, 3 oz. Mix, and pulverize. Keep in a covered vessel a few days iintil a thorough admixture takes jilacc. Sprinkle ou tho bait, or on the ground around tho trap. Ivcep in a corked bottle. Food for Sixcixg Birds. — Blanched sweet almonds, pulverized, h 11). ; pea meal, 1 lb. ; saffron, 3 grs. ; yolks of 2 hard boiled egg;:'- Keduco all to a pov*-dcr l)y rubbing through a sieve. Place tho in::.- tare in a frying pan over a fire, and add 2 oz. l)ntter and 2 oz. Jiouey. Slightly cook for a few minutes, stirring well, then set oli! to cool, and preserve in a closely corked Ivottlo. Much Butter rRo:M Little Milk. — Take 4 ozs. pulverized alum, ^ oz. pulverized gum-arabic, 50 grs. of i^epsin ; i)laco it in a bottle for use as required. A tcaspoonful of this mixture added to 1 pt. of new millc will, upon churning, make 2 1^ of butter. Agents are sell- ing this secret for $5. CoOTOSiTJON- FOR DRmxo OUT Rats, ETC.— Keep on hand a quantity of chloride of lime. Tho whole secret consists in scattering it dry all around their haunts and into their holes, and they will leave at once, or a liberal decoction of coal tar placed in the entrance of their holes will do as Avell. How TO FORM Springs. — The finest springs can he made hy boring, which is performed by forcing an iron rod into the earth by its o^aii weight, turning it round, and forcing it up and down by a spring- j)ole contrivance. Tho water will sometimes spout up several feet above the surface. Iron pipes are put down in the hole after the water is found. Depressed situations, having a southern exposure, with rising ground towards the north, aro tho best situations in the United States or the Canadas to find water. To Burn Lime without a Kiln. — ]\Iako a pyramidal pile of largo limestones, with an arched furnace next the ground for putting in the fuel, leavmg a narrow vent or funnel at the top ; now cover the whole pile with earth or turf, in the way that charcoal heaps aro covered, and put in the lire. Tho lieat will be more completely diffused through the pile, if tlie aperture in the top is partially closed. Produces a superior article of lime. Eye Water for Horses and Cattle.— Alcohol, 1 tablespoonful ; extract of lead, 1 teaspoonf"ul ; rain Avater, ^ pmt. To Destroy Moss on Trees. — Paint them with white-wash made of quick lime and wood ashes. To PiiOTECT Fruit-trees from attack op BIice, etc.— Tar, 1 part ; tallow, 3 parts ; mis. Apply hot to the bark of the tree with a paint brush. farmers' receiits. 53 Points of a Good Horse. — He slionld be about 15^ hands high the head light and clean made, wide between the nostrils, and tha nostrils themselves large, transparent and opea ; broad in the fore- head, eyes prominent, clear and sparkling ; ears small and neatly set on ; neck rather shoi t and well set up ; largo arm or shoulder, well tlirown back, and high ; withers arched and high ; legs fine, flat, thin and small-boned ; body round and rather light, though sufli- ciently large to afford substance when it is needed ; full chest, afford- ing play for the lungs ; back short, with the hind-quarters set on ratlier obliquely. A good draught horse should have a rather large, well-shaped head, a clean, long ear, full eye, neck rather long, but not too much arched ; strong Avithers, lying well forward to catch the collar at the proper angle for draught, and broad shoulders, well spread into the back, back very straight, ribs long and well rounded, hind-legs bent at the hock, fore-legs forward, hind-quarters some- what round, but not sufficiently to make them look short ; the mane and tail of short, but not coarse hair, and with a fetlock about two inches long, broad knees, long hocks, short shanks, and hard ankles or fetlock joints, and round hoofs, well opened behind, nnd the nearer you approach this description the nearer the hoise will be to perfection. The Epizootic. — The early symptoms of the disease are a light, hacking cough, with a general dulness, and an indisposition to move ; cold legs, with a watery discharge from the nostrils. At first, the nasal membrane is pale, but, as the disease advances, becomes highly colored, and the mucous discharge changes to a greenish yellow color, and the pulse becomes more rapid. As soon as the symptoms appear, the animal should be kept warm in the stable, by blanketing. The following prescriptions are recommended : No. 1 — Linseed oil, 1^ ozs. ; turpentine, 1^ ozs. ; liquor ammonia fort, 1 oz. Mix all together, and apply to the throat. No. 2 — Nitrate potash, 1^ ozs.; lartarized antimony, 1^ ozs.; digitalis, ozs. Pulverize all to- gether, and give one night and morning. If not very bad, the digi- talis may be omitted. The disease consists of an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the throat, which gradually extends li-om the epiglottis downwards till it reaches the lungs, when it .issumes a decidedly dangerous character. The following will arre:^^ the disease at once, if taken in time: Boil a handful of smart-weed till all the strength is obtained, and pour the liquid boiling-hot over thv usual mess of oats, and, when all is cold, feed them to the horso Repeat till all symptoms disappear. Cure certain. Ground giugei mixed with the oats, has also proved effectual. Age of Horses. — By Teeth. — A liorse has 40 teeth, 24 double teeth, or grinders, 4 tushes, or single file teeth, and 12 front teeth, called gatherers. As a general thing, mares have no tushes. Be" tween 2 and 3 yeai^s old, the colt sheds his four middle teeth, 2 above and 2 below. After 3 years old, 2 other teeth are shed, 1 on each side of those formerly changed ; he now has 8 colt's teeth and 8 horse's teeth ; when 4 years of age he cuts 4 new teeth. At 5 years of age, the horse sheds his remaining colt's teeth 4 in number, when his tushes appear. At 6 years of age his tushes are up, appearing white, small and sharp, v/liile a small circle of young growing teeth 51 aro obsorv;i!)!o. The moulli is now complete. At P> ycarr? of a^o the teeth luivo lilled up, tlio liorso is .a;;cd iim\ hia month is said to bo full. Jli/ EiivUil. — Alt(!i' a horse is 9 years old, a wrinkle coincs on the eyelid at the upper corner of the lower lid, and every year tiiereafter he has one well defhied wrinkle for each year over I). If, for instance, a horse lias three of tl-.cse wriiikl(;s, he islU ; if 4, ho is 13. Add tlio luuiibei- of wrinldcs to 'J, and you will invariably jndgo correctly of. a horse's age. Those who manage horses should be careful never to inflict any unnecessary ]\ain, for it is only by the law of kindness tliat a horso can be trained and managed. No man ever yet struclc a horse, but he made tlie horse the worse for it. Patience and kindness will ac- complish in every instance -svliat whipping will fail to do. Horses having a vicious disposition are invariably made so from cruel treat- ment. Horses are designed to work, and daily labor for them is as much a necessity to their existence as to that of man's. It is not tho luird drawing and ponderous loads that wear out horses and make tliem poor, balky and worthless; but it is the hard driving, the worry by rough and inhuman drivers, that uses up more horse flesh, fat and muscle than all the labor a team performs. Another great reason why there are so few really sound animals is because of their being put to work too soon. Horses are not developed until they are 5, 6 or 7 years old, and they should do very little work until they reach that j)eriod. WJien a horse is worked hard its food should chiefly be oats; if not worked hard its food should chiefly be hay; because oats supply more nourishment and flesh making material than any other food; hay not so much. Artificial, Rubeerfrom Milkweed.— Tho juiceor sap is express- ed from the milk-weed by running it between iron rollers and then allowing it to ferment or evaporate to the consistency of tlun. molasses. It may then be slowly boiled to reduce it to a thick mass which may be treated in the usual way of manufacturing the genuine rubber. See Boot, Shoe and Rubber ManujYs Dep't. To Pickle Meat in One Day. — Get a tub nearly full of rain or river water, and put two pieces of thin wood across it and set the beef on them at about the distance of 1 inch from the water. Heap as much salt as will stand on the beef and let it remain 24 hours, then take off the beef and boil it, and you will find it is completely impreg- nated by the salt, the water having draw^n it through the meat. Baron Liebig's Great Fertilizer. —Dry peat, 20 bushels, un- leached ashes, 3 bushels, fine bone dust, 3 bushels, calcined plaster. 3 bushels, nitrate of soda, 40 lbs., sulphate of ammonia, 33 lbs., sul- phate of soda, 40 lbs. Mix numbers 1, 2 and 3 together, then mix numbers 5, 6 and 7 in 5 buckets of water. When dissolved, add the liquid to the first, second, and third articles. When mixed, add tho fourth article. This is a cheap and efficient fertilizer, and this quan- tity applied to one or two acres of turnips, beets, oats, corn, wheat, grapes, &c. , will bring abundant returns. Another Cheap Fertilizer.— Ammonia, GO lbs. ; nitrate of soda, 40 lbs. ; ground bone, 250 lbs. ; plaster, 250 lbs. ; salt \ bushel; wood ashes, 3 bushels; stable manure, 20 bushels. Use the above quantity on 6 acres. Labor included, it will cost about $15, in some Placea less, and is equivalent in value to some fertilizers whfch cost $50 oc iglO ttarling per ton. FARMEKs' RECEirTS. 55 To Protect Sheep from the Gad Fly.— In August anJ Sep- tember this fly lays its eggs in the nostrils of sheep, where they are hatched and the worms crawl into the lioad, and very frequently e^it through the brain. In this way many sheep are destroyed. As a protection, smirch their noses with tar. Lay some tar in a trough or on a board, and strew fine salt on it. The sheep Avill finisli the opera- tion. The tar will protect tliem, and v/Iuit they cat will promote theii health. " "vil PORTABLE STEAM ENGINE. TmiEsniKG BY Steabi Power. — A 4 horse power Portable Engino with G inch cylinder ; pressure of steam 45 lbs. per square inc'a, revo- lutions 140 per minate, lias threshed, under favorable surroundings, 320 bushels per day of 10 hours, coal consumed 3 cwt. Another engina of 5 horse power threshed 400 bushels, coal consumed, 4 cwt. Ano- ther of 6 horse power, threshed 480 bushels, coal consumed 5 cwt. Another of 7 horse power, threshed 560 bushels, coal consumed G cwt Another of 8 horse power, threshed G40 bushels, coal consumed 7 cwt. Another of 10 horse power threshed 800 bushels p^r day, coal consumed 9 cwt. The economy of these performances is evident at a glanca 5C> FATiMEIls' PwEOEIPTS. and even if much less work than the above were effected, It h evident that such an engine as the one j'cinescntcd above, would, if mounted on wheels, prove a most vahiable acquisition to any neighborhood composed of thrifty farmers, wlio miglit, by an equitable arrangement, become both the owners and beneliciaries of the same. Many porta^ ble engines are Icnown to be performing excellent service, not only in tliresliing gram, but in chaffing straw, hay, &c., food for cattle, cutting wood for fael,and sawing logs into boards. Among other late inventions, ^re have one as novel as it is meritorious, consisting of a self-propell- ing engine, capable of moving itself from one l/>cality or farm to farmers' rbgeipts. 57 anotlier, together vcitli the necessary fuel and water, without the aid of horses. An excellent view of this most useful invention is pro- eented in the cut. ExcELsiOK Axle Grease.— Tallow, 8 lbs. ; palm oil, 10 lbs. ; plum - bago, 1 lb. ; heat and mix well. PiiOUGHiNG Table.— Showing the distance travelled by a HoKSE IN Plowing an Acre of Land; and the quantits: 01" Land Cultivated per Day, Comi'uted at the batk of 16 AND 18 Miles per Day of 9 Hours. li atu oi rui-iow elice. Space travel- led in Plough- ing an Acre. Extent Ploughed per Day. sjLJ'dtli oi Furrow slice. Space travel- led in Plough- ing an Acre. Extent Ploughed per Day. Irishes. Mies. 18 Miles. IG Jliles. Inches. 3/ifes. 18 Ililes. 16 Miles. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1-2 12 1-2 11 9 9-10 9 8 1-1 7 1-2 1 3-4 1 1-2 1 3-5 1 4-5 2 2 1-5 2 1-3 1 1-8 1 1-4 1 1-2 1 3-5 1 3-4 1 9-l( 2 1-1( 14 15 18 17 18 19 20 7 6 1-2 6 1-G 5 3-1 5 1-2 5 1-4 4 9-10 2 1-2 2 3-4 2 9-10 3 1-10 3 1-4 3 1-2 3 1-5 2 1-4 2 2-5 2 3-5 2 3-4 2 9-10 3 1-10 3 1-4 Rapid Rule to Reckon Cost op ILvy, Coal, &c.— Multiply tin ■number of pounds by half the price per ton, and remove the decimal point three places to the left. Example: What is the cost of 764 Iba. of coal at per ton ? Ans. : $5,348. Troccss : 764 5.348 To Measure Grain. — Rule. — Level the grain; ascertain the space it occupies m cubic feet; multiply the number of cubic feet by 8, and point off one place to the left. Example : A box level full of grain 20 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 5 ft. deep, how many bushels does the box contain ? Ans. : 800 bushels. Process: 20x10x5=1000x8-1-10=800 Or, 1000 ft. 8 800.0 KC'le. — Correctness requires the addition to every 300 bushels of J extra bushel. Quantity of Seed required for a Given Number of Hills, OR LENGTH OP DRILL. — Asparagus. 1 oz. to 60 feet drill; beet, 1 oz. to 50 ft. drill; carrot, 1 oz. to 180 ft. driU; endive, 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill; onion, 1 oz. to 100 ft. drill; parsley, 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill; parsnip, 1 oz. to 200 ft. drill ; radish 1 oz. to 100 ft. drill ; spinach, 1 oz. to 100 ft. drill , turnip,! oz, to 150 ft. drill ; peas, 1 qt. to 100 ft, drill ; dwarf beans, 1 qt. to 150 hills ; com, 1 qt. to 200 hills ; cucumber, 1 oz. to 50 hills ; water- melon. 1 cz. to 30 bills; inuskmelon, 1 oz. to C>0 hills; pumpkm,! oz. to 53 FAUMKIIS' llECEIPTa. 40 hills; early squash. 1 oz. to 50 hills; marrow squash, Icz, to 10 hills cabbage, 1 oz, to 3000 i)lants; caulillovver, 1 oz. to 3000 plants; celery, 1 oz. to 4000 ])hiiits; c<;'4 plant, 1 oz. to 2000 plants; lettuce, 1 oz. to 4.0(0 plants, pepper, 1 oz. to 2000 plnuts; tomato, 1 oz. to 200C plautH. QUAISTXTY OF SlCKD UEQUlK]':i> TKll Aciil':^ ANI> ACTUAL WE ifiU'I- OF EACH TO Till'; Bushel. — Wlieat, broadcast, l.i to 2 bushels; ditto, hi drills, 1.2- bushels, weight per bushel, GO lbs; rye, broadcast, l| bushels, weight 5G lbs.; oats, broadcast, 2 bushels, Avcight 33 lbs.; timothy, broadcast, 2 gals., 45 lbs. per busliel; red clover, broadcast, 3 to 4 gals., GO lbs. per busliel; Avhite clover, broadcast, 8 lbs., 50 lbs. per bushel; lucerne, broadcast, 10 lbs., 54 lbs. per bushel; herd or red top, broadcast, 1 to 1^- bushels, 14 lbs. per bushel; bluegrass, broad- cast, 1 to 1^ bushels, 14 lbs. per bushel; millet, broadcast, ^ to 1 bushel, 45 lbs. per bushel; Hungarian, broadcast, to 1 bushel, 50 lbs. per bushel; corn in lulls, 1 to l^gals., 5G lbs. per bushel; tur-- nips and ruta baga, 1 lb., 50 lbs. per bushel; ouiou sets, 28 lbs. per bushel. The Vitality of Seeds may be tested by placing almost any of the larger seeds or grains on a hot pan or griddle; when the vitality r is perlect the grain will pop, or crack open with more or less noise. Where tlie vitality is defective, or lost, it remains immovable in tho vessel. A celebrated botanist's recipe for improving and fertilizing all kinds of seed, consists in the preparation of a solution of lime, nitre, and pigeon's dung in water, and therein steeping the seed. Tested on wheat, the produce of some of these grains was reported at GO, 70 and 80 stems, many of the ears 5 inches long, and 50 corns each, and none less than 40. The same botanist (Millar) produced 500 i^lants from 1 grain, and 57G,840 grains, weighing 47 lbs. Grains of wheat in different countries yield from G, 10, 16, and even 30 to 1 : Cape wheat 80 to 1. Barley yields from 50 to 120. Oats increase from 100 to 1000. Wheat and millet seed germinate in one day, bar- ley in 7, cabbage in 10, almond and chestnut and peaches require 13 months, and rose and filbert 24. A field of wheat buried under an avalanche for 25 years, proceeded on its growth, &c., as soon as tho enow had melted. A bulbous root found in the hand of a mummy, above 2000 years old, lately ptroduced a plant. Potatoes planted be- low 3 feet do not vegetate ; at ^ foot they grow quickest, and at 2, aro retarded 2 or 3 months. CoiViPOUND FOE REVivma Exhausted Orchaeds — Sulphate of potash, 30 lbs. ; sulphate of magnesia, 15 lbs. ; salt, 35 lbs. ; plaster of Paris, 15 lbs. ; chloride of magnesia, 5 lbs. All to be well powdered and mingled with barn manure, and then dug in around the roots at the rate of 10 to 20 lbs. to a tree. Tliis compound is assumed to re- store those elements to the soil of which it, h;is been exhausted during many years of fruit bearmg, and tlie secrcst lias been sold to hundrcd-s at extortionate prices. Artificial Manuee.— The composition of Dr. Jeannel's artificial . manure for pot plants, as detailed to the Central Horticultural Society of France, is as follows: — Nitrate of ammonia, 400 grammes (a gramme = 15 grains); phosphate of ammonia, 200 grammes ; ni- trate of potash, 250 grammes; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 50 gram- mes ; sulphate of lime, 60 grammes ; and sulphate of iron, 40 gram- mes. One gramme or 15 grains of this mixture is dissolved in a litre of -svater, and used once or twice a week. FARMEKS RECEIPTS. f>9 EQUIVALEIS'T FeKTILIZIJ^G PsorERTIES OF YAr.IOUS MA^"URES.- 1 lb. guauo equals 'c8 lbs. cow mauure, 33 farm yard do., 22 swiue do. 21 horse, 14 human. Seeb Oats. — Place j'our oats in a heap at the leeward end of the threshmg lloor on a day when a gentle breeze is blowing through ths barn. Take a common wooden flour-scoop and throw the oats againsfi the wind, towards the other end of the floor. A few minutes' experi- ence will enable you to throv/ them so that they will fall in a semi- circle at a nearly uniform distance from where you stand, the oats which fall farthest arc the best for seed, and are to be carefully swept together as fast as they accumulate m sufiicient quantities. fcsEED Wheat should not only be thoroughly cleaned from the Eceds of weeds, but small grains should be taken out with a separator or suitable faiming mill, leaving only the largest, plumpest, and ear- liest rii)ened kernels. To prevent smut, soak the seed wheat in brine, and then dust it with imslacked lime; tliis will prove a perfect preven- tive. To PiiODUCE THE Peak in Perfection. — Pears are liable to crack when the trees stand in soil deficient in lime and potash. These es- sential elements are restored to exhausted soil by the application of wood ashes at the rate of 400 bushels to the acre, which ensures the renewal of the proper proportions necessary to supply the require- ments, viz., dOper^cc-nt. of potash and 30 per cent, of lime. This will check the cracking of the fruit. Tested. Applied to the roots of the trees and vegetables, 12 qts. of soot mixed with 1 hogshead of water, is a most powerful stimulant of growth and production. A paint of soot and sweet milk applied to fruit trees will keep rabbits off. Salt and its Uses. — Salt appears to be as necessary for vegetable life as it is to animal life. Applied in combination with other manures at the rate of 2 cwt. to the acre, it never fails to produce wonderful results on all kinds of grain and vegetable j)roductions, and the vor- acity shown by animals for salted hay is well known. To Kill the Potato Bug. — Mix 1 lb. Paris green with 10 lbs. poor flour or fine wliithig. To use, take a circular piece of wood 4 or 5 inches in diameter (it may be cut out of a 2 inch plank), insert a mop handle in the centre, tack on an old tin can with one end removed for the reception of the block, punch the other end with holes through which to sift the compound on the hills as you pass along the rows, and bore a hole in the wooden end for the reception of the mixture, and fit a plug to secure it. The comi)ound shpuid be sifted on the bills while the vines are V\'et with dew or rain. The Striped Bug on Cucumbers and Melons may be destroyed, 1st, By sifting charcoal dust over the plants 3 or 4 times in successioa 2nd, Use a solution of 1 peck of henhouse manure to 1^ gals, water, and sprinkle the plants freely with it alter sunset. Chinch-bvgs.— Place any old rags in the crotches of the trees. The worms will take refuge and spin in the old rags, when the latter may be thrown in boil- ing water. Caterpillars. — Use a solution of 1 part in 500 of sulphide oi pctasrjum, sprinkle on the tree by means of a hand syrmge. Curculio. — Make a very strong solution of water and gas tar, so that aftei standing 48 hours it will be powerf ul and dark colored like creosotr. On the appearance of the curculio, drench the tree thoroughly Avith a hand-forcing jjump, repeating it every 3 daj's for 2 weeks, and de- stroy all fallen fruit. J 60 farmers' receipts. To Rkmevk Ciiokkd Cattle.— In cliokin!^, tho .iccumulation of gas (chiefly sulphuretted hydro^jen) is the ciiuse of the Jinimarfi death. Tliis gas can be dccouiposed by forcing? a strong sohition of ealt and water down tlie uninial's tliroat ; or, force tho beast to jump over the bars of a gate or fence. When she touches tlie ground on tho opposite side, the obstruction ^ill be ejected. Another Avay is to use four or five feet of ^-iuch ruljbcr hose, and push the obstruction down. Faurow Cows. — Feed them liberally, and they will give rich milk, though perhaps but little of it. Let them have three or four quaits of meal per day through the winter and spring, and do not stop giv- ing it wlien the grass comes. As soon as it dries them up, they will be fit for the butcher. To Cook Food fou Cattle.— 7b Coo/c J/a?/.— Cut it, wet it well, put it in an upright tank or cask, with a false bottom and tiglit cover, press it down firmly, and pass the steam in under the false cover. To Cook Corn. — Scale as many barrels, half full, as you wish to cook from 15 to 21 hours ; turn on steam and cook until done, and the barrels will be fall. To Make Mash. — Fill as many barrels, half full of water, as you wish to make barrels of mush ; bring the water nearly to a boil by passing the steam to the bottom ; stir into each barrel from 1\ to if bushels of meal until well mixed ; then cook until done, when the barrels should be full. To Cook Vegetables. — Fill the barrels full, and, if no other cover is at hand, chop the top fine Avith a shovel ; then cover them up with meal or proven- der, and cook until done ; have holes in the bottom of the barrel"? to carry off condensed steam. To Fatten Sheep, — Sheep will fatten readily on good clover-hay alone, if the hay has been cut in full bloom, so as to retain all itg juices before they are turned into woody fibre, and of a good green color. A sheep of, say 120 lbs, live-weight, will consume 21 lbs, of clover-hay per week, and increase in weight 2 lbs. Allowing that it would ordinarily take 14 lbs. to keep it in good stationary condi- tion, an expenditure of 7 lbs, of hay extra wiU produce 1^ lbs. of mutton, worth in the spring 10 cents, — perhaps more, — so that the hay is literally realizing to the farmer at the rate of $30 or more to the ton. No other stock, we think, will give a return for the trouble of fattening like this. To fatten sheep more rapidly, the daily addition of a, small quantity of oats to their feed will pro- duce good effects. Keep their quarters dry, well-ventilated, and abundantly littered with clean straw, with freedom of access to good water, and an occasional taste of salt. The health of sheep during the grazing season will be promoted by giving the sheep tar at the rate of a gill a day for every 20 sheep ; and, if given pine boughs once or twice a week, they will create appetite, prevent disease, and increase their health. The best sheep to keep, both for wool and mut- ton, is the American Merino. Hay Racks for Sheep, — The cheapest and best rack for sheep can be made of 8 boards, 4 long and 4 short ones, nailed to 4 posts, forming an enclosure 12 or more feet long, as the case may be, and 32 inches wide. The bottom board should be at least 10 inches wide, and the top one need not be over 4, with a space be- tween of from G to 8 inches, depending somewhat, upon the size of tho sheep that are to eat, with their heads through this aperture. ON BEE KEEPING. 61 CojrsTRucTiOK OF Bee Hives. — Few departments of economy and use are more productive of utility, X)rofit, and real pleasure than tlio intelligent management of the hon- ey hee, but perhaps no other sub- ject is less understood by the enor- mous masses of the vast populatiou who in every grade of society, might bo benefited by a correct knowledge of the subject. In order to manage bees with profit it is ne- cessary to discard the old method of suffocation with, sulphur, the old barrels, liollow logs, straw hives, boxes, &c., of the past, and keep abreast with the new discoveries of the age. All that is required for success is to plan well, and always work in harmony with, and never against, the heaven derived instincts which guide tho marvellous operation of this " wonderful insect. Fore- most among the appliances which benefit man and fa- cilitate the labors of tho bees we would mention tho American Blovable Comb Hive, cuts of which are pre- sented herewith. Directions for mcJcinj ilia American llive. — The bot- tom board is ISJ inchc? v. ide, 18 inches long and 1:^ inches thick. The front and back are 14| inches wido and 19^ inches long. Tho 8x10 observation door in the back, is cut out with buzz-saw, 3 inches from the bottom, and thin strios f in. wide aro tacked on the sides and top of the opening even with the outer edgo to leave an | in. rabbet on the inside for the glass. The door is fin- ished by nailing an incli clamp on end and side, beveled and hung to the clamp above. Both front and back have a rabbet for the frames on the inside, across the top 4^ in. wide and f in. deep, and the samo extend down the edge i in. wide, against which the moveable side i3 to fit. The clamp is nailed on the front 7^ in. up from the bottom, and the 1| in. fly holes are bored 3 ins. from centre to centre just above it. The stationary side with the IJ in. clamp on the upper end is 19j jns. long and 15 ins._wide. A part of the front is cut off 3 ins. from C2 ON BEE KEEPING. the bottom, to Tc'ithin 1(| in. of tho cclffo ncrct to thomovablo side, and tlio last surface is left beveling out to make the entrance block C, easy of removal, •which is 12;^ ins. long, to tho beveled point, and 2 ins. wide, and beveled each side and between the 1^^ pillars, 1^ inn. np on the outside, and g in. upon the inside, and the" edges roundo(l o£C to leave a bee passage [j- oi an in. high. — (See entrance block in tho fiist cut.) The block is held in placo by tho baso of tho samo button that holds the entrance slide, B. The entrance slide 13 is Ifj ins. v,^idc, 15 ins. long, and g in. thick, having 2 notches g in. high and lin. long, cut to fit the pillars, C, vv^hcn closing tho hive. A movable side to fit over the open part of tho hive, (an shown ■wide open in cut) secured by clamps, is IC^ins. long, and 14 ins. wido sit the top and ^ less at the bottom to make it easy to remove. Before nailing tho body of the hive together, nail a clamp 3 ins. vide and 12§ ins. long on tho under side of the bottom board, crosG- \7isQ to prevent it from warping. Use wrought nails and drive thcia through upon a heavy iron to clinch them, and nail the clamps on tho front and back in the same manner. Tastcn the bottom board iix a, vice and nail tho back on tho bevelled end just even with tho lower part of the observation door, and iiso tvio or three long brad nails near the edge nes^ to tho moveable side. Next nail on tho stationary side firmly to tho back and bottom board, especially at tho Iront edge, then to the front having the movable side in place. Nail the clamp on the npper end of the stationary side, nailing through tho ends into the front and back. Next, nail tho strip under tho bottom board next the moveable side, which is 14 ins. long by 2-^- ins. wide at the back end, and rmis to a point at the other end. Nail tho 11 in. clamps on the ends of the movablo side, when the two hooka and metallic buttons are screwed on tho edge of the front and bacic after painting. When finished the movablo side is^ in. shorter than the front and back, to avoid killing bees that may be on tlie stand when closing the hive. The adjustable bevelled strips rest upon tho frame rabbets next the stationary side, and holds the frames over against the movable side. _ _ There are nine of tho movable comb" frames'," and all are mado alike. The bees pass up into tho honey boxes through slots or mor- tises. Each of the two slots in the projecting edge of tho top bars, i3 in. wide and 2 ins. long. The side bars are 7-lGtli of an inch thick, 12 i"n . long and § wide being sawed from lumber that thickncsis. The top bars lack -| in. of 14 in. in length, and lack 1-lGth of an inch of IJins.in j width. They are sawed 7-IGtli of an inch thick from a plank which should be exactly the right thickness for their width. I The Improved Comb Guide, which the bees invariably follow, ia 'constructed in a manner that secures straight combs. A groove is " made in the centre of the lower side of the top bar, into which is in- serted a thin strip of wood having its lower edge coated with been- wax. The projecting nails in the side bars to keep the frames apart should have large heads and be driven through a hole in an iron or hard piece of wood, 9-16th of an inch thick. The frames areheldfrom the walls of the hive by a triangular strip across the front, 5-16 th in thick, and the one on the back is not nailed on until the glass is in, when it is dressed to give tho frames J- in. piay between tho triau- gnlar strips. ~ ON BEE KEEPING. 63 Tho tops and bottoixis of the 12 small honey boxes are 4^ x GJ ins, raid about J in. thick. A slot 1^ x 3 ins. is cut across the tops and ■bottoms of all except the tops of six of tho first set of boxes. The four comer posts are if in. square and 5 ins. long. Tho end glass 4 x 5 and side glass 5 x G ins. are held in place by a two prong narrov/- strip of thi through the comer of the posts and the prongs bent each ■way over the ghiss. The end pieces of the caps are 15^ ins long, 8 J ins. wide at theendr? and 102 ills, wide in tho centre, each having a 1;} in. hole, covered witli wire cloth on the inside. The side pieces are 17 ins. long and 8^ wide the upper edge sawed beveling to fit the roof boards. The roof boards are 20^ ins. long, and each 11 ins. -wide, with the tipper edge beveled to fit, and the lower edge leveled to ntand plumb. A 1\ inch half round is nailed on the top to cover the joint. In painting, give the hives one coat of white and when dry, putty and paint the second coat ; and while the paint is fresh, clo.i:d, with the hive hanging upon aboard projecting from the shop wall, G feet from the floor, by passing beneath it a lighted coal oil lamp vrith a small round wick. Y/hcii the paint is dry screw on the hooks and buttons, giving each a tap that it may fit the movable side more closely. By consulting the Pcimfe?'s Department, beginning at page 1C3, tho reader will find an immense number of formula for compounding ' paints of every description at the lowest cost. Many of these will bo admirably adapted for painting bee-hives in a beautiful and inex- IDCnsive stylo. > Tho lumber used should bo thoroughly seasoned, and, after both sides are dressed, it should be, for the body of the hive, § in. thick. In the cut, the bottom board, projects in front of the hive, making a convenient alighting board, and being inclined, is kept clean by tho bees during the worlnng season, By removing the entrance block, C, a large opening is made for brushing out litter in the winter ot early spring, and for hiving new swarms. By tho use of the g-malL slide, B. held in place by the same button, the entrance can be con- tracted, if necessary, to the admission of a single bee, thus eHectual- ly guarding a weak swarm from robbery, and the entrance may bo closed entirely by making notches d, in the slide correspond with the pillars. By means of the movable side and the observation door at the back of the hive every facility is furnished for obtaining ho- nej', observing progress, removing or adding frames to strengthen weak stock, transferring, &c., &c.,without injuring the combs or irri- tating the bees, and the honey boxes on tho top may be removed or added at will. V Another hive of intrinsic excellence Is called the Climax, and Filll another, the American, with Climax improvements, see cuts. Tho Climax is made in two parts. The upper part, which contains tho boxes (or frame) is'provided with common trunk rollers, and rests on cleats, secured to the lower parts of the hive. These cleats extend far enough beyond the hive to allow the upper to roll off from tho lower without crushing, dis-turhing or in any way interfevinrj witli the labors of the bees. The strips formnng the track, have drcx^) legs at their outer ends, and are hinged just outside the body of theliivo, and when not in use, fold up snugly against the hive. Tho bottom board of tho upper part answers every purpose of a honey board. CA ON BEE KEEriN<5. Ifc is provided witlx two tjlots to admit tlio bee;; ; each slot is provided witli ii zinc strip ou tlio uudcr-sido, couiiccted by a wire with a liaa- THE CLIMAX BEE HTVU a:j:ericai^ bee hive ■with climax impkoyemsint. dlo oil llie outside. By thig simple contrivance, all communicatioji .between the two parts of the hive may be instantly cut off, and divi- diuj? or any other operation i)erformed without difficulty. The bottom board of the lower part is made of plank IJ ins, thiclc; and is beveled from the centre to each end, and projects far enough in front and rear t^ form alighting boards. Along the summit of the bottom board is nailed a triangular strip notched on the upper- edge, CorresTDonding notches are' made in the centre of the lower edges of the bottom bars of the frames. Then notches are cut bevel- ling, so that the frames are easily inserted or withdrawn, but when in place, are i'mmovahle,and will not shake or jostle, no matter how the liive is turned. Then there is a central rest for the frames, which renders them entirely independent of each other, and of the walls of the hive. The well kuowii propensity of bees to rlno every thing to ON BEE KEEPING, 65 gether that tliey can is thus anticipated and prevented, while at the 8ame time a free passage all around, between, above and below tho frames, is afforded. The lower part has two entrances on opposite Bides, and the bottom board slanting each way is easily kept clean. By removiagthe entrance block, complete ventilation is effected, and for surplus honey in the comb, twenty-four small frames above, each 5x6 and 2 ins. wide are used. Six of these frames are placed together, top and sides close fitting, and a pane of glass, 5x6 inches, placed at each end. A strip of tough paper, about 2 ins. wide, is then glued to each Bide and turned around on the glass, which holds them firmly in. place. Twelve frames thus made into tioosurplus boxes, just cover tho top, and another tier, above this, furnish room for 50 lbs of honey, in the best shape for market or home use, the cost of these frame boxes being less than half that of the common glass boxes. Another important auxiliary to the apiculturist will be foimd in the Honey Extractor, represented herewith. This is a geared ma- chine made of metal, or other suitable material, fitted with an HONEY EXTRACTORS. interior arrangement for receiving the movable frames containmg the comb and honey from the hive. The centrifugal force generat- ed by the rapid rotary motion of the frame causes the honey to fly in every direction against the inner side of the machine, and flow- down into the vessel beneath. The frame and perfect comb, minus the honey, is then returned to the hive to be again filled with honey. This operation may be repeated with the same comb for twelve or fifteen years, if req^ed and the value of the device may be imma- 66 ON liKE KKI<:riNC4. gincd whcu it is known that each pound of the comb, bo far as the labor of the bees is conccnicd, i.s eciuivaleiit or equal to the collec- tion of twenty pounds of honey, Tlic knife rej)rescnted herewith is used for uncapping honey for extracting. As the utility of the preceding remarks will bo greatly enhanced by additional information regarding bees, wo herewith append the fol- lowing excellent representations of the tenants of the liivo, togethor with practical instructions for profitable mauagcmeut. QUEEN* DRONE. BLACK •WORKER. ITAL. WORKER. The Italian bees are becoming great farorites wherever they have been introduced, and are rapidljr supplanting the black bees. They are credited with being very industrious workers, making three flights for every two made by the black bees, and storing much more than double the honey, besides being more prolific, as is evidenced by their more frequent swarming. Besides, the Italian bee is very- hardy, working earlier and later in the season and gatheruig honey from sources not frequented by the common bee. Useful Hints tor Beginners.— 1. Work quietly; avoid sudden jars ; never fight your bees, and always Jceep cool. 2. If you get stung, remove the sting, squeeze out all the poison you can, and ap- ply hartshorn. 3. Use plenty of smoke ; a roll of dry rags or decay- ed wood makes the best ; blow in the entrance and at the top of frames. If you are timid, use rubber gloves on your hands, and, a. veil over the face and head ; the veil must be long enough to allow the vest or coat to be put on over it. 4. When j)asture first becomes plenty in the spring is a good time to transfer bees. Always work among the hives during the middle of the day, when the bees aro busy. 5. Stocks without eggs or young brood in June, must bo queenless and should be supplied with a queen or queen cell, or they will dwindle away and perish either by robbers or moth. 6. When symptoms of robbing occur, use the utmost caution. Contract the entrance of weak hives, and allow" no comb, honey, sugar or syrup to be around. Avoid opening hives as much as possible. 7. Avoid an excess of drone comb by the presence of a queen in swarms where combs are to be constructed. As swarms having young queens sel- dom swarm that year, less drone comb is built in swarms having young queens. 8. Qniet is essentially necessary to the well-being of an apiary. Do not place it near Mills, Steam Works, or Manufac- tories of any kind. If possible have it in view from the •windows of ON BEE KEEPING. 67 the family room, ns much extra trouble may bo avoided, 9. As natural talent or business tact, is requisite, with education to success in business, so a careful turn of mind and a love for the business, with an understanding of the subject, is necessary to success in bee- keeping. 10. Put on honey boxes partly filled with comb as soon as the lower part of the hive is well filled with honey and bees, and v/hen they are gathering honey plentifully; commence with only ono or two boxes at a time on the most populous stocks. 11. In transfer- ring combs always give those the preference that contain worker DRONE AND WORKEK COMB. brood. Put brood comb near the centre of the hive in the order in which they were in the box hive. Do your transferring where rob- bers cannot possibly be attracted, 12. Avoid weak swarms, as they gather but little honey, breed slowly, and are in danger of destruc- tion by robbers, the moth, or eeverity of winter, "Weak swarma should always be united in the fall, and should never be made by dividing early in the season. 13. Whenever j^ou notice the bees run- ning about the entrance in the evening in a disturbed condition, mark that hive and notice it the next evening. If the bees run about smelling each other, it is a sign they have lost their queen and should receive attention. 14. In establishing an apiary, select a gentle slope to the south-east; face the hives in the same direction, if possible have running water near ; shade and protection from winds and the heat of the sun are important. Set every hive as perpendi- cular as a clock — for a stand, take two short pieces of 4 x 6 scantling and lay or nail on a board. 15. To make queen ca^jes, cut wire cloth. ON BEE KEEriNG. 3x4 inches; pull out t-^vo or tlirco trauBVCiso wires from ono of tho 3 inch edges, and insert tlio projecting ends tluis left in tlie corres- ponding meshes of tlio otlier tlireo inch edge, and fasten them ; stop ono cud with a cork or Avood. Wlien yon wisli to introduce a queen, put her in tho cage and sto]} tlic other end with wax. IG. A. lew inclies of drono comb is amply abundant for any hivo, as drones consume a great deal of honey and gather none. Tho movable frame hivo renders any preventive operation very easy : tho cut will enable the beginner to identify the drone by the largo cells. 17. In the Northern States and British Provinces, ex])erimcnts demonstrated that bees Avintered in the open air have consumed about 45 lbs. of honey per hive, whilo. bees wintered in tho ceilar COMB SHOWING BBOQD AND QUEEN CELIi. dnring the same period consumed on an average only 5 Ihs each In another case 6 hives wintered out of doors lost an average of 29^ lbs, in Aveight each, during 3 months, while 20 hives in the cellar lost only 5| lbs, each, during the same time. Do not place them in the cellar until the severe weather begins ; giA^e them plenty of upward ventilation in order to pass off the vapor generated from the bees ; place the hives in rows on shelves, keep them in a clean dark place, ON BEE KEEPING but not in a damp or badly ventilated cellar, for that is ceitain death to bees, and keep wire cloth tacked over the entrance to each hive ; if a dry; absorbent material such as cut straw or shavings, can be placed in the upper part of the hive to receive and absorb the un- healthy emanations from the bees, all the better ; in out door wintering especially, this is a most desirable plan, as it retains the heat while it absorbs the effluvia. 18, Bees wintered on their summer stands should always be allowed from 30 to 50 lbs, of honey to each colony and extra protection around the hive if the cold is very intense. 19. When eggs are deposited by the queen in the cells prepared by the workers. In 3 days they hatch into small worms which are nuitured and fed , until about the eighth day the larvae become n^nil t . r.nd are sealed up in their cells to reappear as perfect bees. The queen bee emerges in from 10 to 17 days, the drone in 24, and the workers in 21 days from the egg. The cut illustrates a comb showing brood and queen'cell but the artist has not succeeded very well in representing the royal form with w hich nature has endowed her majesty. In from '6 to 5 days after emerging, the queen leaves the hive to meet the drones ill the air, for fertilization. She never leaves the hive at any other times except when she goes with a swarm, and one copulation is all sufllcient to ensure fertility for life. Under favorable circumstances she wOl deposit 3000 eggs' per day. 20. In introducing an Italian queen to a colony of common bees, enclose her in a wire cloth cage and insert the cage in the centre of a comb where the bees will cluster upon it. In 36 hours release the queen, smear her with honey, and allow her to crawl down among the bees. 21. When bees are short of honey a good and cheap food may be provided by using good coffee sugar, 4 lbs, added to water, 1 qt., bring to a boil, skim and allow it to cool. 22. Another. Take of the best quality of brown sugar, two parts by measure, to one part of pure soft water ; boil and skim it ; then to cveiy quart of the mixture, add one even teaspoonful of the best cream tartar ; dissolve the cream tartar before putting it in. Remiove the empty comb with the frame from the hive fill them by allowing the syrup to drain through a proper strainer into the cells, and then return the frames to the hive. With box hives, use some good feeder era dish of proper size to set under the cap on the top of the hive ; fill the dish with the syrup, and throw cn fine shavings or cut straw, to prevent the bees from falling into it. 23. The best substitute for bee bread or natural pollen is rye flour unbolted. In the absence of rye, use other flour. 24. The damp air may be drawn from a cellar in which bees are being wintered by connecting the cellar and your stove pipe by means of a 2 inch tin pipe passing up through the floor. 25. In hiving bees, use diluted honey or white sugar syrup, damp the inside of your hive and gently sprinkle the bees with the liquid ; it will render them so happy that you may handle them as you please. Surplus Honey Stored in Boxes.—" Those having bees in common hives, and who wish their surplus honey stored in boxes, will obtain the greatest amount and avoid many disappointments by attending to the following conditions : 1. The boxes should be tight and large, but not over four or five inches high, find protected from the changes of the weather by an outer cap. 2. The bees should be induced to commence in them by attaching pieces of clean empty combs to the under side 6t the top, and placing the boxes directly 70 ON BEE KEEPING. over tho breeding apartment, with largo openings under each box to admit the bees. 3. Early in the Reason sclcet a few populous stocks, givin|2f a box to each, aiid when the bees have commenced in them, give boxes to tlie next strongest, being careful not to give too mucli room until a start has been made. 4. Keep tlio hives cool by sliad- ing from the sun, and if tho bees cluster outside, Avhen llowcrs aro plenty, ventilate by enlarging the entrances and giving more room in tho boxes if needed. After a populous stock has nearly filled it;} boxes it will often take long enough time to finish them, to havo half fdled empty ones, besides the difficulty so often experienced iu getting the bees to commence in tho boxes after those first filled aro removed, which objections aro both overcome in the American hive, described in the article on hives." Bee-Keepers' Text Book. Hatching and Ferxilization ot? Queens.— "In about eight days after the old queen leaves with the first swarm, the most advan- ced sealed queen is ready to emerge. During this time the old stock is without a hatched queen, the young queen immediately upon leav- ing her cell, if not restrained by the workers, commences the work of destruction upon her yet imprisoned sisters. She accomplishes thia by biting open the side of each cell near its base, and dispatching tho unfortunate inmate with her sting. She is yet incompetent for tho raaterual duty, and must leave the hive to meet the drones in the air for the purpose of fertilization. This once accomplished, the work- ers, awaiting her safe return, greet her with a reverence and affec- tion never shovra before. They hasten to prepare the cells to receivo her tiny eggs, and seem to realize that on her existence the perpetua- tion of the family depends. There is also a perceptible change in tho queen's form, her abdomen being a little swollen and somewhat lengthened, but not as much as at the height of the breeding sea- son. She now remains the fruitful mother of the proeperous and happy colony," Bee-Keepers' Text Book. 1 To Prevent new Swarms from leaatno their Hives. — *' Natural swarms occasionally refuse to stay after having been hived, usually in consequence of heat or strong odor about the hive. In nucleus swarming this seldom or never happens, because the bees are never without a comb containing brood and honey ; and they ■will not leave voluntarily. Therefore when hiving a swarm in a moveable comb hive, go to any stock that can spare a comb contain- ing brood and honey. Brush back the bees, being careful not to remove the queen or any queen-cells with comb, and place it ui tho hive that is to receive the new swarm. It will not only prevent tho bees from decamping but will greatly encourage them, and should bad weather confine them to the hive they will be secure from star- vation. If the swarm is put in a common hive, place over them a box of honey taken from the parent stock." Bee-Keepers' Text Book. The Nucleus System of Swarming.—" The introduction of a mature fertile queen to a colony tioo loeeks sooner than when they swarm naturally is an advantage sufficient to pay for the extra trouble. The time cjained in breeding is equivalent to a swarm. M. QUINEY. In swarming bees on this system, we first rear a queen in a small cluster nucleus of bees, allowing the nucleus hive to remam in its place until tho queen becomes fertile, when ^Y0 swarm the bees by ON BEE KEEPING. 71 simply causing tlio two hives to exchange places. Unlike natural swarming, the old queen remains in tlie parent stock and its labors go on scarcely mterrupted. Tlie system is based upon the well known law, that bees, after luxuriating upon the flowers, will return to tho exact spot of their old habitation. Form a nucleus from an Italian or other populous stock by blowing a few whiffs of smoke into the en- trance aud opening the liive ; select a frame of comb containing cap' ped brood, but especially plenty of eggs and young larvjB. After looking this over carefully, lest the old queen be removed, place it with its adhering bees in the empty hive, and next to it another comb containing honey, which will afford protection to the brood and food for the hees. As many of the old bees will return to the parent stock, give tho nucleus hive at least a quart of bees and set it on a new stand two or tlireo rods distant. Contract tho entrance so that but one or two bees can pass at tho same time, and set a feed pan on tho frames, or a sponge filled with sweet- ened water will supply their v/ants until the young bees go to work intlieir new location. In place of the combs removed from tho parent-stock, set in empty frames with a full one between. If tho frames are put near the centre, the old stock will increase all the faster, as tho queen will fill the new comb with eggs as fast as it is built. The removal of tho two combs stimulates the bees to great activity by giving them room to work, and detaches just bees enough to prevent their clustering idly about the entrance. The nucleus will construct queen-cells and rear a queen as -well as a wholo swarm. Besides, tho qneen is easily found among so few bees. Wo now wait until the tenth or eleventh day, from the time the nucleus was formed, Avhen we open it, and witk a sharp thin bladed knife, cut out all the queen-cells but one and use them immediately in forming other nucleus, by attachmg one of them to a frame of comb and beos taken from an old stock, as before described, and placed in an empty hiva In transferring queen-cells great care must be taken not to press or dent them, or expose them long to the hot sun or cool air for fear of destroying the royal occupants. The beginners should re- move but one at a time, returning the frame from which it is taken to its place in the hive until the royal cell is adjusted in its new loca- tion. When practicable have about an inch square of comb attached to the cell, and upon taking the comb or brood from the old stock, make an opening among the eggs and larvje where bees will be sure to cluster upon it and keep it warm, and carefully in- sert it as shown in figure, leaving an open space below it. If the first nucleus was formed from the only Italian stock in the yard, and more queen-cells are wanted, remove every queen- cell from it, and add another comb of eggs aud brood from its parent 72 ON BEE-KEEPINO. itock. Buo when no more queen-cells are needed, leave one to hatch and as by this tiino the brood will all be capped over, the bees will be liable to follow the young queen on her excursions to meet the dronea. To prevent tliis, exchange one of tlie combs for one containing egga and young larvie. When forming the other nucleus, young quceiig will return unless lost by birds or other casualties, to which all queens are once exposed. Such loss is easily ascertained among so few beos, and we have only to insert another queen-cell, adding a comb contain- ing eggs and brood and repeat the trial. Should the parent stock be very populous it may be swarmed by taking a queen from the nucleus belonging to a less populous stock, and another queen reared there. When and Jiow to tSioarm the Bees. — Every populous stock, from which a nucleus has been formed, should be swarmed, if the weather is favorable, as soon as the queen in the nucleus has become fertile, This is, usually, in from six to ten days after inserting the queen-cell, and is readily determined by examining the combs for eggs. We now, unless the yield of honey is very abundant, confine the young queen in a gauze wire cage. Having filled up the nucleus hives with empty frames, exchange the places of the two hives, bringing the entrance of the nucleus hive where the old stock has stood, and where the mass of the old bees will return from the fields, thus throwing out of the old stock swarms of workers into the nucleus hive while the old bees from the nucleus will enter the old hive and minister to the wants of the numerous brood of the parent stock. The bees must not be swarm- ed between the hatching and the fertilization of the queen, and should they be swarmed when the honey harvest has received a check from a storm or drought, the bees thus empty of honey and consequently more quarrelsome, being suddenly thrown into the presence of a strange queen (although of the same scent) are inclined to sting her. To prevent this she is caged for thirty-six hours, when the bees from the old stock will mostly have joined the nucleus colony and she may be safely liberated. But, if she was taken from another nucleus, we sometimes let her remain caged a day longer, or smear her well with ^arm honey, and drop her in among the bees. They immediately Commence licking up the honey, and forget to sting her. If from any cause the stocks are swarmed when the bees are working but little, and after three or four days the nucleus swarm be found deficient in bees, it may be strengthened by exchanging some of its empty frames for frames of capped brood from the parent stock, or should the flowers yield bountifully within a week, the location of the two hives may again be exchanged. The bees will not quarrel as they are of the eame scent. Unless a nucleus has been formed several weeks, or when honey is scarce, it is sometimes necessary to treat both stocks, especi- ally the old one, to tobacco smoke. This precaution, however, is only for the inexperienced, since, in the midst of the swarming season, when the flowers are in profusion, little protection is needed either foi the queen or the operator. Hens Made to Protect Bees. — A bee raiser has patented an in- vention for the protection of bees from the attacks of the honey moth, which enters the hives at night, and rifles the stores. The idea arose out of his familiarity with the daily routine, not of bees only, but of hens. Hens, he observed, retire to rest early; but bees seek repose earlier still ; no sooner are they sunk into slumber, than the moth steals into their abode and devours the produce of their toil. He haf ON BEE-KEEPING. 7S now built a stand of hives with a hen house connected. The bees first betake themselves to their dwelling and settle themselves for the night. The hens then come home to roost on their perch, and as they take their places upon it, their weight sets some simple mechanicism to work, which at once shuts down the doors of all the hives. When the day dawns, however, the hens leave their roost, and the removal of their weight from the perch raises the hive doors, and gives egress to the bees in time for their morning's work. ExPiiANATiOK OF THE ABOVE CuTS.— -The cut A represents brood in various stages from eggs and larvjB in the lower part of the comb to brood capped at e, and just emerging at/; n,is a queen-cell, just commenced at from larvse ; 6, a perfect queen-cell capped over ; a, a cell from which the queen has just emerged. B represents queen- cells destroyed ; C unimpregnated queen; D fertile queen; E male moth or miller; F female miller. To Kilij Bee Moths. — Bee moths can easily be killed by setting a pan of grease on which is placed a floating lighted wick, near the hives after dark : the light will attract the moths in large numbera, when they will be destroyed by falling into the grease. Many persons are deriving substantial yearly licomes amounting to thousands of dollars from bee-keeping, and it is credibly reported that the late Mr. Quimby left property valued at $100,000, all derived from this source alone. Mr. Quimby wrote that the honey gathered by bees compared with what was lost for the lack of bees to gather it, was but as 1 compared with 1,000, so that it seems as if a careful per- son, engaged in bee-keeping, and thoroug'^lly equipped with all mod- em appliances for the business, possesses, as old honest Sam Johnson 74 BEE-KEEPING, &C. once expressed himself rcgfirding a different subject, "The potential- ity of growing rich beyond the dreams of avarice," and what is oi still greater importance, the pleasure derived from the business is al- most inelfable in comparison with the satisfaction of being rich. Limited space forbids the farther consideration of this attractive subject in this place, and the author would conclude by expressing his sincere obhgations to the editor of the " Bee-Keeper's Magazine" for according permission to make extracts from the varied contents of an excellent little manual called the "Bee-Keeper's Text Boole," and Other reliable sources of information. For the benefit of parties de- siring further light on this fascinating topic, he would state that tlio " Bee-Keeper's Magazine " v/ili fill the entire bill of their require- ments. It is a first rate illustrated monthly journal of 32 octavo pages, devoted exclusively to Bee-Culture, edited by Albert J. King, con- taining monthly contributions from Mrs. E. S. Tupper, and other eminent writers and bee-keepers in both Europe and America. A large space is devoted to Beginners, giving useful information, jrist when it is needed, throughout the year. Terms 4^1.50 per year. Tho proprietors will send the Magazine four months on trial, and include a 04 page pamphlet (price 50 cents), containing a beautiful life-like chromo of Honey-Plants and Italian Bees in their natural colors ; Prize Essay by Mrs. Tupper ; Queen Rearing by M. Quimby ; instruc- tions for beginners, &c., all for 50 cents. Address, King & Slocum, CI Hudson street, New York. Food for Mocking Birds. — Mix well together corn meal, pea meal (made by drying split peas in an oven and then grinding them in a mill), each one part, moss meal, prepared from the moss seed imported from Germany, ^ part, add sufflcient melted lard not to make it too fat or greasy, and sweeten with molasses . Fry the mixture in a frying-pan for ^ an hour, stirring it ail the time, to avoid burning. Mocking, and other birds of like nature, will leave all other food for this. FOR LUMBERMEN", BUILDERS, CONTRACTORS, MILL OWNERS, SHIP BUILDERS, SHIP OWNERS, l^AVIGATORS, QUARRYMEN, STON^E CUTTERS, MERCHANTS, AND BUSINESSMEN GENERALLY. To Prevent wood froivi Cracking. — Place the wood in a bath 'of fused parafflne heated to 212*^ Fahr. and allow it to remain as long as bubbles of air are given off. Then allow the parafflne to cool down to its point of congelation, and remove the wood and wipe off tho adhering wax : wood treated in this way is not likely to crack. To Bend Wood. — Wood enclosed in a close chamber and submitted to the action of steam for a limited time will be rendered so pliant that it may be bent in almost any direction. The same process win also eliminate the sap from the wood and promote rapid seasoning. Fire Proofing for Wood. — Alum, 3 parts; green vitriol, 1 part; make a strong hot solution with water, make another weak solutioi: with green vitriol in which i)ipe clay has been mixed to the consis- tence of a paint. Apply two coats of the first, dry, and then finish witli one ooat of the last. lumbermen's camp. 75 LUMBERMAN'S SHANTY OR CAMP. Many of the honest farmers and sturdy lumbermen of the North- ern States, Canada and New Brunswick, will be at no loss to under- stand the uses of the humble mansion represented in the cut, and many a forest wanderer and weary hunter will identify the modest habitation as the counterpart of another where he has been refreshed by the substantial meal, and invigorated by the peaceful slumber en- joyed under the hospitable roof. However poor the lumberman may be, however numerous his trials and privations, and we are soriy to say they are not few in number, this we will say, that whether you are known or unknown, rich or poor, whether you are bent on businesa or pleasure, in the lumber camp you are always made to feel at home; *6 CUTTING LOGS, AC. the "best in the house" is at your service, ancl liospitality is dis penscd with a princely generosity. Under such circiiinst'inces it is wiadom to accept and folly to refuse the proffered beneficence, and many can attest that they 'have enjoyed these kind offices to exhaust- ed humanity with a relish (thanks to the pure oxj'gen so bountifully Bupplied to their lungs by a forest atinospliere), known to but few in the dwellings of the Avealthy, or in the sumptuous and costly hotels of the crowded city, with their bountiful aud costly bills of fare, em- bracing the best iii the market. CUTTING LOGS IN THE WESTERN PINE FORESTS. The usual time for commencing lumbering operations in New* Brujisw!:r,k and many paits of Canada, is in the faU, soon after the CUTTING LOGS, &C. 77 LOADING PINE LOGS IN THE WESTER'N FORESTS, operators, many of whom are farmers, have safely housed their crops, consisting of hay, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, &c. , and the work con- tinues with very little intermission until towards spring. It must he confessed that lumbering pursuits are not well calculated to produce, in the minds of those who follow them, a very strong bias towards scientific agriculture, the tendency being rather to produce derange- ment in that respect, but there seems to be a fascination in the busi- ness which very few who eater npou it seem able to resist, and much of the farming work is considered by many as only of secondary con- sequence compared with lumbering, being stimulated principally by the necessity arising 'for agricultural products in the lumber camps, and for family uses at home. In selecting the site for a camp, the principal object is to obtain a central position within easy reach of water, and an ample supply ol iimber adapted to the wants of the market. It is also of great con- sequence that it should be easily accessible for the purpose of trans- porting, or " portaging," as it is termed, the substantial supplies re- 78 BREAKING A JAM. BREAKING A JAM. quired by the men and horses engaged in the work, and convenient to a suitable " lauding," usually on or near a stream, where the logs are miloaded to await the breaking up of the ice, and the spring floods, which are to convey them to their destination. The work is systemati- cally conducted, every man from the boss to the cook having his post, ■but tlie labor is very severe, and taxes the utmost energies of both man and beast, some of the loads drawn by the latter being of enorm- ous bulk and weight. This kind of toil continues during the fall and winter months, only to give place in the spring to another form of labor, which is, if possible, still more arduous, and is certainly more dangerous; that of "driving" the lumber down stream. The driv- ^ ing operations are commenced by rolling the logs into the stream on the breaking up of the ice and guiding them down the current, the poor fellows being often up to the waist in cold water, and when a *' jam," or lock of the timber takes place in the stream, owing to ob- structions or barriers of any kind, the danger of "breaking" itia positively fearful, many having been killed outright, by the sudden *' shoot" taken by the liberated timber as it rushes forward, impelled -f by the surging floods in the rear. ON LUMBERINa. 79 In lumbering districts the season of active work for cutting tirabei ranges from November until towards the middle cf March; in New Brunswick much of the work performed in (jetting out, or hewing bircli timber, is done during the summer months, but the cutting and haulmg of spruce logs is the principal object of winter operations. In getting out birch timber, the tree is felled and hewn square to the largest available dimensions, and allowed to remain till sleighing sets in before being hauled to the stream for transportation. Owing to the density of birch timber much of it is lost by submergence in tho water, and for the purpose of rendering it more buoyant it is usual to indu'je floatation by forming connections with spruce logs or other tim- ber of light specific gravity. The rigorous climate of the Northern States and Canada is most favorable for the growth of hardy mer- chantable timber, such as pine, spruce, &c., but is inimical to mahog- any, box, lignumvitai and other dense tropical woods which require a warm climate. Timber grown in humid, swampy or wet localities, with the excep- tion of cedar, willow, poplar, &c., is not so firm, sound, and durable as that grown on dry and elevated situations, where the soil is largely composed of loam interspersed with sand, gravel and stones. Trees selected from the midst of tlie forest possess greater elegance of form and are usually straighter, less knotty, and more merchantable every way, than timber exposed to the ravages of storms, &c., on the con- fines adjacent to the clearings, or on hill sides and exposed places, sheltered situations being the most favorable for the growth of timber, but not so promotive of hardness as unprotected localities, A dense, dark, green color in the leaves of trees during June and July mdicates a sound, healthy growth, while the sere and yellow leaves, scanty in number, decaying branches, with spotted, streaked, logSelted and dis- eased bark, indicates defective timber. To secure timber in its best condition for long endurance, it should be cut during mid- winter, say in January or February, and during July in summer, and should be worked up as soon as possible by sawing, splitting or hewing, mto the desired dimensions. The nature of the various departments of the work is very well illustrated in the cuts presented herewith, which are engraved in the best style from exceedingly fine photographs of actual scenes in the Western forests, and therefore truthfully depict the various stages of getting out lumber, from the cutting down of the great trees, sawing them into lengths, hauling them out, and finally " landing " the logs on or near the stream, in readiness for the spring freshet to drive them to market. Though many of these streams are too shallow in summer to float an Indian in the lightest bark canoe, yet, when BWoUen by spring freshets, each one becomes a wide and deep river. litany ingenious contrivances have been constructed to procure tim- l>si from mountauis. 'A novel locomotive has been made in Califor- nia to run on the long flumes that are used to float lumber down from high elevations. The wheels fit on the edge of the sides of the flume, and at the ends of the car are paddle wheels dipping into the water, and which are turned by the swift current. By a simple anangement, this power is made to propel the locomotive up the flume, and it runs back itself. Alpnach, in Switzerland, as is well kiio^\ni; was, during war time widely noted for its famous slide, oi 80 ON LUMBERING. UNLOADING LOGS ON THE LANDING. wooden trough, containing a stream of water, in which the timber •was launched with terrific velocity from the forests on Mount Pilatua into Lake Lucerne, a distance of 8 miles. Spruce forests possess a wonderful recuperative power, it being •well known that they may be strijiped of merchantable timber dur- ing any given year, and ten years subsequently, if nothing happens, another harvest will be ready for the axe. The great bane of all for- ests is fire, and the loss resulting from this one caiise is simply incal- culable. While it is true that many forest fires are accidental, it can- not be denied that the majority are purposely set ; and, while such atrocious wickedness cannot be too severely denounced, it is equally true that owing to the privacy of the act," and consequent want of proof, the offender too frequently escapes the retribution which his enormities deserve. The recent forest fires in Michigan, Wisconsin, and other places, proved terribly destructive, and the so-called " great Miramichi fire" will be memorable for generations to come, on ac« count of the terrible destruction of human life and property of every kind effected by it. Many of the old settlers on the Miramichi have a vivid remembrance of that awful calamity, and can recount many SEASONING OP TIMBER. 81 harrowing narratives of suffering, consternation, death and hair- breadth escapes during that terrible time, vrhen the sky appeared ag one sheet of flame, emitting a universal rain of fire, which de- stroyed everything in its course, even burning the soil from the earth, rendering thousands of acres a bfirren desert to this day. A most singular case of forest-destruction occurred many years ago, as related by the Allemaine Zeitung, in which a subterranean fire, undoubtedly of volcanic origin, burnt the roots of 250 acres of forest trees at Magland, in Switzerland, which, falling, were also con* sumed ; flames also, issued near Lausanne, Seasoning and Preserving Timber. — This may be effected — Ist. By piling and completely ventilating under cover for a period of from two to five years, for thorough seasoning. 2nd. By immer sion in water for a few weeks. This improves all kinds of timber, both flat, square a}ad round. If a man wishes to season green boards quickly, let him throw them into water, — all the better if it is run- ning water, — and the sap will be withdrawn very rapidly : a short subsequent exposure to the air wlL be all that is necessary, 3rd. Fell your trees during June and July, while in full leaf, and allow them to lie until every leaf has fallen ; it is said the leaves wiU ex- haust nearly all the sap from the tree, leaving it dry in from one month to six weeks, according to the dryness or wetness of the weather. 4th. Small pieces of non-resinous wood can be seasoned perfectly by boiling four or five hours ; the process taking the sap out of the wood, which shrinks nearly one-tenth in the operation. 5th. Kiln-dnjing, is adapted only for boards and small timber ; it is lia- ble to check, crack, and otherwise mj ure the wood, unless the process is cautiously conducted. Black walnut camiot be seasoned in this way a,t all : for this wood use Process No. 1. 6th. Steaming. — This pro- cess has been adopted by some, and has proved successful in elimin- ating the sap from the wood. 7th. Kyanizing consists in the satura- ration of the wood with corrosive sublimate, — solution, 1 lb. of cJilo- ride of mercury in 4 gals, water. 8th. Burnettizing . — By this process, impregnation of the wood is effected by submitting it to an end-ways pressure of 150 lbs. to the square inch, — solution, 1 lb. of the chlo- ride to 10 gals, water. 9th, Boucheri's Process. — Impregnation is effected as in the last instance, using a pressure of 15 lbs. to the square inch, — solution, 1 lb. sulphate of copper to 12^ gals, of water. 10th. BethoV s Process. — As above, by submitting tlie wood to an end- ways pressure of 150 to 200 lbs. foer square inch, with creo- sote oil intermixed with bituminous matter, 11th. Bobbins' Process.— See full description of this process in the Mechanical Department of this work. 12th. Samuel Wood's Process, consists in vaporizing and withdrawing the sap from the wood, as described in Robbins' Process, and forcing in a solution of sulphate of iron at a pressure of 175 lbs. per square inch for thirty minutes ; then finishing with another solu- tion of carbonate of "lime. In preservmg and seasoning wood by impregnation with coal tar, creosote, etc. , it is essential that the juices of the wood should be com* pletely withdrawn and the albumen coagulated, otherwise decay will ensue. Wood treated in this way repels decay, the attacks of worms, etc., and is greatly increased in strength and resilience. Br. Feuchtwangei's process for preserving wood consists in steai». G S2 SEASONING OF TIMBER. 'jig the timber, and injectinpj n solution of silicate of soda for eight nours ; afterwards, soak wood for the same period in lime-water. George Woods, the celebrated organ manufacturer, in Cambridge- port, near Boston, has also discovered and patented a very valuable method of seasoning timber. Lumber is improved by repiling, and the shifting of its position at proi)er intervals. Violent currents of heated air canse cracks, etc., in the lumber during natural seasoning ; a moderate temperature Vs tho best in every respect. The proportion of water in different -woods varies from 2G to 50 per cent. A beam of green oak weighing o depended upon; red pine maybe Uvsed whenever durability and stren^^th are objects ; and Quebec yellow pine for light dry purposes. Deals are from Norway, Sweden, Prussia, Russia and Now Brunswick. Fot framing, the best deals are the Norway, particularly the Christiana battens; for pannelling, the Christiana white deals; for ground floors, Stockholm and Gello yellows; for upper lloors. Dram and Christiana whites; Archangel and Onega planks for warehouse floors and stair- cases, and for best floors, &c., Petersburg, Onega and Christiana battens. 100 Superficial ft. make 1 square of boardiug, floormg, &c. 120 deals are denominated one hundred. 50 cubic ft. of timber equal 1 load. Also, GOO superficial ft. of inch boards equal 1 load. Battens are from 0^ to 7 ins. in breadth, deals, 8^ to 10 ins., and planks 11 to 12 ins. 12J 12-feet boards to 1 square of rough boardmg or flooring. 12| " edges shot. 13 " -wrought and laid folding. 13^ " " " straight joint, f 14 " . " " ploughed and tongued. 17 12-ft. battens to 1 square of wrought folding door. 18 *' yellow to a straight joint floor. The duration of well seasoned wood, when kept dry, is very great, as beams still exist which are Imown to be nearly 1100 years old. Piles driven by the Romans, and used in the formation of bridges prior to the Christian era, have been examined of late, and found to be per- fectly sound after an immersion of nearly 2000 years. Russian Way of Stopping Holes in Ships.— In that country, there has lately been invented and successfully applied, a ready means for stopping holes made in ships by collision or otherwise. It consists of a plaster made of two rectangular sheets of canvas sewed together, bordered with a rope, and containing a water-proof material. A sounding-line has to be passed under the keel, and brought up on the other side : then the plaster can be lowered to the hole, and made fast. Several cases are Qited in which this invention has been em- ployed with advantage ; and a large number of Russian ships aio now furnished with such plasters. It is proposed that men bo spe- cially trained and ready for the manoeuvring of the apparatus. To Raise the Body of a Drowned Person. — In a recent fail- ure to recover the body of a drowned person in New Jersey, a French- Canadian undertook the job, and proceeded as follows : Having sup- plied himself with some glass gallon-jars, and a quantity of un- slaked lime, he went in a boat to the place where the man was seen to go down. One of the jars was filled half full of lime, then filled lip with water, and tightly corked. It was then dropped into the water, and soon after exploded at the bottom of the river, with a loud report. After the third trial , each time at a different place, the body rose to the surface, and was secured. To Get Rid of Rats, &c. — Get a piece of lead pipe and use it as a funnel to introduce about IJ ozs. of sulphide of potassium into any outside holes tenanted by rats ; not to be used in dwellings. To get rid of Mice, use tartar emetic mingled with any favorite food ; thej will eat, sicken, and take their leave. MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 87 HvDKAULTG Ceiment,— PoTvdered clay, 3 lbs. ; oxide of iron, 1 lb. ; and boiled oil to form a stiff paste, ExcmEERs' Cement.— Equal parts of red and white lead, with dry- ing oil, spread on tow or canvas. An admirable composition for uniting lar^e stones in cisterns. Stone Cement River.— Sand, 20 parts; litharge, 2 parts; quick- Urn e, 1 part: mix with linseed oil. Glue, — ^Powdered chalk added to common glue strengthens it. A glue which will resist the action of water is made by boiling 1 lb, of glue in 2 qts. of slummed milk. Cheap WATERmooF Glue. — Melt common glue with the smallest SDSsible quantity of water; add, by degrees, linseed oil, rendered rj'ing by boiling it with litharge. AVhilo the oil is being added, tho ingredients must be well stirred, to incorporate them thoroughly. FiKE AND Waterpkoof Glue. — Mix a handful of quick-Time with 4 oz. of linseed oil ; thoroughly lixiviate the mixture ; boil it to a good thickness, and spread it on thin plates in the shade: it will become very hard, but can be dissolved over a fire, like common glue, and is then fit for use. Prepared Liquid Glue.— Take of best white glue, 1G oa.; white- lead, dry, 4 oz. ; r^in- water, 2 pts. ; alcohol, 4 oz. With constant stir- ring dissolve the gluo and lead in the water, by means of a water- bath. Add tho alcohol, and continue the heat for a few muiutes. Lastly, pour into bottles, while it is still hot. To*Make Grindstones froji Cojiimon Sand. — ^Riversand 32 lbs. ; Bhellac, 10 parts; powdered glass, 2 parts; melt in an iron pot, and cast into moulds. Polishing Powder for Specula. — Precipitate a dilute solution of sulphate of iron by ammonia in excess ; wash the precipitate ; press it in a screw press till nearly dry; then expose it to heat until it appears of a dull red color in the dark. On Saw-Mills. — To Get the Most Lumber fro?.i Saw-Logs. — ^Experience has abundantly proved to our satisfaction that this can be done only by tho use of the circular saw. Some parties are in favor of the mulay saw. Human ingenuity has been so prolific in tho invention and construction of this kind of machinery, that the prin- cipal difficulty with the intending purchaser seems to be an inability to decide whose machine is really the best. Every builder or inventor appears to claim for his machme such a perfect constellation of valu- able features, that a certain amount of hesitation in coming to a de- cision seems to be inevitable. In the stationary form of saw mills, the saws are arranged either single or in gangs. Some of the port- able kind (circular saw mills) have an upi>er saw to complete the cut made but partially through large logs by the lower saw. See diagram. By the single movement of a le^•er, the head-blocks on which the log rests, are simultaneously moved up, movmg the log a distance nearer the saw, adequate to the thickness of board desired, with an overplus the widtli of the cut made by the saw. By moving another lever, a pinion meshing into a rack beneath the log-carriage is made to impel the log against the saw, and run the log backwards after the board is cut. These movements, on the best coustructed machines, are made with surprising velocity, some of them being ac- credited with having cut over G0,000 feet of lumber in one day. 88 OLD FASHIONED SAW-MILL, AC. The performance of a 36 horse-power steam engine attached to a modern saw-mill, is equivalent to that of 75 saw-pit3 requiiiug the labor of 150 men. CoaiPARATivE Resiliencb of Various Kinds of Timber, Ash BEING 1, Fir -4, Elm '54, Pitch Pine -67, Teak -59, Oak -63, Spruce -64, YeUowPme '64, Cedar '66, Chestnut 73 Larch '84, Beech -80. By resi- lience is understood the quality of springing back, or tougliness. Percentage op Increase in Strength op Different Woods BY Seasoning. — White pine, 9 per cent., Elml2"3 per cent., Oak 2G'6 per cent., Ash 44*7 per cent, Beech 61*9 per cent. TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF WOODS, SHOWING THEIR BREAKING WEIGHT FOR A THICKNESS OF ONE INCH SQUARE AND ONE FOOT IN LENGTH, WITH WEIGHT SUSPENDED FROM ONE END. Breaking Value weight, for use. Breaking Value weight, for use. Lbs. Locust 295 80 Hickory 250 55 Oak, live American. . .245 55 " white «' ..230 60 «« African 208 50 Teak 206 CO ISIaple 202 Oak , English, best- . . .188 45 Ash 168 65 I'ine, American 60 60 Birch 160 40 Chestnut 160 53 Lbs. Oak, Canadian 146 " live American... 245 '« English 140 Deal Christiana 137 Pine pitch 136 Beech 130 Pine white American. 130 Elm 125 Pine Norway 123 OakDantzic .122 White wood 116 Riga Fir 94 Pine, white 92 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 89 Occasionally we listen to a great deal of rant regarding the beati- tudes of "the good old times," during the lives of our forefathers. These times proved very disastrous to the enterprising Dutchman, who, in 1663 started the first saw-mill in England, which he was finally obliged to abandon, and fly to save his life. In 1767 another saw-miU, at Lime-house, near London, was demolished by a mob of sawyers, who considered that their business would be ruined to a dead certainty if things were allowed to go on. MAcniNisTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 91 Tho old method of manufacturing lumber and dimension stuff by ripping logs lengthways on the sawi^it, is still fresh in the remem, brance of many. One man mounted the log and pushed the saw downwards and pulled it upwards, assisted by anotlier man in tho pit below, with a veil over his face to keep the sawdust out of his eyes. We hail with gratitude the modern improvements which en- able us to dispense with every such form of labor. Having tried the up and down saw and the circular saw also, wo would again repeat our conviction that the last mentioned is the best for manufacturing lumber, and should any person act on this expression of opinion, let them in the first place be very careful to get, if possible, the best machine, bring it to the mill, and set it perfectly level and true. "When you get it in oi)eration, see that you handle it carefully. If you have been used to running the up and down saw only, you will Eoon find out that your former experience avails almost nothing in tlie management of the rotary machine ; but when you get the hang of running it, the compensation in the way of convenience, rapidity, and quantity of work, is immense. Some prefer to use the inserted tootli saws, and will use no other. They seem to possess many ad- vantages, and are entirely safe. A late invention of spreading tho %ipperpart of the tooth towards the point during the process of manu- facture, spreading it out so as to make the point of the tooth tho thickest part of the circumference of the saw, enables the sawyer to dispense in a great measure with the use of the swage. Those insert- ed tooth saws which do not possess this improvement must be care- fully swaged and filed at least twice per day, and sometimes as oltcn as six or seven times per day, depending upon the kind of lumber being cut. In filing or swaging the saw, be careful to form the point of the teeth absolutely square, and even across, the slightest deviation from perfect truth in this respect being apt to cause the saw to ?•?/», as it is termed, or vary from its proper course while passing through tho log. Some prefer to form the point of the tooth a little hooking, just aiough so as to be barely perceptible, and in swaging to use that part of the die belonging to the swage, which gives the tooth of tho saw a Elightly curved or rainbow form, something in this shape T", or scarcely so much cur\'ed. One sawyer of 20 years' experience in rumiing machinery, infonncd us that he never did better or more rapid work with his mill than when he kept his saw exactly right on these fiwopoMiis just stated. If you can run a No. 7 gauge saw on your mill, the loss resulting from sawdust will be very slight, and as large saws are generally thickest at the centre, tapering off towards the circumference, this size or No. 6 will, as a general rule, be found sufficiently strong for most purposes. ^Make sure at all times, es- pecially during frosty weather, that the dogs have a secure hold of the log before the saw enters it. It is only a few days ago that a case came to my knowledge of a firm near Fredericton, N.B., having sustained a severe loss by a log (insufficiently secured of course) canting over on the saw as it was passing through it. The effect was to break off the saw from the mandril, twist off the nut at the end near the saw, and break away the two iron pins used for securing the *;aw in the coUar, causing a stoppage of the mill, and the consequent expense of repair and delay. AVhen you get the mill in operation, see that you handle it carefully, and maintain unceasing watchfulness 92 MACIIIXISTS, ENGINEERS', AC, RECEIPTS. over It -wlinc in operation. G'lVQ it plenty of poiocr; if you c?on*^, you may as well Kliut up shop at once ; (jood attendance, and with a good macliinc, the attendants will not have much time to i)lay them- selves, I can assure you. Keep all the parts well o/7ecZ— that has a great deal to do Avith tlio smootli and Buccessful running of tlic machine ; and, by tlie way, I Avould remark tliat saw-mills are not the only things in tliis world that run all the better for being oiled. If that kind, loving, gentle, and affectionate spirit of wliich oil is the symbol, pervaded the hearts and the minds of oar race, and found universal exxiression iu every thought, word, and deed during our daily intercourse witli each other, it would be a very diilerent world from what it is — better for ourselves, and better for our neigh- bors. Let us all carry on this branch of the oil business as extensively as possible, and wo shall soon see a brotherhood " dwelling together in unity." In order to facilitate calculations regarding the velocity of saws, herewith is appended a reliable table to serve as a guide in. ascertaining the proper speed for running : — TABLE OF SPEED FOR CIRCULAK SAWS. 30 inches in diameter, 1000 revolutions per minute 38 (( n 950 (( 40 (( 900 « 42 (( (( 870 (( (( 44 {< (( 840 (( (« 40 (( 800 (< (( 48 (C « 700 (( « 50 2 10 4 15 ( 20 8 25 10 31 0 5 4 10 8 10 ( 21 ^ 26 8 32 0 5 G 11 0 22 0 27 € 33 0 5 a 11 4 17 0 22 h 28 4 34 0 ! 1 1 1 i{ 2 G 0 4 0 8 1 ft 2 0 0 4 0 8 2 1 0 4 0 9 2 2 0 6 0 9 2 3 0 5 0 9 2 4 0 C 0 10 1 3 2 5 0 5 0 10 1 o 26 TmcK 31 B 0 5 0 10 1 4 __2_J 0 5 0 11 1 4 2 8 0 6 0 11 1 K 1 0 2 9 0 6 0 11 1 5 2 10 Le fi- igtii in. 25 B 26 B 27 B 28 b' i.^ In 29 B ches SOB 32B 33 B 34 B 35 B 1 2 3 4 5 — 4 4 8 8 13 0 17 4 21 8 26 1 4 C 9 0 18 1 22 7 27 1 4 8 9 5 14. 1 i'i J 18 9 23 6 28 2 4 10 9 9 It "7 1.1: 1 19 5 24 4 29 2 5 0 10 1 15 1 20 2 25 2 30 3 5 3 10 5 15 8 20 10 26 1 31 3 0 5 0 10 1 4 2 7 6 5 10 9 16 2 21 6 26 11 32 4 5 7 11 1 16 8 22 3 27 9 33 4 5 9 11 6 17 2 22 11 28 8 34 5 5 11 11 10 XI V 23 7 29 C 35 5 6 1 12 2 18 3 24 4 30 5 36 6 llllll 1 2 6 0 4 0 9 2 2 0 5 0 9 1 2 2 3 0 5 0 9 1 2 3 4 0 5 0 10 1 3 2 5 0 5 0 10 1 3 2 C 0 5 0 11 1 4 2 8 0 G 0 11 1 5 2 9 0 6 0 11 1 5 2 10 0 6 1 0 1 6 2 11 0 6 1 0 1 7 3 0 Lci /<. igtk in. 26 B 27 B 28 B 29 B 26^ In SOB SIB !^ 32 B 33 B 34 B 35 B 36 B 1 2 3 4 5 6 — 4 8 9 5 14 1 18 9 23 6 28 2 4 11 9 9 14 8 19 C 24 5 29 3 5 1 10 1 15 2 20 3 25 3 30 4 5 3 10 6 15 9 20 11 26 2 31 5 5 6 10 10 16 3 21 8 27 1 32 6 5 7 11 2 16 10 22 5 28 0 33 7 5 9 11 7 17 4 23 1 28 11 34 8 6 0 11 11 17 11 23 10 29 10 35 9 6 2 12 3 18 5 24 7 30 8 36 10 6 4 12 8 19 0 25 3 31 7 37 11 6 6 13 0 19 6 26 0 32 6 39 0 1 2 6 0 5 0 9 1 2 1 4 0 5 0 10 1 3 2 5 0 5 0 10 1 3 2 6 0 5 0 10 1 4 2 7 0 5 0 11 1 4 2 9 0 G 0 11 1 5 2 10 0 6 1 0 1 5 2 11 0 G 1 0 1 6 3 0 0 6 1 0 1 6 3 1 0 6 1 1 1 7 3 2 0 7 1 1 1 8 3 3 Lei igth in. 27 B 28 B 29 B 5 5 10 11 16 4 21 9 27 2 32 8 2 30 B 31 B hes ' 32 B riiick,- 33 B 34 B 35 B 36 B 37 B 6 11 13 10 20 10 27 9 34 8 41 8 1 2 3 4 & 6 5 1 10 2 15 2 20 3 25 4 30 5 5 3 10 6 15 9 21 0 26 3 31 6 5 8 11 3 16 11 22 6 28 2 33 9 5 10 11 8 17 5 23 3 29 1 34 11 6 0 12 0 18 0 24 0 30 0 38 0 6 2 12 5 18 7 24 9 30 11 37 2 6 5 12 9 19 2 25 6 31 11 38 3 6 7 13 2 19 8 26 3 32 10 39 5 6 9 13 6 20 3 27 0 33 9 40 6 1 2 3 0 5 0 10 1 3 0 5 0 11 1 4 0 5 0 11 1 4 0 6 0 11 1 5- 0 6 1 0 1 5 0 6 1 0 1 6 0 6 1 0 1 7 0 6 1 1 1 7 0 7 1 1 1 8 0 7 1 2 1 8 0 7 1 S 1 S 6 2 6 2 8 2 91 2 10 2 11 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 5 3 7 LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 113 ft. in. 28 B 129 B 30 B 2 31 B 8 lin 32 B .'hes 33 B 34 B 35 B 36 B I 37 B I 38 B 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 5 10 11 16 4 21 9 27 3 32 8 5 8 11 3 16 11 22 7 28 2 33 10 5 10 11 8 17 6 23 4 29 2 35 0 6 0 12 1 18 1 24 1 30 2 36 2 6 3 12 5 18 8 24 11 31 1 37 4 0 6 1 0 1 7 3 1 6 5 12 10 19 3 25 8 32 1 38 6 6 7 13 3 19 10 26 5 33 1 39 8 6 10 13 7 20 6 27 c 34 0 40 10 7 0 14 0 21 0 28 C 35 0 42 0 7 2 14 5 21 7 28 £ 36 0 43 2 7 4 14 10 21 11 29 7 36 11 44 4 0 7 1 2 1 11 3 8 ll 1 M i 1 2 3 Q 0 5 0 11 1 4 2 9 0 6 0 11 1 5 2 10 0 6 1 0 1 6 2 11 0 6 1 0 1 e 3 0 0 6 1 1 1 7 3 3 0 7 1 1 1 8 3 4 0 7 1 2 1 8 3 4 0 7 1 2 1 9 3 6 0 7 1 2 1 10 3 7 Lei {h. 1 2 3 4 5 C igtk in. 29 B 30 B 31 B 2 32 B 33 B jlies 34 B 35 B 36 B 37 B 38 B 39 B| 5 10 11 8 17 6 23 4 29 2 35 1 6 1 12 1 18 2 24 2 30 S 36 3 6 3 12 6 18 9 25 0 31 3 37 6 6 5 12 11 19 4 25 9 32 3 38 8 6 8 13 4 19 11 26 7 33 3 39 11 6 10 13 8 20 7 27 5 34 3 41 1 0 7 1 2 1 9 3 5 7 1 14 1 21 2 28 2 35 3 42 4 7 3 14 6 21 9 29 0 36 3 43 6 7 5 14 11 22 4 29 10 37 3 44 9 7 8 15 4 23 0 30 7 38 3 45 11 7 11 15 9 23 8 31 5 39 3 47 2 1 2 3 6 0 6 1 0 1 6 2 11 0 6 1 0 1 6 3 0 0 6 1 0 1 7 3 1 0 6 1 1 1 7 3 3 0 7 1 1 1 8 3 4 0 7 1 2 1 9 3 6 0 7 1 3 1 10 3 8 0 7 1 3 1 10 3 9 0 8 1 3 1 11 3 10 0 8 1 4 1 11 3 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 t 1 1 M 1 1 p-o SOB 31 B 32 B 33 B 34 B 35 B 36 B 37 B 38 B 39 B 40 B 6 3 12 6 18 9 25 0 31 3 37 6 6 6 12 11 19 5 25 10 32 4 38 9 6 8 13 4 20 0 26 8 33 4 40 0 6 11 13 9 20 8 27 6 34 5 41 3 7 1 14 2 21 3 28 4 35 5 42 6 7 4 14 7 21 11 29 2 36 6 43 9 7 6 15 0 22 6 30 0 37 6 45 0 7 9 15 5 23 2 30 10 38 7 46 3 7 11 15 10 23 9 31 8 39 7 47 6 8 2 16 3 24 6 32 6 40 8 48 9 8 4 16 8 25 1 33 4 41 8 50 0 0 5 1 1 2 2 4 9 1 2 3 6 0 6 1 1 1 7 3 2 0 6 1 1 1 7 3 3 0 7 1 1 1 8 3 4 0 7 1 2 1 9 3 5 0 7 1 2 1 0 3 7 0 7 1 3 1 10 3 8 0 8 1 3 1 11 3 9 0 8 1 3 1 11 3 10 0 8 1 4 2 0 4 0 0 8 1 4 2 0 4 1 JLei ft. iglii in. 31 B 32 B 33 B S 34 B 1 lu 35 B 36 B 37 B 38B 39 B 40 B 41 B 1 2 S 4 6 6 6 8 13 4 20 0 26 8 33 4 40 1 6 11 13 9 20 8 27 7 34 5 41 4 7 1 14 3 21 4 28 5 35 6 42 8' 7 4 14 8 22 0 29 3 36 7 43 11 0 7 1 3 1 10 3 8 7 6 15 1 22 7 30 2 37 8 45 3 7 9 15 6 23 3 31 0 38 9 46 6 8 0 15 11 23 11 31 10 39 10 47 10 8 2 16 4 24 7 32 £ 40 11 49 1 8 6 16 10 25 2 33 7 42 0 50 5 8 7 17 3 25 10 34 5 43 1 51 8 8 8 17 8 26 6 35 4 44 2 63 0 1 2 3 6 0 7 1 1 1 8 3 4 0 7 1 2 1 9 3 5 0 7 1 2 1 13 3 80 0 8 1 3 1 11 3 9 0 8 1 4 1 11 3 11 0 8 1 4 2 0 4 0 0 8 1 4 2 1 4 1 0 8 1 5 2 1 4 2 0 9 1 5 2 2 4 4 0 9 1 5 2 2 4 4 LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. ft. in. 1 2 3 6 .32 B 33 B 34 B 35 B :3GB 37 B 0 7 1 2 1 9 3 7 7 4 14 8 22 0 29 4 3G 8 44 0 0 7 1 3 1 10 7 7 15 1 7 9 15 7 22 8 23 4 0 8 1 3 1 11 3 9 37 9 38 11 45 4 46 0 8 1 4 1 11 3 11 8 0 16 C 24 0 32 0 8 48 0 8 1 4 2 0 4 0 8 3 16 5 24 8 32 11 40 0 41 1 0 49 4 0 8 1 4 2 1 4 1 -l5y 38 B 39 B 40 B 41 B 42 B 8 5 8 8 8 11 9 1 9 4 16 11 17 4 17 9 18 3 18 9 25 4 26 0 26 8 27 4 28 0 33 9 34 8 35 7 36 5 37 4 42 3 43 4 44 5 45 7 46 8 50 8 52 0 53 4 &4 8 56 0 0 8 0 9 0 9 0 9 0 9 1 5 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 T 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 4 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 7 4 a 7 7 15 2 22 8 30 37 10 45 33 Inches Thick,— By 7 10 15 7 23 3 31 39 5 46 16 5 24 2 32 0 40 9 48 36 B 37 B 8 6 17 0 25 5 33 11 42 5 50 11 38 B 39 B 40 B 41 B 42 B 43 B 8 3 16 6 24 9 33 0 41 3 49 6 8 9 17 5 26 2 34 10 43 7 52 3 8 11 17 11 26 10 35 9 44 8 53 8 9 2 18 4 27 6 36 8 45 10 55 0 9 5 18 10 28 2 37 7 47 0 56 5 9 8 19 3 28 11 38 6 48 2 57 9 9 11 19 £ 29 7 39 5 49 3 59 2 0 8 1 5 2 1 4 2 0 8 1 6 2 1 4 3 0 9 1 5 2 2 4 4 0 9 1 6 2 3 4 6 0 9 1 6 2 4 4 7 0 9 1 7 2 4 4 8 0 10 1 7 2 5 4 10 0 10 1 8 2 5 5 0 0 8 1 3 1 11 0 8 1 4 1 11 3 11 0 8 1 4 2 0 4 0 LeugtE //. in. 34' Inciies " Thick,— By 40 B 4Tb 42 B 43 B 44 B 9 5 9 8 9 11 10 2 10 4 18 11 19 4 19 10 20 4 20 10 28 4 29 1 29 9 30 6 31 2 37 9 38 9 39 8 40 7 41 7 47 3 48 5 49 7 50 9 51 11 56 8 58 1 59 6 60 11 62 4 0 9 0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 1 7 1 7 1 8 1 8 1 9 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 7 4 9 4 10 5 0 5 1 6 2 0 16 1 24 1 32 1 40 16 6 24 10 33 1 2 41 4 42 2 49 7 17 0 25 6 26 34 0 34 11 6 43 8 51 0 52 9 0 17 11 11 35 11 6 3 26 18 5 27 8 36 10 44 10 46 1 10 55 3 5 53 0 8 1 4 2 0 4 0 0 8 1 5 2 1 4 2 0 9 1 5 2 2 4 3 0 9 1 5 2 2 4 4 0 9 1 6 2 3 4 6 0 9 1 6 2 4 4 7 Lengthi 35 Inches Thick,— By /«. in 35 B 36 B 37 B 38 B 39 B 40 B 41 B 42 B 43 B 44 B 45 B 6 17 0 25 34 0 42 6 51 1 8 17 6 26 0 9 1 5 2 2 4 3 18 3 27 36 35 0 43 9 45 52 6 54 0 1 2 2 4 5 19 0 9 28 0 9 1 6 2 4 4 7 19 18 9 27 36 11 46 2 47 5 48 0 55 5 56 11 0 9 1 7 2 4 4 5 29 2 37 11 38 11 7 4 0 10 1 7 2 5 4 10 10 0 19 11 29 11 39 10 49 10 59 10 0 10 1 8 2 6 5 0 10 3 20 5 30 40 10 51 1 61 3 0 10 1 8 2 7 5 1 10 5 20 11 31 4 41 10 52 3 62 9 0 10 1 9 2 7 5 3 LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 115 ft. in. 36 B 37 B 38 B 39 B 40 B 41 B 42 B 43 B 44 B 45 B 46 B 1 2 3 4 5 6 - 1 2 3 6 9 0 18 0 27 0 36 0 45 0 54 0 9 3 18 6 27 9 37 0 46 3 55 6 9 6 19 0 28 6 38 0 47 6 57 0 9 9 19 6 29 3 39 0 48 9 58 6 10 0 20 0 30 0 40 0 50 0 60 0 10 3 20 6 30 9 41 0 51 3 61 6 10 6 21 0 31 6 42 0 52 6 63 0 10 9 21 6 32 3 43 0 53 9 64 6 11 0 22 0 33 0 44 0 55 0 66 0 11 3 22 6 33 9 45 0 56 3 67 6 11 6 23 0 34 6 46 0 57 6 eo 0 0 9 1 6 2 3 4 6 0 9 1 7 2 4 4 8 0 10 1 7 2 5 4 9 0 10 1 8 2 5 4 11 0 10 1 8 2 6 5 0 0 10 1 9 2 7 5 2 0 11 1 9 2 8 5 3 0 11 1 10 2 8 5 6 0 11 1 10 2 9 5 6 0 11 1 11 2 10 5 8 1 0 1 11 2 11 5 9 ft' 1 2 3 4 5 6 rigtL m. 37 B 38 B 39 B 40 b' 7 Inclies 41 B 142 B Wick, 43 B 44B 45 B 46 B 47 B 9 6 19 0 28 6 38 0 47 6 57 1 9 9 19 6 29 4 39 1 48 10 58 7 10 0 20 1 30 1 40 1 50 1 60 2 10 3 20 7 30 10 41 1 51 5 61 8 10 6 21 1 31 7 42 2 52 8 63 3 10 10 21 7 32 5 43 2 54 0 64 9 11 1 22 1 33 2 44 2 55 3 66 4 11 4 22 7 33 11 45 3 56 6 67 10 11 7 23 2 34 8 46 3 57 10 69 5 11 10 23 8 35 6 47 3 59 1 70 11 12 1 24 2 36 3 48 4 60 5 72 6 {Mill 1 2 3 6 0 10 1 7 2 5 4 9 0 10 1 8 2 5 4 11 0 10 1 8 2 6 5 0 0 10 1 9 2 7 5 2 0 11 1 9 2 8 5 3 0 11 1 10 2 8 5 5 0 11 1 10 2 9 5 6 0 11 1 11 2 10 6 8 1 0 1 11 2 11 5 9 1 0 2 0 2 11 5 11 1 0 2 0 3 0 6 0 Lei ft- igth in. 38 B 39 B 40 B 3 41 B 8 IlK 42B jhes 43 B Thick, 44 B -By 45 B 46 B 47 B 48 B 12 8 25 5 38 0 50 8 63 4 76 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 10 0 20 1 30 1 40 1 50 2 60 2 10 4 20 7 30 11 41 2 51 6 61 9 10 7 21 1 31 8 42 3 52 9 63 4 10 10 21 8 32 6 43 3 54 1 64 11 11 1 22 2 33 3 44 4 55 5 66 6 11 4 22 8 34 1 45 6 56 9 68 1 11 7 23 3 34 10 46 5 88 1 69 8 11 11 23 9 35 8 47 6 59 5 71 3 12 2 24 3 36 5 48 7 60 8 72 10 12 5 24 10 37 3 49 7 62 0 74 5 1 2 3 6 0 10 1 8 2 6 5 0 0 10 1 9 2 7 5 2 0 11 1 9 2 8 5 3 0 11 1 10 2 8 5 5 0 11 1 10 2 9 5 7 0 11 1 11 2 10 5 8 1 0 1 11 2 11 6 10 1 0 2 0 3 0 5 11 1 0 2 0 3 0 6 1 1 0 2 1 3 1 6 2 1 1 2 2 3 1 6 3 Length Jt. in. 39 Inches Thick,— B y 39 B 40 B 41 B 42 B 43 B 44 B 45 B 46 B 47 B 48 B 49 B 11 1 22 8 32 6 33 5 11 0 10 10 21 9 22 3 22 43 4 44 5 45 6 46 7 47 11 1 10 LO \21 31 VZ 52 10 54 2 55 6 56 11 63 5 65 0 0 11 1 10 0 11 1 11 8 2 9 2 9 2 10 5 8 5 11 8 2 34 66 8 68 3 69 11 23 4 11 1 0 1 11 2 11 5 10 11 11 23 10 36 9 7 71 6 1 0 2 0 3 0 6 0 12 2 24 5 36 7 47 9 60 11 73 2 1 0 2 0 3 1 6 1 12 5 24 11 37 5 49 10 62 4 74 9 12 9 25 6 37 2 50 11 63 8 76 6 26 0 39 0 52 0 65 0 78 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 6 6 13 3 26 7 39 10 52 0 66 4 78 8 1 1 2 2 3 4 6 7 116 SIZE AND COST OF VESSELS, ETC. Mr. Moorsom's FoRMtrLA to Approximatk Register Toxnaob tJNDKU ANY I'UOi'OSKi) Dimensions.— To Bhipbuildera who may wish to know, before the construction of an intended design, the approximalo register tonnage under any proposed principal dimensions, the foll'>wiiig formula (wliicli has received llie approbation of Messrs. Martin and Kit- cliio, the two chief surveyors at Lloyd's, who, from their great experienco ftnd intelligence, are authoi ities on the subject) will be found useful, as it gives the tonnage, on an average, gouorally speaking, within about 2% per cent. Let L represent the inside length on upper deck from plank at bow to plank at stern, " B represent the inside main breadth from ceiling tc ceiling. " D represent the inside midship depth froiu upper deck to ceiling at timber strake. Then the register tonnage of any ship will be equal to ^ ^ ^ multiplied by the decimal factor opposite the class in the following table to which she belongs : Cost of En-glish Merchantmen per ton.— 1. Tonnage, 650. Material, yfooii; date, 18G5. Wood in hull, masts and spars, $41; yellow metal, iron-bolts and labor, $10.30 ; joiner work and labor. $5.15: labor on Imll, $20; boats, etc.— outfit, $12.30 ; rope and Bails, $8 ; anchors, chains and tanks, $4.25 ; yellow metal sheathing, $4. Total, $105. 2. Iron Merchantmmx, of 500 Tons : Cost, $88 per ton. 3. Iron-Passenger Ship, or Steamer, 800 Tons : Cost, $125 per ton, 4. Another Iron-Steamer, or Ship, of 1500 Tons : Cost, $147 per ton. 5. Another Iron-Passenger Steamer, of 1500 Tons : Cost, $122perton,as follows: Material for hull, $29.50; labor, $14.50 ; rent, machinery, tools, etc., $14.50 ; fittings and launching, $14.25 ; wood, work, $12.25 ; equipment, $17 ; cabins and fitting, $20. Total, as above, $122. In the case of steam vessels, the vessel built of iron is more buoy- ant than the vessel built of wood by about 16 per cent, of the weight of the wood hull, or nearly 9 per cent, of the weight of the cargo. In the case of sailing vessels, the iron hull is still more buoyant than the wood hull by about 14.9-}- 8.33 per cent, =23.2 percent., or about 23 per cent, of the weight of the wood hull, or 13 per cent, of the weight of the cargo. To Find the Meridian. — ^Take a piece of board, or any simSar material, and describe on it a number of concentric circles. Place this in the sun, over the centre of a plummet. Observe the short, est shadow from the plummet ; the sun will then be on the merid. ian ; draw a line to the centre of the circle, and that will be the true meridian line. This will do to mark the apparent time, or to correct the compass for variation. Captain Boyton's New Devices to Save Life from thb Piers, and to Throw a Line from a Ship. — The followmg are Captain Boyton's statements, as extracted from the New York Sun : " My invention is simply this : Here is a wooden bobbin, to which 60 feet of the strongest Manilla line is attached by one end, and a four-pronged steel grappling iron fits in the hollow part of the .8 .7 .65 .68 .5 .45 Yachts, Vessels above 60 tons Vessels, small SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 117 wood. The whole is enclosed in a leather case, and dees not weigh ft pound. If every policemam on duty had one of these, the saving of persons from droAvning in the rivers would be lessened 80 pet cent. If the person in the water accidentally fell in, the offlcei could hold the grappling iron in his hand, and throw the bobbin, which floats, out to the struggling person. If the case was one of attempted suicide, or where the person was too drunk to make any effort to save himself, he could throw out the grapple, and haul him in. I ppopose to give the police force of this city and Philadelphia the right to manufacture these for themselves ; and, I suppose, they can make them for fifty cents a piece. "My other invention is equally simple : "When a ship is driven on a lee-shore, and her back is being broken by the sea beating against her, the efforts of the coast-guard to throw a rope on board by means of a rocket or mortar frequently fail, owing either to the wind coming into the shore blowing the rocket back or to one side. Now, here is a box, four feet by three, which can be easily placed under the table in the cabin of any vessel. It contains a long, fine, strong line attached to a rocket, of peculiar construction. The ship is driven on shore, and the coast-guard men are there, un- able to establish communication between the vessel and the land. The captain brings this box on deck, opens it, and adjusts the rocket to the angle of the box-cover, and fires it off. The rocket, by its own force, and that of the wind blowing in shore, is carried to land. In addition to the tail of fire shown by it passing through the air, the rocket on falling on the ground bursts, and burns a brilliant red light for ten minutes. This is seen by the coast-guard men, who fix the cable to the line, and it is thus hauled aboard, and the crew saved." A common felt-hat may be made use of as a life-preserver. Place the hat upon the water rim downwards, and with the arm around it, pressing it slightly to the breast, the com- pressed air within will sustain a man for hours. Natural, Mechanical, and Scientific Facts. Comparative Yield of Various Vegetables. Productions in Pounds Weight Per Acre. Hops. . Wheat. Barlev. Oats,'. Peas . . , Beans . Plums . Lbs. per ac. 442 1 260 1 600 1 840 1 920 2 000 2 000 Cherries . Onions . . . Hay Pears Carrots . . Potatoes Lbs. per ac. 2 000 2 800 4 000 5 000 7 000 6 800 7 500 Apples Turnips Cinque-foil grass Vetches, Green.. Cabbages Parsnips Mangel Wurzel Lbs. per ac. 8 000 8 420 9 600 9 800 10 900 11 200 22 000 One acre will produce 224 lbs, mutton, 186 lbs. beef, 2900 lbs. milk, 300 lbs. butter, and 200 lbs. cheese. A fair crop of potatoes, from 16 bushels of seed, is 840 bushels. Paris Green, for potato bugs, and other enemies of the farmer, may be made as follows: Dissolve 2 lbs. sulphate of copper in 1 gal. hot water, in a stone jar. In another jar put 1 lb of white arsenic and 2 lbs. pearlash in M lbs. hot water, and stir till dissolved. Mix when required in the proportion of 1 part of the former to 5 of the latter, and use with a sprinkler. It is certain death to vermin. 118 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, KTC. The averajjo growth of trees during 12 years, as determined hy a committee of tiie Illinois Horticultural Society, when planted in belts and groves, is as follows: White maple, 1 ft. diam. and 30 ft. high; Ash-lcaf maple, 1 ft. diam. and 20 ft. high ; White willow, VA ft. diam. and 40 ft. high; Yellow willow, VA ft. diam. and 35 ft. high; Lom- bardy poplar, 10 ins. diam. and 40 ft. high ; Blue and White Ash, 10 ina. diam. and 20 ft. high; Chestnut, 10 ins. diam. and 20 ft. high; Black Walnut and Butternut, 10 ins. diam. and 20 ft. high ; Elm, 10 ins. diam. and 20 ft. high; Birch (varieties), 10 ins. diam. and 25 ft. high; Larch, 8 ins. diam. and 24 ft. high. The different varieties of evergreens will mako an average growth of 18 to 20 ins. in height annually. The long- evity of various trees, as estimated by Mr. Don, Secretary and Li- brarian of the Liunaan Society, are as follows: The Dragon's blood tree, 4,000 years; Baobab tree, of Senegal, 5,150 years; Decidioua Cypress, 6,000; Ash, 400; Yew, 3,000; Oak, 1,600; Cedar of Lebanon, 3,000 ; Juniper, 380; Lime, 583 ; Olive, 2,500 ; Apple tree, 80 to 175 ; Pear tree, 260; Orange, 1,500; Oriental plane, 1,200; Scotch fir, 90 to 120; Larch, 270; olive, 2,500; Ivy, 600; Balm of Gilead, 30 to 50; Brazil vino palm, 150; Brazil cabbage palm, 600 to 700; Date palm, 200 to 300; ' Cocoa nut palm, 330; Oriental i^lane, 1,200. 1 lb. of catechu is equiva- lent for tanning purposes to 7 to 8 lbs. of oak bark. Terra japonica is mimosa catechu. Relatitb Hardness of Woods. — Taking shell bark hickory as the highest standard of our forest trees, and calling that 100, other trees will compare with it for hardness as follows : — SheU bark Hickory, 100 Red Oak, 69 Wild Cherry, 55 Pignut Hickory, 96 White Beech, 65 Yellow Pine, 54 White Oak, 84 Black Walnut, 65 Chestnut, 52 White Ash, 77 Black Birch, 62 Yellow Poplar, 51 Dogwood, 75 Yellow Oak, Hard Maple, 60 Butternut, 43 Scrub Oak, 73 56 White Birch, 43 White Hazel, 72 White Elm, 58 White Pine, 30 Apple Tree, 70 Red Cedar, 56 Timber intended for posts, is rendered almost proof against rot by thorough seasoning, charring, and immersion in hot coal tar. The slide of Alpnach, extending from Mount Pilatus to Lake Lucerne, a distance of 8 miles, is composed of 25,000 trees, stripped of their bark, and laid at an inclination of 10° to 18°. Trees placed in the slide rush from the mountain into the lake in 6 minutes. The Alps comprise about 180 mountains, from 4000 to 15,732 feet high, the latter being the height of Mont Blanc, the highest spot in Europe. The summit is a sharp ridge, like the roof of a house, con- sisting of nearly vertical granite rocks. The ascent requires 2 days, fi or 8 guides are required, and each guide is paid 100 francs (£4). It was ascended by 2 natives, Jacques Belmat and Dr. Packard, Aug. 8, 1786, at 6 a.m. They staid up 30 minutes, with the thermometer at 14° below the freezing point. The provisions froze in their pockets ; their faces were frostbitten, lips swollen, and their sight much weak- ened, but they soon recovered on their descent. De Saussure records in his ascent, August 2, 1760, that the color of the sky was deep blue; the stars were visible in the shade ; the barometer sunk to 16.08 inchea (being 27.08 in Geneva) ; the thermometer was 26A °, in the sun, 29° (b^ing 87° at Geneva). The thin air w^orks the blood into a high fever SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 119 jron feel as if you hardly touched the ground, and you can scarcely make yourself heard. A Frenchwoman, Mademoiselle d'Angeville, ascended in September, 1840, being dragged up the last 1200 feet by the guides, and crying out, "If I die, carry me to the top." When there, she made them lift her up, that she might boast she had been higher than any man in Europe. The ascent of these awful solitudes is most perilous, owing to the narrow paths, tremendous ravines, icy barriers, precipices, etc. In many places every step has to be cut in the ice, the party being tied to each other by ropes, so that if one slips ■ he may be held up by the rest, and silence is enforced, lest the noise of talking should dislodge the avalanches of the Aiguille du Midi. The view from the mountain is inexpressibly grand. On the Alps, the limit of the vine is an elevation of 1600 feet; below 1000 feet, figs, oranges, and olives, are produced. The limit of the oak is 3800 ft., of the chestnut 2800 ft., of the pine 6500 feet, of heaths and furze to 8700 and 9700 ft. ; and perpetual snow exists at an elevation of 8200 feet. On the Andes, in lat. 2°, the limit of perpetual snow is 14,760 ft. In Mexico, lat. 19°, the limit is 13,800 ft. ; on the peak of Teneriffe, 11,454 ft. ; on Mount Etna, 9000 ft. ; on Caucasus, 9900 ft. ; on the Pyre- nees, 8400 ft. ; in Lapland, 3100 ft. ; in Iceland, 2890 ft. The walnut ceases to grow at an elevation of 3600 ft. ; the yellow pine at 6200 ft. ; the Ash at 4800 ft. ; and the Fir at 6700 ft. The loftiest inhabited spot on the globe is the Port House of Ancomarca, on the Andes, in Peru, 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. The 14th peak of the Himalayas, in Asia, 25,659 feet high, is the loftiest mountain in the world. Lauterbrunnen is a deep part of an Alpine pass, where the sun hardly shines in winter. It abounds with falls, the most remarkable of which is the Staubbach, which falls over the Balm precipice in a drizzling spray from a height of 925 feet; best viewed in the morning sun or by moonlight. In general it is like a gauze veil, with rain- bows dancing up and down it, and when clouds hide the top of the mountain, it seems as if poured out of the sky. In Canada, the falls of Moutmorenci are 250 feet high, the falls of Niagara (the Horse Shoe Falls) are 158 feet high and 2000 feet wide, the American Falls are 164 feet high and 900 feet wide. The Yose- mite Valley Falls are 2600 feet high, and the Ribbon Falls of the Yosemite are 3300 feet high. The water-fall of the Arve, in Bavaria, is 2000 feet. The Periods op Gestation are the same in the horse and ass, or 11 months each ; camel, 12 months ; elephant, 2 years ; lion, 5 months ; buffalo, 12 months ; in the human female, 9 months ; cow, 9 months ; sheep, 5 months ; dog, 9 weeks ; cat, 8 weeks ; sow, 16 weeks ; she wolf, from 90 to 95 days. The goose sits 30 days, swans 42, hens 21, ducks 30, peahens and turkeys 28, canaries 14, pigeons 14, parrots 40, Ages of Aiomals^ &c. — ^Elephant, 100 years and upwards ; Rhinoceros, 20 ; Camel, 100 ; Lion, 25 to 70 ; Tigers, Leopards, Jaguars, and Hyenas (in confinement), about 25 years ; Beaver, 50 years ; Deer, 20 ; Wolf, 20 ; Fox, 14 to 16 ; Llamas, 15 ; Chamois, 25 ; Monkeys and Baboons, 16 to 18 years ; Hare, 8 ; Squirrel, 7 ; Rab- bit, 7 ; Swine, 25 ; Stag, under 50 ; Horse, 30 ; Ass, 30 ; Sheep, mider 10 ; Cow, 20 ; Ox, 30 ; Swans, Parrots and Ravens, 200 ; Eagle, 100 ; Geese, 80 ; Hens and Pigeons, 10 to 10 ; Ilawks, 30 to 40 ; Crane, 24 ; 120 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. Blackbird, 10 to 12 ; Teacoclc, 20 ; Tolican, 40 to 50 ; Thrusli, 8 to 10, "VVrcii, 2 to 3 ; Nishtingale, 15 ; IJlackcai), 15 ; Linnet, 14 to 23 ; Gold- finch, 20 to 24 ; KcdbrCciHt, 10 to 12 ; Skylark, 10 to 30 ; Titlark, 5 to 6 ; Chaffinch, 20 to 24 ; Starlint,', 10 to 12 ; Carp, 70 to 150 ; Pike, 30 to 40 ; Salmon, 16 ; Codfish, 14 to 17 ; Eel, 10 ; Crocodile, 100 ; Tor- toise, 100 to 200 ; Whale, estimated, 1,000 ; Qaeeu Bees live 4 years ; Drones, 4 months ; Worker Bees, 0 mouths. The melody of singing birds ranks as follows : The nightingale first, then the iinnet, titlark, sky lark, and wood lark. Tlie jnockiug bird has the greatest powers of imitation ; the robin and goldfinch are superior in vigorous notes. Gardner's notation of tlie inasic of birds aflords conclusive proof that most of the best ideas of the great composers were derived from these melodious warblers. One well known bird in the Canadian woods takes great delight in calling out, Whip poor Will, Whip poor Will ; the red-eyed fly-catcher seems to say, Tom Kelly ! Whip ! Tom Kelly ! The condor of Peru has spread wings 40 feet, feathers 20 feet, quills 8 inches round. In England, a quarter of wheat, comprising 8 bushels, yields 14 bushels 2| pecks, divided into seven distinct kinds of flour, as fol- lows : Fine flour, 5 bushels 3 pecks ; bran, 3 bushels ; twenty-penny, 3 bushels ; seconds, 2 pecks ; pollard, 2 bushels ; fine middlings, 1 peck ; coarse ditto, 1 peck. Fourteen pounds of oats produce 8 lbs. of oatmeal. In America, 1 bushel of buckwheat, or 50 lbs., will produce 25 lbs. of buckwheat meal ; more may be obtained, but the quality will be impaired. A 20-inch Harrison light vertical burr-mill will grind 54 bushels of corn per hour. Revolutions per minute, 1300 ; 20 horse power will drive two such run of stones. In England, 2 bushels of seed will produce 18 of wheat in fair crops. The ancient Greek phalanx comprised 8000 men, forming a square battalion, with spears crossing each other, and shields united. The Roman legion was composed of 6000 men, comprising 10 cohorts of 600 men each, with 300 horsemen. The ancient battering ram was of massive timber, 60 to 100 feet long, fitted with an iron head. It was erected under shelter to pro- tect the 60 or 100 men required to work it. The largest was equal in force to a 36-lb. shot from a cannon. Pile Driving on Sandy Soils. — The greatest force will not effect a penetration exceeding 15 feet. Vaktous Sizes of Type. — It requires 205 lines of Diamond typo to make 12 inches ; of Pearl, 178 ; of Ruby, 166 ; of Nonpareil, 143 ; of Minion, 128 ; of Brevier, 112i ; of Bourgeois, 102^ ; of Long Frimer, 89 ; of Small Pica, 83 ; of Pica, 71^ ; of English, 64. To supply a population estimated at over 40,000,000, there were bx existence in the United States and Territories during July, 1876, tho enormous number of 8129 newspapers and periodicals, embracing 738 daily, 70 tri-weekly, 121 semi-weekly, 6235 weekly, 33 bi-weeklj^, 105 semi-monthly, 714 monthly, 13 bi-monthly, and 67 quarterly pub- lications. Of these, the New York Sun has the largest circulation, having circulated 46,799,769- copies during the year ending March, 1876; weight of white paper consumed, 3,426,610 pounds. Its dailj SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 121 circulation is over 138.000, weekly 85,000. To supply this demand it requires the combined resuits of the labor and brains of 249 men, a weekly expenditure of about $16,000, and the services of seven ponderous Bullock printing presses, having a capacity of 1400 copies per minute. Another press, of double size, with a capacity of 50,000 copies per hour, has been ordered. Each press prints two completo copies at one impression, not from type, but from cylindrical stereo- type plates which revolve with the press cylinder. Wire ropes for the transmission of power vary in size from | to 1 inch diam. for from 3 to 300 horse power ; to promote flexibility, the rope, made of iron, steel, or copper wire, as may be preferred, is provided with a core of hemp, and the speed is 1 mile per minute, more or less, as desired. The rope should run on a well-balanced, grooved, cast iron wheel, of from 4 to 15 feet diam., according as the transmitted power ranges from 3 to 300 horse ; the groove should be well cushioned with soft material, as leather or rubber, for the forma- tion of a durable bed for the rope. With good care the rope will last from 3 to 5 years. In paper making, 10 cylinders for preparing the pulp, making 200 revolutions per minute, 1 paper making machine, cutting machines, pump and accessories, consumed 50 horse power. The machine made 13 yards of paper per minute, and the produce was 1 ton of paper per day of 24 hours. In another instance, 28 pulping cylinders and 3 paper making machines produced 2 to 3 tons of paper per day of 24 hours, and consumed 113 horse-power. A Leffel Turbine Wheel, 10 ins. in diameter, strongly built of fine brass and steel, with German silver buckets, is now performing the work of a 120 horse power engine which it superseded ; it has a head of 228 feet. The St. Gothard Tunnel, under the Helvitic Alps, wiH be, when finished, 9.3 miles long, and will cost 289,000,000 francs. CoATHDPES Rule for Length of Gun Babrels. For the best shooting, the length of the barrel, measured from the vent hole, should be not less than 43 times the diameter of its bore, nor more than 47. Proportions of Gunpowder as made by the English Government, is, nitre, 75; charcoal, 15; sulphur, 10. That of the French, nitre, 77; charcoal, 14, sulphur, 9. A 13 inch Armstrong gun, with a charge of 90 lbs., ball 344.5 lbs., velocity 1760 ft. per second, penetrated 11 inches of solid iron plates at a range of 200 ft, No field piece should be load- ed with more powder than a fifth or sixth of the weight of its ball. A 32 pounder with a charge of 8 lbs. will penetrate 15.25 ins. of hard brick, or 12 ins. of hard freestone, or 3-5 ins. of granite, at a ranc;e of 200 feet. Cannon balls go furthest at an elevation of 30°, and less as the balls are less ; the range is furthest when fired from west to east in tho direction of the earth's motion, which for the diurnal rotation on its axis, is at the rate of 1037 miles per hour, and in its orbit, 66,092 miles. The air's resistance is §uch, than a cannon ball of 3 lbs. weight, diameter, 2.78 ins. moving with a velocity of 1800 ft. per second, is resisted by a force equal to 156 lbs. Estimated Thrust of Screw Propeller with engines of 1000 Horse Power, 20,000 lbs. Brick-layers ascend ladders with loads of 90 lbs., 1 foot per seoDnd. There are 484 bricks in a cubic yard, and 4356 in a rod. A pow3r of 250 tons is necessary to start a vessel weighing 3000 tons 122 SCIENTIFIC TACTS, ETC.. over greased slides on a marino railway, when in motion, 150 tons only is required. A modern dred!5in{? machine, 123 ft. long, beam 20 ft., breadth ever all, 11 ft, will raiiso 180 tons of mud and clay per hour, 11 feet from water-line. In tanning, 4 lbs. of oak bark make 1 lb. of leather. Flame is quenched in air containing 3 jjer cent, of carbonic acid ; tho came per ceutage is fatal to animal life. 100 parts of oak make nearly 23 of charcoal; beech, 21; deal, 19; apple, 23.7; elm23; ash, 25; birch, 24; maple, 22.8; willow, 18; pop- lar, 20 ; red pine, 22.10 ; white pine, 23. The charcoal used in gun- powder is made from wUlow, alder, and a few other woods. The charred timber found in the ruins of Herculaneum has under- gone no change in 1800 years. Four volumes of nitrogen, and one of oxygen compose atmospheric air in all localities on the globe. Air extracted from pure water, under an air pump, contains 34.8 per cent, of oxygen. Fish breathe this air, respiring about 35 times per minute. The oxyhydrogen lime light may be seen from moun- tains at the distance of 200 miles round. Lightning is reflected 150 to 200 miles. 1000 cubic feet of 13 candle gas is equivalent to over 7 gals, of sperm oil; 62.9 lbs. of tallow candles; and over 44 lbs. of sperm candles. The time occupied by gas in travelling from a gas well (in Penn- sylvania) through 32 miles of pipe was 22 minutes, pressure at tho well was 55 lbs. per inch, pressure at discharge 49 lbs. The flight of wild ducks is estimated at 90 miles per hour, that of the swift at 200 miles, carrier pigeons 38 miles, swallows 60 miles, migratory birds have crossed the Mediterranean at a speed of 120 miles per hour. Were it not for dry rot, ships would last on the average about 30 years, as it is their average duration, when buUt of ordinary timber, is 7, 8 and 9 years. Calomel is composed of 50 grs. of mercury and 10^ of chlorine gas. Carbon is the base of organic structures, and Silica of mineral. At birth, the beats of the pulse are from 165 to 104, and the inspira- tions of breath, from 70 to 23. From 15 to 20, the pulsations are from 90 to 57, the inspirations, from 24 to 16, from 29 to 50, the pulsations are 112 to 56, the inspirations, 23 to 11. In usual states it is 4 to 1. The action of the heart distributes 2 ozs. of blood from 70 to 80 times in a minute. Daniell makes the heat in a common parlor fire 1141°. Solids be- come incandescent in the dark, at 600° or 700°, but not in daylight till 800° or 1000°. Sea water is seldom below 40°, springs about 45° ; and pools and email rivers are as the atmosphere. The lowest heat for fermenta- tion is 57.5, the highest 77°. The lowest for drying herbs, etc., -77° and the highest 122°. The mean heat of the human body is 98° and of the skin 90° . Tea and coffee are usually drank at 110°. The explosion of nitro-glycerine is so sudden that it acts against the air as against a solid body, thus forming a deep chasm in tiie earth. SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 123 Decimal Notation, &o.— The j^rs^ figure to the right of the point is always tenths, the second figure from the point is always hundredths, the third is thousandths, &c., thus 4.5, is 4 units and 5 tenths; 9.24 is 9 unita and 24hundreths ; or 8.610 is 8 units and 610 thousandths. Again, .1 ia 1-10, .01 is 1-100, and .001 is 1-1000. The Arithmetical Signs and their signification can be formed by consulting the Tabular part of this work. Value of Metals. — The following table, transcribed from the Iron Age, may be considered as showing the value of 44 different kinds of metal during July, 1876. The prices of the rarer metals have been taken from Trommsdorff's and Schuehardt's last price list, and the initials indicate the authorities consulted. The avordupois lb. is assumed as beiug equal to 453 grammes, and the mark to 24c. gold : — Metal. Value in Price in Au- gold per lb. gold per thor Avord. gramme. ity. $4,792.40 $10.80 S 3,261.60 7.20 S 2,466.20 5.40 s 2,446.20 5.40 s 2,446.20 5.40 s 2,228.76 4.92 s 2,935.44 1,671.57 6.48 s 3.96 s 1,630.08 3.60 s 1,576.44 3.4S s 1,522.08 1,304.61 3.36 T 2.88 T 1,250.28 2.76 s 1,032.84 2.28 T 924.12 2.04 S 738.39 1.63 T 652.32 1.44 T 498.30 1.10 T 466.59 1.03 T 434 88 96 rri X 299.72 239.80 52 196.20 43 196.20 43 122.31 27 108.72 24 T 04.34 12 T 45.30 10 T 22.65 03 T 18.60 16.30 036 S 12.68 028 S 3.80 008 T 3.26 007 T 3.26 007 T 1.95 0043 S 1.00 36 T 25 22 Prices 15 taken 10 from receni 6 quota. tiom Vanadium, cryst. fused. . . Rubidium, wire Calcium, electrolytic Tantalum, pure Cerium, fused globules. . . . Lithium globules Lithium, wire Erbium, fused Didgmium, fused Strontium, electrolytic... Indium, pure Ruthenium, pure Columbium, fused Rhodium Barium, electrolytic Thallium Osmium Palladium Iridium Urarium Gold Titanium, fused Tellurium, fused Chromium, fused Platinum, fused Manganese, fused Molybdenum Magnesium, wire and tape Potassium, globules Silver Aluminum, bar Cobalt, cubes Nickel, cubes Cadmium Sodium Bismuth, crude Mercury Antimony Tin Copper Arsenic Zinc Lead Iron 124 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. ARSENiCAii Soap for tiik Skins of AVild Animals. — Tho skine must be well scraped and divested of all fat, and well rubbed with the following soap. Lime, 1 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. Mix all thoroughly with 1 lb. of yellow soap. This will prove a good preservative. Positive Cctrh for Foot Rot in Siieep. — This is caused by exposure to bad weather, more especially to wet pasturage, etc. When lame, pass them through a trough coutaining a warm solution of arsenic, of nearly the following strength: 4 ozs. arsenic, 4 ozs. oi Boda ash or potash, 1 gal, of water. Boil till dissolved; keep it about three inches deep, so as to cover tho foot as the sheep walk through; the trough should bo about 20 feet long, and just wide enough to admit one sheep walking after the other. A 74 gun ship consumes 2000 tons or trees, the produce of 57 acres for a century. The deepest coal mine in England is, or was, at Killiugworth, near Newcastle, and the mean annual temperature, at 400 yards be- low the surface, is 77°, and at 300 yards, 70°, while at the surface it is but 48°, being 1° of increase for every 15 yards. This explains the origin of hot springs, for, at 3300 yards, the heat would be equal to boilhig water, taking 20 yards to a degree. The heat of the Bath waters is 116°, lience they would appear to rise 1,320 yards. Peron relates, that at the depth of 2144 feet in the sea, the ther- mometer falls to 45°, when it is 8C° at the surface. Swemberg and Fourier calculate the temperature of the celestial spaces at 50 deg. centigrade below freezing. In Northern Siberia, the ground is frozen permanently to the depth of 660 feet, and only thaws to the extent of 3 or 4 feet in sum- mer. Below 660 feet internal heat begins. River water contains about 30 grs. of solid matter in every cubic foot. Fresh water springs of great size abound under the sea. Per- haps the most remarkable springs exist in California, where they are noted for producing sulphuric acid, ink, and other remarkable pro- ducts. St. Winifred's Well, in England, evolves 120 tons of water per minute, furnishing abundant water power to drive 11 mills within little more than a mile. The Nile has a fall of 6 ins. in 1000 miles. The rise of the river commences in June, continuing until the middle of August, attaining an elevation of from 24 to 26 ft. and flowing the valley of Egypt, 12 miles wide. In 1829 it rose to 26 cubits, by which 30.000 persona were drowned. It is a terrible climate to live in, owing to the fester- ing heat, and detestable exhalations from the mud, etc., left on the retiring of the Nile, which adds about 4 inches to the soil in a cen- tury, and enroaches on the sea 16 feet every year. Bricks have been found at a depth of 60 feet, showing the vast antiquity of the coun- try. In productiveness of soil it is excelled by no ocuer in the world. Belzoiii considered the tract between the first and second cata- racts of the Nile, as the hottest on the globe, owing to there being no rain. The natives do not credit the phenomenon of water falling from above. Hence it is, that all monuments are so nicely preserved Buckingham found a building left unfinished about 4000 years .ago and the chalk marks on the stones were still perfect. Porapey's Pillar is 92 ft. high, and 27^ round at the base. SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC 125 The French removed a red granite column 95 ft. high, weighing 210 tons, from Thebes and carried it to Paris. The display of costly architectural ruins at Thebes is one of the most astonishing to be seen anywhere in the world. The ruins and costly buildings, in old Eastern countries, are so vast in their proportions and so many in number, that it Avould require volumes to describe them. Babel, now called Birs Nimroiid, built at Babylon by Belus, was used as an observatory, and as a temple of the Sun. It was com- posed of 8 square towers, one over the other, in all 670 ft. high, and the same dimensions on eacli side, on the ground . The Coliseum at Rome, built by Vespasian for 100,000 spectators, was in its longest diameter 615.5 feet, and in the shortest 510, em- braced 52 acres, and was 120 feet high. Eight aqueducts supplied ancient Rome with water, delivering 40 millio]is of cubic feet daily. That of Claudia was 47 miles long, and 100 feet high,, so as to furnish the hills. Martia was 41 miles, of which 37 were on 7000 arches, 70 feet high. These vast erections would never have been built had the Romans known that water always rises to its own level. The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was 425 feet long, and 225 broad, with 127 columns, 60 feet high, to support the roof. It was 220 years in building. Solomon's Temple, built B. C. 1014, was 60 cubits, or 107 feet in length, the breadth, 20 cubits, or 36 feet, and the height, 30 cubits, or 54 feet. The porch was 36 feet long and 18 feet wide. The largest of the Egyptian pyramids is 543 feet high, 693 feet on the sides, and its base covers 11 acres. The layers of stones are 208 in number ; many stones are over 30 feet long, 4 broad, and 3 thick. The Temple of Ypsambul, in Nubia, is enormously massive, and cut out of the solid rock. Belzoni found in it 4 immense figures 65 ft. high, 25 ft. over the shoulders, with a face of 7 ft. and the ears over 3 ft, Sesostris erected in the temple in Memphis, immense statues of him- self and his wife, 50 ft. high, and of his children, 28 ft. In the Temple of the Sun, at Baalbec, are stones more than 60 ft. long, 24 ft. thick, and 16 broad, each embracing 23,000 cubic feet, cut, squared, sculptured, and transported from neighboring quarries. Six enormous columns are each 72 ft. liigh, composed of 3 stoiies, 7 ft. in diameter. Sesostris is credited with having transported from the mountains of Arabia, a rock 32 feet wide, and 240 ft. long. The engineering appliances used by the ancients in the movement of these immense masses are but imperfectly understood at the present day. During modem times, a block of granite weighing 1217 tons, now used as the pedestal of the equestrian statute of Peter the Great, at St. Petersburg, was transported 4 miles by land over a railway and 13 miles in a vast caisson by water. The railway consisted of two lines of timber furnished with hard metal grooves ; between these grooves were placed spheres of hard brass about 6 ins. diameter. On these spheres the frame with its massive load was easily moved by 60 men working at capstans with treble-purchase block. In 1716, while yet but 28, the illustrious Swedenborg contrived to transport (on rolling machines of his own invention), over valleys and movmtains, 2 galleys, 5 large boats, and 1 sloop, from Stromstadt to 126 FRENCH MEASURES, ETC. Iderf jol (whicli divides Sweden from Norway on the South', a distance of 14 miles; by which means, Charles XII. was able to carry ou his plans, and, under cover of the galleys and boats, to transport on pon- toons, his heavy artillery to the very walls of Frederickshall. As an exponeut of the laws of friction, it may be stated that a square Btone, weighing 1080 lbs. which required a force of 758 lbs. to drag it along the floor of a quarry, roughly chiselled, required only a fcrceot 22 lbs. to move it when mounted on a platform and rollers over a pkuk floor. Water is the absolute master, former, and secondary agent of the power of motion in every thing terrestrial. It is the irresistible power which elaborates everything, and the waters contain more organized "beings than the land. Rivers hold in suspension 100th of their volume (more or less) of mud, so that if 36 cubic miles of water (the estimated quantity) flow daily into the sea, 0.3G cubic miles of soil are daily displaced. The Rhine carries to the sea every day 145.980 cubic feet of mud. The Po carries out the land 228 ft. j)er annum, consequently Adria, which 2500 years ago, Avas on the sea, is now over 20 miles from it. The enormous amount of alluvium deposited by the Mississippi ia almost incalculable, and renders necessary the extensive engineering operations, which are now (1876) being prosecuted in order to remove the impediments to navigation, French Measures with the English Equxvalents. Measures OF Length. — Myrimeter, equivalent to 10,000 meters, or to 6 miles, 1 fur- long, 28% poles. Kilometer, 1,000 meters, or to 3,280 ft. and 10 iiia. Hectometer, 100 meters, 328 ft. and 1 inch. Decameter, 10 meters, equal to 32 and 4-5ths ft. Meter, the unit of the French measure of length, equal to 39.36 inches. Decimeter, 1-10 of a meter, equal to 3.97 inches. Centimeter, 1-100 of a meter, or .39371 inch (nearly 2-5 ths inch). Millimeter, 1-lOOOth of a meter, or .039i inch. Surface Measures.— il/yriare, 100,000 square meters, equal to 246 acres, 3 roods, and 20 poles. Hectare, 10,000 square meters, equal to 11.960 English square yards, or to 2.471 acres. Are, 100 square meters, or 119.6 square yards. Centare, 1 square meter, or 1550 square inches. Measures of Volume.— /fi/o^i^er or Steere, the unit of measure for solid bodies, 1,000 liters, or 1 cubic meter, equal to 35.3171 cubic ft., or to 1 .308 cubio yards, or to 264.17 gallons. Hectoliter, 100 liters, orl-lOth cubic meter, equal to 2 bush., and 3.35 pecks, or 26-417 gals. Decaliter, 10 liters, or 10 cubic deci- meters, equal to 610.28 cubic inches, orto 9.08 qts., or to 2 and 1-5 Imperial gals. Liter, 1 cubic decimeter, a unit of capacity, equal to a little less than an English quart, or precisely .908 qt. Deciliter, 1-lOth liter, or 1 cubic deci- meter, G.1022 cubic inches, equal to 0.176 pint, or .845 gill. Centilliter, 1-lOOth liter, or 10 cubic decimeters, equal to -6102 cubic inch, or .338 fluid oz. Milliliter, 1-lOOOth liter, or 1 cubic centimeter, equal to .061 cubic inch, or .27 fluid drm. Measures of Weight.— ilfiZZier or Tonneau, 1,000,000 grains, or 1 cubic meter of water at its maximum density, equal to 2204.6 Iba. .avoirdupois. Quintal, 100,000 grains, or 1 hectoliter of water, equal to 220.46 lbs, avoirdupois. Myrigram, or 10,000 grains, or 10 liters of water, equal to 22.046 lbs, avoirdupois. Kilogram or Kilo, 1000 grains, or 1 liter of water, equal to 2 lbs, 3 ozs, 65 drs. (2.206 lbs.) avoirdupois. Hectogram, 100 grains, or 1 deciliter of water, equal to 3.5277 ozs. avoirdupois. Gram, the unit of weight, being the weight of 1 cubic centimeter of water, or about 15^4 grains troy. Decigram, 1-10 grain, or 1-10 of a cubio centimeter of water, equal to 1.5432 grains troy. Ce>itigram, 100th gram, or 10 cubic millimeters of water, or equal to 1-543 grains troy. Milligram, 1-1000 gram, orl cubic millimeter of water, equal to .0154 grains troy. "WEIGHTS OF METALS, ETC.* 127 Por surface measurement, the square dekameter is used under the term ol Abk. Number of Cubic Feet rtr A Ton' (Avoirdupois) of DrrPKRENT Materials.— Cast Iron, 4-98 ; Wrought Iron, 4,59 ; Bar Iron, 4-69 ; Steel, rfoft, 4-57 ; Steel, Hard, 4-59 ; Copper, Sheet, 4-62 ; Copper, Cast, 4-04 ; Brass, 4.17 ; -Lead, 3-15 ; Tin, Cast, 4-91 ; Zinc, Cast, 49-8 ; Granite, 13-514 ; Marble, 13-343; Paving Stone, 14-83; Millstone, 14-42; Grindstones, 17 ; Comraoa Stone, 14-22; Fire Brick, 16.284 ; Brick, Mean, 21-961; Anthracite Coal, 21-284 and 24-958 ; Caunel Coal, 23-609 ; Cotton Bale, Mean, 154-48 ; Pressed ditto, from 89-6 to 1-14 ; Hay, Bale, 23-517 ; Bale, Mean, 154-48 ; Hay,PresBed 89-6; Clay, 158-69; Common Soil, 16-335 ; Mud, 21-987 ; Loose Sand, 23-893 ; Earth with Gravel, 16-742 ; India Rubber, 39. 69 ; Plaster of Paris, 21-3 ; Glass 12-44 ; Ice, 38-58 ; Chalk (British), 17-92 : Tallow, 38 ; Oil, 39 ; i^resh Water, 35-84 ; Salt Water, 34-931. Weight of Various Materials in Lbs. (Avoirdupois) per Cubio ITOOT.— Pure Gold, 1203-6 ; Standard Gold, 1102-9 ; Hammered Gold, 1210-11 ; Pure Silver, 654-6 ; Hammered Silver, 656-9 ; Standard SiJver, C58-4 ; Cast Brass, 524-8; Brass Wire, 634 ; Bismuth, Cast, 613-9; Antimony, 418-9; Bronze, 513-4 ,- Cobalt, Cast, 488-2 ; Copper, Cast, 549-3 ; Copper, Sh.iet, 557-2; Copper, Wire, 554-9; Wrought Iron, 486-75 : Iron P'ates, 481-5 ; Cast Iron, 450-4; Gun Metal, 543-75 ; Cast Lead, 709-5 ; Rolled do., 711-75; Red Lead, 558-75 ; Tin, 455-7 ; Platinum, Pure, 1218-8 ; Hammered (lo., 1271, Mercury. 60°, Fluid, 848 ; mercury. Solid, 977 : Nickel, Cast, 487-9 ; Steel, Plates, 480-75; Steel, Soft, 489-6; Type Metal, 653-1; Zinc, Cast, 439; Granite, 1G5-75; Mill- stone, 155-3; Marble, Mean, of nineteen Kinds. 180; Grindstones, 133-9; Firebrick, 137*5; Tile, 114-44; Brick, Mean, 102; Clay, 120; Limestone, Mean, of seven sorts, 184-1; Loose Eartn or Sand, 95; Coarse Sand, 112-5; Ordi- nary Soil, 124; Mud, 102; Clay and Stones, IGO; Slate, 167 to 181-25; Plaster of Paris, 73-5; Plumbago, 131-35; Anthracite Coal, from 89-75 to 102-5; Can- nel Coal, from 77-33 to 82-33; Charcoal from Hard Wood, 18-5; ditto from Soft Wood, 18; Port Wine, 62-31 ; Freshwater, 62-5; Sea Water, 64*3; Dead Sea Water, 77-5; Vinegar, 67-5 ; Alum, 107-10; Asbestos, Starry, 192-1; Ice at 320,57-5; Sulphur, 127-1; Peat, 375 to 83-1; Marl, Mean, 109-33; Hydraulio Lime, 171-60; quartz, 166 25 ; Rock Crystal, 170-94; Salt, Conmion, 133,12 ; Lard, 59-20; Whale Oil, 57-70; Olive Oil, 57-19. Weight of a Cubic Inch of Various Metals in Pounds.— Hammered Gold, .701 lbs: Cast do. (pure), .698; 20 Carats Fine do., .567"; Hammered Silver, .382 ; Pure do., .378 ; Cast Steel, -287 ; Cast Iron, .263 ; Sheet Iron, .279 ; Rolled Platinum, .797; Wire do-, .7(52; Hammered do, .735 ; Sheet Copper, .323 ; Sheet Brass, .394 ; Lead, .410 ; Cast Tin, .264 ; Cast Zinc, .245. Sundry CoMMERCiAii Weights.— A ton of wool is 2 stones of 14 lbs. each, A pack of wool is 240 lbs. A sack of wool is 22 stone of 14 lbs., or 308 lbs. In Scotland, it is 24 of 16 lbs. A keel of 8 Newcastle chaldrons is 15^4 London chaldrons. 66 or 60 lbs. is a truss of hay, 40 lbs. a truss of straw ; 36 trusses a load. A bushel of rock salt is 65 lbs. ; of crxished salt, 56 lbs.; of foreign salt, 84 lbs. A tierce of beef, in Ireland, is 3ai lbs.; and of pork, 320 lbs. A fodder of lead is 191/2 cwt. in London and 21 cwt. in the North. A man's load is 5 bushels, a market load 40, or 5 quarters. A last is 10 quarters of corn, or 2 cart loads, 12 sacks of wool, 21 barrels of gunpowder, 12 barrels of ashes, herring, soap, &c., and 18 barrels of salt. A hundred of salt is 126 barrels. Sundry Measures of Length — The hair's breadth is the smallest, of which 48 are an inch^ Four barley-corns laid breadthwai/s, are % of an inch, called a digit, and 3 barley-corns lengthways are an inch. An Inch is divided into 12 lines and by mechanics into Sths. A nail used in cloth measure, is 2V4 ins. or the 16th of a yard. A palm is 3 ins. and a flpan 9 ins. (See Table of Measures of length, for other designations.) An English Statute mile is 1760 yds. or 5280 ft., an Irish mile 2240 yds., a Scotch mile 1984 yds. ; 80 Scotch miles being equivalent to 91 English, ftnd 11 Iiish to 14 English. 128 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. »IEASUKE3 OF LENGTH. 4 In. mako 1 Hand. 7. 92 In. •* 1 Link. 18 In, 1 Cubit. 12 in. " 1 Foot. 6 Ft. " 1 Fathom. 3 Foet make 1 Yard. eVa Yds. 1 Kod or Pole. 40 Poles " 1 Furloug, 8 Fur. " IMilo. 69 1-12 Miles make 1 Degrec- 60 Geographical Miles makes 1 Degree. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 144 Square Inches mako 1 Square Foot. 9 Square Foet *' 1 Square Yard. 3014 Square Yards " 1 Rod, Perch or Polo, 40 Square Rods " 1 Square Rood. 4 Square Roods " 1 Square Acre, or 43,560 aq. ft. 10 Square Chains " 1 Square Acre. 640 Square Acres " 1 Square Mile. Gunter'a Chain equal to 22 Yards or 100 Links. MEASURES OF SOLIDITY. 1728 Cubic Inches make 1 Cubic Foot. 27 Cubic Feet *' 1 Cubic Yard. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 27^ Grains make 1 Drachm (dr.) or 27^ Gralna. 16 Drachms 1 Ounce (oz.) or 437^^ " 16 Ounces " 1 Pound (lb.) or 7000 " 28 Pounds '< 1 Quarter (qr.) 4 Quarters " 1 Hundred- Weight (cwt.) 20 Cwts. " ITon. TROY WEIGHT. 24 Grains make 1 Pennyweight, or 24 Grains. 20 Pennywts 1 Ounce, or 480 " 12 Ounces '< 1 Pound, or 5760 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 20 Grains make 1 Scruple. I 8 Drachms make 1 Ounce. 3 Scruples " 1 Drachm. | 12 Ounces " 1 Pound. 45 Drop8=l teaspoonful or a fluid Drachm; 2 tablespoonful8=l oz. DIAMOND WEIGHT. 16 Parts make 1 Grain (8-lOths Grain, Troy). 14 Grains "1 Carat (3 l-5th Grains, Troy). MQUID MEASURE. 4 Gills make 1 Pint. I 2 Gallons make 1 Peck. 2 Pints *' 1 Quart. 31i^ Gallons " 1 Barrel. 4 Quarts " 1 Gallon. | 64 Gallons « 1 Hhd. DRY MEASURE. 8 Quarts make 1 Peck. I 8 Bushels make 1 Quarter. 4 Pecks 1 Bushel. | 36 Bushels *' 1 Chaldron. 1 Bushel equal to 2815^4 cubic in. nearly. A bushel of Wheat is on an average 60 lbs.; Barley or Buckwheat, 46 lbs. ; Indian Corn or Rye, 56 lbs. ; Oats, 30 lbs. ; Salt, 70 lbs. 14 lbs. of Lead or Iron make 1 Stone ; 2114 Stone, 1 Pig. 1 Bbl. of Flour contains 196 lbs. ; Beef or Pork, 200 lbs. The Imperial Gallon is 10 lbs. avoirdu- {)ois of pure water ; the Pint 1 1-4 lbs. 1 Gal. Sperm Oil weighs, IVa bs. ; 1 do. of Whale Oil, 7 lbs. 11 ozs. ; 1 do. of Linseed, 7% lbs. ; 1 do. of Olive, 71/2 ibs. ; 1 do. Spfcs. of Turpentine, 7 lbs. 5 ozs. Proof Spirits 7 lbs. 15 ozs. : 1 do. of Ale, 10.5 lbs. SCRirTURE MEASURES, ETC. 129 ScniPTURE Measttbes of Length.— The great Cubit wss 21 -888 ina, =1.824 ft. and the less 18 ins. A Span the longer=% a cubit=10.944 in8.= .912 ft. A Bpau the less=y3 of a cubit=7.296 ins. =.608 ft. A hand's "breadths i/€ of a cubit=3.684 ins.=.304ft. A finger's breath=1.24 of a Cubit=.912 ins.=.076 ft. A fathom=4 cubits=7.296 ft. EzeldeVs Reed= 6 cubit8=10.914 ft. The mile=4000 cubits=7296 ft. The Stadium, 1-10 of their mile=400 cubits=729.6 ft. The Parasang, 3 of their miles=12,000 cubits, or 4 English miles and 580 ft. 33.164 miles was a day's journey— Bome say 24 miles; and 3500 ft. a Sabbath day's journey; some authorities say 3648 ft. Scripture Measures oe Capacitt.— The Chomer or Homer in King James' translation was 75.625 gals, liquid, and 32.125 pecks dry. Tho Ephah or Bath was 7 gals. 4 pts., 15 ins. sol. The Seah, % of Ephah, 2 gals. 4 pts., 3 in. eol. The Hin=i'^ of Ephah, 1 gal., 2 pts., 1 in. sol. Tho Omer=l-10 of Ephah, 5 pts., 0.5 ins. sol. The Cab=l-18of Ephah, 3 pts., 10 ins. sol. The Log=7T^l^ of Ephah, 1/2 Pt-> 10 sol. The metretes of Syria {John ii. 6)=Cong. Rom. 71/3 pts. The Cotyla Eastern=l-100 of Ephah, 1/2 pt. 3 in. eol. This Cotyla contains just 10 ozs. Avordupois of rain water. Omer, 100 ; Ephah, 1000 ; Chomer or Homer, 10,000. Scripture "Weights and Coins.— The following are the Hebrew weights and their equivalent^ in Troy weight ; also their value in pure Gold and Silver :r— Pure Gold. Pure Silver. English Money. The Gerah=Xofa Shekel....^...... The Bekah = Vo Shekel lbs. ozs. dwt. gr. 11 .. .. 4 131/4 .. .. 9 21/0 2 3 0 IOV4 113 10 1 10-% § cts. 0 47 4 69 9 38 562 84 28,142 25 § cts. 0 03 0 30 0 59 35 32 1,766 23 £ s. d. f. 0 0 iy2-{- 0 1 2Va+ 0 2 41 7 15 353,1110 06. The Shekel The Maneh, or Mini=60 Shekels The Talent = 3000 Roman money mentioned in tho New Testament reduced to English and American Standard: — £ B. d. far. $ cts. AMito 0 0 0 0.75 .... 0 00.343 A Farthing, about 0 0 0 1.50 .... 0 00.687 A Penny, or Denarius 0 0 7 2. .... 0 13.75 A Pound, or Mina 3 2 6 0. 13 75. Note — The above determinations of Scripture Measures, "Weights, &c., are principally by the Rt. Rev. Ricl^Wfd, Bishop of Peterborough. Gunter's Chain, Land Measurem:^'^t, &c.— 7-92 inches constitute 1 link ; 100 links 1 chain, 4 rods or poles, or 66 feet, and 80 chains 1 mile. A square chain is 16 square poles, and 10 square chains are 1 acre. Four roods are an acre, each containing 1210 square yards, or 34.785 yards, or cA yards 28 inches each side. Forty poles of 30.25 square yards each is a rood, and a pole is 5^4 yards each way. An acre is 4840 square yards, or 69 yds. 1 ft., ins. each way ; and 2 acres, or 9680 square yds. are 98 yds. 1 ft., 2 ins. each way ; and 3 acres are 120% yds. each way. A square mile, or a U. S. section of Land, is 640 acres; being 1060 yds. each way ; half a mile, or 880 yds. each way, is 160 acres ; a quarter of a mile or 440 yds. each way, is a park or farm of 40 acres ; and a furlong, or 220 yds. each way, is 10 acres. Any length or breadth in yds. which multiplied make 4840 is an aero ; any which makes 12-10 is a rood, and 30.25 is a. pole. An English acre is a square of nearly 70 yds. each way, a Scotch, of IV/^ yds. and an Irish of SSVg yds. 9 130 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ETC. NAUTiCAii Distances, Loa Lines.— A nautical mile, the COth of a degree, is 2020.5 yards ; a niarino league, or 20 to a degree, is G079.5 yards. Log-linea are divided into spaces of 50 feet, and the way measured by a half minute sand-glass, wliicli bears nearly the same projiorlion to an hour, wliich 50 feet bears to a mile, the number of knots which run ofl the reel in half a minute showing the number of miles the vessel sails in an hour. The lino should bo about 150 fathoms long, having 10 fathomfl between the ship and lirst knot for stray line. Estimating a milo at 6139.75 feet, and using aSC glass, 1 knot=51 ft. 1.05 ins. and 1 fathom. 6 ft. 1.395 ins. Or if a glass is used, and 8 divisions, the result will be thus ; 1 knot=47 ft. 9.024 ins. and 1 fathoin=5ft. 11.C27 ins. BoWDiTCii's Navioatoh Computes 6120 ft, to a sea mile, which If taken as the length with a 28'^ glass, will make the divisions 47.0 ft. and 5.95 ft. TENSII.E Strength op Materials, SnowiNO the Strength on roilCE KEQUIllED '10 TEAR ASUNDER 1 SQUARE lN* hot. Acetate of alumina as a mordant, brightness it. The French color named '* Carmelita " is given with catechu lib., verdigris 4 ozs., and sal-ammoniac 5 ozs. Broavn on Wool and Silk.— Infusion or decoction of walnut peels dyes wool and silk brown color, which is brightened by alum. Horse-chestnut peels also impart a brown color; a mordant of muriate of tin turns it on the bronze, and sugar of lead the reddish brown. Solitaire, — Sulphate or muriate of manganese dissolved in water with a little tartaric acid imparts this beautiful bronze tint. The stuff after being put through the solution must bo turned through a weak lye of potash, and afterwards through another of chloride of lime, to brighten and fix it. PrussiatQ of copper gives a bronze or yelloioish broicn color to silk. The piece well mordanted with blue vitriol, may be passed through a solution ot prussiate of potash. Fuller's Purifier for Cloths. — Dry, pulverize, and sift the following ingredients : Fuller's earth G lbs., French clialk 4 ozs., pipe clay 1 lb. ; make into a paste with rectified oil of turpentine 1 oz., alcohol 2 ozs., melted oil soap 1\ lbs. Compound the mixture into cakes of any desired size, for sale if required, keeping them in water, or small wooden boxes."' Green on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use fustic 10 lbs., blue vitriol 10 ozs., soft soap 2^ qts., and logwood chips 1 lb. 4 ozs. Soak the logwood over night in a brass vessel, put it on the fire in the raomir(g adding the other ingredients. When quite hot it is ready for dyeing ; enter the goods at once, artd handle well. Different shades 138 DTEnS AXD BLEAcncns' Ki:ci:rPT3. may bo obtained by letting part of the goods remain longer in tlio dye. Pink Dye von Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use redwood 20 lbs., muriate of tin 2.|j ll)s. ; boil tlio redwood 1 liour, turn off into a large vessel, add tlic muriate of tin, and i)ut in tlic goods, let it stand a few minutes (5 or 10), and a nice pinlc will bo produced. It is quito ii fast color. rcRPLB Dye roll Silk.— For 10 lbs. of goods, enter your goods in l)lue dye bath, and secure a light blue color, dry, ajid dij) in a -warm solution containing alum 2^ lbs. Should a deeper color bo required, add a little extract of indig-o. Yellow on Silk. — For 10 lbs. goods, use sugar of lead 7^ ozs., alum 2 lbs., enter the goods and let them remain 13 hours, romovo them, drain, and make a new dye with fustic 10 lbs. Immerse until the color suits. PuiiPLE ox Cotton. — G9t up a tub of hot logwood liquor, enter 3 pieces, give them 5 ends, hedge out ; enter them into a clean alum tub, give them 5 ends, hedge out; get up anotlier tub of logwood liquor, enter, give them 5 ends, hedge out ; renew your alum tub, give them 5 ends in that, and finish. Black on Cotton.— For 40 lbs. goods, use sumac 30 lbs., boil | Lour, let the goods steep over night, and immerse them in lime water 40 minutes, remove, and allow them to drip f hour, now add copperas 4 lbs. to the sumac liquor, and di]o 1 hour more ; next work them through lime water for 20 minutes, next make a new d^^o of logwood 20 lbs., boil 2^ hours, and enter the goods 3 hours, then add bi-chro- mate of potash 1 lb. to the new dye, and dip 1 hour more. Work in clean cold Avater and dry out of the sun. Red Dye for Wool. — For 40 lbs. of goods, make a tolerably thick ]iaste of lac dye and sulphuric acid, and allow it to stand for a day. Now take tartar 4 lbs., tin liquor 2 lbs, 8 ozs., and 3 lbs. of the above l)aste, make a hot bath with sufficient water, and enter the goods for 3 hour, afterwards carefully rinse aud dry. Yellow on Cotton.— For 40 lbs. goods, use sugar of lead 3 lbs. 8 ozs., dip the goods 2 hours. Make a new dye with bi-chromato of potash. 2 lbs., dip until the color suits, wring out and dry, if not yellow enough repeat the operation. Violet Dye on Silk or Wool. — A good violet dye may be given Tjy passing the goods first through a solution of verdigris, then through a decoction of logwood, and lastly alum water. A fast' violet may bo given by dyeing the goods crimson with cochineal, without alum or tartar, and after rinsing, passing them through the indigo vat. Linens or Cottons are first gaUed with 18° lo of gall nuts, next passed through a mordant of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, working them well, then worked in a madder bath made with an equal weight of root, and lastly brightened with soap or soda. Slate Dye on Silk, — For a small quantltj'-, take a pan of warm water, and about a teacupf ul of logwood liquor, pretty strong, and a i^iece of pearlash the size of a nut ; take gray colored goods aui landle a little in this liquid, and it is finished. If too much logwood is used, the color will be too dark. A Straio color on silk.— Use smartweed, boil in a brass vessel, and set with alum. Lilac Dye on Silk,— For 5 lbs. of silk, use archil lbs., mix it DTERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS, 139 well with the liqnor ; make it boil ^ hour, dip the silk quickly, then let it cool, and Avash it iu river water, aud a fine half violet, or lilac, more or less full, will be obtained. Gkeen Dye on Silk. — Take green ebony, boil it in water, and let it settle ; take the clear liquor as hot as you can bear your hands iu it and haiMle your goods in it until of a bright yellow ; then take water and put in a little sulphate of indigo ; handle your goods in this till of the shade desired. The ebony may previously be boiled in a bag to prevent it sticking to the silk. Bkown on Silk. — ^Dissolve annatto 1 lb., pearlash 4 lbs., in boiling water, and pass the silk through it for 2 hours, then take it out, gqueeze it well and dry ; next give it a mordant of alum, and pass it first through a bath of Brazil-wood, and afterwards through a bath of logwood to which a little green copperas has been added, wring it out and dry, afterwards rinse well. Brown Dye on Cotton or Linen.— Give the pieces a mixed mordant of acetate of alumina and acetate of iron, and then dye them in a bath of madder, or madder and fustic, when the acetate of alumina predominates the dye has an amaranth tint. A cinnamon tint is obtained by first givmg a mordant of alum, then a madder bath, then a bath of fustic, to which a little green copperas has been r.dded. MuLBERKY ON SiLK.— For 5 Ibs. of silk, nse alum 1 lb. 4 ozs., dip CO mmutes, wash out, aud make a dye with Brazil-wood 5 ozs., and logwood IJ ozs. by boihng together; dip in this \ hour, then add more Brazil-wood and logwood, equal parts, mitil the color suits. Green Dye on Wool and Silk. — Equal quantities of yellow oak and hickory bark, make a uti'ong yellow bath by boiling, shade to the desired tint by adding a small quantity of extract of indigo. Orange Dye. — For 40 lbs of goods, use sugar of lead 2 lbs., boil 15 minutes, when a little cool, enter the goods, and dip for 2 hours, wring them out, make a fresh dye with bi-chromate of potash, 4 lbs., madder 1 lb., immerse until of the desired color. The shade may bo varied by dipping in lime water. Blue on Cotton. — ^For401bs. of goods, use copperas 2 lbs., boil and dip 20 minutes, then dip in soap suds, and return to the dye 3 or 4 times ; then, make a new bath with prussiato of potash \ lb., oil of vitriol li pts. ; boil ^ hour, rinse out and dry. SOLFERINO AND MAGENTA DyES ON WhITE "WOOLLEN, SiLK, Olt Cotton and Woollen Mixtures.— For 1 lb. of woollen goods, Magenta shade, 9G grs. apothecaries* weight, of aniline red, will bo required; dissolve in a little warm alcohol; using say 6 fluid ozs. of alcohol, or about 6 gills alcohol per oz. of aniline. Many dyers use wood spirit because of its cheapness. For a Solferino shade, use 04 grs. aniline red, dissolved in 4 ozs. alcohol, to each 1 lb. of goods. Cold water 1 (ft. will dissolve these small quantities of aniline red, but the cleanest and quickest way will be found by using the alcohol, or wood spirit. Clean the cloth and goods by steepiug at a gentle heat in weak soap suds, rinse in several messes of clean water and lay aside moist. The alcoholic solution of aniline is to be added from time to time to the warm or hot dye bath, till the color on the goods is of the desired shade. The goods are to be removed from the dye bath before each addition of the alcoholic solution, and the bath is to bo 140 DTKRS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. well stirred before the goods nro returned. The alcoholic fiolution Kliould bo lii-st dropped into a little -water, and avcII mixed, and tlio juixturo tiliould tlicn bo .strained into tlio dyo batli. If tlio color it* jiot darlv enough alter working from 20 to 30 minutes, repeat tlie re- jnoval of tlic goods from tho batli, and the addition of the solution, and tho re-immersion of the goods from 15 to 30 minutes more, or un- til suited, then remove from the bath, and rinse in several messes of cle<'in water, and dry in tlio shade. Use about 4 gals, water for d^-o- bath for 1 lb. of goods; less wateu for larger quantities. Liquid Dyis Coloes.— 1. Blue,. Dilute Saxon blue or sulphate of indigo with water. If required for delicate worlc, neutralize Avith chalk. 2. Purple. Add a little alum to a strained decoction of log- wood. 3. Green. Dissolve sap green in Avater and add a little alum. 4. Yellow. Dissolve aunatto in a Aveak \jq of subcarbonato of soda or potiish. 5. Golden color. Steep French berries in hot Avater, strain, and add a little gum and alum. G. Red. Dissolve carmine in am- monia, or in Aveak carbonate of potash water, or infuse powdered cochineal in water, strain, and add a little gum in Avater. The pre- ceding colors, thickened with a little gum, may be used as inks in writing, or as colors to tint maps, foils, artificial flowers, &c., or to paint on velvet. ■ To Cleanse Wooii. — Make a hot bath composed of water 4 parts, urine 1 part, enter the wool, teasing and opening it out to admit the full action of the liquid ; after 20 minutes' immersion, remove from the liquid and alloAV it to drain, then rinse it in clean running water, and spread out to dry. The liquid is good for subsequent operations, only keep up the proportions, and use no soap. 1 STAEcn Lustre. — A portion of stearine, the size of an old-fashioned cent, added to starch ^ half lb., and boiled with it for 2 or 3 minutes Avill add greatly to the beauty of Imen, to which it may be applied. See nlso Starch Polish under the Grocers' Department. To Dye Hats. — The hats should be at first strongly galled by boiling them a long time in a decoction of galls with a little logwood, that the dye may penetrate the better into their substance ; after which a proper quantity of vitriol and decoction of logwood, with a little verdigris, are added, and the hats continued in this mixture for a considerable time. They are afterwards put into a fresh liquor of logwood, galls, vitriol, and verdigris, and, Avhen the hats are of great price, or of a hair Avhich with difficulty takes the dye, the same pro- cess is repeated a third time. For obtaining the most perfect color, the hair or Avool is dyed blue previously to its being formed into hats. Chestxu^ Bkowk ox Straw Bonxets. — For 25 hats, use groimd Sanders 1^^ lbs., ground curcuma 2 lbs., powdered gall nuts, or sumac lb., rasped logwood -^-^ lb. Boil all together with the hats in a large kettle (so as not to croAvd), for 2 hours, then withdraw the hats, rinse, and let them remain overnight in a bath of nitrate of 4° Baume, when ' they are Avashed. A darker brown maybe obtained by increashig the quantity of sanders. To give the hats the desired lustre, they are brushed with a brush of dog's (couch) grass, when dry. Violet Dye on Straw Bonnets. — Take alum 4 lbs., tartaric acid 1 lb., chloride of tin 1 lb. Dissolve and boil, alioAV the liats to I DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 141 rcmrfin iii the boiling solution 2 hours, then add as much of a decoction of logwood and carmine of indigo as is requisite to induce the desired shade, and lastly, rinse finally in water in which some alum has been dissolved. Silver Grey Dye on Straw. — For 25 hats, select your whitest hats and soften them in a bath of crystallized soda to which some clean lime water has been added. See " Lime loater" below. Boil for 2 hours in a large vessel, using for a bath a decoction of the following, •viz. : alum 4 lbs., tartaric acid § lb., some ammoniacal cochineal, and carmine of indigo ; a little sulphuric acid Inay be necessary in order to neutralize the alkali of the cochineal, dye. If the last-mentioned ingredients are used, let the hats remain for an hour longer in the l)oiling bath, then rinse in slightly acidulated Avater. LniE Water For Dyers' Use, — Put stone lime 1 lb., and strong lime w^ater 1^ lbs. into a pail of water ; rummage well for 7 or 8 minutes, then let it rest until the lime is precipitated and the water clear ; add this quantity to a tubf ul of clear water. Dark Steel Color. — Mix black and white wool together in tho proportion of 60 lbs. of black wool to Ih, lbs. of white. For large or small quantities keep the same proportion, mixing carefully and thoroughly. To Render Amltne Colors Soluble in Water. — A solution of gelatine in acetic acid of almost the consistence of syrups is first made, and the aniline in fine powder is gradually added, stirring all the time so as to make a homogeneous paste. The mixture is then to be heated over a water bath to the temperature of boiling water and kept at that heat for some time. Aniline Green on Silk. — ^Iodine green or night green dissolves easily in warm water. For a liquid dye, 1 lb. may be dissolved in 1 gal. alcohol, and mixed with 2 gals, water, containing 1 oz. sulphuric acid. To Dye Aniline Scarlet.— For every 40 lbs. of goods, dissolve 5 lbs. white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) at 180° Fah., place the goods into this bath for 10 minutes, then add the color, prepared by boiling lor a few minutes, 1 lb. aniline scarlet in 3 gals, water, stirring the same continually. This solution has to be filtered before being add- ed to the bath. The goods remain in the latter for 15 minutes, when they have become browned and must be boiled for another half hour in the same bath after the addition of sal-ammoniac. The more of this is added the deeper will be the shade. ;6iSMARCK Brown for dyeing. — Mix together 1 lb. Bismarck, 5 gals, water, and | lb. sulphuric acid. This paste dissolves easily in hot water and may be used directly for dyeing, A liquid dye may- be prepared by making the bulk of the above mixture, to 2 gals, with alcohol. To dye with the above mixture, sour with sulphuric acid ; add a quantity of sulphate of soda, immerse the wool, and add the color by small portions, keeping the temperature under 212° Fah. Very mteresting shades may be developed by combuiing the color with indigo paste or picric acid. To Dye Wool with Aniline Green. — ^For wool, prepare two baths, one containing the dissolved dye and a quantity of carbonate of soda or borax. La this the wool is placed, and the temperature ig raised to 212° Fah. A greyish green is produced, which must be 142 DYEIIS AND bleachers' KECEIPTS. brightened and fixed in a second bath of -n-atcr 100° Fah., to whirh Borao acetic acid has been added. Cotton requires preparation by Buniac. Anilike Bluk.— To 100 lbs. of fabric dissolve IJ lbs. anihne blue in 3 qts. liot alcohol ; strain througli a filter and add it to a bath of 130" Fah. ; also 10 lbs. glauber salts, and 5 lbs. acetic acid. Enter the goods and handle them well for 20 mimites ; next heat it slowly to 200° Fah. ; then add 5 lbs. sulphnric acid dilated with water. Let the whole boil 20 minutes longer ; then rinse and dry. If tho aniline be added in two or three proportions during the process of coloring, it will facilitate the evenness of the color. Akiline Red. — Enclose the aniline in a small muslin bag ; have a kettle (tin or brass) filled with moderately hot water and rub the sub- stance out. Then immerse the goods to be colored, and in a shoi-t time they arc doie. It improves tho color to wring the goods out of strong soap suds before putting them hi the dye. Tliis is a permanent color on wool or silk. Aniline Violet and PuurLE.— Acidulate the bath by sulphuric ncid, or use sulphate of soda ; both these substances render the shade bluish. Dye at 212° Fah. To give a fair middle shade to 10 lbs. of wool, a quantity of solution equal to I2 to | ozs. of the solid dye will bo required. The color of the dyed fabric is improved by washing in soap nnd water, and then passing through a bath soured by sulphuric acid. Aniline Black for DzEiNr:. — ^\Vater 20 to 30 parts, chlorate of potassa 1 part ; sal-ammoniac 1 part ; chloride of copi^er 1 part ; anilme hydrochloric acid, of each 1 part, previously mixed together. It is essential that the preparation should be acid, and the more acid it is the more rapid Avill be the i)roductiou of the blacks; if too much £0, it may injure the fabric. New Mokdant for Aniline Colors. — Immerse tho goods for some hours in a bath of cold water in which chloride or acetate of zinc has been dissolved until the solution shows 2° Baume ; for tho wool the mordanting bath should be at a boiling heat, and the goods should also be placed in a warm bath of tannin, 00° Fah., for half an liour. In dyeing, a hot solution of tho color must be used to which should be added, in the case of the cotton, some chloride of zinc, and, in the case of the wool, a certain amount of tannin solution. To DrE Aniline Yellow. — This color is slightly soluble in water, and for dyers' use may be used directly for the preparation of the bath dye, but is best used by dissolviug' 1 lb. of dye in 2 gals, alcohol. Temperature of bath should be under 200° Fah. The color is much improved and brightened by a trace of sulphuric acid. To DrE with Alkali Blue and Nicholson's Blue.— Dissolve 1 lb. of the dye in 10 gals, boiling water, add this by small portions to the dye bath, which should be rendered alkahne by borax. The fabric should be well worked about between each addition of the color. The temperature must be kept xmder 212° Fah. To develop - the color, wash with water and pass through a bath containing sul- phuric acid. Aniline Brown Dye. — Dissolve 1 lb. of the brown in 2 gals, of spirit, specific gravity 8200, add a suliicient quantity to the dye bath, and immerse the fabric. Wool possesses a very strong afiQiiity £ot this color and no mordant is required. DYERS AND BLEACHERS* RECEIPTS. 143 To Extract Oil Spots feosi Fikished Goods. — Saturate tne spot ■with ■benzine, then place two pieces of very soft blotting pai^er under and two upon it, press well with a hot iron, and the grease will bo absorbed. To Preserve Goods and Clothing from Mildew.— Alum, 2 lbs,, dissolved in CO lbs. water ; blue vitriol, 2 lbs., dissolved in 8 lbs. of water ; to which is added gelatine 1 lb., dissolved in 30 lbs. of water ; acetate of lead, ^ lb. dissolved in 30 lbs. of water. The solutions are all hot, and separately mixed, with the exception of the vitriol, which is added. To Bleach Peathers.— Place the feathers from 3 to 4 hours in a tepid dilute solution of bi-chromato of potassa, to which, cautiously, some nitric acid has been added (a small quantity only). To remove a greenish hue induced by this solution, place them in a dilute so- lution of sulphuric acid, in water, whereby the leathers become perfectly white and bleached. To Clean Straw Bonnets. — First, brush them with soap and water, then with a solution of oxalic acid. Crimson. — For 1 lb. of silk, alum, 3 oz. ; dip at hand-heat, 1 hour; take out and drain, while makuig a new dye, by lolling, 10 minutes, cochineal, 3 oz. ; brused nut-galls, 2 oz, ; and cream of tartar, ^ oz., ia one pail of water; when a little cool, begin to dip, raising the heat to a boil, continuing, to dip 1 hour ; wash, and dry. CiNNAJNiON OB Brown ON CoTTON AND SiLK, — Give the goods as much color, from a solution of blue vitriol, 2 oz., to water, one gal,, as it will take Pip in dippuig 15 minutes; then run it through lime-water; this will make a beautiful sky-blue of much durability; it has now to be run through a solution of jmissiate of potash, 1 oz., to water, 1 gal. Aniline Black on Silk or Cotton. — ^Water, 20 to 30 parts,- chlorate of potassa, Ijiart; sal-ammoniac, Ipart; chloride of copper, 1 part; aniline, 1 part; and hydrocloric, 1 part; previously mixed together. The fabric or yarn is dried in ageing rooms at a low tem- perature for 24 hours, and washed afterwards. To Color Straw Hats or Bonnets a Beautiful Slate. — First, soak the bonnet in rather strong warm ends for 15 minutes to remove sizing or stiffening; then rinse in warm water, to get out the soap; now scald cudbear, 1 oz.,»in sufficient water to cover the hat or boimet; work the boimet in this dye, at 180° of heat, until you get a light-purple, now have a bucket of cold-water, blued with the extract of indigo, ^oz., and work or stir the bomiet in this, until tlie tint pleases; dry, then rinse out with cold water, and dry again in the shade. If you get the purple too deep in shade the final slate will bo too dark. To Clean Ostrich Feathers.— Cut some white curd soap in email pieces, pour boiling water on them and add a little pearl ash. "When the soap is quite dissolved, and the mixture cool enough for the hand to bear, plunge the feathers into it, and draw them through the hand till the dirt appears squeezed out of them, pass them through a clean lather with some blue in it, then rinse them in cold water with blue to give them a good color. Beat them, against the hand to shake off the water, and dry by shaking them near a fire. When perfectly dry, coil each fibre separately with 9t blunt knife, or ivory folder. DYER3 AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. To Ct.tian Ferns. — For dark furs; warm n quantity of new bran in n pan, talcinjj care tliat it docs not burn, to prevent whicli it inuHt bo bri.slcly stirred. AVhcn well warmed rub it tliorouglily into tlie fur witli the liand. Repeat thin two or tlirec times, then shake the fur, and give it another sharp brusliing until free from dust. For while furs; lay them on a table, and rub well Avitli bran made moist with •warm water, rub until quite dry, and afterwards with dry bran, Tho wet bran should be put on with flannel, tlien dry with book nmslin. Light furs, in addition to the above, should be Avell rubbed with mag- nesia or a piece of book muslin, after tho bran process, against tlio way of tho fur. Washing Fluid.— Take 1 lb. sal soda, ^ lb. good stone lime, and 5 qts. of water; boilasliort time, let it settle, and i)our off tho clear fluid into a stone jug, and cork for use; soak your white clothes over night in simple water, wring out and soap wristbands, collars, and dirty or stained places; have your boiler half filled with water just bogiuuiug to boil, then put in one common teacupf ul of fluid, stir and put in your clothes, and boil for half an hour, then rub lightly through one suds only, and all is complete. Chip or Straw Hats or Bonnets may be dyed black by boiling ' them three or four hours in a strong liquor of logwood, adding a littro copperas occasionally. Let tlie bonnets remain in the liquor all night ; then take out to dry' in the air. If the black is not satisfactory, dyo again after drying. Rub inside and out with a sponge moistened in fine oil; then block. Red Dye. — Boil ground Brazil-wood in a ley of potash, and boil your straw hats, &c. , in it. Blue Dye. — Take a suffi- cient quantity of potash ley, 1 lb. of litmus or lacmus, gTound ; mako a decoction and then put in the straw, and boil it. DrES FOR Hats. — ^The ordinary bath for dyeing hats, employed by the London manufactures, consists, for twelve dozen, of 144: ibs. of logwood; 12 lbs. of green sulphate of iron or copperas; 7J lbs. verdi- gris. The logwood having been introduced into the copper, and digested for some time, the copperas and verdigris are added in suc- cessive quantities, and in the above proportions, along with every successive two or three dozens of hats suspended upon the dripping machine. Each set of hats, after being exposed to the bath with occasional airings during forty minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid out upon the ground to be more completely blackened by tho peroxy- dizement of the iron with the atmospheric oxygen. In three or four liours, the dyeing is completed. "When fully dyed, tho hats are well washed in running water. Waterproof Stiffening for Hats. — Islrx 18 lbs. of shellac with 1\ lb. of salt of tartar (carbonate of potash), and 5^ gals, water. These materials are to be put in a kettle, and made to boil gradually till the lac is dissolved, when the liquid will become as clear as water, without any scum upon tiie top, and if left to cool, will have a thin crust upon the surface, of whitish cast, mixed witli the light impuri- ties of the gum. When this skin is taken off, the hat body is to bo' dipped into the mixture in a cold state, so as to absorb as much as possible of it; or it may be applied with a brush or sponge. The hat Dody,being thus stiffened,ma3'^ stand tillit becomes dry, ornearlyso; and after it has been brushed, it must be immersed in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid, in order to neutralize the potash, and cause the shellac DTER3 AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS, 145 to set. If the hats are'iiot to bo napped immediately, they may bo thrown into a cistern of pure water, and taken out as wanted. Method op Bleaching Stkaw. — Dip the straw in a solution of oxygenated muriatic acid, saturated with potash. (Oxygenated muriate of lime is much cheaper). The straw is thus rendered very white, and its flexibility is increased. Bleaching Straw Goods. — Straw is bleached by simply exposing it in a closed chamber to the fumes of burning sulphur, an old iiour barrel is the apparatus most used for the purpose by milliners, a flat stone being laid on the ground, the gulphur ignited thereon, imd tlio barrel containing the goods to be bleached turned over it. The goods should be previously washed in pure water. Vaenish for faded Rubber Goods. — Black Japan varnish dilu- ted with a little linseed oil. To Bleach Linen. — Mix common bleachlng-powder, in the pro- portion of 1 lb. to a gallon of water; stir it occasionally for three days, let it settle, and pour it off clear. Then make a ley or lib. of soda to 1 gallon of boiling soft water, in which soak the linen for 13 hours, and boil it half an hour; next soak it in the bleaching liquor, made as above; and lastly, wash it in the usual maimer. Discolored linen or muslm may be restored by i)uttmg a portion of bleaching liquor into the tub wherein the articles are soalmig. Dye for Feathers. — Dlach : Immerse for 2 or 3 days in a bath, at first hot, of logwood, 8 parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, 1 part. Blue : with the indigo vat. Broion : by using any of tho brown dyes for silk or woollen. Crimson : a mordant of alum, fol- lowed by a hot bath of Brazil wood, afterwards by a weak dye of cudbear. Pink or Rose: with saf -flower or lemon juice. P'kmi: "vvith the red dye, followed by an alkaline bath. Red : a mordant of alum, followed by a bath of Brazil-wood. Yelloio : a mordant of alum, followed by a bath of turmeric or weld. Green Bye. Take of verdigris and verditer, of each 1 oz. ; gum water, 1 pt. ; mix them well and dip the feathers, they having been first soaked in hot water, into the said mixture. For Purple, use lake and indigo. For Car- nation, vermilion and smalt. Thin gum or starch water should bo used in dying feathers. Colors fob Artificial Flowers.— The French employ velvet, fine cambric and Md for the petals, and taffeta for the leaves. Very irecently thin plates of dZeac/iecZ whalebone have been used for soma portions of the artificial flowers. Colors and Stains. Blue. — Indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and the acid partly neutralized with salt of tartar or whiting. Green.— A. solution of distilled verdigris. Lilac. — Liquid archil. Red. — Carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tar- tar, or in spirits of hartshorn. Violet. — Liquid archil mixed with a little salt of tartar. Yellow. — Tincture of turmeric. The colors aro generally applied with the fingers. Black Varnish fob Chip and Straw Hats. — Best alcohol, 4 oz. ; pulverized black sealing-wax, 1 oz. ; put them into a i^hial, and put the p>hial into a warm \A.a,ce, stirring or shaking occasionally until the wax is dissolved. Apply it when Avarm before the fire or in the sun. This makes a beautiful gloss. Easy Method of preventing Moths in Furs or Woollens. —Sprinkle tho furs or wooUen stuffs, as well as tho drawers or boxes ^ ' ~ 10 - 14G DYERS AND BLEACITEKS' RECEIPTS. in wliicli they aro kept, with spirits of turpentine, the unplcnsant scent of whicli will Hpeedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to tlie air. Some persons place sheets of paper moistened with spirits of turpentine, over, under, or between pieces of cloth, &c., and lind it a very effectual method. Many woollen drapers put bits of cam- phor, tlie size of a nutmeg, in papers, on different parts of the shelves m their shops, and as they brush their cloths every two, tiiree or four months, this keeps them free from moths : and tl'iis should be done hi boxes where the furs, &c., aro put. A talloAV candle is frequently put within each muff when laid by. Snuff or pepper is very good. Clothing Renovator.— Soft water, 1 gal. ; malce a strong decoc- tion of logwood by boiling the extract with the water. Strain, when cool, add 2 oz. gum arable hi i)Owder ; bottle, cork Avell, and set aside for use ; clean the coat well from grease and dirt, and apply tho above liquid with a sponge evenly. Dilute to suit the color, and hang in the shade to dry ; afterwards brush the nap smooth, and it will look like new. WATERrROOF FOR ToROUS Cloth.— Dissoivo 2^ lbs. alum in 4 gals, water ; dissolve also in a separate vessel the same weight of acetate of lead in the same quantity of water, AVhen both are well dissolved, mix the solutions together ; and, when the sulphate of lead resulting from this mixture has been precipitated to the bottom of the vessel ui the form of a powder, pour off the solution, and plunge into it the fabric to be rendered waterproof. Wash and rub it well during a few minutes, and hang it m the air to dry. To Remove Grease. — Aqua ammonia, 2 oz. ; soft water, 1 quart ; saltpetre, 1 teaspoonful ; shaving soap in shavings, 1 oz. ; mix altogether ; dissolve the soap well, and any grease or dirt that caimot be removed with this preparation, nothing else need be tried for it. Waterproofing for Clothing. — Boiled oil, 15 lbs. ; bees-wax, 1 lb. ; ground litharge, 13 lbs. ; mix and apply with a brush to tho article, previously stretched against a wall or a table, previously well washing and drying each article before applying the composition. To Renew Old Silks. — Unravel and piit tliem in a tub, cover thcOT with cold water, let them remain one liour ; dip them up and dovm, but do not wrmg ; hang up to dram, and iron while very damp, and they will look beautiful. Dyes for Furs. — For black, use the hair dye described in these receipts. Broicn, use tincture of logwood. Jled, ground Brazil- wood, ^ lb. ; water, 1^ quarts ; cochineal, ^ oz. ; boil the Brazil-wood in the water one hour ; strain and add the cochineal ; boil fifteen minutes. Scarlet color, boil ^ oz. saffron hi ^ pint of water, and pass over the work before applyuig tho red. Blue, logwood, 7 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; water, 22 oz. ; boil. Purple, logwood, 11 oz. ; alum, G oz. ; water, 29 oz. Green, strong vinegar, 1^ pints ; best verdigris, 2 oz. ; groimd fine ; sap green, J oz. ,; mix allltogether and boil. Potter's Invisible VVaterproofing. — Imbue the cloth on tho wrong side with a solution of isinglass, alum, and soap dissolved in ■water, forming an emulsion of a milky thickness ; apply with a l)rush, rubbing in well. AVhen dry, it is brushed on the wrong sido against the grain, and then gone over with a brush dipped in water * afterwards brushed downi smooth. To KAisE A Nap on- Cloth.— Clean tho article well ; soak it in MEDICAL DErARTMENT. 147 cold water for half an hour ; ptit it on a board, and rub the thread- bare parts Avith a half--\torn hatter's card filled Avith flocks, or with a teazle or a prickly thistle until a nap is raised ; then lay the nap the right way with a hatter's brush, and hang up to dry. Black Reviver fou Cloth. — Bruised galls, 1 lb. ; logwood, 2 lbs. ; green vitriol, -J lb. ; water, 5 quarts ; boil two hours ; strain, and it is ready for use". MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, &o. Rules for Action, very Short but vert Safe.— In health and disease endeavor always to live on the sunny side. Sir James Wylie, late physician to the Emperor of Russia, remarked during long observation in the hospitals of that country, that the cases of death occurring ui rooms averted from the light of the sun, were four times more numerous than the fatal cases in the rooms exposed to the di- i-ect action of the solar rays. When poison is swallowed, a good off- liand remedy is to mix salt and mustard, 1 heaped teaspoonful of each, in a glass of water and drinlc immediately. It is quick in its operation. Then give the whites of 2 eggs in a cup of coffee, or the eggs alone if coffee camiot be had. For acid poisons give acids. In cases of opium poisoning, give strong coffee and keep moving. For light burns or scalds, dip the part in cold water or in flour, if the skin is destroyed, cover with varnish. If yon fall into the water, float on the back, with the nose and month projecting. For apoplexy, raise the head and body ; for faintmg, lay the person flat. Suck pois- oned wounds, nnless your month is sore. Enlarge the Avomid, or better cut out the part without delay, cauterize it with caustic, the end of a cigar or a hot coal. If an artery is cut, compress above the wound ; if a vein is cut, compress below. If choked, get upon all-fours and cough. Before i)assing through smoke take a full breath, stoop low, then go ahead ; but if you fear carbonic acid gas, walk erect and be careful. Smother a fire with blankets or carpets ; water tends to spread burning oil and increase the danger. Remove dust from the eyes "by dashing water into them, and avoid rubbing. Remove cinders, &c., ■with a soft, smooth wooden point. Preserve health and avoid catchmg cold, bv regular diet, healthy food and cleanliness. Sir Astley Cooper said: "The methods by which I have preserved my own health, are temperance, early rising, and sponging the body every morning with cold water, immediately after getting out of bed ; a practice which I have adopted for 30 years without ever catching cold." Water di- luted with 2 per cent. o"f carbolic acid will disinfect any room or build- ing, if liberally nsed as a sprinkle. Diphtheria can be cured by a gar- gle of lemon juice, swallowing a little so as to reach all the affected parts. To avert cold from the feet, wear two pairs of stockings made from different fabrics, one pair of cotton or silk, the other of wool, and the natural heat of the feet will be preserved if the feet are kept clean. In arranging sleeping rooms the soundest and most refreshmg slum- "ber will be enjoyed when the head is towards the north. Late hours H. 148 MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC. and iinxious pnrsnitg exhauHt vitality, producing disease and prem- ature death, tliercfore tlio lioiirs of labour and study should bo sliort. Take al^undant exercise and recreation. Bo moderate in eating and drinking, using simple and i^lain diet avoiding strong drink, tobacco, snul'f, opium and every excess. Keep tlio body Avarm, tlie temper calm, serene and placid ; slaui idleness ; if your liands cannot l)0 \iso- fuUy employed, attend to the cultivation of your minds. For puro hcaltli giving fresh air, go to tho country. Dr. Stockton Hough as- serts that if all the inhabitants of the Avoiid wcro living in cities of tho magnitude of London, tho human raco Avould become extinct in a century or two. Tiio mean average of liuman life in the United States is 3S)j: years, while in New Yorlc and I'liiladelphia it is only 23 years ; about 50 per cent, of tho deaths in those cities being of cliiidren un- der five years of age. A great percentage of this excessive mortality is caused by bad air and bad food. To ASCERTAIN THE Statb OF THH Luxc.s. — Draw iu as much breath as you conveniently can, then count as long as possible in a slowand audible voice without drawing in more breath. The number '( of seconds must be carefally noted, in a consumptive the time doe.n not exceed 10, and is frequently less than (5 seconds ; in pleurisy and pneumonia it ranges from 9 to 4 seconds. AVhen the lungs are sound the time will range as high as from 20 to 35 seconds. To expand, tho lungs, go into the air, vStand erect, throw back the head and choulders, and draw in the air through the nostrils as mucli as possible. After iiaving then filled the lungs, raise your arms, still extended, and suck in the air. When you have thus forced the arms backward, with tlie chest open, change the process by which you draw iu your breath, till the lungs are emptied. Go through the process several times a day, and it will enlarge the chest, give the lungs better play, and serve very much to ward off consumption. Kemedy for NEURAi^GtA. — Ilypophospliito of soda taken in 1 dram doses 3 times per day in beef tea is a good remedy for this painful affection. So is tlio application of bruised horse-radish, or the application of oil of peppermint applied lightly with a camel hair pencil. Remedy for Headache. — A Parisian physician has published a new remedy for headaches. Ho uses a mixture of ice and salt, in proportion of one to one-half, as a cold mixture, and this he applies by means of a little purse of sillc gauze, with a rim of gutta percha, to limited spots on the head, when rheumatic headaches aro felt. It gives instantaneous relief. The application is from ^ minute to 1^ minutes, and the skin is rendered white and hard by the applications. To Cure a Cold. — Before retiring soak the feet in mustard water as hot as can be endured, the feet siiould at first be plunged in a pail lialf full of Inkewarm water, adding by degrees very hot water until t!ie desired heat is attained, protectmg the body and knees with blankets so to direct the vapor from the water as to induce a good sweat. Next, to 2 table spoonfuls of boiling water, add 1 table spoonful of wliite sugar and 14 drops of strong spirits of camphor. Drink tho whole and cuddle in bed under plenty of bedclothes and sleep it off. ResYedy for CoNSUiMPTiON. — Tlio following is said to be an effectual remedy, and will in time completely cure the disorder. Live temper- ately, avoid spirituous liquors, wear flannel next the skin, and tako, 0 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 149 every morning, half a pint of nevr milk, mixed with a wine glassful of the expressed j nice of green horehound. One who has tried it says, *' Four weeks' use of the horehound and milk relieved the pains of my breast, gave me ability to breathe deep, long and free, strengthened and harmonized my voice and restored ine to a better state of health than I had enjoyed for years." Trichina is the term applied to a minute, slender, and transparent worm, scarcely l-20th of an inch in length, which has recently been discovered to exist naturally in the muscles of swme, and is frequently transferred to the human stomach when pork is used as food. Enough of these filthy parasites have been detected in half a pound of pork to engender 30,000,000 more, the females being very prolific, each giv- ing birth to from GO to 100 young, and dying soon after. 'The young thread-like worm at first ranges freely through the stomach and in- testines, remaining for a short time within the lining membrane of the intestines, causing irritation, diarrhoea, and sometimes death, if present in sufiicient numbers. As they become stronger, they begin to penetrate the walls of the intestines in order to effect a lodgment in -the voluntary muscles, causing intense muscular pain and severe en- during cramps, and sometimes tetanic symptons. After 4 weeks migra- tion they encyst themselves permanently on the muscular fibre, and ■begin to secrete a delicate sac which gradually becomes calcareous. In this torpid state they remain during the person's lifetime. Remedy for Diphtheria. — ^The treatment consists m thoroughly swabbing the back of the mouth and throat with a wash made thus : Table salt, 2 drams ; black pepper, golden seal, nitrate of potash, alum, 1 dram each ; mix and pulverize ; put into a teacup half full of water ; stir well, and then fiU. up with good vinegar. Use every half liour, one, two, and four hours, as recovery progresses. The patient 3nay swallow a little each time. Apply 1 oz. each of spirits turpentine, sweet oil, and aqua-ammonia, mixed, every hour to the whole of the throat, and to the breast bono every four hours, keeping flannel to the part. IlOLLO way's Ointment and PiT.iiS. — Butter, 22 oz. ; beeswax, 3 oz. ; yellow rosin, 3 oz. ; melt ; add vinegar of cantharides, 1 oz. ; evaporate ; and add Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; oil of mace, ^ dram ; balsam of Peru, 15 drops. Pills : Aloes, 4 parts ; myrrh, jalap, and ginger, of each 2 jmrts ; mucilage to mix. Abernethy's PILI.S.— Each pill contains 2 grains of blue pill and S grains compound extract of colocynth. Worm Lozenges. — Powdered lump sugar, 10 oz. ; starcn 6 oz. ; jnix with mucilage ; and to every ounce add 12 grains calomel : divide in 20 grain lozenges. Dose, two to six. Soothing Syrup. — Alcohol, oil of peppermint, castor oil, of each, 1 oz. ; mix ; add oil of anise, -J dram ; magnesia, GO grains ; pulve- rized ginger, 40 grains ; water, 2 oz. ; white sugar to form a syrup. Soothing Syrup.— Take 1 lb. of honey ; add 2 tablespoonfuls of paregoric, and the same of oil of anise seed ; add enough water to make a thick syrup, and bottle. For children teething, dose, tea- spoonful occasionally. Infant's Syrup. — The syrup is made thus : 1 lb. best box raisins ; ^ ounce of anise seed ; two sticks licorice ; split the raisins, ]iound the anise seed, and cut the licorice fine ; add to it 3 quarts of rain water, 150 Mi:i)ICAL Di:rART3IENT, ETC. and boil rlown to 2 c|narta. Feed three or four times a day, as mnch as the child will willingly drink. The raisins strengthen, the anise expels the wind, and the licorice is a physic. BiiANDKKTii's Tills.— Take 2 lbs. of aloes, 1 lb. of gamboge, 4 oz. of extract of colocynth, ^ lb. of Castile soap, 3 fluid drams of oil of l)0.ppcrmint, and 1 fluid dram of cinnamon. Mix, and form into pills. Davis' Pain Killer Ijipiiovkd. — PoAvdered gnaiac 20 lbs. ; cam- phor, 2 lbs. ; powdered cayenne pepper, G lbs. : caustic liquor of ammonia, 1 lb. ; powdered opium, ^ lb. ; digest these ingredients iu 32 gals, alcohol for two weelcB, and filter. CoaiPOUKD Syrup of IlYrorHOSPniTES and Iron.— Dissolve 25(5 grs. each of hjT^ophosphites of soda, lime and potassa, and 126 grs. hyiiophosphite of iron, iu 12 oz. water, by a water bath. Filter and add sufficient water to make np for the evaporation. Add 18 ozs. sugar by gentle heat, to make 21 fluid ozs. syrup. Each fluid oz. con- tains 12 grs. each of the hypophosphites of soda, lime and potassa, and six grs. liypophosphite of iron. Cure for Drunkenkess.— Warranted a certain Remedy. Confine ' the patient to his room, furnish him with his favorite liquor of dis- cretion, diluted with § of water, as much wine, beer, coffee and tea as l;e desires, but containing J of spirit ; all the food — the bread, meat and vegetables steeped in spirit and water. On the fifth day of this treatment he has an extreme disgust for spirit, being continually drunk. Keep np this treatment till he no longer desires to eat or drink, and the cure is certain, Fahnestock's Vermifuge.— Castor oil, oil of worm seed, each 1 oz. ; oil anise, -| oz. ; tincture myrrh, J dram ; oil turpentine, 10 minims. Mix. Swaiim's Vermifuge. — ^Wormseed, 2 oz. ; valerian, rhubarb, pink- root, white agaric, of each 1^ oz. ; boil in sufficient water to yield 3 auarts of decoction ; and add to it 10 drops of oil of tansy and 45 rops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a quart of rectified spirits. Dose, 1 tablespoonful at night. Ayer's Cherry Pectoral. — Take 4 grains of acetate of morphia ; 2 fluid drams of tincture of bloodroot ; 3 fluid drams each of anti- monial wine and wine of ipecacuanlia, and 3 fluid oz. of syrup of wild cherry. INIix. Spasms. — Acetate of morphia, 1 gr. spirit of sal volatile, 1 oz. sul- I)huric ether, 1 oz. camphor julep, 4 ozs. Mix. Dose, 1 teaspoonful in a glass of cold water, or Avine, as required. Keep closely corked, and shake, well before using. Rad way's Ready Ri^lief.— According to Peckolt, is an ethereal tincture of capsicum, with alcohol and camphor. Radway^'s Rekovating Resolvent. — A vinous tincture of ginger and cardamon, sweetened with sugar. Ayer's Sarsaparilla.— Take 3 fluid ozs. each of alcohol, fluid extracts of sarsparilla and of stillingia ; 2 fluid ozs. each, extract of yellow-dock and of podophyllin, 1 oz. sugar, 90 grs. iodide of potassium, and 10 grs. iodide of iron. Brown's Bronchial Troches. — Take 1 lb. of pulverized extract of licorice ; 1^ lb. of pulverized sugar ; 4 oz. of pulverized cubebs ; 4 oz, pulverized gum arable ; 1 oz. of pulverized extract conium. Mix. MEDICAL DErARTilEXT, ETC. 15] Russia Sai^vi:.— Take equal parts of yellow wax and sweet oil ; melt slowly, carefully stiniug ; wbeu cooling, stir in a small quantity of glycerine. Good for all kinds of wounds, &c. Dentists' Coiuposition for Filling Decayed Teeth.— Gold, 1 part ; mercury, 8 parts ; incorporated by heating together ; when mixed pour them into cold water. Or, tinfoil and quicksilver ; melt together in a convenient vessel, take a small quantity, knead it in the palm of the hand, and apply quick. Or, mix a little finely-powdered glass with some mineral succedaneum ; api)ly as usual. Or, take some mineral succedaneum, and add some steel dust. Or, mineral succedaneum mixed with levigated porcelain or china. Or, gypsum, 1 part ; levigated porcelain, 1 part ; levigated iron filuigs, 1 part ; make into a paste with equal parts of quick-drying copal and mastic varnish. Or, quicksilver, 40 grains ; steel filings, 2G grains. Or, sil- ver, 72 parts ; tin, 20 parts ; zinc, 6 parts. Better than any, pure gold, 1 part ; silver, 3 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; melt the first two, add the tin, reduce all to a fine powder, use with an equal quantity of pure mercury. Gutta-percha, softened by heat, is recommended. Dr. Rollfs ad- vises melting a piece of caoutchouc at the end of a wire, and intro- ducing it while warm. Amalgams for the teeth are made with gold or silver, and quick- silver, the excess of the latter being squeezed out, and the stiff amal- gam used warm. Inferior kinds are made with quicksilver and tin, or zinc. A popular nostrum of this kind consists of 40 grains of quicksilver and 20 of fine zinc filings, mixed at the time of using. The following is said to be the most lasting and least objectionable amalgam : Melt 2 parts of tin with 1 of cadmium, run it into an in- got, and reduce it to filings. Form these into a fluid amalgam with mercury, and squeeze out the excess of mercury through leather. Work up the solid residue ia the hand, and press it into the tooth. Another cement consists of about 73 parts of silver, 21 of tin, and (! of zinc, amalgamated Avith quicksilver. Beyond all doubt, gold foil is the best filling in use. PouDKE ]\Ietallique. — Tho article sold under this name in Paris appears to be an amalgam of silver, mercury, and ammonium, with an excess of mercury, which is pressed out before using it. To Extract Teeth with little or ko Pain. — Tincture of aco- nite, chloroform, and alcohol, of each 1 oz. ; mix; moisten two pled- gets of cotton with the liquid, and apply to the gums on each side of the tooth to be extracted, holding them in their place with j)lier3 or other mstruments for from five to ten minutes, rubbing the gum free- ly inside and out. Tooth Wash — To Remove Blackness. — Pure muriatic acid, 1 oz. ; water, 1 oz. ; honey, 2 oz. ; mix. Take a tooth-brush, and wet it freely with this preparation, and briskly rub the black teeth, and in a moment's time they will be perfectly white ; then immediately wash out the mouth with water, that the acid may not act upon the enamel of the teeth. Dentists' Nerve Paste. — Arsenic, 1 part; rose pinlr, 2 parts. To destroy the nerve, apply this prejDaration on a pledget of cotton, pre- A iously moistened ^vitli creosote, to the cavity of the tooth, let it re- main 4 hours, then wash out thoroughly \dth. water. Anoiher.-^ 152 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. Arsenona acid, 30 grs. ; ncctato of morphia, 20 grs. ; creosote, q. s. for paste. Mix. Alloys for Dentist's IMoulds and Diks. — 1. Tin, very hard. — Tin, 10 parts; antimony, 1 part; zinc, 1 part; 2. Tin, softer than the last. Tin, 8 parts; zinc, 1 i)art; antimony, 1 part; 'A. C'crpper Alloy, very hard. — Tin, 12 parts; antimony, 2 parts; C()i)pcr, Ipart; 4. Cadmium Alloy, about the hardness of zinc. — Tin, 10 parts; antimony, Ipai-t; cadmium, 1 part. Dentists' Emery Wheels. — ^Emery, 4 lbs.; Kliellac, J lb. ; melt llie shellac over a slow fire ; stir in the emery, and pour into a mould of plaster of Paris. AVhen cold it is ready for use. Base for Artificial Teeth.— Proportions.— India-rubber, 1 lb. ; sulphur, \ lb. ; vermillion, 1 lb. 4 oz. Nitrous Oxide, or Laugiiino Gas. — Take two or three ounces of nitrate of ammonia in crystals and put it into a retort, taking caro that the heat does not exceed 500° ; Avhen the crystals begin to melt, the gas will be produced in considerable quantities. The gas may ftlso be procured, though not so pure, by pouring nitric acid, diluted with five or six times its weight of water, on copper filings or small '< pieces of tin. The gas is given out till the acid begins to turn brown ; the process must then be stopped To Inhale the Laughing Gas. — Procure an oiled or ramished silk bag, or a Wadder, furnished with a stop-cock, into the mouth, and at the same time hold the nostrils, and the sensation produced will be of a highly pleasing nature ; a great propensity to laughter, a rapid flow of vivid ideas, and an unusual fitness for muscular exertion, are the ordinary feelings which it produces. The sensations, produced by breathing this gas, are not the same m all persons, but they are of an agreeable nature, and not followed by any depression of spirits liko those occasioned by fermented liquors. Magnetic Pain killer, for Toothacith ant> Acute Pain. — Lau- tlnum 1 dr. gum camphor 4 drs. oil of cloves \ dr. oil of lavender 1 dr. add then to 1 oz. alcohol, 6 drs. sulphuric "ether, and 5 fluid drs. chloroform. Apply with lint, or for toothache rub on the gums, and upon the face against the teeth. Cure for Lock Jaw, said to be tositwe.- Let any one who has an attack of lock jaw take a small quantity of spirits of turpentine, warm it, and ]X)ur it on the wound — ^no matter where the wound is, or what its nature is — and relief will foUow in less than one minute. Turpentine is also a sovereign remedy for croup. Saturate a jDiece of flannel with it, and place the flannel on tho throat and cliest — and in very severe cases three to five drops on a lump of sugar may bo taken internally. New Method op E^iBAiiMiNO. — ]Mix together 5 pounds dry sul- phate of alumine, 1 quart of warm water, and 100 grains of arsenious acid. Inject 3 or 4 quarts of this mixture into all tho vessels of tho human body. This applies as well to all animals, birds, fishes, &e. This process supersedes the old and revolting mode, and has been in- troduced into the great anatomical schools of Paris. Nitrate of Silver. — Pure silver, Ij oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. diluted with water, 2 oz. ; heat by a sand-bath until ebullition ceases, and the water is expelled then pour into mould;j. This Bubstance must be kept from tho light. MEDICAL DF^"^^'^^^^^^^' r -m'TrA-rjT.'a o- -^♦iroo Compound.— Mix borax fib. with salts tar ^^^^^^Ptflssolve 1 oz. of the mixture in 1 pt. water. •^^Ni^i^jlcORD's Hair Dye. — No 1. PyrogJillic acid 1 oz. ; water 1 qt- jlno 2. Nitrate of silver 1 oz. ; water 4 ozs. ; ammonia 1 oz. Keep your materials free from grease, cool, and in the dark. Apply each No. alternately to the hair, first cleaning the hair well. Bay Rum. — French proof spirit 1 gal. ext. Bay G ozs. Mix and color "with caramel, needs no filtering. Hair Invigorator.— Bay rum, 2 pints ; alcoliol, 1 pint ; castor oil, i oz. ; carb. ammonia, ^ oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 1 oz. Mix them well. This compound will promote the growth of the hair, and prevent it from falling out. Razor-Strop Paste. — Wet the strop with a little sweet oil, and apply a little flour of emery evenly over the surface. Oil of Roses.— Olive oil, 1 lb. ; otto of roses, 50 drops ; oil of rosemary, 25 drops; mix. Another, roses (hardly opened) 12 oz.; olive oil, 10 oz., beat them together in a mortar ; let them remain lor a few days, then express the oil. Balm of Beauty.— Pure soft water, 1 qt. ; pulverized Castilo soap, 4 oz. ; emulsion of bitter almonds, G oz. ; rose and orange flower water, of each, 8 oz. ; tincture of benzoin, 2 drs. ; borax, 1 dr. ; add 5 grs. bichloride of mercury to every 8 oz. of the mix- ture. To use, apply on a cotton or linen cloth to the face, &c. Oriental Cold Cream. — Oil of almonds, 4 oz, ; white wax and spermaceti, of each, 2 drs. ; melt, and add rose water, 4 oz. ; orange flower water, 1 oz. ; used to soften the skin, apply as the last. Shaving Creaji.— White wax, spermaceti, almond and oil, of each I oz. : melt, and while warm, beat in 2 squares of Windsor Eoap previously reduced to a paste with rose water, Circassian Cream. — Take 2 ounces of perfectly fresh suet, either mutton or venison ; 3 ounces of olive oil ; 1 oz. gum benzoine in powder, and ^ oz. of alkanet root. Put the whole into a jam jar, which, if without a lid, must be tied over with a bladder, and place the jar in a sauco x^an containing boiling water, at the side of the fire. Digest for a whole day, then strain away all that is fluid through fine muslin, and stir till nearly cold. Add, say 1 dram of essence of almonds, roses, bergamot or any other perfume desired. Freckle Cure. — Take 2 oz, lemon juice, or half a dram of powdered borax, and one dram of sugar ; mix together, and let them stand in a glass bottle for a few 'days, then rub on the face occasionally, Yankee Shaving Soap.— Take 3 lbs, white bar soap; 1 lb. Castilo soap; 1 quart rain water; ^ pt. beef's gall; 1 gill spirits of turpen- tine. Cut the soap into thin slices, and boil five minutes after the soap is dissolved, stir while boiling ; scent Avith oil of rose or almonds. If wished to color it, use ^ oz vermilion. Bloom of Youth. — Boil 1 ounce of Brazil wood in 3 pints of water for 15 minutes ; strain. Add f oz. isinglass, ^ oz. cochi- neal, 1 oz. alum, ^ oz. borax. Dissolve by heat, and strain. Cologne Water. — Oils of rosemary and lemon, of each J oz. ; oils of bergamot and lavender, each ^ oz. ; oil cinnamon, 8 drops ; oils of cloves and rose, each 15 drops ; best deodorized alcohol, 2 qts. ; shake two or three times per day for a week. 154 MEDICAL ■T^VR'nII:xT, j;tc. Wo propose to k'ivo tlio formula for tho xv^-, . find shall commence with what is said to bo '"S preparations, Hogle's IIvi'KUion Fj.uid.— To 8 oz. of 90 or 95 per cen.. ,^ colored red with ulJcauet, add 1 oz. of castor oil ; perfume'"^]}?!* geranium Jind verbena. • Lyon's Katiiaikon. — To 8 oz, of 80 per cent, alcohol, colored yellow by a few drops extract of anuatto, add 2 oz. castor oil, and perfume with a little bergamot. Piialon's Hair Restorative.— To 8 oz. of 90 per cent, alcoliol, colored by a few drops tincture of alkanot root, add 1 oz. of cas- tor oil, and perfume with a compound of bergamot, neroli, verbena, and orange. Mrs. Allen's. — To IG oz. of rose water, diluted with an equal part of salt water, add ^ oz. of sulphur and ^ oz. of sugar of lead ; let the compound stand" five days before using. Eatchelor's Hair-Dye. — No. 1. To 1 oz. of pyro-gaUic acid, dis- solved in 1 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. of soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. of concentrated ammonia, add 4 oz. of soft water. Apply each No. alternately, with separate brushes, to tho iiair. Christ adoro'sITair-D YE. — No. 1. To 1 oz. of pyro-gallicacid, dis- solved in 1 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crys- tallized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. concentrated' aqn.a- aramonia and 1 oz. soft water, add oz. gum arable and 3 oz. soft water. Keep covered from the light. Phalon's Instaxtakeous Hair-Dye. — No. 1. To 1. oz. pyro- gallic acid, and ^ oz. of tannia, dissolved in 2 oz. of alcohol, add i qt. of soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. concentrated aqua-ammonia, add 1 oz. gum arable, and 11 oz. soft water. Keep in tho dark. Harrison's. — No. 1. To 1 oz. pyro-gallic acid, 1 oz. of tannia dis- solved in 2 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crj-s- tallized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. of concentrated aqua- simmonia, add 5 oz. soft water and ^ oz. gum arable. No. 3. 1 oz. last ingredient is intended to produce a deep black color if tho others should fail. Keep away from the light. Phalon's (One Preparation. )— To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 2 oz. of aqua-ammonia, add 5 oz. soft water. jThis is not an instantaneous dye ; but after exposure to the light Jind air, a dark color is x>roduced upon the surface to which it is applied. Ptcmember to remove all grease, &c., from the hair before applying these dyes. Professor Wood's. — To 8 oz. vinegar, diluted with an equal X)art of soft water, add 2 drs. sulphur, and 2 drs. sugar of lead. Altine Hair-IBalm. — To IG oz. of soft water add 8 oz. of alcohol and J oz. spirits turpentine, ^ oz. sulphur, and ^ oz. sugar of lead. Glycerine Preparation. — New rum, 1 qt. ; concentrated spirits of ammonia, 15 drops ; glycerine oil, 1 oz. ; lac sulphur, 5^ drs. ; sugar of lead, 6^ drs. ; put the liquor into a bottle, add the am"monia, then the other components. Shake the compound occasionally for four or five days. Crystalline CuE^m,— Oil of almonds, 8 oz, ; ppennaceti, 1 oz. ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 155 melt together. When a little cooled, add ^ oz. or less of essence of bergamot or other perfume ; put into wide-mouthed bottles, and let it stand till cold. Camphorated crystalline cream may be made by using camphorated oil {L. CampJioroi) instead of oil of almonds. Macassar Oii-.. — Olive oil, 1 qt. ; alcohol, 2^ oz. ; rose oil, 1^ oz. ; then tie 1 oz. of chipped alkanet root hi a mushu bag, and put it in the oil, Imt it alone for some days till it turns the color of a pretty red, then remove to other oils. Do not press it. Ox Marrow. — Melt 4 oz. ox tallow ; white wax, 1 oz. ; fresh lard, G oz. ; when cold, add 1^ oz. oil of bergamot. Bears' Oil. — Use good sweet lard oil, 1 qt. ; oil bergamot, 1^ oz. Extract of Patchouli. — Mix 1^ oz. ottar of Patchouli, and ^ oz. otto of rose, with 1 gal. rectified spirits. Sea Foam for Barbers. — Alcohol, 4 oz. ; castor oil, 1 oz. ; am- monia, ^ oz. ; water, 1 pt. Dissolve the castor oil and ammonia hi the alcohol, then add the alcohol mixture to the water. PyiiOGALLic ILuR Dve. — Pyrogallic acid, ^ oz. ; dissolve it hi hot distilled water oz. ; when the solution cools add gradually rectified gpirit, ^ fluid oz. Fixe SnA:MP0O Liquid. — Dissolve | oz. carb. of ammonia and 1 oz, of borax in 1 qt. water, then add 2 oz. glycerine, 3 qts. of New Eng- land rum, and 1 qt. of bay rum; moisten the hair with this liquor, fchampoo with the hands until a slight lather is formed, then wash off with clean water. B^\JiBER's SnAsrpoo Mixture.— Soft water, Ipt; sal soda, 1 oz.; cream tartar, ^ oz. Apply thoroughly to the hair. Cheap Bay Kum. — Saturate a ^ lb. block of carb. of magnesia with. oil of Bay ; pulverize the magnesia, place it in a filter, and pour water through it until the desired quantity is obtained, then add alcohol. The quantity of water and alcohol employed depends on the desired strength and quantity of the Bay rum. Another — Oil of Bay, 10 fluid drs.; oil of pimento, 1 fluid dr. ; acetic ether, 2 fluid d)-s. ; alcohol 3 gals. ; water, 2^ gals. l^ILx, and after 2 weeks' repose, filter. Liquid for Forcing the Be.vrd.— Cologne, 2 oz. ; liquid hartshom, 1 dr. ; tinct. cantharides, 2 drs. ; oil rosemary, 12 drops ; lavender, 12 drops. Apply to the face daily and await results. Said to bo xcliable. Court Plaster. — Brush silk over with a solution of isinglass, in spirits or warm water, dry and repeat several times. For "the last application apply several coats of balsam of Peru. Used to close cuts or wounds, by warming it and applying. It does not wash off until the skin partially heals. Balm of a Thousaxd Flowers. — Deodorized alcohol, Ipt. ; nice white bar soap, 4 oz. ; sliavo tlie soap when Y>wt hi, stand in a Avarm place till dissolved ; then add oil of citronella, 1 dr., and oils of neroli and rosemary, of each ^ dr. New York Barbers' StarILvtr Oil.— Caster oil G^pts.; alcohol, I2 pts. ; citroneUa and lavender oil, each ^ oz. FRANGIPAN^^:. — Spirits, 1 gal. ; oil bergamot, 1 oz. ; oil of lemon, 1 oz. ; macerate for 4 days, frequently shaking ; then add water, 1 gal. ; orange-flower water, 1 pint, essence of vanilla, 2 oz. 1Mb:. Jockey Cluc— Spii-its of wmc, 5 gal. ; orange-flower water, 1 356 MEDICAL DErARTMi:NT, ETC. gal. ; balsnni of Pcm, 4 oz. ; cksciicc of ber^amot, 8 oz. ; eesenco of music, 8 oz. ; essence of cloves, 4 oz. ; essence of ncroli, 2 oz. Ladiks' Owx. — Spirits of Avinc, 1 gal.; otto of roses, 20 drops; essence of tliyuie, ^ oz. ; essence of iieroli, ^ oz. ; essence of vauilki, ^ oz. ; essence of bersamot, ^ oz. ; oran.^e-flower water, G oz. Kiss me Quick. — Spirit, 1 gal. ; essence of thyme, | oz. ; csscnoo of orange-dowers, 2 oz. ; essence iieroli, ^ oz. ; otto of roses, 30 drops; essence of jasmine, 1 oz.; essence of ])alm mint ^ oz.; petils of roses. 4 oz. ; oil lemon, 20 drops; calorus aromaticus, ^oz. ; essence neroli, $ oz. Mix and strain. Uppeh Ten. — Spirits of wine, 4 qts. ; essence of ccdrat, 2 drs. ; essence of violets, ^ oz. ; essence of ncroli, h oz. ; otto of roses, 20 drops ; orange-flower essence, 1 oz. ; oil of rosemary, oO drox^s ; oils bcrgamot and neroli, each oz. India ChoIjAgogue. — Quinine, 20 grs. ; Peruvian bark, pulverized, 1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 15 drops, or 1 scruple of tartaric acid is best ; brandy, 1 gill ; water to make one pint ; dose, 5 teaspoonf uls every 2 hours, in the absence of fever ; an excellent remedy. FEBrai'-TTGE Wine. — Quinine, 25 grs. ; water, 1 pint ; sulphuric add, 15 drops ; epsom salts, 2 oz. ; color with tincture of red sanders. Dose, a wino glass 3 times per day. This is a world-renowned med- icine. Barrell's Indian" LiNnrMENT. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; tincture of cap- flcum, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, sassafras, pennyroyal, and hemlock, of each I oz. Mix. God Liver OHi, as usually prepared, is nothing more orless than cod oil clarified, by which process it is in fact deprived in a great measure of its virture. Cod oU can be purchasedlrom any wholesale oil deal- er for one thirtieth part of the price of cod liver oil as usually sold, and it is easy to clarify it. Dealers might turn this information to good accoimt. To make it more palatable and digestible, put 1 oz. of fine table salt to each quart bottle. Cod Liver Oil. — The first livers are placed in a jacketed pan heated by steam, and when the oil is separated from the scraps it is passed through felt bags imtil it is perfectly clear. To remove a por- tion of the steariue, it is subjected to refrigerating mixtures in the summer, and the incongealable portion is drawn off and placed iu bottles. Paregoric. — ^Best opium, \ dr. ; dissolve in about 2 tablespoonfuls ■of boiling water ; then add benzoic acid h, dr. ; oU of anise, \ a fluid dr. ; clarified honey, 1 oz. ; camphor gum, 1 scruple; alcohol, 76 per cent., 11 fluid oz. ; distilled water, 4 fluid oz. ; macerate (keep warm) for two weeks. Dose for children, 5 to 20 drops; adults ; 1 to 2 tea- spoonfuls. Cough Syrup. — ^?ut 1 qt. horehound tea, 1 qt. of water, and boil it down to 1 pt. ; add 2 or 3 sticks licorice ; 2 oz. syrup of sciuills, and a tablespoonf ul essence of lemon. Take a tablespoonf ul 3 times a day or as the cough requires. Cough Syrup. — Syrup of squills, 2 oz. ; tartarized antimony, 8 grs. ; sulphate of morphine, 5 grs. ; pulverized arable, ^ oz. ; honey, 1 oz. ; water, 1 oz. ; mix. Dose for an adult, 1 small teaspoonf ul; re- peat in half an hour if it does not relieve : child in proportion. Vegetable 3ubstitu3:e for CALOiiEL.— Jalap, 1 oz. senna, 2 oz.j MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 157 peppermint, 1 oz. (a little cinnamon if desired), all pulverized and sif- ted through gauze. Dose, 1 teaspoonf ul i)ut in a cup with 2 or I! spoonfuls of hot water, and a good lump of white sugar ; when cool, drink all ; to be taken fasting in the morning ; drink freely ; if it does not operate in 3 hours, repeat ^ the quantity ; use instead of calomel. Dykamic Power of various kinds of Food.— One lb., of oat- meal will furnish as much power as 2 lbs. of bread and more than o lbs of lean veal. One lb., butter gives a worlcing force equal to that of 9 lbs. of potatoes, 12 lbs. of milk and more than 5 lbs. of lean beef. One lb. of lump sugar is equal in force to 2 lbs., of ham, or 8 lbs. of cabbage. The habitual use of spirituous liquors is inimical to health, and inevitably tends to shorten life. A mechanic or laboring man of average size, requires, according to Moleschott, 23 ozs., of dry solid matter, daily, one fifth nitrogenous. Food, as usually prepared, contains 50 per cent, of water, which Avould increase the quantity to 4() ozs. , or 3 lbs. 14 ozs. , with at least an equal weight of water in addition daily. The same authority indicates as healthy proportions, of albumi- nous matter 4.587 ozs., fatty matter 2.964, carbo-hydrate 14.250, salts 1.058, total 22.859 ozs., for daily use. This quantity of food will vary greatly in the requirements of individuals eugaged in sedentary employments, or of persons with weak constitutions or impaired digestion, as also whether employed in the open air or within doors much also, depending on the temperature. Preference should bo given to the food which most readily yields the materials required by nature in the formation of the human frame. Beef contains about 4 lbs. of such minerals in every 100 lbs. Dried extract of beef con- tains 21 lbs. in each lOQ lbs. Bread made from unbolted wheat flour is also very rich in such elements, much more so than superfine flour ; hence the common use of Graham bread for dj^spepsia and other ailments. The analysis of Liebig, Johnston, and others give iu 100 parts, the following proportions of nutritious elements, viz., Indian corn, 12.30 barley 14.00, wheat 14,06, oats 19.91, A fish diet is Avell adapted to sustain intellectual, or brain labor. What ia required may be best known from the fact that a human body weighing 154 lbs., contains, on a rough estimate, of v/ater 14 gals, (consisting of oxygen 111 lbs., of hydrogen 14 lbs.), carbon 21 lbs., nitrogen 3 lbs. 8 ozs., calcicum 2 lbs., sodium 2J ozs., phopT)horus l^ lbs., ix)tassium ^ oz. sulphur 2 ozs. 219 grs., fluorine 2 ozs., chlorine 2 ozs. 47 grs., iron 100 grs., magnesium 12 grs., silicon 2 grs. After death, the human body is by gradual decay, slowly resolved into these its component parts, which elements are again used in the complex and wonderful laboratory of nature, to vivify the countless forms of vegetable life. These in their turn fulfil their appohited law by yielding up their substance for tlie formation of other bodies. What a suggestive comment on mortal ambition to witness tlie jaresent inhabitants of Egypt engaged in what they consider the lucrative commerce of qiiarrying out the bones of the ancient inhab- itants from the catacom ds where they have been entombed for thou- sands of years and transporting them by the ship-load to E:ngland, in order to fertilize the crops which are destined to assist in forming the bone and sinew of the British nation! Cure for Snake BrrES. — The Inspector of Police in the Bengal Government reports tlrat of 939 cases in which ammonia was freely 158 MEDICAL DEPARTMEXT, ETC. administered 207 victims h.ivo recovered, and in tlio cured instances the remedy was not administered till about 3.^ hours after the attaclc, on the average of the fatal cases the eorresi)ouding duration of time was 4^ hours. Remedy For Smalt^ Pox.— Sulphate of zinc, 1 gr., foxsjlovo [digitalis,] 1 gr., sugar ^ tcaspoonf ul, mix with 2 teaspoonf uls of water, add 4 oz. of water, Doso 1 spoonful every hour, child in proportion. From experience it is Ivuo-wii that notliing Avill break up tliis frightful disease sooner tJian continued and persevering bathmg, with the water at a comfortable temperature. Reliable Small Fox Remedy. — Tested. — A child 9 years old was effectually cured of small pox by administering 15 grs. sodic sulphico dissolved in milk, sweetened, every 3 hours. The entire body was oiled with crude petroleum applied by hand. Next morning the eru j)- tion was killed and dry; and the disease broken up. To prevent pit- ting with small pox, as soon as the disease is distinguished, apply a:i ointment made of lard and charcoal to the face, iieck, hands, &c., nnd continue until all signs of supperative fever has ceased. One case is worthy of notice, being that of a gentleman who suffered terribly for many days with this dreadful disease. Everything was done for him that medical skill could suggest, without giving tho slightest relief. Finally, as a last resort, he was removed from tho bed and placed in a warm bath* the transition was so sootliing and delightful that he exclaimed, "Oh, my God, I thank Thee for this great relief! " In a short time he fell sound asleep in the bath, and continued in this position for many hours, tho water being renewed from time to time to keep up tho temperature. The cure proved to be immediate and permanent. Nothing is so conducive to health of body, and the eradication of disease therefrom, as the intelligent uso of pure water. Sir Astley Cooper, being complimented on ono occasion for his great skill, remarked, that he had "made mistakes enough to fill a graveyard," but it is scarcely possible to make a mis- take with water, as no diseased person can fail to derive benefit from its use. Portable Bath. — Make a small circular boiler of copper or tin, and fit the same into an upright tin stand, in which, directly imder tho boiler, you must leave an aperture to contain a small spirit lamp. Tho boiler lid must fit tightly and be provided with three small tubes pointing upwards. The boiler being filled with water and the lamp lighted, as soon as the steam gets up, it rushes through these tubes, and the patient, seated on a cane chair, with his or her feet in a pan of warm water, with a suitable cloak tightly fastened around tho neck, is speedily enveloped in a cloud of steam. Ten minutes is tho time recommended for the durafeon of the first few baths. It may bo afterwards increased, but not beyond half an hour. On getting out of the cloak, plunge into a cold bath for a few minutes, then rub tho skin till it is quite dry and glowing with a coarse towel and a pair of good hair-gloves. Persons in health or disease will experience a- wonderful recuperative power in the frequent use of this bath, and all wiU find it incomparably superior to the use of drugs in any form •whatever. In this connection a new and very ingenious invention called Spongio Piline, is deserving of favorable mention. It con- £iist3 of wool and small particles of sponge felted together, and attached MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC 159 to a skin of India-rubber, tlio -u-holo being about half an inch in tliiclc- I1CS9, and of inestimable value as a means of applying cold or tejiid water, &c., to such exterior parts of the human frame as may bo nearest to the seat of pain or disease. The water is sponged over tlic felted surface, the surplus, if any, wiped off; it is then placed on tlio gkin, and covered over with several folds of bandages, which assist in retaining the heat and moisture, thus attracting hcaltliy blood to the part, from which nature selects such food as is most conducive to ex- l)el disease and build up healthy tissue. Fly Papek. — Coat paper with turpentine varnish, and oil it to keep the varnish from drying. Sweating Drops. — Ipecac, sallron, bonesct, and camphor gnm, of each, 3 oz. ; opium, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 qts. Let stand 2 weelnc "Wapeiis. — ^T>ump sugar, licorice, and starch, of each 2 parts; gum, 10 x)arts; squills and ipecacuanha, of each 5 parts; lactu- carium, 2 parts. Mix, and divide into 8 grain lozenges. Sir James Clarke's Diarrhcea and Cholera Mixture. — Tiuct. of opium, tinct. of camphor, and spirits of turpentine, of each 3 drams; oil of peppermint, 30 drops; mix:. Dose, 1 teaspoonful for cholera. Vegetable or Co:MrosiTioiT Po^yDER. — ^Fine bay berry bark, 1 lb ; ginger 8 oz., common cayenne, 3 oz., mix. Dose, 1 teaspoonful in a cup of boiling water, sweeten and add milk. Tinctures are made with 1 oz. of gum, root, or bark, &c., dried, to each pint of iproof spirits ; let it stand ono week, and filter. Essences are made with 1 oz. of any given oil, added to 1 pint alcohol. Peppermints are colored witli tinct. turmeric; ciunamoa with tinct. of redsanders; wintergreen with tinct. kino. Substitute for Arrowroot. — Finest potato starch, 75 lbs. ; lump sugar. 4 lbs. ; finely-ground rice, 21 lbs. Mix, and sift through lawn ; yields 100 lbs. excellent arrowroot. Certain Cure fob Croup. — Goose oil and urine equal parts. Dose, 1 teaspoonful. A certain cure if taken in time. Corns and Warts.— Take a small quantity of the potash paste recommended for PoUJ^vil, and apply to the corn or wart. Druggist's Colors.— reZ^oio, take iron filings, hydrochloric acid to dissolve, dilute with cold water. Bed, solution of sal ammoniac, cochineal, to color. Blue, indigo, 1 part, oil ot \itriol, 2 parts, dis- solve, then dilute with water. Green, verdigris, 1 part, acetic acid, 3 parts, dilute with water, Puij>le, cochineal, 25 grs,, sugar of lead 1 oz., dissolve. ICJO Mr.DlCAL DEPARTMENT, EIC. S^FELLINO Salts. — Siib-carboimte of ammonia, 8 parts ; put it itt coarso ixnvder hi a bottle, and pour on it oil of lavendar, 1 part. TuNiuiiDCK Wklus AVatku.— Cliloiide of sodium, 5 gialuH ; tiiict. steel, 20 drops ; distilled water, 1^ pints. MiKiciiAL "NVA'JUoit. — l'4)so)n salts, 1 oz. ; croam tartar, ^ oz. ; tnr- taric acid, ^ oz. ; loaf sUf^ar, 1 lb. ; oil of birch, 20 drops"; put 1 fit. cold -water on 2 tablespoouliils yeast (winter green oil ■will do), let it worlv 2 hours and then bottle. Congress AVateii voii Fountains.— Common salt, 72 o7,s. : liydratc of soda, 20 grs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 20 grs. ; caUdneil ina Kidxey Complaints.— Oil of origanum, 1 oz., oil of hemlock, ^ oz., oil of sassafras, i oz., oil of anise, ^ oz., alcohol, 1 pint: mix. Dose, from J to 1 teaspoonful 3 times a day, in sweetened water, will soon give relief when con- stant wealaiess is felt across the small of tho back, as well as gravelly affections causing pain about the kidneys. Positive Curb fob Gonorrhcea. — Liquor of potass, ^ oz., bitter apple, -I oz., spirits of sweet nitre, ^ oz., balsam of copaiba, ^ oz., best gum t oz. To use, mix with pepi')ermint water; take ^ teaspoonful 3 times per day: cure certain in 9 days. Celebrated Pile Ointmekt.— Take carbonate of lead, |oz., sul- phate of morphia, 15 grs. ; stramonium ointment, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 20 d'xops. Mix and apply 3 times per day, or as the pain may require. Another — Powdered nut gall, 2 drs., camphor, 1 dr., melted wax, 10 oz., tincture of opium, 2 drs., mix. StajMJIerixo. — Impediments in the speech may be cured, where there is no malformation of the organs of articulation, by preseverance, for three or four months, in the simple remedy of reading aloud, with the teeth closed, for at least 2 hours each day. Cold ijk the Head. — Dr. Pollion, of France, says that cold in tho head can be cured by inhaling hartshorn. The inhalation by tho nose should be seven or eight times in five minutes. Camphor Ice. — Spermaceti, 1^ oz., gum camphor, | oz., oil sweet nlmonds, 4 teaspoonf lils ; set on the stove in an earthen dish till dis- solved; heat just enough to dissolve it. "While warm pour into small moulds, if desired to sell ; then paper, and put into tinfoil; used for chaps on hands or lips. SniPLE Remedies for Scarlet Fever. — Open the bowels regu- larly every day with some mild aperient medicine, such as castor oil, senna, etc. ; and keep the patient at rest, and comfortably warm ; MLDICAL DETARTMENT, KTC. Fponjjo tlio Piirface with tepid water, two or three times .1 day ; while it is liotter tiuin natural, admit fresh air ; live on a bland diet, such asacu])fnlof arrowroot, several times a day ; toast- water for com- mon drink. Gar<:;Ie made of strong sage tea, honey and alum, or bor- ax, may be used from tlie commencement, if the throat is affected. is'icKVE AND Bone Linimknt. — Beef's gall. 1 qt. ; alcohol, 1 i)t.; volatile liniment, 1 lb. ; sirits of turpentijie, 1 lb. ; oil organum, 4 oz. ; aqua ammonia, 4 oz. ; tincture of cayenne, ^ i)t. ; oil of amber, 3 oz. ; tincture Spanish flies, G oz. ; mix well. Ckphaiac Snuff. — Take asarbacca leaves, marjoram, light Scotch, snuff, equal parts ; grind and sift, use like common snuff. Downer's Salve. — Beeswax, 4 oz. • opium, i oz. ; sugar of lead, 1 oz. ; melt the beeswax, and rub the lead up in the wax, then the opium, then 1 gill of sweet oil, incorporate all thoroughly together, j^pread lightly on cloth; good for burns, piles, &c. Anotheu Salve.— Burgimdy pitch, beeswax, wliite pine pitch, and resin, 1 oz. each, mutton tallow, 8 oz. ; goose oil, 1 gill ; tar, 1 gill ; melt and mix thoroughly. A first-rate salve. Whooping Cough Syrup.-— Best rum, 1 pt. ; anise oil, 2 ozg. ; lul, 3 or 4 times per day ; children 1 teaspoon, with sugar and water. Liquid Opodeldoc. — ^\Varm brandy, 1 qt. ; add to it gum camphoi\ 1 oz. ; sal ammoniac, ^ oz. ; oils of origanum and rosemary, each ^ oz. ; oil wormwood, ^ oz. ; when the oils are dissolved, add 0 oz. soft sonp. Green- Mountain SAL%Ti;. — For rheumatism, bums, pains in tho back or side, &o., take 2 lbs. resm, burgundy pitch, ^ lb. ; beeswax ^ lb. ; mutton tallow, ^ lb. ; melt slowly ; when not too warm, add oil hemlock, 1 oz. ; balsam fir, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, 1 oz. oil of red cedar, 1 02. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; oil of wormwood, 1 oz. ; ver- digris, ^ oz. The verdigris must be finely pulverized and mixed with the oils"; then add as above, and work in cold water like wax till cold enough to roll ; rolls 5 inches long, 1 inch diameter, sell for 25 cents. English Remedy for Cancer.— Take chloride of zinc, blood- root pulverized, and flour, equal quantities of each, worked into a paste and applied. First spread a common sticking-plaster much larger than the cancer, cutting a circular piece from the centre of it a little larger than the cancer, applying it, which exposes a narrow rim of healthy skin ; then apply the cancer plaster, and keep it on 24 hours. On removing it, the cancer will be found to be burned into, Jind appears the color of an old slioe-sole, and the rim outside will r.]ipear white and parboiled, as if burned by steam. Dress with slippery elm poultice until sui^x^uration takes place, then heal with any common salve. Chronic Gout — ^To Cure. — Take hot vinegar, and put into it all the t'lble salt which it will dissolve, and bathe the parts affected with, a soft piece of flannel. Rub in with the hand and dry the foot, &c., by the fire. Repeat this operation four times ui 24 hours, 15 minutes each time, for four days ; then twice a day for the same period ; then once, and follow tliis rule whenever the symptoms shoAV themselves at any future time. Gout Tincture. — ^Veratmm -siride (swamp hellebore), ^ oz. ; opium, 4 oz, ; wine, ^ pt. ; let them stand for several days. Dose, 15 l;oHey, 1 pt. ; lemon juice, 4 Dose for adults, 1 tablespoon- MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 165 to 30 drops, according to the robustness of the patient, at intervals of 2 to 4 liours. PARAiiYTic LiNTMENT. — Sulphuric ethcr, G oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; laudanum, 1 oz. ; oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; mix, and cork tightly. In a locent case of paralysis let the whole extent of the numb surface bo thoroughly bathed and rubbed "with this preparation, for several minutes, using the hand, at least three times daily ; at the same timo take internall}', 20 drops of the same, in a little sweetened water. Chaecoal a cure fok Sick Headache. — It is stated that 2 tca- Fpoous of finely powdered charcoal, dranlc in ^ a tumbler of water %Till, in less than fifteen minutes, give relief to the sick headache, when caused, as in most cases it is, by superabundance of acid on the stomach. AVe have frequently tried this remedy, and its eilicacy in every instance has been signally satisfactory. Cathartic Syrup.— Best senna leaf, 1 oz. ; butternut, the inner "bark of the root, dried and bruised, 2 oz. ; peppermint leaf, 4 oz. ; leimel seed, ^ oz. ; alcohol, ^ pt. ; water, 1^ pts. ; sugar, 2 lbs."; put all into the spirit and water, except the sugar, and let it stand two weeks, then strain, pressing out from the dregs, adding tlie sugar and simmering a few minutes onl}'', to form the syrup. If it should cause griping in any case, increase the fennel seed and peppermhit leaf. Dose, 1 tablespoon, once a day, or less often if the bowels become too loose, up to the next period when the headache might have been expected, and it will not bo forthcoming. CniLBLAixs. — To Cure.— Mutton tallow and lard, of each ^ lb. ; melt in an iron vessel, and add hydratcd oxyde of iron, 2 oz. ; stirring continually with an iron spoon, until the mass is of a uniform black color ; then let it cool, and add Venice turiientine, 2 oz. ; Armenian bole, 1 oz. ; oil of bcrgamot, 1 dr. ; rub up the bole with a little olive oil before putting it in. Feloks. — If rece^tt, to Cure i^'Six Hours. — ^Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; and put iuto it half a teaspoon of water, and stir with a rough stick until the mass looks like candied Jioney ; then spread a good coat on a cloth, and wrap around the fijiger. If the case is only recent, it will remove the pain in six hours. Felon Salve. — A salve made by burning one tablespoon of copper- as, then pulverizing it and mixing it with the yolk of an egg, is said to relieve the pain, and euro the felon in 24 hours ; then lical with cream two parts, and soft soap one part. Apply the healing salvo daily after soaking the part in warm water. Felon Ointment. — Take sweet oil, ^pt, and stew a 3-cent plug of tobacco in it until the tobacco is crisped ; then squeeze it out, and add red lead, 1 oz., and boil until black ; when a little cool, add pul- verized camphor gum, 1 oz. Warts and Corns.— To Cure in Ten Minutes.— Take a small piece of potash, and let it stand in the open air until it slacks, then thicken it to a paste with pulverized gum arable, which prevents it from spreading where it is not wanted. Inflaieviatory lirtEUMATisM.— Sulphur and saltpetre, of each 1 oz. ; gum guaiac, ^ oz. ; colchicuni root, or seed, andiuitmegs, of each 1 oz ; all to be pulverized and mixed with simple syrup, or molasses, 2 oz. Dose, one teaspoon every 2 hours until it moves the bowela rather freely ; then o or 4 times daily imtii cured. ICG MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. TiiK CoNSETivATioN OF Healtit.— Tliis important ol>ject, fso neces- sary to the enjoyment of lil'c, can only be secured by conforming to .in orderly state of existence. Every man is in duty bound to 'dis- cliarge with fidelity the debt which he owes to that frame, so " fear- fully and Avonderfully made," and so well adapted by the Divine contriver to fulfil the uses of life, by living with regularity and mod- eration, abstaining from every excess calculated to induce disease or inflict injury cither on body or mind. Excessive intellectual labor is i'ust as fatal in its degree as violent physical exertion. We have a xmentablc proof of the truth of this remark in the sudden termination of a most useful life, that of the late Dr. Hall, Editor of Hall's Journal of Health. As is well known, the fatal stroke was induced by an overworked brain, it being his habit to apply himself ardently to study, writing, &c., from 5 in the morning to 10 in the evening, an impru- dence all the more reprehensible as it was one which he was continu- ally denouncing in others. Business men are particularly liable to affections of the heart result- ing from trade anxieties, &c., and ia the male, the number of deaths frpm enlargement of the heart are as seven compared with five in the female. This phase of mortality is caused not only by intranquillity and worry of mind occasioned by lack of success* in the grand etruggles of life, but is too frequently brought on by conjugal infe- licities and disturbances, which seldom fail to accelerate a crisis which terminates in death. Many a well meaning man lays ijlans which ho fondly anticipates will result in securing to him and to those depend- ent on him, an honestly obtained competence, and confident of pros- perity, does his best endeavors, and often risks a great deal, to ensure success, little dreaming of the poetic apothegm, that " the best laid schemes o' mice and men, gang aft aglee." The result too often is, as many know to their sorrow, entire failure, and subsequent reproaches, opprobrium, asperities, ascriptions of incapacity, &c., are showered on his head, and continued to the end of life, with more frequency and greater regularity than the dispensation of his daily bread, by the very one who should be all gentleness, alllove, and her husband's chief com- forter and consoler under misfortune. This is the most fatal kind of mental trouble. Inasmuch as it involves a grinding grief of mind, which dissipates happiness, induces gloom, and tejids to destroy life ; whatever affects the love, which is the real man, or spirit, reacts upon, and affects in an equal degree the body which contains that spirit. That this is so, results from the correspondence existing between the soul and body, as may be palpably manifest to every one capable of inte- rior reflection, and this to such a degree that to obtain convincing proof it is not necessary to extend his observations beyond his own experi- ence. Grief caused by financial loss and the reaction which sets in on re- tiring from business, after spending an active life in amassing a for- tune, are also pregnant with evil results to health. No man has a right to retire from the duty of making himself useful to society, even if he has a fortune, and can afford to do so. If he does, this evil, like every other, is sure to work out its own retribution with a full harvest of unexpected misery. Many of the influences which are patent for evil, and evil only, are relf inflicted, such as the habitual indulgence in alcoholic drinks, wine, beer, &e., the use of tobacco, opium, and other narcotics. Eighty-seven MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 167 per cent, of all kiduey diseases are induced by alcohol. Its continued use curtails vitality, destroys the membranes, generates disease in tho brain, heart, spinal cord, lungs, liver, muscles and blood vessels ; it wrecks the system, impedes the circulation, paralyzes manhood, and T^)recipitates premature decay. Tobacco, also, in every form, exercises a most baneful effect on the health and anind. A distinguished French savant, the Abbe Moigno, increased his daily allowance of snuff until in 1861 it was over 20 grammes, and he observed a rapid decay of the faculty of memory. He had learned some 1500 root words in each of several languages, but found them gi-adually dropping out of his mind, so as to necessitate frequent re- ference to dictionaries. At last he summoned resolution to abandon its -ise, and after C years of abstinence writes as follows : '•It was for us the commencement of a veritable resurrection of health, mind, and memory; our ideas have [become more lucid, our imagination more vivid, our work easier, our pen quicker, and we have seen gradually return that army of words. Our memory, in a word, has recovered all its riches, all its sensibility. That tobacco, especially in the form of snuff, is a powerful enemy of memory, wliich it has destroyed little by little, and sometimes very ju-omptly, cannot be'doubted." With these known ])eruicious effects resulting from the use of alcholic drinks and tobacco, abstinence from both becomes an imperious necessity. Other most important auxiliaries to the maintenance of health/ aro pure air, perfect ventilation in dwellings, and absolute cleanliness of person (See Bathinrj). Keill estimates the surface of the lungs at 150 cubic feet, or ten times that of the external body. During ordi- nary respiration, 16 or 17 cubic inches of atmospheric air pass into the'lungs 20 times in a minute, or a cubic foot every 5.25 minutes ; 274 cubic feet in 24 hours, or a cube of 6^ feet each way. The lungs generate 10.7 cubic feet of deadly carbonic acid gas, and remove from the atmosphere the same amount of oxygen, every 24 hours. The cause of nearly all the headaches in crowded factories, schools and work shops, as well as all the sleeping and snoring in churches, is due more to vitiated air than to any other cause. To the same cause is owing the fearful mortality so prevalent in badly ventilated city tenements, boarding houses, cellars, &c., as well as in houses built on' low levels, and boggy land near stagnant pools, inoperative sev/ers, imprisoned springs, &c. Bad air, imperfect ventilation, uncleanness and ill health must ever go hand in hand. It is worthy of note that v/liile the death rate in the filthy eastern districts of London is nearly CO per 1000 of the population, in Wliite Chapel it is 41, in Limehouse it rises to 48, in part of the Aldgate district of the White Chapel union, it ranges between 58 and 59, or more than double what may be called the fair alloitrance of 25 per cent. Yet it api)ears from the recent statistics of the same city, that in the Peabody Model Buildings the mortality has fallen to 17 per 1000, very near the minimum of the most salubrious parts of England. Decaying vegetable and animal matter yields various noxious gases, also ex^jired breath, all enter the lungs, poison the blood and permeate the system ; therefore all impurities should be kept away from our abodes, and every precaution taken to secure pure air. Temperature of rooms should be about 60° Fahr. A.S the solar rays exercise a benignant influence on health and purify the air in dwellings, therefore admit the blessed sunlight without stint, for good health cannot exist without it. 1C8 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. As disinfectants, the following may be used with goo^ effect 1. Quicklime, to absorb moisture and putrid lluids. Use fresh lime, Fcattering it about, finely powdered, and whitewash with lime. 2. •Charcoal powder, to absord putrid gases. The coal should be dry, and Jrcsh, mixed with lime. 3. Cliloride of lime, to gi^e off chloride to absorb putrid effluvia and to stoj) putrefacti(m. 4. Sulphate of iron (copperas) 1 lb. dissolved in 1 qt. water and poured down a water closet will destroy the foulest smells. A quantity in an open pan will purify the air in rooms. 5. Fluid carbolic acid dissolved at the rate of 1 part to 100 or 150 parts of water is also very good. Among diseases liable to be spread by the distribution of organic, poisons, may be mentioned scarlet fever, tyi)hus fever, typhoid fever, yellow fever, measles, small-pox, diphtheria, infectious ophthalmia, hydrophobia, erysipelas, cholera and glanders. The poisonous par- ticles which effect contagion, are in every instance of organic origin, nnd are evolved from matter composing living bodies. They float in the atmosphere, are inhaled by the breath, and are absorbed by the walls of dwellings, hospitals, etc., and are liable at any time to enter on a career of baneful activity. The walls of hospitals should be glass lined, the better to prevent contamination, and means should be used to destroy the contagious matter by means of chemical agents, such as powerful heat, nitrous acid gas, bromine, chlorine, iodine, sulphurous acid, etc. Solar light is another powerful disin- fectant, and as a means of health has been ranked by Lavoiser as superior to pure air. Dust is highly inimical to health, and it is everywhere present in the air we breathe. Its presence is made manifest in a maimer per- fectly startling, by admitting a beam of sun-light through an orifice into a dark room. It has a most pernicious effect on the healtli iu cities, and indeed everywhere, but the air may be filtered from the noxious particles previous to entering the lungs, by the use of a cot- ton-wool respirator. This contrivance possesses the further merit of being an effectual barrier to the admission to the lungs of those germs or poisonous particles whereby contagious disease is propa- gated. Good health is impossible without pure water. The amount of or- ganic and mineral impurities held in solution or suspension by water, is perfectly astonishing, and wherever suspicion of such impurities exists the water should be filtered. Good reliable filters may be pur- chased ready for immediate use, but wherever they cannot be ob- tained, an excellent substitute may be made from an oak tub made to hold from half to a barrel of Avater, according to the needs of the family. Let it stand on end, with a faucet near the bottom, or pre- ferably, a hole through the bottom, near the front side, witli a tube inserted to prevent the water from rotting the outside of the tub; then put clean pebbles 3 or 4 inches in thickness over tlie bottom of the tub. Spread a piece of clean white flannel over the pebbles ; now have charcoal, pulverized to the size of small peas (that made from hard maple is best), and put in half a bushel or so at a time ; pound it down quite firmly, then put in more and pound again until the tub is filled to within 8 inches of the top, and again put in 2 inches more of pebbles, then put a piece of clean white flannel over the whole top as a strainer. The flannel may be washed occasion- MEDICAL DEPAIIT3IENT, ETC. 169 ally, toTemove the impurities collected from the water, and it might be well to replenish the tub with fresh charcoal ouce a year at least. The result will be wholesome water. Reckless exposure to cold, especially by aged and sensitive per- sons, should be carefully guarded against. From returns published by the Registrar General in England, it was found that during the winter months the body wastes, the loss of weight varying in an in- creasing ratio ; that during summer the body gains, the gain varying in an increasing ratio, and that the changes from gain to loss, and from loss to gain, are sudden, and take place, the first at the begin- ning of September, and the second at the beginning of April. Deaths from pneumonia and bronchitis attain their maximum in the months of January, February, and March ; in the succeeding 3 months they decline, and in the next quarter reach their minimum, re-commenc- ing to increase in October, November, and December. Air saturated with moisture tends to develop rheumatic disease, and organic dis- eases of the heart which spring from rheumatism. During cold raw weather, aged persons should keep close to the house in apartments warmed by a cheerful, open, blazing fire, which is much preferable to the oppressive heat from a hot air register, steam pipes, or close stoves. If called out by business during a cold morning, do not go out too early, nor until after a good warm break- fast, and be sure to return before the chill of the evenmg. Add to the clothing early in the fall, diminish it very gradually in the spring, eat with great moderation and regularity of nourisi)ing diet, and take a daily nap on a lounge, or in an armchair for 15 or 20 minutes after dinner, or during the forenoon. If rest is broken dur- ing tliB night, make it up with prolonged rest during the morning, for as a rule, those aged persons will live the longest who take the most rest and Avork the least, except in a very calm, i)lacid, and un- excited way. During old age guard against haste, hurry, and excite- ment of body and mind, for nothing can be more dangerous to life. Authors, clergymen and all others engaged in intense mental study, should, whenever they become exhausted by severe brain labor, at once cease from further effort, and recuperate their ex- pended energies by taking as much sleep as nature requires. Nothing soothes, strengthens and invigorates the brain like refreshing sleep. Clothing should not be worn in quantity to induce oppression or unnecessary smothering, but only enough to repel every feeling re- sembling chilliness. Keep a clean skin at all times, and as a safe pre- caution wear flannel next to it, as it possesses a powerful influence in modifying dangerous extremes of temperature. Dr. Pettenkofer states that equal surfaces of various materials are permeated by the air as follows, flannel being taken as 100: Linen of medium fineness, 58; silk, 40; buckskin, ^8; chamois leather, 51 ; tanned leather, 1. The dress should fit loosely, should be warm and light througiiout, and frequently changed to remove the impurities exhaled through the skin. Clothing contaminated with, excretory matter is highly inimi- cal to health if worn too long. In cases of infectious disease, the suf- ferer should be isolated, and the infected clothing and bedding either destroyed or purified. Sleeping apartments should be elevated, roomy, well ventilated, and kept at a temperature of about 60°. They should be free from direct draughts on the sleeper. The mattress, should be hard, but may be MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, KTC. easy and sprhij^y if so desired. Feathers should not be used, the emanations from thorn arc most niihealtliy, and tliey generate an ex- cess of licat vvliich is very enfeebling and unwholesome. The sweet- est repose is obtained with the head towards the north, — with tlie bed insulated by moans of glass interposed between tlie feet and the floor, to bar the passage of the electric currents, which are liable to leave the body depleted of strength unless tliey are retained. Guard against sleeping in new dwellings before the plaster and paint liavo become fully dry. Thousands of deaths, seeiningly very mysterious and pi'incipally of aged persons, have taken place from neglect of thia precaution. The natural allow\ance for sleep is eight hours out of the twenty- four, and the most favorable time is from 10 o'clock until 6. Intellectual labor is more exhaustive than physical, consequently per- sons thus emi)loyed require more rest than working men. TlrC most favorable position for sleep is on the right side; the worst is to lie on the back, as it generates a perilous heat over the region of the kid- neys and spinal cord. Solitary repose is the most beneficial every way; when two parties sleep together, each one inhales a deleterious , effluvia thrown off by his neighbor, and the weakest is always the greatest sufferer, more especially is this the case with children who sleep with aged persons. Add to this, electric changes are continual- ly taking place, which frequently cause unrest, disquiet, and exhaus- tion, Avhen two sleep together. Refreshing sleep gives rest to the brain and the nervous system. The retina is inert, the tympanum is placid, the nerves of taste, smell, and feeling, are dormant, and all the powers of the cerebrum and cerebellum are quiescent. Children require more sleep than adults, and they should get all they will take of it, with a benediction and kind words to begin with. It is atro- cious to think of the hard language, maledictions, and downright liea addressed to tender hearted children by many parents on putting them to bed. Tliey certainly are not aware of the grievous injury thc}^ in- flict by such irrational conduct. Sleep is an absolute necessity to all animal existence, and when yve think of its inestimable benefits, and w^onderf ul surroundings, we can only stand mute, and with emotions inexpressible, refer their origin to that Infinite Love which " neith- er slumbers nor sleeps." In dressing children, use care to keep them warm, keeping flannel to their skhi during the entire year, especially covering the extremi- ties well. There is a peculiar fashion most deadly in its effects, which lets children runabout with bare legs, arms, and necks, with the low- er iwt of the dress expanded away from the person, thus admitting the chilling cold to do its worst. Such exposure would prove certain death to its parents in less than a month. Keep the extremities warm by keeping them well clothed, and thus keep up a free circulation, for cold feet and hands prevent healtli, and are the certain precursors of disease and death. Add to this plenty of good food, ripe fruit, and out-door exercise ad libitum, and you willliave rosy, blooming chil- dren, as the result. In the matter of out-door exercise, it might not be amiss to use a little wholesome oversight and restraint, let them have their full swing in the enjoyment of exercise calculated to de- velop the frame, such as running, jumping, playing ball, driving hoops, &c., but when it comes to every day sport in the line of firing 1)istols, exploding fire crackers, cracking whips, and an everlasting )attei'iuj of toy drums, fjc, then I say, stop it at once, unless MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 171 you wish to raise a dangerous boy and a dangerous man, for that ig just the way to do it. Children, or others who may be afflicted with impediments of epeecli, may be cured, if the remedy is not organic, by reading aloud for au hour or two every day, taking care to inhale air, and well fill the lungs, before reading each paragraph, as the cause of stammering in nine cases out of ten, is the endeavor to speak when the lungs arc empty. Dr. Hunt, of Regent street, London, a celebrated and suc- cessful stammerers' doctor, charged fifty guineas for effecting cures by the method just noted. It is only in civilized life that we find the most favorable conditions for health and longevity. The poets have expended much rapturous sentiment and romance about "the noble red man "in his native forest, but a personal investigation of the object of their effusions is very apt to cause a sudden revulsion of feeling. A filthy person, greasy blankets, rank skins, and other unsavory surroundings, are apt to make short work of high-strung ideas in the shape of poetry, romance, or sentiment. Of a verity, "cleanliness is next to godli- ness," and it is indeed a most auspicious token that the old mediiBval ideas regarding the necessary connection betv.^een filth, poverty, and fdety, are notions belonging to the past. Human life has been abso- utely lengthened by the addition of several years to a generation, compared with what it was a hundred yeans ago, all oAving to the observance of sanitary laws, and it will continue to lengthen, just in the proportion that these laws are respected. Dr. Jarvis iutnnates that in ancient Rome, in the period of 200 to 500 years after the Christian era, the average duration of life in the most favored class was 30 years, while in the present century the average longevity of persons of the same class is 50 years. In the 16th century, the average longevity in Geneva was 21.21 years; be- tween 1814 and 1833 it was 40.68, and as large a proportion now live to 70 as lived to 43 300 years ago. In 1000, only 228 medical men live from 63 to 72, and 328 theologians. lu the last 50 years the mean term of life seems to have increased from 33 to 41. In professions, of those who attain the age of 66, there are found to be 43 Theologians, 40 Agriculturists, 35 Men in office, 32 Military, 32 Clerks, 29 Advor cates, 28 Artists, 27 Professors, and 24 Medical practitioners. When man, by an orderly life, passes through the various stages of a healthy existence, from childhood to j^outh, from youth to man- hood, and from manhood to old age ; during the decline of life he grad- ually approaches the verge of natural decay, and death takes place from the gradual effluxion of vitality. Few lives, comparatively Bpeaking, terniinate in this way, but when this consummation is attained, and death, purely natural, takes place, it must be regarded as much in the light of a blessing as is natural birth, for it is an orderly working out of almost wise and beneficent law, and the nearer advance we make to this natural limit of existence the better. Death is usually regarded as a curse, and as something very dreadful ; there is a death wluch is indeed terrible beyond all powers of human conception, but natural death is not so, and is in no sense a calamity, but a Avise pro- vision of Infinite Mercy for man's highest good. Harassing thoughts, meiital anxiety, late hours, and worriment, are fruitful causes of disease in healthy persons, and of death in cases of illness. Use every possible means to get rid of such feelings, and 172 MKDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. do not fcruplo to malco xiso of swch diversions or fimnscmGntm as "mil effectually divert an invalid's thoughts from hv.hvj; too much en- grossed with self. When nature calls for rest and recreation, do not neglect the warning. Guard against extreme fatigue of either body or mind, especially a complication of both together. Keep the pas- sions under thorough control; in doing this the good old Quaker's rule will be found of great assistance, viz., Never to allow himself to f5peak in a loud tone of voice. Nothing preserves health better than a placid temper. Exercise and physical training should not be neg- lected ; persons engaged in sedentary employments should resort to exercise, or rest on finding their thoughts become confused, and labor- ers should not carry their efforts to the verge of exhaustion ; tlio lieart's action is greatly injured thereby, and the bad effects will become ])ermanent. Of all peoples, the Jews are notably the longest lived race ; the reason is because they live orderly lives, they take care of themselves, so to speak, use proper food, and abstain from pork, which, from its liability to promote diseased conditions of the blood, and thence of the ■vyhole system, is decidedly injurious as an article of diet. The use of immoderate quantities of meat has an unhealthy influence on the body, and induces ferocity of the mind, as in Indians and others who subsist on it. Plutarch was astonished to think what appetite first induced man to taste of a dead carcase, and Pope said that the horrid and shocking sight of one of our modern kitchens gives one the imago of a giant's den in romance, bestrewed with scattered heads and man- gled limbs. Vegetable food is not liable to distend the vessels, load the system, or becloud the mind, but the heat, fulness, and weight of animal food is unfavorable to its efforts. Cornaro, the dietetic, allowanced himself to 12 ozs. of dry food and 14 ozs. of liquids per day, from the age of 40 to 100. See Dynamic Poioer of Food. In eating, select good nourishing diet, so as to insure variety with- out excess, eat witli regularity, without long intervals of abstinence, and eat leisurely. In drinking, avoid taking large draughts of cold water, drink with extreme moderation during meals, and avoid drink- ing water which has stood long in rooms or in lead pipes. Impure water is liable to produce malarial affections. Tea and coffee, if used strong, and in large quantities, are certain to jyroduce nervous irrita- bility and brain excitement, but if used in moderation and of mild strength, they are most refreshing and pleasant. Nervous persons will find coffee more soothing than tea, while persons of a different temperament will be better suited with the latter. Beyond all doubt, and for almost every purpose, in health and disease, pure water is the healthiest beverage, and it certainly is the natural drink of man. According to Hoffman, "If there be any universal medicine it is water; for, by its assistance, all distempers are alleviated or cured, and the body preserved sound and fre6 from corruption, that enemy to life." As Dr. Gall said of another subject, so the writer would say. here, that " This is Tkuth, though at enmity with the philosophy of ages." On Bathikg.— Nothing is of more transcendant importance to the maintenance of health than cleanliness, and this can only be obtained by the free use of water, in washing, sponging, and bathing. The modes of bathing are various, and, when rightly used, are mont powerful for good. The rule is, the more robutt the conetiti^tion of MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 173 tlie patient, and higher his exterior temperature, the colder should be the water. In bathing it is always well to avoid taking a full bath within two hours after a meal, or when exhausted by fatigue, or when cooling after perspiration, or when feeling chilly. Do not drink cold water" before bathing, nor eat soon after it. Females, during the menstrual period, should never take cold baths. Never take a cold bath while the feet are cold. Never chill the body by standing or sit- ting on the banks during out-door bathing ; enter the water while the body is Avarm, and avoid remaining too long in the water, leaving it on the first feeling of chilliness. Exercise before and after bathing is highly beneficial! Feeble and nervous persons should guard against powerful chilling shocks from cold water. The young and vigorous may bathe early in the morning on an empty gtomach. Persons sub- jected to giddiness, faintness, palpitation, or other affections of tho heart, should use a cold bath with extreme caution. The Cold Bath, usually taken in the sea or in a river, tempera- ture from 350 to 65° Falir., has a most powerful, exhilarating and tonic effect on the frame, and imparts a vigorous glow and stimulus to the system^ It should not be continued longer than two or tlireo minutes. The Temperate Bath, ranging fromG5° to 80° Fahr., is much preferable to the last for the use of invalids. Duration of bath should not be extended over three minutes, and the whole body should be thoroughly rubbed dry with a coarse towel, to induce a glow. The Full Warm Bath, taken in the ordinary long bath tubs, as arranged by plumbers in dwellings, hotels, &c., are in the highest degree promotive of health and comfort. Fitted with hot and cold water connections, any desired temperature may be obtained, but for the best effect it should range from 90° to 98° ; better under that than over it. The benefits will be increased by the use of carbonate of soda, 4 ozs. to 30 gals, water. This rids the system of much effete matter, promotes the cure of disease, and thoroughly cleanses the emuuctories. After bathing, rub thoroughly dry. The Hot Bath, ranging from 98° to 112°, thoroughly stimulates the nervous system, but immersion cannot be prolonged over two or three minutes without permanent injury. Water scalds at 150°, but air heated to 200° is not painful. It is not safe to tamper much with £5uch high temperatures, although Berger remained seven minutes in an oven, heated to 230°. Blagden exceeded this, remaining eight minutes in a temperature of from 240° to 260°. Delaroche could not re- main more than 10 minutes in a vapor bath at 100°. Berger was obliged to get out of a vapor bath at a, temperature of 122° in twelve and a half minutes. The sensation in hot vapor resembles that of contact with boiling water. Fish actually live in hot baths up to 150°. Trees also grow in a bath at 170° ; flowers near a volcano, at 210° ; and water-plants are found in boiling snrings. The king's bath at Bath is 116°, the hot bath is 117°, at Vichy 120°, at Aix la Chapelle 140°. In the hot springs at Leuk, in Switzerland, the temperature of twenty springs varies from 95° to 125° ; the baths are given at 98°, and, to make it as agreeable as possible, the patients bathe together, both men and women, dressed for the occasion. In the Hermbad, you may see the curious spectacle of people seated up to their necks in the bath, with coffee, books, cards, newspapers, work, &c., before them on little floating tables, or gossiping together or with their 174 MKDICAL DEPART3IENT, ETC. friends, who look on from the wooden Rallory wliich runs around the Willi. The waters arc both drank and bathed in, being considered excellent for weak nerves, palsy, diseases of the skin, and many chronic complaints. Elevation, 4(>75 feet above the sea. rooK INIan's Vapor Bath. Ileat two or three bricks and place them under the patient's chair, sprinkle some water over the bricks, and cover tlie patient to keep in the steam, or, a large lump of quick lime placed in a ])an or old iron pot and sprinkled with water, or wrapped up in a wet, coarse towel. Neither of these methods, however, are at all comparable to the efficiency of a properly administered va- por bath, either i:)ure or medicated, in which the temperature of the steam, &e., can be regulated as follows: Temperature of tepid vapor bath, to be breathed, 1)0° to 100°, warm ditto 100° to 110°, hot ditto llQo to 130°; not to be breathed, tepid bath, 90° to 106°, warm 106° to 120°, hot 120° to 130°. These baths have performed wonders in cases of chronic rheumatism, stiffness of joints, indurations, diarrhoea, suppressions, &c. The Sponge Bath is a means of health of such transcendant im- portance, that in the absence of other bathing facilities, it should never be neglected for a single day. It is a powerful conserver of health, and ailords positive relief in almost every phase of disease. The water may be used of any desired temperature. Apply with a towel or sponge, and when through polish off with a regular hard finish with a coarse towel, or still better, two of them, well laid on, the last one dry, to induce a glow on the blhx by friction. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. The Sitting or Sitz Bath, Fig. 1, should be arranged to admit of the complete Immersion of the lower part of the back and abdo- minal regions, the thighs, &c,, with ample room for laving the y/ater and kneading the parts. The cold tonic bath given in this way is ex- cellent for diseases of the kidneys, bladder, urino-genital organs, piles, constipation, &c. In case's of colic, spasm, griping pains, gravel, suppressed or painful menstruation, inflammation, &c., it should be given warm in order to prove effective. Cover the patient, if need be, to i^revent catching cold; The cuts are borrowed from an excellent little work by Dr. Trail, entitled, "The Bath : its History and Uses in Health aiid Disease;" published by S. R, Wells, New- York. MBDICAL DEPAHTMENT, ETC. 175 TniE Head Bath, Fig. 2, is taken by placing the patient on his back, on a mattress, with his head in a shallow basin (made with a depression in the rim to accommodate the neck) with about 3 inches of water, warm or cold, as may be desired. A most excellent cooluig application for affections of the head, brain, &c. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. The Douche Bath, Fig. 3, consists of a jet of water used as a stimulant in lethargic states of the system; also as a remedy for swel- lings, sprains, stiff joints, rheumatic affections, &c., applied directly to the parts, as shown above. A jet from a hose may be used as a substitute for the douche bath in certain cases. The Shallow Bath, Fig. 4, may be used with immense advan- tage both by invalids and x^ersons in health ; the water may be used at any desired temperature, not more than G inches deep, contained in a spacious tub. The water should be thoroughly applied over the breast, abdomen, sides, thighs, and extremities; the head should be wet, and water, cold, or otherwise, as desired, poured over the neck and shoulders by an assistant. This bath is excellent for brain affec- tions, headache, &c. The bath may be used for from 5 to 15 minutes; rub thoroughly to dry and induce a healthy glow on the skin. The Wet Sheet Pack, Fig. 5. This is a most powerful remedial agent for invalids. Immerse a cotton or linen sheet in a pail of cold water, remove the bed clothes from the mattress, and on the mattress spread a coverlet ; then two or three blankets, next, wring out the wet sheet in the bucket of water, and spread it over the blanketa. The patient will now warm his feet, divest himself of clothing, and place himself at full length on the cold wet sheet, with his hands placed over his breast. The sheet, blankets and coverlets are now tucked in close- ly all around his body by an attendant, the head is elevated on pil- lows, and covered with a wet cloth. The first sensation is that of a chill, which gives place almost immediately to a comfortable glow, gradually increasing to a sweat. The patient should remain in the pack from 25 minutes to an hour or more. Some have been known 170 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. to fall nslccp in it. To recoivo tlio fullest benefit, it shmild ho follo-^cd at once by a j)lnn<:;e batli (See Fig. (5), or thorough ablution in cold Avatcr previous to dressing. 'I'hen rub with friction by means of a coarse towel. In cases of severe disease, the beneiit of this trent- nient is manifest from the very offensive odor imparted by tlie per- spirations to the sheet. Mercury, also, "which had lodged in the sys- tem for years, having been taken under the guise of calomel, has been "withdrawn through the pores by the "wet sheet, and detected in its -woven fabric. The "wet sheet pack is of great value in fevers, colds chronic diseases, and general derangement of the system. Spirit_ Vapor Bath. The patient divested of all clothing except a night shirt, is seated on a "wooden bottomed chair, and "well covered before and behind "with blankets or coverlets reaching from his shoulders to the floor. A saucer containing a few spoonfuls of alcho- hol, "whiskey or any spirit that "will burn, is now placed on the floor imder the chair and ignited. The vapor ascends, and, confined by the blankets, it "will soon induce a copious perspiration from every pore of the body subject to its action. The spirit may be replenished v/hen it burns out, but not while burning or while under the patient, owing to the possilile resulting danger. The operation is highly beneficial to the system, and may last from 10 to 15 minutes, or until a free per- spiration is induced. Be careful that no damage results to the patient or his clothing from the burning spirit. For Spokgio Piline, see Portable Bath. Sulphur and Medicated Baths. — The former is compounded by mixiiig sulphuret of potassium 4 ozs. and sulphuric acid 1 oz. in 30 gals, of water. The latter are decoctions of vegetable or other mate- rials in water, in which the patient is immersed ; or, it can be applied with a sponge if so desired, and may be tepid, warm, or hot, as pre- ferred. The Air Bath, taken by exposing the naked body to the air in a cool room, is very salutary and beneficial. When not carried too far, it is very soothing in its effects, and, in wakeful states, is promotive of Bleep. The good effects are greatly enhanced by friction with a towel during exposure. The same remarks are eminently true when MEDICAL DErARTMENT. 177 understood of snn-hathing, or exposure of the nude body to the sun, •which, in certain diseased conditions, has a most vivifying and in- vigorating effect. Galvanic, Electric, and Magnetic Baths.— The first is taken by placing the patient in a wooden bath tub (or in a painted metallic tub), filled with, water impregnated with any desired drug. The nega- tive pole of the battery is suspended in the water, and a wire con- nected with the positive pole, with a sponge attached, communicates with the body. The electric current from the positive pole enters the body and escapes through the pores. The effect is beneficial in the highest degree. An electro-positive bath is given while the patieut is seated on a chair, insulated by placing glass under the feet. While the glass plate of the electric machine is being revolved, the patient holds the prime conductoi', and his body becomes charged Avith posi- tive electricity'. The effect is very stimulating to deficient vitality. The Acid Bath is highly beneficial in liver and other complaints, and may be compounded with water acidified with vinegar, or with water, 30 gals., muriatic acid, 14 ozs. Use the latter in a wooden tub or non-metallic vessel, as the acid is inimical to m^etals. The Shower Bath, with cold water, never fails to produce a shock which nervous and weak patients find it very hard to with- stand; but, to persons of strong constitution, it cannot fail to provo beneficial, for the shock is usually succeeded by a most agreeable re- action. This bath may, however, be rendered agreeable,' even to tha feeble, by tlie use of tepid or warm water, applied in the form of a delicate spray, x^assed through minute perforations in a tin vessel ]:>laced overhead, and fitted with a proper apparatus for regulating the descent. The Foot Bath is calculated to produce the most decided benefit in correcting cold feet, induced by liver complaint, etc.; also, to relieve heat in the head, caused by fullness of blood on the brain, with cold extremities. In such cases, use warm or hot water, with the addition of mustard or cayenne pepper. In cases of swelled limbs, ulcers, rheumatic pains, etc., great relief vvill be obtained by extending the treatment to the legs, knees, limbs, etc., thoroughly washing and lav- ing the parts. The Mud Bath, equivocal as it may appear, is nevertheless one of the most powerful remedial agents. On the principle that charcoal purifies foul water, absorbing its impurities, so mud acts on the body, opening the pores, withdrawing effete matter, cooling the skin, and curing disease. If any diseased person doubts this, let him put it to the test. The Iodine Bath, for adults, is compounded of iodine, 1 dr. ; iodide of potassium, 2 drs. ; water, 20 gals. For children's use, it should be weaker. It is not adapted for indiscriminate use, but for diseases affecting the glands, tubercular troubles, scrofula, etc. The iodine vapor bath may be used as described under spirit vapor bath. The Turkish Bath, by means of dry heated air, is one which may be, and often is, productive of much benefit in diseased con- ditions of the body, but is most inimical to health when used with regularity as a social enjoyment or luxury. Wherever it has become a national custom, this bath has always proved the principal agency in sealing the doom of that nation, as witness the collapsed Rome of the past, and the reeling Turkey of the present. In reference to this, 13 178 MEDICAL DErARTMENT. one of tho most prominent medical practitioners of the day, Dr. Richardson, of London, writes to tlic JJritifih Medical Revieio, as fol- lows: " I predict it will be tlic same here, under tho same principles. I predict that Avhenever Englishmen give up the active occupations I have named (he had been urging healthy man to spend the time re- quired for the bath in digging, walking, rowing, rifle drill, cricketin;us etc.), and, in slippered pantaloons, luxuriate daily in a bath, to rid themselves of the ])rodncts of excretion, then tliis country will have passed its zenith. Then there will be no great hero to bid evei y man do his duty, no man to do the duty, and uo England for which tho duty should be done." Tiie foregoing, presenting a choice of between 20 and 30 different methods of bathing, is of great utility to all, but especially so in the prevention and cure of the complex and delicate affections to which females are liable, and which call for such careful treatment from medical practitioners. There is room for deep regret that this class of diseases has opened a wide field for the operations of numerous rapacious and incompetent men, who are a disgrace to the profession, and whose ravenous proclivities and infamous ])ractices blind them to everything but the acquisition of plunder. The medical profession, as a class, have always been held in high estimation ; so much so, that, during the reign of the Emperor Augustus, they Avere exempted from the payment of taxes; and that there should be so many cormorants in their ranks, is regretted by none more sincerely than by the respect- able members of the profession. The real impostor is generally known by his resonant puffs, in the shape of advertisements, in which, while uttering the most savage maledictions against quacks :;nd quackery, lie almost lays personal claim to tlie powers of omnipo- tence in the cure of disease. These incorrigible rascals generally parade a dazzling list of fictitious certificates of cures performed by them where every other doctor had failed; but they will not hesitate to act the thief as nearly as the law allows, and strix) their victim of his or her last dollar, exacted for services fifty times worse than use- less. Grateful, indeed, should he be who escapes with nothing worse than the loss of his money. The advertising quack is generally a dead shot, sometliiuof of the Dr. Hornbook genus, as immortalized by J3urns, very profuse in his promises to cure disease and conceal in- firmities, but like his illustrious prototype, very uncanny, and alto- gether too ready to send his patients " aff to their lang hame, to hide them there." In England, i^revious to the advent of the modern newspaper, the quack used to transform himself into a living advertisement, by itin- erating through the provincial towns in a blazing uniform, dressed like a mountebank, with cocked hat and wig. Accompanied by an assistant, he would mount a platfoi'm, gather an immense crowd, and proceed to deliver an extravagant eulogium on his profound skill, pro- digious wealth, and the wonderful virtues of his pills, panaceas and elixirs, as he offered them for sale. The assistant, who seemed to an- swer to the character of a modern clown in a circus, would aid with the sales, and keep up the farce by making witty remarks on the doc- tor's wild averments. For example, after listening to the doctor's statements regarding his boundless wealth, and great condescension in cousentino- to travel for the purpose of healing the sick, as he was MEDICAL DEPAKTMEKT. 179 not obliged to do so for want, the clown "would announce to the au- dience that " The doctor tells the truth, we doant need to travel fof Want, for we have enoof of that at hoam." The result is a loud laugh, the crowd is in good humor, the pills, elixirs, etc., are sold, and the buyers are sold at the same time. Practical Dietetic Economies. — The following table, com- piled from various authorities, is eminently and practically useful, presenting as it does at a glance the available percentage of nutritive elements contained in the leading staples used as human food. Eaw Cucumbers . . . 2 Boiled Turnips... . 4^ . 10 Whipped Eggs . . . . 33 . 14 . 16 . 20 Boiled Codfish . . . 21 Broiled Venison ... 22 Potatoes 22}^ Fried Veal 24 Boast Pork 24 Boast Poultry 26 Eaw Beef 26 " Grapes 27 " Plums 29 Broiled Mutton.. . . 30 Oatmeal Porridge, 75 Bye Bread 79 Boiled Beans 87 Boiled Rice 88 Barley Bread 8i Wheat Bread 9 ) Baked Corn Bread . . 91 Boiled Barley 92 Butter 92 Boiled Peas 93 Kaw Oils 95 For further details on this subject sec tables on pp. 623 and 765. The figures present a diversity, but the general results are fixed and invariable, presenting to the economist the relative amount of nutri- ment supplied by each kind of food. From the evidence presented it will be seen that the most wholesome and nutritious articles, aa oatmeal, flour, peas, beans, rice, crushed wheat, corn bread, etc., are vastly superior to beef in supplying effective ability to labor, besides being, in the leading markets of the world, obtainable at about one- third the price of the latter. It will be seen that the nutriment sup- plied by beef is 26 per cent., while the cereals yield from 75 to 95 per cent. ; while there is no room for dispute as to the comparative healthiness of the different kinds of diet. The bounding circulation, good digestion, and mental activity enjoyed by day, together with the sound sleep accorded by night, to the man who prefers plain to luxurious living, and vegetable to animal food, are certainly well worth striving for. If a fair percentage of wholesome ripe fruit be used with the above noted diet, its value and the enjoyment of using it will be greatly enhanced. After all that can be said, pro and con, touchin;^ a vegetable diet, certain are we that the average man who limits himself to a well-selected regimen of vegetable food will, ac- cidents aside, go through life with a clear mind in a healthy body, will sleep sounder, and come nearer the alloted age of three-score and ten, have a better digestion, and have fewer headaches, than the man Avho indulges in roast beef with the usual variations ad libitum. Effects of the Solar Light on Lunatics.— Dr. Ponza, di- rector of the Lunatic Asylum at Alessandria, Piedmont, having'con- ceived the idea that the solar rays might have some curative power in diseases of the brain, the experiment was tried in rooms lighted by stained glass, the walls being painted the same color as the win- dows. The patients passed the night in rooms oriented to the east and south, and painted and glazed as above. One of them, affected with morbid taciturnity, became gay and affable after 3 hours' stay in a red chamber; another, a maniac who refused all food, asked for some breakfast after having stayed Si hours in the same red cham- 130 MKDICAL DEPARTMENT. ber. In a bluG Olio, a highly excited madman with a straight waisi- coat on, was licpt all day, an hour after he appeared much calmer. The action of blue light is very intense ou the optic nerve, and seems to cause a sort of oppression. A pntient was made to pass the night in a violet chamber ; on the following day he begged Dr. Ponza to send him home, because he felt himself cured, and indeed he has been well ever since. Dr. Ponza's conclusions from his experiments, are these: " The violet rays, are, of all others, those that possess the most intense electro-chemical power. The red light is also very rich in calorific rays: blue light, on the contrary, is quite devoid of them, as well as of chemical and electric ones. Its beneficent influ- ence is hard to explain ; as it is the absolute negation of all excite- ment, it succeeds admirably in calming the furious excitement of maniacs." Weak Back.— Take a "beef's gall, pour into it 1 pint alcohol, and bathe frequently. It acts like a charm. Sprained Ankle. — Wash the ankle frequently with cold salt and water, which is far better than warm vinegar or decoctions of herbs. Keep your foot as cold as possible to prevent inflammation, and sit with it elevated on a cushion. Spitting of blood. — Two spoonfuls of sage juice in a littlo honey, will speedily stop either spitting or vomiting blood, or, take 20 grains in water every two hours. Apoplexy. — Occurs only in the corpulent or among high livers. To treat — raise the head in a nearly upright position ; unloose all tight clothes, strings, etc., and apply cold water to the head, and warm water and warm cloths to the feet. Have the apartment cool and well ventilated. Give nothing by the mouth until the breathing is relieved, and then only draughts of cold water. Bbight's Disease. — Dr. Arthur Scott Donkin, extols a skim milk diet in this disease. "The first appreciable action," he says, " of skim, milk taken to the extent of 6 or 7 pts. daily, is that of a most energetic diuretic, a profuse flow of urine being rapidly pro- duced. The eiiect of this in Bright's disease, is to flush the urinifer- ous tubules, and to dislodge and wash out the concrete casts of dis- eased epithelial cells by which they are blocked np and distended. The emptying of the tubules relieves their pressure on the surround- ing secondary capillaries, the blood begins to flow more freely through them, the distension of the primary malpighian capillaries, is re- lieved ; less and less albumen escapes through their walls, until the renal circulation is gradually restored, Avhen it finally disappears from the urine. While this beneficial change is progressing, healthy epithelium is developed in the tubules, and "the urinary excrement is withdrawn from the blood. In short, a healthy nutrition becomes re-established in the kidneys through the agency of milk, which, above all other substances, seems to exercise a controlling influence over this process. Remedy for Gout and Rheumatism. — Gum guaiacum, 1 oz. ; rhubarb in powder, 2 drs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 ozs. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz., ginger powder 1 oz.; make into an electuajry^with molasses. Dose : 2 teaspoonfuls, night and morning. Rheumatic Plaster, resin ^ lb., sulphur I lb,, melt them by a slow fire ; then add cayenne pepper 1 oz., camphor gum ^ oz. Stir well till mixed, and temper with neats- f oot oil. To guard against rheumatism, adhere to a regular diet, breath pure air, and avoid exposure. MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 181 INDUSTRY PROMOTES BODILY HEALTH AND MENTAL ACTIVITY. Every true man will most willingly concur in the royal assevera- tion of old king Solomon, that the price of a wise, virtuous, and good woman, "is far above rubies." Poets of every age and race;' have sung her praises, and many a man has had abundant reason to 182 MEDICAL DEPATITMENT. thank his Maker for an inestimable blcssin;? in the companionship of a virtuous, loving, devoted and alfe(;tionato wife. What earthly prize can for a moment be compared with this. In her person we see tlie perfection of loveliness — modesty, grace, and beauty ; in iier voice we hear the sweetest music ; in her mind we see "a fragrant blending of the most attractive attributes, and the nearest created a])in'oximation to that Love which is Infinite. Slierlock avers that " The perception of woman is as quick as lightning. Her penetra- tion is intuition: almost instinct. By a glance she will draw a deep and just conclusion. Ask her how' she formed it, and she cannot answer the question. While she trusts lier instinct she is scarcely ever deceived, but she is generally lost when she commences to rea- eon." Every one knows that this is true, but very few know the reason why it is so. This we find unfolded in the following quotation from the illumined Swedenborg : " The man is born to be intellectual, thus to think from the understanding, but the woman is born to bo voluntary, thus to think from the will ; which also is evident from the inclination or connate disposition of each, as also from their form From the disposition, in that the man acts from reason, but the woman from affection. From the form, in that the man has a rougher and less beautiful face, a heavier speech, and a harder body, but the woman has a smoother and more beautiful face, a more ten- der speech, and a softer body. Similar is the distinction between the understanding and the Avill, or between thought and affection." Again, "The male is born into the affection of knowing, of under- standing, and of being wise, and the female is born into the love of conjoining herself with that affection in the male." The special at- tributes of the will principle are ijerception, affection, and every re- sultant feminine grace, or in one word — Love. The question which eclipses all others in importance is, How shall this most precious quality be trained and cultivated ? Or, into what channels should its course be guided and directed ? On this subject, hear Swedenborg once more : "Love truly conjugal, considered in its origin, and its correspondence, is heavenly, spiritual, pure, and clean, above every love which is with the angels of heaven and the men of the church." Again, "I know that few will acknowledge, that all joys and delights, from first to last, are gathered into conju- gal love, because that love truly conjugal, is at this day so rare, that "what it is is not known, and scarcely that it is." We may learn from this, that love is of heavenly origin, and was given that it might be used for heavenly ends and purposes. It follows from this there- fore, that in order to attain to a full and healthy mental and physical development, it is imperiously necessary that immorality and un- chastity in every form, should be discountenanced and shunned, for it is only in total abstinence from impurity and illicit pleasures, that we can find immunity from ruin, degradation, and death. This is true in the case of man, and it is still more so in the case of woman, for in almost every case after the first false step, she is led on to swift destruction by the ascendancy of her affections, without being arrested in her career by the wholesome restraint of the reflective or reasoning faculties which operate so powerfully in man. Every means should be employed that will operate to prevent such a baleful consummation. All obscene, immoral, and impure books, everything MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 183 iu the shape of literature which tends to inflame the passions, pro- mote licentiousness, and corrode purity of mind, should be at once deposited in the only place where they will prove inocuous — in the fire. Labor to elevate and train the faculties of the soul in the love and practice of what is good and true ; rule the propensities, and hold them in abeyance, remembering that no victory is at all com- parable with that obtained over self. Perhaps the intensest longin* of which a good woman's heart is susceptible, is after union and intimate conjunction with a worthy husband. It may be no news to inform such women that nothing attracts the opposite sex to them compared with a tender and win- ning manner, blended with feminine sweetness of temper. The sweet temper is a crowning charm, together with the female grace which seems to solicitand invite, Avhile at the same time it modestly repels. Men never respect boldness or audacity in women. What they most desire to see in them is something in which they are de- cidedly deficient themselves. Prof. Tyndall, the scientist, a man of great scientific attainments, is now fifty-six years of age, and but lately married. On being interrogated by a friend previous to his marriage, as to what attractions he saw in his intended which drew forth his preference for her more than for others, the characteristie reply was: "Less dynamic force." It has been so in all ages, and will SD continue. In every possible way try to act in a natural and becoming man- ner, without affectation. Dress according to your means and sta- tion, if you will, but always in a modest, imassuming stj'le, and dis- card at once and forever all those wretched shams and miserable appliances in the shape of padding, painting, perfuming, curling, tight lacing, etc., which arc calculated to ruin" the health and deceive the observer. Cultivate kindness, cheerfulness, an even quiet temper, and repress asperities of every kind. If the mother be endowed with physical vigor, a pure moral char- acter, and is,iu her domestic relations, a becoming model of all that is orderly, clean, prompt, dignified, kind and loving, she is certain in the very nature of things, to transmit these beneficient qualities to her offspring, and through them a blessing to society. Let all parents know that, by a law from which there is no appeal, those very quali- ties and endowments of mind which they cultivate in themselves, be they good or evil, they by that very act implant in their posterity. The most powerful means for the repression of evil and the elimi- nation of good, is constancy in some useful employment of body or mind. Useful industry promotes bodily health, enhances every female grace, sweetens the temper, and beautifies the countenance. It is the great safety-valve which, by Divine appointment, is designed to absorb and utilize the surplus energy dispensed to every healthy human being during the prime of life, and which, if spent in idle- ness, frivolity, dissipation, or senseless gossiping, is certain to pro- duce the most malignant evils. Ladies should never neglect pure air, and abundant out-door ex- ercise, cither in walldng, carriage, or horseback riding. Confinement in close rooms, with stove or furnace heat, is most unfavorable to robust health. It is all important, in consideration of the perform- ance of those high and holy functions entrusted to woman, that the beautiful, delicate, and exquisitely constructed body by which those functions are accomplished, should be kept attuned to the most per- 184 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. feet stato of hCcalth. Tlio mind slionld 1)0 kept free from moral coa- fciiniuation of every kind, and trained to habits of pure thought, sobriety and stability. Nothing can be of greater importance to humanity than the proper adjustment of the physical and mental equilibrium of woman. The weal or woe of the human race seem to turn on this primary essential as on a pivot. AVhat our children are, is in a great jneasure v/liat tlieir mother's have made them, for intho turn on this primary essential as on a pivot. V/liatonr children are is in a great measure what their mothers have made them, for iu tho very nature of things, children are in the motlier's hand, like plas- tic wax under the seal, and the impression is generally in harmony cither with what she has taught them or neglected to teach. Equally important is the duty incumbent on every female to vigi- lantly guard against forming matrimonial engagements with men of defective health or vitiated morals. Tho neglect of this wise precau- tion has caused an extent of misery and wretchedness beyond all human conception. On this subject, one of the ablest living medical men. Dr. B. W, Richardson, of London, England, remarks as fol- lows: "The first step tov/ards the reduction of diseases is, beginning at the beginning, to provide for the health of tho unborn. If ihe intermarriage of disease were considered in the same light as the intermarriage of poverty, the hereditary transmission of disease Tv^ould be at an end in three, or at most, four generations." He re- marks in another place, " Greater care than is at present manifested, ought to be taken witii women who are about to become mothers." As many estimable ladies are pardonably anxious about their chances for marriage, the following curious statement, by Dr. Gran- ville, is drawn up from the registered cases of 876 married women in France. It is the first table ever constructed to exhibit to ladies their chances of marriages at various ages. Of the 870 tabulated, there were married : — Years of age. Years of age. Years of age. Years of age. 3 at 13 118 at 20 28 at 27 5 at 34 11 at 14 81) at 21 22 at 28 3 at 35 16 at 15 85 at 23 17 at 29 0 at .36 43 at 16 59 at 23 0 at 30 2 at 37 45 at 17 53 at 24 7 at 31 0 at 38 77 at 18 30 at 25 5 oil the tar, resin, and gum together a short time, remove from tho five, and stir in finely pulverized mandrake root, blood root, i)oko root, and Indian turnip, of each, 1 oz. l*iLLS. — To Sugar Coat. — ^PiUs to be sugar coated must be very dry, otherwise tlicy will shrink away from the coating, and leave it a shell easily crushed off. When they are dry, you will take starch, gum arable, and white sugar, equal parts, rubbing them very fine ia a marble mortar, and if damp, they must be dried before rubbing together ; then put the powder into a suitable pan, or box, for shak- ing ; now put a few pills into a small tin box having a cover, and ]-)0ur on to them just a little simple syrup, shaking well to moisten the surface only ; then throw into tho box of powder, and keep in motion until completely coated, dry, and smooth. . If you are not very careful, you will get too much syrup upon the pills ; if you do, ])ut iu more, and be quick about it to prevent moistening the pill too much, getting them into the powder as soon as possible. Positive Cure for Hydrophobia. — The dried root of elecampane, pulverize it, and measure out 9 heaping tablespoon fuls, and mix it with 2 or 3 teaspoonfulii of pulverized gum arable ; then divide into MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 193 9 equal portions. Wlien a person is bitten by .a rabid animal, taire one of these portions and steep it in 1 pt. of new milk, until nearly- half the quantity of milk is evaporated ; then strain, and drink it in the mommg, fasting for 4 or 5 hours after. The same dose is to be repeated 3 mornings in succession, then skip 3, and so on, until the 9 doses are taken. The patient must avoid getting -wet, or the heat of the sun, and abstain from high-seasoned diet, or hard exercise, and, if costive, take a dose of salts. The above quantity is for an adult ; children Avill take less accordmg to age. Eye pEEPAKATio^rs. — ^Eye "Watek. — Table salt and white vitriol, of each 1 tablespoon ; heat them upon copper plates or in earthcu- Tvare until dry ; the lieating drives off the acrid Avater, called the "water of crystallization, raakmg them much milder in their action ; now add to them soft water -l^ pt. ; putting in white sugar, 1 table- spoon ; blue vitriol, a piece the size of a common pea. If it should l^rove too strong in auj^ case, add a little more soft water to a phial of it. Apply it to the eyes 3 or 4 times daily. India Pbescriptioh" fok Soke Eyes.— Sulphate of zinc, 3 grs. ; tincture of opium (laudanum), 1 dr. ; rose water, 2 oz. ; luLv. Tut a drop or two in the eye, 2 or 3 times dailj\ Another. — Sulphate of zinc, acetate of lead, and rock salt, of each ^ oz. ; loaf sugar, 1 oz. ; soft water, 12 oz. ; mix Avitliout heat, and use as other eye waters. If sore eyes shed much water, put a little of the oxide of zinc into a phial of water, and use it rather free- ly. This will soon effect a cure. Copperas and water has cured soro eyes of long standing ; and used quite strong, it makes an excellent application in erysipelas. Allum and the white of an egg is good. Indian Eye Water.— Soft water, 1 pt. ; gum arabic, 1 oz. ; white vitriol, 1 oz. ; fine salt, ^ teaspoon ; put all into a bottle, and shako until dissolved. Put into the eye just as you retire to bed. Black Oil. — Best alcohol, tincture of arnica, British oil, and oil of tar, of each 2 oz. ; and slowhj add sulphuric acid, ^ oz. Tlioso black oils are getting into extensive use as a liniment, and are indeed valuable, especially in cases attended with much inflammation. Vermifuge Lozenges.— Santonin, GO grs. ; pulverized sugar, 5 oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth, sufficient to make into a thic!: paste, worked carefully together, that the santonin shall be evenly mixed throughout the whole mass ; then if not in too great a hurry, cover up the mortar in which you have rubbed them, and let stand from 12 to 24 hours to temper ; at which time they will roll oat better than if done immediately ; divide into 120 lozenges. Dose, for a child 1 year old, 1 lozenge, night and morning ; of 2 ycar.s, 2 lozenges ; of 4 years, 3 ; of 8 years, 4 ; of 10 years or more, 5 to 7 lozenges ; in all cases to be taken twico daily, and continuing until the worms start on a voyage of discovery. Harlem Oil or Welsh MEDicAMENTuar. — Sublimed or flowers of sulphur and oil of amber, of each 2 oz. ; linseed oil, 1 lb. ; spirits of turpentine sufficient to reduce all to the consistence of thin molasses. Boil the sulphur in the linseed oil until it is dissolved, then add tho oil of amber and turpentine. Dose, from 15 to 25 drops, morning and evening. Amongst the Welsh and Germans it is extensively used for Btrengthening tho stomach, kidneys, liver, and lungs ; for 13 Idi MEDICAL DKrARTMENT, ETC asthmn, eliortncss of breath, congli, inw.ai-rl or out-ward Korcs, drop- By, -worms, Rravcl, fevers, palpitation of the heart, giddiness, head- ache, &c., by taking it internally ; and for nlcers, malignant sores, cankers, &c., anointing externally, and wetting linen "with it, and applying to bnrns. EcjYPTiAN CuKK FOR Cholera.— Lest Jamaica ginger root, bruis- ed, 1 oz. ; cayenne, 2 teaspoons ; boil all in 1 qt. of water to ^pt., and add loaf sugar to form a thick Byrup. Dose, 1 tablespoon every 15 minutes, untU vomiting and purging ceasea ; Ihem follow up with a blackberry tea. Indian rnKSCKrrTiox For.CuoLKRA.—Firstdissolvcgum camphor, ^•oz., inl^oz. of alcohol; second, give a teaspoon of spirits of liartsliorn m a wine glass of water, and follow it every 5 minutes ■tvith 15 drops of the camphor in a teaspoon of water, for 3 doses ; then Avait 15 minutes, and commence again as before ; and continuo the camphor for 30 minutes, unless there is rcturmng heat. Should this be the c^ise, give one more dose, and the cure is effected ; let them perspire freely (which the medicine is designed to cause), a^ upon this the life depends, but add no additional clothing. Isthmus Chot.eka TI^XTUKE. — Tincture of rhubarb, cayenne, opium, and spirits of camphor, with essence of peppermint, equal parts of each, and each as strong as can bo made. Dose, from 5 to 30 drops, or even to CO, and repeat, until relief is obtained, every 5 to 30 minutes. King of Oils, for Keitealgia and Eheu3iatis3I. — Burning fluid, 1 pt. ; oils of cedar, hemlock, sassafras, and origanum, of each 2 oz. ; carbonate of ammonia, pulverized, 1 oz. ; mix. Dikections. — Apply freely to the nerve and gums around the tooth ; and to the face, in neuralgic pams, by wetting brown paper and laying on the parts, not too long, for fear of blistering, — to the nerves of teeth by lint. Neuhalgia. — ^Internal Remedy. — Sal-ammoniac, ^ dr., dissolve in water 1 oz. Dose, one tablespoon every 3 minutes, for 20 minutes, at the end of which time, if not before, the pain will have disappeared^ Artificiat. Skin. — ^For Burns, Bruises, Abrasions, &c. — Proof against Water. — ^Take gun cotton and Venice turpentine, equal parts of each, and dissolve them in ?.0 times as much sulphuric ether, dissolving the cotton first, then adding the turpentine ; keep it corked tightly. Water does not affect it, hence its value for cracked nipples, chapped hands, surface bruises, &c., fcc. Indian Balsam. — Clear, pale resin, 3 lbs., and melt it, adding spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. ; balsam of tolu, 1 oz. ; balsam of fir, 4 oz. ; oil of hemlock, origanum, with Venice turpentine, of each, 1 oz. ; rtrained honey, 4 oz. ; mix w^eU, aud bottle. Dose, C to 12 drops ; for a child of six, 3 to 5 drops, on a little sugar. The dose can bo varied according to the ability of the stomach to bear it, and tho necessity of tho case. It is a valuable preparation for coughs, inter- nal pains, or strains, and works benignly upon the kidneys. Wens — To Cure. — Dissolve copperas in water to make it very strong ; now take a pin, needle, or slaarp knife, and prick or cut the wen in about a dozen places, just sufficient to cause it to bleed ; then wet it well with the copperas water, once daily. Bronchocele. — Enlarged Necii. — To Cure. — ^Iodide of ]X)tas- Bium (often called bydiiodate of potash), 2 drs. ; iodine, 1 dr. ; Avatex MEDICAL DErAKTMENT, ETC 195 2^ cz. ; m\x and sliako n, fow luIiuTtos, and pour a little into a phial for internal use. Dose, 5 to 10 drops before each meal, to be taken hi a little Avater. Exterxal Aitlicatiox. — ^^Vitli a feather, wet the enlarged neclc, from the other bottle, night and morning, until well. It will cause the scarf skin to peel off several times before the cure is perfect, leaving it tender; but do not omit tlio application more than one day at most, and you may rest assured of a cure, if a cure can bo performed by any means whatever. Daley's CARivnN-ATivE. — Magnesia, 2 drs. ; oil peppermint, 3 drops; oil nutmeg, 7 drops ; oil anise, 9 drops ; tinct, of castor, 1^ drs. ; tiuct. of assafoctida, 45 drops ; tmct. of opium, 18 drops ; essence pennyroj^al, 50 drops ; tinct. of cardamons, 95 drops ; peppenniut water, 7 oz. ; mix. Positive Cuke for Diarrhcea. — Talve 2 wine glasses of vinegar", and one tablespoonful of salt. Mix the whole thorouglily to dissolve the salt ; add 7 to 10 drops of laudanum, according, to the age or strength of the patient, and give tlie wliolo at one" dose, CuiiE FOR Ague. — Cat three lemons into tliin slices and pound them with a mallet, then take enough coffee to make a quart, boil it down to a pint and pour it while quite hot over the lemons. Let it stand till cold, then strain through a cloth, and take the whole at ono dose, immediately after the chill is over, and before the fever comes on. To Improve the Voice.— Beeswax, 2 drs. ; copaiba balsam, 3 drs. ; powder of liquorice root, 4 drs. ; melt tlie copaiba balsam with tlio wax ill a new earthen pipkin ; when melted, I'emove them from the fire, and mix in the powder ; make the pills of 3 grs. each. Two of these pills to be taken occasionally, 3 or 4:times a day. Very best laio wn. Cure for Tare Worm. — Take at one dose, ether | oz. 2 hour:i after this take castor oil, 1 oz. The worm is discharged entire or al- most so, and always with the bead intact. Necessary Rules for Sleep.— There is no fact more clearly established in the physiology of man than this, that the brain expends its energies and itself during the hours of wakefulness and that these are recuperated during sleep. If the recuperation does not equal the expenditure, the brain withers ; this is insanitj^ Thus it is in early- English history, persons who were condenmed to death by being pre- vented from s'lecpmg always died raving maniacs, and those who aro starved to death become insane ; the brain is not nourished and they can not sleep. The practical inferences are three ; 1st. Those who think most, who do the most brain work, require the most sleep. 2d. The time "saved" from necessary sleep is infallibly destructive to mind, body and estate, Sd. Give yourself, your children, your sej.'vants, give all that are under you, the fullest amount of sleep tney will take, by compelling them to go to bed at some regular early hour, and to rise in the morning at the moment they aicake ; and, within a fort- night, Nature, with almost the regularity of the rising sun, will un- loose the bonds of sleep the moment enough repose has been secured for the wants of the system. This is the only safe and efficient rule. SiGKS of Disease in Children. — In the case of a baby not yet able to talk, it must cry when it is ill. Tlie colio makes a baby cry loud, long, and passionately, and shed tears — stopjpiug for a moment and beguining again. If the chest is affected, it giveg one sharp cry, breaking oft imme- diately, as if crying hurt it. 19G MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC. If tho Load h affected, it cricn, in sharp, piercing shricJcs, rrith loio moans and wails between. Or there may bo quiet dozing, aud Btart- in"s between. It is easy enough to i-)erceiTC, whero a cliild is attacked by disease that there is some change taking place ; for either its skin will be dry and hot, its appetite gone ; it is stupidly sleepy, or fretful and crying ; it is thirsty, or pale and languid, or in some \vay betrays that some- thing is wrong. When a child vomits, or has a diarrhoea, or is cos- tive {»,nd feverish, it in owing to some derangement, and needs atten- tion. But these various symptoms may continue for a day or two before the nature of tho disease can be determined. A warm bath, warm drinks, etc., can do no harm, and may help to determine tho case. On coming out of the bath, and being well rubbed with the band, tho skin ^'^ill show symptoms of rash, if it is a skin diseaso which has commenced. By the appearance of the rash, the naturo of the disease can be learned. Measles are in patches, dark red, and come out first about the face. If scarlet fever is impending, the skia will look a deep pink all over the body, though mostly so about tho neck and face. Chicken-pox shows fever, but not so much running at the nose, and appearance of cold, as in measles, nor is there as much of a cough. Besides, the spots aro smaller, and do not run much together, and are more diffused over the whole surface of tho £kin, and enlarge into little blisters in a day or two. Let the room where the chUdis sick be shady, quiet, and cool. Bo careful not to speak so suddenly as to startle the half-sleeping patient and handle it with the greatest tenderness when it is necessary to move it. If it is the lungs that suffer, have the little patient some- "what elevated upon the pillows for easier breathing, and do everthing to sooth and malie it comfortable, so as not to have it cry, and to thus distress its inflamed lungs. If the child is very weak, do not move it too suddenly, as it may be startled into convulsions. In administering a bath, the greatest pains must be taken not to frighten the child. It should be put in so gradually, and so amused by something placed in the water on purpose as to forget its fear ; keep up a good supplj of fresh air, at a temperature of about 60° Fah. If a hired nurse must be had, select if possible a woman of intelligence, gentle and loving disposition, kind and amiable manners, and of a most pacific unruffled, and even temper. If a being can be got possessed of these angelic qualities, and we believe there are many such, you will be quite safe in intrusting to her care the management of your sick child or yourself either, in case of sickness. She should not be under twenty-five or over fifty-five, as between these two ages she will, if liealthy, be in her full strength and capacity. WnoopiKG Cough. — To empty the child's stomach by a lobelia emetic, is the first step. After this make a syrup of sugar, ginger- root, a little water, and enough lobelia tincture to produce a slight nausea. This, given two or three times a day, will loosen the cough < very much. See " Whooping Cough Syrup." DiAREHOEA. — Nothing is better for looseness of the bowels than tea made of ground bayberry. Sweeten it well, and give a half- teacupf ul once in two hours, until the child is better. Bathing must not be neglected. For Croup Remedy see " Cure for Lockjaw." Coiiic. — ^This can be cured with warm injections of simple Boa]> MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC' 197 Buds, or warm water •with a warming tincture iu it. A little warm tea may be given at the same time, and the howels rubbed. Every family shoiSd have a small and large syringe. Nothing is oftener needed, particularly in the care of children. Feveb. — ^Where a child has a simple fever from teething or any i other cause not connected with acute disease, give ateaspoonful of | syrup of rhubarb, a warm injection, and sponge-baths. These will generally be all that is needed. Rickets and Sckofula. — If children have cither of these, or both these diseases, a good, nutritive diet is a great essential Then the alkaline-bath, a little lime-water, say a tcaspoonful three times a day,' and out-door exercise, are the chief remedies. Fits — Spasms — When these are brought on by indigestion, place the child in a warm bath immediately, give warm water, or a lobelia emetic, rub the skin briskly, etc. , to get up an action. In brain disease tlie warm water is equally useful. In fact, unless the fit is constitu- tional, the warm bath will relieve the patient by drawing the blood to the surface. Enlargement of the Brain. — This chiefly effects children, and' consists in an unnatural growth of the brain. The skull may grow Avith it, and there be no symtoms of disease, though children with thi.s large brain are apt to die of some brain disease. The symptoms of enlargement of the brain are, dullness of intellect, indifference to ex- ternal objects, irritable temper, inordinate appetite, giddiness, and habitual headache. Sometimes there are convulsions, epileptic fits, and idiocy. There is also a pecular projection of the parietal bones in this disease. Treatment. — As much as possible, repress all exercise of the mind. Do not suffer the child to go to school ; but put it to the most active and muscular exercise in the open air. The moment there is any heat in the top of the head, apply cold water, ice, or cold evaporatiiig lo- tions. The diet should be very simple, bread and milk onlj'-, if, as the child grows up, the signs of the disease increase. Water in the Head. — Another disease of children, and especially of scrofulous children. It is inflammatory, and should be early no- ticed. Symptoms. — Capricious appetite, a foul tongue, offensive breath en- larged, and some times tender belly, torpid bowels, stools light-colored from having no bile, or dark from vitiated bile, fetid, sour-smeUing, slimy and lumpy. The child grows pale and thin ; and is heavy, lan- guid, dejected ; it is fretf lil, irritable, imeasy, and apt to be tottermg iu its gait. The disease may begin, after these symptoms, by pains in the head, becoming more severe and frequent, sharp and shooting, causing the child to waken and shriek out. As the drowsy state advances, tho shrieking gives place to moaning. There is great stiffness in the back of the neck, pain in the limbs, tenderness in the scalp, vomiting, sigh- ing, intolerance of light, knitting of the brows, and increased disturb- ance of the stomach and bowels. This may last from ten to four- teen days, the patient growing more weak and peevish. Another form of attack is marked by acitte pain in the head, high fever, con- vulsions, flushed face, brilliant eyes, intolerance of light and sound, pain, tenderness in tho belly, stupor, great irritability of stomachy 198 MKDICAL DKrAKT.MKNT, ETC. causing rotcliin!:^ nnd vomitini? on every attempt to sit up. TIio third mode of attack is very iusidioiis — tlio early Hymi)toin3 being so mild as hardly to be noticed. In this case, tlio convulsions or palsy como suddenly, without }iotice, bringing swift and luiexpected destruc- tion. In the first stage of the disease there is incrca.sed sensibility ; in the second decreased sensibility; in the third, palsy, convulsions, pquinting of the eyes, rolling of the head, stupor, and a rapid, thread- like pulse. Treatment. — In the first stage, purging is very imi)ortant, and must be continued for three or four days. Aw excellent purgative is this : pulverized scaminony, six grains ; crotou oil, four drops ; pulverized loaf sugar, sixteen tcaspooufuls. Hub well together in a mortar. Give one teaspoonful every hour or two, till it operates. Apply cold water or ice to the head. In the second stage put blisters upon the back of the neck, and one on the bowels, if very tender. In the third stage use the warm bath, also alteratives and diuretics. I'or an alterative, use iodide ox potassium, one dram ; v/ater, half an ounce ; mix. Thirty drops to a child scvci,, years old every boui*. For a diuretic, use tincture of digitalis, one ounce ; syrup of squills, one ounce ; mix. Ton drops for a child seven years old every four liours. The patient should be kept in a dark room, aei'ay from all noise and excitement, and should lie upon a hair mattress, with h:3 Lead somewhat elevated. The diet in the first stage should be noth- ing more than gruel ; after that, more nourishing, but easy of diges- tion, such as bccf-tea, plain cliicken-broth, animal- jellies, etc. At the same time the patient should be supported by the cautious use of wine-whey, valerian, or ten drops of aromatic spirits of ammonia every four hours. Mumps. — This disease, most common among cnildren, begins witn eoreness and stiffness in the eido of the neck. Soon a swelling of the paratoid gland takes i^lace, which is i^ainf ul and continues to increase for four or five days, sometimes making it difficult to swallow,- or open the mouth. The swelling sometimes comes on one side at a time, but commonly upon both. There is often heat and sometimes fever, with a dry skm, quick pulse, furred tongue, constipated bowels, and scanty and high-colored urine. The disease is contagious. Treatment. — Keep the face and neck warm, and avoid taking cold. Drink warm herb teas, and if the symptoms are severe, 4 to^6 grs. of Dover's powder; or if there is costiveness, a slight physic, and observe a very simple diet. If the disease is aggravated by taking cold, and is very severe, or is translated to other glands, physic must be used freely, leeches applied to the swelling, or cooling poultices. Sweating must be resorted to in this case. ScAELET Fever is an acute inflammation of the siiin, both exter- nal and internal, and connected with an infectious fever. Svmvtoms. — The fever shows itself between two and ten days after exposure. Un the second day of the fever the eruption comes out in minute pimples, which are cither clustered together, or spread over the surface in a general bright scarlet color. The disease begins with languor, pains in the head, back, and limbs, drowsiness, nausea and chills, followed by lieat and thirst. . When the redness appears the pulse is quick, and the patient is restless, anxious and often delirious. The eyes arc red, the face swollen, and the tongue covered in the MEDICAL DErAKTMENT, ETC. 199 middle -with wliite mucus, through which nrc seen elevated points of extreme redness. The tonsils are swollen, and the tliroat is red. By the evening of the third or fourth day the redness has reached its lieight, and tiic skin becomes moist, when the scarf-skin begins to come off in scales. In this fever the flesh jMiffs up so as to distend the fingers, and disfigure the face. As it })rogresses the coating suddenly comes of£ tlie tongue, leavin,^ it and the whole mouth raw and tender. TIio throat is very much swollen and inflamed, and ulcers form on tho tonsils. The eustachian tube which extends up to the ear, the glands under the ear and jaw, sometimes inflame and break ; and the ab- scesses formed in the car frequently occasion deafness, more or less difficult to cure. The sj^mptoms of "this disease may be known from that of measles by the absence of cough ; by tho finer rash ; by its Kcarlet color ; by the rash appearing on the second instead of tho lourth day ; and by the ulceration of the throat. Treatment. — In ordinary cases tho treatment required is very simplc. The room Avhere the patient lies should bo kept cool, and the bed- covering light. The whole body should be sponged with cool water aa often as it becomes hot and dry, and cooling drinks should be admm- istered. A few drops of belladonna, night and morning, is all that i3 needed. If there is much fever and soreness of throat, give tho following tincture of hellebore often enough to keep down the pulse : — Tincture of American hellebore, 1 dr. ; tincture of black cohosh, 2 oz. ; mix. Take 1 teaspoonf ul 3 to G times a day. It would also be useful to commence treatment with an emetic • and to soak tho feet and hands in hot water contaming a littlo mustard or cayenne pepper ; continuing this bath 20 minutes, twico a day, for 2 or 3 days. Tho cold stage being passed, and tho fever having set in, warm water may bo used without tho mustard or pepper. If the head is affected, put drafts upon the feet ; and if tho bowels be costive, give a mild physic. Solid food should not bo nllowed ; but when the fever sets in, cooling drinks, such as lemonade, tamarind-water, rice-water, flaxseed tea, then gruel, or cold water may be given in reasonable quantities. To stimulate the skin, muriatic acid, 45 drops in a tumbler filled with water and sweetened, and given in doses of a teaspoonf ul, is a good remedy. Where the disease is very violent, and the patient inclines to sink immediately ; whero t;^-phoid symptoms appear and there is great prostration ; the eruption strikes in ; the sldn changes to a mahogany color ; the tongue is a deep red, or has on it a dark brown fur, and the ulcers in the throat become putrid, the treatment must be differ- ent from the above. In this case it must be tonic. Quinia must bo given freely ; and wine whey, mi»xed with toast-water, will be useful. Quinia is made as follows : — Sulphate of quinine, 1 scruple ; alcohol, 4 ozs. ; sulphuric acid,""5 drops ; Madeira wine, 1 quart ; mix. Two wine-glassfuls a day. Tincture of cayenne, in sweetened water, may be given in small doses. Gargles are also necessary. A good one is made of pulverized cayenne, 1 dram ; salt, one dram ; boiling water, 1 gill. IMix, and let them staud 15 minutes. Then add 1 gill vinegar. Let it stand an hour and strain. Put a teaspoonful in t^io child's mouth once in n.n hour, A warm bath should bo used daily as soor; 200 MEDICAL DEPAr.TMENT, ETC. RR tho skin bcpins to peel off, to prevent dropsy. If rlropsy f^ctn In. the batli once in delays in sunicient, and sweating? should be promoted ty giving Die tincture of Virginia snake-root and similar articles ; a fxencrous diet should be allowed at tho same time, to bring u^) tho 'duld's strength INlEASLEs is an acute inflammation of tho skin, internal and extcr- combined with an infectious fever. Symptoms.— ChiWfi succeeded by great heat, languor, and drowsi- ness, pains in the head, back, and limbs, quick pulse, soreness of Ihroat, thirst, nausea and vomiting, a dry cough, and higli-colored Urine. These symptoms increase in violeiice for four days. The eyes nre inflamed and weak, and the nose pours forth a watery secretion, with frequent sneezing. There is considerable inflammation in tho larynx, windpipe, and bronchial tubes, with soreness of the breast and hoarseness. About the fourth day the skin i ? covered with a breaking out which produces heat and itching, and is red in spots, upon the face first, gradually spreading over the whole body. It goes off in the same way, from tho face first and then from the body, and tho hoarseness and other symptoms decline with it; at last the outsido gkin peels off in scales. Treatment. — ^In a mild form, nothing is required but a light diet, slightly acid drinlvs, and flax seed or slippery elm tea. Warm herb teas, and frequent sponge baths Avith tepid water, serve to allay tho fever; care should be taken not to let the patient take cold. If tho fever is very high, and prevents the rash coming out, a slight dose of salts, or a nauseating dose of ipecac, lobelia, or hive-syrup should bo given, and followed by teasponful doses of compound tincture of Virginia snake-root until the fever is allayed. If the patient from any derangement takes on a low typhoid type of fever, and the rash docs not come out until the seventh day, and is then of a dark and livid color, tonics and stimulants must be given, and expectoration promo- ted by some suitable remedy. There is always danger of tho lungs bein^ left in an inflamed state after the measles, unless the greatest care is taken not to suffer tho patient to take cold. Should there bo much pain, and a severe cough, this must be treated as a separate disease, with other remedies. Typhoid Fevee. — Symptoms. — ^Is generally preceded by several days of languor, low spirits, and indisposition to exertion. There is also, usually, some pain in the back and head, loss of appetite, and drowsiness, though not rest. The disease shows itself by a chill. During the first week there is increased heat of the surface, frequent pulse, furred tongue, restlessness, sleeplessness, headache, and pain in the back; sometimes diarrhoea and swelling of the belly, and some- times nausea and vomiting. The second week is often distinguished by small, rose-colored spots on the belly, and a crop of little watery pimples on the neck and chest. Laving the appearance of minute drops of sweat; the tongue is dry - and black, or red and sore; the teeth are foul; there may be delirium and dnlhiess of hearing; and the symptoms every way are more serious than during the first week. Occasionally, the bowels are at this period perforated or ate through by ulceration, and the patient suddenly sinks. If the disease proceeds unfavorably into the third week, there is low, muttering delirium; great exhaustion; sliding GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 201 dovm of the pcatient towcarcl the foot of the bed; twitching of the muscles, bleeding from the bowels; and red or purple spots upon tho skin. If, on the' other hand, the patient improves, the comitenance brightens up, the pulse moderates, the tongue cleans, and the dis- charges look healthy. Treatment. — Give the patient good air, and frequent spongings with water, cold or tepid, as most agreeable. Keep tho bowels in order and be more afraid of diarrhoea than costivencss. Diarrhoea should be restramed by a little brandy, or by repeated doses of Dover's powder. For costiveness, give mild injections, made slightly loosen- ing by castor oil, or common molasses. To keep down the fever, and J produce perspiration, give tincture of veratrum viride, 10 drops every lour. If the bowels are swelled, relieve them by hot fomentations of liops and vinegar. If the pain in the head is very severe and constant, let the hair be cut short, and the head bathed frequently with colil ■water. Give light nourishment, and if the debility is great, broth and wine will he needed. Cleanse the mouth with very weak tea — old hyson. If the fever runs a low course, and the patient is very weak, quuiine may be given from the beginning. Constant care and good nursing are very important. Typhus fever is distinguished from typhoid by there being no marked disease of the bowels in typhus. GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. Cheap Vinegar. — Mix 25 gals, of wann rain water, with 4 gals, molasses and 1 gal. yeast, and'let it ferment; you will soon have tho best of vinegar; keep adding these articles in tliese proportions as tho stock is sold. For Grocers' Sales — Take three barrels ; let one of them bo your vinegar barrel ; fill this last up before it is quite empty, with molasses, 2 gals. ; soft -water, 11 gals ; yeast, 1 qt. ; keeping these pro- portions in filling up the whole three barrels; sell the vinegar out of your old vinegar barrel as soon as it is ready, -which will be in a short time ; when nearly empty, fill it np with the fluid as before, and pass on to sell out of the next barrel; by the time it is disposed of go on to the last ; then go back to the first, filling up your barrels m every case when nearly empty, and you will alwnys keep a stock of good vinegar on hand unless your sales are very large ; in which case, fol- low the next process. Have the bung-holes open in the barrels to admit air. The free admission of warm air hastens the process. Vinegar in Three Days. — Get a quantity of maple, beech, or basswood chips or shavings, and soak these in good vinegar, for two or three days. With these chips you will fill a barrel, which has been pierced with a large number of inch noles all around tlie sides for tho free admission of air among the chips (the more holes in the barrel the better, for the more air the sooner the vinegar will be made) cut another barrel in two halvog, place one half below the barrel with the 202 GnocKus AND coNFECTioxF.Ks' nixr.irTS. f liips .111(1 the other half above it, Tlio top tub inust have its bottom l)ici'ccd witli a iuiml)cr of gimlet liolcs, in -which arc placed several threads of twine, to conduct tlio vinegar evenly over the chips. Tho licpiid drahis down slowly through the chii)3 and out of a faucet near the bottom of tho barrel into the lower tub. It should run through every lour hours, and then be bal(!d or pumped back, l^irections to make vincgjir from sugar : Use H lb, to each gal. of water ; of tho dregs of molasses barrels, use 2 lb." to each gal. of -water ; small beer, lager beer, ale, &c., which have become sour, make good vinegar by being reduced with water ; small beer needs but little water, lager beer as much water as beer ; to 2 gals, cider, add ^ gal. of water ; you can also make excellent vinegar out of the artificial cider mentioned below. Use, in every case, soft water to make vinegar, and use 2 qts, yeast to every barrel. It makes much quicker if tho fluid is slightly lukewarm. Leach eitlier of these preparations through tho shavings. This process should be attended to during warm weather, or in a room where a pretty high temperature is kept up, as it will uot vork otherwise. Excellent Vinegae, Cheap, — Acetic acid, 5 lbs. ; molasses, 2 gal, ; yeast, 2 qts, ; put them into a forty-gal. cask, and fill it up Avitli xaia water ; stir it up, and let it stand one to three weeks, letting it have all the air possible, and you will have good vinegar. If wanted stronger, add more molasses. Should you at any time have Avcak vinegar on hand, put molasses into it to set it working. This vrill coon correct it. INIake in a Avarm place. White AVixe Vinegah. — Mash up 20 lbs. raisins, and add 10 gals, water ; let it stiind in a warm place lor one month, and you will have pure white Avino -\ inegar. Tho raisins may bo used a second time tho i;amo way. To Pkeserve Eggs. — To each patent pailful of water, add 2 pts. of fresh slacked lime, and 1 pt. of common salt ; mix well. Till your barrel half full with -this fluid, put your eggs down in it any time af- ter June, and they wiU keep two years if desired. Liquid Mucilage. — Fine clear glue 1 lb. ; gum arabic, 10 oz. ; water, 1 qt. ; melt by heat in a glue kettlo or water batli ; when en- tirely melted, add slowly 10 ozs. strong nitric acid, set off to cool. Then bottle, adduig in a couple of cloves to each bottle. Candied Lemon Peel. — Take lemon peels and boil them in syrup ; then take them out, and dry. Baking Powder. — Tartaric acid, 5 lbs. ; puro sesquicarbonato of soda, 8 lbs, ; potato farina, or other flour or starch, IG lbs. Dry separately by gentle heat. Mix this perfectly in a dry room, pass the mixture through a sieve and put up at once into damp proof hard pressed packages. To use, 1 or 2 teaspoonf uls are mixed Avith dry flour, Avliich is then mixed with cold Avater, and baked imme- diately. Another. — Tartaric acid, 1 lb.; . pure bicarbonate of soda f lbs. ; jwtato farina, | lb. Treat tho same as the last. To Make an Ice Chest. — Take 2 drygoods boxes, one of which is enough smaller than the other to leave a space of about 3 inches all around when it is placed inside. Fill the space between the two Avith sawdust packed closely, and cover with a heavy lid made to fit neat- ly inside the larger box. Insert a small pipe in the bottom of the tihcst to carry off tho Avatcr from the melting ice. I'or family uso oi GROCEKS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEirTS. 203 p-ocers, nse this "will proTe as serviceable as refrigerators that cost twenty times as much. Soap Makufactdbe. — ^When wood ashes cannot conTeniently be had it is usual for soap manufacturers to use equal quantities of re- cently slacked lime, aud sal soda, soda ash or caustic soda, using water enough to give the ley sufficient strength to support a fresh egg. It must be very strong. The solution can be effected by heat, or stir- ring, or by both methods, finally drawing off, or bailing out the liquid clear of sediment, previously throwing in salt and giving time for the sediment to settle ; 1 ton of yellow soap will require about 1000 lbs. tallow and 350 lbs. resin, with ley sufficient. The same quantity of white soap will require nearly 1300 lbs. tallow, boiling in every aiso with the proper quantity of ley, until it forms a perfectly homoge- neous mass by a perfect blenduig of the component parts all together, when it is poured out into suitable frames to harden and cool. It is afterwards cut up into proper sized bars by means of wires to which handles are attached and then piled up to dry. Transparent Soap. — Slice 6 lbs. nice yellow bar-soap into shav- ings ; put into a brass, tin or copper kettle, with alcohol, ^ gal., heat- ing gradually over a slow fire, stirring till all is dissolved ; then add 1 oz. sassafras essence, and stir until all is mixed ; now pour into ]:>ans about 1^ inches deep, and when cold cut into square bars tho length or widlli of the pan, as desired. English Bar-Soap. — Six gals, soft water ; G lbs. good stone lime; 20 lbs. sal-soda ; 4 oz. borax ; 15 lbs. fat (tallow is best) ; 10 lbs. pul- verized resin, and 4 oz. beeswax ; put the water in a kettle on tho fire, aud when nearly boiling add the lime and soda ; when these aro dissolved, add the borax ; boil gently, aud stir until all is dissolved ; then add the fat, resin, and bees-wax : boil all gently until it shows flaky on tho stick, then pour into moulds. Best Soft Soai>. — Mix 10 lbs. potash in 10 gals, warm soft water over night ; in the morning boil it, adding G lbs. grease ; then put all in a barrel, adding 15 gals, soft water. ■ Soap without Lte or Grease. In a clean pot put I lb. home- made hard or mush soap, aud ^- lb. sal-soda, and 5 pts. of "soft Avater. Boil the mixture 15 minutes, and you Avill have 5 lbs. good soap for 7 J cents. Hard Soap. — Take 5 lbs. hard soap, or 7 lbs. soft soap, and 4lbs. sal-soda, aud 2 oz. borax, and 1 oz. hartshoni ; boil one quarter hour with 22 qts. water ; add, to harden, ^ lb. resin. German Yelxoav Soap.— Tallow and^sal-soda, of each 112 lbs., resin, 56 lbs. ; stone lime, 28 lbs. ; palm oil, 8 oz. ; soft water, 28 gals. Put soda, lime, and water into a kettle and boil, stirring well ; then let it settle, and pour off the lye. In another kettle, melt the tallow, i^Gsin, and palm oil ; having it'hot, tho lye being also boiling hot, mix all together, stirring well and tho work is done. For small quantities. — Tallow and sal-soda each, 1 lb. ; resm, 7 oz. ; stone lime, 4 oz. ; X^alm oil, 1 oz, ; soft water, 1 qt. Hard Soap with- Laiid. — Sal-soda and lard, each G lbs. ; stono lime, 3 lbs. ; soft water, 4 gals. ; dissolve the lime and soda in tho water by boiling, stirring, settling, and pouring off ; then return to the kettle (brass or copper), and add the lard, and boil ittill it becomes Boap ; then pour uito a dish or moulds ; and, when cold, cut into bars, and dry it. 204 GTwOCEnS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. "WniTK IIakd SoAr \nTn Tai.t.o-w. — Fresh slacked lime, p.il-poda, jind tallow, of each, 2 lbs. ; dissolve the soda in 1 gal. boiliiig soft ■water ; now mix in the lime, stirring occasionally lor a few hoar.s ; after which, let it settle, pouring off the clear liquor, and hoiling the tallow therein until it is all dissolved ; cool it in a flat box or pan, cut into bars or cakes as desired. It may be perfumed with sassafras oil or any otlicr perfume desired, stirring it in when cool. One hundred pounds soap, very cheap. — Potash, G lbs. ; lard, 4 lbs. ; resin, J lb. Beat up the resin, mix all together, and set aside for five days ; then put the whole into a. 10-gal. cask of water, and stir twice a day for ten days, when it is ready for use. Variegated Soaps.— Soft Avater 3qtg., nice ^vhito bar soap .3 lbs., sal-soda 2 ozs. ; Chinese vermilion and Chinese blue, of each aljout 7 grs., oil sassafras \ oz. ; shave the soap Into thin slices and add it to the water as it begins to boil, when dissolved set it off the fire, tako out a cup of soap and stir in the vermillion, take out another cup of soap and stir in the blue ; then pour in the contents of the first cup, giving two or three turns only with a stirring stick, then add the other cupful in the same way, then pour into moulds, or into a proper box, and wlien cold it can 'be cut into bars ; it will i)resent a beautiful streaked appearance. Casitiior Soap. — Curd soap 28 lbs., otto of rosemary l^lbs. Reduce tlie camphor to powder, add one ounce almond oil, then sift it, when the soap is melted and ready to turn out, add the camphor and rose- mary. White Windsor Soap. — Curd soap 1 cwt., marine soap 21 lbs. oil soap 14 lbs., oil caraway, Ijlbs., oil thyme and rosemary of each \ lb. oils of cassia and cloves of each ^ lb. Brown Windsor Soap. Curd soap | cwt. , marine soap i cwt. , yellow soap | cwt. , oil soap J cwt. Brown coloring (caramel) ^ pt. oils caraway, cloves, thyme, cassia, petit grain and French lavender of each 2 oz. Isand Soap. — Curd soap 7 lbs. marine soap 7 lbs., sifted silver sand 28 lbs,, oils thyme, cassia, cara- way, and French lavender of each 2 oz. Solid Candles froji lard.— DIssoIyo ^ lb. alum and i lb. salt- petre in I pt. water on a slow fire ; then take 3 lbs. of lard cut into small pieces, and put into the pot with this solution, stirring it con- stantly over a very moderate fire until the lard is all dissolved ; then let it simmer until all steam ceases to rise and remove it at once from the fire. If you leave it too long it will get discolored. These can- dles are harder and better than tallow. Tallow — To Cleanse and Bleach. — Dissolve alum, 5 lbs,, ia water, 10 gals., by boiling ; and when it is all dissolved, add tallow, 20 lbs. ; continue the boiling for an hour, constantly stirring and skimming ; when sufficiently cool to allow it, strain through thick muslin ; then set aside to harden ; when taken from the water, lay it by for a short time to drip. Imitation Wax Candles. — ^Purify melted tallow by throwing in powdered quick lime, then add two parts wax to one of tallow, and a most beautiful article of candle, resembling wax, will be tlie result. Dip the wicks in lime water and saltpetre on making. To a gallon of Avater add 2 oz. saltpetre and ^ lb. of lime ; it improves the light, and prevents the tallow from running. Adamantine Candles from Tallow. — ]Melt together 10 o::. mut- ton tallow ; camphor, ^ oz, ; bees-wax, 4 oz. ; alum," 2 oz. TABLES, &C., FOR MERCHANTS. 205 Table of Miscellaneous AYeights and Measures, Apples, dried, busli. about 25 lbs. Almonds, seron of, 1 to 2 cwt. Beef, firkin, 100 lbs. " or Pork, barrel, 200 lbs. Buckwheat, bush, usually 50 lbs. Beans, wMte, bushel, 60 lbs. Butter, barrel, 224 lbs. " lirkin, 56 lbs. " tub, 8i lbs. Coffee, tierce of, 5 to 7 cwt. " bags of Rio, about 162 lbs. '< " St. Domingo, about 130 lbs. *< pocket of Java, about 50 lbs. bale of Mocha, 2 to 21/0 cwt. Clover seed, cask, 7 to 9 cwt. «' <' bushel, usually 60 lbs. Corn, per bushel, in most places, 5G lbs. Cement, barrel, 300 lbs- Cotton, bale, N. Orleans and AlaLa- nia, 400 to 300 lbs. " '« East Indies, c20 to c80 lbs. " " Carolina, Georgia & West Indies, 300 to 312 lbs. « " Brazilian 160 to 200 lbs. Dried Peaches, bush, usually 33 lbs. Flax, bale, Russian, 5 to 6 cwt. Pish, quintal, 112 lbs. " barrel, pickled, 200 lbs. Flaxseed, bush, in most places, n5 lbs. Flour, bbl. net, 196 lbs. " including bbl-, 216 lbs. •< sack, 5 bushels, 280 lbs. Figs, drum, 24 lbs. Ginger, ground, box, 24 lbs. Honey, gal., 12 lbs. Hops, bag of, about 2^4 cwt. Hempseed, bush, in most places 44 lbs. Indian Meal, hogshead, 800 lbs. Lime, bbl., 225 lbs. Lemons, box, Sicily, about 350 lbs. Mace, case, about IVa cwt. Molasses, hhd. from 130 to 150 gals. Oats, per bush., 32 lbs. Oranges, box, double O, 300 to 350 lbs. " single O, 175 to 350 lbs. Rye, bush, in most place?, UG lbs. Salmon, box, 120 to 130 lbs. Salt, hhd., 3 bush. " bbl., 31/2 bush. " bushel of, tine ground, 70 lbs. Sugar, bbl., 200 to 250 lbs. " box, 400 to 500 lbs. Soap, bbl. 256 lbs. " box, 75 lbs. Tea, chest, Congou, 75 lbs. " " Hyson, 60 to 84 lbs. " 1/^, about 40 lbs. net. Timothy Seed, bushel, 45 lbs. Wheat, bushel, 60 lis. Beer, lihd., 54 gals. Butt of Sherry, 108 gals. Brandy, puncheon of, 110 to 120 gals. " hhd., 65 to 60 gals. Claret, hhd., 46 gals. Puncheon of Scotch Whiskey, 110 to 130 gals. Rum, 100 to 110 gals. Pipe of Port, 115 gals. " Maderia, 92 gals. " Teneriffe, 100 gals. A hogshead is one-half, a quarter cask is one-fourth, and an oc- tave is one-eighlh of a pipe, butt, or puncheon. British Measures oe Yolume. The Imperial gallon measures 277- 274 cubic inches, and contains 10 lbs avoirdupois of distilled water at 32° Fahr. The Ale gallon is 282 cubic inches, and contains 10.2 lbs, avoirdupois of distilled water. The wine gallon of 231 cubic ins. containing 8.355 lbs. avoirdupois of di.s- tilled water,"i3 the government or customs gallon of the United States, and the legal gallon of each State in which no law exists fixing a State or statute gallon, and the Standard U. S. bushel is the Winchester, contain- ing 2150.42 cubic inches, or 77.627413 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water. The Imperial bushel=221S.192 cubic ins. The heaped bushel=19.5 ins. diameter, cone 6 ins. high=2815.4872 cubic ins. For Grain— i bushels= 1 quarter. 1 quarter =10.2694 cubic feet. Coal or Heaped measure—^ bushels=l sack, 12 sacks=l chaldron ; 1 chaldron=58.656 cubic feet and weighs 3136 lbs. 1 stoiie=14 lbs. 1 Quarter is equal to 8V4 U. S. bushels 1 sack flour =5 bushs.=280 lbs. Anthracite coal per cubic ft. weighs 90 to 102 lbs. Bituminous coal, per cubic ft. 79 to 82 lbs. Coal as conventional- 20G TAHLES, &C., roil MERCHANTS. 3y pnrchascd-^'in.nc cubic ft. to n ton (or about 28 bushelfi and C pcclcs), In I'ho U. S., and is bought wJiolesalo l)y tho dealer at 2240 lbs. per ton, and rctnilod at 'iOOO lbs. In coniniorco, 1 ton of tlour is 8 sacks, and 1 ton of potatoes 10 bushels. Tho weight and nioasurCH in tho Dominion of Can- ada arc tho same as llioso of (Jreat ISritain, but tho United States bunhel and gallon are most in use. Tho dimensions of a barrel should be, diam. of head, 17 Ins., do. at bung, 1!) ins.* length, 28 ins. ; volume 7()8Q cub. ins. A tun Is 2 pipes, 4 hogsheads, .3 puncheons, 8 barrels, or 252 gals. Quantity of Goods k.stimatkd to oomposk a Ton in cat>cula- TiNO FiiioioiiTS nv Wateii.— Lemons, 20 boxes ; Eaisins, 20 caslis; do., 80 boxes ; do., 160 half boxes ; do., 320 quarter boxes ; Almonds, 10 frails ; Grapes, 40 kegs ; "Wine, Malaga, 8 quarter casks ; ditto, 14 Indian barrels ; Cassia, 25 piculs ; Jute, 4 bales ; Linseed, 1000 lbs., or 81/2 bags per ton; Ginger, 110 lbs.; Twine, 890 lbs.; Matting, 4-4, 8% rolls of 40 yds. ; do., 5-4, 7 rolls of 40 yds. ; do., 0-4, 5% rolls of 40 yards ; Gunny bags, large, 425; medium do., 500 ; small do., 625 ; Saltpetre, 11 to 12 bags per ton of 2240 lbs. New York Freights.— Quantity op Goods wiiioir compose a 'Ho'^i— Extract from the Bye-Laivs of the New York Chaviher of Commerce. In freighting vessels by the ton, in the absence of adefmito agreement between the owner of the vessel and freighter of the goods, ihe following regulations shall be the standard of computation : That the articles tho bulk of vjliich shall compose a Ton, to equal a Ton of heavy materials, shall be in weight as follows. Coffee in casks, 15G8 lbs. ; Coffee in bags, 1830 (lbs. ; Cocoa in casks, 1120 lbs. ; Cocoa in bags, 1307 lbs. ; Pimento in casks, 952 lbs. ; Pimento in bags, 1110 lbs. ; Dry hides, 10 cwt. ; Chinese raw silk, 8 cwt, ; Bohea tea, net, 10 cwt. ; Green teas, 8 cwt. ; Ship-bread, bulk, 8 cwt. ; Ship-bread, bags, 7 cwt. ; Ship-bread, casks, G cwt. ; Gram, Peas, or Beans in casks, 22 bushels ; Grain, in bulk, 36 bushels ; European salt, 31 bushels ; West India salt, 31 bushelj ; Sea coal, 20 bushels ; Tobacco, 0 hhds. ; Pig and Bar iron, Potashes, Sugar, Logwood, Fustic, !Nicaragup wood and Heavy Dye-woods, Kice, Honey, Copper ore, and all othef heavy goods, 20 cwt.=l ton ; Coffee, cocoa, and dried codfish in bulk, if cwt.=l ton ; Dried Codfish, in casks of any siz8,12cwt.=l ton ; Oil, Wineij Brandy, or any kind of liquor, reckoning the full contents of the cask, wina measures 200 gals. =1 ton. Mahogany, Square timber. Oak Plank, Pine and other boards. Beavers, Furs, Peltry, Beeswax, Cotton, "Wool, and alo of all kinds, 40 cubic ft.=l ton. Flour, in bbls. of 196 lbs. each 8 bbls.= 1 ton; Beef, Tallow, Pickled fish. Pitch, Tar, and Turpentine, 6 bbls.=l ton. A Car-load. — As a general rule the fo^lowiifg quantities constitute a car-load throughout Canada and the United States, viz. : 20,000 lbs. or 70 bbls. of sait, 70 of lime, 70 of flour, GO of whiskey, 200 sacks of flour, 6 cords of hard wood, 7 of softwood, IG head of horses, 18 to 20 head of cattle, 50 to GO head of hogs, 80 to 100 head of sheep, 9,000 feet of solid boards, 17,000 feet of siding, 13,000 feet of flooring, 40,000 shingles, one-half less of hard lumber, one-fourth less of green lum- ber, one-tenth less of joists, scantling and all other large timber, 340 bushels of wheat, 360 of corn, G80 of oats, 400 of barley, 360 of flax-seed, S60 of apples 430 of Irish potatoes, 356 of sweet potatoes, 1,000 bushels of bran. ExcnA2;GE ox England. Exchange is the method of adjusting accounts or paying debts, when the debtor and creditor are distant from each other, by meaiis of an order or draft called a bill of exchange, so as to avoid the transmission of either money or goods ; for example, A of New York wishing to pay a debt to B, of London, pays an equivalent amount to C, of New York, who has a debtor, D, in London ; and A receives from C an order, addressed to D, requesting him to pay the amount to B. This is sent in a letter to B, who presents it to D for acceptance or payment. Thus the debtor in one place is substituted for the debtor in another, and two accounts may be adju.st- ed at the same time by the simple transmission ef a letter. Far of ea> TABLES, &C., FOU MERCHANTS. 207 change, is tlie equivalency of a certain amount of the currency of one country to the currency of another, the currencies of both being of the precise weight and purity fixed by their respective mints. Thus accord- ing to the mint regulations of England and France, £1 sterling is equal to 25 francs, 20 centimes, which is consequently said to be the _par between London and Paris. Exchange is made to diverge from par, either by de- preciation of the currency in either country below the mint standard, or by the difference in the amounts of indebtedness between one country and another, called the balance of trade, which effects the relative de- mand for bills of exchange. Thus in the following table, the present standard value of £1 stg. in the United States, being f 4.84.4, when ex- change is at 9 per.cent., it is then at par ; if higher than 9, it is above par, if less than 9, it is below, as shown by the table. EXCHANGE TABLE. 5 per cent. ^4.66.7 7% 8 per cent. $4.78.9 10 per cent. !|4.88.9 51/2 " 534 " 4.68.0 4.80.0 101/4 " 4.90.0 4.70.0 8V4 4.81.1 101/2 4.91.1 G '* 4.71.1 8V2 4.82.2 ifi :; 4.92.2 CV4 " 4.72.2 8% 4.83.3 4.93.3 CVa " 4.73.3 9 « 4.84.4 4.94.4 4.74.4 91/4 (( 4.85.6 4.95.6 7 " 4.75.C 9^2 (I 4.86.7 113/4 4.96.7 4.76.7 9% i( 4.87.8 12 " 4.97.8 4.77.8 The FOLLowma Table exhibits the Legal Equivalents oii- IJkitish Money in Amekican Dollars and Cents. s. $ c. m. S. $ c. m. £ $ c. £ S c. £ ^ c. £ ^ c. £ ¥ c. 1 24.2 11 2.66.2 1 4 84 11 53 24 21 101 64 31 150 04 41 198 44 2 48.4 12 2.90.4 2 9 68 12 58 08 22 106 48 32 154 88 42 203 28 8 72.6 13 3.14.6 3 14 52 13 02 92 23 111 32 33 159 72 43 208 12 4 96.8 14 3.38.8 4 19 36 14 67 76 24 116 16 34 164 56 44 212 96 5 1.21.0 15 3.63.0 5 24 20 15 72 60 25 121 00 35 109 40 45 217 80 6 1.45.2 16 3.87.2 6 29 04 16 77 44 26 125 84 36 174 24 50 242 00 7 1.69.4 17 4.11.4 7 33 88 17 82 28 27 130 68 37 179 08 60 290 40 8 1.93.6 18 4.35.6 8 38 72 18 87 12 28 135 52 38 183 92 70 338 80 9 2.17.8 19 4.59.8 9 43 56 19 91 96 29 140 36 39 188 76 80 387 20 10 2.42.0 20 4.84.0 10 48 40 20 96 80 30 145 20 40 193 60 90 436 00 Flavoeing Extracts, Vanilla, Ginger, &c. — Vanilla beans, 4 ozs. ; sugar, 2 ozs. ; alcohol, 4 fluid ozs. ; simple syrup, 4 ozs. ; brandy, 1 pt. Cut the beans finely, and rub thoroughly with the sugar, put all into a strong stone bottle, secure the cork with twine, and boil iii a water bath for \ hour, then transfer to a filter and allow it to per- colate through, then add brandy sufficient to make 4 pts. Other extracts, as ginger, &c., can be made in a similar manner, by using the respective ingredients. Essential oils of aniseed, lavender, peppermint, cloves, cinnamon, &c., are obtained by submitting parts of the plants, previously ground to a coarse powder, to distillation with water, when the oils are carried over in a minute state of division with the aqueous vapor. The essential oils enclosed in the skins of lemons, oranges, berganiots, &c., are obtained bj^ pressing the rinds of these fruits. To Preserve Apples. — Pack in boxes cr barrels elevated from the cellar floor, with a layer of dry sawdust at the bottom of each box or barrel, then a layer of aj^ples placed out of contact with each other, then a layer of sawdust, and so on till all are full. Sound apples packed iu this way will keei^ fresh a long time. 208 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONER'S RECEIPTS; AC. "WlCir.IITS. IN roUNDS, OF VAUIOUS AKTIOI^KS, as IlATKI) HY RAILWAY COMl>ANIIC8, WJIKN TlUilll WKIGHTS CAHSiOT OTUEUWISK UK ASCEIl- TAINKD. POUNDS. Aahes, pot or pearl Barrel 450 Apples, and barrelled fruits Bnrrel 200 Apples Bushel.... 50 Barley Bushel.... 45 Beef, pork bacon Per hhd. . . , 1,000 Butter, tallow, lard Perbbl i^33 Salt fish and meat Per lirkin . '. '. '. 100 Bran, feed, shipstuffs, oats Bushel iJ5 Buckwheat Bushel ." ." .' .' 48 Bricks, common Each ... 5 •■: .'. .V.V ".'.Cord! . ! !2,0CO Charcoal,.... Bushel.... 22 Coke, and cako meal Bushel 40 Clover seed Bushel.' . . 62 Eggs.... Barrel.... 200 Fish and salt meat per firkin .... 100 Flour and meal Per bushel, 56 lbs, Barrel. ... 216 Grain and seeds, not stated Bushel ... 60 Hides (green) Each. ... 85 , Hides (dry), salted or Spanish Each 33 Ice, coal, lime Bushel 80 Liquors, malt and distilled Barrel 250 Liquors , per gallon 10 Lumber — pine, poplar, hemlock Ft. b, m 4 Lumber — oak, walnut, cheriy, ash Ft. b. m. . . . 5 Nails and spikes Keg 106 Onions, wheat, potatoes Bushel 60 Oysters Per bushel, 100 lbs,, per 1,000 350 Plastering lath Per 1,000 60o Besin, tar, turpentine Barrel 300 Sand, gravel, etc Per cubic ft 150 Shingles Per M., short, 900 lbs., Long. . . .1 400 Salt Per bushel.... 70 Stone, undressed Perch 4,000 Stone, dressed Cubic ft ... . 180 Timothy and light grass seed Bushel. ... 40 Wood— hickory Cord. . . .4,500 Wood— oak Cord. . . . 3,500 1 ton (2240 lbs.) cured hay is 425 cubic ft.; 1 ton of hay in mow, 414.37 lbs., or a cube of 7% ft. Hay, as usually delivered, weighs 5 lbs. per cubic ft.; do., well pressed, 8 lbs. Straw, loose, weighs sy, lbs. per cubic ft.; do., well pressed, 5% lbs. U. S. gallon of water weiglis 8.33 lbs. ; do-, of molasses, 11%; do., of turpentine, 7.31; do., of alcohol, 6.96. Belfast Ginger Ale.— Double refined sugar, powdered, 1 lb. ; bicarbonate of soda, 3^ ozs. ; citric acid, 4^ ozs. ; concentrated ess. of ginger, 1| ozs. ; ess. of cayenne, 2 drs. ; ess. of lemon, 40 drops. The soda, acid and sugar must be carefully dried separately at a tempera- ture not exceeding 120" ; and the sugar before drying must be thor- oughly Incorporated with the essences, to which a small quantity of , caramel, as color, may be added. The whole forms a powder, a des- sertspoonful of which will make a tumblerful of the drink. Unfermented Wine. — To make this, boil grapes of any kind over a slow fire till the pulp has thoroughly separated from the skin, add- ing just enough water to prevent burning at the bottom of the vessel, tlien press the juice through a fine cloth and add | its weight of eugar, GROCERS AND confectioners' RECEIPTS, &C. 209 mix well, bring the juice to the boiling point once more, and cnn it in air-tight jars. This Avine will keep sweet for years, and has the color of port. To Improve Spoiled Butter.— The cut represents an excellent arrangement for the restoration of bad butter by means of the well- known absorbent and deodorizing qual- ities of charcoal. The tainted butter is removed from the firkin or other ves- sel by removing the staves and hoops surrounding it. It is then placed in a clean bag and buried in granulated charcoal in a suitable barrel or box. In a short time, the offensive odor and bad smell will disappear, and a fine, fresh, marketable appearance will be imparted to the butter by the conserv- ing operation of the charcoal. Another way, melt the butter in twice its weight <.)f boiling water, shake well and pour the melted butter into cold water to regain a proper consistence. Or, wash in good new milk, in which the butyric acid, which causes the rancidity, is freely soluble. Wash afterwards in cold spring water. Another good way is to wash the butter in strong lime water, previously permitting the lime ample time to settle, and using the clear portion. To Can Fruit,— The following instructions for boiling and can- ning fruit Avill prove useful to many. The first number after tho name of the fruit has reference to the number of minutes required for boiling, and the second to the ounces of sugar required to each quart. Currants, (5, 8 ; cherries, 5, G ; crab-apples, 25, 8 ; blackberries, 0, 6 ; gooseberries, 8, 8 ; grapes, 10,8; plums, 10, 8; peaches (whole), 15, 4; peaches (halves), 8, 4 ; pears (whole), 30, 8 ; quinces (sliced), 15, 10 ; tomatoes, 30, (no sugar) ; beans and peas, 3 to 4 hours, no sugar. To Can Green Corn. — Dissolve 2^ ozs. tartaric acid in 1 pt. water, and use 1 teaspoonful to every pint of corn while the corn is at boiling heat. When opened for use, add one teaspoonful of soda to every 3 cans of corn. Percentage of Alcohol in 100 Parts of the following Liquors. — Prof. Brande. Scotcli Whiskey 54.53 Irish do 53.9 Rum 53.68 Gin 51.6 Brandy 53.39 Burgundy 14.57 Cape Muscat 18.25 Champagne (still). 13.80 Do. (sparkling) 12.61 Cider 5.2 to 9.8 Constantia 19.75 Gooseberry Wine 11 . 48 Currant Wine 20.50 Port 22.90 Maderia 22.27 Tenerifte ..19.70 Sherry 19.17 Claret 15.1 Elder 8.79 Ale ... 6.87 Porter 4.2 Malaga 17.26 Rhenish 12.8 Small Beer 1.28 210 GU0CEH3 AND CONFKCTIONEKS' IirCEIPTS. RAriD Process of markino Goods at any desired rr.n cent. ruOFiT. — Ivctail merchants, in buying goods hy wholesale, buy a great many ailicles by the dozen, such as boots and si loes, hats and caps, and notions of various kinds ; now, the merchant, in buying, for in- ttanco, a dozen hats, knows exactly what one of these hats will retail for in the market where he deals ; and, unless lie is a good accountant, it will often take him some time to determine whether lie can alfoid to purchase the dozen hats and make a living profit by selling them by the shigle hat ; and in buying his goods by auction, as the merchant often docs, he has not time to make the calcidation before the goods aro bid off. He therefore loses the chance of making good bargains by be- ing afraid to bid at random, or if he bids, and the goods arc cried off, lie may have made a poor bargain, by bidding thus at a venture. It then becomes a useful and practical problem to determine instantly what per cent, lie would gain if he retailed the hat at a ceitain piice, to tell what an article should retail for to make a profit of 20 per cent. IvULE. — Divide lohat the articles cost per dozen hy 10, which is done hy removing the decimal point one place to the left. For instance, if hats cost .$17.50 per dozen, remove the decimal point , one place to the left, makmg $1.75, what they should bo sold for 'apiece to gain 20 per cent on the cost. If they cost $31.00 per dozen, they should be sold at $3.10 apiece, etc. We take 20 per cent, as tho Tiasis for the foUoAving reasons, viz : because we can determine instant- ly, by simply removing the decimal point, without changing a figure, and, if the goods w^ould not bring at least 20 per cent, profit in tho .home market, the merchant could not afford to purchase, and would look for cheaper goods. The reason for the above rule is obvious, for if wo divide the cost of a dozen by 12, we have the cost of a single article ; then if we wish lo make 20 per cent, on tho cost (cost being 1-1 or 5-5), we add tho percent., which is 1-5, to the 6-5, making G-5 or 12-10 ; then as we multiply the cost, divided by 12, by the 12-10 to find at Avhat price one must be sold to gam 20 per cent., it is evident that tlio 12s will cancel and leave tho cost of a dozen to bo divided by 10, to do this remove the decimal point one place to tho left. ExAJViPLE 1. — If I buy 2 dozen caps at $7.50 per dozen, what stall I retail them at to make 20 per cent. ? Ans. 75 cents. ExAJMPiiE 2.— When a merchant retails a vest at $4.50 and makes 20 per cent, what did he pay per doz. ? Ans. $45, ExAiviPLE 3. — At what price should I retail a pair of boots that cost $85.00 per doz. to make 20 per cent ? Ans. $8.50. Now, as removing the decimal point one place to the left, on the cost of a dozen articles, gives the selling lixice of a single one with 20 per cent, added to the cost, and, as the cost of any article is 100 per cent., it is obvious that tho selling ])rice would be 20 per cent, more, or 120 per cent. ; hence, to find 50 i^er. cent, profit which would make the selling price 150 per cent., we would first find 120 per cent, then add 30 per cent, by increasing it one-fourth itself; ior 85per cent., increase it one-eight itself, etc. Hence to mark an.' article at any per cent, iirofit we find the following: — G-ENEKAii RvL-E.—Firstfind 20 per cent, profit by_ removing the dec- imal point one place to the left on the price the articles cost per doz.; then, as 20 per cent profit is 120 per cent, add to or subtract from this GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' KECEirTS- 211 amount the fractional part that the required per cent, added io 100 fa more or less than 120. Merchants, in marking goods, generally take a per cent, that is an ali- qnot part of 100, as 25, 33 1-3, 50, &c. The reas^on they do this is be- cause it makes it much easier to add such a per cent, to tlie cost ; foe instance, a merchant could mark almost a dozen articles at 50 per cent, profit in the time it would take him to mark one at 49 per cent. The following is arran":ed for the conveuience of husiuess men ia marking tlie prices of all articles bought by tlie dozen. To make 20 per cent, rcraovo tlie point one place to the left. and add i itself. GO " (( ( ( (( (( 1-3 " 50 " <( ( C (( (( 1-4 " 44 " (C ( ( (( (C 1-5 <; 40 " ii( ( ( 11 li 1-G " 37 " 1-7 " 35 " (( < 1-8 " 331-3" (( ( I (( (( 1-9 " 33 ( li It 1-10 " 30 I (( <( 1-12 " (( 28 (( ( 1-15 " (( 20 (C ( ( if <( 1-20 " (( 25 1-24 " (( m (C ( ' " Eubtract 1-lG " 1G2-3 " 1-3G " 183 u 1-9G " If I buy a doz. shirts for $28.00, what shall I retail them for to make 50 per cent. ? Ans. $3.50 ExriiANATiON. — Remove the i^oint one place to the left, and add J itself. Amquot Pabts of 100 Ayro 1000.— Merchants in selling goods gen- erally make the price of an article some aliquot part of 100, as in sell- ing sugar at 12^ cents per lb., or 8 lbs. for $1.00, or in sell- ing calico lor IG 2-3 cents per yard, or G yds. for $1.00, etc. Tho lollowing table Avill be found valuble for all such calculations. 12^ is 1-8 part of 100. 8^ is 1-12 part of 100. 25 is 1-4 part of 100. 162-3 is 2-12 or 1-G of 100 37^ is 3-8 part of 100. 33 1-3 is 4-12 or 1-3 of 100. 50 is 4-8 or of 100. GG 2-3 is 8-12 or 2-3 of 100 02^ 5-8 part of 100. 83 1-3 is 10-12 or 5-6 of ICQ TSls G-8 or 3-4 part of 100. 125 is 1-8 part of 1000. 87* is 7-8 part of 100. 250 is 2-8 or i of 1000. G| is 1-16 part of 100. 375 is 3-8 part of 1000. 18| is 3-16 part of 100. G25 is 5-8 part of 1000. 3l| is 5-16 part of 100. 875 is 7-8 part of 1000. To multiply by an aliquot part of 100. RuiiE. — Add two cyphers to the multiplicand, then take sucli part of it as the multiplier is part of 100. N, B. If the multiplicand is a mixed number reduce the fraction to a decimal of two places before dividing. N. B. For the sake of imiformitv, it lias been thought best to classify the Coal, Interest and Ready Reckoner Tables at the end of the Enrjinecrs' De^xirtment, 21? GKOCKKS AXD CONFECTIONERS* KlXKirTS. Tkas.— The names of tlio different kinds of tea rol.atc to the timo of their being gatliered, or to some peculiarity in their inanufacturo. Jt is a general rule, that all tea is line in proportion to the tenderness and imniatnrity of the leaves. The quality and value of the differ- ent kinds diminish as they are gathered later in the season. Black Teas.— As soon as the leaf-bud begins to expand, it is gathered to make Pekoe. A few days' later growth produces black- leaved Pekoe. The next picking is called Souchong ; as the leaves grow larger and more mature, they form (Jomjou ; and the last pick- ing is Bohea. JJohea is called by the Chinese, Ta-cha (large tea), on iiccount of the maturity and size of the leaves ; it contains a larger proportion of woody fibre than other teas, and its infusion is of a darker color and coarser flavor. Conr/ou, the next higher kind, is named from a corruption of the Chinese Koonr/-foa (great care, or assiduity). This forms the bulk of the black tea imported, and is mostly valued for its strength. Souchong — Seaoa-choong (small scarce sort), is the finest of tho strongest black tea, with a leaf that is generally entire and curly. It is much esteemed for its fragrance and fine flavor. Pekoe is a corrup- tion of the Canton name, Pak-ho (white down), being the first sprout.T of the leaf-buds ; they are covered with a white silky down. It is a delicate tea, rather deficient in strength, and is principally used for flavoring other teas. Grejln Teas. — The following are the principal kinds, lioankay, Jlyson-Skin, Hyson, Gunpoioder, and Younrj Jlyson. Young Hyson is a delicate young leaf, called in tho original lan- guage Yu-tsien (before the rains), because gathered in the early spring. Hyson, from the Chinese word He-tchune, which means, flourishing spring. This fine tea is gathered early in the season, and I)repared with great care and labor. Each leaf is picked separately, and nipped off above the footstalks ; and every separate leaf is rolled in the hand. It is much esteemed for its flavor. Gunpowder Tea is only Hyson rolled and rounded to give it the granular appear- ance whence it derives its name. The Chinese call it Choo-cha (peal tea). Hyson-Skin is so named from the Chuiese terra, in which connection skin means the refuse, or inferior portion. In preparing Hyson, all leaves that are of a coarse yellow, or imperfectly twisted ai)pearance, are separated, and sold as skin-tea, at an inferior price. Tioankay is the last jjicking of green tea, and the leaf is not rolled or twisted as much as the dearer descriptions. There is altogether less trouble bestowed on the preparation. Coffees. — Java Coffee. — Use of the imported article, 20 lbs. | dried dandelion root, 7 lbs. ; chiccory, 13 lbs. Roast and grind well together. For West Ixdia, use rye roasted with a little butter, and ground very fine. For Turkey Coffee, use rice or wheat roasted with a little butter, 7 lbs. ; chiccory, 3 lbs. ; grind. Essence of Coffee is made by boiling down molasses till hard ; grind to a powder ; add \ lb. of good Java coffee to every 4 lbs. of the mixture. Put up for" sale in roimd tin cans or air-tight paper packages. Coffee fob Pouxd Packages.— Best Java_coffeo, 1 lb. ; rye, 3 GKOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' KECEirTS. 213 lbs. ; carefully clean tlio rye from all bad grains, wash to remove dust, drain off the water, and put the grain into your roaster, carefully stirring to brown it evenly. Brown the rye and coffee separately, grind and put up in tight packages to preserve tbo aroma. To Flavor Tobacco. — This is doueby means of a mixtureof 1 part each of lemon peel, orange peel, figs, coriander seed and sassafras ; J part each of elderflowers, elderberries, and cinnamon ; 2 parts of saltpetre, 3 of salt, and 4 of sugar. This mixture must be digested in 50 jiarts of water, and, before applying it flavored with an alcoholic solution of gum benzion, mastic, and myrrh. It is said that this decoction gives a flavor to common leaves resembling Porto Rico, but to this end the leaves must be avcU. dried, about a year old, well per- meated with the preparation, kept in a pile for 8 days, turned daily, and finally dried. Flavor for Cigar Makers. — Take 2 ozs. tonqna beans and 1 oz. cinnamon ; bruise and pulverize them to a powder, and i)i;t them into 1 pint of Santa Cruz mm ; let it stand for a few days to macerate ; stir all together, and with this liquid sprinkle your common or inferior tobacco. Dry out of the sun, and the flavor will be unequalled. Tabac Perfubiee atjx Fleurs is made by putting orange flowers, ^asmmes, tube roses, musk roses, or common roses, to snuff in a close chest or jar, sifting them out after 24 hours, and repeating if necessary. Maccabot Sntjff is imitated by moistening the tobacco with a mixture of treacle and water, and allowing it to ferment. Spanish Sxuff is made, from unsifted Havana snuff, reduced by adding ground Spanish nutshells, sprinkling the mixture with treaclo water, and allowing it to sweat for some days before packing. Yellow Snuff is prepared from ordinary pale snvf, moistened with a mixture of yelloio ochre diffused in loater, to 'which a fe-^ spoonfuls of thin mucilage has been added. Perfumes for Snuff. — Tonqua beans, essence of ditto, ambergria musk civet, leaves of orchis fusca, and essence of orris root, essence cr oils of bergamot, cedar, cloves, lavender, petit grain, neroli and roFcs, as well as several others, either alone or compounded. Unerring Tests for good Flour.— Good flour is white, witn a j-cllowish or straw-colored tint Squeeze some of the flour in your hand ; if good, it will retain the shape given by pressure. Ivnead a little between your fingers; if it works soft and stic]:y, it is poor. Throw a little ao^ainst a dry perpendicular surface; if "it fall like powder, it is bad. To Correct Musty Flour.— Carbonate of magnesia, oibs. ; flour, 7G5 lbs. ; mix. This improves bad flour, causing it to become moro wholesome, producing lighter and better bread than ^when alum is used, and absorbs and dissipates the musty smell. jErated Bread. — lib. flour, 100 grs. carb. of soda; GO grs. com- mon salt; 1 teaspoon powdered sugar; 120 grs. muriatic acid, more or less, according to its strength; 1 wine pt. of water, inferior flour will require less. Well mix the flour, soda, salt, and sugar ui an earthen vessel, then add the acid mixed with the water, stir Avith a wooden spoon. Bake in one loaf about 1 hour. Bake in tin or iron pans, but avoid the use of metallic vessels or spoons while mixing." 214 Gi:ocr.n3 and conf;:ctioni:rs' hkciiipt:?. Tatknt Sklf-Raisino Flour.— Kiln-dried flour, 1 cwt. ; tartaric acid, 10.^ oz. ; mix th()ron;j;hly. Alter 2 or 3 days, add, of bicarb, poda, 12 oz. ; lump puj^ar ;V lb. ; common salt, 1:^ lb. Mix, and paH.i tlirouglitho " drensinij: niacbinc." Have all the articles perfectly dry, and se])arately reduced to fine powder bel'c re adding to the Hour. Jlirc ■with cold water, and bake at once. It produces light and poroiu bread. To Cure Buttek. — Take 2 parts of fmo salt ; 1 paH loaf sugar ; 1 part saltpetre ; mix completely. Uso 1 oz. of this mixture to each pound of butter ; work -well. Bury your butter firkins in tlio earth in your cellar bottom, tops nearly level witli the ground, or store away in a very cool i)lacc, covering tho butter Avith a clean cloth and a strong brine ou tlio toj), and it will keep tvro ycara if desired. To Keep Butter during Hot Weather.— A simple mode of keeping butter in warm weather is to invert a largo crock of earthen, or a flower pot if need be, (varying with the size of tho vessel con- taining the butter,) over the dish or firkin in which the butter is held. The porousness of the earthenware will keep the butter cool, and all , the more so if the pot be wrapped in a wet cloth, with a little water i;i ' the dish with the butter. Not the porosity of tho earthenware, but the rapid absorption of heat by external evaporation causes tho butter . to become hard. To restore Rancid Butter.— Uso 1 pt. water to each lb. of but- ter, previously addhig 20 grs. chloride of lime to each pt. of water : wash well the butter in this mixture, afterward re-wash in cokl water and salt ; or melt the butter in a water bath with animal charcoal, coarsely i)owdered and previously w^ell sifted to free it from dust ; skim, remove, and strain through flannel ; then salt. Tomato Catsup. — Boil 1 bushel of tomatoes till they are soft; squeeze them through a fine wire sieve; add 1^ pts. salt, 2 oz. cayenne pepper, and 5 heads of onions, skimied and separated; mix together, and boil till reduced one half; then bottle. The Northern-Light Burning Fluid. — Get good deodorized benzine, GO to Co gravity, and to each brl. of 42 gals, add 2 lbs. pulver- ized alum, 3^ oz. gum camphor, andS^oz. oil of sassafras, or 2 oz. oil bergamot; stir up and mix thoroughly together, and it will soon bo ready for use. N. B. — As this fluid creates a much larger volume of light and flame than carbon oil, it is necessary to use either a lii^h burner, such as the sun burner, to elevate the flame away from the lamp, in order to keep it cool, or instead thereof, to use a burner pro- vided with a tube for the escape of the gas generated from the fluid, such, for instance, as the Meriden burner. Test for Burning Oil. — ^lleat water in a pot on tho fire to 120° Fahr. Take a tin and put in it a tablespoonf ul of the oil you wish to test, place the tin containing the oil in the hot water, let it cool down to 112° Fahr. ; when at this point, approach a light very cautiously to- wards the oil, and if it takes fire before the light touches it you will be safe in rejecting it. Preserved or Solidified Milk. — 1. Fresh-skimmed milk, 1 gal. ; sesquic^rbonate of soda (in powder), 1^- dr. Mix; evaporate to J part by heat of steam or waterbath, with constant agitation ; then add of powdered sugar lbs. and complete tho evaporation at a reduced GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' EECEirTS. 215 temperature. Reduce the dry mass to powder, add the cream well drained, which was taken from the railk. After thorougli admixture, put the whole into well stopped bottles or tins, and hermetically seal. 2. Carbonate of soda, ^ dr.; watei', 1 fluid oz.; dissolve; add of fresh milk, one qt. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; reduce by heat to the consistency of a syrup, and finish the evaporation on plates by exposure, in an oven. Observe — About 1 oz. of the powder agitated with 1 pt, of water forms a good substitute for milk. Sealing-wax, Red. — Shellac (very pale), 4 oz. ; cautiously melt in a bright copper jmn over a clear charcoal fire ; when fused, add Venice turpentine, oz. Mix, and further add vermilion, 3 oz. ; remove the pan from tlie fire, and pour into a mould. For a blacJo color, use ivory black, or lampblack, instead of the vermilion ; for a line color, use Prussian blue, instead of the vermilion, same quantity. Each color must be well mixed with the composition ; of the lami^black, use only sufficient to color. IIOKTicuLTURAii Ink.— Copper, 1 part ; dissolve in nitric acid, 10 parts, and add water, 10 parts ; used to write on zinc, or tin labels. Bottle Wax — Black. — Black resin, 61 lbs. ; beeswax, ^ lb. ; finely powdered ivory black, I3 lbs. Melt together. Red, as the last, but substitute Venetian red,"or red lead, for the ivory black. GoLD-coLOKED Sealing-wax. — Blcachcd shellac, 3 lbs.; Venice turpentine 1 lb. ; Dutch leaf ground fine, 1 lb. , or less. The leaf should be ground, or powdered sufficiently fine, without being reduced to dust. Mix with a gentle heat, and pour into moulds. LiTHOGRAPiiic Ink.— Venice turpentine 1 part, lampblack 2 parts, hard tallow soap 6 parts, mastic in tears, 8 parts, shellac 12 parts, wax IG parts ; melt, stir, and pour it out on a. slab. IxKS. — 1. Fine Black loriting Ink. — To 2 gals, of a strong decoc- tion of logwood, well strained, add 1| lbs. blue galls in coarse powder, C ozs. sulphate of iron, 1 oz. acetate of copper, 6 ozs. of well ground sugar, and 8 oz. gum arabic. Set the above on the fire until it begins to boil; strain, and then set it away until it has acquired the desired black. 2. Green Ink. Cream of tartar 1 part, verdigris 2 parts, water 8 parts. Boil till reduced to the proper color. 3. Blue Ink. Take sulphate of mdigo, dilute it with water till it produces the re- quired color. 4. Violet Ink. Is made by dissolving some violet aniline in water to which some alcohol has been added: it takes very little aniline to make a large quantity of the ink. 5. Gold Ink. Mosaic gold, two parts, gum arabic, one part, rubbed up to a proper condition. 6. Silver Ink. Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver foil and sulphate of potassa, until reduced to a fine powder, then wash the salt out, and mix the residue with a mucilage of equal parts of gum arabic water. 7. Fullam's Recipe for Indelible Stencil-plata Ink. 1 lb. precipitate carbonate of iron; 1 lb. sulphate of iron; IJt lbs. acetic acid. Stir over a fire until they combine; tlien add 3 lbs. printer's varnish and 2 lbs. fine book ink, and stir until well mixed. Add 1 lb. of Ethiop's mineral, 8 Exchequer Ink. Bruised galls, 40 lbs. ; gum, 10 lbs. ; green sulphate of iron, 9 lbs. ; soft water, 45 gals. Macerate for 3 weeks Avith frequent agitation and strain. This ink will endure for ages. 9. Asiatic Ink. Bruised galls, 14 lbs. ; gum, 5 lbs. Put them in a small cask, and add of boiling soft water, 15 gals. Allow the whole to macerate, with frequent agitation, for two weeks, 216 GROCKTIS AND CONFECTIONEns' RECIIIPTS. then further udd Rrecn copperan, fi lbs., dissolved in 7 pts. "vrator. Again mix well, and agitate the -whole daily for two or three weeks 10. tJxtra f/ood lilack Ink. ]}ruised galls, 2 lbs., logwood chips, green copperas and gum, of each, 1 lb. ; water, 7 gals. Boil 2 hours and strain. Product. 5 gals. 11. Jiroxon Ink. A strong decoction of catechu. The shade may be varied by the cautions addition of a littlo weak solution of bichromate of potash. 12. Indelible Ink. Nitrato of silver, oz. ; water, 5 oz. Dissolve, add as much of the strongest liquor of ammonia as will dissolve the precipitate formed on its first addition; then add of mucilage 1^ dr., and a little sap green, syrup of buckthorn, or finely powdered indigo, to color. Turns black on being held near the fire, or touched with a hot iron. 13. Indelible Ink for Glass or Metal. Borax, 1 oz; shellac, 2 oz. ; -water, 1% fluid oz. ; boil in a covered vessel, add of thick mucilage, 1 oz. ; triturate it witli levigated indigo and lampblack q. s., to give it a good color. After 2 hours' repose, decant from the drega and bottle for use. It may bo bronzed after being applied. Resists moisture, chlorine, and acids. 14. Common Ink. To 1 gal. boiling soft water, add ^ oz, extract log- wood ; boil two minutes ; remove from the fire, and stir in 48 grains bichromate of potash, and 8 grains prussiate of potash; for 10 gals, use oz. logwood extract; 1 oz. bichromate of potash, and 80 grains prussiate of potash ; strain. 15. Black Copying Ink, or Writinrj fluid Take 2 gals, rain water and put into it gum arable, J lb. ; brown sugar, ^ lb. ; clean copperas, ^ lb. ; powdered nutgalls, 5 lb, ; mix, and shako occasionally for ten days and strain; if needed sooner, let it stand in an iron kettle until the strength is obtained. This ink will stand the action of the atmosphere for centuries, if required. IG. Red Ink. In an ounce phial put 1 teaspoonf ul of aqua-ammonia ; gum arabie size of two or three peas ; and G grains of No, 40 carmine ; fill up with soft water, and it is soon ready for use. Liquid Blacking. — ^Ivory black, 2 lbs. ; molasses, 2 lbs. ; sweet oil, lib.; rub together till well mixed; then add oil vitrei, | lb.; add coarse sugar, ^ lb.; and dilute with beer bottoms; this cannot be excelled. Ticketing Ink for Geocees, fee— Dissolve 1 oz. of gum arable in G oz. water, and strain ; this is the mucUage ; for black color, use drop black, powdered, and ground with the mucilage to extreme fine- ness ; for blue, nltra-marine is used in the same manner ; for green, emerald green ; for ivhite, flake white ; for red, vermilion, lake, cr carmine ; for yellow, chrome yellow. When ground too thick they are thinned with a little water. Apply to the cards with a small brush. The cards may be sized with a thin glue, and afterwards varnished, if it 13 desired to preserve them. Bluing fob Clothes. — ^Take 1 oz. of soft Prussian blue, powder it, and put in a bottle with 1 quart of clear rain water, and add ^ oz. of pulverized oxalic acid.- A. tablespoonf iil is sufficient for a large wash- ing Peemium Method of keeping IIaims, &c. — To 4 gals, water, add 8 lbs. coarse salt ; ^ oz. potash ; 2 oz. saltpetre ; 2 lbs. brown sugar. Boil together, skim when cold, put on the above quantity to 100 lbs. meat ; hams to remain in eight weeks, beef, three weeks. Let the hams dry several' days before smoking. Meat of all kinds, salmon and other fish, lobsters, &c., may bo preserved for years by a light a]>- GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 217 plication of pyroligneous acid applied ^vitli a brusli, sealing np in cans as usual. It imparts a splendid flavor to tlio meat, is very clieap, and an effectual preservative against loss. To PRESERVE Meats, Salmon, Lobsters, &c., iiermeticalt-y SEALED, —The meat to be preserved is first parboiled or somewhat moro and freed from bones. It is then put into tin cases or canisters, which are quite filled up with a rich gravy. A tin cover, with a small aper- ture, is then carefully fixed on by solder ; arid, while tlie vessel is per- fectly full, it is placed in boiling water, and undergoes the remainder of the cooking. The small hole in the cover is completely closed up by soldering while the whole is yet hot. The canister, with its ingredients, is now allowed to cool, in consequence of which these contract, and the sides of the vessel are slightly forced inward by atmospheric prc:> siire, and become a little concave. The vessel being thus hermet- ically sealed, and all access of the air prevented, it may bo sent into any climate without fear of putrefaction ; aud the most delicato food of one country may bo used in another in all its original perfec- tion, months and years after its preparation. Lobsters should be boil- ed longer than meats, and the scales removed previous to puttmg into the canisters. Salmon put up by this process is most delicious. By the French process the meat is boiled till it is three-quarters done, when two-thirds of it are taken out, the remainuig one-third is boiled into a concentrated soup, and the meat previously taken out is put mto tho canisters, which are then filled up with the soup ; the tin cover with aperture is soldered on, and tho canister with its contents sub- mitted to farther boiling in hot water, when the aperture is closed, as above stated, and the canisters laid away in store. To PRESERVE Fruits without Sugar. — Fill some stone wide- mouthed bottles with the fruit carefully picked, and set them in a copper or large kettle ; then fill tho kettle with cold water nearly up to the mouths of the bottles. Corks should be prepared to fit the bottles, and a cloth should bo put under the bottoms of the bottles to prevent their cracking with the heat. Light the fire un- der the kettle, and heat the water to 100° or 170°. This heat should be continued for half an hour, when tho fruit will bo sufficiently scalded ; after that, fiU up the bottles with boiling water to within an inch of the cork, and cork them tightly. Lay the bottles on their sides ; change the position of tho bottles once or twice a week during the first two months, turning them round to prevent any fermentation that might take place. Fruits could also bo kept by the process mentioned above for meats, remembering that they are to be scalded only, not boiled, as in the case with meats. Another Method, — After parmg and coring, put among them sufficient sugar to make them palatable for present eating, about 3 or 4 lbs. only to each bushel ; let them stand aAvhile to dissolve the sugar, not using any water ; then heat to a boil, and continue the boiling with care for 20 to SO minutes, or sufficiently long to licat them through, which expels the air. Have ready a kettle of hot water, into which dip tho can or bottle long enough to heat it ; then fill in the fruit while hot, corking it immediately, dipping tho end of tho cork into the bottle-wax preparation described elso- whero, ■VVorcestekshirb Sauce.— White vinegar 15 gals. ; walnut catsup 218 Gnoci:ns axd confectionkhs' heceipts. 10 gnls. ; Madcria wino B pjala. ; mushroom catsnp 10 gals. ; table Bait 25 lbs. ; Canton Roy, 4 gals. ; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. ; powdered allspice 1 lb. ; powdered coriander, seeds 1 11). ; cloves, mace, and cin- namon, of each, lb. ; asafoetida ^ lb. ; dissolved in brandy 1 gal. Boil 20 lbs. hogs livers iu 10 gals, of water for 12 hours, renewing tho water from time to time. TaliO out tho liver, chop it, mix with water, work through a sieve, and mix with the sauce. Ghkrkins, — Take small cucumbers (not young), steep for a week 3u very stronrj brine ; it is then poured off, heated to the boiling point, and again poured on tlie fruit. Tho next day tho gherkin.^ are drained on a sieve, v/ipcd dry, put into bottles or jars, with some spice, ginger, pepper, or caycuuc, and at onco covered, with strong pickling ^•iuegar. Mixed ncKLES from cauliflowers, "white cabbage, French beans, onions, cucumbers, &c., are treated a.? gherkins, with raw ginger, capsicum, mustard-seed and long pepper, added to each bottle. A little bruised turmeric improves both the color and flavor. Indian riCKLB. — Piccalilli. — Take one hard white cabbage (sliced), 2 cauliflowers, pulled to pieces, 20 French beans, 1 stick of horse-radish, sliced fine, 2 doz. small "white onions, and 1 doz. gherkins. Cover these with boiling brine ; next day, drain tho whole on a sieve, put it into a jar, add of curry powder, or tur- meric, 2 oz. ; garlic, ginger, and mustard-seed, of each 1 oz. ; cap- sicum ^ oz. Fill up the vessel with hot pickling vinegar ; bung it up close, and let it stand for a month, with occasional agitation. To Preserve Fruit Juice "without Heat. — ^Ingredients : 10 lbs. of fresh-gathered, picked, red-ripe currants, or other fruit, 2 qtg. cold water, 6 oz. tartaric acid, G lbs, of coarse sifted sugar. Put the fruit into a large earthen pan, pour tho water Avith the tartaric acid dissolved in it over tho fruit, cover the pan with some kind of lid, and allow tho whole to steep for 2-1 hours in a cold place, and it would be all the better if tho pan contahiing tho fruit could bo immersed in rougli ice. Next, pour the steeped fruit into a sus- pended stout flamiel bag, and when all the juice has run through, tie up the open end of the bag, and place it on a large earthen, dish, with another dish upon it ; place a half-hundred weight upon this, to press out all the remaining juice, and then mix it with the other juice. You now put tho sifted sugar into the juice, and stir both together occasionally, imtil the sugar is dissolved, and then bottle up the syrup, cork, and tie do-wn tho bottles with wire, and keep them in tlie ice well or in a cold cellar, in a reclining position. To restore Injured Meat. — ^^Vhen tho brine sours and taints the meat, pour it off ; boil it, skim it well, then pour it back again on the meat boiling hot ; this will restore it, even when much injured. If tainted meat is injured, dip it in the solution of chlo- ride of lime prescribed for rancid butter ; it will restore it. Fly- blown meat can be completely restored by immersing it for a few hours in a vessel containing a small quantity of beer ; but it will taint and impart a putrid smell to the liquor. Fresh meat, hams, fish, &c., can be preserved for an indefinite length of time withoufe salt, by a light application of pyroligneous acid applied with a brush ; it imparts a fine smoky flavor to the meat, and is an effect- ual preservative. But pure acetic acid may bo used instead. GROCEES AND CONFECTIONEIIS' KECEIPTS. 219 FRF.sn Meat— TO kekp a TTr.EK on Two i:^ Soimeb.— Farmers or others living at a distance from butchers can keep fresh meat very nicely for a week or two, by putting it into sour milk, or but- ter raillc, placing it in a cool cellar. Tho bono or fat need not bo removed. liinse well when used. Milkman's Pkocess.— To give a body to diluted milk use the following nutritive and healthy compound at the rate of 8 oz. to every 5 gals., stirring it up in the milk, till all is dissolved: arrow- root, 6 oz. ; magnesia, G oz. ; starch, 1 lb. ; flour, h lb. ; white sugar in powder, 1 lb. ; mix all intimately together, and keep in a dry place for use. CtrsTAED Powders. — Sago meal and flour, 1 lb. each ; color witli turmeric to a cream color. Flavor with essential oil of almonds, 1 dr. ; ess. of lemon, 2 drs. Use with sweetened milk to form ex- temporaneous custards. Corky Powder. — Turmeric, and coriander seeds, of each, 4 oz. ; Nack pepper, 2joz. ; ginger 14 drs. ; cinnamon, mace, and cloves, each, ^ oz, ; cardamon seeds, 1 oz. ; cummin seeds, 2 drs. ; cayeimo pepper, 1 oz. ; powder and mix. N/Vro Leon's Camp SAUCE.~01d strong beer, 2 qts., white wine, 1 qt., anchovies, 4 ounces; mix; boil for ten minutes; remove it fronitlio fire, i^nd add peeled shallots, 3 ounces ; macerate for 14 days, and bottle. Pickled Onions. — Choose small round onions, remove tho skinf!, Etecp them in strong brme for a week in a stone vessel, pour it off, and heat till it boils ; then pour on tho onions, boiling hot ; after 24 hours, drain on a seive, then put them in bottles, fill up over them with strong spiced vinegar, boiling hot, cork dovm. immediately, and wax over the cork, in a similar manner are pickled mushroons, cauliflowers, samphires, peas, beans, green gooseberries, walnuts, red cabbages (without salt, with cold vinegar). Observe that the soft and more delicate do not require so much soaking in brine as tho harder and coarser kinds, and may be often kept by simply pouring very strong pickling vinegar on them without the application of heat. For peaches, select rii^e but not soft ones ; rub with a dry cloth ; put four cloves, free from their heads, in cacli large jieach, and two in small ones ; to 1 gallon vinegar, put 6 lbs. brovm sugar ; put tho peaches in a jar and put the vinegar (diluted with water, if too strong), and sugar in a preserving kettle over tho fire ; boil and sidm it ; pour it boiling hot over the peaches, covering them closely ; repeat tho operation three times ; then seal them tightly in cans or bottles. French Patent Mustard.— Flour of mustard, 8 lbs. ; wheat flour,, 8 lbs. ; bay salt, 2 lbs. ; cayemie pepper, 4 oz. ; vinegar to mix. Common Mustard.— Flour of mustard 28 lbs. ; wheat flour, 28 ids. , cayenne pepper, 12 oz., or as required ; common salt 10 lbs. ; rapo oil 3 lbs. ; turmeric to color ; mix well, and pass through a fine seivc. Starch Polish. — White wax, 1 oz, ; spermaceti, 2 oz. ; melt them together with a gentle heat. When jon have prepared a sufilcient amount of starch, in the usual way, for a dozen pieces, jmt into it' a niece of tho polish about the si^e of a large pea ; more or lc5s, accord- ing to large or small washings. Or thick gum solution (made by pour- /^igboiliug water upon gum arable), one tablespoon to a i^int of starchy givQS clothes a beautiful gloss. 220 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* KECEIITS. Piiuc KiXDi.ERS. — To m.ilvO very nice firo Icindlcra, take rosin, any quantity, and melt it, putting in lor eacli pound being used, from 2 to 3 oz. of tallow, and when all is hot, stir in jjuio sawdust to niako very thick ; and, Avhilo yet hot, spread it out about 1 inch thick, upon boards which have fine sawdust sprinkled upon them, to prevent it from sticldng. When cold, brealc up into lumps about 1 inch square. But if for sale, take a thin board and press upon it, while yet varm, to lay it off into inch squares ; this makes it break regularly, if you ])ress the crease sullicieutly deep, greasing the marked board to prevent it from stickiii^. To Keep Cider swekt, a>d Sweeten Soun Cideii. — To keep cider perfect, take a keg and bore lioles iu the bottom of it ; spread a piece of woollen cloth at the bottom; then fill with clean sand closely packed ; draw your cider from a barrel just as fast as it will run through the sand ; after this, put iu clean barrels which have had a piece of cotton or linen cloth 2 by 7 inches dipped in melted sulphur and burned inside of them, thereby absorbing the sulphur fumes (this process will also sweeten sour cider) ; then keep it iu a cellar or room Avhere there is no fire, aud add ^ lb. white mustard seed to each barrel. If cider is long made, or souring when you get it, about 1 qt. of hickory ashes (or a little more of other hard wood ashes) stirred into each'barrel Avill sweeten and clarify it nearly equal to rectifying it as above ; but if it is not rectified, it must bo racked off to get clear of the pomace, as with this in it, it will sour. Oil or whisky barrels aro best to put cider in, or ^ pint sweet oil to a barrel, or a gallon of Avhisky to a barrel, or both, may be added with decidedly good effects ; isinglass, 4 oz. to each barrel, helps to clarify and settle ci- der that is not to be rectified. Ginger Wine. — ^^Vater, 10 gals., lump sugar, 20 lbs., bruised gin- ger, 8 oz. ; 3 or 4 eggs. Boil well and skim ; then pour hot on six or t;even lemons cut in slices, macerate for 2 hours ; then rack aud fer- ment ; next add spirit 2 qts., and afterwards finings, 1 pint ; rum- mage well. To make the color, boil ^ oz. saleratus and ^ oz. alum in 1 pint of water till you get a bright red color. Ice Cream. — Have rich, sweet cream, and a half-pound of loaf sugar to each quart of cream or milk. If you cannot get cream, tho best imitation is to boil a soft custard, 6 eggs to each quart of milk (eggs well beat). Or another is made as follows : boil 1 quart of milk, and stir into it, while boiling, 1 tablespoonful of arrowroot wet with cold milk ; when cool stir into it the yolk of 1 egg to give it a rich color. Five minutes' boiling is enough for either plan. Put the sugar in af- ter they cool ; keep the same proportions for any amount desired. Or thus : to G quarts of milk add ^ lb. Oswego starch, first dissolved ; put the starch in 1 quart of the milk ; then mix altogether, and sim- mer a little (not boil) ; sweeten and flavor to your taste ; exceUenfc. The juice of strawberries or raspberries gives a beautiful color and flavor to ice creams, or about ^ oz. essence or extract to 1 gallon, or to suit the taste. Have your ice well broken, 1 qt. salt to a bucket of ice. About one hour's constant stirring, with occasional scraping down and beating together, will freeze it. Chicago Ice Cream. — Irish moss soaked in warm water one hour, and rinsed well to cleanse it of sand and a certain foreign taste ; then Btecp it iu milk, keeping it just at tho point of boiling or simmering GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS, 221 for one hour, or until a rich yellow color is given to the milk ; •witli- out cream or eggs, from 1 tol^ oz. to a gal. only is necessary, and tliis will do to steep twice. Sweeten and flavor like other creams. Spbstitute fou Cream. — Take 2 or 3 whole eggs, beat them well np in a basin ; then pour boiling hot tea over them ; pour gradually to prevent curdling. It is difficult for the taste to distinguish it from rich cream. GiNGEK Beer. — Take 5^ gals, water, f lb. ginger root bruised, tartaric acid, ^ oz., white sugar, 2^ lbs., whites of 3 eggs well beaten, 10 small teaspoonfuls of lemon ess. ; yeast, 1 gill ; boil tho root for 30 mmutes in 1 gal. of tlie water; strain off, and put the ess. in while hot; mix, make over night; ui the morning, skim and bottle, keepmg out the sediments. PitiLADELVHiA Beek.— Take 30 gals, water, brown sugar, 20 lbs ginger root bruised, i lb., cream of tartar, 1^ lbs., carbonate of soda, 3 oz., oil of lemon, cut in a little alcohol, 1 teaspoonful, the white of 10 eggs well beaten, liops, 2 oz., yeast, 1 qt. The ginger root and liops should be boiled for twenty or thirty minutes in enough of the water to make all milk- warm ; then strained into the rest and the yeast added and allowed to work itself clear; then bottle, CiDEK WITHOUT ApriiES. — ^^Vatcr, 1 gallon ; common sugar, 1 lb. ; tartaric acid, ^oz. ; yeast, 1 tablespoonful; shako Avell, make in the evening, and it will be fit to use next day. FoK Bottling. — Put in a barrel, 5 gals, hot water; 30 lbs. common sugar; lb. tartaric acid; 25 gallons cold water; 3 pints of hop or brew- ers' yeast, worked into paste with 1 pint of water and 1 lb. flour. Let it work in the barrel forty-eight hours, the yeast ruuning out of tho bunghole all the time, putting in a little sweetened water occasionally to keep it full; then bottle, puttmg in two or three broken raisins to each bottle; and it will nearly equal champagne. Cheap Cider. — Put in a cask 5 gals, hot water ; 15 lbs. brown sugar ; 1 gal. molasses; ^ gal. hop or brewers' yeast; good vmegar, G qts. ; stir well, add 25 gals, cold water, ferment as the last. Another Cider. — Cold water, 20 gals., brown sugar, 15 lbs., tar- taric acid, ^ lb. ; rummage well together, and add, if you have them, 3 or 4 lbs. of dried sour apples, or boil them and pour in the express- ed juice. This cider will keep longer than the others. Spruce and Ginger Beer. — Cold water, 10 gals. ; boiling water, 11 gals. ; mix in a barrel; add molasses, 30 lbs., or brown sugar, 24 lbs. ; oil of spruce or any oil of which you wish the flavor, 1 oz. ; add 1 pint yeast, ferment, bottle in two or three days. If you wish whito spruce beer, use lump sugar; for ginger flavor, use 17 oz. ginger root bruised, and a few hops ; boil for thirty minutes in three gals, of tho water, strain and mix well; let it stand two hours and bottle, using yeast, of course, as before. Hop Beer, very fi^e. — Mix 14 Ibs.of molasses and 11 gals, water well together, and boil them for 2 hours with G oz. hops. "\v hen quite cool, add a cupful of yeast, and stir it well by a gallon or two at a time. Let it ferment for 16 hours, in a tub covered with a sack, then put it in a 9-gallon cask, and Iceep it filled up ; bung it down in 2 days, and in 7 days it will be fit to drink, and will be stronger tlian London porter Edinburgh Ale.— Emi)loy tho best pale malt— 1st, mash 2 barreld 222 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIl'TS. f)T. quarter, ntl83o, ma^h thrco-quartcra of .in hour, let it stand 1 lOur, and allow half an lioiir to run olt' the Avort; 2d, iiiash 1 barrel ])cr quarter. 180°, mash three-fourths of an liour, let it Ktand about three-fourths, and tap an before; .'kl, niasli 1 barrel per quarter, at 170°, mash lialf an hour, let it stand half an hour, and tap as before. The first and second wort may be mixed together, boiling them about an hour or an hour and a quarter, with a quantity of hops proportioned to the time the ale is reguii'cd to be kept. ^Iho first two may bo mixed at the heat of C0°, in tlie glyctun, and the Bccond should bo fermented separately for small beer. Tho best hops should bo used in tho proportion of about 4 lbs. for every quarter of malt employed, Bottling Pokter. — Biiowx Stout. Pale malt, 2 quarters ; amber and brown malt, of each 1^ do. ; mash at '3 times, with 12, 7, r.nd () barrels of w\ator ; boil with hops, 50 lbs ; set with ycixat, 2'J Iba. Product, 17 barrels, or 1^ times tho malt. Lemon Beer. — To make 20 gals, boil G oz. of ginger root bruised, ;J lb. cream of tartar, for 20 or 30 minutes, in 2 or 3 gals, water ; this will be strained in 13 lbs. coffee sugar, on wliich you havo put ^ oz. oil of lemon, and six good lemons squeezed up togetlier, having warm water enough to make the whole 20 gals, just so hot that you can hold your hand in it Avithout burning, or about 70 degrees of heiit ; put in 1^ jjints of hop or brewers' yeast, worked into paste with 5 or U oz. flour. Let it work over night, then strain and bottle for use. TA.BLE Beer. — Malt, 8 bushels ; hops, 7 lbs ; molasses, 25 lbs. ; brew for 10 barrels ; smaller quantity in proportion. Ilor Beer. — Hops, (3 ounces ; molasses, 5 quarts ; boil tho hops till the strength is out, strain them into a 30-gallon barrel ; add tho molasses and one teacupf ul of yeast, and fill up with water ; shake it well, and leave the bung out till fermented, which will be in about 24 hours. Bung up, and it will be fit for use in about three days. Molasses Beer. — Hops, loz. ; water, 1 gal. ; boil for ten minutes, Ftrain, add molasses, 1 lb, ; and when lulce-warm, yeast, 1 spoonful. Perment, Root Beer.— Water 10 gals, heat to 00° Fah. then add 3 gals, mo- lasses ; let it stand 2 hours, pour it into a bowl and add powdered or bruised sassafras and wintergreen bark of each ^ lb. ; yeast 1 pt. ; braised sarsaparilla root, ^ lb. ; add water enough to make 25 gals, iu all. Ferment for 12 houi-s, then bottle, Ottawa Beer and Ginger Ale. — Ottawa beer is made by using 8 ozs. of a fluid extract which contains the concentrated strength of 4 lbs. of 13 different roots and barks, added to 1 gal. syrup which is mixed with 14 gals, water, into which carbonic acid gas is forced at a pressure of 80 lbs. to the square inch. Ginger Ale is made in the same way except that 4 ozs. of extract is sufiicient. When the ginger is really- used, an extract deprived of resinous impurities is made use of, ■which gives a clear amber colored drink. Cheap Beer, — Water, 15 gals, boil half the water with ^ lb. hops ; then add to the other half iu tho tun, and mix well with 1 gal. molasses and a little yeast To RESTORE Sour Beer, — Good hops, I lb,, jiowdered chalk, 2 lbs. Put La the liole ot the cask, and bung close for a few days j for frosted GKOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEirXS. 223 beer, add some finings, a few handfuls of flonr, and some scalded hops ; for rcpy beer, use a handful or two of flour, the same of hops, with a little powdered alum to each barrel. Rummage well. To Improve the Fi^ayor of Beer. — Bruised ginger, 1 oz. ; bruised cloves, 4 oz. ; a few scalded liops and a doz. broken coarse biscuits to every two barrels. Rummage well. Lemonade. — White sugar, 1 lb., tartaric acid, ^ ounce, essence of lemon, 30 drops, water 3 qtg. Mix. Cream Soda. — Loaf sugar, ten lbs., water, 3 gals, ; warm gradu- ally so as not to bum ; good rich cream, 2 ciuarts ; extract vanilla, li^ ounces ; extract nutmeg, ounce ; tai-taric acid, 4 ounces. Just "bring to a boiling heat ; for if you cook it any length of time, it will crystallize ; use 4 or 5 .spoonfuls of this syrup instead of three, as i:i other syrups ; put ^ teaspoonful of soda to a glass, if used without a fountain. For charged fountains no acid is used. Freezing Preparation. — Common sal-ammoniac, well pulverized, 1 part ; saltpetre, 2 parts ; mix Avell together. Then t;ike conmiou soda, well jiulverii^ed. To use take equal quantities of these prepa- rations (which must be kept separate and well covered previous to using) and put them in the freezing pot ; add of Avater a proper quantity, and put in the article to be frozen in a proper vessel ; cover up, and your wants will soon bo supplied. For freezing cream or v.ines this cannot be beat. Sarsaparilla Mead. — 1 lb. of Spanish Sarsaparilla, boil 5 hours and strain off 2 gals : add sugar IG lbs. and tartaric acid 10 ozs., half a Avine glass of syrup to half pint tumbler of water, and half teaspoon- ful of soda is a fair proi^ortion for a drink. Portable Lemonade. — Tartaric acid, 1 ounce, white sugar, 2 lbs., essence of lemon, quarter ounce ; powder and keep dry for use. Quo dessert spoonful will make a glass of lemonade. Imperial Crea:m Nectar. — Part 1st, take 1 gallon water, loaf sugar, (5 lbs., tartaric acid, G ounces, gum arabic, 1 ounce. Part 2d, lloui', 4 teaspoonfuls, the whites of 6 eggs ; beat finely togetlier ; then add ^ pint water ; when tlie first part is blood wann, put in the second ; boil 3 minutes, and it is done. Directions : 3 tablespoonf uIh of syrup to two-thirds of a glass of water ; add one-third teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, made fine ; stir well, and drink at your leisure. Peppermint Cordial. — Good whisky, 10 gals., water 10 gals., Avhite sugar, 10 lbs., oil peppermint, 1 ounce, in 1 pint alcohol, llb.tlour well worked in the fluid, \ lb. burned sugar to color. Mix, and let it stand one week before using. Other oil iu place of peppermint, and you have any flavor desired. Silver-top Drink.— Water, 3 qtg., white sugar, 4 lbs. , ess. of lemon, 4 teaspoonfuls, white of 5 eggs, beat with 1 tablespoonful of flour ; Tjoil to a syrup ; then divide into equal parts, and to one add 3 ouncea tartaric acid, to the other 4 ounces of carbonate of soda ; put in a teaspoonful of each of the syrups, more or less (according to the size of the glass), to two-thirds of a glass of water ; drink quick. Sangaree. — Wine, ale, or porter, or tAVO-thirds Avater, hot or cold, fwCcording to the season of the year, loaf sugar to taste, with nutmeg. Soda Syrups. — Loaf or crushed sugar, 8 lbs., pure Avater, 1 gallon, gum arabic, 2 oz. ; mix in a brass or copper kettle. Boil until the gum is dissolvedj then skim and, strain through Avhite flannel, after 224 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. which add ta,rt'e.— In each gallon of water to be used, carefully dissolve f lb. crushed sugar, and one ounce of super-carbonate of soda ; then fill pint bottles with this water, have your corks ready ; now drop into each bottle ^ dram of pulverized citric acid, and immediately cork, and tie down. Handle the bottles carefully, and keep cool until needed. More sugar may be added if desired. Oyster Soup.— To each dozen or dish of oysters, put ^ pint of water ; milk, 1 gill ; butter ^ oz. ; powdered crackers to thicken ; l)rin^ the oysters and water to a boil, then add the other ingredients Ereviously mixed together, and boil from three to five minutes only easou with pepper and salt to taste. Mock Terrapin.—^ supper dish. Halt a calf's liver ; seasoned, fry brown. Hash it, not very fine, dust tliickly with flour, a teaspoon- ful mixed mustard, as much cayenne pepper as wiUlie on a half dime; 2 hard eggs, chopped fine, a lump of butter as large as an egg, a teacup of water. Let it boil a minute or two ; cold veal will do, if liver is not liked. Blackberry Wine.— "Wash the berries, and pour 1 qt. of boil- ing water to each gal. Let the mixture stand 24 hours, stirring occa- sionally ; then strain and measure into a keg, adding 2 lbs. sugar, and good rye whiskey 1 pint, or best alcohol, ^ pint to each gaL Cork tight, and put away for use. The best wi'^o that can be made i GKOCEES AND CONFECTIONERS' KECEirTS. 225 Mutton II^viieicot. — Take a loin of mutton, cut it into small chops, season it with gromid pepper, allspice, and salt, let it stand a night, and then fry it. Have good gravy well seasoned with flour, butter, catsup and pepper, if necessary. Boil turnips and carrots, cut thera small, and add to the mutton stewed in the gravy, wiUi the yolhs of hard boiled eggs, and forced meat balls. Imitation- Apple Butter.— Vinegar, 1 qt. ; cheap molasses 1 qt. ; mix together, set over the fire till it commences to cook ; take it off, add 10 tablespoonfuls of wheat flour, and cold water to make a bat- ter, then add 1 qt. scalding water, stir and cook for fifteen mumtes. Lemon Syrup. — Havana sugar, 1 lb., boil in water down to a quart, drop in the white of 1 egg;, and strain it. Add ^ oz. tartaric acid; let it stand 2 days; shako olten; 12 drops essence of lemon will much improve it. Superior Raisin "Wine.— Take SO lbs. of chopped raisms free from stems and dust; put them in a large keg, add to them 10 gals, soft water; let them stand two weeks unbunged, shakuag occasionally (warm place in winter), then strain, through woollen, or filter; color witli burnt sugar; bottle and cork well for use. The mo^^e raisins the better the wine, not exceeding 5 lbs. to each gallon. Kaisin Wine equal to Sherry. — Boil the proper quantity of water and let it stand till cold. To each gal. of this add 4 lbs. of chopped raisins, i^reviously well washed, and freed from stalks; let •Jie whole stand for 1 month, stirring frequently; then remove the j:aisins, and bung up closely for 1 month more ; then rack into another vessel, leaving all sodim.cnt behind, and repeat till it becomes fine: then to every 10 gals, add 6 lbs. of fine sugar, and 1 doz. of good oranges, tlie rinds being pared very thru, and infused in 2 qts. of brandy, which should bo added to the liquor at its last racking. Let the whole stand three months in the cask, then bottle. It should re- main bottled twelve months. To give it the flavor of IMadeira, when it is in the cask, put in a couple of green citrons, and let them remain till the wine is bottled. Port wine. — ^^Vorkcd cider, 42 gals.; good port wine, 12 gals • good brandy, 3 gals. ; pure spirits, 6 gals ; mix. Elderberries and aloes, and the fruit of the black haws, make a fime purple color for wines, or use burnt sugar, American Champagne. — Good cider (crab-apple cider is the best), 7 gals. ; best fourth-proof brandy, 1 qt. ; genuine champagne wine, 5 pts. ; milk, 1 gal. ; bitartrate of potassa, 2 oz. Mix, let stand a shoi-t time; bottle while fermenting. An excellent imitation. . British Chajmpagne. — Loaf sugar, 5G lbs.; brown sugar (pale), 43 lbs. ; water (warm), 45 gals. ; white tartar, 4 oz. ; mix, and at a proper temperature .add yeast, 1 qt. ; and afterwards sweet cider, 5 gals. ; bruised wild cherries, 14 or 15 oz. ; ^mle spirits 1 gal. ; orris-powder, i oz. Bottle while fermenting. British Madeira. — Pale malt, 1 bushel; bo fling water, 12 gals.; mash and strain ; then add white sugar, 4 lbs. ; yeast 1 lb. Fer- ment, next add raisin or Cape wine, 3 qts. ; brandy, 3 qts. ; sherry, 2 qts. ; port, 2 qts. ; bung dovni. The malt may be mashed again for bottle beer Currant and other Fruit Wines. — ^To every gallon of expressed juice, add 2 gals, soft water, G lbs. brovm sugar, crcaxu tartar, 1^ oz.; 15 22G CKOCEKS AND CONFECTIONLRS' KECIlirXS. and qt. brandy to cvciy G sa,ls. ; some prefer it without oraiidy. After fermcntutioii, talvO 4 oz. isinglass dissolved in 1 pt. of tlio Avinc, and Sut to each l)arrcl, which will fine and clear it: when it must bo rawn into clean casks, or bottled, Avhicli is preferable. BiiACKnisuiiY AND Stiiawbeiiky Winks are made by taking the above wine when made Avith port wine, and for every 10 gals, from 4 to G qts. of the fresh fruit, bruised and strained, are added, and let stand four days till the flavor is extracted; when bottling, add 3 or four broken raisins to each bottle. MoiiELLA Wine. — To each quart of the expressed juice of thcraor- clla, or tame cherries, add 3 qts. water and 4 lbs. of coarse brown su- gar; let them ferment, and skim till worked clear; tlien draw off, avoiding the sediment at tlio bottom. Bung up, or bottle, which is best for all wines, letting the bottles lio always on the side, either for wines or beers. London Sheet? y. — Chopped raisins, 400 lbs. ; soft water, 100 gals. ; gugar, 45 lbs. ; white tartar, lib.; cider, IG gals. Let them stand to- gether in a close vessel one month ; stir frequently Then add of spirits, 8 gals. ; wild cherries bruised, 8 lbs. Let them stand one month longer, and fine with isinglass. English Patent Wine tt.om Ehubakd.— To each gai. of juice, fidd 1 gal. soft water, in which 7 lbs. brown sugar have been dissolved; fill a keg or barrel with this proportion, leaving the bung out, and keep it filled with sweetened water as it works off, imtil clear. Any other vegetable extract may be used if this is not liked ; then bung down or "bottle as you please. The stalks will yield f their weight in juice; fine and settle with isinglass as above. This wine will not lead to intemperance, Vakious Wines. — To 28 gals, clarified cider add good brandy 1 gal. ; crude tartar (this is what is deposited by grape wines), milk to settle it, 1 pt. ; draw off SB hours after thoroughly mixing. Ginger Wine. — ^Put one oz. of good ginger-root bruised in l qt. 95 per. cent, alcohol; let it stand nine days, tind strain; add 4 qts. water, and 1 lb. white sugar dissolved in hot water, color with tincturo of ganders to suit. ANOTifER. — To 1 qt. 95 per cent, alcohol add 1 oz. best ginger-root (bruised but not ground), 5 grs. capsicum and 1 dr. tartaric-acid. Let it stand one week and filter; now add 1 gal. water in which 1 lb. of cruslied sugar has been boiled. Tslix when cold. To make the color, boil -| oz. cochineal, f oz. cream tartar, ^ oz. saleratus, and ^ oz. alum, in 1 pt. of water till you get a bright-red color. To restoke Flat Weste. — Add 4 or 5 gals, of sugar, honey, or bruised raisins to every 100 gals., and bung close; a little spirits may be added, to roughen; take bruised aloes, or powdered catechu, and add to the wine in suitable proportions, or add a small quantity of bruised berries of the mountain ash,, to allay inordinate flatness. "Lcfc it stand 2 hours and bottle, using yeast, of course, as before. White Wines are generally fined by isinglass in the proportion of 1 J oz. (dissolved in 1^ pts. of water, and thinned Avith some of the wine) to the hogshead. Bed Wines are generally fined with the whites of eggs, in the proportion of 12 to 18 to each pipe ; they must be Avell beaten, to a froth with about 1 pt. of water, and afterwards mixed Avith a little of the wine before adding them to the liquor, Rummage well GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 227 CnAJMPAGNE Cider. — Good pale cider, 1 hhd. ; spirits, 3 gals. ; sugar, 20 lbs.; mix, aud let it stand one fortnight; then fine with skimmed milk, ^ gal. ; this will be very pale, and a similar article, when pro- perly bottled and labelled, opens so brisk, that even good judges have mistalceii it for genuine champagne. Berlin Carra way Cordial. — Take 8 gals, spirit, 50 per cent. ; 1 oz. oil of carraway, Avhich you dissolve in spirit 95 per cent. ; 8 lbs. sugar; 8 lbs. water. Dissolve your sugar in the water ; mix, stir and filter. SxoMACH Bitters Equal to Hostbtters'. — European gentian root, 1^ oz. ; orange peel, 2^ oz. ; ciimamon, ^- oz. ; anise seed, ^ oz. ; coriander seed, ^ oz. ; cardamon seed, ^ oz. ; unground Peruvian bark, ^ oz. ; gum kino, ^ oz. ; bruise all these articles, and put them into the best alcohol, 1 pt. ; let it stand a week, and pour off tho clear tincture; then boil the dregs a few minutes in Iqt. of water, ntrain, and press out all the strength ; now dissolve loaf sugar, 1 lb. in the hot liquid, adding 3 qts. cold water, and mix with tho spirit tincture first poured off, or you can add these, and let it stand on tho dregs if preferred, Boker's Bitters. — ^Rasped quassia, IJoz. ; calamus, 1^ oz. ; pow- dered catechu, 1^ oz. ; cardamon, 1 oz. ; dried orange peel, 2 oz. ; macerate the above ten days in gal. strong whiskey, and then fil- ter, and add 2 gals, water ; color with mallow or malva flowers. CuRACOA Cordial, 40 Gals, — Essence of bitter oranges, 2 oz, ; ess. of neroli, 2 oz, ; ess, of cinnamon, :| oz. ; 3 drs. mace, infused in alco- hol. Dissolve the above essence in 1 gal. alcohol, 95 per cent. ; then put in a clean barrel 13 gals, alcohol, 85 per cent. ; 2G gals, sugar syrup, 30 degrees Baume ; and add 1 gal. perfumed spirit as above. Color with saff rou or turmeric. Curacoa d'Hollande, 20 Gals. — Curacoa orange-peel, 2 lbs ; | lb. Ceylon cinnamon. Let them soak in water ; boil them for fivo minutes with the ^uice of 32 oranges aud 14 gals, of plain whito syrup ; then add 6" gals, alcohol, 95 per cent* ; strain, filter ; color dark yellow with sugar coloring. Anisette Cordial, 40 Gals.— Put in a barrel 13 gals, alcohol, 75 per cent. Dissolve 3^ oz. essence of green anise-seed in 1 gal. 95 per cent, alcohol, and add ^ gal. orange-llower Avater ; 8 or ten drops infusion of mace, and 5 drops essence of cinnamon. Then put in tho barrel 2G gals, sugar syrup, 25 degrees Baume ; stir fifteen minutes, and let it rest four or 'five days ; then filter. Add 2 or 3 sheets of filtering paper. Ratafia. — ^Ratafia may be made with the juice of any fruit. Take 3 gals, cherry juice, and 4 lbs. sugar, which you dissolve in the juice ; steep in 2^ gals, braudy ten days ; 2 drs. cinnamon, 24 cloves ; IS oz. peach-leaves ; 8 oz. bruised cherry kernels. Filter, mix both liquids, and filter again. Arrack Pqnch Syrup.— 53J lbs. sugar ; 3-J gals, water. Boil up ■well ; then add If gals. Jemon-juice to the boiling sugar, and stir till the liquid is clear ; pour it in a clean tub, aud when nearly cool, add 5 gals. Batavia arrack, then filter. Syrups for Soda Eountains, &c. — 1. Simple syrup. White sugar, 10 lbs ; water, 1 gal ; best isinglass, ^ oz. Dissolve the isiug;lass in hot water, and add it to the hot syrup. The syrup is to be made Avitli gentle heat and tlicn strained. 2. Lemon — a — (^ratc off the yellow rind 228 GROCEllS AXD CONFECTIONEKS' KECEIPTS. of lemons and bctit it up -witli a snlTlcicnt quantity of Rraniilatcd sugar. Express tlio lemon jiiico, add to each j)t. of juico 1 ])t. of wiitcr, and 3 lbs. of Krauulatcd sugar, including that rubbed with tho rind ; warm imtil the sugar is dissolved and strain, 3. Lemon — h — Simple syrup 1 gal., oil of lemon. 25 drops, citric acid 10 drams. Kiib tho oil of lemon with tho acid, add a small portion of syrup, and mix. 4. Slraioheriij — a — Strawberry juice Ipt., simi)lo syrup 3 pints, solution of citric acid 2 drams. 6. Strawberry — h — Frcsli strawber- ries 5qts. white sugar 121bs., water, Ipt. Sprinkle some of tlie sugar over the fruit in layers, and allow tlie whole to stand for several hours ; express the juico and strain, washmg out the i)u]p witli water ; add the remainder of the sugar and water, bring the fluid to the point of boiling, and then strain. This will keep for a long time. 6. Rasp- berry. Raspberry juice 1 pt., simple syrup 3 pts., citric acid 2 drams. Raspberry syrup may also be made in a way similar to No. 5 for strawberry. 7. Vanilla. — Fluid extract of vanilla loz., citricacid,|oz., simple syrup 1 gal. Rub the acid with some of the syrup, add tho extract of vanilla, and mix. 8. Vanilla Cream. — Fluid extract of vanilla loz., simple syrup 3 pts., cream or condensed milk Ipt ; may be colored with carmine. 9 Cream. — Fresh cream 1 pt., fresh milk 1 pt., powdered sugar 1 lb. ; mix by shaking, and keep in a cool place. The addition of a few grains of bicarbonate of soda will for somo time retard souring. 10. Ginger. — ^Tincture of ginger 2 fluid ozs. simple syrup 4 pts, 11. Orange. — Oil of orange 30 drops, tartaric acid 4 drams, simple syrup 1 gal. Rub the oil with the acid, and mix. 12. Pineapple. — Oil of pineapple 1 dram, tartaric acid 1 dram, simple syrup 6 pts. 13. Orgeat. — Cream syrup 1 pt., vanilla syrup 1 pt. , oil of bitter almonds 4 drops. 14. Nectar. — ^Vanilla syrup 5 pts., pineapple syrup 1 pt., strawberry, raspberry or lemon 2 pts. 15. Sherbet. — Vanilla syrup 3 pts., pineapple 1 pt., lemou syrup 1 pt, IG.- Grape. — Brandy | of a pt,, spirits of lemon ^ oz., tincture of red sanders 2 ozs., simple syrup 1 gal. 17. Banana. — Oil of banana 2 drams, tartaric acid 1 dram, simple syrup G pts, 18. Cq^ee.rr-Coffee roasted | lbs., boiling water 1 gal. Enough is filtered to inake about ■^gal. of the infusion, to which add granulated sugar 7 lbs. 19. Wild Clierry. — Wild cherry- bark coarse powder, 5 ozs. Moisten the bark with water, and let it stand for 24 hours in a close vessel. Then j)ack it firmly in a per- colator, and i)our water upon it until 1 pt. of fluid is obtained. To this add 28 ozs. of sugar. 20. Winiergrcen. — Oil of wintergreen 25 drops, simple syrup 6 i)ts., and a sufficient quantity of burnt sugar to color, 21, Sarsaparilla — a — Oil wintergreen 10 drops, oil of anise 10 drops, oil of sassafras 10 drops, fluid extract of sarsaparilla 2 ozs. simple syrup 5 pts. , powdered extract of licorice 1 oz, 22. Sarsaparilla — 6— Simple syrup 4 pts., compound syrup of sarsaparilla 4 fluid ozs., caramel l^ ozs., oil of wintergreen 6 drops, oil of sassafras G drops. 23, Maple. — Maple sugar 4 lbs., water 2 pts. 24. Chocolate. — Best chocolate 8 ozs., water 2 pts., white sugar 4 lbs. Mix the chocolate in water, and stir thoroughly over a slow fire. Strain, and add tho sugar. 25. Coffee Cream. — Coffee syrup 2 pts., cream 1 pt. 2G. Am- brosia. — ^Raspberry syrup 2 pts., vanilla 2 pts., hock wine 4 ozs. 27. Mock and Claret. — ^Ilock or claret wine 1 pt,, simple syrup 2i)ts, 28. Solferino. — Brandy 1 pt,, simple syrup 2 pts. 29, jFruit Acid.— {JJaei in some of the syrups). Citric acid 4 ozs., water, 8 oz3. Most of the GIIOCEKS AND CONFECTIONEllS" RECEinS. 229 eyrupg not made from fruits may have a little gum arable added in order to produce a rich froth. Butyric Ether is much used to impart a pine apple flavor to rum. Dissolved in 8 or 10 parts of alcohol, it forms the piue apple essence. From 20 to 25 drops of this essence, added to 1 lb. sugar, containing a httle eitrie acid, imparts to the mixture a strong taste of pine apple. Ajuylo-Acetic Ether i,^ a preparation of fruit-oil and other ingre- dients, and when diluted with alcohol, it is soli siS essence of Jaj^f/onella pear, and is used for flavoring different liquors. Fifteen parts amylo- acetic ether, with half a part of acetic ether, dissolved in 100 parts of alcohol, form Avhat may be called the Bergamot-pear essence, Avhich, when employed to flavor sugar, acidulated with a little citric acid, im- parts the odor of the Bergamot pear, and a fruity, refreshing taste. rELARGONATB OR Ethylio Etuer (pclargoulc ether), has the agreeable odor of the quince, and, when dissolved in alcohol in duo proportion, forms the quince essence. Acetate of Ajmylic Ether (same as amylo ether), mixed with hutyric ether, forms in alcoholic solution the banana essence. ., Valeriai^ate of Amyeic Ether. — An alcoliollc solution of this ether in the proportion of 1 part to G or 8 of alcohol, forms a flavoring liquid under the name of apple essence. Mu-K PcNcn. — One tablespoouful of fine white sugar, 2 ditto of water, 1 wine glass of Cognac brandy, ^ ditto Santa Cruz rum, ^ tum- blerful of shaved ice; fill Avith milk. Shalco the ingredients well to- gether, and grate a little nutmeg ou top. To make it hot, use hot milk and no ice. Glasgow Punch. — Melt lump-sugar in cold water, with the juico of a couple of lemons, passed through a fine wire strainer; this is sher- bet, and most be well mingled. Then add old Jamaica rum, ouo paii; of rum to five of sherbet. Cut a couple of lemons in two, and run each section rapidly around the edge of the jug or bowl, gently squeezing in some of the delicate acid, when all is ready. Mint Julep. — One tablespoouful of white pulverized sugar, 2^ ditto water; mix well with a spoon. Take 3 or 4 sprigs of fresh mint,"pres3 them well in the sugar and water, add 1^ wine glasses of Cognac brandy, and fill the glass with shaved ice, then draw out the sprigs of mint, and insert them in the ice with the stems downwards, so tliat the leaves will be above in the shape of a bouquet; arrange berries and small pieces of sliced orange on top in a tasty manner, dash Avitb. Jamaica rum, and sprinkle sugar on top. Sij) with a glass tuljo or straw. Cider Nectar. — One qt. cider, 1 bottle soda water, 1 glass sherry, 1 small glass brandy, juice of half a lemon, i^eelof ^of a lemon, sugar and nutmeg to taste. Flavor it Avith extract of piue ai^ple, strain, and ice it all well. IIalf and Half, — ^InXondoii, this drink is made by mixing half porter and half ale; in America, it is made by mixing half new and half old ale. Apple Toddy. — One tablespoouful of fine white sugar, 1 wine- glass of cider brandy, ^ of a baked apple. Fill tlie glass two-thkda full of boiling Avater, and grate a little nutmeg on top. Appub Punch. — Lay in a china bowl slices of apples and lemons 230 GliOCEKS AND CONFECTIONEUS' liECEirTS. nlternatcly, each layer being thicldy ptrcwcd with po-wdcred sugar. I'our over tlio fruit, when tlie bowl is half filled, a bottle of claret; cover, and let it atand iov 0 hours. Theu pour it through a niuslm bag, and it is all ready. Old Man's Milk. — One ■v^•ino-g^ass of port wine, 1 tcaspoonful of Giigar. lull the tumbler one third lull of hot niilli. rjcKFECT LovJE. — One tablespoonful sugar, 1 piece each of orango and lemon i^eel. Fill the tumbler one-third full of shaved ice, and fill balance with wine; ornament iu a tasty manner with berries in Bcason ; sip through a straAV. Molasses Candy. — West-Indian molasses, 1 gallon ; brown sugar, 2 lbs. ; boU the molasses and sugar in a preserving Icettlo over a glow fire ; when done enough it will cease boiling ; stir frequently, and when nearly done, stir in the juice of four lemons or two tea- spoonfuls of essence of lemon • afterwards butter a pan, and pour out. CoNFECTiONEEs' COLORS. — Led, cochincal, 1 oz. ; boil 5 minutes in half pint water ; then add cream tartar, 1 oz. ; pounded alum, ^ ; oz. ; boil 10 minutes longer, add sugar, 2 oz. ; and bottle for use. JJliie, put a little warm water on a plate, and rub in indigo till the required color is got. Yellow, rub with some water a little yellow- gamboge on a plate, or infuse the heart of a yellow-lily flower with niilk-warm water. Green, boil the leaves of spinach about 1 miuuto in a little water, and. when strained, bottle for use. To Candy Sugar. — Dissolve 2 parts of double refined sugar in 1 of water. Great care must be taken that the syrup does iiot boil over, and that the sugar is not burnt. The first degree is called the thread, which is subdivided into the little and great thread ; if you dip your finger in the syrup, and apply it to the thumb, the tenacity of the syrup will, on separating the finger and thumb, afford a thread which shortly breaks, this is the little tliread ; if the thread admits of a greater extension of finger and thumb, it is called the great thread; by longer boiling you obtain the pearl, which admits of being dra^vn without breaking by the utmost extension of finger and thumb ; this makes candied sugar: by further boiling you obtain the blow, wliich is known by dippmg a skimmer with holes in the syrup, and blowing through them ; if bubbles are perceived, you have got the blow. The feather implies more numerous bubbles, and then the sugar will fly off like flakes while the skimmer is being tossed. By boil- ing longer, you obtain the crack ; it will crack when broken, and does not stick to the teeth ; dip a teaspoon into the sugar, and let it drop to the bottom of a pan of cold water. If the sugar remains hard, it has attained the degree termed craclc. Fig Candy, — Take 1 lb. of sugar and 1 ]iint of water ; set over a slow fire. When done add a few drops of vinegar and a lump of bat- ter, and pour into pans in which split figs are laid. llAisiN Candy can be made in the same manner, substituting Btoued raisins for the figs. Common molasses candy is very nico with all kinds of nuts added. Scotch Butter Candy. — Take lib. of sugar and 1 pint of water; dissolve and boil. When done, add one tablespoonful of butter, and enough lemon juice and oil of lemon to flavor. ComioN Lemon Candy.— Take 3 lbs. coarse brown sugar : add to GROCERS A^sD CONFECTIONERS' KECEirXS. 231 it three teacupfiils of ^vater, and set over a sIotv fire for half an hour; put to it a little gum arabic dissolved in hot -water; this is to clear it. Continue to take off the scum as long as any rises. When perfectly clear, try it by dipping a pipe-stem first into it and then into cold water, or by takuig a spoonful of it into a saucer ; if done, it Avill snap like glass. Flavor with essence of lemon and cut it into sticks. Pjippekminx, Kose, ok Horehou:n-d Candy. — They may be mado ns lemon candy. Flavor with essence of rose or peppermint or finely powdered horehound. Pour it out iu a buttered paper, placed in a jjquare tin pan. Popped Cokk, dipped in boiling molasses, and stuck together, forms an excellent candy. Rock Caiojy. — To make fine rock candy, clarify doxiblo refined white sugar, filter it, and boil it till it is ready to crystallize, or hoiled to a blister. The boiling sugar must measure 35° on the syrup Aveight, a degree more or less prevents its crystallization. Then tako a brass kettle, of about 16 or 18 inches diameter and from 6 to 8 inches deep, smooth and polished on the inside. Make 8 or 10 small holes at equal distances from each other in a circle around the sides of tho kettle, about 2 inches from the bottom; i>ass threads through theso from one side to the other, and stop the holes on the outside with pasto or paper to prevent the syrup from running out. Having thus pre- pared the kettle, pour in the syrup, till it rises about an inch above the threads; then place it in a stove moderately heated, and leave it, to crystallize, agitating it from time to time. The crj'stallization will take place in six or seven days. As soon as the crystals are formed, pour off the remaining syrup, and throw in a little water to wash tho crystals that are left at the bottom of tho vessel. So soon as the mass is thorouglily draiend set it in a very hot stove, leave it for two days, when it is fit for use. Straw-colored rock candy is made by sub- stituting brown for loaf sugar. The syrup must be boiled over a very hot fire in order to render the candy perfectly white. The sides of tho kettle should be sponged repeatedly durmg tho boiling process, to prevent the sugar from adhering and burning. Orange Rock Candy is made by flavoring the syrup with a couiDle of teaspoonfuls of orange flower water, and coloring with saffron, just as the syrup is about to be taken from the fire. Hose EocJc Candy is flavored with rose water, and colored with clarified carmine lake. Vanilla Rock Candy is perfumed with vanilla, and colored AAdth liquid violet. The degree of coloring may be tested by dropping a little oi: the colored syrup on a sheet of white paper. Ginger Candy. — Dissolve 1 lb. double-refined sugar in A pint of r.pring water; set it over a clear fire, and let it boil to a thin syrup, llave ready a teaspoonful of powdered ginger, mix it smoothly with 2 or 3 spoonfuls of the syrup, then stir it gradually into the whole. Boil the mixture into a ./?aA;e, watching it carefully, that it may noh exceed this pomt; then add the freshly grated rind of a large lemon, and stir the sugar constantly and rapidly until it fall in a mass fro!:i. tho spoon, without sinking when dropped upon a plate. If boiled for a moment beyond the point, it will fall into a powder. Should this happen by mistake, add a little water, and boil to the proper con- sistency. Dip the candy from the kettle, and drop it in small cakes upon buttered pans, then set it away to cool. 232 GliOCiaiS and CONFECTIONEIIS' EECEirTS. •CnEAJt Caj^py. — ^To 3 lbs. of loaf sugar add ^ pt. water, and set if. over a hIow firo for half an hour; then add a te:is})ooulul of gum avabic dissolved, and .1 tablespoonful of vinegar. Boil ittiil it is brit- tle, then talvO it off, and flavor witli vanilla, rose, or orange, liub tlio liands "With sweet butter, and pull the candy till itis wliite; then twist or brealc it, or stretch it out into tliiii -wliito strips, and cut it olr. Red Vkkdun Sugaiied Ai^moxds, — Dry thealmondsin a stove by a slow fire. When dry enongli to snap between the tcctli, i^ut thenv into a swinging basin and gum them by throwing over them a httlo gum arabic solution, cold; swmg them constantly till dry; then give them another coating of gum arable mixed with 4 oz. sugar, and fivring them again till dry, using no fire. When they are thoroughly dry, set them over a moderate fire. Dissolve some sugar in orango •or rose water, not too thin, set it over the fire 2 or 3 minutes, strain it through a sieve, and pour it over the almonds in the basin. Swing them till they are thoroughly coated and dried; then add another coatmg, composed of 2 parts of carmine, one part of gum, and one part of sugar, and proceed as before. If tlio almonds are not perfectly covered, give them a coating hi which there is considerable gum; and 'when thoroughly moistened, throw on them some sifted sugar, stir till the mixture is all absorbed, then add successive coatings of sugar till they are large enough, and put them into the stove to remain till the next day, when in order to xohiten them, you will proceed to boil G or 7 lbs. of fine clarified sugar to a blister, add 1 lb. of starch after taking it from the fire, stiring it constantly till a paste is formed a little thicker than that used for pastilles; a few drops of blue lako may be added to produce a pearl white. Put the almonds, warm, in- to the swinging basin, add enough of the prepared sugar to coat them, swing the basin till they are nearly dry, then set on the fire to finish the drying, then take the basin off the fire, heap them up in the mid- dle, so as to allow the bottom of the ressel to cool; then add the coat- ing of sugar, swing and dry them as before, and continue the process until 4 successive coatings of equal thickness hare been given; then lieat them weU in the basin, put them mto pans, and set them in tho ;&tove to remain over night. You will then proceed to polish them by giving them a coat of the prepared sugar and starch, and shake them violently until they are quite dry; give them another coating and pro- ceed as before, and continue the process until they have received 4 successive coatings, when they will generally be found sufficiently I)olished. "When the iDohshing is finished, put the almonds over a firo and stir gently till all are thoroughly heated, then place in a stove till the next day in a wicker basket lined with paper. Spanish Sugahed Almokds. — Make verdun sugared almonds about the size of pigeon's eggs, whiten and polish them by the pre- vious directions, and paint different designs on them when completed. SuPEEFiNE VajS-illa Sugared Almoxds. — Procccd in tho same manner as in the manufacture of verdun sugared almonds, make the solution of sugar in pure water ; crush the essence of vanilla, with a little sugar, and put in the solution. Coaoioisr Sugared Almo^tds. — Common almonds, 20 lbs., sugar 8 lbs., farina, 20 lbs., starch, 2 lbs. Heat the almonds in the swinging basin, wlieii they boil, make them into a pulp with diluted starch ; give first a warm then a cold coating, cover them with farina, shaking GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 233 the basin violently ; then, when the almonds have been coated to the lequisite size, spread them out on sieves ; after a fortnight put them in a stove to finish drying : whiten them, and finish by the process described for the fine sugared almonds. Superfine Chocolate Sugaked Almoxds. — Caraccasa cacao nuts, shelled and roasted, 20 lbs., Martinique sugar, 16 lbs., vanilla 4 drs., starch 10 oz. The same method is required as for the superfine vaniUa sugar plums, but care must bo taken in addhig the coatings of gum, to touch the cacao nuts lightly, as they are very easily broken. SuPEKFmE SuGaiEED FiLBEBTs. — Filberts', 50 lbs., sugar, 4 lbs., starch, 4 oz. Employ the same process as for sugared almonds and flavor to taste. Kose water is generally preferred on account of its color and fragrance, CoKiANDER Sugar Pi.ums.— Coriander, 2 lbs., farina, SO lbs., sugar, 14 lbs. The washings of the basin are added to the coriander and farina without makuig a paste, and the method is followed that has been prescribed for tiie common sugared abnonds ; 8 lbs, of sugar are used to whiten them, and G to polish them ; color after being- polished with carmine, Prussian blue, and saffron. Coriander ln" BoTiiiES. — Coriander, 10 lbs., farina, 10 lbs., sugar for the whitening, 3 lbs., starch, 1 lb. These are simply colored, nnd do not require brilliancy. They are made of the size of small peas, and are put into little bottles. In making these follow the receipt for common sugared almonds. Anise-seed Sugar Plums. — Dry 2 lbs. of green anise-seed in the Ftove ; rub it in the hands to break off the stems, winnow to rid of dust, then put it in a swinging basin, and coat it with sugar boiled to a thread, so as to render the candies hard and brittle. AVhen coated sufficiently, whiten and iwlish them, like the verdun sugared almonds. They vary in size, being generally as large as a pea. Mint Sugar Plums, — Dry some peppermint seed in a stove and coat it in the same manner as anise seed (it must not, however, be whiter than rape seed), whiten and finish like anise seed. The first coating is sometimes composed of equal parts of peppermmt and Biigar. Common Twist Candy. — Clarify 3 lbs. of common brown sugar,' and boil it till it is brittle, take it from the fire, pour it in buttered pans ; rub the hands with a little butter, and as soon as it is cooled, pull it as you would molasses candy until it is perfectly white ; then twist and braid it, and cut it into sticks. Caramel is made by boiling clarified sugar till it is very brittle, then pouring it on an oiled slab or sheet of tm, and, as soon as it is cool enough to receive an impression with the finger, stamping it in small squares, about an inch in size, with a caramel mould ; then tumuig over the mass, wiping the bottom to remove any oil tliat may have adhered from the slab, and putting it in a dry place to harden. If you have no-caramel mould, you may score it on the slab with a common case knife, after which tliey are glazed with an- other coating with sugar. Keep them tightly closed from the air af- ter they are made. Lemon Cajbamel is made by grating the yeUow rind of a lemon with a lump of sugar ; add to this a fewdrcjis of lemon juice witli water enough to dissolve the sugar completely and stir the whole in- 234 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS RECEIPTS. to tlio boiled Ryrup a few minutes before it is t'lken from tlio firo. Orange and Lime caramels are i)repared in the same manner from Ihcso" respective fruits. Coffee caramel, coffee, 2 ox., 8u^3;ar 1 lb. Make an infusion of the colfee, lising as little water as possible ; strain it tlirougb a cloth, and stir it gradually into the boiled syrup a few minutes before taking it from the fire. Chocolate caramel, choco- late, 4 oz., sugar 1 lb. Dissolve the chocolate in as little water as poa- siblc, and add it to the boiled sugar, as in tlio coffee caramels. Van/ ilia and Orange cream caramels are made by using the respective cs- Bcnces of these fruits. Cocoa Nut Canoy.— Pare and cut cocoa-nut into slips, or grato on a coarse grater the white meat of cocoa-nuts until you have -j^ a pound ; dissolve \ lb. of loaf sugar in 2 tablespoonfuls of water ; put it over the fire, and, as soon as it boils, stir in the cocoa-nut. Con- tinue to stir it imtil it is boiled to a flake, then pour it on a buttered pan or marble slab, and cut in whatever forms you wish, when it is nearly cold. Lemon or other flavors may be added. Candy Drops ok, Pastili.es.— Pound and sift double-refined su- ; gar, first through a coarse, and then through a fine sieve. Put tho sugar into an earthen vessel, and dilute it with, tho flavoring extract, mixed witli a little water. If too liquid, the syrup will be too thin, and the drops will run together ; while, if too thick, the syrup will be too compact, and cannot be poured out easily. When tho sugar is mixed in a rather stiff paste, put it in a small saucepan with a spout and set it over the fire. As soon as it begins to bubble up tho sides cf the saucepan, stir it once in the middle, take it from the fire, and drop it in small lumps, of the size and shape required, upon sheets of tin, to stand for 2 hours, tben put tliem in the stove to finish drying. As soon as they are perfectly hard and brilliant, take them from tho fire, otherwise they will lose their aroma. Color the syrup just be- fore taking it from the fire. OiiANGJE, jASMi]si!;, AXD Cloyis Deops are made by mixing tho above paste with these respective extracts : For Salai) Dkops, — Water distilled from lettuce is used. Saffron Drops.— Make an infusion of saffron, strain it, let it cool, use it to mix the paste, and proceed as before. Heliotrope Drops. — ^Proceed in the same manner, flavoring that paste with a few drops of oil of neroli, or oil of orange, jasmine and tube-rose, and color violet. Pink Drops,— Flavor the taste with tincture of red pinks, and color with carmine lake. Cinnamon Drops, — Mix 5 drs, powdered cinnamon and 8 oz, of sugar with mucilage enough to make it into a paste, and proceed as above. Chewing Gtrai, — ^Take of prepared balsam of trdu, 2 oz. ; white gugar loz., oatmeal 3 oz., soften the gum in water bath and mix in the ingredients ; then roll in finely powdered sugar or flour to form sticks to suit. MARsmiALLOW and Licorice drops are made the same way. Rose Drops, — Mix the paste -with rose water, and color with carmine lake. Proceed as above. Lemon and Orange Drops.- Easpoff the yellow rind of anorango or lemon; mix tho raspings with double-refijied sugar; addSgrs. of GKOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 235 tartaric acid to every pound of sugar, color witli yeilow lake or saffron,' and proceed as before. If too much tartaric acid is nscd, tlie candies will adhere to the sheets of tin. VioiiET Drops. — Flavor the paste ■with tincture of Florence iris, nnd color with blue and carmine lakes. A few drops of tartaric acid may be added to £ust;xin the blue. Coffee Drops. — Substitute a strong, filtered infusion of cofCeo for water, in mixhig the ]>aste. Chocolate Drops. — For every pound of sugar, take 5 pts. good chocolate, pulverize it, and mix it into a paste, as already directed, taking care not to boil the paste too long, lest it granulate, and become unfit for use. Vanilla Drops. — Mix the paste with extract of van.xxa, or finely- ground vanilla bean ; to which add 2 oz. 3 grs. of tartaric acid, dis- solved in water, to sustain the blue, without which it would disappear. ijnTATiOK CuRRAKT Drops. — Mix the paste with water, adding a little essence of raspberry and of violet, or Florence iris, with a little tartaric acid dissolved in water; color with carmine, and proceed as above. Peppermint Drops— Dissolve finely-powdered sugar with a iittlo strong peppermint- water in a saucepa n with a spout. As soon as it is thoroughly dissolved, add an equal quantity of coarse-grained sugar with a few drops more of the peppermint, stir the whole for a few moments, then drop the mixture on paper, and dry it in the open air. In the same way are made lemon, rose, vanilla, and other drops. Citric and tartaric acid may be used to increase the acidity of lemou drops. ExTEivEPORAKEOug PASTILLES.— Make the paste as usual, without flavoring the water, drop the pastilles uponpaj^er, leave them for two liours, then take them off and put them into the stove to dry. "When wanted for use, put the quantity required into a large-mouthed jar, and flavor as desired. For instance, to make 2 lbs. of peppermint drops, take 5 pts. of sulphuric ether in which are diluted a few drops of essence of peppermint, and pour it over the candies, then cover the jar, and shake it until they are thoroughly moistened ; then place them on a sieve, and set them in the stove for 5 minutes, evaporate the ether. In this manner rose, orange, lemon, jonquil, tube-rose, mignonette, clove, cmnamon, or any other drops may be made, dis- solving their essential oils in sulphuric ether. Ginger Candy Tablets.— Take 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few drops of acetic acid or the juice of half a lemon, a dessert-spoonful of essence of Jamaica ginger. Boil the sugar with just water enough to dissolve it to the ball degree, then add the acid and the essence, and rub the sugar with the back part of the bowl of a silver spoon up against the sides of the sugar-boiler to whiten or grain it suffi- ciently to give to the whole an opalized appearance; then pour it into very small-sized moulds, measuring half an inch or an inch oblong square, or else into a tin pan, the bottom part of which is marked out in small tablets, so that the candy may be easily broken into squares when dry. Smear the moulds slightly with oil of al- monds. When the sugar is poured into the moulds, place in the screen for half an hour or more, to dry them hard. Ouange Flowee Candy Tablets.— Ingredients : 1 lb. loaf sugai^ 23G GROCERS AND CONFFXTIONERS' RKCEIPTS. n tabloppoonfnl of oranKO-flowcr water, and .1 few dvoin of acetic ncid. I'rocccd as directed in the prccediii.i^. No color. Vanilla Candy Taislkts. — Iiigrediciits ; 3 11). loaf snp^ar, a few drops of essence of vanilla, sugar, and a few drops of acetic acid. l*j-occed as for oniaments ingrained sugar. PEi'PKRsirNT Candy Tap, lets.— Ingredients : 1 lb. of loaf sugar, fi few drops of essence of peppermint, and a few drops of acetic acid. Proceed as above. No color. Liquor Candy Tablets. — Ingredients : 1 lb. of loaf sugar, and a gill of any kind of liquor. Boil the sugar to the crack, then in- corporate the liquor, and finish as in the preceding. No color. Cinnamon Candy Drops. — Use 1 lb. loaf sugar, and a few drops essence of cinnamon. Proceed as in the last. This may be colored rose pink, the color is to be added while the sugar is boiling. Clove Candy Tablets are prepared in the same Avay as the fore- going, essence of cloves being used instead of cimiamon. Rose Candy Tablets. — Use 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few drops of cs- Ecnce of roses, a few drops of acetic acid, and a few drops of prepared 'cochineal. Proceed as in the preceding. Fruit Candy Tablets.— Use 1 lb. of loaf sugar, ^ pint of the juice of any kind of fruit, either currants, cherries, strawberries, rasp- berries &c., extracted by pressing with a spoon through a clean hair sieve. Boil the sugar to the crack, then incorporate the fruit juice by rubbing it with the sugar, as directed in the preceding, and finish the candies as therein indicated. To FREE Molasses from its Sharp Taste, antd to render it fit to be used instead of Sugar. — Take 24 lbs. molasses, 24 lbs. water, and G lbs. of charcoal, coarsely pulverized ; niLx them in a kettle, and boil the whole over a slow wood fire. When the mixture has boiled half an hour, pour it into a flat vessel, in order that the char- coal may subside to the bottom ; then pour off the liquid, and place it over the fire once more, that the superfluous water may evaporate and the molasses be brought to its former consistence. 24 lbs. of molasses will produce 24 lbs. of syrup. Pepperjiint Lozenges. — Ingredients : 1 oz. of picked gum traga- canth soaked with 5 oz. of tepid water in a gallipot (this takes some G hours), and afterwards squeezed and wrung through a cloth, about 1^ lbs. of fine icing sugar, and a teaspoonful of essence of peppermint. Work the prepared gum with the flattened fist on a very clean slab until it becomes perfectly white and elastic, then gradually work in the sugar, adding the peppermint when the paste has become a com- pact, smooth, elastic substance ; a few drops of thick, wet, cobalt blue should also be added while working the paste, to give a brilliant v/hiteness. The paste thus prepared is to be rolled out with fine su- gar dredged over the slab to the thickness of two penny pieces, then if you possess a ribbed rolling-pin, use to roll the paste again in cross directions, so as to imprint on its whole surface a small lozenge or diamond pattern. You now use yourtin cutter to stamp out the loz- enges ; as you do so place them on sugar powdered baking sheets to dry in the screen. Gestger Lozenges. — Proceed as in the last; use a tablespoonful of essence of ginger, or 1 oz. of ground ginger to flavor, and a few dro');} of thick wet gamboge to color the paste. JloreJioiind Lozenges. In- GROCEKS AND CONFECTIONErtS' KECEirTS. 237 {^redieiits : 1 oz. of gum dragon soaked in a gill of very strong extract of horeliound, lbs of fine icing sugar. Proceed as for the pepper- mint lozenges. Cinnamon Lozenc/es are prepared in the siimo manner as ginger or peppermint, with this difference only; a dessert- spoonful of essence of cinnamon is to be used in the flavoring of them, a few drops of thick, groimd, wet-burnt umber should be used with a pinch of carmine to give the paste the tinge of cinnamon color Clove Lozenges. The same as peppermint lozenges, using essence of cloves for flavoring, and burnt umber to color the paste. Orange Lozenges. Ingredients: 1 oz. prepared gum, 1| lbs. sugar, 2 oz. of orange-sugar, the gum to be soaked in 2 oz. of orange flower water. Proceed as for peppermint lozenges. Jjemon JjOzenges. Ingredients : 1 oz. prepared gum, 1^ lbs. of icing sugar, 2 oz. of lemon sugar, and a fCAV drops of acetic acid. CoW s foot Lozenges. Ingredients : 1 oz. of gum dragon soaked in 2 oz. of orange flower water, 1^ lb. of fine icing sugar, and ^oz. of essence of colt's foot. Proceed as for peppermint lozenges. Cayenne and Catechu Ljozengce. Ingredients: 1 oz. of gum dragon soaked in 2 oz. of water, 2 lbs. fine icing sugar, ^ oz. essence of cayenne, and -J oz. of prepared catechu. Proceed as for x^eppermint lozenges. Gum Pastilles, or Jcjtjbes. — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. of picked gum arable, 14: oz. of the finest sugar pounded and sifted, \ gill of double orange flower water, and 1 tepid water to soak the gum in, Avhich is afterwards to be strained off clean. Put the soaked and strained gum into a sugar boiler with the sugar, and use a clean spoon to stir it over a very moderate fire, while it boils and reduces to the small pearl degree; then add the orange flower water, stir all together ou the fire, remove the i)rei)aration from the stove, skim off the froth, and use the mixture to cast the jujubes in levelled layers of starch powder contained in a flat box. Spanish Licorice Jujures.— Ingredients : 1 lb. picked gum arabic, 14 oz. of sugar, and 2 oz. of Spanish licorice dissolved in a gill of hot water, and afterwards strained clean. First prepare the gum and boil it with sugar as directed in the preceding article, and when reduced by boiling to the small pearl degree, incorporate the prepared Spanish licorice with it, remove the scum from the surface, and finish the jujubes in the manner indicated above. Raspberry Jxijuhes. Ingredients : 1 lb. picked gum arabic soaked in 1 pint of hot water and afterwards strained, 14: oz. of sugar, 1 gill of filtered raspberry juice, and a few drops of cochineal. Proceed as directed in tlio foregoing case, adding the raspberry and coloring last. Black Cur- rant Jujubes. Proceed in all respects as indicated for raspberry jujubes, omitting the cochineal, black currant juice being used. Reel Currant jujubes. — The same as black currant jujubes, red currant juice being used and a few drops of cochineal. Ordinary Jujubes, Ingredients : 1 lb. gum arabic soaked in 1 pt. of hot water and after- wards strained, 14 oz. sugar, \ oz. essence of roses, and a few drops of prepared cochineal. Let the mixture be prepared as for other jujubes, but instead of casting them in impressions made in starch- powder, when the preparation is ready, pour it into a very clean smooth tinned baking sheet to the depth of a quarter of an inch, and set it to dry in the screen, or hot closet (moderate heat) ; when suffi- ciently dried, so that on pressing the surface it proves gomewhat 238 GliOCEKS AND confectioners' HECEirTS. clastic to tho touch, remove it from tho heat, and allow it to become cold ; tlio sheet of jujiil)o may then 1)6 easily detached, and id to ho cut up Avith scissors in tho shape of diamonds. Stick ArrLis Sugar. — Boil the sugar to caramel, flavor ■with applo juice together with tartaric or other acid, pour it on a marble slab, draw it into sticks, cut them of equal length, then roll thcni on a slab till they are perfectly cold ; when finished, wrap them in tissue-pai)er and i^ut them in fancy envelopes. CuiiRANT AND RASPBERRY PASTE Drops,— Ingredients : 1 lb. of pulp (the currants and raspberries in equal proportions boiled, and afterwards rubbed through a sieve), 1 lb. of sifted sugar. Stir both together in a copper sugar-boiler or preserving jian over a brisk fire, nntil the paste becomes sufficiently reduced to show the bottom of the preserviug pan as you draw the spoon across it ; then proceed to lay out the drops about the size of a florin, using a spouted sugar boiler for the purpose. The drops should then bo placed in the screen to dry, at a low heat for an hour or so. When the drops are dry, use a thin knife to remove them from the tin sheet on which you laid them out, and put them away between sheets of paper in closed boxes, in a dry place. Damson Paste Drops.— Ingredients: 1 lb. of damson thick 'pnlp, 1 lb. bruised sugar. Stir the pulp and sugar on the fire until reduced to a thick paste, then proceed to lay out tho drops on squaro sheets of polished tin ; dry them in the screen (moderate heat), and remove them in the manner af orcF;aid. These drops may be prejiared with all kinds of plums and a',:o with gooseberries. Pear Paste Drops. — Use 1 lb. pear pulp (made by peeling the pears, and boiling them to a pulp with ^ pt. of cider or perry, and rubbing this througlx a coarse sieve), 1 lb. of bruised sugar. Proceed as for damson paste. A}jple Paste Drops. — Use 1 lb. of apple pulp (made by peel- ing, slicing and boiling the apples with ^- pt. cider), lib. of bruised sugar. Proceed as in the foregoing cases, adding a few drops of cochineal to half of the paste for the sake of variety. Pine Apple Paste Drops. — Use 1 lb. of piiie-apple pulp (made by first peeling, and then grating tho pine-apx)lG on a dish, using a clean coarse tin grater for" the purpose), 1 lb. of bruised sugar. Proceed as in tho former cases. Vases, Baskets, Figures, A^temals, &c., ettGraiked Sugar. — The sugar being boiled to the ball degree, add a few drops of acetic acid, and work the sugar with the back part of the bowl of a silver tablespoon up against the side of the sugar boiler, fetching up tho whole in turns, so that every portion may acquire an opalized or whitish color. As soon as the sugar has been worked up to this ready prepared mould ; and when it has become perfectly set firm ia the centre, you may turn the vase, basket, animal, or vfhatever tho object may be, out of its mould, and place it in the screen or hot closet to dry, at a very moderate heat. Afterwards they may bo painted in colors to imitate nature. EvERTON Taffy. — To make this favorite and wholesome candy, take pounds of moist sugar, 3 ounces, of butter, a teacup and a half of water, and one lemon. .Boil the sugar, butter, water, and half the rind of the lemon together; and, when dojie, — ^which will bo known by dropping into cold water, when it should be quite state, which constitutes " ," pour it immediately into tho GEOCEES AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 239 crisp, — ^let it stand asido till the boiling has ceased, and then stir iu the jaice of the lemon. Butter a dish, and pour it in about a quarter of an inch in thickness. The fire must be quicli, and the taffy stirred all the time. Candy Fkuit. — Take one pound of the best loaf sugar; dip each lump into a bowl of water, and put the sugar into your I'jreserving kettle. Boil it down, and skim it until perfectly clear, and in a candying state. When sufficiently boiled, have ready the friRts you ^nsh to preserve. Large white grapes, oranges separated into small, pieces, or preserved fruits, taken out of their syrup and dried, aro very nice. Dip the fruits into the prepared sugar while it is hot; put them in a cold place; tliey will soon become hard. Jblmes without Fkuit. — ^To 1 pint of water put ^ oz. alum; boil a minute or two; then add 4 lbs. white sugar; continue the boiling a little; strain while hot; and, when cold, put in half a twenty-fivo cent bottle of extract of vanilla, strawberr^^, lemon, or any other Havor yon desire for jelly. Pkize Honey. — Good" common sugar, 5 lbs. ; water, 2 lbs. bring gradually to a boil, skimming wlien cool; add 1 lb. bees' honey and 4 drops essence of peppermint. If you desire a better article, use white sugar, and ^ lb. less water, h lb more honey. Another. — Coffee sugar, "lO lbs. ; water 3 lbs. ; cream tartar, 2oz3. ; strong vinegar, 2 tablespoons; white of an egg vfell beaten; bees' honey, ^Ib; Lubin's extract of honeysuckle, 10 drops. Put on the sugar and water in a suitable kettle on the fire ; v/hen lukewarm stir in the cream tartar and vinegar; add the egg; when the sugar is nearly melted put in the honey, and stir till it comes to a boil ; take it off, let it stand a few minutes; stram, then add. the extract of honey- suclde last; stand over night, and it is ready for use. Another. — Common sugar, 4 lbs. ; water, 1 pt. ; let them come to a boil, and Bkim. Then add pulverized alum, ^ oz. remove from the fire, and stir in cream of tartar, -| oz. and water, or extract of rose, 1 table- spoonfid, and it is fit for use. To Keep Fruits Fresh.— Rosin 2 lbs. ; tallow, 2 oz. ; bees' -wax, 2 oz. Melt slowly over the fire iu an iron pot, but don't boil. Tako the fruit separately, and rub it over with pulverized chalk or whitmg (to prevent the coating from adliering to the fruit), then dip it into the solution once, and hold it up a moment to set the coating, then pack away carefully m barrels, boxes, or on shelves, in a cool place. Unequalled for preserving apples, pears, lemons, &c. Acid Drops. — Pound and sift into a clean pan 8 ozs. of double lefined sugar, add slowly as much water as will render the sugar sufficiently moist not to stick to the stirring spoon, place the pan on a small stove or slow fire, and stir till it nearly boils, remove irom the fire and stir in ^ oz. tartaric acid. Place it on the fire for lialf a minute, then dip out small quantities from the pan, and let it faU in small drops on a clean tin plate; remove the drops in 2 hours ^vith a knife. Ready for sale ui 24 hours. Chocolate Cream Candy. — Chocolate scraped fine, ^ oz., thick cream, 1 pt., best sugar, 3 ozs., heat it nearly boiling, then remove it from the fire and millitweU; when cold, add the whites of 4 or 5 eggs; whisk rapidly and take up the froth on a sieve. Serve the cream in glasses and pile up the froth on top of them. 240 LEATHEIi WOKKERS', &C., KECEirTS. TANNERS, CURRIERS, BOOT, SHOE AND RUB- BER M'FRS, MARBLE WORKERS, BOOK- BINDERS, &c. Best Color foe Shoe and IIAI^^^:sg Edge.— Alcoliol, 1 pint ; tincture of iron, l^ozs. ; extract logwood, 1 oz. ; pulverized iiutgalls, 1 oz, ; soft water, -h pijit ; sweet oil, oz. ; put tliis last into tlie "alco- hol before adding the water. Nothing can exceed the beautiful finish imparled to the leather by this j^reparatiou. Cheap Color for the Eoge. — Soft water, 1 gallon ; extract logwood, 1 oz. ; boil till the extract is dissolved ; remove from tlio fire, add copperas, 2 oz., bichromate of potash, and gum arabic, of each ^ oz., all to be pulverized. Beautiful Bronze for Leather. — Dissolve a little of the so-call" cd insoluble aniline violet in a little water, and brush the solution over the leather : after it dries repeat the process. Superior Edge Blacking. — Soft water 6 gallons; bring to a boil, and add 8 oz. logwood extract, pulverized ; boil 3 minutes, removo from the fire, and stir in 2^ oz. gum arabic, 1 oz. bichromate of potash, Smd 80 grams prussiate of "potash. For a small quantity of this, use water, 2 quarts ; extract of log- -wood, I oz. ; gum arabic, 9G grains ; bichromate of potash, 48 grains; prussiate of potash ; 8 grains. Boil the extract iu the water 2 minutes ; lemove from the fire and stir in the others, and it is ready for use. For tanners' surface blacking, which is not required to take on a liigh polish, the gum arabic may be omitted. Sizing for Boots and Shoes in Treeing Out. — ^Water, 1 quart; dissolve in it, by heat, isinglass, 1 oz. ; adding more water to replace loss by evaporation ; when dissolved, add starch, 6 oz. ; extract of logwood, beeswax, and tallow, of each, 2 oz. Kub the starch up first by pouring on sufficient boilmg water for that purpose. It makes boots and shoes soft and pliable, and gives a splendid appear- ance to old stoclc ou the shelves. Black Varnish F'Or the Edge. — Take 98 per. cent alcohol, 1 pint ; shellac, 3 oz. ; rosin, 2oz. ; pine turpentine, loz. ; lampblack, J oz. ; mis : and when the gums are all cut, it is ready for use. This preparation makes a most splendid appearance when applied to boot, shoe, or harness edge, and is equally applicable to cloth or wood, where a gloss is required after being painted. Waterproof Varnish for Harness. — ^India-rubber, % lb. ; spts. turpentine 1 gal. ; dissolve to a jelly, then ta^ce hot linseed oil equal i^arts with the mass, and incorporate them well over a slow fire. Blacking for Harness. — Beeswax. | lb. ; ivory black, 2 ozs. ; spts. of turpentine, 1 oz. Prussian blue, ground in oil 1 oz. ; copal varnish, ^oz. ; melt the wax and stir into it the other ingredients, before the mixture is quite cold ; make it into balls, rub a littie upon a brush, .apply it upon the harness, and poUsh lightly with silk. Best Harness Varnish Extant. — Alcohol, 1 gallon; white tur- Sentine, lbs. ; gum shellac, 1^ lbs. ; Venice turpentine, 1 gill. Let lem stand, by the stove till the gmm a?e dissolved, then add sweet LEATHER WOKKEBS', &C., RECEirXS. 241 oil, 1 gill; and color it if you wish, with lamphlack, 2 oz. Tliis will not crack like the old varnish. IIajsness oil. — Neat's-footoil, 1 gal. ; lampblack, 4 oz. Mix well. Brilliant French Vaknish tor Leather. — Spirit of wine, f pint ; vinegar, 5 pints; gum Senegal in powder, ^ lb.; loaf sugar, G oz. ; powdered galls, 2 oz. ; green copperas, 4 oz. Dissolve the gum and sugar in the water; strain, and put on a slow fire, but don't boil; now put in the galls, copperas, and the alcohol; stir well for five minutes; set off ; and when nearly cool, strain through flannel, and bottle for use. It is applied with a loencil brush. Slost superior. Liquid Japan for Leather. — Molasses, 8 lbs. ; lampblack, 1 lb. ; sweet oil, 1 lb. ; gum arable, 1 lb. ; isinglass, 1 lb. Mix Avell in 32 lbs. water; apply heat; when cool, add 1 quart alcohol; an ox's gall will improve it. Waterproof Oil-Blacking. Camphcnc, 1 pint; add all tho India-rubber it will dissolve; curriers' oil, 1 puit; tallow, 7 lbs.; lamiDblack, 2 oz. Mix thoroughly by heat. Shoemakers' Heel Balls.— Beeswax, 8 oz. ; tallow, 1 oz. ; melt, and add powdered gum arabic, 1 oz. , and lampblack to color. Best Heel B.vll. — Melt together beeswax, 2 lbs. ; suet, 3 ozs. ; stir in ivory black, 4 ozs., lampblack, 3 oz., i^owdered gum arabic, 2 oz., powdered rock candy, 2 oz., mix and when partly cold pour into thi or leaden moulds. Channellers akd Shoe:viakers' Ceivient.— India-rubber dis- solved to a proper consistence in sulphuric ether. Cement for Leather or Rubber Soles and Leather Belting. — Gutta percha, 1 lb. ; India-rubber, 4 oz. ; i)itch, 2 oz. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; oU, 2 oz. ; melt, and use hot. German Blacking. — Ivory-black, 1 part; molasses, ^part; sweet oU, ^ part; mix, as before; then stir in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, ^ part; oil of vitriol, ^ part; each separately diluted witli twice its weight of water before mixing them. This forms the ordinary paste blacking of Germany, accorduig to Liebig. Oil Paste Blacking. Ivory-black, 4 lbs. ; molasses, 2 lbs.; sweet oil, 1 lb. ; oil of vitrei 3 lbs. ; mix and put in tms. Gold Varnish. — Turmeric, 1 dram ; gamboge, 1 dram ; turpen- tine, 2 pmts ; shellac, 5 oz. ; sandarach, 6 oz. ; dragon's blood, 8 drams ; thin mastic varnish, 8 oz. ; digest with occasional agitation for fourteen days ; then set aside to fine ; and pour off tlie clear. Grain Black for Harness Leather. — ^Tirst stain in tallow ; then take spirits turpentine, 1 pint ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda 1 oz.; gum shellac, ^ oz. ; thick paste, reduced thin, 2 quarts. Mix well. This will finish 12 sides. Beautiful Stains for Boots, Shoes and Leather Goods. — Soft water 1 pt. ; oxalic acid, 2 tablespoonf uls or more ; if required stronger, dissolve, and for a red color, add finely pulverized rose-pink, vermilion or drop lake. Blue, add finely pulverized Prussian blue, or indigo. Yelloxo, king's yellow, yellow ochre, &c. White, flake white. Green, blue and yellow mixed. Orange, red and yellow mixed. Purple, red and blue mixed. Pulverize the ingredients well before mixing with the water and acid. Any other shade desired can be selected from the " Compound colors" in the next department. BiiiDLB STAm-.— Skimmed, milk, 1 pt, ; spirits of salts, ^oz. ; spts. 16 2-12 LEATUER workers', &C., RI:CEI1'Ts/ of red lavender, ^oz. ; gum araWc, 1 oz. ; and the juice o£ 2 lemons ; mix well together, and corlc for use ; apply -with a sponge ; when dry, polisli with a brush or a piece of llaunel. If wished i)aler, put in less red lavender. Ok KujJBKii Goods. — As many parties require to use rubber goods who are entirely ignorant of tli'o cheap mixtures wiiich are vendocl in large quantities, at enormous profits by manufacturers, I liavo thought proper in tliis place to irradiate the subject with a little *' light" ior the benefit of those whom "it may concem," and ac- cordingly present the i"ormula3 for compoundijig the difi'erent mix- tures which enter into the composition of many articles sold quite extensively as ptn-e goods, but which, owing to large adulter- ations, in many cases cost 75 per cent, less than the prices charged lor them. The first I shall present is for LiGUT BuFiTER Smiikgs. — Grind together clear Java rubber, 25 lbs. ; Para rubber, 5 lbs. ; common magnesia, 10 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 25 ozs. This is brown at first, but in a few days turns grey or white, and just sinks in water. Springs made from this compound, 4^- x 2j^ X 1, pressed to half an inch, showed 3^- tons on the dial. GuEY PACJaxa roxe JMahuje Exgixes, &c.— Grind together clean- ed Java rubber, 5 lbs. ; Para rubber, 25 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, IG lbs. ; carbonate of magnesia, G lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 3 lbs. ; red lead, 2 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 30 ozs. It may be proper to state that good purified Java rubber mi^lit be substitutecl by engineers with good effect for Para rubber in the above and some other com- positions. iiAG PACKES'a FOu Valtes, BEAP.DfG SpRiXGS, fcc— Tliis is mado principally from the iiseless cuttings in the manufacture of India- rubber coats, when the gum is run or sx^read on calico foundations. Proportions as follows : grind together useless scraps, 35 lbs. ; black- lead 18 lbs. ; Java gum, IG lbs. ; yellow sulphur, 1 lb. CojirosiTioN FOK Suction Hose for Fire Exgestes, fee. — Grind together Java rubber, 20 lbs. ; Para do. 10 lbs. ; white lead, 14: lbs. ; red lead, 14 lbs. ; yellow sulphur, 1^ lbs. This is spread upon flax cloth, which weighs 10, 16, and 32 ozs.'to the square yard. CoJEMON Black Packing. — Grind together, Java rubber, 15 lbs. ; Para do., 15 lbs.; oxide of zinc, 15 lbs.; China or Cornwall clay, 15 lbs. ; yellow sulphur, 28 ozs. CoioiON "White Buffer Re^gs, &:C. — Grind together Java rub- iDcr, 30 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 18 lbs. carbonate of magnesia, 6 lbs. ; clean chalk or whiting, G lbs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 lbs. Vulcanite, or Ebonite. — ^If the amount of sulphur added to the prepared rubber amoimts to 10 per cent, and the operations of vul- canizing is performed in close vessels, at a temperature exceeding 800, or the heat required for Vulc^inizing India-Rubber as de- cribed under that head, which see, an article will be produced knoAvn. as vulcanite, or ebonite. It is a black, hard, elastic substance,, re- sembling horn in its texture and appearance, and capable of taking a very high polish. It is of great use in the arts, and is largely man- ufactured for making combs, door handles, and hundreds of articles hitherto made iu ivory or bone. Its electrical properties also are verv great. Best Pure Sprln-o, or "Washers.— Grind together Para gum, 30 LEATHER WOKKERS', AC, RECEirXS. 243 ibs. ; oxide of zinc, 5 lbs. ; carb. magnesLi, 2 lbs. ; coinmon clinlk, 3 lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 2 lbs. ; pure sulpliur, 30 oz. Companion Quality to above. — Para rubber, 30 lbs.; oxide of zinc, 5 lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 6 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 32 oz. "Hypo" Cloth for Waterproof Coats. — Grind together cleaii Java gum, 30 lbs. ; lampblack, 6 lbs. ; dry chalk or whiting, 11 lbs. ; Bulphuret of lead, 6 lbs. This composition is applied to waterproof garments. To YuiiCANizB India Rubber. — ^The vulcanizing process patent- ed by the late Charles Goodyear consists in incorporating with tlio rubber from 3 to 10 per cent, of sulphur, together with various me- tallic oxides, chiefly lead and zinc, the quantity of the latter articlcB bemg regulated by the degree of elasticity &c., required in the desired article. The goods of one large establishment are vulcanized in cylindrical wrought iron steam heaters, over 50 feet long and from 5 to 6 feet in diameter. These heaters have doors opening on hinges at one end, and through these doors the goods to be vulcanized are introduced on a sort of railway carriage, then, after the door is shut, f.;team is let on, and a temperature of from 250° to 300° of heat is kept up for several hours, the degree of heat bemg ascertained by means of thermometers attached to the heaters. The value, solidity, and quality of the goods is much increased by keeping the articles luiderthe pressure of metalic moulds or sheets while undergoing this process. The whole process requires careful manipulation and great experience to conduct it properly. To Deodorize Eubbbe. — Cover the articles of rubber with char- coal dust, place thein in an enclosed vessel, and raise the tempera- ture to 94° Fahr., and let it remain thus for several hours. Remove and clean the articles from the charcoal dust, and they will be found Iree from aU odor. Gutta-Percha and Rubber "Waste. — ^The waste is cut into small pieces, and 100 lbs. of the same are placed in a well-closed boiler with 10 lbs. of bisulphide of carbon and 4 ozs. absolute al- cohol, well stirred; then the boiler is closed, and left a few hours to soak. After this time it is found to be changed into a soft dougli mass, which, after being ground or kneaded, is fit to be formed mto aiiy shape, when the solvent will evaporate. If too much of the latter has been used, a thick unmanageable liquid is obtained. To Utilize Leather Scraps. — First clean the scraps, then soak tliem in water containing 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid until the material becomes soft and plastic, then compress into blocks and dry- by steam. In order to soften the blocks, 1 lb. of glycerine is added to 100 lbs. of the material; they are then passed through rollers, and brought to the proper tluckness to be used as inner soles of boots and shoes. Deer Skins.— Tanning and Buefixg for Gloves.— For each skin, take a bucket of wafer, and put it into 1 qt. of lime ; let the skin or skins lie in from 3 to 4 days ; then rinse in clean water hair, and grain ; then soak them in cold water to get out the glue ; noviT scour or pound in good soap-suds for half an hour ; after which take white vitriol, alum, and salt, 1 tablespoonf ul of each to a skin ; theso ■will be dissolved in sufficient water to cover the skin, and remain in it for 24 hours ; wring out as dry as convenient, and spread on with a 244 LEATHER TTORKEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. brnsli I pint of curriers' oil, and lian^ in tho sun about 2 days ; aftct ■which yoii will .scour out tlic oil with soap-suds, and hang but again until perfectly di'y ; then pull and work them until they are soft ; and ii a reasonable time docs not make them soft, scour out in suds again as before, until complete. The oil may be saved by pouring or takuig it from the top of the suds, if left standing a snort time. The baff color is given by si)reading yellow ochre evenly over tlio Burface of tho skin when finished, rubbing it well with a brush. TANNmo WITH Acid. — After having removed the liair, scouring, coaking and pounding in tho suds, &c., as in the last recipe, in i)laco of the white vitriol, alum, and salt as there mentioned, take oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), and water, equal parts of each, and thoroughly wet the flesh-side of the skin with it, by means of a sponge or cloth upon a stick ; then folding up the skin, letting it stand for 20 minutes only, having ready a solution of sal-soda and water, say 1 lb. to a bucket of water, and soak the skin or skins in that for two liours, when you will wash in clean water, and apply a little dry salt, letting lie in the salt over night, or that length of time ; then remove tho flesh with a blunt knife, or, if doing business on a large scale, by means of the regular beam and flesh-knife ; when dry, or nearly so, Eoften by pulling and rubbing with the hands, and also with a piece, of pumice-stone. This of course is the quickest way of tanning, and by only wetting the skins mth the acid, and soaking out in 20 mmutes, they are not rotted. Another Method.— Oil of vitriol, ^ oz. ; salt, 1 teacup ; milk sufflcient to handsomely cover the skin, not exceeding 3 qts. ; warm the milk, then add the salt and vitriol ; stir the skin in the liquid 40 minutes, keeping it warm ; then dry, and work it as directed in the above. Canadian Process. — Tho Canadians make four liquors in using the japonica. The i^irst liquor is made by dissolving, for 20 sides of upper, 15 lbs. of terra japonica in sufScient water to cover the upper being tanned. Tlie second liquor contains the same amount of ja- ponica, and 8 lbs. of saltpetre also. The third contains 20 lbs. of ja- ponica and 4| lbs. of alum. The fourth liquor contains only 15 lbs, of japonica, aiid 1 J lbs. of sulphuric acid ; and the leather remains 4 days in each liquor for upper ; and for sole the quantities and timo are both doubled. They count 50 calf -skins in place of 20 sides of upper, but let them lie in each liquor only 3 days. To Tan Fur Skins, &o. — To remove the legs and useless parts, soak the skin soft, and then remove the fleshy substances, and soak it in warm water 1 hour. Now take for each skin, borax, saltpetre, and Glauber-salt, of each | oz., and dissolve or wet with soft water sufficient to allow it to be spread on the flesh-side of the skin. Put it on with a brush thickest in the centre or thickest part of the skin, and double the skin together, flesh side in ; keeping it in a cool place for 24 hours, not allowing it to freeze. Then wash the skin clean, and take sal-soda 1 oz. ; borax ^ oz, ; refined soap 2 oz. ; melt them slowly together, being careful not to allow them to boil, and apply the niixture to the flesh side at first. Boil up again and keep in a warm place for 24 hours ;' then wash the skia clean again, as above, and have saleratus 2 oz., dissolved in hot rain water sufficient to weU saturate the skin; take alum 4 oz. ; salt 8 oz. ; and dissolve also in hot LEATHER WOEKEES', &C., EECEirTS. 245 rain Tratcr ; -u-licn siifRcieTitly cool to ciUotv tlio handling of it Tritli- out scalding, put in the sldn for 12 hours ; then wring out tho water and hang up for 12 hours more to dry. Repeat this last soaking and drying 2 or 3 times, according to the desired softness of the skin when finished. Lastly finish, by pulling and Trorkmg, and finally by rub- bing with a piece of pumice-stone and fine sand-paper. This works like a charm on sheep-skins, fur skins, dog, wolf, bear-skins, &c. FrOCESS of TAIfiSTNG CALF, KjP, and II.AJINESS LEATHER m FEOM 6 TO 30 Days.— For a 12-lb calf -skin, take 3 lbs. of terra ja- ponica, common salt, 2 lbs. ; alum, 1 lb. ; put them m a copper kettlo with sufficient water to dissolve the whole without boiling. The skiii will be limed, haired, and treated every way as for the old process, when it will be put ijito a vessel with water to cover it, at which time you will put in 1 pint of tho composition, stirruag it well, adding tho game night and morning for three days, when you will add the whole, handling 2 or 3 times daily all the time tanning ; you can contiuuo to use the tanning liquid by adding half tho quantity each time, by keeiiing these proportions for any amount. If you desire to give a dark color to the leather, you will put in 1 lb. of Sicily sumac ; kip gklns will require about 20 days, light horse hides for harness 30 days, calf -skins from G to 10 days at most. To Tan Raw Hide.— When taken from the animal, spread it flesh isideup; then put 2 parts of salt, 2 parts of saltpetre and alum com- umed, make it fine, sprinkle it evenly over the surface, roll it up, let it alone a few days till dissolved; then take off what flesh rem.ains, and nail the skin to the side of a bam in tho sun, stretch tight, to make it soft like harness leather, put neat's-foot oil on it, fasten it up in the sun again; then rub out all the oil you can with a wedge- shaped stick, and it is tarmed with the hair on. To Tan Muskrat Skins with the Fuk on. — First, for soaking, to 10 gals, cold soft water, add 8 parts of wheat bran, old soap, ^ pt. ; pulverized borax, 1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 2 ozs. If the skins have not been salted, add salt, 1 pt. Green skins should not be soaked more than 8 to 10 hours. Dry ones should soak till very soft. The sul- phuric acid hastens the soaking process. For tan liquor, to 10 gals, warm soft water, add bran, ^ bushel; stir well, and let it ferment in a Tv-arm room. Then add slowly, sulphuric acid, 2^ lbs. ; stir all tho time. Musk rat skins should remain in about 4 hours ; then take out and rub with a flesliing knife; an old chopping loiife with the edge taken off will do. Then work it over a beam until entirely dry. To Dye Furs. — Any dye that will color wool will also color furs, and an immense number of such dyes can be found under the dyers department. In buying furs, examine the density and length of the down next the skui, this can easily be done by blowing briskly against the set of the fur, if it is very close and dense it is all right, but if it opens easily and exposes nnicli of the skin, reject it. French Finish for Leather. — Take a common wooden pailful of scraps (the legs and pates of calf-skins are best), and put a handful each of salt and alum upon them, and let stand three days ; then boU until they get a thick paste ; in using, you will warm it, and in the first application put a little tallow with it, and for a second time a little soft soap, and use it in the regular way of finishing, and your leather wUl be soft and pliable, like Fxencli leather. 246 LII.VTIII^Ii WOKKKKS', &C., KIuCEIPTS. French Patent Leathek.— Work into tlio pk'm with appropriate tools 3 or 4 successivG coiithigB of drying varnish, made by boilinjj liusecd oil Avitli white lead aiid litharge, in the proportion of one pound of cacli of the latter to one gallon of the former, and adding a l)ortion of chalk or ochre, each coating being thoronglily dried bcforo the application of the next. Ivory black is then substituted for the chalk or ochre, the varnish thinned with spirits of turpentine, and five additional applications made in the same manner as before, except that it is put ou thin and not Avorked in. The leather is rubbed down with pumice-stone, m i^owder, and then placed in a room at 90 degrees, out of the way of dust. The last varnish is prepared by boiling ^ lb. asphaltum with 10 lbs. of the drying oil used in the first stage of tlio process, and then stirring in 5 lbs. copal varnish and 10 lbs. of turpen- tine. It must have 1 month's age before using it. CnEAr Tanning without Bakk or Mineral Astringents. — Tho Rstruigent liquor is composed of water, 17 gals. ; Aleppo galls. ^ lb. ; Bengal catechu, 1^ oz. and 5 lbs. of tormentil, or septfoil root. Powder the ingredients, and boil in the water 1 hour ; w^heu cool, put in tho skins (which must be prepared by being plunged into a preparation of bran and water for 2 days previously) ; handle them frequentlj'- during the first 3 days, let them alone the next 3 days, then handle three or four times in one day ; let them lie undisturbed for 25 days more, when the process will be complete. New Tanning Cojiposition. — For harness leather, 4 lbs. catechu, 3 pts. common ley, 3 oz. of alum. For xoax leather (split leather), 3 lbs. catechu, 3 pts. common ley, 3 oz. alum. For calf-sTcins 2 lbs. catechu, 1 pt. ley. For sheep-skins, 1 lb. catechu, 1 pt. ley, 1 oz. alum. The catechu by itself will make the leather hard and brittle, the ley will soften it; the alum being only used for coloring, can bo dispensed with, or other matter used in its place. The mixture is in every case boiled, and the leather is then immersed in it long enough to bo thoroughly tanned, for which purpose the harness leather should be steeped from 18 to 20 days, wax leather from 12 to 14 days, calf- skins from 7 to 9 days, and sheep-skins from 2 to 4 days. French Polish or Dressing por Leather. — Mix 2 pts. best vinegar, with 1 pt. soft water; stir into it J lb. glue, broken up, ^ lb. logwood-chips, I oz. of finely powdered indigo, ^ oz. of the best soft soap, ^ oz. of isinglass; put the mixture over the fire, and let it boil ten minutes or more; then strain, bottle, and cork. When cold, it is fit for use. A])ply with a sponge. Tanning. — ^The first operation is to soak tho hide, as no hide can be properly tanned unless it has been soaked and broken on a fleshing beam. Jf the hide has not been salted add a little salt and soak it in soft water. In order to be thoroughly soaked, green hides should remain in the liquor from 9 to 12 days; of course the time varies with the thickness of the hide. The following liquor is used to remove hair, or wool, viz. : 10 gals, cold water (soft); 8 qts. slacked lime, and the same quantity of wood ashes. Soak until tlie hair or wool will pull oil easily. As it frequently happens it is desirable to cure the hide and keep the hair clean, the following paste should be made, viz : equal parts of lime and hard wood ashes (lime should be slaked) and made into a paste with soft water. This should be spread on the fieah side of the hide and the skin rolled up flesh side in and placed LEATHER TTOEKERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 24^ in a tub just covering it with water. It should remain 10 days or until the hair will pull out easily, then scrape with a knife. The skins of animals are composed mainly of glue or gluten. This is soluble, and the prmciple derived from the bark, tannin or tannic acid is also to a considerable extent soluble; when the latter is allowed to act upon the former, chemical combination takes place, and leather is pro- daced, which is insoluble. Curriers' Size. — Take of sizmg, 1 qt. ; soft soap, 1 gill ; stuffing. 1 gill ; sweet milk, ^ pt. ; boil the siting in water to a proper consistence, strain, and add the other ingredients; and when thoroughly mixed, it is ready for use. Curriers' Vaste— First Cbaf.— Take of water, 2 qts. ; flour, ^ pint; Castile soap, 1 oz. ; make into paste. Second Coat. — Take of first paste, ^ pt. ; gum tragacantli, 1 gill; water, 1 pt. ; mix all together. This will finish 18 sides of upper. Curriers' Skirting. — This is for finishing skirting and the flesh of harness leather, in imitation of oak tanning. Take of chrome yeUow, ^ 11). ; yeUow ochre, 1 lb. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda, ^ oz. ; paste 5 qts. ; mix well. This will finish twelve sides. Skirting. — For the grain to imitate oak tan. Take of chrome yellow, I lb. ; j^ellow ochre, ^ lb. ; cream of tartar 1 oz. ; soda, 1 oz. ; paste 2 qts. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 pt. ; mix well. This will finish twelve sides. Dyes for Morocco and Sheep Leather.— )— Blue ia given by steeping the subject a day in urine and indigo, then boiling it with alum ; or, it may be given by tempering the indigo, with red wine, and washing the sldn there with. — Another. — Boil elderberries or dwarf-elder, then smear and wash the skins therewith and wring them out ; then boil the elderberries as before in a solution of alum water, and wet the skius in the same maimer once or twice, dry them, and they will be very blue. — {Red.) — Red is given by washing the skin and laying them 2 hours in gall, then wringing them out, dipping them in a liquor made with ligustrum, alum, and verdigris, iti water, and lastly in the dye made of Brazilwood boiled with ley. {Purple. )— Pur- ple is given by wetting the skins with a solution of roche alum in warm water, and when dry, again rubbing them with the hand with a decoction of logwood in cold water. {Green.) — Green is given by smearing the skin with sap-green and alum boiled, {Dark Green. )— Dark green is given with steel-filings and sal-ammoniac, steeped in wine till soft, then smeared over the skin, which is to be dried in the shade. ( Yelloio. ) — ^Yellow is given by smearing the skin over with aloes and linseed-oil dissolved and strained, or by infusing in weld. {Light Orange. ) — Orange color is given by j smearing it with fustic berries boiled in alum water, or for deep orange, with turmeric. {Sky-color. ) Sky-color is given with indigo steeped in boiling water, and the next morning warmed and smeared over the skin. See Dyers' Department. To Marble Books or Paper.— Provide a wooden trough 2 inches deep and the length and width of any desired sheet ; boil in a brass or copper pan any quantity of linseed and water until a thick mucil- age is formed ; strain it into the trough, and let cool ; then grind on a marble slab any of the following colors in small beer. For Blue. — Prussian blue or indigo. Red. — Rose-pinlc, vermilion, or drop lake. Ye^Zow.- King's yellow, ycUow ochre, £:c. )F7iiie.— Flake white. 248 LEATIIEK workers', &C., RECEIPTS. Blach.—hnrnt ivory or lamb bLxck. Jirown.—V mbcv, bumt do. ; terra di .sicnua, bui'ut do. Black, nixed with yellow or rod, also makes brown. Green. — Blue and yellow mixed. Omnr/c— lied and yellow mixed. Purple. — Red and blue mixed. For ciich color you must liavo two cuj)s, one for the color after grinding?, the other to mix it with ox-gall, which must be used to thin the colons at discretion. If too much gall is used, the colors will spread : when they keep their lace on the surface of the trough, when moved with a quill, they aro t for use. All things in readiness, the colors aro successively Bprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, and are waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick, according to t;iste. When the design is just formed, the book, tied tightly between cutting boards of the same size is lightly pressed with its edge on the surface of the liquid pattern, and then withdrawn and dried. Tho covers may be marbled in the game way only letting the liquid colors run over them. In marbling paper tho sides of the paper is gently applied to the colors in the trough. The Aim of color in the trough, may be as thin as possible, and if any remains after the marbling it may be taken off by applying paper to it before you prepare for marbling again. To diversify the effects, colors are often mixed with a little sweet oil before sprinkling them on, by which means a light iialo or circle appears around each spot. BooKBiKDERs' Varxish. — Shcllac, 8 parts ; gum benzoin, 3 parts ; gum mastic, 2 parts ; bruise, and digest in alcohol, 48 parts ; oil of lavender, \ part. Or, digest shellac, 4 parts ; gum mastic, 2 parts ; giim dammer and white turpentine, of each, 1 part ; with alcohol (95 per cent.), 28 parts. Ked Sprinkle fob. BookbiivDers' Use. — Brazilwood (ground), 4 parts; alum, 1 part; vinegar, 4 parts; water, 4 parts. Boil until reduced to 7 parts, then add a quantity of loaf sugar and gum ; bot- tle for use. Blue. — Strong sulphuric acid, 8 oz.; Spanish indigo, powdered, 2 oz. ; mix in a bottle that will hold a quart, and place it in a warm bath to promote solution For use, dilute a little to tho required color in a tea-cup. Black. — No better black can be procured than that made by the receipt for edge blacking, in this work, which see. Orange color. — Ground Brazilwood, 16 parts ; aunatto, 4 parts, alum, sugar, and gum arable, each 1 part; water, 70 parts, boil, strain, and bottle. Purple. — Logwood chips ; 4 parts, powdered alum, 1 part ; soft water, 24 parts; boil until reduced to 16 parts, and bottle for use. Green. — ^French berries, 1 part; soft water, 8 parts. Boil, and add a little powdered aluia, then bring it to the required shade of green, by adding liquid blue. Brown. — Logwood chips, 1 part; annatto, 1 part, boil in water, 6 i)arts; if too light add a piece of copperas the size of a pea. Tree-Marble. — marbie in the form of trees may be done by bending the boards a little on the centre, using the same method as the common marble, having the covers previously prepared. The end of a candle may be rubbed on different parts of the board to form knots. EicG'Marble. — Color the cover with spirits of wine and tur- meric, then place on rice in a regular manner, throw on a very fine sprinkle of copperas water till the cover is nearly black, and let it re- main till dry. The cover may be spotted with the red liquid or potash-water, very freely, before tho rico is thrown of£ tlio boards. LEATUER WOKKEES', &C., KECEIPTSJ 249 Spotted Marble for Books, cfc.—Aftcr the fore-edge of the "book is cut, let it remain in the press, and thro^ on linseeds iu a regular manner, sprinkle the edge with any dark color till the paper is covered, then shake oil the seeds. Various colors may he used; the edge maybe colored with yellow or red before throwing on the seeds, and sprmk- ling with blue. The seeds will make a fiue fancy edge when placed very thick on different parts, with a few slightly thrown on the spaces between. Japan Coloring for Leather Book-covers, etc. — After the book is covered and dry, color the cover with potash-water mixed with a little paste: give 2 good coats of Brazil wash, and glaze it; put the book between the hands, allowing the boards to slope a Uttle; dash on copperas-water, then with a sponge full of red liquid press out on the bade and on different parts large drops, which will run down each board and make a fine shaded red; when the cover is drj% wash it over 2 or 3 times with Brazil wash to give it a brighter color. {See the various dyes forleather.) Gold Spkestcle fob Books, — Put in a marble mortar | oz. pure honey and one book of gold leaf, rub them well together until they are very fine, add ^ pint clear water, and mL^ well together; when the water clears, pour it off, and put in more till the honey is all extracted, and nothing remains but the gold; mix one grain of corrosive sub- limate in a teaspoonful of spirits of wine, and when dissolved, puttlie pama, together with a little gum water, to the gold, and bottle for use. The edges of the book may be sprmkled or colored very dark, with green, blue, or purple, and lastly with the gold liquid in small or large spots, very regular, shaking the bottle before usmg. Burnish tlie edges when dry, and cover them with paper to prevent the dust falling tliereou. This sprinkle will have a most beautiful appearance on extra work. To Gild theEdoesof Books. — Armenian bole, 4 parts; sugar can- dy, 1 part; white of egg to mix. Apply this composition to the edge of the leaves, previously firmly screwed in the cutting-press ; when nearly dry, smooth the surface with the burnisher; then take a damp sponge and pass over it, and with a piece of cotton wool, take the leaf from the cushion and apply it to the work ; when quite dry, burnish, observing to place a piece of silver or India paper between the gold and the agate. CnixESE Edge eok Books.— Color the edge with light liquid blue and dry ; then take a sponge charged with vermilion and. dab on spots according to fancy; next throw on rice, and finish the edge with dark liquid blue, make Paper into Parciemext. — To produce this transforma- tion, take unsized paper and plunge it into a solution of two parts of concentrated sulphuric acid combined with 1 part water; withdraw it immsdiately, and wash it in clean water, and the change is com- plete. It is now fit for writing ; for the acid supplies the want of size, and it becomes so strong that a strip 2 or '6 inches Avide will bear from CO to 80 lbs. weight, while a like strap of parchment will bear only about 25 lbs. To Manufacture Glue.— This article is usually made from the parings and waste pieces of hides and skins, the refuse of tanneries, the tendons and other offal of slaughter houses. They ought to bo obtained and kex^t iu the dry gtato, to prevent decomposition. For 250 LEATHER ATOravERS', &C., nECEirTQ. iiso, llicy nro first steeped for 11 or 15 dcays in milk of lime, and then dniiiied and dried ; tins constitutes tlio cleanin;^ or tlio preparation, lieforc couversiou into {^^luo tliey aro usually steci)ed iu weak uiillc ol linro, well worked iu water, and exposed to the air for 24 hours. Tliey are then placed iu a cop!)er boiler ^ filled witli water and fiu- nislied Avitli a perforated false bottom, to prevent them from burning, and as much is piled ou as will fill tlie vessel and rest on the top of It. Heat is next applied, and gentle boiling continued until tho liquor ou coolmg becomes a gelatinous mass. Tlio clear portion la then ruu off into another vessel, wliero i<: is Icepthot by a water bath, and all around to repose for some hours to deposit, when it is run into tlie congealing boxes and placed in a cool situation. Tlio next morn- ing the cold gelatinous mass is turned out upon boards wetted with water, and are cut horizontally in thin cakes with a stretched piece of brass wire, and into smaller cakes with a moistened flat knife. Theso calces are placed upon nettings to dry, after which they aro dipped one by one in hot Avater and slightly rubbed with a brush v/etted with boilhig water, to give them a gloss ; they are lastly stove dried lor sale. I)uring this time the undissolved skins, &c., left in the cop- per is treated with water and the whole operation is repeated again and again, as any gelatinous matter is extracted. Tho first runnings produce the finest and best glue. The refuse matter from the tan- ners and leather dressers yields on tho average, when dried, 60 per cent of its weight iu glue. To Di'E Leather Yellow.— Picric acid gives a good yellow "without any mordant ; it must be used in very dilute solution, and not warmer than 70° Fahr., so as not to penetrate the leathe Gbeen Dys fob Leathek. — Aniluie blue modifies picric acid to 51 fine green. In dyeing tho leather, the temperature of 85° Fahr., must never be exceeded. >S'ee Aniline Dyes in Dyers' Dep't. DvES FOR Ivory, Horn, and Bone. — Blade. — 1. Lay the articles for several hours in a strong solution of nitrate of sUver, and exposo 1,0 the light. 2. Boil the article for some time in a strained decoction of logwood, and then steep in a solution of per-sulphate or acetate of iron. 3. Immerse frequently in ink until of sufficient depth of color. Blue.—l. Immerse for some dilute solution of sulphate of indigo, partly saturated with potash, and it will be fully stained. 2. Steep in a strong solution of sulphate of copper. Green. — 1. Dip blue-stained articles for a short time in a nitro-hydrochlorate of tin, and then in a hot decoction of fustic. 2. BoU in a solution of verdigris in vinegar until the desired color is obtained. Red. — 1. Dip the article first in a tin mordant used in dyeing, and then plunge in a hot decoction of Brazil wood — I lb. to a gallon of water or — cochineal. 2. Steep in red mk till sufficiently stained. Scarlet. — Use lack dye instead of the pre- ceding. Violet. — Dip in the tin mordant, and then immerse in a decoc- tion of logwood. Yellow. — ^Boil the articles in a solution of alum, 1 lb. to 4 a gallon, then immerse for half an hour in the following mixure: Take ^ lb. of turmeric, and | lb. peaiiash; boil in 1 gal. water: when taken "from this, the bone must be again dipped in the alum solution. ]\Iotheb of Pearl Work. — ^This delicate substance requires great care in its workmansliip, but it may be cut w^ith the aid of saws, files and drills, with the aid of muriatic or sulphuric acid, and it is polished by colcothar, or the brown red Oxide of iron left after the distillation LEATHER WORKERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 251 of tiio aciil from sulphate of iron. In all ornamental -work, whero pearl is said to be used, for flat surfaces, such as inlaying, mosaic work, &c., it is not real pearl, but mother of pearl that is used. To Polish PeakI;.— Take finely pulverized rotten stone and make into a thick paste hy adding olive oil ; then add sulphuric acid a sufficient quantity to make into a tliin paste, apply on a velvet cork ; xub quickly and, as soon as the pearl takes the polish, wash it. To Polish Ivory. — Remove any scratches or file marks that may bo present Avith finely pulverized pumice-stone, moistened with •water. — Then wash the ivorjr and polish with prepared chalk, applied xnoist upon apiece of chamois leather, rubbing quickly. Etching PIuid for Ivory, — Take dilute sulphuric acid, diluto muriatic acid, equal parts : mix. For etching varnish take white wax, *2 parts ; tears of mastic, 2 parts : m^ix. To GILD Ivory. — Immerse it in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold, and then expose it to hydrogen gas while damp. Wash it afterwards in clean Avater. To Silver Ivory. — Pound a small piece of nitrate of silver in a mortar, add soft water to it, mix them well together, and keep in vial ior use. When you wish to silver any article, immerse it in this solution, let it remain till it turns of a deep yellow ; then place it in clear water, and expose it to the rays of the sun. If you wish to depicture a figure, name, or cipher, on your ivory, dip a camel' s-hair jjencil in the solution, and draw the subject on the ivory. After it has turned a deep yellow, wash it well with water, and place it in tho punshine, occasionally wetting it with pure water. In a short time it will turn of a deep black color, which, if well rubbed, will change to ft bviliiant silver. To Softex Ivory. — ^In 3 oz. spirits of nitre and 15 oz. of spring- "water, mixed together, put your ivory to soak ; and in three or four 'days it will obey your fingers. To Whiten Ivory. — Slake some lime in water ; put your ivory in tho water, after being decanted from the grounds, and boil it till it looks quite white. To polish it afterwards, set it in the turner's wheel ; and, after having worked, tal\:e rushes and pumice-stones, subtila ]iowder, with water, rub it till it looks perfectly smooth. Next toi that, heat it by turning it against a piece of linen or sheep-skin leather : and when hot, rub it over with a little dry whiting diluted in oil of olive ; then with a little dry whiting alone : finally with a piece of soft white rag. When aU this is performed as directed, the ivory will look very white. Another way to Bleach Ivory.— Take 2 handfuls of lime, slako it by sprinkling it with water : then add 3 pts. of water, and stir the -whole together ; let it settle ten minutes, and pour the water into a pan for your purpose. Then take your ivory and steep it in the lime- water for 24:hourSj after which, boil it in a strong alum- water 1 hour, and dry it in the air. Horn in Imitation of Tortoise-Shell.— First steam and then press the horn into proper shapes, and afterwards lay the following mixture on with a small brush, in imitation of the mottle of tortoisc- ghell ; Take equal parts of quick lime and litharge, and mix with strong soap-lees ; let this remain until it is thoroughly dry ; brush off, and repeat two or three times if necessary, Such parts as are required 252 LEATHER woekehs', &c., receipts. to 1)0 of a reddish ljro\YU should bo covered with a inLxturo of whiting and the stain. To CUT AND roLTsn ]\[AiiT?T.E. — Tho niarblo saAV is a tliiii phite of Boft irou, continually yupijlicd, during; its Kawui;^ motion, with water and tho sharpest sand. Tho Bawini^ of inodcrato pieces is xjcrl'onned by hand : that of largo slabs is most ocononiically done by a i>ropcr mill. The iirst substance used in the x:)olisliin,i? process is tho sharpest sand, which must be worlvcd with till the surface becomes perfectly flat. Then a second and even a third sand, of increasing fineness, is to bo applied. The next substance is emery, of i)rogressive de;^ree3 of fineness ; after which, tripoli is employed ; and tho last polish is given with tin putty. Tlie body with which tho sand is rubbed upon the marble is usually a plate of iron ; but, for the subsequent process, a plate of lead is used, with fine sand and emery. Tho polishiug- rubbers are coarso linen cloths, or bagging, wedged tight into an iron planing tool. In every stcx) of tho ox)eration, a constant trickling supply of water is required. PowERFUii Cement for Broken JiIardle. — ^Take gum arable, 1 lb. ; make into a thick mucilage: add to it powdered plaster of Paris, 1^ lb. ; sifted quick lime, 5 oz. ; mix well ; heat tho marble, and ax> ply the mixture. Seven Colors For Staining IMarble. — It is necessary to heat the marble hot, but not so hot as to injure it, the proper heat being that at which the colors nearly boil. Blue ; alkaline indigo dye, or turn- sole with alkali. Bed ; Dragon's blood in spirits of wine. Yellow ; gamboge in spirits of wine. Gold Color ; sal-annnoniac, sulphate of zinc, and verdigris equal parts. Green ; sap green in spirits of pot- ash. Brown ; tincture of logwood. Crimson ; alkanet root in tur- I)entine. Marble may be veined according to taste. To stain marblo %Dell is a difficult operation. Perpetuai. Ink for Tomstones, etc. — Pitch, 11 lbs. ; lamx^black, 1 lb, ; turpentine sufficient ; mix with heat. To Clean Old Marble. — Take a bullock's gall, 1 gill soap lees, lialf a gill of turpentine ; make into a paste with pipeclay, apply it to the marble ; let it dry a day or two, and then rub it off, and. it will ■appear equal to new ; if very dirty, repeat the application. To extract Oil from Marble or Stone.— Soft soap, 1 part ; lullers earth, 2 parts ; potash, 1 part ; boiling water to mix. Lay it on the spots of grease, and let it remain for a few hours. To Gild Letters on Marble. — ^Apply first a coating of size and then several successive coats of size thickened with tinely powdered whiting until a good face is produced. Let each coat become dry and rub it down witli fine glass paper before applying the next. Then go over it thinly and evenly with gold size and apply the gold leaf, burn- ishing with an agate ; several coats of leaf will be required to give a, good effect To Clean Marble. — Take two parts of common soda, 1 part pum- ice-stone, and 1 part of finely powdered chalk ; sift it through a fine sieve, and mLx it with water ; then rub it well all over the mar- ble, and tho stains will be removed ; then wash the marble over with Boap and water, and it will be as clean as it was at first. To MAKE a Chemical Baroivieter. — ^Take a long narrow bottle, and put into it 2j drs. of camphor ; spirits of wine 11 drs. When the CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPrS. 253 cnmphor is dissolved, add to it the following mixture : water 9 drs. , saltpetre, 38 grs. ; sal-ammoniac, 38 grs. Dissolve these salts ia tho water prior to mixing with the camphorated spirit ; then shake all well together, cork the bottle weU, wax the top, but afterwards make a very small aperture hi the cork with a red-hot needle. By observ- ing the different appearances which the materials assume as tho weather changes, it becomes an excellent prognosticator of a com- ing storm or of a sunny sky. TkAPPERS' AKD AifGLEKS' SECRET FOB GAME AND FiSH.— A f CW drops of oil of anise, or oil rhodium, on any trapper's bait, will en- tice any wild animal into the snare trap. India cockle mixed with flour dough, and sprinkled on the surface of still water, will intox- icate fish, rendering them insensible ; when coming up to the surface they can be lifted in a tub of fresh water to revive them, when they may be used without fear. Fish may also be caught in large numbers during the winter season by watching them through the ice and striking it with a mallet directly over where they happen to be. The shock stims them, and they will rise, belly upwards towards the surface, when they are easily secured by breaking a hole iu the ice. PAINTERS, CABINETMAKERS, GILDERS, BRONZERS, GLASS STAINERS, &c. CoMPOmrD Colors— 63 Tlnts— Gri*nd Prussian blue in turps, other blue, very fine in linseed oil; mix with white paint to tho color required. Straw. — A mixture of chrome yellow and white lead, oil and turps. Steel. — Mix ceruse, Prussian blue, fine lac, and vermilion, with oil and turps. Purple. — ^^Yhite lead, Prussian bluo and vermilion, with oil and turps. French Gray. — ^^Vhite lead and Prussian blue tinged with vermihon, and for the last coat substitute carmine or lake for vermilion. J)rah. — White lead with a little Prussian blue and French yellow, Ihiseed oil and turps. Another Drab. — White lead with a fi'ttle Prussian blue and lampblack, linseed oil and turps. Dark Red, for common pu rposes. — ]\Iix English Venetian ,red, in boiled oil, with a little red lead and litharge, to give a drying quality. Lighter Red. — Llix together equal parts of Venetian red and red lead in boiled oil and turps. Imitation of Vermilion. — Grind togeth- er, in oil, red lead and rose pink. Deep Red. — Mix in oil, vermilion with, a dust of Venetian red, or red lead. Unfading Orange — ^This is a mix- ture of orange lead (orpiment) and French "or stone yellow, oil and turps. Bright Yellow, for floors. — White lead and linseed oil, mixed with some French yellow, and a little chrome yellow to heighten it, some red lead, burnt wliite* vitriol and litharge, added to give it a dry- mg quality. This color mixed with equal parts of boiled oil and turpentine, and used very thin. Dark Yellow. — Mix French yellow iu boiled oil, adding to it a little red lead or litharge to give the paint -j. drying quality. Light Yellow. — This is a mLx'ture of French yellow and white lead, with oil and turj[x;ntinc. Another. Freucli yellow, 254 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTEPtS', &C., IlECEIPTS. wliito lead and red le.id. Another. — Thif, is a rcixturc of Trnssian bluo, rrench yellow, a pmall portion of Turkey limber, .'uid a litltlo burnt vitriol. Ground tlio wuno way. Anoiher, in oil. — Mix I'russian bluo and chrome yellow, (iround the same. Another Shade. — A mixture of Prussian bluo and French yellow, with a small quantity of white lead and Turkey nnibcr; add burnt vitriol, ground the same. An- other, lUjht. — AViiito mixed with verdi.t^ris. A variety of shades may be obtained by using blue and yellow with -white lead. Another. O/wc— Black and blue mixed with yellow, in such quantities as to obtain the colors or shades required. For distemper, use indigo and yellow pink mixed with whiting or white lead powder. Freestone color. — A mixture of red lead, Venetian red, French yellow and lamj)- black, (varying the shade according to taste,) with linseed oil and turpentine. OUvq Green. — Grind separately, Prussian blue and French yellow, in boiled oil, then mix to the tints required with a little burnt white vitriol to act as a dryer. A cheap and handsome color for outside work, such as doors, carts, wagons, railings, &c. Li(jht CraT/ismade by mixing white lead Avith lampblack, using more or less of each material, as you wish to obtain a lighter or a darker shade. Buff is made from yellow ochre and white lead. Silver or Pearl Gray. — Mix wliite lead, Prussian blue, and a very slight portion of black, regulating tho quantities you wish to obtain. Flaxen Gray is obtained by a mixture of white lead and Prussian blue, with a small quaiitity of lake. BricTc Color. — ^Yellow ochre and red lead, with a little Avhito. OaTc Wood Color. — £ white lead and ^ part umber and j-ellow ochre, proportions of tho last two ingredients being determined by the desired tints. Walnut-tree Color. — § white lead, and ^ red ochre, yellow ochre, and umber, mixed according to the shade sought. If veining is required, use different shades of the same mixture, and for the deepest places, black. Jonquil. — Yellow, pink, and white lead. This color is only i)roper for distemper. Lemon Yellow. — Realgar and orpiment. The same color can be obtained by mixmg yellow pink with Naples yellow; but it is then only fit for distemper. Oranrje Color. — ^Red lead and yellow ochre. Violet Color. — ^VermUion, or red lead, mixed with black or blue, and a small portion of white. Vermilion is preferable to red lead in mixing this color. Purple. — Dark red mixed with violet color. Carnatioii. — ^Lake and white. Gold color. — Massicot, or Naples yellow, with a small quantity of realgar, and a very little Spanish white. Olive Color may be obtained by black and a little blue, mixed with yellow. Yellow-pi ak, with a little verdigris and lampblack; also ochre and a small quantity of white will produce an olive color. For distemper, indigo and yellow- pink, mixed with white lead* or Spanish white, must be used. If veined, it must be done with umber. Lead Color. — ^Prussian blue and wliite. Chestnut Color. — ^Red ochre and black, for a dark chestnut. To make it lighter, employ a mixture of yellow ochre. Light timber Color. — Spruce ochre, white, and a little umber. Flesh Color. — Lake, wliite lead, and a little vermilion. Light Willow Gi^eeji. — ^^Vhite, mixed with verdigris. Gi^ass Green. — ^Yellow-pink mixed with vir- digris. Stone Color. — White, with a little spruce ochre. Dark Lead Color. — ^Black and wiiite, with a little Prussian blue. Fawn Color. — White lead, stone ocnre, with a little vermilion. Chocolate Color. — Lampblack aad Spanish brown. Ou accouni; of the fatness of lamp- CABINETMAKERS, TAINTEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 255 hlack, mis somo litliargo and red lead. Portland Stone Color.— Uriiljer, yellow ochre, aiid white lead. Rose Co^or.— Wliite lead and Garmine or lake. Salmon Color. — ^^Vhite lead and blue, yellow, and red. Pearl CoZor.— AVliite lead, Prussian blue, and red. Slate Color. —"White lead, black, red, and blue. Pea Green.— White lead and Chrome, or Paris green. Cream Color. — White lead, yellow and red. Straw Color.— \Y\\itQ lead and yellow. Peach Blossom Color.— WhWo lead and vermilion. Broicn. — Venetian red and lampblack. Dark Green. — Lampblack and chrome green. Olive Color. — Red, green, or black, yellow and red. Snuff Color. — ^Yellow, sienna, and red. Fkesco Paintino.— Steep good glue over night in water to soften, then melt in a suitable x)ot or kettle, applying the heat cautiously, so as not to boil, as boiling will render it unfit for use. Then take ar? much Paris whiting as yon think yon will use for your first coat, boat it up thick with water to «i perfect pulp to get rid of lumjps, &c. Now put in a pail as much of this whiting mixture as wUl be required for your work and proceed to mix in the colors required to produce tho desired shade. The colors, previously ground in water, should be cautiously mixed with the hand, and the shade tested by drying a little on a shingle or white paper ; if too dark, add more whiting, if too light, more color. Now add enough of your melted glue to bind or fix the color very hard so as not to rise or wash np with your second coat, and test this on paper or wood also, otherwise you may ruin your work. For Yelloio, chrome yellow of differeat tints may- be used. Biff or Brah can be got by a mixture of yellow ochre, red, blue, or black, and sometimes umber is intermixed with good effect. Buif or drab colors may bo produced by yellow ochre, chromo yellow, or raw sienna, intermixed with Turkey umber. For Green, mineral or Paris greens are first class. Any good chromo green wUl suit very well. For Blue, use cobalt ultramaruie blue, Prussian blue and verditer. For Gray, use composition of white, blue, red, and black. For Red, use vermilion, Indian red, Venetian red, lake, and carmine. For Pink or Rose tints, use a mixture of red with white, if not wanted bright, use Indian red, if a strong rich color is desired, use carmine, lake, Venetian red, or vcnnilion. For Black, use bluo black and the Frankfort, or pure ivory black. For Broions for shading, <£-c., use burnt sienna, burnt ochre, purple brown, colcother, burnt umber, Vandyke brown. For other tints, see Compound CoLOES. French Size for Gilding Ornaments, Ceilings, &c. Mix thick glue to the proper consistence, with a little pure honey, this imparts a beautiful color to the gold, and gives a splendid effect to the work. Previous to using the distemper colors, give the walls and v ceilings, if new and clean, a good coat of paint, which should be mixed about § turpentine and linseed oil, using as much Japan dryer as wiU dry it hard ; be careful of adding too much oil, as it wilj epoil the subsequent work. In preparing vestibules, halls, £:c., to stand washing, go over tho walls with oil paint for tlie first coat, but for the last coat no oil ghould be used, only spirits of turpentme. A harder surface will bo given to the wall by adding 1 tablespoonful of good pale copal varnish to each 25 lbs. of paint used for the last coat. Previous to the wall receiving the last two coats, let tho design or panelling be all correctly laid out. 256 CAi:iXET.AIAKERS, PAIXTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. To prepare old walls or ceilings ; if tlicro aro any stains or cracks i;i the plaster, repair Avith size putty, if Hniall, or nso j)laster of Paris luul a little putty limo if the cracks are lai-^e, dainpinj? the i^laces •witli a hrush and water, then applying the i)lastcr ■with a small trowel, afterward:! smootning off neatly. When all is dry and hard ]irei)are the walls or ceilings Avith a coat of i)aint preiiared as bcforo directed, or with a preparation coat in size made of whiting witli an extra cpiantity of melted gUio containing a small quantity of alum. Give the Avails a good coat of tliis, let it harden Avell, then ai)i)ly another ; this ought to he sufficient if good flowing coats are applied. Now mix the colors to the proper tints (in oil), lay in the panels first ; then the stiles, and Avhen dry, put on the fiat or *hu t coat (spirit color). AV'hcn the Avork is dry for i)anelling, use the followhig for mixing the finishing colors : Turpentine, a little mastic varnish, a little white wax, and a little ]iale damar. Varnish, use but little varnish, else too much gloss Avill bo produced, the only use being to cause the color to set quickly to permit rapid Avork. The fresco painter Avill find continued use for a book of designs to illustrate the different orders of architecture, pillars, columns, scrolls, borders, &c. and should make a particular study in the fine of sketch- ing anything and everything calculated to assist him in the business. llousE Taixtixo. — Priviinfi, apply as thick as the paint Avill rpread easilj'", rubbing out Avell with the brush. Use litharge as a dryer. After sandpaiicring and dusting, putty up all the nail heads and cracks Avith a putty-knife. Outside second Coat. Mix j'our paint with raw oil, using it as thick as possible consistent Avith easy spreading. After it is applied, cross-smooth the work mitil it is level and even, then finish lengtliAvise Avith long light sweeps of the brush. Outside third Coat. Make a little thinner than the last, rub out well, cross-smooth and finish A'cry lightly with the tip of the bnish. Inside second Coat. Mix your paint as thick as you can work it, using equal parts of raAV oil and turpentine, rub this out well and carefully with the brush, cross-smooth and finish even and nice. Inside tliird Coat. Mix with 3 parts turpentine and 1 part of raw oil, rub out Avell and smooth off Avitli great care. Fourth Coat, Flaitinrf. Mix with turpentine alone thin enough to admit of spread- ing before it sets. Apply quickly Avithout cross-smoothing, and finish lengthwise with light touches of the tip of the brush, losing no time, as it sets rapidly. Draim Flatting. Ground white lead is mixed with turpentine almost as thin as the last-named mixture. The lead Avill soon settle and the oil and turpentine rise to the top, pour it off, and repeat the mixture xmtil Avhat rises to the top is clear turpentine. The oil being all withdraAvn by this process, the lead is mixed Avith turpentine, and applied thickly and evenly Avith great care. This is used as a fourth coat, and the room must l3e kept shut and free from draught, as the color sets as fast as it is put on. See Porcelain Fixtsii fok Paklors. Plastered Walls. Give them a coat of glue size before painting in oil. KilUnrj Smoky Walls or Ceilings. Wash over the smoky or greasy Avails Avith nitre, soda, or thin lime whitewash, the last is the best. UsEFUii HixTS TO Painters.— Painters' Colic. To % gals, spruce or table beer add 1 dram of sulphuric acid, mix well and let it stand 3 hours. A tumbler full 2 or 3 times per day is said to bo very CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 257 beneficial in casog of lead colic. Sweet oil and milk are also good, ljut acid, fruits, spirituous liquors, and vinegar sliould be avoided in every illness caused by paint. Avoid inhaling tlio dust when handlo- ing dry colors, or driiiliing water wliich has stood long in a painted room or paint shop. Never eat or sleep witliout wasliing the hands and face, and rinsing the mouth, cleaning well out under the nails. Bathe tlie whole body every few days, avoid spattering your clothes, and either wear overalls or change your garments every week, Avell . riring those you put off. Keep your paint shop clean, weir ventilated, and avoid sleeping in it at any time. To Remove Paint from Cloth- inr/. Saturate tlic spots witli equal parts turi->entino and spirits of ammonia until they become soft, then wash out with soapsuds. Jb dissolve Paint Skins, Cleanings of Pots, Brushes, &c. Save them carefully, and dissolve theni by boUmg them in oil. To Clean Prushea. Use turpentine first, then wash in warm soapsuds. To Clean Paint Pails, &c. Use strong ley, hot. Sandinff. The per- forated si)rinlder of a watering pot attached to the nozzle of a pair of bellows, in a first-rate contrivance for applying sand to pamted work. Apply on the fourth or fifth coat, Avith another coat on tho cand. To remove old putty, .apply nitric or muriatic acid. Prussian Blue. — Take nitric acid, any quantity, and as much iron shavings from the lathe as the acid will dissolve ; heat the iron as hot as can be handled with the hand; then add it to the acid in small quantities as long as the acid will dissolve it; then slowly add double tlie quantity of soft water that tlicre was of acid, and put in iron again as long as the acid will dissolve it. 2d. Take prus- date of potash, dissolve it in the hot water to make a, strong solution, and make sufhcient of it with the first to give the depth of tint de- fired, and the blue is made. Another Method. — ^A 'very passable Prussian blue is made by taking sulprate of iron (copperas) and prussiateof potash, equal parts of each; and dissolving each separately in water, then mixing the two waters. Chrome Yellow. — 1st. Take sugar of lead and Paris white, of each 5 lbs.; dissolve them in hot Avater. 2d. Take bichromate of l^jotash, oz.: and dissolve it in hot water also; each article to bo dissolved separately; then mix all together, putting in the bichro- mate last. Let stand twenty-four hours. Chrojie Green.— Take Paris white, lbs. ; sugar of lead, and blue vitriol, of each 3| lbs. ; alum, 10^ oz. ; best soft Prussian blue, and chrome yellow, of each 3^ lbs. Mix thoroughly while in fine powder, r.nd add water, 1 gal., stirrmg well, and let stand three or four hours, Another Green, durable and cheap. — Take spruce yellow, and color it with a solution of chrome yellow and Prussian blue, until you give it the shade you wish. Another Method. — Blue vitriol, 5 lbs. ; sugar of lead, Gi lbs.; arsenic, 2^ lbs. ; bichromate of potash, 1^ oz.; mix them thoroughly in fine powder, and add water 3 parts, mixmg weU again and let stand three or four hours. Pea Brown. — 1st. Take sulphate of copper any quantity, and dissolve it in hot water. 2d. Take prussiate of potash, dissolve it in iiot water to make a strong solution; mix of the two solutions, as in the blue, and the color is made. Rose Pink.— Brazil wood 1 lb., and boil it for two hours, having 1 gal. of water at tho end; then strain it, and boil alum, 1 lb., in tho 258 CABINETMAKERS, TAINTERS', &C., KECEll'TS. water until dissolved; -when Rnflicie-ntly cool to .idmit the hand, .idd muriiito oi" tin, ;^ oz. Now lu'ivo I'aris white, 12.^ lb, ; moisten up to a Kalvy cousistcncc, and avIicu tlio tirst is cool, stir them thoroughly to";ether. Let stand twenty-four liours. Tatent Yellow. — Common salt, 100 lbs., and litharge, 400 lbs., :vre ground top;ether with water, and for Bonio time in a gentle heat, water being added to su])p]y tlie loss by evaporation; the carbonato of soda is then washed out witli moiD water, uud tho wliito residuuiu heated till it acquires a fme yellow color. Naples Yellow. — Nol. Metallic antimony, 12 lbs.; red lead, 8 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 4 lbs. INIix, calcine, triturate well together, and fuse in a crucible: tho fused mass must bo groimd and ekitriated to a fme powder. Cheap Y'elt.ow Paint. — ^^Vhiting, 3 cwt. ; ochre, 2 cwt. ; ground ^vliite lead, 25 lbs. Factitious linseed oil to grind. Stone Color Paint. — Koad-dast sifted, 2 cwt.; ground wliito lead, icwt, ; whiting, 1 cwt.; ground umber, 1-1 lbs.; lime water, G gals. "Factitious linseed oil to grind. Glazier's Putty. — AVhiting, 70 lbs. ; boiled oil, 20 lbs. Mix; if too thin, add more whiting; if too thick, add more oil. To Imitate Brown Fiieestone. — First malce a pretty thick oil paint of the same color as the stone to be imitated, which may bo done in different ways, the basis is white lead or zinc white, colored with umber and mars red, or any other pigments which suit you; put it on as usual, and while yet stic'lcy throw common white sand against it ; this will not affect the color and will make a rough, sandy coat imitatuig the surface of the stone. German Carmine. — Cochineal, 1 lb. ; water, 7 gals. ; boil for 5 minutes, then add alum, 1 oz. Boil for 5 minutes more, filter and set aside the decoction in glass or porcelain vessels for 3 days, then decant the liquor and dry the cannino in the shade. The remaining liquor will still deposit cf an inferior quality, by standing. Stain for Floors. — To strong icy of Vv'ood-ashes add enough copperas for the required oak shade. Put this on with a mop and. and varnish afterwards. Lead Color for Iron. — Take litharge and place it over a fire in a ladle ; sprinkle over it flour of brimstone to turn it dark ; grind it iu oil. It dries quick and stands well in any weather. A Good Imitation of Gold. — ]\Iix white lead, chrome yellow and burnt sienna until the proper shade is obtained. Beautiful White Paint. — For inside work, which ceases to smell, and dries in a few hours. Add 1 lb. of frankincense to 2 qts. turpentine ; dissolve it over a clear fire, strain it, and bottle it for use; then add 1 pt. of this mixture to 4 yts. bleached linseed oil, shake them well together, grind white lead in spirits of turpentine, and strain it ; then add sufficient of the lead to make it proper for paint- ing ; if too thick in using, thin with turpentine, it being suitable for the Ijest internal work on account of its superiority and exi^ense. For a Pure White Paint.— Nut-oil is the best : if Linseed oil is used, add one-third of turpenthie. To IMix Common White Paint. — Mix or grind white lead in lin- seed oil to the consistency of paste ; add turi^entine in the proportion of one quart to the gallon of oil ; but these proportions must be va- CABIXET3xAiIEli3, PAIXTEKS', &C., KECEirTS. 259 ricd according to circunistancof?. Remember to strain your color ipr the better sorts of v/ork. If tlie work is exposed to the siui, use moro turpentine for the ground-color, to prevent its blistering. IxvisiBLE Gkken fok Outsidb Wokk. — Mix lampblack and French yellow with burnt white vitriol. Tliese colors mix in boiled oil. Biirnt vitriol is tlie best drier for greens, as it is liowerful and colorless, and, consequentlj'', will not injure the color. iJlilGIIT VAENISn GllEEN, FOB INSIDE BLINCS, FeXDERSj (StC. — ^TllQ work must first be painted over Avith a light lead color, and, when dry, grind some white lead in spirits of turpentine ; afterwards take about j\ in bulk of verdigris, which has been ground stiff in linseed oil ; tlicn mix them both together, and put into a little resin varnish, sufiicient only to bind the color. When tliis is hard, which will be tlio case in 15 minutes, pour into the color some resin to give it a good gloss. Then go over the work a second time and, if required, a third time. Thus you will have a cheap and beautiful green, with a high, polish. It ]josscsses a very drying quality, as the work may be com- pleted in a few hours. The tint may be varied accordhig to taste, by substituthig mineral green for verdigris ; and if a bright grass-grecu is l equircd, add a little Dutch pink to the mixture. N.B. — This color nuist bo used when quite warm, to give the varnish a miiform e::- tension. CoMrouND Greek's.— This is a mixture of whiting, indigo ar,d Dutch pink, the intensity of which may bo increased or diminished by the adclition of blue or yellow. These mixtures will not admit of any fixed rules in regard to the quantities of the matters used in their composition. They must depend on tho taste of the artist and tlie tone he is desirous of giving to the color. Pea Green. — Take one pomid of genuine mineAil green, one pound of the precipitate of copper, one pound and a lialf of blue verditcr, three pounds of white lead, three ounces of sugar of lead, and three ounces of burnt white vitriol, ]\Iix the wliole of these ingredients in linseed oil, and grind them quite fine. It will produce a bright mineral pea-green paint, preserve a blue tint and keep any length of time in any climate, without injury, by putting water over it. To use this color for house or ship painting, take one pound of the gi'een paint with some pale boiled oil, mix them well together, and this will pro- duce a strong pea-green paint. Tho tint may be altered at pleasure, by adding a j)roportionate quantity of white lead to the green, which, may be ground in linseed oil, and thinned with spirits of turpentine for'use. It may also be used for painting ^'cnetian Avindow blinds, by adding white lead and mixing the color with boiled oil. For all the aforesWd preparations it will retain a blue tint, which is very desir- able. For Knotting. — One pint of vegetable naphtha, 1 tablespoonful of red lead, ^ pint of japanners' gold size, 7 ozs. of orange shellac, mix all together, set in a warm -place to dissolve, and frequently shako. Anotlier. — Mix white lead, or red lead powder, in strong glue size, and apply it warm. AViiiTE Lead. — The most usual method of manufacturing white lead is that known as the Dutch method. It consists in exiiosing lead, cast in thin gratings, to the combmed action of acetic acid, moist air and carbonic acid gas. The gratings are suppoitcd a little above tho 260 CAIilNETMAKEllS, J AINTEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. bottom of eai'then pots, similar to flowerpots, in each of which a small quantity of wealc acetic acid is placed. The pots aro built up in al- tcruato layers with spent tanners' bark, until a stack is formed, each layer of i)ot3 being covered with a board. Fermentation soon takes place in tlic tan, and serves the double i)laco of generating heat and supplying carbonic acid. Alter the lapse of six or ciglit Aveeks, tho metallic lead is found converted into Avhitc masses of carbonic mixed with liydrated oxide. It is then levigated, washed, dried, and ground vrith oil. To CcTRE DAJvrp Walls.— Boil 2 ozs. of grease with 2 quarts of tar, for nearly twenty minutes, in an iron vessel, and have ready pounded glass, 1 lb. ; slaked lime, 2 lbs. ; Avell dried in an iron pot and silted through a flour sieve ; add some of tho lime to the tar and glass, to make it tho thickness of thin paste, sullicieut to cover a f^quare foot at a time, as it hardens so quick. Apply it about an eighth of an inch thick. To Protect Wood a>-t) Brick work froim Damp Weather. — Take 3 pecks of lime, slaked in the air, 2 pecks of wood-ashes, and 1 peck of white sand. Sift them fine, and add linseed oil suffi- cient to use with a paint brush : thin the first coat ; use it as thick as it will Avork for the second coat, grind it fine, or beat it in a trough, and it is a good composition. Putty for Kepaikixg Brokex Walls. — The best putty for walls is composed of equal parts of whiting and plaster of Paris, as it quick- ly hardens. The walls may be immediately colored upon it. Somo painters use whiting with size ; but this is not good, as it rises above the surface of the walls, and shows the patches Avhen the work is finished. Lime mi^st not be used as putty to repair walls, as it will destroy almost every color it comes in contact with. Instructions fob Sign Writing, -with the Colors to be USED FOR the Ground AND LETTERS. — Oil an oalc ground, orna- mental letters, in ultramarine blue, filled in with gold and silver leaf, hlocked up and shaded Avith burnt sienna. Another. — Gold letters on a Avhite marble ground, blocked up and shaded with a transparent Thrown or burnt sienna. On glass. — Gold letters, shaded Avith burnt sienna. Another. — Gold letters, shaded with black, on a scarlet or chocolate ground. On a rich blue ground, gold letters, double shaded, black and white. White letters on a blue ground, shaded Avith black, look very Avell. On a purple ground, pink letters sliaded with white. Mix ultramarine and vermilion for a ground color, white letters shaded Avith a light grey. Vermilion ground, chrome yellow, stained -with vermilion and lake, for the letters, shaded black. A substitute for the above colors: Kose pink and red lead; and for the letters, Etone yclloAV, white lead and Venetian red. A good substitute for gold is obtamed by grinding white lead, chrome yellow, and a dust of vermilion together. Mix your colors for writing in boiled oil, and use for drier gold size. Other good grounds for gold letters are: blues, vermilion, lake, and Saxon. When your sign is ready for filding, follow the directions given under the head of *' To Gild ,eiters on Wood." To Give Lustre to a Light Blue Ground.— After the letters are written and dry, paint the ground over again, between the letters, witli the same color, and wlnlo wet take pulverized Prussian blue and CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 261 gift over the surface; glass, frost, or smalts may be used instead ol or Avithtlie blue. When dry, brush off the loose particles. GiLDEEs' Got.D Size. — Drying or boiled linseed oil, thickened •with yellow ochre, or calcined red ochre, and carefully reduced to tho utmost smoothness by grmding. Thin with oil of turpentine. To Gild Letters os Wood, &c. — ^AV hen your sign is prepared as smooth as possible, go over it with a sizuig made by white of an eg<7 dissolved in about four times its weight of cold water; adding a small quantity of fuller's earth, this to prevent the gold sticking to any part but the letters. When dry, set out the letters and cdmmenco ^vriting, laying on tho size as thiiily as possible, with a sable pencil. Let it stand until you can barely feel a slight stickiness, then go to work with your gold leaf, knife, and cushion, and gild the letters Take a leaf up on tlie point of your knife, after giving it a slight puf£ into the back part of your cushion, and spread it on the front part of the cushion as straight as possible, giving it another slight pulf with your mouth to flatten it out. Now cut it into the proper size, cutting with the heel of your Icnife forwards. Now rub the tip lightly on your hair; take up the gold on the jp'mt, and place it neatly on tho letters; when they are all covered get some very fine cottonwool, and gently rub the gold until it is smooth and bright. Then wash tlie sign with clean water to take off tho egg size. jS'ce Gildinfj on Wood. To Use Smalts. — For a gold lettered sign, lay out on a lead color or white surface the line of letters, and roughly size the shape of each letter with fat oil size. This must be allowed at least 12 hours to get tacky and ready for gildhig. After the gold leaf is laid and perfectly dry, mix up (for blue smalts) Prussian blue and keg lead with oil, adding a little dryer. Outline carefully around the letters, and fill up all the outside with blue paint; then with a small sieve sift on the smalts, allowing the sign to lay norizontally. Cover every ]iart with plenty of smalts, and allow it to remain unmolested until the paint is dry. Then carefully shake off the suqilus smalts, and the work is done. Superfiot: Size for Gildixg.— Good drying oil, 1 lb. ; pure gum animi, powdered, 4 ozs. ; bring the oil almost to the boiling iwint in a covered metal pot, add your gum gradually and cautiously to the oil, stirring all the time to dissolve completely. Boil to a tarry con- sistency and strain while warm through silk into a warm bottle with a wide mouth; keep it well corked; use as required, thinning with turi^entine. This is the celebrated Birmingham " secret size," and is unequalled for tenacity and durability. Size to Jix the Pearl on Glass Sif/ns. 1. Copal varnish 1 part, Canada balsam 2 parts. 2. Pure mastic varnish. 3. Pale, quick drying copal varnish. To Paint Banners, &c., on Cloth or Silk.— Stretch the fabric upon a frame, and finish yQur design and lettering. Use a size made of bleached shellac dissolved in alcohol, thinned to the proper consistence, go over such parts as are to be gilded or painted, over- rmming the outlines slightly, to prevent the color from spreading. For inside work the white of an egg makes a good size; lay the gold while the size is still wet, when dry, dust off the suriilus gold, and proceed with tho shading, painting, &c. A little honey, combined ynth thick gluo, is another good size. 2G2 CABINETMAKKIIS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. JArANNED Tin Sir.xs.— Draw yonr letters on paper to suit your piece of tin, haviiipf first cleaned it witli diluted alcohol and a jiic'ce at cotton. Tliis will remove any grease or otlicr matter tliat might hold the gold. Then take some wliiting and rub it over the back of tho ])aper upon which your design is inade and lay it upon tlic Japanned tin. Next place a weiglit upon the four corners of tlie paper, or otherwise fix it securely to the tin ; the]i, with a line ]K)intcd piece of hard wood, trace tlie design carefully, hearing upon tlie ])nper with the point just hard enougli to cause the whiting on tlie under side of the paper to adhere to tho tin, and after going carefully over tho whole, you will have transferred tlio entire design in fine white out- line to the tin you are to finish it upon. Now size with oil size, and when dry enough for gilding, lay on tho gold leaf and dab it down thoroughly, afterwards brushiug o££ tho looso gold with your flat camel-hair brush or cottoii. Changeable Signs. — Maks a wooden sign in tho usual manner, and have a projecting moulding around it. Now cut thin groovcn into the moulding, an inch apart, allowing each cut to reach to tho surface of the sign. In each of these grooves insert strips of tin ono inch wide ; and long enough to reach quite across the sign board. When all are fitted, take out the tin strips, and placing them edge to edge on a level fcible, paint any desired words on their imitcd Burface ; when dry, reverse them and paint other words on tho opposite side. Now finish your lettering as usual on the wooden sign board, and when dry, insert the painted tin strips in correct order in tho grooves. Thh will present tho curious novelty of thrco K\gns in one, as viewed from difTerent positions. Transparent Ceotit. — Dissolve together white rosin, pulverized, 8 ozs., bleached linseed oil G ozs., wiiite beeswax 1^ ozs., add tho turpentine whUe hot. Apply to both sides of tlie "cloth while it is stretched tight. A good vehicle for mising colors for painting on cloth or paper is gum shellac dissolved in alcohol. TiNSELEED Letter Glass Signs. — Paint tho ground- work of your sign, on glass, any desired color, but bo careful to leave the lettering or design naked, after it is dry, take any of the fancy colored copper or tm foils, crumple them in your hand and apply them over the black lettering, &c., after partially straightening them out. To Incritst "Window Glass with Jewels. — Dissolve dextrine in a concentrated solution of sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper or other metallic salts, strain the liquid and brush a thin coat of it over the glass and dry slowly at the ordmary temperature, keeping the glass level. For protection it may bo varnished. The effect produced is that of an incrustation of dia- monds, sapphires, &c., according to the color of the salt used. To Paint in Imitation of Ground Glass. — Grind and mix white lead in three-fourths of boiled oil and one-fourth spirits of tur- pentine, and to give the mixture a very drying quality, add sufficient quantities of burnt white vitriol and sugar of lead. The color must be exceedingly thin, and put on the panes of glass with a large sized paint brush in as even a manner as possible. "When a number of the ]ianes are thus painted, take a dry duster quite new, dab the ends of the bristles on the glass in quick succession, till you give it a unifonn appearance. Repeat this operation till the work appears very soft I CABIN ETilAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 263 and it mil then appear like ground glass. When the glass requires fresh pamting, get the old coat off first by using strong pearl-ash water. Another il/ei/iod.— Spirits of salts, 2 bzs. ; oil of vitriol, 2ozs. ; sulphate of copper, 1 oz. ; gum arable, 1 oz. ; mix all well together, and dab on the glass Vv'ith a brush. Another, — Dab your squares regularly over with putty; when dry, go over them again; the imita- tion will be complete. Paintikg on Glass. — Take clear rosm, 1 oz., melt in an iron ves- sel. When all is melted, let it cool a little, hnt not harden; then add oil of turpentine sufficient to keep it in a liquid state, AVhen cold, use it with colors ground in oil. Hard Drying Paint, — Grind Venetian red, or any other color you Avish, in boiled oil; then thin it with black japan. It will dry very hard for counter tops, &c. Paste for Paper Hangings, Books, Paper Boxes, &c. — Good wheat flour, sifted, 4 lbs., make it into a stiff batter Avith cold water in a pail, beat it well to break the lumps, then add pulverized alu]n, 2 ozs. Into this pour boiling water, hissing hot from the fire, stirring the batter thoroughly all the time. As it cooks it swells and losesits white color, and Avhen cold, will make about | of a pail of thick paste. Thin with cold Avater to adapt it for easy use witli the brush. For painted or A'arnished walls, add ^ oz., pulverized rosin to each 2 qts. jmste, and reduce the mass Avith thin gum arable or glue water. A little pulverized corrosive sublimate Avill enhance the keeping qualities of paste, but alum used as above will do very well. To Remoa^e Old Paint. — Sal soda, 2 lbs. ; lime, ^ lb. ; hot water, 1 gal. ; rummage all together and apply to the old paint while warm. It will soon loosen the paint so that you can easily remove it. Ano- ther simple method is to sponge over your old paint Avith benzine, set it on the fire, and you can then flake off the paint as quick as you like. Do not attempt to go over too much surface at a time, otherwise yon might get more to do than you can attend to. Refuse Paint and Paint Skins. — Dissolve sal soda, | lb., in rain Avater, 1 gal, ; cover the refuse paint for 2 days, then heat it, adding oil to reduce it to a i^roper consistence for painting and strain- ing. Spirit Graining for Oak.— Two pounds of whiting, quarter of a pound of gold size, thinned doAvn Avith spirits of turpentine; then tinge your whiting with Vandyke brown and raw sienna, ground fine. Strike out your lights with a fitch dipped in turpentine, tinged with a little color to show the lights. If your lights do not appear clear, add a little more turpentine. Turpentine varnish is a good substitute for the above mentioned. This kind of graining must be brushed over with beer, Avith a clean brush, before varnishing. Strong beer must be used for glazing up top-graining and shading. Oil for Graining Oak. — Grind Vandyke broAvn in turpentine, add as much gold size as will set, and as much soft soap as will make it stand the comb. Should it set too quickly, add a little boiled oil. Put a teaspoonful of gold size to half a pint of turpentine, and as much soap as Avill lie on a tAventy-five cent piece, then take a little soda mixed with water and take out the veins. To Prepare the Ground for Oak Rollers.— Stain your white lead with raw sicima and red lead, or with chrome yellow and Veue- 264 CAniNETMAKEr.s, painters', &c,, receipts. tianrcd; thin it with oil .ind turps, jvnd strain for use. When tho ground work is dry, grind in beer, Vandyke brown, Avliiting and a little burnt sienna, for tlie graining color; or you may use raw sienna with a little whiting, umbers, &c. To Imitate Oli> Oak. — To make an exceedingly rich color for tlie imitation of old oak, tlie ground is a composition of stone ochre or orange chrome and burnt sienna; the graining color is burnt umber or Vandyke brown, to darlcen it a little. Observe that tlio above colors must be used whether the imitation is in oil or distemper. AVhen dry, varnish. To Imitate Old Oak, ix Oil.— Grind Vandj-kc and whiting in turi^entine, add a bit of common soap to make it stand the comb, and thin it with boiled oil. To Imitate Pollard Oak. — ^Thc ground color is prepared with a mixture of chrome yellow, vermilion, and white lead, to a rich light buH. The graining colors are Vandyke brown and small portions of raw and burnt sienna and lake ground in ale or beer. Fill a largo tool with color, spread over the surface to be grained, and soften with tl^e badger hair brush. Take a moistened sponge between the thumb and finger, and dapple roimd and round in kind of Icnobs, then soften very lightly; then draw a softener from one set of knobs to the other while Avet, to form a multiplicity of grains, and finish the laiots with a hair pencil, in some places in thicker clusters than others. When dry put the top grain on in a variety of directions, and varnish with turps and gold size; then glaze up with Vandyke and strong ale. To finish, varnish with copal. To Imitate Mottled ]MAnoGA>"r.— The ground is prepared with the best English Venetian red, red lead, and a small portion of white lead. Tke graining colors are bunit sienna, ground in ale, with a small portion of Vandyke brown, sufficient to take away the fiery ap- pearance of the sienna. Cover the surface to be grained, soften with the badger hair brush, and while wet take a mottling-roller and go over the lights a second time, in order to give a variety of shade, then blend the whole of the work with the badger softener. Put the top grain on with the same color. AVhen dry, varnish. To Imitate Rosewood. — Mix vermilion and a small quantity of white lead for tho ground. Take rose pink, tinged witli a littlo lampblack, or Vandyke brown, and grind very fine in oil, then tako n flat graining brush, with the hairs cut away at unequal distinccs, and cut down the grain as if wendmg round a knot When nearly dry, take a graining comb that is used for oak, and draw down tho grain. This wiirgive it the appearance of nature. When dry, vamish. Another. — The groimd color is prepared with vermilion and small quantities of white lead and crimson lake. When tho ground is dry and made very smooth, take Vandyke brown, ground in oil, and with a small tool spread the color over the surface in dif- ferent directions forming kind of knots. Before the work is dry, take a piece of leather, and with great freedom strike out the light veins; having previously prepared tlie darkest tint of Vandyke brown, or gum asphaltum, immediately take the flat graining brush with few hairs in it, draw the grain over the work and soften. When varnished, the imitation will be excellent. Another Rosewood Imitation in Size.— Mix Venetian red, CABINETMAKERS, TAINTERS', &C., EECEirTS. 265 white lead powder, vermilion and common size, the consistency of which, when cold, must be tliat of a weak trembling jelly. With this comi^osition paint the work twice over. When the ground is dry, take some lampblack, finely ground in beer, and beat the white of an egg mto it; take the flat graining brush, dipped in the black, and put on the grain. When dry, stain the first coat of varnish witli roso pink, finely groimd in turpentine, and finish the work by giving it a coat of clear varnish To Imitate Bird's-eye Maple.— The groimd is a light buff, pre- pared with white lead, chrome yellow, and a little vermilion or Eng- lish Venetian red, to take off the rawness of the yellow. The grain- ing color is equal parts of raw umber aud sienna ground in oil to the proper consistency. Spread the surface of the work with this color, and, having some of the same prepared a little thicker, immediately take a sash tool or sponge, and put on the dark shades, and soften with the badger' s-hair brush before the color is dry put on the eyes "by dabbing the dotting machine on the work. When dry, put on the grain with the camel' s-hair pencil on the prominent parts, to imitate the small hearts of the wood. When dry, varnish. To Imitate Curled Maple.— Prepare a light yellow for the ground, by raixmg chrome yelloAV and white lead, tinged with Vene- tian red. The graining color is a mixture of equal portions of raw sienna and Vandyke, ground in ale; spread the surface to be grained in an even manner; then with a piece of cork rub across the Avork to and fro, to form the grains which run across the wood. When dry, varnish. Curled Maple ix Oil, for Outside Work. — Prepare a rich ground by mixing chrome yellow, white lead and burnt sienna. For the graining color, grind equal parts of raw sienna and umber with a little burnt copperas in turpentine, aud mix with a small quantity of grainer's cream. Thin the color with boiled oil; then fill a tool and spread the surface even, and rub out the lights with the sharp edge of a piece of buff leather, which must now and then be wiped to keep it clean; soften the edges of the work very lightly, and when dry, put on the top grain with burnt umber and raw sienna, ground in ale, with the white of an egg beat mto it. When dry, varnish. Satinwood. — ^This ground is prepared with white lead, stone ochre, and small quantities of chrome yellow aud burnt sienna. The grain- ing color is one-third of raw sienna and whiting, ground in pale ale, very thin; then spread the color over the surface to be grained. While wet, soften, and have ready a wet roller or mottling brush, in order to take out the lights; blend the whole with the badger's-hair brush. AVhen the work is dry, take the flat brush, and with the same color, put on the top again. When dry, varnish. To Imitate Yeav Tree.— The ground is a reddish buff. For the graining color grind in ale" equal portions of Vandyke brown and burnt sienna, with a smaU quantity of raw sienna. When the ground is dry, spread the surface even with the color, and soften; then with a piece of cork with a sharp edge, rub the work cross and cross in order to form the fine grain. When dry, dip the tip of your fingers in the graining color to form the eyes or knots, and put in the small touches with a camel' s-hair pencil. When dry, put on the top grain, and when this is dry, varnish. 266 CABINETMAKERS, TAIXTIIRS', .tC, RFX'KirTS. To TmTATR Br.AGiv axt> Gold Marklk.— Tin;* description of marble is now in great dciiuincl. Tlie ground is a deep jet black, or a dead color, in gold size, drop black and tiiri).s: second coat, black japan. Commoncc vcining; mix Avhito and yellow ochre with a small quantity of vermilion to give a gold tinge; dip the pencil in this color, and dab on the ground with great freedom some large ]xitchc.s, from which small threads must be drawn in various directions. In tho deepest parts of the black, a white vein is sometimes seen running with a great number of small veins attaclied to it; but care must bo talcen that these threads are connected with, and rim in some degree in the same direction with the thicker veins. If durability is not an object and the work is required in a short time, it may bo executed very quick iu distemper colors, and wlieu varnished, it will look well. Ked Mar"bi,-e. — ^For the ground, put on a white tinged with lake or vermilion; then apply deep rich reds in patches, filling up the inter- mediate spaces with broAm and white mbced in oil ; then blend them together; if in quick dryhig colors, use about lialf turps and gold size. When dry, varnish ; and while the varnish is wet, put in a multitude of tlie fine white threads, crossing the whole work iu all directions, as the wet varnish brings the pencil to a fine point. Jaspeii Makble. — Put on a Avhitc ground lightly tinged with blue; then i)ut on patches of rich reds or rose i)ink, leaving spaces of tho ■white grounds; then i)artly cover those spaces Avith various browns to form fossils, iu places running veins ; then put in a few spots of white in the centre of some of the red i^atches, and leaving iu X)lacC3 masses nearly all white. "When dry, use the clearest varnish. Blue and Gold Marble. — For the ground put oua light Wuo; then lake blue, with a small ijiece of white lead and some dark com- mon blue, and dab on the ground on patches, leaving portions of tho ground to shine between ; then blend the edges together with duster or softener; afterwards draw on some Avhite veins in every direction, leaving large opea spaces to be filled up with a pale yelloAV or gold- paint; finish with some fine white rimuing threads, and a coat of varnish at last. To Imitate GRAmTE, — For the ground color, gtiiin your wliito lead to a light lead color, with lampblack and a little rose ])iuk. Throw on black spots, with a graniting machine, a pale red^ and fill up ■with white before the ground is dry. Another. — A black ground, when half dry, throw in vermilion, a deep yellow and white spots. To Imitate Hair Wood.— For the ground color, take white lead and thin it with turi^entine, and slightly stain it with equal quantities of Prussian blue and lampblack. For the graining color, grind in alo a mixture of Prussian blue and raw sienna; when the ground is dry, epread a transparent coat of the graining color on the surface of the Avork, and soften; then with the cork, mottle by rubbing it to aiid fro across the work, to form the fine long grain or mottle. When this is done, soften and top grain in wavy but perpendicular direc- tions; varnish when dry. Substitute for White Lead.— Sulphate of Imrytes ground in oil and applied like paint. It can also bo used to reduco white lead ta any desired extent. CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 267 Paint for Black Boards in Schools.— Common glue, 4 oz. ; fiourof emerj^ 3 oz. ; aud just lampblack enough to give an inky color to the preparation. Dissolve tlio glue in 5 qt. of -warm water, l)ut in the lampblack and emery, stir till there are no lurap.s, then apply to the board Avith a woollen rag .smoothly rolled. Three coats are amply sufficient. Compound Ikox Paint. — ^Finely pulverized iron filings, 1 part; brick dust, 1 part; and ashes, 1 part. Pour over them glue-wafer or size, set the whole near the fire, and, when warm, stir tbem well together. With this paint cover all the wood work which may bo in danger; when dry, give a second coat, and the wood will bo rendered incombustible. Filling Coimpositions— 12 kintds.— 1. Work finished in oil should receive a substantial filling consisting of equal parts by Avcight of whiting, i)laster of Paris, pumice-stone, and litharge, to whicii may he added a little Prencli yellow, asphaltum, Vandyke brown, and terra di sienna. Mix with 1 part japan, 2 of boiled oil, and 4 of tur- pentine. Grind fine in a mill. Lay the filling on with a brush, rub it in well, let it set 20 minutes, then rub off clean. Let it harden for some time, rub smooth, and if required, repeat the process. When the filling is all right, finish with linseed oil, applying with a brush, wipe off, and rub to a polish with fine cotton, and finish with any fine fabric. Some fill with rye flour, wheat flour, corn starch, Paris white, &c., ground fine in oil and turpentine, but when work is to bo varnished, such filling should previously receive one or two good coats of shellac. 2. lioiled linseed oil, 1 qt. ; turpentine: 3 qts. ; corn starch, 5 lbs. ; japan, 1 qt. ; calcined magnesia, 2 oz. Mix thorouglil}'. 3. AVhiting, 6 ozs. ; Japan, ^- i^t. ; boiled linseed oil, ^ pt. ; turpen- tine, ^ pt. ; corn starclj, 1 oz. : mix well together and apply to the wood. On walnut wood add a little burnt umber; on cherry a little Venetian red, to the above mixture. 4. On furniture apply a coat of lioiled linseed oil, then immediately sprinkle dry whiting upon it, and run it in well with your hand or a stiff brush, all over the surface; the whiting absorbs the oil, and fills tlie pores of the wood completely. For black walnut, add a, littlo burned umber to the whiting; for cherry, a little Venetian red, &c., according to the color of the wood. Turned work can have it applied while in motion in the latlie. Furni- ture can afterwards be finished witli only one coat of varnish. 5. Ter- ra alba is a very good and very cheap filling. JNIany painters have been most shamefully imposed on by parties selling the stuff at a high price. 6. Furniture Pastes. — Beeswax, spts. turpentine and linseed oil, equal parts; melt and cool. 7. Beeswax, 4 ozs.; turpentine, 10 ozs.; alkanetroot to color; melt and strain. 8. Beeswax, 1 lb.; lin- seed oil, 5 ozs. ; alkanet root, ^ oz., melt and add 5 ozs. turpentine, strain and cool. 9. Beeswax, 4 ozs. ; rosin, 1 oz. ; oil of tui^:)entine, 2 ozs. ; digest until sufficiently colored, then add beeswax till dissolved, then add beeswax scraped small, 4 ozs. ; put the vessel into hot water, and stir till dissolved. If wanted j)a?(3 the alkanet root should be omitted. 10. (White.) White wax, 1 lb.; liquor of potassa, ^ gal.; boil to a proper consistency. 11. Beeswax, 1 lb. ; soap, ^ lb. ; pearlash, 3 ozs., dissolved in water, ^ gal. ; strain and boil as tlie last. 12. Yel- low wax, 18 parts; rosin, 1 part; alkanet root, 1 part; turpentine, 6 parts; linseed oil 6 parts. First steep the alkanet in oil with heat, 268 CAniNETMAKERS, PAIXTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. rnd, -nlicn -well colored, pour off the clear on llio other ingredients, and .'isain heat till all avo dissolved. 13. l'\(rnUure Cream. — Bees- Avax, lib.; soap, 4 ozs. ; pearlash, 2 ozs. ; soft water, 1 gal., boil to- gether until mixed. To liKi'Aiii THE SiiA-ERixo OF IMmRORS.— Ponr npon a sheet of tin foil 3 drs. of quicksilver to the square foot of foil. Kub smartly ■with a piece of buckskin until the foil becomes brilliant. Lay tho glass npon a flat table, face downwards, place tho foil upon tho damaged portion of tho glass, lay a sheet of paper over tho foil, and place Upon it a block of wood or a piece of marble with a perfectly flat surface; put upon it sufflcient Aveight to press it down tight; let it remain iu this position a few hours. The foil will adhere to tho glass. Pencils for Wkitixg on Glass.— Stearic acid, 4 pts.; mutton- suet, 3 pts. ; wax 2 pts ; melt together and add G pai-ts of red lead, and 1 pt. purified carbonate of potassa, previously triturated together; set aside for an hour in a warm situation, stirring frequently; then pour into glass tubes or hollow reeds. Polishes— 15 kinds.— 1. Carvers' Polish.— V>lnt(i resin,"" 2 oz. ; gecdlac, 2 oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 pt. Dissolve. It should bo laid on warm. Avoid moisture and dampness when used. 2. French Polish. — Gum shellac, 1 oz. ; gum arable, | oz. ; gum copal, ^ oz. Powder, and sift through a piece of muslin; put them in a closely corked bot- tle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, in a very warm situation, shaking every day till the gums are dissolved ; then strain through muslin, and cork lor use. 3. Polish for DarTc-colorecl Woods. — Seedlac, 1 oz. ; gum guaiacum, 2 drs. ; dra,gon's blood, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 drs. ; put in a bottle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, cork close, expose to a moderato heat till the gums are dissolved ; strain into a bottle for use, with J gill of linseed oil; shako together. 4. Waterproof Polish. — Gum benjamin, 2 ozs. ; gum sandarac, f oz. ; gum anima, J oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 pt. ; mix in a closely stopped bottle, and place either in a sand bath or in hot water till tho gums are dissolved, then strain off tho mixture, shake it up with ^ gill of tho best clear poppy oil, and put it by for use. 5. Finishinrj Polish. — Gum shellac, 2 drs. ; gum benja- min, 2 drs. ; put into ^ pt. best rectified spirits of wine in a bottlo closely corked; keep m warm placo, shaking frequently till the gums are dissolved. When cold, shake up with it two teaspoonf uls of the best clear poppy oil. 6. Polish for Eemoving Stains, Spots, and Mildeio from Furniture. — Take of 98 per cent, alcohol, $ pint; pulverized icsin and gum shellac, of each, ^oz. Let these cut in tho alcohol; then add Ihiseed oil, | pt. ; shako well, and apply with a sponge, brush, or cotton flannel, or an old newspaper, rubbing it well after the application, which gives a nice polish. 7. Polish for RevivinQ Old Furniture. — Take alcohol, 1^ oz. ; spirits of salts (muriatic acid), \ oz. ; linseed oil, 8 oz, ; best vinegar, ^ pt. ; and butter of antimony, l.^oz. ; mix, i>utting in tho vinegar last. 8. Jet or Polish for Wood or Leather, Black, Red, or Blue. — Alcohol (98 per cent.), 1 pt. ; sealing wax, the color desired, 3 sticks; dissolve by heat, and have it warm wlien applied. A sponge is the best to appljr it with. 9. Polish for Turners' WorJc. — Dissolve sandarac, 1 oz., in spirit of wine, | pt; next shave beeswax, 1 oz. ; and dissolve it in a sufTicient quantity of Bpiiits of turpcntinG to make it into a paste, add tho former mixture CAIilXETilAKEKS, TAINTERS'. »tC., RECEIPTS. 269 by degrees to it, then witli a woolen cloth apply it to the -vrork while it is in motionln the lathe, and with a soft linen rag polish it. It wil appear as if highly varnished. 10. Furniture Polish. — Beeswax, \ lb., and :i of an oz. of alkanet root; melt together in a pipkin until the former is well colored. Then add linseed oil and spirits of tur- pentine, of each lialf a gill; strain through a piece of coarse muslin. 11. French Polishes. — 1. Shellac, 3 lbs. ; Avood naphtha, 3 pts. ; dis- solve. 2. Shellac, 2 lbs. ; powdered mastic and sandarac, of each 1 oz.; copal varnish, ^pint; spirits of wine, 1 gal. Digest in the cold till dissolved. 12. Black Walnut Polish. — ^I'ake pulverized asphal- tum; put it in ajar or bottle, pour over it about twice its bulk of tur- pentine or benzole, put in a Avarm place, and shake oocasionally; when dissolved, strain, and apply it to the wood with a cloth or stiff brush; should it j)rove too dark, dilute with turpentine or benzole. If desired to bring out the grain stiU. more, apply a mixture of boiled oil and turpentine ; this is better than oil alone When the oil is dry, the wood can be i^olished with the following: shellac varnish, 2 parts, boiled oil, 1 part ; shake it well before using Apply with a cloth, rub- bing briskly 13. To PolishWoocl. — Take apiece of pumice-stone and water, and pass repeatedly over the work until the rising of the grain is cut down. Then take powdered tripoli and boiled linseed oil, and polish the work to a bright surface 14. Clock Case and Picture Frame Finish. — Copal varnish, 2 lbs. ; linseed oil varnish, ^ oz. ; mix well, shake often, and place in a warm spot The wood to be var- nished is prepared with a thin coat of glue- water, and rubbed down with fine pumice-stone or something equivalent In light-colored wood, a light pigment, such as chalk, is added to the giue-water; in dark wood, a dark pigment is added When ready, the articles aro varnished with the above mLstnre, and, after drying, rubbed with a eolation of Avax in ether, thereby receiving a high polish 15 White Polish for White Woods. — ^\Vhite bleached shellac, 3 ozs. ; whito gum benzoin, 1 oz. ; gum sandarac, ^ oz. ; spirits of wino or nai)htha, 1 pt. Dissolve. Oil Finishes.— 1. Linseed oil, IG ozs. ; blackresin, 4ozs. ; vinegar, 4 ozs. ; rectified spirits, 3 ozs. ; butter of antimony, 10 ozs. ; spirit of tsalts, 2 ozs. ; melt the resin, add the oil, take it off the fire, and stir iu the vinegar; let it boil for a few minutes, stirring it; when cool, put it into a bottle, add the other ingredients, shaking all together. 2. Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; oil of turpentine, | pt. ; rectified spirits, 4 ozs. ; pow- dered resin, 1| oz. ; rose pink, ^ oz. ; mix. 3. Acetic acid, 2 drs. ; oil of lavender, ^ dr. ; rectified spirits, 1 dr. ; linseed oil, 4 ozs. 4. Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; alkanet root, 2 ozs. ; heat, strain, and add lac varnish, 1 oz. 5. Linseed oil, 1 pt, ; rectified spirits, 2 ozs. ; butter of antimony, 4 ozs. C. Linseed oil, 1 gal. ; alkanet root, 3 ozs. ; rose pink, 1 oz. Boil them together ten minutes, and strain so that the oil be quite clear. Fancy Figures on Wood.— Slake some lime in stale urine. Dip a brush in it, and form on tlie wood figures to suit your fancy. When dry, rub it well with a rind of pork. Stains for Wood.— 1. Cheap Black Walnut Stain.— T^wvwt um- ber, 2 parts; rose pink, 1 part; glue, 1 part; water suflicient; heat all together and dissolve completely, apply to the work first with a sponge, then go over it with a brush, and varnish over with shellac. 2. Ebony Btain. — Drop black, 2 parts; rose pink, Ipart; turpentine, a 270 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. Bufncieiit qnantity, 0. Briqlit Tdloio t^lain. — 1. BniBliovcrATiUi tlio tinctui'o ()[ tiinneric. 4. "Warm tlio work, and Lrnsh it over v.-itli \vc;ik aquiilorUs; viiniish or oil us usual. 5. A very small bit of aloOHi)ut into the varnish ^vill givo Ji rich yellow color to tlie Avood. G. J'Jxtm Jilack Stain for Wood. — Pour 2 quarts boiling water over 1 oz. of powdered extract of logwood, and, Avheu the solution Is affected, Idr. of yellow chromate of potash is added, and the Avholo Avell stirred. It is then ready for use as a wood-stain, or for writing ink. AYhcu rubbed on wood, it produces a pure black. Ilepeat witli 2, 3, or 4 npplications, till a deep black is in-odnced, 7. Imitation of Mahofjany. Let the first coat of painting bo Avhito lead, the second orange, aiid the last burnt umber or sicuna : imitating the veins according to your taste and practice. 8. To Imitate Wainscot. — Let the lirst coat bo white; the second, half white and yellow oclirc; and the third, yellow ochre only, shadow with nmbcr or sienna. 9. 2b Imitate Satin Wood. — Take v.'hite for your first coating, light blue for the second, and dark blue or dark green for the third lo. liosevjood Stain, very bright shade — Used Cold. — Take alcohol, 1 gal.; camwood, 2 oz. ; set them in a warm place 24: honrs ; then add extract of logwood, 3 oz. ; aquafortis, 1 oz, ; and when dissolved, it is ready for nse; it makes a very bright ground like tlio most beautiful rosewood; 1, 2, or more coats as you desire. 11. Cherry Stain. — Rain water, 3 qts. ; annatto, 4 oz. ; boil in a copper kettle till the annatto is dis- solved, then put in a piece of potash the size of a walnut; keep it on the fire abont half an hour longer, and it is ready to bottle for nse, 12. lioscivood Stain, very bright shade. — Equal parts of logwood and redwood chips, boil well in water sufficient to make a strong stain ; apply it to the fui'niture while hot; 2 or 3 coats according to the depth of color desired, 13, Rose Pinlc Stain and Varnish. — Put 1 oz, of 2">otash in 1 qt. water, with red panders, 1.^ ozs. ; extract the color from the wood and strain : then add gum shellac, Jib., dissolve it by a brisk fire. Used npou logwood stain for rosewood imitation, 14. JJlue Stain for Wood. 1. Dissolve copper filings in aquafortis, brush the wood with it, and then go over the work with a hot solution of pearlash (2 oz, to 1 pt. of writer) till it assumes a perfectly blue color. 15. Boil 2 ozs, of indigo, 2 lbs, wood, and 1 oz. alum, in 1 gal. water, brush well over until thoroughly stained. IG. Imitation of Botany^ Bay Wood. — Boil J lb. Frelich berries (the tinripo berries of tho lihamnus infectorius) in 2 qts. water till of a deep yellow, and whilo boilhig hot, give 2 or 3 coats to the work. If a deeper color is desired, give a coat of logwood decoction over the yellow, "\Vhc]i nearly dry, form the grain with No, 8, black stain, used hot, and, when dry, rust and varnish. 17, Mahogany Color — Dark. — 1. Boil 4 HJ- of madder and 2 ozs. logwood chips in a gallon of water, and brush well over •while hot; when dry go over the whole with pearlash solution, 2 drs. to the quart, 2, Put 2 ozs, dragon's blood, bruised, into a quart of oil of turi^entine ; let the bottle stand in a warm place, shake fre- quently, and, when dissolved, steep the work in the mixture. 18. Box-icood Broivn Stain. — Hold j^our work to the fire, that it may re- ceive a gentle warmth ; then take aquafortis, and, with a feather, pass it over the work till you find it change to a fine brown (always keeping it near the fire), you may then varnish or polish it. 19. Light lied Brown. Boil ^ lb. madder and | lb. fustic in 1 gal. water: CABINETMAKERS, TAINTEKS', &C., EECEirTS. 271 brush over the vrork, when boihng hot, until properly stained. 20. TJxe surface of the work being quite smooth, brush over witli a weak solution of aquafortis, ^ oz. to the pinfc; tlien finish with tlie follow- ing :— Put 42 ozs. dragon's blood and 1 oz. soda, both well bruised, to 3 pts spirits of wme, let it stand in a warm place, shake frequently, strain and lay on with a soft brush, repeatmg ruitil of a proper color; polish with linseed oil or varnish. 21. Furple. — Brusli the work several times with the logwood decoction used for No. G Black ; and, when dry, give a coat of pearlash solution, 1 dr. to a quart; lay it on evenly. 22. lied. — 1. Boil 1 lb. Brazil wood and 1 oz. pearlash in a gal. of water ; and, while hot, brush over the work imtil of a proper color. Dissolve 2 ozs. alum iu 1 qt. water, and brush the solution over the work before it dries, 23. Take a gallon of the above stain, add 2 ozs. more pearlash ; use hot, and brush over with the alum solution. 24. Use a cold solution of archil^ and brush over with the pearlash solution for iVo. 1, Dark mahogany. 25. Mahcgany Stain on Wood,. — Take nitric acid, dilute with 10 parts of water, and wash the wood with it. To produce rosewood finish, glaze the same with car- mine of Munich lake. Asphaltum, thinned with turpentine, forms an' excellent mahogany color on new work. 26. Mahogany Stain on Maple. — Dragon's blood, ^ oz. ; alkanet, ^ oz. ; aloes, 1 dr. ; spirits of wine, 16 ozs. ; apply it with a sponge or brush. 27. Crimson Stain for Musical Instruments. — Ground Brazil wood, lib.; water, 3 qts.; cochmeal, | ounce; boil the Brazil with the w^ater fbr an hour, strain, add the cochineal; boil gently for half an hour, when it wiU be fit for use. If you wish a scarlet tint, boil an ounce of saffron in a quart of water, and pass over the work before you stam it. 28. Purple Stain. — Chipped logwood, 1 lb. ; water, 3 qts. ; pearlash, 4 ounces; powdered indigo, 2 ounces. Boil the logwood in the water half an hour, add the pearlash and indigo, and when dissolved, you will ha,vc a beauti- ful purple. 29. Green Stain. — Strong vinegar, 3 pts. ; best verdigris, 4 ounces, ground fine ; sap green, h ounce ; mix together. Black Stains for Wood. — 1 "Drop a, little sulphuric acid into a, small quantity of water ; brush over the wood and hold it to the firo ; it will be a fine black and receive a good polish. 2. For a beautiful black, on wood, nothing can exceed the black Japan mentioned under Tinsmiths' Department. Apply two coats ; after which, varnish and polish it, 3. To Igal vinegar, add a quarter of a pound of iron rust ; let it stand for a week ; then add a pound of dry lampblack, and three-quarters of a pound copperas ; stir it up for a couple of days. Lay on five or six coats with a sponge, allowmg it to dry between each ; polish with linseed-oil and a soit woollen rag, and it will look like ebonv. Incomparable for iron work, ships' guns, shot, &:c, 4. Yinegar, |gal ; dry lampblaclc, ^Ib. ; iron-rust sifted, 3 lbs. : mix and let stand for a week. Lay three coats of this on hot, and then rub with linseed oil, and you Avill have a fine deep black. 6. Add to the above stain, uut-galls, 1 oz: ; logwood-chips, ^ lb. ; copperas, ^ lb. ; lay on three coats ; oil well, and you will have a black stain that v/ill stand any kind of weatlier, and is well adapted for ships' combings, &c. G. Logwood-chips, ^ lb. ; Brazil-wood, | lb. ; boil for 1^ hours in 1 gal. water. Brush the wood with this decoction while hot ; make a decoction of nut-galls, by gentle simmermg, for three or four days, a quarter of a pound of the galls in 3 qts. water ; give the wood three 272 cabinj:tm.vki:us, painters', &c., RECEirxs. coats, and, while vret, lay on a solution of sulphate of iron (2 ozs, to a quart), and, -whoa dry, oil or varuisli. 7. tiive three coats with a solution of copper filings in aquafortis, and repeatedly brush over with the lo.uwood decoction luitil the greenness of the copper is destroyed. 8. Boil lb. logwood-cliips in 2 quarts Avater ; add an ounce of pcarlash, and ai)ply hot witli a brush. Then taled with red, blue or dark green, or black, and red fine line. No. 2. iJodij. — ^Yellow; frame black, stiiped with blue or white. Running gear, — Light vcrinilion, striped with CABINETMAKERS, TAINTEKS', &C., RECEirXS, 281 ■black and -white. No. 3. J5oc??/.— Carmiuo glazo over Indian red. Running gear. — ^Vermilion. No. 4. Hodi/. — Deep vermilion. Run" ninq gear. — Light vermilion. Mixture to kemove old Paikt. — ^Dissolve i lb. potash in 3 pts. ■water over the fire, then add yellow ochre or some common dry paint until it is as thick as rough stuff ; spread this over your old paint, and after a little it will come off quite easily, then wash the wood with soap and water to remove all the potash, dry off and sand-paper, then give a coat of clean raw oil. Another method is to heat a heavy piece of iron and apply to the paint, which will cause it to become loose and soft, so that it may be scraped off with a knife. Still another method is to direct the flame of a spirit lamp (which may be con- structed for the purpose) on the old paint, scraping it off as it softens. To Bleach Oil, — Pour as much linseed oil into a shallow earthen vessel as will stand one inch deep, then pour in G inches of water,' cover with a fine cloth, and let the whole stand in the sun for a few, weeks until the liquid becomes thick, Avhcu it should bo poured into a phial and submitted to a gentle heat ; after wliich the clear is to bo poured off and strained through a flannel cloth.. To Copy ax Oknajient.— Place the paper or other article 'contain- ing the oniament against a pane of glass ; then laying a sheet of thia paper over it, you can copy it exactly with a lead pencil, OKNAsnDNTs, in the shape of decalcomine or other gilded pictures,! may be easily transferred to carriages or coaches by following tha directions given in transferring pictures. See farther on. Vermilion, — To prevent vermilion from fading, add to tno dry color, before mixing, ^ part of flour of sulphur. Light English ver- milion is used for striping, ornamenting or lettering ; the deep vermil- ion having less body, will not cover good. English vermilion gives the best color on carriage work when mixed with rubbing varnish and oil. American vermilion should not be ground, as the process Avould change it to an orange color ; while green, Indian red, chromo yellow, and all heavy body colors are all the better for being ground as fine as possible. Raw oil is preferable to boiled, as it is more volatile, and penetrates and fills the pores of the wood better. Priming for Carriage Work, — First coat of lead. Mix white lead with raw oil, 2 parts, Japan, 1 part, to make it proper for a thick coat, adding a very little turpentine to make it work easily. For carriage parts add a little Indian black, but not for bodies. — Second coat of lead. ISIix white lead with 1 part raw oil and 2 parts Japan, and a little turpentine, as before, adding lampblack for carriage parts, but none for the body. — Third and fourth coat. Mix white lead into a thick paste with turpentine, add a little oil, Japan and rubbing varnish to bind the paint well ; add, for the carriage parts, a little lampblack and a little red lead. Hard drying Puttt, — For carriage icorTc. Mix dry white lead with Japan and rubbing varnish equal parts, to the proper consistency, beating it with a small mallet to bruise the lumps. Keep it, when not in use, in water, to prevent it drying. Roucn Stuff, — For carriage xoork. Take 3 parts of English filling (ground state), 2 parts dry white lead, 1 part white lead in oil. MLc with Japan, 2 parts, rubbing varnish, 1 part. Mix and crush thor- oughly by running aU through the mill together. 282 CADINETMAKEKS, TAINTEIIS', &C., IlECEIPTS. FAcrxa Lkad for Catiriaok Work:.— dry white load -v^ith 2 ])arts Japan, 1 ])ait riibbiiiij: varuisli, aud tlihi -witli Bpirits of turpen- tine, addin;^- a liltlo lampblack to make a clean lead color, and run all thron<;h the iiiill. CoACU Paintino. — Tlio panels of such work are generally painted in color, -while tlie pillars, top strip, quarters, deck, &c., are always black ; unibcr colors, lalces, greens, aud blues are Konie o£ the best colors used on this work. To prepare the body for any of these colors, a (/round color is used iu the place of lanr.pblack on black work. The following are a fCAT approved grounds. Lake. — Indian red and vermilion mixed to a darlc brown, but some prefer a black ground for lake. Ultramarine. — Mix a medium blue with white lead aud Prussian blue. Vermilion. — A light pink color is generally used as a ground for vermilion. Green. — Green and all heavy-bodied colors will cover well on the lead colors without any ground color. Victoria lake and black Japan makes a fine color for carriages. PiiErAKED Oiii FOR CARRIAGES, &c.— To 1 gal. linsccd oil add 2 lbs. gum shellac ; litharge, | lb. ; red lead, ^ lb. ; umber, 1 oz. Boil slowly as usual until the gums are dissolved; grind your paints in this (any color), and reduce with turpentine. Porcelain Finish, very fine for Parlors. — To prepare the wood for the finish, if it be pine, give one or two coats of transparent varnish, which prevents the pitch from oosing out, causing the finish, to turn yellow; next, give the room at least four coats of pure zinc, which may be ground in only sufficient oil to enable it to grind prop- erly ; then inLx to a proper consistence with turpentine or naphtha. Give each time to drj*. When it is dry and hard, sand-paper it to a perfectly smooth surface, when it is ready to receive the finish, which consists of two coats of French zinc ground in, and thinned with Demar varnish, until it works properly under the brush. JiVPAN" Drier Best Quality. — Take linseed oil, 1 gal.; put into it gum shellac, 5 lb. ; litharge and burned Turkey umber, each ^ lb. ; rod load, 4 Ih. ; sugar of lead, 9 oz. Boil in the oil till all are dissolv- cd,wliich Avill require about 4 hours; remove from the fire, and stir in spirits of turpentine, 1 gal,, and it is done. 2. Linsccd oil, 6 gals.; add red lead and litharge, each Z\ lbs. ; raw umber, 1^ lbs. ; sugar of lead and sulphate of zinc, each, \ lb. ; pulverize all the articles to- gether, and boil in the oil till dissolved; when a little cool, thin with turpentme, G gals. 3. Linseed oil, 4 gals, red lead and umber, of each 8 ozs. ; sulphate of zinc, 4 ozs. ; sugar of lead, 4 ozs. Boil until it Avill scorch a feather, when it is ready for use. 4. Nut or linseed oil, 1 gal.. ; litharge, 12 oz. ; sugar of lead and white vitriol, of each 1 oz. ; simmer and skim xmtil a pellicle forms; cool, and, when settled, de- cant the clear. 6. Oil 1 gal. ; litharge, 12 to IG oz. ; as last. G. Old nut or linseed oil, Ipint; litharge, 3 oz. Mix; agitate occasionally for 10 days; then decant the clear. 7. Nut oil and water, of each 2 lbs. : white vitriol, 2 oz. ; boil to dryness. 8. Mix oil with powdered snow or ice, and keep it for 2 months without thawing. To Reduce Oil Paint with Water — ^Take 8 lbs. of pure un- elaked lime, add 12 qts. water, stir it and let it settle, turn it off gently and bott;o it; keep it corked till used. This will mix with oil, and in proportion of half wall render paint more durable. Oil Paint.— To reduce with Water.— Gum shellac, 1 lb. ; sal- CACIXETMAKEIiS, PAINTEKS', &C., KF.CEIPT3. 283 soda, § lb.; water, 3 parts; boil all tosetlier iu a kettle, stirring till dissolved. If it does not all dissolve, add a little more sal-soda ; when cool, bottle foi use; mix up 2 quarts of oil paint as usual, any color desired, using no turpentine; put 1 pint of the gum shellac mixturo ■with thnrts zinc ; another orange color, lo,^ paits copper and 2^ zinc The alloy is laminated into very line leaves \vitii careiul anncjU- ing, and these are levigated into ii))i)ali)able powders, along vi'ith a iilni of line oil, to prevent oxidizeinent, and to lavor tlie levigation GioNEKAL DuiKCTioNS roil BiiONZi^d. ^The choicc of the above powders is of course determined by the degree of brilliancy you wisli to obtain. The powder is mixed witli strong gnm water or isinglass, and laid on with a brush or pencil ; and, not so dry as to have stili certain clamminess; a piece of soft leather wrapped round the linger is dipped into the powder, and rubbed over the work. When the ^vork has been all covered with the bronze, it must be left to dry, and and loose powder then cleared away by a hair-pencil. BiioNziNG Irok.— The subject should be heated to a greater de- gree than tlie hand can bear, and German gold, mixed A^ ith a f mall quantity of spirit of wine varnish, spread over it with a pencil; should the iron be already polished, you must licat it well, and moisten it with a linen rag dipped in vinegar. Gilder's Parchment Size.— The best is made from cuttings of fine parchment. Wash them clean, cover them with water, and al- lov\^ them to simmer for about 2 hours over a slow fire : when brought to the proper strength or tenacity, which may be tested by the trial of a portion between the thumb and finger; if it jiroves adhesive pour it into a clean vessel for use. When solidified, it resembles a jell}'; if very stiff, it will require dilution with A^-ater. Some gilders use a lactometer and a deep glass to determine the proper strength of size. When the float indicates a little higher than 1, for burnish size, and near 2, for matt gold size, excellent work Vv'ill result. In the United States, some gilders substitute n ichite glue for jDarchment cuttings in the making of size. For Oil Gold Size, consult that item. Matt Gold Sizr; is usually purchased from dealers ready made; it is prepared for use by intermixture, (in a clean vessel) over a slov;- fire, with parchment size, to the density of a thickisli cream, and used while w^arm. BuRxisii Gold Size is often bought ready made from the deal- er. Good results may be obtained by using red chalk, black lead, r.iid deer suet, of each 2 ozs., finely ground to a stiff paste, with 2 lbs. of ]«pe clay, and for use prepared like matt size. Thick: Wi-iite for application to the parts intended to be burnish- ed, previous to putting on the burnish size, is a composition of parch- ment size and wliitening, about the density of cream. Gilder's Ormollt. — Red Sanders wood 2 drs., turmeric 1 dr., garnet shellac 1 oz., spirits of wine pt. : mix all together thoroughly Rnd strain. This is added to medium strength parchment size in or- der to impart a more beautiful appearance to the matt and oil gilding. Clay for Gilder's Use is usually purchased from the dealers and is prepared similar to burnish size. The Stopping Co]v;rFOSiTiON used for filling holes and deficiencies in the work is a cor^^pound of size and whitening, brought to the density of jDutty. To Whiten Mouldings. — On gilded work to be exposed to the weather, paint is u::cd as a foundation, and the gilding is done in oil CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 287 as burnished gilding is unfit to withstand exposure. This last named description of work must have a good base oi whitening applied to the moulding previous to gilding. First apply a very liot thin priming coat of fine whitening and parchment size; after this is dry, fill the holes, blemishes, and irregularities with the stopping composition; then apply a good coat of thick ivhite, dry, and apply another. After applying several coats of the thick white, which should be in all about l-l(jth of an inch in thickness, pumice-stone should be applied to smooth off all irregularities and the surplus whiting. Make thorou,'.;h work to ensure a fine smooth surface ou the moulding, paying great attention to the different hollows, beads, &c. Composition for Ornaments. — Best glue, 9 lbs. 6 ozs. ; water 5 pts. ; rosin (white) 4 lbs. ; raw linseed oil 4 pts. Boil the glue in the water until dissolved; dissolve the rosin in the oil, add the whole to the glue mixture. Boil the whole slowly for 25 minutes lonc^er, and pour the mixture into a large vessel among finely sifted whiting, and mix up to the consistency of thin putty. Set away in a damp place, and cover with a wet cloth ready for use. The ornaments are mado by selecting a portion of the mixture, steaming it to a soft plastic con- dition (for the mixture becomes very hard when cold), and pressing with the hands into a boxwood mould, previously well lubricated or. smeared with oil and turpentine. The composition being fitted into the mould, a board thoroughly wet, is place : against the mixture out- side the mould, and the whole is submitted to pressure in an iron iscrew press, which drives the mixture into the minutest parts of the mould. This done, the pressure is relaxed, and the mould taken from the press and the ornament withdrawn from it. The ornaments may be attached to the frame with glue or white lead ; and when they com- pose the corners on frames, require to have the vacant space between hacked ov filled up with composition softened in boiling water. Gilding in Oir. — The ornaments being properly adjusted and al- lowed full time to harden on the frame, "the first step taken by thor gilder is to wash and cleanse them, together Avith the frame, from the adherent oil and dust. This done, when dry, apply a uniform coat of thin white to the frame, and, after drying, fill all the holes and defect- ive parts with the stopping described above. When this becomes hard, go over every jiart of the Avork and bring it to the utmost smoothness with fine glass paper. This part of the work must not be slighted if a good job is wanted, for it cannot be dispensed with. Now dust off the work and apply the clay prepared as described above ; al- low it to dry and rub smooth with fine glass paper once more. A coat of clear cole is now applied, consisting of parchment size diluted to a thinnish consistency with water. It is usual to apply 2 coats of this size in a warm condition. It effectually prevents the absorption of the succeeding coat of oil size. The gilder prepares the oil size (boiled linseed oil and ochre Avell ground together) by bringing it to a creamy consistency, and purifies it by straining through a clean rag held un- der pressure, squeezing out the size. This jireparation is spread very evenly over the prepared surface, and allowed to stand until it be- comes slightly sticky or tacky, when the knife, cushion and gold leaf are brought into requisition,' and the leaf anpl-ed with the tip to the entire surface covered with the size. This process requires careful management ; the gilder blows the gold leaf out on the cushion with his breath, divides and subdivides it with his knife to cover the differ- 288 CABINETMAKKRS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEirXS. ent wants of various parts of the work. The leaf is dahbod down with a dabbor of cotton wool or other soft material, and finished witli 0, badger. See Gildin(f Lrticrs on Wood. The fi-ame being now cov- ered with the leaf, is bruslied off to clear it from tlie small gold parti- cles still adhering, and is finally finished by applying the finish, size evenly with a hog's-hair brush over the work. The finish consists of a somewhat weak, clear size, which may be tempered with a little or- molu if it is desired toimpart a finer color to the gold. Watkk and Oil Gijlding on Large, Bkoad Fiiames, &c.— Re- move all dust and dirt from the frame and ornaments, by thorough washing and brushing with plenty of clear water, being careful not to damage the ornaments while doing so, dry, and apply a coat of thin white, fill all holes and defects by stopping, and treat the parts in- tended to be burnished with three or four coats of thick white, smooth- ing down the last coat when nearly dry, by passing the fingers over it "When dry, go over it with glass paper, making a complete smooth job; next apply a coat of clay, and smooth down with j:lass paper once more. Next, apply an even coat of size, a nd when dry, apply another. The frame is next " put in oil " as above described, and subsequently, the parts intended to be burnished, which have received the coats of thick white, must be thoroughly cleaned from oil by careful rubbing with a wet piece of cotton applied by the finger, turning the rag at short intervals so as to present a clean surface to the work. Guard against touching any other parts of the frame with the wet cloth, as the mistake will have to be corrected with the oil brush. To make Bure that no trouble will result from grease, it is necessary before lay- ing the gold, to apply clay to all parts intended to be burnished, in order to prevent any of the gold leaf from sticking, as it would have to be removed with glass paper previous to applying other j^repara- tions. The frame is then gilded as previously described, the leaf pressed into the cavities of the ornaments, &c., the defects corrected, the work brushed off, and size finished as above. The parts to be burnished or loater gilded, previously noted as being coated with clay, must now be treated to three or four coats of mat gold size, laid on evenly with a camel' s-hair brush. When dry, polish with fine glass paper, brush down, and pass over it afterwards with a damp sponge. Now apply 2 even coats of burnish gold size, and apply the leaf as soon as the last coat becomes dry. This is applied in a manner en- tirely different from that previously described. The frame being ele- vatsd at a proper angle to allow the surplus water to drain off, and the gold leaf, cushion, knife, tip, camel' s-hair pencils, glass of clean water, &c., being ready, proceed to gild the bead which passes around the frame between those parts which have previously been oil-gilt, by dipping a proper sized cam el' s-hair pencil into the glass of water, wipe it on the edge, commence at the left hand extremity of the bead, wet- ting it for a space of 4 or 5 inches or more down, saturating it thoroughly with the water, and apply the gold leaf (previously cut to the proper size and held in readiness oil the tip) very neatly and quickly to the spot while it is covered with water. Go over the bead, ornaments, and all parts intended to be burnished in this way, being extremely careful to allow no water to<;ome in contact with the gilded part of the frame. When done, examine closely for faults, and repair all defects discovered, dry, and proceed to burnish by applying tho curved part of the burnisher to the work, passing it hither and. CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, cfeC, RECEIPTS. 289 thither over the gold with the right hand, assisting the pressure and steadying the movement by the thumb of tlie lel't. This results in bringing out a splendid burnish. Go over the work with particular care, bring out the full lustre of the gold, cover deficiences,j?nw/i, sizt the frame once more, carefully avoiding the burnished parts ; finally, tinge the edge of the frame with ochre. In burnish gilding, on large frames, the conspicious parts of the frame, such as the beads, ornaments, &c., should be selected for operation. Brush Polish. — Shellac 4 ozs., white rosin 4 ozs., dissolve in 2 pts. spirits of wine and apply while Avarm, with a brush. Cabinet Maker's Varnish. — Cum. shellac 3 ozs., gum mastic 1 oz., gum sandarac, 3 ozs., spirits of wine, 40 ozs. Dissolve the last 2 in the spirits, then dissolve the shellac and pour off the clear for use. French Polish Reviver. — Linseed oil 1 pint, vinegar 4 ozs., spts. camphor 2 ozs., spts. hartshorn ^ oz., butter of antimony, 1 oz. Another. — Dissolve 8 ozs. shellac and ^ an oz. of oxalic acid in 2 lbs. naphtha, then add 3 ozs. linseed oil. Ebonized Black for Ebonizing Moulding Frames, &;c. — Strong vinegar, 1 gal., ext. of logwood, 2 lbs., green copperas, ^Ib., China blue, i lb., nut-gall, 2 ozs. Simmer over a slow fire until all m dissolved ; set off and cool. Add to the above pt. iron rust obtained by steeping iron filings in strong vinegar. An unequalled jet black. Satinwood Stain for the Inside of Drawers. — Alcohol 3 pts., powdered gamboge, 3 ozs., ground turmeric, G ozs. Steep to obtain full strength, and strain through muslin. Apply 2 coats with a fine sponge, sandpaper when dry and varnish or French polish. Walnut Stain on Pine or Whitewood. — Take 2 gals, of very- thin sized shellac ; add burnt sienna, 2 lbs?, burnt umber,"2 lbs., lamp- black, ^ lb, ; shake all together and mix well in a stouo jug. Apply 1 coat with a brush, dry; sandpaper smooth, and apply a coat of com- mon varnish or shellac. A fine imitation of walnut. Cheap Black Stain on Pine or Whitewood.— Water, 2 galf^., black copperas, 1 lb., logwood chips, 1 lb., ext. logwood, 1 lb., indigo blue, 1 lb., lamp-black, 2 ozs. ; simmer over a slow fire, cool off, strain, and add 1 oz. nut-gall. A splendid black stain for cheap work. To Gild a Wooden Flower Stand.— Rub the wood smooth, prime with glue size, tlien put on 2 coats of oil paint and one of fiat- ting. Smooth over, when dry, with wash-leather. Put on gold size, and when it is vSticky to the touch, it is ready for the leaf, which ]mt on carefully and dab down with cotton-wool. A transparent glazing can be used to deaden the gold in places. Old Oak Imitation on White Deal. — Burnt umber, 1 part, brown ochre, 1 part, mix thoroughly with a very thin glue size and apply. A good oak stain is made by adding 1 lb. each of potash and pearlash to 1 gal. water, adding more water if a lighter stain is re- quired. Rosewood Imitation on White Deal.— Apply Venetian red and a little lamp-black in solution, with thin glue size. A good ma- ?io(/any stain is Venetian red, 1 lb., yellow lead, 2 lbs. ; mix Avith thin glue size. WUnut stain on deaL—Biirnt umber and yellow ochre iu thin size. The above may be applied while warm with a 10 290 CABINETxMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. Foft rn<; or l)y dipping the wood into a vat containing the solution, a» is done ATith" chairs, etc., in many manufactories. Maikxianv Imitation on Beech. — rulverized dragon's blood, 2 ozs., rectified spts. of wine, 1 qt. Filling fok French Polished Work. — A creamy paste com- posed of water and plaster of Paris, applied with a coarse rag to the grain of the wood forms a good filling. Apply vigorously to the wood to fill the pores thoroughly, and wipe off tlie surplus. Finely sifted whitening, mixed with painter's drying oil, is another good filling composition. Splendid Crimson Spirit Stain. — Brazil-wood, loz., cochi- neal, 1 oz., dragon's-blood, 1 oz., saffron, 2oz3. ; steep to obtain full Btrength, in 2 qts. alcohol and strain. Best Mountino Material. — Good Bermuda arrow root, 12 ozs; sheet gelatine, 80 grains: mix the arrow root to a creamy consistence with a spoon, in loz. of water; then add 14 ozs. of water and the gelatine broken into fragments. Boil for 4 or 5 minutes, set it aside imtil partially cool, then add 1 oz. of methylated spirit, and 6 drops of carbolic acid, the former quite slowly. This article has no superi- or and will Iseep for years. To Clean Engravings. — Place the engraving on a smooth board with a sheet of clean paper between, damp the picture on both sidea with a sponge and clean water; then soak it well with the following solution applied with a clean sponge: Water, 1 pt, chloride of lime, 4 ozs. ; oxalic acid, 1 oz. This imparts a fine white appearance to dis- colored prints, but it must not be appUed to water colors in any case, as it will certainly destroy them. To Revive the Coloi^ of Old Paintings.— Mix linseed oil, 2 ozs., with methylated chloroform, 1 oz. ; and apply a little over the painting, previously washing it with clean water applied with a little cottonwool; wipe off the composition with a soft silk handkerchief during the next day. The mixture possesses the valuable property of restoring the faded colors of paintmgs. The vapor of alcohol has a like effect. To Preserve a Scaling or Cracked Painting.— Clean the painting very carefully with pure soft water, and pour over, or gently apply, a mixture of equal parts of methylated chloroform and linseed oil. Allow it to remain a day or two ; carefully wipe off the excess of oil, and apply more of the fresh mixture, wiping it off as before. Re- peat the process until the colors become fixed, and the painting be- comes flexible, when it may be cleaned and varnished. Varnish for Paintings. — Ko better varnish for paintings can be liad than that made from good, ripe, clean, gum mastic and rectified turpentine, fully matured by an exposure of several months in a wide mouthed glass bottle. Cover the bottle so as to admit air, but no dust, and set it in the light, but out of the sun. To Preserve Paintings Indefinitely. — Varnish' the painting on both sides, and hermetically seal with well fitting sheets of polished glass on the front, and apply a good coat of air proof material to the back. According to Wagner, the real cause of the ultimate destruc- tion of pictures as well as of paint, is the gradual, but continuous, yet slow, oxidation of the linoxine, resulting in the crumbling to powder of pulverulent matters — pigments useda«j ^mlors. It may' not CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 291 be out of place to state that one of the best solvents of linoxine (diied paint) is a mixture of alcohol and chloroform, which may be ad- vantageously used to remove stains of paint, and also of wagon and carriage erease from silks and woollen tissues. _ To Remove Old Black Varnish from Paintings— Various articles as soda, naptha, spirits of wine, oil of tartar, &c , will effect this if carefully handled by an experienced person, or the following mixture may be applied to the painting with a dabber of cotton wool: Wood spirits, 4 ozs. ; linseed oil ^ pt. spirits of salts, 2 ozs. Go over the painting, imparting a spiral movement to the rubbing wad, Iseep- ino- the picture level and the rubber clean. Watch the progress of the work, taking care not to go too far, and finish by wipmg with a clean rag wet with spirits of turpentine. , , , . . To Whiten Plaster Casts, «ScC.— If the uncalcined plaster is im- mersed for 15 minutes in water containing 8 or 10 per cent, of sul- phuric acid previous to burning it, it will after being calcined set more slowly, and make splendid casts, which will be perfectly white. Semi-transparent casts of fancy articles can be made of unbaked gypsum, 2 parts, bleached bees- wax, 1 part; paraffiue, 1 part, it is very tough and becomes plastic at 120°. Plaster casts will bear a nail driven in them without fracture if they are immeisedmii hot solution of glue long enough to become saturated. To mend Plaster Models, use sandarac varnish, saturating the broken surfaces well, then pres- sing them tog^her, then drying. As an application to the insida Piaster Moidds use glycerine, or a mixture of lard and oil. To Polish Pianos, Furniture, French Polish, &c.— The fol- lowing method of polishing pianos is in use iu all first class factories. The same process will answer for any other piece of furniture,_ by merely substituting for the scraping, where scrapmg is not practica- ble, a filling, properly colored : First, give the work three coats of scraping or No. 2 furniture varnish, allowing each coat to become per- fectly hard before applying the next ; then scrape off the varnish with a steel scraper, properly sharpened on an oilstone, and in scraping bo careful not to cut into the wood, but merely remove the varnish from the surface, leaving the pores filled. Smooth with No. 1 sandpaper, and the work will be ready for the polishing varnish, four coats of which must be put on, allowing each coat to "harden. To determine the proper time required for the hardening. I would say that one coat will not be ready for the next until it is so hard that you cannot make an impression on it with your thumb nail. The four coats having been put on, and the work having stood a few days— and the longer the bet- ter — ^rub down with fine-ground pumice-stone and water, applied with a woolen rag. The work must be rubbed until all lumps and marks of the brush are removed ; wash off with a sponge and dry with a chamois-skin : let the work stand out in the open air for a day or two, taking it into the shop at night. The work should now receive two coats more of polishing varnish and a second rubbing, after which it is ready for polishing. Furniture may be polished after the first rubbing, and in that case the polishing is performed with lump rotten-stone and water applied with a woollen rag. Put plenty of rotten-stone on your work, with water enough to make it work easy. Rub until all marks and scratches are removed. Rub the rotten-stone off with your bare hand keeping the work wet. What cannot bo removed with the hand should 202 CABINET.MAKER.S, PAINTERS', «feC., RECEIl-rS. be washed off with a sponj^o. After dryhi.cj with a chamois-skin, brii);^ up the polish with the pahii of your hand, moving it lightly and quickly with a circular motion, over the work. Clean up the work with a piece of soft cotton, dipped into sweet oil, and lightly touch all tlie white spots and marks of the rotten-stone. Remove the oil with wheat flour, applied with soft cotton, and finally dust off with a soft rag or silk handkerchief. The following method is Imown as the Shellac or French Polish. In i)reparing for this process, add to one pint of Sh-cllac varnish two tablespoonfuls of boiled oil; the two to be thoroughly mixed. If you want the work dark, add a little burnt umber ; or you can give the work any desired shade by mixing with the shellac the proper pig- ment in the dry state. Apply the shellac thus prepared with a small bunch of rags held between your fingers. In applying it be particular in getting it on smooth and even, leaving no thick places or blotches. Repeat the process continually until the grain is filled and the work has received sufficient body. Let it stand a few hours to harden, and then rub your work lightly with pumice-stone and oil, applied with a rag, A very little rubbing is required, and this is to be followed by the cleaning of the work with rags as dry as possible. With a piece of muslin wet with alcohol, go over the work two or three times, for the purpose of killing the oil. Have ready l lb. of pure gum shellac dissolved in one pint of 95 per cent, alcohol. With this saturate a pad made of soft cotton, covered with white muslin, and witli the pad thus formed go over your work two or three times. To become proficient in this work, practice and close attention are required. Walnut Stain for Wood. — Water, 1 gal. ; Vandyke brown, 10 ozs. ; bichromate of potash, 1 oz. ; Avashiug soda, G ozs. ; boil 10 minutes, immerse the article, or apply with a brush as desired. Gold Bronze for Furniture. — Mix copal varnish with gold- colored bronze powder. This is made from bisulphate of tin. To Ebonize Wood. — Mix lampblack with good French polish and apply in the usual way. The lampblack may be collected on a tin held over a kerosene oil lamp, or lighted candle. Reviver for Gilt Frames. — White of eggs, 2 ozs. ; chloride of pot- ash or soda, 1 oz.; mix well; blow off the dust from the frames; then go over them Avith a soft brush dipped in the mixture, and they will be equal to new. Bad Smell from Animal Size. — To remove bad smell pass it through powdered charcoal. To preserve it, dissolve one ounce of • sulphate of zinc, generally known as white copperas, in hot water, and add to everv i cwt. It will keep any length of time. Melt your size, and thoroughly mix it. Polishing Brass and Stone. — Plate-glass may be polished by rubbing with emery and water, the emery being of a greater degree of fineness as the Avork progresses, until at last by employing an impal- l)able variety prepared by suspending emery in water for an hour or more. Of course no scratches must exist in the work when the polish- ing operation begins ; such must have been removed by means of a coarser emery flour. Stones, such as Brighton pebbles," &c., are often cut and polished on a rapidly revolving leaden disc, the surface of which is loaded with diamond dust, emery, or tripoli, according to the stone under operation. Soluble Glass.— I. Silica, 1 part, carbonate of soda, 2 parts; fuse together. 2. Carbonato of soda (dry) 64 parts; dry carbonate of CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 293 <^assa, 70 parts ; silica, 192 parts ; soluWc in boiling -water, yielding a fin y Yellow. — Antimonic acid, 1 part ; subsulpliatc of the peroxide of iron, 8 parts ; oxide of zinc, 4 parts ; flux No. 1, 36 parts. Rub up together and melt. If this color is too deep the salt of iron is diminished. No. 5. Fixed yelloio for touches. — No. 4, 1 part ; -white enamel of com^ meroe, 2 parts. Melt and pour out ; if not sufficiently fixed, a little fsand may be added. No. G. Deejo Nankin yelloio. — Subsulphate of iron, 1 part ; oxide of zinc, 2 parts ; flux No. 2, 8 parts. Triturate ■without melting. No. 7. Deep red. — Subsulphate of iron, calcined in a muffle until it becomes of a beautiful capucinc red, 1 part ; flux No. 2, 3 parts. Mix without melting. No. 8. Liver hroion. — Oxide of iron made of a red brown, and mixed with three times its weight of flux: No. 2. A tenth of sienna earth is added to it, if it is not deep enough. No. 9. White. — The white enamel of commerce, in calics. No. 10. Deep black. — Oxide of cobalt, 2 parts ; copper, 2 parts ; oxide of manganese, 1 part ; flux No. 1, G parts ; fused borax, \ part. Melt, and add oxide of manganese, 1 part ; oxide of copper, 2 parts. Trit- urate without melting. The Application. — Follow the general direc- tions given in another part of this work, in relation to staining glass. How TO White oif Glass ik the Suk. — Dissolve chalk in aqua- fortis to the consistency of milk, and add to that a strong dissolution of silver. Keep this in a glass decanter -well stopped. Then cut out from a paper the letters you Mdll have appear, and paste the paper on the decanter or jar, which you are to place in the sun in such a man- ner that its rays may pass through the spaces cut out of the paper, and fall on the surface of the liquor. The part of the glass through which the rays pass wiU turn black, whilst that under the paper will remain ■white. Do not shako the bottle during the operation. Used in let- tering jars. To Staik or Color Glass.— For amethyst, oxide of manganese is used ; blue, oxide of cobalt ; for broicn, oxide of iron ; for green, black oxide of copper ; for purple, oxide of gold ; for ruby red, sub- oxide of copper ; for white, oxide of tin ; for yelloio, oxide of silver, &c. These substances pure and well powdered, are either added to the melted contents of the glass-pot, or are applied to the surface as in glass staining. Fine Blue. To 10 lbs. of flint glass, previously melted and cast into water, add zaffer, G drs. ; calcined copper, \ oz. ; prepared by putting sheet copper into a crucible, and exj)osing it to the action of a fire not strong enough to melt the copper, and you will have the copper in scales, which you pound. — Bright Purple. Use 10 lbs. flint glass as before ; zalfer 5 drs. ; precipitate of calcium. 1 dr. Gold Yellow. Flint glass 28 lbs., of the tartar which is found in urine, ^ lb., purify by putting in a crucible on the fire until it ceases to smoke, and add manganese, 2 ozs. Bottle Glass.— No. 1. Dark G^?'een.— Fused glauber-salts, 11 lbs. ; soaper salts, 12 lbs. ; waste soap-ashes, ^ bush. ; silicious sand, $ cwt. ; glass-skimmings, 22 lbs. ; broken green glass, 1 cwt.to Li cwt. ; 296 CADIXETMAKEr.S, I'AINTERS^ = < 22 cubic feet. To bo i msured ki waU. 12 " high) ( S^n?"!!/^. I _ ] 24.75 cubic feet. To \;0 ;^casured in 1 cubic yard = 3 feet X 3 feet X 3 feet = 27 cubic fee\ The cubic ^ard has become the standard for all contract work of ."ate years. Stone walls less than 16 inches thick count as if IG inches thick to masons; over IG inches thick, each additional inch is counted. IfUMBER OF BRICK REQUIRED IN WALL TEE SQUAJtfi. TOOT FACE OB- WALL. Thickness of wall. Tliickness o.-'. wall. 4 inches Ih 24 inch^f^ 4G 8 " 15 28 " 52^ 12 " 22^ 32 " GO 16 " » 30 36 " G7i 20 « 37^ 42 " ^5 Cubic yard = 600 bricks in wall. Perch (22 cubic feet) = 500 bricks in wall. To pave 1 sq. yard on flat requires 48 bricks. " " 1 " edge " G8 " Best Wash for Barns and Houses.— Water lime, 1 peck; freshly glaked lime, 1 peck; yellow ochre in powder, 4- lbs.; burnt 300 CAlilNETMAKERS, TAINTERS', AC, RECEirXS. vimbcr, 4 lbs. To bo dissolved in hot ^vater, and applied witli a ■brush. Durable Outside Paint.— T.ako 2 parts (in bulk) of water limo, ground line; Ipart (in bulk) of white lead, in oil. Mix tlieia thoroughly, by adding best boiled linseed oil, enough to prepare it to pass through a paint-mill ; after which, temper with oil till it can bo applied with a common paint brush. MalvO any color to suit. It Aviil lust 3 times as long as lead paint. It is surEitiOB. Farmers' Paint.— Farmers will find the following profitable for house or fence paint: ekim milk, two quarts; fresh slaked lime 3 oz. ; linseed oil, 6 oz. ; white Burgundy pitch, 2 oz. ; Spanish Avliito, 3 lbs. The lime is to be slaked in water, exposed to the air, and tlien mixed with about one-fourth of the milk; the oil in which the pitch in dissolved to be added a little at a time, then the rest of the milk, and afterwards the Spanish white. This is sufficient for twenty-seven yards, 2 coats. This is for white pamt. If desirable, any other color may be produced; thus, if a cream color is desired, in place of part of the Spanish white use the other alone. ESTIilATE OF MATERIALS AND LABOR FOR 100 SQUARE YARDS OF liATH AND BLASTER. IVIatcrials and Labor. Three coats hard finish. Two Coats Slipped. Lratcrials and Labor. Three coats hard liuish. Two coats Slipped. Limo . . . Luinp Lime Plaster of Paris . . Laths. . . Hair . . . Sand. . . 4 Casks. % " 2000 4 buslis. 6 loads. 31/2 casks. 2000 3 buslis. G loads. White Sand Nails. . . Masons . . Laborer Cartage . . 2y>buslis. 13 'lbs. 4 days, 3 " 1 " 13 lbs. 31/0 days. 2 " % " Painting in LIilk, — Skimmed milk, ^ gallon ; newly slaked lime, 6 oz. ; and 4 oz. of poppy, linseed, or nut oil; and 3 lbs. Spanish white. Put the lime into an earthen vessel or clean bucket; and having poured on it a sufficient quantity of milk to make it about the thiclaiess of cream, add the oil in small quantities a littlo at a time, stirring the mixture well. Then put in the rest of the milk, afterwards the Spanish white finely powdered, or any other desired color. For out-door work add 2 oz. each more of oil and slaked lime, and 2 oz. of Burgundy pitch dissolved in the oil by a gentle heat. Premium Paint without Oil or Lead.— Slake stone-lime with boiling water in a tub or barrel to keep ui the steam ; then pass 0 quarts through a fine sieve. Now to this quantity add 1 quai-t of coarse salt, and a gallon of water; boil the mixture, and skim it clear. To every five gallons of this skimmed mixture, add 1 lb. alum; J lb. copperas; and by slow degrees 5 lb. potash, and 4 quarts sifted ashes or fine sand; add any coloring desired. A more durable paint wa.^ never, made. Green Paint for Garden Stands, Blinds, etc.— Take mineral CABINETMAKERS, TAINTEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 301 green, and white lead ground in turpentine, mix up the quantity you ■wish with a small quantity of turpentine varuisli. Tliis serves lor t!io first coat. For the second, put as much varnish in your mixture as will produce a good gloss. If you desire a brigliter green, add a little rrnssian blue, which will much improve the color. Milk Paint, for Barns, any Color.— Mbc water lime with skim millr, to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, and it is ready to use. It will adhere well to wood, wliether smooth or rough, to brick, mortar, or stone, where oil has not been used (in which caseit cleaves to some extent), and forms a very hard substance, as durable as the best oil paint. It is too clicap to estimate, and any one can put it on who can use a brush. Any color may be given to it, by using colors of the tinge desired. If a red is preferred, mix Venetian red with milk, not using any lime. It looks well for fifteen years. Paint.— To Make without Lead or Oil.— Whiting, 5 lbs.; Gkimmed milk, 2 qts. ; fi-esli slaked lime, 2 cz. Put the lime into a stoneware vessel, pour upon it a sufficient quantity of the milk to make a mixture resembling cream; the balance of the milk is then to be added; and lastly, the whiting is to be crumbled upon the surface of the fluid, in whicli it gradually sinks. At this period it must bo well stirred in or ground, as you would other paint, and it la fit for use. Paris Green. — Take unslaked lime of the best quality, slake it with hot water; then take the finest part of the powder, and add alum water as strong as it can ho made, sufficient to form a thick paste; then color it with bichromate of potash and sulphate of copper until the color suits your fancy, and dry it for use. N.B. — Tlie sul- phate of copper gives a blue tinge; the bichromate of potash, a y^-l- low. Observe this, and you will get it right. Beautiful Green Paint for Walls. — Take 4 lbs. Roman vitriol, and pour on it a teakettleful of boiUng water. When dis- solved, add 2 lbs. pearlash, and stir the mixture well with a stick un- til the effervescence ceases; then add ^ lb. pulverized yellow arsenic, and stir the whole together. Lay it on with a paint brush ; and if tho wall has not been, painted before, 2 or even 3 coats will be requisite. If a pea-green is required, put in lesf, if an apple-green, more, of the yellow arsenic. This paint does not cost the quarter of oil paint, and looks better. Blue Color for Ceilings, &o. — ^Boil slowly for 3 hours 1 lb. "blue vitriol and ^ lb. of the best whiting in about 3 qts. water; stir it frequently while'boiling, and also on taking it off tho fire. When it lias stood till quite cold, pour off the blue liquid, then mix the cake of color with good size, and use it with a plasterer's brush in tho same manner as whitewash, cither for walls or ceilings. To Harden Whitewash. — ^To ^ pail of common whitewash add ^ pint of flour. Pour on boiling water in quantity to thicken it. Then add G gals, of the lime water, and stir well. Whitewash that will not Rub Off, — Mix up lialf a pailful of lime and water, ready to put on the wall; then take ^ pt. flour, mLx it up with water; then pour on it boiling water, a sufficient quantity to thicken it; then pour it while hot iiito tho whitewash, stir all well together, and it is ready for use. 802 CALCULATIONS, &C., FOR liUILDEllS. Slatiko.— Tho pitch of a slatod roof eliould be about 1 in height to 4 in lenytli; tl>.o usual lap is about :} ins., but it is sometimes 4. Each slato Bhoiild bo fastened by 2 nails, cither of copper or zinc. A square of slato is 100 supcrlicial feet, allowances being made for tbo trouble of cutting tlie slates at the hii)S, eaves, round chimneys, etc. The sides and bottom edges of the slates should be trimmed, and the nail holes puiu;hed as near the head as possible; they should bo sorted in sizes, when they arc not all of ono size, and the smallest size placed near tlio ridge. The tliick- ness of slates varies from 3-lG to 5-16 of an inch, and their weight from 2.G to 4.53 lbs. per square foot. The following table of sizes, etc., of roof- ing slates is very useful: Description . Siz Length e. Bre'th. Av'rage guage in inches. No; of squares 1200Avill cover. Weight per IMOO in tons. No. re- quired to cover ono square. No. of nails re- quired to ono square. Countesses . . Duchesses . . , Imperials — Hags and Queens Westmore- lands, of various sizes. ft. in. 1 1 1 4 1 8 2 0 2 G 3 0 ft. in. 0 G 0 8 0 10 1 0 2 0 2 0 7 9 1 a ton 2 41/. 7 " 10 vill cove f r 2V4 to 2 480 280 176 127 squar 480 280 352 254 3S. The next table exhibits the comparative weight of various roof cover- ings. Plain tiles, per squaro of 100 sup'l feet — "Weight. Least Slope. 8 to 18 cwt. 91/4 cwt. 7 to 9 cwt. 614 cwt. 3 cwt. 1 cwt. 560 to C72 lbs. 21/2 cwt. 5 cwt. S5 cwt. 2Gy2 to 30<3 251/2 to 30° 40 40 40 250 25° 60° Copper, or zinc, 16 ozs. per sup'l feet Timber framing for slated or tiled roofs . . . Cement for Makble and Alabaster.— Mix 12 parts of Port- laud cement, 6 parts slacked lime, 6 p9.rts of fine sand, and 1 part of infusorial earth, and make up into a thick paste with silicate of soda. The object to be cemented does not require to be heated. It sets in 24 hours, and the fracture can not readily be found. Superior Blasting Compound. — The English mining engineer, Mr. W. B. Brain, lias found that one of the most available blasting compounds consists of equal parts of potash chlorate, potash nitrate, charcoal, and dry oak saw-dust; 3 parts of this mixture is made to about 2 parts nitroglycerine of 1.6 specific gravity. To Thaw Frozen Sink Pipes, &c.— Place the end of a piece of lead pipe against the ice to be thawed, and then through a funnel iu CALCULATIONS, &C., FOR BUILDERS. 303 tlie other end pour 'boilmg water. Keep the pipe constantly against the ice and it will soon disappear. Or stiffen rubber tubing with fine wire and introduce it into the pipe as far as possible, and direct a jet of steam from a small boiler over a portable charcoal furnace, as is done by plumbers in many cases. Extinguishing Fires. — A solution of pearlash in water, thrown upon a fire, extinguishes it instantly ; the proportion is 4 ozs., dis- solved in hot water, and then poured into a bucket of cold water. In extinguishing kerosene fires, use uo water, but smother the flames Avith blankets or rugs. In clapboarding, 1 bundle laid 314 ins. to tlio weather v/ill cover 26 equar© feet. To be laid witli 5-penny nails. COMPAKATIVE WEIGHT OP DIFFERENT WoODS IN GrEEN AND Seasoned states in Pounds and Ounces Per Cubic Foot.— Ash, green, 58.3; do., seasoned, 50. Beech, green, 00; do., seasoned, 50. Amer- ican pine, green, 44.12; do., seasoned, 30.11. Cedai-, green, 32; do., sea- Boned, 28.4. English oak, green, 71.10; do. seasoned, 43,8. Riga Fir, green, 48.12; do., seasoned, 35.8. Shrinkage in Dimensions of Timber by Seasoning. Woods. Ins. Pitch pine, South. . . Spruce White pine, America Yellow pine 18% to ISY4 SY2 to 8% 12 to 11% 18 to nvs Woods. Ins. 14 to 1314 11 to 10% 12 to 11% [934 10x10 to 1)3/4 by Percentage of Water in Different Woods. Alder 41.6 Ash 28.7 Birch 30.8 Elm 44.5 Horse chestnut 38.2 Larch 48.6 Mountain ash 28.3 Oak 34.7 Pine 39.7 Red beech 39.7 1 Red pine 45.2 White oak 30. 2 White pine 37.1 White poplar 50-6 Willow 26.0 In sJiingling, 1 bundle of 16-inch shingles will cover 30 square ft.; 1 bundle of 18-inch shingles will lay 33 square ft., when laid 5% ins. to tho weather; 6 lbs. 4-penny nails will lay 1000 split pine shingles. Plasterer's Memoranda.— 130 yards of lath, lay and set, require 1 Joad of laths, 10,000 nails, 2% cwt. of lime, ly, double load of sand, and 7 bushels of hair; plaster, laborers and boy, 6 days each. Bender and Set.— 100 yards requires il^ cwt. of lime, 1 double load of sand, and 4 bushels of hair; plasterer, laborer and boy, 3 days each. Setting — 375 yards require ly^ cwt. of lime and 5 bushels of hair- In lathing, 1 bundle of laths and 384 nails will cover 5 yards. In ren- dering, 187% yards require 1% cwt. of lime, 2 double loads of sand and 5 bushels of hair. Floating requires more labor, but only half as much material as rendering. 1000 bricks, closely stacked, occupy 56 cubic feet ; 1000 old bricks, cleaned and loosely stacked, occupy 72 cubic ft. 1 rod of brickwork requires 126 gals, water to slack the lime and mix the mortar. Bricks absprb 1-15 of their weight in water. No. of bricks in cubic yard, 384. A bricklayer's hod will hold 20 bricks, or % cubic ft. of mortar, or 1^ bushel, nearly. Safe Load in Structures, Including Weight of Structure. In cast-iron columns , 1/4 breaking weight. Wrought-iron structures <' " ' In cast-iron girders for tanks 1/4 " " In cast-iron tor bridges and tanks 1-6 " *' In timber 1-10 " Stone and bricks i/g " " CABINETMAKERS, TAINTEIIS', &C., RECEIPTS. 305 Whitewash.— The best method of making a -whitewash for out- side exposure is to slake ^ bushel of lime iu a barrel, add 1 lb. oi common salt, ^ lb. of the sulphate of zinc, and a gallon of sweet mUk. Anj desired color may be imparted to whitewash by adding coloring matter to suit. See Compound Colors. Terra Cotta Manufacture.— In the terra cotta manufacture of the north of England and Scotland, the purest lumps of fire clay are selected by their color and texture, and used alouo without any other clay, while the firms near London prepare more carefully a mixture of clays, which produce a body of better texture. One of the chief difficulties met in manufacturing terra cotta figures and ornamental works is the contraction the clay suffers after it has left the mould ; first, iu drying, afterwards in firing ; By mixing the claj^s, a further advantage is gained iuthe diminished shrinkage, as fire clay terra cotta (that is, unmixed) shrinks in lineal dimensions about 13 per cent, from the time it leaves the mould until it leaves the kiln ; the mixed clay terra cotta shrinks G per cent, or less, and red clays shrink 3 per cent. To enhance the durabiUty of the body of terra cotta, a partial vitrification of the mass is aimed at by adding clays and substances which contain a small amount of alkalies which act as a flux to fuse the body harder ; also vitrifying ingredients, pure white river sand^ old fire brick, ground fine, previously ground clay called " grog," are added in various proportions, amounting even to 25 per cent. They counteract excessive shrinkage, act as vitrifjring elements, and keep the color lighter. In the manufacture the mixture of clays is ground under an edge rmmer to the consistency of flour. The mills have cither revolving or stationary pans ; tlie former do the most work. In order to mix aud incorporate the different clays, a subsequent care- ful pugging is required, for hot water is sometimes used. Tlie mix- ture when brought to the proper homogeneous consistency, is placed in a plaster mould, dried near the kilns or otherv^^ise, an- baked in a kiln for five or seven days, durmg which time it is slowly brought to a white heat, aud is gradually cooled down again. I order to avoid twisting and warping during the firing, it is necessary, besides complete mix- ing of clays, that the mould be shaped so as to give a uniform thick- ness of material throughout, and if the temperature of the kihis bo well graded, the homogeneous body will not warji. To cheapen terra cotta building blocks, they are made hollow, and filled, during the con- Etruction, with concrete or cement. Although in the kilns the pro- ductions are separated from the wares, it is found that the use of sul- phurous fuel darkens aud tarnishes the surface, and it is to be avoid- ed. This material admits of being used with the greatest facility iu the formation of the most elaborate architectural ornaments and other beautiful designs which can be multiplied to any required extent at a very cheap rate. A piece of four inch column tested at the 1851 Exhibi- tion required a pressure of 400 tons per square foot to crush it, or as much as good granite and two or three times as much as most build- ing stone. Excellent Cheap Roofing, — Have your roof stilT, rafters made of stuff IJ by 8 inches, well su^jported and G feet apart, with ribs 1 inch by 2 inches, set edgeways, well nailed to the rafters, about 18 inches apart. The boards may be thin but must be well seasoned, and nailed close together • this done, lay dQWft Wd coyer the roof with thin 20 806 cabinetmakehs, painters', &c., RECEirxs. Boft, spongy straw paper used in raakinfj pa]-)cr-boxes, -winch comes in rolls and comcH very low. Lay in coui sos np and down the roof, and lap over, nailing down with common No, (3 tacks, with leather under the heads like carpet tacks. Then spread on several coatings of tho following composition, previously boiled, stirred, and mixed togctlier: good clean tar, 8 gals. ; lioman cement, 2 gals, (or in its place very fine, clean sand may he used) ; resin, 5 lbs. ; tallow, 3 lbs. ; apply hot : and let a hand follow, and sift on sharp grit sand, pressing it in- to the tar composition. If wished fire-proof, go over tho above with the following preparation ; Blake stone lime under cover with hot water till it falls hito a fine powder, sift and mix. C qts. of this with 1 qt. salt ; add 2 gals, water, boil and skim. To 5 gals, of this add 1 lb of alum, and 1^ lb. of copperas, slowly while boiling, l^lbs. potash and 4 qts. of clean, sharp sand, and any color desired. Apply a thick coat with a brush, and you have a roof which no firo can injure from the outside. How TO Build Gra\t:l IIotjses. — ^Tliis is tho best building ma- terial in the world. It is four times cheaper thaa wood, six times cheaper than stone, and superior to either. Proportions for mixing : to eight barrows of slaked lime, well deluged with water, add 15 barrows of sand ; mix these to a creamy consistency, then add GO barrows of coarse gravel, which must be worked well and completely ; you can then throw stones into this mixture, of any shape or size, up to ten inches in diameter. Form moulds for the walls of tho house by fixing boards horizontally against upright standards, which must be immovably braced so that they will not jield to the immense pres- sure outwards as the material settles ; set the standards in pairs around the building where the walls are to stand, from six to eight feet apart, and so wide that the inner space shall form the thickness of the wall. Into the moulds thus formed throw in the concreto material as fast as j^ou choose, and the more promiscuously tho better. In a short time the gravel will get as hard as the solid rock. Vabxish fok Plaster Casts. — White soap and white wax, each^ oz., water 2 pts., boil together in a clean vessel for a short time. This varnish is to be applied when cold with a soft brush. The BRONzixa of Plaster Casts is effected by giving them a coat of oil or size varnish, and when this is nearly dry, applying with a dabber of cotton or a camel-hair pencil any of the metallic bronze powders ; or the powder may be placed in a little bag of muslin, and dusted over the surface, and afterwards finished with a wad of linea. The surface must be afterwards varnished. Substitute for Plaster of Paris.— Best whiting, 2 lbs. ; glue, 1 lb. ; linseed oil, 1 lb. Ileat all together, and stir thoroughly. Let the compound cool, and then lay it on a stone covered with powdered whiting, and heat it well till it becomes of a tough aud firm consistence ; then put it by for use, covering with wet cloths to keep it fresh. When wanted for use, it must be cut in pieces adapted to the size of the mould, into which it is forced by a screw press. Tlie ornament may be fixed to the wall, picture-frame, &c., with glue or white lead. It becomes in time as hard as stone itself. Modelling Clay. — Knead dry clay with glycerine instead cf water, and a mass is obtained which remains moist and plastic for a considerable time, being a great convenience to the modeller. WATCHMAKEKS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 307 Roman Cement.— Drift sand, 94 parts ; unslaked lime, 12 IIds. ; nnd 4 lbs. of tlie poorest cheese grated ; mix well ; add hot (not boil- ing) water to reduce to a proper consistence for plastering. Work well and quick with a thin smooth coat. . To Polish Plaster of Pabis wokk. — ^The addition of 1 or 2 per cent, of many salts, such as alum, sulphate of potash, or borax, confers upon gypsum the property of setting slowly in a mass capable of receiving a very high polish. To MAKE Plaster of Paris as hard as Marble.— The plaster- is put in a drum, turning horizontally on its axis, and steam admitted irom a steam boiler : by this means the plaster is made to absorb in a short space of time the desired quantity of moisture, which can bo regulated with great precision. The plaster thus prepared is filled into suitable moulds ; and the whole submitted to the action of an hydraulic press : when taken out of the moulds, the articles aro Tcady for use, and will be foimd as hard as marble, and will take a polish like it. To TAKE A Plaster of Paris Cast from a Person's Face. — The person must lie on his back, and his hair be tied behind ; into each nostril put a conical piece of paper, open at each end, to allow of breathing. The face is to be lightly oiled over, and the plaster, being properly prepared, is to be poured over the face, taking particular care that the ejes are shut, till it is a quarter of an inch thick. In a few minutes the plaster may be removed. In this a mould is to bo formed, from which a second cast is to be taken, that will furnish casts exactly like the original. WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS AND GILDEES' RECEIPTS, TABLES, &c. On Watch Cleaning.— The greatest care is necessary in taking the watch down, and separating its parts. First, remove the handiJ carefully, so as not to bend the slight pivots on which they work, next, remove the movement from the case, and take ofE the dial and dial wheels ; next, let down the main spring by placing your bench key upon the arbor, or winding post, and turning as though you were 308 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEirTS. po'm^ to Tvind tlio vratch until tho elide rests lightly upon the r.itchct; then Avith your screw-driver press tbo point of tlio cliclc away from the teetli and ease down the springs; next, draw tlio screws, or pins, and remove tlie bridges of tlio train or tlio upper jilate, as tlio case may Iro, next, remove the balance with tlie greatest care to avoid injuring the liair spring. Tlio stud or small j)ost into which the hair spring is fastened may be removed from tlio bridge or i)Iate of most modern watches without unkeying the spring, by slipping a thin in- strument, like the edge of a blade knife, under the corner of it and prying upward, this will savo much trouble, as you will not have tho hair-spring to adjust when you reset tho balance. If the watch upon which you propose to work has an upper plate, as an American or an English lever for instance, loosen tho lever before you have entirely separated the plates, otherwise it will hang and probably be broken. The watch being now taken apart, brush tho dust away from its dif- ferent parts, and subject them to a careful examination with your eye-glass. Assure yourself the teeth of tho wheels and leaves of the pinions are all perfect and smooth; that tho pivots aro all straight, rdund, and highly polished; that the holes through which they are to work are not too large, and have not become oval in shape ; that every jewel is smooth and perfectly sound; and that none of them are loose m their settings. See also that the escapement is not too deep or too shallow ; that the lever or cylinder is perfect; that all tho wheels havo sufficient play to avoid friction, but not enough to derange their coming together properly; that none of them work against the pillar- })late; that the balance turns horizontally and does not rub: that tho lair-springis not bent or wrongly set so that the coils rub on each other on the plate, or on the balance; in short, thnt everything about tho whole movement is just as reason would teach you it should bo. If you find it otherwise, proceed to repair in accordance with a carefully weighed judgment and the processes given in this chapter, after which clean; if not, tho watch only needs to be cleaned, and, therefore, you may go on with your work at once. To Clean. — The best process is to simply blow your breath upon tho plate or bridge to be cleaned, and then to use your brush vdth a little prepared chalk. The wheels and bridges should be held between, the thumb and finger in a piece of soft paper while undergoing the pro- cess ; otherwise the oil from tho skin will prevent their becoming clean. The pinions may bo cleaned by sinking them several times into a piece of pith, and the holes by turning a nicely shaped piece oE pivot wood into them, first dry, and afterwards oiled a very little with watch oil. When the holes pass through jewels, you must work gently to avoid breaking them. Tub " Chemical Process." — Some watchmakers employ what they call the " Chemical Process " to clean and remove discoloration from watch movements. It is as follows : — Kemove the screws and other steel parts ; then dampen with a solution of oxalic acid and water. Let it remain a few minutes, after which immerse in a solution made of one-fourth pound cyanuret pot- assa to one gallon rainwater. Let remain about five minutes, and tlien rinse well with clean water, after which you may dry in sawdust, or with a brush and prepared chalk, as suits your convenience. This gives the work an excellent appearance. WATCmiAKERS, JEWELLERS , &C., KECEIPTS. 300 To PRErAnE Chalk fob Cleantitg.— Pulverize your chalk thor- oughly, and then mix it with clear rain water in the proportion to two pounds to tlie gallon. Stir well, and then let stand about two minutes. In this time the gritty matter will have settled to the bot- tom. Pour the water into another yessel slowly so as not to stir up the settUngs. Let sfcind until entirely settled, and then pour off as tefore. The settlings in the second vessel will be your prepared chalk, ready for use as soon as dried. Spanish whiting, treated in the same way, makes a very good cleanuag or polishing powder. Some operatives add a little jeweller's rouge, and we think it an im- provement ; it gives the powder a nice color at least, and therefore fldds to its importance in the eyes of the uninitiated. In cases where a sharper polishing powder is required, it may bo prepared in the . same way from rotten-stone. Pivot Wood. — ^Watchmakers usually buy this article of watch- material dealers. A small shrub known as Indian arrow-wood, to bo met with in the northern and western states, makes an excellent pivot wood. It must be cut when tlie sap is down, and split into quar- ters so as to throw the pith outside of the rod. Pith for Cleaking. — The stalk of the common mullen affords the best pith for cleaning pinions. Wmter, when the stalk is dry, i.i the time to gather it. Some use cork instead of pith, but It i3 inferior To Pivot. — ^Wlicn you find a pivot broken, you will hardly be at a loss to understand that the easiest mode of rcpairmg the damage is to drill into the end of the pinion or staff, as the case may be, and having inserted a new pivot, turn it down to the proper proportions. This is by no means a difficult thing when the piece to be drilled is not too hard, or when the temper maybe slightly drawn without injury to the other parts of the article. To TELii WEEK THE Lever IS OF PROPER Lei^gth. — ^You may readily learn whether or not a lever is of proper length, by measur- ing from the guard point to the pallet staff, and then comparing with tlie roller or ruby-pin table ; the diameter of the table should always bo just half the length measured on the lever. The rule will work both ways, and may be useful in cases where a new ruby-pin table has to be supplied. To CHANGE Depth of Lever Escapement. — If you arc opera- ting on a fine watch, the best plan is to put a new staff into the lever, cutting its pivots a little to one side, just as far as you desire to change the escapement. Common watches will not, of course, justify 60 much trouble. The usual process in their case is to knock out the staff, and with a small file cut the hole oblong in a direction opposite to that in which you desire to move your j)allets : then replace the staff, wedge it to the required position, and secure by soft soldering. In instances where the staff is put in with a screw, you will have to proceed differently. - Take out the staff, pry the pallets from the lever, file the pin holes to slant in the direction you would move the pallets, without changing their size on the other side of the lever. Connect the pieces as they were before, and, with the lever resting on some solid substance, you may strike lightly with your hammer until the bending of the pins will allow the pallets to pass into posi- tion. 310 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', «&C.,' RECEIPTG. CoiMTKKSATiox Bat.akck OF CiTiiONOMETERS.— Tlio balaiico in a email pioco of steel covered with a hoop of brass. The rim, consisting of the two metals, is divided at the two extremities, the one diamet- rical arm of the balance, so that the increase of tcmperaturo which weakens the balance vsprings contract, iu a proportionate degree, tlio diameter of the balance, leaving the spring less resistance to overcome. Tills occurs from the brass expanding much more by heat than steel, and it therefore curls the semicircidar arcs inwards, an action that will bo immediately understood, if wo conceive the compoiuid bar of steel to be straight, as the heat would render the brass side longer and convex, and in the balance it renders it moro curved. In the compensation balance, the two metals are united as follows : the disk of steel when turned and pierced with a central holo is fixed by a little screw-bolt and nut at the bottom of a small cru- cible, with a central elevation smaller than the disk ; the brass ia now melted and the whole allowed to cool. The crucible ia broken, the excess of brass is turned off in the lathe, the arms are made with the file as usual, the rim is tapped to receive the compensation screws or weights, and, lastly, the hoop is divided in two places at the opposite ends of its diametrical arm. The balance springs of marine chronometers, which are in the form of a screw, are wound into the square thread of a screw of the appropriate diameter and coarseness ; the two ends of the spring are retained by side screws, and the whole is carefully enveloped in platinum foU, and lightly bound with wire. The mass is next heated in a piece of gim barrel closed at one end, and plunged into oil, which hardens tlic sprmg almost without discoloring it, owing to the exclusion of the air by the close platinum covering, which is now removed, and the spring is let down to the blue before removal from the screwed block. Tho balance or hair spring of common watches are frequently left soft, those of the best watches are hardened in the coil upon a plain cylinder and are then curled into tho spiral form between tho edge of a blunt knife and the thumb, the same as in curling up a narrow ribbon or paper, or the filaments of an ostrich feather. The soft springs are worth CO cents each, those hardened and tempered $1.2G each. This raises the value of tho steel ; originally less than 4 cents, to $2000 and $8000 respectively. It takes 3200 balance springs to weigh an ounce. Watch Spring Mantjfacture. — "WaLch springs are hammered cut of round steel wire, of suitable diameter imtil they fill the gauge, for width, which at the same time insures equality of thickness. The holes are pimched in their extremities, and they are trimmed on the edge with a smooth file. The springs are then tied up with binding wire, in a loose open coil and heated over a charcoal fire upon a perforated revolving plate. They are hardened in oU and blazed off. The spring is now distended in a long metal frame, simi- lar to that used for a saw blade, and groimd and polished with emery and oil between lead blocks. By this time its elasticity appears quite lost, and it may be bent in any direction ; its elasticity is, how- ever, entirely restored by a subsequent hammering on a very bright anvil which puts the " nature into the spring." The coloring is done over a flat plate of iron, or hood, under which a small spirit lamp is kept burning ; the spring is continually dra-wn backward and WATCmiAKEES, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 311 forward, about two or three inclies at a time, until it assumes tlio orange or deei) blue tint througliout, according to the tasto of tho purchaser. By many the coloring is considered to be a matter of ornament and not essential. The last process is to coil the spring into the spiral form, that it may enter the barrel in which it is to be contained. This is done by a tool with a small axis and winch liandles, and does not require heat. To TELii WHEN Lever Pallets aiie of proper Size. — Tho clear space between the pallets should correspond with the outside measure, on the points of three, teeth of the scape wheal. The usual mode of measuring for new pallets is to set the wheel as close as pos- sible to free its self when in motion. You can arrange it in your dep- thing tool, after which tlie measurement between the pivot holes of the two pieces, on the pillar plate, will show yon exactly what is re- quired. To LENGTHEN LeYERS OF AnCHOR-ESCAPEMENT WATCHES WITH- OUT Hammering or Soldering. — Cut square across with a screw- head file, a little back from the point above the fork, and, when you have thus cut into it to a sufficient depth, bend forward tho desired distance the piece thus partially detached. In tho event of the pieco snapping off while bending — ^\vhich, however, rarely happens— file down the point level with the fork, and insert a pin English lever style. To temper Case and other Springs of "Watches.— Draw tho temper from the sprmg, and fit it properly in its place in the watch ; then take it out and temper it hard in rain-water (the addition of a little table-salt to the water will be an improvement) ; after which place it in a small sheet-iron ladle or cup, and barely cover it with lin- seed-oil ; then hold the ladle over a lighted lamp until the oil ignites, let it bum until the oil is nearly, not quite consumed ; then re-cover with oil and burn down as before ; and so a third time; at the end of which, plunge it again into water. Main and hair springs may, in like manner, be tempered by the same process ; first draw the temper, and properly coil and clamp to keep it in position, and then proceed the same as with case-sprmgs. To MAKE Eed Watch Hands. — 1 oz. carmine, 1 cz. muriate of silver, ^ oz. of turner's Japan ; mix together in an earthen vessel, and hold over a spirit-lamp until formed into a paste. Apply this to tho watch hand, and then lay it on a copper plate, face side up, and heat the plate sufficiently to produce the color desired. To Drill into Hard Steel. — Make your drill oval in form, in- stead of the usual pointed shape, and temper as hard as it will bear without breaking; then roughen the surface where you desire to drill witli a little diluted muriatic acid, and, instead of oil, use turpentine or kerosene, in which a little gum camphor has been dissolved with your drill. In operatipg, keep the pressure on your drill firm and steady ; and if the bottom of the hole should chance to become bur- nished that the drill will not act, as sometimes haj)pens, again roughen with diluted acid as before; tlien clean out the hole carefully, and proceed again. To Put Teeth m Watch or Clock Wheels without Dove- tailing OR Soldering. — Drill a hole somewhat wider than tho toothj square through tho plate, a little below the base of tho tooth ; 812 WATcmrAKERS, jewellers', &c., receipts. cut from the edge of tho wheel square down to the hole .already drill- ed ; then flatten a piece of wire bo as to fit snugly into the cut of tho saw, and with a light hammer form a head on it like the head of a pin. When thus prepared, press tlio wire or pin into possession in tlic wheel, the head filling the hole drilled through the plate, and tho projecting out so as to form the tooth ; then with a sharp-pointed graver cut a small groove each side of the pin from the edge of tlio wheel down to the hole, and with a hlow of your hammer spread the face of the pin so as to fill the grooves just cut. Repeat tlie same op- eration on the other side of the wheel, and finish olf in the usual way. The tooth will he found perfectly riveted in on every side, and as strong as the original one, while in appearance it will ho equal to the hest dovetailing. To Case-harden Iron". — ^If you desire to harden to any consider- able depth, put the article into a crucible with cyanide of potash, cover over and heat altogether, then plunge into water. Thisx)rocess will harden perfectly to the depth of one or two inches. To TIGHTEK A CaNNON PiNION" ON THE CENTRE ArBOR WHEN" Too LOOSE.— Grasp the arbor lightly with a pair of cutting nippers, iind, by a single turn of the nippers around tho arbor, cut or raise a small thread thereon. To Frost Watch Movements.— Sink that part of tho article to ba frosted for a short time in a compound of nitric acid, muriatic acid, iiud table salt, one ounce of each. On removing from the acid, place it in a shallow vessel containing enough sour beer to merely cover it, then with a fine scratch brush scour thoroughly, letting it remain under the beer during the operation. Next wash off, first in i)ure water and then in alcohol. Gild or silver in accordance with any iccipe in the plating department. Rule for determining the correct Diameter of a Pinion r>Y MEASURING TeETH OF THE WhEEL THAT MATCHES INTO IT. — The term full, as used below, indicates full measure from outside to outside of the teeth named, and the term centre, the measure from centre of one tooth to centre of the other tooth named, inclusive. For diameter of a pinion of 15 leaves measure, with calipers, a shade less than 6 teeth of the wheel, full. For diameter of a pinion of 14 leaves measure, with calipers, a shade less than 6 teeth of the wheel, centre. For diameter of a pinion of 12 leaves measure, with calipers. 5 teeth of the wheel, centre. For diameter of a pinion of 10 leaves measure, with calipers, 4 teeth of the wheel, full. I'or diameter of a pinion of 9 leaves measure, with calipers, a little less than 4 teeth of the wheel, full. For diameter of a pinion of 8 leaves measure, witli calipers, a little less than 4 teeth of the wheel, centre. For diameter of a pinion of 7 leaves measure, with calipers, a little less than 3 teeth of the wheel, full. For diameter of a pinion of 6 leaves measure, with calipers, 3 teeth of the wheel, centre. For diameter of a pinion of 5 leaves measure, with calipers, 3 teeth of the wheel, centre. As a general rule, pinions that lead, as in tho hour wheel, should WATCmiAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 313 bo somewhat larger than those that drive, and pinions of cloclr^ should generally be somewhat larger proportionally than those of watches. For diameter of a pinion of 4 leaves measnre, with calipers, ono half of one space over 2 teeth of the wheel, full. To Polish Wheels perfectly without iifjunY. — ^Take a flat "hnrnishing file, warm it over a spirit lamp, and coat it lightly with beeswax. When cold, wipe off as much of the wax as can be readily removed, and with your file thus prepared, polish the wheel, restiu* the wheel while polishing on a piece of cork. The finish produced will be quite equal to the finest buff polish, while there will be no clogging, and the edges of the arms and teeth will remain perfectly equare. Sandoz' Method of PrtODUcrs-a Isochkoxis:,! i:^- Flat axd Breguet Sprln-gs. — Isochronism, from the Greek, meaning equal time, is the property possessed by the pendulum and the hair spring to accomplish their arcs of vibration of different amplitudes in the same space of time. In a pendulum, the only condition required is that its length be such as to make the centre of gravity move accord- ing to the cycloid curve; but in the hair spring the means change with the forms effected by the spring. In the spherical or conicrd springs, the extreme curves constructed after the mathematical rules discovered by Prof. Phillipps, of the Polytechnic School of Paris, will produce an Isochronism very nearly perfect. In the flat spring, these curves cannot exist, therefore other means must be resorted to. I shall give now the results of several years of experiment and study, which can be embodied in the two following theorems : 1. In the flat spring, ever]/ coil has theoretically a point tohcre the vibrations are Isochronal. 2. That point of Isochronism is determined bij the relative position of thetioo points connecting the hairspring icith the collet and stud, called Points d" attache. These two propositions form the base of Isochronism in the flat epring; therefore the idea generally accredited among watchmakers that the Isochronal properties of a Hat spring depend on its length is incorrect, since the 10th as well as the 20th coil of the spring is able to produce the Isochronism, the only limit being such sizes of springs that would prevent the perfect freedom of its action. Freedom of action being necessary for the Isochronal properties of the spring to develop themselves, the spring must be bent to the centre, according to Fig. II. — the first coil being too near or the curve too flat, so that even a minute part of the spring could touch tlio collet, would hinder the Isochronism. Next, the spring must bo ]->inned perfectly tight in the collet and stud, and move freely between the regulator pins. These conditions fulfilled, the watch is run 3, G or 12 hours with just Btrength enough to keep it going; the result is compared with a regu- lator and set down. Next, the watch is fully wound up, and after n space of time equal to the first trial, the result is again set down. Jlost generally the watch will run slower in the short vibrations than in the wide ones, and consequently lose time in the pocket in the last twelve hours of its running. Having set down as a principle that every coil has an Isochronal point, we have now to determine that point, re- membering that as a general rule, cvcrij increase of length of ilic 811 ^VATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., KECEirTS. spring over that point, will causa the watch to rjain in the short vibra- tions] and cvenj decrease hack of that point will cause it to rjain in the wide vibrations. This rule is correct only for certain limits, as I am fjoing to explain. Supposing that a hair spring of 15 coils is per- fectly Isochronal with the t^o points d' attache just opposite each other, as shown in Fig. III., the 14th and tlio iGth coil, as well as tlio 15th, will produce the Isochronism very nearly at the same point. .Su])posing that we increase gradually the len.gt'li of that hair 8|)ring of 15 coils, pimicd up so that the two points d' attache arc primitively opposite eacli other — so that its length will noio be 15^ coils — the two Xioints d' attache are now in the position shown in Fig." IV., or what is called pinned to the half coil. The result will bo that . the hair spring will cause the watch to gain in the short vibrations as much as it is in its power to do. But if we go further than the half coil, wo now enter the ground that belongs to the 16th coil, and every increase of length in that half coil will cause the hair spring to lose in the short vibrations, intho same proportion that it has been gaining in increasing the length of the fu'sthalf. That change will continue mitil we reach the same point on the 16th coil that we started from on tho 15th., the two pins op- jiositc each other; at that point we shall have again tlio Isochronism. The same operation is applicable to tho 14th coil, with the same re- Bults. Now it is immaterial whether wo take that half coil to the centre, or to the outside of the spring, because both of these operations will pro- duce the same results, viz., the change of the relative places of tho jwints cV attache of tho spring. Therefore the artist has his choice, and is guided by the size of the spruig and the weight of the balance; for taking half a coil to the centre of the spring will not much affect the rate of the watch, but taken outside, the difference will be great. On the other hand, a very short cut to the centre will greatly affect the Isochronism, and at the outside, a full half-coil will generally produce from 15 to 2o'f difference m 24 hours. If then the watch- maker would produce the greatest possible changes of Isochronism in a watch, the change of i:)Osition of the two points cV attache of tho Bprmg of one coil around, will give him the two highest degrees of gaining and losing in the short vibrations. It follows from the following pages, that if a watch loses in tho last running (short vibrations), the first thing to do is to increase tho length "of the hair spring from the outside; if the result is better, but not yet good, give still more length; if tho result is worse, it shows that you are too far on the coil. Take back the whole length that you had given in the first operation, and draw more length, so as to affect the sprmg the other way; or if your spring is already small or your balance pretty heavy, cut to the centre so as to come around to the required positions. Some springs cannot produce tho Isochronism ; this cornea from a defect in making the spring, or "a want of homogeniety in the metal ; the only remedy is a new spring. In the Breguet Spring, the Isochronism is produced in the same manner as the flat springings, but great care must bo taken in making the curve, for if it is not made in conformity to the principle of riiil- lipps, the Isochronism wUl be disturbed. WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS,' RECEIPTS. 313 For instance, in Fig. V,, the spring "being pinned in A, and the xvatch losing in the last 12 hours (short vib.), I first increase tho length of the hair spring to the point B ; but as I am already on tho ground belonging to the losing action, the result will be an increased loss of time in the last running, fthen go back to the point A, and moreover pin the spring to C, and then I shall approximate Isochron- ism. However, in most cases the increase of length will make tho watch gain in its last running. Adjustments to Positions.— This adjustment is Imown to but few watchmakers, and they make it a regular business. It requires of the operator considerable manual skill and reflective powers. Tho WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 317 great principle is to equalize the frictions, so that the pivots will offer to the action of the sprmg the same resistance in the four positions generally required, \iz., dial up, XII up, cock up and III up. After aving inspected and corrected the train so that the motive power is transmitted uniformly to the balance, tlie pivots and jewels of tho lever should he polished and shortened so as to have very little fric- tion; next, tlie lever should be poised as nearly perfect as possible, and the slot also in the fork where the ruby pin acts should be polished. The balance jewels ought to be made short enough to have the holes square, roimded infeido, and perfectly polished, tho "balance pivots well burnished and their ends half rounded, and tli8 balance poised very carefully. The Englisli method of throwing tho balance out of poise to obtain the same rate in different positions is not accepted generally, and is considered a bad practice by the most eminent Avatchmakers. The hair spring is put in its position without the balance, and bent so that the collet and the cock jewel will havo the same centres. The watch beuig now in good running order, is put under trial for 12 or 24 hours, and tho rate in each position carc- luUy noted. If there is any difference in tho running with the cock lip, or dial up, making the ends of the pivots even and equally well polished will remove the discrepancy. If the watch loses with XII up, wlilch is generally the case, and the friction on the balance jewels being reduced as much as possible, tho remedy is to increase the friction when the watch is either dial or cock up. Tliis is done by throioiiig the hair sprinrj a little out of the centre of the cock jewel, thereby adding to the friction on the pivot end, a lateral pressure against the balance jewels. If the watch is well regulated with XII np, and loses with III up, throio the spring a little toicards the figure III; this operation lifts up the balance when the watch is in losing position and diminishes the friction of tho pivots in that particular case. Making the ends of the pivots perfectly flat has a tendency to make the watch gain with dial or cock up. The sound of the watch must be clear in all positions, else it indicates a friction, as for instance rough jewels or pivots, safety pin rubbing against the roUer, etc. IIow TO Regulate a Watch Ef a few Minutes, axd a Peacti- CAL Method to put a new Hair Spuing, of the bight size and rERFECTI^Y ReGUEATED IN A WATCH WITHOUT RUNNING It. — First, ascertain how many vibrations the watch beats in one minute, by counting every other vibration and comparing that time with a well- regulated watch or regulator. In general, Swiss watches beat 18,000 in one hour, viz., 300 in one minute; American watches, either 18,000 cither 10,200, or 270 per minute ; and the English levers, 14,400, or 240 per minute. If there is any doubt, it is better to count up leaves and teeth, and ascertain the right number- but these cases are scarce where watches will beat odd numbers. Having found out tKe right number, examine tne oalance carefully for one or two minutes, counting every vibration going from right to left, and in the mean time examining the regulator or clock, to see when one mmute is up. If the watch is well regulated, the number of vibrations must be exactly half of the regular first number, viz., 150, 135, or 120, as only every other vibration has been recorded to facilitate the observation. If not so, move the regulator, right ox Ifiit, until a perfect coincidence comes. 318 WATCnMAKEIlS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. To pick tip a new hair spring, after having recorded the right num- ber of beats— either by the old hair sprmg or by the numbers of the train — lay first the spring with its centre well in the centre of the cock jewel, and having ascertained where the coil will cuter between the pma of the regulator, note the place. Stick to the pivot of the balance a small round piece of beeswax; then stick it to the centre of the spring, so as to establish a temporary but firm connection of the two pieces, and having pinched with the tweezers the hair spring to the place indicated by the regulator pins, cause it to vibrato gently; then count up the vibrations for one minute, and when you have got a spring that will produce nearly the required number of beats, pin it to the collet, and canse it again to vibrate, moving the tweezers for- ward and backward, until the right number of beats is produced; with another pair of tweezers, pinch the hair spring about onc-eightli of an inch back of the regulating point, so as to counterbalance tho gain produced by the regulator pins, and bend slightly the wire, which is the place where the hair spring must be pinned to the stud. Having then trued up the spring, proceed to put the regulator to tho right place, by using the way indicated in the beginning of this article, and the work is done. Success is certain, when the operation has been carefully performed. The balance must bo made to vibrate on Bome hard aiid well polished substance, so as to keep xi]) the vibra- tion to about the standard of regular running. A littlo practice will soon enable the watchmaker to change a hair spring very quick, and without any trouble whatever. Of Compensation. — A most accurate way of counterbalancing effects produced on the running of watches by different temperatures, is the expansion balance, formed of two concentric rings, one in- terior, of steel, and one exterior, of brass, jomcd together by hard soldering or smelting. The general proportion of these two metals ia one ^art of steel, two of brass. Tho stronger dilation of brass, causes the rim of the balance to head inwardly when the heat, increasing, diminishes the strength of the hair spring; the greater contraction bends the rim outwardly when cold comes to increase the rigidity of the spring's coils. Pushing forward or backward the screws of tho lim will alTect the compensating powers of the balance, by causuig their weight to be more active as they come nearer tho end of the cut arm. The thinner and higher the rim, the greater the action. A few trials will bring the balance to compensate the effect of temperature ^rom 30° to 100° Fahrenheit. For extreme temperatures another compensation, called auxiliary, is used, but only in ship chronome- ters. A soft spring will be less affected by changes of temperature tlian a hardened one ; this affords a way to compensate certain bal- ances, Avhere otherwise new ones would have to be used. A precau- tion to observe in compensating is to make the screws go freely on the balance, and not screw them too tight, else the action of the rim not being free, a good compensation could not be attained, until the com- bined actions of dilation and contraction of the rim have freed the screws. For watchmakers who would want to compensate a watch without having an expansion balance, I give the folloAving process, which I have successfully used : After having cut off the greater part of tho regulator's arm, another arm is to be fitted with a screw on the run WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 319 of the regulator, so as to revolve freely around that sctevr as an axis. The pins are put in the same position as on the old arm. A ring, of two parts of brass and one of steel, is then fastened to one end on that movable arm, and the other end is screwed at any convenient place, either on the regulator itself, or on the cock. See Fig. 1. 13y E lacing the whole ring on the regulator, the latter may be moved v.a 1 any other watch, the ring opening or shutting itself under tho changes of temperature, will push backward and forward the rcg;> lator pins, and so effect the compensation which is to be regulated Ijj varying either the proportion of brass and steel, or the size of the ling. To try the running of the watches, a common refrigerator is used to produce the low temperature, and then an apparatus, self-regula- ting, will produce the high temperature. It is commonly a squaro box of tin or copi^er, hermetically closed, rmder which is a gas burner. A compensating arm of the form of a U, made of brass and steel, is fastened inside the box, and is connected by a string with a lever at- tached to the key of the burner, and acts so that at the high temper- ature, say 100° Fah., the gas is nearly shut off, the compensating arm gradually releasing itself and consequently letting out more gag when the heat diminishes inside the box. Use steel pins to securo spring to collet and stud. To MAKE Polishing BROAcrrES.— These are usually made of ivory, and used with diamond dust, loose, instead of having been driven in. You oil the broach lightly, dip it into the finest diamond dust, and proceed to work it into the jewel the same as you do the brass broach. Unfortunately, too many watchmakers fail to attach suffi- cient importance to the polishing broach. The sluggish motion of watches now-a-days is more often attributable to rough jewels than to any other cause. To Polish Steel.— Take crocus of oxide of tin and graduate it in in the same way as in preparing diamond dust, and apply it to the steel by means of a piece of soft iron or bell metal, made proper form, and prepared with flour of emery, same as for pivot burnishers; use the coarsest of the crocus first, and finish off with the finest. To iron or soft steel a better finish may be given by burnishing than can bo imparted by the use of polishing powder of any kind whatever. The German Method of Polishing Steel is performed by tlie use of crocns on a buff wheel. ITothing can exceed the surpassing beauty imparted to steel or even cast iron by this process. Crocus Powder for Polishing.— Chloride of sodium and sul- phate of iron are well mixed in a mortar. The mixture is tlien put into a shallow crucible and exposed to a red heat; vapor escapes and the mass fuses. When no more vapor escapes, remove tho crucible and let it cool. The color of the oxide of iron produced, if the fire has bel3n properly regulated, is a fine violet ; if the heaS has been too high it becomes black. The mass when cold is to bo powdered and washed, to separate the sulphate of soda. Tho powder of crocus is then to be submitted to a process of careful elutriation, and the finer particles reserved for the more delicr.to work. An excellent powder for applying to razor strops is raado by igniting together in a crucible, equal parts of well dried green vitrol and common salt. The heat must bo slowly raised and well 320 WATCIIMAKEPtS, JinVELLERS', &C., nECEIPTS. regulated, otbonviso tlio materials 'will boil over in a pasty Ktatc, and bo lost. When avcU made, out of coutact with air, it has tho brilliant aspect of black lead. It requires to be ground and elutri- ated, after which it affords, on drying, an impalpable powder, that , may bo either applied on a, strop of Bmooth buff leather, or mixed up with hog's lard or tallow into a stiff cerate. To IlRMOVE Rust FKOM IiioN OR Steel, &c.— For cleaning -pxir^ poses, &c., kerosene oil or benzine are probably the best things laiown. When articles have become pitted by riist, however, tho'so can of course, only be removed by meclianical means, such as scour- ing with fine powder, or flour of emery and oil, or with very fiuo emery paper. To prevent steel from rusting, rub it Avith amLxturo of lane and oil, or with mercurial ointment, either of which will bo found valuable. To Make Burnisiiers. — Proceed the same as in making pivot files, ■\7ith the exception that you are to use fine flour of emery on a slip of oiled brass or copper, mstead of the emery paper. Burnishers which have become too smooth may be improved vastly with tho flour of emery as above without drawing the temper. To Prepare a Burnisher for Polishing. — Melt a little bees- wax on the face of your burnisher. Its effect then on brass or other finer metals, will be equal to the best buff. A small burnisher prc- liared in this way is the very thing with which to polish up watcli wheels. Rest them on a piece of pith while polishing. Rules for Determining the Correct Length of the LE^^:I:, SIZE OF RUBY-riN TABLE, SIZE OP THE PALLETS, AND DEPTH OF Escapement of Lever Watches. — A lever, from the guard point to the pallet staff, should correspond in length with twice the diameter of the ruby-pin table, and when a table is accidentally lost, the cor- rect size thereof may be known by measuring half the length of tho lever between the points above named. For correct size of pallet, tho clear space between the pallets should correspond with the outsido measure on the points of three teeth of the escapement wheeh The only rule that can be given, without the use of diagrams, for correct depth of the escapements, is to set it as close as it will bear, and stUl free itself perfectly when in motion. This may be done by first placing the escapement in your depthing tool, and then setting it to the correct depth. Then by measuring the distance between tho pivots of the lever staff and esca])eraent wheel, as now set, and tho corr^ponding pivot holes in the watch, you determine correctly liovy much the depth of the escapement requires to be altered. To Prevent Watches losing Tibie from Action of Pendulttji Spring. — ^Pin the pendulum spring into the stud, so that that part, the part of the eye immediately emerging from the collet, and tho centre of the collet, are in a line; then you will have tho spring pin- ned in, in equal terms, as it is called by those who are versed in tho higher branches of springing. Bring the watch to time by adding to or taking from the balance, and poise it; try the watch with tho 13 up for 2 hours, then with the 6 up for 2 hours, then lying down for the same time; the trials here described will be sufficient if tho watch has seconds ; keep the curb pin close so as to allow the spring only a little play; the vibration of tlio balance should bo turn or ' lilyin^. WATCmiAKEES, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 321 LIST OF TRAINS OF WATCHES. BHOWlXa THE NUMBER OF TEETH IN THE WHEELS, rEAVES lU THE riMIONS. BEATS IN A MINUTE, AND TIME THE FOURTH WHEEL KEVOLVES IN. Trains, for Seven Tectli in tis.& E^scapement Wheel. No. of Teoth In the Centre Wheel. Leares Leaves Teeth in the Escape- ment Wheel. Leaves in the JSo. ot 5econdj Teeth in in 3d Teeth in in 4th Escape- No. of Beats in th3 4tli 3(i Wheel. Wheel 4th Wheel Wheel ment one minute. Wheoi Pinion. rinion. AYheel Pinion. rerol- vcs in. 72 GG 6 58 G G 298— 2'/ GG G4 6 G'4 G 7 G 292-}- 31 G6 G4 6 G3 G 7 C 287+ 31 GG 63 6 C3 G 7 G 283— 31 GG C3 6 62 G 7 G 278-1- 31 G6 |^3 C 61 G 7 (•■ 274- 31 GG G3 G CO G 7 G 269+ 31 Trains, for Nine Tcettia ia tlao Escapement Wliecl, G-J 60 G 57 G 9 6 299+ 31 G5 60 G 54 G f) G 297 33 G3 60 G 56 9 6 294 34 GG 60 G 53 6 9 6 291+ S3 G3 GO C 55 G 9 G 289— 34 G3 G3 GO G 52 6 9 6 283 33 61 G 54 G 9 6 ■ 283 f 31 GG G) G 51 G 9 G 28;j+ 3i C3 GO G 53 G 9 6 278+ 31 GG GO G 5) G 9 6 275 33 G3 60 G 52 G 9 G 273 3t Trains, for Eleven Toetli ia t3ao Escapement Wiacel. 60 60 G 49 6 11 G oUJ — CO 51 6 54 6 11 G £97 40 60 56 6 52 G 11 6 233— 3) 61 52 6 52 G 11 G 291— 39 58 53 G 53 G 11 6 292+ 40 GO 54 6 53 6 11 6 291+ 40 G2 51 6 51 6 11 6 290- 3:) 53 54 6 54 6 11 6 287+ 41 58 55 6 53 6 11 G 287 41 59 5t 6 53 G n 6 283-L 41 GO 51 6 52 G 11 6 283 40 CO 55 6 51 G 11 6 283- 39 61 55 6 , 50 G 11 6 285- 33 G3 55 G 48 6 11 G 282+ 33 59 54 6 52 6 11 . 6 281+ 41 GO 54 G 51 6 11 6 281+ 40 Gl 51 6 50 6 11 6 280— 89 56 5!, 6 5t G n 6 277+ 43 GO 60 6 48 6 11 6 293+ 35 62 54 G 52 G 11 6 295+ 30 C3 54 6 50 6 11 6 289— 33 63 48 G 53 6 11 G 287+ I 43 70 70 7 56 7 ]i 7 293 -f- 33 TO 70 43 7 11 6 293^ 3) 70 60 1 7 4^ . 6 ]i 6 ?93+ 1 33 21 822 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. Ho. of In tho Centre fiheel. — — Leaves Teeth la tho E«icai)c- mont Wheel. L«avos in tlio .Mu. o£ Soconds Tooth in in M Toeth In ln4t,h Kscapc- No. of Treats In tlio 4tLi 3d Wliool. lU "Wheel Pinion. )'iui«n. ono MInuto. Wheel ve.3 in. 60 _ 70 6 48 7 11 6 203-}- 3S €3 CO 6 66 7 11 G 287-1- 40 63 63 6 60 7 ]1 G 280— 33 80 80 8 64 8 11 8 293-1- 63 80 80 8 56 8 11 7 293 H 8i5 80 80 8 48 8 11 G 293 f SC 80 70 8 50 7 11 7 293 h 293 1^ 3> 70 43 11 3-3 80 8 7 G 80 60 8 48 G 11 6 293-1- 293-1- 85 70 PO 7 5(3 8 11 7 3> 70 80 7 48 8 11 G 293-1- 33 60 G 48 8 11 6 293-i- 8) 84 -9 8 59 8 11 6 289— 33 84 C3 8 50 7 11 6 289— 33 84 54 8 50 6 u 6 289— 83 C3 72 G 50 8 ]1 6 289— 33 63 C3 G 50 11 G 289- S3 84 G4 8 50 8 11 G 287+ 40 81 C8 8 5G 7 11 G 287+ 40 84 43 8 50 G 11 G 287+ 40 63 G4 6 53 8 11 6 287+ 40 63 50 6 5G 7 11 G 287+ 40 Trains, for Tliirteen I'eetii in tlao Escapoiaent "Wlaeel. f)4 53 G 52 6 13 6 298+ 45 66 53 6 50 6 13 6 298— 44 69 51 6 49 6 13 6 29G— 43 60 51 6 48 6 13 6 294+ 42 64 53 6 51 6 13 6 293— 45 66 53 6 49 6 13 6 292— 44 68 54 6 48 6 ]3 6 291+ 44 67 53 6 43 6 13 6 291— 43 64 52 6 51 6 13 6 287+ 4'J 64 43 6 50 6 13 G 287+ 45 60 51 6 50 6 13 6 286+ 45 61 52 6 50 6 13 6 282— 45 66 51 6 49 6 13 6 281- 45 67 51 6 48 6 13 6 280— 44 62 52 6 51 6 13 G 277— 43 63 52 6 50 6 13 C 276+ 46 62 52 6 52 6 13 6 293- 43 65 51 G 51 6 13 6 287 45 66 50 6 51 6 13 6 283+ 46 50 52 6 43 6 13 G 280+ 44 66 52 6 50 6 13 G 2^2+ 277+ 44 60 48 6 43 6 13 6 45 60 50 G 43 • 6 13 6 289— 43 60 54 G 00 8 13 6 292+ 53 60 58 7 56 7 13 6 287+ 51 60 GO 8 64 6, ]3 6 800 44 62 56 7 66 7 13 296+ 47 63 52 7 51 6 13 6 285 6) 63 60 7 60 7 13 6 290 60 64 60 7 60 7 13 6 285 60 ^2 70 68 8 68 8 13 G 280 6) 74 8 68 8 13 6 286+ GO WATCmiAKEES, JEWELLEES', &C., HECEIPTS. 323 Trains, for Fifteen Tcetia in tJie Escapement WSaeel, yro. of To«th In the Centre Wheel. ■ Teeth in 3d Wheel. Leaves in 3d ; Wheel Pinion. Teeili In 4th Wheel Leaves in 4th Wheel Pinion. Teeth in the Escape- ment Wheel. Leave.3 in the Escape- ment Wheal Pinion. ITo. of Beats in one Minute. No. oj? Seconds AVhecl roTol- Tes in. 54 50 6 48 6 15 - 6 286 48 58 48 6 4G 6 15 6 290 50 48 45 6 59 6 15 C 291 — 60 48 45 6 58 6 15 6 300 @2 48 45 6 57 6 15 6 283 62 48 45 6 56 6 15 6 288 50 56 48 6 46 6 15 6 289 — 50 C3 56 7 56 7 15 7 288 50 CO 56 8 58 7 15 6 288 50 C2 60 8 GO 8 15 6 288 50 {■a 64 g 50 g 15 (5 288 0\f 72 64 8 5G 8 15 7 2S8 50 72 64 8 CA 8 15 8 288 50 52 50 G 48 6 15 6 28S 50 64 48 G 43 G 15 6 283 50 72 64 8 48 8 16 6 283 50 73 80 8 64 10 15 8 288 50 72 80 8 56 10 15 7 283 50 72 80 8 48 10 15 6 283 50 03 80 7 64 10 15 8 288 50 C3 i 80 56 10 15 7 288 50 C3 1 80 7 48 10 15 6 288 50 Trains, for Seventeen Teotli in the Escapement Wlieel. 64 80 8 43 10 1 G 1 299+ 1 53 54 48 6 41 C 5? 6 1 299+ 50 61 48 6 45 6 G { 295+ 53 64 48 G 43 G 17 6 292+ 60 48 48 G 4! G 17 6 1 290-h 53 51 48 6 ij 6 17 0 1 289 63 54 48 G 42 G 17 C 286- 53 48 48 G 47 G 17 G 1 284+ 63 61 48 48 48 G 41 G 17 17 G 283— 278 53 53 G 45 G G 48 48 G 45 G 17 6 272 53 64 64 64 8 G4 8 17 17 8 8 290+ 2S6— 60 50 72 8 53 8 64 64 8 GO 8 17 8 289— 63 56 56 7 5G 7 17 7 290+ 63 63 56 7 49 7 17 7 286— 50 64 56 8 43 7 17 6 290+ 53 80 80 10 64 10 17 8 290+ 53 80 64 10 G4 8 17 8 290+ 53 80 64 10 ' 66 8 17 7 290+ bii 80 64 10 43 8 17 6 290+ 53 80 53 10 56 7 17 7 290+ 63 80 56 10 43 7 17 G 290+ 53 64 80 8 64 10 17 8 290+ 63 64 80 8 56 10 17 7 290+ 63 To Remove Soft Solder from Gold. — Place the work in spirita of salts, or remove as much as possible with the scraper, using a gentle heat to enable you to get off the solder more easily. Very useful to be known where hard SQldering is required, either ia bright or colored work. 824 TVATCnMAKERS. JEWELLERS', *fcC., RECEIPTS Trains, for Third Wlieel and Patent Scconde. No. of Teeth Centra Wheel Teeth in 3a Wheel. in 3d Whcol riniou. Teeth in 4thWhco; LcaTCs in 4th Whcol I'iiuou. Tooth in thn Who"l. ^n tho* Escape- ment Whcol riniou. No. of Bnata in cao Minute. iSo. tit Seconds Iho 4tl» Wheel rcvol« VGJ in. "co 72 G CO u G 200 CO 00 GO 6 CO 1) G 3U0 CO G) 43 6 GO 8 C 8 0 CO ^.3 GO G GO 8 G 300 GO CO 72 G Ci 12 G 270 GO CO GO G 54 10 G 270 GO 48 GO G 51 8 G 270 GO GO 72 C 43 12 G 240 CO GO GO G 48 10 G 240 GO 48 63 G 43 8 6 240 CO Trains, for Fourtli Wliecl Seconds? witli Elovon Tcctll ill tlie Escai^ement Wlieel. ^8 45 C 7i 6 li G GO 43 45 6 U 6 11 6 CO 48 45 6 G 11 G GO 48 45 G 73 G 11 G 233 GO 60 40 7 7i 7 11 G 271+ GO 60 iO 7 73 7 11 G 270- GO GO 40 7 ( J 7 11 G 283 GO 45 5G G 71 7 11 G 271+ 60 45 53 G 11 G 279- GO 45 56 G 73 11 G 283 GO 64 GO 8 7J. 8 11 G 271+ G) 64 GO 8 0 11 5 279- GO 64 CO 8 73 0 11 G 23G GO 60 5G 8 74 7 11 G 271+ GO 60 5G 8 7G 7 IL G 279— 60 60 66 8 73 7 11 G 283 CO 60 48 8 7'i G 11 6 ia+ 60 48 48 8 78 6 11 G 60 48 GO 6 71 8 11 C 271+ 283 60 48 GO 6 78 8 11 6 GO 56 GO 7 74 8 11 6 271+ GO Trains, for Foiirtli Wlieel Seconds, witia TWrteen Teeth in llae Escapement Wlieel. C4 60 0 66 8 13 6 2»d uo 64 CO 8 C7 8 lo 6 290+ GO 64 CO 8 C3 8 13 6 295— 60 64 CO 8 G9 8 13 G 299 CO 60 40 77 7 13 7 283 60 CO 49 7 G3 7 12 G 28G 60 60 40 7 67 7 13 G 290+ 60 48 45 6 GG G 13 G 28G 60 48 45 6 G7 6 13 G 290+ CO 48 45 6 G3 6 13 G 264— 60 48 45 6 G9 6 13 G 299 60 60 £G 8 66 7 13 6 283 60 80 CO 10 66 8 13 6 283 60 64 75 8 66 10 13 6 283 60 43 60 6 C6 8 13 6 283 60 48 75 6 66 10 13 6 286 60 45 56 6 6G 7 13 6 283 60 53 75 7 68 10 13 6 295— 63 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 325 Trains, for Fourtla "Wlieel Seeon 49 G 60 G 35 6 £00 60 QCt o\j 45 30 70 8 15 7 300 60 to GO 10 GO 8 15 G 300 60 n 1 Gi 8 7 ) 30 35 8 0 60 Ci 75 8 GO 30 35 800 60 56 75 7 70 10 35 8 0 G3 60 75 7 GO 10 35 G 800 GO fil 75 8 5 1 8 35 G 270 GO GO GO g 5i 7 ( 35 Q 27J GO Ct C(5 8 5i G 35 G 270 GO 48 45 G 51 0 35 G 270 GO 60 GO 7 G3 7 35 7 270 GO GO 49 7 54 35 G 270 ■ GO 48 49 G 51 G 35 C 270 GO G4 45 8 48 0 35 C 240 GO CO GO 8 43 7 35 G 240 GO 48 50 C 43 8 35 G 240 G) 64 GO 8 43 35 G 240 GO to 45 7 5 3 15 7 240 C9 (0 49 7 43 7 35 G 240 GO iS 45 G 43 G 35 G 240 GO GO fin 8 43 35 G 240 CO Trains, for Fourtli Wlieel Seconds, witii Seventeen Teetli in Escapement "Wlieel, G4 bU « 51 8 1/ G OJ 64 GO 8 50 8 37 G 2S3-h 50 60 53 8 51 7 37 G 289 GO 80 60 30 50 8 37 G 283-1- GO 75 64 10 50 8 17 6 283 -i- 60 75 5G 10 G3 37 8 289 60 75 68 30 G3 8 1/ 8 289 60 80 75 10 63 1) 37 8 289 CO Train of tlio American Watcli Company's Watcla. Gl I 60 I 8 I Gt I 8 I 15 I 7 I 300 | C) TT0TK.—B7 Tiso of til Q foregoing eet of Trains, and the rule for sizes of pinions, on page 312, all difficulty of calculating is obviated ; and at one view, in case of the accidental loss of a wheel nnd pinion, may be known tho correct size and count of the pinion, and number of teeth in tha wheel lost. 826 -WATCIIJIAKERS, JEWELLERS*, AC, RECEIPTS. To Put Watches in Beat.— If a cylinder C!5capcracnt, or a do- taclicd lever, put tlio balance into a position, then turn the re^nlator Ko that it will point directly to the pivot-liole of the pallet staff, if a lever, or of the scape-wheel, if a cylinder. Then lift out the balance •with its bridge or clock, turn it over and set the ruby-pin directly in lino Avitli the regulator, or the square cut of the cylinder at right angles with it. Your watch will then be in perfect beat. In case of an American or an English lever, when the regulator is placed upon the plate, you Avill have to proceed differently. Fix the balance into its place, cut off the connection of the train, if the mainspring is not entirely down, by slipping a fine broach into one of the wheels, look between the plates .and ascertain how the lever stands. If the end larthest from the balance is equi-distant between the two brass pins, it is all right; if not, change the hair-spring till it becomes so. If dealing with a duplex watch, you must see that the roller notch, ■when the balance is at rest, is exactly between the locking tooth and the line of centre; that is, a line drawn from the centre of the roller to the centre of the scape- wheel. The balance must start from its rest and move through an arc of about ten degrees before bringing the locking tooth into action. To Frost Watch Pirates. — Watch plates arc frosted by means of fine brass wire scratch brushes fixed in a lathe, and made to re-, volve at great speed, the end of the wire brushes striking the plato producing a beautiful frosted appearance. To Restore Watch Dials. — If the dial be painted, clean the figure off with spirits of wine, or anything else that will render the dial perfectly clean ; then heat it to a bright red, and plunge it into a fitrong solution of cyanide of potassium, then wash in soap and water, and dry in box dust. Repeat if not a good color. India ink, ground ■with gum water, will do for the figures. To Whiten Silver Watch Dials. — Flatten a piece of charcoal lay rubbing it on a flat stone: on this place the dial face upwards, ap- ply a gentle heat carefully with the blow-pipe, allowing the flame to play all over the surface of the dial without touching it, .so as to thoroughly heat without -carping the dial. Then pickle and rinse, using acid enough to make the water very tart, and immersing but for a few fjeconds. Silver dials may also be annealed by heating them red hot on a flat piece of copper over a clear fire. To make a Watch Keep Good Tenie ■when the Cylinder Edges are Worn Off, by Altering the Escapement without Putting a nts-w Cylinder in. — Look at the cylinder, and see if there is room, either above or below the old wears, to shift the action of the wheel. If the wheel holes are brass, making one a littlo deeper, and putting a shallower one on the other side, will ijerhaps be sufficient. This must be done according as you want your wheel Aip or down. If the holes are stone, shift your wheel on the pinion by a new collet, or turning away more of the old one, as the case may require. If you raise your wheel see that it works free of i^lato and top of cylinder, and that the web of wheel clears the top of pas- sage. This last fault may be altered by polishing the passage a littlo wider, if the rub be slight. If shifted downwards, see to freedom at bottom of cylinder, &c. Poising Watch Balance.— This may be douo with sufficient ac- WATOmiAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEirTS. 327 curacy by scraping one arm of tlie callipers with a file Avlion tlie balance is set in motion. This will catise the heaviest part to settle downwards with certainty, observing always that the pivots are nicely rounded and formed at the ends. In some cases it becomes uecessaiy to put a balance out of poise, in order to make the Avatch go equally in various positions. The rule for this is : to make the watch gain, the balance should be heaviest on the lower side Avhen hanging up: to make it lose, the reverse. To Pkevent a Chain Running off the F usee.— In the first j)lace, you must look and ascertain the cause of the difficulty. If it results from tlie chain being too large, the only remedy is a new chain. If it is not too large, and yet runs offAvithout any apparent cause, change it end for end — that will generally make it go all right. In cases where the channel in the fusee has been damaged and is rough, you will be under the necessity of dressinii it over with a file the proper size and shape. Sometimes you find tlie chain naturally inclined to work away from the body of the fusee. The best way to remedy a difficulty of this kind is to file off a very little from tho outer lower edge of the chain the entire length ; this, as you can see, will incline it to work on instead of off. Some workmen, when they liave abadcaseand a common watch, change the standing of the fusee r.oas to cause the winding end of its arbor to incline a little from tho barrel. This, of course, cannot do otherwise than make the chain run to its place. To Weaken the Haik-Spring. — This is often effected by grinding the spring down. You remove the spring from the collet, and place it upon a piece of pivot wood cut to fit the centre coil. A piece of soft steel wire, flattened so as to pass freely between tho coils, and armed with a little pulverized oil-stone and oil, will serve as your grinder, and with it you may soon reduce tho strength of the spring. Your operations will, of course, be confined to the centre coil, for no other part of the spring will rest sufficiently against tlie wood to en- able you to grind it, but this will generally suffice. The effect will be more rapid than one would suppose, therefore it will stand you in band to be careful, or you may get the spring too weak before yoa cuspect it. To Tighten a Ruby Pin,— Set tho ruby pin in asphaltum varnish. It will become liard in a few minutes, and be much firmer and better than gum shellac, as generally used. To Temper Brass, or to Draw its Te::mper, — Brass is rendered hard by hammering or rolling; therefore, when you make a thing of brass necessary to be in temper, you must prepare the material be- fore shaping the article. Temper may be drawn from brass by heat- ing it to a cherry red, and then simply plunging it into water, the came as though you were going to temper steel. To Teiviper Gravers. — Gravers, and other instruments larger than drills, may be tempered in quicksilver as above ; or you may use lead instead of quicksilver. Cut dovm. into the lead, say half an inch; then, having heated your instrument to a light cherry red, press it firmly into the cut. The lead will melt around it, and an ex- cellent temper will be imparted. To Teiviper Drills. — Select none but the finest and best steel for your drills. In making tlicm, never Jieat liigher than a cherry red, 328 WATCILVAKERS, JEWELLEKS*, &C., RECEIPTS. and nlway.T liammcr till nearly cold. Do all jonr liainmcring in ona ■v\-ay, for if, alter you have flattened your i)iece out, you attempt to lianimcr it back to a square or a round, you spoil it. When your drill is in ])ropcr sliape, heat it to a cherry red, and thrust it into a picco of resin or into quicksilver. Some use a solution of cyanuret potassa and rain-water for tempering their drills, but the resiii or quicksilver "will Avork best. Other METnoD5? to Temper Springs.— ITavin.j? fitted the sprin^f into the case according to your liking, temper it hard by heating and plunging into Avater. Next polish the small end so that you may . bo able to sec Avhen the color changes ; lay it on a piece of copper or brass plate, and hold it over your'lamp, with the blaze directly under tlio largest part of the sprinjj. Watch the polished part of the steel closely, and when you see it turn blue, remove the plate from the? lam]-), letting all cool gradually together. When cool enough to liandle, polish the end of the spring again, place it on the plate, and hold it over the lamp as before. The third bluing of the polished end will leave the spring in proper temper. Any steel article to which you desire to give a spring temper may bo treated in the same Avay. !A nother process, said to be good, is to temper the spring as in tho first instance; then i^ut it into a small iron ladle, cover it with linseed oil, and hold over a lamp till the oil takes fire. Remove the ladle, but let the oil continue to bum until nearly all consumed, then bloAV out, re-coA^er with oil, and hold over the lamp as before. The third burning out of the oil will leave tho spring in the right temper. To Tejiper Clicks, Ratchets, &c. — Clicks, ratchets, or other steel articles requiring a similar degree of hardness, should be tem- pered in mercurial ointment. The process consists in simply heating to a cherry red and plunging into the ointment. No other mode will combine toughness and hardness to such an extent. To Draw the Tejiper from Delicate Steel Pieces wiTn- ouT Springing them. — Place the articles from which you desire to draw the temper into a common iron clock key. Fill around it with brass or iron filings, and then plug up tho open end with a steel, iron, or brass plug, made to fit closely. Take the handle of the key with your pliers and hold its pipe into the blaze of a lamp till near hot, then let it cool gradually. When sufficiently cold to handle, remove the plug, and you Avill find the article with its temper fully drawn, but m all other respects just as it was before. You will understand the reason for having the article thus plugged up while passing it through the heating and cooling process, wiieu you know that springing always results from the action of changeable currents of atmosphere. The temper may be drawn from cylinders, staffs, pinions, or any other delicate pieces, by this mode with perfect safety. To Teimper Staffs, CrLiNDERS, or Pinions, without Springing , THEM. — Prepare the articles as in the preceding process, using a steel plug. Having heated the key-pipe to a cherry red, plunge it into Avater; then polish the end of your steel plug, place the key upon a plate of brass or copper, and hold it over your lamp with the blaze immediately under the pipe till the polished part becomes blue. Let cool gradually, then polish again. Blue and cool a second time, and the work Avill bo done. WATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., EECEirTS. 329 To Dra-w the Temper from tart Oi? a Small Steel Article.— Hold the part from wliicli you wish to draw the temper with a pair of tweezers, and with your blow-pipe direct the flame upon them — not the article— till suflicieut heat is commmiicated to the article to pro- duce the desired effect. To Blue Screws Eveklt. — Take an old watch loarrel and drill as many holes into the head of it as you desire to blue screws at a time. Fill it about one-fourth full of brass or iron fillings, put in the head, and then fit a wire, long enough to bend over for a liandle, into tho arbor holes— head of the barrel upwards. Brighten the heads of your screws, set them point downwards, into tho holes already drilled, and expose the bottom of the barrel to yonr lamj) till the screws assumo the color you wish. To Remove Bluing fro^i Steel. — ^Immerse in a pickle composed of equal parts muriatic acid and elixir vitriol, llinsc iu pure water, and dry in tissue paper. To Make Diabiond Broaches. — Make you broaches of brass tlio size and shape you desire; then, having oiled them slightly, roll their points into fine diamond dust till entirely covered, liold them thou on the face of your anvil, and tap with a light hammer till the grains disappear in the brass. Great caution will bo necessary iu this operation. Do not tap heavy enough to flatten tho broach. Very light blows are all that will be required ; the grains will be driven iu much sooner than one would imagine. Some roll the broach betu^ecu two small pieces of steel to imbed the diamond dust. It is a very good way, but somewhat more Avasteful of tho dust. Broaches mado on this plan are used for dressing out jewels. Jewellln-g. — In using the broaches, press but lightly into the jewel hole, and turn the broach rapidly with your fingers. For polishing, use a bone or ivory point, lightly coated with the finest diamond dust and oil, and while using it with the one hand, accompany the motion with a slight oscillating motion of the other hand, in which tho jewel is held. This will insure a more even polish to the hole, with less liabflity to press the jewel out of its place iu the plate, than if held firm and steady. To make Diamond Files.— Shape your file of brass, and cliargOf with diamond dust, as in case of the mill. Grade the dust in accord- ance with the coarse or fine character of the file desired. To MAKE Pivot Files.— Dress up a piece of wood file-fashion, about an inch broad, and glue a ]iiecc of fine emery paper upon it. Shape your file then, as you wish it, of tho best cast steel, and before tempering pass your emery paper heavily across it several times, diagonally. Temper by heating to a cherry red, and plunging into linseed oil. Old worn pivot files may be dressed over and made new by this process. At first thought, one would be led to regard them too slightly cut to work well, but not so. They dress a pivot mora rapidly than any ether file. To Make a Diamond Mill. — Make a brass chuck or wheel, suit- able for use on a foot-laLhe, with a flat even surface or face of about 1^ or 2 inches in diameter; then place a number of the coarsest pieces of your diamond dust on different parts of its face, and with smooth faced steel hammer drive the pieces of dust ail evenly into the brass to nearly or quite level with the surface. Your mill, thus prepared, ia I 330 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', AC, RECEIPTS. flow used for making pallet jewels or for grinding ptono and glass of tiny Ivind. For polishing, usea bono or boxwood ciiiiclt or wlieel,of sim- Hur form to your niill, and coat it liglitly Avitli the finest grade of your diamond-dust and oil; with, this a beautiful polish may bo givcu to tlie hardest stone. To Make Diamond Dust. — ^Placo a few small pieces of common or cheap diamond on a block of hard polished steel, iu a suitable ves- eel, and cover it with Avater to prevent it Hying or scattering, thou place a flat steel punch ou each piece separately, and strike the punch with a mallet or hammer, with sufficient force to crush tlie diamond. When reduced sufficiently fine in this way, tho dust may be collected and dried for use ; after drying, it may bo graduated for different purposes, by mixing it Avith a little watch oil ; Avheu agitated, the fin- est particles will lloat near the surface, while tho coarsest pieces will rink at once to tho bottom ; and thus by decantijig the oil in which the dust floats, as many grades of fineness as desired may bo obtain- ed. The dust may bo separated from the oil by pouring on a piece of smooth clean paper ; the paper will absorb tho oil, or allow it to fil- ler through, Avhiletho dust \nll remain ou the surface ; but to pre- vent Avasto, tlio better AA-ay is to leave it in tho oil and use directly therefrom as required, or tho oil may bo washed out of tho dust Avith jilcoliol. To ruESERYE PiNioirs OR Bearings from Corrosion and Rust. • — ^In case of the lower centre bearing under tho cannon pinion cor- roding or rusting, when you clean the Avatch, bo particular to take tho central wheel off. Clean it thoroughly; if the pivot is scratched, pol- ish it, then make a little hollow in the top hole ; put good fresh oil on it, and tho pivot AviU not corrode or rust for two or three years. As to the other pivots iu the watch, they should all be thoroughly cleaned, and old oil cleaned out ; then if no dust gets iu, and no acci- dent happens the watch, it will run for years. To Clean a Clock. — ^Takethe movement of the clock " to pieces." Brush the Avheels and pinions thoroughly AvIth a stiff coarse brush ; also the plates which the trains work. Clean the pivots well by turn- ing in a piece of cotton cloth held tightly between your thumb and finger. The pivot holes in the plates are generally cleansed by turn- ing a piece of Avood into them, but I have always found a strip of cloth or a soft cord drawn tightly through them to act tho best. If yoa use two cords, tho first one slightly oiled, and the next dry, to clean tho oil out, all the better. Do not use salt or acid to clean your clock — it can do no good, but may do a great deal of liarili. Boiling tlia movement in water, as is tho practice of some, is also foolishness. To Bush. — The hole through which the great arbors, or winding axles, work, are the only ones that usually require bushing. When they have become too much worn, the great wheel on the axle before named strikes too deeply into the pinions above it and stops the clock. To remedy this, bushing is necessary, of course. The most common Avay of doing it is to drive a steel point or punch into the plate just above the axle hole, thus forcing the brass downwards until the hole is reduced to its original size. Another mode is to solder a piece of brass upon the plate in such a position as to hold tho axle down to its {)roper place. If you simply wish your clock to run, and have no am- )ition to produce a bush that wUl look workmanlike, about as good a WATCIIMAKEES, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 331 ■vray as any is to fit a piece of hard wood bet-^vccn the post -which comes through the top of the plate and axle. Make it long enougli to hold the axle to its proper place, so that the axle wiU run on tho end of the grain. Cut notches where the pivots come through, ana secure by wrapping around it and the plate a piece of small wire or a thread. To Remedy Worn Pinion,— Turn the leaves or rollers, so the worn places upon them will he towards the arbor or shaft, and fasten them m that position. If they are "rolling pinions" and you caimot secure them otherwise, you had better do it with a little soft solder. To Oil Properly,— OU only, and very lightly, the pallets of tho yerge, the steel pin upon which the verge works, and tho point where tho loop of the verge wire works over the pendulum wire. Use nono but the best watch oil. Though you might be working constantly at the clock-repairing business, a bottle costmg you but twenty-fivo cents would last you two years at least. You can buy it at any watch- iurnishing establishment. To Make the Clock Strike Correctly, — If not very cautious inputting up your clock you will get some of the striking-train wheels in wrong, and thus produce a derangement in the striking. If this should happen, pry the plates apart on the striking side, slip tho pivots of the upper wheels out, and havmg disconnected them from the train, turn them part around and put them back. If still noli light, repeat the experiment. A foAV efforts at most will get them to working properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is caused by a wire acting on a small bellows which is connected with two small pipes like organ pipes. A Defect to look after. — Always examine the pendulum wire at the point where the loop of the verge wire works over it. You will generally find a small notch, or at least a rough place worn there. I)ress it out perfectly smooth, or your clock will not be likely to work well. Small as this defect may seem, it stops a large number of clocks. Figures on Gold and Silver Dials,— Hold a small piece of copper over a gas flame for a few minutes till it is coated with soot ; clear this off on to a piece of finely ground glass, add fat oil and a small quantity of oil of spike lavender, and grind up ; paint with a email-camel liair pencil. To Deter]mine the Exact Focal Distance of Spectacle Glasses. — Place tho end of a measure of thirty or forty inches in length against a smooth wall, or other suitable ground, in plain view of some well-defined object a few rods distant, as for instance a building or window on tho opposite side of the street. Then place the edge of your lens on the measure, and move it backwards or forwards xmtil a spectrum is formed, or, m other words, until a clear and distinct outline ofthe distant object is produced on the ground against which your measure rests. This point will represent suffi- ciently near, for all practical purposes, the exact focal distance of tho jlens, and will correspond in inches with the number on all properly j marked convex spectacles. For mending fine steel spectacle frames, luse the best gold solder in preference to silver or brass solder. Valuable Receipts for Goldsmiths. — Standard gold is com- pouaded of 440 grains of fine gold, and 40 grains (Troy weight,) tc 332 WATciniAKERs, jewellers', &c., receipts. the oz. alloy ; therefore, -when you judpG how mnch gold a piece ol "^vork will take, comi)f)uiid it to tlie standard wci sure a perfect contact with all parts of the surface. Then take it out and rinse it well in boiling water, then immerse in the color again for lor 1^ minutes and rinse well once more in fresh hot water. Now jidd 2 ozs. of fresh hot water to the color in the pot,/ which will causo it to gink. When it rises put in your work for 1 minute, rinsing in WATCHMAKEES, JEWELLEKS', &C., KECEIPTS. 335 fresli Iiot water again, when it will begin to brighten. Now immerse your work for half a minute longer, and rinse for the last time La clean hot water, when it will appear of a most beautiful color. Alloys, continued. 1. Pale gold for coloring Enamelling, or Zapping— ^ine gold, 1 oz. , fine silver, 9 dwts, fine copper, 2 d-wts. 12 grs, 2. Another ditto — Fine gold 1 oz,, fine silver 9 awts., fine cop- per 3 dwts. 12 grs. 3. Another ditto — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 10 dwts., fine copper 3 dwts. 12 grs. 4. Enamelling Gold No. 1 — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 dwt. 12 grs., fine copper 2 dwts. 12 grs. 6, enamelling Gold from Sterling — Sterling 1 oz., fine silver 8 grs., fine copper 2 dwts. 6. Enamelling^ Gold Solder — Gold alloyed, 1 dwt, fine silver 4 grs. 7. Another ditto, cost 43s. stg., or $10.75 peroz. — Fine gold 12d^vts., fine silver 7 dwts. 3 grs., fine copper 6 dwts. 8. Enamelling Gold No. 2. cost 50s stg. per oz. — Fine gold 1 oz,, fine sil- ver 9 dwts. 12 grs,, fine copper 7 dwts. 12 grs. 9. Enamelling Gold No. 3. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 14 dwts., fine copper 8 dwts. 10. Enamelling Gold No. 4, — Fine gold 2 ozs. 5 dwts., fine silver 1 oz. G dwts., fine copper 1 oz., pin brass 5 dwts. 11. Enamelling Gold No. 5. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 13 dwts., fine copper 6 dwts. 12. En- amelling Gold No. G. for transparent enamelling — Fine gold 1 oz., fine Bilvcr 14 dwts., fine copper G dwts. 13. Gold solder for enamelled zcork — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 oz,, fine copper 10 dwts,, silver solder 8 divts. 8 grs. 14. Pale Gold alloys for polishing, &c., Nol. — Fme gold 1 oz., fine silver 8 dwts,, fine copper 3 dwts. 12 grs. 15, Another, No. 2. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 dwt. 20 grs., fine cop- per 1 dwt. 4 grs. IG. Pale 18 Carat Gold — ^Fino gold 1 oz., fine silver 4 dwts., fine copper 2 dwts. 15 grs. 17. Another Pale 18 Carat Gold — Fine gold 1 oz. 12 grs,, fine silver 3 dwts. 8 grs., fine copper 3 dwts. 8 grs. 18. Pale Gold Solder — Gold alloyed 1 dwt. G grs,, fine silver 1 dwt. 19. Alio]/ for best Pens — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 5 dwts., fine copper 7 dwits. 18 grs., spelter 1 dwt. G grs. 20. Solder for ditto ^Fine gold 12 dwts,, fine silver 7 dwts. 3 grs., fine copper G dwts, 21. Medium quality pens — Fine gold 1 oz,, composition 1 oz,, 13 dwts. 22. Composition for the last — Fine silver 1 oz. 17 dwts., fine copper 5 ozs. 15 dwts,, spelter 18 dwts, 20 grs. 23. Solder for ditto — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 2 ozs., pin brass 1 oz. 24. Gold for common pens — Fine gold 1 oz, , fine silver 2 ozs, , fine copper 1 oz. 25. Solder for ditto . Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 2 ozs., pinbrass 1 oz. 2G, Alloys of Gold with Brass, N'o. 1,— Fine gold 1 oz,, fine silver 5 dwts. G grs., fine cop- per 3 dwts. 12 grs., pin brass 18 dwts. 27. Another ditto. No. 2. — Fine gold 1 oz,, fine silver 4 dwts., fine copper 4 dwts., pin brass 16 dwts. 28. Another ditto. No. 3. — Fine gold loz,, fine silver 5 dwts, 12 grs., fine«copper 3 dwts. 12 grs., pin brass 19 dwts. G grs. 29. Another alloy. — Fine gold 1 oz,, fine silver 3 dwts. 21 grs,, fine copper 9 dwts. 3 grs., composition 5 dwts. G grs. 30, Another ditto— Yino gold 15 dwts. 9 grs., fijie silver 5 dwts. 19 grs., fine copper 3 dwts, 21 grs,, composition 15 dwts. 31. Composition for the last two alloys — Finest copper 1 oz,, spelter 5 dwts, 32. Solder for foregoing alloys-^ Gold alloyed, 1 dwt, fine silver 12 grs. S3. Imitation Cfold, costs 87c. per oz. — Fine silver 2 oz. 6 dwts,, fine copper 1 oz,, composition 1 oz.. keeps its color very well. 34. Composition for ditto — Fine copper li ozs., spelter 2 ozs. 35. " California" Gold—Ym.Q gold 5 ozs. 12 dwts. composition 7_ozs, 17 dwts. 3G. Composition for " California" —Tm^ 836 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS' &C., RECEIPTS. Bilver, 7 0Z3. 17 d\vt3. fino copper 33 oza. 12 dwtn., Bpeltcr 5 ozn. 12 dwts. 37. Medium (Hold — Fino jiold 1 oz., fiue silver 12 d.wts.,fino copper 13 dwts. 38. J{ri(//U Gold — Fino gold 1 oz., line silver 7 dvv'ts., compo- Bition marked No. 34, 1 dvvt. G grs. 39. Common Gold JVo. 1.— Fine gold 1 oz., line silver 8 dwts., composition No. 34. 1 oz. 12 dwtg, 41. 'Common Gold, No. 2. — Fiue gold 5 dwts., line silver 3 dwts. G grs., fim copper G dwts. 12 grs. 42. Gold for Fins — Fino gold 1 oz., fine silvei C dwts. , line copper 1 oz. , spelter 5 dwts. 43. Lnj Colored Scrap redaacii to 35s. or $8.75 Gold — Colored scrap 1 oz. 9 dwts. 12 grs., fine silver 2 dwts., line copper 17 dwts. 12 grs., spelter 4 dwts. 44. Alloy for Gold Chains. — Fine gold 11 dwts. G grs., fnio silver 2 dwts. 5 grs., line cop- per 6 dwts. 13 grs. 45. Another ditto — Fine gold 1 oz., line silver 9 dwts., line copper 8 dwts. 4G. Gold worth 45 str/. or $11.25. — Fine gold, 1 oz., composition (see No. 22) 1 oz. 47. Solder for ditto. — Fine gold 1 oz., finesilver 15 dwts., line copper 15 dwts. 48. 12 Carat Gold, — Fino gold 1 oz., line silver 10 dwts., line coppor 9 dwts. G grs. 49. Com- mon Gold from " California" — "California," (see No. 35) 8 ozs. lino silver 13 ozs. 16 dwts., line copper G ozs. IG dwts. 50. 29s or $7.25 ^old. — Fine gold 1 oz. 13 dwts. G grs., line silver 1 oz. 12 dwts. 13 grs., fine copper 1 oz. KJ dwts. G grs., spelter 4 dwts. Stands nitric acid very well. OKDINAEY BRIGHT GOLD "SVIRE, TABLE SnOWTNG THE BROPORTIOis'S OF ALLOY FUOM 1 OZ, W TO 21 OZ. Fine Gold. Fine Silver. Fine Copper. Total. Oz. Dwts. Grs. Oz. Dwts. Grs. Oz. Dwts. Grs. Oz. Dwts. Grg. 0 5 21 0 G 6 0 G 21 1 0 0 0 11 18 0 14 12 0 13 18 2 0 0 0 17 15 1 1 18 1 0 15 3 0 0 1 15 G 2 3 12 2 1 G G 0 0 2 12 21 3 5 G 2 1 21 9 0 0 S 10 12 4 7 0 4 2 12 12 0 0 4 8 3 5 8 18 5 3 3 15 0 0 5 4 18 6 10 12 G 3 18 18 0 0 G 3 8 7 12 G 2 4 9 21 0 0 To Recover the Gold lost in Coloring.— Dissolve a handfnl of sulphate of iron in boiling water, then add this to your "color" "water, it precipitates the small particles of gold. Now draw off Iho •water, being very careful not to disturb the auriferous sediment at the bottom. You will now proceed to wash the sediment from all trace of acid with plenty of boiling water ; it will require 3 or 4 sep- arate washings, witli sufficient time between each to allow the water to cool and the sediment to settle, before pouring the water off. Then dry in an iron vessel by the fire and finally fuse in a covered skittlo pot with a flux as directed on page 202. Allots for Gold.— 1. Red ^/oZcZ.- Copper, 6G.G7 parts ; gold, 33.- 33 parts. 2. Yelloio gold. — Copper,. 12.50 parts ; silver, 37.50 paits; gold, 50 parts. 3. Green gold. — Silver, 25 parts ; gold, 75 parts. 4. YcllQiv £roW.— Silver, CG.G7 parts ; gold, 33.33 parts. 6. Gra^j rjold.—' \7ATCn:\IAIvERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 337 Silver, 5.89 parts ; gold, 88.23 parts ; iron, 5.89 parts, 6. Dentists' gold. —Silver, 8.34 parts ; platinum, 66.67 parts ; gold, 24.29 parts. 7. English gold com.— Copper, 8. 34 parts ; gold, 91. 66 parts. 8. AmericaTh gold coin.— Copper, 10 parts ; gold, 90 parts. French gold coin same as American. 10. Alloys for Silver Coin and Plate.— English standard— Go^'^Qv, 7.50 parts ; silver, 92.50 parts. 11. American ditto, — Copper, 10 parts ; silver 90 parts. French, the same. GiLDma Metal for common jewelry is made by mixing 4 parts copper with one of calamme brass. Sometimes 1 lb. copper, with 6 oz. of brass. Dentists' Plate.— ^o. 1 Gold, 20 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 2 dwts. 2. Gold, 21, silver, 2, copper. Gold for Springs, — Gold, 18 dwts. 12 grs. ; silver, 6 dwts. ; copper, 5 dwts. Jewellers' SoLDEiiiNG Fluid. — Muriatic acid, |pt.; grain zinCj, 1\ oz. Dissolve, and add a little common solder and sal-ammoniac. Jewellers' Gold Compositions. — Common Gold. — Silver, 1 part; Spanish copper, 16 parts, gold, 2 parts; mix. Ring Gold. — Spanish, copper, 6 parts; silver, 3 parts; gold, 5 parts; mix. Manheim Gold. — copper, 3 imrts; zinc, 1 part. Molt, and stir well. Mosaic Gold. — copper and zinc, equal parts ; melt at the lowest temperature that will fuse the former, then mix by stirring, and add 5 per cent, more zinc. Parker's Mosaic Gold. — Copper, 100 parts ; zinc, 54 parts. For common. Jeioelry — Copper, 3 parts ; 1 of old brass, and 4 oz. of tin to every lb. copper. Factitious GoZc?.— Copper, 16 parts; platinum, 7 parts; zinc, Ipart; fused together. TJiis alloy resembles gold of 16 carat3 fine, or §, and will resist the action of nitric acid, uiiless very concen- trated and boiling. Harmstadt's True Imitation of Gold. — is stated not only to resemble gold in color, but also in specific gravity and ductility. Platinum, 16 parts ; copper, 7 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; put it in a crucible, cover with charcoal powder, and melt into a mass. Do. of Silver. — Copper, ^ oz. ; brass, 2 oz. ; pare silver, 3 oz. ; bismuth, 2 oz. ; saltpetre, 2 oz. ; common salt, 1 oz. ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; potash, 1 oz. ; melt in a crucible with powdered charcoal. This compound, used by a German chemist for unlawful purposes, was so perfect that he wa3 never discovered. Artificial Gold. — ^This is a new metallic alloy which is now very extensively used iu France as a substitute for gold. Pare copper, 100 parts; zinc, or, preferably, tin, 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal- ammoniac, 3-6 parts ; quick-lime, ^ part ; tartar of commerce, 9 parts ; are mixed as follows : The copper is first melted, and the magnesia, sal-ammoniac, lime and tartar are then added separately, and by- degrees, in the form of powder; the whole is now briskly stirred for about ^ an hour, so as to mix thoroughly; and when the zinc is added in small grains by throwing it on the surface, and stirring till it is entirely fused; the crucible is then covered, and the fusion maintained for about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed, and the alloy is ready for casting. It ha's a fine grain, is malleable, and takes a splen- did poUsh. It dose not corrode readily, and for many purposes, is an excellent substitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can bo restored by a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of zinc, the alloy will be more brilliant. It is very much used in France, and must ultimately attain equal popularity here. New French Patent Alloy for Silver. — INIessieurs De Ruolz Fontcnay have invented the following aUoy, which may bo used 22' 338 wATCimAKEns, jewellers', sx^., receipts for almost all purposes in ■which silver in usnally applied. Silver, 20 parts ; piirilied nickel, 28 parts ; copper, 52 parts. Melt tho coi)pcr aud iiiclccl in tlie granular state, tlien introduce tlio silver. Tlie ilux to bo employed is charcoal and borax, both in the state of powder; and tho ingots obtained are to be rendered malleable by annealing for a cou- eiderablo time in powdered charcoal. Gold.— To find tlie number of carats of gold in an object, first weigh the gold and mLx with seven times its weight in silver. This alloy i.j "Jjeaten into thin leaves, and nitric acid is added ; this dissolves tlio silver and copper. Tho remainder (gold) is then fused aud Aveighcd ; by comparing the first aud last weights tho number of carats of puro gold is found. This operation is always repeated several times, and if any difference occurs in tho result, all is done over again. Jewellers' Allots. — Solder, &c. Eighteen-carat gold for rings — Gold coin, 19^ gr. ; pure copper, 3 grs. ; pure silver, 1^ gr. Cheap gold, txoelve carat. — Gold coin, 25 gr. ; jjure copper, 13^ gr. ; puro silver, 7^ grs. Very cheap four-carat gold. — Copper, 18 parts ; gold, 4 parts ; silver, 2 parts, imitations of gold. — 1 Platina, 4 d^vt, ; puro copper, 2\ dwt. ; sheet-zinc, 1 dwt. ; block-tin, 1^ dwt. ; pure lead, 1^ dwt. If this should be found too hard or brittle for practical use, re-melting the composition with a little sal-ammoniac will generally render it malleable as desired. 2. Platina, 2 parts ; silver, 1 part ; copper, 3 parts. These compositions, when properly prepared, so nearly resem- ble pure gold it is very difficult to distinguish them therefrom. A little powdered charcoal, mixed "with metals while melting, will bo found of service. Best oreide of gold. — Pure copper, 4 oz, ; sheet zinc, Ifoz.; magnesia, §oz. ; sal-ammoniac, ^ oz. ; quick-lime, 9-32 oz. ; cream tartar, ^ oz. First melt the copper at as low a temperaturo as it will melt ; then add the zinc, and afterwards tho other articles in powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire to melt theso metals. Bushing Alloy for Pivot-holes, &c. — Gold coin, 3 dwts. ; sil- ver, 1 dwt. 20 grs. ; copper, 3 dwts, 20 grs. ; palladium, 1 dwt. Tho best composition known for the purpose named. Gold Solder for Fourteen to Sixteen-carat Work. — Gold coin, 1 dwt. ; pure silver, 9 grs. ; pure copper, 6 grs. ; brass, 3 grs. Darker solder. — Gold coin, 1 dwt. ; pure copper, 8 grs. ; pure silver, 5 grs. ; brass, 2 grs, ; melt to- gether in charcoal fire. Solder for Gold. — Gold, 6 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 2 dwts. Soft Gold Solder. — Gold, 4 parts ; silver, 1 3>art ; copper 1 part. Solders for Silver. — (For the use of jewellers. > — Fine silver, 19 dwts. ; copper, 1 dwt. ; sheet brass, 10 dwts. White Solder for Silver. — Silver, 1 oz. ; tin, 1 oz. Silver Solder, forPlated Metal.— Fine silver. 1 oz. ; brass 10 dwts. Solders. — For Gold. — 1. Silver, 7 parts; copper, 1 part, with borax. 2. Gold, 2 parts; silver, 1 part ; copper, 1 part. 3. Gold, 3 parts ; silver, 3 parts ; copper, 1 part; zinc | part. For Silver. — Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 part, with bo- rax ; or, silver, 4 parts ; brass, 3 parts; zinc, 1-18 part, with borax. Gold Solders. — 1. Coiiper, 24.24 parts ; silver, 27.57 parts ; gold, 48. 19 parts. 2. Enamel Solder. — Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 parts; gold, 67.93 parts. 3. Copper, 2G.55 parts; zinc, 6.25 parts; silver, 31.25 parts; gold, 36 parts. 4. Enamel Solder. — Silver, 19.57 parts ; gold, 80.43 parts. Solder. — For 22 carat gold. — Gold of 22 carats, 1 dAvt,; silver, 2 gr. ; copper, 1 gr. For 18 carat gold. — Gold of 18 carats, 1 dwt. ; sil- ver. 2 gr. ; copper, 1 gr. For cheaper gold, — Gold, 1 d^\i; ; silver, 10 "WATCHMA.KERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 339 gr. ; copper, 8 gr, CJicapcr still. — Fine gold, 1 dwt. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 1 dwt. Silver Solders. — 1. (hard.) Copper, 30 parts ; zinc, 12.85 parts ; silver, 57.15 parts. 2. Copper, 23.33 parts ; zinc, 10.00 parts ; silver, CG. 67 parts. 4, Copper, 26. GO parts; zinc, 10.00 parts; silver, 63.34 parts. 5. (soft.) Copper 14.75 parts; zinc 8.50 parts : silver, 77.05 parts. 6. Copper, 22.34 parts ; zinc, 10.48 parts ; silver, 67.18 parts. 7. Tin, 63.00j)arts ; lead, 37 parts. Colored Gold. — 1. Full red gold. — Gold, 5 dwts. ; copper, 5 dwta. 2. lied gold. — Gold, 5 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 4 dwts. 3. Green Gold. — Gold, 2 dwt. ; silver, 21 gr. 4. Gray gold. — Gold, 3 dwts. 15 gr ; silver, 1 dwt. 9 gr. 5. Blue gold.— Gold, 5 dwt. ; steel filings, 5 dwt. 6. Antique gold, greenish-yellow coZor.— Gold, 18 dwts. 9 gr. ; silver, 21 gr. ; copper 18 gr. These all require to be submitted to the i)rocess of wet colormg. 7. Fictitious gold, venj bright. — Cop- per, 16 parts ; platina, 7 i)arts ; zinc, 1 part ; fused together. Ekglish Standard tor Silver. — Puro silver, 11 ozs. 2 dwts. ; copper, 22 dwts. : melt. Silver Imitation, — Copper, 1 lb.; tin, f oz., melt. This composition will roll and ring very near to silver. French Gold Plate. — 1. Gold, 92 parts ; copper, 8 parts. 2. Gold, 84 i)arts; copper, 16 parts. 3, Gold, 75 i)arts; copper, 25 parts. Jeioellers' Metal. — Copper, 30 parts ; tin, 7 parts; brass, 10 parts; mix. Alloy for Watch Pinion Sockets. — Gold, 31 parts; silver, 19 parts ; copper 39 parts ; palladium, 1 part. Coloring OF Jewelry. — 1. To Heighten the Color of Yellow gold. — Saltpetre, 6 ozs ; green copperas, 2 ozs. ; white vitriol and alum, of each 1 oz. If wanted redder, a .sinall quantity of blue ^'itrio^ must be added, 2. For Green Gold. — Saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts. ; sal-ammo- niac, 1 oz. 4 dwts. ; Roman vitriol, 1 oz. 4 dwts. ; verdigris, 18 dwts. 3. To Clean Gilt Jewelry. — Boiling water in a clean flask, ^ pt. ; cyanide of potassium, 1 oz. ; shake the flask to dissolve the potas- sium. Add, when cold, liquor ammonia, ^ oz. ; rectified alcohol, 1 oz. Used by brushing over gilded articles. 4. Coloring J eioelry. — Boil the articles m a diluts Bolution of terchloride of gold, to which some bicarbonate of soda has been added. 5. Coloring of Gilding. — Defective colored gilding may also be improved by the help of tho following mixture ; nitrate of potash, 3 ozs. ; alum 1\ ozs. ; sulphato of zinc, Ij ozs. ; common salt, Ih ozs. These ingredients are to be put into a smaU quantity of water to form a sort of paste which is put upon the articles to be colored ; they are then placed upon an iron plate over a clear fire, so that they will attain nearly to a black heat, w^heu they are suddenly plunged into cold water ; this gives them a beautiful high color. Different hues may be had by a variation in the mixture. 6. For Bed Gold. — ^To 4 ozs. melted yellow wax, add, in fine powder, l|ozs. of red ochre, ; Ijozs. verdigris, calcined till it yields no fumes ; and ^oz. of - ca,lcined borax. Mix them well together. Dissolve either of above mixtures in water, as the color is wanted, and use as required. 7. Fine color for Heavy Gilt Work. — Alum, 3 ozs. ; saltpetre, 6 ozs. ; sulphate of zinc, 3 ozs. ; common salt, 3 ozs. Mix aU into a thick paste, dip the articles into it, and heat them until nearly black on a piece of sheet iron over a clear coke or charcoal fire, then plunge them into cold water. 8. Fine Color For Light Plated loorJc.—- Sulphate of copper, 2 dwts, ; l)est verdigris, 4 dwts, 12 grs. ; sal-ammc 310 WATCiniAKKKS, JEWELLERS*, &C., llECEirTS. idac, 4 dwta. ; paltpctre, 4 clwts. ; acetic acid, 1 oz. ; pulverize tho solid ftrticles, add tho acetic acid gradually, stirring all tho time. Dip your articles into this mixturo and heat them to a black color on a Hhoetof copper. "When cold, place theni in a middling strong sul- phuric acid i)ickle, Avhich dissolves the coloring salts and induces a very line gold color. 1). EtruHcan Gold Coloriiuj. — Alum, 1 oz. ; lino tabie-salt, 1 oz. ; saltjictro (powdered), 2 oz. ; 'hot rain-water, suffi- cient to mal\C the solution, Avhcu dissolved, about the consistency of thick ale ; then add sullicient muriatic acid to produce the color de- gired. The degree of success must always depend, in a greater or less degree, upon the skill or judgment of the operator. The article to be colored should be from fourteen to eighteen carats fine, of pure gold and copper oulj', and be free from coatings of tin, or silver Holder. The solution is best used warm, and when freshly made tho principle on which it acts is to cat out the copper alloy from the sur- face of the article, leaving thereon pure, frosted gold only. After coloring, wash off, first in rain-water, then in alcohol, and dry with- , out rubbing, in lino clean sawdust, fine Etruscan jewelry, that ' has been defaced or tarnished by use, may be perfectly renewed by the same process. For Silveksmitits, Sterlinrj Silver. — 1. Fine silver 11 oz. 2 dwts., fine copper 18 dwts. 2. Equal io Slerlinr/ — Fine silver 1 oz., fine copper 1 dwt. 12 grs. 3. Another d tto — Fine silver 1 oz., fine copper 5 dwts. 4. Common Silver for Chains— Fine silver G dwts., fine copper 4 dwts. 5. Solder for ditto — : me silver IG dwts., fine copper 12 grs., pin brass, 3 dwts. 12 grs. G. Alloy for Platin;;. — Fine silver 1 oz., fine copper 10 dwts, 7. S'^ver Solder — Fine eilver 1 oz., pin brass, 10 dwts., pure spelter, 2 dwts. 8. Copper Solder for Plating — Fine silver, 10 dwts., fine copper 10 dwts. 9. Common Silver Solder — Fine silver 10 ozs., pin brass, 6 ozs. 13 dwts., spelter, 12 dwts. 10. Silver Solder for Enamelling, $lper oz. — Fine silver 14 dwts., fine copper, 8 dwts. 11. Ditto, for filling Signet Rings. — Fine silver, 10 ozs , fine copper, 1 oz, 16 dwts., fino pin brass, G ozs. 12 dwts., spelter, 12 dwts. 12. Silver Solder for Gold Plating — Fine silver, 1 oz., fine copper, 6 dwts., pin brass, 5 dwts. 13, Quick Silver Solder — Fine silver, 1 oz., pin brass, 10 dwts., bar tin, 2 dwts, 14. Imitation Silver — Fine silver, 1 oz., nickel, 1 oz, 11 grs., fine copper, 2 ozs. 9 grs. 15. Another ditto — Fine silver, 3 ozs., nickel, 1 oz. 11 dwts., fine copper, 2 ozs. 9 grs., spelter, 10 d^^'tg. 16. Fine Silver Solder for I'iligree Work— ¥'n\Q eilver, 4 dwts. G grs., pin brass, 1 dwt. 17. Bismuth Solder — Bismuth, S ozs,, lead, 3 ozs. 18 dwts., tin, 5 ozs. G dwts. Dead White on Silver Articles. — Heat the article to a cherry Tcd, or a dull red heat and allow it to cool, then place it in a pickle of 5 parts sulphuric acid to 100 parts of water, and alloAv it to remain for an hour or two. If the surface is not right, rinse in cold water, and repeat the heating and pickling operation as before. This removes the copper from the surface of the article, leaving pure silver on tho surface. When sufficiently whitened, remove from the pickle, well rmse in pure hot water and place in warm box sawdust. Pickle, fob Frosting and Whitening Silver Goods. — Sul- phuric acid, 1 dr. ; water, 4 oz. ; heat the pickle, and immerse the silver in it until frosted as desired ; then wash off clean, and dry with WATCmiAKERS, JEWELLEKS', &C., RECEIPIS. 341 a Boft linen clotli, or in fine clean sawdust. For -wMtening only, a Bmaller proportion of acid may be used. To Fkost Polished Silver. — Cyanido of potassium 1 oz. ; dis- solved in ^ pt. of water. Do not hold tlie silver in your hands, hut Use pUers made' of lanco wood or box wood, and apply tho mixturo with a brush to the polished surface. SiLVERixG Hooks and Eyes, &c.— The small iron articles aro suspended in dilute sulphuric acid until the iron shows a bright clean Burface. After rinsing in pure water they are i)laced in a bath of a mixed solution of sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper and cyanido of i)otassium, and there remain until they receive a bright coating of brass. Lastly, they are transferred to a bath of nitrate of silver, cyanide of potassium and sulphate of soda, iu -which they quickly received a coating of silver. Oknaimental Designs on Silver. — Select a smooth part of tho cilver, and sketch on it a monogram or any other desim you choose, with a sharp lead pencil, then place the article in a gold solution Avith the battery in good working order, and in a short time all the part.) not sketched with the lead pencil will be covered with a coat of gold. After cleansing the article, the black lead is easily removed by tho lingers, and the silver ornament disclosed. A gold ornament may bo produced by reversing the process. To Extract Silver from waste Products.— Mix your refuse with an equal quantity of wood charcoal, place in a crucible and sub- mit to a bright red heat, and in a short time a silver button will bo found at the bottom. Carbonate of soda is another good flux. To Solder Tortoise Shell. — Bring the edges of the pieces of shell to fit each other, observing to give the same mclination of grain to each, then secure them in a piece of paper, and place them between hot irons or pincers ; apply pressure, and let them cool. Tho heat must not be so great as to burn the shell, therefore try it first on a "white piece of paper. Artificial Pearls. — ^Are made from beads of opaline glass filled with gum, the polish of the glass being reduced by the vapor if hydrofluoric acid. Eeviver for Old Jewelry. — ^Dissolve sal-ammoniac in urine, r.nd put the jewelry in it for a short time ; then take it out, and rub with chamois leather, and it will appear equal to new. To Eecover Gold from Gilt Metal. — Take a solution of borax water, apply to the gilt surface, and^ sprinkle over it some finely powdered sulphur ; make the article red hot, and quench it in water; then scrape off the gold, and recover it by means of lead. Polishing Powder for Gold and Silver. — Rock alum burnt and finely powdered, 5 parts ; levigated chalk, 1 part. Mix ; apply with a dry brush. Silver-Plat iNO Fluid. — ^Dissolve 1 ounce of nitrate of silver, in crystals, in 12 ounces of soft water ; then dissolve in the water 2 oz. cyanuret of potash ; shake the whole together, and let it stand till it becomes clear. Have ready some half-ounce vials, and fill half full of Paris white, or fine whiting ; and then fill up the bottles with tho liquor, and it is ready for use. The whiting does not increase the coating powder ; it only helps to clean the articles, and save the silver fluid, by half filling tho bottles. 342 AVATCIIMAKERS, JEWELLERS, iSiC, KECEIPTS. To Reduce Enolisii Sovereigns to Lower Finene.ss.— No. 1. 15 (Jarat (/old, Coins, 2 ozs. ; gold, 8 ozs. ; silver, 2 ozs. o dwts. ; copper, 5 ozs. 'ii dwts. 2. Another ditto. Coins, 4 ozs.; gold, Cozs.; silver, 2 ozs. 2 dwts. ; copper, 5 ozs. 2 dwts. 3. Another ditto. Coins, 2 ozs. ; gold, () ozs. ; silver, 1 oz. 14 dwts. ; copi^cr, 4 ozs. ; 2 dwts. 4. 14 Carat (jold. Coins, '6 ozs. ; gold, 5 ozs. ; silver, 1 oz. 9 dwts. 12 grs. ; copper, 11 dwts. 12 grs. 5. Another ditto. Coins, 1 oz. ; gold, 2 ozs. ; silver, I?, dwts.; copper, 1 oz. 11 dwts. G. Another ditto. Coins, 1 oz. ; gold, 8 ozs. ; silver 2 ozs. ; coi^per, 4 ozs. 14 dwts. Sterling Value of Gold of different Degrees of Fineness. Value per. Valne per. Ciirats Fine. oz. Troy. Carats Fine. oz. Troy. £ £ 24 4 4 n\ 12 2 2 5i 23 4 1 5 11 1 18 11 22 British Standard. 3 17 lOi 10 1 15 4-i 21 3 14 4 9 1 11 10 ' 20 3 10 9 8 1 8 3 19 3 7 3 7 1 4 9 18 (Lowest Hall Mark). 3 3 S^r 6 1 1 2i 17 3 0 2'^ 5 0 17 8 16 2 17 7A 4 0 14 2 15 2 13 1 3 0 10 7i 14 2 9 Gi 2 0 7 1 13 2 6 0 1 0 3 6| Note—ThQ British Standard for gold, is go'ld, 22-24 of a pound, equal to 11 parts pure gold and 1 of alloy; a pound is estimated to bo divided into 24 equal parts or carats, hence the proportion is rated equal to 22 carats. Standard of Silver is 222-240 of a pound, equivalent to 37 parts pure silver and 3 of alloy. A Troy ounce of Standard gold is coined into £3.17.10.2f., and an ounce of Standard silver into 5s. M. A lb. Troy of gold yields 46 19-240 sovereigns. A lb. Troy of silver 66 shillings. £150,000 in gold weighs over a ton. £75,000,000 weighs 500 tons. The American Standard of Gold and Silver is 900 parts of pure metal and 100 of alloy in 1,000 parts of coin, the fineness being ex- pressive of the quantity of pure metal in 1000 parts. The value of 1 ounce of pure (/old is |>20.67.183^, as standard gold coin it is worth ^18.60.465. The value of 1 ounce of pure silver is |1.29.29., as stand- ard silver coin it is worth $1 IS'. 36-36. To Melt Gold. — Prepare a good fire, and heat the ingot in which you wish to cast the gold, a little hotter than boiling water; next put the alloy in the crucible, add a siniil quantity of pulverized borax, and leave on the fire until melted. Cast this in a clean ingot, and after breaking the bar into small fragments, return to the pot and remelt the gold, not adding borax this time, but when the gold looks clear and smooth on the top, add, for every 6 ozs. gold, a piece of saltpetre about the size of a pea, and in about a minute pour the gold. Keep up the heat after adding the saltpetre, and, previous to pouring the gold, pour a few drops of oil into the iron ingot. If the stock was clean when you commenced, tlie gold will roll well. Much depends on the first rolling of the stock; 18 carat should be subjected to a very heavy strain; the first and second draughts, which imparts a grain to the stock ; light draughts stretch the gold on the surface, and the middle portion" remaining as cast, causes the gold to crack ; many good bars having been condemned, when the trouble was iu WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS, &C., RECEIPTS, 343 the rolling. After the 18 carat has been rolled to about twice its original length, it must be annealed, then rolled to the size you re- quire. Proceed Avith melting 14 carat as above described for 18 carat, giving it as heavy strains in the rolls, but not rolling so much before annealing as the 18 carat. The other carats of cheaper grade, do not require the use of saltpetre to toughen; instead of which, use a little salammouiac, and then proceed as above. When you anneal red gold, do not quench it when red hot, but allow the gold to blacken before quenching, otherwise it will slit or seam. Melt new alloys in every case twice; treat solder the same way, to ensure a thorough admixture of the copper with the gold. To Remove Tin prom the Stock. — Just previous to pouring the gold, throw a small piece of corrosive sublimate in the pot, stir well with a long piece of pointed charcoal, and allow the pot to re- main on the fire about half a minute afterward. This Avill take tin from the alloy; while the tin is in, the gold will not roll without cracking. To remove emery or steel filings from gold, add a small piece of glass-gall, while melting ; it will collect them in the flux. Makikg Brittle Gold Strong. — Gold is sometimes so brittle that the jeweller cannot well work it ; this is probably due to phos- phorus, which, being no metal, is of course not detected in the assay. The remedy is to pass chlorine gas through the molten gold, by Avhieh treatment most of the gold which had otherwise to be set aside as unfit for certain kinds of work, can be redeemed. To Make Plated Stock. — Cast the bar you wish to plate the breadth you require, and roll to the thickness of the 8th of an inch. If you plate on silver, cast the silver the same width as the gold, and roll a little longer than the gold. Generally the lower, cheaper grade metal, is 2 or 3 times the thickness of the dearer, therefore use as much of each as will make the desired proportions. Polish as nearly flat and straight as possible, then file one face of silver and one face of gold, until they are bright. Previous to this you have rolled a piece of plate solder very thin, say, 36 in. round size plate, and cut a strip a little wider and longer than your gold. Emery paper can be used to clean each side of this from dirt and grease. Cover the surface with ground borax from the slate, on each side; do the same on the bright faces of the gold and silver; place the solder between them, and have a piece of iron wire about g of an inch in thickness, and 3 feet long, in readiness, place this lengthwise on the gold, and squeeze the Avhole tightly together in a vice, and bind every inch or so with heavy binding wire very secure. Next make a good charcoal fire in the forge, shaped so as to be like an oven, and then solder; when the solder melts on each side the whole length, all is ready to roll like any other stock. If you make gold plating that is 18 carat, or 16 carat, or 14 carat, and 12 carat, you must use a gold solder about 5 or 6 carats less than the inferior gold. If gold on sil- ver or composition, use copper solder. The clippings from the above, when the gold is on silver, may be placed in an enamelled vessel, and covered with nitric acid, 2 parts; water, 1 part. The silver will bo taken in solution, which must be saved in an earthen pot. Precipi- tate the silver from the solution, or after the solution has been di- luted, a, bar of copper placed in it will collect it; this sediment must be well washed and dried, then melted . The gold after being well dried, can be melted in a bar, a small amount of copper being added, so that it will be of the same quality as before. 344 watchmakehs, jewellers", &c., receipts. Jewellkrs' Armenian Cement.— Isinglass soaked in water and dissolved in spirit, 2 oz. (thick) ; dissolve in this 10 grs. of very palo gum ammonia (in tears) by rubbhij^ them together ; tlien add (J largo tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the least possible quantity of rec- tified spirits. When carefully made this cement resists moisture and dries colorless. Keep in a closely stopped phial. Jewellers' CEMiiKT. — Put in a bottle 2 ozs. of isinglass and 1 oz. of the best gum arable, cover them with proof spirits, cork loosely, and place the bottle in a vessel of water, and boil it till a thorough solu- tion is effected ; then strain it for use. Gold is taken from the surface of silver by spreading over it a paste made of powdered sal-ammoniac, with aquafortis, and heating it till the matter smokes, and is nearly dry ; when the gold may bo i;c])arated by rubbing it with a scratch brush. To Separate Gold and Silver from Lace, &c. — Cut in pieces the gold or silver lace, tie it tightly, and boil in soap ley till the size appears diminished ; take the cloth out of the liquid, and after re- peated rinsings of cold water, beat it with a mallet to draw out the alkali. Open the linen, and the pure metal will be found in all its beauty. Tarnish on Electro-Plate Goods may be removed by immers- ing the article from one to ten or fifteen minutes, or rmtil tlie tarnish has been removed, but no longer, in ths following solution : Raiu water, 2 gals. ; cyanuret potassa, | lb. ; dissolve and put into a stono jug or jar and closely cork. After immersion, the articles must bo taken out and thoroughly rinsed in two or three waters, then dried ■with a soft linen cloth, or, if frosted or chased work, with fine clean sawdust. Tarnished jewelry may bo speedily restored by this process ; but make sure work of removing the alkali, otherwise it will corrode the goods. A Bright Gold Tinge may be given to silver by steepmg it for a suitable length of time in a weak solution of sulphuric acid and water strongly impregnated with iron-rust. To Kefine Gold.— If you desire to refine gold from the baser metals, swedge or roll it out very thin, then cut into narrow strips and curl up so as to prevent its lying flatly. Drop the pieces thus l)repared into a vessel containing good nitric acid, in the proportion of acid, 2 ozs., and pure rain-water ^ oz. Suffer to remain until thor- oughly dissolved, which will be the case in from ^ an hour to 1 hour. Then pour off the liquid carefully, and you will find the gold, in tho form of yellow powder, lying at the bottom of the vessel. Wash this with pure water till it ceases to have an acid taste, after which you may melt aiid cast into any form you choose. Gold treated in this way may be relied on as perfectly pure. In melting gold use none other than a charcoal fire, and during the process sprinkle saltpetre and potash into the crucible occasion- ally. Do not attempt to melt with stone coal, as it renders the metal brittle and otherwise imperfect. To Refine Silver. — Dissolve in nitric acid as in the case of tho gold. When the silver has entirely disappeared, add to the 2^ oz. of solution nearly 1 quart of pure rain-water. Sink, then, a sheet of clean copper into it ; the silver will collect rapidly upon the copper, and you can scrape it off and melt into bulk at pleasure. ■\v-ATcn:MAKErtS,^ jewellers', &c., keceipts. 345 In the event of your refining gold in accordance •with the foregoing formula, and the impurity was silver, the only steps necessary to savo the latter would be to add the above named proportion of water to tho solution poured from the gold, and then to proceed with your copper plate as just directed. To Refine Coppek. — ^This process differs from the one employed to refine silver in no respects save the plate to tee immersed; you use an iron instead of a copper plate to collect the metal. If the impurities of gold refined were both silver and copper, you might, after saving the silver as above directed, sink your iron plato into tlie solution yet remaining, and take out the copjper. Tlie parts of alloyed gold niay be separated by these processes, and leave each in a perfectly pure state. Cold Silveking of IMetals.— Mix 1 part of chloride of silver with 3 parts of pearlash, Imparts common salt, and 1 part whiting; and well rub the mixture on the surface of brass Or copper (previously well cleaned), by means of a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened with water and dipped in the powder. When properly silvered, tlio metal should be well washed in hot water, slightly alkalized; then wiped dry. To IlAitD Solder Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Iron, Steel on Platina. — ^The solders to be used for gold, silver, copper and brass aro given in the precedmg part. You commence operations by reducing your solder to small particles, and mixing it with powdered sal- ammoniac and powdered borax in equal parts, moistened to make it hold together. Having fitted up the joint to be soldered, you securo the article upon a piece of soft charcoal, lay your soldering mixturo immediately over the joint and then with your blow-pipe turn tho flame of your lamp upon it until fusion takes place. The job is then done, and ready to be cooled and dressed up. Iron is usually soldered with copper or brass in accordance with the above X)rocess. The best solder for steel is pure gold or pure silver, though gold or silver solders are often used successfully. Platina can only be soldered well with gold ; and the expense of it, therefore, contributes to the hindrance of a general use of platina vessels, even for chemical purposes, where they are of so much importance. To Soft Solder Articles.— Moisten the parts to be united with soldering fluid; then, having joined them together, lay a small piece of solder upon the joint and hold over your lamp, or direct the blazo upon it with your blow-pipe until fusion is apparent. Withdraw them from the blaze immediately, as too much heat will render the solder brittle and unsatisfactory. When the parts to be jomed can be mado to spring or press against each other, it is best to place a thin piece of solder between them before exposing to the lamp. Where two smooth surfaces are to be soldered one upon the other, you may make an ex- cellent job by moistening them with the fluid, and then, having placed a sheet of tin foil between them, holding them pressed firmly together over your lamp till the foil melts. If the surfaces fit nicely, a joint may be made in this way so close as to be alm.ost imperceptible. Tho bright looking lead which comes as a lining to tea boxes works better in the same way than tin foil. To Cleanse Gold Tarnished in Soldering.— The old English mode was to exposo all parts of the article to a uniform heat, allow it 346 -wATcn^iAKERS, jewellers', &C., Ei-CEirxS. to cool, and then boil until Tiright in iirino and sal-ammoniac. It id now usually cleaned AVith diluted Bulplmric acid. The picklo is mado iu about the proportion of one-eighth of auounco of acid to one ounco of rain water. To Clean Silver Tarnisiied in Solderino.— Somo expose to a uniform beat, as in tho case of gold, and then boil in strong alum water. Others immerse for a considerable length of time iu a liquid made of ^ oz. of cyauuret potassa to 1 pint rain water, and then brush off with prepared clialk. Nickel Plating. — The following is tho substance of tho patent granted to Dr. Isaac Adams, March 23, 1870. The process is highly successful. " This improvement consists in the use of 3 new solutions from Avhich to deposit nickel by the electric current. 1. A solution formed of the double sulphate of nickel and alumina, or the sulphato of nickel dissolved in a solution of soda, potash, or ammonia alum, the three different varieties of commercial alum. 2. A solution formed of the double sulphate of nickel and magnesia, with or without an excess of ammonia. I have found that a good coating of nickel can be deposited from the solution before mentioned, provided they are prepared and used in such a mamier as to be free from any acid or alkaline reaction. When these solutions are used, great care must be taken, lest by tho use of too high battery power, or from the in- troduction of some foreign matters, the solution becomes acid or alkaline. I prefer to use these solutions at a temperature above 100° Fah., but do not limit my invention to tho use of these solutions at that temperature. I therefore claim, 1. The electro deposition of nickel by tho means of solution of the double sulphate of nickel and alumina, prepared and used iu such a manner as to be free from tho presence of ammonia, potash, soda, lime or nitric acid or from any other acid, or from any acid or alkaline reaction. 2. The electro deposition of nickel by means of a solution of the double sulphate of nickel and potash, prepared and used m such a maimer as to be frco from the presence of ammonia, soda, alumina, lime or nitric acid, or from any acid or alkaline reaction. 3. The electro deposition of nick- el by means of a solution of the double sulphate of nickel and mag- nesia, prepared and used in such a manner as to be free from tho presence of potash, soda, alumina, lime or nitric acid, or from any acid or allcaline reaction. " Stalba's Nickel Platino Process.— Consists in plating with nickel, by the action of zinc upon salts of nickel, in the presence of chloride of zinc and the metal to be plated. By this process, Stalba states that he has succeeded in plating objects of wrought and cast iron, steel, copper, brass, zinc, and lead. It is only necessary tliat the size of the objects should permit them to be covered entirely by the plating liquid, and that their surfaces should be free from dirt. The following is the modus operandi : — A quantity of concentrated chloride of zinc solution is placed in a clean metallic vessel, and to this is added an equal volume of water. This is heated to boiling, and hydrochloric acid is added drop by drop, until the precipitate which had formed on adding the water has disappeared. A small quantity of zinc powder is now added, which produces a zinc coating on the liietal as far as the liquid extends. Enough of the nickel salt (the chloride or sulphato answers equally well, is now introduced to WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS^ &C., RECEIPTS. 347 color the liquid distinctly green ; the objects to bo plated are placed in it together with some zmc clippings, and the liquid is brought to boiling. Tlie nickel is precipitated in the course of 15 minutes, and the objects will be fomid to be completely coated. The coating va- ries in lustre with the character of the metallic surface; when this is polished, the plating is likewise lustrous and vice versa. Salt of co- balt affords a cobalt plating, which is steel gray in color, not so lus- trous as the nickel, but more liable to tarnish. To Make Silver Solution for Electro-Plating. — ^Put to- gether into a glass vessel 1 oz. good silver, made thin and cut into strips ; 2 oz, best nitric acid, and ^ oz. pure rain water. If solution does not begin at once, add a little more Avater— continue to add a very little at a time till it does. In the event it starts off well, but stops before the silver is fully dissolved, you may generally start ifc up again all right by adding a little more water. When solution is entirely effected, add 1 quart of warm rain water and a large table- spoonful of table salt. Shake well and let settle, then proceed to pour off and wash through other waters as in the case of the gold preparation. When no longer acid to the taste, put in an ounce and an eighth cyanuret potassa and a quart pure rain water: after stand- ing about 24 hours, it will be ready for use. To make Gold Solution for Electro-Plating.— Dissolve livo pennyweights gold coin, 6 grains pure copper, and 4 grains puro silver in 3 ozs. nitro-muriatic acid; which is simply 2 parts muriatic acid and 1 part nitric acid. The silver will not be tjikeu into solution as are the other 2 metals, but will gather at the bottom of the vessel. Add 1 oz. pulverized sulphate of iron, ^ oz, pulverized borax, 25 grains pure table salt, and 1 quart hot rain water. Upon this tho gold and copper will be thrown to tho bottom of the vessel with tho silver. Let stand till fully settled, then pour off the liquid carefully, and refill with boiling rain water as before. Continue to repeat this operation until the precipitate is thoroughly washed ; or, in other words, fill up, let settle, and pour off so long as tho accumulation at the bottom of the vessel is acid to the taste. You now havo about an 18 carat chloride of gold. Add to it an ounce and an eighth cyanuret potassa, and 1 quart rain water — tho latter heated to the boiling point. Shake up well, then let stand about 24 hours, and it will bo ready for use. Some use platina as an alloy instead of silver, under the impression that plating done with it is harder, I have used both, but never could see much difference. Solution for a darker colored plate to imitate Guinea gold may be mado by adding to the above 1 oz, dragon's blood and 5 grs. iodide or iron. If you desire an alloyed plate, proceed as first directed, without the silver or copper, and with an ounce and a half of sulphuret potassa in place of the iron, borax, and salt. To Plaje with a Battery.— If the plate is to be gold, use tho gold solution for electro-plating ; if silver, use the silver solution. Pre- pare the article to be plated by immersing it for several minutes in a strong ley made of i)otash and rain water, polishing off thoroughly at the end of the time with a soft brush and prepared chalk. Care sho iild be taken not to let the fingers come in contact with the article whilo polishing, as that has a tendency to prevent the plate from adhering; it should be held in two or three thicknesses of tissue paper. At- 348 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. fcicli tlio !\rticlo, -wlion thoroughly cleansed, to tho positive polo of your kittcry, then allix ii pioco of gold or silver, as tlio case may be, to the negative pole, and immerse both into tho solution in such a way as not to liang ijti contact with each other. Alter the article has been exposed to tho action of the battery about ten minutes, take it out and wasli or polish over Avith a thick mixture of water and prepared chalk or jewellers' rouge. If, hi tlie operation, you find places where the plating seems inclined to ])ccl off, or where it has not taken Avell, mix a little of tlic pkitijig solution witli prepared chalk or rouge, and rub the defective part thoroughly with it. This will be likely to set all rig] it. Govern your time of exposmg the article to tho battery by the de- sired thickness of the plate. l)uring the time, it should be taken out and polished up as just directed about every ten minutes, or as often at least as there is an indication of a growing darkness on any part of its surface. When done, finish with the burnisher or prepared chalk and chamois skin, as best suits your taste and convenience. In case the article to be plated is iron, steel, lead, pewter, or block tin, yon must, after first cleaning with the ley and chalk, prepare it by ap- ply mg with a soft brush — a camels' -hair pencil is best suited — a. solution made of the following articles in the proportion named : — Kitric acid, ^ oz. ; muriatic acid, ^ oz. ; suli)huric acid, l-9th oz. ; muriate of potash, l-7th oz. ; sulphate of iron, -J oz. ; sulpliuric ether, 1-oth oz. ; and as much sheet zmo as it will dissolve. This prepare?- a foundation, without which the plate would fail to take well, if aS To MAKE Gold Amai^gahi. — ^Eight parts of gold and one of mer- cury are formed into an amalgam for plating, by rendermg the gold into thin plates, making it red hot and then putting it into tlie mercury while the latter is also heated to ebulUtion. The gold immediately disappears in combination with the mercury, after which the mixture may be turned into water to cool. It is then ready for use. To Plate with Gold Amalgam, — Gold amalgam is chiefly used as a plating for silver, copper or brass. The article to be plated is washed over with diluted nitric acid or potash lye and prepared chalk, to remove any tarnish or rust that might prevent the amalgam from adhering. After having been polished perfectly bright, the amal- gam is applied as evenly as possible, usually with a fine scratch, brush. It is then set upon a grate over a charcoal fire, or placed into an oven and heated to that degree at which mercury exhales. Tho gold, when the mercury has evaporated, presents a dull yellow color. Cover it with a coating of pulverized nitre and alum in equal parts, mixed to a paste with water, and heat again till it is thoroughly melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up with a steel or blood- stone burnisher. To Make akd Apply Gold-Platdtg SoLurioisr.— Dissolve ^ oz.. of gold amalgam in 1 oz. of nitro-muriatic acid. Add 2 oz.\f alcohol, and then, having brightened the article in the usual way, apply the solution with a soft brush. Rinse and dry in sawdust, or with tissue paper, and polish up with chamois skin. To Make ant> Apply Gold-Plating Powdek.— Prepare a chloride of gold the same as for plating with a battery. Add to it, wrhen thoroughly washed out, cyauurct potassa in a x)roportion of 2 WATCHilAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. ^^19 oz. to 5 penii jweiglits of gold. Pour in a pint of clean rain water, shake up -well and then let stand till the chloride is dissolved. Add then 1 lb. of prepared Spanish whiting and let it evaporate in the open air till dry, after which put away in a tight vessel for use. To apply it you prepare the article in the usual way, and having made tho liowder into a paste with water, rub it upon the surface with a pieco ^f chamois sliin or cotton flannel. An old mode of making a gold-plating powder was to dip clean linen rags into solution prepared as in the second article prc- cedmg this, and having dried, to fire and burn them into ashes. The ashes formed the powder, and were to be applied as above. To Make and Apply Sllver-Plating Solution. — Put together in a glass vessel 1 oz. nitrate of silver, 2 ozs. cyanuret potassa, 4 ozs, prepared Spanish whiting, and 10 ozs. pure rain water. Cleanse tho article to be plated as per preceding directions, and apply with a soft brush. Finish with the chamois skin or burnisher. To Make and Apply Silver-Plating Powder. — Dissolve sil- ver in nitric acid by the aid of heat; put some pieces of copper into the solution to precipitate the silver; wash the acid out in the usual way; then, with 15 grains of it mix 2 drams of tartar, 2 drams of table salt, and ^ dram of pulverized alum. Brighten tho article to be plated with ley and prepared chalk, and rub on the mixture. When it has- assumed a white appearance, expose to heat as in tho case of plating with gold amalgam, then polish up with tho burnisher or soft leather. To Destroy the Effects of Acid on Clothes. — Dampen as Boon as possible, after exposure to the acid, with spirits ammonia. It will destroy the effect immediately. To Wash Silverware. — Never use a particle of soap on your silverware, as it dulls the lustre, giving tho article more the appear- ance of pewter than silver. When it wants cleaning, rub it with a piece of soft leather and prepared chalk, the latter made into a kind of paste with pure water, for tho reason that water not pure might contain gritty particles. To Cleanse Brushes. — Tho best method of cleansing watch- makers' and jewellers' brushes is to wash them out in a strong soda water. AVhen the backs are wood, you must favor that part as much as possible ; for being glued, the water may injuro them. To Cut Glass Round or Oval without a Diamond.— Scratch the glass around the shape you desire with the corner of a filo or graver ; then, having bent a piece of wire in the same shape, heat it red hot and lay it upon the scratch, sink the glass into cold Avater just deep enough for the water to come almost on a level with its upper surface. It will rarely ever fail to break perfectly true. To Re-Black Clock Hands.— Use asphaltum varnish. One coat will make old rusty hands look as good as new, and it dries in a few minutes. To Gild Steel. — Pour some of the ethereal solution of gold into a wineglass, and dip into it the blade of a new penknife, razor, lancet, &c. ; withilraw the instrument and allow the ether to evaporate. The blade will then bo found covered with a beautiful coat of gold. 350 WATCnJIAKERS, asWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. The Wade may bo moistened with a clean rag, or a small piece of very dry sponge dipped in the ether, and the eamo effects wiil bo produced. Silvering Shells. — Silver leaf and gum -water, a sufficient quan- tity ; grind to a proi^er tliickness, and cover the inside of the shells. For a Gold Color, grind up gold-leaf with gum Avater, and apply to the inside of the shells. Liquid Foil for SiLVERma Glass Glores, &c.— Lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part; bismuth, 1 jiart; melt, and, just before it sets, add mer- cury, 10 parts. Pour this into the globe, and turn it rapidly round. Silver-Platers' Strippino Liquid.— Sulphuric acid, 8 parts; nitre, 1 part. Used to recover silver from old plated ware. To Silver Clock Faces, &c. — Old silver lace, ^ oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. Boil them over a gentle fire for about 5 minutes in an earthen l)ot. After the silver is dissolved, take the mixture off, and mix it in a pint of clean water, then pour it into another vessel free from sedi- ment; then add a tablespoonf ul of common salt, and the silver will bo precipitated in the form of a white powder of curd ; ijour off the acid, and mix the curd with 2 oz. salt of tartar, and ^ oz. whiting, all to- gether, and it is ready for use. To Use. — Clean'j-our brass or copper plate with rotten-stone and a piece of old hat ; rub it with salt and water with your hand. Then take a little of the composition on your finger, and rub it over your plate, and it will firmly adhere and com- pletely silver it. Wash it well with water. When dry, rub it with a clean rag, and varnish with this varnish for clock faces. Spirits of wine, 1 pt. ; divide in three parts, mix one part Avith gum-mastic in a bottle by itself; 1 part spirits and ^ oz, sandarac iu another bottle; and 1 part spirits and ^ oz. of whitest gum benjamin, in another bot- tle ; nix and temper to your mind. If too thin, some mastic ; if too soft, some sandarac or benjamin. When you use it, warm the silvered plate before the fire, and, with a flat camels' -hair pencil, Btroke it over till no white streaks appear, and this will i^reservo tho eilvering for many years. Refining Gold and Silver. — The art of assaying gold and sil- ver is founded upon the feeble affinity which these have for oxygen in comparison with copper, tin, and other cheap metals, and on the tendency which the latter metals have to oxidize rapidly in contact Avith lead at a high temperature, and sink with it into any porous, earthy vessel in a thin, glassy, vitrified mass. The precious metal having previously been accurately weighed and prepared, the first process is Cupellation. The muffle, with cupel properly arranged on the " miiffleplate," is placed in the furnace, and the charcoal ad- ded, and lighted at the top by means of a few ignited pieces throwii on last. After the cupels have been e'xposed to a strong white heat for about half an hour, and have become white hot, the lead is put into them by means of tongs. As soon as this becomes bright red and " ciraiilating," as it is called, the specimen for assay, Avrapped in a small piece of paper or lead-foil, is added ; the fire is now kept up strongly until the metal enters the lead and " circulates " well, when the heat, slightly diminished, is so regulated that the assay appears convex and more glowing than the cuxdcI itself, whilst tho "^undulations" circulate in all directions, and the middle of tha "WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 351 metal appears smooth, -u-ith a margin of litharge, which is freely ab- sorbed by the cupel. When the metal becomes bright and shining, or, in technical language, begins to ^^lir/hten," and prismatic hues suddenly flash across the globules, and undulate and cross each otlier, followed by the metal becoming y cry brilliant and clear, and at length bright and solid (called the hrighteninr/), the separation is end- ed, and the process complete. The cupels are then drawn to tlic mouth of the "muffle," and allowed to cool slowly. When quite cold, the resulting ^^biiiion," if of silyee, is removed by tho "pliers" or "tongs" from the cupels, and, after being flattened on a small anvil of polished steel, with a polished steel hammer, to de- tach adhering oxide of lead, and cleaned with a small, hard brush, ia Tery accurately weighed. The weight is that otpure silver, and the dif- ference between the weight before cupellation and that of the pure metal represents the proportion of alloy in the sample examined. In tho case of GOLD, the metal has next to undergo the operations of quae- TATiOK. The cupelled sample is fused with 3 times its weight of pure silver (called the " i(;iYness "), by which the gold is reduced to one-fourth of the mass less, and in this state may easily be removed by TAETiNG, The alloy, after quartation, is hammered or rolled out into a thin strip or leaf, curled into a spiral J.orm, and boiled for a quarter of an hour with about 2 J to 3 ozs. of nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.3) ; and the fluid being^poured off, it is again boiled in a similar manner, with to 2 ozs. more nitric acid (sp. gr., 1.2); after which the gold is carefully collected, washed in pure water, and dried. When the operation of partmg is skilfully conducted, the acid not too strong, the metal preserves its spiral form ; otherwise it falls into flakes or powder. The second boiling is termed the " reprise." Tho loss of weight by parting corresponds to the quantity of silver orig- inally in the specimen. FoK Alloys Containtn-q Platinum, which nsnally consist of copper, silver, platinum, and gold, the method of assaying is as fol- lows : The alloy is cupelled in the usual way, the loss of weight ex- presses the amount of copper, and the " button," made into a riband and treated with sulphuric acid, mdicates by the portion dissolved that also of the silver present. By submitting the residuum to quarta- tion, thQ platinum becomes soluble in nitric acid. The loss after di- gestion m this menstruum expresses the weight of that metal, and tho weight of the portion now remaining is that of pure gold. Gold con- taining PALLADIUM may be assayed in the same manner. Anneal- ing. — ^This consists in putting the pure gold into a small, porous crucible, or cupel, and heating it to redness in the muffle. Weighing must be done -with the utmost accuracy.- The weight in grains Troy, doubled or quadrupled, as the case may be, gives the number of carats fine of the alloy examined, without calculation. According to the old French method of assaying gold, the following quantities were taken ; For the assay pound, 12 gr. ; fine silver, 30 grs. ; lead, 108 gr. These having been cupelled together, the perfect, button is roUed into a leaf (1| X 5 inches), twisted on a quill and submitted to parting with 2^ oz. and 1^ oz. of nitric acid, sp. gr., 1.16 (20<^ Baumd. ) The remainder of the process is similar to that above de- cribed. Tne usual weight of silver taken for the assay pound, when tb© fineness is reckoned id lOOOths, is 20 grs., every rcjjl grain of 352 "NYATCIIMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEirTS. which represents 50-lOOOths of fineness, and bo on of Rmaller divi- sions. Enametxino on Gold on Copper.— The "basis of all enamels is a highly transparent and fusible glass, called nirr, flux, or pastk, wliich readily receives a color on the addition of the metallic oxides. Preparation. — Red lead, IG parts; calcined borax, 3 parts; ponnded flint glass, 12 parts; flmts, 4 ixirts. Fuse in a Hessian crucible for 12 hours, then pour it out into water, and reduce it to poAvder in a bis- cuit-Avare mortar. The following directions will servo to show how the coloring preparations are made : Blach enamels are made with peroxide of manganese, or protoxide of iron, to which more depth of color is given with a little cobalt. Violet enamel of a very fhie hue is made from peroxide of manganese, in small quantity, with saline or alkaline fluxes. Red enamel is made from the protoxide of copper. Boil a solution of equal parts of sugar and acetate of copper in four parts of water. The sugar takes possession of a portion of the cupre- ous oxide, and reduces it to the protoxide; when it may he precipi- tated in the form of a granular poAvder of a brilliant red. After about two hours of moderate boiling, the liquid is set aside to settle, de- canted off the precipitate, which is washed and dried. By this puro oxide any tint may b?) obtained from red to orange by adding a greater or smaller quantity of peroxide of iron. "The oxide and purple of Cassias are likewise employed to color red enamel. This composition resists a strong fire very well. Green enamel can bo produced by a mixture of yellow and blue, but is generally obtained direct from the oxide of copper, or, better still, with the oxide of chrome, which last Avill resist a strong heat. Yelloio. — Take one part of white oxide of antimony, with from one to three parts of wliite lead, one of alum, and one of sal-ammoniac. Each of these sub- stances is to be pulverized, then ali,are to be exactly mixed, and ex- posed to a heat adequate to decompose the sal-ammoniac. This oper- ation is judged to be finished when the yellow color is well brought out. Blue. — This color is obtained from the oxide of cobalt, or somo of its combinations, and it produces it with such intensity that only a very little can be used lest the shade should pass into black, A tohite enamel may be ]>repared with a calcine formed of 2 parts of tin and 1 of lead, calcined together : of this combined oxide, 1 part is melted with two parts of fine crystal and a very little manganese, all previously ground together. When the fusion is complete, the vitreous matter is to be jioured into clear water, and the frit is then dried and melted anew. Repeat the pouring into water three or four times, to insure a perfect combination. Screen the crucible from smoke and flame. The smallest portions of oxide of iron or copper admitted in- to this enamel will destroy its value. The artist prepares his enamel colors by pounding them in an agate mortar, with an agate pestle, and grinding them on an agate slab, with oil or lavender rendered viscid by exposure to the sun, in a shallow vessel, loosely covered with gauze or glass. He should have alongside of liim a stove, in which a moderate fire is kept up, for drying his work Whenever the figures are finished. It is then passed through the muffle. Black Enamel on Gold or SiLVER.-^Take ^ pennyweight of * silver, 2J pennyweights of copper, 3^ pennyAveights of lead, and 2^ pennyweights of muriate of ammonia. Melt together, and pour into a TTATCn^IAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEirTS. 353 crucible with twice as much pulverized sulphur; the crucible is then to be immediately covered that the sulphur may not take fire, andtho mixture is to be calcined over a smelting fire until the superfluoiTS sulphur is burned away. The compound is then to be coarsely pounded, and, with a solution of muriate of ammonia, to be formed into a paste which is to be placed upon the article it is designed to enamel. The article must then bo held over a spirit lamp till tho compound upon it melts and flows. After this it may be smoothed and polished up in safety. Silvek-PijAtixg. — File tho ]-)arts which are to receive the plato very smooth ; then apply over the surface the muriate of zinc, which is made by dissolving -zinc in muriatic acid ; now hold this part over a dish containing hot soft solder, and with a swab apply the solder to the part to Avhich it will adhere, brush off all superfluous solder, so as to leave the surface smooth ; you will now take No. 2 fair silver plate, of tho right size to cover the ]:)repared surface, and lay tho plate upon it, and rub down smooth with a cloth moistened with oil; then, with a tinned soldering iron, pass slowly over all the surface of the plate, Avhich melts the solder undenicath it, causing the plate to adhere as firmly as the solder does to the iron ; then x^olish the sur- face, and finish with buckskin. Plating with Nickel may be effected by placing tho object to bo plated, either of iron, steel, copper, bronze, zinc or lead in a boiling neutral solution of zinc chloride containing a salt of nickel and granulated zinc. If the zinc solution is acid, the coating of nickel is dull. A plating of cobalt may be made in the samo manner, Elkingtoh's Patent Gilding.— Fine gold, 5 oz. (troy); nitro- muriatic acid, 52 oz. (avoirdupois) ; dissolve by heat, and continue tho heat imtil red or yellow vapors cease to bo evolved; decant the clear liquor into a suitable vessel; add distilled water, 4 gals.; pure bi- carbonate of potassa, 20 lb. ; and boil for 2 hours. N. B. — The nitro- mnriatic acid is made with imre nitric acid (sp. gr., 1.45) 21 oz. ; puro muriatic acid (sp. gr., 1.15), 17 oz. ; and distilled water, 14 oz. Tho articles, after being perfectly cleaned from scale or grease, and receiving a proper face, are to be suspended on wires, dipped into tho liquid hbiling hot, and moved about therein, when, in from a few seconds to a minute, depending on the newness and strength of tho liquid, the requisite coating of gold will be deposited on them. By a little practice the time to withdraw the articles is readily known ; tho duration of the immersion required to produce any given effect gradually increases as the liquid weakens by use. When properly gilded, the articles are withdrawn from the solution of gold, washed in clean water and dried ; after which they undergo the usual opera- tion of coloring, &c. A dead gold" appeamnce is produced by the application to tho articles of a toeah solution of nitrate of mercunj previously to tho immersion in the gilding liquor, or the deadening may be given by applying a solution of the nitrate to the newly gilded surface, and then expelling the mercury by heat. Spot Gilding, or gilding in spots, producing a very fine appear- ance, is done by putting a thin coat of oil on those parts of the metal where you do not wish tho gilding to appear, the gold will then bo 23 * ■ 354 MACITINISTSj ENGINEErwS', c'bC, nCCEIPTS. flopositod in those spots only whore there ii? no oil, r.ncl the oil ia easily a-cmovod when tlio job is liiiislicd. WAT(niiMAKEK.s' Oil. — Put thin sheet lead into olive oil in a bottle, expose it to tlic sun for a few weeks, and pour olf the clear. SoTiUTioN FOii DirriNO Stkel, Articlks, I'JiEviousLY TO Elf.c- rrKO-PLrATiKG. — Nitrate of silver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, 1 part; nitric acid _(sp. gr., l.;}8i), 4parts; water, r20])arts. For copper article:-. — Sulphuric acid, Gi parts; water, G4 parts; nitric acid, 32 parts; muriatic acid, 1 part; mix. The article, free from grease, is dipped i:i the pickle for a second or two. Arrangement of Lapidaries Cutting Plates. — 1. Soft iron !(very thin) with diamond dust in oil. 2. Pcv/tcr, Avith coarse emery find water. 3. Pewter, with fine emery and water. 4. "Wood Avith sand and water. 5. Pewter witli rotten-stone and water. (3. Leather with putty powder slightly wet. Polishing Diamonds. — The plan in use at all the largo diamond cutters is simply a cast iron disc of good metal, with a vertical spindlo ■ Tun through its centre, balanced, and turned, and faced true in a ' lathe. The disc revolves at about 1000 revolutions per minute. With n little diamond dust and oil, the stone is set in a small brass cup filled with common soft solder; it is then screwed up in the ciampa and aX)plied to the gkiyc till the facets ia formed. RECEIPTS FOE MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS, MILLOWNERS, BLACKSMITHS, LOCOMO- TIVE BUILDERS AND METAL WORKERS OF EVERY KIND. rN-STRTJCTiONS TO Enginjeers— (7e«in,7 up Steam.— "Beiove light- ung the fire in the morning, raise your safety valve, brushing away all the ashes and dust which may impair its free action, and if it leaks steam grind it on its seat with fine emery or grindstone grit. Talves with vibratory stems are safer than those with rigid stems, as they are not so liable to bind by the lever and weight getting out of true. To guard against loss by leakage and evaporation, leave tho MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 355 ■water np to the third gnago at night and keep it np to the second gauge during worliing hours. Clean all ashes and cuiders from tho furnace and ash pit, and spread a layer of two or three inches of Coal over the grate bars ; pile ou plenty of shavings over the coal, with dry sawdust, split wood, &c., then start your fire. Keep tho fire even and regular over the grate bars, about 5 inches thick with soft coal, and about 3 inches with anthracite, and always avoid ex- cessive firing. Moderate charges or firings at intervals of 15 to 20 minutes give the best results. In gettmg up steam from cold water the fire should be raised gradually, to avoid damaging the boiler by unequal expansion of the iron. Do not keep the damper and fur- nace door open at the same time, as the extreme draught expels the heat from the furnace into the chimney, and the cold air entermg- through the door induces a damaging contraction of the boiler plates wherever it strikes. The current of air enters the ash pit with a velocity of 12 feet per second, and every 100 lbs. coal requires about 15.524 cubic feet for its combustion. With looocl for fuel, the area of grate surface should be 1.25 to 1.4 that for coal. Volume of furnace for coal burning should be from 2.75, to 3 cubic feet for every square foot of its grate surface, for loood 4.6 to 5 cubic feet. The use of the pyrometer has satisfactorily established the following facts. 1st. That the admission of a certain quantity of air behind the bridge developes a greater amount of heat for raising steam by assisting •combustion and consuming the smoke, the existence of smoke being always a sure sign of waste. 2. A regular and continuous supply of air to the furnace increases its heatmg powers 33^ per cent. 3. The supply of air may enter behind the bridge, through the bars, or through tho furnace doors, as long as it is properly regulated. 4. The supply of air may vary with the nature of the fuel ; light burning coal requir- ing less air than caking coal, because the latter becomes a compact mass in the furnaco, excluding the air from the bars, while the latter is the reverse. 5. For perfect combustion a high temperature is necessary. In all cases see that the bars are well covered and the fuel kept from caking. Knock away the clinlcers as soon as formed^ keeping the spaces open between the bars. Regulate the supply of air either by the dampers, ashpit, furnace doors, or by an orifice l»ehind the bridge. A jet of steam from a pipe placed across the top of, and inside the door, will greatly assist in consuming the smoko ajid intensifying the heat, by yielding up its oxygen and hydrogen. If steiim commences to blow off at tho safety valve while the engine is at rest, start your pump or injector to create a circulation, cover or bank your fire with a charge of ashes or fresh coal to absorb the heat, and allow the steam to have free egress through the safety valve. If by neglect the water gets very low, and the boiler dan- gerously hot, the fire should either be draW, or drenched with water. Should the fire be very hot and the water supply temporarily cut off, stop the engine and cover the fire quite thickly with fresh fuel to absorb the heat, keeping the usual allowance of water in tlie boiler until the sujiply is renewed. Boilers should be blown out every 2 or 3 weeks, or as often as mud appears in the water, but never untU. after the fire has been drawn at least one hour, and tho damper closed, otherwise the empty boiler might be damaged by tlie heat. Never fill a hot boiler with cold watcr^ as the sudden contraction 35G MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. many times repeated will cvontually cause it to leak. Never blow out a boiler with a higher pressure than 50 lbs. to the square inch, aa eteam at a high pressure indicates a high temperature in the iron, which under careful management should bo always let down gradu- ally. Previous to filling a boiler raise the valve to permit the free egress of the air which might otherwise do manifold damage. Use every possible precaution against using foul water as it in- duces foaming in the boiler ; soapy or oily substances and au insuffi- ciency of steam room have a like effect, causing the boiler to bum on the spots where the water is lifted from ifc, and the glass gauges to indicate falsely, besides damaging the cylinder by priming, carrying mud, grit, water and slush into it through the pipe, and rendering the cylinder heads liable to be knocked out. Steam from pure water at 212° Fahr. supports a 30 inch column of mercury. Steam from sea, or impure water at the same temperature, will support only 23 inches. Pure soft water derived from, lakes and large streams, rain water from cisterns, reservoirs, &c., and springs outside of limestone dis- tricts, is the best for steam purposes. Water from wells and springs in limestone districts and small streams, hold in solution large quantities of chloride of sodium, carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, &c., besides quantities of vegetable matter in suspension. The carbonic acid in the water, which holds the carbonate of lime, &c., in solution, being driven off by boiling, the latter is precipitated and forms an incrustation which, adheres with obstinate tenacity to the boiler plates. By continual accretion the deposit of scale becomes thicker and thicker, and being a non-conductor of heat it requires CO per cent, more fuel to raise the water to any given temperature when the scale is of an inch thick ; the conducting power of scale compared with that of iron being as 1 to 37. The red scale formed from water impregnated with salts of iron, derived from percolation through iron ore, is still more destructive to Bteam boilers, and in no way can the evil be completely averted except by the'use of chemicals, which will neutralize the different corrosive impurities in the water. /See article on. Incrustation, page 368. In tubular boilers, the hand hole should be opened frequently and all sediment removed from over the fire ; keep the sheets, flues, tubes, gauge cocks, glass gauges and connections well swept and perfectly clean, and the boiler and engine-room in neat condition. Keep a sharp lookout for leaks, and repair them if possible without delay, and allow no water to come in contact with the exterior of the boiler under any circumstances. Examine and repair every blister as soon as it appears, and make frequent and thorough examinationa of the boiler with a small steel hammer. In case of foaming, close the throttle, and keep closed long enough to show true level of water. If the water level is right, feeding and blowing will generally stop the trouble. With muddy water it is a safe rule to blow out 6 or 8 inches every day. If foaming is violent from dirty water, or change from salt to fresh, or from fresh to salt, in addition to following the above directions, check, draught, and cover the fire with ashes or fresh fuel. ■ Great watchfulness is necessary when steam is raised, the safety MACniKISTS, ENGINEERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 357 valve fixed, the fire strong, and the engine at rest. In every case there is a rapid and dangerous absorption of heat, the temperature, latent and sensible heat included, often rising to 1200° Fahr. Frequently it is but the work of an instant to convert the latent into sensible heat, thus generating an irresistible force which bursts tho boiler and destroys life and property. The destruction generally coming at the moment of starting the engine, the opening of tho valve inducing a commotion in the water, which flashes mto steam tho instant it touches the heated plates. Steam has been known to riso from a pressure of 32 lbs. to the square inch to 90 lbs. to the square inch, in the short space of seven minutes, with the engine at rest. It ought to quicken the vigilance of every engineer to know thnt tho explosive energy in each and every cubic foot of water in his boiler at GO lbs. pressure, is equal to that contained in 1 lb. of gunpowder. From avaricious motives it has become quite common to discharge, or to decline to employ, qualified and careful engineers. Incompe- tent men are employed because their labor costs a few dollars less than that of the former. This is too much of a bad thing to pass over without notico. Employ good sldlf ul men in the management of steam power, or employ none at all, and pay them decent wages. If an oversight takes place, and the best and most careful men are liable to make mistakes, never scold, reprimand, or exact servico during dangerous emergencies, as in the event of lost water in tho boiler. In no case risk life, limb, or property, and do not let the consideration of saving a few dollars debar you from securing intelli- gent assistants. The Turkish mode of driving business on a lato occasion was to discharge the English engineers who brought out the war vessels which were built in England, and supply tho vacancies by installing cheap green hands. After getting up steam the new "Chief" proceeded to start the engines. A lift at a crank produced no results, a pull at a lever was equally useless. At length the illustrious official espied a bright brass cock, and thinliiug ho had got hold of a sure thing this time, proceeded to give it a twist, when he was suddenly saluted with a jet of steam full in the face, which swept the "engineer" and his assistants out of the engine room, into the fire room down stairs. So much for cheap labor and tho consequent results. Duties to the Enrjine when under steamJ—HQiovQ starting tho engine, warm the cylinder by admitting steam so as to slowly movo the piston back and forth, letting the condensed water flow from tho drip-cocks, which should be left open all night for this purpose ; especially should this be done during cold and frosty weather, during which time all pipes and connections should have extra protection. The minimum speed of tho piston should be 240 ft. per minute, and the maximum speed 700 ft. in any engine. The most economical steam pressure is from 80 to 90 lbs. to tho square inch, on the piston of any high i^ressure steam engine. To attain this it is necessary that the boiler pressure should be considerably higher, for there is a loss of at least 30 per cent., arising from the irregularity of the steam pipes and steam ports, by radiation of heat, by improper packing, by friction of valve, by the effect of the governor and by atmospheric pressure, which of itself entails a loss of 15 lbs. per square inch on the Diston. Tho lower the steam pressure per square inch on the 358 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., EXCEirTS. piston, tlie greater the losf? of power from the atmospheric pressure ; for iiistjmco, u stcaiu pressure of 'SO lbs. per square inch on the piston, leaves only 15 lbs per square inch cflcctivc i^ressure for actual work, the other 15 lbs. being required to overcome atmospheric iDressure. In tightening piston rod packing, screw no tighter tlian merely to prevent leakage; any more consumes power by friction, and will des- troy the packing. Spring packing in the cylinder should be adjusted with great care, always kept up to its place, and never allowed to become loose, or leakage will ensue, causing loss of power. On the other hand, if it is set too tight it will cut the cylinder, and loss will result from friction. Keep your packing free from grit, sand, filings, &c., as such substances will cut the cylinder and flute the rod. Remove all old packing before inserting new, observing to cut the packing into proper lengths, and breaking joints by placing each joint on opposite sides of the stuffing box. Keep the governor clean, easy in its movements, and avoid excessive tight packing around the spindle. Use good oils. Avoid waste in the use of oil, as too great profusion generates gum and dirt. Use it with judgment in combi- nation with concentrated ley when it is required to remove gum or dirt from these or other parts of the machinery. Do not lubricate the cylinder imtil after starting the engine, and closing the drip cocks. If you have occasion to separate a rust joint, or any cranlc from a shaft on which it has been shrunk, the simplest plan is to apply heat, when the bodies being of different dimensions will expand imequally and separate. Iron when heated expands with irresistible force. Railway contractors know that the heat of the sun on a warm day will cause such an extension of the iron, that the rails, if laid with close joints, will rise with the sleepers from the ballast, and form arches 4 or 5 feet high and 50 or 60 feet in length. In accommoda- tion to this law of expansion, spaces are left between the rails on rail- way tracks. The contraction of iron by cold is equally powerful, and has been put to good use in trueing up large bulgmg buildings by fitting iron girders across them with strong Avail plates at each end. Then, by applying gas jets all along the girders they will expand ; the screws ra-e then tightened np, and the girders allowed to cool, and the strain of these contractions several times repeated is sufficient to bring the walls to the perpendicular. Again, in hoisting heavy machinery, &c. by means of pulley-blocks, if the ropes stretch and the blocks como together too soon, wet the rope, and^the object will be elevated by its contraction without any other force. These hints wiU be found useful when occasion offers. In drivuig the kegs on the crank-pin and cross-head, use a leaden mallet, or interpose a piece of leather, or a sheet of soft metal for l)rotection, if a steel hammer is used. The piston should be removed every G months, and the parts in- jured by friction, &c. carefully ground, fitted, and if need be turned, trued, and made steam tight. If knocking occurs in the engine it may arise by the crank being ahead of the steam ; if so, move the eccentric forAvard to give more lead on the valve, if caused by too much lead move the eccentric further back, if caused by the exhaust closing tod soon, enlarge the exhaust chamber in the valve ; if caused by the engine being out of line, or by hard or tight piston rod packing, these MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., IlECEirTS 359 faults must be corrected ; if caused by lost motion in the jam nuts on the valve, uncover the steam chest and adj ust them correctly. It may be that Imocldng is caused by lost motion in the crank-pin, pillow- blocks, key of the piston in the cross-head, or boxes on the cross- liead, if so, tighten the key, or file off the edges of the boxes if they Jire too tight. Sliould knocking arise from shoulders becoming worn on tlie ends of the guides ttom any cause, replace the guides. Knocking may be caused by insufficient counterbormg in the cylin- der, causing derangement m tlie movements of the piston. Tlio remedy for this is to re-counterhore the cylinder to the proper deptli. Keep a close watch over the journals of the crank and cross-head, if they are loose ui the boxes, or too tiglit, they will run badly, if tightened too much, they will heat and wear out the brass shoes, if 3iot tight enough there is danger of the keys flying out and breaking the engine. Be sure that 3'our steam gauge indicates truthfully. It onght to tell accurately the pressure of steam in the boiler when the water is hotter than 212° Fahr., and indicate the variation in the pressure of steam from time to time; but many gauges are much worse than tho contrivance used by the colored engineer, who, disdainfully dispens- ing with a gauge altogether, used to ascertain the critical moment wlien steam was up, or danger at hand, by clapping his open hand on the outside of the boUer. Steam Packing. — Many varieties of packing are used, such as metallic packing, packing composed of a mixture of duck, paper and tallow m proper proportions, soapstone nud loose twisted cotton coils, asbestos, jute, &;c. An excellent packing is composed of hemp in long loosely twisted coils, well saturated with melted grease or tallow, with as much pulverized black lead as it will absorb. Pack- ing is always applied with the best effect when tho parts of the engmo are cold, and its efficiency is promoted by soaking it in beeswax and tallow previous to use. To Work Steam Expansively.— Tho volume of steam at 15 lbs. pressure to the square inch or atmospheric pressure is 1700 times greater than that of any given quantity of water from which it may be derived. When confined under pressure, as in the cylinder of a steam engine, it is always in the effort to expand itself to the fullest extent, and a vast saving of fuel is effected by cutting off the supply of steam from the piston by means of the main valve, before it reaches the end of its stroke, instead of allowing it to flow during the full length of its stroke. The most available points at which to cut off steam is ^, \ and | of the full travel or stroke of the piston. If steam at 75 IbsT pressure to the square inch is applied to the piston and cut off at half stroke, the average pressure, during the whole stroke, owing to the expan- sive quality of the steam, would be G3^ lbs., or only 11 J lbs. less than the full pressure, although but half the quantity of steam is used, requiring fully 4 less fuel. Imagine the diagram to be a cylinder of 3 ft. in length, with steam at GO lbs. pressure, entering the open port. During the first 4 inches of the travel of the piston the steam port is open, permitting tho fall pressure of the steam to operate on the piston ; but at the twelfth inch marked C, the steam, lap on the valve V closes the port. The 360 MAcniNisTS, engineehs', &c., receipts. imprisoned steam will now propel the piston to the end of tho Btroke, driving out the liberated steam through the port A into tho exhaust cavity ]3, but by the time tho piston reaches D, 12 inchca from C, the original pressure of GO lbs. per square inch will have decreased one-half, or to 30 lbs., and when it reaches E, 24 inches from C, it will have still further decreased to 20 lbs. Average pres- sure 39 lbs. Two-thirds of the stroke have thus been made without any supply of steam from the boiler, and forms the saving due to Tvorking the steam expansively. The lack of this contrivance is tho true reason why some engines use more fuel and steam, than others of the same cajDacity and power. It has been stated that the economy of the Corliss cut-off is such that it requires only 2 tons of coal instead of 6f tons used by other engines of the same power, but tho great trouble with that' engine is the liability of the complex and costly valve-gear to get out of order, entailing difficult and expensive xepairs. TABJjE.—Shoioinr/ the average Pressure of Steam on the cylinder tchen cut off at ^, \ and | of the stroke or travel of the Piston, com- mencing with 25 lbs, advancing by 5 lbs. and ending at 100 lbs. 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70^ 75' 80 85 90 95 15 171 231 26f 291 32| 3o| 38| 44| 47f 67| 77| 50 |53| 56| 59| 21 25| 331 38| 38 42| 46| 50| 55 1 63| 72 76| 24 28-1 43i 48| 63 571 62i 72| 82 87 911 To realize the best results from steam, keep the cylinders, pipes, &c. , well covered with good non-conductors. Various materials aro used, such as common felting, asbestos felting, hair, old wool, tow or hemp carpets cut up into strips of the proper size and smeared over with a substantial composition of mortar, teased hair, &c. beforo applying to the pipes. Cover the ■whole "with coarse caavas, finish- MACniXISTS, ENGINEEES', &C.5 RECEIPTS. 361 Ing -with several coats of white lead over the canvas. Some cover boilers with a thickish composition of clay, intermixed with grey or brown paper for a bind, to prevent cracking, &c., the paper being worked up into shreds along with the water and clay. Others use a mixture of mortar, teased hair, &c. Some use asbestos, wood ashes, &c., see "composition for covering boilers." Cylinders should bo well clothed and jacketed, and cashed with wood or polished metal, the latter when kept constantly bright being a most powerful protec- tion against loss of heat by radiation. Among metals, silver is tho best absorbent and conductor of heat. If we call its poAver of con- duction 100, tnat of copper is 74, gold 53, iron 12, lead 9, bismuth 2. To Set the valve of an Engine. — Place tlie crank at the end of its stroke, and give the valve the proper amount of lead ; reverse the crank to the other end of its stroke, and if the valve has the cor- responding amouni; of lead it is correctly set. Tlie preponderance at either end, if any exists, must be equally divided. Be careful in ad- justing the nuts attaching the valve to the rod, that they do not impinge against the valves, prevcntmg it from seating true. In ad- justing the slide valve to cut off at any point of the travel of tho piston, the eccentric should be moved forward in proportion to tho amount of lap given to the valve, without any reference to the ex- pansive Avorkmg of steam, the valve must open at the same pomt of travel of the piston. To FIND THE Stroke of the Valve.— Place tho crank on tho dead centre, and make a mark on the valve-rod, then reverse tho movement to the opposite end and make another mark. The distance between the two marks constitutes the stroke of the valve. Tho stroke of the valve maybe increased as the bearing in tho rocker-arm that carries the eccentric hook is lengthened ; shorten the same and the stroke is lessened. To find the Throw of the Eccentric. — ^IVIeasuro the eccen- tric on the heaviest side, then measure on tho opposite or light side. The difference between tho two measurements will bo tho throw of the eccentric. Lead on the Slide Valve.— Tho lead of a valve* 13 the width of opening which the valve allows to the steam port Avhen the piston is at the end of its stroke, as shown on the diagram at A, which re- presents outside lead, inside lead, bemg sho-svn into the exliaust at B, which ought to be double the amount of outside lead in order to liberate the exhaust easily, and thus reduce or prevent back pressure. Caro should be taken not to liberate the exhaust too soon, as it will greatly curtail the power of the engine, especially if the labor is heavy and the speed slow, as in engines with heavy trains on up grades, &c. To ascertain whether the exhaust opens at the right time or not, uncover the steam chest ; then uncouple the valve from the valve rod, place a short batten of wood le'hgthways on tho exhaust port ; then with a scratch awl layoff lines on the valve seat, on each side of the exhaust port, that will appear above the valve. Next lay the batten on tho face of the valve and lay off corresponding lines on the exhaust chamber that wUl show on the edges of the valve, now replace tho valve on its seat, and give 1-32 of an inch lead, and if the lines do- scribed on the face of the valve arc past tho Imcs described on tlio valve seat 1-lG of an inch, tho esJiaust opens at tho proper time, if it 3G2 MACHINISTS, engineers', !^C., nECEIPTS. docs not the exhaust chamber in the valve should bo enlarged to the right size. Lead is given to a valve to enable the steam to act as a cvshion on the piston, by admitting the steam to it ]Drevious to the end of it;i ttroke, in order to cause it to reverse its motion easily, without jar or noise, for it is not allowed to touch the top and bottom of cylinder for fear of knocking them out. The space between the top and bottom of the cylinder and the piston, when the latter is at the end of it3 stroke, is called the clearance, shown at C C on diagram. The term clearance is also used to designate the capacity of the connecting steam ports and j^assages. It is necessary to guard against too much cushion as it greatly imjiairs the powers of the engine, causing violent thumping or knocking, and sometimes a serious breakdown. One- eighth of an inch lead is sufficient for an ordinary freight and 1-16 is sufficient for passenger locomotives, the difference being on account of the greater speed of the latter. Lap on the Slide Valve.— The steam lap on the slide valve i3 the amount by which it extends over tlie extreme width of tho cylinder ports, as illustrated in the diagram, the distance between the dotted lines B B LL, and the sides of the ports P P, being in each case the lap, the lines B B indicating the outside lap, and L L denot- ing the inside lap, E P exliaust port, E exhaust cavity in valve. V S •s alvo seat; C C valve face. The emission of steam into the cylindci" MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 363 is regulated by the outer and inner edges of the valve and of the steam ports. When the valve is so contrived that at ^ stroke tho faces of the valve do not cover the steam ports internally, the spaco by which each face comes short of the inner edges of the ports m known as inside clearance. By means of the steam lap given to tho \alve the engine is enabled to use its steam expansively, as elsewhere explained. Table. — Showhig the amount of Lap on the Slide valve at various points of cut off; also, the travel of the valve in inches. Travel or stroke of the Piston where steam is cut off. Travel of the Valve in inches. The correct amount of Lap. 2 :3 Si- 4 5i 5 5^1 G 7 7i 8 8i 9 10 101 11 m 12 It 91 21 It 3f ^16 4 % ,16 4li 5" 1 113 rio 9_9_ f 3-3- „16 4i 11 i° 1-3- ^« 4 10 p 4* 5 8 n i-Q- 3-3- 31 4 IG 1 1 il if It 1 11 0 ?5 w ^6 34 1^ if 1^ li li It 2^ 4 I-- 21 Giffard's Injector, as made by Wm. Sellers & Co., is a novel and reliable invention for feeding boilers, economizing the heat and dispensing with pumps. By a simple and well known combination of 2 pipes, the one conveying steam, the other water, both terminat- ing in a third pipe or tube, a jet of steam from the boiler escapmg through an orifice, of say, 1 inch in diameter, with 60 lbs. pressure, 3G1 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C.. RECEIPTS is condensed in perhaps 12 times its wciglit of water, wliich it drives Ihrough tho third tuhc, causing it to enter tho boiler througli an orifice much smaller than tho one by which it escaped. The momen- tum of tho steam impels the water with great forco and imparts all its heat to tho water during transmission. Tho following table show."? the maximum temperaturo of tho feed-water admissible during different i^ressurcs of steam. Prcssuro per square incli. 10 20 30 40 CO 100 Temperaturo of feed, Fuhr. 148° 130° 130° 124° 120° 110° On thk Form, Strength &c. of Steahi Boilers.— Regard- ing the/on7i of boilers, it is now an ascertained fact that the n^axi- mum strength is obtauied by adopting tho cylindrical or circular form, the haycock, hemispherical, and wagon-sliaped boilers, bo general at one time, liavo now deservedly gone almost out of use. Good boiler plate is capable of withstanding a tensilo strain of 50,000 lbs. or (jOjOOO lbs. on every square inch of section : but it will only bear a third of this strain without permanent derangement of structure, and 40,000 lbs., or 30,000 lbs. even, upon the square inch, is a prefer- able proportion. It has been found that tho tenacity of boiler-plato increases with the temperature up to 670°, at which point the ten- acity commences to diminish. At 32° cohesive force of a square inch of section was 66,000 lbs. ; at 670° it was 66,500 lbs. : at 720°, 65,000 lbs. ; at 1050°, 32,000 lbs. ; at 1240°, 22,000 lbs. ; and at 1317°, 9,000 lbs. Strips of iron, when cut in the direction of the fibre, were found by experiment to bo G per cent, stronger than when cut across tho grain. The strength of riveted joints has also been demonstrated by tearing them directly asunder. In two different kinds of joints, double and single riveted, tho strength was found to be, in the ratio of the plate, as the numbers 100, 70, and 56. Assuming the strength of tho plato to be 100 The strength of a double riveted joint would be, after allowing for the adhesion of tho surfaces of tho plate 70 And the strength of a single riveted joint 50 These figures, representing the relative strengths of plates and joints in vessels required to be steam and water tight, may be safely relied on as perfectly correct. Tho accidental overheating of a boiler lias been found to reduce the ultimp.to or maximum strength of tho plates from 65,000 to 45,000 lbs. per square inch of section. Every description of boiler used in manufactories or on board of steamers should be constructed to a bursting pressure of 400 to 500 lbs. on tho square inch ; and locomotive engine boilers, which are subject to much harder duty, to a bursting pressure of GOO to 700 lbs. Such boUers are usually worked at 90 to 110 lbs. on the inch, but are fre- quently worked up to a pressure of 120, and, when rising steep grades sometimes even as high as 200 lbs. to the square inch. In a boiler subject to such an enormous working pressure, it requires the utmost care and attention on the part of the engineer to satisfy himself that the flat surfaces of the fire box are capable of resisting that pressure, and that every part of the boUer is so nearly balanced in its powers of resistance as that, when one part is at the point of rupture, every other part is at the point of yielding to the same uniform force : for we find that, taking a Jocomotivo boiler of tho usual size, even with MAcniNiSTSj engineers', &c., eeceipts. 365 n pressure of 100 lbs. on the square incli, it retains an expanding force within its interior of nearly 00,000 tons, "which is rather in- creased than diminished at a high speed. To show the strain upon n high-pressure boiler, 30 feet long, 6 feet diameter, having 2 centra flues, each 2 feet 3 inches diameter, working at a pressure of 50 lbs. on the square inch, we have only to multiply tho number of the square feet of surface, 1030, exposed to pressure, by 321, and wo have the force of 3319 tons, which such a boiler has to sustain. To go farther, and estimate the pressure at 450 lbs. on the square inch, which a well-constructed boiler of this size will bear before it bursts, rmd we have the enormous force of 29,871, or nearly 30,000 tons, bot tied up within a cylinder SO feet long and 6 feet diameter. Boilers in nctual use should be tested at least once a year, by forcing water into them by the hand feed-pump, mitil the safety-valve is lifted, which should be loaded with at least twice the working pressure for the occa- sion. If a boiler will not stand this pressure it is not safe, and either its strength should be increased or tho working pressure should be di- minished. Internal flues, Guch as contain the furnace in tho interior of tho boiler, should be kept as near as i)ossiblo to the cylindrical form ; and, as wrought iron will yield to a force tending to crush it jibout one-half of what would tear it asunder, the flues should in no case exceed one-half tho diajaeter of the boiler, with tho same thick- ness of plates they may be con: Her ed equally safe with the other parts. The force of compression being so different from that of tension, greater safety would be ensured if tho diameter of the internal fluea Avere in the ratio 1 to 2^ instead of 1 to 3 of the diameter of the boiler. As regards the relative size and strength of flues, it may be stated that a circular flue 18 inches in diameter will resist double the pres- sure of one 3 feet in diameter. Mill owners, with plenty of room and a limited experience with steam power, would do well to dispense with boilers containing many flaes, the expense is greater and tho durability less than where there is ono or two only. The foam caused by a large number of flues is apt to deceive an inexperienced engineer, causing him to believe that .tliere is plenty of water in tho Loiler when he tries the gauge cock when there is but very little, often causmg an explosion. Some miU-owners insert a fusible plug in the crown of the furnace to indicate danger from low water. As common lead melts at 020°, a rivet of this metal, 1 inch in diameter, inserted immediately over the fire place, will give due notice, so that relief may be obtained before the internal pressure of the steam ex- ceeds that of the resisting power of tlie heated plates. In France, an extensive use is made of fusible metal plates, generally covered by a perforated metallic disc, which protects the alloy of which the plate is composed, and allows it to ooze through as soon as the steam has, attained the temperature necessary to insure the fusion of the plate, which varies from 280°-to 350°. The reader wUl find a number of such alloys under the tabular view of alloys and their melting heats, further on. Another method is the burstmg plate, fixed in a frame and attached to some convenient part of the upper side of the boiler, of such thickness and ductility as to cause rupture when the pressure exceeds that on the safety valve. But, beyond all question, constant use should be made on all boilers of a good and reliable system of gteam gauges, glass tubes, gauge cocks, safety valves, &c. By meana 8GG MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., IlECEirxS of tlio glass tubes affixed to the front;? of the boilers, the height of the "water witliintlio boiler is indicated at onco, for the water will stand at the same lieif;lit in the tube that it stands intlie boiler, comnmnication being established Avith the water below and the Bteam above, by means of stop cocks. When dry steam is an object, the nso of the steam dome on boilers is strongly recommended ; opinions are divided as to the real value of mud drums, some reason strongly in their favor while others discard them entirely; but there can be no question as to the true economy of heating the feed water previous to emission into the boiler ; it should always be done when practicable to do so, by meaiis of some one of the many contrivances for that jmrpose which are now in tlio market, liegarding the power of boilers, it may be stated that a boiler oO feet long and 3 feet in diameter, will afford 30x3x3.14x2 — 141.30 squaro feet of surface, or steam for 14 horse-power, if 10 feet are assumed for one horse-power. Two short boilers are preferable to one long one, on account of having more fire surface, — it being always necessa- ry to have as much fire surface as possible to make the best use of the fuel — as the hotter the surface is kept, the less fuel it takes to do the game amount of work. When there is a large furnace it gives the fireman a better chance to keep the steam regular, for when clearing out one part of the furnace, he can keep a hot fire in the other. For each horse-power of the engine there ought to be at least one squaro foot of grate, and three feet would bo better. In setting a boiler, arrangement should be made to carry on combustion with the great- est possible heat. This requires good non-conductors of heat, such as brick, with which to surround the fire. If these bricks are of a white color, the combustion is more perfect than if of a dark color. The roof, as well as the sides, of the furnace should be of white fire-brick. The bars of the furnace should be 18 or 20 inches below the boiler or crown of the furnace. They should slope downward toward the bade part, about half an inch to the foot. A crack in a boiler plate may be closed by boring holes in the direction of the crack and inserting rivets with large heads, so as to cover np the imperfection. If the top of the furnace be bent down, from the boiler having been accidentally- allowed to get short of water, it may be set np again by a screw-jack, a fire of wood having been previously made beneath the injured plate ; but it will in general bo nearly as expeditious a course to remove the plate and introduce a new one, and the result will be mora satisfactory. There is one object that requires very particular atten- tion, and which must be of a certam size to produce the best effect, and that is the flue leading from the boiler to the chimney, as well as the size and elevation of the chimney itself. Every chimney should l)o built several feet above the mill house, so that there is no obstruc- tion to break the air from the top of the chimney. In England a factory chimney suitable for a 20 horse-power boiler is commonly made about 20 inches square inside, and 80 feet high, and these di- mensions are correct for consumption of 15 lbs. coal per horse-power lier hour, a common consumption for factory engines. In the Do- minion of Canada and the United , States, chimneys of sheet iron, from 30 to 50 feet high, are in quite common use by owners of saw, and other mills, and they seem to answer every requirement. , Pbopokxio:;^ of Steam BoiLErvS,— C?/rincZer Boilers. The length MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 367 should never exceed 7 times its diameter ; the unit for it is 12 sq. ft of heating surface, and | of a square foot of grate surface for each horse-power ; a fair evaporation is 6 lbs. of water for 1 lb of coal. Tubular Eoiler. Cylinder Boiler, Very long cylinder boilers should have a central support. All boilers should have an inclination of 1 incli in every 20 ft. towards the blow- of£ end. Tubular Boilers— hmgth. 4 times tho diameter. Evapora- lancasMre Boiler. Cornish loiler. tion about 9 lbs. of water to 1 lb. of coal. Heating surface 15 square ft. and grate surface, ^ square ft. per horse-power. Flue Boilers require from 14 to 15 square ft. of heating surface, and ^ square ft. of grate per horse-power. Evaporation 7 lbs. water to every lb. of 368 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. coal. Length of flue boilers should not exceed 5 times their diameter, diameter of Hues not moi'c tlian 12 to 14 in. ; i£ made larger, use heavier iron than tlia't used in the shell of boiler, and construct with butt joints. Cornish and Lancashire Boilers. In England, Cornish boilers are known as those furnished witli one internal flue, and arc usually of great capacity and power, having plenty of steam room. Lanca- shire boilers have 2 flues. Return Flue Boiler. When a boiler is fitted with a fluo curving round at the rear, and retumhig to tho front, it is called a return Hue boiler. See diagrams of boilers. Boiler Shells.— For a boiler of 48 in. in diameter, to carry 90 lbs. per square in. pressure, nse ^ in. to § in, good plates. Wrought iron heads for ditto, | to |^ inch. Tube Sheets and Crown Sheets for ditto. § to g mch. Eioets on boilers up to 42 iu. diam. and § in. iron, Bhould be § in. for curvihnear, and § in. for longituduial rivets for single riveted ivork. On double riveted work, § in. rivets will answer for both kinds of seams. For 5-lG iron dovni to 3-lG iu. smaller rivets will answer. Drilled rivet holes are preferablo to punched. It is highly beneficial to heat the boiler plates beforo rolling to form the shell of tho boiler. The fibre of the iron should always run around the boiler, never across it. A steel shell boiler 4 ft. in diam. and 5 in. thick, is as strong as an iron boiler of same diam. and § in. thick, and Avill evaporate 25 per cent, more water, besides being more free from incrustation and corrosion. Tho work- ing pressure pf boilers should be 5 times less than the bursting pressure. Composition for Cotertkg Boilers, &c.— "Road scrapings, freo from stones, 2 parts ; cow manure, gathered from the pasture, 1 part ; mix thorouglJy, and add to each barrowf ul of the mixture 6 lbs of fire clay ; ^ lb. of flax shoves or chopped hay, and 4 ozs. teased hair. It must be weU mixed and chopped ; then add as much water as will bring it to the consistency of mortar, — the more it is worked the tougher it is. It may either be put on with tho trowel or daubed on with the hand, the first coat about 1 inch thick. When thoroughly dry, another the same thiclaiess, and so on, tliree inches is quite enough, but the more the better. Let each coat be scored like plaster, to prevent cracks, tho last coat light and smooth, so as to receive paint, whitewash, &c. The boiler, or pipes, must first be brushed with a thin wash of the mixtui-e to insure a catch. On the Prevention op Scale in Steam Boilers. — It is v/ell known that all natural waters contain more or less impurities, and also that these impurities work to disadvantage in steam boilers. But there are very few steam users who fully realize how far the disad- vantages of these impurities extend. We find that 170 boiler explosions are on record for the year 1880, by which 259 persons were killed and 555 were injured, and we think the following reports, given by the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co. for the same year, will show that 80 per cent, of these explosions were caused either directly or indirectly by impurities in the water. The following is the report : — Furnaces defective, 1105. Fractured plates, 2075. Burned plates, 1165, Blistered plates, 3441. Cases o£ sediment and de^Qsit, 275y« MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 369 Incrustation and scale, 3891. Cases of corrosion, 3188. Internal grooving, 234. Water-guages defective, 525. Blow-out* defective, 208. Safety valves overloaded, 258. Defective bracing a>.d staying, 403. Boilers condemned, 377. The above report shows the necessity of care and experience in the management of the steam boiler, and the following figures will show what is lost by deposits of sediment. Mr. Ham, Master Mechanic of the New York Central B.R., states in a report, at a meeting of the Railway Master Mechanics' Associa- tion, held at Louisville, Ky., in 1871, that the extra expense in one year from impure water and incrustation, on his road, would amount to $75,000 for every hundred locomotives. Many solvents have been introduced for the removal and preven- tion of boiler scale, but from a scientific investigation recently made of the merits of articles sold for the removal and prevention of boiler scale, we have a report showing that most of these articles are made up of refuse matter, the bulk being no more or less than water; the strength or so-called virtue consisting of powerful refuse acids, which are damaging and destructive to the boiler. But an article known as Lord's Boiler Compound, manufactured by Geo. W. Lord, Philadelphia, Pa., is highly indorsed. We find also in several different works on Steam Engineering Lord's Com- pound highly recommended. Roper, in his Hand-book of Land and Marine Engineering, in an article on Corrosion, page 450, gays that Lord's Compound appears to be the only known remedy that affords any protection to boilers against its fearful effects. The article seems to possess the necessary ingredients io produce satisfactory results under all circumstances. It is found to have no injurious action upon the iron of boilers, but on the contrary to have a tendency to protect the iron against grooving, pitting, or wasting of the plates by corrosion. A close investigation of the Hartford Inspector's Reports for the year 1880, given in this article, will show that the true value of such a remedy can hardly be estimated. Average Pkoportioit of various Parts of 'Ej^gikes.— Steam ]Pipe should be i the diameter of cylinder, but varies on large engines. Exhaust Pipe should be ^ the diameter of cylinder. Piston Rod ghoiild be ^ the diameter of cylinder, if of iron, and smaller, if of Eteel. For high speeds, steel piston rods are the best. Steam Ports vary according to speed, fro 1-16 to 1-10 the area of piston. Safety Valves should possess an area of \ square in. of surface for every foot of grate surface, and should be constructed with loose vibratory ptems, for the reason that they arc not so liable to get out of order as those with rigid stems. EuLB FOR Size of Cyltxder. — The requisite diameter of cylindci for a 25-liorse beam engine is 28 inches, and about 5 feet stroke. The nominal horse-power of any sized cylinder can be found by the foUowmg formulai : — For low pressure or beam engines, divide the area of cylinder by 25, which wiU give the number of horse-power. For high pressure horizontal engines, divide tho 24 S70 MACinxrsTS, engineers', &c., receipts. nrca of cylinder's diameter by 12-5, 'wliiclnvill give tho number of horse-power, including all i'iction. Stroke of Engines. — The stroke of an engine varies according to circumstances, which tho designer must take into consideration; but the general rule is to make the stroke about twice the diameter of the cyhnder. The diameter of tho fly-wheel should bo about 4 times the stroke of the engine, and tho rim should weigh about i3 cwt. per horse-power. KULE TO FIND THE HORSE-PoWER OF STATIONARY ENGINES,— Multiply the area of the piston by the average pressure in lbs. per fjquare inch. ]\Iultiply this product by the travel of the piston in feet per minute; divide by 33,000, this will give the horse-power.— Jio^Jer. EXASIPLE : Diameter of cylinder . , . . . 12 12 144 Area of piston . 113,0970 Pressure, 70 ; Average pressure, 50 50 5G54.880 Travel of piston in feet per min. 300 33,000)1G964G4.000 51. liorso-powcr. Balance TVnEELS.— Every balance wheel should be speeded up so as to run twice or three times as fast as the crank shaft it is in- tended to balance. When a balance wheel is applied in this way it makes the machine run a great deal more steadily, for, when tho balance wheel is geared into the crank shaft, and runs two ox threo times faster than the crank shaft, it forms a power of itself when going over the centre, which propels the crank shaft until it reaches the quarter, where it again takes its power from tlie machme. Although it takes an additional shaft and gears to apply a balance wheel in this way, the saving of metal in the balanco wheel fully compensates for the extra labor; for, when a balanco wheel is speeded three times as fast as the crank shaft, it needs only one third of the metal in it that it would were it not speeded up at all, and if bala,nce wheels were applied in this way generally it would make all engines run far more steadily. To Reverse an Engine. — Make a legible mark on the eccentric near the shaft, make a simUar mark on the shaft at the same place. Now place one point of the callipers on the mark made on the shaft, and with the other point ascertain the centre of the shaft on the op- posite side, making another mark there also. Next unscrew tho eccentric and move it in the direction iii which you wish the engine to run, until the mark on the eccentric comes into line with the second mark on the shaft, then screw tho ecceatrie fast and the engine will run the reverse way. — MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 371 Marine Beam Engike. — The above cut represents a marine beam engine, being the kind so frequently seen on river, lake, and coasting steamers. The Working-beam, W, is a massive casting in the form of a cross, surrounded, strengthened, and stayed, in every direction by a powerful wrought-iron strap, forged in one piece, and shaped to conform to the casting, wliich contains sockets at each extremity fit- ted to receive the end journals, besides containing intermediate sock- ets for the main centre and air pum^j journal, &c., the whole mass resting on the frame composed of 4 stout beams of wood, forming 2 372 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEEIIS' DEPARTMENT. triaiislos ;is shown at I)D in cnt. These again rest on massive hcams styled keelsons, shown at KK, and are braced and rigidly secured to the vessel and machinery by other powerful timbers, knees, straps, and iron fastenings. The guides are shown at B. The main link is shown at A, tlie connectiuf/ rod at C, the valve stem at V, and the cylinder at F, in a vertical position over the con- denser. The steam cylinder F, is usually a massive casting, annular in form, bored and fniished very true for the easy movements of the piston. It rests on a round flanged casting containing the lower steam port, called the cylinder bottom, which intervenes between it and the condenser S, and is securely attached to each, by bolts and steam tight rust joints. The elevated end of the cylinder is iramcjval^ly braced to the framing above. The valve chest is shown at EE, the air pump at I, the hot well at G, the boiler feed pump at R, and the delivery pipe at P. The condenser S, in which the exhaust steam is reduced to a liquid form, is of the same shape and diameter as the cylinder, flanged at botl;i ends, and its contents should be 13-30ths of the space through which the piston moves during one stroke. The wooden frame ■which sustains the main beam is attached by stout bolts and keys to strong flanges Avhich project from the condenser, the upper part is cast close and the lower end is open and fitted accurately on the bed plate to which it is attached by a rust joint and bolts. In the method known as "surface condensing" the process is ef- fected by causing the steam to pass through an arrangement of tubes submerged in running cold water ; the other method, known as " jet condensing," and by far the cheapest arrangement, consists in bring- ing the steam in contact with a jet of cold water as shown in the fol- lowing diagram, where J represents the jet; E, the exhaust pipe, P, the injection pipe; H, air-pump cylinder; AA, air-pump valves, V, air-pump rod ; D, delivery valve ; H, hot well. The next cut represents Sewall's surface condenser, in which the exhaust steam enters at B and is liquefied by contact Avith the exterior surfaces of the tubes ; the injection water is admitted at the opening K, passes through the foot valves L L L and is driven through the de- livery valves S. The water of condensation passes through the delivery- valves N, O, P, and is driven through the delivery valves I and MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 373 the outboard J, into a cistern from which the boilers are supplied by the feed pumps with their water. The apertures D F, are the ends of a pipe connecting the fresh and salt water cisterns, so that any shortage in the feed water may be furnished from the latter cistern. H represents the end of a pipe throvgh which the auxiliary pump draws water, and A is an air chamber for the salt water Uistern. The jet condenser is the lightest, simplest and cheapest of the two, only it has the fault of supplying salt water to the boilers, as the condensed steam, and the sea water jet intermingle ; on the con- trary, the surface condenser preserves the water of condensation so that it may be used in the boilers many times in succession, and in this way maintains its freshness, dispensing with the necessity of frequent blowing off m order to avert the danger of salt deposits on the plates of the boilers. Care should be used to keep the steam and exhaust valves steam tight in order to prevent the leakage of steam into the condenser while the engine is at rest, thereby heating the former to such an extent that the injection water cannot find admit- tance owing to the pressure. In such cases the trouble may be recti- fied by applying cold water to the exterior of the condenser, or by starting the engine and moving it a few strokes. The piston of the marine engine possesses the usual form of spring packing, and is powerfully braced by diverging arms cast on the up- per and lower flanges, the cylinder head is similarly strengthened 374 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEKUS' DErART31KNT. Internally, wliilc tho exterior or outside is turned and usually kept highly ]K)lished. Tlio steam chests contain tl)o usual appliances of tho receiving and exhaust steam ])assages, valves and valve seats ; the lower chest contains the outlet or exhaust port communicating with the condenser, while the higher clicst embraces the throttle valve pipe connected with the supply pipe, conmumicatijig with the boilers. The steam chests are very accurately fitted and strongly, Kccured to the cylinder, and the valve bonnets and i)iston rod glands are turned and kept bright. The valves which control the flow of the t;tcam are of the description styled double-balance valves, because the downward pressure on one valve is almost balanced by an oppo- site pressure on the other, the two being connected in pairs, and being retained in their seats, by the highest valve in the pairs oh the induction side and the lowest valve of each pair on the exhaust side being somewhat larger than the others, thus inducing a very slight unbalanced pressure. The valve gear embraces the lifter rods, and lifters, the rock-shafts and their levers. The lifter rods, four in num- ber, have a vertical movement up and down on guides attached to the steam chests and side pipes, and to these rods, eight projecting arms, called lifters, are attached by keys, four of the lifters connect with the extremities of the valve spindles, screwed, and fitted with double jam nuts, the other four are set vertically over the levers on the rock- shaft, which imparts their motion to them. The rock-shafts, two in number, one for the induction and the other for the exhaust valves, are operated by distinct eccentrics. There are four levers on the .shafts, operating and raising the rods and lifters, and to induce a smooth movement, they are bent or inflected on their working faces. Cast iron side pipes polished, turned, and ornamented, connect the steam chests, and are fitted with expansion rings of sheet copper to accommodate or compensate for the unequal expansion or contraction of the metal. The lifter rods with the valves, are alternately elevated and de- pressed, by the rocking or reciprocating movement of the shafts. The length of the exJiaust levers is so adjusted as to impart the exact amount of lift and lead, and are so regulated on their rock-shaft that the elevation of one rod commences at the very Instant the other is completely depressed. The induction or steam levers are longer than the last noted, and are placed on thin rock-shafts so as to incline to each other, so that a space intervenes between the elevation of one rod and the depression of the other, during which time both valves are down, and the steam connection stopped. This mechanism forms the expansive cut off gear, and may be partially changed by varying the fixture or iDOsition of the eccentrics on the shaft, the pin in the eccentric lever, and the levers on the rock-shaft ; the required lift of the valves may be adjusted by changing the position of the eccentric pin. The trip, or rock-shaft is a wrought iron shaft moving in solid bear- ings on the lower steam chest, and is fitted with substantial projec- tions commensurate with similar ones on the lifter rods, which when in motion elevate and depress the valves, operating in the same way as the large rock-shafts. The rock-shaft is fitted with apertures for the insertion of the starting bar, which in starting has to overcome the weight of the valves, lifter-rods and their connections. Duties to Marine and othee Engines. — Among the varied MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 375 tasks that devolve on the engineer, none of them are of more impor- tance than the imperative watclifubiess required to see that all the parts of the engine are properly adjusted, fitted, and regulated; that everj'thing is kept in efficient order ; that there is neither dangerous looseness or extreme tightness about the keys, nuts, bearings, etc. In the event of the crank-pin heating, apply a mixture of tallow, lead- fiUngs, and black lead, or sulphur, black lead, and oil, In steam vessels, the crank-pin and the pillow-blocks are the points most liable to heat. The latter may be treated with the cooling compound else- where mentioned, or water mixed with Bath brick dust, or pulverized pumice stome, may be poured in througJi the holes in the bearings. In trouble caused by grit, the application of concentrated potash lye, and subsequent lubrication, has good effect. If delayed in port, t\\e piston should be removed and examined, and the faces of the rings, where they compose the joints with the flange of the piston-head and follower-plate, tried, and accurately fitted, by regrinding, etc., and the spring-packing properly adjusted. The tightness of the repairs may be tested by the admission of steam, the use of the indicator, and a few turns of the engine. The steam chest should be uncovered, the valves, seats, etc., examined, and any varia- tions from truth corrected by careful fitting and scraping, and the proper amount of lead imparted to the valves, by placing the crank on the top and bottom centres, adjusting the go-ahead gear in proper place, in order to determine whether or not the valves open and close at the proper time. The link-motion should be inspected and all derangements adjusted, repaired and corrected. The valves of the air-pump should be exam- ined as opportunity offers, and all necessary repairs effected; the cover must be taken off and the bucket elevated for this express pur- pose. The screio-shaft should be kept true, and great care taken to guard against the glands or any other parts becoming damaged or seriously deranged in any way. Close and frequent inspection should be made of the condenser, v>'hich should be tested by removing the openings and pouring in cold water; and should any ooze out, the de- ficient tubes should be either repaired or renewed. The condition of the vacuum may be ascertamed by the vacuum guage connected with the condenser. If derangement exists, search out and rectify the cause. If the temperature of the hot-well exceeds 100°, add more in- jection water. Test the joinings of the parts connected with the con- denser with a lighted lamp or candle ; if the union is imperfect, the flame will be inhaled by the internal suction. Make thorough work in searching out leaks, and repair them well whenever they are dis- covered. The entrance of air into the condenser and its connections, can, when ascertained, be stopped for a while, by entering in thin wedges, or using some of the numerous impervious compositions noted in this work. In the event of leakage into the condenser, it is useful occasionaUy to admit water through the aperture. Instances have happened where water-tight tanks have been fabricated (during long voyages at sea) between the side keelsons, in cases where the condenser had become inadequate to perform its use through corro- sion, or otherwise, thereby submerging the air-pumps and condenser in a reservoir of water supplied by the ocean, excluding the air, and finding its way into the leaks, assisting the injection water in condens- ing the steam, the aperture of the injectiou-cock being partly shut, to 876 MAcniNisTs and engineers' department. conform to tlio amoniit of interna,! lo.alca;^c. In the event of a violent fitorm imparting a rolling motion to the vessel, and consequent irregu- larity in the ni(jveinent of the engines, owing to the alternate elevation and depression of tiio wheels or propeller, the machinery is liable to ■bestoi)ped by a surplus of water in the condenser, and in all such cases the supply of injection water should be curtailed. As oppor- tunity offers during occasional detentions, search out and close all leaks connected with tlie injection-cock or air-pump, which may causo tlie condenser to fill with water, causing much delay and annoyance in starting the engine. Whenever this is anticipated, the sea-cock should be shut at the same time the injection-cock is closed. When the indications of the steam gauge exhibit any excess of pressure over the atmosphere, raise the valves and permit the steam to flow through the pipes into the cylinder, to expel the air, heat the cylinder, and prevent the liquefaction of the steam on the starting of the engine. During temporary stoppage, the cylinder drip-cocks on stationary en- gines should be instantly opened, in order to permit the water of con- densation to flow out, and they should not be closed until after starting tip, ' Previous to starting an engine which has been stopped for some time, you should, as a precaution against danger, work the engine a few turns with the starting bar, and warm the cylinder by letting in Bteam. Lubricants should not be applied to the cylinder or valves until after the engine is started up and the drip-cocks closed, other- wise waste is sure to result from the exp ulsion of a portion of the oil or tal- low through the drip-cocks. On the production of steam equivalent to produce a vacuum, and work the air-pumps, the injection-cock should 1)6 slightly opened, the eccentric-hook disconnected, and the valves moved alternately hither and thither, with the starting-bar, or the link, as either is convenient, in order to effect an interchanging move- ment in the piston. The engine should then be finally tested by " turning over" three or four times for the purpose of making sure that all is right, and everythmg trim for the anticipated voyage; after which, if everything is correct, the engine is brought to a stand, and all the parts lubricated in readiness for the start. Previous to getting under way, the boilers should be filled with water to the upper gauge-cock. This can be easily effected, when the l)oilers are in the hold, by simply opening the blow-cock, and the water will flow into the boilers by gravitation, through the vessel's bottom, from the sea. In boilers otherwise situated, the filling may be performed by the hand-force pump, or a pump worked by a donkey- engine, etc. On starting the fires, sUghth/ elevate the safety valve, in order to permit the air to escape from the boilers ; but on the emission of steam, which indicates the complete expulsion of the air, close them at once. In stopping an engine, shut off the steam, open the furnace doors, close the damper in the chimney, curtail the supply of injec- tion-water, work the valves by hand, and unship the eccentric. To hack or reverse an engine fitted with the link-motion, all that is requisite is to change it to the reverse-motion; but where only one eccentric is available, shut off the steam, throw the eccentric hook out of gear, and, with the starting-bar, apply the steam to the other end of the piston. On Makine and other Boilers.— In steam vessels, it is neces- sary, in order to maintain a proper equilibrium, that the boilers fihould be placed equidistant from the keelsons on either side ; any 378 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DErARTMENT. deflection from perfect truth in tliis arrangement entails much trou- Tole in adjusting the proper balance oi: the ,slii]). To this end they ought to bo secured by rigid fastenings to the hull, with the lower face of the boilers and the extension of the flues ranging or conform- ing with the load line in each direction. In some places it is usual to place them on a substantial platform composed of 3 inch plank over the keelsons, on Avhich the boilers are placed, the planks being pre- viously coated to a depth of inches or more, with a tenacious mixture composed of drying oil and whiting, which affords a hard impervious protection to the boiler against water and rust. Another way, which has the advantage of presenting an o])portunity for making incidental repairs, consists in placing the boilers on cast iron saddles attached to the boiler supporters. Boilers should be properly protected by a proper clothing of non conductors, such as asbestos, hair felt, &c., cov- ered with a lagging of wood ; or some of the other materials elsewhere noted in this work, may be used instead. Marine boilers demand the greatest attention and care in repairing, testing, cleaning, blowing off, GANG OF STEAM BOILERS PROPERLY SET. and water supply. Especial care should be nsed at all times to keep the brine at a low degree of strength when sea water is used, by blow- ing off every two hours at least, frequently testing the strength of the brine by the saline hydrometer, an instrument constructed to Indicate by gradations the number of ounces of salt held in solution in each gallon of water. Sea water contains 3.03 parts of its weight in saline matter, or nearly 1 lb. in every 33 lbs. of water, and saturation is complete when it contains 36.37 parts. When by evaporation the proportion of salt increases to 4 lbs. in 33 lbs. of Avater, the formation of scale is imminent, and should be guarded against by blowing off, and the repletion of the supply by additional fresher water. While in port, as opportunity offers, tile hand-hole plates above the furnaces ought to be removed in order to permit the removal of any saline deposits on the crown sheet, and as dajupness is inimical to the inte- rior of tlie boiler, the bottom hand hole plates should also be removed when a long detention is anticipated, in order to permit the water to drain off, and air to circulate, so as to dissipate any dampness, whir h otherwise might result in the rapid oxidation of the boiler plates. If MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DErARTMENT. 379 this cannot be done, it is better to keep the boilers full, rather than have them partially so. Scale is not the only danger to be guarded against, for it is attested by the reports of the Hartford Steani Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company that almost half of the sum total of imperfect boilers became such by reason of the deposit of sediment, there being no less than 40 per cent, more hazardous cases resulting from the deposit of sediment causing the plates to be burned, or overheated, than from scale when hard water is used, the lime, etc., held in solution is pre- cipitated, and the deposit becomes concreted, forming a terrible obstacle to the transmission of the heat to the water, and rendering the i)lates exposed to the action of the fire liable to be burnt through or seriously weakened. In setting stationary boilers, it would be well to have an air space of 2 or 3 inches intervene between the boiler and the surrounding brick work, and fire-clay is every way preferable to mortar for the entire surroundings. Arrangements should be made to have con- venient apertures at suitable places in order to permit access for the removal of dust, soot, ashes, and other impediments interfering with the effective action of the fire on the lower parts of the boiler. A good way of setting long stationary boilers is to attach cast-iron knees to tneir middle and at each end, having them about 12 feet apart, and placed on brick foundations; these knees, if placed on substantial rolls on a solid seat, would ensure ample provision for the contraction and expansion of the boilers, as well as prevent all strains resulting from unequal settling. As to the attachments called mud drums, past experieuca has shown, when their great cost and short duration are taken into account, that the benefits to be derived from their use, are, to say the least, very equivocal, as they impart but a slight amount of heat to the feed water, retain none of the ruinous carbonates which induce scale on the boiler, but only the muddy matter held in suspension in the water, while the, cost of renewal consequent on their rapid decay, is very heavy. Cleaning Boiler Tctbes. — Weinlig recommends a copper pipe, 5 millimetres in diameter, tapering at one end, and fitted at the other with a flexible india-rubber tube, by which it can be connected with the steam-cock of the boiler when required. The pipe is mounted on a 3ft. wooden handl,e, and should be long enough to reach through the fire-box. In use, the wooden handle is held firmly under the right arm, and the nozzle of the pipe introduced an inch or so within the tube to be cleaned. Steam is then turned on through the india- rubber tubing. Steam-Pipe JACKETiNa.— The Stettin Vulcan Works make use of wool for clothing steam-pipes. A lead cylinder is laid around tho pipe, and the space between, which is about llj inches, is filled up firmly with wool. The lead cylinder being drawn back, the wool as exposed is tied down with wire, and finally linen is sewed over the whole. Cement. — Sifted peroxide of manganese and zinc-white, equal parts ; and sufficient soluble glass (commercial) to form a thin paste. Apply immediately. This cement will resist a red-heat, water, and oils. Flanges to Stand Brazing. — Copper 1 lb., zinc ^ oz., lead | oz. Gedge's Metal.— Copper go, zinc 38.2, iron 1.8. 380 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT, Engineers' Tools. — The mechanical appliances represented above, should be kept within easy reach, and, if arranged on a vertical table of thick plank, fitted with recesses conformed and adapted for the re- ception of each tool, it would not only prove a great convenience, but also a striking ornament to the engine room. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 881 Fire and Waterproof Cement. — Pulverized litharge 5 lbs., fine Paris white 2 lbs., yellow ochre 4 ozs., hemp cut into shreds ^oz., mix to the deusity of thick putty with boiled Imseed oil, and it la ready for use. Marine Engine Counter, Clock, Vacuum Gauge, and Steam Gauges.— The Gauge A, B, represents an adaptation applica- ble TO Locomotives . — A, shows the point of connection with BoiLER,'B, THE Spiral Spring and Graduated Scale.— The above cuts, together with the following ones, represent a Marine engine counter and clock, together with steam and vacuum gauges of vari- ous kinds. The counter, inclosed in an annular box of cast-iron, con- tains a mechanism connected by suitable attachments to the engine, which impart such a correct mechanical movement to a regular series of figures or numbers displayed through the narrow apertures in the dial, as to exhibit at a -glance the exact number of revolutions per- formed by the engine. The steam gauges used to determine the pressure of steam, operate either by the use of mercury, thin metallic tubes, or springs, and several of these adaptations are shown in the cuts we present. As used on stationary boilers, for it cannot be used on locomotives, the mercurial gauge is formed of an upright glass tube connected with a cistern of mercury, resting on a round piece of steel or guttapercha; on marine engines it consists of an inverted si- phon or tube bent in the form of a U, with one end exposed to the pressure of the steam, and the other open to the atmosphere. When not pressed by steam, the mercury will remain level in both arms of S82 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPATITMENT. the syphon, but as the pressure rises, it will act with increasing force on the'mercnry exposed to the action oi the steam, and forces it to rise in tlie limb exposed to the air, and will determine the amount of the steam pressure over and above that of the atmosphere, the indi- cations being exhibited on the gauge, the gradations on which are one inch in length, consequently every inch that the mercury rises in the tube shows a change of 2 inches in tlie level of the mercury contained in the tube, and each inch of mercury ou the scale represents 1 lb. pressure of steam. Many excellent gauges, nearly thirty in all, arein nse in the United States and Canada, among others, that of the American Steam Gauge Co. and Bourdon's, or, as it is better known in the United States, Ashcroft's gauge, from the name of the manufacturer, the interior of which is shown in the cut. It is composed of a thin circular metallic tube, a, closed at one end ; the steam from the boiler is intro- duced at b. The result of the steam pres- sure on the interior of the circular tube is | to enlarge the circle more or less in jiro- portion to the pressure, the elastic proper- ties of tlie metal operating to contract the circle to its original position on the re- moval of the pressure. The sealed or closed end of the tube is united by the link c, to the lever d, which operates a sej mental gear or rack placed at the upper end in gear with a pinion, ^vhich imparts movement to a hand on a graduated circular scale as shown in the cuts above. The same invention, when fitted to a condenser by the pipe A, see cut above, will indicate the state of the vacuum in a condensing en- Intekior of Ashckoft's Gauge. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 383 gine. In this case the indications are caused by exterior atmospheric j)ressure, the gauge is graduated to extend only from 1 lb. up to 15 lbs., and the entire action is reverse from that of steam, as described above. On the opening of the tap C, as the vacuum enlarges, the band will be flattened and the hand on the dial will move in an oppo- site direction from that caused by the action of steam. Cake of Steam Gauges. — A little glycerine, or sulphuric acid, placed on the surface of the mercury will keep a mercurial steam gauge in good order, by lubricating both glass and metals, preventing their adhesion. Steam Pipes. — Ruptured steam pipes may be repaired by heating and then soldering them. The condensation of steam in suhierranean pipes may be prevented by enclosing the pipe iuside a larger one, aud filling the vacant space between the two with a mixture of clay and teased hair, or plaster-of-Paris. Substitute for Fire Clay for Boiler Furnaces. — To common earth well mixed with water, add a small quantity of rock salt and allow it to stand until the salt dissolves, then use as tire clay. It an- swers very well. Watch the Leaks. — Engineers should keep a vigilant eye for leaks, weak spots, &c., and apply a prompt remedy by repairiug all defects without delay. See that all the seams and rivets are tight, and the tubes and tube sheets in good order. Leaky tubes should bo replaced or stopped, by driving a "tightly fitting wooden plug at each end and binding them by means of an'iron-rod passing through the tube fitted with broad washers at each end, and screwed up tight with t\).e '■^ Strong cement for Steam Joints ' [see page 422) plentifully Bmeared on under each washer. A mirror or bright tin plate may be used advantageously to reflect light into obscure places while repair- ing boilers. To apply a hard patch, describe the proper size on the plate to be patched, allowing from to ins. of good iron beyond the weak part or flaw. Kow drill the rivet-holes through the patch, and chip its edges. Next, apply the patch to the boiler, and mark the places for corresponding holes by means of a small brush with white paint, drill the holes in the shell with a brace and ratchet drill, remove the deficient part of the shell, rivet on the patch, or secure well with tap bolts. A soft patch, is applied over the weak part of the shell (after being previously coated with an intermediate layer of good cement), being fitted in the same manner as above described, and secured to its place by means of nuts, bolts, and washers, with a twistofhempnnderthe washers and bolt heads to ensure security, and prevent leakage. The first method is decidedly the best for parts of the boiler exposed to the direct action of the fire. Dimensions and Capacity of First Class Amoskeag Steam Fire-engine. {See ^ Cut.) Height from floor to top of smoke stack, 8 ft. 10 ins. Length over all, inchiding tongue, 23 it. 8ins. Biameter of boiler, 2 ft. 8 ins. Diameter of immps, 4^ ins. Stroke of same, 8 ins. Diameter of steam cylinders 7§ins. Number oj dis- charge gates, 2. CajMcky in gals, per minute, 900 gals, n eight, 6,500 lbs. The boiler is an upright tubular, very simple m its com- bination, and for strength, safety, durability, and capacity for genera- tmg steam, 'unsurpassed. Starting .with cold water m the boiler, a working head of steam can be generated in less than five minutes from the time of kindling the fire. The engine " Amoskeag, owned 384 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. by tho city of iNfanchcster, has played two Btreams in three minutes and forty seconds after touching the match ; at the same time draw- ing her own water. Tho following instructions to engineers, given by tlio Amoskeag Co., for running their engine, may be easily adapted to oflicient use in the case of steam fire-engines constructed by other builders. 1. In laying your fuel in tho fire-box, first lay plenty of shavings, then light, dry kindling wood ; filling your furnace full, which in most cases will give you steam enough, by the time you arrive at a fire to commence work, provided you light your fire when you leave the house, which, as a general rule, is advisable. 2. If you use coal, be careful to keep a thin fire, and not clog it. Use the coal in as large lumps as possible, and do not break it up unnecessarily in tho furnace. The best coal for this purpose is a clean Cannel, in lumps, free from dirt and dust. 3. Be careful not to let so much fire collect under your engine as to burn the wheels ;— Avhen working for a long time at fires there is a danger of doing so. 4. The Amoskeag boiler is an upright tubular body, Avith a submerged smoke-box and fire-box r.urrounded with water. When the engine is running, the water in the boiler should be carried so as to stand at the third gauge-cock, which is placed near the top of the tubes, and it should never be car- ried below the centre of the tubes at which point the first gauge-cock is located. 5. Avoid using an unnecessary amount of steam. The tendency is to use more than is required. From sixty to eighty pounds is as much as you will generally require to do good fire duty. C Tho engnie nas two suitable feed pumps for supplying the boiler T/ith water. One of these ptimps should be worked nearly all the time, in order to keep the water in the boiler at the proper height, and to preserve an even pressure of steam. 7. If brackish water is used for supplying the boiler, or if the boiler becomes foul from long use without being blown off, it is likely to foam or prime. If foam- ing occurs while the engine is working at a fire, it may be prevented or diminished by opening the surface blow-off cock, which is located between the third and fourth gauge-cocks, and blowing off from the eurface of the water the scum and oily matter which usually causes foaming. In this way the difficulty can generally be prevented with- out any serious interruption in the working of the engine. While doing this the water in the boiler should be carried as high as tho surface bloAv-ofC cock. After the engine is returned to the house, the water should be blown entirely out of the boiler through the blow-off cock near the bottom of the boiler, with a steam pressure of about twenty pounds, and the boiler refilled with fres>i water. This pro- cess may be repeated until the boiler becomes clean. 8. The pump upon the Amoskeag Engine is a vertical double-acting pump, with the cylinder surrounded by a circular chamber, divided vertically outside the cylinder, so as to answer both for the suction and discharge cham- bers of the pump. It has a separate valve-plate at the top and bottom of the i)ump, carrying both the suction and discharge valves ; the suc- tion valve upon one side of the plate, and the discharge valve upon the other. Each of these valve i^lates can be reached by taking off the top and bottom of the pump, which is so constructed as to bo readily removed. The discharge and suction parts of the water- cha,mber, surrounding the cylinder, are connected by a valve in the vertical partition, which is called a relief valve. 1). With a single 38G MACIimiST3 AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. long lino of lioso, it may ho nccogsary to opon your rcliof-valvo a little, but at all other times bo particular to liavo it closed, cx(;ept wlien you want to feed your boiler without forcing any water through tha hose. 10. In the smoke-pipe, directly over the upper llue-sheet, a valve is placed, which is called the variable exhaust-valve. By oper- ating tliis valve the size of the aperture for the escape of the steam from the steam -cylinder ir, increased or diminished, thus regulating the draft of the chimney and the heat of the fire. This valve should bo closed, when the engine is started, until a fair working pressure of steam is obtained, after which it may be opeiied. 11. Care should be taken to liave the suction hose and its connections air-tight. 12. Open your tli«charge-gate and cylinder drain-cock before starting your engine. 13. Don't let the flues of your engine get filled up. 14. Be particular to take your engine off the springs before you work it, and to place ifc on the springs again when done working. 15. With a long line of hose on, be particular to open your throttle gradually. If you open it too suddenly you are liable to burst your hose. 1(5. The pumps of the engine should be examined at least once in six months, to see that all the valves and parts are in good condition. 17. The pump-valves should have a lift of about three-eighths of an inch, and the suction valves the same lift. 18. The inside of the steam-cylinders and tlio steam-valves should be oiled or tallowed always after the engine has Avorked at a fire, and as often as may be necessary to keep them well lubricated ; and all the parts of the engine, where liable to friction,' should be kept well oiled. Be particular to use an abundance of oil on the " link-block," where there is more friction than in any other part. 18. The running-gear and every part of the engine liable to dis- arrangement or accident, should be thoroughly examined every time after the engine has been out of the house, whether it has been worked at a fire or not. 19. Whenever your engine is repaired, try to help to do it yourself, as by so doing you get a familiarity with it that you can in no other way obtain. Besides the above noted, the Amoskeag Co. manufacture self pro- pelling steam fire engines capable of attaining a continuous speed of IG miles per hour. Steam fire engines of perfect workmanship and immense power, are also made at Seneca Falls, N. Y. , Portland, Maine, Pawtucket, R. I., Boston, Mass. and many other places throughout the United States. A Fibeman's Respirator,— Consisting of an iron cylinder attached to a mask, and packed with cotton wool, glycerine, and charcoal, MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DKPARTMENT. 387 has been exhibited in London, by Prof. Tyndall; the wearer is enabled to remain in an atmospl\ere of smoke, which he could not otherwise bear, for a quarter or half an hour. An Improved Fire Escape, — called the Jenks-Richard's fire- ladder has been adopted in many places. It is a permanent fixture to the building, and is attached to the cornice of the house, and comes down when the alarm is sounded, giving the inmates a chance to escape when other exits are cut off, and the firemen a plan to ascend with the hose, and fight the fire at the greatest possible advantage. Cast Iron for Steam Cylinders— yer?/ haixl. — Scrap iron, 300 lbs. Scotch pig, 40 lbs., charcoal pig, No. 5, 40 lbs. Another, very strong and close grained. Scrap iron, 100 lbs., Scotch j)ig, 100 lbs., charcoal pig No. 5, 80 lbs. Cylinders should be bored in a vertical position whenever possible, removing a heavy cut at first and gradually cutting to within 1-32 of an inch of the finished size, and finally brought down to the proper dimensions by removing the balance with a cutter embodying in its form a combination of the circular and diamond pointed shapes. Some manufacturers used a mass of lead (cast in the cylinder to give it the proper shape) together with emery and oil between the abrading surfaces, for finishing their cylinders, the latter revolving slowly, while the operation continues. Rule for Thickness of STEAMCrLiNDER.— Divide the diameter of cylinder plus 2 by 16, and deduct a 1-100 part of the diameter from the quotient ; the remainder will be the proper thickness. The depth of the piston rings should be equal to ^ the diameter of the cylinder, and the follower plate should be equal in thickness to the cylinder. The following table gives very good results. Diameter of Cylinder. Thickness. Diameter of Cylinder. Thickness. G 5-8 14 1 8 11-lG 15 1 1-16 9 3-4 17 1 1-8 10 13-16 18 13-16 . 11 7-8 19 1 1-4 12 15-16 21 13-8 Add to the foregoing dimensions 1-16 of an inch, -^vhen the piston speed exceeds 300 feet per minute. Piston Rings. — To prevent rapid wear in the cylinder, the pistion rings should be formed of some material softer than the latter ; cast iron is much used for this purpose, as it soon attains a fine smooth surface, has great endurance, and generates little friction. T&ey should be fitted with judgment so as to move easily between the flange of the piston-head and the follower plate, in order that they may adjust or conform themselves to any slight unevenness in the cylinder. To open piston vinfis, hammer them lightly with a round pene ham- mer all round their inside faces, and, as they become leaky and corrode around the edges, remove them from the cylinder and true them up in a lathe, grind, and refit them to the flange and follower plate. Piston springs are iu the great majority of cases, too stiff and 388 MACHINISTS AND KNGINEERS' DEPARTMENT rigid to roiulor them in every way satisfactory, na in many instances tlioy entail great loss of power hy unnecessary pressure against the cylind(!r. Slmm instons possess the merit of Vm first cost, vei-y little friction, simplicity, and after a proper adjustment by a competent person, give very little trouble. JSolid joistons ])roduce scarcely any friction, and when the cylinder is bored perfectly true through its whole length, produce excellent results, if they are properly fitted, but lire irreparable when they become worn out, as they camiot be re-ad- justed. The piston sjyeed of small stationary cnf/incs ranges from 200 to 250 feet per minute; average speed 225 feet, tliatof km/e stationary amines, 275 toooO feet; average speed 312 feet; that of C'oVZiss Engines 400 to 500 feet per minute ; average speed 400 feet; that of locomotives and Allen engines GOO to 800 feet per minute, average 700 ; that of engines of river steamers 400 to 500 feet, average 450 feet; that of ocean steamers 400 to GOO feet, average 600 feet. If the piston rod (/lands become tight, ease by revolving and sliding the gland back and forth on the rod, applying a little oil to the rod at the same time. In trueing up a gland, it should be chucked in the lathe by the flange, to ensure the turning of the bore and outside diameter at one chucking, without depending on the accuracy of a niandreh Piston rods should be secured to the cross head by means of a, ytll fitted key instead of by the screw and jam nut arrangement iis^'d in many cases. Piston rods are usually made of wrought iron, btit steel is to be preferred on account of its great endurance, small friclion, and extreme hardness, which render it less liable to be flutedby grit in the packing, &c. The cross-heads should, in every case, possess the esselitial element of strength, to resist strains of every kind, and also capacious anti- friction bearings on the guides, to resist the wear and tear of protracted running. The guides should be powerful enough to withstand any degree of speed without springing or flinching from duty in the slightest degree, and, on horizontal engines they should be made moveable, so that they may be easily replaced by others when they become worn out. Crank pins are usually made of wrought iron, although for obvi- ous reasons, steel is the best material. Owing to excessive friction the crank pins are liable to become hot, and for this reason they should receive close attention from the engineer. A mixture of a little sul- phur in oil, or plumbago and oil, forms a good cooling lubricant in such emergencies. The diameter of the crank pin should be from .2 to .25 that of the cylinder, and the length from .275 to .35 the diameter of the cylinder, or for a cylinder 12 ins. in diameter and 30 ins. stroke, the length of crank pin should bo 3.3 to 4 ins., and the diameter 2.4 to 3 ins. The Steam chest should be capacious enough to furnish sufficient room for the valve gear arrangement, the transmission of steam to the piston, &c., but not unnecessarily large to induce weakness in the parts, loss of heat by radiation, &c. Valve rods should be constructed of substantial material to with- stand the varied .strains to which they are liable ; they are usually of wrought iron, but steel is to be preferred for various reasons. The length of valve rods may be correctly ascertainecl by placing the valve in a central position over the steam ports, and the rocker or interme- diate bearings in a vertical position, and measuring from the centre of the rocker stud to the centre of the valve. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 389 The dimensions of the rock shaft-bearing, should be, if subjected to a twisting movement, or torsion, ^ or \ the diameter of the engine shaft, if not so subjected, \ the diaineter of the engine sliaft will an- swer. The diameter of the rock shaft pin ought to be no less than the valve stem; but if it is an overhanging pin, it ought to be from ^ to 1^ the diameter of valve stem. Eccentric rods should be substantially made of good stock, and suf- ficiently stiff and rigid to withstand the mt-inifold strains to which they are liable, without being subjected to extreme vibration, so that a steady movement may be imparted by the eccentric to the valve, und they are all the better for being long. To adjust an eccentric rod, place the crank at the end of its stroke, and the eccentric at right angles with the crank. Now regulate the eccentric-straps and adjust the rocker in a vertical position. The proper length of the eccentric may now be determined if the eccen- tric-catch conforms itself to the rocker pin, without moving the latter to either side. The length of the eccentric rod is the space between the centre of the crank shaft and that of the rocker pin, when the lat- ter is vertical. The eccentric rod may hi attached by turning the end of the rod ta- iloring, to adapt it to a suitable hole in a sleeve cast on the forward titraps of the eccentric, to which it may be secured by a proper key ; another way is to insert the rod into the sleeve and fasten Avith jam nuts. The diameter of the eccentric rod, should, at the neck, equal that of the valve rod, and should increase ^ inch to the foot of the eccentric. The pillow blocks or main bearings of an engine should be the ob- jects of close attention on the part of the engineer, as, owing to the excessive friction and wear and tear at this vital point, they are liable to become hot and cause Inuch trouble. In such emergencies mako nse of the following Cooling Compound for Heavy Bearings. — Tallow, 2 lbs ; plumbago, G ozs ; sugar of lead, 4 ozi^ ; melt the tallow Avith gentle heat, and add the other ingredient.^, stirring until cold. For lubricat- ing gearing, wooden cogs, «S;c. , nothing better need bo used than a thin mixture of soft soap and black lead. Tiie following processes will prove useful to engineers and machinists in many cases : To Prevent Sperm Oil Gumming.— The addition of kerosene oil will greatly assist in preventing gumming ; rummage 100 imrts oil with 4 parts chloride of lime, and 12 of Avater ; now add a small quan- tity of the decoction of oak-baric to destroy all traces of gelatinous mat- ter still remaining, and allow the impurities to settle. Next, agitate the clear part with a little sulphuric acid, settle once more, and'Avash to remove the acid, which should never be permitted to exist in any oil used on machinery. If oil becomes rancid, boil it along Avith Avater and a little bi-carljonate of magnesia for 15 minutes or so, until it loses its power to redden litmus paper. M.\CHiNERv Lubricants.— A patent has been taken out in Franco for lubricants compounded as foUoAvs : First, graphite, 35 parts ; talc, 25 ; sulphur, 20 ; Avax or paraffin, 20. graphite CO parts ; bone-glue, 15 ; water, 32 ; sulphur, 12 ; Avax or paraffin, 11. Tiie Crank shaft being the primary agent for the transmi^ision of power, should, in all cases be Avell proportioned in order to perform effective duty and resist the shearing and Us isitiiig straina to whicli 390 MACHINISTS AND KNGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. it is fliibjeetod. Thoy aro often inado of cast iron smoothly turned, and should bo 5-10 the diameter of the cylinder for elBcient use, o* the diameter of the shaft may bo 4-10 that of the cylinder when wrouglit iron is used, and the leuf/thoi the a-ank shaft heurinfi should 1)0 equal to 1^ times its diameter, or, lor massive machinery, twico the diameter will be required. Tlie area of the crank at the central part should bo exactly that of the shaft ; the ihickness should be equivalent to that of the shalt journal multiplied by G : the thickness of tho web of the crank should be equivalent to 3 times the diameter of shaft journal. Tho boss of the crank, if of wrou^i;ht iron, should bo equivalent to tho di- ameter of the shaft journal or pin multiplied by 4, and if of cast iron, should equal double that of tho shaft journal, and the depth shoul4 equal that of the crank journal multiplied by 7. Tho diameter of crank at the X)in .should equal twice the diameter of pin, and its depth at the same part should be equivalent to the diameter of the pin mul- tiplied by 12. The Governor should bo Icept perfectly clean and free from all gummy deposits, or old dry packing which may retard, or impede it.- coin M — M vj OJ M 0 00 w OO^M 0\Cnt/i M-OJ M " ■ • Ca 0\" Mm vO w *.4>-HO\Oi 0 4>.Oi 0*'<^ cs'-~>^'^ ' 14-in. Outside Freight. 0 " 00 H OOOJ w Ol 15-in. Outside Passer, H 00 ^ Ox H >0 OJ M *.m". . -~4 OJ+. M ^ • -vl 0\vO ~J H . M . H OiQ\Mtntn Ox CO. O-touJ*- OJ 18-inch, 6 drivers. Freight. „(!n N M H vO V9 OO Q 0- M . M 18-inch, 6 drivers. Anthracite. H W I 18-inch, H t2 5 S> " ° ""^ - 1 6 drives, oioxMuibj vo M> (S^kiiwik tM kIi \ Broad Guage. ►a CO o 0 *"< px ;^ 0 5* ■-♦^ 0* CD or fa 0 1/3. 0 CO CO ^* CO s» 0 he 0 CO t/i 0 >- 0 S- 0 — < 0 «-♦- «♦ 0 CO CO I o 392 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEKRS' DEPARTMENT. less fuel. A boilor may gonorato stoam with groat economy, and, owing to the steam being wasted hy improper application to the work, tlirougli tlie engine, tlie result in work be very unsatisfactory, and the boiler blamed unjustly. When steam is used exi)ansively, wndcr the best conditions, it will give double the power for the same amount of steam that can begot from it worked at full stroke, or witliout expansion. When steam is used in non-condensing engines at low pressure, the loss is great, owing to the pressure of the atmosphere (15 lbs.) being a greater percentage of a li(lcral)ly thicker tli.in it really is. After tlio hole has served its i)ur- l)Oso, it IS tapped and plugged tightly up again. As regards the stays, they require a great amount of attention; fo r they aro very apt to get eaten through, near the ])h\to» by oxidation. The gauge cocks aro often placed just above the highest row of tubes. Now this is a very dangerous practice, for it is possible for an engujccr to lose his water, let him be ever so careful, when great danger fol- lows ; while if the cocks "sverc placed a little higher, the loss of water would not bo attended by so much danger. Duties to Machinery when Steam is {letting vp. The water in tho boiler when the fires aro lighted ouglit to be just above the bottom of the glass. In a large or even moderate sized boiler, tho water will expand, and there is also not so much water to heat at first; and wo know, by reason of conduction and radiation, that small bodies of water arc heated comparatively more rapidly than larger. On first lighting the fires they should not be kept too large, but just suflicient to cover the bars. A large thin surface of fire is found to be the most effective in getting under way. When the fires are lighted, and tho ftteamer is going on a long voyage, it is the practice to rub the polished parts of the engine over with a composition of tallow and white lead. This prevents any rust forming on tho rods, etc., from water dropping on them which may li.ave been used for keeping the bearings cool. The discharge valve is also opened now, or else on starting tho engine something will give way. Several accidents have occurred by neglecting to do this. The safety valves aro now to be inspected to find whether they aro fast or corroded to their seatings. If so, they must be freed and mado ready to act before starting. It is a good plan and one much practised, to give the engines a good blowing through whilst tho steam is getting up. This warms tho cylinder and tries any joints that may have been made since tho engines were worked last. It also saves tho steam, for if not done now (when the engine is starting) a great amount of steam is wasted in heating the cylinder, instead of imparting ita elastic force to tho piston. Startinei the Enf/ines. — All steamships arc now fitted with tho double eccentrics or "Stephenson's Linlc Motion," by which tho engines are started, or rather by this tho slide valves are under tho control of the engineer, and can bo worked back or forward a.^ command is given, by cither a bar, lever, or generaUy, in largo engines, by a wheel. The handles, by which steam is turned on and off, with the injec- tion cock handles, are placed beside the wheel, so that one man can now generally start the engine. Some large ships have a steam piston so fitted that it rises and falls by steam admitted above or below, thus raising or lowering the link iu its motion. This is what is called steam starting gear, and is very handy when the link is of great weight. There is always hand gear fitted as weU, which can be used in cases of emergency. In giving in- jection to a common condenser, it should be opened just after tho fcteam is turned on to the cylinders, or else if going slowly the con- denser may become too full of water, and tho air pump not able to perform its "work properly. MAcnixiSTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 397 In starting an engine that is fitted ivitli surface condensers, the only tiling requiring attention before going on, is to open both valves communicating witli tlie sea above or below the condenser, viz.; Euction to the circulating pumps and delivery from them. Duties token under Steam. — Always keep looking at the water level. This is sometimes a source of great anxiety, for some boilers require the water to be kept at a certain fixed level. If water be too high they will not keep steam, and if too low the steam will generate too fast. Some boilers require a hi^h water level : nothing but practice can determine it. A safe rule is to keej) the glass gauge about two thirds full. Blowing out marine boilers should be practised every two or three hours. Practice has proved this to be a good rule, on account of not so much water being required to be blown out at a time, and therefore the steam pressure is not reduced to a very great extent. In steamers fitted with surface condensers, a little sea water is supplied to the boiler to make up for the loss in the steam pipes, jackets, caps, in the condensers, etc. This in time may injure the boiler if not counterbalanced some way or otlier. The general rule is to blow out about two or three inches every twelve hours. The water in these boilers is never allowed to reach more than 2-30 of saltness. Tlie fires require much consideration. A furnace is best worked with a heavy fire, but not too heavy, thicker towards the back than front. The fresh fuel should be j)laced in front, and then pushed back after being thoroughly heated. Every four hours (at the least) the fires should be cleaned out, as large clinkers or refuse of the coals adhere to the fire bars and prevent the draught, making the fires burn dead, especially towards the back of the furnace. Sometimc.j the slag will stick fast to a furnace bar, and cannot be removed from it. This causes a great amount of trouble, as in trying to remove it, the fire bars are occasionally pulled out of their places, and the greater part of the fire falls through causing much waste and often clanger. The principal thing to pay attention to when the engines are under nteam, is to keep the bearings cool and the glands steam tight. Oil is generally used for keeping bearings cool, but when larger ones aro working hard, a jet of water is kept playing on them. This is found to answer very well when the water iiijunied on before they have had time to heat. It should not be used after they have been alloAved to get heated, for it may crack them by too sudden contraction. A good stream of water should be kept running on the thrust block from the time of starting, this with the tallow, which is always put into it before starting, keeps this all important bearing cool. The Cap of the thrust block reqiiires great care in adjusting. If screwed on too lightly it is almost sure to heat, or fire as it is termed, and if not screwed down sufficiently tight the unpleasant jumping shake so often experienced in onr screw ships is sure to follow. The packing of the gland at the stem tube should be well looked after, and kept quite tight and well tallowed. In paddle-wheel steamers there is frequently not sufficient caro taken about the outer bearings of the shafts. In very few ships aro proper means provided for lubricating these important parts. At the commencement of a voyage, the outer bearings are well tallowed, and 398 MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. often put down, screwed np, .ind left to look after themselves as best they may. Very few ships, indeed, being provided with tubes lead- ing down from the paddle boxes to the oil holes of the blocks, or in which means are provided for their lubrication. The coals in the bunkers must bo carefully watched, to prevent ppontaneous combustion. The stoppers over the holes should bo kept open as much as possible, and care taken not to keep damp coals longer in the bunkers than can be avoided; for it is only damp coal that is liable to spontaneous combustion. In new fast running engines, castor oil is a very good thing to use on first starting. When new brasses have been fitted into the bearings, till they form a good bearing for themselves, the same should bo used. It appears to have a much finer body in it to lubricate than other oils have. The difference in the cost of .'le oil is not very much, coarse castor oH being.very little dearer than good machine oil. Duties to Machinery when the Ship has arrived in Port. — The whito lead and tallow should be rubbed off with a piece of oily waste, and then the bright work of the engines will give no trouble by rusting. The engines should have a good blowuig through to drive out all water in the condensers, then the Kingston's valves communicating with the sea, should be shut, next open the condenser dram cocks, which let out all water left in them. This is allowed to run into tho bilges, which can be pumped out by tho donkey pump, or tho hand pump if no steam is left in the boilers. Some engineers always blow out their boilers after steaming, otliers io not, the latter only let tho fires out and shut the valves in tho steam pipes; both plans have their advantages and disadvantages. I'crhaps the majority keeps the Avatcr in tho boilers, only blowing out when repairs or an examination of tho boiler is required. An engineer should always examine for himseK, whether all the fires are properly out, and not take tho word of the stokers for it. A great amount of damage may bo done by the fire not being properly put out in' tho ash pits. A frequent practice is to get a heap of hot ashes together and dash some water over it. Tliis makes it black outside and leaves it burning inside. The ashes should rather bo spread out evenly, and the water thrown over gradually and gently, to put out tho firo effectually, and to create as little dirt and dust as possible. To find the amount of Lap on the Slide Valves (before setting tho slides). Take a batten of wood, and place it on the cylinder slido face at right angles to and over the ports. Mark off on it the edges of the steam and exhaust ports with a square and scriber. By placing this on the face of the slide valve, tlie amount of laj) can at onco bo found. To Set the Slides.— Vnt the piston at the top or bottom of its stroke. If the eccentric is rightly fijced on the shaft, simply fasten the slide valve on the spindle with the required amount of lead. Then turn the engine to tho other end of its stroke, and see if the lead is tho same ; or in some engines more lead is given at the bottom than at tho top (as in vertical engines). If tho engine is fitted with the link motion, the reversing eccentric is then connected and the valve tested in like maimer. Also with the link motion, the slide rod is placed in the centre of the link; and although the position of the eccentrics on the shaft ought to destroy any motion of tho valve, yet there is a little MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 399 with a short link. This is tested to see that the steam ports are always closed and thus the engines can be stopped, even if the full pressure of steam be admitted to the back of the slide by the stop or throttle valves. PORTABLE CONDENSma STEAM ENGINE. The above cut represents a portable condensing steam engine of a pattern quite common in Europe. A, Working-beam ; b, Steam pis- ton; C, Cylinder; e, Upper Steam port; d, Lower Steam port; E, Throttle valve; F, Fly-wheel; i, Crank; K, k, Eccentric and eccentric rod for working the steam valves; I, Steam valve and valve casing; n, Condenser; o, Injection cock; q. Hot well; r, Shifting valve to cause a vacuum in the condenser previous to starting the engine; S. S, Feed pump; t, Cold water pump for supplying the condenser cistern; ii, Governor; V, Connectmg rod; lo, Air pump; X. X, The parallel mo- tion; y, Condenser, Sterro Metal.— Copper, 55 to 60 parts, zinc, 34 to Mparts, iron 3 to 4 parts, tin, 2 to 4 parts. Sterro Metal is used for the pumps of hydraulic presses, &c. It is capable of withstanding a pressure of from 43,000 to 85,000 per square inch. Steam Fire Engines are or should be constructed with steel boilers and blast tubes, copper tubes and large water spaces, together with a good lit out of gauges, safety valves, injectors, &c., with facility of getting up steam in from G to iO minutes from cold water, and in 400 MACniNTSTS, KXGINEERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. about 5 minntos from -^.aterat 130°. Tlicso Tnachinos ns now con- Btructed arc of great elegance and power, some of them liaving pro- jected a coutinuous, solid stream of water over 300 feet, through 100 I'cet of liosc, fitted with 1^ inch nozzle. Steam pressure about 80 lbs. per square inch. The principle is that of a steam pump, being iitted with the usual air chaniDer to iuduce a continual steam, Seo diagram of fire engine Avith horses attached. PoRTABi.E Engines arc constructed as light as possible, consistent with proper strength of parts, in order to render tliem available for easy transportation. Sometimes they; are mounted on wheels, and are in quite extensive use for driving light saw-mills, threshing, brick-making, i)umpin^, chaff-cutting, &c. CoENiSH ENGiNES.-Are usually single acting beam engines which use the steam at a very early "cut off," and only on one side of the pis- ton, making great use of its expansivQ property, and are used entirely for pumping water in mines and cities. Steam is used in effecting the downward movement of tlic ijistou, being the stroke which liitj the water, the upward movement is caused by the weight of the plun- gers, rods &c., at the pump end of the beam. Cornish engines arc usually very massive and j)owerful, but the first cost is enormous, and there is quite an outcry against them in some i)laces. In the line of pumping machinery, possibly the largest engines in the world are those doing duty at llaarlem Lake, Holland. The en- gines, three in number, drain a surface of 45.230 acres, an average lift of the water, dependmg on the state of the tides, being IG feet. Each engine lifts GG tons of Avater per stroke to a height of 10 feet ; "when pressed, each lifts 109 tons to that height. Running economic- ally, each lifts 75,000,000 lbs. of Avater 1 foot high for 94 lbs. of Welsh coal. Diameter of cylinders (annular in form), 13 feet, Avith inner cylinders 7 ft. diameter. Instructions to Engineers and Firejien on Locomotia'es.— Keep the fire evenly and uniformly spread over the grate Avithout elevations or depressions. Eire from large coal, as it leaves Avider openings between the lumps for the admission of air, may be deeper than when the coal is small and lies dose together. Kemovc all incombustible material and clinkers from the furnace as soon as pos- fcible, they prevent the draught from producing proper results. Tho l)ulk of fuel on the grate should always be in proportion to the quantity of fuel consumed. The dampers in the front and rear of the ash-pan regulate the draught admitted to the furnace, and requiro very careful attention, as the stream of air issues Avith a velocity of 72 ft. per second Avhen the dampers are open and train under full lieadway. At a speed of GO miles per hour the pressure of the cur- rent of air amounts to 9 lbs. on every square foot. One ton of bitumi- nous coal requires 300,000 cubic feet of air for its combustion, of which 100,000 is required to consume the gases evolved from it. Anthracite coal requires 310.480 cubic feet of air per ton for its com- bustion. It burns without smoke, requires a good supply of oxygen and intense heat to burn it, but makes a very fierce fire. Good l)ractice requires complete combustion of the carbon and hydrogen available in the fuel ; insufflcent air causes a dense black smoke to issue from the chimney, and the loss of heating effect, and too much air, lowers tho temperature of the flame and dissipates the heat 01 MAcnixisTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 401 good coal, G2.2 per ceiit. go to form stoam, and 1 lb. will in good practice evaporate 7^ lbs. of water. In practice tlie greatest evapora- tive power of 1 lb. of coke is 9^ lbs. of water, in common practice ifc is 8^ lbs. and 78 per cent, of its products go to form steam, 22 per cent, being lost by products of combustion, ashes, etc. The lieating power of coke as compared with that of coal is in the proportion of about 14 : 12. Tlie temperature produced by the combustion of coke in tho hottest part of the fire box, may be estimated at 16GG° Centigrade. The temperature produced by wood is usually less than 1111° Centi- grade, (100° Centigrade is equivalent to 212° Fahr). The proper com- "bustion of coal requires the admission of air both through and abovo the grate, the right proportion depending upon the percentage of tho gaseous components in the coal : In the combustion of colvo the air may be admitted through the grate only, 1 lb. of coke requiring about 200 cubic feet of air. For receiving the best effects from the fuel, the emission of the gases from the furnace shoiild be retarded, iu order to promote complete combustion under liigh temperature, for this reason the grate surface should be as large as possible to induco n slower current, and the weight of the steam exhausted and the air inhaled should be in every case, tho same. For tho prevention of emoke, engineers usually rely on the damper, tho ash pan and tho fire door, with careful stoking. They endeavor to prevent tho formation of smoke by controlling the admission of air tlirough tho grate, adjusting it exactly to the demands of the fuel, also by the firo door for the admission of air abovo tho fuel, by firing with largo pieces of coal, and deep fires for heavy duty, and smaller coals witli shallow fires for lighter duty, by firuig more frequently to lighten tlie duty, and at all times by keeping the bars covered with fuel to l^rcvent excessive local draughts through the grate. Fresh coal should be thrown on under the fire door directly inside, and, when partly burned, pushed forward towards tho tubes ; but when the grates are inclined, it will work downwards by gravitation. Never fill a hot boiler Avith cold water, and always allow it to cool off before running the water out; never blow out a boiler while hot, under any circum- Btancos, as tho heated plates will be sure to bake the deposits of mud into a compact scale of great tenacity ; if allowed to cool, these deposits will settle down in a soft mass easily swept out with a hoso and water. Frequent duty should be made of washing out all deposits of foreign matter from the barrel of tho boiler, the tubes, and from the crown sheets between the crown bars, especially whilo using bad water, and after heavy rains ; and screw-plugs, made of liard brass, should be fitted to every boiler near the sides of tho firo box, to permit the use of a hose with water for this purpose. To avert danger from intense heat, to save fuel, and keep up a free circulation, engineers should adjust the injector so that tho boiler will lose a little water while running between- stations, if tho injector is kept at work during stoppages, this loss will be compen- sated, and a full supply always kept up, absorbing the surplus lieat and»preventmg explosion, incessant watchfulness is necessary to look out for impending danger in every possible direction, and no engine driver, while on duty, should relax his energy, care, caution, watchfulness, decision, and presence of mind for a single moment. If vigilance and endurance were ever necessary in any business or call- 402 MACITTNISTS, ENGINEERS', ScC., nECEIPTS. ln s « "1 2 5 1::^ S W 1-^ . :f3 ^ A P< ;h - in<^ the above angle. {See diagram of Eccentric, Link and vulvz motion A majority of railways allow for the travel of valves, on Express Pas- senqer Engines, 5 inches, for outside lap, § inches, for inside ~ lap, \ incii. for lead in full gear 1-10 inch. On Express Accommodation Engines, for travel of value, 5 inches, for outside Lap, f inch, for in- side lap, J inch, for lead in full gear, 1-10 inch. On Heavy Freigjit Engines, for travel of valve, 6 inches, for outside lap, g inch, for in- cide lap 1-16 inch, for lead in full gear 1-16 inch. Power of Engines. — Horse-power in steam enginco is calculated r.s the power which would raiso 33,000 lbs. a foot high in a minute, or 90 lbs. at the rate of 4 miles' an hour. One-horse power is equal to the lifting, by a pump, of 250 hogsheads of water ten feet in an hour. Or ft would drive 100 spindles of cotton yarn twist, or 600 rpindles of No. 48 mule yarn, or 1000 of JSTo. 110, or 13 power looms. One horse power is produced by 19 lbs. of Nev/castlo coals, GO Ibn. of wood, or 34 lbs. of culm. Coals 1, wood 3, and culm 2, givo equal heats in the production of steam. Sixteen lbs. of Newcastle coal converts 100 lbs. of water into steam. A bushel of coal per hour raises steam to 15 lbs. the square inch, whose velocity is 1350 feet per eccond, and 2 bushels raise it to 120 lbs., or velocity of 3800 feet per second. A horse-power requires from 5 to 7 gallons of water per minute for condensation of steam. A steam engine whose cylinder is 31 inches, with 17 double strokes per minute, performs the constant work of 40 horses with 5 tons of coal per day. One of 19. inches and 25 strokes, of 12 horses, with 1^ tons per day. They raise 20,000 cubic feet of water 24 feet for every hundred weight of coals. One bushel of good coals raised from 24 to 32,000,000 lbs. one foot per minute. Four bushels of coal per hour with pylinder of 31-^ inches and 17^ strokes of 7 feet per minute, is a, force equal to 40 horses constantly! A rotative double engine, with a cylinder of 23.75 inches, making 21.5 strokes of 5 feet per minute, ici a 20 horse-power ; and a cylinder of 17.5, making 25 strokes of 4 feet, is a 10 horse-power ; the consumption of coals being proportional. Pkopobtion of Locomotive Boit.ebs, &c. — Boiler sheets, best cold blast charcoal iron f in. thick, or best cast steel 5-16 in., double riveta along horizontal seams and junction of jSro box to be double riveted. Waist formed of 2 sheets rolled in the direction of the fibre of tho iron or steel. On© longitudinal seam in each, above the water lin© \ MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 403 to be double riveted. All iron sheets § in, thick, riveted with | inch rivets placed 2 inches from centre to centre. Steel plates 5-16 in. thick riveted with § inch rivets, placed 1| inch, from centre to centre. Extra welt pieces, riveted to side of side sheets, giving double thick- 406 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., IIECEIPT8. nosB of metal for stud bolts .and expansion braces. Fnmace PlateSt if of iron, 5-lG inch, if of copper ^ in., if of steel, crown sheets, § in., pide and back sheets (steel) 5-lG in., Hue sheets (steel) ^in., water space a ins. J sides and back, 4 ins. front. Stai/ JioUSy § in. diara. screwed and nvetcd to sheets, 4^ in. from centre to centre. Crown Bars, made of 2 pieces of wrought iron 4^ in. by g in. set 1^ in. from centre to centre, and secured by bolts fitted to taper holes in crown-sheets, with head on under side of bolt and nut ou top, bearing on crown bar. Crown Sheets braced to dome, and outside shell. Furnace Door openuig formed by hanging and riveting together the outer and inner sheets. Tubes, 11 feet long, and 2 in. diam. set in vertical rows i of an uich apart, give the best results. Grate Bars, for burning wood or soft coal, should have ^ in. openings. Smoke Stack for wood burning engmes should have the *' boimet stack," from 6 to 5^ ft. diam. at top, with wire netting ; for engines burning soft coal, a much smaller area of cone is required; but for engines burning anthracite coal, use a plam open stack without cone or netting. Safety Valves. Every locomotive should be provided with two safety valves fitted to birass seats, and secured by springs of sufficient elasticity to allow a lift of the valve adequate to permit the emission of all the steam tlio boiler will generate after it exceeds the maximum pressure. The bearing or mitre on the valve face should not exceed § in. ilud Plugs should be provided on the side of the shell on a level with the crown sheet. To avoid weakening the boiler, rivet a welt on the inside of the shell in the line of the holes. Steam Room, 6 to 7 cubic feet per square ft. of growth surface. Good work has been obtained from boilers possessing 1 cubic foot of steam room to 1 square foot of water surface, and a water surface 1-13 that of heating surface. Average Proportion of the Various Parts of Locomo- tives. — Cylinders of locomotives vary in size, ranging all the way from 8 in. up to 20 in. diam. Crank Pin shoiild be | the diam. of cylinder. Valve Stems should be 1-10 the diam. of cylinder. Piston Hods should be ^the diam. of cylinder. Pump Plunger should bo 1-9 the diam. of cylinder. Main Steam Pix>e. Area should be from i to ^ the diam. of cylinder. Steam Ports. Area should be 1-12 the area of cyluider. Exhaust Port. Area should be equal to J the area of cylinder. The loidth of bridges for different sized cylinders of locomotives vary from f to IJ inches. Chimney. Height should not exceed 14 ft, diameter a little less than the diam. of cylinder. Diam. of Boilers vary from 3 ft. to 4 ft. 3 in. Tubes vary in number fsom 100 to 220, top row should be 8 inches under water. Heating surface. Total should be from 1000 to 1500 square ft. Fire Grate Surface ranges from 12 to 30 sq. ft., usual rule 15 sq. ft., with about 90 sq. ft. of heating surface in fire box. Evaporative Power should range from 100 to 200 cubic ft. of water per hour. Proportion of heating surface, to each sq. foot of grate, should be from 68 to 80 feet. Petticoat Pipe, should be § the diam. of the inside pipe of the stack. Ash Pans, should be 9 inches below bottom of grate for wood burning engines. 10 in. for soft coal, and 12 to 14 in. for anthracite coal burners, ana should be as nearly air tight as possible when dampers are shut. Dampers, should when shut stand at an angle of 35° from perpendicu- lar. Smoke Box, diam. should equal diam. of boiler, length from fluo rfieet to inside of front door IJ times the length of the stroke of the MACUINISTS, engineers', &C., KECEirTS. 407 engine. Tires, wlien new 2^ to 2p in. thick, must not "be -svorn doAvn to less than IJ to 1^ in. Wrought iron tires wear about 1-12 of an inch per annum. (For further details see page 413. ) Rule to find the Hokse-Power of a Locomotive.— Multiply tlie area of the piston by the pressure per square inch, which should be taken as § of the boiler pressure ; multiply this product by tho number of revolutions per minute. Multiply this by twice the length of the stroke in feet or mches ; if in inches they must be divided by 12), multiply this product by 2 and divide by 33,000 ; tho result will be the power of the locomotive. — Roper. Example : Cylinder 19 inches Stroke 24 „ Diameter of Drivers ... 64 „ Kunning Speed, 20 miles per hour. * Area of piston, 283.5 square inches. Boiler pressure, 130 lbs. per square inch. Maximum pressure in cylinders, 80 lbs. 283.5 X 80 X 4X124X2 ^ gsi.g horsc-powcr. 33,000 STErnEXS02f's "Eocket."— Tho annexed figure represents tho "liocket" as it appeared when it ran in the memorable Rainhill competition, in 1829, and gamed the prize of £500 offered bytlie directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The stipulations were: (1.) That the engine should consume its own smoke; (2.) If the engine weigh 6 tons, it must draw after it 20 tons, 10 miles an hour; the pressure on the gauge not to exceed 50 lbs. ; (3. ) There must be 2 safety valves, the engine and boiler must be supported on springs and rest on G wheels, the height of tho whole not to exceed 15 ft. to tho top of the chimney; (4.) It must not weigh more than 6 tons, Icsa weight preferred, which may draw a less weight behind it, then it may have 4 wheels; (5.) The price not to exceed £550. Dimensions — Boiler. Cylindrical m form, length, G ft., diam. 3 ft. 4 in. Cylinders, two, diam. 8 in,, stroke IG^ in. Weight of Engine, 4 tons, 6 cwt, with water in the boiler, with loaded tender 7 tons, 9 cwt. Chimney, diam. 12 in. Heating surface, 117| square ft. Tho boiler contained 25 copper tubes, 3 inches iu diameter ; the use of thoso tubes with coke for fuel, gained Stephenson his victory, and estabhshed his fame. The cylinders were set inclining to the rails at an angle of 45°, this proved a poor arrangement, as the jolting motion slightly lifted the boiler up and do-syn on the springs. Driving Wheels, diam. 4 ft. 8 in. Highest Speed during trial, 24 miles per hour, for a dis- tance of IJ miles. The " Rocket" -with all its defects, was a great im- provement on Stephenson's first engine constructed at KiUingworth, in 1814, and used to '"^ lead coals " from the pit, the motion being transmitted to the wheels by the intervention of cranks and toothed gearuig. There is a vast contrast between the " Rocket" and locomotives of recent construction. Some freight engines are now in use, which weigh GG tons, having 4 cylinders and 12 coupled driving wheels. Some have cylinders 20 ni. diam., with 2G mches stroke, others have driving wheels 9 ft. diam., cylinders 18 in. diam., and 2* inches stroke. 408 ^lACTirxrSTS, rNOTT^KF.IlS , c'^^C, nr-CETPTS. EiiRlish oxprpss engines liave .attained a epccd of 73 miles 'jicr hour, betwoeu lloIylicaU aud Loadou, The innstrioiis Stephenson is well deservingr of double honor as the worthy champion of the loftiest description of mechanical progre^ii, at a time when it might truly be said that he was opposed by almoct the entire nation. In interference with the old state of affairs nearly every one, high and low, seemed to see Tisions of bankrupt coach companies, deserted hotels, ruined landlords, roads overgrown with grass, buildings and mansions burned to the ground by flying sparks from the engine, commerce ruined, and man and beast everywhere run over and crushed under the car wheels. During Stephenson's memorable examination before the committee of the House of Com- mons, one of the questions put to him was — "Would it not be an awkward thing for an engine to run oyer a cow?" The honej;t Northumbrian's reply is well known, " Yes, it would be awkward for the coo." Fire Cement.— "Fire clay, wet, 100 parts, white lead, 3 parts, pow- dered asbestos, ^ part, mix all together and use as mortar. Railway Train Speed Taf-lb. — A train going 1 mile an hour travels one and seven-fifteenths— say one and a half foot per sec- ond. To form a table of speed from these data is a mere matter of multiplication. Example:— A train going 70 miles an hour travels per Becoud ^ and 7-15 ft. multiplied by 70=102 and two thirds leet MACniNISTS AND E!TGINEE11S' DEPAllTMENT. 409 Till! Stephenson Link and Valve Geak of 1833, shown in the out, differs but little from the arrangement of the present day, as exhibited on page 40'3. In the sketch, A A represents the eccentrics keyed on the driving-shaft B, 0 is the link, and D the "strap-link" connected with the eccentrics by the rods E E, as shown in cut, F is the valve and G the valve-rod working slide-valve and connected with link-block. The elevation or depression of the link, necessary to in- duce a backward or forward movemeat of the engine, was effected by a lever handle H, fitted with a catch which could be dropped into a series o^ notches in the sector I ; this lever-handle operating by means of the reaching-rod K, and the counter-weighted bell-crauk L, had the cfTect of bringing the pin on the link-block connecting with the valve-stem into operation with either eccentric as the forward or reverse movement of the engine might require. The lever as shown at H, shows the link in full gear for reversing ; v.t I (mid-gear) steam would be shut off, as the valve would cover both steam-ports ; at M the lever would be in full-gear for running forward, and in inter- mediate positions between mid-gear and full- gear the effect would bo more or less expansion of the steam, but never the full power. The locomotive, with its entire connections and surroundings, should, while on the road, be the object of a care and vigilance which knows no weariness. Before starting from a station, the engine should be closely inspected to be sure that all is right ; the boiler should be well replenished with water, and a good surplus stored in the tank. The injector should be closed before starting, and while ascending grades, but should be opened to admit feed water during stoppage, or while descending a down grade if required, and fuel may be added at the same time. In descending down grades, the steam should be either partially or entirely shut off, and the engineer should, like a trusty sentinel, be always at his post, with his hand on the lever, and with all the 'faculties of his body and mind on the alert, ready to act in response to signals, or on the first intimation of danger in any of its varied forms. Modern improvements have rendered it an easy matter to stop an engine at very short notice, although it sometimes happens, on critical occasions, that some of the most power- ful patent brakes have proved inoperative, owing to complicated or inaperfect mechanical adjustment. Broken rails, mq^e especially during winter, in cold climates, like that of Canada ' and Russia, are a fertile cause of numerous disasters, severe loss, and much soncitude and anxiety to the engineer. The frequency of these breakages always increases in proportion with the rigor of the climate. 410 BIACIIINISTS AND KNCINKEKS' DEPARTMENT. The valve gear and eccentrics should be frequently examined, and if found defective in any way, no time should be lost in adjusting them by following the directions given elsewhere. Use clean water ; by so doing much trouble and danger will be averted. Keep the tubes well Bwept, and if one should burst, plug both ends of it with as little delay as possible ; if impeded by the emission of steam or water, an ample supply of cold feed water will decrease the pressuro and permit work. If the leak is very serious, it would be the best plan to quench the fire in order to secure proper access to repair tho defective tube. Every engineer should make a point of having on liand all those appliances which experience has shown to be neccG- sary for use during possible emergencies, such as plugs for the tubes, Bcrcw jack, wrecking tools, wrenches, hammers, signals, wedges, files, rope, buckets, chisels, waste, oil, tallow, &c. Railway Signals. — A red flag by day, or red light by night, is a eignal of danger. Hoisted at a station it is a signal for a train " to stop." Hoisted by the road side, it is a signal of danger on the train ahead. Carried unfurled on an engine, it is a warning that another engine or train is on its way. One short sound of the Avhistle is tho gignal to apply brakes; two, to let them go; three, to back up; four, to call in the flagmen ; five, for road crossings. A sweeping parting of the hands on a level with the eye is a signal to go ahead. A downward motion of one hand, Avith extended arm, to stop. A beckoning motion of one hand, to back. A lantern raised and lowered vertically, is a signal for starting; when swung at right angles, or across the track, to eto]); when swung in a circle, to back the train. One strQjce of the alarm-bell signifies stop; two, to go ahead; three, to back. Speed of Passenger Trains. — In tho United States, tho News- paper Express train, between New Yorlc and Philadelphia makes tho daily trip of 93 miles in l!l hours, inclusive of four ctopjoaget;. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 411 The most remarkable feat of railway travel on record, was accom- plished June 4, 1876, by a fast special train, which made the journey from New York to San Francisco, a distance of 2900 miles in 26 min- utes less than 84 hours, being at the rate of 40 miles per hour. Regarding- English railways, the following table embraces an enu- meration of trains which riiu over 60 miles without stopping, shows the distance run, and the average speed per hour. It will be seen that the London and Northwestern run the longest distance without stopping, as their engines suck up water on the way while running at full speed. The fastest is the 11.45 a. m. from Paddington over the Great Western, which runs from London to Exeter, 194 miles in 4:^ hours on the "broad gauge." The Great Northern, though running ou the "narrow gauge," maintains an average speed of more than 50 miles per hour, and the 10 a. m. Express from London to Edinburgh, called by some of the country people the *' Flying Scotchman," travels 188^ miles in 4J hours, from London to York. The Great Northern R^l with their new engines, having 8 ft. driving wheels, sometimes at- tains 51 miles per hour. London to Swindon (Broad Gauge Express) London to Peterborough York to Newcastle Grantham to York Newcastle to Berwick New Cross to Canterbury Carstairs to Carlisle Oxford to London London to Dover Rugby to Crewe London to Rugby Kentish Tn. to Wellingboro' Holyhead to Chester Wigston to Luton Carlisle to Preston d o 0 h rt K O) 0 ^ ^» Q' G. W. 77i Vj. N. 76^ N. E. 87 G. N. 83 47i N. E. 66| 47 S. E. 77 46f Caledonian 741 45A G. W. 44| S E 78" 44| L. &N.*W. 44 L. & N. W. 82I 433 M. 62 433 L & N. W. 85 40| M. 61^ L. & N. W. 89 88^ Besides the above, there are well attested cases of passenger trains running 78 miles per hour with 16 coaches attached, and even as high as 84 miles per hour have been attained. THE FOLLOWING TABLE EXHIBITS THE EFFECTIVE ADHESION OF LOCOMOTIVES PER TON DURING DIFFERENT WEATHERS, ON THE BAILS : Lbs. Lbs. During frost or snow 200 During damp weather 400 During misty weather 350 During fine dry weather 760 During wet ramy weather. .600 The adhesion of a locomotive with 4 wheels, compared with ono having 6 wheels, is iu the proportiou of 5 to 8. 412 MACniNISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. Experiments have demonstnited that trains (properly fitted with good brakes), movin<5ins,, average life time, 7 years; best material, seasoned white oak. If ties are preserved by Burnettizing they will last 15 years. The test for new steel car axles, is 5 blows of a ram, weighing 1,050 lbs., falling 30 ft. on axle placed on supports 3 ft. apart. The test for new iron axles, is 5 blows of a ram, Aveighing 1,650 lbs., fall- ing 20 ft., on axle placed on supports 3 ft. apart. NON-CoNDUCTOR FOR StEAM PiPES AND CYLINDERS.— -Good Clay, 50 lbs., finely sifted coal ashes 50 lbs., hair for a bind 12 ozs., mix all thoroughly with water to the consistence of mortar, and allow it to rest for a few hours, but just previous to use, add 50 lbs. plaster of Paris, working it in well. Now apply it to the pipes, &e. , while warm, in a thin coat, and when dry, add another, continuing until the prop- er thickness is secured, whitewashing or painting over all. Evaporative Powers of Fuel, etc. — 1 lb. of coal evaporates 9 lbs of water. 1 " coke " 7^ to 9 " 1 " wood " 4^ " 1 " turf (peat)" 6 " Stationary engines use from 3 to 7 lbs. of coal per horse power per hour. Locomotive passenger engines 25 to 30 lbs. coal per mile. freight " 45 to 55 Wood-burning " 1 cord of wood to 42 miles. I5ulk of coal is 6 times less than its equivalent in wood. 00 bush. Newcastle coal will make 92 bush, of coke. 1 bush, anthracite coal weighs 86 lbs. ; bituminous coal = 80 lbs. ; charcoal (hardwood) = 32 lbs. j coke = 32 lbs. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DErARTMENT. 421 THE FIRST RAILWAY PASSENGER COACH. The magnificent caravan represented by the cut conveys a good idea of railway passenger travel and accommodations previous to tlie use of steam power for that purpose. M. BALDWIN'S LOCOMOTIVE " IRONSIDES" — 1B32- M. TV. BALDWIN'S LOCOMOTIVE " IKONSIDES "— 1852. The engine represented above, constructed by M. W. Baldwin, founder of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A., was first run on the Philadelphia & Norristown R. R., in 1832, and proved to be the pioneer of successful railway locomotion in tho United States. The average life of an iron rail is 15,000,000 of tons, or equal to 100,000 trains of 150 tons eacli. On the Great Northern Railway at Barnet, the life of an iron rail was 5 years, with 13,484,601 tons of fast trains, and 38,303,028 tons of slow traffic. Steel rails were only half Avorn out with 95,577,240 tons traffic. 422 MACHINISTS, KNGINEKr.S', &C., KKCEirXS. Latent TTeat op- Steam. — T;ilco 2 small vcssols connected at their tops by a tube. Let one contain 1 lb. of water at 32" Falir., the other n.^ lbs. at the .same tcrapcraturo. Apply a spirit lamp below the veg- .sel containingtho 1 lb. of water until it is all boiled away and its vapor condensed by passing through the tube and mingling with the 5;^ Ibn. of water in the other vessel. At thi.s point the heat absorbed by the 5^ lbs of water will raise tho tcmperaturo to 212° Fahr. or boiling heat, and tho combined weight will bo Gi^ lbs. instead of 5.^1bH.,ar4 placed in tho vessel at first. Tho whole of this heat has been trans- ferred from the 1 lb. of water held over tho spirit lamp, althongli at no time has its heat exceeded 212°. Inasmuch as this heat cannot bo measured by any known instrument, it is called latent heat. The 1 lb. of water made tho 5^ lbs. to boil, and from this we know by cal- culation that the combined latent and sensible beat of steam is about 1200°. The pressure of cteam is measured by atmospheres. Steam of 15 lbs. pressure is steam of one atmosphere, of '60 lbs. pressure, of 3 atmospheres, &C. It is frequently used as high as G or 7 atmospheres. Steam below 2 atmospheres is called low pressure steam, and all prcs- Bure above, high pressure steam. Heat, by expanding Vt^atcr, imparts motion to the gulf stream, when transformed into stcaia it evolves sufficient power to drive the rolling mill, cotton and other mills, the machine shop, the locomotive, and impel the steamship over the trackless ocean. As the temperature of water falls belo w , 100° Centigrade (212o.) the boiling point, it will contract or occupy a smaller space until it descends to "3°. 8 Centrigrade, when it will con- tract no more, as its greatest density is then reached. From 5°. 8, as the water becomes colder, it expands, till it reaches the frcezin;>c point 0°. Centigrade, so that is specifically ligliter than water, and floats on the surface, being about 10 per cent, lighter. Were it not for the interposition of this merciful law, and were ice to sink in water, many of the lakes, rivers and streams within tlie temperate zones would be rendered incapable of navigation during the greater jpart of the year by reason of the ice at the bottom. Application for Burns anb Scalds. The following has been tested in the severest cases of burning and scalding from railway and steamboat accidents. Glycerine, 5 ozs. ; white of egg, 4 ozs. ; tinct, of arnica 3 ozs. ; mix the glycerine and white of egg thoroughly in a mortar and gradually add the arnica. Apj)ly freely on linen rags night and morning, previously washing with warm castile soap suds. In urgent cases, if nothing better can be had, clap on a mud poultice, a favorite and very effectual remedy with school boys who are stung . while making war on hornets' nests. Cement to mend Leaky Boilers. — Powdered litharge, 2 parte, very fine sand, 2 parts, slaked quick lime, 1 part. Mix all together. To use, mix the proper quantity with boiled linseed oil and apply, quick. It gets hard very soon. Strong Cement for Steam Joints. — ^Wliite lead ground in oil, 10 parts, black oxide of manganese, 3 parts, litharge, 1 part. Eeduce to the proper consistency with boiled linseed oil and apply. Cement For Holes or Cracks, — ^Red lead ground in oil, G parts, white lead, 3 parts, oxide of manganese, 2 parts, silicate of soda, 1 part, litharge, ^ part. aU mixed and used as putty. MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEirTS. 423 Rust Joint, Quick Setting — Sal ammoni.ac pulverized, lib., flour of sulp-hur, 2 lbs. ; iron boriugs, 80 lbs. ; mix to a paste with water iu quantities as required for immediate use. Quick Setting Joint better than thf, i.ast, r.uT requires MORE teme to Set. — Sal ammonia, 2 lbs., sulphur lib., iron filings 20Glbs. Air and Water tight Cejient for Casks and Cisterns.-- l\lelted glue, 8 parts, linseed oil, 4 parts, boiled into a varnish witli litharge; hardens in 48 hours. IMarine Glue.— India rubber 1 part, coal tar 12 parts, heat gcntl.y mix, and add 20 parts of powdered shellac, pour out to cool, when used heat to about 250°. Another Ditto. — Glue 12 parts, water sufficient to dissolve, add yellow rosin 3 parts; melt then add turi:)entitto 4 parts, mix thor- oiTghly together. Cejient fob External Use. — Ashes 2 partS} <:lay 3 parts, sand 1 part; mix with a little oil, very durable. Cement to Resist Red Heat and Boiling "Water. — To 4 or 5 ]\arts of clay, thoroughly dried and pulverized, add 2 parts of fime iron lilings free from oxide, 1 part of peroxyde of manganese, 1 part of common salt, and ^ part of borax. INIingle thoroughly, render as fine as possible, then reduce to thick paste with the necessary quantity of water, mixing well ; use immediately, and apply heat, gradually in- creasing almost to a white heat. Cement to Join Sections of Cast-Iron Wheels, &c.— ISIaho a paste of pure oxide of lead, litharge, and concentrated glycerine. Unrivalled for fastening stone to stone or iron to iron. Varnish for Boilers. — Asphaltum dissolved in turpentine. Soft Cement for Steam-boilers, Steam-pipes, &c. — ^Red or white lead, in oil, 4 parts ; iron borings, 2 to 3 parts. Hard Cement. — Iron borings and salt water, and a small quantity of Fal-ammoniac, with fresh water. Gasfitters' Cement. — Mix together resin, 4| parts ; wax, 1 part ; and Venetian red, 3 parts. Plumbers' Cement.— Black resin, 1 part; brick dust, 2 parts, well incorporated by a melting heat, CoppERSMTHs' Cement.— Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed together into a putty, are often used by coppersmiths and engineers to secure joints ; the washers of leather or cloth are smeared with th^s mixture in a pasty state, CoaiPOSiTiONS TO Fill Holes in Casting^.-^MIx 1 part of borax in solution with 4 parts dry clay. — Another : Pulverized binoxido of manganese, mixed with a strong solution of silicate of soda (water clay) to form a thick paste. Cast Iron Cement. — Clean borings, or turnings of cast iron, 13 parts ; sal-ammouiae, 2 parts ; flour of sulphur, 1 part ; mix thein Avell together in a mortar, and keep them dry. When required for use, take of the mixture, 1 part; clean borings, 20 parts ; mix thor- oughly, and add a sufficient quantity of wa^or. A little grind-stono dust added improves the cement. Cement for Steam-pipe Joints, etc., with Faced Flanges. — White lead, mixed, 2 parts ; red lead, dry, 1 jmrt ; grind, or other- wise mix them to a consistence of thiu putt^ ; apply interposed lay era 42'1 MACHINISTS, KNOINEETIS', AC, KECEirTS. ■witli 1 or 2 Ihiclmcsscs of canvas, or gauzo -wire, as the necessity of the case may bo, CicsiicNT roil JoixTS OF Iron Pipes or Holes in Castings.— Tako of iron Tjorin^s, coarsely powdered, 5 lbs. ; of powdered sal- ammoniac, 2oz, ; or sulphur, loz.: and water sufficient to moisten it. This composition hardens rapidly, but, if time can be allowed it sets more firmly without the sulphur. Use as soon as mixed, and ram tightly into the joints or holes. Best Cement tor Aqu.vria.— Ono part, by measure, say a gill of litharge ; 1 gill of plaster of I'aris ; 1 gill of dry, white gaud ; ^ a gill of finely powdered resin. Sift, and keep corked tight until recjuired for use, when it is to be made into a putty by mixing in .boiled oil (linseed) with a little patent drier added. Never use it after it has been mixed (that is, with the oil) over fifteen hours. This cement can bo used for marine as well as fresh water aquaria, as it resists the action of salt water. The tank can bo used immediately, but it is best to give it three or four hours to dry. Another. — Mix equal quantities of any white lead and red lead to a paste with mastic varnish and use as soon as mixed. Cement for Belting. TFaierproo/,— Dissolve gutta percha in bisulphide of carbon to the consistence of molasses, slice down and thin the ends to be united, warm the parts, and api^ly the cement, then hammer lightly on a smooth anvil, or submit the parts to hca\'y pressure. To Repair Le^vkages in Fire Engine IIose.— Pass a round bar of iron into the hose under the leak, then rivet on a patch of leather, previously coated with marine glue. To Eepair Rubber Hose. — Cut the hose apart where it is defec- tive ; obtain from any gasfitter a piece of iron pipe 2 or 3 inches long, twist the hose over it until the ends meet, wrap with strong twine, well waxed, and it will last a long time. Portable Glue for Draughtsmen. — Glue 5 ozs. ; sugar 2 ozs. ; water 8 ozs. ; melt in a water bath, cast it in molds. For use dissolvo in warm water. Cementing Emery to "Wood. — Melt together equal parts of shellac, white resin and carbolic acid in crystals ; add the last after the others are melted. To Coat Iron with Emert.— Give the iron a good coat of oil and white lead, when this gets hard and dry, apply a mixture of glue and emery. To Clean Cotton "Waste.— Pack the waste in a tin cylinder •with a perforated false bottom and tube with stop-cock at bottom. Pour on the waste bisulphide of carbon sufficient to cover, and allow to soak a few minutes, then add more bisulphide, and so on for a time or two, and then squeeze out. By simple distiUation the whole of the bisulphide, or nearly all, can easily be recovered and BO be used over again. This will free the cotton completely from grease. French Putty, — Seven pounds linseed oil and 4 lbs. brown nmber are boiled for two hours, and 02 grammes wax stirred in. After removal from the fire 5i lbs. fine chalk and 11 lbs. white lead are added and thoroughly incorporated ; said to be very hard and permanent. MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 42i) To Mexd Cracked Cast-Irojt Vessei^s. — Drill a hole at each ex- treme end of the crack, to prevent its further extension, plug rivet the holes with copper, and, with fine iron filings saturated with urine, caulk the crack. Four parts of pulverized clay and ono part of iron filings made into a paste with boiling linseed oil and applied hot is a good cement for the same purpose. To Prevent Iron Rusting. — Give it a coat of linseed oil and Vi^hitiug, mixed together in the form of a paste. It is easily removed and will preserve iron from rusting for years. Glue for Labelling on Metals. — Boiling water, 1 qt. ; pulver- ized borax, 2 ozs. ; gum shellac, 4 ozs. Boil till dissolved. Used for attaching Labels to metals, or it will do to write inscriptions with, and dust or dab on a little bronze powder over it, varuisliing over the bronze. Cement for Petroleum Lamts. — Boil 3 jiaxts of resin with 1 part of caustic soda and 5 of water. The composition is then mixcil with half its weight of plaster of Paris, and sets firmly in ^ to f of an hour. It is of great adhesive power, not permeable to petroleum, a low conductor of heat, and but superficially attacked by hot water. For Lute, or cement for closing joints of apparatus, mix Pari:( plaster with water to a soft paste, and apply it at once. It bears near 1 y a red heat. To render it impervious, rub it over with wax and oil. Roman Cement. — Slaked lime, 1 bush., green copperas, 3^ lbs., fine gravel sand, ^ bush. Dissolve the copperas in hot water, and mix all together to the proper consistency for use ; use the day it is mix ed end keep stirring it with a stick while in use. Vicat's Hydraulic Cement is prepared by stirring into water n mixture of 4 parts chalk and 1 part clay ; mix with a vertical wheel in a circular trough, letting it run out in a largo receiver. A deposit soon takes place wliich is formed into small bricks, which after be- ing dried m the sun, are moderately calcined. It enlarges about § when mixed with water. Glue to Resist Moisture. — Glue, 5 parts, resin, 4 parts, rod ochre, 2 parts, mix with the smallest possible quantity of water. Cement to Fasten Leather on Top Rollers. — Gum arable, 2^ ozs., isinglass 2| ozs., dissolve each separately in water and mix.^ Parchment Glue. — Parchment shavings, 1 lb., water, 6 qts. Boil till dissolved, strain and envaporate to right consistence. To attach Glass or Metal Letters to Plate Glass. — Copal varnish, 15 parts; drying oil, 5 parts; turpentine, 3 parts; oil of tur- lientine, 2 parts; liquefied glue, 5 parts. Melt in a water bath and add 10 parts of slaked lime. Turners' Cement.— Beeswax, 1 oz.; resm, ^ oz.; pitch, ^ oz.; melt, and stir in fine brick dust. Banic Note Glue.— Dissolve 1 lb. of fine glue or gelatine in water; evaporate it till most of the water is expelled; add h lb. of brown BU^ar, and pour it into moulds. Cement for Electrical Machines and Galvanic Troughs.— Melt together 5 lbs. of resin and 1 lb. of beeswax, and stir in 1 lb. of red ochre (highly dried and still warm) and 4 oz. of plaster of Pari.';, continuing the heat a little above 212°, and stirring constantly till all frothing ceases, or (for troughs) rosm, G lbs. ; dried red ochre, 1 lb., CiUcined plaster of Paris, ^ lb. ; linseed oil, ^ lb. 420 MACnJ-NTSTB AND ENGINEERS' DEPATITMENT. AROiiiTicf'TURAn CraiKNT — 1. Rodnco paprr to a smooth ]iastc"l)y boil- in^ it ill water; then add an equal wei^jlit of silted wliitiii;,' and ^;ood size; l)oil to a proper consistence. 2. Paper paste and size, equal parts; finely powdered plaster of Paris to make it of a proper consistence. Use it as soon as mixed. Can be used in making arcliitectural busts, statues, columns, &c. It is light, receives a good polish, but will not stand water. AiiAHAHTEii Ckment. — 1. Finely powdered plaster of Paris, made into a paste with Avatcr. 2. Melt yellow rosin, or equal ])art,s yellow rosin and beeswax, then stir in half as much finely powdered plaster of Paris. The first is used to join and fit together pieces of alabaster or inarble, or to mend broken plaster figures. The second is to join alabaster, inarble, and other similar substances that Avill bear Ijeing heated. Pkench Cement roii Kooms. — A coat of oxide of zinc, mixed with size, made up like a wash , is first laid on the wall, ceiling, or wainscot, and over that a coat of chloride of zinc applied, prepared in the same way an the first wash. The oxide and chloride effect an immediate combina- tion, and form a kind of cement, smooth and polished as glass, and said to bo superior to plaster of Paris for coating the walls of rooms. Cemekt fok Cloth or Leather. — Take ale,l pt. ; best Russia isin- glass, 2 ozs. ; put them into a common glue kettle and boil until the isin- glass is dissolved; then add 4 ozs. of the best common glue, and dissolve it Aviththe other ; then slowly add ozs. of boiled linseed oil, stirring all the time Avhile adding, and until well mixed. When cold it appears like India rubber. To use, dissolve what you need in a suitable quantity of ale to have the consistence of thick glue. It is applicable for earth en- Avarc, china, glass, or leather ; for harness, belts for machinery, cloth belts for cracker machines for bakers, &c. If for leather, shave off as if for sewing, apply the cement Avith a brush while hot, laying a weight to keep the joint firmly pressed for 6 to 10 hours, or OA^er night. Cutlers' Cement. — Black losin, 4 lbs. ; beeswax, 1 lb. ; melt together and add 1 lb. finely powdered and dried brick-dust. Used for fastening knives and forks in their handles Avhen they become loosened by use. Cement for Fastening Fibrous Materials to Metals. — This can be effected by dissolving glue in vinegar by heat and adding one- third of its volume of Avhite pine pitch, also liot. Good Paste that will Keep a Year.— Dissolve a teaspoonful of alum in a quart of warm Avater. When cold, stir in as much flour as will bring it to the consistence of cream, being particular to break up all the lumps ; next, place it on the fire and alioAv it to cook gently for a few. minutes, stirring Avell meanwhile ; add 2 teaspoonf uls of corrosive sub- limate, a few drops of carbolic acid, and a teaspoonful of oil of rose- mary, or cloves, or laA^ender, or any other essential oil, stirring in Avell. This paste Avill keep for any length of time in prime condition. Mucilage. — Put 3 ozs. of gum arable in an earthen-ware vessel con- taining ^ pt. of cold water. If the liquid is occasionally stirred, the gum in 24 hours will be dissolved and ready for use. Cement to Fasten Rubber to Wood or Metal. — Soak pulverized gum shellac in 10 times its Aveight of ammonia ; in 3 or 4 Aveeks a slimy mass is obtained Avhicli Avill become liquid without the use of hot water ; this softens the rubber, and becomes, after A'^olatilization of the ammonia, hard and impermeable to gases and fluids whenever it is used on rubber connected to wood or metal, as in steam, or other apparatus. Imperishable Putty. — Linseed oil, 7 lbs. ; brown umber, 4 lbs. ; boil together tAVO hours ; stir in 2 oz. beeswax, remove from the fire, juid mix in 5^ lbs chalk and 11 lbs. white lead, mixing thoroughly. Cheap Gold Varnish for Ornamental Tin-Ware. — Turpentine varnish, 2 gals. ; turpentine, 1 gal. ; asphaltum, 1 gill ; umber, 8 oz. ; yellow aniline, 4 oz. ; gamboge, 1 lb. Boil and mix for 10 hours. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT 427 Temporary Repairs isi LoconaolSve Brealc-dowais on tlie HosicL That the locomotive, in its long and rapid trips, with continual oscilla- tion, jars, and heavj'- shocks, over uneven rails, passing around curves and siuuosities, twisting first one way and then another, should meet with frequent- break-downs, is a matter of small wonder. The real wonder is that they do not occur more frequently. Much of this im- munity from accident is doubtless owing to the watchful care of the men to whom they are intrusted, whose perceptions and intuitions are quickened to a wonderful degree of activity by the peculiar dangers Avhich beset them in their calling. Among the emergencies in which the locomotive engineer may be called to act, the following may be noted : 1. Bursting' of the Tubes or Flues. — The temporary remedy for this is to drive a tapering plug of pine wood into the ruptured tube by ram- ming it with the end of an iron bar. "When a simple leak exists, the plug should be driven into the tube so as to cover the fractured part, Avhere the action of the steam will swell the plug, causing it to fit tight and correct the trouble. The timber used should be Avell seasoned, and the plugs formed a trifle too small for the tube ; the expansion due to tlie moisture will do the rest, "With bursted tubes the wooden plugs should be followed up by tapering iron plugs driven tight into the flues. To do this comfortably it will be necessary to repress the heat in the furnace by covering the fire with fresh fuel from the tender. 2. Throiving off a Driving Wheel. — When the break occurs, as is fre- quently the case, just outside the driving-axle box, remove the driving- box and substitute in its place a substantial piece of timber fitted to use as a journal bearing for the axle. Adjust this timber on the pedestal cap so as to sustain the axle in the centre of the pedestal. By cautious management, disconnecting the valve gearing, securing the piston, and openhig the cylinder cocks as before, the engine may be run slowly to- wards its destination. 3. Where a Wheel Tire is Thrown Of, the best way is to elevate the dismantled wheel from the track by fittiug a block of timber into, the oil cistern of the driving-box; when this is done connect with another engine and tow the disabled machine to the repair shop without allow- ing the tireless wheel to toucli the rails. ' 4. Heated Axle-Boxes. — This trouble is frequently detected by the odor of burning oil. In tliis case the speed should, if possible, be re- duced, and the box freely lubricated; but if this proves of no avail, a brisk jet of cold water from the tank should be directed on the hot box by means of a small rubber hose, which should always be kept on hand for such emergencies. To avert all danger from the fused lining metal of the brasses becoming Brazed to the journal of the axle the engine should be kept moving very slowly, and not allowed to come to a full stop until the trouble is ])ast. 5. When the Piston-Iiod becomes Heated, the remedy is to loosen the gland sufficiently to permit the free emission of steam from the engine cyl- inder through the packing. Lubricate freely and apply water with the hose as above noted, while running slowly. 6. Broken Crank Pin. — Where only one crank-pin is broken remove the parallel or coupling rods on both sides of tlie engine, and if the broken crank-ioin belongs to the driving-wheels, remove the connecting rod at the same time, open tlie cylinder waste-water cocks, and se- curely block the cross-head. If the parallel rods on both sides of the engine are not removed, there is imminent danger, Avliile running, of breaking the remaining crank-pins on the opposite side. 4'28 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS'' DEPARTMENT. 7. Drtvuif/ out thn Front Cylinder-head. — Rcmovo tlio coniicctiup;-rod on tho dis.aV)lc(l .side of tlio engine, and detiicli tlie valve motion, either l)y tiiking down tho eccentric rod straps or at tho rock-shaft arm. Next, set tho valve in the centre of its travel, so as to overlap and cover both of tlic cylinder steam ports, hut with tlie exhaust port open. Then crowd the back toAvards tho tender as far as it will go and i^roceed with tho sound cylinder. 8. Breaicinri of the Piston-rod.--T\\(i provisional remedy for thif, wlicro the cylinder-head is not driven out, is to proceed as directed in tlio last noted emergency. Open the waste-water cocks of tho disabled cyl- inder to check any leakage of steam past tlio slide valve from gaining admission to the cylinder and forcing the piston against tho cylinder- head and driving it out. Block tho piston securely by means of pieces of timber fitted between the guide-bars, so as to extend between the guide-yoke and cross-head. 9. Broken Spring or Spring-IIa7iger.—A\^i>\j tho jacks and raise tho engine until the axle-box of the driving-wheel is nearly in the centre of the i)cdestal, then place a suitable piece of iron crosswise of the upper part of the driving-axle box, but between it and tho engine frame, so as to rest the weight of the engine on the frame and relievo the spring. To prevent the movement of the equalizing bar, and to permit the opera- tion of the spring at the other end of the said bar without moving it, a piece of iron should be placed between the bar and the top of the engine frame. 10. Breaking of Piston-Rod from the Cross-Head. — ^In this case tho piston maybe removed from the cylinder, or immovably braced againrt the front cylinder-head, as may be most convenient It matters not if it does leak a little steam. 11. Breaking a Lifting Link or the Saddle Pin Connecting the Ite- verse Shaft to the Slot-Link. — The temporary remedy for this accident is to fit a piece of wood and fasten it with stout twine on the top of the dio ojr link-block. It should be of sufficient length to keep tho link in proper position for duty in running tho train. Next, secure another piece of wood (by the same means as the last noted) in tho link-slot below tho die or sliding-block, to fasten that block in the right position to allow the engine to run. As the engine cannot be reversed on the disabled, side, the driver must exercise double caution in stopping. 12. Slipping of the Eceentrics. — The provisional remedy for this ac- cident is as follows : Place the reverse lever in the end notch of the sector forward and place the driving crank-pin or engine-crank as nearly on a, dead centre as possible, opening the waste-water cocks at both ends of the cylinder. Now detach the rocker-arm from the slide-valve spindle, and move the latter until the opening of the cylinder steam-port, corresponding to the end of the cylinder at which the piston stands, will be shown by the emission of steam through the waste-water cock at that end of tho cylinder ; the throttle-valve being slightly opened to admit a small quau- , tity of steam to the cylinder and steam-chest, for if a large supply en- tered it would be liable to pass through leaks in the piston and thenco through both of the waste-water cylinder-cocks. The position of tho valre being now ascertained, the eccentric is next moved upon tho driving-axle, and adjusted so that the valve-spindle will connect with tho rocker-arm without being moved, or moving the valve at all. Still an- other temporary remedy is this : Set the reverse lever in the forward notch, place the crank on its forward dead centre, and slacken the set- screw of the eccentric which connects to the upper end of tlio Jink; the forward eccentric. This eccentric must now be moved round upon the axle until the slide-valve causes the steam-port at the front end of the cylinder to open sufficiently to aSord tlie required amount of MACHINISTS AJfD ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 429 valve lead. To accomplish the desired results, the eccentric must be moved as it operates vihen the engine is going ahead. The eccentric being thus properly adjusted iu position, it should be firmly secured by means of its set-screw. If the rear eccentric becomes loose, place the re- verse lever in the backward notch, and elevate the link so that the ec- centric connected to the lower end of the link may be properly adjusted, moving it around on the axle as it operates when the engine is running backwards, until the rear cylinder-cock is open to the required amount of valve lead, when it must be secured as above noted. How TO Shape a Saucing Vessel or Steamek.— The model of a tcsscI is iu every case determined by the nature of the traffic for which she is des- tined, the motive power by "which she will be impelled, and the character of the waters she is intended to navigate. For shallow ports and rivers, she must be flat-bottomed and of light draught. If she is to navigate northern seas, she must be constructed to encounter and outride the fearful gales and tremendous storms of frequent occurrence. If she is to visit tropical climates and follow the great marine highways of commerce in deep water from ocean to ocean, she must be equally adapted for conflict with the tropical hurricane and the freezing gales of the north. It is a fact that the first-class iron steamers which ply between New York and the various European ports have proved themselves abundantly capable, where no serious derangement is sustained by the machinery, of coming safely into port through the worst possible kind of Aveather. Even contrary winds have the beneficial effect oi quickening the draught of the furnaces, and thus increasing the speed of tlio vessel. This wonderful endurance and nice adaptation to duty is no chance work ; it is the result of design— the careful adjustment of forces, and tho closest calculation on the part of the designer. If a vessel is to be impelled by the wind, she Vvill have one shape ; if by Rteam, and with paddles, quite another ; and still another if a propeller. There is a vast discrepancy between tho graceful curves and swelling lines of a first-class excursion steamer and the iinwieldy, cumbrous form of the collier, yet each vessel is specially designed for its particular vocation. The character, cost, length, width, depth, and capacity of the vessel being determined, the first step is to make the model. To do this a number of pieces of well-seasoned, select j)ieces of wood, of a uniform thickness, are chosen. The size may be from 4 to 7 ins. wide, and fiom 18 ins. to 3 ft. iu length. An equal number of pieces of veneer, of a corresponding size, are next selected, of a color contrasting with that of the boards previously chosen. The boards are now carefully adjusted over each other, with a veneer between each, and the Avhole are glued together, and submitted to pressure, so as to make a solid, comj)act block of the whole. From this block the designer forms the model of one side of the hull of the projected vessel, for as both sides Avill be exactly alike, there is no use for representing more than one-half of the hull. The greatest care and the nicest calculation must be used in order to render the form of the block an exact counterpart of tho hull of the future ship, as in buildiug the latter every part must be con- structed to conform, iu the minutest particulars, to the model. It will be seen from this that every thing relating to the ship's capacity, speed, draught, safety, &c., depends upon the ability, forethought, and prescience of the de- signer in calculating every possible contingency relating to the displacement of water, draught, buoyancy, the force of the wind and waves, &c. If tho future vessel be intended for a steamer, the designer must be able to calcu- late the proper degree of immersion for the paddles or submersion for tho propeller, as either of the two may be used iox propulsiou, with Bumerous other minor details. 430 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DErAIlTMEM'I'. Among the benefactors of humanity, whoso labors have concTuced to render the latent forces of natnre subservient to the uses of mankind, the name of James Watt holds preeminent rank. The following epitaph is inscribed ou the pedestal of Chantry's statue of Watt in Westminster Abbey : Not to perpetuate a name, which must enduee "while the peaceful alits flourish, b^t to show that mankikd have learnt to honor those who best deserve their gratitude, the king, his ministers, and many of the nobles and commoners of the realm, raised this monu- MENT TO JAMES WATT, who directing the force of an original genius, EARLY exercised IN PHILOSOPHIC RESEARCH, TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM ENG-INB, enlarged the resources of his country, increased THE POWER OF MAN, AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE AMONG THE ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD. BORN AT G-REENOCK, 1736. DiED AT HEAIHFIELD, IN STAFFORDSHIRE, 1819. In 1764, Watt coustrncted the first steaTO engine of real practical value ever made in England, and in 1786 he patented and introduced the first non-condens- ing engine. This improvement consisted in his discovery of the power of cold water to condense steam, and he applied this means in a separate vessel. Pour ounces of water will, in a second, condense 200 feet of steam, and reduce their expansive force to one-fifth. The Waterous Engine Works Co.'s High PEESstmE Engine, repre- sented in the cut, is in very extensive use in Canada, and is credited with first- class performances. The improved Governor used on this engine is superior to most of the best kinds now manufactured in its controlling and regulating action, combined with easy adjustm.ent. Outer bearings are added to the valve spindles, and brass glands to the stuffing boxes, which are held to place with a cap screwed on, thus obviating any liability to get out of line. The piston JIACIIINIGTS'AIID ENGIKEEKS' DEPARTMENT. 431 432 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEEKS' DEPATITMENT. rods and crank-pins arc of steel, and all valve Hpindles and cn!;ino T)f)lts am made of l^owinoor iron. Tlio above noted engine must not l)o confounded with the 20 and 25-horse power direct action portable engines manufactured by the same company, so well Icnown and so extensively used in driving saw mills, and performing work connected with ship building in the Maratime Provinces, and other parts of the Dominion of Canadiu These engines and mills are considered by many who use them as marvels of perfection, several parties having sent in attestations of having performed nearly double the work guaranteed by the com- pany. RICHARD^ S INDICATOR, BY ELLIOT BROTHERS, LONDON. The above cut represents a Richards Steam Engine Indicfitor, consisting of a cylinder containing an accurately adjusted piston, the upper side of which is always exposed to the downward pressure of MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 4.33 the atmospliere, and fitted with a stiff spiral spring of known strength to resist the upward movement of the steam when it operates from ■beneath. Tlie indications of the instrument are exliibited by means of a pencil connected with tlie piston and operated by the fluctuating pressure of the steam, whereby the pencil is compelled to move up or down in a vertical direction, and describe a line on a piece of paper placed on the card barrel or drum shown m the cut, with the gradu- ated scale, the drum in the meantime being compelled to move hither and thither on its axis by means of a cord connecting it with a suit- able part of the engine operating to draw it one way against the ten- sion of a spring during the forward stroke of the engine, the back- ward movement of the drum towards its original position being effected by the operation of the spring while the cord is relaxed dur- ing the return stroke of the engine. The piston to whicli the pencil is attached, is very light, has very little friction, small momentum, and very limited motion, the spring on the upper part being quite stiff and rigid, and so graduated in strength that a variation in the pressure of 1 lb. to the square inch will force the pencil up or down a definite part of an inch. The indicator is intended to exhibit the pressure of steam in the cylinder at every j)art of the piston's travel, and thus show the actual or indicated horse-power. In applying the indicator to horizontal cylinders, the proper place for insertion is on the upper side, near the ends, but averted as much as possible from the steam ports, as the rushing steam has a tendency to derange the/ indications. Vertical cylinders should be tapped at the upper end, and the indicator cock screwed in, or the aperture in which the oil cup is inserted maybe used for that purpose; for the lower end, drill through the side of the cylinder, and insert a tube with the end bent upwards for the reception of the indicator cock. The indicator be- ing in position, a cord (fine wire is preferable), from the paper barrel is attached to a " reducing wheel," which is secured to some part of the engine frame; another cord connects the reducing wheel with the piston liead ; the intervention of this wheel is necessary in order to diminish or reduce the long movement of the piston to a sufficient extent to conform to the small size of the instrument used. Tl.c connection being complete, and the engmc m motion, the paper bar- rel will commence to revolve with the forward movement of the piston, in anta-onism to the tension of the coiled spring above noted, when the cord is relaxed by the return stroke of the piston, the paper barrel, operated by the spring, will resume its original po«ticn, and this motion will cbntinue as long as may be desirable. The pencil, if now allowed to press upon the moving paper, will describe a straight horizontal line, called the atmospheric fine. On the admis- sion "of steam bv turning the tap of the indicator, this liorizontal motion will suddenly xhange into an upward or downward move- ment, just as the piston in the indicator is driven upwards by the steam or downwards by the atmosphere, as either gains the ascend- ancy; and the pencil will describe, on the moving paper, a space or outline, compounded of the two motions, called an indicator diagram, each point in the course of which will determine, by its elevation or depression above the atmospheric line, the exact amount of pressure in that part of the cylinder during each part of the forward and re- turn stroke. Many prefer to trace the indicator diagram previous to tracing the atmospheric line. 28 434 MACITTN13T3 AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. In (liacfrnin E, the .itmosphoric line A T<, dcscribod hy the pencil/ ■witlioiit stoiiin, is cqiiivjilcnt to tlu; stroke o£ tlie ])istoii, which may 1)0 divided into ns maiiv aliquot pn-i'ts as tlicre arc inehcs in tl)e stroke, i)^ tlio piston. rcri)endi(!ulars raiscid on this lino will cut tlio diagram, at points indicating tlio corresponding pressure. Tlie curved line- A B, traced hy the pencil, oxiiibits the varying pressure of tlie steam daring the steam stroke, in the direction A B, and during the return fitroke B A; the continuation BCA represents similarly the hack pressure due to incomplete exhaust. The curve is thus arranged to hegin and end in itself, and it plainly represents the pressure oi' the steam on one side of the piston during a double stroke. Divide the base lino into inches of stroke, say 20, and at each division draw vertical lines ; similarly draw lines parallel to the atmospheric line at equal distances, of say 10 lbs. pressure by the indicator scale ; the force of steam at all points of the stroke will be obvious. E Corner earn Stroke: ^~ Corner 'Mductiori/ Ijr; Cvrner; "Vhcu-UTnlyine Corner Meturn Btroke. To Compvte the Power of the Diagram— ^et down the length of. the spaces formed by the vertical lines from the base, in measure- ments of a scale accompanying the indicator, and on which a 10th of ^ an inch usually represents a pound of pressure; add up the total length of all the spaces, and divide by the number of spaces, which will give the mean length, or the mean pressure upon the piston in pounds per square inch ; multiply the area of the piston in square inches by the pressure in pounds per square inch, and by the speed of the piston, in feet, per minute, and divide by 33,000, Avhich gives the actual number of horses' power. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 435 At such times a register should be used to count the number of revolutions per minute. Note the size of the ports, the form and kind of engine, the lap and lead of the valve, the exhaust lead, the pressure of steam in the boiler, diameter of cylinder, number of strokes per minute, the diameter and length of steam pipe, the point of cut-off, the height of the barometer and temperature of the engine room ; and the vacuum by gauge, the temperature of the hot-well, and that of the injection water, if the operation has been performed on a condensing engine. To take a diagram with absolute truth it is necessary to operate at each end of the cylinder. Power Required for Various Purposes. — To drive a 20 to 30 inch circular saw, 4 to 0 horse power. 32 to 40 " " 12 " 48 to 50 " " 15 " " " 60toG2 " " 25 " " POWER T7ECESSARY TO GRIND GRAEST WITH PORTABLE MILLS. Horse Power. Size of Stones. Revolutions per Minute. Bushels Corn Ground per Hour. Bushels of Wheat Ground per Hour. 2 to 4 12-incli. 800 to 900 Ito 4 1 to 3 4 to 6 20 " 650 to 700 5 to 8 4 to G 6 to 8 30 " 550 to 600 10 to 15 7 to 10 8 to 12 36 " 450 to 500 IB to 25 12 to 15 12 to 15 48 " 350 to 400 25 to 35 15 to 18 Saw Machine for Stones.— .S'o/i Sand Stone : Breadth of saw- cut, J inch; time required to saw 10 square feet, 5 minutes 26 secondn; power expended, 4.54 horses, Hard Sand Stone: breadth of cut, I inch ; time employed to cut 10 square feet, 1 hour 37 minutes ; poAvI er required, 2 horses. In sawing stone the labor on calcareous stones is as 45 to 50; on granite, as 500 to 700; on porphyry 1,200. A mar. ble saw requires half a horse power. Water Woukh. —(3folestvort7i.)—l gal. of water = 0 16 cubic ft. ap proximately; 1 cubic foot of water = 614 gallons approximately. Consumption of loater in ioivns.—U gallons per head per day in noT-> manufactunng towns; 20 gallons per day in manufacturing towns. The mam sliould he large enough for double the usual quantity. Impounding reservoirs to contain about 120 days' supply in the less rainy districts in Sif r VA+-^®^'^i^^t^'®^®.^o^^^ ^'^ contain 3 dkys' supply. On the average, about 6-lOths. of the ramf all is available for storage . Loss from overflow flof^^™;^ +1^^' ^^^^^ per cent. Evaporation is 50 per cent, less on rlfi^l than on an undulating rocky country. Infiltration, m England, in winter S."? per cent. « „ ^ in spring 35 " ' m summer 2 " " - -„ " in autumn 48 " *' Average of the year 42 " Water Works.— 1 square vard" of filter for every 700 gallons in 24 hours; formed of 2 ft. 6 ins. of fine sand, 6 in. of com- mon sand, 61ns. of shells, 2 ft. 6 ins. of gravel. Perforated pipes to he laid in the lowest stratum. 10 Unite Water Pipes.— An excellent material for uniting water pipes is prepared by combining 4 parts of Portland cement and 1 part of unslacked lime, mixed together in small portions in a stout mortar, adding enough water to permit it to be reduced to a soft paste. 43G MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DErAIlTMENT. THE ALLEN HIGH PRESSURE CUT-OFF ENGINE. The en.fjine represented above is construct erl in the best manner, and valuable improvements have been introduced with a view to attain a very high speed and thus ensure immense power in a limited sijace. The travel of the piston is from 600 to 800 ft. per minute, and the engine is constructed of the best material, and is of excellent design throughout . HaMPSON and "WniTEHILIi'S HlGH PRESSURE ENGINE.— This massive and powerful engine (see cut) is in quite extensive use, and is noted for its substantial construction, its excellent valve arrange- ment, powerful governor, economical expansion gear, and many other valuable points. The following Table shows the Dimensions, Power, "Weight, &c., of different kinds of Portable Steah Engine3 ano Boilers.— Haswell, Power. Cylinder. Driving or Fly Wheels. Weight of Engine and Boiler. Nom- inal. Act- ual.* Diam. Stroke. a Revolu- tions. 4 5 7 8 12 15 20 25 30 40 4.7 7.3 10.5 14.3 19.2 24.3 30.9 36.3 43.2 58.8 4 X 10 5 X 10 6 X 10 7 X 10 8 X 12 9 X 12 10 X 16 11 X 18 12 X 18 14 X 18 ins. 21/2 X 6 3X7 3V2X' 7 3%X 8 4X8 5X9 6 X 10 6 X 10 6, X 12 7 X li 175 175 175 175 150 150 116 100 100 100 lbs. 2,800 3,200 4,200 4,900 6,100 6,900 11,200 12,.30O 13,800 16,700 * Computed at 60 lbs. pressure. All the Portable Engines have two flf wheels, or Driving pulleys. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 437 408 MACHINISTS AND KNCINKKKS' DEI'AllTMKNT. The Baxtku PonTAr.LE Steam Engine, as iTianufacturcd by the Colt Arms Co. of llai tfoi d, Conn., is made of live sizes, embracing two four, six, eight, and ten-horse power, respectively, is certainly onc'of the most complete, unique, simple, and economical poiUiblo en^nnes ever constructed. It is too well known t(^ require a detailed descri on; but two illustrations are presented herewith, the lin;t «howi K a front view of the exterior part, and the other exhibiting a bcctioual view of the plain boiler for the two-horse power engine. The largest size has a bursting strength corresponding to 500 lbs. to the square inch, whereas the working pressure is about 70 lbs. ; tho smallest size a bursting strength of 1000 lbs., and a working pressure of about 90 lbs. All the heating surfaces are below the water line, which ensures safety to the boiler. The circulation of the water within the boiler is perfect, thus holding the sediment in. suspension, so that it may be expelled by blowing out. The cylinder and its parts are kept hot by immersion in the steam, so that no caloric is lost, and tho piston has ^ vertical movement, that there is but little wear and MACHINISTS A.ND ENGINEERS' DEPAKTMENT, 439 tear resulting from friction. It if! hardly ])ossible to explodo tho boiler in any contingency, and 100 lbs. of coal will run a four-horse engine for 10 hours. The whole machine is composed of about 130 component parts, all interchangeable, so that each article can be fur- nished by the manufacturer, as it may be required to effect repairs rendered necessary by wear or breakage. The engine has a piston speed of about 200 feet per minute, the diameter of the piston is about the same as the length of the stroke, and the valve arrangement is most complete. Gkiffith and Wedge' 13 Yeetical Poet able Engine.— The engine represented below presents a combination of many valuable features, among others- the mini- mum of friction, o\ t tl o vertical position of t an improvement which | utc novelty on engines ^ L t d( scription, and effe i vents the unequal v )f t cylinder and piston 1 1 1 -horizontal engines I 1 1 The whole mechanic 1 ments are most compl to i ' l|f efficient that it can be di \ 1 i ■ ij 275 revolutions, tho ] i i i I j GRIFFITH AND WEDGE'S VERTICAL PORTABLE ENGINE. for saw mills, to 460 revolutions per minute, without overtasking tho boiler. 440 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEEIIS' DKPARTMENT. ROBERT FULTON, THE PIONEER OF STEAM NAVIGATIOIST IN AMERICA. While Robert Fulton was in England, convertinj? a speculation into ft reality, he was on friendly intercourse with Sir R. Phillips, to whom lie wrote a triumphant letter on the evening of his first voyage on the Hudson. This letter was shown to Earl Stanhope and four or five eminent engineers, but treated with scorn as descriptive of an impos sibility. Sir R. Phillips then advertised for a company to rejjeat on the Thames what had been done on the Hudson, but he obtained onlj'^ two ten-pound conditional subscribers, after expending some pounds in advertising! He then printed, with commendation, Fui.- ton's letter in the Monthly Magazine and his credulity was general- ly reprobated. Then, for several years, the American "accounts were treated as falsehoods, till a man ruined himself by launcJiiug a vessel MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 441 on the Clyde, Three Scotchmen afterwards made experiments. It •was, however, a mere speculation until taken up by Fulton in 1806-7, and introduced on the American rivers. Thence Bell introduced it to the Clyde. At first every one derided the inventor as well as the in- vention, being afraid to trust themselves on the boat. The ignoble treatment accorded by America to the memory of her noble son, the generous Fulton, is a blot most foul upon her banner. Hundreds of thousands now avail themselves of the great invention which his genius brought to light, on the waters and wharves where 70 years ago, during his life time, the name of the poor unrequited inventor was a laughing stock and a bye-word. It is but a few days ago that a relation appeared in the Nexo York Sun, giving an account of the accidental discovery of his bones in a vault, where, as we now learn, they had been granted a temporary resting place by the favor of the owner, and finally forgotten. Sugar Mill for Canes. —A S-cylinder mill, with rollers 5| ft. long, 30 ins. diam., and making 2^ turns per minute, driven by an engine of 25 to 30 horse power, will express the juice out of 100 tons of canes in 12 to 15 hours. An acre of land produces from 10 to 20 tons of canes, according to the age and locality of the canes. Tho juice stands from 8 to 12 of the sacchrometer, according to the locality. The product in sugar varies from G to 10 per cent, of the weight of the canes, according to the locality and mode of manufacture. Well constructed mills give in juice from 60 to 70 per cent, of the weight of the canes, and one main condition of efficiency is, that the rollers shall travel slowly, as with too great a speed the juice has not time to separate itself from the woody refuse of the cane, and much of it is reabsorbed. To defecate 830 gals, of juice, 6 boiling pans or caul- drons are required, 4 scum presses, and 10 filters, and to granulate the sugar, 2 vacuum pans, 6J feet diam., are required, with two con- densers, and it is better also to have two air pumps. The steam for boiling the liquor in the vacuum pans is generated in 3 cylindrical boilers, each 6 ft. in diam. To whiten the sugar, there are 10 centri- fugal machines, driven by a 12 h. p. engine, which also drives a pair of crushing rollers. — Bourne. Oil Mill.— Weight of edge runners, 6,000 lbs. ; number of turns of the vertical spindie per minute, 6; weight of seed introduced every 10 minutes, 55 lbs. ; weight of seed crushed daily, 3,300 lbs. ; product in oil in 12 hours, 1,320 lbs. ; power expended, 272 horses. Hydrostatic Press.— 30 hales of cotton per hour. Engine {high pressure cylinder), 10 ins. diam. ; stroke of piston, 3 ft. ; Press7n-e of steam, 50 lbs. per square inch; full stroke; Revolutions, 45 to 60 per minute; Presses, 2, Avith 12-inch rams; stroke, 4-5 ft.; Pumps, 2; diam., 2 ins. ; stroke, 6 ins. — Haswell. Fulling Mill.— In, fulling the cloth called " Beauchamps," each piece being 220 yds. long and .66 wide, and weighuig from 121 to 127 lbs., the fuller makes lOO to 120 strokes per minute; each piece requires 2 hours to full it, and the expenditure of 2 horse power during that time.— Bourne. Indelible Red Ink for Cotton and Woollen Mills.— Use equal parts of copperas and cumabar, both in fine powder, sift, and rub up with linseed oil with a inuller; then squeeze through cloth. Used for writing or stamping on cotton or woollen goods, it cannot be bleached out. 4 12 ]\IACinNIST3 AND KNGINI^EIIS' DKPAJlTMENT, Wind Milt.s, — The Iciistli of an arm (whip) is divided into Kcvon parts, the sails extending over six parts. The Ibrco of wind at 10 miles an lionr, is half a pound per square foot ; at 14 miles is a pound ; at 20 miles 2 lbs. ; at 25 miles 3 lbs. ; at ;')5 miles G lbs. ; at 45 miles 10 lbs. ; at GO miles 17.^ lbs. ; and at 100 miles is nearly 50 lbs. The driv- ing shaft of a wind mill should bo set at an elevated angle Avith tho horizon when sot in low localities, and at a depressed angle when set on elevations. Those angles may range from 3° to C5°. To give tlie fullest effect to the force of the wind, the sails are inclined to tlic axis from 72° to 75°. The tips of the sails often move cO miles per hour, or 44 feet per second. From tip to tip is about 70 feet, and the breadth from 5 to G feet. The performance of such a mill is equiva- lent to tlie power of 34 men. Experiments prove, 1st, That in a vertical wind mill employed to grind corn, the mill stone usually makes 5 revolutions to 1 of the sail. 2ud, When the wind is 19 feet per second, the sails will make from 11 to 12 revolutions per minute, and the mill will grind 880 to 990 lbs. in an hour, or about 22,000 lbs. in 24 hours. 3d, With the wind at 30 feet per second, a mill will carry all sail, and make 22 revolutions per minute, grinding 1984 lbs. of flour in an hour, or 47,690 lbs. in 24 hours. From the experiments of Smeaton, it appears that the following positions are the be.st. Suppose the radius to be divided into 6 equal parts, and call the first part, beginning with the centre, 1, the second 2, and so on, the extreme part being G : — ANGLE WITH THE NO. ANGLE WITH AZIS TLAKE OF MOTION. 1 72 dog. 18 deg. 2 71 " 19 " 3 72 " 18 " 4 74 " IG " 5 77i " 12i- " G 83 7 " French Flour Mill. — Diameter of millstones, 70 inches; num- ber of revolutions per minute, 70; quantity of corn ground and sifted per hour, 260.7 lbs.; power consumed, 3.34 horses, as tested by the dynamometer. English Flour Mill. — Diameter of millstones 51.18 inches; rev- olutions per minute, 110; corn ground per hour by each revolving millstone, 220 lbs. ; power required for two revolving stones, 5.64 horses. Power consumed by one winnowing machine and two bolt- ing machines, with brushes sifting 1,650 lbs. of flour per hour was 6^ liorses. In another mill the number of turns of the millstone was 486 per minute, the quantity of corn ground by each horse power was 120 lbs., of which 72.7 per cent, was flour, 7.8 per cent, was meal, and 19.5 per cent, was bran. In a portable flour mill, with machinery for cleaning and sifting, the total weight was 1000 lbs. — Bourne. English Flour Mill near 'Metz. — Diameter of stones, 51.18 inches; number of revolutions per minute, 110; weight of millstone, 1 ton ; com ground per hour by each pair, 220 lbs. with two pairs of millstones acting, 1 bolting and 1 winnowing machine; the power con- sumed was 8^ horse power. — Bourne. 5 bushels of Northern, and 4^ bushels of Southern Avheat, are required to make 1 barrel of flour; 2 lbs. of wheat make about 3 lbs of bread. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 443 The LiEFFEL Impeoyed Double Ttjrbin-e Water Wheel..^ This celebrated wheel (see cut), manufactared by Jas. Leifel & Co., -of Springfield, Ohio, and IsTew Haven, Conn., of which there are now about 8,000 in use, corabines two independent sets and kinds of buck- ets, one a vertical, and the other a central discharge, differing entirely from each other in the principle of action upon the water. The two sets of buckets are so combined as to make really but one wheel, and by their arrangement admit the greatest possible quantity of water consistent with economical use to any given wheel of whatever size, and at the same time the greatest area for the escape of the water is cecuredo Thus, the surface of the wheel is reduced to a minimum, as compared with the quantity of water used, and a very great loss of power by friction is avoided. In connection with these wheels the Globe cast-iron casing is coming to be almost u.niversally used, espe- cially for the smaller wheels. Many of them are placed under heads of water, varying from 80 to 240 feet, and the tremendous pressure is withstood in the most admirable manner. The severest test, that of taking the place of an over-shot wheel under a very high fall, and with an extremely limited supply of water, is repeatedly applied, and in evei-y instance with the most complete success. For over 12 years 444 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPART^IENT. this Avhccl lias .stood the .soverest practical tests, dcvclo])iiig the in- most power from u given quantity of water, ia all places and undeir all circunistiinccs, from tlie magnificent cottou mill down to tho humble frontier saw and grist mill. Table of Spouting Velocitv and Discharge of "Water for Gate Orifices. It 1 -E 1 F I 15 E 1 F n B 1 E F 1 B 1 E F 1 17.64 0.62 11 58.51 2.03 21 80.84 2.81 31 98.22 3.41 2 24.95 0.86 12 Gl.ll 2.12 22 82.75 287 32 99.80 3.46 3.52 3 30.55 1.16 13 C3.G1 2.21 23 84.61 2.93 33 101.34 4 35.28 1.22 14 66.01 2.29 21 86.43 3.00 34 102.67 3.57 5 39.45 1.37 15 68.33 2.37 25 88.21 3.06 35 104.37 3.63 6 43.21 1.50 16 70.57 2.45 26 89.96 3.12 36 105.85 3.67 7 46.68 1.G2 17 72.74 2.53 27 91.67 3.18 37 107.31 3.72 8 49.90 1.73 18 74.85 2.60 28 93.35 3.24 38 108.75 3.77 9 52.92 1.84 19 76.90 2.G7 29 95.00 3.30 39 110.17 3.82 10 55.79 1.94 20 78.90 2.75 30 96.63 3.56 40 111.58 3.87 The above table gives depth in inches from 1 to 40, as noted under columns B. Columns E represent the velocity per second, in inches and decimals of an inch. Columns F represent the number of cubio feet per minute for each square inch of orifice. Illustration.— Suppose the opening imder a forebay gate, r&r. quired to pass the Avater of a stream, is 48 inches wide and 3 inches deep, with a head of water (B) in forebay of 28 ins. ; to find the water discliarged, run down the columns marked B until you come to 28 ins. (head given in this example); then run across to column F, and you will find 3.24, the number of cubic feet of water discharged by an orifice 1 in. square, under 28 ins. head. The area of the opening given, 48 ins. by 3 ins. is 144 square inches; this multiplied by 3.24 gives 460.56 cubic feet that the above opening will discharge per min- ute. Tliis table gives the actual and not the theoretical discharge* In the measurement of large open streams, first ascertain the mean velocity in feet per minute, and also the area of cross section of the stream in square feet, when the product of these two quantities will give the required quantity of water afforded by the "stream. The velocity of sucli stream can be estimated by throwing floating bodies on the surface of near the specific gravity of tlie Avater, and rating the time accurately required in passing a given distance. It is generally best to ascertain the velocity at the centre, and from this ascertain the mean velocity, which has been found by accurate and reliable ex- periments to be 83 per cent, or about four-fifths of the velocity of the surface of the stream. The cross section may be estimated by measur- ing the depth of the stream at a number of points, at equal distances apart (these points being in a line across the stream), adding the depths together, and multiplying their sum by the distance apart in: feet of any two points. This will give the result required in square feet of cross section, when the product of mean velocity in feet per minute and cross section in square feet, obtains the quantity of water that the stream affords in cubic feet per minute. LeffelVs Wheel Book. Saw and Grist Mill.— A Waterous 40-horse-power engine will drive a 60 inch circular saw, capable of cutting 20,000 feet of ship plank in 12 hours, edger, trimmer, shingle machines, lath machine, and bolter, and 2 run of stone.s in grist mill. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 445 Pitch of Wheels, being a Table of Radii of Wheels ik Inches, having from 7 to 22G teeth, the Pitch being 2 inches, SHOWING how to COMPUTE THE PiTCH FOK A DESIGNATED DIAM- ETER, OR THE Diameter for a Designated Pitch. Teeth. Kadius. Teeth. Radius. Teeth. Radius. Teeth. Radius. Teeth. Radius 7 2.29 51 10 24 OK vo 139 44.25 - 183 68.25 8 2.61 52 16.56 96 30.56 140 44.57 184 58.57 9 2 .93 n't 16.88 30 88 141 44.88 185 58.89 10 3.24 17 on 98 31.20 142 45.20 186 59 21 11 3.55 55 J.i .0^ 99 31.52 143 45.52 187 59.53 12 3.86 00 17.83 100 31 . 84 144 45.84 188 59.84 13 4. 18 57 18 15 101 32.15 145 46.16 189 60.16 i-t 4.49 Oo 18.47 102 32.47 146 46.48 190 60.48 15 4.81 oy 18.79 103 32.79 147 46.79 191 60.80 16 5.12 19 11 104 33.11 148 47.11 192 61.13 17 5.44 r.l bi 19.42 105 33.43 149 47.43 193 61.44 1 a K IR O. (0 ly. it 106 33.74 150 47.75 194 61.76 19 6.39 C3 20.06 107 34.06 151 48.07 195 62.07 OA 6.71 108 34.38 152 48.39 196 62.39 01 Zl 7.71 65 20.70 109 34.70 153 48.70 197 62.71 22 7.03 66 21.02 110 35.02 154 49.02 198 63.03 23 7.34 67 21.33 111 35.34 155 49.34 199 63.34 24 7.66 68 21.65 112 35.65 156 49.66 200 63.66 25 7.98 69 21.97 113 35.97 157 49.98 201 63 -98 26 8.30 70 22.29 114 36.29 158 50.30 202 64.30 27 8.61 71 22.61 115 36.61 159 60.61 203 64.62 28 8.93 72 22.92 116 36.93 160 50.93 204 64.94 29 9.25 73 23.24 117 37.25 iDi 51.25 205 65.26 30 9.57 74 23.56 118 37.56 162 51.57 206 65.57 31 9.88 75 23.88 119 37.88 163 51. 89 207 65.89 32 10.20 76 24.20 120 38.20 164 52.21 208 66.21 33 10.52 77 24.52 121 38.52 165 62.52 209 66.53 Q t o-t 10.84 78 24.83 322 38.84 166 62.84 210 66.85 35 11.16 79 25.15 123 39.16 167 53.16 211 67.17 36 11.47 80 25.47 124 39.47 168 53.48 212 67.48 37 11.79 81 25.79 125 39.79 169 53.80 213 67.80 38 12.11 82 26.11 126 40.11 170 54.12 214 68.12 39 12.43 83 26.43 127 40.43 171 54.43 215 68.44 40 12.74 84 26.74 128 40.75 172 54.75 216 C8.76 41 13.06 85 27.06 129 41.07 173 55.07 217 69.07 42 13.38 86 27.38 130 41.38 174 55.39 218 69.39 43 13.70 87 27.70 131 41.70 175 55.71 219 69.71 44 14.02 88 28.02 132 42.02 176 56.02 220 70.03 45 14.33 89 28.34 133 42.34 177 56.34 221 70.35 46 14.65 90 28.65 134 42.66 178 56.66 222 70.67 47 14.97 91 28.97 135 42.98 179 56.98 223 70.68 48 15.29 92 29.30 136 43.29 180 57.23 224 71.30 49 15.61 93 29. Ql 137 43 61 181 57.62 225 71.66 50 15.93 94 29-93 138 43.93 182 68.93 226 71.94 To find the Radius for any given Pitch other than two inches, the rule is, as two inches is to the given pitch, so is the radius of the Table to the radius required, or, to determine the number of Teeth in a wheel for a designated pitch and diameter, divide the diameter by the pitch, and opposite to the quotient, in the Table will be found the proper number of teeth. Wheel Gearing, Construction of Teeth. — The cut represents a section of a pair of gears whose teeth act on each other on the same plane; they are known as Sj^wr gear. The lai'gest is sx spwmorticQ 446 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT, V)hcd, fittod with wooden cogs. A shows the squaro wooden cogs, genonilly drivciu into inortico wheels provioua to being hiid off witli the dividers and dressed down to the exact pitch and outline, as shown in the shaded part representing the finished tooth. The teeth of the small wheel (called the driven, the large one with the cogs being known as the driver) are iron, being cast with the wheel, and are sufficiently strong if but half the size of cogs. The ][)itch line (see dotted lines extending from B to C, and from D MACHINiaTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 447 to E) is a circle of sufficient climcusionr, to pcrrait the requisite num- ber of teetli and spaces to be laid out on it. Tlie length of a tootli sliould be .7 of the pitch, A of it being belo^v the pitch line, and .3 above, as shomi in cut. As a general thing, the greater the breadth of a tooth across the surface the longer it wili wear. By pitch is understood the space between the middle orcentrea of two adjoining teetli, as shown by the arrows at F F, or the breadth of a tooth and a space, as shown by the arrows at G G. The semi- diameter running to the pitch line is called the pitch radius. The true or chordial pitch is a straight line drawn between the centres of two adjoining teeth, and is that by which the dimensions of the teeth and speed of wheel are computed. The radius is the space between the centre of the wheel and the ■periphery of a tooth, or half the diameter of the Avheel. The line of centres, showai at H, passes through the centres of two wheels, and on this line the pitch circles of the wheels should merge into each other (as shown in cut) when they are properly regulated for operation. Peopobtiox of Teeth of "Wheels—. From pitch line to top of tooth = Pitch x 0-.33 Total depth of tooth = Pitch x 0-75 Thickness of tooth ou pitch line = Pitch X 0*45 Space between teeth on pitch line = Pitch x 0*55 Thickness of rim of wheel =: Pitch x 0*45 Thickness of arms in flat = Pitch x 2*53 Thickness round centre rr Pitch x I'SO Mortice wheels to be wider than iron wheels by twice the thickness ot the rim ; rim to be double the thickness of iron Avheels. Pitches of Equivalent Steengtu fok the Teeth of Wheels ih Diffekent Materials — Pitch for cast iron = l-oo " brass = 1-00 " hardwood = 1-20 " " according to other authorities = 1 -20 The number of arms in wheels should be as follows :— 1-5 to 3.26 feet in diameter, 4 1 8.5 to IG feet in diameter, 8 3-25 to 5 " "5 16 to 24 '< 10 5 to 8.5 " " 6 J Fly Wheels.— Weight of rim should be 85 to 95 lbs. per horse power, momentum of wheel being 4J times that of the piston; dia- meter 3 to 4 times that of the stroke of the engine. Single-acting engines, fly-wheel to be 5 times heavier than in double acting engines. To Compute Weight of Rim — Multiply the mean effective pressure upon the piston, in pounds, by its stroke, in feet, and divide the pro- duct by the product of the square of the number of revolutions, the diameter of the wheel, and '00023. For a light wheel multiply by '0003; for a heavy one by 'OOOIG. To Coynpute Dimensions of i^im— Multiply the weight, in pounds, by "1, .and divide the product by the mean diameter of tlie rim, in feet ; the quotient will give the sectional area of the rim in square inches of cast iron. Ginning Cotton — 4 horse powder will drive a gin of from 40 to 60 6aws, and for every additional 20 saws add 1 horse power. Threshing Grain — 4 horse power should thresh 50 bushels per hour ; 6 to 8 horse power will drive the ordinary 10 to 12 horse thresher and separator. 418 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. BORING MACHINE FOR SUBMARINE TUNNELS. The above engraving represents a back view of the tunnelling or boring machine intended to be used in perforating the proposed tunnel nnder the English Channel, between France and England. Opera- tions have already been commenced on the French coast, and fer- vent hopes are entertained that no insurmountable obstacles will be encountered. The chalk formation through which it is proposed to drive the tunnel, is 400 feet thick on the English coast and 300 feet on the French ; and, as the Straits of Dover are in no part deeper than 186 feet, it is confidently anticipated that the proposed enterprise will MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 449 be successful. It is intended that the machine will at once bore out the tunnel to the proper size, 16 or 18 feet in diameter ; and, as the soil to be penetrated consists only of soft chalk beds, it is thought tliat all the operations can be conducted without resorting to the use of steel drills or blasting operations, as simple boring tools will be all that will be requisite. The power will be transmitted from a steam engine placed at the mouth of the shaft or entrance to the tun- nel, by means of a wire rope connecting with the first wheel or pulley, as shown in the cut, which then, by means of intermediate gearing, &c., communicates motion to a series of cutters and borers in front of the machine. Should this arrangement prove too compli- cated, it is most probable that compressed air will be used as a sub- stitute for steam power. The machine, as represented above, is im- movably braced by means of two uprights, fitted with stout rollers, extended against the arch above, and four projecting wheels with triple flanges, fitted into temporary rails below, the whole being further secured by two heavy jack-screws, one above the machine and another below, pressing on proper bearings against the contri- vance from the top and bottom of the tunnel. It is estimated that the tunnel, if driven through the lower chalk formation, will be about 23 miles long ; but in the event of serious obstacles arising from over- whelming quantities of water breaking in, it is not improbable that the advice of Professor Prestwick may be followed : to drive a tun- nel through the Paleozoic rocks (the lowest fossiliferous strata), which are supposed to be about 600 feet below the surface at Dover, in which event the length would somewhat exceed the above estimate. The only question in connection with the prosecution of this enormous enterprise, is merely one of money, as the scientific appliances of the present day put the practicability of the work beyond a doubt. That a vast amount of money will be required, may be manifest from the following table, compiled by Major IvIcClellan, IJ. S. A., showing the cost of tunnels in various localities prior to 1855 : — Location. Per Cubic Yard. Location. Per Cubic Yard. Black Rock, U.S., grey wacke slate. . . . Blaisley, France, lined Ellsworth, Eng., blue $6 60 3 18 1 55 4 00 England, freestone, mar- ble, clay, &c., lined. . Lehigh, U.S., hardgran- Schuylkill, U. S., slate.. ^3 46 4 36 2 CO 2 08 Railway Tunnels in soft sandstone, in the United States, cost, without lining, per lineal yard, ^88. In loose ground, thick lining, per lineal yard, $7.10. Ordmary brick lining, mcluding centering, per cubic yard, $8.50. Shafts.— Blaisleif Tnnnel, clav, chalk, and loose earth, cost, per yard in depth, $139.11. Deepest, (646 ft. Black Rock, 7 ft. in diam. and 139 in depth, hard slate, cost, per yard in depth, $79.50, or per cubic yard, $18.72. The time required to drive the heading of the Black Rock Tunnel for 1782-5 feet, was 23,387 turns of 12 hours each. The Ingersoll Rock Drill,, represented in the cuts, is a most powerful and effective mechanical appliance in the varied require- 29 450 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DnPA^.TMENT. VIEW OF THE DKILIi ATTACHED TO COLUMK, AS USED WITH COMPRESSED AIR OK STEAM, WHEN PRACTICABLE. jaicnts of tunnelliuff, mining, submarine blasting, &c. It works on tlio percussion principle, and in operated either by steam power, as il- lustrated in tho cut, or by com- pressed air, acting on a piston Avithiu a cylinder, secured by clamps to a ver- tical or horizontal column or tripod. It can be adjusted to perforate tho rock at any desired angle, and, on open quarry work, the large drill (they are made of differ- ent sizes), is an equivalent to the work of 25 men, and has often done the work of 40 men for successive days. In railway tunnels and other subter- ranean places pre- senting impedi- ments to active work, of course the progress is consid- erably less. Tho average boring done in hard rock, Eer day, of ten ours, IS from 70 to 80 feet. In un- derground work, where foul air ex- ists, the employ- ment of compress- ed air becomes a necessity, as it not only dissipates all danger from ex]>lo- f'ive gases, but drives the drill equal to steam power, cools tho atmosphere, and VIEW OF DRILL, ATTACHED TO COLUMN, AS AR- dispenses f resh air KANGED FOR USE IN SHAFTS. to the Workmen. Considered in all its bearings, it is a most wonderful machine. ASSAYING AND SMELTING METALS. 451 Gold Assay by Smelting Process.— Take 600 grains of the gold-bearing quartz, finely pulverized, and free from sulphurets; mix with 600 grs. litharge and 7 grs. of charcoal ; melt all in a crucible of ample size, and set off to cool. Break the crucible wlien cold, and the gold will be found in a small button under the refuse matter at the bottom. To ascertain the amount of gold in a metallic sub- stance, select a small sample, weigh it, and melt in a small cupel, composed of calcined bone ashes. This absorbs the common metal, leaving the gold and silver exposed to view. The resultant button is melted once more in the proportion of gold, 1 part, silver, 3 parts, and then rolled into a thin band and boiled in nitric acid, which dis- solves out the silver, and leaves the gold pure at the bottom. Tho gold can be removed, and the silver subsequently precipitated with mlt. Gold Assay with a Horn Spoon.— Take an ox horn and re- move half of it, so as to leave an open part 7 or 8 ins. long and about Sins, wide; pulverize the rock to be tested very fine, and using it instead of a pan, wash out a few ounces, and if some particles of gold are detected, or a " color " perceived, as a rule it will pay to work it. In the Assay of Rock Containing Pyrites, it must be roasted until it ceases to evolve sulphurous fumes, then mix 600 gTS. of the powder with 300 grs. carbonate of soda, 300 grs. charcoal, 300 grs. litharge, 300 grs. dried borax, and 15 grs. charcoal; melt all in a crucible, and treat as directed above. Silver Assay by Smelting. — If no lead is present, mix 600 grs. of the pulverized ore with 300 grs. carbonate of soda, 600 grs. of litharge, and 12 grs. of charcoal in a crucible, add a slight coat of borax over all, put on the furnace, melt, take off, give it a few taps to settle the metal, let it cool, and remove the button. To Assay Argentiferous Galena, or lead bearing silver ore. — Mix 300 grs. of the pulverized ore with 900 grs. carbonate of soda and 30 grs, charcoal; melt in a crucible on a furnace, and treat as de^, scribed above, and remelt the button in a porous cupel made of bone dust, which absorbs the lead, leaving the silver pure. "Pest for Iron or Copper Pyrites. — Place a sample of the mmeral rock on an anvil; if it becomes flat mider a blow of the hammer it is gold, but if it scatters into fragments it is pyrites ; or place some of the doubtful material, pulverized, in a cup with nitric acid over a flame until it evolves dark red vapors : the acid will be- come stained or tinged if pyrites are present. Silver Assay with Testing Tube.— Place in the tube enough of the powdered mineral to fill one inch of space, and on this pour nitric acid in quantity to occupy 2 ins, more, and hold the mixture over a flame nntil the acid boils. The acid will dissolve what- ever silver may be present, and must be passed through filter- ing paper to remove extraneous matter, and returned to the tube. Next add a few drops of water saturated with salt; any silver or lead that may be present will be precipitated in a cloudy form to the bottom. Drain off the acid, place the precipitate in the sunlight, and in a few minutes, if it contains silver, it will turn to a purple color, and may be again liquified by the addition of spirits of ammonia. The testing tube is formed of thin glass, about 5 ins. long, and less than 1 in. diam. ; bottom and sides of equal thickness. Where the tube is lack- ing, a cup may be used instead. 452 PROSPECTING FOR GOLD. riiosPECTiNO FOR Quartz.— The first step to be taken is to ascer- tain the direction ot tlio strata of the bed-roclc and quartz veins im- bedded tlierein, Tlicn tiike a conunon pick, shovel, and good iron pan, and prospect the surface dirt along, and just under the break of the veins every few yards, then following the vein as far as it shoves itself, either by its outcrop or loose fragments ; and if gold is found in the surface along the vein, it is a good prcsumj)tive evidence that the vein is gold bearing. Then ascertain the point on the vein that gives the best " prospect," and make a cut across it deep enough to show the vein as it is inclosed in the bed or Avail rock ; then make a careful examination of every part of tlie vein, so as to determine what part of it is gold bearing. The casing of the vein Avhere it joins the wall rock sliould be carefully tested also ; it frequently occurs that the casing is richer than the vein itself. The best mode of testing the rock is to pound it up finely in a hand mortar, and wash it out in a pan or horn spoon. If a satisfactory result is obtained, then sink a shaft so as to cut the vein at the point where the prospect is obtained, and follow it down, say 40 or 50 feet. The character of the " wall rock " should be closely observed, to ascertain the " line of its texture." The smooth faces that separate the vein from the wall rock should be carefully examined ; the smooth faces have numerous small ridges upon them, that show "the line of its projection," or the direction from which the vein was forced up between the walls enclosing it. The ridges and fine grooves on the faces of the veins will, in most cases, be found to have the same direction of the texture of the wall rock; and the rich section of the vein will most generally continue rich in the " lino of its projection." It is frequently the case that a A-ein will have a section of a few feet that will be rich, and all the balance of it be poor ; therefore, it is very important to learn the " line of its projec- tion," for the rich sections alAvays follow the course indicated by the " line of projection," and the •'line of texture " of the wall rock. — Ji E. Clayton. To iPKOSPECT A BiVER Bar.— The prospector should, during the season of low water, select the bend of a stream below where it emerges from a deep gorge,and,noting the spot where the eddy usually exists during high Avater on the inward bend of the stream, he will proceed to dig to a depth of 2 or 3 ft., as near the water's edge as pos- sible, but distant enough to keep the hole dry on reaching the rock. Now fill the pan nearly full Avitli the bottom dirt from the rock, take it to the stream, immerse it in the water and agitate the mass, break- ing up the lumps of clay, &c., if any exist. Keep the pan underwater, with the side next the operator slightly elevated; shake from side to side ; the muddy water will flow out, as the clear water flows in, car- rying aAvay the dirt; the pan is now raised from the water, and the shaking continued, with the lower side still more depressed in order to alloAV the light sand to pass over the further edge ; the stones are removed by hand, and the operation continued until but a few dregs are left; the particles of gold, if any existed in the sample, will be found in the pan, and a search for them will decide the question of value. To Prospect ik a Guilly. — Select a spot soon after a rain, when water is abundant, and if possible let it be a level place over a vein of slate with vertical, or nearly vertical strata, presenting its ragged edges towards the adjacent acclivities in such position as to intercept PROSPECTING, PLACER MINING. 453 the gold in its downward progress. Fill the pan with dirt from the slaty bed, make a dam across the stream and pan out in standing water. In Prospecting Flats, examine the surface for the indications of old channels, and the beds of ancient streams or brooks, and ex- plore the most promising spots by digging down to the bed rock, and test by panning out a portion of the dirt. In mining districts, the high elevations containing gravel and clay should be well tested by the panning out of numerous samples, as they frequently contain vast stores of golden wealth. To Prospect with a Knife. — Select a suitable spot in a ravine in an auriferous district, remove the earth to the vicinity of tiie rock, making a hole large enough to afford room to admit the prospector to overhaul the dirt with the point of a knife. The particles of gold are carefully picked as they are discovered, and the rest is rejected; the seams and crevices in the rock should be thoroughly scraped out and the contents closely examined, as these places often contain the most precious deposits. Placer Mining, Board Sluice Process. — The board sluice is a trough from 50, to 1400 or 1500 ft. long (composed of 1^ in. boards, length of boards from 12 to 14 feet, ) constructed iji sections or boxes of the same length as the boards. The sections composing the trough are made to fit into each other, and usually rest on trestles elevated from the ground, but with an inclination of from 12 to 18 ins. in every 12 feet of length. The box may be from 12 to 50 ins. wide, and half as deep as it is broad, more or less as desired. By placing division boards edgeways along the centre it may be divided into two parts, thus adopting it for the use of tv/o parties, or for keeping up constant work in the washing department on the one side, while cleaning is go- ing on in the other. The bottom of the sluice is fitted with longitudinal riffle bars from 3 to 7 ins. high, and from 2 to 4 ins. wide', well se- cured from 1 inch to IJ ins. apart, by means of wedges, two sets of rifflo bars being fitted into each box. The labor of from 5 to 18 or 20 men is required to fill the dirt into the sluice, and a stream of water, say from 15 to 40 inches or more, ia admitted at the upper end and emerges at the lower, carrying along the mud, gravel, stones, &c., in its course. A vessel containing quicksilver IS placed at the head of the sluice, and, about 2 hours af- ter the washing commences, the liquid particles are allowed to trickle through an aperture in the side of the vessel into the stream, which hurries them onwards and downwards through the sluice, where they mingle with the gold particles and lodge together against the riffle bars. Ihe nrecious metals being heavy, alway trend towards the bottom, and lodge against these interposed obstacles, the riffle bars, ihe same effects may be seen on our streets and roads any day after a shower, the dirt is washed away, and the lieavy articles, as nails, Duttons, horseshoes, &c., remain. This furious torrent " or run " of S^^^®^' stones, mud, &c., is continued through the sluice for 6 or » days, by which time the riffle bars are usualiyVorn out, and the cleaning up process is commenced by raismg 6 or 7 sets of the riffle jjars towards the head of the sluice, and the auriferous matter found lodged against them is removed with scoop and pan. Another lot of riffle bars is then raised and the same operation is repeated until they are all cleaned out. An amalgam plate, inserted in the last box of 454 HYDRAULIC MINING, LONG TOM. the sluice, is very effective in arresting tlie fine gold on its downward course. To prepare the plate, place a sheet of copper, say 3 feet or more, in lentfih, and the same width as the box, very even and flat on tlie bottom. Make a tight, close lit on the upper edge, and secure each side by nailing down narrow strips of board. Hext, take nitric acid, 1 lb., add to this, water, 1 lb., and apply the mixture to the cop- per plate with a rag on the end of a stick ; drop on some quicksilver, and wipe it all over the plate until it is completely silvered. 'I'his ia the amalgam plate. Now get a sheet of stout plate iron, equal in di- mensions to the copper plate, and perforate with numerous slits ^ inch long and 1-lG inch wide, crosswise of the plate, not in regular rows, but as it were with broken johits, like bricks in a wall, ranged "With their ends out of line on every half inch, in order to permit the easy entrance of fluid material at all points. The perforated iron plate, being now ready, is laid in the box immediately over the amal- gamated plate, and resting on the narrow boards, which hold the lat- ter in place, and is firmly secured in this position, but so as to be easily detached when required. The sluice box is now adjusted or placed at the same grade as the others, but so that the iron plate will be on a level with the bottom of the box above. It will be found that while the gravel, stones, and gross material will easily pass over tho iron plate, part of the fluid portion, with the fine atoms of gold, will fall through the crevices on the amalgamated plate below, when tho latter will be arrested at once. Each day, for the first week or less, the iron plate should be removed, the copper cleaned from a green substance which adheres, and more quicksilver added . A riffle bar should be x)laced below the plate to secure the surplus quicksilver. The gold may be removed at proper intervals as it accumulates. The value of the catch will be enhanced by admittmg a small quantity of water into the sluice just above the plate. The water used by miners is generally sold by water companies at a certain rate per inch; it is delivered from an orifice in the side of a flume, which in many cases conveys the water from distant mountains over hills, ravines, plains, and along excavations on the sides of pre- cipitous mountains, &c. An inch of water is estimated to be tho quantity emitted through an aperture an inch square under a head of C or 7 inches, and the price per inch varies from 12 cents up to 4.0 cents per day, according to the locality, demand, &c. Hydraulic Mining. — The operative power in hydraulic mining is derived from a reservoir of water placed at a high elevation above the point of action, from whence the water is conveyed through a hose, and projected with terrific force under a pressure of from 80 to 200 feet, against the dirt above the bed rock. The effect is equal to the combined labor of several hundred men; the force exerted being literally equivalent to the removal of mountains, as the superincumx bert masses of earth and rock frequently comes tumbling down in quantities of hundreds of tons at a time. The dirt thus loosened is conveyed into and washed down the sluice. To fortify the hose to withstand the fearful pressure of the water, it should be stoutly band- ed with strong galvanized iron rings about 2 ins. broad, secured around the hose at intervals of about 2 ins. apart. The quantity of water required by a hydraulic claim varies from 50 to 300 ins. The Long Tom, at one time in quite extensive use by miners in California, is a trough ranging from 8 to 14 ft, in length, generally 10 QUARTZ CRUSHING, MIXING MACHINERY. 455 ins. wide at the upper end where the dirt is deposited, 30 ins. wide at the lower extremity, and about 8 ins. deep. The bottom, at the wide end is composed of a sieve or riddle of perforated sheet iron, with a small riffle box, or trough with riffle bars placed underneath. The ^ater entering in at the upper end, flows through the entire length of tne xux^., washing the dirt in its passage, but is prevented from forcini? It over tlie iow.. by an upward ejection at the lower end of ihf riddle. The gravel, saua, ~,^s^all stones escape through t eperfo! rated iron, while the large stones +oc«pH nnt with .w^i casionaliy to assist in securmg the finer particles. ^ Quartz Crushing by Stamps.— The rotary stamp is very uigM^ commended as the most efficient stamp in use for the crushing of quartz rock. The square stamp is vertical, with the main part or shaft about 8 ft. long, and from 5 to 8 ins. square, shod with massive iron weighing from 100 to 1000 lbs. They are elevated by cams pro- jecting from a horizontal shaft, which effect a lift of from 6 to 18 ins. at each revolution, when the stamp falls with all its force into the battery or the quartz below. The quartz, previously broken to pieces the size of a hen's egg or less, may be crushed in a dry state, or in a wet condition, with a small stream of water constantly flowing through the battery, which is enclosed by a wire cloth or perforated plate of sheet of iron, to permit the egress of the quartz when sufficiently trit- urated. The separation of the gold from the quartz ie effected by wash- ing, etc., as in placer mining; much of it is caught by the use of coarse blankets laid in troughs, through which the quartz is washed as in a sluice, and many use the amalgam plate, made as described above, to secure the gold . In amalgamating in the battery, 2 ozs. of quicksilver to 1 oz, of gold is the best proportion for use, and produces the most effective results in securing the gold. MiifiNG Machinery (Molesworth). Speed of crushing rolls at periphery 60 ft. per minute. Diameter of " " " 2 i to 30 ins. Breadth of " " *' 12 to 15 ins. Roller shaft 6 ins. square. Tumbling shaft 41/2 Sifting screen shaft 1% ins. diameter. Rolls crushed together with a force of 60 tons. Weight of stamper heads, from IVa to 5 cwt. Lift of ditto 9 to 12 in?. Kumber of lifts per minute 45 to 60. Exposed area of cast gratings about 9 X 10 in?. Number of holes to the inch for tin. 140. Area of stamper bottom, generally 6 x 10 ins. I Pumps for deep mines, usually 8 to 10 ft. stroke. Each lift \ from 150 to 200 ft. Horse power of pumping engines : — Q — quantity of water raised per minuto, cubic feet. H = height in feet. Actual horse power = -0021 H Q. In Smelting Silver, fifty per cent, of lead is added to silver ore, or lead ore containing that proportion of lead, will do as well. Add 10 per cent, of iron, and melt all together; the silver is then permit- ted to escape through an orifice in the lower part of the furna9e. The '456 SILVER SMELTING, STUBS* GAUGE, &C. .'silver is once more put in a furnace and boiled until all impurities are driven off. In thk Salt Solution Process, five per cent, of salt is added to the silver ore, and the mixture is roasted until the salt is converted into a chloride. When in this state, and still red hot, it is thrown ^"^^ » very strong solution of boiling brine, to dissolve tT^^ ^'V^*"^.® flilvcr. The brine is filtered at a temperature -f ^i^, and the silver is precipitated bjr adding small pieco- copper, together with a sraaU quantity of muriatic acid. ■6 h •< » •31;. ,26 ii. vr. o. No, 10: Ins. = •132 •M V083 .072 .06 s .056 '^^^ >7 « ..^in^ IS :i6 17 »8 No. 10 =.042 ,20 «o3S at .032 0X .028 24 .022 as .02 36 .018 2f .01$ No. 28- .oif\ -29 ..0*5. 3t^ 3* .or .00^ -.ooS .007 .005- .DCi» 16 -,V in. Artificial Meerschaum is made with very fine sifted plaster ol Paris, baked for a few hours and thrown while warm into melted wax or linseed oil; the resemblance may be increased by a coloring solu- tion of gamboge and dragon's blood. MACHINISTS, ESJ^SINEERS', AC, RECEIPTS, 457 KB.~In addition to the following inestimable'Receiptg and pro- cesses, the blacksmith will find Iron Tables, and Tables of Circum- ferences, Areas and Diameters of Circles, for measurement of hoops, rings, &c., at the end of the mechanical department. Tempering Liquids.— 1. Water, 3 gals ; soda, 2 ozs. ; saltpetre, 2 ■ozs. ; prussic acid, loz., or oil of vitrol, 2 ozs. 2. Water, 6 gals.; •Baltpetre, sal-ammoniac and alum, of each 4 ozs., and draw no tem- per. 3. Water, 4 gals. ; saltpetre and alum, of each, 4 ozs. ; sal-am- moniac, pulverized, 1 oz. ; salt, 3 lbs. Heat to a cherry red and plunge in, drawing no temper. 4. Water, 4 gals. ; saltpetre, 1 oz. ; alverized borax, 1 oz. ; pulverized sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; white vitriol, ozs. ; salt, 3 i)ts. Do not hammer too cold, nor heat too high. 5. Water, 4 gals. ; salt, 2 teacupfuls; saltpetre, 2 ozs. ; pulverized alum, 4 teaspoonfuls; never heat over a cherry xed, nor draw any temper. 6. Water, 2 gals. ; add corrosive sublimate, oz. ; common salt, 2 handfuls; when dissolved it is ready for use. The first gives tough- ness to the steel, while the latter gives the hardness, causing the water to adhere to the steel, which otherwise would be repelled by the heat. 7. Tempering Liquid for Mill Picks. — ^Water, 3 gals. ; spts. of nitre, 3 ozs.; hartshorn, 3 ozs; white vitriol, 3ozs. ; alum, 3 ozs.; sal-ammo- niac, 3 ozs. ; salt, 6 ozs., with 2 handfuls of the parings of horses' hoof. The steel is to be heated to a cherry red. A large jug of this Preparation should be kept corked tight, in order to retain its strength. Ise soft water in all these tempering liquids. Tempering Mill Picks. — Get double refined cast steel made ex- pressly for mill picks. In drawing out the pick, use an ajivil and hammer with smooth faces, and bo careful not to heat the steel higher than a dark cherry red. Do not strike the pick on the edge when- finishing it, but hammer it on the flat side, striking light and often,, until the steel is quite dark,- letting the blows fall so as to close the pores of the steel. When a dozen picks are ready to temper, get 2 gals, of rain water from which the chill should bo taken, if in winter,'-' by dipping a hot iron into it; add 2 lbs. salt, and it.is; ready for use. Heat your pick gradually from the centre; let the heat run to the point, and when it is a dark cherry red, dip the point vertically into the bath and hold it still. When the heat has left the partimmersed,- take it out, and cool the balance of the pick > in ordinary water.C Be sure to heat and hammer well. To Temper a Drill, very Hard.— Heat yourTdrill to a cherry, red and quench it in mercury^ will drill hardened steel, - - . • 458 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS . &C., KECEIPTS. CoMPOSiTiOK FOR TEMrEiilNG.— Hosiii, parts; whalo oil, IJ parts; pulverized charcoal, J part; tallow, ^ part. Directions. — Very- small tools should be dipped in this mixture the same as in water, then polish and draw the temper as usual. Largo tools should ho dipped, then heated up again and temperas usual. This composition will also restore burnt steel as good as new. If small tools, dip once. If large, dip two or three times; no hammering is required. 1 To Make Ikon take a Bright Polish like Steel. — Pulverizo \ and dissolve the following articles in 1 qt. hot water ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; prussiate of potash, 1 oz. ; charcoal, 1 oz. ; salt, ^ pt. ; then add 1 gal. linseed oil, mix well, bring your iron or steel to the proper heat and cool in the solution. It is said the manufacturers of the J udsoii governor paid $100 for this receipt, the object being to case harden iron so that it would take a bright polish like steel. Dipping Tools when Hardening. — To harden a pen-knife blade, lancet, razor, chisel, gouge-bit, plane, spoke-shave, iiou shaving knife, three or four square files, and round and flat files, dip theifl endwise or perpendicularly. This keeps them straight, Avhich would not be the case were they dipped in the water ob- liquely. Substitute fob Borax. — Alum, 2 ozs. ; dilute -with water and mix ■with 2 ozs. potash, boil in a pot half an hour over a gentle fire, take it out of the water, add 2 ozs. gem salt in powder, as much of alka- line salt, 3 lbs. honey, and one of cow's milk, mix all together, set it in the sun for 3 days and the borax is ready for use. This will go twice as far in a blacksmith's shop as common borax. Welding Cast Steel. — Silver sand 2 lbs., plaster of Paris, 1 lb. ; mix thoroughly. Heat your article and dust it with the above, place it in the fire again until you get a red heat and it will weld. Respirator. — An excellent respirator may be made of a thick sheet of carded cotton wool placed between two pieces of muslin. Unequalled for arresting dust, steel particles, &c. Annealing Steel. — ^For small pieces of steel, take a piece of gas pipe 2 or 3 inches in diameter, and put the pieces in it, first heat- ing one end of the pipe, and drawing it together, leaving the other cud open to look into. When the pieces are of a cherry red, cover the fire with saw dust, use a charcoal fire, and leave the steel in over night. To DRILL Hardened Steel.— Cover your steel with melted beeswax, •when coated and cold, make a hole in the wax with a fine pointed nee-', die or other article the size of hole you require, put a drop of strong* nitric acid upon it, after an hour rinse off, and apply again, it will gradually eat through. ^ To Harden Metals.— Iron, 60 parts: chrome, 40 parts: form a composition as hard as the diamond. A high degree of hardness may also be imparted to iron or steel by adding part of silver. Copper may be externally hardened by the fumes of zmc and tin. The specula of Lord Ross's telescope is 1 part tin and 1 parti copper, this is as hard as steel, and takes a very high polish ; if more than this be added it will scarcely cohere. Welding Cast Steel. — Rock saltpetre, ^ lb. ; dissolve in ^ lb. oil vitriol; and add it to 1 gal, water. After scarfing the steel, get it liot; and quench in the preparation. Then weld the same as s. MACniNTSTS, ENGINEERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 459 piece of iron, hammer it very quick with light blows. It answers the purpose much better than borax; cork it iu a bottle, and it will keep lor years. ^noe reduced to its proper temper. MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 461 To Temper Small Springs, — In Large Quantities.— Tirst, harden them in the usual manner of hardening steel ; then place as many as convenient in a vessel containing oil. Heat the oil containing the springs until it takes fire from the top, then set off the vessel and let it cool. The springs will then be found to possess the required temper. Tempering.— The article after being completed, is hardened hi being heated gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into cold Avater: it is then tempered by being warmed gradually and equably, cither over a fire, or on a piece of heated metal, till of the color cor- responding to the purpose for which it is required, as per table be- low, when it is again x)luugcd into water. Corresponding Temperature, A very i)ale straw . 430 Lancets \ Straw 450 Kazors J Darlcer Straw . . .470 Penknives / All kinds of wood tools. Yellow 490 Scissors ) Screw taps. Brown yellow . . . 500 1 Hatchets, Chipping Chisels, Slightly tinged purplo 520 > Saws. Purple 530 \ Ml kinds of percussive tools. Dark purple. . . . 550 j c;„,.;„„- Blue 570i^^'"°SS. Dark blue . . . .GOO Soft for saws. Tempering Razors,' Cutlery, Saws, &;c.— Razors and pen- knives are too frequently hardened without the removal of the scale arising from the foregoing : this practice, which is never done loith the best works, cannot he too much deprecated. The blades are heated in a coke or charcoal fire, and dipped in the water obliquely. In tempering razors, they are laid on their backs upon a clean fire, about half-a-dozen together, and they aro removed one at a time, when tho edges, which aro as yet thick, come down to a pale straw color. Should the backs accidentally get heated beyond the straw-color, the blades are cooled in water, but not otherwise. Pen-blades are tem- pered a dozen or two at a time, on a plate of iron or copper, about 12 inches long, 3 or 4 inches wide, and about | of an inch thick. The blades are arranged close together on their back and lean at an angle against each other. As they come dowai to the temper, they are picked out with small pliers and thrown into water if necessary; other blades are then thrust forward from the cooler parts of the plate to take their place. Axes, adzes, cold chisels, and other edge tools, in which the total bulk is considerable compared with the part to be hardened, arp only i)artially dipped ; they are afterwards let down by the heat of tlie remainder of the tool; and, when the color indicative of tho temper is attained, they aro entirely quenched. With the view of removing the loose scales, or the oxidation acquired in the fire, some workmen rub the objects hastily in dry salt before plunging them in tho water, in order to give them a cleaner and brighter face. Oil, or resinous mixtures of oil, tallow, wax, and resin, are used for many thin and elastic articles, such as needles, fish hooks, steel pens and springs, which require a milder degree of hardness than is given 462 MACHINISTS, ENGIlfEEKS, AC, EECEIPTS. by \ratcr. Grin lock-springa aro sometimes /Wed! in oil for a con- eiderable time over a nro, in an iron tray; the thick parta aro then cure to bo sufficiently reduced, and the thin parts do not become the more softened from the continuance of the blazing heat. Saws and springs are generally hardened in various compositions of oil, suet, wax, &c. The saws aro heated in long furnaces, and then immersed horizontally and edgeways into a lung trough containing the com- position. Part of the composition is wiped off the saws with a piece of leather, when they are removed from the trough, and heated ono by one, imtil the grease inflames. This is called blazing off." The composition used by a large saw manufacturer is 2 lbs. suet.' and | lb. of beeswax, to every gallon of whale oil; the scare boiled together, and will serve for thin works and most kinds of steel. The addition of black resin, about 1 lb. to each gallon, makes it serve for thicker pieces, and for those it refused to harden before; but resin should be added with judgment, or the works will become too hard and brittle. To larpROVE Poor Iron.— Black oxide of manganese, 1 part;'cop- jieras and common salt, 4 parts each; dissolve in soft water, and boil till dry ; when cool, pulverize, and mix quite freely Avith nice welding sand. When you have poor iron which you cannot afford to throw away, heat it, and roll it in this mixture ; working for a time, reheat- ing, &c., will soon free it from all impurities, which is the cause of its Tottenness. By this process you can make good horse nails out of common iron. Case-Hardening for Iron.— Cast iron may bo case-hardened by heating to a red heat, and then rolling it in a composition composed of equal parts of prussiato of potash, sal-ammoniac, and saltpetre, all pulverized and thoroughly mixed. This must be got to every part ol the surface; then plunged, while yet hot, into a bath containing 2 ozg. prussiate of potash, and 4 ozs. sal-anmioniac to^each gallon of cold water. " ^ Moxon's CASE-IlARDENiNa PROCESS.— Cow's" homs or hoofs aro to be baked, dried and pulverized in order that more may be got into the box with the articles, or bone dust answers" very well. To this add an equal quantity of bay salt; mix them with stale chamber ley, or white wine vinegar; cover the iron with this mixture, and bed it in the same in loam, or enclose it in an iron box, lay it on tho hearth of the forge to dry and harden; then put it into the lire, and blow till the lump has a blood red heat, and no higher, lest the iron mixture be burnt too much Take the iron out and throw it into cold water. For Malleable lRON>-Put the articles in an iron box, and strat* ify them among animal carbon, that is, pieces of homs, hoofs, skins, or leather, just sufficiently burned to be reduced to powder. Luto the box with equal parts of sand and clay; then place it in the fire, and keep at a light red heat for a length of time proportioned to tho depth of steel required, vwhen tho contents of tho box aro emptied into water. Another for "Wrought Iron. — ^Take prussiate of potash, finely pulverized, and roll the article in it, if its shape admits of it; if not, sprinkle the powder upon it freely, while the iron is hot. To Temter Springs.— For tempering castrfiteel trap springs, all MACnrNISTS, EXGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 463 that ia necessary is to heat them in the dark^ just bo that you can see that they are red; then cool them iii luke-warm water. You can oh- Borvc a much lower degree of heat in the dark than by daylight, and the low heat and warm water give the desired temper. CASE-HAKDEXiNa Ck)MPOUND.— Prussiato of potash, 3 lbs. ; sal-am- moniac, 2 lbs. ; bone dust, 2 lbs. Composition- fob "Welding Cast Steel.— Pulverized borax any quantity, and slightly color it with dragon's blood. Ileat the steel red hot, shake the borax over it; place it again in the lire tiU the borax smokes on the steel, which will bo much below the ordinary welding heat, and then hammer it. To Weld Cast Iron.— The best way of weldmg cast iron is to take it at a very intense heat, closely approaching the melting pouit. In this stato it Avill be found sufficiently malleable to stand welding by the hammer. There are other methods, but most of them are attend- ed by almost insurmountable difficulties. To Temter Tats or Reamers without springing, select your etcel for the job, and forgo tho tap with a little more than the usual allowance, being careful not to heat too hot nor hammer too cold ; after tho tap or reamer is forged, heat it and hold it on one end ou tho anvil. If a largo one, hit it with tho sledge; if a small one, tho hammer will do. This will cause tho tap to bend slightly. Do not straighten it with tho hammer, but on finishing and hardening tlio tap, it will become straight of its own accord. To Harden and Temper Cast Steel.— For saws and springs in general tlio following is an excellent liquid; Spermaceti oil, 20 gals. ; beef guet rendered^ 20 lbs. ; neat's-foot oil, 1 gal. ; pitch, 1 lb, ; black resin, 3 lbs. Tho last two articles must be previously melted together, and then added to the other ingredients, when the wholo must be heated in a proper iron vessel, with a close cover fitted to it, until all moisture is evaporated, and the composition will take fire ou a flaming body being presented to its surface. Water Annealing.— Heat the steel to a red heat, and let it lie a few minutes, until nearly black hot; then throw it into soap-suds; steel in this way may bo annealed softer than by putting it into tho ashes of tho forge. To Soften Malleable Iron.— When your fumaco is charged with fuel and metal, get tho fire up to a dull red heat, then pour fluoric acid all over tho coke; use \ pt. to 1 pt or even 1 qt. adding a handful of fluor spar; it will make the metal much softer. WoRKiNO Steel for Tools.— In workmg steel for tools, great caro should be taken to hammer all sides alike, for if one side is liammered more than another it will cause it to spring in harden- ing. Again, steel, when being hammered, should be heated as hot as it will stand, until finishing, and should then be hammered until almost black hot, for the reason that it sets the grain finer, and gives the tool a better edge. Tho reason for heating the steel so hot whUe hammering is simply because it makes the steel tougher when hardened, and softer when annealed, while if it wero worked at a low red heat, tho continued percussive shocks of the hammer would so harden it as to make it almost impossible to anneal it, and at the samo timo render it brittle whoa hardened. 4G4 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. To Make, Harden, and Temper Tools.— Experience has proved tliat ;ill .stool cutting tools sliould be hardened at a low red heat, or the lowest degree of heat compatible to yield efficient results, not forgetting that large tools require more heat than small ones, for tho reason that they retain the heat much longer in the cooling process. Very small tools such as some surgical, and dental instruments, all springs, centre drills, needles, etc., should be hardened in oil, as cold water is apt, by cooling them too ra])idly, to render them brittle and Avorthless. Too much heat imparts a coarse grain like cast iron, to the steel, and makes it liable to break when in use. A heat sufficient to raise scales should never be taken unless with an implement too large to temper without it, for it is sure to result in injury to the steel, even though the temper is drawn to a straw color. Tools such as cutters and reamers Avhicli require to be hardened without springing, should be accurately turned to within ^ inch of their finished size, and then annealed previous to finishing. In annealimi steel, it should be heated very slowly to a red heat, being careful to keep it under the scaling degree, then allow it two days or more to cool in. In making taps, you should have immediately under the square head, a place accurate size of the outside of the thread, so that you will have no trouble in getting dimensions of the thread wherever an odd number of flutes exist. Every tap should be the accurate size of the bottom of the thread to within about ^ an mch of the square head, shaping it this way, when a strain comes in the work it will twist instead of breaking. The threads on V taps ought to be cut with a tool exactly three square, (unless the thread is rounded on the top), and then finished with a sharp tool without polishing, as this produces a glaze on the metal while bemg tapped. In making a tap for common ma- chine screws or for bolts, measure with callipers, the lower part of the thread of one of the screws, and proceed to cut your tap at the bottom of the thread the exact size of the measurement. Strong taps for square thread screios ought to be cut ^ the depth of their pitch, ; go if the thread is five to the inch, cut " one-tenth of an inch deep. The threads bemg 5 to the inch, leaves a space between the threads of one tenth of an inch, and the thread being one tenth in depth and: one-tenth wide, would make the thread square. In square threads required for wear, the cut should be | the depth of their pitch. In hardening a tap, use a clear, bright fire; a fire of charcoal is the best; heat to a cherry red, and holding it by the upper end immerse the entire thread-part first, keeping it stationary until the smooth part attains a dark red color; then gradually dip the whole tool, hold- ing it stationary until cold Brighten the fluted parts and proceed to temper the tool by heating a piece of an iron pipe to a bright red ; re-r move it from the fire, place it in a, vertical position, and insert the tap in the centre of the tube (but not touching any part of it) with the threaded part outside. The interior of the tube should be twice the diameter of the tool, and the length but half. Revolve the tap in the hot pipe until the smooth part is warm enough to slightly pain the hand, keeping it in motion endways, back and forth through the pipe and turning it until the thread is tinted to a deep brown, and the rest of the tool to a brown purple, modify any irregularity in the color by holding the light colored parts longer in the tube, or if any parts color too deep, cool off with a little oil. The squares of taps should be tempered to a deep blue color. MACHINISTS TOOLS* 465, Fig. 1. Tool for cutting square thread screws, <£:c. Fig. 2. Lathe tool for boring. Fig. 3. Tool for cutting interior screws. Fig. 4. Left hand side tool, top view. Fig. 5. Tool for cutting V thread screws. Fig. 6. Diamond-point tool, to turn small shafting, Ac. Fig. 7. Kound-ended tool, to tura heavy shafting, &c. 466 MACHINISTS, engineers' AC, RECEIPTS. To Dip or Temper Half-round Files or Reamers,— On account of the unequal surface presented to the water by half round tools, it is necessary, in order to keep them straight, or nearly so. while tempering, that they should be inserted with the scmi circxdar side 20? leaninfj towards the loater. To dip a fluted reamer, insert it ^ an inch beyond the fluting, dipping and withdrawing it several times in succession. This ensures a reliable temper in the tool and will assist greatly in preventing fracture, and breakage. To Set a Lathe to Turn Taperlng. — Calculate a certain amount of taper to the foot or the extension of the piece to be turned, for instance with a shaft one foot long with a thickness of 1 inch at one end larger than the other, set the puppet-head over ^ inch, and you will obtain the desired taper of 1 inch per foot. With a shaft 20 ins. long, you wiU obtain a taper of 2 ins. over its whole length, by setting your lathe over 1 inch. To Set a Lathe to Turn Shaftxng. — Find out if your centres are true, and adjust them correctly if they are not, using a square eu4 tool, keeping them true to a three-squaro gauge, otherwise you will be apt to ruin your work, Now set your puppet-head so that it will turn the shaft true and straight, and if without a straight mark upon it, turn one end of the shaft for about an inch, next, without stirring your tools, take the shaft from the lathe, run the carriage down to the main head, and if the tool comes in contact with the spot you have turned, the machine is straight, if not, screw over the puppet head, and keep adjusting it until the tool touches the place turned at both ends of the lathe. On Keys, Planing Key Wats, &c.~To ensure an easy entrance, apply oil to the key way and enter the key, marking where it binds, avoiding extreme tightness at the sides, and securing the lock by a proper taper at the rate of about | of an inch to the foot of length. To ease hardened key ways and slots, use a strip of copper as a file on the surface of the metal, together with emery and oil. To plane a key way in a shaft, drill a hole the size of the way the depth you wish to plane; then plane the key way slightly narrower than the intended size ; this is done with a square point tool, afterwards finish with a tool of the desired size ; this method ensures a much neater finish, than the use of one tool only. To ensure true cutting in adjusting a tool for cutting a key way, test each side of it by a square set on the planer bed, to see that it is perpendicular. To plane a T shaped slot or way, plane to the desired depth with a square point tool, then plane the upper part of the way to the proper width. Now plane the bottom part of the way with two tools, each bemg bent to a different angle, one to the right and the other to the left. Shallow ways may be cut out, the upper width and proper depth, then finished with one tool shaped the desired form of the way. Powerful tools should be used in planing large ways in order to avoid breaking, and should cut easily on each of the three sides. Use a sheet iron gauge and plane the way to conform to it. To plane a gibe rest or slide, plane it all over, omitting the slide, on both sides ;'then set the planer head at an angle of 30°, and finish the slide with a taper point tool. In planing thin cast iron surfaces, the outside being harder than the inside, it is necessary in order to prevent springing owing to the expansion of the scale, to plane ever a cut on each side previous to finishing either. machinists' tools. 4G7 Fig. 8. Side view of right-hand side tool. Fig. 9. Tool for cutting V tlireads, side view. Fig. 10. Tool for planing a key-way. Fig. 11. End view of a fluted tap or reamer. Fig. 12. Side tool for squaring the ends of wrought iron work. Fig. 13. Tool for parting or cutting brass apart. Fig. 14. Side tool for cast iron, wrought iron or steel, left hand form. Fig. 15. Parting tool for iron or steel work. 468 MACHINISTS, engineers' &c., receipts. Cake or Latites, Planers, Drills, &c,— In order to utilize your lathes, &c., for nice lino worlc, and keep your ways, arbors and centres in order, it is necessary to keep them clean by brushing: awav the rubbish from the Avays, feed gears, and other working parts- clean well by frequent rubbing with cotton waste, and keep them iu easy wojrking order by regular oiling. Tools for Turnikg.— 1. For turninfj balance ichcels, or squanna vp large S7n:faccs, use a round end tool constructed Avell taperino- to cut from the side. 2. The best tool for turninrj small shaftinr; is a diamond ponit tool; for heavy shafting use a round end tool, shaped to stand higa like a diamond point and to cut full and free from the side. 3. For cuttmc/ off a shaft, use a tool shaped thin and having the tapcriug down the reverse of turning tools. 4. For cutting a V thread screw use a V thread tool, Y/ith the points ground to lean down when finished, so as to prevent running and de- stroying both the tool and the work. 6. For aitting a square thread ■ screw, the best way is to use a square point tool about ^ of the thick- :,iiess of the thread you intend to cut, and finish Avith another the exact size of the thread. In cutting a thread within a hole apply the same method. C. For boring out a hole use a lathe boring tool with the end turned on a right angle to the left, and the point turned up hooking. _ The side tool shown in Fig. 12, should, for light work, be hardened right out; temper to a straw color for heavy work. For heavy work on a slotting machine, temper to a brownish purple, and grind so that the cutting edge first strikes the cut near the body of the tool, and not at the point ends; use at a speed of about 10 feet per minute. The parting tool for bi'ass, Fig. 13, should be made to conform to the shape as represented and hardened right out. The side tool for iron. Fig. 14,''cannot be made too hard; and should be used at a speed ranging from 20 to 30 feet per minute, with feed from 20 to 30 revolutions for each inch cut, varying as the dimensions of the work ranges from 1 inch up to 12 inches in diameter, the speed decreasing as the size of the work increases. Hheparting tool for iVon, Fig. 15, should be tempered in accordance with the size of the tool and the nature of the work to be done; it may be hardened right out, or hardened to a dark straw, or, for a weak tool, to a purple color. The roughing tool for torovgJit iron, Fig. 16, when used on large work, should be tempered to a light straw, but for work of 5 inch diameter or less, it should be made as hard as possible and not tam- pered at all. The cutting speed varies from 35 to 35 feet per mir^ute as the size of the work varies from 1 inch to 20 inches or more^ in diameter; feed &c., ranging about as follows: — Diameter of Work Cutting Speed Fee; Feed per Inch, in Inches. per Minute; " Cut. c in hardening and tempering the boring ?oo 1 lb; boiling water, 1 gal. The finishing tool for cast iron, Fig. 24, should bo hardened ri^htout;the cutting speed on the lathe is about 25 to 30 feet per minute on small work, and 18 feet on large work, with a coarse feed of say,8 revolutions of the lathe per inch of travel. To" make ^.cQuntcr horiwj tool, (Fig. 25), adjust the handle to a proper collet and turn the governor, which ought not to be over a :J of inch in length ; next turn a spot for the lips about ^ of an inch, on small tools and about | inch on largo ones. Above this spot, turn it about ^ larger than the governor and straight up to the handle, by leaving the place for the lips short, thus saving filing. Next file 4 spiral lips in theiii, resembling a drill; afterwards dress off the back back side of the lips on the end to an edge with a file, and harden. Milling tools or cutters, (Fig. 27.) ought to be chucked to fit loosely on the arbor, so that they may not prove to be too small after harden- ing. Now turn them to within a 32nd. of an inch of the required thickness, and again heat previous to finishing. This second heating renders them less apt to spring when heated for the final hardening. The front tool for brass, Fig. 29, should be hardened right out, and the speed and feed should be about the following :— Diameter of work Cutting Spqed ft. Amount of Feed in Inches. pir minute. 1 or less, 345 25 2 to 5, 245 25 5 to 10, 195 25 10 to 20, 150 30 The tool for chitting square threads. Fig. 30, should be made quite hard, and formed as shown in cut. The same remark applies to the tool for hard metal, shown at Fig. 31. The boring tool for brass, Fig. 32, should be made as hard as fire and water will make it, and used with a quick speed and lightfeed. The finishing tool for wrought iron, &c.. Fig. 33, should be hard- ened right out, and used at a cutting speed of "from 18 to 38 revolu- tions per minute, as the size of the work varies from 18 inches, or more, down to 1 inch in diameter, with a feed from 14 to 30 revolu- tions for each inch cut, as follows :— Diameter of Work Cutting Speed ft. Amount of Teed, in Inches. per minute. 1 or less, 38 30 lto2, 29 24 2 to 4, 24 19 4 to 10, 22 19 10 to 18, 19 16 18 and upwards, 18 14 In addition to these instructions, each tool requires to be ground in such a way as will best adapt it for the performance of the various kinds of work that may be in hand. SpiRAii Drills, Fig. 35, should be annealed and turned to l-50th of an inch larger than the finished size ; then heated again, and au- machinists' tools. 471 Fig. 24. Finishing tool for cast iron. Tig. 25. Counter boring tool, end view. Fig. 26. To be used on wrought iron when the tool is liable to spring on account of distance from the tool post. Fig. 27, Fluted milling tool or cutter. 472 MACHINISTS, ENaiNEERS', &C., RKCEIPTS. ncaled in a vertical position, among lime, ashes, or Koap-suds ; the shank is then turned to fit a proper collet socket, and afterwards the point may bo turned to the desired dimcsnsions and shaped. Next measure from the i)oint and fiiiish tlie turning, "by making it tapering to tiie extent of 100th of an inch smaller for every 2 inches of the length of the drill. The spiral grooves arc cut on a machine cou- gtructed for the purpose, containing a i;pindle, \^'hich imparts tjio double movement of sliding and revolving slowly while the spirals are being cut. The spindle contains a screAv, on which a chuck to hold the drill is adjusted. The drill being inserted in the chuck, pro- ceed to elevate the sliding block bcneatli tlje drill, so that Jt will touch it, adjusting ii'sQ as not to raise it too hig^i ; then inseit a cut- ter, which should be ohe-half the diameter of drill, and groove your drills, Avhich should, for a, drill 1 inch in diameter, be cut 1 to the inch, and down to within a o2nd cf the centre ; for ^-inch drills, cut the grooves 1^ to the inch, down to "within a C4th of the centre ; for J-inch drills, cut the grooves 2 to the inch, down to within lOOlii of the centre, computing as you would in cutting a screw in a lathe, the index plate-giving you the two starthig points at which to commence the work. " ' ' Fluted Reamers, Fig. EG, 'should be carefully ^;itTned to aS2nd of an inch oi the finished size, then heated and allowed to cool in a perpendicular position, previous to finishing. The treatm?ent re- moves the strains and the occasional hardness made by theiammer- ing, so that they will not spring in the operation of heating for tem- pering. The lips of a reamer should be made uneven ; otherwise, when it chatters, it leaps from one lip to the other. In reamers fioni 1 inch to 11 inches in diameter, the flutes or ""channels should be 9~in number, and ,11 in reamers of from to 1^ inches in diameter. Reamers from ^ to f of an inch in diameter, should have 5 flutes, and reamers from f to 1 inch should have '7. After cooling, as above noted,turn the-part intended for the lipg' 100th of an inch larger tlian the finished size ; afterwards turn a spot in the middle of it | loiY^, and l-12th of the size of the reamer smaller than the reamer. After hardening, this is the place to pene it straight. 'When the tunjii^g of all but the upper part is finished, put it on the centres, and. prepare to flute it, deferring the turning of the upper part imtil after^harden- ing and straighteuiitg. Place it on the centres ; if on a pjaijer, flute with a round end tool, 1-lOth of an inch thick, and plap^ dowii to the face of each lip, to the bottom of th'e spot intended lor ihe pen- ing, and plane them so that the space between every ether of the two lips will be shorter than that of the two just before them. The next step is to plane off the back side of th^ lips with a square end tool to within a o2nd of an inch from'the face. The faces of the lips should be planed even with the centre, the lips dressed smooth with the file, hardened again, and then pened straight. Finish by turning the upper part to the desired size, and polish it off ; grind the lips to a sharp edge and to the proper size, and it is all ligM. To flute taps, Fig. 38, adjust the work on the centres, and plane the faces of all the teeth with a cutter or planing tool, made circular at the end, the thickness at the enfl being ^ the diameter of the tap. Taps should be fluted with the teeth slightly hookijog . on the face. Dress the faces of all the teeth with the planer one-half the depth of he thread deeper than the bottom of the thread-^;- this dene, plane machinists' tools. Mg. 29. Front tool for brass wOrk. rig. 30. Tool for cutting square threads. Pig. 31. Tool for cutting hard metal, rig. 32. Boring tool for brass. Fig. 33. Tool for finishing cast iron, wrought iron and steel. Fig. 34. Die for screw-cutting, faoo view. Fig. 35. Spiral drill. ' " • ■ ' ' " 474 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. off tlio back parts of tho teeth, giving them 1^ the breadth of theif pitch, leaving tlvem, if tlie pitch is 10, a 10th and a 20th, Avliich leaves them quite strong enough lor efficient service and easy work. Trim tho bade parts of the teeth with a planing tool «']^ual in thiclcnea to the size of the tap. Two taps should be used for each thread; with lite first, remove two-thirds of tho thread, and finish off with tho other. No taer is prequired on taps for 5 threads ; if they are fabri- cated by this plan, they are not liable to break, and work easy. Extra large mongrel-thread taps should invariably bo of two or more sizes, ow^g to the coarse thread and the mass of metal to be re- moved by them, which otherwise would be crushed and torn. Cold Chisels should be shaped thin at the cutting end, and with the edge slightly rounded outwards, instead of being square across or hollowed inwards, as is frequently the case. This shape imi)art8 more endurance to the tool, and makes it cut easier than when it is even across or rounded inwards, as we see it in many cases. In hard- ening, heat the tool to a dark red heat to a depth equivalent to its width, and dip it half that length into the tempering liquid, holding it stationary about 4 seconds ; then plunge it a little deeper and with- draw ; brighten one side by rubbing on an emery or sand board, re- move the bad color with a piece of waste or rag, and bring out a clear blue color by immersion in the water. In many cases it is rather difficult to temper a piece of steel uniformly, and molten metallic mixtures are used, being chiefly made up of tin and lead ; the bright hardened steel is kept in these mplten mixtures until it has assumed the temperature of the bath. The following tabulated form exhibits the composition of the metallic baths which experience has proved to be the best for the manufacturing of cutlery : — Composition of Melting Temperature. Metallic Mixture. Point. Lead. Tin. Lancets 7 4 220° Hardly pale yellow. Razors 8 4 228° j^^^^ ^^jl^SJ^^ '^'^"^ Pen-knives gi,^ 4 232° Straw yellow. Pairs of Scissors 14 4 254° Brown. Clasp-knives, Join-) ers* and Carpen-[ 19 4 2G5° Purplish Colored. ters' Tools ) Swords, Cutlasses, ) and W a t c h I 48' 4 28S° Bright blue. Springs ) Stilettos, Boring) Tools, and Fine! 5a 2 202° Deep blue. Saws ) Ordinary saws | oil!'''" j ^^^'^ Blackish dIuc. Such tools as are required to work iron and other meta,ls, and hard stones, nre heated to a bright yellow ; razors, coining dies, en- gravers' tools, and wire-drawing plates follow next to straw yellow ; carpenters' tools to purplish Ted, while such tools and objects as are required to be elastic are heated to the violet or deep blue tint. Tho less steel is heated the harder It remains, but also the more brittle. machinists' tools. 475 Fig. 36. Fluted reamer, side view. Fig. 37. Single lipped drill, to drill very true. Fig. 38. Square thread tap, Bide view. Fig. 39. Single lipped reamer. Fig. 40. Counter boring tool, side view, 476 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. Single-Uppcd Reamers, Fig. 39, should be fabricated from a piece of steel, Avitli the head forged square to adept it to a i^roper wrench ; turn it tapering and exactly round, and, after placing it on the centres, plane a groove through its entire length, one side ^iof ■which groove will form the lips of the reamer. From this groove dress off the 64th of an inch half the distance round. Finish lair filing up the face of the lii^s on a line through the middle on the end: next harden and temper. Rose reamers should be made with square ends, with the corners removed, lips cut about 9 to the inch ou, the end, and a little hooking, with a temper like other reamers. To Chuck Puj:iLEYS. — This means to adjust or secure the work; in such position as to ensure truthful drilling or planing ; the term- chuck is also used to denote the instrument employed to secure the work, beiufl; merely a circular Diece of iron with an aperture on one side of it, fitted Avith a screw arrangement used to secure it to the SDindle of a lathe. The other side contains a number of jaws, gener-. ally three or lour, whicn screw together for the purpose of securing' the work while it Is being drilled or otherwise operated upon. To chuck a pulley, first secure it by screwing it in the jaws of the chuck as near the right position as possible, next screw a tool into the post, with one end of it near the face of the pulley ; then turn and true the pulley by means of the screws, so that the tool touches it all around, and true the edges the same way ; repeat, trying the face again to sec if it has moved. Pulleys should be chucked either on- a mandril or else chucked by the arms, since chucking them by the rims springs them out of true. To Set the Chuck Rest. — ^To set the rest, place it into the tool post with the centres of the slats through which the drills passes :just as high, and no more, as the centres of the lathe, (otherwise it will fail to bore true) and drill your wheel, using two drills, to ensure; true work, or three, if the holes are cored badly to one side ; the last tool should remove no more than the of an inch, which will leave the hole exactly right. To Scrape CAST-lEOJir Smooth.— Place a rest close to the sur- face to be operated on, and, using a thin wide scraper, rest it on one edge and scrape, twisting it, and upholding it Avhile cutting, in your hand. Don't, bear on very hard, Ijut remove as thin a chip as pos- sible, and you wUl easily succeed. Work should be fitted as exact and true as possible before being scraped with the flat scraper, which should be used on fiat surfaces only. The half round scraper is the best form for curves, hollow work, etc., the three-cornered scraper being the least useful. Old files which have never been re-cut make very good scrapers. To Make Drilt. Sockets ok, Collets.— The best collets for correct work on drill lathes are those formed to screw ou to the spin- dle, and constructed with a tapering hole for the retention of the drill, and a key-way to secure the end of the drill from turning. Sockets for ordinary job form, should be shaped' with a. set-screw to retain the drills, and the aperture for the drills should be drilled circular, adapted for the reception of round drill steel about of an in. in diameter. For collets to screw on the drill lathe, bore out the end and shape the screw to conform well to the spindle, and attach it by screwing it on to the lathe where it is required for use. Next, MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. ^Tl^. bore a hole for the drill shank ins. deep, exactly straight and true, ream it tapering, and cut a key-way through the metal, below the lower part of , and running mto the aperture bored for the shank,. This key- way is intended to secure the drill and ought to be | an inch long and ^ wide. A collet for upright drills should be ipade by drilling the centres and turning up the ends to be drilled for the shank so as to adapt it for running m a back rest; then insert the end to be drilled into the back rest and the other end on the lathe centre^ and proceed to drill out the hole for the shank; then remove it front the back rest, and, making use of the hole for a centre, turn it to fit the diill, insert a set screw in it, and all is finished. Screw Threads. — The English Propoutioxs, the Whitwortii Thread. DIam. in inches ^\ \ I iV i f 111 H li If ^ Threads per inch. . . .21 20 18 16 14 12 1110 9 8 7 7 6 6 Threads per inch. . 1-1 H 2 2121 2-13 3^3^31 4 5 4^4^ 4 3131313^3 3 4 ^ Threads per inch . . 5 5^5151 6 2f2|2f2^2^ Angle of threads = 55°. Pepth of threads = pitch of screws. One-6th of the depth is rounded off at top and bottom. Number of threads to the inch in square threads = \ number of those in angular threads. Screw Threads. — Standard American Proportions. Diam. in inches . . 18 1II [V i 1 f l4 13 11 10 9 1 8 \\ H If 7 6 Diam. in inches. . ^0. of threads . . . If 6 If 5 H 2 21 2^ 5 4^ 4^ 4 3 H H Diam. in inches. . No. of threads. . . 4 3 ^ 21 41 4| 5 2f 5f 6 3f 21 Angle of threads = 60°. Flat surface at top and bottom = ^ of the pitch. For rough bolts, the distance between the parallel sides of bolt-head and nut = 1^ diameters of bolt -j- g of an inch. Thickness of head = ^ distance of between parallel sides. Thickness of nut = diam . of bolt. In finished bolts, thiclniess of head equals thickness of nut. Distance between parallel sides of a bolt-head and nut and tiiickness of nut is xV «f an inch less for finished work than for rough. Speei> of Emery Wheels.— A 12-inch wheel should make 1,200 revolutions per minute; an 8-inch, 18,00; and a 6-inch, 2,400. To True Corundum Wheels.— Adjust the wheel in the lathe and start it at a high speed, holding a piece of corundum stone against the uneven surface. Tlie stone will soon melt and unite itself "to the defective places iii the wheel. , To Clean Gbtsasy Cotton Waste, — Boil it in a strong solution of common soda in water, and . use ,the resultant emulsion as a lubri- cant for drillsf reamers, &c. 478 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS,' AC, RECEIPTS. TEMTi5itiN-a TooiiS.— Drawing tho temper of tools is usually done in a charcoal flame, and to draw the temper of a tool properly it should be held in tho thickest part, or tho part not requiring any temper, towards the fire, and in the meantime, should be often wiped with a piece of waste or rag, dipped in oil. Tho oil keeps the temper even, and prevents it drawing more to one place than another. And in drawing the temper of any tool it should bo drawn very slowly, otherwise it will run too far cro you are awaro of it. Lancet blades and razors should be drawni to a straw color. Knife blades and chisels should bo drawn to a copper or almost red color. Piano irons, shaving knives and shoemakers knives the same temper ; cold chisels and stono drills, should bo drawn to a dark blue. Fluted reamers should only bo drawn to a straw color, on the end, as they never break elsewhere, and keep their size longer by leaving the lips hard. Half round or tapering reamers, also taps, dies, and drills, should bo drawn to a straw color. Jijucs and gauges, also common lathe tools, need no drawing, being tempered enough when merely hardened. Hardening and Filling for Firb-proof Safes.— Experience has shown that the fire and burglar-proof diamond chill for iron or steel, described in another part of this work, has no superior as a harden- ing for security in the construction of safes; and, as a non-conductor of heat, we would recommend a filling of plaster of Paris or al um. It is claimed by some that a mixture of both of these articles forms the best known filling for safes, as an external application of intense heat is certain to liberate a large quantity of water, which is transformed into steam, thus ensuring entire safety to the contents of the safe. Other manufacturers employa concrete filling for safes, and ex tol it very high- ly. Mr. Moffat, gas and steamfitter, Boston, has informed me that ho lias applied for protection in. the matter of a discovery by which heclaims that he can fully protect a safe against a double blast furnace heat, by means of an outside lining of bricks composed of asbestos and kaolin, a very small portion of the latter material being used. From tho well known incombustible nature of these materials, there can be no reasonable doubt but that the claim in question is a just one. Metallic Bath for Tempering.— Use a black lead or cast iron crucible (of the requisite depth), and place the same, filled with lead, on a fire made of coal or cliarcoal, and surrounded on all sides by a metallic or brick wall, level, or nearly so, with the top of tlio crucible}, but at a sufficient distance (say 6 or 6 inches) from it, to receive tho fuel necessary to maintain the fire, in order to keep the lead in a melted state. Let tho crucible rest on iron bars, and leave apertures to admit air to the fire. The articles, slightly greased to prevent tho adherence of oxide, are immersed in the melted lead (which is kept at a red heat) by means of tongs, two or three pairs being generally used, in order that one or two pieces may be heated while the other Is undergoing manipulation by the hardening process. Keep tho lead covered with charcoal dust or cinders. This plan is used by many cutlers and file manufacturers for giving the proper degree of heat in the tempering of their wares. The process is highly valued by those who use it. See file manufacture. Concerning Saws, Railway Springs, &c.— "When the saws are wanted to bo rather hard, but little of tho oil tempering composition MACniNISTS, ENGINEERS', AC, EECEirTS 479 is bnmed off; when milder, a largo portion; and for a epring temper tlie whole is allowed to burn away. Saws as wcU as springs appear to lose their elasticity, after hardening and tempering, from the reduction tliey undergo in grinding and polishing. Towards the conclusion of tlie manufacture, the elasticity of tho saw is restored principally by hammering, and partly over a clear coke fire to a straw color; tlio tint is removed by very diluted muriatic acid, after which tho saw3 are well washed in plain water and dried. Spring manufacture in- cludes the heaviest specimens of hardened steel works uncombincd with iron; for example, bow-springs for all kinds of vehicles, sorao intended for railway use, measure 34 feet long, and weigh 50 lbs. each piece; two of these are used in combination; other single springs aro C feet long, and weigh 70 lbs. The principle of these bow-springs will Tae immediately seen by conceiving tho common archery bow fixed horizontally with its cord upwards; tho body of the carriage being, attached to the cord sways both perpendicularly and sideways witli perfect freedom. In hardening them they are heated by bemg drawn backwards and forwards through an ordinary fire built hollow, and they are immersed in a trough of plain water. In tempering them they are heated until the black red is just visible at m'ght ; by daylight the heat is denoted by its making a pieco of wood sparklo when rubbed on the spring, which is then allowed to cool in the air. The metal is nine-sixteenths of an inch thick, and some consider five- eighths the hmits to which steel will hard enproperly, that is sufficiently alike to serve as a spring. Their elasticity is tested far beyond their intended range. Tempering Locomotive Tires.— This is quite ponderous work, as the tires of the eight foot wheels weigh about 10 cwt. and consist of about one-third steel. The materials for the tires aro first swaged se- parately, and then welded together under the heavy hammer at tho steel works, after which tliey are bent to the circle, welded, and turned to certain gauges. The tire is now heated to redness in a cir- cular furnace ; during the time it is getting hot, the iron wheel, pre- viously turned to the right diameter, is bolted down upon a facc- Slate, the tire expands with the heat, and when at a cherry red, it is ropped over the wheel, for which it was previously too smaU, and is also hastily bolted down to the surface plate. Tho whole load is quickly immersed by a swing crane into a tank of water about five feet deep, and hauled up and down until nearly cold ; the steel tires are not afterwards tempered. The spokes aro forged out of flat-bars with T formed heads, these are arranged radially in the founder's mould whilst the cast-iron centre is poured around them, the ends of the T heads are then welded together to constitute the -periphery of the wheel or inner tire, and little wedge-form pieces are inserted where there is any deficiency of iron. The wheel is then chucked on a lathe, bored and tamed on the edge, not' cylindrically, but liko the meeting of two cones, and about one quarter of an inch higher in the middle than the two edges. The compptmd tire is turned to tho corresponding form, and consequently, larger within or under cut so tliat the shrinking secxnes the tire without the possibility of obliquity or derangement, and no rivets aro required. It sometimes happens, that the tire breaks in shrinking, whoa by mismanagement the diam- eter of the wheel 13 in excesB. 480 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS*. AC, HECEIPTS. MAKmo Ancttoks.— The anchor smith's forgo consists of a hearth of brickwork, raised about 9 inches above the ground, and generally about 7 feet square. In the centre of this is a cavity contaiuuig tho fire. A vertical brick wall is built on one side of tho hearth, which Bupports the dome, and a low chimney to carry off the smoke. Behind this wall are placed the bellows, with which tho fire is urged ; the bellows being so placed that they blow to tho centre of tho fire. Tho anvil and the crane by which the hea\Tr masses of metal aro moved from and to the fire are adjusted near tho hearth. Tho Hercules, a kind of stamping machine, or the steam hammer, need not be described in this place. To make tlie anchor, bars of good iron are brought together to be fagoted ; the number varj iug with tho size of the anchor. The fagot is kept together by hoops of iron, and the whole is placed upon the properly arranged hearth, and covered up by small coals, which are thrown upon a kind of oven made of cinders. Great care and good management are required to keep this temporary oven sound during the combustion ; a smith strictly attends to this. When ail is arranged, the bellows arc set to work, and a blast urged on the fire ; this is continued for about an hour, when a good welding heat is obtained. The mass is now brought from the fire to the anvU, and tho iron welded by tho hammers. One portion having been welded, the iron is returned to to the fire, and the operation is repeated until the whole is welded in one mass. The different parts of the anchor being made, the arms aro united to the end of the shank. This must be done with great; care, as the goodness of the anchor depends entirely upon this proceae being effectively performed. The arms being welded on, the nng has to be formed and welded. Tho ring consists of several bars welded together, drawn out into a round rod passed through a hole in tho shank, bent into a circle, and the ends welded together. When all thepayts are adjusted, tho whole anchor is brought to a red heat, and hammered witJi lighter hammers than those used for welding, the object being to give a finish and evenness to the surface. The toughest iron that can be procured should be used in anchors. Good "Welsh mine iron" is suitable; also "scrap iron." An anchor of the ordinary or Admiralty pattern, tho Trotman, or Porter's im- proved (pivot fluk6), theHoniball, Porter's, Aylin's, Rodger's, Mitclie- son's and Lennox's, each weighing, inclusive of stock, 27000 lbs., withstood without injury a ^roof strain of 45000 lbs. In dry ground, Rodger's dragged the Admiralty anchor at both long and short stay ; at snort stay, Rodger's and Aylin's gavei equal resistance; Mitche- son's dragged Aylin's at both long and short stay ; and Aylin's dragged the Admiralty at short stay, they giving equal resistance at long stay. In ground under water, Trotman' s dragged Aylin's, Mitcheson'sdrag^edRodger's, and Lennox's dragged the Admiralty's. The breaking weights between a Porter and Admiralty anchor, as tested at the Woolwich Dockyard, were as 43 to 15. 1 Manufactuking akd Repairing Anvils.—- The common anvil is usually made of seven pieces : 1, the core, or body ; 2, 3, 4, 5, tho four comer pieces, which serve to enlarge its base ; G, the projecting (Eiiid, which has a square hole for the reception of the tail or shank of a dtusel on which iron bars may bo cut through, and 7, the beak, or MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS &C., RECEIPTS 481 horizontal cone round wliich rods or slips of metal may be turned m a circular form, as iu maldng rings. These six pieces are welded separately to the first or core, and then hammered into a uniform body. In manufacturing largo anvils two hearths are needed, iu order to bring each of the two pieces to be welded to a proper heat by itself, and several men are employed in working them together briskly in €he welding state, by heavy swing hammers. The steel facing is ap- I)lied by welding in the same manner, powdered borax with sal-am- moniac (1 part to 10 parts of borax) being used as a flux. The anvil is then heated to a cherry red, and plunged into cold water, a run- ning stream being better than a pool or cistern, the rapid formation of steam at the sides of the metal preventing the free access of the water for the removal of the heat with the required expedition. In Bome cases a stream of water is contrived to descend from a cistern ftbove on the part to be chilled, which is sure to render it very hard. The facing ^ould not be too thick a plate, for when such, it is apt to crack in the hardening. It is somewhat dangerous to stand near such works at the time, as when the anvil face is not perfectly weld- ed, it sometimes, in part, flies off with great violence and a loud re- port. In the case of broken anvils the repairs will have to be made in accordance with the above description. In finishing off the face, it is smoothed upon a grindstone, and, for fine work, polished with em- crv and crocus. 5\lANUFACTURTNO CHAINS. — For this purposo the iron is cut off with a plain chamfer, as from the annular form of the links their ex- tremities cannot slide asmider when struck. Every succeeding link is bent, mtroduced, and finally welded. In some of these welded ciiains the luiks are not more than ^ an inch long, and the iron wire I mch diameter. These are made with great dexterity by a man and a boy, at a small fire. The curbed chains are welded in the ordmary way and twisted afterwards, a few links bemg made red-hot at p. time for the purpose. The massive cable chains are made much iii the same manner, although partly by aid of machinery. The bar of iron, now one, one and a half, or even two inches in diameter, is heate4 and the scarf is made as a plain chamfer, by a cutting machine ; tha liulc is then formed by inserting the edge of the heated bar within a loop in the edge of an oval disc, which may be compared to a chuck fixed on the end of a lathe mandril. The disc is put in gear by th« Bteam engine ; it makes exactly one revolution and throws itself out- of motion. This bends the heated extremity of the iron into an ova| figure. Afterwards it is detached from the rod with a chamfered cut by the cutting machine, which, at one stroke, makes the second scarf of the detaclied luik, and the first of that next to be curled up. Th^ link is now threaded to the extremity of the chain, closed togethof; and transferred to the fire, the loose end bemg carried by a traver^ crane. When the link is at the proper heat, it is returned to the anvU welded, and dressed off between the top and bottom tools, after which the cast iron transverse stay is inserted, and the link having been closed upon the stay, the routine is recommenced. The work com- monly requires three men, and the scarf is placed at the side of the oval link, and flat way through the same. In similar chains made by hand, it is, perhaps, more customary to weld the link at the croicn, or small cud. 31 182 3iAciiiNisi», i:xgim:kiis', «fcc., reckipts. VuLCAinTE Emery Wheels.— IJRe a componnd of India rubber, and Wellington mills emery, as littlo of tlio former as will sufHco to hold the particles of emery together. The materials must be thor- oughly incorporated together, then rolled into sheets, cut into •wheels of the desired size and pattern, pressed into the iron moulds, and vul- canized or cured by bemg subjected to a high degree of eteam heat for several liours, making it almost as hard as cast iron. To Braze a Band Saw.— Ti7uer breadth of pulley, allow the glue to harden, then tuni it off to A smooth finish in a lathe. Secure each side of the pulley with a good Btout iron flange largo enough to cover the entire diameler, or nearly so, and with proper usage it will last a long time. On Belting and riiiCTiON. — Leather belts will last double tho usual time if treated with castor oil, they will be rat proof, they will always remain flexible and will not crack. A belt 4 inches wide will be equal to one G inches wide without it. It requires about 2rl houn to penetrate the leather, if used sooner the greasiness will cause it to •slip. A leather belt should have a .speed of 1300 It. per minute, and not more than 1800 It. or it will not last long. Leather belts, with grain side to pulley will drive 35 per cent, more than the flesh side, because it is less porous, thus admitting less air between the surfaces. Pulleys covered Avith leather with evolve full 60 per cent, more power than the naked pulley. To increase tho power of rubber belting, use red lead, French yellow and litharge, equal parts ; mix with boiled linseed oil and japan sufiicient to make it dry quick. This will produce a highly polished surface. Experiments without lubricants resulted in showing the following co-efficients. Oak upon oak, 62; wrought iron on oak, 49 to 02; cast iron on oak, C5; wrought iron on cast, 19; cast iron on cast, IG; cast iron axles on lignum-vitai bearings, 18; copper on oak, 62; iron on elm, 25; pear tree on cast iron, 44; iron axles on lignumvitse bearings (with oil), 11 ; iron axles with brass bearings (with oil), .07. A belt 5 in. wide, velocity 1000 It. per min- ute, on leather covered pulleys, will yield 5-horse power; double tho speed and it will evolve double the power. Methylated Spirit. — Methylated spirit, so very useful in tho arts, is an inferior kind of alcohol, mixed with one-ninth of its vol- ume of pyroxylic spirit, or wood naphtha. Engineers' Bell Signals in Use on Steamers. — Go ahead, 1 stroke, Back, 2 strokes. Stop, 1 stroke, Sloivbj, 2 short strokes. Full speed, 3 short strokes. Go ahead Slowly ^ 1 long and 2 short strokes, Back Slowly, 2 long and 2 short strokes, Go ahead Fxdl Speed, 1 long and 3 short strokes. Back Fast, 2 long and 3 short strokes, Hurry, 3 short strokes repeated. I To Dye Metals. — Metals can be dyed any color by dissolving any of the aniline dyes in methylated spirit and adding shellac. This polution must be painted on until the desired shade is obtained. If the iron has been previously painted white so much the better, r New Self-Lubricating Anti-friction for Bearings. — Tako equal parts of asbestos and plurnbago, mix them thoroughly and carefully together, then add sufiicient liquid silicate of soda or potash to reduce tho whole to a half dry paste. This paste must then be submitted to the action of a hydraulic or other press, till it is con- verted into a solid mass, which is afterwards dried, either in a fur- nace or by exposure to the air, until all moisture has disappeared. The bearings may either be turned out of the block or moulded from the composition while in the moist state. When tho bearing is finish- ed it is steeped in hot melted paraffine or other mineral oil, until all t!ic pores of tho composition are filled up, - MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 489 BTTRGiiAB Alarm.— During tho present time, when tramps, sneak thieves, audacious burglars and desperadoes are prowling around and infesting society, it may not be amiss to quote the following description of a home made burglar alarm by a correspondent of the English Mechanic : — " Just inside my shop door, and directly oppo- site to it, I have cut a trap in the floor, 3ft. by 2ft., and made it to work upon hinges, at the back or door side (same as a box-lid). I have placed under the front edge of the trap two common spiral bed springs , blocked up from the ground sufficently to throw front edge of trap, which rests upon them, about! in. above the level of the flooring. The springs of course, are placed about 6 in. from each front corner, along front edge, so as to equalize the strain as much as possible. The following is easy. In the place where " New Subscriber" -would fix his electric bell, let him fixer have fixed an or- dinary bell or gong, with the wire carried from it, in the way best suited to the house, under flooring of passage to the trap, beneath tho front or raised edge of which there must be a crank that the spring- ing of the trap shall worli and ring the bell, which, if well hung at a good ringing jiitch, will awaken the soundest sleeper in the event of a thief or any intruder entering the house at imjjroper times, or for improper purposes. To avoid annoyance in the day time, a button at each end of trap would fix it down firmly, and at night, upon going to bed or when locliing up, it could be released. The door-mat would cover the entire thing, and no one but those concerned need ever know of its existence. I do not hesitate to say that not one in fifty people, or even a hundred, that enter my shop know of any- thing or notice anything different to any other place they may go in- to, yet it has been in use for seven years. I fitted it myself, though not a bell-hanger, and it has never once got out of condition, but the bell will often give fifteen and twenty beats with one person treading on the mat." Black Varnish for Iron "Work. — Asphaltum, 1 lb. ; lampblack, ^ lb. ; resin, ^Ib. ; spirits turpentine, 1 quart; linseed oil, just sufficient to rub up the lampblack with before mixing it with the others. Ap- ply with a camel's hair brush. To File a Hole Square.— To file a hole square, it is necessary to reverse the work very often; a square file should first bo usecl, and the holes finished with either a diamond-shaped file or a half round. This leaves the corners square, as they properly should be. To Turn Chilled Iron.— At Lister's Works, Darlington, Eng- land, some articles required turning in the lathe, and cast steel could not be made hard enough to cut them. One man proposed cast metal tools. He was laughed at, of course, but his plan had to be tried. Well, cast metal tools were tried, with points chilled, and they cut when cast steel tools were of no use. The article was turned up with metal tools. Drilling Holes in Cast Iron.— By means of carbolic acid a hole I of an inch in diameter has been drilled through ^ inch thickness of cast iron, with a common carpenter's brace; judge," then, what can be done by using the acid and pressure drill. Hardening Wood for Pulleys. — After a wooden pulley is turn- ed and rubbed smooth, boil it for about eight minutes in olive oil; then allow it to dry, and it will become almost as hard as copper. To Solder Ferrules for Tool Handles.— Take your ferrule, lap roimd the jointing a small piece of brass wire, then just wet the i 490 MACHINISTS, ENGINKERS', &C., RECEIPTS. ferrule, scatter on the joining ground borax, put it on the end cx a Avire, and hold it in the liro till the brass fuses. It will fill up ihe joining, and form a perfect solder. It may afterwards bo turned ir the lathe. Making Dies for Screw-Cuttiko.— In making dies for ecrew- cuttiug, they should, whenever practicable, be lapped Avith a tiper tiip, as they cut more easily and wear longer than those which arc cut straisjht, and then tapered off to make the screw " take." Very fine threaded screws, however, cut well with straight dies. Small dies, or dies below one-fourth of an inch in size, should only have three lips in them. Dies from one-fourth to one-half should liavc four lips in them. Dies from three-fourths to one inch should liave six lips in them; and dies from one inch to one-and-a-haK should have seven lips in them. The cuts through dies should bo only twice the depth of tho thread, which is sufficient to make them free themselves from chips, for when cut too deep they are liable to break on the face. Harden and draw to a straw color. To Dip a Fluted Reajier Properly. — Dip it perpendicularly to a short distance beyond tlie fluting — that is to say, about half au inch and withdraw and return it several times. This hardens all tho Jips, and prevents it cracking off at the water's edge, which is tho case when a piece of steel is dipped in to a cex-tain depth, and allowed to cool without moving. Anti-Friction Metal. — Copper, 4 lbs. ; regulus of antimony, 8 lbs. ; Banca tin, 9G lbs. 2. Gram ziuc, 7^ lbs. ; purified zinc, 7| lbs. ; antimony, 1 lb. 3. Zmc, 17 parts; copper, 1 part; antimony, Imparts. This possesses unsurpassible anti-friction qualities, and does not re- quire the protection of outer casings of a harder metal. 4. Block tin, 8 lbs. ; antimony, 2 lbs. ; copper, 1 lb. If the metal be too hard, it may be softened by adding some lead. 5. Tho best alloy for journal boxes is composed of copper, 24 lbs. ; tin, 24 lbs. ; and antimony, 8 lbs. Melt the copper first, then add the tin, and lastly the antimony. It should be first run into ingots, then melted, and cast in tho form required for the boxes. C. Melt in a crucible 1^ lbs. of copper, and, while the copper is meltmg, melt in a ladle 25 lbs. of tm and 3 of anti- mony, nearly red hot, pour the two together, and stir until nearly cool. This makes the finest kind of lining metal. 7. Fo-y dieap. Lead, 100 lbs. ; antimony, 15 lbs. This costs about 10 cents per lb. 8. For Bearings to sustain great iceiglits. — Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc, ^ oz. ; tin, 2^oz. 9. Hard Bearings for machinery. — Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 2 ozs. 10, Fej'y Hard rft«o. -^Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 2^ ozs. 11. Lininj Metal for Boxes of Railway Cars. — Mix tin, 24 lbs. ; copper 4 lbs. ; antimony, 8 lbs. ; (for a hardening) then add tin 72 lbs. 12. Lining Metal for Locomotives' Axle trees. — Copper, 8G.03.; tin, 13.97,13. Another, J^?-enc7t.— Copper, 82 parts, tin, 10 parts, ziuc, 8 parts. . 14. Another, (Stephenson's). — Copper, 79j)arts; tin, 8 parts, zinc, S.parts, lead 8 parts. 15. Another (Belgian).— Coi^per, 89.02. parts, tin, 2.44 parts, zuic, 7.7G parts iron, 0.78. 16, Another (j&nf/Zis/i).— Copper, 73. 90 parts, tin, 9,49 parts, zhic, 9.03 parts, lead, 7.09 parts, iron, 0,43 pai-ts. 17. Another. — Copper, 90.06 parts, tin, 3.56 parts, zinc. 6.38. of Nickel Anti-friction Metal. — A late improvement in the mannfactnro of anti-friction metal is the introduction of a small percentage of nickel into either of the above, or any other anti-friction composition. MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 491 Composition for Crucibles. — 1 . Stourbridge crucible clay 4 parts, plumbago 3 parts, hard coke 2 parts, cement," consisting of old pots ground and sifted, 1 part. If old pots are not to be had, the forego- ing must be burnt hard, ground and sifted. The carbon chippings from the interior of gas retorts are superior to the best ordinary coke. Pulverize the whole and sift through a | inch mesh sieve, temper and mix with plenty of clean cold water, tread with the bare foot to the consistency of stiff dough, allow it to stand for three or four days covered with a damp cloth to pennit sweating and thorough raaturitj', then block by a machine or by hand. When completely dry, place in the kiln and anneal, but do not burn hard. 2. Another. — The Birm- ingham soft, tough pot consists of 2 j)arts of the best Stourbridge cru- cible clay, 3 parts plumbago, and 1 part cement consisting of old cru- cibles pulverized and sifted, &c., as above described. 3, Another. — Stourbridge crucible clay 2 parts, cement 3 parts, sift through a ^ inch mesh sieve, temper as above, and when dry place in the kiln and bum hard. 4. Another. — Stourbridge best crucible clay, 3 parts by measure; cement, composed of old worn out fire brick, 2 parts; hard coke, 1 part; sift, temper and manipulate as above. Cast Iron Patterns should be made very smooth, then slightly warmed, and waxed all over with the best beesAvax. Facings, Sands, &c., for Castings.— As a facing for loam cast- ings use fire sand 3 parts, Whitehead sand 1 part; mix. For pipes and small cylinders use No. 1, or fine sand, facing Avith plumbago. Albany or Waterford sand is excellent for fine castings, or use 1 part of sea coal to 8 or 10 of Albany sand; 1 part to 5 will do for heavy castings. To ensure very smooth castings, mix with the green foun- dry sand about 1-20 pai-t of tJir. To Prevent Holes in Castings.— In casting iron on iron or steel spindles, the moulds are cast endwise; let the cast metal spindle be an inch longer on the uppermost side than is necessary when the job is finished; thus the air holes, if any, will form in the extra inch of length, and may be cut off in tlie lathe. To Cast Chilled Iron Tools for Cutting Chilled Iron. — After making a tool of the required form out of wrought iron, cast the chilled part, using charcoal iron No. 5. Dysiot. — The new alloy, called dysiot, brought into the market by Rompel & Co., of Homburgh, has been analyzed by Von Uhlenhutli, and found to consist of copper, 62.30 parts; lead, 17.75; tin, 10.42; zmc, 9.20, with traces of iron. It can be pre; ared by melting together 62 parts of copper, 18 of lead, 10 of tin, and 10 of zinc. Excellent Anti-Friction, — Tin 50 parts, antimony 5, copper 1. Cheap Brass.— Copper 1 lb., zinc 12 ozs. Brazing Metal.— Copper 1 lb., spelter 8 ozs., with a little lead. Tough Type Metal.— Lead 100 lbs., antimony 40, tin 20. Platinum Bronze, Must-Proof.— mckel 100 parts, tin 10, plati- num 1. ^ ' Malleable or Aluminum Bronze,— Copper 90, tin 10. Aluminum Silver, OP Fine Luster and Polish.— Copper 70 parts, nickel 23, aluminum 7. Yellow Brass for Steam Englnes.— Add 4^ to 9 ozs. zinc to each lb, of copper. 492 MACHINISTS, engineers', &0., liECEIl'TS. Good Brass FOR MAcniNEnT.—l, Copper, 2 lbs., tin 2iozg,, zina oz. 2. Tonf/h i^mss.— Copper, 10 ozs., tin, 1^ ozs., zinc 1^ ozs. . Wheels and Fa/rcs.— Copper, 90 lbs., tin, 10 lbs. 4. Brass, very tenacious. — Copper, 88.9 parts, tin, 8.3 parts, ziuc, 2.8 parts. 6. Lathe B us/ifis.— Copper, 80 parts, tin 20 parts. C. Machinery Bearinr/s. — (Jopper, 88 paits, tiji, 12 parts. 7. Boxes for Engines Runninfj at Jli(/h Speed. — Copper, 7 lbs., tin, 1 lb. ; add spelter 1 lb. to every 40 lbs. of the mixture. Use steel piston rods for high speed a nil lignum vitai or apple-tree wood for shoes or f/ibbs on tlie cross-hcnds. Iron for cylinders and guides, if made from pig iron should be melted at least 8 or 9 times previous to use. Bkonze, — 1. Copper, 83 parts; zinc, 11 parts; tin, 4 parts: lend, 2 parts; mix. 2. Copper, 14 parts; melt and add zinc, G parts; tin, 4 parts; mix. 3. Ancient Bronze.— CoYupcr, 100 parts; lead and tin, of each 7 parts; mix. 4. Alloij for Bronze Ornaments. — Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 3 parts; mix. 5. Statuary Bronze. — Copper, 88 parts; tin, 9 parts; zinc, 2 parts: lead, Ipart. 0. Another. — Copper, 82^ parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc, 10$ parts; lead, 2 Sarts. 7. Another. — Copper, 90 parts; tin, 9 parts; lead, Ipart. 8. 'ronze for Medals.— CoY>Y}Qr, 89 parts; tin 8 parts; zinc, 3 parts. 9. -Bronxe.— Copper, 7 lbs.; zinc. 3 lbs.; tin, 2 lbs. 10. -ino^Aer.— Cop- per, 1 lb. ; zinc, 12 lbs. ; tin, 8 lbs. • Superior Bell Metal.— 1. Copper, 100 lbs. ; tm, 23 lbs. 2. Cop- per, 25 parts; tin, 5 parts. 3. Copper, 79 parts ; tin, 26 parts ; mix. 4. Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; mix. 5. Parisian Bell Metal. — Cop- per, 72 parts; tin, 26^ parts; iron, li parts. Used for the bells of small ornamental clocks. 6. Clock Bell Metal. — Copper, 75.19 parts; tin, 24.81 parts. 7. Bell Metal for Large ^eZ/s.— Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin, from 20 to 25 lbs. 8. Bell Metal for Small i?eZZs.— Copper, 3 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 9. White Metal for Table IJeZ^s.— Copper, 2.06 parts; tin, 97.31 imrts; bismuth, 0.63 parts. Yellow Brass (/or casting).—!. Copper, 6i.G parts; zinc, 35.3 parts; lead, 2.9 parts; tm, 0.2 parts. 2. Brass of Jemappes. — Copper, G4.6 parts ; zinc, 33.7 paits ; lead, 1.4 parts, tin, 0.2 parts. 3. Slicet of Stolherg, near Aix la C/iopeZZe.— Copper, 64.8 parts; zinc, 32.8 parts; lead, 2.0 parts; tin, 0.4 parte. 4. B'Arcets Brass for Gilding. — Cop- per, 63.70 parts; zinc, 33.55 parts; lead, 0.25 parts; tin, 2.50 parts. 6. Another. — Copper, 64.45 parts; zinc, 32.44 parts; lead, 2.86 parts; tin, 0.25 parts. 6. S?ieet Bi^ass ofRomilly. — Copper, 70.1 parts; zinc, 29.9 parts. 7. English Brass TTzre.— Copper, 70.29 parts; zinc, 29.26 parts; lead, 0.28 parts; tin, 0.17 parts. 8. Angsburg Brass Wire. — Copper, 71.89 parts; zinc, 27.63 parts; tin, 0.85 parts. Red Brass, for Gilt Articles. — 1. Copper, 82.0 parts ; zinc, 18.0 parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 3.0 parts. 2. Another. — Copper, 82 parts ; zinc, 18 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part. 3 Another. Copper, 82.3 parts; zinc, 17.5 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 4. French Tombac for Sword //aJZfZ^es.— Copper, 80 parts ; zinc, 17 parts ; tin, 3 ports. 6 For Parisian Ornaments. — Copper, 85 parts ; zinc, 15 parte ; tin, a trace 6. Used for German Ornaments.— CoTpper, 85 3 prrts ; zinc, 14.7 parts. 7. CVmjsochalk. — Copper, 90.0 parts; zinc, 7.9 parts; lead, 1.6 parts. 8. Bed Tombac from Pam.— Copper, 92 parts ; zinc, 8 parte. Brass.— 1. Yellmo Brass for Turning, (common article.) — Copper, 20 lbs. zinc, 10 lbs. lead, 4 ozs. 2. Another Brass for Turning.— Co^ MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., liECEirTS. 493 per, 32 lbs. zinc, 101>:)g, lead, 1 lb. 3. Red Brass free, for Turninf/.— Copper, 160 lbs. ziuc, 50 lbs. lead, 10 lbs. antimony, 44 ozs. 4. BesL Jled Brass for fine Castings. — Copper, 24 lbs. zinc, 5 lbs. bismuth, 1 oz. 5. Red Tomhac. — Copper, 10 lbs. zinc, 1 lb. 6. Tomftac. —Copper, 10 lbs. tin, 1 lb. zinc, 1 lb- 7. Brass for Heavy Castings. — Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; zinc, 1 part. 8. Malleable Brass. — Copper, 70.10 parts; zinc, 29.90 parts. 9. Superior Malleable ^rass.— Copper, GO parts ; zinc, 40 parts. 10. Brass. — Copper, 73 parts ; zinc, 27 parts. 11. Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 35 parts. 12. Copper, 70 parts pzinc, 30 jmrts. 13. German Brass. — Copper, 1 lb. zinc, 1 lb. 14. Watch- makers* Brass. — Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts. 15. Brass for Wire. — Copper, 34 parts; calamine, 56 parts. 16. Brass, for Tubes. — Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part. 17. Brass for Heavy Work. — Copper, 100 parts: tin, 15 parts; zinc, 15 parts. 18. ^no is poured in in liko maimer. The pipe is finally fired in the kihi. To Enamel Copper and Other vessels. — ^Flint glass, 6 parts . borax, 3 parts ; red lead, 1 part ; oxide of tin, 1 part. Mix all to- gether, frit, grind into powder, make into a thin paste with water, ap- ply with a brush to the 'Surface of the vessels, after scaling by heat and cleaning them, repeat with a second or even a third coat, after- Avards dry, and lastly fuse on by heat of an enamelled kiln. Emery Wheels for Polishing. — Coarse emery powder is mixed with about half its weight of pulverized Stourbridge loam, and a little water or other liquid to make a thick paste ; this is pressed into a metallic mould by means of a screw-press, and, after being thoroughly dried, is baked or burned in a muffle at a temperature above a red, and below a white heat. Tliis forms an artificial emery stone, which 502 MACHINISTS, I'MGINEKUS', &€., KPXJKirXS. cuts -very greedily, with very littlo wear to itself. Unequalled for grinding' aud polishing glass, metals, enamels, stones, &c. Moulding Sand fou Casting Brass on InoN.— The various kindi* of good moulding sand employed in foundries for casting iron or brass, have been found to be almost uniform chcmic:il composition, varying in grain, or the aggregate form only. It contains between 93 and IXi parts silex, or grains of sand, and from 4 to G parts clay, and a littlo oxide of iron, in each 100 parts. Moulding sand which contciins lime, magnesia, manganese and other oxides of metal, is not applicable, particular for the casting of iron or brass. Such sand is citlier too close, will not stand or retain its form, or it will acusc the metal to boil through its closeness. Refining Fluxes, fou IMetals. — Deflagrate, and afterwards pul- verize, 2 parts of nitro and 1 part of tartar. The following fluxes answer very well, provided the ores be deprived of their sulphur, or if they contam much earthy matter, because, in the latter case, tliey unite with them, and convert them into a thin glass, but, if any (quantity of sulphur remains, their fluxes unite with it, and form .1 liver of sulphur, which has the power of destroying a portion of all the metals, consequently the assay must be, under such circumstances, very inaccurate. Limestone, fieldspar, fluorspar, quartz, sand-slate, and slags, are all used as fluxes. Iron ores, on account of the argilla- ceous earth they contain, require calcareous additions; and the copper ores, rather slags, or nitrescent stones, than calcareous earth. Burning Iron Castings together. — The usual mode is by imbed- ding the castings in the sand, having a little space left vacant round about the joint where it is to be burned. Two gates must then bo provided, one lying on a level with the lower side of this space, and the other raised so that the metal, which must be very hot, is ixjured in at the higher one; it passes round, fills up the space, and runs olt at the lower gate. A constant supply of metal is thus kept up, till tho {)arts of the casting are supposed to be on the eve of melting. Tho ower gate is then closed, and tho supply stopped. When cool, and the superfluous metal chipped off, it forms as strong a joint as if it had been original. ' * Cornish Reducing Flux.— Tartar lOozs., nitre 3ozs, and Gdrs. borax, 3 oz. and 1 dr. Mix together. ' f- Crucibles. — The best crucibles are made from pure fire-clay, mixed with finely-ground cement of old crucibles, and a portion of black-lead or graphite; some pounded coke maybe mixed with the plumbago. The clay should bo prepared in a similar Avay as for making pottery- ware ; the vessels, after being formed must be slowly dried, and then lu'operly baked in the kiln. . , Black-lead crucibles are made of 2 parts graphite, and 1 of fire- clay, mixed with water into a paste, pressed in moulds, and well dried, but not baked hard in the kiln. This compound forms excellent small or portable furnaces. \ — - " !»» MAI.LEABLE Cast Irou. — The great secret of this sort of work is the annealing, which if not done properly the castings are of no use at all. The best mode is to take an iron pan, say one foot square; ])ut in a layer of charcoal, then some of the castings, then another layer. . When the pan is full cover it over with some sand, to keep tho charcoal from burning away. Put on an old piece of iron for a lid to i MA-CmXISTS, engineers', &C., Il£CEirTS. 503 cover all, put it in the annealing furnace, and get the heat up quito slow and gradually, taking care not to get the heat up too quick. After you have got it to the proper heat, which is this, the castings must he red hot through ; keep it at this heat for 5 or 6 hours, then let your fire die gradually out, or, if you want to take some out and put more in, take them to a comer and bury them, pan and all, — let them lie there till properly cooled. Kegardmg the melting, procure not less than two good sorts of No. 2 pig iron, which you may mix with. eoHxe good scrap if you choose ; the casting, melting, and moulding are conducted in the same manner as common cast-iron, only the metal heing hard, when casting, you have to make properly constructed runners and risers, or flow gates, if the article is likely to sink, for you. cannot pump it well. Japanning Castings. — Clean them well from the sand, then dip them in or paint them over with good boiled linseed oil ; when moderately dry, heat tliem in an oven to such a temperature as will turn the oil blaclc, without burning. The stove should not be too hot at first, and the heat should be gradually raised to avoid blistering ; the sloAver the change in the oil is effected the better will be the result. The castings, if smooth at first, will receive a fine black and polished surface by this method. IIakdening Axletrees and Boxes.— The method now used in the manufacture of Murphy's axletrees is to use wrought iron and "weld two pieces of steel into the lower side, where they rest upon the wheels and sustain the load. The work is heated in an open forgo fire, in the ordinary way, andwlien it is removed, a mixture, princi- pally prussiate of potash, is laid upon the steel ; the axletree is then immediately immersed in water, and additional water is allowed to fall upon it from a cistern. The steel is considered to be very ma- terially hardened by the treatment, and the iron around the same is also partially hardened. One very good way to chill axletree boxes is to mould from wooden patterns on sand, and cast thenl upon an iron core which has the effect of making them very hard. To form the annular recess for oil, a ring of sand, made in an appropriate core- box, is slipped upon the iron mandrill, and is left behind when the atter is driven out of the casting. Composite Ikon Railings.— Tlie process by which this light, ele- gant and cheap fabric is manufactured, is as follows : — ^Rods and bars of wrought-irou are cut to the lengths desired for the pattern, and Bubjected to a process called crimping, by which they are bent to the desired shape. These rods are then laid in the form of the design, and cast-iron moulds are affixed at those points where a connection is desired ; the moulds are then filled with melted metal, and immedi- ately you have a complete railing of beautiful design. Casting in iron moulds has this great advantage over the old sand moulding, it does not require any time for cooling, as tlie metal is no sooner run than the moulds may be removed and used again immediately on another section of the work ; and besides, it is so much more easily effected. By the combination of wrought and cast-iron in this pro- cess, the most curious and complex designs may be j)roduced with great rapidity and cheapness. To Galvanize Cast Iron Through,— To 50 lbs. melted iron add 1 lb. pulverized pure zinc. Scatter the zinc powder well over the ladle, 504 JIACIITNISTS, engineers', &C., RECEirTS. then cntcli iho melted iron, stir it up with an iron rod and pour at once. To OBTAIN Co:mmercial Antimony. — Fuse together 100 parts sul- phurct of antimony, 40 parts metiillic iron, and 10 parts dry crude Kul])hate of soda. This ])roduccs from (iO to G5 parts of antimony, hcsidcs the scoriai or ash Avhicii is also valuable. Metallic Antimom/. Mix IG parts snlphurct of antimony and G parts cream of tarfcir. botli ill powder ; put the mbcture, in small quantities at a time, into a vessel heated to redness ; wlicn reaction ceases, fuse the mass and after 15 minutes, pour it out and separate the metal from the slag. The product is nearly pure. Holes in Milestones arc filled with melted alum, mixing burr Band with it. If the hole is large, put some pieces of burr mill stones in itfirst, and pour in melted alum. These pieces of block should be cut exactly to fit. There should be small joints, and fastened witli plaster of Taris. These holes should bo cut at least 4 inches deep ; there is then no danger of their getting loose. ' fiTTiNG A New Back on an Old Millstone.— Block your stone up with a bloclc of wood, having its face down until it lies even, Kolid, and perfectly level ; then pick and scrape off all the old plaster doAvn to the face blocks, so that none remains but what is in the joints of the face blocks ; then wash these blocks, and keep them soaked with water. Keep a number of pieces of burr blocks, at the same time, soaked with water. Take a pail half filled with clean water, and mixed with 2 tablespoonfuls of glue water, boiled and dissolved ; mix in Avith your liand plaster of Paris until it be thick enough that it will not run ; and, breaking all the lumps, pour this on the stone, rubbing it with your hand ; the stone being at the same time damped ; and place small pieces of stone all over the joints of the face blocks ; you then, with more plaster, mixed in the same way but more stiff, with this and pieces of burr stones, build waUs romid the eye and verge 4 or 5 inches high, leaving the surface uneven and the eyo larger, as it will be brought to its proper size by the last operation. It is better to build up the wall of the running stone round the verge for 3 inches without any spalls, so that the holes may be cut in to balance it. If you wish to make your stone heavier, you will take small pieces of iron, perfectly clean and free from grease, and lay them evenly all around the stone in the hollow place between the two walls just built ; and, with i)laster mixed a little thicker than milk, pour in mider and through all the crevices in the iron until tho surface is nearly level with the t\\^o walls. If the stones do not re- auire additional weight added-, instead of iron, use pieces of stono le same way, leaving the surface rough and uneven. Again, as before, build walls round the verge of the stone, and round the eye of the stone, until they are within 2 inches of the thickness you want your stones to be, the wall round the eye being 2 inches higher than that round the verge, and fillmg the space between the walls with stones ; and pourmg in plaster again, make it nearly level with the AvaUs, but leaving the surface rough, and jagged, to make the next plaster adliere Avell to it. Let it stand until the back is dry and perfectly set, when you raise the stone upon its ed^e, and, with a trowel, plaster round the edge of the stone neatly, giving it a taper of half an inch from the face to the back of tlio Btoue. Wlieu cased pjAciiiNisTS, engineers', &C., KECEIPTS. bOu ioaud in this way, lay the stone down on the cock-head ; it being in the balance rync, but the driver off, then raise the spindle, and balance the stone as already directed before putting on the remainder of the back. Then have a tin made the size of the eye, and to reach from the balance ryne to the thickness you want the stone to be at the eye. This tin should be exactly fitted to its place, and made fast ; then fit a hoop of wood or iron round the verge, havuig the upper edge of the thickness from the face you want the stone to be at the verge, and equal all round. This hoop should be greased; and, all the cracks round it, and the tin in the eye, being stopped, you pour thin plaster (with more glue water than in previous operations, to prevent it from setting so quickly, and to give time to finish off the back correctly) until it bo level with the hoop round the verge, and with a straiglit edge, one cud resting on the hoop, and the other end resting on the tin at the eye ; then, by moving it round, and working the plaster witli a trowel, make the surface of the back even and smooth between these two points. The hoop is then taken off, and the back and edges planed smooth ; then lower the spindle until your ruimer lies solid, and i)ut your band or hoop on, it being first made nearly red hot, and taking care that it is of sufficient size not to require too much driving ; if fitting too tightly, it may loosen the back in driving it to its proper place ; it may be cooled gently by pouring water on it; and, when <.'Ool, it should fit tight. BAiiANCixa A Millstone. — First, take off the driver, that the stone may have full play on the cock-head ; then raise the spindle so that there may be room between the stone to see the balance. Find tho lieaviest parts, and near the verge lay on sufficient weight to balance it. Cut a hole in the back of the stone, as deep as you can make it and as near the verge as possible that the binding iron hoop of tho stone may keep the lead in its place. This hole should be wider at the bottom than the top in order to retain the lead when the stoue is' in motion, and into this the melted lead should be poured until it brings the stone completely into balance. When the lead is cold, cover over with mixed plaster, even with the back of the stone. CoaiPOSiTiox TO Keep Millstones Clean.— Hot water, 1 gal ; borax, 2 oz ; washing soda, ^ lb. and 3 balls of the size of a hazel nut each, of sal prunel. Mix and .apply it to the burrs with a scrubbing brush. When grinding garlic wheat it is not necessary to take ui> the burrs at all. It is sufficient , to drop through the eye of tho burr twice per day one of the above described balls of sal prunel, and that will keep the burrs sharp and clean, enabling the miller at all seasons to use the No. 13 bolt, to make finer fiour and in greater quantity than usual. Mill Dams. — AVhen 'building a dam, you should select the most suitable place. If you can, place it across the stream near a rocky bluff so that the end of the dam may run into the bluff. This Avill prevent the water running by at the ends of the dam. Build your dam very strong ; if this is not done, they are breaking up often, causing ruinous expense in money and loss of time. FloujB Mill Machinery.— For each pair of 4 feet stones, witli all the necessary diessuig machinery, etc., there is required 15 horses' i>owei. Stones, 4 ft. diam., 120 to 140 revolutions per minute. Bremmo Machines, 21 ins. diam., 450 to 500 revolutions per minute. 506 jiAciiiNisTs, engineers', &c., receipts. Elevator, 18 ins. diam., 40 revolutions per minnte. Creepers, ?>\ in?! pitch, 75 rovolutiona per minute. Screen, 16 ins. diam., 300 to 350 revolutions per minute. 788 cubic feet o£ water, discharged at a velocity of 1 foot per second, are necessary to grind and dress a bushel of wheat per hour=1.40 horses' power per bushel. 2000 feet per minute for the velocity of a stono 4 feet in diam. may bo considered a maximum speed. liocK Dams are incomparably the best in use, if there is plenty of material at hand for building, and a rock bottom to the stream; if there is not a roclc bottom you should dig a trench in the bottom, deep enough, so that the water cannot undermine it. This should bo tho same as if you Avero building tho fomidation of a large builduig. Tho Avail to be built should be of a small circular form, so that tho back of the circle should bo next to tho body of water, Avhich may by its pressure tighten it. To secure tho Avater from leaking through at tho ends of the dam, dig a ditch deeper than the bottom of the river ; then fdl this Avith small pieces of rock, and pour in cement. This cement i.H made of hydraulic cement, and is made of ono part of cement to five parts of pure sand. It Avill effectually stop all crevices. A rock dam if Avell built Avill be perfectly tight. Use as you conveniently can move ; building this Avail 4 to G feet thick, according to the length of tlie dam, with jam or buttressess every place where they are needed to strengthen it; make true jomts to these rocks, especially on the ends so that they may join close together. When you have the outside Avails laid in cement for every layer fill the middle up with pieces of small rock, pouring in your grout, so that there may not be a crevice but Avhat is fiUed. If there is any crevice or hole left open, tho water will breakthrough, AA^earing it larger and larger. If the stream is A\dde and large, it is necessary to build the dam in two sections, which should be dividectbya wasteway, necessary for the waste, or surplus water, to rim over, to keep the head in its proper place or height. Let each section, next to Avhere the Avater is to be run over, be abutments, built to strengthen the dam. The last layer of rock, on the top where tho waste wa? er runs over, should project 5 or 6 inches over the back of the dam iso that the water may not imdermine it. This last layer should bb of large rocks and jointed true ; then laid in hydraulic cement, in proportion of 1 of cement to 3 of sand. When the dam is guilt, the front should be filled up with coarse gravel or clay ; this is best dono Avith teams, for the more it is tramped the more durable it becomes. Frame-Dams. — ^In building a frame dam, commence with a good foundation, laying the first sills in the bottom, of sufficient depth. They should be large square timbers that will last in the water with- out rotting. Where there is a soft foundation, the bottom should first be made level ; then dig trenches for the mudsills, about 7 or 8 feet apart, lengthways of the stream, and 10 or 13 feet long. Into theso first sills other sills must be framed, and put crosswise of the stream, 6 or 8 feet apart, to reach as far across the stream as necessary. Then two outside sills should be piled down with 2-inch plank driven doAvn to a depth of 4 or 5 feet. If this can be done conveniently, they are to be jointed as closely as possible. It would be better to line Avith somo stuff 1 inch thick j then with posts their proper length, about 12 or 14 .inches square, AA'hich should be framed into the uppermost sill, in both MACHINISTS, EXGINEErwS', &C., EECEirTS. 507 Bides, nud all the -R-ay across the dam, from bank to bank, at a distance of 6 feet apart. Then, witli braces to each post, to extend two-thirds of the length of the post, where thc^' should be joined together with a lock, instead of a mortise and tenon, with an iron bolt 1 or 1^ inches in diameter, going through both, and tightened with a screw and nut. When mortises and tenons arc used, they often become rotten and useless in a few years. These braces should be set at an angle of 50 or 60° with the other end mortised into the mud sill. These braces re- quire to be sbout 0 to 8 inches, and as long as you find necessary ; be- ing covered with dirt it will not decay for a long time, as the air ia excluded. These posts should be capped from one to the other, plate fashion. The posts should be lined with 2 or 2| inch plank on the m- side, pinned to the plank, and should, in the middle, be filled in with dirt. v " _ If the stream is large and wide, the dam should be built in two sec- tions, which should be divided by a waste-way for the surplus water, which should be in the centre of the dam, and sufficient for all the •waste-water to run over. Let each section of the dam form an abut- ment next to the waste-way, placing cells or sills 4 feet apart the length of the waste-way ; in each of these sills, posts should be framed with a brace for the sides. These rows of posts, standing <» cross the dam, will form the sectional abutments ; the middle one may be con- structed by being lengthways of the stream, with short braces, so that they will not be in the way of drift-wood passing down the stream ; it being necessary for strong pieces for a bridge. Then cover the sills with an apron of 2-inch plank joined perfectly straigiit, to extend 30 or 40 feet below the dam, to prevent imdermining of the dam. The planji:s wwich are used for the purpose of lining the posts which form the abutsnents of each section of the dam, and the ends of the waste-way, should be truly pointed, so as to prevent any leakage. The dam hemg built, the dirt should be filled in with teams, as the more it is tramped the better. Clay or coarse gravel is the best. Then place your gates on the upper side of the waste-way, the size that is necessary to a level with low- water mark ; which gales are not to be raised except in times of high water, as the proper height of the mill-pond should be regulated by boards placed over the gate for the desired head, as the water should be allowed pass at all times freely over them. To strengthen the dam, if you think necessary, 2-inch plank may be used in lining the front side of the dam, long enough to reach from the bottom of the stream (on an inclined plane, and next to the body of water to the top of the dam, and filled up nearly to the top of the dam with clay or gravel well trampled down. Brush or Log Dams are very often used in small, muddy streams When the bottom of the. stream is of a soft nature, take a flat boat where you want to fix your dam, and drive pUes the whole length of the stream, about 3 or 4 feet apart, as deep as you can; Take young oak saplings pointed at the end, for the purpose. If you can, construct a regular pile-driver, similar to those in use for making trestle-work on the railways. This weight may be pulled up by horses instead of an engine. When you have finished driving piles, make some boxes or troughs of 2 or 3 inch plank, about 3 feet wide and as long as the plank is. Sink these in the water the length of the dam, close to the piles, by loading them with rock, xmtil they are at the bottom of tlio 508 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., r.ECEirTS. Btrcam, fillinpf in tho front part of the dam -with dirt and brush, nearly to tho lici','lit you waut it. This kind of a dam will last a long liino. Whenever there is a small break in tho dam or race, cut up sonio wilIo>vs and brush, put them in the break along with some straw and dirt, and ram them down Avith clay. lu regard to the flume, the greatest care must bo taken to insure strength and durability combined with tightness. Kvcry step tjikeu in its construction must be of such a nature as to unite tliese qualiticjj in the highest possible degree, otherwise tho whole is, in a manner, labor lost. Bkonzing Co5lTOSITl0^^s, 32 Kinds. —1. Silver ichile Bronzing Pow- der. — Melt together loz. each, bismuth and tin, then add 1 oz. quick- Kilver, cool and powder. 2. Gold colored Bronze. Powder. — Verdigris, 8ozs. ; tutty powder, 4 ozs. ; borax and nitre, of each 2 ozs. ; bichlorido of mercury, | oz. ; make into a paste with oil and fuse them together. Used in japaimiug as a gold color. 3. BcautifuL Red Bronze Powder. \ — Sulphate of copper, 100 parts; carbonate of soda, GO parts; ai>ply lieat until they unite into a mass. 4. Acid Bronze. — Cobalt, 4 lbs. ; pulverize; silt through a fine sieve; put in a stone pot; add ^ gal. nitric acid, a little at a time, stirring frequently for 24 hours; then add about, 5 gals, muriatic acid, or until the work comes out a dark brown. 5. Alkali Bronze. — Dissolve 5 lbs. nitrate of copper in 3 gals, of water; and 6 lbs. pearlash ; add 1 or 2 pts. potash water; then add from 2 to 3 lbs. sal ammoniac or xintil the work comes out the required color. 6. Coatinr/ Dip. — Suljihate of zinc, 8 lbs. ; oil of vitriol, 5 gals. : aquafor- tis, 'i gal. To use, warm up scalding hot. 7. Quick Bright JJipping Acid, for Brass xchichhas been Ormohied. — Sulphuric acid, igal. ; nitric acid, Igal. 8. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 12 lbs. ; nitric acid, Ipt. ; nitre, 4lbs. ; soot, 2 liandfuls; brimstone, 2 ozs.; pulverize the brimstono and soak it in water 1 hour, add the nitric acid last. 9. Good Dip- ping Acid for cast Brass. — Sulphuric acid, 1 qt. ; nitre, 1 qt. ; a littlo muriatic acid may be added or omitted. 10, Ormolu Dipping Acid for Sheet Brass. — Sulphuric acid, 2 gals. ; nitric acid, 1 pt. ; niuriatie acid, 1 pt; nitre, 121bs. ;put in the muriatic acid last, a little at a time, and stirring the mixture with a stick. 11. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 4 gals. ; nitric acid, 2 gals. ; saturated solution of sulphate of iron 1 pt. ; solution of sulphate of copper, 1 qt 12. Ormolu Dipping Acid for cast Brass. — Sulphuric acid, Igal.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; sulphur (in Hour) 1 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; saturated solution of zinc iJi nitric acid, 1 gal. ; mixed with an equal quantity of sulphuric acid. 13. Vinegar Bronze for Brass. — Vinegar, 10 gals.; blue vitriol, 3 lbs.; muriatic acid 3 lbs. ; corrosive sublimate, 4 ozs. ; sal ammoniac, 2 lbs. ; alum, 8 ozs. 14. Antique Bronze Paint. — Sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; cream of tartar, 3 ozs. ; common salt, G ozs. ; dissolve in 1 pt. hot water; then add nitrate of co])per, 2 ozs.; dissolve in ^ pt water; mix well and apply it to the article in a damp place with a brush. 15. Bhie Bronze on Copper. — Clean and polish well, then cover the surface with a fluid obtained by dissolving vermillion in a warm solution of sodium, to which some caustic potasli has been added. IG. Bronze Dip. — Sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; salt of sorrel, (binoxolate of potash) ^ oz. ; dissolved in vinegar. 17. Parisian Bronze Dip. — Sal ammoniac, ^ oz. ; common salt, ^ oz. ; spirits of hartshorn, 1 oz. ; dissolved in an English qt. of vinegar, a good result 'W'ill bo obtained by adding ^ oz. sal ammoniac MACHINISTS, EXGINEEKS', liECEirXS. 509 instead of spts. of hartshorn; the piece of metal being well clear .ed is to be rubbed with one of these solutions, then dried by friction witli a fresh brush. 18. Green Dip. — Wine vinegar, 2 qts. ; verditer green, 2 ozs.; sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; salt, 2 ozs. ; alum, ^ oz. ; Frencli berries, 8 ozs. ; boil the ingredients together. 19. Aqua foriis Dip. — Nitric acid, 8 ozs. ; muriatic acid, 1 qt. ; sal ammoniac, 2 ozs. ; alum, 1 oz. ; salt, 2 ozs. 20. Olive Bronze Dip for Brass. — Nitric acid, 3 ozs. ; muriatic acid, 2 ozs. ; add titanium or palladium, when the metal is dissolved add 2 gals, pure soft water to each pt. of the solution. 21. Brown Bronze Paint for Copper Vessels. — Tinct. of steel, 4 ozs. ; spts. of nitro 4 ozs. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; water, ^ pt. ; mix in a bottle, apply it with a fine brush, the vessel being full of boilmg water. Varnish after the apphcation of the bronze. 22. Bronze for all kinds of Metal. — Muriate of ammonia, (sal ammoniac) 4 drs. ; oxalic acid, 1 dr.; vinegar, 1 pt; dissolve the oxalic acid first; let tlie work be clean, put on the bronze with a brush, repeating the operation as many times as may bo necessary. 23. Green Bronze. — Dissolve 2 ozs. nitrate of iron, and 2 ozs. liyposulphate of soda in 1 pt. of water; immerse the article untU the required shade is obtained, as almost any shade from brown to red can be obtained according to the time of immersion, then well wash with water, dry and brush. 24. Pale Deep Olive Green Bronze. — Perchloride of iron, 1 part ; water, 2 parts. Mix and immerse tiie brass. 25. Dark Green.— Saturate nitric acid with copper and im- merse the brass. 26. Dead Black for Brass Work.— Rub the surface first with tripoli, then wash it with a solution of 1 part, neutral nitrate of tin, with 2 parts, chloride of gold, after 10 minutes wipe it off with a wet cloth. 27. Best Bronze for Brass. — Take 1 lb. of nitric acid, and ^ lb. of white arsenic, put them into an earthen vessel and then proceed in the usual manner. 28. Another Bronze for Br a^s. — 1 oz. muriate of ammonia, \ oz. alum, ^ oz. arsenic, dissolve together in 1 pt. of strong vinegar. 29. Black Dip for Brass. — Hydrochloric acid (com- monly called smoking salts,) 12 lbs.; sulphate of iron, 1 lb.; and pure Avhite arsenic 1 lb. This dip is used in all the large factories in lUrraingham, but the dip used in the London trade is 2 ozs. corrosive sublimate, ui 1 pt, of the best vinegar, cork both air tight in a bottle, let it stand 24 hours; then it is fit for use. 30, Quick Bright Dip for Brass. — Use strong nitric acid in sufficient quantity, dip your brass in the liquid for an instant, withdraw, and immediately immerse it first in cold water, then in boiling water, for a short time only in each bath, then allow it to dry, rei)eat the process if necessary. 31, Ap- plication of Bronze Powder. — The proper way is to varnish the article and then dust the bronze powder over it after the varnish is partly dry. 32. Black color for Brass Work. — Make a strong solution of nitrate of silver, in one dish and nitrate of copper, in another. Mix the two together and plimge in the brass. Now heat the brass evenly till the required degree of blaclmess is acquired. Unrivalled as a beautiful color on optical insruments. Graham's QcncK Bronzing Liquids.— l^'or immediate action on Copper, Brass, or Zinc. — 1. Brown or Dark Bronze for Copper, Brass, or Zinc. — ^Dissolve 5 drachms nitrate of iron inl pt. water; or, 5 drs. perchloride of iron in 1 pt. water. A black may also be ob- tained from 10 0Z8. muriate of arsenic in 2 pts. permuriate of iron, and 1 pt. water. 2. Brown or Bed Bronzing for JSrass.— Dissolve 10 510 MACHINISTS, i:ngini:krs', &c., iii:ci:ii*tj. drs. nitrate of iron, and IG dm. liypofiulph.tto of goda, in 1 pt. water, or, 1 dr. nitric acid may l)c substituted for the nitrate of iron. Jted Brown Bronzincj for Brass. — Dissolve 1 oz. nitrate of copper, and 1 oz. oxalic acid in 1 pt. water, brought to the boil and then cooled. 4. Dark Brown Bronzinr/for Brass. — Mix 1 oz. cyanide of potassium, and 4 drs. nitric acid, with 1 pt. water, 5. lied Bronzing for Brass. Mix 30grs. tersulphatc of arsenic, G drs. solution of pearlash, and 1 pt. water. G. Oranrje Bronzim/ on Brass. — Mix 1 dr. potash solu- tion of sulphur witli 1 pt. water. 7. Olive Green Bronze for Brass. — Dissolve 1 pt. permuriate of iron in 2 pts. water. 8. Slate-colt>red Bronzing for Brass. — Dissolve 2 drs. sulphocyanide of potassium, and 5 drs. perchloride of iron, in 1 pt. Avater. 9, Steel Grey Bronzing for Brass. — Mix 1 oz. muriate of arsenic Avith 1 pt. water, and use at a heat not less than 180° Fahr. 10. Bright Red Bronzing for Copper. Mix 2 drs. sulphide of antimony, and 1 oz. pearlash in 1 pt. water. 11. Bark Bed Bronze for Copper. — Dissolve 1 dr. sulphur and 1 oz. 'pearlash in 1 pt. water. 12. Copper Colored Bronzing for Zinc. Agi- tate the articles in a solution of 8 drs. sulphate of copper, and 8 drs. liyposulphate of soda in 1 pt. water. ■ Copper Plates or Rods may be covered with a superficial coat- ing of brass by exposing to the fumes given off by melted zinc at a licht temperature. The coated plates or rods can then bo rolled into thin sheets, or drawn into wire. Solution of Copper or Zinc— Dissolve 8 ozs. (Troy) cyanide of potassium, and 3 ozs. cyanide of copper or zinc, in 1 gal. of rain water. To be used at about 1G0° F., with a compoimd battery of 3 to 12 cells. Brass Solution,— Dissolve 1 lb. (Troy) cyanide of potassium, 2 ozs. cyanide of copper, and 1 oz. cyanide of zinc, in 1 gal. of rain- water ; then add 2 ozs. of muriate of ammonia. To be used at 100° F., for smooth work, with a compound battery of from 3 to 12 cells, Brassing Iron, — ^Iron ornaments are covered with copper or brass, by properly preparing the surface so as to remove all organic matter which would prevent adhesion, and then plun^mg them into melted brass. A thin coating is thus spread over the iron, and it admits of bemg polished or burnished. Ormolu Coloring, Lacquers, &c, — 18 kinds, — Ormolu Color- ing. — 1. Alum, 30 parts ; nitrate of potassa, 30 parts ; red ochre, 30 pails; sulphate of zinc, 8 parts; common salt, 1 part; sulphate of iron, 1 part. It is applied with a soft brush. The articles are placed over a clear charcoal fire until the salts, melted and dried, assume a hrown aspect. They are then suddenly cooled in nitric acid water, containing 3 per cent, of hydrochloric acid, afterwards, washed in abundance of water and dried in sawdust, 2. To Prepare Brass Work for Ormolu Dipping. — ^If the work is oily, boil itmley, andif itis finished work, filed or turned, dip it in old acid, and it is then ready to be ormolued, but if it is unfinished and free from oil, pickle it in strong sulphuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, and then in the old acid, after which it will be ready for ormoluin^. 3. To Repair Old Nitric Acid Ormolu Dips.— It the work after dipping appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol till it answers the purpose : if the work after dip- ping appears too smooth, add muriatic acid and nitre till it gives the MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. 511 right appearance. The other ormolu dips should be repaired accord- ing to the receipts, putting in the proper ingredients to streuglheii them. They should not be allowed to settle, but should be stirred often while using. 4. Directions for making Lacquer. — Mix the in- gredients, and let the vessel containing them stand in the sun, or in a place slightly warmed, 3 or 4 days, shaking it frequently till gum is dissolved, after which let it settle from 24 to 48 hours, when the clear liquor may be poured off for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes used in maldug lacquer to carry down the impurities. 5. Lacquer for Dip- ped Brass.— AXcohol, (95 per cent. ) 2 gals. ; seed lac, 1 lb. ; gum copal< 1 oz. ; English saffron, 1 oz. ; anuatto, 1 oz. 6. Lacquer for Bronzed Brass. — To 1 pt. of the above lacquer add gamboge, 1 oz., and, after mixing it, add an equal quantity of the first lacquer. 7. Deep Gold Colored Lacque7\— Best alcohol, 4 ozs. ; Spanish annatto, 8 ozs. ; tur- meric, 2 drs. ; shellac, h oz. ; red sanders, 12 grs. ; wlieu dissolved, add spts. of turpentine, 30 drops. 8. Deep Gold Colored Lacquer for Brass iiot Dipped. — Alcohol, 4 gals. ; turmeric, 3 lbs. ; gamboge, 3 ozs. ; gum pandarac, 7 lbs. ; shellac, 1^ lbs. ; turpentine varnish, 1 pt. 9. Gold Colored Lacquer, for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 36 ozs. ; seed lac, 6 ozs. ; amber, 2 ozs. ; gum gutta, 2 ozs. ; red sandal wood, 24 grs. ; dragon's blood,60 grs. ; oriental saffron, 3G grs. ; pulverized glass, 4 ozs. 10. Gold Lacquer, for Brass. — Seed lac, G ozs. ; amber or copal, 2 ozs. ; best alcohol, 4 gals. ; pulverized glass 4 ozs. ; dragon's blood, 40 grs. ; ex- tract of red sandal wood obtained by Avater, 30 grs. 11. Lacquer, for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 12 gals, ; seed lac, 8 lbs. ; turmeric, 1 lb. to a gal. of the above mixture; Spanish saffron, 4 ozs. The saffron is to be added for bronzed work. 12. Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 ozs. ; gamboge, 1 oz. ; shellac, 3 ozs. ; annatto, 1 oz. ; solution of 3 ozs. of seed lac in 1 pt. alcohol. When dissolved, add ^ oz. Venice turpen- tine, i oz. dragon's blood, will make it dark. Keep it in a warm place 4 or 5 days. 13. Pale Lacquer, for Tin Plate. — Best alcohol, 8 ozs. ; turmeric, 4 drs. ; hay saffron, 2 scrs. ; dragon's blood, 4 scrs. ; red sanders, 1 scr. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; gum sandarac, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 drs., Canada balsam, 2 drs.; when dissolved, add spts. turoentine, 80 drops. 14. Eed Lacquer for Brass. — Alcohol, 8 gals. ; dragon's blood, 4 lbs. ; Spanish annatto. 12 lbs. ; gum sandarac, 13 lbs. ; tur- pentine, 1 gal. 15. Pale Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 2 gals. ; capo aloes, cut small, 3 ozs. ; pale shellac, 1 lb. ; gamboge, 1 oz. 16. Best Lacquer, for Brass.— Alcohol, 4 gals. ; shellac, 2 lbs. ; amber gum, 1 lb. ; copal, 20 ozs. ; seed lac, 3 lbs. ; saffron to color ; pulverized glass, 8 ozs. 17. Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; annatto, 4 ozs. 18. Gilder's Pickle. — Alum and common salt, each, 1 oz. ; nitre 2 oz. ; dissolved in water, ^ pt. Used to impart a rich yeUow color to gold surfaces. It is best hixgely diluted with water. To Reduce Oxide of Zinc. — The oxide may be put in quantities of 500 or 600 lbs. weight into a large pot over the fire; pour a suffi- cient quantity of muriatic acid over the top, to act as a flux, and tlio action of the fire will melt the dross, when the imre metal will bo found at the bottom of the pot. To Sep ABATE Tin from Lead.— If the lead and tin are in solu- tion, precipitate the former by sulphuric acid, and the latter with sul- phuretted hydrogen gas. In an alloy the lead Avill dissolve in nitrio acid, leaving the tiu as an oxide. 512 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. To FuosT AND Cloud Smali- Brahs-wokk.— Scour the brass thoroughly Avith strong ley, and hold the work against a circular S(;ratch-brush of line brass wire, secured in a lathe and driven at a high speed, as in frosting watch plates, seepage 320; for clouding brass work, see page 515. Ckmknt fok JlKAss AND WooD.— Tlie best cement for this pur- pose is a glue composed of best gelatine, 1 part; glacial acetic acid, 1 part. Soak the gelatine in cold water until it has swollen up and be- come quite soft. Throw away the water and dissolve the gelatine in the acetic acid, applying gentle heat if necessary. Yellow and Lujht Ked Bkonze. — 1. (Jopper bronze powder, 1 oz. ; mix thoroughly with japanner's gold size, adding turi)entine during its use sutticient to keep it at the consistency of cream. Mix with a pallet knife on glass or porcelain ; if made too thin it is liable to be removed by the brush as fast as put on. Apply with a soft brush. 2. A gold bronze color is obtained by using ^ gold bronze and ^ copper bronze powder, or other beautiful colors may be obtained by varying the mixtures. 3. A Dark Broion Bronze is produced by the addition of burnt umber to the above named ingredients. 4. A Dark Green Bronze is obtained by mixing green bronze and terra verto with gold size, adding as much ivory black as may be required to im- part the depth of tint required. Finish with a coat of fine shellac var- nish. 4. For a Verde Antique shade, apply the bronze coat as above, vaniish with shellac, allow it to get firm and hard; then coat the depressed parts -with gold size thinned with turpentine. Previous to drying, dust the article with dry jmint, of light yellow or blue color, and gently remove all that can be easily rubbed off with a rag moist- ened with turpentine. 6. Brown Bronze for Hardware. — ^IMuriatic acid, 2 lbs. ; iron scales, 2 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 oz. ; zinc (a solid mass to be kept in only when the solution is in use), 1 lb. 4 oz. Previous to immersion m the bath, cleanse the articles thoroughly in acid pickle. 7. Green Bronze on Hardware. — Apply a varnish composed of ground tin or bronze powder mixed up with honey in gum water, then wash with a solution of vinegar, 1 pt ; spts. hartshorn, 1 oz. ; sal ammoniac, \ oz. ; salt, ^ oz. Place the articles in the sun for a day or two ; then give them another coat, 8. Black Stain on Brass. — ^Water, 80 parts ; hydrochloric acid, 4 parts ; sulphuric acid, 1 part. 9. An- other. — Hydrochloric acid, 12 parts ; arsenic by weight, 4 i)arts ; apply brighten, dry, and lacquer. Magic Polish for Brass.— Add to sulphuric acid half its bulk of pulverized bichromate of potash; dilute with an equal weight of water, and apply well to the brass, swill it well immediately in water, wipe dry, and polish with pulverized rotten stone. To Bronze Polished Steel. — Methylated spirits, 1 pt. ; gum shellac, 4 oz. ; gum benzoin. ^ oz. Set the bottle in a warm place, with occasional agitation. When dissolved, decant the clear part for fine work, and strain the dregs through muslin. Now take 4 oz. powdered bronze green, varying the color with yellow ochre, red ochre, and lampblack, as may be desired. Mix the bronze powder with the above varnish in quantities to suit, and apply to the work after previously cleansiing and warming the articles, giving them a second coat and touching ofE with gold powder if required, prcvipus to varnishing. MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS* 513 Dead BiiACK for the Brass Work of Lenses. — The brass work must be made quite clean and the following preparation applied witli a camel' s-hair pencil: bichlorid of platinum, 4 drams; nitrate of eilver, 1 grain; water, 6 oz. When you gist the right depth, wasli with clean water, dry, and finish witli plumbago. To Solder German Sii.ver.— Dissolve granulated zinc in spirits of salts in an earthen vessel. Cleanse the part to be soldered, and apply the spirits of salts. Next put a piece of pewter solder on the joint and apply the blow-pipe to it. Melt German silver, 1 part, and zinc in thin sheets, 4 parts, then powder it for solder. Silvery Appearance on Iron Wire.— Suspend a piece of zinc in hydrochloric acid, and immerse the wire in it. Next, place it in contact with a strip of zinc, in a bath of 2 parts of tartaric acid dis- solved in 100 parts of water, to which is added 3 parts of tin salts and 3 parts of soda. Let it remain two hours in the bath ; then brighten by polishing or drawing through a drawing iron. Permanent Brassing on Iron Wire.— Place the wire, thor- oughly cleaned, in a solution of sulphate of copper, when it immedi- ately becomes covered Avith a thin film of coi)per; now cover with a paste of pure oxide of tin, and heat hot enough to fuse the copper. To Clean Smooth Tarnished Brass. — Use a saturated solution of oxalic acid in water; apply with a stiff roll of clean flannel briskly \ised; then rinse the object in pleuty of water to remove the acid. After drying with a w^axm cloth, polish up with chamois-skin and prepared chalk or the finest whiting. To Clean Embossed or Undercut Brass. — Boil the objects in a strong solution of caustic soda or ley, and immerse them in a mix- ture of hydrochloric acid, G parts; water, 2 parts; and nitric acid, 1 part, until they become covered with a dark deposit. Take them from the mixture and remove the black matter with a fine scratch- brush: when thus cleansed, swill in hot water and dry in hot vsaw dust. A fine orange-yellow tinge may be given to the brass by sub- stituting an equivalent Aveight of powdered alum for the nitric acid in the solution. Dead Appearance on Brass. — Immerse the objects in a mix- ture of nitric aciu, 200 parts; sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.845, 100 parts; common salt, 1 jiart; sulphate of zinc, 2 parts. Rinse thoroughly; this imparts the dead appearance styled mat, by the French. For large work use nitric acid, 3 parts; sulphuric acid, 1 part; water, 1 part; sulphate of zinc, ^ part. Repeat dipping and rinsing the objects till the proper color is brought out. To Lacquer Brass.— For flat work, cleanse thoroughly by boil- ing the articles in strong potash water; if you wisli to heighten the color of the brass, dip it in hydrochloric acid, rinse well in cold and hot Avater alternately, using a fine brush to remove any blackness, and dry in hot, sawdust, burnishing afterwards if desired. Place the Avork on an iron plate, kept at a Ioav heat, and pass the lacquer regu- larly and rapidly over the surface with a good sized fine camel' s-hair brush, keeping the iron plate warm until the work is dry. Small circxdm work, after being well cleansed, and burnished if' need be, and slightly heated in a stove or over a charcoal fire, should' have th« lacquer thinly and CA-enly applied while in motion in the lathe, hold- ing a charcoal brazier under the work for a short time, to avoid cool- ing too soon. 33 514 MACHINISTS, ENGINEKRS', AO., llECICirTS. Contrast Coi.oks for Painting Machinkrv.—I. Dcc)) blue and golden brown; 2, JJlack and warm brown; .'5, Chocolate and light blue; 4, Violet and light rose color; 5, Violet and pale green; (5, Deep red and gray; 7, Claret and buff; 8, Maroon and warm green; 9, chocolate and pcagrecn ; 10, Deep blue and pink; 11, Black and warm green ; V^, Maroon and deep blue. Varnish for Looai Harness. — Linseed oil, 2 gals. ; gum shellac, 2h lbs. ; red lead, 1 lb. ; umber, 1^ lbs. ; lithsirge, 2 lbs. ; sugar of lead, l| lbs. ]Mix and thoroughly incorporate togetlicr. Water-proofing for Nets and Fishing Lines. — Soak the nets or lines in a mixture of 2 parts boiled linseed oil and 1 i)art gold size ; expose to the air, and dry. ' Winter Fishing on the Western Lakes.— A small portable house is erected on large runners, like those of a sled, with a nole cut in the centre of the floor. This house is moved to any desired spot; a liole is cut in the ice, so as to be directly under the aperture in the floor; the lines are dropped through the hole, and the fish are drawn in while the fishermen are seated by a warm stove. Paint for METAiiS, Proof against Hot Water.— Prepare the metal by cleaning it with turpentine, ley, or benzine ; then apply two thin coats of a mixture of w^hite lead, spts. turpentine and carriage varnish, and follow at once with a thick coat of carriage varnish and wliite lead. Draughtmen's Colors for MECHANicAii Drawing. — The fol- lowing are the names of different materials, together Avith the pig- ments nsed to represent them: 1, Red brick, Indian red; 2, Yellow brick, Indian yellow or cadmium, tinged with white; 3, Wrovf/ht iron, Prussian blue or cobalt; 4, Cast iron, Paine' s gray and a little India ink, or Prussian blue and India ink; 5, Steel, a purple color by the ad- mixture of crimson lake and Prussian blue; G, Gun metal or brass, gamboge or yellow cadmium; 7, Copper, Indian red mixed withaUttle lake; 8, Wood,^ burnt umber; 9, Water, broken, irregular straight lines, with liquid copperas ; 10, Stone color, Chinese white and India ink, tinted Avith yellow. Tracing Paper, to Stand Washing.— Saturate writing paper with benzine, and follow at once Avith a slight coat of the foUoAving varnish: Boiled bleached linseed oil, 20 oz.,- oxide of zinc, 5 ozs. ; lead shav- ings, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, i oz. Boil all for 8 hours, cool, and add gum-copal 5 ozs., gum sandarac I part. Tracing Paper.— Dissolve castor oil in strong alcohol and apply the mLxture to the paper with a sponge. The alcohol will volatilize, leaving the pa])er dry. Proceed to finish your tracing, and then you may, if you wish to do so, restore the paper to its original state, bj immersion in strong alcohol, thereby absorbing the castor oil from the paper. To Solder avithout Heat. — Brass filings, 2 oz.; steel filings, 2 oz. ; fluoric acid, ^ oz. Put the filings in the acid, and apply the golution to the ])arts to be soldered, after thoroughly cleaning the parts in contact; then dress together. Do not keep the fluoric acid in glass bottles, but in lead or earthen vessels. Easy Soldering of Brass. — Cut a piece of tin foil the size of the surf ace to be soldered ; then pass over the surface a solution of sal ammoniac for a flux, ])lace the tin foil between the pieces, and ap- ply a hot iron until the foil is melted. MAcnixiSTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 515 To Tin Copper axd Brass, — Boil 6 lbs. crcjira of tartar tml 4 gals, of -water and 8 lbs. of grain tin or tin shavings. After the mate - rial has boiled a sufticient time, the articles to be tinned are put therein and the boiling continued, Avhen the tm is precipitated on the goods in metallic form. Mixture fob Silverikg.— Dissolve 2 ozs. of silver -svith 3 grs. of corrosive sublimate ; add tai-taric acid, 4 lbs. ; salt, 8 qts. To Separatp:: Silver tbom Copper. — Mix sulphuric acid, 1 part; nitric acid, 1 part ; water, 1 part; boil the metal in the mix- ture till it is dissolved, throw iu a little salt to cause the silver to sub- side. To "Write in Silver. — Mix 1 oz. of the finest pewter or block tin, and 2 ozs. of quicksilver together till both become fluid, then grind it with gum water, and write with it. The writing wiH then look as if done Avith silver. Tinning Acid, for Brass or Zinc— Muriatic acid, 1 qt. ; zinc, G ozs. To a solution of. this, add water, 1 qt. ; sal-ammoniac, 2 ozs. To Glean and PoLisn Brass.— Wash with alum boiled in strong lye, in the proportion of an ounce to a pint; afterwards rub with titrong tripoli. Not to be used on gilt or lacquered work. Bronze Paint, for Iron or Brass. — Chrome green, 2 lbs.; ivory black, 1 oz. ; chrome yellow, 1 oz. ; good jaiian, 1 gill; grind all together, and mix with linseed oil. To Bronze Iron Castings, — Cleanse thoroughly, and afterwards immerse in a solution of sulphate of copper, Avhcii the castings Avill acquire a coat of the latter metal. They must be then washed ui water. Kemoving Zinc and Iron Trom J*i,xtmbers' Solder.— Digest the metal in grains in diluted sulphuMc acid. The acid Avill dissolve the zinc first, the iron next, and all traces of these metals by subse- quent washmg. .' J (5 Tinning Cast Iron.— Pickle your castings in oil of vitriol ; then cover or immerse them in muriate of zinc (made by putting a sufli- cient quantity of zinc in some si)irit %ii salt): after which dip it iu a melted bath of tin or solder. - - - (^^ Silvering ey Heat. — Di^olve 1 oz, silver in nitric acid; add a email quantity of salt; then wash it and add sal-amraoniac, or G ozs. of salt and white vitriol ; also^oz, corrosive sublimate; rub them together till they form a paste; rub the piece which is to bo silvered with the paste; heat it till the silver rims, after Avhich dip it in a weak vitriol pickle to clean it. Zincing,— Copper and brass vessels may bo covered with a firmly adherent layer of pure zinc by boiling them in contact with a solution of chloride of zinc, pure zinc tuniings being at the same time present in considerable excess. To Cloud Metal Work.— Metal work may be clouded by put- ting a piece of fine emery paper under the thumb or finger and work- ing it over a surf aco of the metal with a spiral motion, p Silvering Poavder. — Nitrite of silver and common salt, of each ."0 grs, ; cream tartar, 3J drs. ; pulverize finely and bottle for use Unequalled for polishing copper and plated goods. ■ To Clean and Polish Brass,— Oil of vitriol, 1 oz. ; sweet oil, ^ 51 G MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. gill; nulvcrizcd rotten ptono, 1 gill; rain \\'atcr, 1^ pts. ; mix all and shako as used. Apply Avith a rag and i)olish -with buckskin or all woolen, liottcn stone, followed by Taris white and rouge i.s very good also. I'ASTK FOR Clkanino Metals.— Talco oxalic acid, 1 part; rotten Ftono, G parts; mix with equal parts of train oil and spts. turpentine to a paste. To PiiKVEisT Iron- or SxKKii from Rustino.— Warm your iron or steel till you canuot bear your hands on it without burning your- self, then rub it with new and clean white wax. Put it again to the liro till it has soalced in the wax. When done rub it over with a piece of serge. This prevents the metal from rusting afterwards. Bronzikg Liquids for Tin Castings. — AVash them over, after being well cleansed and wiped, with a solution of 1 i)art of sulphate of iron, and 1 of sulphate of copper, in 20 parts of water; after- wards, with a solution of 4 parts verdigris in 11 of distilled vinegar; leave for an hour to dry and then polish with a soft brush and colcothar. Fancy Colors on Metam.— Dissolve 4 ozs. liypo-sulphite of soda, 1^ pts. of water, and then add a solution of 1 oz. acetate of lead in 1 oz. water. Articles to be colored are placed in the mixture, which is then gradually heated to the boiling point. This will givo iron the color of blue steel, zinc becomes bronze, and copper or brass becomes, successively, yellowish, red, scarlet, deep blue, light blue, bluish white, and finally white, vfith a tinge of rose. 2. By replac- ing the acetate of lead in the solution by sulphate of copper, brass l)CComes, first, of a fine rosy tint, then green, and lastly, of an irri- desceut brown color. Coating Iron Castings -with Gold or Silver.— The articles to be gilded are well cleaned and boiled m a porcelain vessel, to- gether with 12 parts of mercury, 1 of zinc, 2 of iron vitriol, 1| of mu- riatic acid of 1.2 specific gravity, and 12 parts of water; in a short time a layer of mercury will deposit upon the iron, and upon this the gold amalgam may be uniformly distributed. Iron to be silvered is first provided with a coatmg of copper, upon vjhich tlio silver is ap- plied either by means of amalgam or silver leaf. Brunswick Black for Grates, &c. — Asphaltum, 5 lbs. ; melt, and add boiled oil, 2 lbs. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. Mix. Bronze Paint for Iron. — ^Ivory black, 1 oz. ; chrome yellow, 1 oz. ; chrome green, 2 lbs. ; mix with raw linseed oil, adding a little japan to dry it, and you have a very nice bronze green. If desired, gold bronze may be put on the prominent parts, as on the tips or edges of an iron railing where the paint is not quite dry, using a piece of velvet or plush to rub on the bronze. Tinning Iron. — Cleanse the metal to be tinned, and rub with a coarse cloth, previously dipped in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid,) and then rub on French putty with the same cloth. French putty is made by mixing tin filings with mercury. Tinning. — 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper boiled with a solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in tlie course of a few minutes, covered with a finnly attached layer of pure tin. 2. A similar eiTect is produced by boiling the articles with tin-filings and caustic alkali, or cream of tartiir. In the above MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., KECEIP'tS. 517 vray, chemical vessels made of copper or brass may bo easily and licrfectly tinned. New TiXNixG rnocESS. — Articles to bo tinned are first covered ■witli diluted sulplmric acid, and, wlien quite clean, are placed in "vvariu ■water, then dipped in a solution of muriatic acid, copper, and zinc, and then plunfjed into a tin bath to ■\vliich a small quantity of zinc has been added. When the tinning is finished, the articles are talam out, and plunged into boiling water. The operation is completed l»y placing them in a very warm sand-bath. This last process softens the iron. To Recover the Tix from Old Brttaxnia. — Melttlio metal, and while hot sprinkle sulphur over it ; and stir it up for a short time, this burns the other metals out of the tin, Avhich may then bo used for any purpose desired. KusTiTiKN's Metal for Tixxino.— ^laUeablo iron, 1 lb., heat to whiteness : add 5 ozs. rcgulus of antimony, and SIoluccjv tin, 24 lbs. Galvaxtzixg Irox. — Tlio iron plates aro first immersed in a cleansing bath of equal parts of sulphuric or muriatic acid and water used warm; they are then scrubbed with emery or sand, to clean them thoroughly and detsich all scales if any aro left; after which they are immersed in a " preparing bath " of equal parts of saturated BOlutions of chloride of zinc and chloride of ammonium, from which bath they are directly transferred to the fiuid "metallic bath," con- sisting, by weight of 640 lbs. zinc to lOG lbs. of mercury, to which aro added from 5 to 6 ozs. of sodium. As soon as the iron has attiiined the temperature of this hot fluid batli, which is 080° Fahr., itmay be re- moved, and will then be found thoroughly coated with zinc. A littlo tallow on the surface of the metallic bath will prevent oxidation. Preventing of Rust.— Cast iron is best preserved by rubbing it Kith blacklead. For polished work, varnish with wax dissolved in lenzine, or add a little olive oil to copal varnish and thin with spts. turpentine. To remove deep-seated rust, use benzine, and polish off with fine emery, or use tripoli, 2 parts ; powdered sulphur, 1 part. Apply with soft leather. Emery and oil is also very good. To PuRiFiT Zinc. — Pure zhic may be obtained by precipitating its sulphate by an alkali, mixing the oxide thus produced with charcoal powdered, and exposing the mixture to a bright red heat in a covered crucible in which the pure metal will be found as a button at the bottom when cold. Transparent Blue fob Iron or Steel.— Demar varnish, ^gal.: fine ground Prussian blue, ^ oz. ; mix thorouglily. Makes a spfendid appearance. Excellent for bluing watch-hands. Lead Shot are cast by letting the metjxl run through a narrow slit into a species of colander at the top of a lofty tower ; the metal escapes in drops, which, for the most part, assume the spherical form before they reach the tank of water into which they fall at the foot of the tower, and this prevents their being bruised. They are af- terwards riddled or sifted for size, and afterwards churned in a bar- rel with black lead. Black Bronze on Iron or Stefx.— The following mixtures are employed : liquid No. 1. A mixture of bichloride of mercury and sal-am- moniac. No. 2. A mixture of perchloride of iron, sulphate of copper, 518 MACHINISTS, engineers' JcC, RECEIPTh. Wtric acid, alcohol and water. No. 3. Perclilorido and protochlorida of mercury mixed witli nitric .icid, alcoliol and water. No. 4. A weak Bolution ol sulpliido of potassium. Clean your metal well and a])ply a. sliglit coat of No. 1 witli u sponge; when quite dry, applv another coat. Kemovo tlie resultmg crust of oxide with a wire hrnsfi, rubtho metal with a clean rag, and repeat this operation after each applica- tion of tlieso liquid.s. Now apply several coats of No. 2, and also of No. 3, with a full sponge; then, after drying for ten minutes, tlirow tho pieces of metal into water heated near the boiUng point; let them re- main in the water from 5 to 10 minutes, according to their size. After Leing cleaned, cover again with several coatmgs of No. 3, afterwards with a strong coating of No. 4; then again immerse in tho bath of hot Avater. liemovo^ from tho bath dry, and wipe the pieces with carded cotton dipped in liquid No. 3, diluted each time witli an in- creased quantity of water; then rub and wipe them with a little olivo oil; again immerse in a water bath heated to 140° Ifahr., remove them, rub briskly Avith a woolen rag, and lastly, with oil. Unequalled for producing a beautiful glossy black on gun-barrels, Ftcol, iron, &c. Taint for Sheet Ikox SxMOKe PIpe. — Good v;iniish, ^ gallon; boiled linseed oil ^ gallon; add red lead sufficient to bi lug to the con- pisteucy of common paint. Apply with a brush. Ai)plicable to any kind of iron work exposed to the we:xther. To Goiter the Surface of Irox, Steel, or Iron Wire.— Have tho article perfectly clean, then Avash with tho foUowuig solu- tion, and it presents at onco a coi)pered surface. Eain water, 3 lbs. ; *ulphatc of copper, 11 b. To Join Broken Lead PrPEg during Pressure of "Water. — It frequently happens that lead pipes get cut or damaged Avhen tho water is running at a high pressure, causing much trouble to malco repairs, especially if the Avater cannot be easily turned off. In this case plug both ends of the pipe at the break, place a small pile of bro- Iceu ice and salt around them. In a few minutes the Avater in tho pipe Avill freeze ; next, withdraw the plugs and insert a ncAV piece of pipe; solder perfectly, thaAV the ice, and it Avill be all right To Repair small Leaks in Lead Pipes. — I'laco the pomt of a dull nail over tho leak, give it a gentle tap Avith a hammer and tho liow will cease. To Prevent Corrosion in Lead Pipes. — ^Pass a strong so- lution of sulphide of potassium and sodium through the inside of the pipe at a temperature of 212°, and allow it to remain about 10 or 15 minutes. It converts the inside of tho pipe into an insoluble sulphide of lead and prevents corrosion. To Bend Copper or Brass Tubes,— Kun melted lead or resm into your pipe till full, and you may then bend it gi-adually into any desired shape ; the pipe may then be heated and the lead or resin melted and run out. To Join Lead Plates.— Tlie joints of lead plates for some pur- poses are made as foUows : The edges are brought together, ham- mered down into a sort of channel cut of wood and secured with a few tacks. The hollow is then scraped clean with a scraper, rubbed over with candle grease, and a stream of hot lead is poured into it, the surface beinj? afterwards smoothed with a red hot plumber's iron. To Join Lead Pipes.— Widen out tho cud of one pipe with a ta^ MACHINISTS, KXGIXEERS', &C., KECEirXS. 5]^ ♦)csr wood rift, and scrape it clcnn inside ; scrape the end of the other jipe outside a little tapered, and insert it in the former : then eoldcr It witli common lead solder as before described ; or, if it requires to be strou?:, rub a little fcvllow over, and cover the joint -w ith .1 ball of melted lead, holding a cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bedtick) on the under side ; and smoothing over with it and the plumber 8 iron. TrrrtaNG Interior of Lead Pipes. — This invention consists in applying a flux of grease or muriate of zinc or any other fiux that will protect the lead from oxidation, and msure a perfect coating of tin, when the tin is poured through the pipe or the pipe dipped into tlie bath of tin ; after the lead pipe has been made, place the same in a vertical or nearly vertical position, and pass down through the same a strong cord, to which a weight is attached to draw the cord through the pipe ; and at or near the other end of the cord, a sponge or piece of other porous or clastic material, is attached of a size to flU the pipe, and of any desired length, say 0 inches more or less. The sponge or l)orous wad being saturated with the flux, is draAvn through the pipe, and by its length ensures the covering of the entire inside surface of the inside of the pipes with the flux, so that the melted tin, sub- sequently applied, will adhere to all parts with uniformity and firm- ness. I'd Prevent Lead Exploding. — ^IMany mechanics have had their patience sorely tried when pouring melted lead around a damp or wet joint to find it ex]ilode, blow out, or scatter from the effects of steam generated by the heat of the lead. The whole trouble may be stopped y putting a piece of resin the size of the end of a man's thumb into the ladle and allowing it to melt before pouring. Simple as the secret is, many have paid $20 for the privilege of knowing it. Tabular View of the Processes of Soldering.— JSarcZ solder* inrj. The hard solders most commonly used arc the spelter solders, and silver solders. The general flux is borax, marked A on the table, and the modes of heating are the naked fire, the furnace 01 muffle, and the blow pipe, marked a, h, g, applicable to nearly all metals less fusible than the solders; the modes of treatment are nearly similar throughout. Note.—ThG examples commence with the solders (the least fusible first) followed by the metals for which they are commonly employed. Fine gold, laminated and cut into shreds, is used as the solder for joining chemical vessels made of platinum. Silver is by many considered as much the best polder for German silver, for silver solders, see Jewellers' alloys Copper cut in shreds, is sometimes similarly used for iron. Gold polders laminated are used for gold alloys, see 333 and 338. Spelter solders, granulated whilst hot, are used for iron, copper, brass, gim metals, German silver, &c., see below. Silver solders laminated, are employed for all silver works and for common gold work, also for German silver, gilding metals, iron, steel, brass, gun metal, &c., when greater neatness is required than is obtained from spelter solder. White or button solders, granulated, are employed for the white alloys called button metals; they were introduced as cheap substi- tutes for silver solder. Hard Soldering.— ApjAicahle to nearly all the metals; the modes of treatment are very different. The soft sol' 520 BIACIIINISTS, engineers', AC, KECEirXS. «lcr mostly used is two parts tin and one of load; poinctimes, from iiiotivca economy, nmch more lead is employed, and \ \ tin tol lead is the most fusible of the grou|), unless bismuth is used. The lluxes B to G, and the modes of heating, a to i, arc all used with the t>o£t soldera. Note. — The examples commence "with the metals to ho soldered. Thus in the list, zhic, 8, c,/, implies, that zinc is soldered with No. 8 alloy, by the aid of the muriate or chloride of zuic , and the copper bit. Lea-d, 4 to 8, F, d, e, implies that lead is soldered with alloys varying from No. 4 to 8, and that it is fluxed with tallow, the heat bein^ applied by pouring on melted solder, and the subsequent use of the heated iron, not tinned; but in general one only of the modes of 1 eating is selected, according to circumsfcmces. Iron, cast-iron and steel, 8, B, D, if thick, heated by a, b, or c, and also by r/. Tinned iron. 8, G, D,/. Gold and silver arc soldered with i^uro tin, or else Avith 8, E, a, g, or h. Copper and many of its alloys, namely brass, gilding metal, gun metal, &c., 8, B, C, D; when thick, heated by a, h, c, e, org, when thin, by /, or g. Speculum metal, 8, B, C, D, the heat should be cautiously applied ; the sand bath is perhaps the best mode, Zmc, 8, C ,/. Lead and load pipes, or ordinary plumber's worlc, 4 to 8 F, ^,or e. Lead and tm pipes, 8, D, and G, mixed, g, and also/. Britaimia metal, C, 'xJ, g. Pewters, the solders must vary in fusibility according to the fusibility of the metal, generally G, and i, are used, sometimes, also G, and g or /. Lead is united without sol- der by pouring on red hot lead, and employing a rod hot iron, d. e. Iron and brass are sometimes burned, or united by partial fusion, by l)ouring very hot metal over or around them. Alloys and their Melting Heats. Fluxes. 2fo. 1 1 Tin 25 Lead 258 Fahr. A. Borax. 2 1 10 (( 541 B. Sal-am. or raur. of amm. 3 1 (( 5 (( 511 (( C. Muriate or chlor. of zinc 4 1 3 (( 482 D. Common resin. 5 1 (< 2 (( 441 (( E, Venice turpentine. G 1 (( 1 370 F. Tallow. 7 1. ■ :: 1 it 831 G. Gallipoli oil, or common 8 2" 1 11 340 (( [sweet oil. 1) 1 it 350 (( JfODES OF ArPLYlNO HeAT. 10 4 1 365 (( a. Naked fire. 11 5 a 1 378 (( h. Hollow furnace or muffle. 12 (5 (( 1 381 t( c. Immersion in melted solder. 13 4 Lead 4 Tin 1 Bismuth 320 Fahr. d. Melted solder or metal poured on. 11 3 ' 3 1 310 " e. Heated iron, not tin'd. 15 2 * 2 1 (( 292 " /. Heated copper tool, tinned. 10 1 ' 1 (C 1 (( 254 " <7. Blow Pipe flame. " h. Flame alone, generally alchohol. 17 2 ' 1 (( 2 C( 230 18 3 ' 5 urf.ico well, bo na to li.iv Mt KiHooth and free of blackness caused hy the acid; then sprinkle calcined and finely pulverized sal-ammoniac upon the sur- face, holding it over a fire, when it will be sufficiently hot to melt a bar of solder which is to be rul)bcd over the surface. Any copper dish or vessel may be tinned in this way. Parkek'3 Copper IIardenino process consists in introducing an admixture of a minute quantity of phosphorus into the u:ctal. To Strike out Common Flaring Vessels, Cones, &c.—Fif/. 2.— Form a right angled paralellogram H K D V, H K equal to the cir- cumference of the wide end of the diagram, and N P equal to its cir- cumference at the indicated points, KD being the elevation ; draw the right lines H N R and K P R; from R as a basis lay out arcs from H to K and N P, calculating proper allowance for backs. To Strike Out a Cone. — Form a paralellogram as in the diagram ; the space from Hto K equivalent to the diameter of the cone; Kto D equiva- lent to the elevation; next dva^y linos from II and K to the centre ! MACHINISTS, engineers', t!iC,, RECEIPTS. 525 of the line T) V, and from this as a base or centre describe a segment of a circle from H to K. , Flux fok Welding Copper,— Boracic acid, 2 parts ; phospbato of soda, 1 part; mix. This welding powder should be strewn over the surface of copper at a red heat; the pieces should then be heated up to a full cherry red, or yellow heat, and brought immediately under, the hammer. Heat the copper at a flame, or gas jet, where it will not touch, charcoal or solid carbon. , To Strike oct a Circular Elbow. — Figs. 3 and 4. — Layout two curv-ed Ihies F land G D to suit the desired length of elbow; the fipace from F to G equivalent to the intended diameter of the pipe ; lay off the circles F D, G I into as many divisions as youdesire; con- otruct the paralellogram. Fig. 4, the length equivalent to the diame- ter of the pipe you are making, the width equal to C B in Fig. 3; lay off a segment of a circle equivalent in diameter to the pipe, touching the point H; divide the segment into any desired number of equal divisions; draw lines across the dots parallel to V V; open the com- passes 1^ times the diameter of the pipe, and describe the line from V to the intersection of the, lines P P and R R, draw curvilinear lines CO the crossings of the other ^ hues to the pouit H,'this wiU furnish one side of a section. 626 MACHINISTS, TNGINEEKS', itC, nECKIPTS. To Strike, out OvAi.n, Ovat. Flatitno Vessels, kc.—Fig. 5.— Construct the piuardlosram II K D V; II K equivalent to the \ow^ aivd K D to corrcsipond to tlie sliort dLametor; divide it into four equal ])ai ts by drawing tiie lines P K and N N ; niarlc the point L oue-third the distance from N to O ; then describe the arcs I S I, I S I, and from the lino N N describe the segment I N I. To describe an egg-shaped oval with ends of unequal magnitude, construct the frustrum of a cone that will embrace the oval and proceed as in Fig. 5. To Strike out an oval Flaring Vessel in four subdivisions, find the circumference of the arcs I S I and I N I for the bottom of the pieces; form a paral- cUogram the length of which shall be equal to the circumference of the top of either division, and operate as in Fig. 2. The same allow- ance must be accorded for flare on the side parts as on the ends, allowing for burrs and locks. Gold Lacquer for Tin— Transparent, All Colors.— Alcohol in a flask, 1 pt. ; add gum-shellac, 2 ozs. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; red Sand- ers, 1^ ozs. Set the llask in a warm place, shake frequently for 12 hours or more, then strain off the liquor, rinse the bottle, and return it, corking tightly for use. When this varnish is used, it must be ap- plied to the work freely and flowing, and the articles should be hot Avhen applied. One or more coats may be laid on, as the color is re- quired more or less light or deep. If any of it should become thick from evaporation, at any time, thin it with alcohol. And by the fol- lowing modifications, all the various colors are obtained : 1. RoseColor. Proceed as above, substituting 1 oz. of finely ground best lake in place of the turmeric. 2. J3hie. The blue is made by substituting pulverized Prussian blue, 1 oz., in place of the turmeric. 3. Purple. Add a littlo of the blue to thejirst. 4. Green. Add a little of the rose to the first. Cracked Stoves. — ^Equal parts of wood ashes and salt ; mix ito ft past© with water with thi^ fiU tliQ cracks. ' MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKS , &C., KECEIPTG. 527 To Describe a UEAnrc—Fig. 6.— Draw the straight lino H D K equal to the breadtli of tlio heart; layoff the segments H D and D K, then with the dividers extended from H to K, describe the arcs H K and K Y. ^ To find tho circum/erenco of a circle, the diameter be- ing known, multiply tlie di- ameter by 3.1410, and to find the diameter of a circle, the circumference being known, divide the circum- ference by 3.1416. To Strike out Ovai, Wash Boiler Covers. — Fifj. 7.— Describe the lino V *R equal in extension to half the length of the boiler ; from the central point D lay off the circle M R N, equiva- lent in diameter to tho T)readth of the boiler outside the wire around the rim ; describe the line H K so as to cross the line V R in tho manner show^i in diagram ; make V S three-eighths of an inch high more or less as you desire it for the pitch of the cover; place the corner of the measuring square on the line H K, laying the flat part touching the point S; then de- scribe the lines H N, H S, S K and K M, which, with the proper al- lowance for locks and edges, completes the cover. Japanners' Gold Size. —Gum ammoniac, 1 lb. ; boiled oil, 8 ozp. ; spirits turpentine, 12 ozs. Melt the gum, then add the oil, and lastly Bpirits turpentine. Japanning. —Nearly 30 formula for varnishes will be found on page 283, among them Japanners Copal Varnish, and this, together with oil, alcohol, shellac, or any other transparent varnish, admits of behig mixed witli coloring matter to produce different shades. 1. For Scarlet. Gromid vermilion may be used, but being so glaring it is not beautiful unless covered over with rose-pink, or lake, which have a good effect when thus used, 2. Bright Crimson. Use saff- flower or Indian lake dissolved in alcohol; in place of this lake car- mine may be used, as it is more common. 3. Yelloxo. Turmeric dis- solved in spirits of wine, strained through a cloth, and mixed with pure seedlac varnish, makes a good yellow japan ; saffron will answ- er applied in the same way. and chrome yellow is excellent, Dutch pink forms a ch eap yellow japan ground. If dragon' s blood be added toth* yellow japan, a most beautiful and rich gaimon-colored varnish is the result, varied according to the quantity of the ingredient used. 4. Orange. Use yellow mixed with vermilion or carinine, just as a bright or inferior color is desired, 5, Purple. Add to the varnish a mixture of lake and Prussian blue, or carmine, or for an inferior color, vermilion, C. Blve. Use bright Prussian blue ; it may be mixQ^ with shellac varnish and brout^ht to a polishiu.-j state by 5 or G 528 MACHINISTS, ENGINEKUS', i'cC, UKCKIPTS. coats of v.iriiish of sccdl.ic; mix with tho purest' varnish Avhcn a Uf/ht l)hio is dosirod. 7. liUtck. rnissian blue 1 o/-., aspluiltiim 2 ozs., spirits tur[)Oiitino 1 pint; nu^lt tl»o asiilialtum in tlio turpentine, rub up the l>luc Avitli a little of it; mix ai d strain, tlien add tlic whole to 2 pints of the varnish. 8. Green. Mix equal parts of the blue and yellow together, then mix witli tho varnish until the color suits tho fancy. 9. Pitik. ]\lix a little of the blue to more in quantity of tho red and then add to the varnish till it suits. 10. White. One whito ground is made by tho following composition: white flake or lead washed over and ground up with a sixth of its weight of starch, tlieu dried and mixed Avith tho finest gum, ground up in parts of 1 oz. gum to \ oz. of rectified turpentine mixed and ground well together. This is to be finely laid on the article to be japanned, dried and then varnished with 5 or G coats of the following: 2 ozs. of the whitest Beed-lac to 3 ozs. of gum-anime reduced to a fine powder and dis- solved in 1 qt. alcohol. For a softer varnish than this, a little turpen- tine should be added and less of the gum. . \ - I - ■ ; ' V - ' - ■ ' \ . 'i^ ■K To Strike out Can Tops and Bevel Covers foe Vessels. — Fig. 8.— Describe the circle K K K for the size of the can or cover; allow the space between K K K and D D D for edges to the same, and the distance between V V V and D D D for tho flare; spau tho I irAcmxTST3, engineehg', ScC, nr-CEiPTG. ,'523 dividers from R to K and divide the cnrvilinea,r line V V V into six cqunl divisions ; cut out the pieces H H H, D D D leaving edges lor locks parallel to II V. For the opening in the can head or top, describe the curvilinear line H H H equal in magnitude to the circumference of tlie opening. To have your can tops one-third pitch, span the di- viders two-thirds of the diameter of the can: lay out a circle and uso two-thirds of it. For one-quarter pitch, span the dividers three- fourths of the diameter of the can, lay out a circle and use three- quarters of it. For one-Iialf pitch, lay off the circle twice the diame- ter of the can and use half of it. Rcmemher to grant full allowance for locks onlJ^ Different Styles of Filing.— To file a surface true, it is neces- cary on commencing, to squeeze the file tightly between the third and fourth fingers and palm of your hand until you become used to it. Your position in filing should bo half left face to your work, with the middle of your right foot fifteen inches behind your left heel ; r*nd to file your work true or square, it is necessary to reverse your "tvork often, as by this means you are enabled to see tlie whole surface you are filing, and see while filing whether you are filing true or not. When, hoAvever, your work is so ho^i^y that you cannot reverse it you had better file first to the right and then to the left, as by this means you can i)lainly see the fiio marks, and this again assists you in filing true. To Crystallize Tin.— Sulphuric acid, 4 ozs. ; soft water, 2 to 3 ozs., according to strength of the acid; salt ozs. Mix. Heat the tin hot over a stove, then Avith a sponge api)ly the mixture, then Avash off directly with clean water. Dry the tin, and varnish with demar varnish Compression of an India-Rubbeb Buffer of Three Inches Stroke.— 1 ton, 1.3 inches. 1\ tong, 1^ inches. 2 tons, 2 inchca, 3 tons, 2-3 inchc3. 5 tons, 2? inches. 10 tons, 3 iuchea, 34 530 MACIIINIST3, engineers', i;C., RECEIl>Tf3. To Strike a Set op Patteuns for the Envelope of a Cone. — Fig. 9. — ^Lay off the liuos H N aud KN ; the space from II to K corres- ponding to the circiunfercnce of the cone at tlie largest end; II N equal to the sloping height; from N as a basis de- pcribe the segments II K, I) D, V V, RK, and V P; each of the parts between these segment; will compose a section of the covering if allowance be made for the laps. To lay off tlio frustrum of a cone, see Fig. 2. 2o find the Area of a Circle, multiply the circumference by cue-fourth the diameter. Jo find the Area of a Section of a Circle, multiply the length of the arc by half tho length of the radius. To Strike out Strainer Bucket and Coffee Pot Lips {Eastern Style).— Fig. 10.— Describe the triangle H K D, H K equivalent to the slanting height; from D lay out the section H K; describe sections of circlesi from K to D aud H to D ac- cording to the dimensions of the vessel. In coffee pots, the section extending from H to K should be regulated according to tho style in ■which it is to be constructed. In describing Tea-kettle AND Tea-pot Spouts, pro- ceed as in Figs. 1 and 4, mak- ing the breadth of the paral- ellogram commensurate or equal to the angle you desire to cut, and the length equiv- alent to the circumference of the spout. To Strike out Lips Fok Measures, &c.~Lay out a circle the dimensions of t'lo top of the vessel; describe a Ime through the centre of the circle and divide it into four equal sec- tions; span the compasses on the line one quarter the distance from the end, and descrjloe a semi-circle touching the opposite end of tho line; i)ass the compasses the breadth of the lip desired, and lay out an arc until it approaches the semi-circle; which will allow the de- sired lip. The annexed Sector is appended- to enable mechanics to obtain angles when required : MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., KECEIFTS. 5o1 Adjusting Locomotive Vat^ves.— A correspondent of the Scieri' tific American gives the following method of setting slide valves of locomotives : — Make a steel tram, about 5^ in. long, vrith two points at the right angles with the straight bar, one point to be 2f in. in length, and the other 1^ in. Both points are to be sharp. Take a centre punch, and make a centre-mark on the top of the steam-chest jiacking-box ; then take a strip of tin and put it in the steam-port. Draw tne valves slowly back until 3- on can just move the tin be- tween the edge of the A-alves and the edge of the steam-port (which is now closed except as to the thickness of the strips of tin. ) Take the tram, place the short point in the centre-mark on the ]iacking-box ; then make a scratch on the valve stem, and go through with the same process with the opposite steam-port. Kow you have marks on the valve-stem just where the valve begins to open. The valve-stem must next be got into radius (as we torm it), which is to show the proper length for the valve-stem. It is done thus : Cover the steam-ports equally with the valve, put the centre of the rock shaft and tlie rocker pin at a right angle with the boro of the cylinder: and when the valve-stem is adjusted to this, it is of the proper length and should not be altered. To adjust, the valves in for- ward motion, hook the reverse lever in the forwr,rd notch, take the dead points for centres, and alter the eccentric rods until the spaces are equal on the valve-stem, which is determined by the use of the tram. Take the forward centres and give 1-lOth. lead to the valve, for either passenger or freight engines. By adopting this plan the engine will reverse her action promptly. ITook the reverse lever in the back motion, and repeat as above. If the job is to be done quickly and the eccentrics are in the proper position, it can be done -by the travel, in this way : Move the engine slowly forward with steam, take the tram, and trace the movement of the valve on the valve-stem until the stem st0])s ; then trace the return movement until that stops. Take a pair of dividers aud measure each di?ttinco from the valve mark on the stem to the extreme of the travel lino (or where the valve stopped). Alter eccentric rods until the spaces are equal . Bv these means you do not require to take the gteara chest covers off. 532 FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. Facts for Gas Companies and Consumers.— Tho following different volumes of gas have been obtained from various kinds of coal. Cannel coal, 15,000 cubic ft.; Wigan cauncl, 15,426; Boghead cannel, ].'3,334; Cape Breton " Cow Bay, etc., 1),500; Pictou ana Sid- ney, 8000; English, mean, 11,000; Newcastle from 9,500 to 10,000; I'ittsburg, 9,520, Scotch, from 10,300 to 15,000; Wallsond, 12,000, Vir- ginia, 8,%0; Western, ;),500. Pine wood will evolve 11,000 cubic ft. per ton. Rosin 15,600. Oil and "grease 23,000 cubic ft. Each retort should produce about 600 cubic ft. of gas in 5 hours, with a charge of 1^ cwt. of coal, or 2800 cubic feet iu 24 hours. One ton of coal should produce about 9000 cubic ft. of gas, 1 chaldron of coke and about 11 gals, of tar, and 9 of ammoniacal liquor. Dry purifiers require 1 bush, of lime to 10,000 cubic ft. of gas, and toe't jmrifiers an admix- ture of water, 48 bushels, and lime, 1 bushel for each 10,0(X) cubic ft. of gas. One per cent, of carbonic acid in gas diminishes its illumin- ating power one-tenth. Defective burners should be changed with- out delay, as all smoking, roaring, irregular, ragged, and pronged flames caused a great waste of gas with deficient light ; a smoky flame indicates loss of gas as w^ell as loss of light. One good gas light is better economy than a number of small ones. TJie standard off/as burninrj is a 15 hole Argand lamp, interior diameter '44 Ins., chimney 7 ins. high, consuming 5 cubic ft. per hour, evolving a light from common coal gas of from 10 to 12 sperm candles of 6 to the pound, with cannel coal from 20 to 24 candles, and with Pennsyl- vania coal from 14 to 16 candles The advantage gained by employ- ing a 30-hole argand instead of the standard is a greater production of light, the increase being from 20 to 30 per cent., for if the standard consumes 5 ft. per hour, and evolves tho light of 12 candles, the 30- hole burner, consuming 7 ft. per hour, will give the light of 22 can- dles. An Argand burner with two chimneys, one within the other, with air space between in which the air becomes heated during its downward movement towards the flame, for an equal amount of light, causes a saving of gas equal to 33 per cent. , and for an equal consumption of gas, the gain in light is equal at 62 per cent. Burners are made so as to j)roduce all shapes of flame, and are of different materials, lava, iron, steel, porcelain, steatite, brass, plati- num lined, etc. The bore from which the flame of the gas issues should be arranged, as regards its width, for the quality of the gas consumed, cannel coal gas for instance, being provided with narrower openings than those for common coal gas. We have single jet burn- ers, double jet burners, bat's wing, flslitail, cockspur, and other varieties ; also Argand burners of various sizes, bored with 6 to 30 or 48 holes, or as in the Dumas burner, a slit instead of a hole. The best gas burners are made of lava, and the kind known as fishtail burners consume from 4 to 5 ft. of common coal gas per hour; large burners require from 6 to 10 cubic ft. per hour, in proportion to size ; sheltered lights consume about 4 cubic ft. per hour, out door lights about 5 cubic ft. ; street lamps in cities consume from 3 to 5 cubic ft. per hour, according to size of burner used. A 13 candle-gas, con- sumed in an Argand burner, evolves an illuminating power of 13 can- dles ; if burnt in a batwing or fish-tail burner the same gas will pro- duce only the illuminating power of 9 candles. The deficiency of light is caused by an admixture of atmospheric air mingling largely with the thin jets of gas, increasing the heat, but dissipating the light, FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 530 and imparting a. blue tinge to tlie flame. Bat-wing burners are the best adapted lor all out-door lights. Whenever economy in gas and good light are main objects, the larger kind of bat-wing burners are preferable ; a bat-wing burner consuming 3^ ft. of gas per hour yields only the light of 6 candles, whereas a burner consuming 6 ft. per hour evolves a light equal to 15^ caudles, the pressure being 4- lOths of an inch at the point of ignition. Nearly the same results are obtained by the use of the fishtail burner. The carcel burner, with a perforated disc at the lower ijart, and two orifices at the upper, where the flames unite and spread into one, each side of this united flame being supported by two curved levers or arms, is paid to be equal if not superior to the Argand or fishtail burners in the power of evolving a soft, steady, mellow light. Loss TO THE Diffusion of Gas Light by Glass Globes. — Clear glass, 12 per cent. ; glass globe engraved with ornaments, 24 per cent, ; half ground globe, 35 per cent. ; globe obscured all over, 40 per cent ; opal globe, 60 per cent. ; painted opal globe, 64 per cent. No glasses of any kind are ever used with the bat-wing burner owing to the widely extended flame, but for fish-tail burners they are in com- mon use. Globes as usually made, are of faulty construction and cause needless obscurity and a great loss of light. The Trudeau globe, invented and patented by Mr. Trudeau, of Ottawa, Canada, is constructed on correct scientific principles, with spacious and roomy apertures, which tend to promote a low temperature in the glass, thus preventing fracture from the lieat, and the accumulation of smoke and dust. The burner being properly adjusted, the height of the globe being low, and the openings wide, the gas is easily ignited, and burns at an exceedingly low pressure, with a clear, steady flame, with- out flickering, and diffuses a flood of soft, brilliant light, which for quan- tity and quality is really surprising to one accustomed to the old fashion- ed globes. If 1 per cent, of air is mixed with gas, the illuminating power is diminished about 6 per cent; if one-fifth of air be mixed with four- fifths of gas, no servicable light can be derived from the mixture. The greatest light and least heat is produced when the gas is not ex- posed to too great a current of outside air, and the most heat and least light is evolved by permeating the gas largely with external air; in every case an insufflciency of air supply will cause smoke and ob- scurity of light with any kind of burner. Large burners under a low pressure ijroduco a greater amount of light than small burners under a high pressure, each kind consuming eqiial quantities of gas in a given time, and a greater volume of light is emitted from a largo burner than from two small ones consuming the same quantity of gas as the one large. All burners, no matter what the size maybe, re- quire a certain quantity of gas to produce the largest amount of light, whicli is as much lost through the use of too little gas as by the use of a slirplus. Explosion of Gas. — Seven parts of air and one of gas is considered to be the most dangerous compound, but much depends on the purity, &c,, of the gas. Compounds of less than 3of air to 1 of gas, or above 11 of air to 1 of gas, will not explode. Gas unmixed with oxygen or atmospheric air, extinguishes flame, and while in this state cannot ex- plode. The terrific gas explosion during the summer of 1870 in Cin- cinnati, was caused by a lighted pipe belonging to a laborer employed on the top of the gas holder; the heat generated by the flash b'di FACTS FOU GAS COMPANIFS AND CONSUMERS. was nearly 2,500°, or about iho tcmpcraturo of melted f^tccl; one Earty at the distance of half a mile from the explosion compared is experience to the inhalation of a stream of hot air from a furnace ; the time occupied by the explosion was about the 3rd part of a second. An explosive mixture of gas, ivhile mider pressure, will only ignite at the exterior orifice of the pipe or holder ; but if the pressure is removed^ the flame penetrates to the interior, and explosion ensues. On per- ceiving tlic odor of escaping gas, instant action should bo tfvkcn to de- tect and stop the leak, but there is great temerity in applying a light in such cases ; the best way is to turn off the gas for 3 or 4 hours, and allow it full time to dissipate into the open air through the doors, win- dows, &c, before using flame in any form. If a light is required at the open end of a pipe while making a new connection, gas-fitters should in every case turn the outlet tap off, or disconnect the outlet union of the meter, in order to avoid the hazard of exj)lodiug the me- ter. PRESSURE, — According to Mr. Haswell, "The pressure with which gas is forced through iiipes should seldom exceed 2\ inches at the works, or the leakage, will exceed the advantages to be obtained from increased pressure. When pipes are laid at an inclination either above or below the horizon, a correction will have to be made in esti- mating tlie supply, by adding or deducting 1-100 of an inch from the initial pressure for every foot of rise or fall in the length of the pipe. By experiment 30,000 cubic feet of gas, sp. gr. "42 were discharged in an hour through 6 inches in diameter, and 22.5 feet in length, and 852 cubic feet, specific gravity "398 were discharged under a head of 3 ins. of water, through a main 4 ins. in diam. and G miles in length. Loss of volume of discliarge by friction, in a jiipe 6 ins. diam. and 1 mile in length, is (stimated at 95 per cent. In distilling 56 lbs. of coal the volume of gas produced in cubic feet wdien tho distillation was effected in 3 hours Avas 41.3, in 7 hours 37.5, in 20 hours 33.5, and in 25 hours 31.7." The expiration of the breath from tho lungs in the gentlest manner, is about equal to the proper pressure for the most favorable consumption of gas, while a slight blowing force is equal to the highest pressure in the mains of gas companies ; tho first example is about equivalent to two or three-tenths pressure, and the second to from 3 to 5 ins. pressure. U"he orifices of gas burners should be well xjroportioned, not too small, to require increased pressure to expel the gas, thus seriously curtailing the light, as shown by the following experiments with 4 Argands, all of one size, each having 15 holes, but the orifice of each graduated so that only 5 cubic feet of gas per hour could pass under the respective pressures liere intimated: — Gas issitirK) ivith Pressure in tenths of inches. 1-lOth yielded the light of 12 candles. 5-lOths " " G " 10-lOths " « 2^ " 40-10th3 " " 1-G , " On the other hand, if the orifice of an Argand burner is too large, ■ the flame Avill smoke offensively and thus entail waste and loss. Grade the size of the orifice by the quality of the gas to be consumed ; for poor gas the lioles may be large; for good gas, smaller holes may bo nsed. In every case be careful to effect a correct adjustment in order to obtain the best results. FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 535 Volumes of Gas DisciiARftED peh Hour Under a Pressure OF Half ax Inch of Water— Specific Gravity of Gas -42. Diam. of opening. Volume. Diam . of op'ning. Volume. Diam. of op'ning. Volume. Diam. of op'ning. Volume. Ins. I Cubic ft. 80 321 Ins. 1."* Cubic ft. 723 1287 Ins. Cubic ft. 1625 2010 Ins. ':!^ Cubic ft. 288 . 4G,luO Diameter and Length of Gas Pipes to Transmit Given Volume OF Gas to Branch Pipes.— Z)r. Ure. Volume Diam- Volume Diam- Volume Diam- p. hour. eter. Length. p. hour. eter. Lenglh. p. hour. eter. Length Cub. ft. Ins. Feet. Cub. ft. Ins. Feet. Cub. ft. Ins. Feet. 50 4. 100 1,000 3.16 1,000 2,000 7. 6,000 250 1. 200 1,500 3. 87 1,000 6,000 7.75 1,000 500 1.97 COO 2,000 5.32 2,000 6,000 9.21 2,000 700 2.65 1000 2,000 6.33 4,000 i-,000 8.95 1,000 To Determine the Size of Gas Pipe Required— London Rule — For 200 lights, 2 inch tube; 120 lights, l^/o inch; 70 lights, IV4 inch; 50 lights, 1 inch; 25 lights, % inch; 12 lights,' 1/2 "^^h; 6 lights, % inch; 2 lights, inch. Diameter and Extreme Length of Tubing and Number of Burn- ers Allowed— American Standard. Diam. of tube. Feet in lengtb No. of burn- •■ ers. Capac- ity of met'rs. No. of burri- ers. Diam. of tub- ing. L'ngtli in feet. No. of burn- ers. Capac- ity of met'rs No. of burn- ers. 6 1 3 lights. 6 1 70 35 45 li'ts. 90 T 20 3 5 " 10 100 60 60 120 30 6 10 " 2J iy2 150 100 100 " 2!)0 % 40 12 20 " 40 2 20J 20,-) % 60 20 30 " 60 ... Diamkter and Length of Pipe from the Main, together with THE Number of Lights allowed in the Gas Service FOR Lamps. No. of lamps. Dis- tance from mainin feet. Diam- eter of pipe. No. of lamps. Dis- tance from main in feet. Diam- eter of pipe. No. of lamps. Dis- tance from main in ft. Diam- eter of pipe. 2 4 6 40 40 ' 60 % % 10 15 20 100 . 130 150 J % 25 1 30 IV4 1 .. 180 200 1% NPwPaS ! ""^"i*" conducted by Mr. Pattinson, analvtical cliemist, whn^ vv fb"".'?^ l^Sl^* equivalent to llf candles Sira ?i p Q ^f^f quantity of gas, some burners gave only 3|, others 5.}, 6, 8, and 9^ candle light. ^^^^^>'^yof illumincitinq c/as, the English law enacts that nmn?i ^ With respect to its purity, be so far free from am- • " sulphuretted hydrogen that it shall not discolor either vvSf ^'^r': ^'^ paper Imbued with acetate or carbonate of lead, when these tests are exposed to a current of gas, issuing for one rain- 536 FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. utc under a prcsHuro of five-tciitlis of an inch of water, and 8hall not contain more than 20 grains of sulphur in any form in 100 cubic ft. of g.as." Tlie following- enumeration sliows the illuminating power of the common gas used in various cities and towns in (ireat Britain, as determined by Prof, Frankland, in accordance with the Government standard: London, 12 candles, Liveri)Ool, 22, Manchester, 22, Car- lisle, 1(), Birmingham, 15, Edinburgh, 28, Glasgow, 28, Hawick, 30, Aberdeen, 35, Inverness, 25, Greenock, 28.5, Paisley, oO,3. In Berlin, it is 15.5, Paris, 12.3, Vienna, 9; and in the United States it varies from 12 to 18 candles, computing by the English standard. Gas manufactured from cannel coal emits a light the standard of which is equal to 20 candles. This gas, in London, is usually supplied to the public buildings and the residences of the wealthy. *^London has now (1876) 5,000 miles of gas mains, 54,000 street lamps, which burn 3,000,000 cubic feet of gas each night ; on the lighting of the lamps and other lights the deoxydation of the atmosphere caused thereby is equivalent to the addition of 500,000 inhabitants to the population. The illuminating value of gas is enormously enhanced by causing it, after it lias passed through the meter, to enter a Carhonizer or Carbureter, containing gasoline, or other light oil, where it becomes saturated and enriched by the absorption of the carbonaceous fumes and vapors generated from the oil previous to emission into the ser- vice pipes of the building. The apparatus ought to be of sufficient size, and should, in its construction and location, combine every available appliance to ensure safety, strength, simplicity, and ease of management, while presenting the largest possible surface for the proper evaporation of its contents. The economy of this carbureted gas is such that a two-foot burner emits the light of five feet of com- mon gas, while the direct saving effected on the consumption of the latter, varies, according to the quality of the gas used, from 33 to 43 per cent. Hydrogen, an essential component of coal gas, is the lightest substance in nature, being 15 times lighter than air, and 12,000 times lighter than water, and requires for perfect combustion, 8 times its weight, or half its volume of oxygen ; in its passage through the carbureter above described, it is simply the medium or vehicle to transmit the particles of vaporized carbon from the generator to the l)urner, where on ignition it attracts to itself a sufficient portion of the surrounding oxygen, etc., to effect illumination. When 12 lights with 5 foot burners are required to furnish the desired light from common gas, G lights, with 3 foot burners and carbureted gas, is found to be all sufficient for the same purpose. , . , Gasoline being almost a pure carbon, may be transmitted m the vaporized form in combination with the coal gas, direct from the gas works to the consumer. The Superintendent of the West Pittsburg, Pa., Gas Works, reports a product of 603,600 cubic feet of 20 candle ,as from TObbls, benzine, 72 gravity, costing $1,75 per bbl,, being a '.i£»sult of 8,622 feet per bbl., at a cost, including material, labor, fuel, IK., of about 32 cents per 1000 cubic feet. Crude petroleum and ,..cavy oil from the refineries, including gasoline, benzine, etc., were all tested and used with the greatest ease, the vaporizing or carbon- izing process being produced by means of superheated or other steam passing through a coil of pipe inside a tank or still containing the oil. Proportions used were: 14 candle gas, 50 per cent, oil gas, 30 per cent, air, 15 per cent. It is worthy of note that the unusually large per- FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 537 centage of air did not perceptibly diminish the illnminating p(;wer of the compound, used with common coal gas, 15 per cent, of air would have produced great obscurity in the resultant light. Owing to the cheapness of petroleum and its products, several towns have commenced its exclusive use for the production of illu- minating gas, and lind it much cheaper and better every way than the gas produced from coal. In Pittsburg, Pa., and elsewhere, sev- eral enterprising firms have taken a notable step in utilizing natural gas, which is conveyed in 'some instances many miles through pipe« from the wells, and is used in the manufacture of iron, for illinnhia- tion, the generation of steam power, etc. The gas, manufactured in nature's alembic, is most probably generated by the action of subter- ranean heat operating on an ocean of volatile carbonaceous matter at a great depth in the earth, from which it frequently issues with ter- rific noise and irresistable force on the penetration of the crust by drilling or otherwise. Gas machines for generating gas from gasoline are now in exten- sive use for lighting factories, dwelluigs, offices, etc. A good illus- tration of a most meritorious invention of this class can be seen on the next page. The gas made by this machine, known as carburetted air gas, is obtained by the impulsion of common air, bv means of an air- pump, into a carbureter containing gasoline. In this receptacle the air becomes saturated and impregnated with the carbonaceous vapors from the gasoline, and, impelled by the action of the air-pump, it transmits its burden to the buniers through the service pipes of the building, yielding a beautiful, rich, bright flame, conceded to be fully equal to that evolved by the best coal gas, being free from sulphur- ous compounds and other impuiities. Nearly one thousand of these machines are now in successful operation ui the United States, Can- ada, etc., and the saving effected by them is almost incredible. The proprietors of the National Drover's Hotel, cor. 100th Street and 3d Avenue, New York, certify that their gas bill for one year, with a 200 light Gas Machine, was only $550, the light obtained jjeing every way more desirable, and far superior to that formerly supplied by the " city gas " at an annual cost of nearly $1,400. Diameter and Extreme Length of Pipe and Number of Burners allowed for Carburetted Gas, Served by Gas Machine. ( Gilbert & Barker). Greatest number of feet Size of pipe. Greatest number of buraem to be run. to be supplied. 20 feet .... I inch. ... 2 30 " . , . . I " . . . 4 60 I " ... 15 70 " . , . . 1 " . . . 25 100 " li " . . . 40 150 " . . . U " . . . 70 200 2^ « ... 140 300 " . . . 2^ " . . . 225 400 " . . . , 3 " ... 300 500 " . . . 4 " . . . 500 As to the qvalityot carburetted air gas it possesses an illuminating power of from 16 to 20 candles, being nearly equal to cannel gas, and is characterized by perfect combustion, ease of lighting, large volume of flame, and perfect combination. ON GAS METERS, &C, 589 Classification of Hydrocarbons. — The grade usually ac- cepted by distillers stands as follows : All above 88° of Baume's hydrometer is styled chimogeue, from 88° to 70° gasoline, from 70'^ to G0° naphtha, from 00° to 50° benzine, from 50° to 35° kerosene, from 35° to 28° lubricating oil. On Gas Meters — In distmguishing between dry and wet meters, the construction of the former is briefly as follows : In a gas-light me- tallic box are placed 2 or 3 bellows like vessels, Avhich instead of being inflated by air, are inflated by the gas entering from the service pipes. When inflated to some extent an arrangement of springs and levers, forces the gas out of the bellows again into the exit-pipe leading to the burners. The cubic capacity of the chambers (as the bellows like ar- rangements are called), having been accurately adj usted , the move- ments of their walls is communicated to wheel-work, which being connected with dials, indicate in tens, hundreds and tliousands, tho consumption of gas in cubic feet. Fig. 1. Fig. 1. Dry meters are preferred on account as well of not being liable to be affected by frost as of not causing the sudden extinguishing of the gas-light for want of watei* as may occur Avith wet meters. Wet meters are constructed upon a plan devised in 1817, by Clegg, and im- proved by Crossley, and others. Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4, are drawings of this kind of mete.r, which consists in the first place of an outer cylin- drical box of cast iron, closed on all sides. In this box is placed a drum of pure block-tin, divided into 4 compartments, bearing upon a bell-metal axis, and immersed for rather more than half its circum- ference in water. By the pressure of the gas, and the ensuing de- pression of the water, the drum revolves, each of its compartments becoming alternately filled with and emptied of gas. On the axis of the drum is an endless screw, which by mechanical means is connected with the wheel- work of the dials. The drum is very accurately adjusted, so that at every complete revolution a certain cubic quantity of gas passes through and is registered. Fig. 1 exhibits the apparatus with r>io ON GAS METERS, «S;C. tlio front plate removed; Fig. 2 shows tlio side of the meter; Fig. 3 is sectional ])lan; and Fig. 4i«a section through the box; a is the box a tlvc drum, b its axis, c the endless screw; bearing in the wheel d, and carrying by means of c the movement of the drum on to the wheel- work of tiie dials;/// is the inlet pipe for the gas, which flows into the valve box, h and passing by the valve, i (kept open as long as the meter contains sufficient water for action), flows through the bent tube, I into the bulged cover of the drum, or technically antechamber m, and thence into the several compartments of the drum. Hence the gas enters the space n, to which is fitted the outlet pipe, o i is tlie valve; p the float; q the funnel tube for filling the meter with water; r the waste water cistern ; s the plug by which the waste water may be run off. As long as no gas burners are in use, the meter connected with them is inactive ; but Avhen the gas is burnt the drum rotates, and by its communication with the wheel- work registers the quantity of gas consumed. Instead of filling wet meters with water, they "may be filled with glycerine, which does not freeze nor evaporate, and they should be set perfectly level. Water Gas. — The manufacture of water gas essentially consists in forcing steam through iron or fire clay retorts filled with red-hot charcoal or coke. The steam is decomposed, yielding a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid gases, with a small quan- tity of marsh-gas. The purified gas, consisting essentially of carbonic oxide and hydrogen, is, although not luminous when burnt by itself, suitable for illuminating purposes under the following conditions: 1. By placing on the burners small platinum cylinders which, by be- coming white-hot, yield a stiong light— Gengembre's and Gillard's plan, 2. By impregnating the gas with vapors of hydro-carbons, as above described, the original idea being due to Jobard (1832), of Brussels. Gas Wells. — Although these remarkable wells are quite numerous in Pennsylvania, they are by no means confined to that locality. In the neighborhood of Fredonia, NewYork, a native permanent source of gas exists, which hafing been accidentally discovered by th« Fig. 4. Fig. 3 GAS LIGHTING, GAS ENGINES, &C. 541 EuUiug dawn of a mill situated on the banks of the river Canadaway, as been, by boring the bituminous limestone, enlarged, and a gas holder constructed. The native gas now serves the purpose of illumi- nating the locality. In the Szlatina salt mine, in Hungary, illuminat- ing gas is constantly evolved, at a depth of 90 metres, in great quan- tities, and subserves the purpose of lightuig up the mine. The Rev. Mr. Irabert, who, as a missionary, has travelled through China, states that in the province of Szu Tchhouan, where many bore-holes for rock salt have been made to the depth of about 1500 to 1600 feet, gas is permanently emitted and conveyed in bamboo tubes to places where it is used for lighting and heating purposes, more especially the heat- ing of salt-pans in which the brine is evaporated. In Central Asia, and near the Caspian Sea, there are, at several localities, so-called infernal fires, which are due to the constant evolution of gas from the soil. Similar jihenomena exist at Arbela, in Central Asia, at Chitta-Gong, in Bengal, and other places. About 1786, Earl Dundonald made experiments on gas lighting at Culross Abbey; but it should be observed regarding these experiments that they were made with the view of obtaining tar, the gas evolved by the distillation of the coals being regarded as a curiosity. The real inventor of practical gaslightiug is William Murdock, who, in 1792, lit his shops at Redruth, Cornwall, with gas obtained from coals. The first more extensive gas-work was established in 1802, by Mur- dock, at the Soho Foundry, nejir Birmingham, the property of the celebrated Boulton & Watt. In 1803 he illuminated two cotton mills in Manchester the same way. Gas Engines. — In Lenoir's gas engine, now much employed in France, the source of power is the expansion arisiug from the explo- sion of gas. Air and gas are admitted to a cylinder in the proportion of 11 to 1;. a spark from a galvanic battery is sent through it; the spark explodes the mixture, and the expansion consequent on this explosion drives a piston to the other end of the cylinder. Mechanism does all the rest; opens a slide valve to permit exit to the exploded mixture, drives the piston back by the momentum of a flyrwheel, opens tubes for the admission of new air and gas, establishes connection again with the battery, and prepares for a renewal of the action, and so on continuously. These engines are costly in the first instance, and many precautions are necessary to prevent them being overheated ; but they require no fireman, and are rather cheaper to work than steam-engines ; consequently they are much employed for 2 to 4 horse- power purposes. Products of Cord of Pitch Pine obtained bv Distil- lation. — Charcoal, 50 bushels; Ilhiminatinff Gas, about 1000 cubic feet; lUnminating Oil and Tar, 50 gals. ; Eosin IJ bbls. ; Pyroligneoas Acid, 100 gals. ; Spirits Turpentine, 20 gals. ; Tai\l bbl. ; Wood Spirit, 5 gals. — Haswell. To Mend Iron Retorts. — Fire clay 15 lbs., saleratus, 1 lb., with water sufficient to make a thick paste. Apply to the broken part of the retort while at a good working heat, then cover it with fine coal dust, and charge the retort for working. To Stop Leaks in Clay Retorts When at Working Heat : — Five parts fire clay, 2 parts white sand, 1 part of borax pressed and ground. Mix the whole together with as much water as may be ne- 512 MAciiiNiSTr,, i:NGiNK::uy', &c., iieceipts. essary to brins it to tlic ronsiiitcnco of putty. Roll it in tlx; hands to a proper Icnytli and apply it over the crack, pressing' it with a long epntiila into the crack. To Remove DicrosiT of Carbon from Clay Rktorts. — Lcavo the retort uncharged for 48 hours, or as long as can be spared. Put the lid on the mouth-piece so as to be closed at top, and open two or three inches at the bottom. Take out the stopper from stand pij^e, BO as to allow a current of air to pass through tlie retort and oxydizo tlie carbon ; use no bar. Put in a charge of coal after the retort liaa biiu idle the number of hours required, and Avhen it is withdrawn the carbon comes Avith it. To Prevent Gas Meters Froji Freezinc. — Half a pint of good glycerine'is said to prevent the freezing of 1 gal. Avater, though at least double the proportion is preferable in the country, whatever tho temperature in the Avinter may happen to be. " Hovr To Read The Ga3 Meter. Tho figures on the index attlio right hand denote even hmidreds. When the hand comi^letes tho entire circle it denotes ten hundred, and is registered by the hand \\\ the centi'e circle, pointing to one — each figure in the centre circle being a thousand, this entire circle being ten thousand ; and is re- gistered on the index of the left hand circle by the hand, there de- noting by each figure, ten thousand. v The quantity of gas Avhich i^asses through the meter, is ascertained by reading from the uidex at the time tho amount is required to bo Icnown, and deducting therefrom the quantity shown by the index at a previous observation. -■ ' " If the whole is registered by tho hands on the three circles aboA-e, it indicates. 49.900 Amount at iDrevioua obser\'ation, as shoAvn by the dotted lines ■ 42.500 Shows amount which passed through since last taken off 7.400 The register at all times shows the quantity that has passed through since the meter Avas first set, by deducting from Avhich the amount that has been paid for (without any regard to the time Avhen,) shows that the difference remains unpaid. To Purify Gas. — The purifier is to be filled with milk of lime, made by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 25 parts of water. A very ^reat improvement in the jjurification of gas has been effected by Mr. Statter, of England, by the employment of hydrated clay along with the lime employed for this puii)ose, Hydrated clay unites with MACmXISTS, ENGIN^EEKS', SiC, RECEIPTS. 543 the .ammonia of the gas as •with a base, and, at tlio same time with its Bulphurct of ciirbon as an acid, and thus removes both of these nox- ious impurities from the gas exposed to its influence. It assists also, in conjunction with the lime, in removing tarry vnpor and other impurities from the gas. The illurainatmg power of tlw gas is posi- iively increased by the clay purification from 22 to 33^ per cent. Latterly, use is made of hydrated sesquioxideof iron for purifying gas. To Avoid Waste ok Gas. — Tunithegas partly off at the meter ; much gas is bunicd to waste by too great pressure in certain localities. In buildings of any size a good regulator will soon pay for itself. To stop the leakage of f/as. Turn oil the gas back of the meter ; then take out (a screw driver is all the tool required) the plug. Next light a wax, sperm, or parafline candle, and drop the melted wax, sperm, or paraffincupon the surface of the ping, till it is covered with a tlvin layer. Next, screw in the tap, and in nine cases out of ten the leak will be stopped, and remain stopj^ed. To Remkdy Scatteking Shot Guns. — Tlie only remedy known to gunsmiths is by choke-boring, tliat is, boring from the breech of the gun, so as to have a gradual taper towards the muzzle. This method of boring greatly improves the shooting qualities of the gun, as the charge concentrates at the muzzle. Large shot arc more apt to scatter than fine, but this depends on the bore of the gun. A largo bored gun does not shoot fine shot so well as medium. A small bored gnu throws fine shot with greater force than a large bored one. As a general thing, a small bored gun is not adapted to largo shot, as it does not chamlDer them avcII. The length of gun also de- pends on the size of bore — 28 or 30 inches for a gun of from 10 to 14 gauge; 30 to 34, of gims from 8 to 10 ; 2G to 28, of guns of 15 to 18 gauge. IJkonzing Fltjid for Guns. — Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.2 parts; nitric ether, alcohol, muriate of iron, each 1 part; mix, then add sulphate of copper, 2 parts, dissolved in water, 10 parts. Bluing on Revola'ers and Gun Bakrelsi is performed by simply heatmg the piece to be blued in powdered charcoal over a firo until the desired color is obtained. Fine Blue Finish for Gun Barrels, — Apply nitric acid and let it eat into the iron a little ; then the latter will be covered with a thin film of oxide. Clean the barrel, oil and burnish. A very fine appearance is given to gun barrels by treating them with dilute nitric acid and vinegar, to which has been added sulphate of copper. The metallic copper is deposited irregularly over the iron surface ; wash, oil and rub with a hard brush. Browning for Gun Barrels.— Spirits of nitre, lib.; alcohol, 1 lb, ; corrosive sublimate, 1 oz, ; mix in a bottle, and cork for use, ^Directions: polish the barrel perfect; then rub it with quick lime with a cloth, which removes grease and dirt; now apply the brown- ing fluid with a clean white cloth, apply one coat, and set it in a wann dark place for from 10 to 20 hours, until a red rust forms on it; then ca.rd it down with a gunmaker's card, and rub off with a clean clotlu Repeat the process if you wish a dark shade. Browning for Twist Barrels.— Spirits of nitre, | oz. ; tincture of steel, I oz. ; or use the unmedicated tincture of iron if the tincture of steel cannot be obtained; black brimstone, ;i oz. ; blue vitriol, i 644 .AIAClIliNISTS, KNG1NEI:R8*, AC, KECEIPTS. oz. ; corrosive Rublimatc, ^ oz. ; nitric acid, Idram; copperas, J oz, ; mix with 1^ pints rain water, and l)ottlo for use. Tins is to bo ap- plied the "panic as tlie first ; it canses the twist of the barrel to bo visible alter application, a quality which the other liquid does not possess. Dkowninq Cojiposition for Gun BARR'Kr.s.— 1. Blue vitriol, 4 oz. ; tincture of muriate of iron, 2 oz. ; water, 1 qt. ; disvS0lv6, and add aquafortis and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 1 oz. 2. Blue vitriol and sweet spirits of nitre, of each 1 oz. ; aquafortis, ^ oz. ; water, 1 pint. To be used in the same manner as previously described in thia work. Varnish and ToLisn for Gun Stocks.— Gum shellac, 10 ozs.; glim sandarac, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 dr. ; 98 per cent, alcohol, 1 gal.; shake the jug occasionally for a day or two, and it is ready for use. Apply a few coats of this to your gun stocks, polish by rub- bing smooth, and your work is complete. Boring Gun Barrels.— Take a piece of rod, cast steel, I inch smaller than the interior of the barrel, and a few inches longer, beat one end up somethmg larger than the size of the bore, then turn or file it in the shape of an egg, leaving the swell, or centreing part l-20th of an inch larger than the bore. With a saw file, cut longi- tudhial cuts, J inch apart, laying them the same angle as a rose bit countersink, taking care not to injure the periphery of the tool; harden and temper to straAv color. DAaiAscus Twist and Stub-Twist Gun-B.vrret.s.— The twisted barrels are made out of long ribbands of iron, wound spirally around a mandril, and welded on their edges by jumping them on the ground, or rather on an anvil embedded therein. The plain stub barrels are made in this manner, from iron manufactured from a bundle of stub- nails, welded together, and drawn out into ribbands, to insure tho possession of a material most thoroughly and intimately worked. The Damascus barrels are made from a mixture of stub-nails and clippings of steel in given proportions, puddled together, made into a bloom, and subsequently passed through all tho stages of the manu- facture of iron, in order to obtain an iron that shall be of an unequal quality and hardness, and therefore display different colors and markings when oxidized or browned. Other twisted barrels are made in the like manner, except that the bars to form the ribbands are twisted whilst red hot, like ropes, some to the right, others to tho left, and which are sometimes lamuiated together for greater divers- ity. They are subsequently again drawn into the ribbands and wound upon the mandril, and frequently two or three differently pre- pared pieces are placed side by side to form the complex and orna- mental figures for the barrels of fowling-pieces, described as stub- tioist, loire-tioist, Damascus-tioist, &c. Sometimes Damascus gmi- barrels are formed by arranging twenty-five thin bars of iron and mild steel in alternate layers, welding the whole together, drawing it down small, twisting it like a rope, and agam welding three such rop«s, for the formation of the ribband, which is then spirally twisted to form a barrel, that exliibits, wlien finished and acted upon by acids, a diversified, laminated appearance, resembling, when proi)- erly managed, an ostrich feather. i).iULASKEENiNa.— This is tho art, now in a great measure lost, of \ MACUINISTS, EKGINEERS', &C., RKCEIPTS. 545 jproduciu^ a watered or Trary appearance on the sfccl sAvord-bLidcs, armour, &c., or of inlaying and encrusting steel -with gold and silver, originally practised at Damascus. Various metliods of damaskeen- ing were practised, but the most common seem to have been those of welding two different kinds of steel, or steel and iron, together, or of cutting lines on the surface of the steel and filling them with gold or silver, which was either forced into the incised lines and brought to a level witli the surface of the steel, or remained in relief above it. When the former method was used, a light pattern, generally in many lines, was produced on a dark ground, or vice versa, and the junction of the metals caused the pattern to run througli the entire thick- ness of the blade, so that it could not be obliterated even by grind- ing. 02f Wood Cuts and New Wood Tytes.— Wood cuts should never be washed with lye or water, benzine or campheno only should bo used. Large wood letters when new should bo soaked in a mixture of turpentine and thin boiled linseed oil over night, and Liken out of the bath in the morning, and then wiped clean. Let them stand awhile to absorb what oil, etc., may not have been removed by wiping, then ink them well. After they stand a few hours wash them with benzine. Printers' Rollers.— JVb. 1. UZocfe Composition, very durable and clastic. Genuine Irish or Buffalo glue 10^ lbs., black sugar cane, or best maple molasses, 1 gal., purified Lidia rubber shavings, 1 lb., Carolina tar, 2 ozs., glycerine, 12 ozs., strong vinegar. 4 ozs. Soak the glue oveir night and drain in the moniing by means of a covered Tlander. Boil molasses and skim for 20 minutes. Add the rubber fonavin^s and stir until it combines with the molasses, add the glue and boil G or 7 minutes, and pour. If purified rubber cannot be pro- cured add 1^ lbs. more glue and 4 ozs. more glycerine. Ko. 1 glue, 2 >bs. ; Baeder's glue 2 lbs. ; best sugar house molasses, 1 gal. ; gly- cerine, \ pt. For Winter use, reduce each glue ^ to § of a lb. Soak the glues wrapped up separately in woolen cloths about three hours. Boil the molasses 45 or 50 minutes, skimming thoroughly. Then add the glues drained of superfluous water. Boil the whole for 15 or 20 minutes, add the glycerine, boil and stir 3 to 5 minutes then pour off. No. 3. Strong Middle Weather Rollers. Temp. 00° to 70° Fahr. Coopers best glue, 8^ lbs. : extra syrup, 2 gals. ; glycerine, 1 pt. ; Venice turpentine, 2 ozs. Steep the glue in rain water until pliant, and drain it well. Then melt it over a moderate fire, but do not " cook it." This wiU take from 15 to 25 minutes. Next put in the nyrup, and boil | of an hour, stirring it occasionally and slumming oil impurities arising to the surface. Add the glycerine and turi^eutino a few minutes before removing from the fire, and pour slowly. Slightly reduce or increase the glue as the weather becomes colder or warmer. Silvering Solution for Electrotype Plates.— Nitrate of Bilver 2 drs. ; distilled water, 37 drs. Dissolve, and add sal ammon- iac, 1 dr. ; hydrophosphite of soda, 4 drs. ; precipitated chalk. 4 drs. Agitate the preparation occasionally for 12 hours, when it will bo leady for use. Apply with a fine sponge. Printing on Glass.— A Frenchman, named Wilbaux, has taken out a patent to use An clastic typo for printing on glass, with fluorspar 35 »>1G MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., liECKIPTS. rendered .adhcsivo by some such material as mucilage or printcri^ liik ; Bulpliuric acid of suitable temperature is then allowed to act on that portion of tlie glass. Tlio hydrofluoric acid generated iu tliia way would etch the glass on tlie places printed on. When completed, tlie Avholo is washed oil witli warm water and lye. Liquid for Brigiitenino Comlmon Qualities of Black or Colored Inks. — Domar varnish, 1 oz. ; balsam lir, ^ oz. ; oil bcr- gamot, 25 drops ; balsam of copaiba, 35 drops ; creosote, 10 drops ; copal varnish, 50 drops. Use in small quantities. The whites of fresh eggs are also brighteners of colored inks, but they must be ap- pUcd a little at a time, as they dry very hard, and arc apt to fciko away the suction of rollers if used for any extended period. Good Reducing Dryer.— Brown's (genuine) Japan. Use in small quantities. Hardening Gloss For Inks. — Gum Arabic dissolved in alcohol or a Aveak dilution of oxalic acid. Use iu small quantities, and mix with the ink as the latter is consumed. To GIVE D.VBK Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue. — ^Dissolve Ih lbs. gum sheUac in 1 gal. C5 per cent alcohol or cologne spirits for 24 hours. Then add 14 ozs. aniUne red. Let it stand a few hours longer, when it will be ready for use. Add this to good blue, black, or other dark ink, as needed in quantities to suit, when if carefully- done they will be found to have a rich bronze or changeable hue. Quick Dryer for Inks used on Bookbinders' Cases. — Bees- wax, 1 oz., gum arable (dissolved in sufficient acetic acid to make a thin mucilage), J oz., Brown Japan, ^ oz. Incorporate Avith 1 lb. of good Cut ink. To Renew a Hard Roller. — ^^Vash the roller carefully with Ij^o cover the surface with a thin layer of molasses and lay it aside till the next morning, then wash it with water, and let it hang till dry enough for using. - Savage's Printing Intc.— Pure balsam of copaiba, 9 ozs. ; lamp- black, 3 ozs. ; indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 drams ; Indian red, | oz. ; yellow soap, 3 ozs. Mix, and grind to the utmost smoothness. Printing Ink. — Set on a fire in a large iron pot 12 gals, of clear linseed oil, boil, and stir until it smokes, then ignite it, remove it from the fire and let it bum untn a sample will draw into strings between the fingers. Put the lead on to extinguish the flame, then add 1 lb. of rcsm to each qt. of oil ; dissolve, and add gradually in slices 1| lbs. of soap; heat the pot until the solution is complete, when the varnish is ready. Two sorts are kept, one thick, and the other thin, so as to mix when required; the difference is caused in the boiling and firing being kept up for different periods. For large printing type a thin is required, as thick ink would only print in patches ; for small tyjpe very gtil'f ink is used, to prevent it running off. For making black ink, mix together mineral lampblack, 8 lbs. ; vegetable black, 7 lbs. ; in- digo and Prussian blue of each 5 ozs. Indian red, 2 ozs. ; grind this with sufficient varnish, gradually adding as the grinding goes on. For colored ink use colored pigments, according to tlie required shade. Gum for Backing Labels. — Mis pure dextrine Avith boiling water until it assumes the consistency of ordinary mucilage. Apply with a full bodied, evenly made camel s hair brush. The paper should not bo too thin or unsized. It will dry quickly and adhere when slightly wet. . PBOr. BoTTGEii's PoKTABLB Ink. — ^IMake the strongest possible MAcniNisTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. : 547 Bolution of aniline Llack iu water or alcohol, and soalc thick unsized paper thoroughly to imbibe mixture, and then dry. Tut in a botttlo sind add water as required. Coloring aijd Sizikg of Paper. — Paper is adulterated with plas- ter of Paris, sometimes to the extent of 30 per cent., to increase the weiglit. lirown paper is mixed witli oclire and clay, the manufac- turers say, to give it a nice brown color, but doubtless, the true reason is, to make it heavier. AVhite soap, glue, starch, and dissolved resin with a few pounds of alum, form a good size for printmg paper to mix with the pulp. Four or five poimds oxide of cobalt (smalts), give a beautiful blue tinge to fine writing paper, when added to 100 lbs. of the rags. Writing paper is sized by being dipped 5 or 6 sheets at a time into a composition made from skins and other animal substances, a large pile of it being afterwards pressed to force out the superfluity, although machines now exist malting fine writing paper, sized with gelatine, dried, and cut mto sheets, at the rate of GO feet a minute iu length, and 70 inches wide. Almost any desired shade may be im- parted to paper by the use of several of the coloring pigments mention- ed on page 132. 'it requires great skill and judgment to rightly pro- liortion the various ingredients for coloring the pulp. To Pulp Straw for Paper Making. — The straw is placed in a boiler, with a large quantity of strong alkali, and with a pressure of . steam equal to from 120 to 150 pounds per square inch, the extreme heat being attained iu superheatmg the steam after it leaves the boiler, by passing it through a coiled pipe over a fire, and thus the Bilica is destroyed, and the straw softened to pulp, which, after behig freed from the alkali by workmg it iu cold water, subsequently bleached and beaten in the ordinary rag macliiue. To Trai^sfer Pictures FRoai Paper to Wood for Re-ex- graving. — Soak the print in a saturated solution of alcohol and white caustic potash to soften the ink, then transfer to the block under rol- ler pressure. To Transfer Prints, &c. — ^Take of gum sandarac, 4 ozs. ; mastic, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 15 ozs. Digest iu a bottle, frequently shaking, and it is ready for use. Directions: use, if pos- sible, good plate glass of the size of the picture to be transferred, go over it with the above varnish, beginning at one side, press down the picture firmly and evenly as you proceed, so that no air can possibly lodge between ; i)ut aside, and let dry perfectly, then moisten the paper cautiously with water, and remove it i^iecemeal by rubbing carefully with the fingers; if managed nicely, a comi)lete transfer of the picture to the glass will be effected. Paper for Draughtsmen, &c. — Powdered tragacanth, 1 part; ■water, 10 parts; dissolve and straLu through clean gauze; then lay it smoothly upon the paper previously stretched upon a board. This paper will take either oil or water colors. To Apply Decalcomine Pictures.— Varnish the pictures care- fully with the prepared varnish (which can be obtained with the pic- tures), with an ornamenting pencil, being careful not to get the var- nish on the white paper. In a few minutes the picture will be ready to lay on the panel, and the paper can be removed by wetting it, and when thoroughly dry, it should be varnished like an oil painting. Be particular to purchase only these transfer pictures which are covered 548 MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, liECEirXS. with ,1 golfl loaf on tlio back, for thoy will phoAv plainly on any colored surface, while the pUviii iiicturca are used only ou white or light ground. KxGKAViNG ON WooD. — In ordcr to mako thiB subject rightly un- derstood we Avill state that the log of box is cut into transverse slices, 1 inch in depth, in order that the face of the cut may bo ou a level with tlie surface of the printers' type, and receive the samo :iuiount of pressure ; the block is then allowed to dry, the longer tho better, as it prevents accidents by warping and splitting, which some- times happens after the cut is executed, if too green. The slice is ul- timately trimmed into a square block, and if the cut is large, it is made in various pieces and strongly clamped and secured together. The upper surface of the wood is carefully prepared, so that uo inequal- ities may appear upon it, aud it is then consigned to the draughts- man to receive the drawing. He covers tho surface with a light coat of flake Avhite mixed with weak gum water, and the thinner the coat the better for the engraver. The French draughtsmen use an abun- dance of flake white, but this is ILable to make the drawing rub out un- der the engraver's hands, or deceive him as to the depth of line he is cutting iu the wood. The old drawings of the era of Durer seem to Lave bceu carefully drawn with pen and mk on tho wood; but tho modern drawing beuig very finely drawn with the pencil or silver point is obhterated easily, and there is no "^ode of "setting" or securing it. To obviate 'this danger the wood engraver covers tho block with paper, and tears out a small piece to work through, oc- casionally removing the paper to study the general effect. It is now his business to produce iu relief the whole of the drawing ; with a great variety of tools he cuts away the spaces, however minute, be- tween each of the pencil lines, and should there be tints wanted ou the drawing to rej^resent sky and water, ho cuts such parts of tho block into a series of close lines, which will, as near as lie can judge, j)rint the same gradation of tint; should he find ho has not done so completely, he can re-enter each line with a broader tool, cutting away a small shaving, thus reducing their width and consequently their color. Should he mako some fatal error that canuot otherwise be rectified, ho can cut out the part iu the wood, and wedge a plug of fresh wood iu the place, when that part of the block can be re-en- graved. An error oi this kind in a wood-cut is a very troublesome thuig; iu copper ejigravingit is scarcely any trouble, a blow with a hammer on the back will obUterate the error on the face, and produce a new surface, but iu wood the surface is cut entirely away except where the lines occur, aud it is necessary to cut it deep enough not to touch the paper, as it is squeezed through the press upon the lines iu printing. To aid the general effect of a cut, it is soinetimes usual to lower the surface of the block before the engraving is executed, iu such parts as should appear light and delicate; they thus receive a mere touch of the paper in the press, the darker parts receiving the whole pressure aud coming out with double brilliancy. When careful print- ing is bestowed ou cuts it is sometimes usual to insure this good effect by laying thiu pieces of card or paper on the tympan, of the shape needed, to secure pressure on the dark parts only. Die Sinking. — ^When a die is required for a coin or medals, the engraver takes a piece of soft steel of suitable dimensions, generally MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 649 3 or 4 inches in length, and about an inch greater in diameter than the coin or other article required, on this he hollows out the exact form of the desired impression by cutting away the steel by degraas, with small, well-tempered, case-hardened tools. As soon as this work is thoroughly accomplished the steel is hardened by being heated red hot in a crucible with charcoal and oil or bone-dust, and then plunged into cold water. When a great number of coins of one sort are re- quired, the original die is termed the matrix, and copies are made from it by taking impressions from it in soft steel, which is in relief, and is called the puncheon, and from which, when it has been hard- ened, other dies are produced by pressure, exactly similar to the matrix, and in intaglio, which are case-hardened in their turn before they are fit to transmit an impression to any metal used for money. The metal used for our coinage, whether gold, silver, copper, or bronze, is stamped in a cold and solid state ; but medals and casts can also be produced by a method called casting en cliche, in which the metal is used in a soft state. For this purpose an alloy is used, con- sisting of 3^ lead, }^ tin, and X bismuth, which fuses readily at the boiling point, 312° JFah. When the metal is soft, resembling paste in consistency, the die is placed upon it, and the impression produced by a smart blow from a mallet ; the surface of the metal sets instantly, from coming into contact with the cold die, and thus readUy retains the form that has been given to it. Copies of medals may be readily made in this way, but each face will be obtained in a separate piece, and these must be joined to give representations of the coin in a com- plete form. Ornamental work is produced in thin metal for gas fit- ting, cornices, parts of cruet-stands, trays, «fec., by means of a pair of dies, on one of which the pattern is formed in relief, and on the other in intaglio, the metal being placed between them, and brought into the desired shape by pressure. Dies are also made in metal for form- ing articles in gutta-percha and leather, and producing embossed figures on the cloth covers of books, as well as on cardboard, paper, &c. Steelplate Engraving. — As regards steelplate engraving, it has proved immensely superior to the old copper plate system. A soft steel plate is first engraved with the required subject in the most fin- ished style of art either by hand or mechanically, or the two com- bined, and the plate is then hardened ; a softened steel cylinder is then rolled over the hardened plate, with great pressure by powerful machinery, until the engraved impression appears in relief,— the hol- low lines of the original becoming ridges upon the cylinder, the roller is re-converted to the condition of ordinary steel, and hardened, after which it serves for returning the impression to any number of decar- bonized plates, every one of which becomes absolutely a counterpart of the original, and every plate, when hardened, would yield the enormous number of 150,000 impressions, without any perceptible difference between the first and the last. In one instance, from one engraving of the Queen's head on the postage stamp, over 6,000 plates were produced from the original, and plates for bank-note printing are multiplied in the same way. Great caution must be used in the various processes of annealing and hardening, as only slight care- lessness would result in ruining the most costly plates. The method in use in the Bank of England is as follows : the work to be hardened 550 MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. is enclosed in a wrought-iron box with a loose cover, a false bottom, and with three cars projecting from its surface about midway ; the steel is surrounded on all sides with carbon from leather, driven in hard, and the cover and bottom are carefully luted with moist clay ; thus prepared, the case is placed in the vertical position, in a bridge fixed across a great tub, which is then filled with water almost to touch the flat bottom of the case ; the latter is now heated in the furnace as quickly as will allow the uniform penetration of the heat. When sufficiently hot, it is removed to its place in the hardening tub, the cover of the iron box is removed, and the neck or gudgeon of the cylinder is grasped hencath the surface of the carbon^ with a long fiair of tongs, upon which a couplet is dropped to secure the grasp, t only remains for the individual to hold the tongs with a glove whilst a smart tap of the hammer is given to their extremity ; this knocks out the false bottom of the case and the cylinder, and the tongs prevent the cylinder from falling on its side, and thus injuring its delicate but still hot surface. For square plates, a suitable frame is attached by four slight claws, and it is the frame which is seized by the tongs ; the latter are sometimes held by a chain which re- moves the risk of accident to the individual. The steel comes out of the water as smooth to the touch as at first, and mottled with all the tints of case-hardened gunlocks. Writing Inscriptions on Metals. — Take i lb. of nitric acid and 1 oz. of muriatic acid. Mix, shake well together, and it is ready for use. Cover the place you Avish to mark with melted beeswax ; when cold, write your inscription plainly in the wax clear to the metal with a sharp instrument ; then apply the mixed acids with a feather, care- fully filling each letter. Let it remain from 1 to 10 minutes, accord- ing to appearance desired ; then throw on water, which stops the process, and remove the wax. Etching Fluids. — F(y>' copper. — Aquafortis, 3 ozs. ; water, 5 ozs. For steel— lodiine, 1 oz. ; iron filings, X dr. ; water, 4 ozs. Digest till the iron is dissolved. For fine touches.— Disso\\e 4 parts each of ver- digris, sea salt, and sal-ammoniac, in 8 parts vinegar, add 16 parta water ; boil for a minute, and let it cool. Engravers' Border Wax.— Beeswax, 1 part; pitch, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. Mix. Engravers' cement.— Rosin, 1 part ; brick dust, 1 part. Mix with heat. Moulds and Dies. — Copper, zinc, and silver in equal proportions; melt together under a coat of powdered charcoal, and mould into the form you desire. Bring them to nearly a white heat, and lay on the thing you would take the impression of, press with sufficient force, and you will get a perfect and beautiful impression. Cast Engravings.— Take the engraved plate you wish to copy and arrange a support of suitable materials round it, then pour on it the following alloy in a state of perfect fusion : tin, 1 part ; lead, 64 parts; antimony, VZ parts. These "cast plates" may be worked off on a common printing press, and offer a ready mode of procuring cheap copies of the works of our celebrated artists. Black Stencil Ink.— Triturate together, 1 pt. pine soot and 2 pts. Prussian blue with a little glycerine, then add 3 pts. gum arable and sufficient^glycerine to form a thin paste. Indelible Stencil Inks. 1. Varnish, such as is used for ordi- 3IACIIIN1STS, ENGIXTIERS', &C., KECEirTS. 551 nary printing inlc, 1 lb. ; black snlpluirct of mercury, 1 lb. ; nitrate of siJver, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 1 oz. ; lampblack, 2 tablespoonfuls. Grind all -well together; thin with f»pts. turpentine as desired. 2. Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts; lampblack, 1 part; su^ar, 4 parts; all in fine powder and triturated to a paste in a little water. Permanent ^e(?.— Vermilion, 4 parts; sulphate of iron, 1 part; dryuig oil to mLx. Any other color Avill answer besides red. llLUR RuLTxr, IxK. — Good vitriol, 4 ozs. ; indigo, loz. ; pulverize the indigo, add it to tlie vitriol, let it stand exposed to the air for G daj'^s, or until dissolved; then fill the pots with cliaik, add fresh gall, ^ gill, boiling it before use. Black Ruli>'g Ink. — Take good black ink, and add gall as for Ijlue; do not cork it, as it prevents it from turning black. See IG different inks on page 215. To Pjiint a riCTURE FKOJi THE PuiNT Itself.— The page or picture is soaked in a solution, first of potassa, and then of tartaric acid. This produces a perfect diffusion of crystals of bitartarate of potassa through the texture of the unprinted part of the paper. As this salt resists oil, the ink roller may now be ]\assed over the sur- face, without transferring any part of its contents except to tho printed part. To Clean Old Oil-Patntings.— Dissolve a small quantity of salt in stale urine; dip a woollen cloth in tlie mixture, and rub the paint- ings over with it till they are clean ; then wash them with a sponge and clean water; dry them gradually, and rub them over with a, clean cloth. Should the dirt not be easily removed by tho above prcpara tion, add a small qujintity of soft soap. Be very careful not to rul> the paintings too hard. To Renew Old Oil-Paintings. — The blackened lights of old pic- tures may be instantly restored to their original hue by touching them with deutoxide of hydrogen diluted with six or eight times its weight of water. The part must be afterwards washed with a clean sponge and water. Magic Paper. — ^Take lard oil, or sweet oil, mixed to the consist- ence of cream, with either of the following paints, the color of which is desired: Prussian blue, lampblack, Venetian red, or chrome green, either of which should be rubbed with a knife on a plate or stone un- til smooth. Use rather thin but firm paper; put on vrith a sponge, and wipe off as dry as convenient; then lay them between un colored paper, or between newspapers, and press by laying books or some other flat substance upon them until the surplus oil is absorbed, when it is ready for use. Rubber Hand Stamps.— Set up the desired name and address in common type, oil the type and place a guard about \ inch high around the form ; now mix plaster of Paris to the proper consistence, pour in and allow it to set. Have your vulcanized rubber all ready, as made in long strips 3 inches wide and ^ of an inch thick, cut off tlie size of the intended stamp, remove the plaster cast from the type, and Elace both the cast and the rubber in a screw press, applying sufficient eat to thoroughly soften the rubber, then turn down the screw hard and let it remain until the rubber receives the exact impression of the cast and becomes cold, when it is removed, neatly trimmed with a sharp knite, and cemented to the handle ready for use. 502 3U.CIIINISTS, ENGINEERST&C., IIECEII TS. To Make Door Plates.— Cut your'glass the right tsizc, and make it perfectly clean -with alcohol or soap; then cut a strip of tin- foil suf- ficiently long and ■wide for the name, and -with a piece of ivory or other huniiaher rub it len^jthwise to make it smooth; now wet the glass with the tongue (as sahva is the best stickuig substance), or if the glass is very large, use a weak solution of gum arable, or the white of an egg in half a pint of water, and lay on the foil, rubbing it-down to the glass with a bit of cloth, then also with the burnisher; the more it is burnished the better it will look; now mark the width on the foil which is to be the height of the lette r, and put on a straight edge, and hold it firmly to the foil, and with a sharp knife cut the foil, and take off the superfluous edges; then either lay out the let- ters on the back of the foil (so they snail read correctly on the front) by your own judgment, or by means of pattern letters, which can bo Surchascd for that purpose; cut with the knife, carefully holdmg own the pattern or straight edge, Avhichever you use; then rub down the edge of all the letters with the back of the knife, or edge of the burnisher, which prevents the black paint or japan, which you next put over the back of the plate from getting under the foil; hav- ir^g put a lino above and one below the name, or a border around the plate or not, as you bargain for the job. The japan is made by dis- .solving asphaltum in just enough turpentbie to cut it; apply with a brush, as other paint, over the back of the letters, and over the glass forming a background. This is used on the iron plate of the frame also, putting it on when the plate is a little hot, and as soon as it cools, it is dry. A little lampblack may be rubbed into it if you desire it any blacker than it is without it. Keliablb Formula for Photographers. — No. 1. Silver Bath for Albumen Paper, for Summer use. — Crystal nitrate of silver, 40 grains ; jjitrate of ammonia, 35 grains ; filtered rain water, 1 oz. ; saturated solution bicarbonate of soda, about 8 or 10 drops, or enough to make the bath slightly alkaline. No. 2. For lointer use. Nitrate of silver 24 ozs. ; nitrate of soda 2 ozs. ; glycerijie 3 ozs. ; pure water 40 ozg. Make it a little alkaline with aquas ammonia. No. 3. Another Silver Bath. Silver, from 40 to 45 grs. (according to temperature ;) nitrate of ammonia, 20 grs. ; distilled or ice water, 1 oz. Float 45 seconds to 1 minute. No. 4. Sal Soda Toninrj Bath. Distilled or melted ico water G4 ozs. ; acid solution chloride of gold, (4 grs. to theoz.)l oz. ; saturated solution of sal soda, ^ oz. Make it a full half hour before you wish to use it, and during the cold weather use the water slightly warm. No. 5. Chloride of Lime Bath. Water, 40 ozs. ; chloride of lime, 5 grains ; chloride of gold, 4 grs. No. 6. Bicarbonate of Soda Bath. Chloride of gold solution (1 gr. to the oz. of water, ) 1 oz. ; luke warm water, 16 ozs. ; bicarbonate of soda, (saturated solution,) 10 minims. Make up fresh every time you prepare to tone. Make half an hour before using. Precipitate the gold ra the old solutions with protosnlphateof iron. No. 7. Fixing Bath. Hyposulphite of soda, 1 part to 8 of water, and if the paper blisters in the washing, soap the prints for 5 minutes in a solution of common salt. No. 8. Bath for Salting the Paper. Pure rainwater, 60 ozs. ; chloride of ammonium, 360 grs. ; gelatine, 120 grs. Photograph Painting in Oiij Colors.— Tints for the First Painting.— Flesh.— TF7w7e and Light J?ecZ.— Wliite, Naples yellow, MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKS*, AC, EECEIPTS. 555'. and verrailiou. Wliite, vermilion, and light red. Grarj, Pearly, and Half Twi^s.— White, vermilion, and black. White and terrg^ verde. White, black, Indian red, and raw umber. Deep Shades.— < Light red and raw umber. — ^Indian red, lake and black. Carnations. —White and Indian red (powerful color). AVhite and rose madder. White and lake. Kair.— Light Hair.— White and yellow ochre. White and Roman ochre. White and Vandyke brown for the dark parts. White and raw umber for the dark parts. Dark Brown Hair. — ^Raw and burnt umber. White and raw umber. White and Van- dyke brown. Tints FOB THE Second AND Thied Painting. High. Lights. White and Naples yellow. Carnations. Rose madder and white. Indian red, rose, madder, and white. Green Tints. — ^^Vhite and ultramarine, with any of the yellows. White and terre verte, with the addition of a little raw umber. The above green tints may be converted into green grays. Gray Tints. — Ultramarine, light red, and white. Indian red, lake, black and white. White, ultramarine,, liidian red, and raw umber, Pu.iplQ Tints. — Any of the lakes or red madders, with ultramarine and white. Powerful Shadoio Tints. In- dian red, purple lake, and black. Indian red, raw umber, and black. Strong Glazing Colors. — ^Light red and lake. Brown madder. Van- dyke brown, Indian red, and lake asphaltum. Draperies.— Back Ground Colors. — Pearly. — ^^Vhite, vermilion, and blue. White, vermilion, and black. White and black. Gray. — ^Wliite, Venetian red and black. Yelloiv. Yellow ochre and wliite. Olive. — ^Yellow ochre, terre verte, and umber. Stone. — Raw umber and yellow. Black, white, and raw umber. Sky. — French blue and white. French blue, vermilion, and white. Edges of Clouds. — ^Yellow ochre and white. Clouds. — Indian red, lake, and wliite. Brown madder, French blue, and white. Photograph Water Colors.— Filesh Tints, Kg. 1. Fair Com- plexion. — Light red, a little carmine or vermilion, and Indian yellow. Be careful in using tlie latter, and. in the flesh tints of very fair chil- dren, allow the vermilion to predominate ; carnations, rose madder, and, if the face be full of color, add a little vermilion to it. 2. Mid- dling Complexion. — Much the same as No. 1, saving that the light red must be in excess over the other colors — carnations, rose madder, and lake. 3 Dark Complexion. — Light red and Indian yellow, or light red and Roman ochre, and, if the complexion be generally ruddy, you may add a little Indian red, but it must be sparingly used, as it is a powerful color, and likely to impart a purple tone to the flesh. Car- mtions chiefly lake, but if the complexion be warm, lake and a little yellow. The carnations for children's portraits are rose madder and vermilion, incluiing more to the latter tint. Aged persons have rose . madder, and a little cobalt to give a cold appearance to the color in their cheeks and lipg. These tints, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are indispensable as general washes, for the purpose of receivmg the other colors, which are to bo worked over them to bring up the complexion to the life._ Uncolored photographic portraits vary so much in tone, that the beginner will, perhaps, find some diflSculty in mixing up the tints for the washes. He must note that the warm-toned ones do not require so much Indian yellow as the cold ones do. Kerosene OR Carbon Oil Manufacture. — ^Petroleum, or rock oa, is a liauid substance, of a dark color, exuding from the earth and 554 • MACHINISTS, UNGINEEIIS', &C., llKCEirXS. containing certain liquid and solid hydrocarbons bucIi as benzole, or benzine, kerosene, parafline, asphaltum, &c., in a state of solution, in different proportions. It differs greatly in composition, some sam- ples containing solid paratlinc and benzole in largo quantities, Avliilo others do not. rctrolcum is separated from its different products by careful distillation at different temperatures. The crude niaterial is first heated in a retort to a temperature of about 100° Fah. This causes a light oil of a strong odor to pass over into tlie condenser. The residue is then distilled at about 120° to 100°, the result being burning oil. AVlien this is distilled off, steam is forced into the retort and a heavy oil, lit for lubricating purposes, comes over, a black, tarry mass being left behind. The light oil is now used for mineral turpentine, and as a grease solvent. It is often of a dark color, "which is easily removed by agitation, first with sulphuric acid and afterwards with Boda-ley and water. In many instances this light oil (benzine) is sold for illuminating purposes under the name of Sunlight Oil, Combination Burning Fluid, Lightning oil, &c. I knew a gentle- man in Philadelphia who paid one man over $3000 for the receipt for making, together with the sole right to manufacture, vend and sell, a compound of this kuid in that city. The curious, or those interest- ed, will find the receipt under thename of the " Northern Light " un- der the Grocer's Department in this work. Truth requires me to 6tate that this article requires to bo handled with great caution when used for lighting purposes — many lamentable accidents having re- sulted from a careless use of it. The heavy lubricating oil, when cooled down to 30° Fah., often yields parafflnc in largo quantities, which is separated by straining and pressure. The asphaltum may bo used for pavements, or mixed with grease as a lubricant for heavy machinery. The most important product is, however, the burning oil, which is now used as a cheap and efficient illuminating agent in nearly every household in this country. An average sample of pe- troleum contains, according to W. B. Tegetmeier, 20 per cent, of ben- zine or mineral turps, 65 per cent of burning oil, 22 per cent of lubricating oil, and 8 per cent, of carbonaceous and tarry matter. To Deodorize Benzene. — Shake repeatedly with plumbate of soda (oxide of lead dissolved iu caustic soda), and rectify. The following plan is said to be better. Shake repeatedly with fresh portions of metallic quicksilver ; let it stand for 2 days, and rectify. To PuBiFY Petroleum or Kerosene Oil.— The distillate or crude burning oil is converted into ordinary bummg oil by being placed into a tank when it is violently agitated by forcing air through it, and while thus agitated, 1§ to 2 per cent sulphuric acid is added,, after which the agitation is continued 15 or 30 minutes. The oil is then allowed to settle, when the acid and impurities are removed, and any acid remaining in the oil is neutralized. It is then taken to shallow bleaching tanks, where it is exposed to light and air, and al- lowed to settle. It is next heated by means of a coil of steam pipe numing through it, to expel all gaseous vapors which will ignite at a temperature below 110° Fahr. The oil is now called a ^re test oil, and is ready to be barreled and sent to market. Kerosene oil is de- colorized, by stirruig it up with 1 or 2 per cent, of oil of vitriol, which will carbonize the colloiing matter, then with some milk of lime or Bome other caustic alkali, settling, and re-distiUiug. MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 555 To Bleach Fixed Oils.— Shake strongly for some minutes, 300 parts of the oil with 40 parts Avatcr containing 1 part pcrmangatc of pofcis- sa ; alloAit the mixture to stand in a -svarm place for some hours, and th en filter. This renders the oil colorless. To pvrify oil. Into 1000 parts by weight of oil, put a mixture of 0 parts solution of ammonia and G parts water, agitate the barrel well until the alkali is perfectly mixed, which may be done in 15 minutes. The barrel is then sealed henmet- ically, and after 3 days' repose, the oil is decanted and filtered. Tlio residue is used for the manufacture of soap. To Clarify Coal Oil. — Place in a close vessel 100 lbs. crude coal oil, 25 qts. water, 1 lb. chloride of lime, 1 lb. soda, and ^ lb. oxide of manganese. The mix- ture is \iolently agitated, and allowed to rest for 24 hours when the clear oil is decanted and distilled. The 100 lbs. coal oil are to bo mixed with 25 lbs. resiu oil; this is one of the principal points in the manipulation; it removes the gummy parts from the oU, and renders them inodorous. The distillation spoken of may terminate the pro- cess, or the oDs may be distilled before they are defecated and preci- pitated. Oil for Fine Mechanism.— Oil for lino mechanism can be pre- pared by putting zinc and lead shavings, in equal parts, into good Florence olive oil, and placing in a cool place until the oil becomes colorless. Unequalled for sewing machines, &c. To Make Linseed and Cotton Seed Oils. — ^In making linseed oil quite a variety of machinery is used, more or less expensive ac- cording to the enterprise and capital of the manufacturer. The seed is first passed through iron rollers, to be crushed or ground, one of the rollers is made to revolve more rapidly than the other, which sub- jects each seed to a pulling, as well as to a crushing process. The meal is taken from the mill to the " chasers," when it is subjected to another crushing process, more severe than the first. The chasers are two large circular stones about 5 feet diameter, and 18 inches thick, rolling upon a third stone in the manner of an old-fashioned bark or cider mill. These heavy stones start the oil from the seed, md to keep it from adhering to the chasers it is moistened with water. The meal is next put into an iron cylinder, wliich is kept revolving over a fire until tlie water is evaporated. Much of the skill of making oil depends upon this heating process. It must not be scorched, and yet it must be brought up to a high temperature, so that it will readi- ly give out its oU. The presses are of various structure, some of them are patented, and others not open to public inspection. In one, the vats or hoops holding about 2 bushels each, were placed opposite each other against two immense beams or uprights, made fast in tie foundations of the building. The followers were forced down upon the meal by 2 large levers worked by hydraulic power. The meal in kept under pressure about an hour, and the two presses work up about 92 bushels of seed every 24 hours, the miU being kept runnhig night and day. The product is not far from 2 gals, of oil from a bushel of seed, a little more or less, according to the quality of the seed and the skill in pressing. The cakes, as taken from the press, are generally sold by the ton without grinding, and are generally ex- ported in this form, but when there is a market in the vicinity of the mill, the cakes are put under the chasers, ground into meal, bagged and sent to the feed stores. The price of the cake is from $30 to §40 o5G MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. per toil ; ground into meal it retails at about $2 per 100 lbs. The pro* cess of making; the cotton seed oil and cake is nearly the same. The seed of tlio upland cotton is surrounded with a liusk, to whicji the cot- ton adliercs. It is surrounded with a soft down after it leaves the gin, and in this condition it is purchased from the planter. The seed makes better oil and better meal when it is deprived of this liull and down. The yield of oil is about 90 gallons per 100 bushels of the fcjca Island, or 2 gals, to 50 lbs. of the hulled cotton seed. To Make Coal Oil.— Break the coal or shale into small pieces and put from 10 to 10 cwt. in an iron retort, heated to a dull red color Lute the retort door and keep up the retort for 24 hours. By thb process a vapor is thrown off which passes through ranges of cistenu until it condenses, when it is run into cisterns. This crude oil, wlven refined and purified, is sold as paraffine oil, and solid parafflno for making candles is made from it. Neat's Foot Oil. — After the hair and hoofs have been removed from the feet of oxen, they yield, when boiled with water, a peculiar fatty matter, which is known as Neat's Foot Oil ; after standing, it deposits some solid fat, which is separated by filtration; the oil theu does not congeal at 32°, and is not liable to become rancid. It is often mixed with other oils. This oil is used for various purposes, such as harness dressing, oiling tower clocks, &c. Tallow Oil. — ^The oil is obtained from tallow by pressure. The tallow is melted, and whea separated from the ordinary impurities by subsidence, is poured into vessels and allowed to cool slowly to about 80°, when the stearine separates in granules, which may be separated from the liquid part by straining through flannel, and is then pressed, when it yields a fresn portion of liquid oil. It is used in soap manufacture, &c. Lard oil ia obtained from hog's lard by pressure, when the liquid part separates, while the lard itself becomes much harder. According to Braconet, lard yields 0.62 of its weight of this oil, which is nearly colorless. It is employed for greasmg wool, and other purposes. Economic Lubricators. — 1. India rubber, 4 lbs.; dissolved in spts. turpenthie; common soda, 10 lbs. ; glue, 1 lb.; water, 10 gals.; oil, 10 gals. Dissolve the soda and glue in the water by heat, then add the oil, and lastly the dissolved rubber. 2. To Lessen Friction in Machinery. — Grind together black lead with 4 times its weight of lard or tallow. Camphor is sometimes added, 7 lbs. to the hundred weight. 3. Anti-Friction Grease. — ^I'allow, 100 lbs. ; palm oil, 70 lbs. ; boil together, when cooled to 80=", strain through, a sieve, and mix with 28 lbs. soda, and 1^ gals, water. For winter take 25 lbs. more oil in place of the tallow. 4. Booth's Railway Axle Grease. — ^Water, 1 gal. ; clean tallow, 3 lbs. ; palm oil, G lbs. ; common soda, ^ lb. ; or tallow 2 lbs. ; palm oil, 10 lbs. Heat to about 212°, and stir well until it cools to 70°. 5. Drill Lubricator. — ^I^^or wrought iron, use 1 lb. ' soft soap mixed witli 1 gal. of boiling water. ' It insures good work and clean cutting. To Remedy Slit of Driving BELTS.—Dab on a little of the gticlcy oil which oozes away from the bearings of machijiery. Blasting Powders. — Keduce separate??/ to powder, 2 p?j-ts chlorate of potassa and 1 part red sulphuret of arsenic ; mix very lightly to- gether, or powder separately, 5 parts chlorate of potassa ; 2 parts red sulphuret of arsenic, and 1 part ferrocyanide of iDCtassjun; MACHINISTS, ENGIXEEKS*, AC, RECEIPTS. 557 » ' (prnssiato of potassa) ; mix carefully, or, mix carefully as before, alter having separately reduced to powder equal parts chlorate of po- tiissa aud ferrocyanide potassium. These possess eight times the ex- plosive force of gunpowder and must be used with the greatest cau- tion. BijSlStijig Rocks, &c.— In small blasts, 1 lb. of powder will loosen about 4i tons. In large blasts, 1 lb. of powder will loosen about 2^ tons ; 60 or GO lbs. of powder, enclosed in a resisting bag hung or propped up against a gate or barrier, will demolish any ordinary con- struction. One man can bore, with a bit 1 inch in diameter, from 50 to 60 inches per day of 10 hours in granite, or 300 to 400 ins, per day in limestone. Two strikers and a holder can bore with a bit 2 ins. in diameter 10 feet per day in rock of medium hardness. To MAKE DuALiN. — Dualin is made from paper stock, saturated with nitrate of potassium and dried in a furnace. Then ground and mixed with nitro-glj'^cerine. Component parts of niiro-r/Iycerine. To 4| lbs. concentrated sulphuric-acid and 2J lbs. of concentrated nitric acid, add 1 lb. of glycerine. Labor on Embankments. — Single horse and cart. A horse with a loaded dirt cart employed in excavation and embankment, will make 100 lineal feet, or 200 feet in the distance per minute, while moving. The time lost in loading, dumphig, awaiting, etc, =4 min- utes per load. A medium hilx^rer will load with a cart in 10 hours, of the following earths; measured in the bank : Gravely earth 10. TA)am 12, and Sandy earth 14 cubic yards; carts are loaded as follows: Descending haxiling, ^ of a cubic yard in bank; Level hauling 2-7 of a cubic "yard in bank; Ascending hauling, ^ of a cubic yard in bank, Loosening, &c. In loam, a three-horse plow will loosen from 250 to 800 cubic yards per day of 10 hours. The cost of loosening earth to bo loaded will be from 1 to 8 cents per cubic yard, when wages are 105 cents per day. The cost of trimming and bossing is about 2 cents per cubic yard. Scooping. A scoop load will measure 1-10 of a cu- bic yard, measured in excavation. The time lost in loading, imload- ing and trimmmg, per load, is IJ minutes. The time lost for every 70 feet of distance, from excavation to bank, and returning is 1 ramute. In Double Scooping, the time lost in loading, turning, &c., will bo 1 miuute ; and in Single Scooping, it will bo 1^ minutes. {.Ellwood Morris. Hauling Stone. — A cart drawn by horses over an ordinary road Trill travel 1.1 miles per hour of trip. A4-horse team will haul from 25 to 3G cubic feet of lime stone at each load. The time expended in loading, unloading, &c., including delays, averages 35 minutes per trip. The cost of loading and unloading a cart, usmg a horse cram at tJie quarry, and unloading by hand, when labor is $1.25 per day, and a horse 75 cents, is 25 cents per perch=24.75 cubic feet. The work done by an animal is greatest when the velocity with v/hich he moves is | of the greatest with which he can move when not impeded, and the force then exerted .45 of the utmost force the animal can exert at a dead pulL IL\.Y.— 270 cubic feet of new meadow hay, and 210 and 243 from large or old stacks, will weigh a ton, 297 to 324 cubic feet of dry clover weigh a ton. Ice. — ^To compute the number of tons an ice-house will contain, cal- culate the number of cubic feet in an ice-house, and divide by 35 ; 558 MACHINISTS, ^ENGINEE11S',^&C., IIECEIPTS. this gives tlio num'ber'of tons the lcc-lioiVsewill"contain it if u closely packed. V Eaiitii DiGcmo. — Number of cubic feet of earth in a ton. Looso CJirth 24 ; coarse sand 18.G. Clay 18.G. Earth with gravel 17.8. Chiy Avitli gravel, 14.4. Common soil 15.0. The volume of eartli and sand in bank exceeds that in embankment in the loUowuig proportions ; sand 1-7, clay 1-9, gravel 1-11, and the volume of rock in embank- ments quarried in Large fragments exceeds that in bank fully ono half. , . ..ii^-.-^.- Weight of Earth, Rock, &c.— A cubic yard of sand or ground ■weighs about 30 cwt. ; mud, 25 cwt. ; marl, 2G cwt. ; clay, 31 cwt. ; chalk, 3G CAvt. ; sandstone, 39 cwt. ; shale, 40 cwt. ; quartz, 41 cwt ; granite, 42 cwt. ; trap, 42 cwt. ; slate, 43 cwt. - - • To Determine Weight of Live Cattle.— Measure in inches the girth around the breast, just behind the shoulder blade, and the length of the back from the tail to the fore part of the shoulder blade. Multiply the girth by the length, and divide by 144. If the girth is less than 3 feet, multiply the quotient by 11. If between 3 and 5 feet, multiply by 16. If between 5 and 7 feet, multiply by 23. If between J and 9 feet, multiply by 31. If the animal is lean, deduct 1-20 from the result, or take the girth and length in feet, multiply the square of the girth by the length, and multiply the product by 3.3G. The result will be the answer in pounds. The live weight multiplied by G.05, gives a near approximation to the net weight. »^ i^sK*^.., »r ■ Gaugikg Stkeajms. — Multiply the square root of the cube of the height in inches of the water on the sill of the weir or gauge by the constant 17.13, which will give the number of gallons per minute. If the water has any initial velocity it must be determined by experi- ment, and in that case multiply the square of the height by the square of the velocity, and by 0.8 ; to the product add the cube of the height, extract the square root of the sum, and multiply by 17.13 as before. - — »■ ■*■ ■*~ii^>^ Stowage of Coals.— The following Information will be valuable to many coal dealers and consumers who may be in doubt as to the capacity^ of their coal bins. A box 4 feet long, 3 ft., 5 in., wide, and 2 ft., 8 in., deep, has a capacity of 362^ cubic feet, and will contaia 2000 lbs., or one ton of Beaver Meadow or Lehigh (American) coal. The sx)aces occupied by one ton of the imdermentioned English coals, economic weight are: — ^Haswell's Wallsend, 45'25 cubic feet. North Percy, Hartley (Newcastle) 46-96 cubic feet. Balcarras Arley (Lan- cashire) 44-35 cubic feet. Cannel (Wigan, Lancashire) 46-37 cubic feet. Duffryn (Welsh) 42-09 cubic feet. Pontypool (Welsh) 40-22 cubic feet. Hence, a shed 16 feet high, 20 feet broad, and 30 feet long, will hold over 212 tons of Haswell's Wallsend (Newcastle) coals^, about 207 tons of Cannel, and 228 of Duffryn. The average space occupied by one ton of Newcastle coal, economic weight, is 44 cubic feet, that of one ton of Lancashire coal, 44^ cubic feet, and that of 1 ton of Welsh coal, 41 cubic feet. Therefore a shed of the above dimensions, would, on the average, hold 217 tons of Newcastle coal, 216 of Lancashire, and 234 of Welsh. From the above data, any in- tending purchaser can easily calculate the capacity of his coal bins, sheds, &c., and in many cases secure a good bargain by laying in 'i largo stock when coals are cheap. : MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 559 Composition Tacks for Muntz Metal on Ships,— Copper 87 parts, zinc 4 parts, tin 9 parts. RESULTS OF J. H, CHEEVERS' EXPERIMENTS WITH YULCANIZED RUBBER BELTING AND LEATHER, DITTO. Rubber. Leather. Lbs. I Lbs. ^ "Belt slipped on Iron pulley at 90 Belt slipped on Iron pulley at 48 ' " Leather " 128 " Leather " 64 " " Rubber 183 " " Rubber " 128 Deductions from the above : Rubber belts for equivalent resistances with leather belts, may be reduced respectively 40, 50 and 30 per cent. Vulcanized Rubber belting has greater endurance than leather, its resistance to slipping being from 50 to 84 per cent, greater. Mill for Spinning Wool and Weaving Merinos.— Nineteen machines to prepare the combed wool, having together 360 rollers; IG mules with 3,400 spindles; one winding machine of 60 rollers to pre- pare the warp ; 2 warping machines ; 2 self-acting feeders ; 100-power looms; 2 lathes for wood and iron, and one pump require in all 30 horsepower. Produce: 13,600 cops of woolen thread, of 45 cops to the pound, each measuring 32 yards. The looms make 115 revolu- tions per minute, and produce daily 4 pieces of double width merino of 68 yards each, and 4 pieces of simple merino of 1.2 to 1.4 yard broad, and each 88 yards long. Cotton Factory.— Co?i(Zensm(7 Engine, Cylinder, 37 in. diara. Stroke of piston, 7 ft. Volume of piston space, 53.6 cubic ft. Average pressure of steam, 16.73 lbs. per square inch. Revolutions, 17 per minute. Friction of Engine and Shafting, (indicated) 4.75 lbs. per sq. inch of piston. Indicated Horses power, 125. Total power^l. Available, deducting friction=717. (The foregoing has reference to an English mill, for driving 22,060 Hand mule spindles, with preparation, and 260 looms, with common sizing.) Remarks,— Each additional horse's power will di-ive 305 hand- mule spindles, loith preparation, or 230 self-actmg " or 104 throstle " or 10.5 looms with common sizing. Including preparation : 1 throstle spindle=3 hand-mule, or 2.25 self-acting spindles. 1 self-acting spindle=l,2 hand-mule spindles. Exclusive of preparation, taking only the spindle: 1 throstle spindle=3.5 hand-mule, or 2.56 self-acting spindles. 1 self-acting spindle=1.375 hand-mule spindles. The throstles are the common, spinning 34 twist for power loom weaving ; the spindles revolve 4,000 times per minute. The self- acting mules are, one half spinning 36' s weft, spindles revolving 4, 800; the other half spinning 36's twist, spindles revolving 5,200. The hand-mules spinning about equal quantities of 36's weft and twist. Weft spindles 4,700, and twist spindles 5,000 rev. per minute. Aver- age breadth of looms 37 ins. (weaving 37 ins. cloth), making 123 picks per minute. All common calicoes about 60 reed, Stockport count, and 68 picks to the inch. N^o power consumed by t\iS sizing. When the yarn is dressed instead of sized, one horse's power cannot 560 . MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. drive so many looms, as the dressing macliino will al^sorb from 17 ti) .14 of the power. Size icon DuESsiNG Cotton Yakn ok Wakps.— Flour 280 lbs ; tal- low I lb. ; add ^ to 2 per cent, of the amount of Hour employed of l)aranino. The parafline may be made to rexjlaco tlie whole, or apart of the tallow employed. BKAUTiFur. Sizing fou Linton. — Crystallized chrbonate of soda, 1 part ; white wax. 4 to G parts ; steariue 4 to G parts ; pure white soap, 4 to 6 parts ; fine Paris white or carbonate of magnesia 20 parts ; po- tato starch, 40 i^arts ; fine Avhqat starch, 100 parts ; boU with sufFicif^nt water to form IGOO parts altogether, adding, if desired, some ultra- marine to counteract the yellow tint of the linen. The Imen is starched with this preparation, afterwards steamed and dried, then sprinkled with soap-water and placed in the stamping mill, afterwards steamed and calendered. The Mariner's Cojipass.— The needle or magnet is said to point always to the north, and as a matter of course the other points, as east, west, &c., are easily found by the needle pointing north and south. In certain parts of the world, however, the needle does not point to the north, but is drawn considerably to the right or left of true north. This is called the variation of the compass, and must be known accurately by the navigator in order to correct and steer the right course. For instance in crossing the Atlantic Ocean, the .variation of the compass amounts in sailing vessels to 2^ or 2^ {)oints westerly, and the course steered must be corrected according- y. Say that you wish to make a due east course, you must steer 2^ or 2| points south of that or to the right hand in order to make a direct course. Off the Cape of Good Hope in the South Atlantic Ocean, strange enough, the variation of the compass in ships bound to India or Aus- tralia is 2| points easterly, and in order to make it due east course it is necessary to steer 2^ to the north or left of her course, while again to- wards the equator or centre of the globe there is hardly any percept- ible variation of the compass at all. The way of finding out how much the compass varies in different parts of the world, is by obser- vations of tlie sun taken with the compass, and the difference be- tween the true and magnetic or compass bearing is the variation, which must be applied as a correction to the course steered. We have, however, in iron ships or steamers what is called the deviation of the compass to attend to besides the variation. This is the local attraction caused by the iron, and must be carefully understood be^ fore steamers or iron ships attempt to go to sea. As in steamers ot theAllanor Cunard line, each vessel before proceeding on her first voyage must be carefully swung, and magnets fixed to the deck, be- sides small chains placed on each side of the compasses in boxes, in order to counteract the attraction of the iron. Thus the compasseb are so nicely balanced with the magnets and iron, that it is rare in-= deed at this day that they get out of order on a trans-Atlantic passage. The consequences to either steamer or sailing ship whose compasses are astray would be terrible to contemplate, even if it were but one- half point, on dark winter nights approaching the land. These difti.= culties are now happily obviated by the discoveries of modern science, and tbflix application in coi]:ecting the compass at am* MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS 561 Heat op TVatee nsr Steam Boixeks, Warming of nxjiLsr^jsoh. -Sc. —The following table shows the temperature of water by Fahieulieit's atmosphere : — Pressure of Steam iu Tempera- Tempera- Atmospheres . , ture. ture. F. C. F. C. 1 212° 100.° 13 381° 155.0 1.5 230 112 2 14 387 157.7 2 251 12l!2 15 393 200 ! 5 2.5 261 128.8 16 398 203.1 3 275 125. 17 401 206.2 3.5 285 140.5 18 409 209.4 4 29i 145.5 19 414 212.2 4.5 300 148.8 20 418 214.4 5 308 153.1 21 423 217.2 6.5 314 156.2 22 427 219.4 6 320 160. 23 431 221.2 6.5 326 163.1 24 436 224.4 7 332 166.2 25 439 226.1 7.5 3.37 169.4 30 457 236.1 8 342 172.2 35 473 245.1 9 351 177.2 40 487 252.7 10 369 181.2 45 491 2.55. 11 367 186.1 50 511 2C6.1 12 374 WO. US' S3 3 P o ^ M o (3) (5J © (S ft I H II U U H U 5h '^1 |2| 15=3 'it run >- 03 3 >S si S a Value of Fuel. — The evaporative power of Cb2;e in the hirnace of a steam boiler, and under pressure, is from 7^ to 9 lbs. of fresb water per lb. of coke ; that of charcoal 5^ lbs. of fresh water per lb. The evaporative power of 1 cubic foot of \Axi& wood is equal to that or 1 cubic foot of fresh water ; or, in the f nrnace of a steam boiler, and under pressure, it is 4| lbs. fresh water for 1 lb. of wood. One cord of hardwood and 1 cord of soft wood, such as the general average in Canada, is equal in evaporative effects to 2000 lbs. of anthracite I coal. One cord of the kind of ' wood used by American river steamers in the' West, is equal to n bushels (960 lbs.) of Pittsburg «oal ; 9 cords cotton, ash and cypress wood are equal to 7 cords yellow pine. 'The densest Woods give the greatest heat, as charcoal gene- rates more heat than flame. The evaporative power of peat in the ^urnace of a steam boiler, and under pressure, is 3^ to 5 lbs. of fresh water for every lb. of fuel. Bituminous coal is 13 per cent, more ef- fective than coke io£ equal weights, and in England the effects ars alike for equal costs. In an experiment under a pressure of 30 lbs. lb. pine wood evaporated 3.5 to 4.75 lbs. water, 1 ib. Lehigh coaL 2.25 to 8.75 HiJS" The least consumptioD. of coal yet attained is Return Flue Boiler. 5G2 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. per indicated liorse-power. It usually varies in different engines from 2 to 8 lbs.. Railway experiments demonstrate 1 ton of Cumberland coal, (2240 lbs.) to bo equal in evaporating effect to 1.25 tons of an- thracite coal, and 1 ton of antliracitc to bo equal to 1.75 cords pine wood; also tliat 2000 lbs. Laclcawanna coal are equal to 4500 11 )s. best i)inc Avood. Much depends on the kind of boiler used, Tlie It tarn Yiue Boiler gives very good results in economizing heat. See diagraru above. Specific Gravity, — 1^ the density of fJie matter of wliicli any body is composed, compared with the density of anotlier body as- sumed as the standard, or 1000, This standard is pure distilled water for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for gaseous bodies and vapors. Thus as gold is 19, and silver 10 times heavier than water, those numbers 19, and 10 are said to represent the specific gi-avity of gold and silver. The heaviest known substance is iridium, used for f)ointing gold pens ; its specific gravity is 23. The lightest of all liquids las a specific gravity of 0.6, it is called chimogene, and is made from petroleum, it is exceedingly volatile and combustible, being in fact a liquefied gas. Carbonic acid gas or choke damp is 500 times lighter than water, common air 800, street gas about 2000, and pure hydro- gen the lightest of all substances, 12,000 times. The heaviest substance has thus 23+12,000, or more than a quarter of a million times moro weight than an equal bulk of the lightest; and the substance of which comets consist, has by astronomers been proved to be even Fcveral thousand times lighter than hydrogen gas. ArrEOVED Friction Matches, — About the "best known prepara- tion for friction matches consists of gum arable, 10 loarts by weight ; phosphorus, 9 parts ; nitre, 14 parts; peroxyde of manganese, in powder, 10 parts. The gum is first made into a mucilage with water, then the manganese, then the phosphorus, and the whole is heated to about 130° Fah. When the phosphorus is melted the nitre is ad- ded, and the whole is thoroughly stirred until the mass is a imiform paste. The wooden matches prepared first with sulphur, are then dipped in this and afterward dried in the air. Friction papers, for carrying in the pocket, may be made in the same manner, and by adding some gum benzoin to the mucilage they will have an agree- able order when ignited. , .« t ^ l3 Impkoved CoLOiiED FiBES.—TF7wte,— Saltpetre, 2 parts; sulphur, 2 parts; antimony, 2 parts. Red. Nitrate of strontia, 20 parts; chlorate of potash, 5 parts; sulphur, 6^ parts ; charcoal, Ipart. Blue. Chlorate of potash, 9 parts; sulphur 3 parts; carbonate of copper, 3 parts. Yellow. — Nitrate of soda, 24 parts; antimony, 8 parts, sul-* phur, 6 parts; charcoal, 1 part. Green. — Nitrate of baryta, 26 parts; chlorate of potash, 18 parts; sulphur, 10 parts, Violet. — Nitrate of strontia, 4 parts ; chlorate of potash, 9 parts; sulphur, 5 parts; car- bonate of copper, 1 part; calomel, 1 part, • ' -s 'J'o Re-cover Hammers in Pianos,— Get felt of graduated thick- ness, cut it in strips the exact width, touch, only the two ends with glue, not the part striking the strings.^Hold iu iDlace with springs of narrow hoop iron. ' ^ . ' , Water. — Fresh Water. — The component parts by ^ weight and measure is, Oa;?/f/en, 88,9 by weight, and 1 by measure, Ji?/(Zro(/ew, 11,1 by weight, and 2 by measure. One cubic inch of distilled water at its maximum density of 39°, 83, the barometer at 30 inches, weighs MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 563 .-^ 252.6937 grs. A cubic foot weighs 62.5 lbs. Rated by the British Imperial standard, a cubic It. of water at 62'' weighs 998.224 ozs., 35.84: cubic ft. of water weigh 1 ton, 39.14 cubic ft. of ice weigh Iton. Sea- Water. 1 cubic ft. weiglis 64.3126 lbs,; 34.84 cubic ft. weigh 1 ton and contains from 4 to 5| ozs. of salt per gal. varying in different parts of the globe ; carbonic acid, 62 parts in every 1000 of water. The saline matter in the Dead Sea is 21.722 parts in every 100. Dr. Scoresby's observations of the height of waves in the North Atlantic Ocean record 24 ft., 30 ft., the highest 43 ft., and the mean 18 ft. in western gales. French observers in tlie Bay of Biscay Btate a height of wave of 36 ft. ; Captain Wilkes writes of 36 ft. intho Pacific and Sir J. Ross of 22 ft. in the Sonth Atlantic. Heights of waves in northwest gales off the Cape of Good Hope have been com- puted at 40 ft., those off Cape Horn at 32 ft., in the Mediterranean Sea at 15 ft, and in the German Ocean at 14 ft., but in the British Avaters they are only found to average 8 to 9 ft. The velocity of ocean storm waves was observed by Dr. Scoresby in the North Atlantic to be about 32 miles per hour ; Capt. Wilkes records it at 26^ miles in the Pacific, and French mariners in the Bay of Bis- cay at 60 miles an hour. Dr. Scoresby has estimated the distance between or breadth of his Atlantic storm waves at about 600 feet from crest to crest which is only about half of that stated by some others, and Dr. S. states tliat the waves of 30 ft. height move at the rate of 32 miles per hour. The mean force of the Atlantic waves for the summer months is over 600 lbs. per sq. ft., during winter 2086 lbs. During a severe gale 6383 lbs. per square ft. has been noted. Corrosive effects of Sea- Water on Metals, per square foot. Steel 39 grs., iron' 38, copper 9, zinc 8, galvanized iron 1.6, tin 2. t Brazing Cast Ikok. — There are two ways of joining cast iron. 1. Fit the broken pieces exactly together in moulding sand and pour melted iron over the parts to be joined. When cold chip off the euperfiuous metal and you will have a joint scarcely to be detected. 2. Well tin the parts to be joined, fit together in saaid as above, and pour melted brass over them. Macintosh Cloth. — The material is merely two layers of cotton cemented with liquid India rubber; but the junction is so well effect- ed that the three become, to all intents and purposes, one. The stout and well-woven cloth is coiled upon a horizontal beam like the yard beam of a loom ; and from this it is stretched out in a tight state and a nearly horizontal direction ; a layer of liquid or rather paste-like solution is applied with a spatula, to a considerable thickness, and the cloth is drawn under a knife edge which scrapes the solution and diffuses it equally -over every part of the cloth, which may be 30 or 40 yards long. The cloth is then extended out on a horizontal framework to dry; and when dried a second coating is applied in the same way, and a third or fourth coat if necessary. Two pieces, thus coated, are next placed face to face with great care to prevent creasing or distortion ; and being placed between two wooden rollers, they are CO thoroughly pressed as to unite durably and permanently. Cloth, thus cemented and doubled and dried, may be cut and made into 564 MACHINISTS, engineers*, AC, RECEIPTS. Rjinncnts which will bear many a rough trial, and many a deluging, before rain or water can penetrate. To Pktrifv Wood— Gum salt, rock alum, white vinegar, chalk and ]iebbles powder, of each an equal quantity. Mix well togctlicr. If, after the ebullition ig over, you throw into this liquid any wood or l)orous substance, it will petrify it. To Construct ax tEolian llAnr.— J[ako a box with the top, bot- tom, and sides of thiu wood, and the ends 1.^ inch beech, form it the same length as the width of the window" iu which it is to bo placed. Tlic "box should be 3 or 4 inches deep, and G or 7 inches wide. In the top of the box, wliicli acts as a sounding board, make 3 circular holes about 2 inches in diameter, and an equal distance apart. Glue across the sounding board, about 2.^ inches from each end, 2 pieces of hard wood ''^ incli thick, and | inch high, to serve as bridges. You must now procure from any musi- cal instrument maker twelve steel pegs similar to those of a piano- forte, and 12 small brass pins. Insert them iu the following man- ner into the beech : first commence with a brass pin, then insert a steel peg, and so on, placing them alternately ^ in, apart to the number of twelve. Now for the other end, which you must com- mence with a steel peg, exactly opposite the brass pin at the other end, then a brass pin, and so on, alternately, to the number of 12 ; by this arrangement you have a steel peg and a brass pin always oppo- site each other, which is done so that the pressure of the strings on the instrument shall be imiform. Now string the instrument with 12 first violin strings, making a loop at one end of each string, which put over the brass pins, and wind the other ends romid the oppo- site steel pegs. Tune them in unison, but do not draw them tight. To increase the current of air, a thin board may be placed about 2 inches above the strings, supported at each end by 2 pieces of wood. Place the instrument iu a partly opened wiudow, and to increase the draft, open the opposite door. To Construct a Metronome. — Take a cheap clock movement and substitute foa? the pendulum a wire with a sliding weight, mark- ing the Avire with a file at the different points of graduation. Used to indicate the proper time in music. To Bend Glass Tubes. — Hold the tube in the upper part of the flame of a spirit-lamp, revolving it slowly between the fingers : when red hot it may be easily bent into any desired shape. To soften large tubes a lamp with a double current of air should be used, as it gives a much stronger heat than the simple lamp. Black Lead Pencils. — The best pencils are made by grinding the black lead into a fine impalpable powder, then forming it into blocks by compression without any cementmg substance, and finally sawing it up into the square prisms, which, when placed in grooves in wood, form the black lead pencils of commerce. The color can bo graduated to any desired tinge by the intermixture of very finely ground clay. By the process of Prof. Brodie, the most intractable graphite may be reduced to the finest powder with great ease. The miueral is coarsely powdered and mixed with l-15th of chlorate of potash, to which mixture is added twice its weight of sulphuric acid. Chloric acid is disengaged, and, after the mass has cooled, it is well washed, dried, and heated to redness. During the latter operation, MACHINISTS, engineers', j&C, RECEIPTS. 5^5 tlie black load swells and becomes reduced to so fine a powder that it -will sAvini upon -water, a little fluoride of eodium is used to dissolve tlie silicious impurities. The finest quality is found near Burrowdale in Cumberland, England. It is nearly pure carbon, and perfectly free from giit. It is used principally in the manufacture of lead pen- cils, tlie coarser quality being used, -svlieu ground, for polishing iron ■work, glazing gunpowder, as a lubricator for machinery, compounded with four times its weight of lard or tallow, and in the manufacture of crucibles for melting metals, as it is very intractable in an intense heat, PHiLLir's FiRF. A>'>finiLATOR.— Consists of a case "containing water, within which is a smaller case contiiinijig chlorate of potash and sugar. Dipped in the latter is a small tube containing sulphuric acid; when this tube is broken the chlorate of potash and sugar be- come ignited, throwing oil large quantities of mixed gases which are non-supporters of combustion; the action is maintained by the water in the outer case becoming heated. The gases are conveyed to the fire by means of a flexible tube fitted with a proper nozzle and stop- cock. I have seen still another kind constructed of copper in quite an elegant style, fitted with shoulder straps, &c., for easy transporta- tion, in which the gases were generated by means of chemicals on the 1)rinciple of what may be seen every day in the effervescence of car- )onic acid gas from uxe iutermixturo of seidlitz powders in water. The chemicals being introduced from white and blue paper packages into the water contained in the copper case. Majsttfacture of Corn Starch. — Watt's Patent. — Tlie com is steeped m water, ranging in temperature from 70° to liO° Fah., for about a week, changing the water at least once in 24 hours. A certain amount of acid fermentation is thus produced, causing the starch and refuse of the corn to be easily separated afterwards. The swollen corn is ground in a current of clear soft water, and Ihe pulp passed through sieves, Avith the water into vats. In these jlie starch gradually settles to the bottom, the clear water is then run ofl by a tap, and the starch gathered and dried in a i)roper apartment for the purpose. liKFiNiNG OF Sugar. — Both cane and beet-root sugar arc refined on the same x^rinciple, by mixture with liinewater, boUing with animal charcoal, and filtration through twilled cotton. In some establishments bullock's blood is used to aid in the clarifyuig. The albumen of the serum becomes coagulated on the application of heat, forming a network, which rises to the top of the liquor, carrying with it a great part of the impurities. The reddish eyrup obtamed by the first filtration is next passed through filters into large vats, twelve or, fourteen feet deep, upon which are laid coarse ticking, coarsely ground animal charcoal, and a second layer of ticking. The sjnaip is allowed to flow over the surface of the" filter, and runs slowly through the charcoal, coming out j)erfectly colorless. The concentrated syrup is then boiled in vacuo, by means of which two important results are arrived at. The viscid liquid would boil in air at 230° Fah., at which temperature a quantity of uncrystallizable sugar would be formed. By performing the ope- ration in a vacuum-pan the boiling point is brought down to 15(P or 1G0°, no formation of uncrystallizablo sugar takes place, smQ 560 MACHINISTS, KNGINEERS', AC, IlECEIPTS. a great saviiii; in fuel is effected. When tlio concentration reachod i\ certain point, tlio syrup is transferred to a vessel lieatcd by steam to 170°, and forcibly aii^itated with Avooden beaters, until it forms thick and granular. From the lieating-vats it is transferred into inverted conical moulds of the well-knowu shape, at the bottom of each of which is a movable plug. The syrup is well stirred to prevent the formation of air-bubbles, and then left at rest for several liours, at the end of which time the plug is removed, and the iincrystallized syrup runs out. The loaves are further freed from nil colored matter by a portion of perfectly colorless syrup being run through them. They are then dried in a stove and finished for market by being turned in a lathe. Crushed or granulated sugar 13 made by causing the granular syrup to revolve in a i^erforated drum, by which means the uncrystallizablo portion is separated from the crystals by centrifugal force. Button MAmrFACTURE.— Metal buttons are fonned of an inferior liind of brass, pe^\ Ler, or other metallic compositions. For button metal, see a variety of alloys on pages 291 and 292. Buttons with shanks are usually made of these compositions, which is supplied to the manufacturers in sheets of the required thiclaiess. By means of fly presses and punches, circular disks called blanks, are cut out of these sheets. This is mostly performed by females, who can furnish about 30 blanks per minute, or 12 gross per hour. Hand punching is the general mode of cutting out blanks, but more complicated machines, which cut out 8 or 10 blanks at a time, arc in use. After bemg punched^ the edges of the blanks are very sharp, and require to be smoothed and rounded. Their surfaces are then planished on the face by placing them separately in a die under a small stamp, and allowing them to receive a small blow from a polished steel hammer. In this state they are ready to receive tlie shanks or small metal loops by which, they are attached to the dress. They are made by a machine in which a coil of wire is gradually advanced towards a pair of shears which cuts o£E short pieces. A metal finger then presses against the middle of each piece, first bending it and then pressing it into a vice, when it is compressed so as to form a loop ; a hammer then strikes the two ends, spreading them into a flat surface, and the sliank is pushed out of the machine ready for use. Tlie shanks are attached to the Wanks by women, with iron wire, solder and rosin. They are then put into an oven, and when firmly united, form plam buttons. If fi crest or inscription is wanted, it is placed in a die and stamped. Buttons are gUded by gold amalgam, by being put into an earthen pan with the proper quantity of gold to cover them, amalgamated with mercury in the following manner : the gold is put into an iron ladle in thin strips, and a small quantity of mercury, say 1 part of mercury to 8 of gold, added to it, the ladle is held over the fire till the gold and mercury are perfectly united. This amal- gam being put into the pan with the buttons, as much aquafortis, dUuted with water, as will wet them all over, is thrown in, and they are stirred up with a brush till the acid, by its affinity to the copper in the buttons, carries the amalgam to every part of their surface, giving it the appearance of silver ; this done, the acid ia Trashed away with clean water. Thia is called the quicking pro- MACniNISTS, ENGINEEKS', &C., RECEirTS. 567 eess. In drying off, the pan of buttons is lieated by a charcoal fire expellmg the mercury in the form of a vapor, which, imder the improved system, is conducted into on oblong iron flue or gallery, gently sloped do^vuwards, having at its end a smaU vertical tubo dipped into a Avater cistern, for condensing the mercury, and a large vertical pipe for promoting the draught of the products of the combustion. The gold thus deposited in an exceedmgly thin film upon the buttons, presents a duU yeUow color, and must now be burnished ; this is effected by a piece of hematites, or bloodstone, fixed on a handle and applied to the button, as it revolves in the lathe. To BENDER Wood Indestructible. — Robbins' Process. The apparatus used consists of a retort or still, which can be made of any size or form, in which resin, coal tar, or other oleaginous substances, together with water, are placed in order to subject them to the heat. Fire being applied beneath the retort containing the coal tar, &c,, oleaginous vapor commences to rise, and passes out through a con- necting pipe mto a large iron tank or chamber (Avhich can also be built of any size), containing the timber, &c., to be operated upon. The heat acts at once upon the wood, causing the sap to flow from every pore, which, rising in the form of steam, condenses on the body of the chamber, and discharges through an escape pipe in the lower part. In this process a temperature of 212° to 250° Fahr. is sufficient to remove the surface moisture from the wood; but after this the tem- perature should be raised to 300° or more, in order to completely saturate and permeate the body of the wood with the antiseptic vapors and heavier products of the distillation. The hot vapor coagulates tlio albumen of the wood, and opens the pores, so that a large portion of the oily product or creosote is admitted; the contraction resultmg from the cooling process hermetically seals them, and decay seems to bo almost impossible. There is a man-hole in the retort, used to change or clean out the contents; and the wood chamber is furnished with doors made perfectly tight. The whole operation is completed in less than one hour, rendering the wood proof against rot, parasites, and the attacks of the Teredo navilis or naval worm. German Stone Coating for Wood. — Chalk, 40 parts; resin, 50 parts; linseed oil 4 parts; melt together. To tliis add 1 part of oxide of copper, afterwards 1 part of sulphuric acid; add this last carefully; apply with a brush. Iron Tube Manufacture.— In the present method of manufac- turing the patent welded tube, the end of the skelp is bent to the circular form, its entire length is raised to the welding heat in an ap- propriate furnace, and as it leaves the furnace almost at the point of fusion, it is dragged by the cham of a draw-bench, after the man- ner of wire, though a pair of tongs with two bell-shaped jaws; these are opened at the time of iutroducmg the end of a skelp, which is Avelded without the agency of a mandril. By this ingenious arrange- ment wrought iron tubes may be made from the diameter of 6 inches internally and about 1-8 to 3-8 of an iuch thick, to as small as 1-4 of an inch diameter and 1-10 bore, and so admirable is the joining effected In those of the best description that they will withstand the greatest jn'essure of water, steam, or gas to which they have been subjected, and tiiey admit of being bent both in the heated and cold state, almost with impunity. Sometimes the tubes are made one upon the othci 5G8 , BiACuiNiSTS,' engineers', &c., receipts. wheu great thickness is reciuircd ; but those stout pipes, and those larger tlian 3 inches, are but seldom required. The wrought iron tubes of hydrostiitic presses which measure about J an inch internally, and ^ to f of an inch thiclc in tlie metal, are frequently subjected to a pressure of four tons on each square inch. BiiAss TuiiEs. — Brass or other tubes are formed of rolled metal which is cut to the desired width by means of revolving discs; in the large bIkcs of tubes, tlie metal is partially curved in its length by means of a pair of rolls, when in this condition it is passed tlirough a steel hole or a die, a plug bein<^ held in such a position as allows the metal to pass between it and tlie interior of the liole. Oil is used to lubricate the metal, the motion is communicated by power, the draw- ing apparatus being a pair of huge nippers, which holds the brass, and is attached to a chain and revolves round a windlass or cylmder. The tube in its unsoldered state is annealed, bound round at intervals of a few inches with iron wire, and solder and borax applied along tlio seam. The operation of soldering is completed by passing the tubes through an air stove, heated with " cokes " or " breezes" which melts the solder, and unites the two eyes of tlie metal, and forms a perfect iiube; it is then immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid, to remove Sjcaly deposits on its surface, the wire and extra solder having been previously removed; it is then drawn through a "finishing hole plate" when the tube is completed. Mandril drawn tubes are drawn upon a very accurately turned steel mandril, by this means the in- ternal diameter is rendered smooth. The tubes drawn by this pro- cess are well adapted for telescopes, syringes, small pump cylinders, &c. The brass tubes for the boilers of locomotive enguies are now made by casting and drawing without being soldered, and some of them are drawn taper in their thickness. Tubes from 1-10 inch in- ternal diameter and 8 or ten inches long, up to those of two or threo inches diameter and 4 or 5 feet long, are drawn vertically by means of a strong chain wound on a barrel by wheels and pinions, as in a crane. In Donkin's tube drawing machine, which is applicable to making tubes, or rather cylinders, for paper-making and other ma- chinery, as large as 20^ inches diameter, and 6^ feet long, a vertical screw is used, the nut of which is turned round by toothed wheels driven by six men at a windlass. The fluted tubes of pencil cases are drawn through oramental plates, with elevations and depressions corresponding to ttie impressions left on the tube. Lead Pipe, is made by forcing lead, while heated to a plastic state, over a J annular mandnl or die to form the core, by means of hy- drauUc pressure. CuTiiEKY MANUFACTUKE.--There are three kinds of steel employed in manufacture of different articles of cutlery, common steel, shear steel, and cast steel. All edge tools which require to be tenacious without being very hard, are made of shear steel. The best scissors, razors, penknives, &c., are made from cast steel, which is able to take a very fine polish, common steel is only used in making cheap articles of cutlery. In making good table-knives, shear steel and cast steel are generally preferred. In the ordinary method of mak- ing knives, the blades are cut out of a sheet of steel, and the backs, shoulders and tangs of wrought iron, are attached to the steel Wades by welding at the forge. The iiiife la then .ground to th« MACnrXiSTS, EN^GINEEBS,' AC, RECEirTS. 569 proper shape, and the blaSe polished and hardened. The fork manufacture is a distinct branch of industry, and the manufacturers of table knives generally buy their forks from the fork makers ready to be put into their handles. In making table knives, two men are generally employed ; one is called the foreman, or maker, and the other the striker. Pen knives are usually forged by a smgle hand, with hammer and anvil simply ; they are hardened by heating the blades red-hot, and dipping them into water up to the shoulder. Razors are also liardened in tlie same manner. The grinding and polishing of cutlery are generally performed by machinery, the busi- ness of the grinders is divided into grinding, glazing and polishing. Grmding is performed upon stones of various dimensions. Those ar- ticles which require temper bemg ground on wet stones. Glazing Is a process by which lustre is given to cutlery ; it is performed with a glazier, consisting of a circular piece of wood, sometimes covered with leather, or an alloy of lead and tin ; it is fixed on an axis like a grindstone. The polishing process is the last, and is performed on a similar piece of wood covered with buff leather. Only articles of cast steel,. which have been hardened and tempered are subjected to this operation. , On Needle Manufacture, Tesiperin-g, &c.— This smaU but im- portant implement has to go through the hands of about 120 work- men during the process of manufacture. The steel wire, being drawn to the proper size, is submitted to various tests to ascertain its qual- ity, and is then cut into proper lengths by shears, which, by striking 21 blows in a minute, cut in 10 hours fully 400,000 ends of steel wire, Avhich produce about 800,000 needles. These are passed on for fur- ther manipulation to other workmen, who straighten and point the pieces of wire. After pointing they are cut in two, so as to form two separate needles of equal len^h and quality. For each different size a small copper plate is employed. It is nearly square, and has a tumed-up edge on two of its sides, the one is intended to receive all the points, while the other resists the pressure of the shears. On this plate a certain number of wires are put with their points in con- tact with the border, and they are cut together flush with the plate, by means of a small pair of shears moved by the knee of the work- man. These even wires are now taken to the head-flattener. This workman, seated over a table with a block of steel before him about 3 inches cube, takes up from 20 to 25 needles between his finger and thumb, spreading them out like a fan, with the points under the thumb, he lays the heads on the steel block, and, with a small flat- faced nammer strikes a few successive blows upon them so as to flatten them in an instant. The heads, having become hardened by hammering, are now annealed by heating and slow coonng, and arc handed to the piercer, generally a child, who forms the eye in a second by laying the head upon a block of steel, and by drivuiga small punch through one side with a smart tap of the hammer, and then exactly opposite on the other. The eyes are then trimmed by driving the punch through them again on a lump of lead and, after laying the needle with the punch stickmg through it, upon the block of steel, hammering the head on the sides, which causes it to take the form of the punch. Tne next operator makes the groove at the eye and roimds the head, which he does with a small file. The 570 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS*, AC, KECEU'TS uecdles, "being thus prepared, .'iro thrown by the workmen pell-mell into a sort of drum or box, in which they are made to arrange them- selves in parallel lines by means of a few dexterous shakes of tlio workman's arm. They arc now ready to bo tempered, for which purpose they are ranged on sheet-iron plates, about 30 lbs. weight at a time, cont'iiniug from 250,000 to 500,000 needles, and arc placed in a proper furnace, Avherc they are heated to a bright redness for the larger needles, and to a less intense degree for the smaller ; tliey are then removed, and inverted suddenly over a bath of cold water in such a way that all the needles may be immersed at the same time, yet separate from each other. This has the effect of making them ■very hard and brittle. The water being run off, the needles are re- moved lor further operations. Some manufacturers heat the needles by means of immersion in melted lead, others throw them into a pan along with a quantity of grease, which, being placed on the fire, the oily matter soon ignites, and after it burns out, the needles are found to be in the proper temper ; those which are twisted in the temperin£f being afterwards straightened by the hammer on the anvil. Polishing is the next and most expensive and prolonged operation. This is effected on bundles containing 500,000 needles intermixed with quartzoze sand, and a little rape-seed oil. Tliirty of those bundles are exposed to the vibratory pressure of wooden tables, which makp about 20 horizontal double movements per minute, causing tho bundles to run over 2 feet each time, or 800 feet per liour. This agitation is kept up about 18 or 20 hours, causing such a move- ment and attrition as to polish tho needles in the bags or bundles. They are then removed from the packets into wooden bowls and mixed with sawdust to remove the grease and other impurities, placed in a cask, which is turned by a winch ; more sawdust is introduced as required, and the turning is continued until tho needles become clean and bright. They are then winnowed by a fan to clean them from the sawdust and refuse matter, and "are subsequently arranged in regular order on a small, somewhat con- cave, iron tray. The operation of malting up tho rolls or bags, polishing, winnowing and arranging them, have to be repeated ten times on the best needles. It is found that emery powder mixed with quartz and mica or pounded granite is preferable to anythmg else for polishing needles by friction in the bags at the first, emery mixed with olive oil, from the second to the seventh operation, putty, or oxide of tin for the eighth and ninth, putty with very little oil for the tenth, and lastly bran to give a finish. In this mode of operating, the needles are scoured in a copper cask studded in the interior with raised points to increase the friction and a quantity of hot soap suds is introduced occasionally to keep them clean. The cask must be slowly turned upon its axis for fear of injuring the mass of needles it contains. They are finally dried in the wooden cask by attrition with saw dust, then Aviped with a linen rag or soft leather — the damaged ones being thrown aside. The sorting is performed in dry apartments, where all the points are first laid the same way, and the needles arranged in the order of their polish with gicat rapidity. The workman places 2000 or 3000 needles in an iron ring two inches in diameter, and sets all their heads in one plane, then, on looking carefully at their points, he easily re- MACniXISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. 571 cognizes the "broken ones and removes them -with an instrument adapted for the purpose. These defective needles pass into the hands of tlie pointer in order to be ground again, when they form articles of inferior value. Those needles bent in the polishing must now be straightened, and the whole are finally arranged by the tact of the finger and thumb of the sorter, and weighed out into quantities for packing into blue papers. The bluer puts the final touch to them by taking 25 needles at a time between his fore-finger and thumb, and pressm^ their pomts against a small hone-stone of compact micaceous schist, quadrangular in form, mounted in a small lathe, turning them briskly round, giving the points a bluish cast, while he polishes and improves them. Oif FiiiE Manufacture Files are made of bars of steel, rendered doubly hard by a process called double conversion, drawn the re- quired size at the tilt hammer, and then shaped, the square and flat ones by the hammer and common anvil only, but those of round, half-round, and three-angled forms, by means of bosses and dies mado in the above shapes, which fit into a groove left for them in the anvil. The steel blanks having been thus formed, are next annealed, or softened, to render them capable of being cut, by placing a number of them together in a brick oven, rendered air-tiglit by filling up all the interstices with sand (to prevent the oxidation of the steel, to which it is very liable, if air be admitted,) and then making a fire play as equally as possible all round until they are red hot, when the heat is discontinued, and the steel allowed to cool gradually before it is uncovered. The surface to contain the teeth is now rendered as smooth as possible by grinduig or filing; the teeth are then cut with a carefully ground chisel, each incision being made separately. The next and last process, that of hardening, is performed m various ways by different makers, the ordinary method, however, is to cover the files witli a kind of composition or protecting vaniish to prevent oxi- dation and scalding of the steel when heated; and, lastly, they are plunged in cold, fresh water to cool them as quickly as possible, Somo file-makers coat their files, before tempering, with a composition of cow-dung, or pig-flour, wliich not only protects the sharp angles of the cuttings from the action of the fire, but furnishes a highly azotized substance, which conduces greatly to still further harden and steelify the finished work. I know several file manufacturers who make use of a bath of melted lead for tempering purposes. The files are first coated with a greasy composition to prevent any oxide adhering, then introduced for a short time into melted lead, or the "metallic bath", as it is called, and then plunged into the tempering liquid. The melt-( ed lead may be kept covered with charcoal, or other suitable ingredi- ents, to prevent oxidation. In some manufactories a charcoal fire is kept burning on the suijf ace of the melted lead. Pen Making. — ^Pens should be made of the best steel that can bo got, as peculiar elasticity is required m them, which could not be ob- tained if poor steel were used. The steel is cut into slips some 3 feet long and 4 inches broad; these slips are then plunged into a pickle of diluted sulphuric acid so as to remove the scales from the surface ; next it is passed between heavy rollers by which it is reduced to the thickness required, and made fit to undergo the first process in pen making. This is performed by a girl, who, seated at a stamping* 572 MACHINISTS " engineers', receipts press provided with a bed and corresponding punch, speedily cuto out the blank, wluch is perfectly flat. The next step is to perforate the liolc which terminates the slit, and to remove any superfluous steel which might interfere with the elasticity of the pen. The embryo pens arc then annealed in a muffle, and the maker's name stamped upon them. The pens are next transferred to another class of work- men, who, by means of a press, either make the pens concave, if tliey are merely to be nibs, or, if they are to be barrel pens, they roll the barrel together, n The next process is termed the hardcninf/, and con- sists in placing a number of pens in an iron box which is introduced into a muffle. After they become of a deep red heat they are plung- ed into a tank of oil, and, when they get cool, the adhering oil is re- moved by agitation in circular tin barrels ; tempering is the next step, by heating to the necessary elasticity in a warm bath of oil; and, fln- aily, the whole number of pens are placed in a revolving cylinder along with sand, ground crucible, and other cutting substances, whiclr tends to brighten them up to the natural color of the steel- next the nib is ground down finely, with great rapidity, by a girl, who picks it up with a pair of pliers, and, with a single touch on an emery wheel, perfects it at once. The slit is now made by means of a press. A chisel, or wedge, with a flat side, is affixed to the bed of the press, and the descending screw has a corresponding chisel-cutter, which passing down with the greatest accuracy on the pen, which had been placed on the chisel aflflxed to the bed, and the slit is made and the pen complete. They are next colored brown or blue, by placing them in a revolving metal cylinder, under which is a charcoal stove, and, by watching narrowly the different gradation of color, the requisite thit is speedily attained; a brilliant polish is subsequently imparted by immersing the pens in lac dissolved in naphtha; they are then dried, counted, selected and placed into boxes for sale. Gold Pens. — Gold pens are made much in the same manner as !:teel, with this important difference, that, as they cannot be tempered in the same way that steel is, the necessary elasticity is imparted to them by hammering, and by rubbing them with a small hard stone and water, instead of the tempering, &c., in oil. As gold is too soft of itself to make a durable pen, it is found necessary to attach a min- ute portion of an alloy of irridium and osmium, by soldering to tho tips. This makes an extremely hard and durable point. Tinning Small Articles. — Dissolve as much zinc scraps in mu- riatic acid as it will take up, let it settle, then decant the clear, and it is ready for use. Next prepare a suitable iron vessel, set it over the fire, put your tin therein, and melt it, and put as much mutton or beef tallow as will cover the tin about ^ inch thick. This prevents the oxidation of the metal; but be very careful that the tallow does not catch fire. The iron, or any other metal to be tinned, must bo well cleaned, either with scraping, filing, polishing with sand, or im- mersion in diluted vitriol. Proceed to wet the articles in the zinc so- lution, then carefully immerse them in the tallow and melted tin; in a very short time they will become perfectly tinned, when they may be taken out. To Tin Iron Wire. — Glean the wire thoroughly in a pickle made of sulphuric acid and Avater (acid, 1 part, water, 2 parts'^ cover it with a solution oi muriate of zinc, and dip in melted tin. MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 573 MODERN OCEAN STEAMSHIP. In its wonderful design, vast power, and nice adaptation to successfully encounter the most tremendous forces in nature, the modern ocean steam- ship is justly entitled to rank as the proudest achievement of man in the line of modern enginearing. For the ModelUnp of Vessels, see page 429. Engineers of ateamshipa have found that the best lubricants are glyceririe for the cylinders and oastor-oil for the bearings. When castor-oil is used, the main bearing? ssldom become heated. Only the best glycerine can be employed with advantage ; bat when it is of a high grade, the results leave little to be desired. Comparative Weight of Iron and Wood Hulls. — An iron hull weighs nearly 45 per cant, less than a wood hull. The weight of hull of a vessel with an iron frame and oak planking, compared with a hull entirely of wood, is as 8 to 15. LuBRiCANX FOR TuKNlNO TooLS. — It Is said that steel annealed to a straw color can be easily turned by using a mixture of petroleum and turpentine as a lubricant. AlIoj'S which resisted th3 best tempered tools have been turned by the use of petroleum alone. Planer Tools. — For common planing, use a half side tool, stout and short, and with the point turned up, like a common diamond point; for planing under, as in slide rests, &c., use tools sharpened up to a point, with the fcharp end turned up with a taper from thel point to the thick part of about 2 inches. Tor squaring up, use a round point tool, cutting: from the side. The United States G-ovebnment Tempering Secret. — The following process and mixtures, patented by Q-arman and Siegfried, and owned by the Steel Refining aa i Tempering Co., of Boston, Mass., cost the U. S. Government f 10,000 for the right of using in their shops, and is said to impart extraordinary hardness and durability to the poorest kinds of steel. Siegfried's specification reads as follows : " I first heat the steel to a cherry r'ed in a clean smith's fire, and then cover the steel with chloride of sodium (common salt), purifying the fire also by throwing in salt. I work the steel in this condition, and while subjected to this treatment, until it is brought into nearly its finished form. I then substitute for the salt a compound composed of the followIng,ingreaients, and in about the following proportions : One part by weight of each of the followin? substances : chloride of sodium (salt), sulphate of copper, sal-ammoniac, and sal-soda, together with part by weight of pure nitrate of potassa (saltpetre), said ingredients being pulverized and mixed ; I alter- nately heat the steel and treat, it by covering with this mixture and hammering it until it is thoroughly refined and brought into its finished form. I then return it to the fire and heat it slowly to a cherry red, and then plunge it into a bath composed of the following ingredients, in substantially the following proportions for the required quantity : of rainwater, 1 gal., alum, sal-soda, sulphate of copper, of each 1 3.^ OZ3.; of nitrate oC potassa (saltpetre), 1 oz., and of chloride of sodium (salt), 6 OZ3. These quantities and proportions are stated as being what I regard as practically the best, but it is manifest that they may be slightly changed without departing from the principles of my invention.", 574 MACHINISTS, ENGINEKRH', &C., KKCEir'i'3. OLIVER EVAKS, the Watt op America. Inventor of the Higti- Pressure Steam Engine.] In 1T93, Oliver Evans, a native of Newport, Delaware, invented the Higk- pressnre Engine, and in 1804 he constrncted an engine in Philadelphia, working on the high-pressure system, and placed it on a large scow mounted on wheels, as shown in the following cut. Although the whole weight was equal to 2Q0 barrels of flour, yet his small engine propelled it up Market street and round the circuit to the Water Works, where it was launched into the Schuylkill, A paddle- wheel was then applied to its stern, and it thus sailed down that river to the Delaware, a distance of 16 miles, in the presence of thousands of spectators. , In milling appliances, he invented the grain elevator, the conveyer, the drill, the descender, and the hopper-box, besides other labor-saving inventions of great utility to the miller. He also wrote the " Young Steam Engineer's Guide," and a highly valuable work entitled "The Young Millwright's Guide." Although equally deserving of fame, he failed to reap the substantial honors accorded to Watt in England. Papieb Ma CHE, is used for fancy articles, such as the covers for album?, ink- stands, blotting books, paper knives, etc., as well as for the cells of galvanic batteries. It is obtained from old paper made into a pulp with a solution of lime, and gum or starch, pressed into the form required, coated with linseed oil, baked at a high temperature, and finally varnished. The pulp is sometimes mixed with clay, sand, chalk, etc., and other kinds arc made of a paste of pulp and lime, and used for ornamenting wood,, inlaying, etc. - — EYANS' LOCOMOTIVE, SUNDRY ITEMS. 575 ■ Priming Powder for pERcyssiON. CAPS.—Rednce 40 parts of gunpowder to very fine dust; mixfto a thin paste with water, next add chlorate of potassa, 21 parts, previously reduced to a very fine poAvder; make the paste rather thin and deposit a small drop at the bottom of the cap. The mixture is liable* to explode if incautiously handled, Bai-loon Varnish. — Melt Inilia rubber in small pieces with it^ weight of linseed oil, and tliin with spirits tttJpentiiie. J, Artificial Coral. — Yellow' resin, 4 parts j vermilion, Ipart; melt 'very fine for ornamental work, &c. Gold Beater's Skin is prepared by extending the peritoneal membranes of cjBCura, washing them first Avith plain water, tlien with a solution of alum and lastly with a solution of isinglass and spices. Home-made Microscope.— Remove the bottom from a common pill box and insert a piece of window glass, paiiit the inside black, and make a small eye hole in the lid. In this hole insert a single drop of Canada balsam and allow it to ^cool. It possesses magnifying power. To Remove Tin from Copper Vessels, immerse the article in a solution of blue vitriol. To remove tin from plates without acid, boil the scrap tin with soda ley iri presence of litharge. Sound. — In dry air at 82° sound travels 1,142 ft. per second, or nbout 775 miles per hour; in water, 4,900 ft. per second; in iron, 17,500 ft. ; in copper, 10,378 ft. ; aind in wood from 12 to 16,000 ft. per second. In water, a bell heard at 45,000 It., could be heard in the air out of the water but 656 ft. In a balloon the barking of dogs can be . hea,rd on the ground at an elevation of 4 miles. Divers on the Avreck ,of the Hussar frigate, 100 ft. ujider water, at Hell Gate, near New York, heard the paddle wheels o:^ distant steamers hours before they hove in sight. The report of a: rifle- on a i?till day may be heard a1 5,300 yds. ; a military band at 5,200 yds. The fire of the English on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles. Dr. Jamieson says he heard, during calm Aveather, every w-ord of a sermon at a distance of 2 miles. The bell of Notre Dame, Montreal, Que., weighs 28,560 lbs. ; that of the" Citv Hall, N. Y., 22,300 lbs.; of St. Paul's, London, - 11,470; " Big Ben," Westminster, 30,350; " Great Tom." of Oxford, 18,000^ St. Peter's, Rome, 18,607; Rouen, France, 40,000; St. Ivan's, Moscow, 127,830; one unhung at Mos'eoAV, 440,000, and one iu China ■weighs 120,000 lbs. . 576 FOREIGN WEIGHTH aND MKi.BURii^. TABLE OF FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES KEDUCED TO THE STANDARD OF THE TTCaTED STATES. (The two right hand figures are the hundredth parts of a whole liumb«:)i.) Fkance. Metre 3-28 feet. Decimetre (1-lOlh metre) 3"94 inches. Velt 2-00 galls. Hectolitre 26-42 galls. Decalitre 2-64 galls. Jjitre 2"11 pints. Kilolitre 35-32 feet. Hectolitre 2-84 bush. Decalitre 9-08 quarts. Millier 2-205 lbs. Quintal 220-54 lbs. Kilogramme 2-21 lbs. AMSTERDAM. 100 lbs. 1 centner 108*93 lbs. Last of grain 85*25 bush. Ahm of wine 41-00 galls, Amsterdam foot 0-93 foot. Antwerp foot 0-94 foot. Khineland foot 1-03 feet. Amstersdam ell 2-26 feet. Ell of the Hague 2-28 feet. Ell of the Brabant 2-30 feet. NKTHERLANDS. Ell 3-28feet. Mudde of Zak 2-84 bush. "V at hectolitre 26-425galls. Kan litre 2-11 pints. Pond kilogramme 2-21 lbs. HAMBUKO. Last of grain 89-64 bush. Ahm of wine * . . . . 38-25 galls. Hamburg foot 0-96.foot. Ell.... 1-92 feet. PRUSSIA. 100 lbs, of 2 Cologne marks each lOS'll lbs. Quintal, 110 lbs 113-42 lbs. Sheffel of grain 1-56 bush. Eimarofwine 18-14 galls.' Ell of cloth 2-19 feet. Foot 1-03 *eet. DENMARK. too lbs. 1 centner 110-28 lbs. Barrel or toende of corn, 3-95 bush. Viertel of wine 2-04 galls, Copenhagen or Rhine- land foot 1-03 feet. SWEDEN. 100 lbs. or 5 lispunds 73-76 lbs. Kan of corn 7-42 bush. Last 75-00 bush. Cann of wine 69-09,galls. Ell of cloth 1-95 feet, RUSSIA. 100 lbs. of 32 laths each... 90-26 lbs. Chertwert of grain . . ; 5-95 bush. Vedro of wine 3. 25 galls. Petersburgh foot . . .\ 1*18 feet. Moscow foot 1-10 feet. Pood 36-00 lbs. SPAIN. Quintal, or 4 arrobaa JOi 44 Ibt, Arroba 25-3t lbs. Arroba of wine..., 4 4.'i g'e*U& Fanega of grain « I GO b..ch, PORTTJOAIi. 100 lbs 101-19 )b£ 22 lbs. (1 arroba) 22*26 lbs 4 arrobas of 22 lbs. (1 quin- tal) „ 89-05 Tk/S. Alquiere 4-?5 bush. Mojo of grain 23-03 bush. Last of salt 70 00 bush. Almude of wine ........... 4-37 galls. SICILY. Cantar ogroso 192-50 lbs. Cantaro sottile 175-00 lbs. 100 lbs 70-00 lbs, Salma grossa of grain 9 77 bush. Salma generale 7-85 bush. Salma of wine 23 06 galls. NAPLES. Cantaro groso 196-50 lbs. Cantaro picolo 106-00 lbs. Carro of grain 52-24 bush. Carro of wine , 264-00 galls. ROME. Rubbio of grain 8-36 bush. Barih of wine 15-31 galls. GENOA. 100 lbs. or peso groso 76-87 lbs. 100 lbs. or peso sottile 69 8 9 lbs. Mina of grain 3-43 hush. Mezzarola of wine. • ■ 39-22 galls. FLORENCE AND LEGHORN. 100 lbs. or 1 cantaro 74-86 lbs- Moggioof grain 16-59 bufih- Barile of wine 12-04 galls. VENICE. 100 lbs. peso groso 105*18 lbs. 100 lbs. peso sottile 64-04 lbs. tMoggio of grain 9-08 bush. Anifora of wine 137-00 galls. TRIESTE. 100 lbs .123-60 lbs. Stajo of grain 2-34 bush Orna or eimer of wine 14-94 galls. Ell for woolens 2-22 feet. Ell for silk 2-10 feet MALTA. 1.00 lbs. 1 cantar 174-50 lbs. Salma of grain ..^ 8-22 busli. Foot 0*85 foot. SMYRNA. 100 lbs. (1 quintal) 129-48 lbs. Oke ^ 2-83 lbs. Quillot of grain i 1*46 bush. Quilloll of wine 13-50 galls. CHINA. Tail.. 1-33 0Z. 16 tails 1 catty 1-33 lbs. 1 100 catties 1 p'icul 138-25 lbs. PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS TABLE. 577 PAPER TABLE FOR PRINT- ERS' AND PUBLISHERS' USE, Showing tha quantity of paper re- quired for printing looo copies, (in- cluding 56 extra copies to allow for wastage), of any usual sized Book from 8vo. down to 32mo. If the quantity required is not found in the Table, double or treble some suita- ble number of pages or quantity of paper. S 6 S d S £ « 0 li 1 " 1000 Cop's. CO 1^ M A< M Mi Rs.Qs { jf Zi 33 I 16 24 32 45 64 2 4 30 40 72 96 3 6 A 32 aK f^A Di| 128 4 8 5 40 6c 80 160 5 10 6 ^8 72 14^ 192 6 12 7 k6 5" 84 1 68 224 14 55 64 128 192 250 8 16 9 72 108 144 216 288 9 i3 10 80 120 240 320 88 170 352 12 2 12 06 144 192 288 3 '-'4 13 4 13 10^ 156 208 312 416 14 6 14 112 168 224 336 448 15 8 »S 120 180 240 360 480 16 10 16 128 192 256 384 17 12 ^7 136 204 272 408 18 14 j8 144 216 288 432 19 16 19 ^52 228 304 456 20 18 20 160 240 320 480 22 21 168 252 336 504 23 2 22 176 264 352 24 4 23 184 276 368 2S 6 24 192 288 384 26 8 25 2GO 300 400 27 ID 25 208 3'2 416 28 12 27 216 324 432 29 14 28 224 336 448 30 16 29 232 348 464 31 iS 50 240 360 480 33 31 248 372 496 34 2 52 256 384 512 35 36 4 43 264 396 528 6 ^4 272 408 544 37 8 35 280 420 560 38 10 36 288 432 576 39 12 37 296 444 592 io 41 14 38 304 456 60S • 16 39 312 468 42 18 40I 320 4S0 44 NAMES AND DIMENSIONS OF VARIOUS SIZES OF PAPER. PRINT. Medium 19 x Royal, (20 X 24) 20 x Super Royal 22 x Imperial 22 x Medium and a half 24 x Small Double Medium 24 x Double Medium 24 x Double Royal 26 x Double Super Royal 28 x Double Super Royal 29 x Broad Twelves 23 x Double Imperial 32 x FOLDED. Billet Note 6 x Octavo Note 7 x Commercial Note 8 x Packet Note 9 x Bath Note Sj4x Letter 10 x Commercial Letter 11 x Packet Post ii%x Foolscap i2j^x FLAT. Legal Cap 13 x Flat Cap 14 X Crown 15 X Double Flat Letter 16 x Demy 16 x Folio Post 17 X Check Folio 17 x Double Cap 17 x Extra Size Folio ig x *Medium 18 x *Royal 19 X *Super Royal 20 x *Imperial 22 'x Double Demy 21 x Elephant 22^x Columbier 23 x Atlas 26 X Double Elephant 26 x 22 24 23 23 23 24 2$ 30 3' , 27H 3 1 3^ 33 40 N. E.— The weight of a ream of paper and the price per pound being given, the cost per ream or quire may be known at once by consulting the Ready Reckonbk Table. 37 578 rASTEBOARD, TULP COLORS, &C. To REMOVE Puintrr's Ink form Paper Pulp.— Potash 4 lbs; dis- solvo in as little boiling water as possible, and add 3^ lbs. tallow, boil for .'niours, and add while coolijig and stirring, 3 gals, rain water. Hoil the paper pulp, keeping it covered with water, and to eacli 20 gals, pulp, add 1 gal. of the above mixture; beat and stir thorouglily, and the black printing ink will rise to the surface; skim it off as long as it continues to rise. CoLOREP Paper. — The papers made from colored mgs are the brown i)acking paper and coarse colored paper, such as sugar and pin papers. According to Wagner, colored pin paper requires to every 50 kilos (see the French measures and their English equivalents described elsewhere) of dry pulp the several under-mentioned sub- stances : — Ultra marine and aniline blue are also used in coloring. In varie- gated paper chemical, mineral and vegetable colorings are used ac- cording to the desired colors. Body colors are rendered fluid by a solution of gum arable or alum in the size, which can be applied by a brush or sponge when only one side is to te colored. Variegated and tapestry papers are an important part of the manufacture. French Composition for Printer's Rollers. — For a 24-incli roller, take Russian isinglass, i oz; gelatine | oz; when the usual com- position, compounded of glue, 1 lb ; molasses 1 pt. is ready for iDouring add the above to it; let all boil 15 minutes longer, then cast in the usual way. Pasteboard and other Papers. — Pasteboard is made in 3 ways : 1, By placing the pulp in a form ; form-board. 2. By pj-essing several damp sheets to foim a thick card; elastic pasteboard. ' 3. By pasting together the finished paper sheets ; sized pasteboard. 1. Form-board is an inferior kind employed for ordinary purposes of packing, book- binding, etc. It is made, from waste paper, refuse rags, and the coarse parts of the pulp. Clay or chalk is sometimes present to 25 per cent, of the weight of this pasteboard. It is made in a coarse , ribbed form, goes through the same process of knotting as the paper sheet, and is dried and dressed under a roller. 2. Elastic pasteboard is of better material, and presents a smoother surface ; 6 to 12 sheets of paper previously dampened are placed to- gether and pressed into one compact sheet. A separate and harder kind of pasteboard is the thick elastic board, used for binding books. The inner layer is made of coarse stuff, saAV dusit, etc. 3. Size paste- board, or cardboard is made of 2 to 15 sheets of sized paper, pressed and satined. There are varieties of this cardboard, such as Bristol- board, London-board, the former being extensively used for water- color drawings, mounting-board, ornamental-board, etc. Green Violet. Rose. . Buff.. Yellow. Blue. 2.05 Kilos Acetate of Lead, 0.45 " Bichromate of Potash, 2.05 " Sulphate of Iron, 1.05 " Ferrocyanide of Potash, 3.00 " Blue, 1.05 " Yellow, 1.05 *' Extract of Logwood, 6.00 " Extract of Brazil Wood, [3.00 " Oil of Vitriol, I 3.00 " Chloride of Lime. MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 579 Bronze Pri2^ting.— Take a small portion of strong lithographic varnish and grind with York Brown, when well ground, thin down with thin varnish and gold size equal parts. This will do for letter press or lithograph printing, for paper, cloth, silk, &c. Another Way. — Print as with common printers' ink, then dust on or rub over with good pale or other colored bronze powder, allow it to set, then shake or brush o££ the superfluous bronze with a light soft brush. Gold Printing. — Have gold leaf cut the proper form to suit your job, and use gold size instead of ink as in the usual way on the type. Apply the gold leaf to the size until the impression is covered, using a gilders tip, or by a dexterous use of the thumb, and forefinger of the right hand slightly moistened, raise the gold leaf with the ac- companying paper and apply to the size. When all is covered dab it down gently with a ball or soft cushion of cotton or other proper material, and remove tlie superfluous gold with a soft brush, and if the size has been well applied it will assume a splendid ai)pearance. Use a good firm roller for gold and bronze printing. Colored Inks for Printers. — 21 Tints. — In every case use good varnish, the greatest cleanliness, a good marble slab, a good muller for grinding, and never compound a surplus quantity over and above the present requirements. Grind, blend, and finely pulverize tho ingredients, in each and every instance. Good work demands smooth good ink, free from gritty particles. For a good Red, grind in English vermilion, with a little lake. Deep Red use Indian red and lake. Bright Red, add carmine to pale vermilion. Deep Scarlet, add a little portion of vermilion to carmine. Blue, Prussian blue. Bright Pale Blue, cobalt, also verditure and indigo for other shades of blue. Green, to pale chrome add Chinese blue; vary the colors by varying the proportions of the different pigments. Emerald Green, grind "pale blue with a little Chinese blue, then add the emerald until the color suits. Deep Bronze Blue, Chinese blue. Deep Brown, burnt umber, with a small quantity of scarlet lake. Pale Brown, burnt sienna with a little scarlet lake. Deep Lilac, add a little carmine to cobalt blue ; for a pale lilac, reverse the proportions of each. Bright Pink, crimson, lake or carmine as you i)refer. Blue and black inks intermixed, will evolve a Deep Blue Ink; carmine and blue, Avill yield a Purple Ink; yellow and blue, a Green Ink; yellow and carmine, a Vermilion Ink; yellow and black, a Bronze Green; yellow, blue, and black, a Deep Green Ink; carmine, yellow and black, a Brown Ink. Copper Plate Printer's Ink is made by adding Frankfort black in proper quantity to the usual linseed oil burnt as for common printing ink. See page 545. Gold Leap. — According to the color, gold leaf is demoninated deep, medium, fine, red, pale red, deep orange, lemon, pale white, &c. Deep gold admits very little alloy, the qua!ntity being usually about 2^ of silver and 2^ copper, making 5 in all. A medium kind is made of 42 parts pure gold, 12 silver and G copper. The gold is first made in- to small ingots 1^ x £ in. and 3-16 in. thick. The ingot is passed repeatedly between 2 polished steel rollers, until it becomes a long ribbon only 1-800 in, thick. The ribbon being cut into inch square pieces, 150 of these are interleaved with thick paper, and enclosed in a parchment case called a kxUch. The kutch is subjected to a long continued series of blows administered with a IG lb. hammerj raid tQ 580 MACHINISTS, i:n(jineers', &c., receipts. all pjirt3 of both surfaces equally. When each piece has been stretch- ed out by this beatiug to 4 in. square, tiio kutch is opeued, the pieces arc cut into 4 of 2 in. square each, and these arc interleaved in a book of gold-beater's skin called a shoder, the 150 pieces being now 600. Another beating witli a 9 lb. haunner spreads out these as be- fore and another cutting augments the number from GOO to 2400. These are separated into 3 packets of 800 each, and each of theso packets is again beaten in a book of gold beater' s skin called a mould ; this beating, lasting 4 hours, is done with a 7 lb. hammer. The leaves of gold now reduced to the proper thickness, aie cut into in. square which are interleaved in books and made up in packs. Leaf gold ia the thinnest substance produced in the mechanical arts, being only the 280.000 of an inch in thickness, a single grain covering 56 square ins. Dentist's gold is thicker than the ordinary leaf gold. Aktificial Writing Slate.— Sand (fine), 82 parts; lampblack, 8 parts; boiled linseed or cotton seed oil, 10 parts; boil thoroughly together, then add spirits turpentine in order to reduce the mixture for easy application to a thin piece of paste-board. When dry, apply another coat, dry again, give it a third coat and finish off by rubbing smooth with a piece of cotton waste soaked in spirits turpentine. Makes most superb memorandum books, &c. ; use a slate pencil. The DitUMMOND Light is produced by directing a jet of mixed oxygen and hydrogen upon a pencil of pure lime, the gases being conveyed in separate tubes or pipes, to within a very short distance from the aperture at which they are to be delivered, and the flowing together and mixing in a very minute quantity before combustion takes place. This arrangement is adopted to ensure safety. The gases are used in the proportion of 2 of hydrogen to 1 of oxygen, which form a dreadfully explosive mixture. To Engrave on Copper. Nev^ Method. — Coat the copp^ with any of the silvering solutions described in this work, cover this with, colored varnish, then draw the lines with a sharp point in the manne:: of using a diamond for stone engraving, and etch them in with pe*- chloride of iron. To Enamel Copper Vessels.— Pulverize finely 12 parts of fluor spar, 12 parts unground gypsum, and 1 part borax, and fuse together in a crucible; when cold, mix with water to a paste, and apply to tho interior with a paint brush ; when dry the vessel should be thoroughly baked in a muffle or furnace. Tempering Points of Tools. — After being tempered the volume of the tool is slightly increased, and consequently its specific gravity is decreased. As the expansion or increase, of volume is so very slight, it is quite immaterial which is plunged into the liquid first ; however, every moment the edge is kept out it is cooling, and tho tempering may be rendered defective thereby. Mercury tempers the hardest, then water, then salt water, then oil of various kinds — as whale oil. As oil cools the metal more slowly, it is not tempered so hard but the tenacity is increased. Hard Tinning Compound. — An alloy of nickel, iron and tin has been introduced as an improvement in tinning metals, by the firm of Blaise & Co., Paris. In an experiment to shov/ the tenacity of the nickel, a piece of cast iron tinned with the compound was subjected MACHINISTS, engineers', &,C., RECEIPTS. 581 for a few minutes to a wliite heat under the "blast, and, although the tin ^^■as consumed, the nickel remained as a permanent coating upon the iron. The proportions of nickel and iron mixed "with the thi, in drder to produce the best tinning, are 10 ozs. of the best nickel and 7 ozs. of sheet iron, to 10 lbs. ot tin. These metals are mixed in a crucible to prevent the oxidation of the tin by the high temperature necessary for the fusion of the nickel ; the metals are coyercd with 1 oz. of borax and 3 ozs. pounded glass. The fusion is complete in half an hour, when the composition is run off through a hole made in th? flux. In tinning metals with this composition the Avorkman proceedo in the ordinary maimer. To Eecoveb Gold fko^m Quartz.— rulverize the quartz rock as usual, and fuse the mass -with lime and oxide of iron. When fused, immerse thm plates of wrought iron in the mixture. The plates soon become coated with a thin film of gold, and are then Avith- drawn and immersed in a bath of melted lead, whicli removes the adhering gold, when the plates can at once be returned to the fused quartz and the operation repeated as frequently as the case may- require. Another method, Avhen the metal is disseminated through quartz pyrites or lead, is to pulverize the ore as usual and wash the whole with a stream of Avatcr, which carries away the lighter portions of sand, leaving the heavy metals behind. It is farther freed from impurities by being am.algaraated wit? quick-silver, which is afterwards distilled off. In this state it generally contains from 2 to 10 per cent, of silver or tellurium. It ia further refined by bemg finely granulated and boiled Avilh concentrated sulphuric acid until every other constituent is boiled out. Gold by beiug alloyed, loses much of its ductility and malleability, but gains iii fusibility and hardness. Gold alloys are assayed in two ways, first, by rubbing the article on a touchstone (which is a A^elvety, « black flinty A-ariety of jaspar) so as to make a metallic streak, which is touched w ith aqua regia, and th'^ effect is compared with that of a similar streak made by an alloy 0 $5.(KJ $5.50 $ii.OI) .1 1% .1% .2 ~^2 3 •3% .2% .4y2 .4% .5 1 1 .3% .5 6 .6% .8% .9-2 .10 w 2 .6% •8y3 .10 ■131/3 .15 •16% .18% .20 3 .5 .71/2 .10 .12 j4 .15 1772 .20 .22% .25 ,27% .30 4 ifr .10 .131/0 .16% .20 23% .262/, ,30 ,33% .362^ .40 5 .121/2 .16% .21 .25 29 H .33% .371/2 .41% .46 .50 6 .10 .15 .20 .30 CO .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 7 .11% .1772 .23% ^291/2 .35 41 .4 '% .52^2 .58% M% .70 8 .131/3 .20 .26% .33% .40 40% .53% .60 .662/3 .731/, .80 9 .15 .221/2 .30 .37^ .45 521/2 .6 ) .67% .75 .82^/2 ,90 Days. 1 - . .15% OK .rfdV3 412/ .41^3 .OU .58% .66 % .75 ,80% .912/, 1.00 2 .331/3 .50 .66% .831/3 1.00 1.16% 1.3C Va 1.50 1.66% 1.83% 2.00 3 .50 .75 1.00 1 or; 1.50 1.75 2.0c 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 4 ' .66% l'J|2 1 I*?!/ l-^-J 73 1.66% 2.00 2-33% 2.662/, 3.00 3.. 33% 3.662/3 4.00 5 .831/3 1.25 1.66% 2.08% 2.. 50 2.91% 3.3C % 3.75 4.I62/3 4.58% 5.00 6 [, CU 1.50 2(00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 00 5.50 6,00 $G.50 $7.00 $7.50 $8.00 $9.09 $10.00 $11.00 $12.00 $13.00 $14.00 S V2 .51/2 .6 .6% .6% .772 .8% .9 .10 .11 .12 ~"l2% 3 1 .11% .12^ .13% .15 .16% .18% .20 .22 .23% .25 « 2 '21% .231/3 .25 .26% .30 .331^ .3( 5% .40 .43% .46% ,.50 3 .321/2 .35 .371^ .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 ,75 4 .431/3 .46% .50 .53% .60 .662/, .731/3 .80 .862/3 .93% 1.00 5 .5i% .581/3 .621/2 .66% .75 .831/^ .91% 1.00 1.08% 1.162/, 1,25 6 .65 .70 .80 .90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1..50 7 .76 .81% •871/2 .93% 1.05 1,16% 1.28% 1.40 1.52 1.63% 1.75 8 .86% .93% 1.00 1.06% 1.20 1.33% 1.46% 1.60 1.731/3 1.862/3 2.00 9 .97^/2 1.05 1.121/2 1.20 1.35 1.50 1.65 1.80 1.95 2.10 2,25 Days. "1l 1,08% 1.16% 1.25 1,33% 1.50 1,662/, 1,83% 2,00 2.17 2.33% 2.50 2 2,162/3 2.33% 2.50 2.662/3 3.00 3,33% 3.662/3 4.00 4,34 4,662/3 5.00 3 3,25 3.50 3,75 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6,00 6.51 6.992/3 7.50 4 4.33% 4,662/3 5,09 5.33% 6.00 6.662/, 7.33% 8.00 8.68 9.33 10.00 5 5.41% 5.83% 6.25 6.662/3 7.00 8,331/3 9.I62/3 10.00 10.85 11.66% 12,50 G 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00 9.00 10,00 11.00 ■ 12,00 13.00 14.00 15-00 If the desired number of days or amount of wages is not in the table, double or treble any suitable number of days or amount of money as the case may be, until you obtain the desired number of days and the wages to correspond. To Reduce the Price of Wheat, tn Sterling, per Imperial Quarter, to Dollars and Cents, — Reduce the shillings per quarter into dollars and cents, at 24.2 cts. per shilling, and divide by 9^, the num-. ber of United States bushels in an imperial quarter. Example, — Required the price of wheat per U, S, bushel in Liverpool, when it fetches 58s, 6d. per imperial quarter, 58s. 6d, equals $14 15, which, divided by 9-|, gives ^1.51h, the price per bushel. 596 INTEREST TABLE, SIX PER CEXT., IN DOLLARS AND CENTS, FROM ONE DOLLAR TO TEN THOUSAND, 1 day. 7 days. 15 days. 1 mo. 3 nios. G mos. 12 mos. 5 $ c. § c. § c. $ c. § c. § c. $ c. 1 00 00 ooy4 00% 01% 03 03 2 00 ooy4 00% 01 03 06 12 3 00 ooy. 00% 01% 0iV2 09 18 4 00 00% 01 02 06 12 21 5 00 ooyj oiy4 02% 07% 15 30 G 00 00% 01% 03 09 " 18 36 7 00 003/^ 10% 21 42 8 00 01 02 04 12 21 48 9 CO 01 021/4 OlVo 27 51 13 00 02% 05'" 15 30 GO 20 00V4 021/2 05 10 30 CO 1 20 SO ooy, 00% 15 45 90 1 80 40 oiy, 06 10 20 CO 1 20 2 40 fiO 01 12% 25 1 50 3 00 100 oiy. 31% 25 50 1 5i) 3 00 G 00 roo- 05 ' 23yo 50 1 00 3 00 6 00 12 00 soo 05 35 75 1 50 4 50 9 00 18 00 400 07 40% 1 00 2 00 6 00 12 00 24 00 500 08 58% 1 25 2 50 7 50 15 00 30 00 1000 17 1 10% 2 50 5 00 15 00 30 00 60 00 20oa 35 2 5 00 10 00 30 00 GO 00 120 00 cOOO 50 3 50 7 50 15 00 45 00 90 00 180 00 4000 67 4 GQYo 10 00 20 00 60 00 120 00 240 00 cooo 83 5 83% 12 50 15 00 75 00 150 00 300 00 10000 1 67 11 6G% 25 00 50 00 150 00 300 00 GOO 00 A.T SEVEN PER CENT., IN DOLLARS AND CENTS, FROM ONE DOLLAR 1 00 2 00 3 00 4 00 5 00 6 00 7 00 8 00 9 00 10 001/4 20 ooy. 30 001/2 40 003/4 50 01 100 02 200 01 300 03 400 08 500 10 1000 39 2000 3000 58 4000 78 5000 97 10000 1 9-1 1 36 2 721/4 4 08% 5 44% 801^ 13 61 01% 03% 07 07 03% 14 051/4 ioy2 21 07 14 28 08% 17% 35 10% 21 42 121^ 21% 49 14 28 5a 15% 31% 63 35 " 70 35 70 1 40 52% 1 05 2 10 70 1 40 2 80 87% 1 75 3 50 1 75 3 50 7 00 3 50 7 00 14 00 5 25 10 50 21 00 7 00 14 00 28 00 8 75 17 50 35 00 17 50 35 00 70 00 35 00 70 00 140 00 52 50 105 00 210 00 70 00 140 00 280 00 87 50 175 00 350 00 175 00 350 00 700 00 t3 8 $ cts. 30.00 « 0 V 8 "^......a,,8|yS88S,^W mi m 1t ^^0 -AM iinm Si 8K^f? !l M ci « ^ 4 4 i;>0 t^.:^ 0 0 M rj 2d^J 5^858cg^8 "--^■--5 0-0^0jno^0^0^0^0j.0jno^ «Mc;r;r;,t;>44^oot:.f^«5c<5ooo -^'"2:?fr;5^^2>8 2,8S>8 2> w M N N <^ m 8 5,8 2.8 3,8 2>8 2.8 a ^4^^oo t^t:-«5ci 00 M co^co rj OCO no 00 no g 0 ^ 0 0 g 0 O 0 0 0 0^ ----------------- 58 « - -"o ou.- -^j.o^ 0 0 0^ 2 §.g.8 2 i; " ^ - ""^^ g J? J? 2, 8 J? 2, K 8 2, ic: 8 J? S. 8 s,\i; ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^^4444 i8 i8 : : « M „ co^^u...o .00 -0 ;oo ^0 ;;;o^O jno^^O^ : ^xnco 0 j^^co 0 jo 0 « jn<^ O 5 ^co : j : : - « M « H r.,^.r,^oo <>o M „2-^r^«2 2^0 - i i 1 ^ |SJraS,?.=8 2.8 8 8 8 8|8 8|§§^||yy||§ cr,9 READY IlECKONER. HEADY HECKONER, to fmd tho IMico of .any Nnnibnr of rouiidr-, Yards riecos, or Jiiisluils, from 2 cciitH to $;}.()0. Tho first column coiitaiiiH tho M UMIilOR, tho top columns the PRICES. Nos 2 ct. 3ct. 4ct. 5ct. 6 ct. GV4 ct. 7ct. 8 ct. Oct. 10 ct. 11 ct. 2 . 4 . () . 8 .10 .12 .121/2 .14 .16 .18 .20 .22 3 . () . 9 .12 .15 .18 Mi .21 .24 .27 .30 .33 4 . 8 .12 .16 .20 .24 .25 .28 .32 .36 .40 .44 5 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .311/4 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 () .12 .18 .24 .30 .36 .371/2 .42 .48 .54 .60 •66 7 .14 .21 .28 .35 .42 .433^ .49 .56 .63 .70 .77 8 .l'-. .24 .32 .40 .48 .56 .64 .72 .80 .88 9 .18 .27 ..36 .45 .54 .561/4 .63 .72 .81 .90 .99 10 .20 .30 .40 .50 •GO .621/2 .70 .80 .90 1.00 1.10 11 .22 .33 .44 .55 •66 .683/4 .77 .88 .99 1.10 1.21 12 .24 .36 .48 .60 .72 .75 .84 .96 1.08 1.20 1.32 13 .26 .39 .52 .65 .78 .8II/4 .91 1.04 1.17 1.30 1.43 14 .28 .42 .50 .70 .84 .87iZ .98 1.12 1.26 1.40 1.54 15 .30 .45 .60 .75 .90 .9334 1.05 1.20 1.35 1.50 1.65 16 .32 .48 .64 .80 .96 1.00 1.12 1.28 1.44 1.60 1.76 17 .34 .51 .68 .85 1.02 1.061/4 1.19 1.36 1.53 1.70 1.87 18 .36 .54 .72 .90 1.08 1.12^^ 1.26 1.44 1.62 1.80 1.98 19 .38 .57 .76 .95 1.14 1.1 83^ 1.33 1.52 1.71 1.90 2.09 20 .40 .60 .80 1.00 1.20 1.25 1,40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 25 .50 .75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2. 5 30 •60 .90 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.10 2.40 2.70 3.00 3,30 40 .80 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.50 2.80 3.20 3.00 4.00 4.40 50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.121/2 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5..50 GO 70 1.20 1.80 2.40 3.00 3 60 3.75 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00 6.60 1.40 2.10 2.80 3.50 4.20 4.371/2 4.90 5.60 6.30 7.00 7.70 80 1-60 2.40 3.20 4.00 4.80 5.00 5.60 6.40 7.20 8.00 8.80 90 1.80 2.70 3.60 4.50 5.40 5.621/2 6.30 7.20 8.10 9.00 9.90 100 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 625 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 Nos 12 ct. 12y2Ct. 13ct. 14 ct. 15 ct. 16 ct. 18 ct. 183^ct. 19 ct. 20 ct. 21 ct. 2 .24 .25 .26 .28 .30 .32 .36 .371/2 .38 .40 .42 3 .30 .371/2 .42 .45 .48 .54 .56I/4 .57 .CO .63 4 .48 .50 !52 .56 .60 .64 .72 .75 .76 .80 .84 5 .60 .621/2 .65 .70 .75 .80 .90 .933/4 .95 1.00 1,05 r> .72 .75 .78 .84 .90 .96 1.08 1.121/2 1.14 1.20 1-26 7 .84 .871/2 .91 .98 1.05 1.12 1.26 1.31% 1.33 1.40 1,47 8 .96 1.00 1.04 1.12 1.20 1.28 1.44 1 50 1,52 1.60 1.68 9 1.08 1.121/2 1.17 1.26 1.35 1.44 1.62 1.6834 l!71 I'.SO l!89 10 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.80 1.87i| 1,90 2.00 2.10 11 1.32 1.371^ 1.43 1.54 1.65 1.76 1.98 2.06% 2,09 2.20 2.31 12 1.44 1.50 1.56 1.68 1.80 1.92 2.16 2.25 2.28 2.40 2.52 13 1.56 1.621/2 1.69 1.82 1.95 2.08 2..34 2.4334 2.47 2.60 2.73 14 1.68 1.75 1.82 1.96 2.10 2.24 2.52 2.621/2 2.66 2.80 2.94 15 1.80 1.871/2 1.95 2.10 2.25 2.40 2.70 2.8I14 2.85 3.00 3.15 16 1.92 2.00 2.08 2.24 2.40 2.56 2.88 3.00 3,04 3.20 3.30 17 2.04 2.121/2 2.21 2.38 2.55 2.72 3.06 3.18% 3.23 3.40 3.57 18 2.16 2.25 2.34 2.52 2.70 2.88 3.24 3.371/2 3.42 3.60 3.78 19 2.28 2.371/2 2.47 2.66 2.85 3.04 3.42 3.561/4 3.61 3.80 3.99 20 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.60 3.75 3.80 4.00 4.20 25 3.00 3.60 3.121/2 3.75 3.25 3.90 3.50 4.20 3.75 4.50 4.00 4.80 4.50 5.40 4.68% 4,75 5.00 5.25 30 5.621/2 5,70 6.00 6.30 40 4.80 5.00 5.20 5.60 6.00 6.40 7.20 7.50 7.60 8.00 8.40 50 6.00 6.25 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00 9.00 9.371/2 9,50 10.00 10.50 60 7.20 7.50 7.80 8.40 9.00 9 60 10.80 11.25 11.40 12.00 12,60 70 8.40 8.75 9.10 9.80 10.50 11.20 12.60 13.121/2 13.30 14.00 14,70 80 9.60 10.00 10.40 11.20 12.00 12.80 14.40 15.00 15.20 16.00 16.80 90 10.80 11.25 11.70 12.60 13.50 14.40 16.20 16. 871/2 17.10 18.00 18.90 100 12.00 12.50 , 13.00 11.00 15.00 16,.00 600 18.00 18,75 19.00 20.00 21.00 READY RECKONER. The first column on the left contains the NUMBER of the Article, and th» column on the tops of the tables the PRICE. Nosi22 ct, 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 •25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 .44 .66 .88 1.10 1.32 1.54 1.76 1 2.20 2.42 2.64 2.86 3.08 3.30 3.52 3.74 3.96 4.18 4.40 5.50 6.60 8.80 11 .69 .92 1.15 1.38 1.61 1.84 2.07 2.30 2.53 2.76 2.99 3.22 3.45 3.68 3.91 4.14 4.37 4.60 5,75 6.90 9.20 15.40 17 19.80 20.70 22.00 23.00 24 ct. 25ct. 26ct. 27 ct. 28 ct, .48 .72 1 1.44 1.68 1.9 2.16 2.40 2.64 2.88 3.12 3.36 3.60 3.84 4.08 4.32 4.56 4.80 6.00 7.20 9.60 12.00 14.40 16.80 19.20 21.1 24.00 .50 .75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 6.25 7.50 10.00 12.50 15.00 17.50 20.00 22.50 25.00 .52 .78 1.04 1.30 1..56 1.82 2.08 2.34 2.60 2.86 3.12 3.38 3.64 3.90 4.16 4.42 4.68 4.94 5.20 6.50 7.80 10.40 13.00 15.60 18.20 20.80 23.40 26.00 .54 .81 1.08 1.35 1.62 1.89 2.16 2.43 2.70 2.97 3.24 3.51 3.78 4.05 4.32 4.59 4.86 5.15 5.40 6.75 8.10 10.80 13.50 16.20 18.90 21.60 24.30 27.00 .56 .84 1.12 1.40 1.68 1.96 2.24 2.52 2.80 3.08 3.36 3.64 3.92 4.20 4.48 4.76 5.04 5.32 5.60 7.00 8.40 11.20 14.00 16.80 19.60 22.40 25.20 28.00 29 ct. 30 ct. 31 ct. 3iy4Ct .58 .87 1.16 1.45 1.74 2.03 2..32 2.61 2.90 3.19 3.48 3.77 4.06 4.35 4.64 4.93 5.22 5.51 5.80 7.25 8.70 11.60 14.50 17.40 20.30 23.20 26.10 29.00 .60 .90 1.20 1.50 1,80 2.10 2.40 2.70 3.00 3.30 3.60 3.p0 4.20 4.50 4.80 5.10 5.40 5.70 6.00 7.25 9.00 12.00 15.00 18.00 21.00 24.00 27.00 30.00 .62 .93 1.24 1.56 1.86 2.17 2.48 2.79 3.10 3.41 3.72 4.03 4.34 4.55 4.96 5.27 5.58 5.89 6.20 7.75 9.30 12.40 15.60 18.60 21.70 24.80 27.90 31.00 .621/2 .9334 1.26 1.56^/4 1.87i| 2.18% 2.60 2.811/4 3.12y, 3.433^ 3 75 4.061/4 4.683^ 6.00 6.311/4 5.6214 5.933^ 6.25 7.8II/4 9.3714 12.50 15.621/2 18.75 21.871/2 25.00 28.121/4 31.25 Nos 90 100 32 ct, .64 .96 1.28 1.60 1.92 2.24 2.56 2.88 3.20 3.62 3.84 4.16 4.48 4.80 5.12 5.44 5.76 6.08 6.40 8.00 "-^0 33i/2Ct. .99 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31 2.64 2.97 3.30 3.63 3.96 4.29 4.62 4,95 5.28 5.61 6.94 6.27 6.60 8.26 1.00 1.331/, 1.662| 2.00 2.331/3 2.6624 3.00 3.331/3 3.6621 4.00 4.33% 4.662^ 6.00^' -5.331/, 5.662Z 6.00^' 6.331/, 6.662/„ 8.33i| 9.90 10.00 13.80 12,20 13.331/3 16.00 16.50 I6.6624 19.20 19.80 20,00 22.40 23.10 23.3314 25.60 26.40 26.662Z 28.80 29.70 30.00 32.00 33.00 133.331/3 1.02 1.36 1.70 2.04 2.;38 2.72 3.06 3.40 3.74 4.08 4.42 4.76 5.10 6.44 5.78 6.12 6.46 6.80 8.50 10.20 13.60 17.00 20.40 23.80 27.20 30.60 34.00 35 ct. .70 1.05 1.40 1.75 2.10 2.45 2.80 3.16 3.50 3.85 4.20 4.56 4.90 5.25 5.60 6.95 6.30 6.66 7.00 8.76 10.60 14.00 17.50 21.00 24.50 28.00 31.50 35.00 36 ct. 37 ct. 37i/2Ct, 38 ct 39 ct. 40 ct .72 1.08 1.44 1.80 2.16 2.62 2.88 3.24 3.60 3.96 4.32 4.68 5.04 6.40 5.76 6.12 6.48 6.84 7.20 9.00 10.80 14.40 18.00 21.60 25.20 28.80 32.40 36.00 601 .74 1.11 1.48 1.85 2.22 2.59 2.96 3.33 3.70 4.07 4.44 4.81 5.18 5.55 5.92 6.29 7.40 9.25 11.10 14.80 18.50 22.20 25.90 29.60 33.30 37.00 .75 1.12% 1.60 1.871/2 2.26 2.621/2 3.00 3.371/2 3.76 4.121/2 4.50 4.871/2 5.25 6.621/2 6.00 6.371/2 6.75 7.121/2 7..50 9.371/2 11.25 15.00 18.75 22.60 26.25 30.00 33.75 37.50 .76 1.14 1.52 1.90 2.28 2.66 3.04 3.42 3.80 4.18 4.56 4.94 5.32 5.70 6.08 6.46 6.84 7.22 7.60 9.60 11.40 15.20 19.00 22.80 26.60 30.40 34.20 38.00 .78 1.17 1.56 1.95 2.34 2.731 3.12' 3.51 3.90 4.29 4.68 5.07 6.46 5.85 6.24 6.63 7.02 7.41 7.80 9.75 11.70 16.60 19.50 23.40 27.30 31.20 36.10 39.00 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80 3.20 3.60 4.00 4.40 4.80 6.20 5.60 6.00 6.40 6.80 7.20 7.60 8.00 10.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00 40.00 READY RECKONER. Tlio first column on tho left contains the NUMBER of the Article, anil the colmnn on the toi)8 of the Tables the PRICE. 41 ct. 42 ct. 43 ct. 44 ct. 45 ct. 46 ct. 47 ct. 48 ct. 49 ct. 50 ct. 51 ct. 2 .82 .84 .86 .88 .90 .92 .94 .96 .98 1.00 1.02 3 1.23 1.26 1.29 1.32 1.35 1.38 1.41 1.44 1.47 1.50 1.53 4 1.61 1.68 1.72 1.76 1.80 1.84 1.88 1.92 1.96 2.00 2.04 5 2.05 2.10 2.15 2.20 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2.55 6 2.46 2.52 2.58 2.61 2.70 2.76 2.80 2.88 2.94 3.00 3.06 7 2.87 2.94 3.01 3.08 3.15 3.22 3.29 3.36 3.43 3.50 3.57 8 3.28 3,36 3.44 3.52 3.60 3.68 3.76 3.84 3.92 4.00 4.08 9 3.69 3.78 3.87 3.96 4.05 4.14 4.23 4.32 4.41 4.50 4.59 10 4.10 4.20 4.30 4.40 4.50 4.60 4.70 4.80 4.90 5.00 5.10 11 4.51 4.62 4.73 4.84 4.95 5.06 5.17 5.28 5.39 5.50 5.61 12 4.92 5.04 5.16 5.28 5.40 5.72 5.64 5.76 5.88 6.00 6.12 13 5..33 5.46 5.59 5.72 5.85 5.98 6.11 6.24 6.37 6.50 6.63 14 5.74 5.88 6.02 6.16 6.30 6.44 6.58 6.72 6.86 7.00 7.14 15 6.15 6.30 6.45 6.60 6.75 6.90 7.05 7.20 7.35 7.50 7.65 16, 6.i56 6.72 6.88 7.04 7.20 7.36 7.52 7.68 7.84 8.00 8.16 17 6.97 7 14. (.It t.oi. 7 48 7 65 7 82 7 99 8.16 8 33 8 50 8 67 18 7^38 7.56 7.74 7.92 8!lO 8^28 8!46 8!64 8!82 9!oo 9!l8 19 7.79 7.98 8.17 8.30 8.55 8.74 8.93 9.12 9.31 9.50 9.69 20 8.20 8.40 8.60 8.80 9.00 9.20 9.40 9.60 9.80 10.00 10.20 25 10.25 10.50 10 75 11.00 11.25 11.50 11.75 12.00 12.25 12.50 12.75 30 12.30 12.60 12.90 13.20 13.50 13.80 14.10 14.40 14.70 15.00 15.30 40 16! 40 16.80 17.20 17! 60 18! 00 18*40 18!80 19.20 19.60 20.00 2o!40 50 20.50 2i!oo 21^50 22.00 22! 50 23! 00 23.50 24.00 24.50 25.00 25.50 • 60 24.60 25.20 25.80 26! 40 27.00 27.60 28.20 28.80 29.40 30.00 30.60 70 28:70 29.40 30.10 30.80 31.50 32.20 32.90 33.00 34.30 35.00 35.70 80 32.80 33.60 34.40 35.20 36.00 36.80 37.60 38.40 39.20 40.00 40.80 90 36.90 37.80 38.70 39.60 40.50 41.40 42.30 43.20 44.10 45.00 45.92 100 41.00 42.00 43^00 44.00 45.00 46.00 47.00 48.00 49.00 50.00 51.00 Nos 52 ct. 53 ct. — '■ 54 ct. 55 ct. 56 ct. 57 ct. 58 ct. 59 ct. 60 ct. 61 ct. 62 ct. 2 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.22 1.24 3 1.56 1.59 1.62 1.65 1.68 1.71 1.74 1.77 1.80 1.83 1.86 4 2.08 2.12 2.16 2.20 2.24 2.28 2.32 2.36 2.40 2.44 2.48 5 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95 3.00 3.05 3.10 6 3.12 3.18 3.24 3.30 3.36 3.42 3.48 3.54 3.60 3.66 3.72 7 3.64 3.71 3.78 3.85 3.92 3.99 4.06 4.13 4.20 4.27 4.34 8 4.16 4.24 4,32 4.40 4.48 4.56 4.64 4.72 4.80 4.88 4.96 9 4.68 4.77 4.86 4.95 5.04 5.13 5.22 5.31 5.40 5.49 5.58 10 5.20 5.30 5.40 5.50 5.60 5.70 6.80 5.90 6.00 6.10 6.20 11 5.72 5.83 5.94 6.05 6.16 6.27 6.38 6.49 6.60 6.71 6.82 12 6.24 6.36 6.48 6.60 6.72 6.84 6.96 7.08 7.20 7.32 7.44 13 6.76 6.89 7.02 7.15 7.28 7.41 7.54 7.67 7.80 7.93 8.06 14 7.28 7.42 7.56 7.70 7.84 7.98 8.12 8.26 8.40 8.54 8.68 15 7.80 7.95 8.10 8.25 8.40 8.55 8.'70 8.85 9.00 9.15 9.30 16 8.32 8.48 8.64 8.80 8.96 9.12 9.28 9.44 9.60 9.76 9.92 17 8.84 9.01 9.18 9.35 9.52 9.69 9.86 10.03 10.20 10.37 10.54 18 9 36 9 54 9.72 9.90 10 08 10.26 10.44 10.62 10.80 11.16 19 9'.88 io!o7 lo!26 lo!45 10!64 10.83 11.02 11.21 11.40 11.59 11.78 20 10.40 10.60 10.80 11.00 11.20 11.40 11.60 11.80 12.00 12.20 12.40 25 13.00 13.25 13.50 13.75 14.00 14.25 14.50 14.75 15.00 15.25 15.50 30 15.60 15.90 16.20 16.50 16.80 17.10 17.40 17.70 18.00 18.30 18.60 40 20.80 21.10 21.60 22.00 22.40 22.80 23.20 23.60 24.00 24.42 24.80 59 26.00 26.50 27.00 27.50 28.00 28.50 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31,00 60 31.20 31.80 32.40 33.00 33.60 34.20 34.80 35.40 36.00 36.60 37.20 70 36.40 37.10 37.80 38.50 39.20 39.90 40.60 41.30 42.00 42.70 43.40 80 41.60 42.40 43.20 44.00 44.80 45.60 46.40 47.20 48.00 48.80 49.60 90 46.80 47.70 48.60 49.50 50.40 51.30 52.20 53.10 54.00 54.90 55.80 100 52.00 53.00 54.00 55.00 56.00 57.00 602 58.00 59.00 60.00 61.00 62.00 Rl^ADY RECKONER, rf the Number required is not found in the Tables, add two Numbers to. gether ; for instance, if 35 bushels are required, add the prices opposite 30 and 5 together ; and so for 365 bushels — treble the value of 100, and add CO and 5 together. Nos 62y2Ct. 63 ct. 64ct. 65 ct. 66 ct. 66%ct. 67 ct, 1.25 1.871/2 2.50 3.121/0 3.75 *■ 4.371/2 5.00 5.621/2 6.25 6.871/2 7.50 8.121/2 8.75 9.371/2 10.00 10.621/2 11.25 11.871/2 12.50 15.621/2 18.75 25.00 31.25 37.50 43.75 50.00 51.25 100 62.50 1.26 1.89 2.52 3.15 3.78 4.41 5.04 5.67 6.30 6.93 7.56 8.19 8.80 9.45 10.08 10.71 11.34 12.60 15.75 18.90 1.28 1.92 2.56 3.20 3.84 4.48 5.12 5.76 6.40 7.04 7.68 8.32 8.96 9.60 10.24 10.88 11.52 11.97 12.16 12.80 16.00 19.20 25.20 25.60 32.00 37.80 38.40 44.10 44.80 50.40 51.20 56.70 57.60 63.00 64.00 1.30 1.95 2.60 3.25 3.90 4.55 5.20 5.85 6.50 7.15 7.80 8.45 9.10 9.75 10.40 11.05 11.70 12.35 13.00 16.25 19.50 26.00 32.50 39.00 45.50 52.00 58.50 65.00 1.32 1.98 2.64 3.30 3.96 4.62 5.28 5.94 6.60 7.26 7.92 9.24 .33% 9.90 10.00 10.56 10.66% - - 11.331/3 12.00 12.54 12.662/g 13.20 13.33% 16.50 16.66% 19.80 20.00 26.40 26.66% 33.00 33.33% 39.60 40.00 52.80 53.331/ 59.40 60.00 66.66V 1.331/3 2.00 2.662/, 3.33% 4.00 4.662/, 5.33% 6.00 6.662/, 7.33% 8.00 1.34 2.01 2.68 3.35 4.02 4.69 5.36 6.03 6.70 7.37 8.04 8.71 9.38 10.05 10.72 11.39 12.06 12.73 13.40 16.75 20.10 26.80 33.50 40.20 46.90 53.00 60.30 67.00 68 ct. 69 ct. 1.36 2.04 2.72 3.40 4.08 4.76 5.44 6.12 6.80 7.48 8.16 8.84 9.52 10.20 10.88 11.56 12.24 12.92 13.60 17.00 20.40 27.20 34.00 40.80 47.60 54.40 61.20 68.00 1..38 2.07 2.76 3.45 4.14 4.83 5.52 6.21 6.90 7.59 8.28 8.97 9. 66 10.35 11.04 11.73 12.42 13.11 13.80 17.25 20.70 27.60 34.50 41.40 48.30 55.20 62.10 Nos 72 ct. 73 ct. 74 ct, 1.44 2.16 2.88 3.60 4.32 5.04 5.76 6.48 7.20 7.92 8.64 9.36 10.08 10.80 11.52 12.24 12.96 13.68 14.40 18.00 21.60 28.80 36.00 43.20 50.40 57 64.80 72.00 1.46 2.19 2.92 3.65 4.38 5.11 5.84 6.57 7.30 8.03 8.76 9.49 10.22 10.95 11.68 12.41 13.14 13.87 14.60 18.25 21.90 29.20 36 50 43.80 51.10 58.40 65.70 73.00 75 ct. 76 ct. 77 ct. 78 ct. 79 ct. 1.48 2.22 2.96 3.70 4.44 5.18 5.92 6.66 7.40 8.14 10.36 H.IO 11.84 12.58 13.32 14.06 14.80 18.50 22.20 29.60 37.00 44.40 51.80 74.00 1.50 2.25 3.00 3.75 4.50 5.25 6.00 6.75 7.50 8.25 9.00 9.75 10.50 11.25 12.00 12.75 13.50 14.25 15.00 18.75 22.50 30.00 37.50 45.00 52.50 60.00 67.50 75.00 1.52 2.28 3.04 3.80 4.56 5.32 7.60 8.30 9.12 9.88 10.&4 11.40 12.16 12.92 13.68 14.44 15.20 19.00 22.80 30.40 38.00 45.60 53.20 60.80 68.40 76.00 1.54 2.31 3.08 3.85 4.62 5.39 6.16 6.93 7.70 8.47 9.24 10.01 10.78 11.55 12.32 13.09 13.86 14.63 15.40 19.25 23.10 30.80 38.50 46.20 53.90 61.60 69.30 77.00 603 1.56 2.34 3.12 3.90 4.68 5.46 6.24 7.02 7.80 8.58 9.36 10.14 10.92 11.70 12.48 13.26 14.04 14.82 15.60 19.50 23.40 31.20 39.00 46.80 54.60 62.40 70.20 78.00 1.58 2.37 3.16 3.95 4.74 5.53 6.32 7.11 7.90 8.69 9.48 10.27 11.06 11.85 12.64 2.40 3.20 4.00 4.80 5.60 6.40 7.20 8.00 10.40 11.20 12.00 12.80 13.43 13.60 14.22 15.01 15.80 19.75 23.70 31.60 39.50 47.40 55.30 63.20 71.10 79.00 14.40 15.20 16.00 20.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56.00 64.00 72.00 80.00 liKADY RECKONER. If the Number roquiro^>? to tho gaseous elements. 605 "\7el2lit of Cast Iron ripos of Di.Torent Thickncanea, from 1 incli to 23 iuchoa in J)iiiinetor. 1 fool in LeiigUi. Dinm I" . ~ rjuckn Weight. Duun nil • 1 1 nickn W Clgllt. Diam, I JucKn Weight. Ins. Ins. Lbs. Ins. Ins. Lbs. Inrj. Iu». Lbs. 1. 3.0G 7.'/; 'if 39.22 ■if 104.70 5.05 49.92 123.3 i.Vi •1? 3.G7 4 CO. 48 1. 142.16 6. 71.76 11. 'V-2 71.07 C.80 1, 8.'3. 28 .% 'if 8i). G 1 if •72 9.8 8. 41.04 108.4G Ij 7.8 •if C2.C8 ■\ 127. G if 11.04 if C4.27 1. 147.03 2. if If ,8.74 1^.23 ■% J. 76.12 88.2 111/ 11.1/2 •if •if 73.72 92. GG 2.1/4 9.65 8. 1/2 'if 44.11 ■if 112.1 if 13.48 'if 56. 10 131.8G 2.Y2 if 10.57 68. 1. 151.92 if 14.66 80.5 15. ■if ■ 'if 75. 9G ij 19.05 1. 93.28 95.72 if 11.54 9. 'if 46.5 'if 115.78 if 15.91 59.02 136.15 if 20.59 'If 71.7 1. 156.82 3. if 12.28 •Va 84.7 13. 1^ •if 78.4 if 17.15 1. 97.98 'if 98.78 if 22.15 'if 48.98 'if 119.49 if 27.56 G2.02 •% 140.4 3.1/4 18.4 •3? 75.32 I. 161.82 1 23.72 •i 88.98 ! 13. 'if 80.87 'if 29.64 1. 102.9 101.82 19. 66 10, 'if 51. 4G 'if 123.14 i 25.27 'if 65.08 144.76 if 31.2 .4 78.99 1. 166.6 3.% 'if 20.9 • Ys 93.24 IC.I2 'if 83. .3 'if 26.83 1. 108.84 •7s 104.82 'if 33.07 10.1/2 'if 53.88 'if 126.79 4. 'if 22.05 'if 68.14 119.02 'if 28.28 34.94 ■if 82.68 97.44 17. 1. 171.6 85.73 4.1/4 4 23.35 112.68 ■1 107.96 ■if 'if 29.85 36.73 11. % 66.34 71.19 •if 130.48 153.3 4.1/2 'if 24.49 •% 86.4 176.58 'if 31.4 101.83 IT.i.i ^''if 88.23 'if 38.58 1. 117.6 •if 111.06 4.34 'if 25.7 11.1/2 ■Y? 68.82 •if 134.16 32.91 74.28 1:^ 157.59 •I 40.43 i 90.06 181.33 5. 'if 'if 26.94 •^4.34 ■\ 1. 106. 14 122. 62 13. •if •if 114.1 137.84 'if 42.28 12. •V-i ■% G1.26 .% 161.9 5.1/3 •if 29.4 77.36 1. 186.24 . ' if 37.44 ■if 93.7 ID. •% ■if 120.24 'if 45.94 .% 110.48 145.2 6. >k 31.82 1. 127.42 .% 170.47 '%f 40.56 12.1/2 •¥2 63.7 1. 195.92 49.6 58.96 80.4 97.4 20. :| 126.33 152.53 i 34.32 114.72 179.02 43.68 132.35 205.8 63.3 13. 66.14 21. 132.5 63.18 83.46 159.84 T. 36.66 101.08 187.6 46.8 118.97 215.52 56.96 137.28 22. .% 138.6 67.6 13. Vj ■I 68.64 .% 167.24 78.39 86.55 .% 106.46 603 I J|a||| ■^„?„^.?^.g.^,g^3f,,^,,. h t m ^ ^ ;^ i 1 nnmmmh 1 1 " ^ s n 1 ? 1 H r « \ \ H n \ H ri i PI s M 1 H H •aiunbg jo 8P!S Ptt« 1 „x^H?f „ 507 RELATIVE STRENGTH OF BODIES TO RESIST TORSION, LEAD BEING i. Tin 1.4 I Gun Metal 5.0 | English Iron 10. r Chopper 4.3 Cast Iron 9.0 lilistercd Steel 16.6 Ye'low IJrass 4.6 | Swedisli Iron 9.5 | Shear Steel 17.0 CAPACITIES, SIZE AND WEIGHT OF COPPERS. Depth in Indies. Gallons Weight in pounds. Depth in inches. Gallons Weight in pounds. Depth in inches. Gallons Weight in pounds. 9-K I 24 15 221/2 29ya 29 4£ya 2 3 2iy2 i5 24 30 30 45 3 AV2 2"; 17 25/^ 32 36 4 6 25^ iS 27 34 43 64y2 5 7% 26 19 281/2 35 48 6 9,, 26^ 2D 30 36 53 ITk 7 26K 21 311/2 37 87 19% 8 12 '^/ 22 33 38 74;/; 2o]l 9 .3'/! 27K 23 34I/3 39 67 looya 21 f 10 27% 24 36 40 71 io6l^ \h 27K 25 37% 45 104 156 22 12 i3 23 26 39 50 146 219 13 281/2 27 40I/2 23 K 14 21 29 23 42 WEIGHT OF SQUARE AND RCUNDCAST IRON. Square per Foot. Round per Foot. Size. Weight. Size. Weight. Size. Weight. Size. Weight. Inches square. Pounds. Inches Square. Pounds. Inches Diam. Pounds. Inches Diam. Pounqs. y2 .78 50. .6r 41.76 ^3 1.22 \v. 53-14 •95 44.27 I-7S 56-44 H 1.38 1 46.97 n 2.39 4% 59,81 % 1.87 4y2 49.70 3.12 4y2 63.28 I 2-45 4^8 52-50 3-95 4^8 66.84 1/8 3.10 55-37 4K 70.50 3.83 4% 58.33 4.88 % 5-90 4^3 74.26 4.64 61.35 % 7 03 78.12 % 5-52 k 64.46 82s k 82.03 6.48 67.64 9-57 86.13 7-51 70.09 1% 10. 98 5% 90.28 1% 8.62 74-24 12.50 94-53 2 9.81 77.65 2/8 14. 1 1 98.87 2/8 ir .oS tk 91.14 21/4 15.81 103.32 2K 12.43 84.71 2?l 17.62 5% 107.86 2% 13.84 6 88.35 19-53 6 112.50 21/2 15-33 6ii 95-87 21.53 122.08 2^8 i6.gi 6% 103.69 254 23-63 6V2 132.03 2K 18.56 111.82 2% 25-83 142.33 20.28 120.26 28.12 153.12 22. i8 129. 13S.05 30.51 w 164.25 \a 23-96 % 3K 33- 175-78 25.93 147.41 3% 35-59 8 187.68 37^ . 27-95 8 157.03 38.28 200.12 30,16 167.05 tk 41.06 8K 212.56 tk 32.25 8% 8M 177.19 43-94 fi 225.78 34-51 187.91 3/8 , 46.92 239-25 2% 36.85 198.79 9 253.13 4 39-27 \% 210. 608 WEIGHT OF IRON PER FOOT. Wg't. .2o3 .463 .833 1- 30 1.87 2- 55 3- 33 4- 2X 5.20 6.30 7-50 8.80 10.20 II . 71 13-33 15-05 16. 8j 20.80 25.20 30.00 32.55 35-20 37-96 40.80 46.87 53.33 60.20 67.50 75.20 83-33 93.20 102.20 112.20 Flat. iKxK i^sxM i^^xK i^xK 2KxK 21/2x1/, 2KxK 3 x'i s^XxK 3MxK 354xK 4 xK 4y2xK 5 xK 6 xK 1 x% iy4x% i^x% iMx^ 2 X% 2Kxr3 3 x^s 3/^x5^ 4 xra 5 x% 6 x}i I x>^ iKx>< i^xj^ V/g't. .833 •937 I.Oi. 1.14 1.25 1.45 1.66 1.87 2.o3 2.29 2.50 2. 70 2.91 3.12 3-33 3-75 4.17 5.00 1.25 1.40 1.56 1.71 1.87 2.18 2.50 2.81 3-12 3-43 3- 75 4- 37 5- 00 6.25 7-50 1.66 1.87 2.o3 2.29 2.50 2 2KxM 2%X>^ 2KxJ^ 3 xY^ 3^x1/2 4 x 5 X 6 X iVkxYs iKx^a i^sx^ 11/2x^3 i^x^a 2 xfa 2Kx^8 2VoX^3 2j^X^3 3 x^ 31/2X^8 4 X^8 5 xfi 6 X^3 1 xK iKsxK iKxM i>ix% iVsxK iKxM 2 xYi 2KxK 21/2X3/^ 2%X% 3 zynx% 4 x^ 2.91 3-33 3- 74 4. 16 4- 53 5.00 5- 83 6.66 8.33 10.00 2.08 2.34 2.60 2.86 3-12 3-64 4. 16 4.63 5.20 5-72 6.25 7-29 8.33 10.41 12. 50 2.50 2.81 3- 12 3.43 3.75 4- 37 5.00 5- 62 6.25 6.87 8.50 8.75 10.00 J'/ai. WEIGHT OF FLAT STEEL PER FOOT. 1% iK 1% 2 2K 21/2 2% 3 3^i 3H .852 •958 1.06 1. 17 1.27 1-49 1.70 1.91 2.13 2.34 2-55 2.77 2.99 1.27 1-43 1-59 1-75 1.91 2.23 2-55 2.87 3.20 3-51 3-83 4- IS 4-47 I I 70 1.91 2.13 2-34 2-55 2.98 3-40 3.83 4.26 4.68 5-II 5-53 S-9S 2.13 2.39 2.66 2.92 3-^9 3.72 4.36 4-79 5-32 5.8s 6.39 6.92 7-45 MOULDERS AND PATTERN MAKERS' TABLE. Cast Iron being i, Bar Iron equal i Steel " ] Brass " Copper '* Lead « 1. 16 1. 21 I-S5 Bar Iron, being i, Cast Iron eoual Steel Copper *' Brass " Lead " White Pine, being Cast Iron equal Brass Copper " Lead •95 1.03 1.16 i-og 1.4S Zinc 13. 12. r 13-4 j8.t 11.5 609 TABLES FOR ENGINEERS AND MACHINISTS. iize and strength of Cast Iron Columns. Iron i in. thick. Height in feet. 4 \ \ lo I Load in Cwts. 2 72 60 49 40 32 2'} 2% 119 »o.S 9' 77 65 55 3 3^ '78 143 MS 128 1 1 1 97 247 232 214 191 172 '56 4 326 318 288 266 242 220 418 400 379 354 327 301 5 522 SOI 479 452 427 394 6 607 592 573 5 SO 52s 497 7 1032 1013 989 959 924 887 S 1333 1315 1289 1259 1224 1185 9 1716 1697 1672 1640 1603 1561 lO 2119 2100 2077 2045 2007 1964 Ji 2570 2550 2520 2490 2450 2410 12 3050 3040 3020 2970 2930 2900 Height in feet. in incl 16 18 20 22 24 Load in Cwts. 2 22 18 IS 13 11 47 40 34 29 25 3 84 73 64 56 49 135 119 106 94 83 4 1 98 178 160 HA 130 275 251 229 208 189 5 36s 337 310 28s 262 6 469 440 413 386 360 7 848 808 765 725 686 ,8 1142 1097 1052 1005 959 9 1515 X467 1416 1364 1311 10 1916 1865 1811 1755 1697 II 2358 2305 2248 2189 2127 12 2830 2780 2730 2670 2600 Capacities of Cisterns, in galls. Diameter /rovi 2 /t? 25 Fcci- Dc/>ih, 10 Inches. 3 6 h n-5 8 feet 3«3-3J 30.6 353-72 44.06 9 " 39'J-S'J 59-97 9V2 " 461.40 78-33 10 489.20 99.14 1 1 " 592.40 122.40 12 ** 705.00 148.10 13 " 827.4 176.25 14 " 959-6 206.85 IS " 1101.6 239.88 20 " 1958.4 275.40 25 " 3059-9 Weights of Cordwood. lbs, carbon. 4468 100 Hard Maple. . . 2864 53 3234 64 Ash 3449 79 2368 49 <( Pitch Pine .... 1903 43 Canada Pine... 1870 42 <( Yellow Oak.... 2920 6t (( White Oak.... 1870 81 « Lombardy Pop- 1775 4t 325s 70 ARITHMETICAL SIGNS AND THEIR SIGNIFICATION, = Sign of Equality, and signifies as 4+12=16. " as 8+8=16 the sum. Addition — " Subtraction X " Multiplication + " Division ^ " Square Root Square Root. 6- Sign of to be Squared 73 *' to be Cubed as 12 — 4=8 the remainder, as 12X3=36 the product, as 24+3=8 or =8. Evolution or Extraction of thus 8-=64 Involution, or thus 3^=27 the Raising of Powers. The following table shows weight in tons required to tear asunder bars I inch square of the following materials. Oak 5^ tons. Wrought Copper. . 15 tons Fir 5X " English Bar Iron. .25 " Cast Iron 7^ " American Iron 37^^ " Wrought Iron 10 " Blistered Steel, . . .59^ ** READY RECKONER TABLE For computing Wages, Rent, Board, etc. The sum wii'l be found heading iha columns, and tne days and weeks on the extreme left hand column. If the desired sum is not in the Table, double or treble two or three suitable numbers. TIME. $2.50. ^52. 75. $3.00. $3-2S- 1^3.50. $3-75- $4.00. ^4-25- $4-50- ^4-7S' m I .36 •39 • 43 .46 .50 •53 •57 .61 .64 .68 rt2 •72 .78 .8( •93 "..00 1.07 1. 14 1. 21 1.2S 1.36 «3 1. 17 1-39 1.50 1. 71 1.82 1-93 2-03 4 1.44 1.56 i.j'i 1.86 2.00 2.14 2.28 2.43 2-57 2.71 5 1.80 1-95 2.1^ 2.32 2.50 2.68 2.86 3-03 3-21 3-39 C 2.15 2-34 2-5; 2.78 3.00 3-21 3-43 3-64 3.SC 4.07 2.50 2-75 3.0( 3-25 3.50 3-75 4.00 4.25 4.5c 4-75 5.00 5-50 6.o( 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00 8.50 9.00 9-50 7.50 8.25 9.0( 9-75 10.50 11.25 12.00 12.75 13-50 14.25 10.00 11.00 12.01 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 12.50 13-75 15.0. 16.25 »7-5o 18.75 20.00 21-25 22,50 23^75 TIME. ^55.00. $5.25. $5-So- S5-75- ^6.00. $6.25. $6.50. ^^6.75. $7.00. $8.00. in I •75 •79 .82 .86 .59 •93 .90 1. 14 ^2 1-43 1.50 1.58 1.64 1.72 1.78 1.86 1.92 2.00 2.28 «3 2.14 2.25 2.37 2.46 2.28 2.67 2-79 2.88 3,00 3.52 4 2.86 3-00 3-15 3.28 3-44 3.56 3-72 3.S4 4.00 4.26 S 3-57 3-75 3-94 4.10 4-30 4-45 4-65 4.80 5.00 5-72 6 4.28 4-5° 4-73 4.92 S-i6 5-34 S-5S 5-71^ 6.00 6.S6 I 5.00 5.25 5-50 5-75 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7-00 8.00 lO.OO 10.50 11.00 11.50 12.00 12.50 13.00 13-50 14.00 16.00 15.00 15-75 16.50 17-25 1 8. 00 1S.75 19.50 20-25 21.00 24.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 23.00 24.00 25-00 26.00 27.00 2S.00 32.00 25.00 26.25 27.50 28.75 30.00 31-25 32.50 33-50 35.00 40.00 WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPE— DIFFERENT SIZES. AAA AA A B Calib'e Weight Weight Weight Weight per foot per foot per foot per foot Inches lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. cz. :b. oz. I 8 I 5 ■ 2 I c 3 0 2 0 I 12 I A 3 f 2 12 2 3 c H 4 f 3 8 3 0 2 A 6 0 4 12 4 c 3 4 6 12 5 12 4 12 3 12 9 0 8 0 6 4 5 c 2 10 12 9 0 7 0 6 0 c Weight per foot D Weight per foot D Light Weight per foot :b. E Weight per foot b. oz. E Light Weight per foot SIZE AND CAPACITIES OF CRIBS AND BOXES. Crib 61/3 ft. long, 354 ft. broad, 3^ deep, 63^/^ bush. % peck. Box 4 ft. long, 3 ft. 5 "in. wide, 2 ft. 8 in. deep, 36^/2 c. ft., i ton of coal. Stone or Box 4%^^- long, 2% ft. wide, 2 feet deep, 22l^ cubic feet. Box 2 ft. long, I foot 4. in- wide, 2 ft. 8 in. deep, 10.722 cu. in. i barrel. Box 2 ft. long, 1 foot 2 in. wide, i foot 2 in. deep, 5.376 cu. in. 1/^ barrel. Box I foot 2 in. long by 16 8-10 in. wide and 8 in. deep, i bushel. Box 12 x II 2-10 in., 8 in. deep, 1.075 2-10 in. or % bushel. Box 8x8 4-ic in. and 8 in. deep. 537 6-10 cu. in. or i peck. Box 8 X 8 in. and 4 2-10 in, deep, 268 8-10 cu. in. or peck. Box 7x4 in. and 4 8-ro in. deep, 134 4-10 cu. in. 14 gallon. Box 4x4m. and 4 2-10 ia. deep, 67 2-10 cu. in. i quart. 611 DIAMETERf^, Cir.CUMFEllKNCES AND AIIEAS OP CIRCLES. Example. — Roquiiod tho circuniforenco of a circle, hoop, or ring, Iho dianiotor being 3 ft. 4 in. In tho column of circumferences, oi)i)()ii^^ 4 247-450 1-7321 10% 2 92-855 -G499 1 cys 4 0 /8 250-917 1-7506 11 2 101/2 95-033 -0652 1 6 4 254-469 1-7812 11% 2 lOVs 97-205 -0874 1 c% 4 8% 258-016 1-8061 2 99-402 -6958 1 ci^ 4 261-587 1-8311 31% 2 101-623 -7143 1 A 4 9% 265-182 1-8562 31i| 3 103-869 -7290 1 A 4 268-803 1-8816 11% 3 100-139 -7429 1 A 4 10% 272-447 1-9071 11% 3 0% 108-434 -7590 1 63| 4 /8 276-llT 1-9328 . llVs 3 iVi 110-753 -7752 1 c% 4 lll/k 279-811 1-9586 1 3 1% 113-097 -7916 1 7 4 11% 0 283-529 1-9847 1 Vs 3 2 115-466 -8082 1 TVs 5 287-272 1-9941 t V4 3 3 117-859 -8250 1 -A 5 01/2 291-039 2-037 L 1 % 3 w 120-276 -8419 1 5 0% 294-831 2-0637 1 % 3 314 122-718 -8590 1 1% 5 tf 298-648 2-0904 1 % 3 125-185 -8762 1 1% 5 1% 302-489 2-1172 } 1 3 4 127-676 -8937 \ 4 5 2 306-355 2-1443 1 % 3 4% 130-192 -9113 1 T'/s 5 2% 310-245 2-171S 1 1 3 132-732 -9291 1 8 5 314-16) 2-1990 1 1% 3 135-297 -9470 1 8% 5 318-099 2-2265 1 11/^ 3 5% 137-886 -9642 1 5 3% 322-063 2-2543 1 1% 3 6 140-500 -9835 1 8% 5 4 326-051 2-2922 1 1V2 3 6% 143-139 1-0019 1 8% 5 330-064 2-3103 1 1% 145-802 1-0206 1 8% 5 334-101 2-3386 1 13^ 3 148-489 1-0294 1 5 338-163 2-.3670 1 lys 3 151-201 1-0584 1 ^% 5 5% 342-250 2-3956 1 2 3 S« 153-938 1-0775 1 9 5 CVs 346-361 24244 1 2% 3 156-699 1-0968 1 9% 5 6% 350-497 2^533 1 2V4 3 oi4 159-485 1-1193 1 5 0% 354-657 2-4824 1 2% 3 162-295 1-1360 1 9% 5 358-841 2-5117 1 21/2 3 9% 165-130 1-1569 1 9% 5 363-051 2-5412 1 25/« 3 9% /8 167-989 1-1749 1 9% 0 367-284 2-5708 1 23/4 3 IOV4 170-873 1-1961 1 5 i 371-543 2-6007 1 07/ 3 10% 173-782 1-2164 1 97/8 5 375-826 2-6303 1 3 3 'A 176-715 1-2370 1 10 5 380-133 2-6608 2-6691 1 31/= 3 179-672 1-2.577 1 ioy« 5 384-465 i 3 182-654 1-2785 1 101^ 5 388-822 2-7016 4 % 185-661 1-2996 1 103A 5 4 393-203 2-7224 \ i 4 188-692 1-3208 1 10i| 5 397-608 2-7632 4 191-748 1-3422 1 10% 5 402-038 2-7980 4 1% 194-828 1-3637 1 103/4 5 11V2 406-493 2-8054 4 lya 197-933 1-3855 1 10% 5 11% 410-972 2-SC58 DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, &C, 2 21/4 Cir. in Area in Area in Dia. in Ci r. in Area in Area in ft. in. s 4— yuol 3 8 11 "/4 1530-53 lu— OOlf 7 n 4 lo-oyu 4—990 I 3 8V4 11 7 1537-86 10-679 7 (OU-Oifj O-UiOL 3 8i| 11 1555-28 10-800 8 0% 5—1573 3 11 84 1.572-81 10—922 8 4 754-769 5—2278 3 11 914 1590-43 8 f!f i DO— yy J 5-3264 3 11 10% 1608-15 1 1-167 8 779-313 5-4112 3 11 1625-76 11-291 8 3% 791-732 5-4982 3 9% 11 11% 1643-89 11^15 8 ^ /2 804-249 5-5850 3 10 12 i4 1661-90 11-534 8 . " /4 816-865 5-G729 3 1014 12 -1 /4 1608-02 11-66G 8 6l^ " /8 829-578 5-7601 3 101^ 12 2 1698-23 11-793 8 f)Vo 842-390 5-8491 3 103i 12 3% 1716-54 11-920 8 ?4 855-300 5- 9398 3 12 3% 1734-94 12-048 8 868-308 6-0291 3 11V4 12 4% 17.53-45 12-176 8 91/5 881-415 6-1201 3 11% 12 1772-05 12-305 8 10 894-619 6-2129 3 11% 12 1790-76 12-435 8 10% 907-922 6-3051 4 0 12 1809-56 12-566 8 11% 921-323 fr-3981 4 0V4 12 1828-46 12-697 9 934-822 6-4911 4 12 1847-45 12-829 9 5I 948-419 6-5863 4 0% 12 1866-55 12-962 9 962-115 6-6815 4 12 1885-74 13-095 9 975-908 6-7772 4 12 1905-03 13-229 9 1 989-800 6-8738 4 12 11% 1924-42 13-364 9 4v5 1003-79 6-9701 4 13 0% 1943-91 13-499 614 JJIAMETEKS, ClliCUMFEliENCES AND AREAS OF Cmct.ES. Cir. in It. in. 4 sy4 4 4 0% 4 10 4 10V4 4 101^ 4 10% 4 11 4 4 4 11% 6 0 5 0V4 5 0V2 5 0% 5 5 k 5 5 1% 5 2 5 2V4 5 2% 5 2% 5 3 5 3V4 5 31/2 5 3% ?t 5 5% GV2 9% 101/2 IIV4 0 1% 2% 4% 51/2 G% i Area in sq. inch. 1963-50 1983-18 2002-96 2022-84 2042-83 2062-90 2083-07 2103-35 2123-72 2144-19 2164-75 2185-42 2206-18 2227-05 2248-01 2269-06 2290-22 2311-48 2332-83 2354-28 2357-83 2397^8 2419-22 2441-07 2463-01 24F5-05 2507-19 2529-42 2551-76 xyg, 2574-19 0%\ 2596-72 15 1% 2619-35 15 2V4 2% 2642-08 15 2664-91 15 3% 2687-83 15 2710-85 15 2733-97 15 2757-19 15 6% 2780-51 15 7% 2803-92 15 SV2 2827-44 15 91^ 2851-05 15 10 2874-76 15 10% 2898-56 15 11% 2922-47 16 2946-47 16 i 2970-57 16 2994-77 16 3019-07 16 3043-47 16 fi 3067-96 16 3092-56 16 5% 3117-25 16 6% 3142-04 16 7% 3166-92 16 8V4 3191-91 Area in sq. ft. 13-635 13-772 13- 909 14- 047 14-186 14-325 14-465 14-606 14-748 14- 890 15- 033 15-176 15-320 1,5-465 1;5-611 15-757 15- 904 16- 051 16-200 16-349 19-498 16-649 16-800 16- 951 17- 104 17-227 17-411 17-565 17-720 17- 876 18- 033 18-189 18-347 18-506 18-665 18-825 18- 995 19- 147 19-309 19^71 19-635 19-798 19- 963 26-128 20- 294 20-461 20-629 20-797 20-965 20-135 20- 305 21- 476 21-647 21-819 21- 992 22- 166 Dia. in ft, in. 615 Cir. in ft. in. 41/4 16 4 43/; 5 51/4 i 6 17 01/4 17 c%;i7 7 17 I ■ 2 19 21/4 19 2y2li9 2% 19 ■ |19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 5%1C0 Area in sq. inch. Area m sq. ft. .SI 7^; 1% 10% 11% 11^/ • 11/2 4% ^ lOi/s 10% 11% 3216-99 3242-17 3267-46 3292-83 3318-31 3343-88 3369-56 3395-33 3421-20 3447-16 3473-23 3499-39 3625-26 3552-01 3578-47 3605-03 3631-68 3668-44 3685-29 3712-24 3739-28 3706-43 3793-67 3821-02 3848-46 3875-99 3903-63 3931-36 3959-20 3987-13 4015-16 4043-28 4071-51 4099-83 4128-25 4156-77 4185-39 4214-11 4242-92 4271-83 4300-85 4329-95 4359-16 4388-47 4417-87 4447-37 4476-97 4506-67 4536-47 4596-35 4626-44 4656-63 4686-92 4717-30 4747-79 22-333 22-515 22-621 22- 866 23- 043 23-221 23-330 23-573 23-758 23- 938 24- 119 24-301 24-483 24-666 24- 850 25- 034 25-220 25-405 25-502 25-779 25- 964 26- 155 26-344 26-634 26-725 26- 916 27- 108 27-301 27-494 27-688 27- 883 28- 078 28-274 28-471 28-663 28- 866 29- 065 29-264 29-466 29-665 29- 867 30- 069 30-271 30-475 30-679 30-884 30- 090 31- 296 31-503 31-710 31- 919 32- 144 32-337 32-548 32-759 32-970 DIAM., &0. OF CIRCLES, CONTENTS IN GALS., AEEA IN FEET ¥t. In 1 1 2 4 5 C 7 8 10 11 Ft. In. 3 1% 3 8 .3 11 4 21 4 5: 4 S 4 115/ 5 2 5 5% 5 9 G 2V, 7 7 7 101/4 8 1% 8 4<| 8 103^ 9 5 9 81/4 9 114^^ 10 2 10 5 10 8 10 IV/a 11 3 11 61/a 11 93/ 12 6h 12 12 6% 2 9t| 13 1 13 4% 13 71^ 13 101/0 14 1% 11 45| 14 7% 11 11 15 2% 11 15 15 8V2 1 15 11% 2 16 23/4 16 16 9 17 0V« .7854 .1)217 1.0(590 1.2271 1..3962 1.5761 1.7671 1.9689 2.1816 2.4052 2.6398 2.8852 3.1416 3.4087 3.6869 3.9700 4.2760 4.5869 4.9087 5.2413 5.5850 5.9395 6.3049 6.6813 7.0686 7.4666 7.8757 8.2957 8.7265 9.1683 9.6211 10.0846 10.5591 11.0446 11.5409 12.0481 12.5664 13.0952 13.6353 14.1862 14.7479 15.3206 15.9043 16.4986 17.1041 17.7205 18.3476 18.9858 19.6350 20.2947 20.9656 21.6475 22.3400 23.04.37 23.7583 24.4835 GalloiiB. 1 ft. in dpth 5.8736 6.8928 7.9944 9.1765 10.4413 11.7866 13.2150 14.7241 10.3148 17.9870 19.7414 21.4830 23.4940 25.4916 27.5720 29.7340 32.6976 34.3027 36.7092 39.1904 41.7668 44.4179 47.1505 49.9654 52.8618 65.8382 58.8976 62.0386 65.2602 68.5193 73.1504 75.416S 78.9652 82.5959 86.3074 90.1004 93.9754 97.9310 101.9701 103.0300 110.2907 114.5735 118.9386 123.3830 127.9112 132..5209 137.2105 142.0582 146.8.384 151.7718 156.7891 161.8886 167.0674 172.3300 177.6740 183.0973 Ft. In. 5 8 Ft. In. 17 9% 18 18 18 19 19 20 21 A 2% |2i iiy 3,22 C 23 9!24 25 11/2 '25 11 26 8% 27 5% 28 31/4 29 05/ 29 101 30 7 31 5 32 23/. 32 1134 33 91/4 .34 66/ „35 4 C36 1 9 36 107/ 40 40 10 41 71/2 42 4y8 91/. 43 43 1134 44 d4 3 C|45 9 40 47 101 4; 81, 49 53 50 31/c 51 01^ 51 10 52 7% 53' 4 54 2 .'54 11 ^ 9155 9% 18 f \m 61/2 18 S 57 4 18 ^ 6 .58 13/, 18 9158 10% 016 25.2199 25.!)672 20.7251 27.4943 29.0867 .30.6796 3.3.1831 35.7847 38.4846 41.2825 44.1787 47.1730 50.26.56 53.4502 56.7451 60.1321 63.6174 67.2007 70.8823 74.6620 78..540') 82.5160 86.5903 90.7627 95.0.334 99.4021 103.8691 108.4342 113.0976 117.8590 122.7187 127.6765 1.32.7326 137.8867 143.1391 148.4896 153.9.384 1.59.4852 165.1303 170.8735 176.7150 182.6545 188.0923 194.8282 201.0624 207.3948 213.8251 220.3537 226.9806 233.7055 240.5287 247.4500 254.4696 261.5872 268.8031 276.1171 SCANTLING KEDUCED TO ONE INCH BOARD MEASURE. SCANTLING AND TIMBER MEASURE REDUCED TO ONE INCH B O A 11 D MEASURE. EXPLANATION. — To ascertain ilie number of Feet of Scantling or Tim- ber, say 18 Feet Long and 2 by 3 Inches. Find 2 by 3 in tlie top columns, and 18 in the left hand column, and under 2 by 3 and against 18 is 9 feet. If the Scantling is longer than contained in the Table, add two lengths together. If shoi-ter, take part off some length. THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 2 2 2 3 2.4 2.5 2-6 2-7 2.8 2.9 3.3 3-4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3-8 3.9 4.4 2. 2.4 2.8 3. 3.4 3.8 4. 4.4 4.8 5. 5.4 5.8 C. 6.4 G.8 7, 7.4 7.8 8. 8.4 10. 11.4 13.4 10. 10.6 n. 11.6 12. 12.6 15. 17. 20. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. n. 12. 13, 14. 12. 6 15. 5.10 6. 8 7. 6 8. 4 9. 2 10. 10.10 11. 8 13. 14. 15. 15.10 16. 17. 6 2L 18. 4 22. 19. 2 23. 20. 20.10 25. 25.- 30. 28. 4 34. 33. 4 40. 7. 8. 2 9. 4 10. 11. 8 12. 10 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 28. 29. 35. 39. 46. 8 9.4 10.8 6 12. 13.5 14, 16, 17.4 18, 8 21.4 24, 10 22.) 24. 4 26.8 6 28. 8 29.4 10 30. i 32. 2 33.4 40. .4 53.4 3 45.' 10.6 12. 13.6 15. 16.6 18. 19.6 21. 22.6 25.6 27. 2 25.4 28.6 14.3 19 30, 3L6 33. 34.6 36. 37. ( 45. 51. 60. 8.3 11. 12. 11.3 15 12. 12.9 17 13.6 18. 15. 20. 15.9 21. 16.6 22. 17.3 23. 18. 24. 18.9 25. 22.6 30. 25.6 34. 30.0 40. 22.6 27 16.3 19.6 22.9 26 17.6 18.9 22.6 26.3 30. 20. 24. 28. 32, 21.3 25.6 29.9 34, 12. 14. 16. 18. 17.6 20. 19.3 22. 21. 23.9 28.6 33.3 38. 31.6 36, 35. 26.3 31.6 36.9 42. 38.6 44. 28.9 34.6 40.3 46. 31.3 37.6 43.9 50 37.6 45. 42.6 51. 50. 52.6 60. 59.6 68. 70. 40. 13.6 15.9 18, 20.3 22.6 24.9 27. 29.3 31.6 33.9 36. .38.3 40.6 42.9 45. 47.3 49.6 51.9 54. 56.3 67.6 76.6 90. 9.4 10. 12. 13.4 14.8 16. 17.4 18.8 20.0 2L4 22.8 24. 24.4 26.8 28. 29.4 30.8 32. 33.4 40, 45.4 53. THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 5.4 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 !6.10 6310. 12. 7 11.8 14, 8 13.4 16, 9 15. 18. 10 16.8 20. 11 12 20, 13221, 18.4 22. 24. 14 23.4 15 25, 28. 30. 1^26.8 32. 28.4 34. 19 31.8 38. 20133.4 40. 35, 22l36 8 44. 23838.4 46 40, 24 25 41. 48. 50. 60. 68. 40 66.8 80, 301 50. 36. 14. 16.4 18.8 21. 23.4 25.8 28. 30.4 32.8 35. 37.4 39.8 42. 44.4 46.8 49. 51.4 53.8 56. 58.4 70. 79.4 16. 18.8 21.4 24. 26.8 29.4 32. 34.8 37.4 40. 42.8 45.4 48. 50.8 53.4 56. 58.8 61.4 64. 12. 6 14. 7 16. 8 18. 9 20.10 22.11 25. 27, 29, 31. 33. 35. 37, 39. 41. 8 43. 9 45.10 47.11 50. 52. 1 62. 6 70.10 15. 17. 22.6 26. 3 29. 2 27.6 32. 1 30. 35. 32.6 37.11 35. 37.6 43. 9 46. 42.6 49. 45. 47.6 55. 5 50. 52.6 55. 57.6 67 60. 98.4 106.8 120. 83, 4 100 52. 70. 62.6 72.11 87. 6 99. 2 20, 23.4 26.8 30. 33.4 36.8 40. 43.4 46.8 50 53.4 56.8 60. 63.4 66.8 70. 73.4 76.8 83.4 100. 113.4 116.8 133.4 150 617 22.6 26.3 30, 33.9 37.6 41.3 45. 48.9 52.6 56.3 60 63.9 67.6 71.3 75. 78.9 82.6 90.0 93.9 112.6 127.6 21. 24.6 28, 3L6 35. 38.6 42. 45.6 49. 52.6 56. 59.6 63. 66.6 70. 73.6 77. 80.6 84, 87.6 105, 119. 140. 27, 31.6 86. 40.6 45. 49.6 54. 58.6 63. 67.6 72. 76.6 81. 85.6 90. 94.6 99. 103.6 108. 112.6 125, 30. 35. 40. 45, 50. 55. 60. 6.5. 70. 75. 80. 85. 90. 95, 100, 105. 110. 115, 120. 150. 170. 200. THICK NRSS AXT> WTDTTI IX IXCHES. 6.11 6.12 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 3.). 3(). 24. (i 28. 31. (> 3i>. 38. 6 42. 32. 36. 40. 44. ' 48. 3H.G 42. 28. 7 32.8 36. 9 40.10 41.11 49. 37.4 42. 46.8 51.4 66. 44. 48. 32. 8 37.4 42. 46. 8 51. 4 56. 42.8 48. 53.4 58.8 64, 4!). 6 54. .'iO. 9 42. 47.3 52. 6 57. 9 (;3. 48. 54. 00. 6(). 72. 55. 60. 40.10 40.8 52.6 58. 4 64. 2 70. 53.4 60. 6(!.8 73.4 80, 60.0 66. 40. 11 51.4 57.9 64. 2 70. 7 77. 58.8 06. 73.4 80.8 88. (56. 72. 49. 56. 63. 70. 77. 84. 64. 72. 80. 88. 9(). 71.6 78. 53. 1 60.8 68.3 75.10 83. 5 91. 69.4 78. 86.8 95.4 104. 77. a± o-i. 57. 2 65.4 73.6 81. 8 89. 10 98. 74.8 84. 93.4 102.8 112. 82.6 90. 61. 3 70. 78.9 87. 6 96. 3 105. 80. 90. 100. 110. 120. 88. 96. 64. 4 74.8 84. 93. 4 102. 8 112. 85.4 96. 106.8 117.4 128. 93.6- 102. 69. 5 79.4 89.3 99. 2 109. 1 119. 90.8 102. 113.4 124.8 136, 99. 108. 73. 6 84. 94.6 105. 115. 6 126. 96. 108. 120. 132. 144. 104.6 114. 77. 7 88.8 99.9 110.10 121.11 133. 101.4 114. 126.8 139.4 152. 110. 120. 81. 8 93.4 105. 116. 8 128. 4 140. 106.8 120. 133.4 140.8 160. 115.6 126. 85. 9 98. 110.3 122. C 134. 9 147. 112. 126. 140. 154. 168, 121. 132. 89.10 102.8 115.6 128. 5 141. 2 154. 117.4 132. 140.8 161.4 176. 126.6 138. 93.11 107.4 120.9 134. 2 147. 7 161. 122.8 138, 153.4 168.8 134. 132. 144. 98. 112. 126. 140. 154. 168. 128. 144. 160. 176. 192, 4^ 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 10.10 10.11 10.12 11.11 11.12 12.12|12.13 12.14 6 40.6 45. 49.6 54. 50.0 55. 60. 60. 6 66. 72. 78. 84. 7 47.3 52.6 57.9 63. 68.4 64. 2 70. 70. 7 77. 84. 91. 98. 8 54. 60. 66. 72. 66.8 73. 4 80, 80. 8 88. 96. 104. 112. 9 60.9 67.6 74.3 81. 75. 86. 6 90. 99. 9 99. 108. 117. 126. 10 67.6 75. 82.6 90. 83.4 91. 8 100. 100.10 110. 120. 130. 140, 11 74.3 82.6 90.9 99. 91.8 100.10 110. 110.11 121. 132. 143. 154. 12 81. 90. 99. 108. 100. 110. 120. 121, 132. 144. 156. 168. 13 87.9 97.6 107.3 117. 108.4 119. 2 130. 131. 1 143. 156. 169. 182. 14 94.6 105. 115.1 126. 116.8 128. 4 140. 141. 2 154. 168. 182. 196, 15 101.3 112.6 123.9 135. 125. 137. 6 150. 151, 3 165. 1.80 195. 210, 16 108. 120. 132. 144. 133.4 146. 8 160. 161. 4 176. 192. 208. 224. 17 114.9 127.6 140.3 153, 141.8 155.10 170. 171. 5 187, 204. 221. 238. 252, 18 121.6 135. 148.6 162, 150. 165. 180. 181, 6 198, 216. 234. 19 128.3 142.6 156.9 171, 158.4 174. 2 191, 191, 7 209. 228. 247, 266. 20 135. 150. 165. 180. 166.8 183. 4 200. 201. 8 220. 240, 260. 280. 21 141.9 157-6 173.3 189. 175. 192. 6 210, 211. 9 231. 252. 273. 294, 22 148.6 165. 181.6 198. 183.4 201. 8 220. 221.10 242. 264, 286. 308. 23 155.3 172.6 189.9 207. 191.9 210.10 230. 231.11 253. 276. 299. 322, 24 162. 180, 198. 216. 200. 220. 240. 242. 264. 188. 312. 336. 12.15 12.16jl3.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 14.14 14.15 14.16 15.16 15.10 6 90. 96, 83. 6 91, 97.6 104. 98. 105. 112. 112.6 120. 7 105. 112. 98. 7 106. 2 113.9 121.3 114.4 122.6 130.3 131.3 140, 8 135. 128. 112. 8 121. 4 130. 138.8 130.8 140. 149.4 150. 160. 9 135, 144, 126. 9 136, 6 146.3 156. 147. 157.6 168. 168.9 180, 10 150. 160. 140.10 151. 8 162.6 173.4 163.4 175. 186.8 187.0 200, 11 165. 176. 154.11 166.10 178.9 190.8 179.8 192.6 205.4 206.3 220. 12 180. 192. 169, 182. 195. 208. 196. 210. 224. 225. 240. 13 195. 208. 183. 1 197. 2 211.3 225.4 212.4 227.6 242.8 243.9 260. 14 210, 224, 197. 2 212, 4 227.6 242.8 228.8 245. 261.4 262.6 280. 16 225, 240. 211. 3 227. 6 243.9 260. 245. 262.6 280. 281.3 300. 16 240. 256. 225. 4 242. 8 260. 277.4 261.4 280. 298.8 300. 320. 17 255, 272. 239. 5 257.10 276.3 294.8 277.8 297.6 317.4 318.9 340. 18 270, 288 243. 6 273. 292.6 312. 290. 314. 336. 337.6 360. 19 385, 304. 257. 7 288. 2 329.4 310.4 332.6 354.8 356.3 380. 20 300, 320. 271. 8 303. 4 326! 346.8 326.8 350. 373.4 375. 400. 21 315. 336. 286. 9 318. 6 341.3 364. 343. 367.6 392. 393.9 420. 22 23 330. 352, 299.10 333. 8 357.6 381.4 359.4 386. 410.8 412.6 440. 345, 368. 313.11 348.10 373.9 398.8 375.8 402.6 429.4 4.31.3 460. 24 369. 384, 338. 361, 390, 416. 392. 420, 448. 450. 480. 618 1 i 1 I I ■B ■1 i i -.9 •3 I I li I ■| f If ? ?; ?? ^ ^ ^ ^ ? ^ K IP j;; - - - o^ ■OOO O 0 N -^vOOO O 0 N -♦>O00 O 0 N -^O CO O O N -fvCOO o o o « 2 oeo t^vO m CO N r^co o M g co^y^.g !^°3 ^° 8 ^T's g-g. 2 2-22 ^r^^ ^'SSnSPIS'^ 2 2 2" i?^ ? o s s ;r j?^ fr=s ?r s, ;n 619 u I .s .J -J II i u .s f H J 9£ •uicid SI- •luriQ .0 t-co 5v 0 0 M n „ CO CO 2- ;^ ;^>o vo t^o,^ 0 0 M « i'£ •lUCIQ KSS Sill r?5 ?§§IIIMI H i£ 63 •lUEtQ Has s^ssliiSi 1 s s ff || s 1 1 1 ff || ^ HI ^^H HI 1 H ^1 f f 5 bi IfM 82 •UIGIQ H I If i I II s ^1 H t Lz •ui..a — — — — — — r — X — 7^ — — ""1^" „ u%^mu MsssUis ill rai n ts lz zz ir OS •mEtQ 6i ■uima Zi •UIBIQ Si ■uiBicr t-i •U,BIC[ ei •uiEicr 3--«-s1 =1 3 2 SSj wftii-s-fc^ ZI 4?=ja-a352 s.'S.^js 3.-S.8 SI s m ?, s ft s- 9-* s a s=s,s 3-.? s. K ft=s ^4^44-.^^^r 8 S"?:;^ f?'^ r^oT^n 8 c':? S: 2, 8 MH^^c;c;.c;,,AcA44^4mmJ S-^ n ;?2,;;3 S'-o^^ «"2» T . . . 8 " « M To^! S5 'cr2,.^r=2 2,^ ^^r^ 8 r::~,i ^2>:.:r n ° s ^ is-^ ? ;? ^^i" r; 2> .... 8 -v: ^ ;r?ic8 'cTafcg J? 2,5 y:^s 2,^:3 0 3 0^ 2 . „ - . .-oco 0 ^voc^o- « 00 0"=;^ f r- &> g ;--3^ 2 n r^2 jt;- "2.^^=8 5*2^ « 2. .; 8 S o' 0 -8 0 ? " 2,2' 8 « j;'?, 2,5" 1^:28 8 0 3 ? o^^S o-'S ? 2^V1 ^ ^^2,0 ? ? ? 9 : ^ ? t ^ wnco^mo ^-=^2;r?,^^lJ>^fJ.^c«§3S,^onSv| TiMK Required for Digestiox op different Articles of Food, BEING Observations made by Dr. Beaumont, Surgeon in the United States Armv, on the Canadian, St. Martin, through AN Orifice in his Stomach, caused by a gunshot wound. h.m Apples, sweet and mellow..... 1 50 sour and mellow 2 sour and bard 2 Barley, boiled 2 Beans, boiled 2 30 Beans and Green Corn, boiled. 3 45 Beef, roasted rare 3 roasted dry 3 30 Steak, broiled 3 boiled 2 45 boiled.with mustard, etc. 3 30 tendon, boiled 5 30 tendon, fried 4 old salted, boiled 4 15 Beets, boiled 3 45 Bread, Corn, baked 3 15 Wheat, baked, fresh — 3 30 Butter, melted 3 30 Cabbage, crude 2 30 crude, vinegar 2 crude, vin'r, boil'd. | 4 3Q Carrots, boiled 3 15 Cartilage, boiled 4 15 Cheese, old and strong 3 30 Chickens, fricasseed 2 45 Custard, baked 2 45 Ducks, roasted { 4 30 Dumplings, Apple, boiled 3 Eggs, boiled hard 3 30 boiled soft... 3 fried 3 30 uncooked 2 whipped, raw 1 30 Fish, Cod or Flounder, fried.. 3 30 Cod, cured, boiled 2 Salmon, salt'd and boil'd 4 Trout, boiled or fried 1 30 Fowls, boiled or roasted 4 Goose, roasted 3 Gelatine, boiled 2 30 Heart, Animal, fried 4 Lamb, boiled. Liver, Beef's, boiled 2 Meat and Vegetables, hashed. Milk, boiled or fresh | Mutton, roasted broiled or boiled Oysters, raw roasted stewed Parsnips, boiled 2 Pigs, Sucking, roasted 2 Feet, soured, boiled 1 Pork, fat and lean, roasted 5 recently salted, boiled 4 " " fried, 4 " <' broiled.. 3 " " raw 3 Potatoes, boiled 3 baked 3 roasted 2 Rice, boiled 1 Sago, boiled 1 Sausage, Pork, broiled 3 Soup, Barley 1 Beef and A^egetables 4 Chicken 3 Mutton or Oyster 3 Sponge-cake, baked 2 Suet, Beef, boiled 5 Mutton, boiled 4 Tapioca, boiled 2 Tripe, soured 1 Turkey,roasted{Wi^,-^-^:-;:;;2 boiled 2 Turnips, boiled 3 Veal, roasted 4 fried 4 Brains, boiled 1 Venison Steak, broiled 1 Comparative Value of Various Foods as Productive of Dyna- mic Force, when Oxidized in the Body. Cabbage 1. Carrots 1.2 Egg, white of 1.4 Milk I.5J Apples 1.5 Ale 1.8 Fish 1.9 Potatoes .... 2.4 Porter 2.6 Veal, lean Mackerel 3.8 Ham, lean 4. Bread, crumbs 5.1 Egg, hard boiled.... 5.4 Egg, yolk 7.9 Sugar 8. Isinglass 8.7 Rice 8.9 Pea meal 9. Wheat flour 9.1 Arrowroot 9.3 Oat meal 9.3 Cheese 10.4 Cocoa 16.3 Butter 17.3 Fat of beef 21-6 Cod liver oil 21.7 Safe Load in Structures, including Weight of Structure. In cast-iron columns = 14 breaking weight Wrought-iron structures = V4 " " In cast-iron girders for tanks = V4 " ** In cast-iron for bridges and floors = i| " In timber _ i_iq " « Stone and bricks 623 WEianT OP Wateu at its Common Tkmpkratuuh. 1 12 1 1 1 1- 8 36.84 1 12 1 1 1 2- 282 45-64 11-2 224 13-44 cubic incli " iuchofl " foot ** feet (( <• Cylindrical inch " inches " foot -03(J17 -434 C2-r> ()-2r) 11 2- 00 2240-00 •02812 •341 49-1 5 lb. lbs. Imperial gallonB. U. S. Gallons. Ib3. feet Imperial gallons. U. S. gallous. lbs. Imperial gallons Imperial gallons United States gallons 268-8 United States gallons Note. — 5 Imperial gallons equal 6 112 2240 112 2240 112 2240 United States gallons Hence to convert Imperial gallons into United States gallons add one-fifth to the Imperial ; and to convert United States gallons into Imperial gallons de- duct one-sixth from the United States. A cubic foot of rain water, which weighs 62% lbs., presses at 30 feet deep 13 lbs. per square inch, and at 300 feet is 1,300 lbs. At 36 feet tho Pressure per square foot is a ton, and at 108 feet nearly 3 tons. he following tables show the biffellent values op the British Imperial and the United States Measures. U. S. measure for British (Im.) measure. wine, spirits, &c. galls, qts. pts. gills 42 gals. = 1 tierce, = 34 3 1 3 63 =1 hogsh. = 52 1 1 3 126 == 1 pipe, = 104 3 1 3 252 = 1 tun, = 209 3 1 2 To convert Imperial Gallons into U. S, measure for British (Im.) measure, ale and beer. galls, qts. pts. gilla 9 gals. = 1 firkin, = 9 0 11 36 t= 1 barrel, = 36 2 0 3 54 =1 hogsh. = .54 3 11 100 = 1 butt, = 109 3 0 3 United States Wine Gallons multi- ply the Imperial by 1-2. To convert U. S. Gallons into Imperial multi- ply the U. States Wine gallons by -833. 51 U. S. Ale Gallons equal 60 Im- perial Gallons, therefore to convert one into the other add or deduct l-60th. Sfeoifio Gravities and Weights of Metals, Woods, Liquids, &c. Engineers' and Contractors' Pocket Book. Names. Weight, water being 1000. Number of cubic ins. in a lb. It fccu S 19500 1.417 .7053 19258 1.435 .6965 13560 2.038 .4904 11352 2.435 .4105 Pure silver . .... 10474 2.638 .3788 9823 2.814 .3552 Copper, cast — 8788 3.146 .3178 sheet . . 8910 3.103 .3225 Brass, cast 7824 3.533 .3036 8396 3.293 .3037 7264 3.806 .263 7700 3.592 .279 7833 3.530 .2833 7816 3.537 .2827 7291 3.790 .2636 7190 3.845 .26 STONES, EARTHS, ETC. c3 <«-( g Names, +>■ * ightc ic foe bs. %% =s Marble, average 2720 170.00 13 Granite, ditto.. . 2651 165.68 13Va Purbeek stone.. 2601 162.56 If' Portland ditto.. 2570 160.62 Bristol ditto 2554 159.62 14 Millstone 2484 155.25 14V, Paving stone.. . . 2415 150.93 Craigleith ditto. 2362 147.62 2143 133.93 163/4 Chalk, British. . 2781 173.81 12% 2000 125.00 17 Coal, Scotch — Newcastle 1300 81.15 2714 1270 79.37 28VS — Staffordsh'e 1240 77.50 29 1238 77.37 29 Specific Gravities, &c. op Materials Continued. Names. Lignum vitse Box, Frencli — — Dutch Ebony, Indian.. — American Oak, just felled. — seasoned.. Bog oak of Irel'd Mahogany,Sp'sL — bay wood Medlar tree Logwood Olive tree Beech Ash Alder Apple-trea Plum-tree Maple Teak Cherry-tree Elm Walnut Red pine Yellow do Pear tree Sycamore, chest- nut, and lime tree, each — Willow • Poplar, white Sp. — common.. Cedar.. White pine Larch Cork Weight, water 1 being 1000. Weight of i cubic foot in lbs. 1331 83.31 1328 83.00 912 58.00 1209 75.56 1331 83.18 1113 69.56 743 46.43 104G 65.37 1063 66.43 637 39.81 944 59.00 913 57.06 927 57.93 852 53.25 84.5 52.81 800 50.00 793 49.56 755 47.18 752 47.00 750 46.)87 715 44.68 673 42.06 671 41 93 657 47!06 652 40.76 650 40.62 604 37.75 585 36.50 529 33.06 383 23.93 561 3^^.06 551 34.43 530 33.02 240 15.00 Number of ' cubic feet in a ton. ■ Weight, water being 1000. Weight of an imperial gallon in 1 lbs. 26% Acid, sulpliuric*. 1850 18.5 27 1271 12 7 381/2 muriatic 1200 12.0 291/2 . . . fluoric 1060 10.6 27 1034 10.3 321/4 acetic 1062 10.6 481/4 1015 10.2 341/4 from ttie Dead, 1240 12.4 V,3% Sea 561/4 1029 10.3 38 391/4 "™ XLKJill hxlK^ XXXOXl 1028 10.2 381/2 Cliaiiiiel 42 1001 10.1 421/2 — distilled • 1000 10.0 443/. Oils expressed. 45i2 linseed 940 9.4 47^4 sweet almond. 932 9.3 471/2 "wliale 923 9.2 48 926 9.3 50 Olive 915 9.2 531/4 Oils essential 531/0 cinnamon** • , 1043 10.4 541J lavender 894 8.9 55 turpentine. 870 8.7 55 amber 868 8.7 jf^lcoliol of com- 825 8.2 merce, at 60° 591/4 Fahrenheit 6II/4 Alcohol, absolute... 797 7.9 67% 908 9.1 93 729 7.3 64 922 9.2 65 1015 10.1 68 Vinegar, distilled.. 1009 10.1 149 Expansion op Liquids in Volume riiOM 32° to 212° Fahrenheit. 1000 parts of water become 1046 " oil " 1080 " mercury " 1018 '* spirits of wino " 1110 " air " 1373 The heat that would raise 1 lb. of water 1° would raise a pound of air S°.7 ; 1 lb. air = about 11 cubic feet. One pound of steam will raise 3657 cubic feet of air 10°, and cause it to expand from 32° to 42°, aTbout 3733 cubic feet. Permanent Loads on Bridges, &c. For rough calculations the weight of the bridge itself may be assumed to be (in wrought iron bridges) : For 30 feet spans, single line 560 lbs. per foot run. " 60 " " 672 " " "100 *< '« 1,008 "150 " " 1,344 " " " 200 " 1,680 " " Dense crowds average 120 lbs. per square foot. For flooring, 168 to 224 lbs. per square foot, exclusive of the weight of the flooring, is generally allowed. lu storehouses, from 224 to 450 lbs. per square foot. 40 625 Stuexgtii oftheTketh op Cast Iron Wheels at a given Velocity. Pitch of teeth in inches. Thicrknoss of tcolh in inches. Breadth of teeth in inches. Strength of teeth iii horse power at 3 feet per second. 4 feet per second. 6 feet per second. 8 feet per second. 3.99 1.9 7.6 20.57 27.43 41.14 51.85 3.78 1.8 7.2 17.49 23.32 34.98 40.64 3.57 1.7 6.8 14.73 19.65 29.46 39.28 3.36 l.G 6.4 12.28 16.38 24.56 32.74 3-15 1.5 6. 10.12 13.50 20.24 26.98 2.94 1.4 5.6 8.22 10.07 16-44 2 J .92 2.73 1.3 5.2 6.58 8.78 13.16 17.54 2.52 1.2 1.0 5.18 6.91 10.36 13.81 2.31 1.1 4.4 3.99 5..32 7.98 10.64 2.1 1.0 4, 3.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.89 .9 36 2.18 2.91 4.30 5.81 3.G8 .8 3.2 1.53 2.04 3.06 3.08 1.47 .7 2.8 1.027 1.37 2.04 2.72 1.26 .6 2.4 .64 .86 1.38 1.84 1.05 .5 2. .375 .50 .75 1.00 Teeth of Wheels.— Multiply one-fourth of the square of the pitch in inches by the breadth of the teeth in inches ; the product is the horses' power that the teeth will transmit when the pitch line passes through 4 ft. per second. In quick speeds or fractional pitches, it may be more convenient to take the following rule :— Multiply the square root of the pitch in inches by the breadth of the teeth in inches ; the product is the horses' power at 16 ft. per second. A general rule to ascertain the length of the teeth is, to take V3 of the pitch for the distance from the root to the pitch line, and 1/4 of the pitch for the distance from the pitch line to the top. When wheels drive pinions, let no pinion have less than 8 teeth ; rath- er 11 or 12 if convenient. When pinion drive wheels, let no pinion have less than G teeth ; rather 8 or 9. The number of teeth in a wheel should be prime to the number of teeth in its pinion. To increase or diminish velocity in a given proportion, and with the least quantity of wheel-work, let the number of teeth on each pinion be to the number of teeth on its wheel as 1 : 3 59. Even to save space and expense, never let the ratio exceed 1 : 6 — Buchanan. HicKs's Rule for Calculating the Strength of Shafts.— Multiply the horses' power by the assumed number (300), and divide the product by the revolutions per minute ; the cube root of the quotient will be the diameter required. Heating Power of Peat as Compared with Wood. 100 lbs. turfy peat, air dry, average 95 lbs. pine wood. " fibrous " " " 108 " " earthy " " « 104 " " « pitchy " " '< Ill « " Comparison of Heat by Bulk. 100 cubic feet of turfy peat = 33 cubic feet pine wood in logs. " '* fibrous " = 90 " " " " *' earthy " = 145 " • «' " " *' pitchy " = 184 " «* " Peat, coal, or coke = 25 to 35 of the peat by weight. " " *' = 30 to 40 per cent, by volume. Turf is 30 feet deep in upper marshes and it grows 30 inches in a cen- tury. In Hanover it grows 8 feet in 60 years. There are in many bogs 3 separated strata or layers of large trees separated by 10 or 12 feet of turf and heath. A carbonizing process gives them the appearance of being burnt. The bogs of Ireland cover 2,830,000 acres to the depth of 5, 12 and even 30 feet ; the bogs are ascribed to the prevalence of shallow lakes, which promote the growth of mosses and aquatic plants. BLOWIKG EXGTNE3. Capacity of air vessels = 20 times the capacity of the blowing cylinder ii the cylinder is single-acting. '< " = 10 times of double-acting. Velocity of air in the passages should not exceed 35 feet per second. Density of blast for iron furnaces, from 2% to 3 lbs. per square inch. Each smith's forge requires 150 cube feet of air per minute. Density of smith's forge blast V4 lb. per square inch. Each ton per hour melted in cupola requires 3,500 cube feet per minute. Each finery for^e requires 100,000 cube feet per minute for each ton refined. Each blast furnace 20 cube feet per minute for each cube yard capacity of furnace. Molesworth. Manufacture of Pig Iron— Coke or Anthracite Coal~l% to 20 tons of air are required for each ton. Charcoal — 17 to 18 tons air are required for each ton. 1 ton of air at 34° = 29,751, and at 00° = 31,366 cubic feet. Pressure— pressure ordinarily required for smelting purposes is equal to a column of mercury from 3 to 7 inches. Pipes. — Their area, leading to the reservoir, should be "2 that of the blast cylinder, and the velocity of the air should not exceed 35 feet per second. A ton of pig iron requires for its reduction from the ore 310,000 cubic feet of air, or 5"3 cubic feet of air for each lb. of carbon consumed. Pres- sure, "7 lb. per square inch. An ordinary eccentric fan, 4 ft. diameter, with 5 blades 10 ins. wide and 14 ins. length, set 1 9-16 ins. eccentric, with an inlet opening of 17*5 ins. diameter, and an outlet of 12 ins. square, making 870 revolutions per minute, will supply air to 40 tuyeres, each of 1% ins. diameter, and at a pressure per square inch of -5 inch of mercury. An ordinary eccentric fan blower, 50 ins. diam., running at 1000 revo- lutions per minute, will give a pressure of 15 ins. of water, and require for its operation a power of 12 horses. Area tuyere discharge 500 square ins. — Haswell. Properties of Fuel. "0 <<-i 0 <» tM u . 0 . Kind of Fuel. CI ii u 0 *8 feet 1 tO] Lbs. 0 evap( per] 1 . Per c 1 car Cubic air re fori C( Weig cubi Cubic stow 7 to 9 80 265 50 44 8 to 10 92 282 54 40 8 to 10 86 245 31 72 8 to 9 80 260 48 48 8 to 10 80 250 32 70 5 to 6 96 265 24 104 4 to 5 44 147 20 100 4 34 115 25 100 6 51 165 28 80 5 40 132 30 75 13.8 194 0.37 29800 37 42 14 9.56 77 58 2no 154 59 52 Memoranda Concerning Coal and Iron. First notice of stone coal is B. C, 371. The coal fields of England were the first practically developed. First record of stone coal used in England was A. D. 820. Records of regular mining in England first made in 1180. Coal first used in London in 1240. First tax laid on coal in England in 1379. Tax was repealed in 1831, having been taxed 400 years. First patent for making iron with pit coal was granted to Simeon Sturtevant, in 1612, but was not successful. Iron first made in a blast furnace with pit coal with success by a Mr Darby, of Colebrook Dale, England, in 1713. 627 Ox Coal, Steam Kkatino, Etc. Ill 1747 iron was made in England with pit coal, suitable for the man. ufacturo of ouiuion. In J788 the production of iron with pit coal in England was 48,300 tons' th charcoal, 1,3,000 tons. ' ' 111 18f>l the nroduction of iron in Great Britain was 5,000,000 tons. Woodon rails in mines were used in 1777. Casl-iron rails in mines were used in 1790. Wrought-iron rails in mines were nsed in 1815. Coal gas first made nse of practically in I7f)8 Ameuicax Coal Fields.— First coal fields worked in America were the bituminous fields at Kichmond, Va., discovered in 1750 This coal was used at AVestham, on the James liiver, to make shot and shell dur- ing the War of Independence. The first use of Anthracite coal was in 1768-69. First used for smithing purposes in 1790. First used to burn in a common grate in 1808. .ooJ'^'"!*.?"*^?.^^^^"^ Anthracite coal for the smelting of iron was in 1839, at the Pioneer Furnace, at Pottsville, Pa. It had been tried on tho Lehigh in 1826, but was unsuccessful. The great shaft of the Philadelphia and Reading Iron Company has been sunk to a depth of 1,569 ft. from the surface to the great mammoth coal vein winch attains a thickness of 25 feet, in that distance passinc through no less than 15 coal seams, of which 6 are workable and have an average thickness together of 04 feet. Even then there are a number of coal seams underlying these. Ventilation. Each person requires at least from 3 to 4 cubic feet of air ]3er minute. Oi'dinary windows allow about 8 cubic feet a minute to pass. Sleeping apartments require 1000 cubic feet of space to each occupant. An ordi- nary gas flame require? as much air as 9 persons. WARMIN& BY Steam. \Vhen the external temperature is 10° below freezing point, in order to maintain a temperature of 60° ; or. One superficial foot of steam pipe for each 6 superficial feet of glass in the windows ; or. One superficial foot of steam pipe for every 6 cube of air escaping for ventilation per minute ; or. One superficial foot of steam pipe for every 120 feet of wall, roof, or ceiling ; or. One square foot of steam pipe to 80 cubic feet of space ; One cube foot of boiler is required for every 2,000 cube feet of space to be heated ; One horse-power boiler is sufficient for 50,000 cube feet of space. Steam should be about 212° .—Molesivorth. As usually estimated, 1 square foot of pipe is amply sufficient to heat 75 to 80 cubic feet of air in exterior rooms, and 100 feet in interior rooms. Thickness of Boiler Iron, and Pressure Allowed by United States Laws. Pressure equivalent to the Statidard^or a Boiler 42 inches Diameter and 1/4 inch Thick. Wire Thick- Diameter in Inches. Guage ness in 16ths. 34 ins. 36 ins. 38 ins. 40 ins. 42 ins. 44 ins. 46 ins. No. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1 5 169.9 160.4 152. 144.4 137.5 131.2 125.5 2 4% 158.5 149.7 141.8 134.7 128.3 122.5 117.2 3 147.2 139.1 131.8 125.1 119.2 113.7 108.8 4 4 135.9 128.3 121.6 115.5 110. 105. 100.4 6 .3% 124.5 117.6 111.4 105.9 100.8 96,2 ' 92.1 6 113.2 106.9 101.3 69.2 91.7 87,5 83.7 7 101.9 96.2 91.2 86.6 82.5 78.7 75.3 628 Notes ok Strength of Boilers. Boiler Plates and Bolts— The tensile strength of iron plates and bolts ranges from 42,500 to 62,000 lbs. Mean tensile strengtli of copper plates, 33,000 lbs. up to 120° ; temperature at 220° = 32,000 lbs. ; at 550" = 25,000 lbs. , . , ^. ■ Bursting or Collapsing Pressures.— Iron plates should be based upon a strength 2-5 that of ultimate strength of the metal ; for use in salt water, at that of its ultimate strength. Resistance to collapse much less than to bursting. Strength of Stay Bolts.— Of iron, for use in salt water, should be taken at 1-7 ; fresh Vater, 1-6 ; copper, 1-5 of ultimate tensile strength. Stay-bolts, when screwed and riveted, are 1/3 stronger than when screw ed alone. Relative Strength of Riveted Joints per Square inch of Sin- gle Plate Single-lapped, machine riveted, rivets 3 diameters, centre to centre, 25,000 lbs. ; hand riveted, 24,000 lbs. ; staggered riveting, and equi- distant from centres, 30,500 lbs. ; abut joints, hand riveted— rivets not *'siaf7(7ere(Z," and equidistant from centres— single cover or strip, 30,000 lbs. ; rivets set " square,'^ single cover or strip, 42,000 lbs. ; double covers or strips, 55,000 lbs. To Find Requisite Quantity of Water for a Boiler. Add 15 to the pressure of steam per square inch, divide sum by 18, multiply the quotient by .21 ; product is quantity 111 U. S. gallons per minute for each horse-power. To find Height of a Column of Water. To Supply a Steam Boiler against ang Pressure of Steam required. Multiply pressure in pounds upon a square inch of boiler by 2.5 ; pro- duct will be height in feet above the surface of the water in boiler. Cold Water and Feed Pumps. The cold-water pump usually = diameter of cylinder X 0.3 when stroke = % stroke of engine. The cold-water pump usually = diameter of cylinder X 0.42 when stroke — 1/4 stroke of engine. Velocity of water in pump passages should not exceed 500 feet per minute. Pump valves should not be of less area than 1/4 area of the pump. I'eed Pumps for fPtgh Pressure Engines. Diameter = 1-11 diameter of cylinder when pump's stroke == stroke of the engine. Diameter ^ % diameter of cylinder when^ stroke of the engine. Diameter ^% diameter of cylinder when 74 stroke of the engine. Eeed Pumps for Condensing Engines. Diameter = 1-11 diameter of cylinder wheii % stroke of the engine. Diameter = % diameter of cylinder when 1/4 stroke of the engine. Depreciation of Machinery, etc. Per annum on first cost. Depreciation. Wear and Tear. Total. Engines Boilers Machines Millwork and Gearing. Bands and belts 6 i>er cent. 10 " 1"'^ :: 3 per cent. 3 " 31/2 " 45 " 9 per cent. 13 " 11 " 45 Iron Tituning Tools. Surface-bored should be at the rate of 78.54 feet per minute. Surface turned " 157.08 " " Form of Iron-Cutting Tools. To form and place any tool to cut any surface, let the end be so form- ed and placed as to make the least possible angle with, tlie surface to be cut, and whatever degree of acuteness may be considered requisite ; let the keenness be given by hollowing out the surface on which the shavings Blide. 620 TAIILK KOU FoltKTlCIjIilNO THK WeATIIKU THROUGH TIIR LUNATIONS OF Til 10 Moon. (I)U. irHHSOIIICLL AND Al)AM CLARKK. ) tlio First " If the Now Moon. ^ Quarter, tho Full Moon oi tho Last Quarter, enters — BetwccMi niidniglit and 2 1 A. M ] Bet. 2 and 4 A. M " 4 and 6 A. M , " CandSA. M " 8 and 10 A.M.. " 10 and 12 A. M. At 12 M. and 2 P. M. Bet. 2 and 4 P.M... " 4 and 6 P. M.. 6 and 8 P. M. 8 and 10 P. M. . . . 10 and midnight . In Summer. Fair. j Cold, fr't showers. Uain. Wind and rain. Changeable. | Frequent showers. V^ery rain v. Changeable. Fair. Fair if wind N W., rainy if S or S. E. Do. Fair. In Winter. Hard frost, unless wind is S. or v.. Snowy and stormy. Kain. Stormy. Cold rain if wind isW., snow if F. Cold and high wind. Snow and rain. Fair and mild. Fair. Fair and frosty if wind is N. or W., rain or snow if S. or S. E. Do. Fair and frosty. Observations.— 1. The nearer the time of the moon's change, first quarter, full, and last quarter, is to viid-night, the fairer the weather dur- ing 7 following days. Kange for tliis is from 10 at night till 2 next morn- ing. 2. The nearer to mid-day the phases of the moon happen, the more foul or wet weather during the 7 days following. 3. The moon's cliange entering from 4 to 10 of the afternoon, may expect fair weather. Force of the Wind. Miles Feet per per Hour. Minute. Feet per Second Force in pounds per square foot. Description. 176 264 352 440 880 1,320 1,760 2,200 2,640 3,080 3,520 3,960 4,400 5,280 6,160 7,040 8,800 1.47 2.93 4.4 5.87 7.33 14.67 22. 29.3 36.6 44.0 51.3 58.6 66.0 73.3 88.0 102.7 117.3 1466 .005 .0201 .0441 .0791 0.123 ) 0.492 1 1.107 I 1.970 1 3.067 I 4.429 1 6.027 j 7.870 1 9.900 J 12.304 17.733 1 2L153 j 31.490 49.200 j Hardly perceptible Just perceptible. Gentle breeze. Pleasant breeze. . Brisk gale. High wind. Very high wind. Storm. Great storm. Hurricane. Loss OF Light by Use of Shades.—^. H. Storer. Glass, etc. Th'k- ness. Loss. Glass, etc. Th'k- ness. Loss. Ins. PrCt. Ins. PrCt, American Enamelled. . 1-16 51.23 Window, d'ble, Eng. . . 1-8 9.39 1-8 13.08 " Ger.... 1-8 13. 1-8 8.61 *' single, Ger.. . 1-16 4.27 1-8 6.15 " " ground 1-16 65.75 Porcelain Transpar'cy. 1-3 97.68 1-16 81.95 630 British Miscellaneous Meas- ures FOR VARIOUS Purposes. A load of unhewn tim- ber 40 cubic ft. A load of squared tim- ber 50 " A load of inch boards. . 600 sq. ft. A load of two-inch planks 300 " A hundred of deals 120 in num, A hundred of nails 120 " A thousand of bricks. . . 1200 " A load of bricks 500 " A load of lime 32 bushels, A load Of sand 36 " A sack of potatoes, or coals 224 lbs. A bushel of salt or flour 66 " A bushel of wheat 60 " A bushel of barley 50 '< A bushel of oats . . . The Mile, as Measured dy va- rious Nations. The English mile is. .'. 1760 yd& The Scotch 1984 " The Irish " 2240 " The German '< 8106 " The Dutch and Prussian mile is 6480 " The Italian mile is. 1766 " The Vienna post mile is. . 8296 " The Swiss mile is 9153 " The Swedish and Danish mile is 7341.5 " The Arabian mile is 2143 " The Roman mile is. . 1628 or 2025 " TheWerst " 1167 or 1337 " The Tuscan " 1808 " The Turkish " 1826 " The Flemish " 6869 <' 40 The British league, or three times our geographical mile of CO to a jree, or 2025 yards, is 6075 yards. The Brabant league is 6096 yards. The Danish and Hamburg league 8244 yards, the German league 8101, the long German ditto, 10126 yards, the short do. 6859, the Portuguese league is 6760 yards, the Spanish 7416 yards, the Swedish 11700 yards. All of them parts of a degree, but made before the length of a degree was ac- curately determined. To Test Quality of Steel. Good tool steel, with a white heat, will fall to pieces ; with bright red heat will crumble under the hammer ; with middling heat may be drawn to a needle-point. To test hardening qualities, draw under a low heat to a gradually taper- ed square point and plunge into cold water ; if broken point will sci atch glass, the quality is good. To test tenacity, a hardened piece will be driven into cast-iron by a hardened hammer— if poor, will be crumbled. Excellence will be in proportion to tenacity in hard state. Soft steel of good quality gives a curved line fracture and uniform gray texture. Tool steel should be dull silver color, uniform, entirely free from sparkling qualities. Aquafortis, applied to the surface of steel, produces a black spot; on iron the metal remains clean. The slightest vein of iron or steel can be readily detected by this method. Steel Springs. Hule 1st— To find elasticity of a given steel-plate spring : Breadth of plate in inches multiplied by cube of the thickness in 1-16 inch, and by ~ ' divide cube of span in inches by product so found, Kesult, equal elasticity in l-16th of an inch per number of plates and multiply by 1. ton of load. liule 2d— To find span due to a given elasticity, and number and size of plate : Multiply elasticity in sixteenths per ton, by breadth of plate in inches, and divide by cube of the thickness in inches, and by the number of plates ; divide by 4.66, ^nd find cube root of the quotient. Kesult, equal span in inches. Utile 3d— To find number of plates due to a given elasticity, span, 'and size of plates : Multiply the cube of the span in inches by 1.66 ; mul- tiply the elasticity in sixteenths by the breadth of the plate in inches, and by the cube of the thickness in sixteenths ; divide the former pro- duct by the latter. The quotient is the number of plater Bule ith— To find the working strength of a given steei-pIate spring : Multiply the breadth of plate in inches by the square of the thickness in sixteenths, and by the number of plates ; multiply also the working span in inches by 11.3 ; divide the former product by the latter. Kesult, equal working strength in tons burden. Hule 5th — To find span due to a given strength and number, and size of plate ; Multiply the breadth of plate in inches by the square of the 631 On Mktals, Staiu-oaskh, I»aint.s. tljicknoss ill sixtcoiitlis, and by tlio mnnborof uhites ; multiply, also, the Btrcugtli in Ions by 1 divido tlic i'onner iJroducL by llie latlor. Kosiilt equal workinj^ sjcin in mclicH. Jlule ()lh— 'J'o lind tlio miniber of plates due to a given strength, span, and size of plate : Multiply the strength in tons by span in ineheH, and divide by 11.3 ; multiply also the breadth of plate iii inches by the squaro of the thickness in sixteenths ; divide the former product by the latter, liesult, equal number of plates. The span is that due to the form of the spring loaded. Extra thick plates must be replaced by an equivalent number of plates of the ruling thickness, before applying the rule. To findtliis, multiply the number of extra plates by the square of their thickness, and divide by the square of the ruling thickness ; conversely, the jmmber of plates of the ruli)ig thickness to be removed for a giveu number of extra plates, may be found ill the same way. Lineal Expansion of Metals. Produced by raising their temperature from 32° to 212° Fahrenheit. Zinc Platinum Tin (pure) Tin (impure) Silver Copper Falmouth tin English brass rod . Brass wire Blistered steel Height of Riser. Width of Tread. C iiiclies SVo inches. 7 " 8 8 " 71/2 " 9 " 7 " Gold. Bismuth Iron Ajitimony Palladium Platinum Flint glass Soft rolled iron — Prism of cast iron . Reflector metal. . . Refined silver Stair-Cases. 1 part lu 322 351 403 500 524 581 584 462 Width of Tread. 10 inches 11 " 12 " 13 " , 1 part in G82 71'J " 812 928 " 1000 " 1100 " 1248 " 819 " 901 " 517 " 528 Height of Riser. ..Gy^ inches. ..G " ••5% " -.5 " Painting. 1 gal. priming color will cover 50 superficial yards. white zinc white paint lead color black paint stone color yellow paint blue color ' green paint bright emer. green bronze green 50 44 50 50 44 44 45 45 25 45 One pound of paint will cover about 4 superficial yards the first coat, and about 6 yds. each additional coat. One pound oi putty for stopping every 20 yds. One gallon of tar, and 1 lb. pitch, will cover 12 yds. super- ficial the first coat, and 17 yds. each additional coat. Paints, &c.— In addition to the very ample information to be found nnder the Painters Department, the following, transcribed from the Okdnance Manual, are given. Boiled Oil.— Raw oil— 1.3 parts, copperas— 3*15 parts, litharge— G-3 parts, Put l^he litharge and copperas in a cloth bag and suspend in the middle of the kettle. Boil the oil 4% hours over a slow" fire, then let it stand and deposit the sediment. Dryings.- Mixture of copperas and litharge taken from the boiled oil 60 parts. Spirits turpentine 56 parts, boiled oil 2 parts. Putty.— Spanish whiting, pulverized 81-6 parts, boiled oil 20*4 parts. Make into a rtiff paste, if not intended for immediate use raw oil should be used. 032 PAINTS, IKKS, Dybs, Etc. White Paint. Inside work. Outiside work. White lead, ground in oil 80 80. Boiled oil 14.5 J- Kaw oil • • f Spirits turpentine 8- *. New wood-work requires 1 lb. to the square yard for three coats. Lead Color.— White lead ground in oil 75 parts, lamp black 1 part, boiled linseed oil 23 parts, litharge 0-5 parts, Japan varnish 0-5 parts, spirits turpentine 2-5 parts. Lamp black and litharge are ground sepa- rately with oil, then stirred into the white lead and oil. . Black Paint.— Lamp black 28 parts, litharge 1 part, Japan Tamish 1 part, boiled linseed oil 73 parts, spirits turpentine 1 part. Gray or Stoxe Color for Buildings.— White lead m oil 78 parts, boiled oil 9-5 parts, raw oil 9-5 parts, spirits turpentine 3 parts, Turkey umber 0.5 parts, lamp black 0.25 parts. One square yard of new brick- work requires for 2 coats 1.1 lb., for 3 coats 1.5 lb. Paint for Tarpaulins.— 1st. Olive. Liquid olive color 100 parts, beeswax 6 parts, spts. turpentine 6 parts. Dissolve the beeswax in spts. turpentine, with a gentle heat, and mix the paint warm. 2d. Add 12 ozs. beeswax to 1 gal, linseed oil, boil it two hours ; prime the cloth with the mixture, and use it in the place of boiled oil for mixing the paint. Cream Color. (-For Buildings.) 1st coat. 2d coat. . White lead, in oil 66.66 70. French yellow 3.33 ^-^^ Japan varnish • 1-3^ Kavvoil 28.00 ^i-p Spirits turpentine 2.25 2-25 One square yard of new brick- work requires for hrst coat, 0.7o lbs. , Cheap PAmT 'for Sheds and Fences. -Melted pitch 6 lbs., linseed oil 1 pt., brick dust, or yellow ochre, 1 lb. To the above we add the following valuable items : — To Waterproof Awnings.— Immerse lirst in solution containing 20 per cent, of soap, and repeat the process in a copper solution of equal strength, then wash and dry. Aniline Inks.— 1. Violet. Bissdlve 1 part of aniline violet blue in 300 parts of water. A beautiful ink. 2. Blue Ink. Dissolve 1 part of soluble Paris blue in 250 parts of water. 3. Bed Ink. Dissolve 1 part soluble f uchsin in 200 parts boiling water. India or Chinese Ink.— Calcined lamp black 100 parts. Boghead shale black, in impalpable powder, 50 parts ; Indigo carmine in cakes, 10 parts ; Carmine lake, 5 parts ; Gum arable (best quality) 10 parts ; Puri- fied ox-gall 20 parts; Alcoholic ext. of musk, 5 parts; Dissolve the gum in 50 to 60 parts of pure water, and filter through a cloth. The indigo, car- mine, lake, lamp black, and shale black are mixed with the liquid and the whole ground on a slab with a muller like ordinary colors, but much longer. Now add the ox-gall and ext. of musk slowly, grinding well in. Next dry in the air away from dust, mould into cakes and dry again. WTien quite firm, compress into bronze moulds with any desired design, wrap up in tin foil and again in gilt paper. A splendid article. To Dye, Stiffen and Bleach Felt Hats.— Felt hats are dyed by repeated immersion, drawing and dipping in a hot watery solution of logwood 38 parts, green vitriol 3 parts, verdigris 2 parts ; repeat the im- mersions and drawing with exposure to the air 13 or 14 times, or until the color suits, each step in the process lasting from 10 to 15 minutes. Ani- line colors may be advantageously used instead of the above. For a stiffening, dissolve borax 10 parts, carbonate of potash 3 parts, in hot water, then add shellac 50 parts, and boil until all is dissolved ; apply with a sponge or a brush, or by immersing the hat when it is cold, and dip at once in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid to neutralize the alkali and fix the shellac. Felt hats can be bleached by the use, of sulphuris acid gas. 633 SUGGESTIONS TO ARTISANS, &C. Lauxdry Seoukts.— a spoonful of ox-gall to a Rallon of water will •et the colors of almost any goods soaked in it previous to washing. A tea-cup of lyo in a pail of water will improve tilie color of black goods. Nankin should lie in lye before being waslied ; it sets the color. A strong tea of common hay will preserve tlie color of French linens. Vinegar in the rinsing water for pink or green calicoes will brighten them. Soda answers the same end for both purple and blue. To bleach cotton cloth, take one large spoonful of sal-soda, one pound of chloride of lime, for thirty yards ; dissolve in clean soft water, rinse the cloth thoroughly in cold soft water in order that the cloth may not rot. The above amount of cloth, with the bleaching compound may be whitened in from ten to fifteen minutes. Suggestions to Artisans.— Never consider time wasted that is spent in learning rudiments. In acquiring a knowledge of any art or handicraft the greatest difliculty is experienced at the beginning, be- cause our work then possesses little or nothing of interest. Our first lessons in drawing, or music, or with tools, are very simple ; indeed so simple are they that we are disposed to undervalue their importance. The temptation is to skip a few pages and begin further on in the book. But such a course is fatal to success. To learn principles thoroughly is to succeed. Be content to learn one thing at a time, whether it be to push a plane square and true, or draw a straight line. "Whatever you learn, learn it absolutely, without possible question. This will enable you to advance steadily, step by step, year after year, and some day you will wonder why you have been enabled to distance the geniuses who once seemed so far in advance of j'ou. Set your heart upon what you have in hand. Valuable knowledge is acquired only by intense devotion. You must give your entire mind to whatever you undertake, otherwise 3'ou fail, or succeed indifferently, which is but little better than failure. Learn, therefore, to estimate properly the value of what is called leisure time. There is entirely too much of this in the world. Do not mistake our meaning. Best is necessary and play is well in its place, but young men who hope to do something in life must not expect to play one third of their time. While you resolve to acquire a thorough knowledge of your art, be equally as anxious to know something beyond it. A craftsman ought to be ashamed fof himself who jknows nothing but the use of his tools. Having the time to acquire it, be careful to properly estimate the value of knowledge. Eemember of what use it will be to you in ten thousand instances as you go along in life and be as conscientious in learning rudiments here as elsewhere. Learn to spell correctly, to write a good plain hand, and to punctuate your sen fences. Do not dress beyond your means ; never spend your last dollar, unless for food to keep yourself or some one else from starving. You will always feel better to keep a little money in your pocket. At the earliest possible opportunity save up a few dollars and place the amount in a savings bank. It Avill serve as a magnet to attract other money that might be foolishly spent. Just as soon as you can command the means, buy a piece of ground. Do not wait until you have saved enough to pay all down, but begin by paying one third or one quarter. Do not be afraid to go in debt for land, for it increases in value. Marry as soon as you are able to support a wife and can find a good woman who is willing to accept you. — The. American Builder. In commending the above advice the editor would en terpose a salutary caution regarding the deposit of money in Savings Banks, while many successful business men, and other possei-sed of exuberant imagination say that there is no such word as fail, it is palpably manifest that the collapse of no less than eleven Savings Banks in New York and its vicinity during the past few months, has furnished ruinous proof to thousands of de- positors that the contrary is the truth. In making deposits then, be sure that your savings are put in a safe place and that the integrity of the men to whom you intrust them is beyond question. Miscellaneous Rules, &c., for Engineers, Mill-owners, Mechanics, &c. Gearing a Compound Lathe. — The term Compound ov double gear- ed, as applied to the screw-cutting gear of a lathe means that there exists, between the gear wheel which is fastened to and revolves with the lathe spindle and the feed screw, two gear wlaeels of different diameters and revolving side by side, at the same number of revolutions, by. reason of being fixed upon the same sleeve or axis. The object of this arrangement is to make, between the speed at which the lathe mandril or spindle will run, and the speed or revolution at which the feed screw will run, a great- er amount of difference than is possible in a single geared lathe, and thus to be able to cut threads of a coarser pitch than could be cut in the latter. This is nsnally accomplished by providing two intermediate wheels of different diameters, both being held by a feather ui a sleeve revolving upon an adjustable pin for the purpose. It is obvious that the smallest of these compounded or coupled wheels will gear into and with the wheel or gear on the feed screw ; and that the changes of gear may be made upon the gear running on the lathe mandril and that running on the feed screw, without disturbing the pair of intermediate (and compounded) gears referred to. In many cases, however, only the wheel upon the feed screw need be changed, since a wide range of pitch may be obtained by changing that wheel only. To find the number of teeth in the wheel required to be placed on the feed screw, we luive the following rule : Divide the pitch to be cut by the pitch of the feed screw, and the pro- duct will be the proportional number. Then multiply the number of teeth on the lathe mandril gear by the number of teeth on the smallest gear of the compounded pair, and the product by the proportional num- ber, and divide the last product by the number of teeth in the largest wheel of the compounded pair, and the product is the number of teetli for the wheel on the feed screw. Suppose, for example, the gear on the lathe mandril contains 40 teeth running into the largest of the compounded gears which contains 50 teeth, and that the small gear of the compounded pair contains 15 teeth ; what wheel will be required for the feed screw — its pitch being 2, and the thread requiring to be cut being 20 ? Pitch Pitch of Proportional required. feed screw. number. 20 2 = 10 Then- Mandril Small com- Proportional Large com- gear teeth. pouud gear. number. pound gear. 40 X 15 X 10 -r 50 = 120 = the number ol teeth required upon the wheel for the feed screw. In the above example, however, all the necessary wheels except one are given ; and since it is often required to find tlfe necessary sizes of two of the wheels, the follow- ing rule may be used : Divide the number of threads you wish to cut by the pitch of the feed screw, and multiply the quotient by the number of teeth on one of the driving wheels, and the product by the number of teeth on the other of the driving wheels ; then any divisor that leaves no remainder to the last product is the number of teeth for one of the wheels driven, and the quotient is the number of teeth for the other wheel driven. [In this rule the term " wheel driven " means a wheel which has mo- tion imparted to it, while its teeth do not drive or revolve any other wheel ; hence the large wheel of the compounded pair is one of tho 635 fi3C RULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILLERS, AC. wheels driven, whilo the wheel on the feed screw is the other of the wheels driven.] Example.— It is required to cut 20 threads to the inch, the ])itch of the feed screw being 2, one of the driving wheels contains 40 teeth and the other 15 : Pitch required to be cut. 20 Pitch of feed ecrew. Teeth in one driving wheel. X 40 Teeth in other driving wheel. 15 = GOOO. Then, 6000 -f 50 = 120 ; and hence one of the gears will require to con- tain 50 and the other 120 teeth ; if we have not two of such wheels, we may divide by some other number instead of 50. Thus : 6000 -f- 60 100 ; and the wheels will require to have, re- spectively, 60 and 100 teeth. If there are no wheels on the lathe we proceed as follows : Divide the pitch required by the pitch of the feed screw ; the quotient is the proportion between the revolutions of the first driving gear and the feed screw gear. ' Example. Required the gears to cut a pitch of 20, the feed screw pitch hehig 4 ; here 20 4 = 5 ; that is to say, the feed screw must revolve five times as slowly as the first driving gear ; we now find two numbers which, multiplied together, make five : as 2^ X 2 = 5 ; hence one pair of wheels must be geared 2^ to 1 and the other pair 2 to 1, the small wheel of each pair being used as drivers, because the thread reqnired is finer than the feed screw. Rose's Complete Practical Machinist, H. Carey Baird & Co., Philadelphia. HIPPED ROOFS, MILL HOPPERS, &C. To find the varioxis Angles and proper Dimensions of Materials tvhere^ by to censtruct any figure whose form is the Frusirum of a proper or inverted Pyramid, as Hipped Eoofs, Mill Hoppers, &c, A B A B C D represents the desired size of plan for a roof, E T represents the height ; draw the line A E to meet the apex or ridge E K on plan ; from E, at right angles with C E and equal to the designed height draw the line E T then the line T C, equal the length of the struts or corners of the roof ; from C, with the distance C F, draw the arc T H, continue the diagonal C E until it cuts the arc E H, througli which, and parallel with the apex E K, draw the line I L, which determines the required breadth for each side of the roof : from C, meeting the line I L, draw the line C G, or proper angle for the end of each board by which the roof might re- quire to be covered, and the angle at T is what the boards require to be made in the direction of their thickness, when the corners or angles re- quire to be mitred. To Compute the Nujiber of Revolutions of a Pinion or Driven WHEN THE Number of Revolutions of Driver anb the Diameter OR the Number of Teeth of Driver and Driven are given. — Multiply the number of revolutions of driver by its number of teeth HULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILLEllS, &C. G37 or its diameter, and divide the product by the number of teeth or the diameter of tlie driver. Propoktion of Cikcles.— To assist machinists in enlarging or reducing macliinery wheels without changing their respective velocities. First, lay off two circles, D F and G I, the size of the largest wheels which you wish to change to a large or small machine, with the central point H of the smaller circle G I on the periphery of the largert circle D F : then describe two lines Q C and S A tangent to the circles as shown in diagram, then draw the line R B through their centres ; now if you wish to reduce the machine outline a circle of the size you wish to re- duce it to ; if, say, one-half, have the centre K one-half the distance from E to P and lay off the circle J L, and on its periphery N as a cen- tre lay off a circle M O with their peripheries touching the tangent lines Q C and S A, as shown in diagram. This will make the circle J L one- half the size of the circle D F, and the circle M O one-half the size of the circle G I ; leaving J L and M 0 in the same proportion to each other asDFandGI. To reduce one-third, have the centre K one-third the distance from E to P ; if one-fourthy have the centre K one-fourth the distance from £ to CJ8 RULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILL ICRS, SiC. P, &c. This reckoning may be applied beyond the centre E for enlarging nuichine wheoM, and will enable the mechanic to make the alteration without chan,i,'in.i; their respective velocities. To Compute tiik Diamiotku of a Pinion when the Diameter op THE DUIVEII, AND THE NUMHKK OF TeETII IN DillVEU AND DllIVEN AKK GIVEN. — Multiply the diameter of driver by the number of teeth in the pinion and divide the product by the number of teeth in the driver, and the quotient will be the diameter of pinion. To Compute the Number of Revolutions of a Driver, when THE REVOLUTIONS OF DRIVEN AND TeETH OR DiAMETER OF DRIVER AND Driven ARE given. — Multiply the number of teeth or the diameter of driven by its revolutions and divide the product by the number of teeth or the diameter of driver. To Compute the Number of Teeth in each Wheel for a Train OF Spur Wheels, each to have a given Velocity. — Multiply the immber of revolutions of the driving wheel by its number of teeth, and divide the product by the number of revolutions each wheel is to make *o ascertain the number of teeth required for each. To FIND the Circumference of any Diameter. — From the centre B describe the circle A C G, witli the desired diameter ; next place the corner of the square at the centre B, and describe the lines B D and B F ; then draw the chord D F ; three times the diameter added to the dis- tance from the centre of the chord D E F to the middle of the subtending arc D G F, will be circumference desired. To FIND the Circumference of a Circle, or of a pulley. — Multiply the diameter by 3-1416, or as 7 is to 22 so is the diameter to the circumference. The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters., and a circle contains a greater area than any other plain figure bounded by an equal outline. To Compute the area of a circle. — Multiply the circumference by one quarter of the diameter ; or multiply the square of the diameter by •7854 ; or multiply the square of the circumference by '07958 ; or multi- ply half the circumference by half the diameter ; or multiply the squari) of half the diameter by 3-14i6 TO find the circumference of an ellipse. liule. — Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3-1416, and the product will be the circumference. Example. — Suppose the longer diameter 6 inches and the shorter di- ameter 4 inches, then 6 added to 4 equal 10, divided by 2 equal 5. multi- plied by 3-1416 equal 15-7080 inches circumference. DIRECTIONS TO MILL-MEN, &C. G39 Power and Capacity of Saw Mills, Saw filing, &c. — As a rule it P^O admitted by mill-men that for 10,000 ft. per day about 20 liorse-power is required ; for 20,000 ft., 30 horse-power ; and for 30,000 ft. 40 horse- power. To secure these results it is indispensable that the operator should make sure of having a good mill and intelligent first class workmen to run it. In hanging the saw, see that the mandril fits accurately in the boxes, so that it will run without heating. When flat collars are used, the steadying pins should be made with a shoulder, as where any other form of pni is used it often happens that a burr or bunch is raised at the corner where the pin enters the collar. Both saw and collar should be tested with a straight edge ; it frequently happens in turning collars that through the lightness or springing of the tool, irregularities in the grain of the iron, &c., the work may not be perfectly true, and in this case the utmost care should be taken to ascertain and correct the deficiency, if any exists, by applying, before the mandril is taken from the lathe, a fine file of just the proper spring, against the face of the collars in order to remove any uneven surfaces that may have been left upon them. If they are not perfectly true, apply a pair that are so, independent of the man- dril collars, and so rigid that screwing up the collars cannot act upon or impair the saw. The saw being tested and found correct, place it on the mandril and tighten up the collars by hand, slowly revolving the saw at the same time, and if it proves to be truthfully hung, screw it home with a wrench tight, and test again with straight edge to' see if all is right, revolving the saw and observe closely whether it runs true or not. for large saws a high authority recommends collars that have a perfect bearing of about ^ in, on the outer rim, the other part clear, as they hold tighter than a solid, flat-faced collar, because they are more apt to come fair against the saw. To correct saws out of round, hold a piece of grindstone or cobblestone against the points of the teeth while the saw revolves, this will grind down the most prominent teeth ; or the longest teeth may be marked with red chalk while the saw is in motion, and afterwards filed down. The following figures Avill afford valuable aid to the operator. In fig. 1 the teeth represented by the dotted lines show the teeth as the saw leaves the factory ; the lines at B,C, and D show the condition to which they are frequently reduced by bad filing. Thef-e defective teeth contain no chamber for the circulation of saw dust, and teeth filed with sharp, square corners at the bottom frequently break, as shown at A, tooth C. This kind of filing is most destructive to both saw and files, and requires at least double the power necessary to operate a saw with teeth of the proper shape. For good work it is absolutely essential to file back to the periphery line, and the best work will be done, the least labor expended, and less power will be required to operate, when the shape of the teeth is made to conform to the patterns illustrated by Figs. 2 and 3, which also represent tlie forms best adapted for sawing soft and hard wood re- spectively. In filing circiilar saws, an immense saving will be effected by filing from the face or under side, instead of from the top, or upper part of the tooth, as in the former case the full diameter of the saw is retained to a much greater extent. Fig. 4, at A, represents a tooth that requires gumming, or chambering out in proper shape, as shown at D. This leaves free scope for the dust, without too much crowding, and the useless consumption of power. A good gummer is an article tliat no sawyer can afford to dispense with, it saves much valuable time and heavy outlay for files, besides doing more rapid and much better work. A good swage or upset is equally import- ant for the purpose of bringing the teeth of the saw to a sharp, keen edge, DIRECTIONS TO MILL-MEN, &C. 641 bringing up corners and vacancies occasioned by wear, and spreading the points, so as to ease tlie body of the saw in passing through tlie log. Fig. 5, at A, B, C, D, and E, exhibits the different set required for saw- teeth as effected by the swage ; the dotted hnes show the undercut, and Fig. G shows the old and new style tooth. Fig. 7, at C, represents the con- TiG. 7. dition the tooth should be in for Avork. Point B shows a tooth that is dull, and a great many teeth are broken, as shown at D, from this very caii«e. The tootli of a 24 inch circular saw passes through the log 2000 times per miimte, 120,000 times per hour, or 1,200,000 times per day, im- pelled by a tremendous force through knots. &c., and if not kept sharp Fig. 8. EIGHT-HAND SAW. DIRECTIONS TO MILL-MEN, AC. the severe strain is hound to break tlic teeth. If the teeth were kep4 properly set and well filed the work would 1)0 performed in l)etter shape with half the power. Ki,i;s. nd then dividing the spaces between them into quarters. The accompanying draft of the dress that I use will give a very good idea of my plan. I have been using this dress for years, and find' it gives better satisfaction in quality of flour than any other dress I ever used. It grinds cooler and longer than the old style of dress, and it will grind wet or damp wlaeat better, because there is less friction about it and there is more room for i^'-i meal to get out from under the burrs, and therefore tho meal must be letter." 'ipEED. CAPACITY, &C., O.^ MILL STONES. GoT Estimate of the SPEfci), Pot;^er, Capacity ain^d DitfcSrf of MiLt- STONES as rilACTICED IN GREAT CkITAIN FOR GRIKDING WhEAT WHERE KO Exhaust or Cojmbined Blast and Exhaust are used. The Miller. Average capa- city per hour Draught from Diameter of Revolutious Ilorss power. of g^rinclinj^ in U 1 1 dress sua rcss. jMillstonc . per Minute. bush, tliroiigh furrow. the journey. Feet. Inches. Indies. 2 6 200 2H 2^ . 7.3 214 2 10 180 2% 2% , 8.3 . 21/2 3 0 170 g 9.3 3 2 100 31/4 ■ ^ 9.3 o 4 150 3>| 3^ 10.3 3 G 110 3% 3% 10.3 3 8 130 3% 3% 10.3 . 3 3 10 125 3/8 Nearly 4 11.3 3 4 0 120 4 4 10.4 Q 4 2 115 41/3 41/4 1).4 3 4 4 110 4V4 11.4 3V4 4 G 105 414 12.4 3% 4 8 100 4% G 12.4 3% 4 10 05 5 Gi/> 12.4 4 5 0 00 G 7 12.4 ■ . 4>^ In reference to the foregoing Table, The Miller quotes the opmion of a Scotch engineer and millwright whose experience entitles Inm to rank as an authority, to the effect that there should be only four standard diame- ters of millstones, viz. : 3 ft. 3 ft. G ins. 4 ft. 4 ft. G ins. for which the speed should be 170 revolutions for the 3 ft., 155, 135, and 115 for the other sizes respectively, and he estimates that all their sizes would each absorb 6 indicated horse jjower to grind 4 bushels of wheat per hour ; in other words, the smallest stone at its high rate of speed, with equal duty, would require as much power to propel it as would be taken by the largest stone with its low rate of speed. The same authority ex- presses a conviction, based on a mature experience of 30 years, that a vast improvement could be effected on the system presented in the above Table by taldng the 4 foot stone, running at 135, as the standard for universal use in grinding wheat. It is recommended further that all mills should be so constructed that the velocity of the stones could be varied at pleasure, ivhen in operation, either by running each pair by conical pul- leys or drums, or by a separate engine, as the state of the Aveather, or the different varieties of wheat, may demand. Concerning the blast and exhaust the Miller remarks : " It is stated by some parties favorable to the combined Blast and Ex- haust that, by the adoptien of that system, a saving of j)ower is effected, and that eight bushels of wheat can be ground by szx -horse power. The power, however, being unlimited, the quantity ground can be increased almost indefinitely, in the above proportion, according to the weight of tlje millstone, sixteen bushels per hour often being ground on this sj's- tem. The application of the Exhaust, drawing the air through the ej^e of the running millstone, does not produce a greater current than that of at- mospheric pressure, the millstones grind somewhat faster, and there is a corresponding amount of economic power, the millstones working more freely. Many advantages in this respect result from th'' adoption of the simple Exhaust, having for its object the removal oniy of the stive from the millstone case." 052 iil'KKD AND I'lTCII OF IJOI/P, &C. To liRMovK (inAZK ruoi\T MiLi.sTONics.— Tilko tlio burrs, clean all tlio flour off with a biooui aiul wasli tliom \vit)i lirst rate vinegar. Tlii.s will leave the stones free from <^hv/.o,. 'J'lic better way is to wash the stoiicH at iiif-ht and leave tlieui to dry until morning. A niiller who has used the method for 25 years, reconunends to take u^) tlie s-tones wliile warm, and wash tlicm with a mixture of one half ])ail of soft water and oue quart shari) vinotrnr, ai)])liod with a woollen cloth. Lcffcl's Ncnos. Speed and Vi rcn of Bolt,— Au experienced miiler Avrites on this subject as follows : Many years of practical experience in custom milling and in grinding all kinds of wheat, hard and f*oft, wet and dry, has convinced me that the best speed to give a bolt cloth to accomplish the most and best woi'k, is 200 feet per minute. The reel should have i to g inch i)itch per foot and should be kept as full as its capacity requires. Reels when Avorking on hard wheat should have more pitch than when Avorking on soft wheat. More millers get into trouble with their bolts by running them too fast than by any other cause. The faster you run the cloth after you get uj) tOf 200 feet per minute, the less it will bolt and you can give it speed enough to carry all the flour, middlings and bran together out of the tail end of the reel! LeffaVs Nexos. THE HOLMES AND BLANCHARD PORTABLE MILL. The above illustration represents an excellent tjq^e of a geared Portable Grinding Mill manufactured by the well known mill furnishing firm of Holmes & Blanchard, Boston, Mass. They also manufacture the same class of mill, at less cost, with vertical pulley. The stones are made in one entire piece from the best French burrs, and are well adapted for flouring Avheat, grinding corn, grain, feed, plaster, salt, coffee, spices, &c . The makers claim that the capacity of their mills, of Avhich they build a great variety, can be increased to almost any extent, by an increase of power or speed, or they can be w^orked with light power by diminishing the speed and quantity of work. Their mills, now nuinbering many him- CALCULATIONS FOR BELTS, &C. 653 dreds of every size and class, arc hi,i;bly spoken of by the purchasers, and the writer can bear witness to the utility of one which rendered ex- cellent service to a large connnunity on his own premises in New Bruns- wick, Canada, until its career of usefuhiess was terminated by a fire Avhich destroyed the mill building with all its contents. The following Tabi.e exhibits the proper speed, power required, perform- ance, &c. , of the Holmes & Blanchard Portable I\Ii!ls. DIAM- ETER OF STONES BEST SPEED TEB. MIXUTK. BUSHELS CORN GROUND PER HOUR. H. P. quired. SIZE OF PULLEYS. .. Steam power. Power. Fine. Coarse. Crack- ed. Dia. Inches. Face. Inches 42 inches. 275 20 30 200 15 28 10 36 300 15 22 150 10 _^ 33 " 325 12 13 150 8 20 8 30 " 325 10 16 150 0 20 8 20 325 14 125 5 6 21 350 200 12 100 4 IG 6 20 " 350 275 4 8 40 3 14 5 18 350 275 6 30 2 14 5 10 " 350 275 2 4 30 1^ 14 5 To FIND THE Length of a Driving Belt before the Pulleys ARE IN Position.— Add the circumference of the two pulleys, divide the product by two, and add the quotient thus obtained to double the distance between the centres of the two shafts, wliich will give the length of belt required. For a cross belt, add the circumference of the two pulleys, mul- tiply the product by three, and divide by two ; the quotient added to double the distance between centres of both shafts will give the length required. Horse-power of a belt equals velocity in feet per minute multiplied by the width, the sum divided by 1000. One inch single belt, moviug at 1000 ft. per minute = 1 horse power. Double belts about 700 ft. per minute, per one in. hi width = 1 horse power. For double belts of great length, over large pulleys, allow about 500 ft, per minute per inch of width per horse-poAver. Power should be communicated through the lower running side of a belt, the upper side to carry the slack. Average breaking weights of a belt, 3-16 x 1 inch wide. Leather, 350 lbs ; 3 ply rubber, 600 lbs. The strength of a belt increases as its width. The co-efflcient of safety for a laced belt is leather =: 1-16 break- ing Aveight, rubber = 1-3 do. To Determine where to cut Bell holes in Floors. — Measure the distance in inches from centre of driving shaft to under side of floor, on the upper side make a mark over the centre of shaft. Now measure the distance from centre of shaft on inachine to be driven to floor, making a inark on the floor immediately beneath the centre, then measure the distance between the two marks. Transfer these figures to a board or aper, draw off the driving and the driven pulleys^ after finding their iameters at the distance from each other and the floor line previo^isly C54 CALCULATIONS lOIl BELTS, &C. obtained, n,nd draw tlio lines rcprescntin.!:? the belt cntting tlie floor lines "wliich will sliow Avlicrc the belt passes throuf:;li tlic lioor. The drawing, can be made to a scale to reduce it to convenient dimensions, maintaining the proportions. The holes may now be marked off: on the floor and cut •with a certainty of being correct. In making the drawing it is best to do it full size on the floor if room can be had, and allowance must be mado for the thickness of flooring. WoKKiKO VALUE OF Pui.LEYS. — Pullcys covcrcd with leather, iron pulleys polished, and mahogany pulleys polished, rank for working value as 3G, 24, and 25 per cent, respectively^ wood and iron uncovered be- ing almost identical. The smoother a pulley is turned the greater will bo the power imparted by it, and the better will be the hold of the belt. A pulley which is slightly higher in the middle of its width exerts the greatest power in retaining the belt from slipping oil as well as making it last longer by imparting the greatest tension to the middle, or strong- est part of the belt, to the manifest relief of the edges or weakest part. To obtain the best results from belts it is necessary, in lacing or cementing the ends, that the latter should be cut exactly square across, and the junction should be equally true, otherwise the belt will be strained and torn on the tightest side, besides being rendered liable to run off the pul- ley at any time. Belts connecting pulleys perpendicular to each other should be kept tight, and should me made of firm, well stretched leather, in order to work to the best advantage. To COMPUTE THE HOKSE-POAVER OF A BELT, ITS VELOCITY AND THE NUMBER OF SQUARE INCHES IN CONTACT WITH THE SMALLEST PULLEY BEING KNOWN. — Divide the number of square inches of belt in contact with the pulley by 2, multiply this quotient by the velocity of the belt in feet per minute, and this amount divided by 36,000 and the quotient will be the number of horse-power. To COMPUTE THE WIDTH OF BeLTS REQUIRED FOR TRANSMITTING VARIOUS NUMBERS OF HORSE-POWER. — Multiply 36,000 by the number of horse-power, divide the product by the number of feet the belt is to run per minute, divide the quotient by the number of feet or parts of a foot in length of belt contact with the smaller pulley ; divide the last quotient by 6, and the result will be the desired width of the belt in inches.* To Prevent Accidents from Shafting. — These may be rendered impossible by loose sleeves formed of tin or zinc fitted to the shafting, and lined with cloth or leather to prevent noise. To Grind Burrs into Face with Water.— Make the face of the stone absolutely true, then bosom each stone slightly and grind them in Avater at a low speed. Let the speed be high enough, however, to bring the water to the lands. To grind in face the spindle should be slightly loose in the bush and the running stone made to oscillate 1-16 of an inch or more. This will prevent the burrs from creasing each other, and will leave a perfect face. The bosom of the mill should be two brans at th« eye and one bran at the skirt ; just enough to prevent centre riding. A wedge face from eye to skirt, is faulty for the manufacture of pure nour. The bran should lie horizontally throughout its passage through the mill. The furrows serve as squashing surfaces. Where there are furrows, no bosoming is demanded. Leffel's Neios. To Prevent Burrs Heating. — Dress from centre to circumference, leaving no bosom. Draw a line across the centre, each Avay, dividing a four foot burr into 16 squares or divisions, and other sizes, more or less, * Note The above estimate is based on the rule of allowing each square inch of belting in contact with the pulley to raise half a pound 1 ft. high in 1 minute and the raising of 36,000 lbs. same height in same time as a horse- power. INSTRUCTIONS TO MILLERS, &C. 655 in the same i^roportion, with all straight furrows. Let the draft be tho diameter of the rock. Lay off the lands and furrows J inch each observ- ing to dress smooth. Sink the furrow at the eye J inch deep for corn, and run out to j% at the periphery ; for wheat -/j at the eye, and ^ at tho periphery. When thus furnished, crack the lands in straight lines, square with the draft of cross lines, so as to make the lands face in the runner and bed direct. Simple Alarm for Mill, Hoppers. — Take a piece of spring steel about ^ in. wide, and bend one end of it so as to form a foot by which to screw it to the bottom of the shoe, tlie balance of the spring passing up through and into the hojiper, and bent over at its upper end so as to form a pendant to which rivet a small bell. As soon as the grain in tlie hopper gets below the bell, it will commence to ring and thus notify the attend- ant. LeffeVs ISfeios. Temperature OP Oat Meal Kiln, Grikdikg op Oatmeal. — In response to a request from a correspondent, Mr. Gray, an ex]Derienced miller, says, "There is no given temperature in drying oats ; it is the plate you bring to the necessary heat, not the house. Oats are not all the same grade, some kinds are thinner in the hull than others. I always preferred a cast iron plate in place of tile, as you get more heat. I do not think a perforated cylinder will make sweet meal, that is still the great want in the country, the meal is stewed in the drying, and has not a fine taste. The good old plan to find out when your kiln floor is ready to re- ceive the oats is just to spit on the plate and if it raises the bead you can at once load your kiln six inches deep Avith the oats. The cold oats will cool it down a little when the miller must look to his furnace and keep up the same heat he started with — not any hotter. It will soon begin to steam, and in about half an hour skim off the oats with the hand down to the plate, and he will see whether it is hot or cold; when the oats are dry, say two inches on the bottom, that will be perhaps over an hour, take the wooden shovel and clean off its breadth around three squares of the kiln by throwing them over on the oats. Then turn the oats over to the one end (not the sides) neatly turning them on top from the bottom. This takes some practice. When done your kiln head will be same as at beginning. It will steam again after about an hour ; when the steam is off, turn it over again but reverse the end (turn back). Don't let the fur- nace get too hot now, keep its temperature down rather. In about an hour more the miller will find his oats dry. He must now open his fur- nace doors and cool down, let the oats iay on the kiln 20 minutes even after they are dry. He will find that this will give them a sweet taste . Never dry with seeds as it imparts to the meal a tar taste. I have tried a good many kinds of millstones for oat meal, and I find in my long ex- perience that four foot porous burrs driven 120 revolutions, with a three toed rynd loose on the spindle and resting in 3 dents in the runner, are the best. I think the 20 inch vertical burrs will make the oat meal too floury, as oat meal don't take so much friction, the stones being kept so high — more so than in making flour." LeffeVs News. Note. — '■^LeffeVs Milling and Mechanical Neics" from which the above items are transcribed, is a. monthly journal (terms 50 cents per annum), pub- lished by James Leffel& Co. , manufacturers of the celebrated Leff el Turbine Wheel, Springfield, Ohio. The paper is edited with consummate ability, and it is safe to say that very many of the items contained in it are singly well worth the whole year's subscription tenfold. The Indianapolis Mechanical Journal (monthly, 50 cents per annum), J. H. Kerrick, publisher, Indianapolis, Ind., is a most useful periodical to every one who either operates or wishes to procure machinery, and the Western Mamifacturer (monthly, ^2 per annum), Coyne & Co., publishers (and Patent Agents) Chicago, Ills., is unexcelled on the subject of statistics and general iiiformation of interest to manufacturers. 050 lIAIiTlTFON'H (llilNDINr; MILL. HARRISON'S IMPROVED STANDARD GRINDING MILL. The above illustration represents a new improved light standard 20 inch grinding mill as constructed by Edward Harrison, of New Haven, Conn. It weighs 600 lbs. and the manufacturer claims for it a grinding capacity (with from 6 to 20 horse-power) of from 6 to 40 bushels per hour^ and that with 1200 revolutions per minute, it has a grinding surface equal to ^ more than a common 48 inch run with 175 turns per minute. He claims that the high speed adds a large grinding surface to the burrs, that the grain is exploded into meal, bran, &c., as "soon as it touches the burrs, that the vertical position of the stones permits easy delivery of the raeal and cool grinding, and that there is not only no possibility of the runner following up the bed face and grinding itself out of true, but that, on the contrary, the runners are self-facing (the bed being stationery, the runner rigid, no pivot, bale and driver being used) and grind themselves so true that with but little additional labor they will run to within the thousandth part of an inch without touching. The mill in its complete form, combining grinder, scourer, and bolter, (the last two are shown in the next cut) is a decided novelty, and when contrasted with other mills, presents manj'' startling points of difference. Briefly described, the bolter, or mill-case is a cylinder about 10 ft. long by 3 ft. in diam., made of staves and held together by a band and iron heads, into one of which the grinder is fitted, which is merely a 20 inch pair of burrs, set vertically, with the runner turning on the inside, its spindle passing horizontally through the bed stone in a journal about 10 ins. in length. The scourer and bolter is connected to the grinder by in- genious machinery. On the top of the case a ventilator runs the entire length, having an opening of about 20 superficial square feet, which is noESi: POWER of streams. G57 -onstructed for cooling the bolter quickly, the opening heing covered Avith a fibrous cloth material which permits the air to escape freely, causing a low ana even temperature, while detaining the fine flour dust. A dis- charge spout runs the whole length of the case. The silk bolter occupies nearly the entire space in the cylinder, and is fully protected from hot substances passing into it from the grinder by a wire screen. The mid- dlings cloth is attached to the finer silk, on the reel, continuously, and around it the middlings chamber is formed the full circumference of the reel-head, through which passages connect to the delivery spout, in the middle of the cylinder head at the tail of the mill, while sweeps are at- tached to the reel of the bolter for scraping the flour up to the discharge opening. Horse Powkk of Streams. — Taking Watt's estimate that the average power of a horse is sufficient to raise 33,000 lbs. 1 foot in vertical height per minute (by rheans of compound pulleys) a waterfall has one horse power for every 33,000 lbs. of Avater flowhig in the stream per minute, for each foot of fall. To compute the power of a stream, therefore, multi- C58 HORSE rowicii of stueams. ply tho area, of its cross section in feet by the velocity in feet per mimite, mid we h:ive the number of cubic feet flowing along the stream per min- ute. Multiply tliis by ()2.V, the number of ])oun(l,H in a culiic foot of water, and tiiis by tlio vertical fall in foot, and avo have the foot-pounds per minute of tho fall ; dividing by 3;5,()00 gives us the horse-power. For example : a stream flows through a Hume 10 feet wide, and tho deptli of the watei- is 4 feet ; the area of the ci'oss section will bo 40 feet. The velocity is 150 feet per miiuite — 40 x 150 = GOOO = tlie cubic feet of water flowing i)er minute. (iOOO x 02^ = 375,000 — the pounds of water flowing per minute. The fall is 10 "feet ; 10 x 375,000 = 3,750,000 = the foot pounds of the watei-fall. Divide 3,750,000 by 33,000 and we have 113§i as the horse-power of the fall. Rule.— Divide the continued product of the width, the depth, tho velocity of the water per minute, the height of the fall, and the weight of a cubic foot of water (62i lbs.) by 33,000. Example.— The flume of a mill is 10 feet wide, the water is 3 feet deep, the velocity is 100 feet per minute, and the fall 11 feet. What is the horse-power of the fall ? , Operation.— (10 x 3 x 100 x 11 X 62^)^ 33,000 = 62^ horse-power. " Almost every man has about him in his daily walk sufficient appara- tus for a tolerably accurate estimate of the quantity of water flowing in any stream. A walking stick, a jack-knife, and a watch, provided the walking-stick is just three feet long, are all the tools necessary for the purpose. " Take a section of the stream as uniform in breadth and depth as pos- sible, and measure off upon its bank some definite length, say from one to four hundred feet, according to the rapidity of tho water ; set a stake close to the water at each end of this section, then throw into the water, opposite the upper stake, a green twig or limb of a tree or other object of such specific gravity as to nearly but not quite sink, and of such size that one portion shall remain at the surface Avhile another portion nearly touches bottom, the object being to get the average speed of the water. The re- sistance caused by the bed and banks of the stream necessitate some care in this part of the experiment. . n h c': d "Note accurately the time the object is passing from stake to state, and repeat the^operation several times and at as many points towards the opposite shore'; the sum of the several times divided by the number of points at which the speed was taken, gives tho average speed of the water. " Now measure the depth at several equidistant points across the stream, as a, b, c, d, e, f, (the diagram showing a cross section of the stream). The sum of these depths, divided by the number of points at which the depth was measured gives the average depth ; this average dejpth multiplied by the breadth of the stream gives the area of the cross section ; this area, multii^lied by the length of ithe section, gives the cubic contents of the body of water embraced in tlie section. Thus we have the quantity and its velocity, which are elements necessary to show tho value of a stream for manufacturing purposes, provided it has sufficient fall anywhere to render it available, " Allowing 62 pounds for each cubic foot of water, a supply of 1,000 PERFOKMANCE &C. OF A HORSE, G59 I cubic feet per minute, and a fall of 10 feet, we have 1,000 x 62 = 62,000 pounds ; 62,000 X 10 = 620,000 pounds momentum, which last divided by 33,000=18.7-horse power, one-fiftli of which being deducted for friction and loss, would leave in this case about 15-horse power." The Millstone. Water-wheels lose from 10 to 50 per cent, of the power, and the actual power of the steam engine is less than that indicated by the horse-power, owing to a loss by friction, the amount of which depeitds on the perfec- tion of the machinery, arrangement, &c. For horse-power of steam-en- gines, consult page 370. Pekformance, &c., of a Horse —A horse will travel 400 yds. in 4^ minutes at a loalk, 400 yds. in 2 minutes at a trot, and 400 yds. in i minute, at a gallop. The usual work of a horse is taken at 22,500 lbs. raised 1 foot per minute, for 8 hours per day. A horse will carry 250 lbs. 25 miles per day of 8 hours. An average draught-horse will draw 1,600 lbs. 23 miles per day on a level road, weight of wagon included. TJie average weight of a horse is 1,000 lbs. ; his strength is equal to that of 5 men. In a horse mill moving at 3 feet i)er second, track 25 feet diameter, he exerts with the machine the power of 4^ horses. The greatest amount a horse can pull in a horizontal line is 900" lbs. ; but he can only do this momen- tarily, in continued exertion, probably half of this is the limit. He attains his growth in 5 years, will live 25, average, 16 years. A horse will live 25 days on water, without solid food, 17 days Avithout eating or drinking, but only 5 days on solid food, without drinidng. Table exhibiting the Performance! of a Horse at different KATES of speed ON RAILROADS, CaNALS, TURNPIKES, &C., DRAWING PoRCE 83J lbs. Useful effect for 1 day in tons, drawn 1 mile- Duration of Speed per hour. day's work On canal- On a railroad- On a turn- Miles. — hours. tons- tons. pike-tons. 2% 8 520 115 14 3 213 02 12 G 154 82 10 4 102 72 9 5 52 57 7.3 G ¥• 30 48 6 7 19 41 5 8 lit 12.8 36 4.5 9 9. 32 4. 10 G.5 28.8 3.G Gain in Fuel and Initial Pressure of Steam Required when Acting Expansively, Compared with Non-Expansion oii Full Stroke. Initial PltESSURE Point Required. of Gain Cutting in o:f. Fuel. Cutting Full Off. Stroke. Stroke. Per cent. Stroke. Stroke. 11.7 1.01 1. 1 22.4 1.03 1. 32. 1.09 1. 41. 1.18 1. Point of Cutting Off. Gain Fuel. Initial llEQX Cutting Off. Pr.ESSUKE JIKED. Full Stroke. j Stroke. Per cent. Stroke. Stroke. 49.6 1.32 1. 58.2 1.67 1. ! ^ 67.6 2.6 1. CGO Compound tiakink enginKv IMPROYED COMPOUND SURFACE CONDENSING MARINE ENGINE. Extraordinary Duty of Steam Machinery. — Two Locomotives belonging to the Peuusylvauia R. R. Co., are credited with the following performances : — Engine Xo. 55 ran two j^ears, ten months, and twenty-five days, and made 161,476 miles, without once being off her wheels, or receiving other repairs than such as are common to round-housework. The cost of run- ning her during this period was $1.88 per mile. The other engine, No. 422, ran three years, six months and nineteen days, and made 153,280 miles, at a cost of $2.44 per mile without undergoing the slightest repairs. COMPOUND MARINE ENGlNi:. GGl To FTND T?iB Quantity of V^atiIk necessary fok a Steatii doil- EK. — Ascertain the Jiumbcr of lbs. of copJ consumed per hour, divide it by 7'5, mid tlic quotient y/ill be the desired quantity of Avater in cubic ft, pc' hour. A cubic ft. of AV.ater "weighs 02 "5 lbs. See i^ago 029. The above sketch represents an outline of the least-complicated and lowest-priced form of compound-engine, as at present constructed on the Clyde, in Scotland, and on the Delaware, in the United States. The cranks Y, Z, are coupled at an angle of 90° ; only two cylinders, A and B, are used ; a, uniform distribution of steam pressure is secured by a large allowance of steam pipe, and by the steam reservoir, 0, P, between the tv/o cylinders. The valves, ?/, y, are adjusted like those of an ordi- nary engine, the essential difference being that the steam exhausted by the first cylinder. A, is used over again in the second and largest one, B, the combination effecting a steam expansion of about six times, the pres- sure in the boiler usually ranging between 60 and 75 lbs. per square inch. In the City of Peking, a 5,000 ton vessel, built on tlie Delaware for the Pacific Mail Company^ there are two pairs of compound engines, with CG2 CONSUMPTION or COAL, AC. cylinders of 51 nnd 88 iiia. diam, Tlic crank shafts are 18 ins. diain. lioilcr pressure is (iO lbs. Steam is expanded 1) times. The boilers arc 10 (cylindrical inform, Avitli cylindrical lines), 10.^ ft. long, 13 ft. diain. ; sliclls, 13-1(> in. thick, witii 520 It. of grate surface, 10,500 sq. ft. of heat- ing surface, and 1,(!00 sq. ft. of superheating surface, with smoke stacks, 8^ it. diam., and 70 ft. high. "The simplest form of superheater used on hoard steamers consists of n ■\vrought-iron drum filled with tubes. They are placed usually in the np-takes, or at the base of the funnel of a marine boiler, so disposed that the waste heat and flame froin the furnaces will pass through the tubes and around the shell of the drum, the steam being inside. Connection is made witli the boiler and steam pipes of the engine, and fitted with stop valves to govern the admission of steam according to requirements. A safety valve and gauge glass is also fitted, to show whether the superheater is clear of water, as priming is liable to fill it up. It has been shown that this contrivance often effects a saving of 20 to 25 per cent, in the fuel consumed. Table for finding the Consumption of Coal per Hour in Steamers, either Paddle or Screw {the same Screw beinr/ used throughout), at any Bate of Speed, the Consumption for a particular Hate' beinr/ knorvn. (At a given Amount of Coal, the JEnc/ineer may determine the most pru- dent Rate of Engine for reaching next coaling Port.) Speed. Consumption of Coal. Speed. Consumption, of Coal. 3 .210 9 5 83 3^ .343 9i 6.86 4 .512 10 8.00 4* .729- 10^ 9.26 5" 1 000 11 10 65 5i 1 331 114 12.15 6 1.728 12 13.82 6i 2.197 12i 15 61 7 2.744 13 17.58 ? 3.375 13^ 19.68 4. 090 14 21.95 8i 4.910 Explanation. The speed for the consump- tion of an unit of coal is sup- posed here to be 5, which may be 5 miles or knots, or 5 times any number of miles or knots ; then if 5 of such number of miles re- quire 1 unit of coal per hour, 9 of such units wUl, by the table, require 5.83 units of coal, and 3 of them .216 units of coal. It will be evident that this table is calculated on the principle that the horse power varies very nearly as the cube of the speed ; the enormous increase of consumption at increased velocities is in fact a little greater than that shown by the Table. The advantages indicated above to be obtained at low velocities are evidently independent of those obtained at those velocities by using the steam expansively. Engineer's and Contractor' s Pocket Book. To Preserve Boiler Tubes. — A coating of red-lead and boiled linseed oil, applied to iron boiler tubes acts as a powerful preservative. A lacquer of linseed oil and caoutchouc applied to the walls of a steam boiler prevents the adhesion of sediment so that the sucale admits of easy removal. To Protect Polished Steel or Iron from Rust.— Go over the sur- face with paraflSne, or steep the iron for a few miniites in a solution of Bulphate of copper and then transfer it into a solution of hjqDosulphite of Boda acidulated with hydrochloric acid. The result is a blue-black coat- ing not affected by air or water. CONSUMPTION OF FUEL, &C. 663 Breaking and CRrsniNO strains of Iron and Steel. Average CALCITLATIONS. Breaking stmin of wrought iron = 23 tons per sq. inch of section. Crushing do, do. = 17 " do, do. Breaking strain of cast iron = " do. do. Crushing do. do. — 50 " do. do. Breaking strain of steel bars —50 do. do. Crushing do. do. r= 16G " do, do. Memoranda of Temperatures for Engineers, &c. — Melting ice is 32° ; boiling -water at atmospheric pressure or exposed to air 212° ; steam at GO lbs. pressure by steam guage 307° ; usual heat of superheated steam 380° to 400° ; smoke in the f uiuiel C00° ; water in hot well from lOO'' to 120°, For raising steam, the horizontal surfaces over the fire, have double the value of vertical surfaces for economy of heat. Boiler plates increase in strength up to 570° of heat, and get weaker with the increase of temperature. Temperatures at sundry subterranean depths, in deg. Fahr. At 68 ft. 47,9 At G21 ft. 50.7 . At 1290 ft. 58 .3 At 1GG2 ft. G1.2 " 299 48.8 " 939 " 57.8 " 1414 " 59.4 " 1900 " G1.4 Fresh water begins to freeze at 32°, called the freezing point, but salt water not till 28|°. The atoms lose the motion called heat, and become fixed in crystals. Consumption of Fuel in Marine Boilers, — This will average about 15^ lbs. of coal per square foot per hour. In 4 furnaces 3 ft. wide by 6 ft. long with 72 sq, ft, of surface, about 12 tons of coal will be burnt per day, feet, lbs, 72x154 Thus, =9.9 cwts. per hour, say 10 cwts. per hour or 12 tons per 112 day. A much simpler and equally correct rule is, that one foot in Avidth of fire bar equals 1 ton of coal per day ; so that in the example above tlie total width of four furnaces is 3ft. x "=12 ft, wide, or 12 tons per day as before. A ship having 40 ft. beam and ordinary condensing engines, will re- quire 40 tons of coal per day to drive her at 10 knots. The reason for stating this is, that it is well 'known from ordinary experience of average steamers that the beam squared equals the consumption of fuel for 40, 50, or 60 days, according to whether the engines are ordinary jet, surface condensing, or compound. Thus, in present example : — days 4/0)160/0 5/0)160/0 0/0)160/0 40 tons for one day 32 tons for 2G tons 8 cwt. for ordinary con- surface for compound densing . condensing. engines. A pair of surface condensing engines (not compound) having 40 inch cylinders, doing average work, AvilJ require 16 tons of coal per day ; it be- ing a Avell known practical fact that the diameter of one cylinder, squared and divided by 100, gives the average consumption of fuel in this class of engine yer day. Thus, in present example : — 42= = 40 X 40 = 1000 ; then, = 16 tons per day. Compound engines burn J less, and ordinary jet i more than the abova Reed's Engineefs Hand Book. GG'l- RULES FOR ENGINEERS, &C. Ratio of CoMiurKTioN vim iiouit undicii VyVuioTrs Loilkkf?.— Cor- nisli, --a.V lbs. looi, ; I.ukI l)()il(;rs 10 to 2()lbs. (Kn«li.«]i) 13 to 14 lbs. ; iii;u iiir boilers iinil (lr;ui,ulit), 10 to 18 lbs. ; (bliust), 'M to GO lbs. ; locomoLivo boihu's, KO to J'JO Jbs. To find lloitsio I'owicu of En(;imic to kaisk Watkr to a givin Height.— Weij;ht of coliiinii of water X by its velocity, in foot, per uiiii- uto, product 33,000 = II. 1*. To FIND THE Velocity kequoikd to Dischakgk a given volume OF Water in any Given Time. — Number of cubic feet X 144 ; pro- ilnct -r by area of pipe, or opening in inches = Velocity. To Ascektain the Breadth of thio 1'orts.— Half the throw of the valve should be at least equal to the lap on the steam side added to the breadth of the port. If this breadtli does not give the required area of port, increase the throw of valve until the area is attained. Proper Lift of Poppet Valves.— The best results from poppet or conical valves are obtained by giving them a lift equivalent to one half the semi-diameter of a circle, or ^ the diameter of the valve. This will afford an opening equivalent to the area of the port and the eccentrics and the lifting toes should be adjusted so as to produce this effect. To FIND Dimensions of Chimney for a Land Engine.— Multiply number of lbs. of coal consumed under the boiler per liour by 12 ; divide the product by square root of the height of chimney in feet. Quotient is area of chimney at smallest point in square inches. Table Showing Diameter and Height of Chimney for any Boiler. Ilorse-powoi of Boiler. ;Vit. of Chimney in Feet. Interior Diiinieter at Top H. P. of Boiler. Alt. of Chimney in Feet. Interior Jyiametcr at Top. 10 CO 14 inches. 70 120 30 inches. 12 75 14 " 90 120 31 " 16 00 16 " 120 135 38 ' 20 09 17 " 160 1.50 43 " 30 105 21 " 200 165 47 " 50 120 26 " 250 180 52 " 60 120 27 " 380 195 57 " To Clean Greasy Cotton Waste. — Boil it in a strong solution of common soda in water, and save the resultant soapy liquid to keei) your drills and reamers lubricated when drilling iron. To Clean Grease from Bolts. — Moisten with benzine, roll iu saw- dust, and brush afterward. Calculations regarding Dimensions, Power, &c., op Steam Boilers . — Good authorities consider it quite a safe practice to allow 9 square ft. heating surface for Cylinder boilers per H. P. 12 " " " " " flue 15 " " " " " tifbular " " One half the circumference of the boiler multiplied into the length and reduced to square feet will give the heating surface in cylhider boilers ; or, the heating surface in the shell of flue and tubular boilers. To find the heating surface in the tubes or flues, multiply their external circum- ference by their length and reduce to square feet. The heating surface of the tubes or flues added together and then adding the heating surface in the shell, Avill give the total heating surface. This divided by 12 or 15 as the case may be will give the horse power of any particular boiler in terms of heating surface as given above. This is to be understood as being purely conventional and arbitrary, and not the actual horse power, which can only be determined by an experimental test, made by a com- petent expert. HEATING SURFACE, &C., OF BOILERS. G6o The folio wincj Tables will serve as :i guide in the selection of boilers, and may be quite serviceable to millwrights and others. Table I.— II. V. of Cylinder Boilek at 9 feet. Diam, II. P. 10 12 15 18 20 06 in. 38 40 44 46 Length. 19 ft. 22 20 28 30 Heating Surface 90 sq. ft. 103 " 135 162 180 Table II.— H. P. of 2 Flub Boileus at 12 feet Diam. Boiler, Diam. Flues. 34 in. 10 in, 30 13 40 14 22 44 16 25 46 17 Table III.- H. P. of 5 Flue Boilers at 12 feet, H. P. Diam. Boiler. Diam. Flues. ( 2—10 in. I 3- 8 j 1—13 (2—8 1— 14 2— 10 18 356 1— 8 H. P. 15 18 20 Length. IS ft. 20 20 IS 20 Length. 44 in. 46 50 14 ft. 16 18 Heat. Surf. 176 sq. ft 222 254 260 302 Heat Surf. 245 sq. ft. Table IV. — H. P. of Boilers >YiTn G-inch lap avelded Tubes at 12 FEET. H. P. Diam. Lengtli. 15 42 in. 12 ft. 20 42 16 25 44 18 30 46 18 36 46 20 42 48 20 No of Flues. Heat Surf. 6 179 ft. 6 239 7 302 9 363 10 434 13 503 T-Able V. — H. P. OF Boilers with 3-incii tubes at 15 feet. H. P. Diam. Length. No of Tubes. Heat Surf. 15 36 in. 8 ft 30 227 ft. 19 36 ' 10 30 283 22 36 12 SO 3.39 27 40 12 36 402 31 44 12 42 465 36 44 14 42 543 42 48 14 50 638 xn regard to the diameter and length of a boiler, it might be observed that cylinder boilers are usually made from 18 to 30 feet in length, and from 30 to 48 inches in diameter. Flue boilers from 18 to 24 feet in length, and from 36 to 60 inches in diameter. Tubular from 8 to 18 feet in length, and from 30 inches to 5 feet in diameter. 6GG ON liOiLEiiS, rowEU op explosives. Boilers liavin;: lap-wcldod tiibcs increase in extra cost Avlicn their Icnj^tlis exceed 18 feet. These tubes wouki have to be made to order, which, in case of rei)airs, might cause considerable loss of time in having to wait for them to be made. It is better to keep the diameters of boilers below 4 feet than go over it, using two or more boilers as may be needed to furnish the requisite Jimount of steam. In large and important works the subjects of boilers, engines, etc., ought to be referred to a competent mechanical engineer, who will ad- vise as to the kind, size, and number to be emjjloyed. The Mill Stone. To fuid the contents of cylinder boilers multiply the area of the head in inches by the length in inches and divide the product by '1728 ; the quotient will be the number of cubic feet of water the boiler will con- tain. Example : Diameter of head, 36 inches ; area of head, 1017.87 inches ; length of boiler, 20 feet or 240 inches. Now multiply 1017.87 by 240 and the product will be 244,283.80 ; divide this by .1728 and the re- sult will be 141.37 cubic feet, which will be the contents of the shell. In flue boilers, multiply area of the head in inches by the length of the shell in inches ; multiply the combined area of the flues in inches by their length in inches, subtract this product from the first and divide the remainder by "1728 ; the quotient will be the number of cubic feet of water the boiler Mill contain. To FIND THE Length of Belting when closely Rolled.— The sum of the diameters of the roll and the eye in inches, multiplied by the num- ber of turns made by the belt, and this product multiplied by the decimal .1309, will be the length of the belt in feet. Anchinchloss. To Measure Scantlings, Joists, Plank, Sills, &c.—7?uZe.— Multi- ply the width, the thickness and the length together (the width and thick- ness in inches and the length in feet), and divide the product by 12 ; the result will be the square feet. To Measure Boards — Multiply the length (hi feet) by the width (in ijiches) and divide the product by 12 ; the re- sult will be the number of Square feet it contains. Explosive force of various substances used for fire arms, artillery, blasting, &c, Heat. Volume Estimated of Gas. Explosive lorce. 509 0.173 liter. 88 008 0.225 " 137 641 0.216 " 139 764 0.248 " 190 Powder, Chlorate of Potash for its base . . 972 0.318 " 309 590 0.801 " 472 687 0.780 " 536 , 578 0.585 " 680 1420 0.484 " 680 1424 0.408 " 582 Picrate " " 1422 0.337 " 478 1320 0.710 " 939 The above instructive table is by the celebrated M. Berthelot, who further describes nitro-glycerin as " really the ideal of portable force. It burns completely without residue ; in fact, gives an excess of oxygen ; it developes twice as much heat as powder, three and a half times more gas, and has seven times the explosive force, weight for weight, and, taken volume for volume, it possesses twelve timesmore energy." From the extreme danger of the work, none but a competent chemist should attempt to manufacture it. GOLD MINING, SPEED OF BODIES. 667 Many other explosives derive their energy from nitro-glycerin. Dy- namite is nitro-glycerine compounded with rotten-stone, or silicious, or infasorinl earth, tripoli, &c. ; a compound of nitro-glycerin and saw-dust has been sold under the name of dualui ; a mixture of plaster of Paris and nitro-glycerin has been sold under the name of " selenitic powder;" and fine jwwder, blended with nitro-glycerin, has been vended under the name of " lithofracteur," or "rendrock." The practical miner will be interested in the above, as well as in the following : — Table showing the quantity of gold to the ton of ore, cor- responding to the weights in grains obtained from 400 grains of mineral. If 400 grains o' Ore give Fine Gold, Grains. .001 .002 .003 .004 .005 .006 .007 .008 .009 .010 .020 .030 .040 .050 .OfiO .070 .080 .090 .100 One ton of Ore .will yield, If 400 Grains of Ore give Fine Gold, Grains. ,200...... .300 ,400 .500 .600 .700 .800 .900 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 9.000 10.000 20.000 One ton of Ore will yield. 16 24 32 40 49 57 65 73 81 163 245 326 408 490 570 653 735 816 1633 Dwts. Mr, Black, of San Francisco, estimates that in mining operations the average cost of handling a cubic yard of aurif eroiis gravel with the pan is $20 ; with the rocker, $5 ; with the long torn, %1 ; and with the hy- draulic process, 20c. See other items for miners on page 451, An ex- cellent compilation on this subject is " The Miner's Hand-Book," by Julius Silvermith, for sale by D. Van Nostrand, New York. Table showing the Average Velocities of Various Bodies ,, Per hour. Per Bee or 4 feet. or 10 " or 29 " or 26 " or 14 " 3 " or 4 " or 10 " or 10 or 52 '* or 117 " or 1466 '« 743 " or 1142 «« 192000 miles per sec. Electricity « 288000 " ^^ i Parker's Philosophy. G68 ON SUGyVIi MILLS, &C. Enormous Rf.sults of SricAMrowKu. — Tlio nf;j{jrosato steam-power in uso ill thv, world is at pi'cscnt three and oiui-liall' millioiirt hors(!-power employed in stationary engines, and t(!n millions horse-power in loeomo- tivo e'n.fjines. 'J'his force is maiiilainod -without tlic consumption of animal food, except by tlic miners who dig tlie coals, and the force main- tained in their muscle's is to the force generated by the product of tlieir labor about 1 to 1,080. This steam-power is equal to the working force of 25 millions of hox'ses, and one liorse consumes three times as much food as one man. The steam-power, therefore, is equivalent to the sav- ing of food for 75 millions of luimau beings. Further, three power-looms attended by one man, produce 78 pieces of cotton fabric, against 4 pieces produced by one hand-loom, worked by one man in the year 1800. A carpenter's planing machine does the work of twenty men. SUGAR MILL. Sugar Mill,. — The sugar canes are crushed in a press consisting of three hollow cast iron rollers, represented in the cut by a b c, placed horizontally in a cast iron f rat^e. By means of the screws, i, i, the ap- proximate distance of the rollers'^s' adjusted. One roller is half as large as the others, and is moved by three cogged wheels fitted on to the axis of the rollers. Thesngar canes are transferred from the slate gutter, d, d, to the rollers, a, c, which press them a little, and from thence they are carried to the arched i)late, n, to the rollers c, h. The pressed sugar canes fall over the gutter/, the expressed juice collecting in g, g, and running off through h. The middle roller is termed the king roller ; the side cylin-- ders are individually the side roller and niacasse. Sugar Mill. — For Expressing 20,000 Ihs of Cane Juice per day. Non-condensing Engine. Cylinder 15 ins. in diameter by 4 ft. stroke. Pressure, 50 lbs. per sq . in., cut off at \ the stroke of the piston. Revolu- tions. 36 per minute. Boiler. One of 62 ins. diam. by 30 ft. in length, Avith 2 18-in. return flues. Grates. 36 Square ft. Rolls. Two sets of three each, of 24 ins. diam. by 5 ft. in length ; geared 2^ to 30 of engine, giving a speed of periphery of 15^ ft. per minute. Fly-Wheel. 18 ft. diam. ; weight 5 tons. This arrangement of a second set of rolls is a late improvement ; its object, that of expressing the cane a second time. An increase of 20 per cent, is effected by it. KULES FOR MACHINISTS, &C. GGD For a Crop of 3000 Boxes or Sugar of 500 lbs. -EAcn.— Cylinder. 10 ius. in diam. by 4 it. stroke. Pressure, GO lbs. per square in. Revo- hit Ions 48, driving 1 set of rolls, 24 ins by 4 ft., at a speed of periphery of 36 ft. per minute. Boiler. 52 ius. bv 24 ft., with 2 16-in return flues. Grate Surface. 25 square ft. Fly Wheel. 16 ft. diara. ; weight. 4 tons. Enciineers' and Contractors' Pocket Book. Cotton Press. Non-condensing Engine. For 1000 Bales in 12 hours. Cylinder 14 in. in diam. by 4 ft. stroke. * Pressure. 40 lbs. per sq.. at full stroke. Revolutions. 60'per minute. Boilers. Three, plain cyliudical, without flues, 30 in. in diam. by 2(5 ft. in length. Grates. 32 square ft. Presses. Four, geared G to one, Avith 2 screws cacli of 7^ in. diam., by Ig in. pitch. Shaft ( Wrought Iron). Journal, 8^ in. Fly-wheel. 16 ft. diameter, weight, 4 tons.' Rules to Ascertain the Pressure ov Slide Valves. — Multiply the unbalanced area of the valvS in inches by the pressure of steam in lbs. per square inch, and the weight of the valve in lbs., and multiply the sum by 0 15 To get an Engine into Line and Square the Shaft.— Set up two lines, one parallel to the axis of the cylhider, or through the cylinder, if possible, and the other perpendicular to tlie first, in the same piano. These are reference lines to measure from, to bring the shaft and guide into line. Hint to Machinists. — In turning steel or other hard metal, use a drip composed of petroleum 2 parts, and turpentine 1 part. This will ensure easy cutting and perfect tools when otherwise the work would stop owing to the breakage of tools from the severe strain. To Melt Brass Turnings and Filings with Little Waste. — Compress firmly in a crucible until it is full ; then cover, and lute the top with pipe or fire-clay. Brass scraps may be melted with new brass, putting it in with tlie zinc after the copper is melted. To Temper Anvils. — Heat the anvil and immerse it in a tank of cold water to a depth of two or three inches, or play a stream of cold water from a hose on its face. PROPER SIZE, SPEED, &C., OF EMERY WHEELS. Diam. of Wheel i.i inches. Rev. per miuute. Number of Emei-y. Grade of Cut. 2 Wood Rasp, Rasp File. Rough. File. Bastard File. Second Cut File. Smooth File. Superfine File. Dead Smooth File. 4 . ... 16 to 20 ... C 8 10 12 1100 .... 70 to KO . . . . 14 900 ... 90 to 100.... 16 18 700 -. 20 22 24 26 400...- 36 325 Emery wheels may be trued by means of a diamond tool, a red hot iron, or by a file applied to the Avet periphery of the wheel. For emery cement, see page 424. In using emery paper or cloth for finishing, the paper, although the easiest to destroy, imparts the smoothest polish to the metal, and the longer it is used the better it polishes. G70 AVKIGIIT, DIMENSIONS, &C., OF TIN PLATKS. NuMnKii, Wkioitt, Sizk, Ltcxoth, axd Bkkatii of Tin Plates. Brand Makk. 1 c 1 X 1 XX 1 XXX 1 xxxx 1 xxxxx 1 xxxxxx D C P X D XX D XXX Dr xxxx D xxxxx D xxxxxx S D C S D X S D XX S D XXX S D XXXX S D xxxxx S D xxxxxx TTT Taggers, 1 C 1 X 1 XX 1 XXX 1 xxxx 1 c 1 X 1 XX 1 XXX 1 xxxx Leaded or )1C TernpR \ 1 x No. oi Sheet? 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 100 100 100 100 foo 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 225 225 225 225 225 112 112 112 112 112 112 112 Length and Hieudtlx. Inches. Inches 14 by 10 ' ' by 10 14 14 l)y 10 14 by 10 14 by 10 14 T)y 10 14 by 10 17 by m, 17 by 12| 17 by 12A 17 by 12| 17 by 12| 17 by 12^ 17 by 12^ 15 by 11 15 by 11 15 by 11 15 by 11 15 by 11 15 by 11 15 by 11 14 by 10 12 by 12 12 by 12 12 by 12 12 by 12 12 by 12 14 by 20 14 by 20 14 by 20 14 by 20 14 by 20 by 20 bv 20 WoiKlit per Box. Cwt. qr. lbs. 0 21 3-14 0 14 1 7 2 0 2 21 3 14 0 7 2 0 27 1 20 2 13 about 10 0 Each 1 X r.dvances ^i;i.75 to ^f2.00 N ^ ^ O «.2 > O 0) c« ^ tip About the same weight per Box, as the plates above of similar brand, 14 to 10. For Roofing. OIL CANISTERS, {from 2h to 125 qalls.) WITH THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF TIN REQUIRED FOR CUSTOM WORK. Quantity an d Quality. Plates, I X in body. SDX DX " " IX *' DX DX 33 60 90 125 Quantity and Quality. 13^ Plates, IX in body, 3 breadths high. 13^ Plates, S D X in body 13$ " DX " 15| " DX " * 20 " DX " * The bottom tier of plates to be placed lengthwise. diagiia:m for bevel covers, &c. 671 Varnishes for Pipes and Iron-Work.— Coal tar, 30 gals. ; tallow, 6 lbs. ; rosin, 1^ lbs. ; lamp-black, 3 lbs. ; fresh slaked lime, finely sifted, 30 lbs. Stir airtlioroughly together, and apply hot. Ajiother.—Tar oil, 20 lbs. ; asphaltura, 5 lbs. ; powdered rosin, 5 lbs. Heat all together ir an iron kettle, very carefully, to prevent ignition. M To Strike out can tops and Bevel Covers For Vessels.— Describe the angle MAC, and from the point F, the altitude height you desire the breast, erect a perpendicular line H ; then on the line C, mark the point E one-half the diameter of the can, and on the line H mark the point G one-lialf of the opening in. the top of breast ; draw the line B to cross through the points E and G to intersect the line M ; place one foot of the compasses at tlie point I and the other on the i^oint E, and delineate the circle E N L ; next, span the compasses from i^oint I to point G and outline the circle G D K ; then span from A to E, and step the compasses six times on the circle E N L, which gives the dimensions of the breast. The allowance for the locks is represented by the dotted lines. Beautiful Bronze, Applicable to all Metals.— Take 10 parte aniline red (fuchsine), and 5 of aniline pui^Dle, and dissolve in 100 parts of 95 per cent, alcohol, taking care to help the solution by placing the vessel in a sand or water bath. As soon as the solution is effected, 5 parts of benzoic acid are added, and the whole is boiled from five to ten minutes until the greenish color of the mixture is transformed into a fine light- colored, brilliant bronze. Apply with a brush . Imitation Nickel Plating. — Coarse rasped granulated zinc is boiled for some time, in a mixture of 3 parts by weight of sal ammoniac, and G72 FKUSTllUMS, KLLirSES, NAILS, &C 10 of wjitcr, the objects iniinci'Hod ,ind stirred up witli a zinc rod. Tlio deposit is silvery l)ri,i4lit, ;uid rcisists meeluuiieul action us well as a coat- iui; ol' nickel. Tlui ])r()cess can he I'econiniended for .^oods which are meant for a second coating of some other metal, since auy other is easily deposited on zinc. A • How TO Strike out the Frustrum of a Cone.— In the figure E G II D represent the desired frustrum ; continue the liaes D E and G I£ until they meet at the apex C ; then from C as a centre, Avith the radius C H, lay off the arc H B ; also from C, with the radius C G, describe the arc G A ; make G A twice the length of E F G, drawing the line C A, and G II A B, is the desired outline of the plate you require. TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSE. Rule. — Multiply the longer diameter by the shorter diameter, and by •7854, and the product wall be the area. Kxample. — Required the area of an ellipse whose longer diameter is G inches and shorter diameter 4 inches ? 64-4+- 7854 18-8496, the area. To FIND THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE OR GLOBE. — Multiply the diameter by the circumference ; or multiply the square of the diameter by 3"1416 ; or multiply four times the square of the radius by 3'14ir). No. OF American Machine made Cut ^Iails in a Pound as VERIFIED BY ACTUAL COUNT. Size. | Number. 3 penny 408 4 " 275 5 " 227 Size. | Number. 6 penny ..150 8 " 100 10 " m Size. | Number. 12 penny 52 20 " .32 30 " 25 Spikes. Boat. Ship. No. 4 1-4 in 13 to 1 lb. No. 4 5-lG in 8 to 1 lb No. 5 5-16 in 8 " No. 5 3-8 in 6 " No. 6 3-8 in 5 " No. 6 3-8 in 5 " No. 7 5-8 in \4 " No. 7 3-8 in 3^ " No. 8 3-8 in 3 " No. 9 9-16 in 2 " No. 10 9-16 in 1| " Note on Forgings. — Iron, while heating, if exposed to air, AAdll oxycUze ; when at white heat, if in contact with coal, it will carbonize, or become steely. Iron should be heated as rapidly as possible. To Restore Burnt Iron. — Give a smart heat, protected from the air ; if injured by cold hammer in f/, anneal slowly and moderately ; if ftarcZ or steely, give one or more smart heats, to extract the carbon. COST OF CARS, CAR BUILDING, &C. 673 Cost of a Pennsylvania Railroad Passenger Car.— The Lon- don Engineering gives in detail the cost of constructing one first-class Standard Passenger Car, at the Altoona shops of the Pennsjdvania R.R., the total cost being $4,423.75. The principal items are as follows :— 57 Sash Balances 44 61 61 Lights Glasses 65 83 2 Stoves 77 56 25 Sets Seat Fixtures 50 5o 3 Bronze Lamps 13 50 2 Bronze Door Locks 15 20 Butts and Hinges 15 58 13 Basket Racks 77 35 12 Sash Levers 42 00 61 Bronze Window Lifts. . . . 24 40 61 Windo-w Fasteners 16 47 238 Sheets Tin 41 44 Galvanized Iron 25 31 96 yards Scarlet Plush — ... 228 87 44 yards Green Plush 109 99 61 yards Sheeting 10 30 243 lbs. Hair 72 95 12 Springs 22 96 12 Spiral Elliptic Springs. . . 20 29 1 Head Lining 80 63 2 packets Gold Leaf 14 58 Various small items 261 44 Labor $1263 94 Proportion of Fuel and Stores 28 61 2480 feet Poplar 86 80 3434 feet Ash 127 08 1100 feet Pine 20 90 2350 feet Yellow Pine 70 50 500 feet Oak 10 00 450 feet Hickory 13 50 700 feet Michigan Pine 49 00 400 feet Cherry 16 00 439 feet Maple vineer 24 14 4 pairs Wheels and Axles. . . 332 85 2 pairs Passenger Car Trucks 533 62 273 13 gallons Varnish 52 34 45 lbs. Glue... 14 33 2925 lbs. Iron 87 75 792 lbs. Castings 16 99 Screws 61 88 Gas Regulator and Gauge 25 25 2 Two-Light Chandeliers.. 50 72 2 Gas Tanks 84 00 1 Air-Brake, complete. . . . 131 79 §4,423 75 Comparative Cost of Freight by Water and Rail. — The Mis- sissipi Transportation Co. have proved by actual test that a single Tow- boat can transport at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans, 29,000 tons of coal loaded in barges. They estimate that in this way the boat and its tow, worked by a few men, carries as much freight to its destina- tion as 3,000 cars and 100 locomotives, manned by 600 men, could trans- port, and they propose to undertake the shipment of wheat, pork, and other produce on the same plan. A standard locomotive of the New York Central Railroad, 32-i tons weight, with cylinders 16 inches diameter, 24-inch stroke, 60-inch d^rivers with four drivers and four truck wheels, will haul over the Central Rail- road, with its level grades and straight line, 1,000 tons, or say 50 loaded cars. The same locomotive would work as follows : 20-foot grade 460 tons or say 23 loaded card. 40-foot grade 290 tons or say 14^^ loaded cars. 60-foot grade 205 ions or say 10 loaded cars. 80-foot grade 150 tons or say 8 loaded cars. 100-foot grade 120 tons or say 6 loaded cars. Passenger Cars — 4 feet 8^ inches Gauge.— For 60 persons ; Body 48 ft. ; length over platform, 54 ft. ; width, 9 ft. 6 ins. ; height at sides, 7 ft. 10 ins. ; at dome, 10 ft. 3 ins. ; saloon, 6 ft.x 2 ft. 9 ins. ; passage be- tween seats, 1 ft. 10 ins. ; seats 1 ft. 4 ins. wide, 3 ft. 2 ins. long inside, 1 ft. 4 ins. from floor ; sash lights, 2 ft. X 2 ft. 7 ins. ; doors, 2 ft , 3 in. X 6 ft. 4 ins.; framing— 2 side sills, 5|x 9 ; 4 inside do., 4X9 ; end do., 6x9 ; transom beams, 9x14 ; pillars, 2X3 ; end do., 5 ins. rad. ; flooring 1-J ins., double, laid diagonal, crossed at angle of 45° ; 2 trues rods, Ig ins., iron ; dome braced by Iron knees, 2xf ins. ; platforms, 2 ft. 6 ins. wide ; bumper beam, 7x8 at centre, 4x3^ at ends ; weight, empty, 39,000 lbs. ; dead weight per passenger, 6501b9.'j weight, loaded, 46,980 lbs. ; load on eacli wheel, light, 3,250 lbs. ; if loaded, 3,915 lbs. Sleeping Coach.— For 64 passengers : Body 61 ft. long, 8 ft. 10 ins, wide inside, 7 ft. 10 ins. high at sides, 9 ft. 7 ins. at dome ; carried on 674 DIMENSIONS OF CARS, &C. twelve 33-111. wheels, 10 elliptic springs, 30-111. centres, 5 leaves, 5-10 ins., 1 do., j|X3^, steel — weiglit, 1)3.^ lbs. each— and 8 rubber H))iinKs over axles, 8x7 ; dead weight, Avithout passengers, 20 tons, or 812.5 lbs. per passenger ; if loaded, 1)45.5 lbs, per passenger ; load on each wheel — 5.042 H)s. Western Palace Cars, oil IG wheels, loaded, weigh, 78,500 lbs., or 4,907 lbs. load on each wheel. Jiox Caks.— 27 ft. 5 ins. long, 8 ft. 0 ins. wide, 7 ft. 3 ins. high at sides, 8 ft. at roof ; doors, 5 ft. X5 ft. 10 ins. ; track to top of car, 10 ft. 10 ins. ; timbers— 2 side sills, 4iXS ; 4 inside do., 3^x8 ; end do., 5x84 ; transoms, 5x12 ; pillars for doors, 3??x4 ; end do-"", 34x4.^ ; plates, 5x34 ; ridge heam, 24X3.^-; rafters — l^xSl^ at sides, 1^x12 at centre; intermediates 1^ x 24 ; weight, 17,800 lbs. ; do., loaded, 37,800 lbs.; dead weight for crich ton carried, if loaded, 1,780 lbs. ; load on each wheel, if light, 2,225 lbs. ; if loaded to capacity, 4,725 lbs. Baggage Cars. — 45 ft. long, 9 ft. 4 ins. wide, 7 ft. 4 ins. at sides, 9 ft. at crown of roof ; end doors, 2 ft. 2 ins.xO ft. 4 in. ; end side doors, 3 ft. xO ft. 2 ius. ; centre doors, 3 ft. 10 ins. X 0 ft. 2 ins. ; timbers — 0 longitu- , diual sills, 54x94 ; 4 truss rods, 1^ ins., iron ; weight of c^r, 27,000 lbs.; capacity, 12 tons"; total weight, if loaded, 51,000 lbs. ; carried on 8 wheels ==0,375 lbs. on each wheel. Coal Cars — 8 Wheels.— 10-ton, 8-wheel cars : Body, 20 ft. long, 21 ft. 10 in. over all ; 7 ft. wide, 7 ft, 8 in. over allx4 ft. high ; from top of rail to body, 2 ft. 04 ins. ; rail to centre of buffer, 2 ft, 74 ins.; buffers, lOx 12 ins. ; 2 ft. 1 in. centre to centre ; total weight, empty, 13,440 lbs. ; loaded, 35,840 lbs. ; per Avheel=4,480 lbs. Coal Cars — 4 Wheels. — 0 tons, 4 wheels : Body, 11 ft. long ; over all, 13 ft.xO ft. 7 ins. wide ; 7 ft. 5 ins. over allx4 ft. 3 ins. high ; frame of oak, 4|X84 ; end sills, 84x94 ; body carried on 4 oak springs, each 3 XOf ; at ends, 24xO|x9 ft. long, bolted together • wheels, 6 ft. centre to centre ; journal boxes bolted to the springs ; weight, empty, 0,720 lbs., loaded, 20,100 lbs. ; on each wheel=5,040 lbs. English Railavay Carriages— 4 feet 84 inches Gauge. — Extreme length over buffers, 22 ft. ; frame, 17 ft. 11 ins. longxO ft. 8 ins. wide >; body, 18 ft. long X 7 ft. 4 ins.xO ft. 2 ins. high ; compartments, each 0 ft. long ; sides and ends of under framing, 11x4 ; transoms, 9x3x11x3 ; . framing of i)ody, 3x2^x2^x24 ; flooring, 2 thicknesses of f boarding, laid diagonally ; roof, | thick on ribs, 24xlf , 2 feet apart ; doors, 1 ft. 11 ins.xS ft. 5 iiis. high ; seats, 1 ft. 0 ins. fi'om floor ; wheels, 30 ins, diam 9 ft. centre ; journals, 0 ft. 4 ins. apart. Freight Wagons. — Bodies, 7 ft, 0 ins. widexlO ft. long, 20 ft. over buf- fers ; open wagons, sides, 2 ft. to 4 ft. 0 ins, high ; covered goods wag- ons, sides, 0 ft, 9 ins. high, mechanical movements. In the construction of models, or machinery, the skilful raechanic.and inventor will study to avoid clumsiness in the arrangement of parts, and will naturally take jjride in selecting, as far as possible, the simplest and best forms of mechanical movements. As suggestive for this purpose we have brought together and condensed an extensive series of mechanical movements. Here the mechanic may find at a glance the movement suited for liis purpose, and may see the separate parts best adapted to any special combination of mechanism. The following is a brief description of the various movements as numbered : 1. Shaft coupling. 2, Claw coupling. 3. 4. Lever couplings. On the driving shaft, a disk with spurs is mounted, and to the shaft to be driven a lever is hinged. By causing this lever to catch in the spurs of the disk MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. G75 the coupling is effected, 5. Knee or rose coupling, of which 26 is a side view. 6. Universal joint. 7. 8. Disk and spur coupling. 9. Prong and spui lever coupling. 10. Fast and loose pulley. 11. Sliding gear, the journal boxes of one of the wheels being movable. 12. Friction clutch. By tightening or re- leasing a steel band, encircling a pulley on the shaft, the machinery is thrown in or out of gear. 13. 14. Shoe and lever brakes. 15. 16. Change of motion by sheaves. 17. Spiral flanged sliaft. 18. Connected with the rod are pawl links, catching into ratchet-teeth in the wheel to which rotary motion is to be imparted. "When the rod moves in one direction, one of the pawls acts ; and when the rod moves in the opposite direction C7G MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. the other pawl acts in tlio f4aiTio direction a» tlio fn-Kt. 19. The recipro. cutiii;^ motion of a rod is converted into rotary motion of tlie fly-wlieel by a weiftlit snspended from a cord, wliicli passcH over a small jjulley that connects witli a treadle, from which the motion is transmitted to the fly- wheel. 20. "Flying horse," used in fairs for amusement. By pulling the cords radiating from the crank, the persons occupying the seats or horses on the ends of the arms are enabled to keep the apparatus in motion. 21. 22. Bow-string arrangements to connect reciprocating into rotary motion. 23, Same purpose by differential screw, 24, The same by double rack and wheels. 25. Coupling for square shafts. 26. Side view of Fig. 5. 27. Sliding-spur pulley coupling. 28. Lever with bearing roller to tighten pulley bands. 29, Chain wheel. MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 677 30. Reciprocating rectilinear into reciprocating rotary motion by two racks and cog-wheel. 31. Oblique-toothed wheels. 32. Worm and Avorm- wheel. 33. 34. Claw coupling with hinged lever. 35. 30. Disk couplings, with lugs and cavities. 37. Disk coupling with screw bolts. 38. 39. 40. Shaft couplings. 41. Face view of Fig. 12. 42. Friction cones. 43. Friction pulleys. 44. Self-releasing coupling. Disks with oblique teeth. If the resistance to the driven shaft increases beyond a certain point, the disks separate. 45. Hoisting blocks. 46. Elbow crank, for changing motioji. 47. Re- ciprocating into rotary motion by zigzag groove on cylinder. 48. An- other form of Fig. 29. 49. Reciprocating into a rotary motion. 50. Same purpose. 51. Same purpose, by double rack and two ratchet pinions. When the double rack moves in one direction, one 678 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. pillion is rigid Avith tlio shaft : when tlio rack moves in tlio opposite direction, tlio other pinion is rigid, and a continuous rotary motion is imparted to the lly-wlieel shaft. 52. Reciprocating into oscillating. 53. Rotary into reciprocating. By tho action of the wheel-pins the carriage ismoredin one direction, and by the action of said pins on an elbow- lever, it is moved in the opposite direction. 54. Stamp rod and lifting cam. 55. For giving reciprocating motion to rack. 56. Same motion to a bar with slot, by means of an eccentric pin, projecting from a re- volving disk, and catching in the slot. 57. Walking-beam and fly-wheel. 68. Reciprocating motion to pnmp or other rod by means of eccentric disk and friction rollers. See 81 and 104. 59. Hoisting crane. MECHANICAL 679 60. Friction gears. See 43. 61. Eota,ry into reciprocating by rising and falling pinion acting on endless rack. 62. By the revolving cam, a rising and falling or a reciprocating rectilinear motion is imparted to a drum. 63. Reciprocating motion to a frame by means of endless rack tind pinion. 64. Reciprocating rectilinear motion to a toothed rack by a toothed segment on a lever-arm, which is subjected to the action of a weight, and of an eccentric wrist-pin, projecting from a revolving disk. 65. Reciprocating motion to a rod. The wheels are of different diameters, and consequently the rod has to rise and fall as the wheels revolve. { See 110. ) 66. Cam and elbow-lever. 67. Rod reciprocates by means of cam. 68. KcYolving into reciprocating motion, by an endless segmental rack and G80 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. pinion, the .ixlo of which revolves .'ind slides in a slot toward and from tho racic. Tliis rack is secured to a disk, and a ropo round said disk ox- tends to the body to wliicli a reciprocating motion is to bo inii)artcd. 09. Elliptic gears. 70. Bevel gear. 71. Worm and worm-wheel. 72. Transmitting motion from one axle to another, witli three different velocities, by means of toothed segments of unequal diameters. 7.'3. Continuous revolving into reciprocating, by a cam-disk acting on an oscillating lever. 74. In- termittent revolving motion to a shaft with two pinions, and segment gear- Avhecl on end of shaft. 75. Oscillating lever, carrying pawls which engage teeth in the edges of a bar to which rectilinear motion is imparted. 76. Oscillating lever, connects by a link with a rod to which a recti- linear motion is imparted. 77. Oscillating lever and pawls, which gear in the ratchet-wheel. 78. Common treadle. 79. Describing on a re- volving cylinder a spiral line of a certain given pitch which depends upon trie comparative sizes of the pinion and bevel-wheels. 80. Marking a spiral line, the graver moved by a screw. 81. (See 'Fig. 58.) 82. Plunger and rods. 83. Crosshead and ro^ls. 84. Recip- rocating rod guided by friction rollers. 85. Revolving into reciprocating motion, by means of roller-arms, extending from a revolving shaft, and acting on lugs projecting from a reciprocating frame. 86. Crank motion. 87. Reciprocating motion by toothed wheel and spring bar. 88. The shaft carries a taper, which catches against a hook hinged to the drum, so as to carry said drum along and raise the weight on the rope. When the tappet has reached its highest position, the hook strikes a pin, tho hook disengages from the tappet, and the weight drops. 89. Reciprocat- ing motion to a rod by means of a groove in an oblique ring secured to a revolving shaft. 90. Double crank. 91. Cam groove in a drum, to produce recipro- cating motion. 92. Belts and pulleys. 93. Pulleys, belts, and internal gear. 94. As the rod moves up and down, the teeth of the cog-wheel come in contact with a pawl, and an intermittent rotary motion is im- parted to said wheel. 95. By turning the horizontal axles with different velocities, the middle wheel is caused to revolve with the mean velocity. 96. Oscillatuig lever and cam groove in a disk. 97. Lazy tongs. 98. Oscillating segiuent and belt over pulleys. 99. Converting oscillating into a reciprocating motion by a cam-slot iuthe end of the oscillating lever which catches over a pin projecting from one of the sides of a parallelo- gram which is connected to the rod to which reciprocating motion is im- parted. 100. Oscillating motion of a beam into rotary motion. 101. Motion of a treadle into rotary motion. 102. Double-acting beam. 103, Single- acting beam. 104. "(See Figures 58 and 81.) 105. Device to steady a piston by a slotted guide-piece, operated by an eccentric on the driving- shaft. 106. Rod operated by two toothed segments. 107. Two cog- wheels of equal diameter, provided with a crank of the same length, and connected by links with a cross-bar to which the piston-rod is secured. 108. Device for a rectilinear motion of a piston-rod based on the hypocy- cloidal motion of a pinion in a stationary wheel with internal gear. If the diameter of the pinion is exactly equal to one half the diameter of the in- ternal gear, the hypocycloid becomes a sight line. 109. Same purpose as 56. 110. Action similar to 65. 111. Revolving motion by a circular slid- ing pinion gearing in an elliptical cog-wheel . 112. Similar to 96. 113. Carpenter's clamp. The jaws turn on their pivot-screws, and clamp the board. 114. An irregular vibratory motion is given to the arm carrying the wheel A, by the rotation of the pinion B. 115. Intermittent rotary MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. motion of the pinion-shaft, by the continuous rotary motion of the largo wheel. The part of the pinion shown next the wheel is cut on the same curve as the playi portion of the circumference, and, tlierefore, serves as a lock whilst the wheel makes a part of a revolution, and until the pin upon the wheel strikes the guide-piece upon the pinion, when the pinion- shaft commences another revolution. IIC. Stop-motion used in watchea to limit the number of revolutions in winding up. The convex curved part, a, b, of the wheel B, serving as the stop . 117. Several wheels, by C3nnectiug-rods, driven from one pulley. 118. Intermittent circular mo- tion is imparted to the toothed wheel by vibrating the arm B. When the arm B is lifted, the pawl is raised from between the teeth of the wheel, and travelling backward over the circumference again, drops between two teeth on lowering the arm, and draws with it the wheel. 119. Re- ciprocating rectilinear motion is given to the bar by the continuous motion of the cam. The cam is of equal diameter in every direction measured across its centre. 120. Mechanism for revolving the cylinder in Colt's fire-arras. When the hammer is drawn back the dog, a, attached to the tumbler, acts on the ratchet, &, on the back of the cylinder, and is held up to the ratchet by a spring, c. 121. Alternate increasing and diminishing motion, by means of eccentric toothed wheel and toothed cylinder. 122. Oscillating or pendulum engine. The cylinder swings between trunnions like a pendu- lum. The piston-rod connects directly with crank. 123. Intermittent rotary motion. The small wheel is driven, and the friction rollers on its studs move the larger wheel by working against the faces of oblique grooves » or projections across the face thereof. 124. Longitudinal and rotary motion of the rod is produced by its arrangement between two rotating rollers, the axles of which are oblique to each other. 125. Fric- tion indicator of Roberts. Upon the periphery of the belt-pulley a loaded carriage is placed, its tongue connected with an indicator. With a eiven load the indicating pointer remains in a given position, no matter what velocity is imparted to the pulley. When the load is changed the indi- cator changes, thus proving that the friction of w^heels is in proportion to load, not velocity. 126. Circular intermittent rectilinear reciprocating motion. Used on sewing-machines for driving the shuttle ; also on three- revolution cylinder printing-presses. 127. Continuous circular into in- termittent circular motion. The cam is the driver. 128. Sewing- machine, four-motion feed. The bar B carries the feeding-points or spurs, and is pivoted to slide A. B is lifted by a radial projection on cam C, which at the same time also carries A and B forward. A spring produces the return stroke, and tlie bar, B, drops by gravity. 129. Patent crank motion, to obviate dead centres. Pressure on the treadle moves the slotted slide A forward until the wrist passes the centre, when the spring B forces the slide against the stops until next forward move- ment. 130. Four-way cock. 131. One stroke of the piston gives a complete revolution to the crank. 132. Rectilinear motion of variable velocity is given to the vertical bar by rotation of the shaft of the curved arm. 133. Pantagraph for copying, enlarging, and reducing plans, etc. C, fixed point. B, ivory tracing point. A, pencil trace, the lines to be copied with, and B, the pencil, will reproduce it double size. Shift the slide to which C is attached, also the pencil slide, and size of the copy will be varied. 134. Ball-and-socket joint for tubing. 135. Numerical register- ing device. The teeth of the worm shaft-gear with a pair of worm- wheels of equal diameter, one having one tooth more than the other. If the first wheel has 100 teeth and the second 101, the pointers will indicate respectively 101 and 10,100 revolutions. 136. Montgolfier'a 682 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. liydraulic ram. Tlio viglit hand valvo being kept open by a "weipjht or spring, the current flowing throngli tlie pipe in the direetion of tlio arrow, escai)CK tliercby. Wlien tlio pressure of tlio water current overcomes the weight of the right valve, the momentum of the water opens the other valve, and the water passes into the air-chamber. On equilibrium taking place, the left valve shuts and the right valve opens. By this alternate action of the valves, water is raised into the air-cham- ber at every stroke. 137. Rotary engine. Shaft B and liub C are ar- KNOTS, AND HOW TO TIE THEM. 683 tanged eccentric to the case. Sliding radial pistons, a, a, move in and out of hub, C. The pistons slide through rolling packings in the hub C. 138. Quadrant engine. Two single-acting pistons, B, B, connect with crank D. Steam is admitted to act on the outer sides of the pistons alternately through valve a, and the exhaust is between the pistons. 139. Circular into rectilinear motion. The scolloped wheel communicates motion to the horizontal oscillating rod, and imparts rectilinear movement to the up- right bar. 140. Rotary motion transmitted by rolling contact between two obliquely arranged shafts. Scientific American Reference Book. Special note to inventoks. — For full and complete information relating to the obtaining of Patents, Inventors, and others interested, are referred, to the Scienti^c American Hand-Book, forwarded free by mail on application to Mann & Co., 37 Park Row, New York. Information can also be obtained by addressing Coyne & Co., office Western Manufacturers Chicago, Ills. The knots represented on the preceediug page of engravings are as follows : KNOTS, AND HOW TO TIE THEM. 1. Simple overhand knot. 2. Slip-knot seized. 3. Single bow-knot. 4. Square or ruf-knot. 5. Square bow-knot. 6. Weaver's knot. 7. German or figure-of-8 knot. 8. Two half-hitches, or artificer's knot. 9. Double artificer's knot. 10. Simple galley knot. 11 . Capstan or prolonged knot. 12. Bowline-knot 13. Rolling-hitch. 14. Clove-hitch. 15. Blackwall-hitch. IG. Timber hitch. 17. Bowline on a bight. 18 Running bowline. 19. Catspaw. 20. Doubled running-knot. 21. Double knot. 22. Six-fold knot. 23. Boat-knot. 24. Lark's head. 25. Lark's head. 26. Simple boat-knot. 27. Loop-knot. 28. Double Flemish knot. 29. Running-knot checked 30. Crossed running-knot. 31. Lashing knot. 32. Rosette. 33. Chain- knot. 34. Double chain-knot. 35. Double running-knot, with check-knot. 36. Double twist-knot. 37. Builders' knot. 38. Double Flemish knot. 39. English knot. 40. Shortenmg-knot. 41. Shortening-knot. 42. Sheep-shank. 43. Dog-shank. 44. Mooring-knot. 45. Mooring-knot. 46. Mooring-knot. 47. Pigtail worked on the end of a rope. 48. Shroud-knot. 49. A bend or knot used by sailora in making fast to a spar or a bucket-handle before casting overboard ; it w ill not run. Also used by horsemen for a loop around the jaw of a colt in breaking : the running end, af- ter passing over the head of the animal and through the loop, will not jam therein. 50. A granny's knot. 51. A weaver's knot The principle of a knot is, that no two parts which would move in the same direction if the rope were to slip, should lie alongside of and touch- ing each other. 684 cArAciTiEs of vaiuous iron avouks Cost of Iron Production. — In Staffordshire, the niakln;:^ of l)ar« marked "best, beat, best," corresjioiids to a coiisuinptioji of 5 tons of Coal per ton of Iron made from tlic forgo pigs, which tiicrnsclvcs requiro iTom 2 to 2^ tons of Coal for their production. Calculating waste of iron in puddling, &c., one ton of the best l)rands of Stal'fordsliire bars repre- sent 8 to U tons of good coal consumed. Gartshekrie Iron Works, Scotland.— Furnaces, 16. Proportion of charges, about 32 cwts. of calcined ore are used to the ton of iron, G cwts. of pure limestone, or 10 cwts. of limestone containing a high per- ceiitage of alumina, which is sometimes preferred, forming a surplus of quickly melted slag. The charges are made up with the coal in quan- tities of about 30 cwts. each, and are hoisted to the top of the furnace by a very simple contrivance. Temperature of blast 800°. Weekly production of each furnace about 160 tons. CoLTNEss Iron Works :— Furnaces, 12. The calcined ironstone contains from 60 to 65 per cent, of iron, and the furnaces are charged with an addition of 12 cwts. of unburnt limestone, and 48 cwts. of coal for every ton of iron made. The make per furnace varies from 12 to 15 tons at a cast, the furnace being tapped once in every 12 hours. From 8 to 12 tuyeres are in each furnace arranged in groups of 3 in each arch formed by the square foundation. The tuyeres are usually 1^ in. diam. at the nozzle, temperature of blast is between 600° and 700°. "Power is furnish- ed by a pair of condensing beam engines, worked with 32 lbs. steam pres- sure and a vacuum of 26 ins. The steam cylinders are 48 ins. diam. and the blowing cylinder 100 ins., pressure of blast in the blast main is 3^ ins. The bloAving cylinder in the lower row of furnaces is 120f ins. GovAN Iron Works, Glasgow. — Furnaces, 6 ; height 50 ft. The charges are made up in loads of 15 cwts. of ore and limestone for every load of 10 cwts. of coal. Consumption of coal for every ton of iron made is about 50 cwts. Blowing Cylinders 2 ; pressure of blast 2j lbs. The make of each furnace is about 12 to 15 tons per cast, tapped every 12 hours. The blowing engine is supj)lied with steam by 7 double-flued Cornish boilers fired Avith coal slack, and placed below the ground level close to the engine house. The charge of gray iron for each refinery is 24 cwts., and 6 or 7 charges are made per day with ordinary coke for fuel. Barrow-in-Furniss Iron Works : — Furnaces, 11. The charge per ton of iron is 34 cwts. of ore, 6^ cwts. of limestone, and from 10 to 21 cwts. of coke. Ore yields 57 per cent, of iron, weekly production 4000 tons. The dimensions of the larger furnaces which form the second group, are, height 56 ft., diam. at the boshes, 7 ft., greatest inner diam. 16 ft. 6 ins., diam. at top, 11 ft. 6 ins., they are tapi^ed every 6 hours and give about 20 tons at each cast. The blast i^ressure varies from 3 to 3 J lbs., each furnace has 6 tuyeres, diam. of tuyeres is from 2| to 3^ ins., temperature of blast 600° to 650°. Fbrty-two boilers, all fired with gas, supply the steam to the different engines; of these, 22 work up to 25 lbs., and 12 to 35 lbs. pressure. The first set of engines comprise 3 vertical beam engines : diam. of one steam cylinder is 52 ins., of the other two 48 ins., each blowing cylinder placed at one end of the corresponding beam, is 100 ins. in diam. with 9 ft. stroke. Iron Founding. — In dimensions, the McKenzie cupola, so extensively used in America, is from the drop bottom to the bottom of the charging door, 9 ft. high. The longer diameter outside is 5 ft. 4 ins., and the short- er diameter 4 ft. 4 ins. The blast is admitted through an annular tuyere or opening which extends completely round the bottom part. The blast is led into a chamber surrounding the boshes of the cupola, and from this chamber it escapes througli the annular tuyere. The cupola is fitted with a drop bottom. A cupola of that kind is charged with 1400 lbs. of coal, then 4000 lbs. of iron, 400 lbs. of coal, 4000 lbs. of iron again, CAPACITIES OP VARIOUS IRON WORKS. and the alternate charges of 400 lbs. of coal and 4000 lbs. of iron are re- peated for the necessary height. The blast is supplied, when the furnace is at work, at the extremely high pressure of 2^ Jbs. per sq. inch ; but when the furnace is first started the slight resistance met with by the blast does not permit a pressure of more than lb. to be obtained. The blast is applied in about 40 minutes after the fire is lighted, and the iron begins to run in about 20 minutes after the blast is turned on. "When the furnace is fairly at w^ork the melting proceeds at the rate of almost 4 tons per hour. 0)ie of the McKenzie cupolas at Morris, Tasker & Co.'s tube works, at Philadelphia, measures 7 by 4 ft., and is bloAvn with a pillar of blast of about 24 ins. of water. The regular day's work is 23 tons of metal run down in 2J hours, the iron beginning to melt in 15 minutes from the time the blast is turned on, and running at the rate of 10 tons per hour. It is charged about 4^ ft. deep with iron and anthra- cite coal, and about 1 ton of the latter is burned for every 9 tons of metal melted. In melting small quantities, in say, a No. 3 McKenzie cupola, a good proportion is to put in a bed about 900 lbs. coal, and charge from 4000 to 5000 lbs. of iron, then 150 to 200 lbs. coal, and charge 1000 to 2000 lbs. on the top of it. In Ireland's cupola, the furnace should be filled with coke to the top of the boshes, and four separate cwts. of iron, alternated with three cwts. of coke, should then be introduced to fill it up to the charging door. In these furnaces a ton of freely running iron has been run down by 1^ cwt. of coke, but more usually from 2 to 2h cwts. are re- quired. The furnace should be kept in careful repair and" each charge well levelled oft. In the Woodward cupola a steam jet is used instead of a fan, and the steam required for the jet to create the draught is only equal in quantity to the requirements of an engine for driving a fan of sufficient power to work the same size of ordinary cupola ; and the con- sumption of coke in melting is IJ cwt. per ton of iron. Blowing or Blast Engines. — Iron works at Mt. Savage, Md. For blowing 4 furnaces, 14 feet diam., each making 100 tons of pig iron per week. Engine {Condensiny) , Diameter of cjdinder, 56 in. ; length of stroke, 10 ft. RevohiUons. 15 per minute. Pressure. 60 lbs. per square in., cut oil at \ of the stroke. Boilers. Six of 60 in. in diameter, and 24 ft. in length, with one 22-in. flue in each, double returned. Grates. 198 square ft. Blast Cylinder . 126 in. in diameter by 10 ft. stroke. Revolutions. 15 per minute. Pressure of Blast. 4 to 5 lbs . per square in. Area of Pipes. 2300 square in., or \ that of the cylinder. For Blowing Two Furnaces and Tavo Fineries, making 240 Tons or Forge Pig per Week. Engine {Non-condensing). Diameter of cyliiider, 20 in. ; length of stroke, 8 ft. Revolutions. 28 per minute. Pressure. 50 to 60 lbs. per square in. (full stroke). Boilers. Six of 36 in. in diameter, and 28 ft. in length (without flues). Grates. 100 square ft. Blast Cylinders. Two of 62 in . in diameter, by 8 ft. stroke. Revolutions. 22 per minute. Pressure oj Blast. 2^ lbs. per square in. Area of Pipes. 3 ft, or J that of the cylinders. One biast furnace has two 3-in,, and one 3^ in. tuyeres, the other has three of 3 in One finery has six tuyeres of IJ in,, and the other, four of 1| in. The ore yields from 40 to 45 per cent, of iron. The temperature of the blast is OOQo. G86 KULI'.S roil MECHANICS, &c. DowLAis Iron Wokks.— riirn.ices 17. Weekly profltiction about 180 tons ])er funiaco, total annual procluction of pig iron about 150,000 tons, total annual consumption of coal about 1,000,000 tons. The furnaces aro blown by G beam engines. The largest has a 55 in. steam cylinder and 13 ft. stroke of steam piston, while the blowing cylinder is 12 ft. diam., and the blast piston has a stroke of 12 ft., the great beam being divided unequally ; Aveight of working beam 44 tons, of lly Avheel .'35 tons. Blast is discharged into a main 5 ft. diam. and about 140 yards long. No fur- nace is more than 18 ft, in diam. at the boshes, and few are as much as? CO ft. high, square at the base and assuming the circular form about half way up. They are tapped 3 times in 24 hours, are fed with raw coal, and consume 30 cwts. of coal per ton of iron made. Temperature of blast 612°, pressure of blast 3 to 3J lbs. The furnaces, mines, forges, Bessemer steel works, &c., employ in all nearly 100 steam engines, 9000 work people (of which about 5500 are underground and 3500 above), and 700 horses. , CoHKSiVB Strength of Tie-Bars, Suspension Rods, &c. — Breaking weight in tons, equal area of section of rod in square inches, multiplied by cohesive force per square inch in tons. Cohesive strength of steel = 50 tons " " Wrought iron 23 " " Cast-iron 7-^ " " " Wr'ght copper 15 " " " Cast-brass 8 " " " Lead 0.75 " " " Boxwood 10 " tons Cohesive Str. of ash = 8 " " Beech 5.5 Oak 5.5 " " seasoned 6 " " pitch x)ine 6 " " Chestnut 5 Fir 5.5 111 use, take J of the above as breaking weight, A mixture of 30 per cent, of wrought iron with cast-iron, carefully fused in a crucible, increases strength of cast-iron one third. Chilling the under side of cast iron materially increases its strength. Chilled bars of cast iron deflect more readily than unchilled. Girders cast with face up are stronger than when cast on side, as 1 to .96 ; also strongest when cast with bottom flange up. Cast-iron and wrought iron beanis, having eimilar resistances, have weights, as 2.44 to 1. To Test the Quality of Iron.— If fracture gives long silky fibres of leaden-gray hue, fibres cohering and twisting together before breaking, may be considered a toxigli soft iron. A medium, even grain, mixed with fibres, a good sign. A short blackish fibre indicates badly refined iron, A very fine grain denotes a hard steely iron, apt to be cold-short, hard to ■work with a file. Coarse grain, with brilliant crystallized fracture, yel- low or brown spots, denote a brittle iron, cold-short, working easily when heated ; welds easily. Cracks on the edge of bars, sign of hot- ehort iron. Good iron is easily heated, soft under the hammer, throws out but few sparks. To find the Weight of Timber Beams, Posts, and Joists. — Mul- tiply length in feet by the breadth in inches and the depth in inches, and the prodlict by one of the following factors : For elm, 2.92 ; yellow i)ine, 2. 85 ; white pine, 2.47 ; dry oak, 4.04. Weight of Timber Work, Timber Flooring.— Multiply breadth in feet by length in feet by the thickness in inches and by one of the following factors, according to the material : For elm use, 3.50 lbs. ; for yellow pine, 3,42 ; for white pine, 2.97 ; for dry oak, 4.85. Nickel Plating without a Battery, — To a solution of from 5 to 10 per cent, chloride of ziuc, as pure as possible, add enough sulphate of SUNDRY USEFUL ITEMS. 687 nickel to produce a strong green color, and bring to a boil in a porce- lain vessel. The i)iece to be plated, which must be perfectly bright and free from grease, is introduced so that it touches the vessel as little as possible. Boiling is continued from thirty to sixty minutes, water being added from time to time to replace that evaporated. During ebullition nickel is precipitated in the form of a white and brilliant coating. The boiling may be continued for hours witliout increasing tlie thickness of this coating. As soon as the object appears to be i^lated it is washed in water containing a little chalk in suspension, and then carefuUy dried. The chloride of zinc and sulphate of nickel must be free from metals precipitable by iron. If, during the ])recipitation, the liquid becomes colorless, sulphate of nickel should be added. The spent liquid may be used again by exposing it to the air until the iron is precipitated, filtering and adding the zinc and nickel salts as above. Cobalt also may be de- I)osited the same way. To Remove Iron Mould from Marble. — Take butter of antimony 1 oz., oxalic acid 1 oz. ; dissolve them in 1 pt . water, add flour, and brhig the composition to a proper consistence. Then lay it evenly on the stained part with a brush, and, after it has remained for a few days, wash it off, and repeat the process if tlie stain is not quite removed. Green Transparent Varnish FOR Metals.— Grind a sm.all quan- tity of Chinese blue with double the quantity of finely-powdered chro- mate of potassa (it requires the most elaborate grinding) ; add a suffi- cient quantity of copal varnish thinned with turjientine. The tone may be altered by more or less of one or tlie other ingredients. Green bronze liquid : One quart of strong vinegar, ^ oz. of mineral green, |- oz. raw umber, ^ oz. sal-ammoniac, I oz. gum arable, 2 oz. French berries, ^ oz. copperas ; dissolve over a gentle fire, allow to cool, and then filter. Profits of Manufacturers.— In the State Census of Massachusetts, of 1875, Col. Wright, of Boston, separates the value of the raw material from the value added by \vov\<. done. Thus we have under the head of boots and shoes, not the value of the boots and shoes, but the value addedto the leather by the work done to convert it into boots and shoes. This is stated to amount to $89,375,792, for which the employes received $18,727,124, or $455.05 each on an average, and the employers appro- priated $70,648,668. Cotton and other industries show similar results. Proceeds of One Ton of Cotton Seed. — A correspondent of Lef- fel's ISFeivs reports cotton seed as worth now, delivered at the mills in New Orleans, $11 per ton, the mills furnishing the bags it is put up in. From that ton of seed will be gotten : 250 lbs. lint worth Sets, per lb., or $12.50 About 500 lbs. hull worth 2.50 About from 40 to 45 galls, oil. say 40 galls, at 50 cents 20.00 Say 800 lbs. oil cake, worth l^^ cent per lb 12.00 Or, $11 worth of seed works to value of $47.00 Arrangement, Proportion, Capacity, &c., of Grain Elevators. — ^On this subject Pallett rules that the jDulleys should beat least 24 inches diameter, and about one inch thicker than the width of the belt, and nearly half an inch higher in the middle than at the sides, to malie the strap keep on. These pulleys should have a motion of twenty- five revolutions per minute. The buckets should be about fifteen inches apart. One hundred and twenty-five buckets will pass per minute, carrying 162 quarts and hoisting 300 bushels per hour. If this is not fast enough, make the strap wider and the buckets larger, increase the . velocity of the pulley (not above 35 revolutions), nor place more buckets than one for every twelve inches, or they will not empty. G88 ON 1'AI13I BUILDINGS. ON FARM BUILDINGS. The following plan for a barn appeared in the columns of the Country Gentleman, and is of a size suitable for about 75 acres of laud under cul- tivation on the system of mixed husbandry ; but the size may be either expanded or diminished to answer all possible requirements in any given case. The size is 42X60 ft. Fig. 1 shows the common or principal floor, and is so constructed that a loaded wagon can be driven in at one end, unloaded, and then i3ass out at the other. Tlie contrivance for this purpose, so as not to interfere with the cellar or basement, is shown in the perspective view at the head of this article, an embankment being made at each end, which would be facilitated if the building were placed between two slight knolls or in ii moderate hollow, in which case amj)le drains should be Flg.l. provided round the Avhole. In the plan fig, 1, V V represent ventila- tors or hay shutes ; A trap door for throwing down chaff or straw, G granary, and S stairs. The bay contains 950 square feet, and will hold about 40 tons of compact hay of about 500 cubic ft. to the ton when ■\jrell settled. In addition, there is room on the platforms over the floor and horse stables to hold about 20 tons more. By marking off a scale of feet on one of the ventilators, the owner may at any time gain an approx- imate idea of the quantity of hay on hand. ON FARM BUILDINGS. 689 Fig, 2 represents tlie basements. The roots are drawn in on the bam floor and dumped down the trap A, shown in fig. 1. In fig. 2, AAAA re- present calf pens, or boxes lor cows in calf. PAssAcefsxso c 0 w sr/!BtF. /gygg EHgn A MANURB Fig. 2. Rules for Farmers.— The prime auxiliaries to good farming are : 1. Sufficient capital to buy the farm and stock it well, 2. The proper selection of a farm commensurate with these requisites, 3. The selection of good land and the rejection of barren, no matter how cheap, 4. To lay- it out in good style, and provide it with good buildings, fences, and gates. 5. Stock it with' the best animals and implements at a reasonable price, and provide good shelter for both, 6, Bring the soil into good heart by draining, killing of weeds, manuring, deep ploughing, and a proper rota- tion of crops covering every part of it. 7, Diligence and careful oversight of all operations, correct accounts in the matter of Avages, buying, selling, weighing, measuring, cost of crops, animals, net returns of each, ac- cumulation and preservation of maiuire, &c. 8. Early rising, remembering that " He that would thrive must rise at five. He that has thriven may lie till seven." 9. Regular and careful feeding of stock with considerate and merciful treatment of horses, cattle, &c., at all times. Touching the rotation of crops the following courses have proved well adapted to most of the Eastern and Middle States : I. 1st year, corn and roots, well manured. 2nd year, wheat, sown with clover seed, 35 lbs. per acre, 3rd year, clover, 1 or more years, according to fertility, and amount of manure on hand, II. 1st year, corn and roots with all the manure, 2nd year, barley and peas, 3rd year, wheat, sown with clover. 4th year, clover one or more years. The next illustration represents the frame of an improved stable and barn which appeared not long ago in the columns of the Globe and Canada Farmer, concerning which the owner furnished the following particulars to that journal : ' ' Barn 56 x 80 feet, outside posts 20 feet high, the purline posts 33 feet ; has five bents, 20 feet spans, framed according to cut. The size of timber used is from 6 to 8 inches ; the sills are 3 x 12 in. plank bedded on the stone wall. The barn proper is 56 x 60, leaving 20 x 56 feet for a straw house. The driving floor is 16 feet wide, the bays on each side, loft, all floored over with double inch boards. The double doors work on rollers. There is a ventilating door in each gable end, working with a small pulley from the floor : also one on the roof, all very useful in the time of thresh- ing to allow dust to escape. On each side of the driving floor is a ladder reaching to the top of the barn. The granary is 20 feet square. The bins are six feet deep on each side, leaving 8 x 20 feet to keep the mill in for clearing up. The barn is well lighted . If stone is scarce, the wall need be no higher than to clear the ground, as shown in the cut. No. 1 cut pine shingles are best for roof. This stable is in three parts. 1st. 25 feet 690 ON FARM BUILDINCJS. is taken from one end and divided in three parts ; the centre is a feed room 20 x 25 feet ; stables 18 feet deej), Avith five stalls in each part. 2d. Tliero is a yard 'AO x 50 for young stock. Thei e is a trap door at tlic side of the drive iioor to drop down straw. If water can be had a well is pre- ferable in this yard. Tliero is a large door on each side to drive in and take out tlie manure. 3d. The cow stable is directly under the straw house, 25x56 feet, divided into three parts: the centre is the feed room, 25 X 20 feet, with trap door 'ibove to let down the chaff. The stables are 15 feet deep, with six stalls on each side. There will be sufficient light to all the stables, feed room and yard ; outer doors for stables and inner doors leading into the centre yards. Height of stables, 8^ and 9 feet. The advantages over old style of building are as follows :— Lighter and shorter timber. There are two rovfs of central posts run to the top of building, forming the purline work, and the whole building being framed into these posts makes a much stronger frame ; is handier for storing ; for forks working ; for threshing ; is better ventilated ; all straw inside ; all stock inside ; manure all under cover, and when a farmer has one of these barns he has all the outbuildings he requires." Weight of Hay. — Hay, well settled in mows or stacks, fifteen cubic yards make a ton. Rule "for long or square stacks : Multiply the length in yards by the width in yards, and then by half the height in yards, and divide by fifteen. Rule for circular stack's : Multiply the square of the circumference in yards by four times the height in yards, and divide by 100 ; the quotient by fifteen. AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 691 SUNDRY ITEMS OF INTEREST TO FARMERS. A BUSHEL OF WHEAT, 60 Ibs., should yield, of flour, about 48 lbs., shorts, 8 lbs., bran 4 lbs. Wheat flour is of the best quality from grain that has been cut before it comes to full maturity, being whiter and softer, and such flour carries a better figure in the market. Coarse or thick-husked graiu will yield more bran and less flour than the kind noted above. Proceeds op Grists. — On this subject a correspondent of the Country Gentleman remarks : " The product and waste in grinding depend much upon the quality and cleanness of the wheat. I have had winter wheat turn out 40 pounds of flour and 12f pounds of bran, middlings, etc., to the bushel. The ' waste ' in grinding clean wheat should be not more than a pound to a pound and a quarter. Spring wheat will not make as much flour. The following from a ' grist ' of the last crop of spring wheat is a good average of a dozen more that I have noted. Weight of wheat, - - - 1,486 lbs. "flour, 952 lbs. " " bran, 240 " " " screenings, - - - - - - 32 " " " middlings (canaille) - - - - - 88 " " " toll, 148 " " " waste, 26 "-1,486 lbs- Here is 24| bushels, and the yield of flour is 38.45 pounds per bushel, and the offal amounts to 14.54 pounds per bushel, while the waste is only 1.05 pounds per bushel. It is proper here to state that I sent a ' grist ' out of the same bin, to a new mill a few weeks before, and the return was only 36 pounds in flour and the ' waste' or wheat stuck to the mill, besides the toll, 5^ pounds to the bushel. 1 did not repeat my experiment at that mill. A miller, writing to the Mill Stone, claims that he can, on custom work, make from 38 to 42 lbs. of flour to the bushel of wheat, besides his seventh for toll, and on merchant work he can make 1 barrel of fancy flour out of 4^ bushels of wheat. This he cites as good work, and right here it may "be remarked that many farmers raise an outcry against the miller, because he fails to give first class flour and ample returns from badly damaged or improperly cleaned grain. In a canticle descanting on the hard times, composed by a rural poet of the writer's acquaintance, the versifier sought to immortalize his name by a burlesque on the fair fame of every tradesman in the town. The stanza reflecting on the honest miUer was as follows : And there's the miller, he grinds for his toll, And he ought to do right for the sake of his soul. But still, tlierg, he goes, with the dish in his fist, He gives you the toll and he keeps the grist. Millers, as a general rule, are fair-dealing men. From time immemorial they have been called "honest," and it is no more than fair that they should be honestly dealt with. If you wish first class returns bring first class grain to the mill. Estimating the produce of an acre in oats at 50 bushels, they will contain 450 pounds of flesh-forming food; and 672 pounds of fat-forming food ; while three tons of hay off the same acre will carry 480 pounds of flesh-formers and 2790 pounds of fat-fqrmers. Hay is a standard food for cattle. Measuring Hay in Bulk.— To find the number of cubic feet ia a mow, multiply the length, width and depth together. Five hundred cubic feet of ordinary clover and timothy hay, packed under ordinary circumstances, will make a ton. Generally, so many things have to be taken into consideration, in calculating the weight of hay in bulk, it 692 AGllICULTUKAL FACTa. makes it difficult to ascertain it precisely. For instance, fine new-mown hay, lilio red-top or herds grass, would probably not require (juito 5(X) cubic feet I'or tlie ton ; timothy alone, requires about 550 ; clover (550 ; coarse meadow hay 700 or more. After being stacked thirty days, the bulk would be decreased from five to ten per cent. Again, hay will vary somewhat in measurement a(;cording to the time it is cut. 'Die government standard for a ton is T^- feet ; this gives 422 cubic feet. To find the number of cubic feet in a stack, multix^ly the area of the base by one third the perpendicular height. It is estimated that 25 cubic yds. of common meadow hay in the wind- tow compose a ton, and 10 cubic yds. of haled, or pressed hay, the same weight. A truss of neio hay is GO lbs. , of old, 56 lbs. , a load of hay, 30 trusses ; a bale, 300 lbs. A truss of straw is 40 lbs. Table exhibitikg capacities of gkaix nixs, &c., 10 ft. high. Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin Bin 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. 11 ft. 12 ft. l.'ift. 14 ft. 15 ft. IGft. 20 ft. 22 ft. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Long. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. 3 145 169 192 217 241 265 289 313 338 302 386 482 530 4 193 225 257 289 321 354 386 418 450 482 514 643 708 5 241 282 321 302 402 442 482 522 563 603 643 804 884 6 290 338 386 434 482 530 579 627 675 723 771 964 1060 338 394 450 50( 563 619 675 731 788 844 900 1125 1238 8 386 450 514 579 643 707 771 830 900 964 1029 1286 1414 9 434 507 579 651 723 796 868 940 1013 1085 1157 1446 1592 10 482 563 643 723 804 884 964 1045 1125 1205 1280 1607 1768 11 531 619 707 79f 884 972 1061 1149 1238 1326 1414 1768 1944 12 579 675 771 see 964 1061 11.57 1254 i 1350 1446 1543 1929 2122 Measuring Corn in the Crib. — Many rules are given by which the number of bushels of corn in a crib may be ascertained, but all of them must be more or less unreliable, from the fact that they assume that two bushels of ears are equal to one of shelled corn — some corn will not make it, while some will more than do it. We give several such rules, any one of which will be, probably, sufficiently accurate. 1. Measure the length, breadth and height of the crib, inside the rail ; multiply them together and divide by two, the result is the number of bushels of shelled corn. 2. Level the corn so it is of equal depth throughout, multiply the length, breadth and depth together, and this product by four, and cut off one figure to the right of the product. The others will represent the number of bushels of shelled corn, 3. Multiply length by height and then by width, add two ciphers to the result and divide by 124. This gives the number of bushels of ears. Another rule is to proceed as above to obtain the cubic feet, and then assume that 1 1-5 cubic feet make one bushel of ears. 4. Multiply length by breadth and the product by the height, all in inches, divide this^by 2,748, and the quotient will be the number of bushels . of ears. From two-thirds to one-half of this will be the number of bushels of shelled corn, depending upon the kind and quality. _ The first of these rules is the one generally used as an approximate estimate. To Measure Grain in the Granary.— Divide the cubic feet by 56 and multiply by 45, and the result will be struck measure. Loss FROM Shrinkage.— It is said that corn loses one-fifth and wheat one-fourteenth by drying. From this estimate it seems that it would be more profitable to the farmer to sell unshelled corn in the fall at 75 cents per bushel, than to keep it until Spring and sell it at $1, and AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 693 that wheat at $1.25 in December, is equal to $1.50 the succeeding June. In cases of potatoes, taking those that rot and are otherwise lost, together with the shrinliage, there is little doubt that between October and June the loss to the owner that holds them is not less than 33 per cent. The English Quarter, at which wheat is quoted in the Eng ish reports, is 560 pounds or one-fourth of the ton gross weight of 2240 pounds. The English legal bushel is 70 pounds, and consequently 8 of those bushels is a quarter — equal to 9^ of our statute bushel of 60 pounds. TABLE EXHIBITING CONTEXTS OF CORN-CRIBS, CONTAINING CORN IN THE EAR, COMPUTED ON A BASIS OF 3,840 CUBIC INS. PER BUSH. HEIGHT OF CRIB, 10 FT. Lgth 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 135 149 162 175 189 202 216 243 270 297 324 351 378 405 153 173 189 205 221 236 258 284 315 347 378 410 441 473 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 324 360 396 432 468 504 540 608 203 223 243 263 283 304 324 365 405 446 486 527 507 25 225 248 270 292 315 337 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 693 675 2i8 272 297 322 347 371 396 446 495 545 594 644 743 6 270 297 324 351 378 405 432 486 540 594 648 702 756 810 293 322 351 380 410 439 468 527 585 644 702 761 819 878 7 315 347 378 409 441 472 504 567 630 693 756 819 882 945 V' 338 371 405 439 473 506 540 608 675 743 810 878 945 1013 360 396 432 468 504 540 576 648 720 792 864 936 1008 1080 383 421 459 497 536 574 612 689 765 842 918 995 1071 1148 9 405 446 486 526 567 607 648 729 810 891 972 1053 1134 1215 10 450 495 540 585 539 675 720 810 900 990 1080 1170 1260 1350 11 495 545 594 643 693 742 792 891 990 1089 1188 1287 1386 1485 12 540 594 648 702 756 810 864 972 1080 1188 1296 1404 1512 1620 Example.— Under 28 and opposite Sis 1,008, representing the number of bushels of corn in the ear contained in a crib 28 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and 10 ft. high. This space would contain 1,800 bushels of shelled corn. Rule when the Crib is Flared at the Sides.— Multiply half the sum of the bottom breadths in feet by the perpendicular height in feet, and the same again by the length in feet, multiply the last product by "63 for heaped bushels of ears, and by *42 for the number of bushels in shelled corn. This rule is based on the generally accepted estimate that 3 heaped half bushels of ears, or 4 even full, form 1 of shelled corn. Another Rule with Equal Sided Cribs.— Multiply the length in feet by width in feet, and this last by the height in feet, multiply the resulting product by '63 and the proceeds will show the heaped bushels of ears. To get the number of bushels in shelled corn multiply by -42. Memoranda.— A barrel of corn is 5 bushels shelled. By this latter measure crops are estimated, and corn bought and sold throughout most of the Southern and Western States. At New Orleans a barrel of "corn is a flour barrel full of ears. In some parts of the west it is common to count 100 ears to the bushel. Another Way to Measure Corn in the Crib.— Multiply the length, breadth, and height together in feet, to obtain the cubic feet ; multiply this product by 4 and strilie off the right figure, and the result will be shelled bushels, nearly. To Find the Contents of a Barrel or Cask.— Multiply the square of the mean diameter (in inches) by the length of the barrel (also in inches), divide this product by 29.5 and point oE one figure to the right ; the result will be the answer in wine gallons. It may be necessary to add that to find the mean diameter, we add together the greatest and least diameters and divide by 2. 694 AGIIICULTUKAL FACTS. To Find the Number of Bushkls of Apples, Potatoes, &c., in A Box oil Bin. — Ivlulti[)ly the length, breadth and depth together (all in feet), and this product by 8, pointing off one figure in the product for decimal. SxoRAr.E OF Roots in Cellars, &c. — It -will require about 15 cubic feet of space to hold 10 bushels of roots. At this late the following table will serve to estimate the dimensions of a root house or cellar required for the storage of various quantities of roots. 1,000 Bushels of roots will require 1,500 cub. ft., or j f j \nt q ? 5^1 h'; 1,500 " " " 2,250 or, 20 X 9.4 x 8 high. 20 X 12.G X 9 high, or, 20x14.0x8 high. a « " qnoo " ( 20x 1G.8 x 9 high '''^ i or, 20 X 18.9 x 8 liigh. oAAA u u u 4 5pY) u 1 20 X 25.0 X 9 high, "^'^ I or, 20 X 28.0 x 8 high. Anno " fiOOO " t 20 x 33.4 x 9 high, ,^>^ ^'"^ f or, 20 x 37.6 x 8 high. 7AAA « u u lOKOn " } 20 X 58.4 X 9 high, ■^^'^ ) or, 20 X 65. 7 X 8 high. inoon " " i^nno f 20 x 83.4 x 9 high, ( or, 20 X 93. 9 X 8 high. Capacity of Wacon-Beds.— jRwZe 1.— If the opposite sides are parallel, multiply the length inside in inches by the breadth inside iu inches, and that again by the depth inside in inches, and divide the product by 2,150.42 (the number of cubic inches in a bushel), and the quotient will be the capacity in bushels. Example. — What is the capacity of a wagon-bed 10 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 15 inches deep. Work. — 120 inches, length, x 48 inches, width, x 15 inches, depth, = 86,400 — 2,150.42 = 40 bushels. Ans. Rule 2. — Should the head and tail boards, or either of them, be set in bevelling, add the top and bottom lengths together and divide by 2 for the mean length, and proceed by the foregoing, rule. Should the sides be sloping add the top and bottom widths, and divide by 2 for the mean width, and proceed by the foregoing rule. Should the contents be required in cubic feet, divide the product by 1,728 (the number of cubic inches in a cubic foot), instead of 2,154.42, and the quotient will be the contents in cubic feet. Gross and Net Weight and Price of Hogs. — A short and simple method for finding the net weight or price of hogs, when the gross weight or price is given, and vice versa. Note. — It is generally assumed that the gross weight of hogs, dimin- ished by one-fifth or 20 per cent, of itself gives the net weight, and the net weight increased by one-fourth or 25 per cent, of itself equals the gross weight. To find the net weight, or gross price : Multiply the given number by •8 (tenths). I 365 Example. — A hog weighing 365 lbs. gross, will weigh 292 lbs. | .8 net, and pork at $3.65 net, is equal to $2.92 gross. ( I 292.0 To find the gross weight, or net price : Divide the given number by "8 (tenths). Example. — A hog weighing 348 lbs. net, weighs435 lbs. gross; ( •8)348^ and pork at $3,48 gross,"is equal to ^.35 net. | AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 695 To Find tite Number of Shingles Required in a Roof.— J??;?e. — Multiply tlie number of square feet by 8, if the sliiugles are exposed 4-^ ins. , or by 7 1-5 if exposed 5 ins. To find the number of square feet, multiply the length of the roof by twice the length of the rafters. To tiud the length of the rafters at one fourth pitch, multiply the width of the building by .56 (hundredths) ; at one-third pitch, multiply it by -6 (tenths) ; at two-lifths pitch, by -64 (hundredths. ) This gives the length of the rafters from the apex to the end of the wall, and what- ever projects must be taken into consideration. Note. — By ^ or J pitch is meant that the apex or comb of the roof is to be i or ^ tlie width of the building higher than the walls or base of the f For 4 pitch, 30 X .0 = 18. With 1 foot projection = 19 2 times 19 = 38 42 and 2 = 44 Example. — How many shingles are required to cover a building 42 feet long and 30 feet wide ; the roof to have J pitch, and to project 1 foot on 1672 sq. feet, each end, and 1 foot on each side for 8 the eaves — the shingles to lie 4^ inches — to the weather. [ Ail's. 13,376 Capacities of Cisterns. For a circxdar cistern, take the diam. in feet, square that (see table on page 612), and multiply by -785398 ; that gives the area in feet ; multiply this by 1.728 and divide by 231, and you will have the number of gallons capacity of one foot in depth of the cistern ; from this calculate the depth. If for a Square Cistern, multiply length by breadth, and proceed to multiply the result by 1,728 and to'divide by 231, as before. Calculated in this way we find that each foot iu depth of a Circular Cistern. 5 feet in diam. holds 4.66 bbls. 6 " " 6.71 " 7 " " 9.1.3 " 8 " " " 11.93 " 9 " " " 15.10 '•' 10 « " " 18.65 Square Cistern. 5 feet by 5 feet holds 5-92 bbls. 6 " 6 " " 8.54 " 7 " 7 " " 11.63 " 8 " 8 " " 15.19 " 9 " 9 " 19.39 " 10 " 10 " " 23.74 " In calculating the capacity of cisterns, &c., Sl^ gals, are estimated to 1 barrel, and 63 gals, to 1 hogshead. To Compute the Weight of Live Cattle. For cattle of a girth of from 5 to 7 feet, allow 23 lbs. to the superficial foot. For a girth of from 7 to 9 ft. , allow 31 lbs. to the superficial foot. For small cattle and calves of a girth of from 3 to 6 ft. allow 16 lbs. to the cubic foot. For pigs, sheep, and animals measuring less than 3 ft. girth, allow 11 lbs. to the superficial foot. Rule, — Measure the girth in inches back of the shoulder, and the length in inches from the square of the buttock to a point even with the point of the shoulder blade. Multiply the girth by the length, and di- vide the product by 144 for the superficial feet, and then multiply the superficial feet by the number of lbs. allowed as above for cattle of va- rious girths, and the product will be the number of pounds of beef, veal, or pork in the four quarters of the animal. To find the number of stone, divide the number of lbs. by 14, Example.— What is the estimated weight of beef in a steer, whose girth is 6 ft. 4 ins., and length 5 ft. 3 ins. Work— 76 ins. girth, x 63 ins. length, = 4788 144 = 33| square feet, X 23 = 764| lbs. , or 54| stone. Ans . COG AGIllCULTURAL TABLES. When the animal is hut lialf fattened, a deduction of 14 llw. in every 280, or 1 stone in every 20 must be made ; and if very fat, 1 stone for every 20 must bo added. See other rules on page 558. Tlieso rules are a very close approximation to tlie truth, subject to very plight variations owing "to the condition, bi-eed, &c., of various animals. The following Table is compiled from two English authorities on the subject : Kenton's Table. It. in. It. in. Btone lb. stone 3 6 21 0 21 5 0 4 24 0 24 5 () 3 9 ........ 27 1 27 5 C 4 0 34 4 .34 G 0 4 G 38 8 38 C 0 5 0 43 1 43 6 6 4 G 45 9 45 4 9 48 0 48 G 64 G C4 7 0 6 0 70 5 70 8 0 6 G 99 8 8 0 0 107 5 107 00 00 00 07 U 00 07 00 07 03 r 0 In reference to the very important item of Sheep Husbandry, the fol lowing valuable Table presents the results of numerous experiments bj De Raumer : TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECTS PRODUCED BY AN EQUAL QUANTITY OF THE FOLLOWING SUBSTANCES AS FOOD FOR SHEEP. Increased weight of Produced Tallow- Lbs. 121/2 IIV2 591/2 & 60 41 35 43 33 The following Table, from Delisser's Horseman's Guide, exhibits the percentage of different nutritive elements in the various kinds of food supplied to horses in this and other countries : Lbs. Designation. 1000 potatoes raw with salt. . " without salt " mangel- wurtzel, raw.. . . living animal in Lbs. 44 381/2 155 146 136 134 133 90 129 120 Trodueed Wool Lbs. if' 10 14 12 10 14V2 Description of Food. Wood Fibre. Sugar and Starch. Fibrine and Albumen. Fattv Mat- ter. Saline Mat- ters. Water. Black Butter Corn. none. 53.5 15.5 10.5 9.2 11.2 Oats. 30.0 43.0 11.4 0.6 2.5 .12.5 Indian Corn. 8.0 53.0 14.0 6.0 5.0 14.0 Linseed, 19.0 35.0 20.0 8.0 6.0 12.0 Beans. 14 5 40.0 26.0 2.5 3.0 14.0 Peas. 9.0 48.0 24.0 2.0 3.0 14.0 Barley. 14.0 52.0 13.5 2.5 3.0 15.0 Old Hay. 30.0 40.0 7.0 2.0 7.0 14.0 Clover. 25.0 40.0 9.0 3.0 9.0 14.0 Barley Straw. 46.0 340 1.5 none. 6.5 12.0 Oat Straw. 50.0 31.0 LO a trace. 5.5 12.5 Wheat Straw. 55.0 27.0 0.5 none. 5.5 12.0 Bran. 54.0 2.0 20.0 4.0 7.0 13.0 Carrots. 3.0 10.0 1.5 none. 1.5 84.0 1 pt. of Black Butter-Corn as imported from the Indies, and sold in many of the feed stores, is considered equivalent to 12 qts. of oats for nourishing qualities when fed to a horse. Hard working horses can be AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 697 Irept in prime order by feeding them, 1st, At Wight after work, J peclc oats, and A pt. black butter corn, with 8 to 10 lbs. pood hay. 2d, In the, Morning, | peck oats, 1 pt. Indian meal, with say, 2 lbs. hay. 3d, During the day, ^ peck of oats with a little hay. 4th, On Saturday Night a good warm bran mash. 5th, On Sunday, an extra allowance of hay. These rules followed out, will ensure to a horse a weekly allowance Df, Fibrine and Albumen, 22 lbs. ; Fat, 5^ lbs. ; starch and sugar, 85 lbs, so that the relative proportion of nitrogenous to carbonaceous food is as 1 to 4 ; while for a fattening animal it is as 1 to 5. Horses should be water- ed before feeding. Table, showing the results or experiments in the feeding of GOOD HAY AND OTHER SUBST^iNCES, AS FOOD FOR STOCK. 10 lbs of hay are equal to 8 to 10 lbs. clover hay. 45 to 50 " green clover. 40 to 50 " wheat straw. 20 to 40 " barley straw. 20 to 40 ** oat straw. 10 to 15 " pea straw. 20 to 25 " potatoes. 25 to 30 " carrots (red). 40 to 45 " ♦* (white). 10 lbs. of hay are equal to 30 to 35 lbs. mangold wurtzcl. 45 to 50 " turnips. 20 to 30 " cabbage. 3 to 5 peas and beans, 5 to G " wheat. 5 to 6 " barley. 4 to 7 " oats. 5 to 7 " Indian corn. 2 to 4 " oil cake. Note. — In calculations of this kind, due allowance must be made for variations caused by the condition, age, digestion, breed, &c., of the animal, and the variety or mixture of the food dispensed. The same re- marks are eminently true of the following. Table, showing the difference between good hay and the substances noted below, as food for stock, being the mean cf experiment and theory. 100 lbs. of hay are equal to 275 lbs. green Indian corn. 442 " rye straw. 360 " wheat " 164 oat " 180 " barley " 153 " pea 200 " buckwheat straw. 201 *' raw potatoes. 175 " boiled potatoes. 339 " mangold wurtzel. 504 " turnips. 300 " carrots. 100 lbs of hay are equal to 54 lbs. rye. 46 " wheat. 59 " oats. 45 " peas and beans mixed. 64 " buckwheat. 57 " Indian corn. 68 " acorns. 105 " wheat bran. 109 " rye " 167 " wheat, pea, and oat chaff. 179 '* rye and barley, mixed. The following Table shows the amount of hay or its equivalent per day, required by each 100 lbs. of live weight of various animals : Working Horses 3.08 lbs. " Oxen , 2.40 " Fatting Oxen 5.00 " *' " when fat....- 4.00 " Milch Cows from 2-25 to 2.40 " Dry " 2.42 " Young growing cattle 3.08 " Steers 2.84 " Pigs 3.00 " Sheep 3.00 * Winter Treatment of Hens. — Hens will produce an abundance of eggs during winter if they are provided Avith a warm comfortable roost during the night, and a sheltered sunny exposure during the day. Give them plenty of dry ashes, gravel, and sand to roll in ; a box of slacked or old lime to nibble at, with an allowance of finely chopped meat every other day, and plenty of corn and oats, boiled soft, and spiced with cayenne pepper. Add the table crumbs, potato parings, &c., with plenty of lukewarm water, and they will render ample returns. No living thing kept on a farm pays better than hens if they are only well used. 698 AGKICULTUKAL TABLES. NUTKITIVE VALUK OF VARIOUS CROPS, AR TO BTARCII, CUM, GLUTEN, ALBUMEN, CASEIN, OIL, SALINE MATTER, &C'. -a o 13 p o i« ii DESiaNATIOIT. Buslicls. IDB. or wo fibre. k ^ 3 < 3 Oil. a 1 § 1 Husk Starch Glntei an Wheat 25 1500 ,225 825 180 45 30 35 1800 270 1080 230 50 50 50 2100 420 1050 300 100 75 25 1600 130 900 380 34 48 25 1600 160 640 420 40 50 30 1800 '■ 100 1260 220 130 30 12 tons 27000 1080 4800 540 45 240 30 " 67000 1340 6000 1000 200 450 3000 1500 900 40 80 150 ly^ 3400 1020 1360 240 120 220 2 " 4500 1120 1800 420 200 400 20 " 45000 430 2300 1300 130 600 Johnston. In the following table, by Sprengel, the grain, leaves, peas, straw, and hay, are estimated after they have been dried in the air, the roots after they have been taken from the field. The potato loses in drying 69 per cent, of water ; the turnip, 91; the carrot, 87; the turnip leaf, 86; the carrot leaf, parsnip, and i)arsnip leaf, each 87, and the cabbage 93, Table showing the quantity and kinds of inorganic matter REMOVED from THE SOIL IN 1000 LBS. EACH OP THE FOLLOAVING CROPS. Wheat— Grain . " Straw. Barley— Grain. Straw. Oats— Grain . . . " Straw . . . Eye— Grain " Straw... Field ) Bean. . . Bean ) Straw... Field ) Pea .... Pea J Straw . . ; Boots .. t Tops... Boots. . Leaves. Carrots Parsnips Bye Grass Bed Clover White Clover . . Lucerne Sainfoin Pota's Tur. ] ."2 «j a g > .2 C3 C a o 1 S o, g< o .5 o o o tn B 1 3 iZ 3 m 2 O 2.25 2.40 0.96 0.90 0.26 4.00 0.50 0.40 0.10 trace 11.77 0.20 0.29 2.40 0.32 0.90 28.70 0.37 1.70 0.30 35.18 2.78 2.90 1.06 1.80 0.25 11.82 .59 2.10 0.19 trace 23,49 1.80 0.48 5.54 0.76 1.46 38.56 1.18 1.60 0.70 0.14 0.20 52.42 1.50 1.32 0.86 0.67 0.14 19.76 0.35 0.70 0.10 0.40 25.80 8.70 0.02 1.52 0.22 0.06 45.88 0.79 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.02 57.40 5.32 1.22 0.44 0.24 1.64 0.23 0.46 0.09 0.42 0.34 10.40 0.32 0.11 1.78 0.12 0.25 22.97 1.70 0.51 0.17 27.93 4.15 8.16 1.65 1.58 0.34 1.26 0.89 2.92 0.41 21.36 16.56 0.50 6.24 2.09 0.10 2.20 0.34 2.26 0.80 0.07 0.05 31.21 8.10 7.39 0.58 1.36 0.20 4.10 0.53 1.90 0.38 0.10 24.64 2.35 27.30 3.42 0.60 9.96 3.. 37 2.40 0.04 0.20 0.07 49.71 4.028 2.334 .331 .324 .050 .084 .540 .401 .160 .032 8.284 8.19 .09 12.97 1.70 .04 4.94 .42 1.97 .50 .02 30.84 2.386 1.048 .752 .254 .030 .388 .80] .367 .239 .032 6.303 3.23 2.22 6.20 ..59 .03 1.28 2.52 .98 .87 .17 18.09 3.533 .922 .657 .384 .039 ,137 .270 .514 .070 .033 .060 6.619 2.079 .702 .468 .270 .024 .162 .192 .100 .178 .0051 V 4.180 8.81 3.94 7.34 0.90 0.31 27.72 3.53 0.25 0.06 52.86 19.95 5.29 27.80 3.33 0.14 3.61 4.47 6.57 3.62 74.78 31.05 5.79 33.48 3.05 1.90 14.73 3.53 5.05 2.11 0.63 91.32 13.40 6.15 48.31 3.48 0.30 3.30 4.04 3.41 13.07 9.16 3.18 1.57 0.30 95.52 69.57 20.57 4.37 (21.95 2.88 0.66 5.00 AGRICULTURAL TABLES, *!tC. 699 As a means of enaTjliiig the farmer to form an approximate estimate of tlve amount removed from the soil by liis crops, we append the following valuable tables by Prof. Johnston : — Table showixg the amount of organic substances kemoved from THE soil in 1000 LBS. EACH OF THE FOLLOWING CROPS WHEN PER- FECTLY DRY. Hay, about Red Clover Hay. Potatoes Wheat. Wheat Straw.... Oats Oat Straw Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Ash. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. JL.bs. 458 50 387 15 CO 474 50 378 21 77 440 58 447 15 40 4G1 58 434 23 23 484 53 3891/2 367 331/2 70 507 64 22 40 601 54 390 4 51 Table showing inorganic matter removed from the soil in 1000 LBS. each OF THE FOLLOWING CROPS IN THEIR ORDINARY STATE OF DRYNESS. Beans about 30 lbs. Peas " 30 " Pea straw " 50 *' Meadow Hay " 50 to 100 Clover Hay " 90 lbs. Rye Grass Hay '< 95 " Potatoes " 8 to 15 Turnips '< 5 to 8 Carrots " 15 to 20 Wheat about 20 lbs. Wheat straw " 50 " Barley " 30 " Barley straw " 50 *' Oats " 40 " Oat straw " 60 " Rye " 20 " Rye straw " 40 '* Indian Corn " 15 " Indian Corn Stalk.... " 50 " Grand Idea for Farmers ; Best Fodder at $1.00 per Ton — Mr. Francis Morris of Howard Co., Ind., thus recounts a very unusual ex- perience in preparing and using corn fodder. The system, if carried out to its ultimate results, would render almost any farm a fair equivalent to a gold mine, so far as profit is concerned. " About the 1st of last August, I planted five acres of ordinary wheat land in Indian corn, and I allowed it to grow until the 1st of October, when it was in tassel. I then had it cut down with a reaper and passed through the ordinary process of chopping, using for that purpose an or- dinary feed-cutter. The fodder thus produced was mixed with straw in proportion of four-fifths corn fodder to one fifth straw. It was then put in trenches, trampled down, and covered with earth. The fodder re- mained in this state until last Christmas day, when the trenches were opened and the fodder taken out and fed to the cattle. The fodder was found to be in as perfect a state of preservation as when it was first put in, and the cattle seemed to relish it from the first, and now prefer it to any other kind of food. The cost of producing this fodder was only $1 a ton, which is only one-twentieth as much as the cost of timothy hay, which is not equal to it in any respect. If the land is planted early in the spring, 20 or 30 tons can be raised to the acre, but in France the land is highly manured and the corn is sowed only two feet apart, which often makes the yield as high as 80 tons to the acre. The same land can afterwards be planted in barley, and loses none of its strength by the planting of the corn, as it is a principle in agriculture that the strength of the land is only lost in the formation of the grain. By the use of this fodder every farm of 100 acres, planted with 10 acres of "this fodder, would be able to fatten 100 head of cattle during the winter, which would yield a profit of 50 per cent., besides the immense advantage of having such an amount of stable manure, which in itself, if utilized, would pay for the fodder thus used." The advantages of this method, Mr. Morris states, are best shown by a 700 AGRICULTURAL FACTS, &C. comparison between the cost of production of tliis fodder nnd the cost of timothy hay. rhosphate, 10 acres, at f IG §1G0 Team and plow for 30 days CO Man to tend the team 15 Catting 15 Hauling and preserving 250 Total cost §500 " A fair estimate of the crop of these ten acres would be 500 tons. Five liundred tons of timothy hay would cost $10,900, and as this 500 tons of chopped fodder will answer the same purpose as the timoUiy hay, it is easily seen that every community can thus raise its own meat at about half the cost to import it." Of all the vegetable products used as food, it is to be noted that in their dry state, carbon forms almost ^ . the weight, oxygen a little over ^, hydrogen a little more than 5 per cent, nitrogen from 1^ to 4 per cent, and earthy matter from 1 to 20 per cent. A SIMPLE STUMP- PULLER. The above cut represents a simple stump machine illustrated in the columns of the American Agriculturist. It is worked by a lever, moved preferably by a stout yoke of oxen. The end of the lever is supplied with a strong clevis, sufficiently long to pass around so as to be used on either side. The fulcrum of the lever consists of a chain which is to be fastened to the largest stump near (a) ; on each side of this is a clevis, with a short chain and hook attached. To work the machine, fix a chain to the stump to be pulled, hook on to one of the short chains of the machine (6), draw up the oxen until that chain is tight ; hook on the other chain (c), turn the team, and draw up as far as they can go ; hook the chain (6), turn and draw again, and so repeat until the stump is drawn out. Then fasten on to another, and repeat the process until all the stumps are out within reach of the one the machine is anchored to. The machine will then have to be moved to another anchoring place, and so on until the field is cleared. The last stump left must be grubbed out. It will be necessary to remember that the power of this lever ia DYNAMITE VS. STUMPS, &C. 701 very great ; nnd stump pulling requires stout impleraents'and chains. A breakage may not only cause delay, but a blow from a snapping chain may very easily be fatal ; it is therefore absolutely necessary for safety that the chains be made of the best iron, with the best workmanship, and strong enough to hold against all the resistance they may meet. The lever should be strengthened with iron plates in those parts where the holes are bored for the clevis bolts. Dynamite vs. Stumps and Rocks. — Late experiments by John O'Don- nell, of Jamacia, L. I., before an invited party of farmers, prove con- clusively that stumps and rocks can be sent flying by means of dynamite at a very low cost. The stronger and fresher the stump is the further it flies. Five stumps were attacked. The first was of oak, partly decayed. The men employed punched a hole with a crowbar between two project- ing roots, but not being experts, did not insert the instrument fully under the stump. Consequently, only two-thirds of it was blown out. The partial decay of the wood was another hindrance. It did not offer the necessary resistance. A partially rotted chestnut stump was blown to fragments. The crowbar was badly inserted under an apple-tree stump, and that, like the oak, was shattered to the extent of two-thirds. With a sound and sturdy oak stump, however, the dynamite was fully triumphant. The stump was blown out utterly. A charge was place under a rock weighing about two tons. It was thrown from its bed and shattered to pieces. A rock half its size was thrown twenty feet, but not broken. A hole about a foot deep was then drilled into a well-embedded rock, and charged with four ounces of dynamite. It was much broken, and the pieces not dislodged were easily pried out with the crowbar. About two inches of a cartridge an inch in diameter had hitherto been used upon the stumps, but the closing experiment was made with an entire cartridge eighteen inches long upon a fresh oak stump twenty inches in diameter. Many of the fragments were thrown 125 feet. The dynamite is put up in jmckages of oiled muslin, shaped like a candle, and impervious to water. One end is opened, and a hole is made in the powder with a stick for the insertion of the percussion cap, which is an inch long, and loaded for half its length with fulminate of mercury. A fuse is inserted in the cap, which is squeezed with nippers that it may fit tightly. The little interstices must be filled with soap, to render the cap waterproof. Aftei the cap is in position in the powder, the top of the cartridge must be tied tight around the fuse, so that ,no water may enter. On the cartridge being placed against the stump, water must be poured into the hole and the ground around thoroughly soaked and pressed that it may offer a strong resistance. A little semi-circular dam should then be heaped around, within which more water should be l^oured, by way of adding to the resistance. The fuse, which should project outside of the dam, is then lighted. It reaches the cap in less than two minutes, which affords ample time for the operators to reach a safe distance. The explosion makes little noise, and after viewing a dance in the air of a myriad of fragments, spectators find a large hole, with a few loose roots around and the ground ready for the plough. Cockroach Destroyer.— To destroy cockroaches, mix finely powdered borax and fine sugar, half-and-half, and spread around where the roaches are most troublesome. For a few days it may seem that the remedy is doing no good, but soon the roaches will begin to die, and in a short time you will be rid of them. This is said to be an infallible rem- edy. Cayenne pepper will keep the pantry and storeroom free from cockroaches and ants. 702 AGRICULTURAL TAIJLES. QUANTITIES OP SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE, &0. TABLU SlIOWINC) TJIK QUANXITV OF OAKDKN SKKI) KOR A GIVEN SPACE. l>eBi;,'iiation. Space and quantity of seeds. Asparagus " Roots. Eng.Dwarf Beans French " Beans, Pole,large " " small Beets Broccoli and Kale Cabbage Cauliflower Carrot Celery Cucumber Cress Egg Plant Endive Leek Lettuce Melon Nasturtium Onion Okra Parsley Parsnip Peppers Peas Pumpkin Radish Salsify Spinage.. Squash Tomato..., Turnip "Water Melon 1 oz. produces 1000 plants and requires a bed 12 ft. sq. 1000, plant a bed 4 feet wide, 225 long. 1 quart plants, from 100 to 225 of row. " " " from 100 to 150 feet of row. " " " 100 hills. " " " 300 hills, or 250 feet of row. 10 lbs. to the acre ; 1 oz. plants 150 feet of row. 1 oz. plants 2500 plants, and requires 40 sq. ft. of ground. Early sorts same as broccoli, and require CO sq. ft. ground. The same as cabbage. 1 oz. to 150 of row. 1 oz. gives 7000 plants, and requires 8 sq. feet of ground. 1 oz. for 150 hills. 1 oz. sows a bed 16 feet square. 1 oz. gives 2000 plants. 1 oz. gives 3000 plants, and requires 80 feet of ground. 1 oz. gives 2000 plants and requires CO feet of ground. 1 oz, " 7000 <' and requires seed bed of 120 feet. 1 oz. for 120 hills. 1 oz. sows 25 feet of row. 1 oz. " 200 *' loz. " 200 " 1 oz. <* 200 " " loz. " 250 " *' 1 oz. gives 2500 plants. 1 quart sows 120 feet of row. 1 oz. to 50 hills. 1 oz. to 100 feet. 1 oz. to 150 feet of row. 1 oz. to 200 feet of row. 1 oz. to 75 hills 1 oz. gives 2500 plants, requiring seed bed of 80 feet. 1 oz. to 2000 feet. 1 oz. to 50 hills. Table showing the quantity of seed required to the acre. Designation. Quantity of seed. Broom Corn. 1 to 1]4 bush. Potatoes 5 to 10 " Timothy 12 to 24 quarts. Mustard 8 to 20 " Herd Grass 12 to 16 " Flat Turnip 2 to 3 lbs. Red Clover 10 to 16 " White Clover 3 to 4 " Blue Grass 10 to 15 " Orchard Grass 20 to 30 " Carrots 4 to 5 " Parnsnips 6"to 8 , " Table showing the quantity per acre when planted in rows on DRILLS . Designation. "Wheat Barley Oats Rye Buckwheat , Millet Corn Beans Hemp. Flax.., Rice . . . Quantity of seed. .11/4 to 2 bush. .1% to 21/2 " .2 to 4 " .1 to 2 " . % to 11/3 .1 to 1% •< . 1/4 to 1 .1 to 2 " .2y2 to 3% " .1 to IK " . to 2 .2 to 2% Broom Corn 1 to li^ bush. Beans 1% to 2 " Peas lV2to2 « Onions 4 to 5 lbs. Carrots 2 to 2J^ " Parnsnips 4 to 5 " Beets 4 to 6 " To Estimate the Quantity of Peat.— Peat, as ordinarily in the bed, will weigh 2,100 to 2,400 lbs. per cubic yard, if drained in the bed, 1,340 to 1,490 ; when air-dried, 320 to 380 lbs., when it will shrink to | or 1-6 its original bulk. Vitality of Seeds.— Beans will retain vitality for 2 years, beet 7, cabbage 4, carrot 2, sweet corn 2, cucumber 10, lettuce 3, melon 10, onion 1, peas 2, parsnip 1, radish 3, squash 10, tomato 7, turnip 4. AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 703 Table showing germination of wheat sowed at vakiods depths. Appeared above No. of plants ground in Seeds sown to the depth of U inch. 11 days 1 " 12 " " " " " 2 " 18 " 3 " " " " " 4 " " " 5 " that came up. % all. 23 In sowing wheat the rule is to give it a thinner covering in a close heavy soil, than in one that is light, gravelly, and sandy. Table, showing the period of reproduction and gestation of domestic animals. iJJiiBiuXS A llOiN . Proper age for reproduc- tion. Period of tho power of re- productionin years. Mare 4 years. 10 to 12 5 a 12 to 13 Cow 3 10 to 14 Bull' . . 3 ti 8 to 10 2 6 2 7 1 6 1 G 2 6 He Goat, 2 5 4 10 to 12 5 12 to 15 She Bulfalo,... 8 2 II 8 to 9 Dog, She Cat, 2 8 to 9 1 5 to 6 He Cat, 1 9 to 10 Doe Rabbit,.... 6 months 5 to G Buck Rabbit, . . 6 5 to 6 6 ft 5 to G 3 to 5 Goose, Pea Hen, Guinea Hen, . . . O 20 to 30 to 45 40 to 50 6 to 10 20 to 40 5 to G 30 12 to 15 Shortest pe- Mean peri- Longest riod, days. od, days. period, dys. 322 347 419 240 283 321 146 154 161 109 115 143 150 156 163 365 380 391 281 308 335 55 60 63 48 50 56 20 28 35 19 21 24 24 £6 30 28 30 32 27 30 33 IG 18 20 25 28 30 20 33 25 40 42 45 Man Tlie Camel The Horse The Ox The Lion The Dog The Cat The Hare The Guinea p grows for 20 years, and lives Growth and life of animals. 90 40 25 15 20 12 9 8 or 100 years. " 5 " " " 4 «* " " 15 to 20 II 4 <« << " 2 " " " 12 to 14 " 1% " " " 9 or 10 <( 2 (< <« <« " 7 months, and lives 6 or 7 " To Rid a House of Rats. — Wet a few pounds of unslacked lime with strong lye made from potash ; let it be quite soft ; spread it around the holes so that the rats cannot avoid treading in it ; let it remain a week or so, and if it gets dry scrape it off and moisten again. The mixture bums their feet, and they will not be likely to make a second visit. Do not let it come in contact with oil cloth or paint. 701 LAND mp:asurement. ON LAND MEASUREMENT. To aid farmers in arriviiifj at accurate results in the measurement of an acre, \vc append the following table. A field of any of these diinen- eions contains one acre: n yards wide by 0G8 loug. | 242 IGl 97 303 10 yards wide by 4ft3 long. 121 CO 88 ]03 82 THE SIDE OF A SQUARE TO CONTAIN One acre, 208.71 feet ; 12.05 rods ; G4 14 acre, 147.58 feet ; 8.94 rods ; 45 1/3 acre, 120.50 feet ; 7.30 rods ; 37 1/4 acre, 104.3«feet; 6.32 rods ; 32 % acre, 73.79 feet ; 4-47 rods ; 22^^ paces. Table for farmers, surveyors, &c., giving exact proportions of an acre in square feet in a lot less than an acre. paces, paces, paces, paces. ' Square Feet. IS Square Feet. lOOths of acre. Square Feet. lOOtha of acre. Square Feet. ! lOOths of acre. 436 .01 11326 .26 22216 .51 33106 .76 871 .02 11761 .27 22651 .52 33541 .77 1307 .03 12197 .28 23087 .53 33977 .78 1742 .04 12632 .29 23522 .54 34412 .79 2178 .05 13068 .30 23958 .55 34848 .80 2614 .06 13504 .31 24394 .56 35384 .81 S049 .07 13939 ..32 24829 .57 3-819 .82 3485 .08 14375 .33 25265 .58 36255 .83 3920 .09 14810 .31 25700 .59 36690 .84 4356 .10 15246 .35 26136 .60 37026 .85 4792 .11 15682 .36 26572 .61 37462 .86 5227 .12 16117 .37 27007 .62 37897 .87 5663 .13 16558 .38 27443 .63 38333 .88 6098 .14 16988 .39 27878 .64 38768 .89 C534 .15 17424 .40 28314 .65 39204 .90 t)97a .16 17860 .41 28750 .66 39640 .91 7405 .17 18295 .42 20185 .67 40075 .92 7841 .18 18731 .43 29621 .68 40511 .93 8276 .19 19166 .44 30056 .69 40946 .94 8712 .20 19602 .45 30492 .70 41381 .95 9148 .21 20038 .46 30923 .71 41818 .96 9583 .22 20473 .47 313C3 .72 42253 .97 10019 .23 20909 .48 31799 .73 42689 .98 10154 .24 21344 .49 32234 .74 43124 .99 108S«J .25 21780 ..50, 32670 .75 43560 1.00 SmA'WI Lots. — In laying off small lots the following admeasurements will be lound to be both accurate and useful : — 521 feet square, or 2,722^ square feet,= ,\ of an acre. 732/3 " " 5,445 " =% 1041/3 " " 10,890 *' =1/4 120% " " 14-,520 " =1/3 147 " " 21,780 " r=J4 '20S% " " 43,560 " =1 acre. To Find the Number of Acres in a Body of Land.— i??/?e,— Mul- tiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the product by 160 : the rosult will be the answer in acres and hundredths. When the opposite sides of a piece of land are of unequal length, add them together and take one-half for the mean length or width. Multiply this by the depth, and divide by 31^. This will give the result required. LAND BIKASUUEMENT. 705 SUHVSrOIl'S LONG MEASrrRB FOR MEASURING DISTANCES, BOUNDARIES, ARKAS, RAILWAYS, &C. ^iVo inches link. I 4 rods 1 chaim. 25 liuks 1 rod.. | 83 chains 1 mile. KQUIVALENTS. Mile. Chains. Kods. Links. Inches. 1 =3 80 = 320 = 8,000 = 63,360 1 ^. 4 = 100 = 792 = 25 198 1 - 7.92 Surveyor's long measure, scale of units, 7-92, 25, 4, 80. , TABLE OF MISCELLANEOUS LINEAR MEASURE. 3 inches 1 palm. 4inr»TiAa 1 lionrl ? Used in measuring the height of mcnes l liana.^ horses at the shoulder. 9 inches 1 span. 3 feet 1 pace or step. 3.28 feet 1 metre. 6 feet 1 fathom. ) 880 fathoms ^ ^ 1 mile. | U-^— ^^<^epthsataea. 3 geographical miles 1 league. 60 " 1 ,lp(;y„pp < Of latitude; 69— statute "1 ^^o^^' ?> a V :i qrts 14% G 6% 8 6% 15 14% 22% 28 •istance; :aps apa n yardsj NUMBER OF HEAPS IN A LOAD. 1 2 3 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 538 269 179 134 108 891/2 66 77 67 60 .54 3^ 395 168 132 99 ,79 50% 491/2 44 391/2 4 203 151 101 751/2 60 60K 50% 431/4 37% 33^ 4^ 239 120 79K 47% 39% 341/4 30 26>^ 5 194 97 64% 48J4 38% 321/4 27% 241/4 21^ 6 160 80 53i| 40 32 263/4 22% 20 17% 131 67 44% 33^ 27 223^ 191/4 16% 15 6^ 115 571^ 38V4 28% 23 19 I6I/4 141/4 12% 7 99 49^ 33 24% 19% 16% 14 121/4 7H 86 43 28% 21 171/^ 141^ 121/4 10% 91/2 ?i 8 15% 37^ 251/4 19 15% I2V2 10% 9% 8I/2 8^ 67 335^ 30 221^ 16K 131/2 111/4 9% 8% 71/2 6% 9 60 20 15 12 10 81/2 6% 6 93^ 53^ 2634 18 103/4 9 ?% 11 6 51/2 5% 10 481/2 241/^ I6V4 9% 8 6 4% EXPLANATION.— The left hand column gives the distance in yards between the heaps each way in each row ; at the top of the columns are AGRICULTURAL FACTS, &C. 71 i iudicated the number of heaps in each load, and the number of loads re- quired per acre will be found at the point where the two lines meet. Memoranda. — 1 cubic ft. of half rotten stable manure will weigh 56 lbs. ; if coarse or dry, 48 lbs. A load ofmamire is about 36 cubic ft., and if of the first quality will weigh 2,016 lbs. ; if of the second, 1728 lbs. 8 loads of the first kind spread over an acre will give 108 lbs. to each square rod, and about 3-^- lbs. to each square yard. To apply guano, mix it thoroughly for a few days with 5 times its bulk of vegetable mould or loam, and some charcoal or gypsum, after brealf- ing the lumps and sifting in alternate layers. Avoid the use of aslies or lime, as they tend to expel the ammonia, and keep under cover, dry, until used. It may then be scattered broadcast upon meadows or grain, or placed near the seeds of young plants in the hill. Use from 200 to 500 lbs. guano to the acre, the latter quantity to the more barren soils. The following Table shows the compositioji of Bone dust. In 100 parts, there are of Lime Phosphate of Magnesia. Soda, and Common salt. Carbonate of lime 3.75 Fluoride of calcium 3. Gelatine (the substance of horn) 33.25 Analysis of a manure heap in the condition usually applied to a field. Fresh. Dried at 212°. Water 04.96 Organic matter 24.71 Inorganic salts .10.33 Carbon .37.40 Hydrogen .5.27 Oxygen .25.52 Nitrogen 1.76 Ashes (inorganic matter). ... .30.05 The urine voided from a cow during one year contains 900 lbs. solid matter, and compared with Peruvian guano at $50 per ton is worth $20. It will manure l| acres of land, and is more valuable than its dung, in the ratio, by bulk, of 7 to 0, and in intrinsic value as 2 to 1. — Dana. The Urine of the Cow contains of water 92.G per cent. " " Horse " " 94, " " Sheep " " ..: 96. " " " Hog " " ' 92.6' " " '< Human" " C3.3 " The remainder is composed cf salts . and rich food for vegetables. — Sprengel. Analysis of Bolivian guano by bkof. Johnston. Water 6.91 Organic Matter, containing Ammonia .55.52 Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 6.31 Carbonate of Lime 3.87 Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 25-68 Silicious Matter or Sand n , 1.71 Analysis of Peruvian guano b\- prof, johnston. Water 13.09 Organic Matter, containing Ammonia 53.17 Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 4.63 Carbonate of Lime 4.18 Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 23.54 Silicious Matter or Sand < 1.39 Prof. Johnston's Tests for Good Guano.— The drier the better, there is less water to pay for and transport. The lighter the color the better, it is the less completely dissolved. If it has not a strong am- mouiacal smell it ought to give ofE such a smell when a spoonful of it is mixed with a spoonful of lime in a wine-glass. When put into a tumbler of water and stirred well, and the water and fine matter poured off, it ought 712 AGRICULTURAL TAliLKS. to leave hut little sand or stones. When heated to redness over a fire or a brif^lit flame, until tiie animal matter is burnt away, the ash should nearly all dissolve in dilute muriatic acid. ANALYSIS OF FISH GUANO. heat Water expelled by 212 Sand Oil Organic Matter Super-Phospliato of Lime Sulphate of Lime, Ilydrated 8.00 0.33 2.40 50.72 9.85 19.G21 Sulphate of Magnesia 0.71 " Potash 2.05 " Soda 2.42 Chloride of Sodium 1.12 Sulphate of Ammonia 2.72 JJr. Jpjohn. Table, showing the effect riiODUCEi) upon the quantity of the CROP UY equal quantities OF DIFFERENT MANUltES APPLIED TO THE SAME SOIL, SOWN WITH AN EQUAL QUANTITY OF SEED. lleturn in Bushels for each Bushel of Seed. Manure applied. Wlieat, Barley. Rye. Oats. Wheat. Barley. Rye. 14 IG 14 14 13Vo 12 16 13'"" 10 13 11 10 9 "7 11 9 3 7 6 4 4 Blood Night Soil Sheep Manure — Horse " Pigeon " Cow " Vegetable " Without Manure Analysis of fresh farm-yard manure, composed of horse, cow, and pig excreta, about 14 days old, by Dr. Augustus Voelcker, Professor of Chem- istry in the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England. Accord- ing to this analysis one ton (2,000 lbs.) farm-yard manure contains — Soluble silica (silicic acid) 24 lbs. Ammonia (actual or potential) 15% " Phosphate of lime 13/^ " Lime. 23/^ " Magnesia Sy^j " Potash 131/2 Soda If " Common salt ^"s " Sulphuric acid 2% " Water... 1323? " Woody fibre, &c 579 Of course no two samples of farm-yard manure are exactly of the same composition. That analyzed by Dr. Voelcker was selected with much care, as representing a fair average. Note. — ^In estimating the value of barn-yard manure the value of the differ- ent excreta will always range in value according to the kind of food pro- vided f6r the stock. See last column of Table on page 716. Table showing the comparative value of animal manures, with farm- yard manure as the standard. 100 lbs. farm-yard manure are equal to 125 lbs. solid excrement of the Cow liquid Mixed " Horse " Cow. " Horse. " Cow, " Horse. «' Sheep. " Pig. 3 5 15 4 3 3 3 lbs. Dry Flesh. " Pigeon Dung. " Liquid Blood. " Dry Blood. " Feathers. " Cow Hair. " Hair Shavings. Dry AVoollen raga Johnston. AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 713 Table siiowino the relative value of decomposed vegetablb manures, from the ikorganic matter they contaik. Inorganic Matter, lbs. lbs. ton Wheat Straw made into manure returns to tlie soil 70 to 360 " Oat " " " " 100 to 180 " Hay " " " " " 100 to 300 " Barley " " " " " 100 to 120 " Pea " " " " " 100 to 110 Bean " " " " " 100 to 130 " Rye " " " " 50 to 100 " Dry Potato-tops " " " " 400 " Dry Turnio-tops " " " " 370 " Rape Cake " " " " 120 " Malt Dust " '< " " 180 " Dried Seaweed " " " 560 Johnston. Table showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables AS manures, from the nitrogen they contain. 100 lbs. of farm-yard manure is equal to 130 lbs. Wheat Straw Manure. 150 " Oat " " 20 " Dried " " 180 " Barley " " 26 " Bran of Wheat or Corn " 85 " B'kwii't " 13 " Malt Dust " 45 " Pea " " 8 " Rape Cako 50 " Wheat Clialf 250 " Pine Sawdust " 80 " Green Grass " 180 " Oak " " 75 " Potato Tops " 25 " Coal Soot " 80 lbs. Fresh Seaweed Manure, Boussingault. Moisture absorbed by various manures. 1000 parts horse-manure, dried at a temperature of lOO** Fahr., ab- sorbed by exposure to the air at a temperature of 62* Fahr.: Moisture . . 145 parts. 1000 parts cow-manure, ixnder same circumstances 130 *' " pig-dung, " " " 120 *' '•' sheep-dung, " " 81 " " pigeon-dung, " " " 50 " " rich all UYial soil, " " 14 " " fresh tanners' bark, " " 115 " " putrified, " " " 145 " ** refuse marine salt, " " 49>^ " « [soot, " " S6 " " burnt clay, " " 21) " " coal ashes, " " 14 " " lime, " 11 ' *' sediment from salt-pans, " 10 " '< crushed rock-salt, " " 10 " " gypsum, " " 9 " chalk, ' " " 4 " Everything on a farm should be utilized, even the outflow of the kitchen slops should be discharged on a bed of swamp muck. Good wood ashes weigh about 60 lbs. to the bushel ; of this 6| lbs. are soluble in warm Avater. They are worth to the farmer from 60 to 70c. per bushel as a fertilizer, if leached, they are worth perhaps a quarter of that sum . They are excellent for all crox^s, altogether unequalled for fruit trees, and in a most unfavorable season 250 bushels of i^otatoes have been raised from 1 acre dressed with them. The products of the water closet, both liquid and solid, should be deo- dorized and composted by mixture Avith dried peat, ashes, or dry earth of a loamy nature. The privy vault or box should be easily accessible at all times, and ought to be kept well supplied with a mixture of these 714 AGRICULTURAL TAIiLKS. absorbents. No bettor fertilizer than this exists nndcr the gun ; .about 10 bushels of the com])ost Avill be a good dressing for an acre. In Cliina no other fertilizer is used, and about 400,000,000 of i)eoi)le exist on tlie crops nourished by it. The dry earth closet introduced into England l)y the Kev. Mr. Moule, and the Wakefield closet in the United States, are most powerful auxiliaries of the agriculturist, and deserve the highest commend- ation. TaBLK showing AMOUNT OF SEED POTATOES REQUIRED, WHEN CUT OR UNCUT, AND WHEN SET AT DIFFERENT DISTANCES APART, IN DRILLS TWENTY-EIGHT INCHES FROM CROWN TO CROWN. "VVliole, and planted C inches apart 77 buHhels per aero. " " 9 " PO " " " " 12 " " " " " " 18 " " 26 " " " " 24 " " 19 " " Cut into two sets 6 " " 38 " " " 9 " 25 " " " 12 " " 19 " " « " 18 " " 13 " " Cut into four sets " 6 " " 19 " " " " 9 " " 13 " " " " 12 " " 10 " " Cut into five sets " G " " 15 " " " " 9 " " 10 " " Cut into six seta " 6 " " 13 " " Table showing the quantity of land, in acres and tenths, ploughed by a team and plough moving at the rate of two miles per hour, per day of 10 hours, Width of furrow in inches. Acres and tenths. Width of furrow in inches. Acres and tenths. Width of furrow in feet. Acres and tenths. Width of furrow in feet. Acres and tenths. 5 1.0 12 2.4 2 4.8 13.2 6 1.2 14 2.8 6.0 6 14.4 7 1.4 IG 3.2 3 7.2 15,6 8 l.G 18 3.6 8.4 7 16.8 9 1.8 20 4.0 4 9.6 18.0 10 2.0 22 4.4 10.8 19.2 11 2.2 5 12.0 Arguments in Favor of Soiling Cattle. — By soiling is understood the feeding of cattle in yards or in stables, with grass or other green fod- der cut in the fields, and hauled to them. The Hon. Josiah Quincy, a high authority, states the following as the main advantages of the system : 1st. The saving of land. 2nd. The saving of fencing. 3rd. The economizing of food. 4th. The better condition and greater comfort of the cattle. 5th, The greater product of milk. 6th, The attainment of manure . See page 47. In reference to the 3rd item, the economy of food, he says : " There are six ways by v/hich beasts destroy the article destined for their food — 1. By eating ; 2. By walking ; 3. By dunging ; 4, By staling ; 5. By lying down ; G. By breathing on it. Of these six, the first only is useful. All the others are wasteful." He asserts that a milch cow may be kept by th's method during the ordinary pasturing season on the product of acre of land, while at least 2 acres of the same land would be necessary on the pasturage system, and some place the proportion in favor of soil- ing as high as 1 to 7. By this system interior fences may be abolished in every case, weedy head-lands got rid of, and the plough performs its healthy work from one side of the farm to the other, without let oi: hindrance. ON SOILING CATTLE. 715 The system recommended by Mr. Quincy is as follows • "1. As early in April as the state of the land will permit, which is usually between the 5th and the 10th, on properly prepared land, sow oats at the rate of 4 bushels to the acre. " 2. About the 20th of the same mouth, sow oats or barley, at the samo rate per acre, in like quantity and proportions. " 3. Early in May, sow, in like manner, either of the above grains. "4. Between the 10th and 15th of May, sow Indian corn (the flat Southern being the best) in drills, 3 bushels to the acre, in like quan- tity and proportions. 5. About the 5th of June repeat the sowing of corn. " 7. After the last mentioned sowing barley should bo sown in the above-mentioned quantity and proportions, in succession, on the 15th and 25th of June, and on the 1st of, or early in July ; barley being the best qualified to resist the frosts." Mr. Quincy relied on the mowing of his best grass land to carry his stock through the month of June, or from the earliest pasturing season to the 1st of July, when he anticipated fodder from his first sowing of oats, and after the first severe frost he relied on the tops of 12 acres of root crops for the supply of 15 cows. The plan adopted by Geo. E. Waring, Jr., another eminent agricultur- ist, for 12 Cows, is as follows :— " 1. Early in the autumn sow 3 acres of winter rye to be cut from May 15th to June 15th. " 2. Early in April, 3 acres oats, to be cut from June 15th to July 1st. " 3. Late in April, 2 acres oats or barley, to be cut from July 1st to July 15th. " 4, Early in May, 2 acres oats or barley, to be cut from July 15th to August 10th. "5. Middle of May, 2 acres corn, to be cut from August 10th to September 1st. " 6. Middle of June, the 3 acres from which rye has been cut to be sown with corn, tolbe cut from September 1st to September 20th. "7. Early in July, the first three acres sown with oats to be re-sown with barley, to be cut from September 20th until the harvest of roots and cabbages furnish a stock of green refuse, which will suflice until winter feeding commences. " 8. In September, 3 acres of the 4 comprising Nos. 4 and 5, should be sown with rye for the following spring's use, and the rotation should follow in regular order. The latter end of the season should be helped out with root crops . The reason alleged by Mr. Waring for this ap- portioning 12 acres for 12 cows, is the bad condition of the land, but he is satisfied, that if all the manure made in the soiling season were to be applied to the ground year after year, that they might be made in time to support, during the whole of the "usual pasturing season, 30 milch cows, or 5 cows to each acre. He urges that in the Northern States the earliest abundant food will be secured by the use of winter rye, and that the best and most abundant food for the late summer and earlier autumn will be secured by the use of Indian corn. To Construct an Ice-House. — This indispensable appendage to the farm-house and dairy may be constructed at a small cost. One writer remarks : " Last January I drew 1 large load of sawdust and spread it on the ground on the north side of my horse-barn, then drew the ice (sawed in square cakes) and built up a square pile some 8x10 ft. and 7 or 8 ft. high, filling up the spaces between the cakes with pounded ice. I then set up scantling and built a board house around it 2 feet larger each way than the ice ; then filled in sawdust around and 2 to 3 ft. on top, and covered with boards and slabs. We have used freely through the season, 71G COMl'ONKNTS OF FAIIM PRODUCE. sold to pic-iiic parties, given away to sick neiglibors, and have plenty ol ice yet." Anotlicr writer reports his method as follows : " I set posts in tho ground, so as to make a house 12 ft. square (three posts on each side), then board or plank it up 8 ft. hi^h, on the inside. The surface earth is now dug out G ins. deep, and sawdust filled in 1 ft. deep, making it (} ins. above the level of the earth. The ice is carefully packed, 9 ft. square and 6 ft. high, leaving a space of 18 ins. betv/ccn ice and boards, closely packed Avith sawdust, and the same thickness of sawdust placed on top. I have an old fashioned board roof over this ice-honse. Tlie space above the sawdust is left open, so that the air can circulate through and tlic sun shine in. The result i.^ that we have used ice daily and have ai)lenty yet. As to the cost, four men with one team, cut, hauled and j^acked tho ice, and filled in the sawdust in less than 2 days, notwithstanding we had to haul the ice over ^ mile." Average composition, per cent, and per bon, of various kinds of agricultural produce, &c. , by john^ b. lawe8, of rothailp- STBAD, ENGLAND. PER CENT. LBS. PEii (LONG) TON. acid hos- 1 ^ 2 ire in n 1 1 matt ic as p imc. "3 S V ric nc as p lime. S £ o Total dry Total min ter (ash) Phosphor reckoned phate of ] Potash. I Nitrogen. 1 Total dry £s H Phospho: reckoned phate of j Potash. Nitrogen. V.ilue of and cts (2,000 lb Linseed cake 88.0 7.00 4.92 1.65 4.75 1971 156.8 110.2 37.0 106.4 19.72 Cotton seed cake.. 89.0 8.00 7.00 1.12 6.50 1994 179.2 156.8 70.0 145.6 27.86 Eape cake 89.0 7.00 5.75 3.76 5.00 1994 179.2 128.8 39.4 112.0 21.01 90.0 8 00 3.38 1.37 3.80 2016 89.6 75.7 30.7 85.1 15.65 Beans 84.0 4.00 2.20 1.27 4.00 1C82 67.2 49.3 28.4 89.6 15.75 Peas 84.5 3.00 1.84 0.96 3.40 1893 53.8 41.2 21.5 76.2 13.38 Tares 84.0 2.40 1.63 0.66 4.20 1892 44.8 S6.5 14.8 94.1 16.75 Lentils fS.O 2.00 1.89 0.96 4.30 1971 67.2 42.3 21.5 96.3 16.51 Malt dust 94.0 3.00 5.23 2.12 4.20 2106 190.4 117.1 47.5 941 18.21 Locust beans 85.0 8.50 1.25 1904 39.2 28.0 4.81 Indian meal 88.0 1.75 i.13 6!35 1.80 1971 29.1 25.3 7.8 40.3 6.65 AVheat 85.0 1.30 1.87 0.50 1.80 1904 38.1 ^2.0 11.2 40.3 7.08 Barley 84.0 2.20 1.35 0.55 1.65 1882 49.3 30.2 12.3 37.0 6.32 Malt 95.0 2.60 1.60 0.65 1.70 2128 58.2 35.8 14.6 38.1 6.65 Oata 86.0 2.85 1.17 0.50 2.00 192G 63.8 £6.2 11.2 44.8 7.70 Fine pollard* 86.0 5.60 6.44 1.46 2.60 1926 125.4 144.2 32.7 58.2 13.53 Coarse pollardt 86.0 6.20 7.52 1.49 2.58 1926 138.9 1C8.4 33.4 57.8 14.36 Wheat bran 86.0 6.60 7.95 1.45 2.55 1926 147.8 178.1 32.5 57.1 14.59 Clover hay 84.0 7.50 1.25 1.30 2.50 1882 168.0 28.0 29.1 56.0 9.64 Meadow hay 84.0 6.00 0.88 1.50 1.50 1882il34.4 19.7 33.6 33.6 6.43 Bean straw 82.5 5.55 0.90 1.11 0.90 1848 124.3 20.2 24.9 20.2 3.87 Pea straw 82.0 5.95 0.85 0.89 18371 133.3 19.0 19.9 20.2 3.74 "Wheat straw 84.0 5.00 0.55 0.65 oieo 1882 112.0 12.3 14.6 13.4 2.68 Barley straw 85.0 4.50 0.37 0.63 0.50 1904 100.8 8.3 14.1 11.2 2.25 Oat straw 83.0 5.50 0.48 0.93 o.co 1859 123.2 10.7 20.8 13.4 2.90 Man pel wurtzel 12.5 1.00 0.09 0.25 0.25 280 22.4 2.0 5.6 5.6 1.07 Swedish turnips , . . 11.0 0.68 0.13 0.18 0.22 246 13.4 2.9 4.C 4.C 0.91 Common turnips, . . 8.0 0.68 0.11 0.29 0.18 179 15.2 2.5 6.P 4.0 0.86 Potatoes 24-0 1.00 0.S2 0.43 0.35 537 22.4 7.2 9.G 7.8 1.50 0.70 0.13 0.23 0.20 302 15.7 2.9 5.1 4.5 0.80 Parsnips 15.0 1.00 0.42 ).3C 0.22 336 22,4 9.4 8.1 4.9 l.U * Middlings, Canielle. t ShipstufE. EQUIVALENTS OF VARIOUS FOODS. 717 Tabetj showing nutritive equivalents of various foods. Food, Irisli potatoes Carrots Parsnips Jerusalem articlioke,. . . Sugar beet Turnips (Swedej.. Common white turnip. . . Mangel wurtzel Gi-een pea straw Spurrey (green Green bucJi wheat stalks. Common vetch (green).. French vetch (green) Green stalks white lupin Green stalks white bean Green oats (fodder) Timothy grass (green) — lied top *' " Superior English hay lied clover (green) AVhite clover (green) Lucerne (green) Red clover (hay) White clover (hay) Lucerne (hay) Wheat flour Indian corn Ilye meal Barley jneal Oatmeal Buckwheat meal Peas Kidney beans Wliite field beans Lentils English linseed cake American linseed cake. . Amount oj Amount oti Nutritive flesh-form- fat - forming. Total nutri- equivalents ing matter live matter OJ. x\)\j IDS. best luu I us . 100 lbs. 100 lbs. English hay. 18.0 20.. 3 245.3 0 G (3.(5 7.2 691.6 1 2 7-0 8.2 607.3 1 0 18.8 19.8 251.5 0-9 13.6 14.5 6.2 6.2 803.2 V.J 3.3 4-2 1185.7 3 0 12. G 13.6 367.6 0 9 7.9 8.8 665.9 O 7 ^. 1 2^3 5.0 960.0 0.2 4.7 4.9 1 9 2!g 4.5 1 inr R 0.7 4^7 6.4 099 9 1 8 2.3 4^1 1212.1 I Q 2.7 3.7 1345 9 1 0 8.5 9.5 624 2 i.O 9.7 13.7 363.4 3 3 8.7 12.0 415.0 13.5 36.3 49.8 100 0 2.0 3.6 6.6 907-1 1.-5 2.7 4.2 1185 7 1 0 3.6 905.4 18*7 4L2 120 8 IfS. i 40.0 58.7 84 6 12.7 38!o 50.7 98.2 14 7 66.4 81.1 61.4 11.0 66.7 77.7 64.2 14.3 55.8 70.1 71.0 13.0 52.0 65.0 76.0 18.0 51.1 69.1 72.0 9.0 52.1 61.1 81.5 23.1 41.9 C5.0 76.0 23.9 39.3 63.2 78.7 24.0 39.7 63.7 78.2 25.7 38.9 64.6 77.0 22.1 51.0 73.1 68.0 22.2 48.6 70.8 1 70.3 Bee Fdowers. — The following select list of bee-flowers, plants, trees, &c., is commended to the attention of bee keepers on the high authority of Mr. King, Editor of the Bee Keepers' Magazine, New York, as one ot the most accurate and reliable ever published . Those plants marked with an asterisk are i^rime favorites of the bees, and yield large quantities of honej'-. Bee keepers would almost double the product of their hives by taking advanta,ge of the grand modern discovery of artificial comb foundations. These foundations are made of wax, or other suitable materials, by means of a machine, are sold at a very reasonable price by the pound, and, when placed in liives, are the means of saving the bees a vast amount of time and work in tlie construction of comb, every pound of which, estimated in honest bee labor represents at least 20 lbs. of honey. Another notable discovery is the use of salicylic acid for curing foul brood and other useful purposes. The mixture is compounded as fol- lows : Mix together 128 grs. salicylic acid, 128 grs. of soda borax, and 16 ozs. of distilled water. To use, uucap the brood in all the frames tha* 718 LIST OF BKE ILOVVKKS, &C. show any diseased cells, and thoroughly spray the bees, brood, comb, and all, with an atomizer filled with tlie solution. Erica Carnca* Winter aconite* Rosemary* Laurustiuu3 Hazel* Snow-drop. Crocus* AVillow* Osier* Primrose Hepatica Violet Alsike clover* Sprincj. Almond Wallflower* (single) Borage* Onion Gooseberry Apricot Peach Apple* Gooseberry* Currant* Laurel* Linden or bass wood Sximmer. White clover* Silverleaf buckwheat* Catnip Syringa Helianthemnm Annual i)oppy* Sea-kale French willow* Sweet-briar Bean Yellow lupin Mignionette* Blackberry Chesnut Mallow Lime* Hyssop Teazle* Nasturtium Autumn. French buckwheat* sowed at midsum- mer Spanish broom* Hollyhock* Turnip* Cabbage, &c.* Strawberry Tulip* Hawthorn. Gorse or furze Columbine Laburnum Barberry* liibes Sanguineum Dutch clover* Sycamore maple* Lucerne clover* Spanish needle Yellow vetch Sainbois Broom Wheat Viper's bugloss* Raspberry* Symphora Racemosa Michaelmas daisy French buckwheat* Heath* Winter savory sowed at midsum- Sunflower Purple houseleek mer Lemon thyme* Ivy Spanish broom* St. John's wort Honeysuckle Hollyhock* Melilotus leucantha* Cucumber Pickles. — Select nice, firm cucumbers ; pour on them, foi three successive mornings, boiling water enough to cover ; add a hand- ful of coarse salt. The night before pickling throw on cold water and drain ; put into jars with ground spices in a bag, sugar and salt enough to taste, alum size of an English walnut to each jar ; pour vinognr hot in each jar, and cover tight while hot. To FIND THE SIZE OF A BiN TO HOLD A CERTAIN NTJMBER OF BUSHELS. Augment the number of bushels ^, and the result will exhibit the number of cubic feet the bin will comprise. Then, when two dimensions of the bin are known, divide the last result by their product, and the quotient will be the other size. Per Ceistage of Oil in Seeds, Grain, &c. Oil per cent. Linseed 11 to 22 say 17 Hempseed 14 " 25 " 19 Rapeseed 40 " 70 15 White Mustard 36 "38 " 37 Sweet Almond 40 " 54 47 Bitter Almond 28 " 46 " 37 Turnip Seed. 40 " 50 " 45 Wheat Flour 2 " 4 " 3 Barley 2 *' 3 " 2J Oil per cent. Oats 5 to 8 say 6^ Indian Corn 5 " 9 " 7 Wheat Bran 3 " 5 '* 4 Potatoes, turnips and cab- bage 1^ Wheat Straw 2 " 3^" 3 Oat Straw 4 Meadow Hay 2 " 5 " 3J Clover Hay 3 " 6 " 6 FACTS FOtl DAIKYMEN. 719 TABLE SHOWIXa THE AMOUNT OF BUTTER AND CHEESE OBTAINABLE FKOM MILK. 100 lbs. milk contains about 3 lbs. pure butter. 100 " " " " 7.8 lbs. cheese. 100 " " averages " 3.5 lbs. common butter. 100 " " " 11.7 lbs. common cheese. 100 skim milk yields " 13.5 lbs. skim milk cheese. TABLE SHOWING THE INGREDIENTS CONTAINED IN VARIOUS KINDS Ot MILK. IN 100 PARTS THERE ARE OF— Woman, Cow. Ass. Goat. Ewe 87.9 87-0 91.7 80.7 85.6 C.5 4.8 6.1 5.3 5.0 3.6 3.1 0.1 3.3 4.2 1.5 4,5 1.8 4.1 4.5 Water, Milk Sugar, Butter, Casein, The quantity and quality of cows' milk varies according to the food sup- plied, breeds, &c. In every 1000 PARTS OF MILK THERE ARE OF— Chloride of potassium , 9 parts. Phosphate of magnesia, 4 '* Free soda, 3 Common salt, 3 " Water, 840 parts. Milk-Sugar, 45 " Butter, or oil, 40 " Casein, 40 " Phosphate of lime, 17 " The time required for the full amount of cream to rise to the surface of new milk at different temperatures may be seen from the following table : — 10 to 12 hours if the temperature of the air is 77° Fahr. 18 to 20 " " " " 68° " 24 " " " " 55° " 36 " " " " 50° 1 gal, of milk weighs 10 lbs. 4 ozs ; being heavier than water in the pro- portion of 103 to IGO. The best temperature at which to churn cream iassage through limestone rock ,7 miles long, to which distance the cataract has receded. In the passage of the Connecticut river at Brattle- boro and Bellows Falls, it can be proved that the river was once at least 700 feet above its present level. From these and thousands of other proofs which might be cited, the in- ference is unavoidable that vast periods have elapsed since the beginning cf the present geographical distribution of sea and land, but step by step, during the slow but majestic march of Time, we can always see that everi; ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 735 instrumentality employed by creative power has been in the continual effort to bring order out of chaos aud fit the earth as a habitation for man. FIAT LUX. GKEAT LIGHT ON A DARK SUBJECT. Age, Origin, and Ultimate Duration of the Earth.— More than 140 years have elapsed since Emanuel Swedenborg penned the startling announcement, tlie first of the kind ever made, that our earth, together with her sisterhood of planets, derived their origin from matters and sub- stances evolved from the atmospheres and solar energy of the sun of our system. In his Principict, written in 1734, and again in his Worship and Love of God, in 1745, he remarks that the sun is the centre of a vortex ; that it rotates upon its axis ; that the solar matter concentrated itself into a belt, zone, or ring, at the equator, or rather ecliptic; that by the attenua- tion of the ring it became disrupted ; that upon the disruption, part of the matter collected into globes, and part of the matter subsided into the sun forming solar spots ; that the globes of solar matter were projected into space ; that consequently they described a spiral orbit; that in proportion as the igneous matter thus projected receded from the sun it gradually experienced refrigeration and consequent condensation ; that hence fol- lowed the formation of the elements of ether, air, aqueous vapor, &c., until the planets finally reached their present orbit ; that during this period the earth experienced a succession of geological changes which originated all the varieties in the mineral kingdom, and laid as it were the basis of the vegetable, and afterwards of the animal, kingdom. These were alarming propositions to propound at a time when it was almost universally accepted as a literal truth that the world was created out of nothing in the space of six natural days about 6000 years ago, yet since Swedenborg's time scientists Jiave abundantly demonstrated th© truth of what he taught, and this so clearly that at this day no enlighten- ed mind will dispute the facts. Swedenborg asserted that the whole starry heavens was one vast sphere, and its suns or stars, including their systems, to be parts of a sphere con- nected with each other. He writes, " Possibly there may be innumer- able other spheres, and innumerable other heavens, similar to those wo behold, so many indeed and so mighty, that our own may be respect- ively only a point. " Tlie Essay in his immortal Principia, expressly called " The Theory of the Siderial Heavens," giving full details of the system, was published in 1733, long before the advent of monster tele- scopes, tAventy-two years before Kant, twenty -four years before Lambert, twenty-six years before Boscovitch, thirty-four years before Mitchell, and forty-four years before Herschel gave the result of their confirmatory discoveries to the world. The grandest and latest discovery of modern astronomy is the motion of the so-called fixed stars, yet long before this discovery was announced 7oG ORIGIN, KTC, OP THE EARTH. Swedenborj; npsertod tliat the wholo universo was in motion, and that the paths Avliich the roiintloss suns with tlicir systems were travcrsin.t? Avas the Milky-Way, and that the point at wliicii tiiey entered was at tlic sonth, and tliat at wliich they eniei-.u;ed was at the* jioith. Tlio trntli of tliis theory lias been demonstrated and accepted witliin the last thirty years by Hnniboklt, Ilerscliel, and other eminent observers. The knowlcdV?e of these movements enable astronomers to predict, with absolute certainty, the different changes the various constellations will undergo during the lai)se of ages to come, and define the reasons and causes of such changes. Thefactis well attested that our snn is only one of a million which trav- erse the Milky Way. In the crowded part of the Milky Way, Sir W. Iler- schel, the prince of astronomers, had fields of view in which, during a quarter of an hour, he saw 116,000 stars pass through the field of view of a telescope of only 15' apei ture; and at another time, in 41 minutes, he saw 258,000 stars pass through the field. It consists mostly of stars of the 10th or 12tli magnitude, but too numerous to be seen by the naked eye, ;which can only discriminate stars of the 6th or 7th magnitude ; power- ful telescopes reach even to a 16th magnitude. He calculated the length of the visual ray of the telescope he used. It reached stars 497 times the distance of Sirius ; now Sirius cannot be nearer than 100,000 X 190,- 000,000 miles, therefore Dr. Herchel's telescope, at least, reached to 100,- 000 -4- 190,000,000 4- 497 miles = 9941 billions miles. He saw stars 42,000 times more distant that Sirius ; and a cluster 11 trillions of miles distant. He says there are nebula; from which light is 48,000 years travelling ! Light\ravels 192,000 miles in a second, or 6^ trillions of miles per annum, then in 48,000 years this would be 304,000,000,000 of millions of millions of miles distant ; if the cluster ceased to exist we should not know it for 48,000 years ! Such distances can indeed be written, but can never be conceived by the mind of man. It is a trifling matter to reduce these figures to writing, but quite an- other thing to realize their full significance. To assist our conception of what constitutes a "billion," we will take as a unit a second of time, of which 60 flit away in a minute, or 86,000 in a day. Not the one-sixteenth part of that number have come and gone since the commencement of the Christian era to the beginning of 1878, for it takes exactly 31,687 years, 17 days, 22 hours, 45 minutes, and 5 seconds to constitute a billion of seconds of time. The immensity and grandeur of the Heavens penetrates every enlight- ened mind with indescribable emotions of awe and reverence for the Almighty energies of that Adorable Intelligence who created and sus- tains the whole. Touching the stability of the solar system, it was feared by many, eminent for their attainments and acquirements in every branch of human learning, that owing to the mighty changes and apparent derange- ments which Avere occurring in the planetary orbits, that impending ruin and destruction Avould ultimately render the earth uninhabitable for man. At a time when the belief Avas prevalent that certain destruction aw'aited the whole universe, Swedenborg announced to the world his theory that: " As the solar system is carried along through the Milky- Way, and after- wards compelled to diverge therefrom, the jjlanetary orbits will change their form and eccentricity to a certain amount, and then return to their original condition, when they will again change and again return, and so oii to eternity." This beautiful and harmonious theory, so well calculated to terminate every groundless fear, has since been proved and demonstrated by La Grange^ and this doctrine of a cyclar return of the Bolar system is now known among the learned as £a Grange's theory ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 737 of the stability of tlie solar system; nevertheless this doctrine was ex^ pounded hi Swedenborg's Frincipia forty-four years before La Grange put his forth, seventy-one years before Mayer, and ninety-one years before Bessel. Irregularities in planetary motions correct themselves, because every motion, included in the motion of tlie Sun, is itself subordinate, and therefore must ultimately conform. The planets being acted upon by the common force of the sun, they often interfere on the same side witli the sun's force on that side, and this begets irregularity or disturbance, oddly called their own attractions. La Grange proved that the mass of each planet into the square-root of the line of apsides, and into the square of the eccentricity, give sums that are invariable. It will be seen from the preceding article that the work of creation has been j^rogressing during incalculable myriads of age«, and we may rest satisfied tliat it forms no part of the Divine economy to destroy what it has been millions of years in building up. The agencies employed in the creation of the universe are identical Avith those which now exisit for its preservation. Harmony and perfection are everywhere real entities; derangement and disorder are apparent only. That the sun's apparent path through the ecliptic is really caused by the motion of the earth in its orbit around the sun, may be seen from the globes in the ligure, representing the earth in twelve different positions, corresponding to the twelve months. In the various globes, N is the north })ole, DCL the equator, S the place of the Sun, and C S and all lines from C paraUel to this the direction of the plane of the ecliptic. The inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of jts orbit is 23° 28', and this, with its annual revolution around the Sun' causes the cliange of seasons known as Spring, Summer, Autumu and Winter. Besides the diurnal and annual movements of the earth, there is also an onward movement of the whole solar system through space, in an orbit of its own, at the rate of 154,000,- 000 miles per annum. Swedenborg asserts that there is an internal or spiritual sense concealed within the letter, or natural sense of the Word, comparable to the soul or spirit of man, which fills the human body just as the hand fills a glove. This sense he unfolds by means of the science of correspondences, the knowledge of which he claims was revealed to him. For instance, wherever the end of the World is foretold or predicted in the Word, he says that by this we are not to understand the end of the natural world, but the church or dispensatiou existing in the world, the latter being 738 ORIGIN, ETC, OF THE EARTH. used in a symbolic sense to represent the former. If after this statement any one i)ersists in udherini? to a literal interpretation, let him take a good concordance and examine under the words "ever" and "forever"; he will fmd to liis aiuazenicntthattliere arc just as many proofs to sustain tlic theory of the cvcrhisting duration of tlio eartli as there are to prove its destruction ! In tliis case what can a man gain by refusing his assent to tlic truth as unfolded by Swedcnborg ? In his work descriptive of the Last Judgment, wliich Swedenborg avers has already taken place, not in this, but in the spiritual world, during the year 1757, the following passage occurs : "That the procreations of tiie human race will contiinie to eternity, is plain from many considerations, and of which the following are tho principal : — I. That the human race is the basis on which lieaven is founded. II. That the human race is the seminary of heaven. III. Tltat the ex- tension of heaven, Avhich is for angels, is so immense that it cannot be filled to Eternity. IV. That they are but few respectively," of whom heaven at present is formed. V. Tliat the perfection of heaven increases \ according to plurality. VI.. And that every Divine work has respect to Infinity and Eternity. The angelic heaven is the end for which all things in the universe were created, for it is the end on account of which man- kind exists, and maidsind is the end regarded in the creation of the visible heaven, and the earths included in it; Avherefore that Divine worlc, namely, the angelic heaven, primarily has respect to Infinity and Eternity, and therefore to its multiplicalion, without end, for the i)ivine Himself dwells within it. Hence also it is clear, that the human race AviH never cease, for were it to cease, the Divine work would be limited to a certain number, and thus its respectiveness to Infinity would perish. The Lord did not create the universe for His own sake, but for the sake of those Avith whom He Avill be in Heaven ; for spiritual love is such, that it wishes to give its OAvn to another; and as far as it can do this it is in its being, in its peace, and in its blessedness: spiritual love derives this from the Divine Love of the Lord, which is infinitely such ; from hence it fol- loAvs that the Divine Love, and hence the Divine Providence, has for its end a heaven, which may consist of men made angels, to whom He can give all the blessed and happy things which are of love and wisdom, and give them from Himself in tliem." L. J. G. It will console and comfort many honest but simple-minded thinkers ■who believe otherwise, to be told that although these startling facts seem to jar with terrific force against their cherished articles of faith, and even to oppose revealed truth, it is nevertheless most true, that they do not, even in the slightest degree, enter into conflict Avith revela- tion. There is a science of spiritual truth and there is a science of natural truth; there is the Book of Revelation and there is the Book of Nature; the same Omnipotent Hand has written both, each must be understood in a sense peatliar to itself, and Avhen so understood, there can be no con- tradiction between them. Wherever contrariety or discordance appears, the error, if any exists, is in man himself and in his natural proneness to receive appearances as truths. During a depth of time not to be penetrated, mankind inferred, from the apparent motion of tlic sun, planets, and stars, that thev reA-olved around the earth once in 24 hours, but now every school-boy knows that this idea is a fallacy, and an outrage on natural truth, the real truth being that in every passmg hour Ave are moved by the earth's rotation on its axis 1,037 miles, and in its orbit 66,092 miles, the diurnal motion causing the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies around the earth. Many readers infer, from a perusal of the first chapter of Genesis, that it is simply a narrative of the creation of the world on Avhich we dvvell, yet ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EArtTII. 739 still it must be said, that although this belief is all but universal among the threat masses of society, it is nevertheless as gross an outrage on spiritual truth as the first noted fallacy is on natural truth. The sublime narration recorded in Genesis does not treat of natural creation, for being Divinely composed it is to be understood in a sense entirely different from merely human writings. This style is such that it describes spirit- ual things by means of pure correspondences, similitudes, types, and symbolic imagery drawn from earthly things. The subject treated of is indeed concerning a new creation, but one more momentous by far than even the creation of a world. Many modern theologians are afraid to enter on an interpretation of this chapter on account of its alleged conflict with the known facts of science, but tlie theology that could be endanger- ed by such an investigation is worthy of no man's acceptance. Under- stood naturally, what reflecting mind could conceive of the existence of light, evening and morning, day and night, and grass, before the creation of the Sun ; in such case what could exist but universal darkness and Arctic desolation ! In the first chapter, v. 21, " every living thing that moveth" is described as being created and "brought forth abundantly after their kind," by the waters; in chap. ii. v. 19, " every beast of the field and fowl of the air " is described as being " made out of theground." Understood literally, or in the sense of the letter, these statements arc contradictory to every rational idea., but when interpreted according to the law of correspondences they are divinely true even as to their minutest details. At this day, amidst the crash of creeds framed by self-derived intelli- gence, when many are announcing from the pulpit the impending ruin of our planet, when brazen infidelity proclaims from the platform to ap- plauding audiences that there is no hereafter, and scoffs at sacred things, it must gratify every lover of truth tO' learn that there exists in Sweden- borg's theological writings a system of doctrine and scriptural interpreta- tion absolutely impregnable against every assault of tlie eiiemy. Fronx the wonderful story of Genesis to the sublime visions of the Apocalypse, the searcher after truth will find the veil of mystery lifted from a thou- sand questions which have for ages puzzled the Avisest commentators. Tlie system of interpretation is unerring in its logic, inflexible in its allegiance to truth, and astonishing in its minuteness of detail. In an article in a recent number of the Galaxy, in relation to the contest between science and religion, the writer says : " The modern school of Free Thought has found its one serious opponent, and its only one, in Emanuel Swedenborg, whose Avritings, first issued more than a century since, have had an ef- fect on the Avhole tone of thought and metai^hysics, such as few people suspect, and hardly any realize. "It must be remembered that Swedenborg published his first (theolog- ical) book in 1749, and^that his theological activity covered the very- period wherein the French and English school of scientific inquiry, skei> ticism, and free thought, was beginning to be most active. "In the midst of this period of intellectual bustle and activitj^, the Seer of the North, secluded in his lonely study among the Swedish forests, with nothing before him but a Hebrew Bible and Greek Testa- ment, was calmly writing those wonderful books which he asserts to be the result of direct revelations from the Deity. " The only system that remains able to-day freely to admit the most un- compromising results of scientific inquiry Avithout fear or question, and at the same time to hold to the absolute truth of Holy Writ in every jot and tittle, appears to be that proclaimed by Swedenborg. " The system of theology it propounds is purely and uncompromisingly monotheistic. An Arab could not quarrel with it on that score. It is, 740 OHIO IN, ETC., or THE KARTII. a.t the same Ihno, so i)nroly Cliri.stuui tluit tlio most zouloiis evangelical of the extn^iiuist ty])o can liiul no fault wltli it, making as it does the Savioui- and liodoomor its grand central figure. " Finally, it is able to concede to the boldest of materialists, the most acute of historical critics, the )nost ardent evolutionist, the most dogmatic of palicontologists. the most abstruse of metaphysicians, everything which they can possibly claim to have proved, every truth, however con- trary to current theological opinion, Avhich they can establish, while at the "same time it holds to the absolute truth of every Avord of Holy Scrip- ture. " Nothing seems to shalce its faith in the slightest; it shuns no in- quiry and needs no explanation of any fact, evei'ything being plain, the Bible its only standard." In the Cyclopaedia of Biography, by Parke Godwin, Ave read : " Swe- denborg was no impostor, but a learned and pious man, and his books richly repay the most careful study." The iVo;ico?i/o/"mi.s< (English) assures us that: "He (Swedenborg) is received by all thinkers courteouslj^, and by very many cordic'dly. The storm of violent denunciation or angry ridicule which Avas launched against him by theologians a generation ago, is scarcely remembered now, and is not likely to be revived. All are agreed that he was a genuine and sin- cere man, who believed his oavu Avords, and did not v/ilfuUy deceive or invent." Hon. Theophilus Parsons, late Professor in the Cambridge Law School, says : "I regard him (Swedenborg) as a man of remarkable ability, and great and A^aried culture ; taught, as no other man ever was taught, truths Avhich no other man ever learned ; and thus instructed that he might introduce among men a new system of truth or doctrine, excelling in character and exceeding in A'alue any system of truth before known." Speaking of Swedenborg and his Avritings, Henry James, the author of " Substance and Shadow," says : " Such sincere books, it seems to me, were never before Avritten." Bishop Hurd (author of Lectures on Prophecies) says : "It has been said by some, and received implicitly Avithout further examination by others, that Swedenborg, after receiving his extraordinary commission, was mad, and became totally deprived of his natural senses ; but this in- sinuation is such a palpable contradiction of truth, and such an insult to common sense — being overruled by every page of his Avritings as well as by every act of his life after that jieriod — that Ave should haA'e thought it altogetlier unworthy of notice were we not aware that it operates power- fully Avith many, even at this day, to prejudice them against a character which otherwise they would reA'ere, and against writings from Avhich they would otherwise receive the most Avelcome instruction." The venerable Thomas Carlyle, having looked upon the great seer all his life as a visionary lunatic, now says that he stands rebuked. He looks upon Swedenborg as one of the loftiest minds in the realm of mind, one of the spiritual suns that will shine brighter as the years goon ; and that more truths are compassed in his writings than that of any other man. His great prescience Avith regard to modern scientific discoveries, since made known, is astonishing. George Dawson, M. A. writes : "Emanuel Swedenborg had the privi- lege which belongs to all men Avho deA^ote their lives to thought, that as the world groAvs older, they get more reverenced, better known, and better loved. If I were going to be shut up in prison three years, Swe- denborg' s books would be my choice, and at the end of three years it would be six more before I should find them uninteresting, strange, or dry." ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 741 Dr Porteoiis writes : '"The incomparable depth, splendor, and vast- Jiess of Svvedenborg's genius are shown in tliis, that he alone has ever dared to tread the threefold realm of natural, mental, and spiritual phi- losophy. Few men have approached the hem of his garment in respect to moral purity, his teaching and example are calculated to make men meek, gentle, and charitable, and his followers catholic, intelligent and pious. p]xamine all the philosophical systems extant and take all the re- ligious literature of the last century, and place them in one scale, and take the voluminous works of Swedenborg, and place them in the other scale, and the philosophy and libraries of the world will kick the beam." R. M. Patterson, late Professor in the university of Pennsylvania, says respecting Swedenborg's Principia : " It is an extraordinary production of one of the most extraordinary men that has ever lived, many of the exper- iments and observations presented in this work are believed to he of much more modern daie, and are xmjustly ascribed to m^icli more recent anihors.'' " There is in Swedenborg's writings a marvellous insight, a vision of the higher trutlis of philosophy and religion, to which few men have at- tained." — iV. Y. Independent. " The majority think and speak of Emanuel Swedenborg as a mystic and dreamer, when in fact, lie was a practical man, an inventor, and pub- lic benefactor. The metrical system, now under discussion, was first suggested by him, and the Dutch are indebted to him for important im- provements in their docks and dykes." — Literary World. " Swedenborg's writings teem with the grandest and profoundest truths." — North American. Count Von Hopken, for forty years an intimate friend of Swedenborg's, and for many years Prime Minister of Sweden, advised the king "that no religion could be better, as the prevailing and established one, than that deduced by Swedenborg from the Sacred Scriptures, and tliis on tlie two following accounts : 1st. This religion in j)reference to, and in a high- er degree than any other, must produce the most honest and industrious subjects ; for this religion places properly tlie xoorship of God in uses. 2d. It causes the least fear of death, as this religion regards death merely as a transition from one state into another, from a worse to a better situation ; nay, upon his principles, I look upon death as being of hardly any greater moment than drinking a glass of water." T. S. Arthur, the world renowned author, writes : " Only in the reve- lations made for the New Church, in which the plenary inspiration and inner and Divine Sense of the Word, and the true doctrine of the Lord and his Providence, are fully explained and made known for the salvation of mankind, can be seen in rational light, the truths on which Christian unity and harmony can be established, and by which the growth of natu- ralism, skepticism, and irreverent infidelity can be arrested and de- stroyed." The Rev. Prof. Von Goerres (Roman Catholic) writes : — "Swedenborg was not a man to be carried away by an unbridled imagination, still less did he ever manifest, during his whole life, the slightest symptoms of mental aberration. Throughout the entire course of his "learned re- searches and activity, we everywhere discover the pious and religious man, who, in all his sayings and doings, was intent upon good." Edwin Paxton Hood, in the preface to his Life of Sioedenborg. writes: " That he conceives he has derived much benefit from the study of the works of Swedenborg, and has much reason to be grateful to that illus- trious, venerable and much misunderstood, and comparatively unknown man." Design and WorJc (English) says of the Apocalypse Revealed : " A careful perusal of many of its 900 and odd pages has led us to cease won* 742 OUIGIX, ETC., OF Tlin KAKTH, deringjitthe fiivor witli which tliis iTiodom edition has been rccoived, and to rocoinmend otlion; to follow onr oxiiniple. Many a sornioii liavc we listened to on tlie Uevclations. Several works, dealin.if Avith the fior- geous panorama unfolded before the internal vision of the Seer of Pat- mos, how we ti-avelled throu^^li, wondering- at the inventive faculty as displayed by connnentator and preacher, but too often feeling that a stone iiad been given us instead of bread. Whoever takes earnestly to the consideration of the pages of the ' Swedish Seer,' Avill find that there is more in his text-book than he has given it credit for ; that it contains truths illimitable ; that in their expounding no meretricious aids are re- quired ; that it appeals, not to the eye or the ear, but to the deepest depths of the human heart and mind. Whosoever will read it patiently and carefully must rise up from its perusal a wiser, a more charitable, al- together a better man." The C/iica(/o ylrfefmce writes : " Wc confess to having read for years some ])ortion of his works with intellectual and spiritual profit, and we imagine at least that we can trace his influence in the conceptions and ;reasoning of many modern authors of distinction, who do not always give Swedenborg the credit he deserves." The Avriter of this book has no pecuniary interest whatever in the sale of Swedenborg' s writings, but conceives it to be his duty to present these testimonials in vindication of a most deserving and worthy man, whose Avritings have been greatly nusrepresented and misunderstood. A hundred years hence such a vindication will be unnecessary. It is a veritable truth that Swedenborg has rendered greater services to man- kind than any other man ever did or ever can render, and this fact is becoming better known every day. When he began to write and pro- mulgate his system of doctrines, a noted Lutheran bishop and doctor got np a complaint against him. The doctor, Avhose name was Ekebom, had the honesty to say of himself, that he was very careful not to examine Swedenborg' s works. Swedenborg, however, was a man of good character and connections, and led such a blameless, quiet, calm, and peaceful life, that it was found impossible to arouse popular sentiment against him. Since Swedenborg's clay, two men, wdio have all the animosity, but lack the honestj^, of Dr. Ekebom, viz : Dr. Pike, of Derby, Eng., and Enoch Pond, of Bangor, Me., Theological Seminary, have rendered them- selves notorious by the publication of pamphlets containing the most horrible libels on Swedenborg and his writings. These detestable publi- cations, which have been answered and refuted time and again, present a combination of reckless assertion, downright lies, malignity, and igno- rance, which is perfectly amazing. Each publication may be described in the expressive language of Edwin Paxton Hood, as "a fountain of mud," and both combined are highly flavored with the peculiar sanctity which pervades the devotional exercises of Holy Willie. We have still another notable detractor in ]\Jr. William White, who many years ago wrote a Life of Swedenborg, in wdiich he rendered full justice to the subject of the memoir. Of late years he resumed his task by dipping his pen in ink (or rather in venom), and dashing off a vast amount of trash in the shape of baseless absurdities regarding Swedenborg and his followers, which he styled a " Life of Swedenborg." In order' to understand the animus which pervades this work, it is necessary to know that Mr. White was at one time agent for the London Swedenborg Society, and while thus occupied he engaged in the sale of the so-called spiritist pub- lications. The sale of these books is held by the Swedenborg Society to be utterly incompatible Avith the objects which it has in but Mr. White resisted the efforts of the Society's Committee to remove him ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 743 from office, and compelled them to bring a suit in Chancery to effect their purpose. The fiual judgment was decisive against him, and it was while smarting imder this reverse that his two-volume Life of Sweden- borg was written. The work in question is composed throughout in a vindictive "spirit, and the malevolent production owes its origin to a malicious feelhig of the worst kind, nevertheless it is most true that slander has greater swiftness than truth, and the groundless assertions of a defamer are frequently accorded greater credence than the veritable assertions of a truthful man. In an elaborate article Avhich appeared some time ago in the columns of the EmiUnh Mechanic, the editor of that journal presented a list of SwedenlDorg's inventions, v- hich, including a notice of his mechanical and philosophical works, occupied nearly two quarto pages. The following is a partial list of the latter : — 1. An Introduction to Algebra. 2. Attempts to find the Longitudes of places by Lunar Observations. 3. A proposal for a Decimal System of Money and Measures. 4. A Treatise on the Motion of the Earth and the Planets. 5. Proofs, derived from Appearances in Sweden, of the Depths of the Sea, and the Greater force of the Tides in the Ancient World. 6. On Docks, Sluices, and Salt Works. 7. Some Specimens of Work on the Principles of Natural Philosophy, comprising New AttemiDts to explain the Phenomena of Chemistry and Physics by Geometry. 8. New Observations and Discoveries respecting Iron and Fire, and i)articularly respecting the Elemental Nature of Fire ; together with a New Construction of Stoves. 9. A New Method of Finding the Longitude of Places on Land or Sea by Lunar Observations. 10. A New Mechanical Plan of Constructing Docks and Dykes. 11. A Mode of Dis- covering the Powers of Vessels by the Application of Mechanical Prin- ciples. 12. Miscellaneous Observations connected with the Physical Sciences — Parts 1-3. 13. Part 4. Principally on Minerals, Iron, and Stalactites in Banian's Cavern. 14. On the Depreciation and Rise of the Swedish Currency. These were some of his works published be- tween 1722—1733. These were succeeded by, 1. The Principia: or, the First Principles of Natural Things, in 3 folio Vols, with Plates. 2. The Economy of the Animal Kingdom considered Anatomically, Physically, and Phiiosophi- cally, 2 Vols., with Plates. S. The Animal Kingdom, Parts i., ii., iii., 2 Vols. 4. The Animal Kingdom, Parts v., vi. 5. Outlines of a Philosoph- ical Argument on the Infinite and the Final Cause of Creation. 6. Some Specimens of a Work on the Principles of Chemistry, with other Trea- tises, 8vo, 21 Plates, com^Drising 159 figures. 7. Miscellaneous Observa- tions Connected with the Physical Sciences. 8vo, 9 Plates, comprising 86 Figures. 8. Posthumous tracts on various subjects. In 1785, the Commissioners appointed by the King of France, for the examination of the subject of animal magnetism, affirmed that there did not exist any theory of the magnet ; and the Count de Buffon, in his work on Natural History, affirmed that nothing had been written on the formation of the planets. Both these errors were refuted in a most scholarly and elegant letter addressed to the Commissioners by the Mar- quis de Thome, in which he directed public notice to Swedenborg's elab- orate and profound works on these subjects, concluding his letter as fol- lows, " This, gentlemen, is what I thought it my duty to make public for the benefit of society, from a regard for truth, and in gratitude to him, to whom I am indebted for the major part of the little I know ; though before I met with his writings, I had sought for knowledge amongst almost all the writers, ancient and modern, who enjoyed any reputation for possessing it. I have the honor to be, &c. , "Paris, Aug. 4, 1785. Marquis de Thome." 714 ORIGIN, ETC., OF TIIi: EARTH. Ralph Waldo Emerson writes:— " Swcdcnhorff's writings would be a snflioicnt library for a lonely and athletic student. Not every man can read them, but they will richly reward him who can. Tlie grandeur of the topics makes the grandeur of the style. One of the missourians and mastodons of literature, he is not to be measured by whole colleges of ordinary scholars. He anticipated in astronomy the discovery of the seventh planet ; anticipated tlie views of modern astronomy in regard to the generation of earths by the sun ; in magnetism some important ex- periments and conclusions of later students; in chemistrj'-, the atomic theory, in anatomy the discoveries of Schlienting, Monro, and Wilson, and first demonstrated the office of the lungs." The celebrated Berzilius writes: — " I have looked through the Animal Kinr/doin, and am surprised at the great knowledge displayed by Sweden- borg in a subject that a professed metallurgist Avould not'have'been sup- posed to make an object of study, and in which, as in all lie undertook, he teas in advance of his age." To sum up, it may be stated that his mechanical and philosophical works would be equivalent to about 25 volumes of 500 pages each. This genera- tion is most deeply indebted to the incomparable genius of this extraor- dinary man for very important improvements in the construction of docks, blast furnaces, stoves, the smelting of metals, and a host of inven- tions which are usually credited to others. The reader may infer, from a perusal of the foregoing list of books, that the labor involved in their production might well entitle the writer to rank as a first class literary giant in any age or nation, but wonderful to say, the most extraordinary iDerformances of this most remarkable man are still to be recounted. In the year 1743, Swedenborg was 54 years of age, and here we find him relinquishing his philosophical pursuits, and devoting himself ex- clusively to theology and to the unfolding of the new doctrines which he now declares were first revealed to him. His Worship and Love of God, published in 1745, seems to mark the commencement of this new era in his Life. The following is a list of his theological works arranged ac- cording to the order in which the original books were written and pub- lished by the Author. 1. 1749-56. A7'cana[CoeIestia, The Heavenly Arcana lohich are contained in the Holy Scriptures, or Word of the Lord; unfolded: beginning icith the Book of Genesis ; together ivith the Wonderful things seen in the World of Spirits and in the Heaven of Angels. English Ed. 12 vols. 8 vo. £2 8s., any vol. separate, 4s. American Ed. 10 vols. $1.50 per vol. 2. 1758. Concerning Heaven and its Wonders ; and concerning Hell, being a Relation of things heard and seen. English Ed. 3s . American do. $1.25. 3. 1758. An account of the Last Judgment and the Destruction of Babylon ; shoioing that all the Predictions inthe Apocalypse are at this day fulfilled, being a relation of things heard and seen, 8 vo. Eng. Ed. 8t?. American do. 75c. 4. 1758. On the White Horse mentioned in the Apocalypse, chap, xix., loith References to the Arcana Coilestia on the sub- ject of the Word, and its Spiritual or Internal Sense. With an Appendix. English Ed. 4d American do. 10c. 5. 1758. On the Earths in our Solar System, and on the Earths in the Starry Heavens ; vnth an account of their inhabitants, and also of the Spirits and Angels there, from what has been seen and heard. Eng. Ed. 8vo.,8d. American Ed. 60c. 6. 1758. On the NewJerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine, as revealed from Heaven, to lohich are prefixed some Observations concerning the New Heaven and the ISfeio Earth. Eng. Ed. 8 vo. Is. American do. paper, 10c. 7. 1763. Angelic Wisdom conceiving the Ditnne Love and the Divine Wisdom Eng. Ed, Demy 8 vo., 2s. American do. $1. 8.1763. The Four lead' ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTtJ. 745 inrj Doctrines of the ISfew Church, sif/nifiecl in Rev. xxi. 6?/ the Neio Jeru- salem ; being these respecting the Lord. His Divine and Human Nat^ires, and the Divine Trinity ; the Sacred Scripture ; Faith ; and Life. Eng. Ed. 8 vo. 25. American do. $1. 9. 17G4. Angelic Wisdom concerning the Diiine Providence. Eng. Ed. 8 vo. 3s. American do. $1.50. 10. 1765. The Apocalypse Revealed; in lohich are disclosed the Arcana there- in foretold ; and lohich have hitherto remained concealed, 2 vols. Eng. Ed. 8s, American do. ^3. 11. 1768. Conjugal I^ove and its Chaste De- lights ; also Adidterous Tjove and its Insane Pleasures Eng. Ed. 4s. American do. $1.25. 12. 1760. A Brief Exposition of the Doctrines of the Neio Church meant by thz New Jerusalem in the Apocalypse. Eng. Ed. IQd. American do. 40c. 13, The Inter course between the Smd and the Body, lohich is supposed to take place either by Physical Influx, or by Spiritual Influx, or by Pre-established Harmony. Eng. Ed. M. Ameri- can do. 10c. 14. 1771, The True Christian Religion; or, the Universal Theology of the New Church, foretold by the Lord in Dan. vii, 13, 14, and in the Apocalypse xxi, 1, 2. Eng. Ed. 7s. American do. $•2.50. These prices include postage to destination. The bcolis ma'y be ob- tained by addressing the Publishing Society's Manager, E. H. Swjnney, No. 20 Cooper Union, New York, or the London Society's Agent, James Spiers, 36 Bloorasbury St., London, W. C, Eng. Swedenborg's '■'■True Christian Religion" c,wd the " Apocalypse Re- vealed," may be obtained absolutely free by any Protestant clergyman or student who may enclose the postage for same to the celebrated pub- lishing house of J. B. Lippincott & Co., of Philadelphia. The requisite funds for this purpose are supplied by a retired Philadelphia merchant of princely means and large-hearted liberality, who takes an ardent in- terest in the work, and has made ample provision for its permanent con- tinuance even after his hands have laid it down. No clergyman or student need hesitate to enclose the postage and send for these books, for they will be sent without fail. The New Church Tract and Publication Society, T. S. Arthur (the well-known author). President, George Burn- ham (of the Baldwin Locomotive works), Treasurer, offer Swedenborg's "Heaven and Hell," through J. B. Lippincott & Co., to clergymen on the same terms. In ordering these books in this "way, enclose SOc. for postage on the first named, 18c. for the second, and 13c. for the last noted work, and forward all orders to J. B. Lippincott & Co. , 715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia. Up to Jan. 1, 1878, this well-known firm liave received and filled requests from clergymen for 14,000 copies of the " True Christian Religion," 8,000 copi s of the " Apoccdypse Revealed," and 12,000 copies of ^'■Heaven and Hel R uests are still coming in, books are still going out, and hundreds of loiL- ' ve been received attesting the lively grati- tude of the recipients to t\i- donors of these books for their inestimable gifts. In addition to this unusud traffic of supplying costly books free of charge, J, B. Lippincott & Co. publish elegant editions of many of Swe- denborg's theological writings, which they supply to purchasers in the usual way of business, Lists and prices furnished by addressing or applying .as above. 82 74G TABJ-KS, ETC., FOR PIIINTEUS. IMPORTANT RULES, TABLES, &C., FOR PRINTERS. A Thousand Ems, Measuring TypE OR Matter.— This is done by multiplying the number of solid ems contained in the leufjth of any quantity of type, by the number contained in the width of tlie measure. The gauge for measurement is an em of the type in which tlie matter calculated is set. A thousand ems is the space that so many letter ra's would occupy. It takes over 2,000 average letters to occupy the space of 1,000 ems. In Britain the matter is measured by ens. To determine the number of ens in a line, lay as many of the letter m flat wise in the stick a.s will make the measure. The following Table shows the number of ems contiiined in a i)ound of each of the following sizes of type. 1 lb. of Pica contains 130 ems. 1 lb. Minion contains 356 ems. " " S. Pica " 170 " " Nonpareil " 520 " " " L. Primer" 200 " •« Agate " 690 " " " Bourgeois" 270 " " Pearl " 800 " " " Brevier " 290 " Table showing number of ems in 100 square inches of the sizes of type from Pica to Agate inclusive. Pica 3,600[Nonpareil 14,400|Mimon 10,404 Long Primer 5.625 Small Pica 4,900lAgato. 19,000 Brevier .8,8361 Bourgeois 6,889| The above list is based on the supi^osition that lines of the length of 6 ems pica, 7 ems small pica, 7.5 ems long primer, 8.3 ems bourgeois, 9.4 ems brevier, 10.2 ems minion, 12 ems nonpareil, and 14 agate, are equal to an inch. This is not strictly true, but tlie variation is so little that it will not make a difference of 1,000 ems in 100 ordinary sized pages. In one square inch there are^ 36 ems Pica, | 721/4 ems Bourgeois. 1144 ems Nonpareil. 50 " Small Pica. 87 " Brevier. 200>^ " Agate. 561/4" Long Primer 1113% " Minion. |225 " Pearl. The above is an ai^proximation merely, as different type founders slightly vary the size of their type. Metal for Backing Electrotype Plates.— Lead 91 parts, tin 4, antimony 1. To MAKE "Writing Ink Ineraseable even by Acids. — To good gall ink add a strong solution of Prussian blue in distilled water. The ink writes greenish blue but afterwards turns black, and cannot be erased without destroying the papo TABLES, ETC, FOR PRINTERS. ARRANGEMENT OF TYPE IN AMERICAN UPPER CASE. 747 • t t § II IT ^ 1 @ 1- % % % % % u i £ (E Od - E A. M II M P Q T P X X 1-^ u ] fli ARRANGEMENT OF TYPE IN AMERICAN liOWER CASE. I& oem j 4em sp. 1 sp. 1 ^ 3 5 6 T 8 0 b . C d e r > f g ff fi I z 1 ra n h O P w cn qds. em qds. X ! ^ V u t 3 em spaces. h r 2 & em quadrats. Weight of leads required for any work. These calculations apply to any measure, and are based on the use of six-to-pica leads. The first Table is for solid matter Avhich requires to be leaded. 1,000 ems Pearl require T^/^ ozs. leads. 1,000 ems Bourgeois, 13K ozs. leads 1,000 " Agate " 8I/2 " " 1,000 " L. Primer, " 1,000 " Nonpareil 91/2 " . " 1,000 " S. Pica, 16% " " 1,000 " Minion " 11% " " 1,000 " Pica, 19 " " 1,000 " Brevier " 13 " " Example.— It is estimated that the matter to be set will make 20,000 ems Small Pica solid. Required, the Aveight of leads necessary to lead this matter. 1,000 ems of solid Small Pica require 16^ ounces of leads 16i X 20 = 330 ozs. = 20 lbs, 10 ozs. the second Table gives the weight of the leads contained in 1,000 ems of leaded matter. 1,000 ems Pearl contains 51/2 ozs. leads. 1,000 <' Agate " 6 " " 1,000 " Nonpareil " 1% " " 1,000 " Minion " 9 " 1,000 ems Bourgeois contains 11 ozs. Ids 1,000 " L. Primer " 121/0 " 1,000 " S. Pica " 14 " 1,000 " Pica " I614 *' 1,000 " Brevier " 101/2 " Example.— A page of leaded Long Primer contains 2,000 ems. Re- quired, the weight of leads necessary to lead thirty -two pages. 1,000 ems of leaded Long Primer contain 12:V ounces of leads. 12i X 2 = 25 ozs per page. 25 X 32 = 800 ozs. = 50 lbs. Or, a column of Nonpareil contains 8,000 ems. Required the weight of leads necessary to lead six columns. 1,000 ems of leaded Nonpareil con- tain 7^ ounces of leads. 7^ X 8 = 60 ozs. per column. 00 X 6 = 360 ozs. = 22 lbs. 8 ozs. An allowance must of course be made for additional leads used foi blanking out and in standing matter. 748 TABLES, KTC, FOIl rillNTKKS. Tho following table gives the weight of lecids i'.i 1000 cms of leaded matter :— LEADED MATTER— 1000 oivB Pearl contaiiiH 51/. oz3. leads. 1000 Agato " 6 " 1000 " Nonpareil " 71/2 " *' 1000 " Minion " 9 " " 1000 " Brevier " lOi/o " " 1000 " Bourgeois " 11 " " 3000 " Lon{j;rrimor " 121/2 " *' 1000 " Small Pica " 14 " " 1000 " Pica " IfJi/a " Table showing the Quantity of Tapeu Requjkkd for any Job from 50 to 10,000 Copies. — No allowance for waste or surplus copies. For any number not noted in Table, say 3U to the sheet, use double the quantity given in column headed 18. 2 3 4 6 8 9 12 15 16 18 1 20 I 24 32 M to sht to Bht to Bht to sht to sht to sht to sht to sht to sht to sht to sht to sht to bht. «) ^ qrs shts & ^ & -s & -g & "S & -g M~ 1- 1 0-17 0—13 0— 9 0— 7 ■0- 6 0— 5 0- 4 0- 4 0— 3 0- 3 0— 3 0- 2 100 2- 2 1-10 1- 1 0-17 0-13 0-12 0- 9 0- 7 0- 7 0— 6 f!- 5 0— 5 &-- 4 200 4— 4 2-1 n 2- 2 1-10 1- 1 0-23 0-17 0-14 0-1.3 0—12 0-10 a- 9 0- 7 2.50 5- 5 3—12 2-15 1-18 1- 8 1— 4 0-21 0-17 0—16 0-14 0-13 0-1 1 0- 8 ;wo C- C 4- 4 3- 3 2- 2 1—14 1-10 1— 1 0—20 0-19 0-17 0-15 0—13 0-10 400 8- 8 6-14 4— 4 2-19 2- 2 1-21 1-10 1- 1 0—23 0-20 0—17 0—1,3 .500 10-10 6-2-3 5- 5 3-12 2-15 2— 8 1-18 1-10 1- 8 1— 4 1- 1 0-21 0-16 COO 12—12 8- 8 G- G 4— 4 3—3 2—19 2— 2 1-16 1-14 1-10 1- 6| 1— 1 0—19 700 14—14 9-18 7— 7 4—21 3-16 3— G 2-11 1—23 1-20 1-15 1-11 1- G 0-22 750 1.5-15 10-10 7-20 5— 5 3-22 3-12 2—15 2— 3 1-23 1-18 1-14 1— 8 1- 0 800 16-16 n- 3 8- 8 5-14 4— 4 3-17 2-1 9 1 2- 6 2— 2 1-21 1-15 1-10 1— 1 000 18-18 12-12 9- 9 6- 6 4—17 4— 4 3— 3 2-12 2— 9 2— 2 1-21 1-14 1- 5 1000 20—20 13—22 10-10 C-23 5— 5 4-16 3-12 2-19 2-15 2- 8 2— 2 1-18 1— a 1250 26- ] 17— 9 13- 1 8-17 6-13 .5—19 4- 9 S-12 3- 7 2~15 2— 5 1-10 loOO 31- 6 20—20 15-15 10-16 7-20 6-23 5— 5 4- 5 S-22 3-12 3— 3 2-15 1—23 17.50 M-ll 24- 8 18- 6 12- 4 0- 3 8- 3 6- 2 4-22 4-14 4— 2 3-16 3- 1 2— 8 2000 41—16 27— 19' 20-20 13-22 10-10 9- 7 C-23 5-14 5— 5 4-16 4— < 3-1? 2-15 2500 52— 2 34—18 26- 1 17-10 1.3- 1 11—15 8-17 7- 0 6-13 5—20 5— .5 4— 9 3- 7 3000 62-12 41-16 31- C, 20-20 15-15 13-22 10-10 8— 8 7-20 6-23 6- 6 5- 5 3-22 •iOOO 83- 8 55-14 41-16 27—19 20-20 18— 13 13-22 11- 3 10-10 0- r 8- 8 6-23 5- 5 MOO 104- 4 ()9— 11 34—18 26— 1123— 4 17- 9 1.3-22 13- 1 10-14 23- 4 10-10 8—17 6—13 10000 208- 8 138-22 104- 4 69— U 52— 2 '46- 8 34-18 27-19 26— 1 20-10,17— 9 13- 1 Names and Sizes of Books as Classifedby Publishers.— The number of folds and pages in a single sheet when manufactured. Na^eofbook. foMSn^flfaUl Contain. relic 2 leaves 4 pages. Quarto or 4 to 4 " 8 " Octavo or 8vo 8 " 16 " Duodecimo or 12 mo 12 " 24 " IG mo * 16 " 22 " 18 " 18 " 36 " - 24 " 24 " 48 " 32" 32 " G4 " Best Printers' Ink. — Boil 3 gallons best clear old linseed oil down to a thick "varnisli ; add while hot 12 lbs. of powdered rosin, 3g lbs. dry brown soap shavings, 5 ozs. indigo ; 5 ozs. Prussian bine, and 10 lbs. best lampblack ; stir all well together, let it stand a week and grind. For other inks, roller compositions, &c., see pages 545-6 and 579. For paper tables see page 577. * N'ote.—Thia book is a 16 mo., there being 32 pages to the sheet. The terms folio, quarto, octavo, etc., denote the number of leaves in which a sheet of paper is folded. The marks A, B, C ; 1, 2, 3 ; lA, 2A ; 1* 2*, etc., occasionally found at the bottom of pages, are what printers term signature marks, thus, 3*, being printed for the direction of binders in folding the sheets. TABLES, ETC., EOli PRINTERS. 749 One pound of leads or slugs covers four square inches. Hence, when the space to be filled by leads or slugs is known, it is only necessary to divide the number of square inches by four, and the result will give the reqnired weight in pounds. — Proof Sheet. How TO Estimate. — To ascertain the quantity of plain type required for a newspaper or magazine, or any other work, find the number of square inches and divide the same by fonr, the quotient will be the ap- proximate weight of matter ; but as it is impossible to set the cases clear, it is necessary to add 25 per cent, to large fonts, to allow for dead letter. Bill of Type.— English type founders call 3,000 lower case m's a bill, and proportion all other sorts by them ; so that a bill of pica, including accents and italic, weighs 800 lbs. For every lb. of italic there are 10 lbs, of Roman, From the annexed table an idea can be obtained of the number of let- ters contained in 800 lbs. pica. Scheme for English Wood Tvpe.— The following table will be useful in orderin wood type. Wood type shoul< alwaj's be ordered by the "a, if for large Poster letters. A ' 3 A," font is generally auf ficient, while for Bmaller'letters it is always advisable to order at least a " .5 A " font. Of con- densed letters especially there should always be a large font. Figures art ut up with Fonts of A and upwards, and always with Lower Case, so that when a Font of 4 A is ordered the Lower Case, and Figures will always be sent unless otherwifie or- |dered. em spaces 18,000 4 " " ...12,000 5 " 8,000 Hair " 3,000 em Quads 2,500 en Quads 5,000 Large Quadrats 80 lbs. 750 NAIMKS AND SIZKS OF TTPE. NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. Great Peimek. — In conversa- tion, study purity of language : avoid vulgar dialects like the fol- lowing samples : English. — English Rustic. Measter Goddin used to zay as how children costed a sight o' money to breng um oop, and 'twas all very well whilst um was leetle, and zucked the mother, but when um begind to zuck the vather, 'twas nation akkerd ! Pica. — Rector. " These pigs of yours are in excellent condition." Jarvis. " E'as, sur, they be. Ah ! sur, if we was all on its only as fit to die as them are sur, it would be good for Ave." Small Pica. — Scotch Elder. "O! Sandy, if ye wad only tak' soond advice, an' drink watter instead o' whiskey, it wad be better for your puir wife an' bonnie bairns : d'ye no ken whaur a' tlie drunkards gang tae ? " Confirmed Sot. " Yes, Maister Tamson, richt weel I ken that, they aye gang whaur the}^ get the best whiskey." Long Primer. — Cockney Hair-Dresser. " They say, sir, that the cholera is in the Hair, sir ! " Gent, (very uneasy) " Indeed ! ahem ! then I hope you are very careful about the brushes you use." Hair-Dresser : " Oh, I see you don't /^understand me, sir ; I don't mean the 'air of the 'ed, but the //air ^of the ^atmosphere ! " — Punch. Cockney Servant Girl. " Well mam — Heverythink con- sidered, I'm afraid you won't suit me. I've always been brought up genteel ; and I couldn't go nowheres where there aint no footman kep'. " Servant Man, Thompson (who is very refined), " Ho yes, mum, I don't find no fault with NAMES AND SIZES OP TYPE. 751 1 you, mum, nor yet with master — but the truth his mum, the hotlier servants is so orrid vulgar and hignorant, and speaks so hmigrammatical, that I reely cannot live in the same 'ouse with 'em, and I should like to go this day month, if so be Las it won't illconwenience you I " — Punch. Bourgeois. — Mrs. Brown (an Aberdeen widow on the north side of forty). " Hoo's a' wi' ye this mornin', Mester Miller ; come in an' sit doon, I was just thinkin' o' ye; some lang-tongued hizzies were sayin' that it was a perfec' shame that a man like you, wi' grey hair, an' a long fite beard should mak' a feel o' yersel' getting married fan ye should be thinkin' o' deein'. Its a peer world to live in if a man canna tak' a wife fanever he likes. J^a, na, I ken plenty, some o' them no far aff, that wad be prood to get ye. Eh, sirs, the life o' a peer, lone woman, or a lone man is a weary, sair dree o' dool an' sori'ow ; dinna ye think sae, Mester Miller ? " Miller ; (a widower on the look out for another wife.) In my long pilgrimage through this vale o' tears, my experience has been, that a man is muckle the better o' a woman, and a woman is muckle the better o' a man I " Brevier. — Wilkins. " Well Tummas, did you 'ear as liow Measter Smith liurted liisself on the leg just above the liancle." Tummas, " 0 did um, that be very bad for lie, and I be A'ery zany to 'ear it. Las' week my son Jan war a drivin' a nail, an' the 'anmier, he flew out'n 'is 'and an' struck I very 'ard on the nose, the blood corned, an' if it 'ad struck much 'arder it would 'ave killed I on the spot sure." Blarney, Yankee {jnst arrived). " Guess your legal fare is just Sixpence." Dublin Carman : " Shure, me Lord, we take some chape- Jacks at that — but its meself wouldn't dishgrace a gintleman a' your Lordship's quality by dhrivin' 'm at a mane pace through the public shtreets, so I tuk it upon myself to give your lordshii) a shillin's worth both of shtyle and whip cord." Minion. — Vermont Tombstone Agent to Smith, in the backicoods : — " Good morning'. Mister; I was told over tew that you had lost your wife, andl have jest cum ten miles over meowntains, woods, an' swamps to get an order for a tewmstun' for her. Was awful sorry to hear of your great loss, but I can sell you the cheapest an' best tcAvmstun' in the hull creation." Smith. " Waal, stranger, I reckon I can stand my loss if she can stand her'n; i)ut you see as how the critter isn't ready for a tombstone yet, she's only scooted with another man." 'No'SP AUVAU—Eufilish Rustics. Sam: I zay, Jack, be you a politiciaiier ? ^7ac^•.--" E'as I be." /Sam.— "Wall I zay, Jack, what be a politicianer ? Jack.-~'^ Zounds, Sam ! doant'ee kiiaw iiothink about un ? " /Sam.— Naw I doan't." Jack.— Wall, I doan't kiiaw as I can tell'ee, Sam, fur I doaii't exackerly kiiaw mysel' ! " Pea ki,.— English Showman. Walk in to the show my hearties, walk in and see the great Hafrican hons, rh^noc-sros and helephants as was caught in the desert about 15 miles from either sea or land, ir.d the great 'ippopotamus and catte'rwallapus as lives in the hocean. Them as don't go in c&! I't win, and them as stays out there harn'tin here, and can't see the great Hmdian tiger, leopard, the hanacondas from Brazil, the grizzly bear, the buffalo that swings his vast preposterous over the Rocky Mountings and Western prarers, and the great dens of performing hanimals from hall hover the world ! Do yees raily think. Squire, that there is anny chancce of war wid this country an' Roosha? bquire. Well things did look a little queer lately ; but why do vou ask ? Well, me raison fot axin' is, d'ye moind now, wan o" these days I'll have to be afther sellin' me pig, and if there's goin to be ann/ war, bacon 'ill roisc to a foine price as thrue's me name's Tim O'Farrell 1 752 TYPOGRArniCAL MARKS ' / Though fi' v^^riety of opinions exist, as to tlie Indlviduallby wwom" the.art.of priiating' w ^ first .tliscoverecl ; yet' sl\ authorilies concur 'in admitiin2: J?e ter, ScKo effer- to "be the person's (Tf-p , ^ who iirventecl cast metal types, jx^-^vag .learned ' ^ the of cutiingWxQ. letters from the Gut- temhergsy he JS iilso supposed to have jbeeri ihe first "who^ngraved on copjoei^plates. They-y' following testimony js prese;^ed in the family, 8 lby^Jo.,JFred.^FAustus>^bt';^Ascheff^^ >-*. Petei'! Schoelfer^ of Gernslieimy' perceiving f/n ^ his -master JFausts; des'igri> and Ibeing himself (^desirou3\ ardentlv ) to 'improve the art, found out [hy^ 'the 'good providence of God) the met^iod of cutting {tnei^ndi) the charactera^^^/^/^ In [01 maMxj thai the letters' might easily he gingly cast' I jnsiead -of hieng cut' '. P""%^'^ ^*JL valel/ ,cui matrices \ for ^ the: whole' .alpliah'et: ai5 DFausfc was Ed pleased mth, the contrivanp^ JXla^^y^Q promised J'^eter io giv.e him Hs'^nly '^^^ Id yfdaFS^^^^' ' Christina^ . jnil'jn'arriagd^p^ /^]iich h0 sooniafter'pertoTmed^/^ jg "^^y^(^ut. there ■W-er^^^nian;^' dijSacultiea at nrst IF •witH'ihe^a /g^fergy M 1^6611 before. a> 4- 7^^^^ wooden^ ones»' pt^metal ibdng fod soffc^^^^^ to support the'f^j^ of >th.e jmipre^sloiif.tiaCs^^ ihis defect^'was Booil rejmediedi by mixing ^ asubsian^ with thg metal -which sumciently EXEMPLIFIED 753 The designated errors being corrected, the foregoing matter will read as follows : Though a variety of opinions exist as to tlio individual by whom lirintiug was first discovered ; j'et all authorities concur in admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the person who invented cast metal types, having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Guttembergs; he is also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copper-plates. The following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Ascheff enburg : 'Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving his master Faust's de- sign, and being himself ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting {incidendi) characters in a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly cast, in- stead of being ci«^. He privately cii^ ma'^A)0 or -ipa.OO is used, in place of ink at .1t;2.50, the price will increase, but not in true proportion— tlie more expensive color is liner, and has more extending capacity. Tliese are prices for cuts of machinery. The amount of color on tliis work is largely under tiie control of the pressman. He can use it freely or sparingly, at will, but with a corresponding effect of strength or weak- Jicss in the work. Book Illustrations.— The ordinary illustrations of books and news- papers, when not too frequent, or too black, do not sensibly increase the consumption of ink. It is not usual to make account of the value of ordinary ink on this class of Avork. But Avhen the cuts are numerous and are 'black, and fine inks are used, the value of color used cannot be overlooked. On a large edition of work of this class, the average value of ink at $2.00, on a sheet 24 x 38 inches, will be 50 cents per token. 'Upon an edition of 1000, the cost of the same ink would be more than $1.00 per token. A Double Royal sheet 29 X 43 inches, on an edition of 20,000, with ink at $3.00, with many cuts, has been worked at a cost of 53 cents per token for ink ; but this is a rare result, the economy being due as much to the skill of the pressman as to the length of the edition. If the edition had been 1000, the value of the black ink used and wasted would have been at the rate of $1.50 per token. Posters. — An ordinary poster, 12 x 19 inches, will consume of black ink at 25 cents per pound, at the rate of 30 and 40 cents per 1000 impres- sions, the quantity used depending upon the size of the type and the quality of t!ie paper. Under the same conditions, a i^oster 19 x 24 inches, Avill consume hlack ink of same quality at the rate of 75 cents and $1.00 per 1000 impressions ; a poster 24 X 38 inches, from $1.25 to $2,00 per 1000 impressions. The value of the color used increases with the size of the sheet, and for this work, in greater proportion. The larger form has larger type, and the larger i)ress wastes more color. Tint Blocks. — A solid tint Block cut on pine, for a sheet 24 x 38 inches, with a few white lines, will use of 25 cent ink, at the rate of $3.09 per 1000 impressions. If finer inks are used, the advance in price will be nearly in strict proportion. For a sheet 24 x 38, of smooth, thick paper, dry, i)rinted on a metal tint-plate, with ink at $1.00 per pound, the cost of ink will be $10.00 per 1000 impressions. For this class of work, a pound of fine ink Avill do more Avork than a pound of cheap ink. On common flat work, a good black ink will permit a liberal reduction of body with varnish. Blub Inks. — Many qualities of this color are used. The leading varieties are best kiioAvn to printers as light, dark, ultramarine and bronze blues. The light has a limited use for flat surfaces and tints ; the ultramarine, for flat surfaces, tints, posters, and to some extent, in its finer qualities, on fine type; the dark and bronze blues are most u.sed for fine and light work, for which they are Aveli adapted, having strong body, and in extending property being nearly equal to fine black ink. Ultramarine is the favoring color for bright showy work. It is very bulky for its weight, and Avorks Avell upon all flat surfaces. It is not a finely-ground color. The best colors only are used for type, but they do not Avork Avith the freedom and smoothness of dark or bronze blues. The prices range from 50 to $3.00 per pound. Flat Surfaces.— A flat-faced label, 9 x 14 inches, will consume of pure ultramarine blue at $1.00 per pound at the rate of $3,00 per 1000 ESTIMxiTES. ETC.. FOR PRINTERS. 759 impressions. A flat tint block, 18 X 22 incnes, on fair paper, will use of !this color, when somewhat reduced with varnish, at the rate of $9.00 per llOOO impressions. A flat tint block of pine wood, made for paper 24 x 38 (inches, will use of ultramarine at 75 cents, largely reduced with varnish, at the rate of $15.00 per 1000 impressions. Posters. — For a i^oster, 12 x 19 inches, on ordinary News, the value used of ultramarine ink at $1.00 will he at the rate of $2.00 per 1000 im- pressions ; for a poster, 19 X 24 inches, on ultramarine blue at 75 cents, $3.05 per 1000 impressions ; for a poster, 24 x 38 inches, on ultramarine blue at 75 cents, at the rate of $6.00 to $8.00 per 1000 impressions. Ink at 50 cents per pound would diminish the value of the color used, but not in ratio with the reduced price. The cheaper color is thinner, not so well ground, and is consumed more freely. If it is used on any but the largest type, it will not prove of marked economy. Dark blue and bronze blue are little used for jwsters or flat tints. If used in buUc, without reducing, they will be much more expensive than ultramarine. When used on this kind of work, they are usually thinned with white ink, varnish, turpentine, benzine, etc., and sometimes with magnesia. . When used on light, open and fine work, tlie value of dark or bronze blues, may be rated as about double that of the same quality as black ink. Red Inks. — Under this heading m.ay be classified many qualities of scarlet and crimson color. The leading qualities are vermilion, lake and carmine. Vermilion red, a pure scarlet, is the basis of the better qualities of the cheap reds in greatest use. Commoner qualities, such as are sold at 75 cents and $1.00 per pound, are largely mixed witli cheaper colors. In its pure state, vermilion is the densest, and, in extending i)ro])erty, the weakest of all colors. A pound of vermilion red at $3.00 per pound is about half the bulk of fine black at $1.00 per pound. Wliere the black will yield color for 1000 impressions, the vermilion red will be used up with about 350 impressions. The value of the red color, extending capacity considered, is about ten times as great as that of fine black. Lake red, a deep crimson, is inferior to black in extension, but will give treble the service of ordinary vermilion. It is too expensive for most bold work, or for flat surfaces, nor does it produce as good an effect as pure vermillion. It is largely used for fine work, for which it is well fitted. Carmine, an intense and glowing crimson, is but little inferior to the finest black in extending properties. It is one of the most expensive colors, and can be used to profit and with effect only on light and open work. For flat and solid work, the effect produced is Dut little superior to that of the finer lakes, and is seldom worth the extra cost. Posters. — The value of red ink at $1.00 per pound, that will be used and wasted in printing 1000 posters, 12 X 19 inches, may be rated at $3.00 ; on 1000 posters, 19 x 24 inches, the value of color may be esti- mated at $5.00 and $6.00 per 1000 ; on a poster. 24 X 38 inches, at $9.00 and $12.00 per 1000. The color is weak, and the use of light or bold- faced type will majce serious differences in the consumption of color. On double-medium posters, the value of the color may be averaged at $1.00 per 100 impressions. Flat Surfaces.— A flat label 9 x 14 inches, Avitli ordinary amount and size of lettering cut for white, such as is used for soap boxes, etc., will consume of pure red ink at $1.00 per pound, at the rate of $4.50 and $5.00 per lOCO impressions. If the plate is flat, without lettering, at the rate of $6.00 per 1000 impressions. A flat tint poster for paper 19 x 24 inches, with letters cut in whits as above, will use of red ink at $1.00 pel 700 PATENT OKFICK HULKS, KTO. pound, that lian hooii somewhat tliiniied with varnish, at the rate of .IpO.OO and -lillO.OO i)or lOOU impressions. It 1)M1'C color is used, it will consuino eolor to the amount ol' .H;i4.()() or $ir)Ml A Hat tint jKJster for paper 24 X ,■58 inches, cut on pine, with lctterin<^ as above, will consume of red ink at Si. 00 per pound, thinned with varnisli, at the rate of .1i;i8,00 and .'^25.00 per 1000 inii)ressions. If dry paper is used, as is necessary for i-egistered work it could not be rated at less than $20.00 ; lor damp paper, carefully managed, it may be less than ^^18.00, but this is unusual. CoLOiiiNG OF r.vi'KR. — Gniy is usually obtained by mixing mineral or vegetable black with the bleached pulp, but the tones produced by these primitive means are generally dull. Vegetable black made from the chestnut tree gives the best result. Chestnut black can be made from the bark of the young sprouts of this tree, generally cultivated to make hoops for casks ; after taking off the bark it is dried, ground, and made into a decoction for coloring paper, and which can be made either gray or black. Logwood also may be used. Iron Gray is jnade with chestnut or logwood. For two cwt. of paper, 4 lbs. of ext. of chestnut, 4 lbs. sulphate of iron, dissolved in 9 gals, of boiling water, then stirred and mixed with the pulp, adding a small quantity of red lake and ultra- marine. The size is mixed with 8 per cent, of sulphate of aluminum, this may be much varied. With small quanities of ext. of logwood and sulphate of iron a light gray is obtained; by adding yellow and Prussian blue, a greenish slate color ; by adding white, suppressing the blue, and keeping the lake, a chamois tone ; by adding to this last formula a little umber, bistre. Logwood is used with all colors when it is wished to darken the shades. With fine pulp il is best to rei)lace the ext. of log- wood by the product obtained from the tree noted at the beginning of this notice. Solvents for Rubber. — These are bisulphide of carbon, coal nap- tha, rectified oil of turpentine, chloroform, and ether, Avhicli must be free from alcohol, INFORMATION CONCERNING PATENTS. United States Patents and Fees. — No patent will be granted if the whole or any part of what is claimed has been patented or described in any printed publication in this or a foreign country, or been invented or discovered in this country. Prior Invention abroad will not prevent issue of a patent, nnless the in- vention has been there patented or described in some printed publication. To prevent a subsequent inventor from obtaining a patent, an inven- tion must have been reduced to ax)ractical form, either by construction of a model or machine, or drawing, by which a mechanic could make the same. Merely conceiving an idea of an invention is not a discovery, and patent- able. Foreign Patents. — The taking out of a patent in a foreign countrj'' does not prejudice a patent previously granted here ; nor does it prevent obtain- ing a patent here subsequently. When a patent is granted here it will extend only seventeen years from date of foreign patent. • Every foreign inventor must liave in use, or for sale in the United States, a copy of their patentable article, within eighteen months from date of patent. Duration of Patent is seventeen years. Extensions are prohibited on all patents granted since 1861, Applications for extension must be filed, and requisite fee paid, ninety days before expiration of the patent. Granting of Patents. — Patents, on payment of same official fee, are granted to all persons, including Avomeu and minors, unless inhabitants PATENT OFFICE RULES, ETC 761 of countries which discriminate against the inhabitants of the United States. Application for a patent must be made in the name of the inventor, who can alone sign the papers ; an attorney for inventor can not do so. Heirs of an Inventor can obtain a patent, papers to be signed hy execu- tor or administrator of inventor. Joint Inventors are entitled to a joint patent. An Inventor can assign his entire right, before a patent is obtained, so as to enable the assignee to take out a patent iu his own name ; but the assign- ment must be first recorded, and specification sAvorn to by the inventor. Oaths may be taken, in this country, before any one autliorized by law to administer oaths ; in a foreign country before any minister plenipoten- tiary, charge d' affairs, consul, commercial agent or notary public of the country in which oath is taken, being in all cases properly attested by of- ficial seal of such notary. Stamps. — A stamp of value of fifty cents is required for each poAver of attorney,' each sheet of an assignment to be stamped Jive cents, eacii cer- tificate of magistrate five cents. Drawings to be in duplicate, one on stiff paper, one on tracing cloth, to be 20 inches top to bottom, 15 inches wide ; tracing tj have 1 inch margin on right hand side, for binding. Models to be of hard wood, or metal, not more than 12 inches in any dimension ; name of the inventor to be engraved or painted conspicu- ously on it. For an Improvement, only model of part to be j)atented is required, to show nature and operation of invention. Designs, no models required ; either draAvings or photographs, both in dui)licate, with negative of photograph. New Articles of manufacture, sample of article ; medicines, ormedicaV compounds, sample of same, and minute statement of exact i^roportions and ingredients. Caveats. — The filing of a caveat prevents, during its existence, the issue of a patent, witliout the knowledge of the caveator, to any person for a similar device. The caveator is entitled to receive official notice during one year, for any j)etition for similar or interfering invention filed during that time. The caveator, when so notified, must complete his own application within three months from date of notice, t A caveat runs one year : can be extended by paying .$10 a year. Caveats can only be filed by cicizens of the United States, or aliens who liave resided here one year and declared their intention of becoming citizens. UNITED STATES PATENT FEES. On filing each caveat $10 00 On filing each original application for a patent, except for a design. 15 00 On issuing each original patent 20 00 On every appeal from Examiners-in-Chief 20 00 On application for a reissue 30 00 On application for extension 50 00 Granting an extension 50 00 Filing each disclaimer 10 00 Certified copies of patents and other papers, 10 cents per 100 words. Recording every assignment, agreement, power of attorney, and other papers, of 300 words or under 1 00 If over 300 and under 1,000 words , 2 00 If over 1,000 words 3 00 Drawings, cost of making same Patents for designs— for three and one-half years 10 00 " " for seven years 15 00 " *• for fourteen years , 30 00 762 FACTS ABOUT HUMAN LIFE. In addition to the above, Messrs. Mitnn & Co., Patent Solicitors, N.Y., charge for written report of special examination at I'atent o(Iice,if inven- tion has been patented in this country, $r) ; for general information of infringements, reissues, claims, assignincnts, joint ownership, contracts, licences, name in which patent is recorded, abstracts of deeds of transfer, sketch of a drawing of patent, license made out, ti-ansfer of do., recording do., $r) for each case ; for procuring a patent, .ii^25 to $35, or more ; for procuring a caveat, $10 to $15 ; for copies of patents or assignments, or drawings of any existing patents, $5 to $10 ; copy of any claim, $1. Foreign Patents. — Great Britain. — Duration, fourteen years, to first inventor or importer, cost, $350, of which $100 due at time of making application, balance in four months ; three years from date of patent, a f urtlier sum of £50 must be paid ; end of seven years, £100 additional. For designs to protect shape of article, three years, $100. France. — Term of patent, fifteen years, annual fee, $20. Belgium. — Term of patent, twenty years ; small annual fees. EXPENSE OF FOREIGN PATENTS, INCLUSIVE OF ALL FEES. Austria $250 | Netherlands. Bavaria 150 Belgium 150 Cuba 450 France 150 Great Britain 350 India 400 Italy 250 .fl.50 Portugal 250 Prussia 200 Russia ,550 Saxony 250 Spain 400 Sweden and Norway 600 FACTS RELATING TO HUMAN LIFE. Tlie following table exhibits the recent mortality statistics, showin g the average duration of life among persons of various classes in the State of Massachusetts : Years. Years. Years. Men unemployed 68 Blacksmiths 51 Judges 65 Merchants 51 Farmers , ..64 Calico Printers 51 Bank Officers 64 Physicians 51 Coopers 58 Public Officers 57 Clergymen 56 Shipwrights 55 Hatters 54 Lawyers 54 Rope Makers 54 Butchers 50 Carpenters 49 Masons 48 Traders 46 Tailors 44 Jewellers 44 Manufacturers 43 Bakers 43 Painters 43 Shoemakers 43 Mechanics 43 Editors 40 Musicians 39 Printers 38 Machinists 36 Teachers 34 Clerks 34 Operatives.... .32 The average death rate in Europe is 1 out of every 42 inhabitants, or 2.38 per cent. The principal European countries exhibit the following annual bills of mortality : — Austria 1 death to every 40 Prussia 1 " " o3 France 1 " " 32 England 1 death to every 46 Denmark 1 " '* 45 Belgium 1 " " 43 Norway and Sweden 1 " " 41 The death rate in the United States varies much from the above, from the highest, Arkansas, Avhere the annual mortality is one death to every 49 inhabitants, a trifle over 2 per cent of the population, to the lowest, Oregon, where the death rate is less than half of one per cent., or one FACTS ABOUT HUMAN LIFE. 763 to everj 200 inhabitants. The average yearly mortality in i^roportion to population is exhibited in the following table : — New England States 1 in 68 Pacific States... 1 in 115 Middle States 1 " 88 Atlantic States 1 " 80 Southern States 1 " 70 Gulf States 1 " 63 Western States 1 81 Mississippi Valley States ..1 " SO North- Western States i "120| According to the Carlisle table of mortalitj^ largely used as an author- ity in life insurance calculations in America and Europe, of 10,000 chil- dren born — 3.540 die in 10 years. 5,603 die in 50 vears. 9,818 die in DO years. 3,910 " 20 " 6,357 " 60 " 9,991 " 100 " 4,358 " 30 " 7,599 " 70 " 9,999 " 104 " 4,915 " 40 " 9,047 " 80 . " Leaving only one living at the age of 104 years. The tables of the British Government annuities are constructed on the principle that women live longer than men. Thus, a male of 15 can pur- chase an annuity of £15 per animm for £411 5s. lOd., but a female of the same age must pay £438 lis. 4d. And, at 50, a man would pay £272 17s. Id. ; but a woman £312 14s. lOd. Long life, as a general rule, awaits the man who is gifted with pru- dence, a good constitution, and the mental potency to banish corroding anxiety. These are inestimable gifts. Dr. Helierden, an illustrious London physician of the last century, whose practise lay chiefly among the wealthy classes, asserted that nine out of ten of his patients died of a broken heart. Cornaro, the noted dietist, who by prudent care of him- tjelf, lived to 104, wrote, " lam likewise greatly indebted for the excel- lent health I enjoy to that calm and temperate state in which I have been careful to keep my passions. The influence of the passions on the nerves and health of our bodies is so great tliat none can be ignorant of it. Tie, therefore, who seriously wishes to enjoy good health, must learn to keep his passions in subjection to reason. Otherwise, all tem- . perance will go for little." The man endowed by nature with the best l^rospect for long life is thus described by the famous Hufeland, in his ■ work on longevity, published during the last century : " He has a well- proportioned stature, without, however, being too tall. He is rather of the middle size, and somewhat thickset. His complexion is not too florid ; at any rate, too much ruddiness in youth is seldom a sign ot longevity. Hair approaciies rather to the fair than to the black. His skin is strong, but not rough- His head is not too big. He has large veins at tlie extremities, and his shoulders are rather round than flat. His neck is not too long. His belly does not project, and his hands are large, but not too deeply cleft. His foot is rather thick than long, and his legs are firm and round. He has also a broad chest and strong voice, and the faculty of retaining his breath a long time without difficulty. In general there is complete harmony in all his parts. His senses are good, but not too delicate. His pulse is slow and regular. His appetite is good, and his digestion easy. He has not too much thirst, which is always a sign of rapid self-consumption. His passions never become too violent or destructive. If he gives way to anger he experiences a glow of warmth, without an overflowing of the gall. He likes employment, particularly calm meditation and agreeable speculations ; is an optimist, a friend to nature and domestic felicity — has no thirst after either honors or riches, and banishes all thought of to-morrow." Mr, John Q. Adams was in excellent health, when, in his ninetieth year, he was visited by Charles Mackay, who thus explains the cause ; 7G1 I'ACTS AnOUT HUMAN LIFi:. " Men vuiJ women," lie says, " scarcely ever allow the fresh air of hea- ven to touch any ]):ir<; of llicir bodies, ex(!ei)t tiieir liauds and face, and even to these tlio ladies are systematically unjust hy woarinj,^ gloves and veils. Tlic suriaco of the beautiful human form requires to be for a certain ])criod of every day exposed to the action of the atmosijhcre. I take my air bath rcij^ularly every morning, and wallc in my bed-room in pvris jiatinrdibu.'i, Avith all the windows open, for half an hour. I also talce a water bath daily. I read and write for eif^ht hours a day. I sleep eiffht hours, and devote another eight to exercise, conversation, and meals. I feel within myself a reserve of bodily strength, which, I think, Avili carry me to a hundred years, unless I die by accident, or am shot or hanged." Between 1840 and 1871 the annual mortality on the Cheviot Hills, in Scotland, was at an average of 15 per 1,000. In the hamlet of Ilarbottle, with 120 inhabitants there has been no death of a child for 20 years. A farmer and his three shepherds, Avho have occupied their present situa- tion nearly 30 years, have among them 47 children, and not a single death has occurred in these families. In Alwinton, a parish on the south- ern slopes of the hills, the birth-rate in 1871, when it contained a popu- lation of 1,205, was 32.4 per cent., and the death-rate only 7.5. An abun- dance of good food, good water, good houses, and regular but not severe work, have brought about this orderly state of existence. Of a man who died near London at the advanced age of 110 years, it is reported tliat he had never been ill, and that he had maintained through life a cheerful happy temperament. He was uniformly kind and obliging to everybody ; he quarrelled with no one ; he ate and drank merely that he might not suffer from liunger and thirst, and never beyond what ne- cessity required. From his earliest youth lie never allowed himself to be unemployed. These were the onlj^ means he ever used. Of a woman who died near Stockholm at the advanced age of 115 years, it is on record that she passed lier long life free from illness, always contented and happy, a devoted lover of cleanliness, had a daily habit of Avashing her face, hands, and feet in cold Avater, and as often as op- portunity afforded, bathed in the same ; she never ate or drank any deli- cacies or sweet-meats ; seldom tea or coffee, and never wine. Another noted instance of long life was that of a man who died near St Petersburg, and had enjoyed good health until he Avas 120 years old. He was an early riser, and never slept more than seven hours at a time ; he was never idle ; he worked and employed himself chiefly in the open air, and particularly in his garden. Whether he Avalked or sat in his chair he always maintained an erect j)osition, never tolerating a stooping, leaning, or distorted attitude. Unquestionably, a properly selected vegetable diet is the best fitted for the maintenance of health. A great percentage of the diseases which afflict humanity are generated by the use of poVk, veal, and other meats in immoderate quantities, and prepared in i)reposterous forms Avith lard, rich sauces, seasoning, &c. Of all animal food in common use pork is de- cidedly the worst. Its use as food frequently engenders an extremely painful disease, by many pronounced incurable, caused by a filthy para- site which exists naturally in the muscles of swine. See Trichina, page 149. A farmer writing from Freeport to the Chicago Inter-Ocean de- nounces pork in the most trenchant style. He says "Pork grease will ruin a wagon axle, much more the human stomach, and the farmer who uses pork alone as a meat diet and pork grease as shortenincf. ruins not only his own constitution but that of his family as well. This is the experience of a farmer Avho has tried the use of pork for over fifteen years, with as many years of sickness in his family, and two years on FA-CTS CONCERNING FOOD. 7G5 beef diet and i)erfect healtli." " Vegetable aliment, as neither aisteuding the vessels, nor loading the system, never interrupts the stronger action of the mind ; while the heat, fulness and weight of animal food is adverse to its efforts." — Cidlen. The following table shows the number of grains of warmth and strength evolved per lb., from -various articles of food. The carbon and nitrogen taken into the sj'Stem form fat and flesh, the fat being con- sumed makes thebodj^ stout, while the flesh represents strength or the muscles which yield it. Grains of Strength yielded by one pound of 7000' grains. GRAINS. Beer or Porter 1 Parsnips 12 Turnips 12 Whey 13 Groens 14 Potatoes 24 Skimmed Milk M New Milk 35 Buttermilk 35 Barley 70 Bice 70 Bacon 78 Bye Bread 89 Baker's Bread 00 Pearl Bailey 01 Fresh Pork 108 Seconds Flour 120 Corn Meal 125 Fresh Fish 329 Cocoa. 130 Oatmeal 140 Mutton 140 Fresh Beef 172 Beef Liver 200 Split Peas 250 Cheddar Cheese 310 Skim. Milk Cheese , 360 Grains of Warmth yielded by one pound of 7000 grains. GRAINS. Whey 150 Turnips 238 Beer and Porter 315 Buttermilk 335 Skimmed Milk 351 New Milk 378 Carrots 390 Parsnips 425 Potatoes 770 Fresh Fish •. 080 Beef Liver .. 1,220 Red Herrings 1,455 Baker's Bread 1,990 Fresh Beef 2,300 Molasses 2,300 Skim. Milk Cheese 2,350 Cheddar Cheese 2,550 Seconds Flour 2,700 Rye Bread 2,700 Rice 2,750 Barley Meal 2,780 Indian Meal 2,800 Sugar 2,900 Fresh Pork 3,100 Bacon 4,200 Butter 4,700 Lard 4,800 Drippings 5,500 In cookery 4 lbs. of beef lose 1 lb. by boiling, 1 lb. 5 ozs. by roasting, and 1 lb. 3 ozs. by baking ; 4 lbs. of mutton lose 14 ozs. by boiling, 1 lb. G ozs. by roasting, and 1 lb. 4 ozs. by baking. As to the drinking cus- toms of society, statistics prove that every year in the United Kingdom, 70,000, and in the United States, about 75,000 deaths result directly and indirectly from the use of spirituous liquors. The benefits derived from their use are in a great measure merely imaginary, and their persistent use can only have one result, viz., premature death. An intemperate person of twenty years has a probability of life extending 15.6 ; one of 30 to 11 "6 years, while temperate persons would have a like probability of living 42 and 35 respectively. Conmient is useless, if you wish health and long life, abstain. Liebig, the celebrated chemist, recommends the persistent use of a purely vegetable diet as a cure for this abominable vice, especially in its earlier stages, and Charles Napier, the noted Eng- lish scientist, has reported, as the result of experiments, 27 cases, in which the exclusive use of vegetables as food, had created repugnance for alcoholic stimulants. Another remedy highly commended is to steep equal parts of the herbs valerian and wormwood together, and drink the liquid three times a day when the desire is felt. Still another remedy is tincture of cinchona (Peruvian bark) taken in 1 drachm (teaspoonfult 7GG roruLATioN OK THE Gi.oni:. doses every two hours. Tho dose may ha increased to six tcaspoonfula and talicn ill that inopovtion 4 to 10 times per day. It will not destroy appetite for food, but in a few days tlic anti-poriodic properties of th(t cin- cliona ho^iii to Icll, and tlic patient not only loses all taste for the tinc- ture, but also all desire for everything in the shape of alcohol. THK I.ATF.ST CENSUS OF ALL TIIK COUNTUIKS OF THK WORLD. Bclim and Wagner cstimato the total number of all men 1,423,919,000. They are distributed over the live parts of the world as followsi , Number of iidiabitants per square mile, Africa 199,921,000 13 1 America 85,519,800 G | Asia 824,548,300 49 \- Average all over the Australia 4,748,(i00 1% i earth, 28. Europe .^09,178,500 82 j Reliable ligurea are exhibited for Europe, save Turkey. They show : Andorra 12,000 Montenegro 190,000 Austria, 187G 37,700,000 Netherlands, 1875 3,^09,527 Belgium, 187 i 5,336,034 Denmark, 1870 1,903,000 France, 1873 36,102,921 Germanv, 1875 42,723,242 Great Britain, 1876 33,450,000 Greece, 1870.... 1,457,349 Italy, 1875 27,432,174 Luxemburgh, 1875 205,158 Monaco, 1873 5,741 Norway, 1875 1,802, Portugal, 1874 4,298,831 Iloumania, 1873 5,073,000 Russia, (Europe) 1870 71,730,980 Servia, 1875 1,377,068 Spain, 1870 16,551,647 Sweden, 1875 4,383,291 Switzerland, 1870 2,669,147 Turkey (Europe) 3,500,000 Another estimate of the population and area of the Globe is as follows Divisions. Area. Population. Pop. to Sq. M. 3,800,000 296,713,500 80 15,000,000 699.863,000 46 Africa 10,800,000 67,414,000 5 14,709,000 88,061,148 G 1,500,000 25,924,000 5 Total 48,800.000 1,177,975,688 24 It is estimated that this aggregate of humanity speak 3,0G4 languages, and profess to believe in 1,000 various forms of religion. Of this vast multitude, 33,333,333 are estimated to pass into eternity every year, 91,954 every day, 3,730 every hour, 60 every minute, and 1 every second. The number of births is larger than the number of deaths. Still another estimate of the earth's population, classified according to race and religion, is as follows : Races. Religions. Whites 550,000,000 Mongolians 550,000,000 Blacks 173,000,000 Copper-Colored. 12,000,000 The Christians are classified as follows : Church of Rome. Protestants 170,000,000. 90,0,00,000. AKEA OF OCEANS AND SEAS — APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES. Pagans 676,000,000 Christians 320.000,000 Mohammedans 140,000,000 Jews 14,000,000 Greek and East Church. 60,000,000. Oceans. Sq. miles. Pacific about 78.000,000 Atlantic " 25,000,000 Indian '•' 14,000,000 Southern Ocean to 30° about. 25,000,000 Northern about 5,000,000l Seas Sq. miles. Mediterranean 1,000,000 Black Sea 170,000 Baltic 175,000 North Sea 160,000 AREA OF SEAS, LAKES, ETC. 767 In the British expedition under Capt. Nares, with the two steamers Alert and Discovery, to the Polar Sea, it was determined that the depth of that sea, at one point, was about 70 fathoms, that the ice was from 80 to 120, and in many places 200, feet thick, and probably a century old ; that a powerful tide sets in from the Pacific under this ice and extends down the long channel as far as the northern part of Smith's Sound. A sledge party advanced over the ice to lat. 83° 20' 2&' N. , the most north- erly point as yet ever trod by man. No traces of human life exists north of lat. 81° 52', where the Esquimaux appear to have crossed the water, here only 15 miles wide, into Greenland, from the large islands which fringe the North American continent on the north. On the Alert, mer- oi.iry was frozen 47 days in all, and, in still weather, the minimum temp. Avas more than 70° below zero and the auroras were neither brilliant nor of frequent occurrence during the long Arctic winter, with its unparalleled intensity and duration of darkness i^roduced by the absence of sunlight for 142 days. Birds do not migrate beyond Cape Joseph Henry, on the American coast of the Polar Sea, in lat. 82° 52' north, and the northern limits of the haunts of wild animals is about 82°. Dwarf oaks, sorrel, poppies, saxifrage, and between 20 and 30 species of flowering plants were found growing in the vicinity of lat. 82° north, together with fossil corals, a workable seam of good coal, and evidences of the former ex- istence of an evergreen forest in lat. 82^ 44'. Between the Tropics the temperature of the Ocean is from 77° to 84°, it diminishes to 45 5° at 1,000 fathoms depth. In the Arctic Sea the tem- perature rises from 8" to 10* at 700 fathoms, and ^° at 200 fathoms. Divers report an entire absence of motion in the Ocean at a depth of 30 ft., and the Solar rays penetrate 200 or 200 ft. Sea water is salt and bit- ter at the surface, but salt only at profound depths. The component parts, with slight variations, are water, muriatic acid, sulphuric acid, mineral alkali, lime, and magnesia. The deepest soundings on record is 9 miles. Young estimates the Atlantic at 3 miles, and the Pacific at 4 deep. Copper globes are compressed at 800 fathoms. Parry sounded in lat. 57° N. long. 24° W. but found no bottom at 1,020 fathoms. Seas. ESTIMATED I.ENGTH OF SEAS, &C. Milea Seas. Miles. Seas. Mediterranean 2,000 Carribean 1,800 China 1,700 Ked Japan Black 930 Caspian 640 Baltic 600 1,400 Otliotsk 600 l,000iWhite 450 Miles. Aral 250 Hudson's Bay 1,200 Baffin's Bay 600 Chesapeake Bay .... 250 Lakes. ESTIMATED SIZE OF NOTED LAKES. Length, Width Lakes. ^^H^^^ Miles. Superior 380 Baikal 360 Michigan 330 Great Slave 300 Huron 250 Winnipeg 240 Erie 270 Ontario 180 Arthabaska 200 Miles. 120 35 60 45 90 40 50 40 20 I Maracaybo Miles. 150 I Great Bear. j .Nicaragua j Champlain ! L. of the Woods i Geneva i Constance Cayuga. 150 120 123 70 50 45 36 Width Miles. 60 Ladoga 125 75 Many of the above lakes are very deep, and it is owing to this cause that they never freeze. NOTED KIVEllS AND MOUNTAINS. Rivers. LKNGTn OF NOTED KIVERS ON THE GLOBE. I Ijocalily. | Miles. liivers. | Looallly. | Miles. Amazon La Plata.... Aronoco Mississippi . . IMispouri Arkansas — lied River /Columbia Ohio Colorado Snsqnehanna James Potomac ....Brazil 3200 S. America 2215 " 1500 N. America 3200 " 4500 2500 " 2500 " 1090 " 1000 " 1000 " 400 " 500 " 400 " 325 St. LawrcnceCanada 1960 St- John N. lirnnswick.... 450 Murray Australia .tOOO Mackenzie . . . Brit. Ter 2500 Obi Siberia 2800 ]Janube Austria & Turkey 1790 Don Russia 1000 Dneiper " ,1000 Euphrates... .from Ararat 2020 Rhine Germany 800 AVolga from the Waldais 2100 Lena Siberia 2500 Maykiang Siam 1700 Hoang-Iio . . . China 3000 Yang-tse-kia 2500 Ganges India 1650 Brahmapootra " 1600 Indus " 1770 Hudson " Nile Egypt and Nubia 2G90 Niger Africa 2300 Jumna llindostan 680 Qogra " 500 The Ganges, in India, derives its origin from a Himalayan glacier, it has a fall of 4 inches to the mile, and rises from April till August 32 ft. creating a flood 100 miles wide. The Delta of the Ganges is 200 miles long, consisting of woods called Sunderbunds. It pours down from 80 to 400- 000 cubic ft. in a second. The force of the tides, which rise from 13 to 16 ft. high, with the floods, frequently form and destroy islands 25 miles in diam. The Nile has advanced 16 ft. per annum since the time of Herodotus, and raises the soil of Egypt 4 ins. in a century. The prodi- gious quantities of miid brought down by large rivers enlarges continents at their estuaries, and form deltas of alluvial land which eventually form plains of immense fertility. The Mississippi, the Amazon, the Nile, the Danube, the Po, the Gauges, and the Niger are striking examples of the truth of this statement. The Yellow River, in China, is said to carry down 2,000,000 cubic ft. of alluvium every day. The Euphrates covers the Babylonian plains to a depth of 12 ft. between March and June. THE HIGHEST MOUNTAINS ON THE GLOBE. Kunchainyunga, Himalayas - - Sorata, Andes, highest in America Illimani, Bolivia Chimborazo, Ecuador - - . . - Hindoo-Koosh, Afghanistan • - Cotopaxi, Ecuador Antisana, " St. Elias, British America - - Feet. Miles 28,178 5X 25,380 21,780 21,444 20,000 19,408 19,1.50 18,000 17,735 10,000 15,000 15,770 15 700 15,5,50 Mt. Brown, highest Rocky Mt. pk Mont Blanc, highest in Europe ■ Mowna Roas, Owhyhee - . . • Mount Rosa, Alps, Sardinia • • Pinchinca, Ecuador- - - - . - 15,200 Mount Whitney, Cal . . - ,■ -15,000 Mount Fairweathcr Russ. Poss. • 14,790 Mount Shasta, California- - - - 14,450 Pikes Peak, California 14 320 Mount Ophir, Summatra - - . - 13,800 I reniont's Peak, R. M. Wyoming 13,570 Long's Peak, R. M. California - - 13,400 Mount lianier, Washington Ter. - 13,000 Mount Ararat, Armenia ... - - 12,700 Peak of TenerifEe, Canaries - - - 12,230 Tlie raountains subtract no more than the roughness ou the coat of an Feet. MilM. Miltsin, Morocco - 12,000 2% Mount Hood, Oregon 11,570 2V Simplon, Alps - - 11,542 2^ Mount Lebanon, Syria - - - - 11,000 2X Mount Perdu, France . - - - 10,950 2 Mount St. Helen'?, Oregon- - -10,1.58 1^^ Mount Etna, Sicily 10,050 1J4 Olympus, Greece 9,754 1% St Gothard, Alps 9,080 1% Pilate, Alps 9,050 1?| Mount Sinai, Arabia 8.000 Pindus Greece - 7,077 IJ4 Black Mountain, New Caledonia 6,470 1^ MountWashington, N. Hampshire 0,234 IX Mount Marcy, New York - ■ - 5.4'>7 1 Mount Heclii, Iceland- - - - - 5,000 1 Ben Nevis, Scotland 4,400 % Mansfield, Vt. 4,280 % Peaks ot Otter, Va. 4,200 % Ben Lawers, Scotland - - - - 4,0.'W % Parnassus, Greece ------ 3,950 % Vesuvius, Naples ------ 3,932 % Snowdon, England 3,500 %. Strom boll 3,850 % Ben Lomond 3,280 % Mounc Carmel 2,000 Gibraltar 1,470 from the globular form of the earth orange. The highest elevations are NOTED MOUNTAINS, TOWERS, ETC. 7G9 within the tropics, the next in the temperate zones, the next in the frigid, and the limit of perpetual snow varies with the heat of the surface; sec page 119: The Andes chain extends 4600 miles from the Gulf of Daricn to the Straits of Magellan. The same chain is continued northward through Mexico, the'United States, and the British Possessions by the liocky Mountains and other immense elevations which form the back- bone of the continent. These enormous mountain masses exert a genial action on the climfite, form the source of rivers, and determine the water shed of streams. The mountains of America afford incontestable proof that the New World, geologically considered, is really the oldest formation of the present distribution of land on the globe. Irresistible subterranean forces are still active on the Andes ; from Cotopaxi south- vrard, over 40 volcanoes are continually at work, causing havoc, and belching out lava, sulphur, &c. In many cases volcanic action impels mountainous waves from the sea, carrying vessels several leagues inland over cities, towns, &c. In 174G an official account reported all the in- habitants of Callao, 4000, destroyed, 19 vessels sunk, and 4, including a frigate, were carried far inland over the city. Wafer saw 3 vessels Avhich had been carried 5 or G leagues overland. A similar irruption took place on this coast only a few months ago, attended by fearful suffering and awful loss of life and property. The Andes contain no granite at a higher elevation than 8 to 10,000 ft., the tops beiug crowned with whinstone, and the crevices and fissures, many of them descending below the sea level, are even more astonishing than their heights. In Asia, the Himalayian ranges extend about 1400 miles, the mountain ridges being from 50 to 60 miles wide, extending from N. W, to S. E. They form the source of all the rivers of the Eastern seas, and have furnished the materials which compose the soil. There are 5 j^asses over them, some as high as 15,000 f' •, at 15,500 ft., beds of fossil shells exist. The European and Asiatic mountains are topped with granite. Regard- ing the Alps, and the various snow levels over the globe, see pp. 118-19. In Scotland, the Grampian range includes Cairngorm, 4095 ft. ; Macdui, 4,327 ; Shehalliou, 3,550; Benmore, 3,870 ; Ben LaAvers, 4,030; Cairn toul, 4,225; Ben Avon, 3,967 ; Ben Nevis, the highest, 4,400 ft, has a precipice of 1,500 ft., and is always capped Avith ice and snow; north of the Cale- donian canal is anotlier range of great altitude, all vast masses of barren granite. In all there are about 45 elevations north of the Tweed, exceed- ing 2,000 ft. HEIGHT OF NOTED MOmiMENTS, TOWERS, &C. Feet. Feet- Notre Dame Cathedral, Munich 34^ Dome of the Invalides, Paris 347 Magdeburg Cathedral 337 St. Mark's Cliiircli, Venice 328 Assinelli Tower, Bologna 3l4 Trinity Church, New York 283 Column at Delhi, India 202 Porcelain Tower, China 242 Canterbury Tower, England 2'iB Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris 232 Bunker Hill, Monument 220 Leaning Tower, Pisa, Italy 202 Monument, London 202 Monument, PI. Vendome, Paris. . 153 Trajan's Pillar, Rome 151 Nearly 70 round towers, with cromlechs, exist in different parts of reland, from 30 to 135 ft. high. For other interesting items on this subject, see page 125. 33 Pyramid of Cheops, Egypt 543 Antwerp Cathedral, Belgium 47C Strasburg Cathedral, France 474 Tower of Utrecht, Holland , 464 Steeple of St. Stephen's, Vienna... 460 Pyramid of Cephenes, Egypt 456 St. Martin's Church, Bavaria 456 St. Peter's, Rome 448 Salisbury Spire, Englajid 410 St. Paul's, London, England 404 St. Peter's, at Hambro' 395 Cathedral at Florence, Italy 384 Cremona Cathedral, Italy 372 Seville Cathedral, Spain 360 Pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt. . . . 356 770 AREA, &C., OF THE UNITED STATES. Population, growth, &c., of the united states and TERuiTORiEa 1819 183G 1850 Sett Sett 1845 Sett 1818 1816 1846 3,859 1792 1812 1820 Sett Sett 1837 1859 1817 1821 1866 1864 Sett Sett Sett Sett 1802 1859 Sett Sett Sett 1796 1848 1791 Sett 1862 1848 144,317 52,240 107,000 led 1636 led 1627 54,477 led 1682 34,620 63,867 81,929 107,206 73,077 76,556 208,335 led 1635 led 1620 200,000 150,042 75,532 60,580 60,000 40,000 led 1623 led 1624 led 1614 led 1650 41,915 52.465 led 1685 led 1637 led 1670 77,262 250,000 85,539 led 1607 376,688 210,596 Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Masacliuo'3 Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, N. Hamps'e, New Jersey, New York, N. Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylv'na, R. Island, S. Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, W. Virginia, Wisconsin, Total States, TERRITORIES. Arizona, Colorado; Dakota, District of Columbia, Idaho, Montana, " New Mexico, Utah, W ashington, Wyoming, Total Territories, Total U.S. andTer., ^2 50,722 52,398 188,981 4,750 2,120 59,248 58,000 55,410 33,809 55,041 81,318 37,630 41,346 35,000 11,124 7,800 56,451 83,531 47,156 65,350 75,995 81,539 9,280 8,320 47,000 50,704 39,964 95-274 46,000 1,306 34,000 45,660 274,356 10,212 38,352 23,000 53,924 1,950,171 113,916 104,500 147,490 60 90,930 113,776 121,201 80,056 69,i^l4 93,107 .a . 996,992 484,471 560,247 537,454 125,015 187,748 1,184,109 2,539,891 1,680,637 1,194,020 364,399 1,321,011 726,915 626,915 780,894 1,457,351 1,184,059 439,706 827,922 1,721,295 122,993 42,491 318,300 906,096 4,382,759 I, 071,361 2,665,260 90,923 3,521,951 217,353 705,600 II, 250,520 818,579 330,551 1,225,163 442,014 1,054,670 965,032 38,115,641 9,658 39,864 14,181 131,700 14,999 20,595 91,874 86,786 23,955 9,118 442,730 2,915,203 38,558.641 1,550,544 528,349 857,039 1,651,912 1.331,031 598,429 246,280 52,540 1,026,502 4,705,208 258,239 925,145 1,236,729 805 38 2:3 C30 127 402 3 ,020 2,998 2,175 731 567 35; 505 408 1,285 823 862 838 661 633 2,728 937 3,100 4 3,006 . 108 '973 1,253 451 562 1,379 361 ► 961 32,120 59,587 32,120 POPULATION, &C., OF VARIOUS COUNTPaES. 771 POPULATION, AREA, &c.. OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. Countries. China British Empire Russia United States and Alaska. France Austria and Hungary Japan Great Britain and Ireland. German Empire Italy Spain Brazil Afghanistan Turkey Arabia Mexico Turkestan Sweden and Norway Aram Persia Belgium Birmah Bavaria Siam Portugal Holland New Grenada Chili Laos , Switzerland , Peru , Bolivia Argentine Republic Wurtemburg Deimiark "Venezuela Baden Greece, Guatemala Ecuador Paraguay Hesse Liberia .San Salvador Hayti , Boloochistan Nicaragua Malaya, etc Uraguay Honduras , San Domingo , Cost a Rico Hawaii '. Populati'u. 440,500,000 22(!,817,108 81,925,400 38,925,600 36,469,800 35,904,400 34,785,300 31,817,100 29,906,092 27,439,921 16,642,000 10,000,000 6,000,000 10,463,000 8,500,000 9,173,000 4,800,000 5,921,300 6,000,000 5,000,000 5,021,300 7,000,000 4,861,400 5,500,000 3,995,200 3,688,300 3,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 2,629,100 2,500,000 2,000,000 1,812,000 1,818,000 1,784,000 1,500,000 1,461,300 1,457,900 1,180,300 1,300,000 1,000,000 823,138 718,000 600,000 572,000 500,000 350,000 500,000 300,000 350,000 130,000 165,000 62,950 Area in sq. miles. 3,741,846 4,677,432 8,003,788 2,603,884 204,091 240,348 149,399 121,315 100,207 118,847 195,755 3,253,029 226,000 672,624 1,200,000 761,526 414,000 292,871 150,000 635,964 11,373 205,000 29,292 189,000 34,434 12,680 357,157 132,616 130,000 15,992 471,838 497,321 871,848 7,533 14,753 368,238 5,912 19,353 40,879 218,928 63,787 2,969 9,.576 7,335 10,205 162,000 58,171 60,000 66,722 47,092 17,827 21,505 7,633 Capitals. Pekin London St. Petersburg. Wa.shington, . . Paris Vienna Yeddo London Berlin Rome Madrid .... Rio Janeiro. . . Cabool Constantinople Mecca Mexico Bokhara Stockholm Hue Teheran Brussels Moncliovo Munich Bankok Lisbon Hague Bogota Santiago Changmai Berne. Lima Chuquisaca Buenos Ayres. Stuttgart Copenhagen.. . Ciiraccas Carlsruhe Athens Guatemala Quito Asuncion Darmstadt Monrovia San Salvador.. Portau Prince. Kelat Managua Singapore Monte Video.. Camayagua San Domingo.. San Jose Honolulu In the foregoing table the figures relating to population, give, in the majority of cases, the census of 1870-71. lu Europe the five Great Powers are the Empire and Monarchy of Gr 772 AliKA, &C., OV BRITISH AMKRICA. Britain and Ireland, llio Empiro of r.crinany, tlio Empire of Jlussia, the Em» piro ol' Austria, and tht; Kepublic of i'Vancc. Tlio H(!('()nd-rat(i Powers .-uc the I< i ii^'[)(:. Kcgarding Dh; latter it may Itesaid that groat cliangoa are impcJuUnif, owin^ to the adverse issue of tlie war with Knssia, and th(! present threatening attitude of the llussiau ariniee and the Britisli lleet near Constantinople. The third-rate Powers are the Kingdoms of Belgium, Portugal, Bavaria, Denmark, Saxony, (Jreeee, Holland, or Netherlands, tlie Kepublic of Switzer- land a.nd the Duchies or lesser States. AREA, POPULATION, &C., OP BRITISH AMERICA. Name. I Area in Eng. j I Bq. miles. Popula- tion. Capital. |Poi)ula- tion. Hudson Bay Ter. ) Red River, | Brit. Columbia, &c. Vancouver Island, Newfoundland, Prince Edw. Island, Nova Scotia & Cape B , New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, 1,800,000 314,500 13,250 57,000 :^,173 19,050 27,710 210,000 125,000 2,599,283 ; 175,000 I 10,000 50,000 18,000 12-1,288 80,857 330,857 252,047 1,111,500 York Factory, Fort Garry, New Westminst'r Victoria, • St. Johns, Charlottetown, Halifax ) Fred'n ) j Quebec ) Ottawa i 15,000 4,000 3,000 25,000 6,70G 20,000 7,000 52,140 44,821 CAPACITY OF NOTED CHURCHES. Will Contain No. persons. St, Peter's, Eome 51,000 Milan Cathedral 37,000 St. Paul's, Rome 32,000 St. Paul's, London 25,000 St. Petronio, Bologna 24,400 Florence Cathedral 24,300 Antwerp Cathedral 24,000 St. Sophia's, Constantinople.... 23,000 Will Contain No. Persons. St. John's, Lateran 22,900 Notre Dame, Paris... 21,000 Cathedral, Pisa 13,000 St. Stephen's, Vienna 12.400 St. Dominic's, Bologna 12,000 St. Peter's, Bologna 11,400 Cathedral, Vienna 11,000 St. Mark's, Venice 7,500 CAPACITY OF THEATRES, OPERA HOUSES, HALLS, &C. Will Contain No. Persons, Gilmore's Garden, New York 8,443 Stadt Theatre, «' 3,000 Academy of Music, " 2.526 Academy of Music, Philadelphia. 2,865 Carlo Felice, Genoa.. 2,560 Opera House, Munich 2,307 Alexander, St. Petersburg 2,332 San Carlos, Naples 2,240 Adel phi Theatre, Chicago 2,238 Music Hall, Boston 2,585 Academy of Paris 2,092 Imperial, St. Petersburg. 2,160 La Scala, Milan 2,113 Covent Garden, London 2,684 Boston Theatre, Boston 2,972 Grand Ofiera H^l, New Orleans, 2,052 Will Contain No. Persons. St. Charles, Th., N. Orleans. 2,178 Grand Opera House, New York 1,883 Booth's Theatre, " 1.807 Opera House, Detroit 1,790 Mc Vicar Theatre, Chicago 1,786 Grand Opera House, " 1,786 Ford's Opera House, Baltimore. . 1,720 Nat. -Theatre, Washington 1,709 De Bar's Opera House, St. Louis 1,696 Cal. Theatre, San Fran 1,651 Euclid Av., Op. H.. Cleveland. . . . 1,650 Opera House, Berlin 1,6.36 Opera House, Albany 1,404 Hooley's Theatre, Chicago 1,373 Coulter Op. H., Aurora, 111 1,004 Opera House, Montreal 928 MEASUREMENT OF TIME. 773 Measurement of time, table. 60 seconds 1 minute. 60 minutes 1 hour. 24 hours 1 day. 7 days 1 week. 25 days ; 1 lunar month. 28, 29, 30, or 31 days 1 calendar month. 12 calendar months. I year, 365 days 1 com. year. 366 days 1 leap year. 365V4 days 1 Julian year. 365 d., Ph., 48m., 49s 1 solar or tropical yeS4'. 365 d., 6 h., 9 m., 1"^ s 1 siderial year. 365 d., C.13 m., 49.3 s 1 anomalistic year. 10 years 1 decade. 10 decades, or 100 years 1 century. EQUIVALENTS. Yr. Da. Hr. Min. Sec. 1 =: 3651/4 = 8766 = U25960 = 3155760C 1 = 24 = 1440 -= 86400 1 = 60 = 3600 1 = CO Scale of units :— 60, 00, 24, 3651/4. The tropica'l (or solar year) and the sidereal years are the same, and the tropic is only an anticipated solar mark before the sidereal year is completed. The anomalistic year is an advance of tlie orbit as part of he solar system in space, and its excess over the sidereal year is the stellar measure of the annual advance of the whole system; the mean velocities are uniform, and the times as the spaces. The diurnal revolution of the earth causes the difference iu time, etc., illustrated in the following LONGITUDE AND TEME TABLE. For every hour of fime there is a difference of 15° in longitude. " minute " " " 15/ " • " second " " " 15'/ " " degree of longitude " " 4m. in time. " minute " " " 4 sec. " " second " " " ^\ sec. " 360° = 1 revolution of the earth, or 1 day. 1440^/ =1 " " " " 1440 360 = 4 minutes, or 1 degree. Add difference of time for places east, and subtract it for places ■WEST of any given locality. The greatest circumference of the earth's surface is 24,930 miles. i° of that circumference is l-360th of that num- ber, or 691 miles. Hence a geogrnphical or nautical mile is equal to 1' of the earth's greatest circumference, or a trifle more, the 1st mile and 774 DIVISIONS OF THE CIRCLK, &C. 49 rods. The following table cxliibits the divisions of ttik circle, as used by geographers, aiitroiiomers, surveyors, navigators, &c. : — CO seconds CO inako CO minutes " 30 degrees " 90 degrees " 4 quadrants or 12 signs " C. i. 1. = 1 1 minute, 1 degree, 1 sign, ( 1 quadrant, ( 1 right angle, ) -, ( circumference marked 6,g quad. ( or circle EQUIVALENTS. = 3G0 = // = 129C000 = 108000 = 3eoo = 60 I circle is 90, ^ circle is 21600 1 = 60 = ISOO 1 = 60 1 Note.— A full circle is 360°, \ circle is 180°, _ 60°. The distance around a circle is called its circumference. The dis- tance across its diameter, and any section of its chrcumfereuce is called an arc. ^ The above figure displays the various imaginary lines, consisting of the great and less circles, axis, and poles of the earth. The next ligure exhibits the geographical division into zones, tropics, and circles. Leap year, called Bissextile, comes every 4tli year and contains 36G days, by the addition of one day to February. Three leap years are omitted in 400 years, but 109 leap years in 450 years v^ould be exact. In common business affairs, 30 days compose a month, and 52 weeks a year. The Lunar Cycle, or Golden Number, is a term of 19 years, after which the changes of the moon return on the same days of the month. The Solar Cycle Is a period of 28 years, when the days of the week again return to the same days of the month. Owing to an error in the Julian calendar it was decreed by the British Government that the day follow- ing the 2nd of September, 1752, should be called the 14th day of Septem- ber, or that 11 days should be stricken from the calendar; hence, time, previous to this decree, is called Old Style (0. S.), and since, New Style (N. S). In Russia, time is still reckoned by the Old Style, hence their dates are 12 days behind ours. The legal or civil day begins and ends at VARIOUS EPOCHS. 775 12 p.m. The astronomical day begins and ends at 12 m. As to Epochs, the Christian Era was first invented and introduced at Rome by Dionysius, a monk, in 527, adopted in France, in 750; in Spain, in 1340; and in Portu- gal, in 1410. It was first used in books in 748. The birth of Christ, was, however, four years earlier, that is in 1878, really 1882 since his birth; the chronology was not inquired into until the reign of Justinian. The 46 years of tho Julian calendar was the first of our era. The Hegira, or Flight, took place July 1G,622, and is the Mohammedan era. Their year is 12 funar months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes ; and eleven days being lost a year must be allowed every 33, to reconcile their dates with ours. Greek Olympiads of 4 years began 776 B. C, and were continued until the 5th century. The era of the Selucida? 311 B. C, of Alexander 323 B. C, of the siege of Troy 1209 B. C, of the founding of Rome 754 B. C, of the battle of Actium 31 B. C, of the Ca?sars 38 B. C, of Tyre 125 B. C, of Abraham 2016, of Moses 1582, of Antiocli 49, were also used by various early writers. The early Christians dated from the accession of Diocletian in A. D. 284. The Vulgate fixes the Epoch of Adam at 4004 B. C, which is adopted by the Romish Church. The Samaritan Pentateuch makes it 4700; the Talmud, 5344; Hales, 5411; the Greek Church, 5508; the Septuagint, 5872; Pezron, 5872; Alphonso, King of Castile, 6934; the earlv Fathers, 6502 and 5592; 200 other authorities estimate it from 6984 to 3268 B. C. The controversy is a hopeless one, owing to the prevalent ignorance regard- ing the true meaning of the first 12 chapters of Genesis, which are grossly misunderstood, owing to the prevalent opinion that they form a mere literal historical narrative concerning natural events, when the truth is really far otherwise. Roliin, the historian, traces np the history of several ancient peoples to Avithin 100 years of the alleged time of the flood, and is much perplexed to account for the existence of mighty nations possessing well organized armies, embracing thousands of fight* ing men, at that early period. In India, the priests claim a duration of about 2,000 millions of years vsince the beginning, and allege that Brahma was 17 millions of years creating. They mention also those deluges and periodical submersions required by the claims of geology. Sir Wm. Jones computes the first book of Vedas to be written about 2,800 B.C. In the year 1,000 A. C. the Arabs used the pendulum as a measure of time. A second calculated by the movement of a 39-inch pendulum is one with that motion, and tlie movement itself is a simple deflection of the combined motions of the earth in its orbit from east to west, and on its axis from west to east. 776 ON TKLKGKArHr. DESCRIPTION OF THE TELEGRAril AND HINTS TO LEARNERS. The cut represents a series of Grove's Battery, such as are generally used in telegraphs. When a plate of platina and one of zinc ai-c placed in an acid solution a current tends to flow from the platina to the zinc, through any > nductor which may he so disposed as to connect the two. In the figure the galvanic series is represented, consistmg of twelve pairs ; the zinc of each of which is connected Avith the platina of the next. It may he considered that a current is produced hy each of these pairs, -which has, however, to flow in the same direction, and fall in with all the others. Hence their intensity is multiplied twelve times. It is hy this means that the resistance to the j^assage of the current through very long conductors is overcome. Each pair of the hattery consists of a pint glass tumbler, a cylinder of zinc, a small porous cylindrical earthernware cell within the zinc, and a platinum strip suspended within the cell from an arm belonging to the zinc of the next pair. ,A solution of diluted sulphuric acid is used with the zinc outside the porous cell, and the cell itself is filled with nitric acid. The two acids are used on account of an increase of power depending on a chemical reaction. The znic cylinder is amal- gamated with mercury to prevent its being acted upon by the acid when the battery is not m use. A solution of suli^hate of soda is sometimes added to the sulphuric acid to assist in accomplishing the same object. Two screw cups rise from the hattery, one of which is the positive pole, or extremity of the series, the other the negative ; to these the wires are attached which convey the current. The signal key is showed in the cut. When the hand depresses the key it comes in contact with the knob and metallic strip below, making connection between the screw cups, and completing the battery circuit. While the key is depressed a continuous current passes, but if it he depressed, and allowed to spring immediately up. only an instantaneous wave or impulse is communicated. ♦ The annexed cut sliows the registering apparatus of Morse's Telegraph. Two screw cups are seen on the board for the insertion of the wires from the distant battery. Next the screw cup is seen a U shaped electro- magnet, with coils of wire upon it, the ends of which, "massing down through the board, are connected with the screw cups • over the poles ON TELEGRAPHY. 777 of the magnet is a little armature, or bar of soft iron, attached to the ahort arm of a lever, whose long arm carries a point or style nearly in contact with the grooved roller above. The action which takes place on depressing the signal key at the distant station is, a wave of electricity is transmitted through the wire of the telegraph, arrives at the electro- magnet, and circulates through the coils of wire surrounding it. The U shaped piece of soft iron inunediately becomes a magnet, and attracts the little armature down to it, the long arm of the lever is thrown up, and marks the strip of paper, passing between it and the roller. When the distant operator lets the signal key fly back and the current ceases, the iron of the electro-magnet loses all its magnetism, and the armature, with the lever, is carried back by the action of a little spring, being a dot impressed on a piece of paper. Should the distant operator hold down the key a continuous, current will pass, and a line be marked in place of a dot (-) on the paper which moves nnder the roller. When a long circuit is nsed, the resistance to conduction, measured by the amount of electricity which passes, is great, and would not give sufficient force to work the Morse instruments. To overcome this. Pro- fessor Morse uses one instrument called a Relay, which is similar in most respects to the main instrument, but of a more delicate electrical organiz- ation ; it has no work to do— simply to act as a contact maker, enabling a weak or exhausted current to bring into action and substitute for itself a fresh and powerful one from the local battery which is placed in the office with the printing instrument, and which supplies the electricity which moves the instrument. The greatest recorded velocity of a signal through a suspended copper wire is 1,752,800 miles per second, by Mr. Hipp. The lowest velocity through a buried copper wire, 750 miles per second, by Faraday. Morse's Alphabet, Numerals and Pauses. A O- - 1' Period B P o" C - - - Q Comma D — R 4 Semicolon Q " _^ ^ Interrogation 1^ ^ 7 Exclamation J. • X 8 Parenthesis L 9 Italics ^- M 2 N &- , 0— ' Paragraph HINTS TO LEARNERS. Compiled from Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph, hy Frank Pope. * The characters of the American Morse Alphabet are formed of three elementary signals — The dot, whose duration is the unit of length in this alphabet ; The short dash, which is equal to three dots ; and The long dasA, which is equal to six dots. The above are separated by variable intervals or spaces, four in num- ber : * D. Van Nostrand, Publisher, 23 Murray street, New York. 33* 778 ON TELEGRAPHY. 1st— Tho ordinary space between tlic olcnientg of a letter, equal to one ilot. 2d— The apace employed in the spaced letters, equal to tioo dots. 3(1— The space between the letters of a word, equal to t/wee dots. 4th— The spac-e between two words, equnl to six dots. Tiie dot signilies a point or a current of infinitely short duration, and involves time, which varies according to circumstances, the length of tho dot increasing "vvitli the length of the circuit. In long submarine lines tho dot has to be made longer than the dasli itself on short open air lines, and the same thing occurs in working through repeaters. In commencing to learn telegraphing, the beginner should acquire the Aabit of making short, firm dashes, instead of light, quick dots. In the valuable Manual of Prof. Smith, published by L. C. Tillotsoii & Co., New York, six elementary principles are laid down as the basis for practicing the alphabet, viz : 1st Principle. — Dots close together: I SUP 6 2d Principle. — Dashes close together: M 5 % 3d Prikciple. — Lone dots: E 4th Prikciple. — Long dashes: T L or cipher. 5tii — Principle. — A dot followed by a dash: A 6th Principle. — A dash followed by a dot: To send messages, place the first two fingers upon the top of the button of the key, with the thumb partly beneath it, the wrist being entirely free from the table; the motion being made by the hand and wrist, the thumb and fingers being employed merely to grasp the key. The motion up and down must be free and firm. Tapping ou the key must be strenuously avoided. The doionvmrd movement of the key produces dots and dashes; the upward movement, spaces. The beginner should first practice the 1st principle, making dots at regular intervals, of definite and uniform dimensions. '2d Principle. — Ma,ke dashes, first at the rate of one per second, and slowly increase to three, the space between the dashes to be as short as possible. od Principle. — Letter E, formed by a quick, but firm, downward move- ment of the key, 4th— The usual tendency is to make T too long and L too short. The game character is used for L and the cipher, or 0; occurring by itself, or among letters, it is translated as L ; when found among figures it be- comes 0. 5th — The Letter A may be timed by the pronunciation of the word ttf/ra'u. -strongly accenting the second syllable. 0th — The dash followed by a dot ; usually the student separates the prac* PHOTOGRAPHY MADE EASY. 779 tice, Tlie lever of the Morse instrument makes a sound at each movement, the downward motion producing the heavier one, or that representing dots and dashes ; i. e., the heavy stroke indicates the commencement of a dot or dash, and the lighter one its cessation. A dot makes as much noise as a dash, the only difference being in the length of time between the two sounds. TechniCxVx. Terms Used in the TeleCxRAph Service. Li7ie. — The wire or wires comiecting one station with another. Circuit. — The wires, instruments, etc., through which the circuit passes from one pole of the battery to the other. Metallic Circuit. — A circuit in Vv'hich a return wire is used in x)lace of the earth. Local Circuit. — One which includes only the apparatus in an office, and is closed by a relay. Local. — The battery of a local circuit . Loop. — A wire going out and returning to the same point, as to a branch office, and forming part of a main circuit. Binding Screios or Term/na^s.— Screws attached to instruments holding the connecting wires. To Cross Connect Wires. — To interchange them at an intermediate ' station. To Put Wires Straight. — To restore the usual arrangement of wires and instruments. To Ground a Wire, or Put on Ground. — To make a connection between the line wire and the earth. To Open a Wire. — To disconnect it so that no current can pass. Reversed Batteries. — Two batteries in the same circuit, witli like poles towards each other. To Reverse a Battery. — To place its opposite pole to the line ; or, in other words, interchange the ground and line wires at the poles of the battery. Escape. — The leakage of current from the line to the ground, caused by defective insulation and contact with partial conductors. Cross. — A metallic connection between two wires, arising from their coming in contact with each other, or from other causes. PHOTOGRAPHIC PORTRAITURE MADE EASY By C. J. P. Handev. Author of " Puzzle Writing," fee, &c. Instructions. Pictures produced by the agency of light are called photographs, whether taken on glass or paper ^ These are divided into two classes — negatives and positives ; negatives being pictures with the lights and shades of tlie object reversed, while positives represent the lights and shades as in nature. Pictures taken on glass are called positives, which are complete in them- selves. The negative process is that pursued when the intention is to pro- duce a paper proof. Paper i^ortraits are not obtained like positives by one operation in the camera, but a negative is taken from which the copies are procured by photographic printing. To take a portrait on glass — either a negative or positive — requires five operations. First, giving the glass plate a collodion coating ; second, exciting the glass plate ; third, 'exposure in the camera - fourth, developing the latent image; fifth, fixing the picture. 780 I'llOTOGIlArilY MADE EAhY, ArrARATUS. A camera is the first rcqnisito. Tlio most convenient form consists of two portions of boxes, one slidinc: within tlie other. The double-combination lens is used for portraiture. It consists of a set of three glasses, mounted in a brass tube, with a raclc and pinion ad- justment. A camera stand is requisite, which should 1)0 from four to five feet high. A tripod stand, with a screw to fix the camera with, is the best. A porcelain l)ath is required to hold the silver solutioii for exciting the collodionized plate. One or two graduated glass measures, to measure the solutions, esti- mated by fluid measure. A set of scales and weights for weighing the chemicals. Two or three porcelain dishes, for liolding solutions of silver, toning bath, &c. ; &c. A printing frame will be required, after taking a negative picture, to produce the paper copies. , A few packets of different-sized glass, a piece of wash-leather, and a linen cloth, will complete the requisites. DARK ROOM. It will be necessary for the success of the second, third, and fourth operations in producing a collodion picture, that they should be per- formed in a dark room. The best and easiest way will be to obtain a small room or closet Avith a window, and to cover the window with several sheets of yellow paper, which will exclude the chemical rays. A table or shelf should be fixed under the window, and a pail kept at the side, con- taining water for washing the pictures. If a glass room cannot be had, the photographer must arrange an apart- ment according to his means. In selecting a room, he must bear in mind that it should not only have a good side light, but a sky-light, if possible. In taking a portrait, the sitter should not be opposite the window, but a little behind it — a more even focus is thus secured. A proper background is of some importance. A white wall will do very well, but something a shade darker will be better. In focussing the lens have the stand and camera placed seven or eight ft. from the sitter. The better to observe the image, a dark cloth is thrown over the camera and head of the operator. The proper attitude of the person sitting for the portrait must be left to the taste of the operator Allow the sitter time to get seated, and accustomed to the light, before removing the cap off the lens. And now, having concluded' these pre- liminary remarks, we will proceed to take a picture . POSITIVE PROCESS. Chemicals. — The most important chemical used in photography is col- lodion. As it is extremely volatile, it should be kept in a stoppered bottle. Exciting Bath. — Nitrate of silver, 2 drachms ; distilled water, 4 ounces ; iodized collodion, 6 minims. Filter before using. Developing Solution. — Protosulphate of iron, 2 drachms ; acetic acid, 2 drachms ; methylated alcohol, 2 drachms ; Avater 10 ounces. Fixing Solution. — Cyanide of potassium, 2 drachms ; water, G ounces. This solution will keep for months without losing its strength. MANIPULATION. TJie Collodion Coating. — Having selected a piece of glass, entirely free from blemishes, and quite clean, hold it as level as possible by the left- hand corner, then, in the centre, form a good pool of collodion. Slant the glass so that the collodion may cover all portions, taking care that it does \ PHOTOGRAPHY MADE EASY. 781 not touch the handa. Pour the superfluous quantity back into the bottle. The glass is now ready for immersion in the silver bath, which is called Exciting the Plate, — The manipulation may be conducted in daylight U]) to this point ; but as the immersion of the collodionized plate renders it sensitive to light, recourse must be had to a dark room. Having the silver solution ready, place the prepared glass on the dipper, and im- merse in the solution. When the plate has remained in the bath about a minute it should be withdrawn, then immersed for half a minute longer, then drain the glass plate, place it in the dark slide of the camera, and proceed with the third operation — Exposure in the Camera. — Assuming that the camera has been prepared, ' and the image properly focussed, remove the ground glass screen, and insert the slide containing the plate. Desire the sitter to keep perfectly still, and look at some dark object ; then take the cap off tlie lens and allow the plate to be exposed for twenty or thirty seconds, then close the shutters of the dark-slide, and return to the dark room to Develop the Picture. — Having excluded all wliite light from the dark room, remove the glass plate from the slide. Holding it by the left-hand corner, proceed to pour on the developing solution. Begin by pouring on at one edge, inclining the plate so as to enable the liquid to flow uni- formly over the surface. The first effect will be the appearance of white lights, then the half tones, and, finally, the darker shades. When this is obtained, the plate must be thoroughly washed. It can then be passed on to the next and last operation — Fixing the Picture.— R? ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 787 tation will prove too much even for a fox to resist, and he will enter only to he caught in the trap. Mink, raccoons, weasels, skunks, &c., may he caught in the same manner. Close up every entrance to the roost except the one just described. In trapping Mink in the water, the trap should be set in a shallow part, not more than one or two inchesj deep, Avith the bait suspended about 18 inches above it ; this compels the animal to erect itself on its hind legs, or leap upwards to get the bait, aud thus to tread on the trap and get caught. Traps may also be set sunk in their beaten tracks, or at the mouths of their holes, and concealed by dried grass, leaves, &c., with excellent effect. In trapping Wolves or Foxes, use a trap well cleaned with weak lye ; after drying^ oil or grease it well, and smoke it over burning hair or feath- ers. In handling it use clean buckskin gloves to avoid imparting the least human odor. Make the bed for the trap about 3^ ft. in diam. so that the jaws when set will be on a level with the ground. Cover with fine dried grass, wheat, oat, or buckwheat chaff, secure it well with a chain, level all neatly to a natural appearance, and bait with fresh meat or roasted cheese. In going and coming, your chances will be increased by rubbing fish oil, or some other powerful odor on the soles of your boots, to scent the way leading to the trap. Wolves and foxes are easily destroyed by mixing a little strychnine with grease and concealing it in pieces of meat scattered around "in places Avhere they haunt. It destroys animal life in a very few minutes after it is taken, but it is injurious to the fur. In trapping the Otter, take a large sized steel trap, set it, hang it over a fire 2 or 3 hours, then take a stick or board, and get into your boat or canoe, go to the i^lace most frequented by them, and place the trap about 3 inches under water and carefully cover it with leaves, light trash or grass gathered from the bottom of the stream, and chain it securely. Be very careful not to touch the bank above water, if you do, your labor is gone for nothing. The otter will leave at once for a quieter home many miles distant from the scene. In visiting your trap never go nearer than the opposite side of the stream, or go by means of a boat. When caught, the otter will point directly for his den ; if the trap is not heavy enough to drown him, a weight can be attached to the chain. Raccoons may be caught in a steel trap set on the edge of a swamp, 1^ ins. below the surface of the water, and secured by a chain to a stake. Suspend the bait— a piece of a chicken, fish, or frog — 2 ft. above the pan of the trap. The raccoon will leap for it, and when he comes down, up goes the trap and holds him a prisoner. Another plan is to set the trap on an old log in or near the swamp, then get two long poles or old limbs, set one on each side of the log over the trap, crossing it like the letter x, so that the coon will have to go under them and over the trap. Bait the trap if you wish, but the coon is certain to run the old log if he comes in the neighborhood. One of the surest Avays to catch raccoons is with a good cur dog, one that will not give tongue on track, but will bark at the tree. MusKRATS may be taken in large numbers by sinking an old barrel with its top on a level with the ground on the edge of a stream near their haunts. Half fill it Avith water, put in a couple of shingles or light strips of board to float on the Avater, on these place small bits of sliced apples, potatoes, or carrots, and place some more in the runs of the muskrats, so as to lead them towards the barrel. The rats will leap into the barrel after their food and cannot get out. A cheaper and more effective con- trivance could not be imagined. In using a trap, note a tree or old log with recent droppings on it leading from the bank into the stream. On this set your trap, say, 2 ins. under water, place a bait on a projecting 788 ON HUNTING AND TUAri'ING. stick about G or 8 ins. above tlio pan of tho trap, securing tlio latter with a cliain sufiicicntly long to i)crinit access to dee]) water, but not to go asliore. By this moans tho I'ur is preserved in good order and tlio animal is safely secured. In winter it is quite common for trai)pors to take the rauskrata by a])])roaching quietly on the ice and driving a spear into their house. Tlic}'^ must be approaclied with the greatest caution, as they take to tlic water at tlie slightest noise. Another way is to make an opening in the side of their house, set the trap in their bed, lightly ci^vering it with moss, &c. ; allow a sufficient length of chain to permit the animal to leap into the water, secure the chain by a fastening outside the house, plaster up tho aperture with mud, retire, and await results. SciUiKKELS may be taken by setting a steel trap on the upper rail of a fence where they frequent ; set a pole with an ear of corn fastened to it so that the bait may be suspended 6 or 8 ins. over the pan of the trap, and in reaching for the bait the squirrel will get caught. Badgers may be caught by setting the traps, carefully covered, at the mouth of their holes, or in their tracks or resorts about cultivated fields. They may also be taken in deadfalls, using a piece of meat for a bait, and if the ground is hard frozen during early spring, they may be ex- pelled by filling their holes with water. In summer the water would soak away through the earth, during hard frost it cannot do so, and the animal is compelled to come out of its hole or drown. In trapping Beavers, the best place to set the trap is right at the entrance to their holes in the banks, a few inches under water. Get a small stick, and batter or bruise the thickest end soft, smear it with bait No. 8, and stick the small end in the bank so that the baited end will pro- ject a few inches above the water right over the i^an of the trap ; the beaver, in raising himself to get the bait, will get caught. Another way is to break an aperture in the dam a few inches below the surface of the water, set the trap on the upper side of the break, and the beaver wall get caught Avhen he comes to investigate and repair the damage. The trapper will usually secure his prize by placing his trap a few inches below the surface of the water at tiiose places where they make their landings by springing from the stream onto the bank. The Pine-Majrten or American Sable lives in the trees and preys on partridges, mice, squirrels, hares, &c, A piece of either of these may be used as bait, or the head of a fish, pheasant, or a piece of meat, and the trap may be placed in a hollow tree, in any natural or artificial en- closure, or in the track of a deer ; in each case let it be well covered with light grass, decayed moss, or rotten wood, so as to present a natural ap- pearance. The Fisher-Marten is attached to low, swampy ground, is partially web-footed, and subsists on fish, mice, rabbits, &c. It may be caught in the same manner as the last-named animal. Be careful to scent the traj) and conceal it properly, also attach it to a spring pole or twitch-up con- trivance, so that when caught it be elevated out of the way of becoming a prey to larger animals, and prevented from dismembering itself to get clear of the trap. The Pine-Marten and the Fisher both live and breed in hollow trees ; they are by no means very cunning or difficult to trap, but are absolutely furious when caught. The Wood'chuck;, or Grotnid Hoc/, as it is styled in Canada, constructs burrows in the ground, extending 20 or 30 feet, usually entering the slope of a hill, at the root of a tree or stump, under a fence, or in crevices be- tween rocks. They are very destructive to crops in cultivated fields. Sometimes they are drow^ied or flooded out of their holes by means of water, at other times they are shot, but in the great majority of cases ^>ey are caught by traps set without bait (although they will take toots, ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 789 corn^or breaci), and carefully covered with paper, sand, &c., at the mouths of their holes. Gophers may be caught by making a slight excavation at the mouth of their hole and placing, a trap so that the pau and jaws will be on a level with the surface of the ground and covered as above described. HUNTERS' AND TRAPPERS' TABLE, SHOWING THE VARIOUS SIZES OF IfEWHOUSE TRAPS ADAPTED TO THE CAPTURE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAME. Kind of Animal. No. of Trap Sqixrrel, Gopher, Muskrat, "Woodchuck, Mink, Fislier-Marten, Skunk, Fox, Opossum, Kaccoon, Badger, Otter, Marten, Beaver, Wolf, Common Black Bear, Grizzly Bear, 0 I 1 1 or IVa IVa IVa IV2 or 2 2 2 or 3 2 or 3 3 3 Bait required. Grain, nuts, or ear of corn, do. do. do. Carrots, potatoes, apples, &c. Roots, fruit, corn, or bread. Fowl, flesh, or roasted lisli. Meat, muskrat or deer flesh, fish. Mice, meat, piece of a fowl. Fowl, flesh, fish, toasted cheese. Nuts, corn, mice, piece of fowl. Chicken, fish, or frog. Mice, or flesh of any kind. Fish, piece of a bird, or otter musk. Head of a fit^h, piece of meat, or fowl. Fresh roots, castoreum on the end of a stick. Waste parts of tame or wild fow?. Pork, beef, ear of K;orn, honey, do. do. do. do. Note. — The numbers 0, 1, and 1^^, respectively, are single spring traps ; No. 0 is the smallest size ; all the others are double spring traps. No. 6 being the largest trap made. The above baits should be scented, where necessary, by a proper selection from the preparations previously described. Wildcats, foxes, wolves, and all the weasel tribe Avill take flesh and fish of all kinds, with this exception, that foxes, wolves and dogs will not eat their own kind ; weasels of every kind will. All furs are best in winter, but trapping may be done with profit from the first of October to the beginning of April. All fur-bearing animals lose the best part of their fur as the warm weather approaches, and reo-ain it as the cold weather sets in during the fall, so that from the first ofTviay to near the end of September trapping is but labor lost. This process is indicated in the case of the muskrat and some other animals, by the color of the inside part of the skin. Towards summer it becomes browii and dark, a sign that the best fur is gone. Afterward it grows light-colored, and in winter, when the fur is in the best order, it is alto- sether white. When the pelt is white it is called prime by the fur dealers. The fur is then glossy, thick, and of the richest color and the tails of such animals as the mink, maxten, and fisher, are full and heavy Beavers and muskrats are not thoroughly prime till about the middle of winter; other animals are prime about the first of November. The skins of animals trapped are always valued higher than those shot, as shot not only makee holes, but frequently plow along the skin, making furrows as well as shaving off the fur. ' Newhouse gives the following rules to trappers as the result of much experience : , ^ , • -n * 1. Be careful to visit your traps often enough, so that the skin will not have time to get tainted. 2. As soon as possible after an animal is dead and dry, attend to the skinning and curing. 3. Scrape off all superfluoua 790 ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. flesh and fat, and 1)0 careful not to go so deep as to cut the fibre of ihe skin. 4. Never dry a skin by the fire, or in the snn, but in a cool, shady place, sheltered from rain. If you use a barn door for a stretcher, as boys sometimes do, nail the skin on the inside of the door. 5. Never use "preparations" of any kind in curing skins, nor even wash them in water, but simply stretch and dry them as taken from the animal. To Dkodokize Skunk Skins, ou Soknted Clothing.— Hold them over a lire of red cedar boughs, and sprinkle with cliloride of lime ; or wrap them in green hemlock boughs when they are to be had, and in 24 lioiirs they will be cleaned. For arsenical soap for preserving skins, see page 124. Skulls of animals may be rapidly prepared by boiling in water for a few hours ; a little potash or lye will facilitate the removal of the flesh. A mixture of equal parts of good glycerine and water, to every gallon of wliich is added 1 oz. of the crystals of carbolic acid, constitutes a good preserving liquid for all animal substances. The use of pure glycerine, with about ^- pt. alcohol, and ^ oz. carbolic acid, added to each gal., makes an excellent mixture for preserving the tissues of soft animals, where it is desired to preserve the color as well as the tissues. According to M. Devergie, of the Paris School of Practical Anatomy, a mixture of 3 pts of glycerine, and one of carbolic acid, injected into dead bodies, will prevent any unpleasant odors emanating from them for sev- eral months. Another high authority, Dr. Lowell, of Brooklyn, recom- mends as a preservative fluid, the use of zinc chloride. The quantity used for a human subject is 5 gals. The apparatus required consists of a porcelain lined vessel, which is elevated to such a height that the solu- tion is injected into the artery by the simple gravity of the liquid, as it descends through glass and rubber tubing. Dr. Lowell writes : " The injection may be made by either arterj^ or vein I prefer the brachial artery above the elbow as the point for introduction of the glass tube, for the primary incision is slighter, and consequently divides smaller and fewer veins than when I expose the femoral artery. I use the gravity method, and introduce about five gallons of the antiseptic fluid. The effects are eminently satisfactory. The color of the integument is im- proved." To Preserve Insects, — After killing the insect with chloroform, paint it with a solution of carbolic acid in alcohol — 4 grains to the ounce — tlien dry in the sun. This will keep it fresh and beautiful. To Trap Hawks or Owls,— Take a pole 20 feet long. Set it a short distance from the house or barn, or on the poultry house. Split the top so as to admit the base of a common steel trap, which should be secured. When the trap is set the depredators will be pretty certain to alight on it and get caught, as they usually select a lofty perch from which to pounce upon their prey. The Shooting of Birds. — The wanton shooting of harmless birds, merely for sport, is a most heartless and cruel recreation. The plea of commercial necessity and self-preservation may be urged in behalf of the shooting and trapping of wild animals, but no such excuse can be alleged for the extermination of harmless birds. Let them sing in the broad vault of heaven to their heart's content, and tenant the fields and their forest homes without molestation, A hunter narrates that he once fired at a bird which he followed up as it fluttered away. He said, " I saAv a sight I never will forget. There it was, with its Avings broken, and all bespattered with blood, at the nest with its young. I felt so bad that I vowed never to shoot another bird ! " Again we say, spare the innocents. To Select Furs, — A sure test of what dealers call prime fur is the length and density of tiie down next the skin. This can be determined ON BOOK-KEEPmo, 791 by blowing a brisk current of air from the mouth against the set of the fur. If the fibres open readily, exposing the skin to the view, reject the article; but if the clown is so dense that the breath cannot penetrate it, or at most shows but a small portion of the skin, it is all right. To Clean Furs. — Strip the furs of their stuffing and binding, place them, if possible, in a fiat position, and brush them brisldy with a stiff clothes-brush. Cut out all moth-eaten x)ortions, and replace by new bits of fur to match. Sable, chinchilla, squirrel, fitch, &c., should be treated by an application of hot bran (warmed in a pan), well rubbed into the fur with the hand. Repeat this two or three times, shake the fur, and give it A good brushing,to free it from dust. White furs may be cleaned by lay- ing the furs on a table, and rubbing them with bran made moist by waini water. Rub until quite dry, then apply dry bran. The wet bran should be put on with flannel, the dry Avith book muslin. In addition to the above, light furs should be well rubbed with magnesia, or a piece of book muslin, after the bran process. ON BOOK-KEEPING. In Book-Keeping, he who buys what he does not pay for at the time, is said to go in debt for it, and is called a debtor, and he who sells the goods and gives credit for them is called a creditor. In entering accounts it is usual to abridge the terms and write Dr. for Debtor, and Cr. for Creditor. In every case the recauer is always the Debtor, and the seller is always the Creditor. In Book-Keeping, the thing received is Dr., the thing de- livered is Cr. ;what you owe is Cr., what owes you is Dr. The whole system of Book-Keeping rests upon charges and credits ; when you sell to your neighbor, it is a charge against him, and you must charge him with it on the debit side of the account ; when you receive anything from him, it is a credit, and you must credit him with it on the credit side of the account. The word To, in keeping accounts, denotes that the debtor owes for what has been sold to him, and tlie word By, is an indication tliat the debtor has made a payment by which he has paid a part or the whole of the debt charged to him. There are two methods of book-keeping, Single and Double Entry ; the last is employed in extensive and complicated mercantile business, where a check is required upon eacli entry, to prove that it has been properly recorded. The first is generally used by persons engaged in ordinary business, as it is more simple and sufficiently correct for such purposes. It requires but three books — the Day-Book, Ledger, and Casli-Book ; to these may be added, a Bill-Book, in which all notes, received or given, are recorded, showing when draAvn, by whom, in whose favor, length of time, when due, amount of note, and any explanatory remarks required ; also, a Sales-Book, in which orders for goods or the details of sales are entered, and a Receipt-Bbok, where receipts can be permanently kept, DAY-BOOK. The Day-book should contain statements of every business transac- tion, which gives rise to persons owing us or to our owing them, projv erly arranged under the head of debtor or creditor. The accounts should be entered in this book at the time they were created, or in the order in which they occurred in business. The bookshoxild be commenced by stating the name of the owner and his residence. The day, month, and year, should then be Avritten, and repeated at the head of each page corresponding v/ith the date of the first transaction on the page, the sulDsequent dates on the page may stand above the transaction to which they belong. In making an entry the name of the person with whom we deal is written, with Dr. or Cr. at the right of the name, to show whether he becomes debtor or creditor by the 792 ON BOOK-KEEPING. transfiction. Tlion a statcmcnl; nlionld follow of tlio biisiiiops done, specifying- tlio artiolos bou^lil. or sold, ;iiid the ])ri(!C of cacli. 'i'lio total amount sliould Ik; added up and entered in tlic dollar and cent colunms. Tlic person witli wlioin you deal is debtor for whatever lie receives of you, and creditor for \vl;atever you receive of hiin, is tlic rule for determining how an entry must be made. The entries in tlie Day-book are trans- ferred to the Ledger, where all the transactions relating to an individual are recorded on a page devoted to his account. The figure at the left of an entry indicates tlie page of the Ledger to which it has been carried. If a mistake is made iu an account, it should not be corrected by altering the original entry, but a new entry made debiting or crediting tlie amount of the error, thus, " John Smith, Cr. hy [or Dr. to] error in account of Oct. 0, $1.50." This will enable a person to swear before a court that his book contains his original entries without an alteration. LEDGER. The Ledger is employed for collecting the scattered accounts of the Day-book. The accounts A\hich relate to the same individual are brought together on one page, shov/ing all the debits and credits, thus enaljling the owner to tell at a glance the state of his account Avith any person. The Dr. accounts are placed on the left hand of the page, and the Cr. on the right. Tlie Ledger may be ruled according to the example on page 794. Every Ledger should have an index, in which all the names it contains are alphabetically arranged, Avith the page of the Ledger on Avhich the ac- count can be found. Posting Accounts. — Transferring accounts from the Day-book to the Ledger is called posting. Commence Avith the first name in the Day-book, which in our example is M. Marshall ; begin by Avriting his name in a fair hand at the top of the page, with his residence, if different from your own, placing Dr. on the left, and Cr. on the right of the name. As he is debtor to us we commence at the left hand, writhig in the first column the year, month, and day, in the second the page of the Day-book on Avhich the original entry can be found, in the third the name of the article, or if several articles are recorded under one date, they may be entered with the general designation of sundries or merchandise, and in the fourth column the total amount of the transaction. Against the account in the Day-book mark the page of the Ledger to which it has been posted ; a mark can also be made to show that it has been transferred to the Ledger. Noav take the second transaction in the Day-book, and if it is another name take a new page in the Ledger, and proceed in the same niauner as the first. In this way all the entries in the Day-book are posted to each person's account, every Aveek or month as oppoitunity may occur. By subtracting one side from the other the balance Avhich is due will be found. The specimen page represents three pages of a Ledger, to correspond Avith three persons Avho have transactions iu tho Day-book. Balance Sheet. — This may be made to accomplish a double purpose, as it will exhibit the state of the owner's accounts, by determining the amounts OAving him and that he may owe, and also prove that the ac^ counts have been correctly posted and added. The method is as follows : rule a sheet of paper similar to ledger page, for debtor and creditor ; add up all the items of credit on a page of the Day-book, and enter the amount on the sheet, then add the debits in the same manner, and proceed in this way for whatever time it is wished the proof should cover, add up the two columns and subtract one total from the other, and the difference Avill be the balance of the Day-book. Turn to the Ledger and obtain the balance of each person's account, and place it under its proper head ; add these up, and the difference will be the Ledger balance. If the two bal- ances agree, it proves the entries have been correctly posted. FORM OF DAY-BOOK. 793 BOOK-KEEPIi^G. DAY-BOOK. BoBERT Baker, St. Jonx, N. B., October 2, 1877- X 1 X 2 X 3 X 1 X : X 1 X s X 3 X 3 K 2 X 1 M. Dr. Marshall To 8 yds. of muslin, at 9 cts. a yd ^ 0.72 To 4 yds. of cloth, at $3 a yd 12.00 To 1 scythe 1.10 James Brown Dr. To 1 lb. of tea David Moore Cr, Dr. James Brown To 14 lbs. nails, at 6 cts §0.81 To 5 galls, molasses, at 32 cts 1.60 To 12 lbs. cheese, at 10 cts 1.20 Cr. By 8 lbs, wool, at 36 cts M. Marshall By 1 load of hay. Cr. $G.O0 By 12 lbs. huttoV, at 9 cts 1-08 David Moore To Cash Dr. M. Marshall Dr To 1 stove $14.00 To 8 yds. cloth, at §3 24.00 To 1 horse . 42.00 David Moore Dr. To 1 set of harness §20.00 To 1 wagon 6 James Brown To 28 lbs. sugar, at 8 cts. To 1 barrel of flour To 3 brooms at 14 cts. . . ?2.24 7.00 .42 David Moore , Cr. By 20 bushels corn, at 62 cts §12.40 By Cash 30.00 By order on Peter AVilkius 21.00 7 David Moore To check to balance account . Dr. James Brown By Cash to balance account. Cr. 12 M. Marshall By his note at 3 months from date 34 Cr. 794 FORM OF LEDGEB. nOOK-KEEPING. DR. LEDGER. M. Marshall Cr. 1877. To Sundries 82 Oct. 3 80 00 " 12 93 82 11 74 1877. Oct, 2 " 4 By hay and butter. " note at 3 mos " Balance % 7 08 75 00 11 74 93 82 2 De, James Bbowj^. 1877. Oct. 2 To Sundries " Sundries '* Sundries 1877. S 2 15 Oct. 3 ll 3 9 64 66 " 10 1 15 45 *' cash , 15 44 Dk. David Moore. Cr. 1877. Oct. 3 " 4 *' 7 To Cash " harness & wagon " check to balance $50 84 44 178 1877. Oct 2 5 By oxen " sundries. $115 C3 Dr. Cash-Book. Cash. Cr. 1877. Oct. 2 $15C- " 5 Received of M. Marshall 3C " 9 21 " 6 106 307 Oct. 9 $130 " 10 Received of J. Brown.. 12 1877. 30 Oct. 2 Paid rent of store 6 mos. $ 75 00 JO " 3 50 00 00 " 7 " David Moore 44 40 75 " 9 " expenses in store. 8 20 " 9 130 15 r5 1307 75 15 57 INTEREST TABLES. 795 A complete balance-sheet should be made out once or twice a year, wheu au inventory of stock on hand is taken and added to the debtor bal- ances of accounts, and the original capital is added to the credit balances, (or balances we owe,) these compared will give the amount of profit or loss. It will be remembered that this sheet is au account between our- selves and our books. All the accounts in the Ledger ought to be balanced twice a year. To do this add up each column and find the difference, and make an entry of tlus balance on the side that is smallest (this should be made witli red ink to distinguish it from other entries) ; both sides now being equal, draw a line under them to show the fact. Is'ow place the balance on the opposite side, so that it will exhibit the true state of the account. (See M. Marshall's account of the Ledger page. ) CASH-BOOK. The Cash-book records the payment and receipt of cash. Cash is made debtor to the cash on hand and cash received, and credited with what is paid out. At the dose of each day or week, the cash on hand is counted, and the amount entered on the credit side. This should make the debits and credits _equal ; the amount of cash on hand is then entered on the debtor side." If money is ])aid to or received from a person who has au account with us it is also entered in the Day-book ; the total receipts and expenditures are carried to the Day-book as often as the Cash-book is balanced. (See form of Cash-book.*^) As a help to compute interest we append the following Table to show the time required for a given number of dollars to draw an equal number of cents at various rates of interest. The rule is to strike off the odd cents from the principal and you have the interest at the following rates : Interest Interest Interest per cent. No. Days. per cent. No. Daj's. per cent. No. Days. 4 4i 5 -5-20 () 90 80 72 70 GO 7 n 7-30 8 9 52 48 50 45 40 10 10-40 35 35 The next Table shows the various sums of money which draw 1 cent interest per day, calculated at different per cents, so that the number of cents will always be found equivalent to the number of days the money has been drawing interest. Per cent. Amount. — — o ~ Per cent. Amount. $90 4 ^52 80 44 50 72 5 48 70 5-20 ' 45 GO 6 40 Amount. Per cent. $36 10 35 10-40 30 12 24 15 7 7-20 f 9 Valuable Interest Rules, Basis 30 days per month or 360 DAYS TO THE COMMERCIAL YEAR. Multiply the principal by the re- quired number of days, and for 4 per cent, divide by 9, and point off ; for 5 per cent, divide by 72 ; for 6 per cent, divide by 6, and point off three figures from the right ; for eight per cent, divide by 45 ; for 9 per cent divide by four, and point off three figures from the right ; for 10 per cent, divide by 36 ; for 12 per cent, divide by 3, and point off three figures from the right ; for 15 per cent, divide by 24 ; for eighteen per cent, divide by 2, and point off three figures from the right, for 20 per cent, divide by 18. A new way, called " a rule for reckoning interest on odd days, at any rate per cent, which involves uo subdivision whatever," is as follows: 79G inteiip:st tables, &c. Multq)]}'- tlic principal by the nnmbcr of d.'iys, and for G per cent, divide by (JO ; for 7 per cent, by 51 ; for 8 percent., by 45 ; for 9 per cent. l)y 40 ; for JO per cent, by 30, for 0 twice over ; for 12 per cent, by 30. For further information refer to interest Tables, INTICrtEST TABLE. TEN PER CEN'l TIME. «1 f2 $3 ¥5 $0 91 ) 9'J 1 *10 — — $40 $50 .flOO $1000 4 Days. 0 0 0 ~ 0 1 7~ 1 "~ 1 1 7" 1 1 T" 4 5 11 1 11 8 <' 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 8 11 22 2 22 12 " 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 12 16 33 3 33 16 " 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 16 22 41 4 44 20 " 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 24 28 . 56 5 56 21 " 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 7 28 33 67 6 67 28 " 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 8 32 39 78 7 78 1 MON. 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 32 42 83 8 33 2 " 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15 17 68 83 1 67 16 67 3 " 3 5 8 10 12 15 18 20 23 25 1 00 125 2 50 25 00 4 " 3 7 10 13 17 20 23 27 30 33 132 1 65 3 33 33 33 5 " 4 8 13 17 21 25 20 33 38 42 1 68 2 08 4 17 41 67 6 " 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 2 00 2 50 5 00 50 00 1 Yeak. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 93 fl 4 00 §5 $10 $100 TABLE, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DAYS FROM ANY DAY IN ONE MONTH TO THE SAME DAY IN ANOTHER. Kiom To January Pebruai-y March April May Juiie July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Explanation.— To find the number of days from January 20 to Dec. 20, follow the horizoutalline opposite January until you reach the column headed by December, Avhen you will find 334, representing the required number of days, and so on with the other months. During leap year, if February enters into the calculation, add one day to the result. HOW TO CONDUCT A SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS. That short credit and small profits forms the golden rule for success in trade may be seen from the following table, exhibiting the amounts re- alized for $100 at various percentages during various periods. Jan. Feb. u 03 April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct.. Nov. Dec. 365 31 59 90 120 151 181 212 243 273 304 334 334 365 28 59 89 120 150 181 212 242 273 303 306 337 365 31 61 92 122 153 184 214 245 275 275 306 334 365 30 61 91 122 153 183 214 244 215 276 304 335 365 31 61 92 123 153 184 214 214 245 273 304 334 365 30 61 92 122 153 183 184 215 243 274 304 335 365 31 62 92 123 153 153 184 212 243 273 304 334 365 31 61 92 122 122 153 181 212 242 273 303 334 365 30 61 91 92 123 151 182 212 243 273 304 335 365 31 61 61 92 120 151 181 212 242 273 304 334 365 ,30 31 62 90 121 151 182 212 243 274 304 335 365 If turned over every 3 months, " 6 " U U g c< " " " 2 3^ears, Am't at 3 pr. ct. $326.20 180.61 155.79 134.39 115.92 106.09 Am't at 5 per ct. $703.99 265.32 207.89 162.88 127.62 110.25 Am't at 8 pr. ct. $2172.45 466.09 317.21 215.89 146.93 116.64 Am't at 10 pr. ct. .1ii4525.92 672.75 417.72 259.37 161.05 ® 121.00 i MERCAKTILE ITEMS. 791 I'ares Allowed by the Jobbers of New York City. — It is under- stood that if a retail merchant orders less than an original i)ackage on wliich the jobber gets tare that no tare is allowed by the jobber to the retailer. AuGOLS— Actual tares. Barley, &c.— Come 100 lbs. in keg — all net. Bird Seed— 2 per ct. Butter— 1 lb. on tubs as soak age ; 2 lbs. on tirkins ; pails net weight. California Honey— cases— (weigh- ing 70 to 75 lbs.), 14 lbs. Caraway Seed— 2 per ct. Cheese— Always net or mrkd tares. Chicory— Casks, marked tares, 10 per ct. additional. Citron, and all Peels- 214 lbs. per box. Coffees — 1 per ct. on everything ex- cept as below. Jamaica and St. Domingo, 2 per ct. ; Savanilla, in double bags, and Laguayra, in heavy bags, 2 per ct. Costa liica, in heavy bags, 2 per ct. Old Government Java, in mats, 1 per ct. Mexican coffee— in bales, 15 lbs. Mocha Coffee— 1/2 bales, 6 lb. ; 1/4, 4 lb. ; i/g, 21/2 a. 3 lbs. Currants— B bis, 27 to 29 lbs. aver- age ; in box, 41bs. Dates— In frails, 9 per ct. Figs— Drams, 10 per ct. ; in kegs, 10. Layer figs, Boxes, 12. HoMiNV-^200 lbs net. Lentils— 2 perct. Molasses and Syrups— Always al- low g^h out. Nutmegs— Cases and casks marked tares. Prunes— German, 4 lbs. per box. French— Marked tares. Turkish, in casks, marked tares. Raisins — Sultana, in boxes 10 per ct. liiOE— 4 lbs. per bag ; tierces 10 per ct. Rock Candy— In bxs marked tares. Sal Soda— Casks, 7 per ct. Soda— English, mrkd English tares. Spices — 2 per ct., except Cinnamon and Cloves. Cassia — 9 per ct. on bales and mats ; and lyg lbs. extra for bale ; cases 17 lbs. Cloves— 9 lbs. per bale. Sugar— Hhds., 12 per ct. ; Refined Sugars always 7iei or marked ta7-es. Boxes — 15 per ct. Mats and Bags —1 per ct. Barrels— Demarara, ex- cept where marked net, 12 per ct. The per cent for bags and mats with the trade applies only to East India sugars. On bags and mats im- ported from other countries the tare is according to agreement between buyer and seller. Tapioca— 1 per ct. Sago— 2 per ct. Tea — Invoice weight ascertained as follows : three to four pkgs are ta- ken out of each .50 or 60 (usually those numbered the same), the tea turned out, and the pkgs weighed ; the average of the three or four is taken as the tare of the whole. Valencia Raisins— 5 lbs. per box, usually. Nuts— 2 lbs. per bag. Items Regarding Fish. — Mackerel conies in barrels, half and quar- ter barrels, and kits, containing full weight, respectively, 200, 100, 50, and 20 lbs. Xo 1 mackerel should not be less tlian 13 inches in length, from the extremity of the head to the fork of the tail, fat, free from rust, taint, or damage. ISTo. 2 mackerel should not be less than 11 ins. in length, fat, and free from rust, &c. No. 3 mackerel should not be less than 10 ins. in length. No. 3, large, should not be less than 13 ins., and in quality are those that remain after the selection of No. 1. No. 4. mackerel comprise all not in the above, and should be free from taint or damage. The above is the standard established by law in Massacliusetts, and is generally accepted by the trade elsewhere. Mackerel should be kept covered with brine and not exposed to the air as they become rancid or " rusty," after a few daj'-s. Mess mackerel — the finest fish, with head and tail removed. Extra No. I's are selected fish. Large No. 2's — Fisli over 13 ins. in length, and not good enough in quality for No. I's. Scaled herrings should be fat fish, free from scales, and when smoked be of a bright golden color. No. 1 herring are generally small and x)ooi fish. The complaints of short weight packages of fish are very many, some of which exceed the entire profit. Hints to Grocers. — To keep ants out of sugar, take, say, 3 ozs. gum camphor, wrap it in one thickness of tea-paper, lay it on the sugar in the barrel and they Avill leave at once. Keep your tea ir, a close chest 798 MERCANTILE ITEMS. or canister, and liocp coffoo by itRclf, a,a its odor affocts otlicr articles. Look after the mimbor ()£ oraii^^os and lemons in a box and see if they hold out. Jf not, claim. Oranges and lemons keep best wrapped in .soft paper, and if i)<)ssil)lc laid in a drawer. Keep bread or cake in a tin box or stone jar. Cranberries will keej) all winter in a firkin of water in a cellar. September and October butter is the best for winter use. FlxWOkiin'O Extuaots, 27 Kinds.— The formulic given below repre- sent the average standard strength, but they may be reduced if required. 1. Extract of Lemon, oil of lemon, 2 ozs., freshly grated lemon ])eel, 1 oz., alcohol, 2pts. 2. Ext. of Orange, oil of orange, 12 drs. , freshly grated lemon peel, 4 ozs., alcohol 2pts. 3. Another, Valencia oranges, 1 doz., alcohol, 2 pts. Carefully detach the yellow portion of the rind, and macerate it for ten days in the alcohol. Owing to the difficulty of pro- curing fresh oil of orange, this formula is generally preferred. 4. Ext. of Rose. lied rose leaves, 2 ozs., oil of rose, 1 dr., alcohol, 2 pts. 5. Ext. of Celery, celery seed, bruised, 2 ozs., alcohol, 1 pt. G. Ext. of Ginger, tincture of ginger, 1 pt, alcohol, from ^ to 1 pt. Some use the tincture without dilution. 7. Ext. of Bitter Almonds, oil of bitter al- monds, 1 oz. alcohol, 13 ozs.jAvater, Gozs. Some color it Avith ^oz. tincture of turmeric. 8. Ext. of Cinnamon. Oil of cinnamon, 2 drs., Ceylon cinna- mon, bruised, 4 ozs., diluted alcohol, 2 pts. 9. Ext. of Peppermint. E.s- sence of peppermint,, U. S. P., 1 pt., alcohol, from ^ to 1 pt. Some pre- fer the essence without dilution. 10. Ext. of Coriander. Powdered co- riander, 4 ozs,, oil of coriander, 1 dr., alcohol, 21 ozs., water, 8 ozs. 11. Ext. of Nutmeg. Oil of nutmeg, 2 drs., powdered mace, 1 oz. , alcohol, 2 pts: 12. Ext. of Vanilla. Vanilla bean, 1 oz., loaf sugar, 1 oz., alco- hol, 70 per cent., sufficient. Triturate the vanilla Avith the sugar until a No 20 powder is obtained. Introduce into a 2 pt. stone jug with tv/o ozs. of the menstruum, cork tightly, and digest several hours at a tempera- ture of about 150". Allow the mixture to cool, transfer it to a percolator, pack it firmly, and pour enough alcohol on it to make the percolate measure 1 pt. 13. Ext. of Spearmint. Essence of spearmint, U. S. P., 1 pt., alcohol, from ^ to 1 pt. Some use the essence without dilution. 14. Ext. of Anise. Anise seed, 2 ozs., oil of star anise, 1 oz., alcohol, 2 pts. 15. Ext. of Pine Apple, Artificial. Chloroform, 1 fi. oz., aldehyde, 1 do., butyric ether, 5 fl. ozs., buiyrate of amyl, 10 do., glycerine, 3 fl. ozs., alcohol, 100 do. 16. Ext. of Sassafras. Oil of sassafras, 1 oz., sas- safras in coarse powder, 2 ozs., alcohol, 2 pts. 17. Ext. of Peach, Arti' ficial. Oil of bitter almonds, 2 ozs. , acetic ether, 1 oz., alcohol 3 i)ts, 18. Ext. of Nectarine. Extract of vanilla, 1 pt., extract of lemon, 1 pt., extract of pine apple, 8 ozs. 19. Ext. of Wintergreen. Oil of Avintergreen, 1 oz., alcohol, 1 pt., cudbear, or cochineal, 10 ozs. 20. Ext of Clove. Powdered clove, 4 ozs., diluted alcohol, 1 pt. 21. Ext. of Blackberry, Artificial. Tinct. of orris root, (1-8) 1 pt., acetic ether, 30 drops, buty- ric ether, 60 drops. 22. Ext. of Tonka Bean. Tonka bean, coarsely ground, 4 ozs., diluted alcohol, 1 pt. 23. Ext. of Allspice. Allspice, corsely ground, 4 ozs., diluted alchohol, 1 pt. 24. Ext of Pear, Artificial. Acetic ether, 5 fi. ozs., acetate of amyl, 10 do., glycerine, 10 fl. ozs., alco- hol, 100 do. 25. Ext. of Apple, Artificial. Chloroform, 1 fl. oz., nitric • ether 1 do., aldehyde, 2 fl. ozs., acetic ether, 1 do., valerianate of amyl, 10 fl. ozs., oxalic acid, 2 drs., glycerine 2 fl. ozs., alcohol, 100 do, 26. Ext, of Straioherry, Artificial. Nitric ether, 1 fl. oz,, acetic ether, 5 do., for- mic ether, 1 fl. oz., butyric ether, 5 do., salicylate of methyl, 1 fl. oz., acetate of amyl, 3 do.,butyrateof amjd, 2 fl.ozs., glycerine, 2 do., alcohol, 100 do. 27. Ext. of Raspberry, Artificial Nitric ether 1 fl, oz,, alde- hyde, 1 do,, acetic ether, 5 fl, ozs., formic ether, 1 do., butyric ether, 1 fl. oz,, benzoic ether, 1 do., oenanthylic ether, 1 fl. oz., sebasic ether, 1 do,, salicylate of methyl, 1 fl. oz, acetate of amyl, 1 do, butyrate of amyl, Ifl. oz., tartaric acid, 2 ozs., glycerine, 4 fl. ozs., alcohol, 105 do. For other receipts, consult pp. 30, 159, and 207, SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. 799 Tlie credit system has bankrupted more people than perhaps aU other causes put together. The most rigid scrutiny should therefore take place in every instance where credit is solicited. A good way is to make the party sign a statement of his assets, debts, means of payment, &c., and grant a limited credit on that basis. If the result proves intentional fraud then you have your remedy at law. Cash down is the only abso- lutely safe rule. Curtail every possible expense. Let the profits accumu- late, hold on to them, and avoid uncertain outside speculations. See table of daily savings on page 587, and profit by its suggestions . Attend to the details of your business, see that the store'is opened in good time, goods dusted, floor swept, paper, twine, nails, &c., picked up and everything kept in trim order. In establishing a business it is not always the best plan to open out in a new locality where rents are low and ex- penses light. The result will be in many cases, that before the new local- ity acquires the ability to render adequate support to a respectable busi- ness (after an unavaiUng struggle) the funds of the merchant will gradu- ally give out, and he will be obliged to close his doors at the very time when he should have opened them. If, however, he succeeds, the dealer will do well to confine his attention more to the supply of the necessaries than the luxuries of life, until a more general demand arises for the hit- ter as the neighborhood grows older. Taking everything into account, the best locality for business purposes is in a city or town in a prominent tliroughfare where those whose trade you desire can most easily find you. A suitable place being secured, mount a proper sign board in a prominent manner, and make sure to pre- sent an imposing display of your choicest goods in your store windows. This, of itself, is a powerful attraction to passers by, who will frequently see just the article they require and call for it at once. This accommoda- tion, coupled with civil treatment on your part, will often secure you a permanent customer, for people are bound to go where they are well used. A notable and most successful method of attracting customers Jind build- ing up a lucrative business, is to sell a few of the leading staples at low figures, and obtain a fair profit on the rest. The most sagacious and far-seeing merchants do this, with the most astonishing financial results. In fact, thousands who are independently rich would now be bankrupt but for this system of transacting business. The following directions deserve a wide circulation : — "Enter into a business of which you have a perfect knowledge. In your own right, or by the aid of friends on long time, have a cash capital suffi- cient to do at least a cash business. Kever venture on a credit business at the commencement. Buy all your goods or materials for cash; you can thus take every advantage of the market, and pick and chose where and when you will. Be careful not to overstock yourself. Rise and fall Avith the market on short shocks. Always stick to those whom you prove to be strictly just in their transactions, and shun all others even at a, temporary disadvantage. Never take advantage of a customer's ignor- ance, nor equivocate nor misrepresent. Have but one price and a small ^ profit, and you will find all the most profitable customers— the cash ones * — or they will find you. " If ever deceived in business transactions, never attempt to save your- self by putting the deception upon others ; but submit to the loss, and be more cautious in future. According to the character or success of your business, set aside a liberal percentage for printing and advertising, and do not hesitate. Never let an article, parcel, or package, go out from you without a handsomely-printed wrapper, card, or circular, and dispense them continually. Keep yourself unceasingly before the public by judi- ciously advertising ; and it matters not what business of utility you mak« 800 SAI F, JiUSINESS IIULES. clioicc of, I'oi' ii iiilcUigcntly ;iiul industriously pursued, a, fortune will be tli(! n^sult. "Learn to say 'No' with decision; 'yes' with caution— 'No' with decision whenever it resists temptation ; 'yes' with caution wlien it inii)iies a promise. A promise once given is a bond inviolable. A man is already of consc(picnce in the world Avhen it is known that we can ijn- l)licitly rely upon him. Such a one is often preferred to a long list of ap- plicants, for some important change which lifts him at once into station and fortune merely because he has this reputation, that when he says he will know a thing he knows it, and when he vSays he will do a thing he will do it. Keflect over these maxims ; you will find it easy enough to i)rac- tice them." Rest assured industry and economy will be sure to tell in the end. Waste not want not go hand in hand. If in early life these habits become con- firmed, no doubt can exist as to the ultimate triumph of the merchant in attaining a competency. Be self-reliant and punctual. As you gain experience in business you can form your own judgment and act on it with more safety than you could on outside advice, and let no effort be considered too great which re- sults in fulfilling your engagements and keeping your word. A good char- cter for punctuality is in itself a valuable capital, as it makes one in a large measure the master of another's purse. In expressing yourself, be frank, speak to the point ; form a habit of thinking vigorously and speaking correctly ; say what you mean ; and do what you say. In buying goods never take advantage of another's iiecessities to beat him down to a figure which leaves him little or no profit, perhaps a loss, because he mustliave money. There is no manhood in such transactiojis, it may enhance your immediate profits, but will be disastrous to you in the end, besides being most unjust to the immediate sufferer. Let all your actions in buying and selling conform to the requirements of the golden rule. Be always alert to the acquisition of knowledge relating to your busi- ness, this may be gained by conversation with experienced merchants, by the attentive reading of practical books treating on mercantile matters, and by taking trade papers, which in these stirring times have attained great perfection, embracing as they do an immense range of subjects, treating, each in its respective sphere, subjects of immense importance, relatuig to the hardware, grocery, dry goods, drug, and other mercantile trades, besides full reports of the markets pertaining to each business, an item which in itself no business man can afford to lose sight of. In this place the advice of the American Grocer to its subscribers to Count, Measure, Weigh, and Gauge Everything You Buy, cannot be too strongly urgued upon the notice of business men. Profits will be greatly enhanced by taking advantage of the discounts which nearly all business men offer for cash payments. Keep your credit good and use it sparingly and discreetly. A noted merchant amassed an immense fortune by the obser^^ance of these four simple rules ; 1, Obtain the earliest and fullest information possible in regard to the matter inl hand. 2. Act rapidly and promptly • upon it. 3. Keep your intentions and means secret. 4. Secure the best employees you can obtain, and reward them liberally. See pp, 590. Rothschild's rules were. " 1. I combined three profits I made the manufacturer my customer, and the one I bought of my customer ; that is, I supplied the manufacturer with the raw material and dyes ; on each of which I made a profit, and took his manufactured goods, which I sold at a profit, and thus combined three profits. 2. Make a bargain at once, be an off-handed man. 3, Never have anything to do with an SAFE BUSINESS RULES. 801 unlucky man or place. I have seen many clever men who had not shoes to their feet. I never act with them ; their advice sounds very well, but fate is against them ; they do not get on themselves, how can they do good to me ? 4. Be cautious and bold. It requires a great deal of caution and a great deal of boldness to make a great fortune, and when you have got it, it requires ten times as much wit to keep it." Kules of John McDonough the millionaire of New Orleans. " 1 . Ee- member always that labor is one of the conditions of our existence. 2. Time is gold throw not one miuute away but place each one to account 3. Do unto all men as you would be done by. 4. Never put off till to- morrow what you can do to-day. 5, Never bid another do what you can do yourself. 6 . Never covet what is not your own. 7. Never think any matter so trivial as not to deserve notice. 8. Never give out that which does not first come in. 9. Never spend but to produce. 10. Let the greatest order regulate all the actions of your life. 11. Study in your course of life to do the greatest amount of good. 12. Deprive yourself of nothing necessary to your comfort, but live in an honorable simplicity and frugality. Labor then, to the last moment of your existence." Render yourself familiar with your business and books, and do not be unduly anxious to extend your trade, remembering that a small business on cash capital yields better profits than a large business conducted on credit ; also remember that the goods on your shelves are much better than having them charged up in bad debts. If it happens that you run an account with a doubtful customer, prudence requires that you should close the account at once and use every possible means to collect it with- out delay. It frequently happens in cases of this kind that i^rompt action will result in the recovery of the whole debt, when a very slight delay will entail a total loss. Every populous community is infested by sucifi a vast number of incorrigible rascals who never intend to pay their debts, that dealers are justified in rejecting every application for credit where tlie financial ability of the applicant is in the slightest degree doubtful. Avoid selfishness, niggardliness and parsimoniousness in the use of money or means. True nobility of character always finds its greatest pleas- ure in assisting and uplifting humanity. Viewed in this light it requires but slight exertion to solve the riddle propounded by old Mr. Honest in the Pilgrim : — " There was a man, though some did count him mad, The more he threw away the more he had." The world presents many notable instances of a generous policy, It Is safe to say that Peter Cooper, by his generous consecration of $2,000,000 to the up-building of the Cooper Institute, not to mention his other bene- factions, has conferred more substantial benefits on humanity than whole dynasties of tyrants who misgovern empires, and render themselves a terror to peaceable nations. In mercantile matters courage is indispenable, slackness is absolute ruin. It requires courage to tell a man you will not credit him, courage to insist on prompt payments from customers, courage to speak your mind candidly at all times, courage to deny yourself the possession of many things you want. It requires courage to refuse to conform to the absurd demands of fashion, to show respect for real worth even if it appears in humble garb, and to discountenance unprincipled rascality in fine clothes. It requires courage to act justly without fear or favor, to live within your means, to pay your debts, to collect your accounts, to with- stand ridicule while acting righteously ; in one wor<^ if you lack courage never go into business at all. In mercantile circles the commercial traveller occupies a most import- ant position and in many cases proves himgeU" a rftp^t valuable auxiliary 34* 802 ON MAllKING GOODS. to the incvcliant. To become a successful traveller it requires prolonj;ed service on the road, a vast amount of shrewdness, and a profound knowl- edge of human nature, lie must possess a clear head, a good temper, a ready, easy, and natural aptitude for making profitable bargains, with a good gift for mental, off-hand calculations in all possible emei'gencies. la a work treating of commercial travellers in France, we find the following description of one of them : " With his customers, as everv where else, he is polite and obliging ; he kisses the baby, pats the spaniel, pays a compliment to the young lady behind the counter, and offers a ijinch of snuff to the master of the shop. He inquires respecting the f.tate of the vintage, foretells the result of the season, speaks at some length ou the state of the grain market, obligingly inquires after ma- dame's health, and invites her husband to call and see him in Paris ' We'll dine at the Rocher,' laughs the traveller, adding, in a lower key, ' and discuss a bottle of A 1, eh ? ' Briefly, he obtains an order, and often a very extensive one." In marking goods it is usual with merchants to make use of a private mark, phrase, or key-word to designate the cost and selling price of their goods, the object being to conceal these points from all except their own salesmen. The following words and phrases present a choice from which to make a selection. GAS FIXTURE. FISH TACKLE. BROWN SUGAR. BLACK HORSE. CASH PROFIT. NOW BE SHARP. MISFORTUNE. SO FRIENDLY. ELUCIDATOIl. IMPORTANCE. GAINFUL JOB. OF INDUSTRY. It will be noticed that each word or phrase contains ten letters, no two alike, the object being to use letters instead of figures in marking the goods. For instance, take the phrase GAS FIXTURE. 123 4567890 In marking the cost and selling price on a ticket, we assume that the cost is $3.25 and the selling price $4.37; this Avould be represented by the dumb letters s a i—f st. The cost price is generally placed uppermost on tlie tag, the selling price below it, thusj;^. An extra letter, styled a repeater, is used to obviate the repetition of a letter or figure as well as to prevent the disclosure of the private mark, for instance instead of writ- ing 366 by the key- word, which would be 5 XX, use as a repeater the letter o, and make it read s x o. Fractions may be written thus : 456 1=/ 1 x For further information on marking goods see page 210. In advertising, let your announcements be short, spicy, attractive, and prominently displayed ; study brevity, using as few words as possible to express your meaning. A long, diffuse advertisement kills its object, people will not read it. Let an advertisement be truthful, free from senseless bombast, circulate them widely, and when your new customers come in, fulfil to the letter, the promises m.ade in your announcements ; you will thus obtain their confidence, retain their custom and their efforts to obtain more customers for you. Remember, judicious advertising always pays ; but it requires judgment to advertise aright. Select the channels which circulate most widely among the class of customers you desire to reach, and advertise persistently and liberally. Every dollar expended will laring tenfold profits. In advertising on printed cards or circulars, it is an important ^object to connect them with some matter valuable to the receiver, such as a calendar, a railway time table, an ele- gant picture, or any other matter that will be preserved for its inherent value. Lithographed circulars, in imitation of the handAvriting, sent direct to parties, are a first class advertising media. Never quit adver* i BUSINESS FORMS. 803 tlshig until you quit business. The most successful merchants in Ne-w York are the ones which advertise largely, and consider their outlay in this manner just as necessary as the payment of their rent or clerk hire. Next to prominence in announcing your business is civility, politeness, and honest treatment of customers, These elements of character, which can never be ignored without serious detriment to any one engaged in pub- lic business, cost nothing, and will often enable the small dealer to outstiip his rich rival. A cheerful, civil, and polite manner is all-powerful in obtaining and retaining customers, and a grand mistake is often made by men on the road to fortune, in forgetting or neglecting to exercise this cheap and pleasant means of its ultimate attainment. In opening an account with a bank provide yourself with a proper in- troduction. Never draw a check for a larger sum than the amount at your credit, and do not send your check to a remote person with the ex- pectation of depositing funds to meet it before it gets back ; the telegraph may explode that bubble. Never exchange checks with any one, or give a ciieck under the stipulation that it is not to be used until a given time. Never take a distant check from a neighbor to pass it free through your bank, giving him your check for it. Never give your check to a stranger; it is liable to be raised, and passed, thus entailing a heavj'' loss on the bank. In sending a check to a distance, with the name and residence of the payee, thus ; John Eamsden & Co., of Buffalo, N. Y. This will give a clue to the bank when it is presented for payment. In presenting an ac- commodation note for discount, tell your bank the real nature of the paper. It is much better to act in this candid, unreserved manner than otherwise. Never consider your bank arbitrary if it declines to discount an accommo- dation note ; in any event never wrangle or contend with it, but act squarely with them by settling in full, and then go elsewhere if discourte- ously treated. If you wish to get a customer's note discounted to obtain funds to take up a prior note by the same customer, inform your bank fully about it. Don't waste arguments to induce your bank to discount paper which it has already declined, it may have the best of reasons for such action. In your dealings with bank officers never exhibit asperity of temper, but study politeness, civility, candor and courtesy under all cir- CtimstHllCGS COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS. No. 1. JSfegotiahle Note. $400 Montreal Jan. 1, 18—. Three months after date, I promise to pay Oliver Cromwell, or order, Four Hundred Dollars, for value received. Note. John Howard. For an interest-bearing note, add " with interest" after "value re- ceived." No. 2. Joint Note, ^m^irs St. John, KB., Jan. 4, 18— . Six months after date we jointly, but not severally, promise to pay tiomas Bruce, or order. Four Hundred and Thirty ylfff Dollars, for value ifceived, with interest. John Spencer, David Thomson. No. 3. Note payable at a Bank. f 1000 ' New York, Jan. 11, 18—. Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of Hiram Brown, the Sum of One Thousand Dollars, value received, at Park Na- tional Bank, New York. Peter Pringle, 804 BUSINESS FORMS. No. 4. Note payable by Instalments. $100 Toronto, Feb. 10, 18—. For value received, I promise to pay to John Fleming, or order, One Hundred Dollars, in the way and manner following, to wit : Fifty Dollars in three months from date, and Fifty Dollars in four mouths, with interest on the several sums as they become due. Alex. Armstrong. No. 5. Note not Negotiable. $600 Syracuse, N.Y., July, 15, 18—. Three months after date, for value received, I promise to pay Thomas Bonner, Five Hundred Dollars. William T. Bell. No. 6. Note on Demand. 'f$300 Hamilton, March 14, 18—. On demand I promise to pay John Rose, or order, Three Hundred Dollars, value received, with interest. William Wallace. No. 7. Note payable in Merchandise. $700 Fredericton, N.B., June 1, 18—. For value received, on or before the first day of November next, I promise to pay to A. Gibson, or Order, Seven Hundred Dollars in good merchantable Spruce Logs, at his Sawmill near this city, at the market value on the maturity of this note. John Streamdriver. No. 8. Due Bill for money. London, Ont, June 20, IS—. $140 iwa Due to John Baxter, or order, oil demand, One Hundred and forty /(?o Dollars, value received. J. B. Perkins. No. 9. Due Bill payable in Goods. |$200 Chicago, 111., July 14, 18—. Dae on demand, to R. Wyllie, Two Hundred Dollars, in merchandise from our store. T. M. Hunter & Co. No. 10. Check on a Bank . No, 16. NewYork, July 20. 18- NiNTH National Bank. Pay to Bradford & Parker or order, Three Thousand 1% Dollars. $3,000 G. BURNHAM. No. 11. Form of a Bank Draft. $6 300 Bank oe the Metropolis No. 197. New York, Aug. 5, 18—. Pay to the order T. M. Banker Six Thousand and Three 'Hundred Dollars. ^ -,. ^ Duplicate unpaid. G. A. CoPELAND, Cashier. To Eliot Nat. Bank, Boston. BUSINESS FORMS. 805 No. 12. Sight Draft. $600 New York, Aug. 10, 18— . At Sight, pay to the order of R. Pitman & Co., Six Huudred doUaraj value received, and charge the same to our account. George Root & Co. To James Allison, Chicago. No. 13. Time Draft. $200 Rochester, N.Y., Aug. 11, 18—. Thirty days after date, pay to the Order of John Hall, Two Hundred and .Yifty Dollars, value received, and charge to our account, T, Banning & Co. No. 14 Set of Foreign Bills of Exchange Exchange for £5,000 New York, Aug. 10, 18—. Ten days after sight of this First of Exchange (our Second and Third unpaid), pay to the Order of David Perry, Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, value received, and charge the same without further advice, to, Joseph Seligman «St Co, To Baring Brothers. No. 220 London, Eng. Exchange for £5,000 New York, Aug. 10, 18—. Ten days after Sight of this Second of Exchange (First and Third un- paid), pay to the order of David Perry, Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, value received, and charge the same Avithout further advice, to Joseph Seligman & Co, To Baring Brothers. No. 220. London, Eng. Exchange for £5,000 New York. Aug. 10, 18—. Ten days after Sight of this Third of Exchange (First and Second un- paid), pay to the order of David Perry, Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, value received, and charge the same without further advice, to Joseph Seligman & Co. To Baring Brothers. No. 220. London, Eng. No. 15. Form of a Protest. $2,000 ' New York, Aug. 15, 1877. jPlease to take notice, that a Promissory Note for Two Thousand Dollars, made by Robert Brown, May 12, 1877, and endorsed by you, having been duly presented and payment thereof demanded, which was refused, is therefore protested for non-payment, and that the holders look to you for payment, interest, costs, and damages. To*^ U. Look out. I . L. Ketchum. J^otary Public, No. 16. Receipt for Money on Account. Received, New York, March 23, 1878, of Thomas Paywell, Seventy-five dollars on account. $75 R. Thankful. 80G BUSINESS 1'0K."\:S. No. 17. Receipt m Full. Fredericton, N. B., March 12, 18—. Received of Jolm Murray, One Hundred Dollars, in full of all demands to date. ^100. Henry Blackburn. No. 18. Receipt for Money advanced on a Contract. ^?1,000 Woodstock, Ont., May 1, 18-. Received of A. Campbell, One Thousand Dollars in advance, on a con- tract to build for him a Frame house on Dundas street. R. TURNBULL. No. 19. Receipt for Rent. |200 Gait, Ont., June 1, 18.— ' Received of A. Thomson, Two Hundred Dollars in full for one year's rent for dwelling on Water Street. Charles Wilson. No . 20, Receipt for a Note. S400 New York, .Tune 2, 18—. Received of Hiram Edson, his note for Four Hundred Dollars at three months, in full of account. Thomas Harrison. No. 21. Order for Money. Baltimore, June 5, 18—. Mr. Robert Hill, Please pay Thomas Jamison, or Bearer, Fifty dollars on my account. David Hillman. No. 22. Order for Merchandise. Mr. R. T. Bonner. Please deliver to the bearer, Joseph Fallett, such goods as he may de- sire from your store to the amount of Sixty-five dollars, and charge the same to my account. [ John Gardiner No. 23, Letter of Credit. " I ■ Toronto, October 5, 18—. Gentlemen : — Allow me to introduce to your firm the Bearer, Mr.. J, S. Harper ; should he make a selection from your stock to the amount of One Thousand Dollars, I will be answerable for that sum in case of his uou-payment. Yours, truly, RUFUS Bablow To Lord & Taylor, New York, No. 24. Landlord's Agreement. This certifies, that I have let and rented, this first day of June, 1878, unto Robert Walker, my house and lot No. 150, Dundas street, London, Ont., and its appurtenances ; he to have the free and uninterrupted oc- cupation thereof for one year from this date, at the yearly rental of On© BUSINESS FORMS. 807 Thousand Dollars, to be paid monthly in advance; rent to cease if do- Btroyed by fire, or otherwise made untenantable. Jas. Kingman. No. 25. Tenant's agreement. This certifies that I have hired and taken from Joseph Kingman, his house and lot No. 150, Dundas street, London, Ont., with appurtenances thereto belonging, for one year, to commence this day at a yearly rental of One Thousand Dollars, " to be paid monthly in advance, unless said house becomes untenantable from fire or other causes, in which case rent ceases ; and I further agree to give and yield said premises one year from this first day of JunQ, 1878, in as good condition as now , ordinary wear and damage by tlie elements excepted. Given under my hand this day. Robert Walker. No 26. Notice to Quit. To A. B. Palmer. Sir : — Please observe that the term of one year, for which the house and land, situated at 47 Pearl street, and now occupied by you, were rented to you, expired on the first day of June, 1878, and as I desire to repossess said premises, you are hereby requested and required to vacate the same. Yours truly, T. H. Carter. No. 27. Tenant's Notice of leavincf. Dear Sir: The premises I now occupy as your tenant, at No. 56, Main street, I shall vacate on the first day of May, 1878. You will please take notice accordingly. Dated this 26th day of March, 1878. )f: William Gilbert. ''. To John Lawrence, Esq. No. 28. Common Form of Bond. Know alt. Men by these presents, that I, David Wilson, of Fredericton, York County, Province of New Brunswick, am held and firmly bound unto John Scott of the place aforesaid, in the sum of six hundred dollars, to be paid to the said John Scott, his heirs or assigns ; for which payment to be well and truly made, I bind myself, my heirs and assigns, by these pres- ents. Sealed with my seal, and dated this first day of August, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. The condition of this obligation is such, that if I, David Wilson, my lieirs, assigns, or executors, shall promptly pay to the said John Scott, his lieirs or assigns, the sum of six hundred dollars in three equal annual in- stalments from the date hereof, Avith annual interest, then the above obligation to be void ; otherwise to be in full force and virtue, DAYID WILSON, (L.S). Sealed and delivered in ) Presence of > Adam Clark. ) SOS BUSINESS FORMS. No. 29. Form of Bill of Sale. Know fill men by these Presents, that I, Peter Denman, of the city of Boston, in the County of Middlesex, and State of Massacliusetts, of tlia lir.st part, for and in consideration of tlie sum of six hundred dollars, lawful jnoney of the United States, to ine in hand paid, at or before tiie ensealing and delivery of these presents, by Robert Ensign of the same place, of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, have bargained and sold, and by these presents do grant and convey, unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, one six year old dark-ha^j horse fjteen hands high, one black horse, one double harness, one carriage, two coivs and five pigs, to have AND TO HOLD the same unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, administrators and assigns for ever. And I do for myself, my heirs, executors, and administrators, covenant and agree, to and with the said party of the second part, to warrant and , defend the sale of the said goods and chattels hereby sold unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, against all and every person and persons whatsoever. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this Bixth day of April one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. PETER DENMAN, (L.S). Sealed and delivered in presence of ) Peter Wilson, > J. GODDARD. j No. 30. Chattel Mortgage. This indenture, made this fifteenth day of April, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, between David Allan of the town of Gaelph, County of Wellington, Province of Ontario, party of the first part, and Alfred Baker of the same toAvn, county and Province, party of the second part. WITNESSETH, that tho said party of the first part, for, and in consid- eration of the sum of six hundred dollars in hand paid, the receipt of "which is hereby acknowledged, does hereby grant, sell, convey and con- firm unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns forever, all and singular, the following described goods and chattels, to wit : 1 Weber piano, 4 black walnut bedsteads, 1 stove, 2 mahogany bureaus, 2 sofas, 1 dozen chairs, etc., now in possession of said Allan, in his dwelling at No. street, Guelph. To have and to hold all and singular the goods and chattels above bargained and sold, or in- tended so to be, unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns forever. And the said party of the first part, for himself, his heirs, assigns, and administrators, all and singular the gjods and chattels above bargained and sold unto the said party of the first part, and against all and every i)erson whomsoever shall, and will, warrant and forever defend Upon condition, that if the said party of the first part shall and do well and truly pay unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, the sum of six hundred dollars lawful money of this Province, with interest thereon, one year from this date, thence these presents shall be void. And tho said party of the first part, for himself, his executors, and assigns, doth covenant and agree to and with the said party of the second pait, his executors, administrators and assigns, that in case default sliall be made in the payment of the said sum above BUSINESS FORMS. 809 mentioned, then it shall and may be lawful for, and I, the said party of the first part, do hereby authorize and empower, the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, with the aid and assistance of any person or persons, to enter my dwelling-house, or such other place or places as the said goods and chattels are or may be placed, and take and convey away the said goods and chattels, and to sell or dispose of the same for the best price they can obtain, and, out of the pro^ ceeds thereof, to retain and pay the said sum above mentioned, and all charges touching the same, rendering the overplus (if any) unto me, or to my executors, administrators or assigns. And, until default be made in the payment of the said sum of money, I am to remain and continue in the quiet possession of the said goods and chattels, and in the full and free enjoyment of the same. In witness whereof, I, the said party of the first part, have here-, unto set my hand and seal the day and year first above written. Signed, sealed and deliv- 1 ered in presence of George Roeson, Thomas Neilson. Note. — The law, both in Canada and the United States, requires that all chattel mortgages should be filed in the Clerk's, Register's, or Re^ corder's office of the town, city, or county where the mortgagor resides, and the property is, when mortgaged. Unless the same is renewed at or before the close of the year, its virtue expires, and every creditor will have the same right to the property as the mortgagee. No. 31. Claim to be filed by Lien Creditor's in Clerk's Office. Henry Wilson, of Buffalo, in the County of Erie, and State of New York, lumber merchant, files his claim for five hundred and sixty dollars against a certain house and lot of ground, belonging to John Rodgers, situated on the south side of Clinton street, No. 27, in the plan of said citj', containing in front on Clinton street, forty feet, and in depth one hundred feet, bounded on the north by the said Clinton street, on the west by ground of John Smith, on the east ground of Thomas Nelson, and on the south by ground of Thomas Carter, for that sum due him for lumber and other materials furnished by him, in erecting the aforesaid house in October, 1877. J HENRY WILSON. November 4, 1877. Note. — The above form is applicable for any claim whatever that may be due to lumber merchants, brick-makers, carpenters, painters, masons, plumbers, or others engaged in furnishing materials or labor in erecting buildings. No. 32. Form of Judgment-Note. For value received I promise to pay to Henry Jordan of Lockport, or Order, four hundred dollars, with interest, on the first day of June next ; and I hereby nominate, constitute, and appoint, any attorney-at-law of this State, my true and lawful attorney, irrevocable, for me and in my name to appear in any court of record of this State, at any time after the above promissory note becomes due, and to waive all process and service thereof, and to confess judgment in favor of the holder hereof for the sum that may be due and owing hereon, with interest and costs, waiving DAVID ALLAN, (L.S.) 810 BUSINESS FORMS all errors, etc., with stay of execution until the first day of April next. Witness ray hand and seal at Loclcpoi t, N. Y., this lirstday of Dcf cm- ber, in the year one thousand eight hundred and seventy-seven. Signed, sealed, and deliv- ered in presence of JOSKPII Inman, Robert Kerr. J Note.— The above note enables the holder, in several States, to enter up judgment thereon Avithout .suit, if not paid when due. No. 33. Form of Note for Indiana. $200. Richmond, Ind., April 1, 18—. On demand, for value received, I promise to pay Charles Marsh, or Order, tvfo hundred dollars, with interest, payable without any relief whatever from valuation or appraisement. ROBERT MILLER. No. 34. Form of Note of Pennsylvania. $600. Philadelphia, Pa. , April 8, 18—. Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of Thomaa Maxwell, five hundred dollars, without defalcation, for value received. ALEXANDER REID. No. 35. Form of a Bill of Lading for Timber, &c. Shipped, in good order and condition, by Robert Godfrey & Co., on board the good ship "■Dominie Sampson," whereof P M. Marshall is master for this present voyage, now lying in the port of St. John, N. B., ^nd bound for Liverpool, England. To say : — GO, 760 feet Mer. Spruce, all under deck. 100 M. Spruce laths, all under deck. 90 M. ft. Mer. Pine, all on deck, being marked and numbered in the margin ; and are to be delivered, in like good order and condition, at the aforesaid port of Liverpool (the danger of the seas and fire always excepted), unto Thomas Adams & Co., or to assigns, he or they jDaying freight for the said timber at the rate of ten dollars per M. feet, and one dollar per M. for laths, without primage and average accustomed. In witness whereof, the master of the said vessel hath afRnned to three bills of lading, all of this tenor and date ; one of which being accom- plished, the others to stand void. P. M. MARSHALL. Dated at St. John, N. B., ? June the 5th, A.D. 1878. j No. 36. Form of a Survey Bill of Lumber, &c. Surveyed from Alex. Gibson of Nashwaak, New Brunswick, ta Schooner " Inflexible " Captain Duncan. To say : — 43,600 ft. 2x8, from 12 ft. long up (Mch. ) Spruce. 37,300 " No. 1 Pine boards. 19,400 " 10 X 12 Mer. Pine timber. 24,500 " Hemlock boards (Mch ). 159 M. No. 1 Pine Shingles. Nashwaak, N. B., ) DAVID MORRISON, June 5, Anno Domini 1878. ( Surveyor THOMAS WEBSTER, (L.S.) BUSINESS rOU3IS. 811 No. 37. Form of Agreement and Warrant for the Sale of Horse. This agreement, made this eighth day of April, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, 'between Robert Pringle of the village of Stanley, county of York and Province of New Brunswick, of the first part, and David Brown of said place, of the second part, WITNESSETH, that the said Robert Pringle hereby agrees to sell to the said David Brown his dark-hay horse, with a white star in the forehead, and black mane and tail, and to warrant the said horse to be well broken, to be kind and gentle, both under the saddle and in single and double harness, to be sound in every respect and free from vice, for the sum of one hundred dollars, to be paid by the said David Brown, on the seventh day of June next. In consideration whereof, the said David Brown agrees to purchase the said horse, and to pay therefor to the said Robert Pringle the sum of le hundred dollars on the seventh day of June next. In 'WITNESS WHEREOF, &c. (as in No. 29). No. 38. Agreement to Cultivate Land on Shares This agreement, &c. (as in No. 30). WITNESSETH, that the said Robert Pringle agrees with the said David Brown, that he will properly plough, harrow, till, fit, and prepare fo sowing, all that certain field of ground belonging to the said Brown, which field lies, etc. {here insert description of field) containing about ten acres, and to sow the same with good fall wheat, finding one-half the seed -wheat necessary therefor, on or before the fifteenth day of September next : and that he will, at the proper time, cut, harvest, and thresh, the said wheat, and winnow and clean the same, and deliver the one-half part of the said wheat to the said David Brown, at his bam, on his premises, in the village of Stanley, aforesaid, near his dwelling house, within ten days after the same shall have been cleaned ; and will carefully stack the one-half of the straw on the prem- ises of the said David Brown, near to his barn aforesaid. And the said David Brown, in consideration of the foregoing agree- ment, promises and agrees, to and with the said Pringle, that he may enter in upon said field for the purpose of tilling and sowing the same, and of harvesting the crop ; and free ingress and egress have and enjoy for the purpose aforesaid ; and that he will furnish to the said Pringle one-half of the seed wheat necessary to sow the same, on or before the fifteenth day of September next, and permit the said Pringle to thrash and clean the wheat upon the premises of the said David Brown. In witness whereof, &c. (as in No. 29), both parties will sign. No. 39. Lease of a Farm. This Indenture, made tiiis first day of March, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, between Peter Marshall, of the township of Dumfries, county of Waterloo, and Province of Ontario, of the first part, and Robert Walker of the said township and county of the second part. WITNESSETH, that the said Peter Marshall, for, and in consideration of the yearly rents and covenants hereinafter mentioned, and reserved on the part and behalf of the said Peter Marshall, his heirs, executors and administrators, to be paid, kept, and performed, hath demised, set, and to farm let, and by these presents doth demise, set, and to farm let, unto the said Rob«(rt Walker, his heirs and assigns, all that certain piece, 812 BUSINESS FOUMS. ]>an5el. or tnvct oi lana situate, lyinjj and being in the township of Dum- fries aforesaitl, known as lot No. {here describe land) now in the posses- sion of , containing one liundred acres, together with all and sin- gular the buildings and improvements, to have and to hold the same unto the said Robert Walker, his heirs, executors and assigns, from the day of next, for, and during the term of five years, thence next ensuing, and fully to be complete, and ended, yielding and paying for the same, unto the said Peter Marshall, his heirs and assigns, the yearly rent, or sum dollars, on the first day of in each' and every year, during the term aforesaid, and at tlie exi)iration of said term, or sooner if determined upon, he the said Robert Walker, his heirs or assigns, shall and will quietly and peaceably surrender and yield up the said demised premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said Peter Marshall, his heirs and assigns, in as good order and repair, as the same now are, reasonable wear, tear, and casualties, which may happen by fire, or otherwise, only excepted. In witness whereof we have, etc. (as in No. 29). No. 40. Warranty Deed hy Husband and Wife, with Covenants. This Indenture, made this eighteenth day of June, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, between John Wilson, of Newton, county of Sussex, State of New Jersey, and Charlotte, his wife, of the first part, and Peter Cunningham of the same place, of the second part. WITNESSETH, 'that the said party of the first part, for and in consider- ation of the sum of two thousand dollars in hand, well and truly paid by the said party of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby ac- knowledged, have granted, bargained, and sold, and by these presents do grant, bargain, and sell, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, all the following described lot, piece, parcel or tract of land situated in the town of Newton, county of Sussex, and State of Ngw Jersey, to wit: {Here describe the property.) Together with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof ; and all the estate, right, title, interest, claim and demand whatsoever, of the said party of the first part, either in law or equity, of, in, and to, the above-bargained premises, with the hereditaments and appurtenances: To HAVE AND TO HOLD the said premises above bargained and described, with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, for ever. And the said John Wilson, and Charlotte Wilson, his wife, parties of the first part, hereby expressly waive, release, and relinquish unto the said party of the first part, his heirs, executors, ad- ministrators and assigns, all right, title, claim, benefit, and interest what- ever, in, and to the above-described premises, and each and every part thereof, which is given by or results from, all laws of this State pertain- ing to the exemption of homesteads. And the said John Wilson and Charlotte Wilson, his wife, party of the first part, for themselves and their heirs, executors, and administrators, do covenant, grant, bargain, and agree, to and with the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, that at the time of the ensealing and delivery of these presents they were well seized of the premises above conveyed, as of a good, sure, perfect, absolute and indefeasible estate of inheritance, in law and in fee simple, and have good right, full power, and lawful authority to grant, bargain, sell, and convey the same, in man- ner and form aforesaid, and that the same are free and clear from all former and other grants, bargains, sales, liens, taxes, judgments, assess- BUSINESS FORMS. 813 ments, and incumbrances of what kind or nature soever; and the above- bargained premises in the quiet and peaceable possession of the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, against all and every or persons lawfully claiming or to claim the whole or any part thereof, the said party of the first part shall and will warrant and forever defend. In testimony whereof , the said parties of the first part have hereunto set their hands and seals the day and year first above written. JOHN WILSON, (L.S.) CHARLOTTE WILSON, (L.S.) Signed, sealed and deliv- i ered in ijresence of I Henry Nelson. I Robert Reid. J No. 41. AchnowUdgment of Deed. Sussex County, N. J. On the eighteenth day of June, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, personally appeared before me John Wilson, and Charlotte, his wife, whom I know to be the persons described in, and who executed the within instrument, and who severally acknowledged that they execu. ted the same: the said Charlotte being by me examined separate and apart from her husband, acknowledged that she executed the same freely, and without fear or compulsion from him. „ • PHILIP HUNTER, J. P. Minute ofHecord. Recorded in the Clerk's office of the County of Sussex, in Liber 45, p. 81, of Mortgages, 18th June, 1878, at 30 minutes past 2 p.m. Robert Watts, Register. No. 42. Mortgage of Land to secure Payment of Money. This Indenture, made the tenth day of April, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, between John Hunter, of Dorset, county of Bennington, State of Vermont, merchant, and Margaret, his wife, of the first part, and William West, of the same place, agent, of the second part: Whereas, the said John Hunter is justly indebted to the said party of the second part, in the sum of five thousand dollars, lawful money of the United States, secured to be paid by his certain bond or obligation, bearing even date with these presents, in the penal sum of ten thou- sand dollars, lawful money as aforesaid, conditioned for the payment of the first-mentioned sum of five thousand dollars, as by the said bond or obligation, and the condition thereof, reference being thereunto had, may more fully appear. Now this Indenture Witnesseth, that the said ' parties of the first part, for the better securing of the said sum of money mentioned in the condition of the said bond or obligation, with interest thereon, according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and also for and in consideration of the sum of one dollar to me in hand paid by the said party of the second part, at, or before the ensealing and delivery of these pres- ents, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, have granted, bargained, sold, aliened, released, conveyed, and confirmed, and by these presents do grant, bargain, sell, alien, release, convey, and confirm, unto the said party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns for ever, ^iaj that 814 BUSINESS FORMS. certain piece, parcel, or lot of land, sitnate, lying, and being : {Here describe premises. ) To jiave and to liold the same, togetlier witli all and singular the tenements, hereditaments, and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues and profits thereof; And also, all the estate, right, title, interest, dower, property, possession, claim, and demand whatsoever, as well in law as in equity, of the .said parties of the first part, of, in, and to the same, and every part and parcel tliereof, with the ap[)urtenances. To have and to hold the above granted and described premises, with the appurtenances, nnto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, to his and their proper use, benefit, and behoof for- ever. Pbovided always, and these presents are upon this express con- dition, that if the said party of the first part, his heirs, executoi'S and assigns, shall well and truly pay or cause to be paid unto the said party of the second i)art, his executors, administrators or assigns, the said sum of money mentioned in the condition of the said bond or obligation, and the interest thereon, at the time, and in the manner mentioned in the said condition, according to the true intent and meaning thereof, that these presents and the estate hereby granted shall cease, determine, and become null and void. And the said John Hunter, for himself, his heirs, executors, and administrators, doth covenant and agree to pay unto the said -party of the second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, the said sum of money and interest, as mentioned above and expressed in the said condition of the said bond. And if default shall be made in the payment of the said sum of money above mentioned, or the interest that may grow due thereon, or of any part thereof, that then, and from thenceforth, it shall be lawful for the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns, to enter into and upon all and singular the premises hereby granted, or intended so to be, and to sell and dispose of the same, and all benefit and equity of redemption of the said party of the first part, his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns, therein, at public auction, according to the act in such case made and provided : And as the attorney of the said party of the first part, for that purpose by these presents duly authorized, constituted, and appointed, to make and deliver to the purchaser or purchasers thereof, a good and sufficient deed or deeds of conveyance, in the law for the same in fee simple, and, out of the money arising from such sale, to retain the principal and interest which shall then be due on the said bond or obliga- tion, together with the costs and charges of advertisement and sale of the premises, rendering the overplus of the purchase money (if any there shall be) unto the said John Hunter, party of the first part, his heirs, ex- ecutors, administrators, or assigns, which sale so to be made shall for- ever be a perpetual bar, both in law and In equity, against the said party of the first part, his heirs and assigns, and all other persons claiming or to claim the premises, or any part thereof, by, from, or imder, him, them, or either of them. In witness Avhereof, the parties of the first part have liereunto set their hands and seals the day and year first above written. JOHN HUNTER,- (L.S.) MARGARET HUNTER, (L.S.) Signed, sealed, and delivered] in presence of ! Thomas Bates, j WiLLiAin Bell. J BUSINESS FORMS. 815 ISiO. ^3. Form of Satiitfaction Piece. -ff .'"r • I, William West, of Dorset, Bennington County, Vermont, do hereby certify that a certain mortgage, bearing date the "tenth day of April, one thousand eight hundred and seventj^-eight, made and executed by John Hunter, and Margaret, his wife, of the same place, and recorded in tlie office of the CleVk of the county of Bennington, in Liber 45, p. 76, of Mortgages, on 10th day of April, 1878, is paid. Dated 1st May, 1878. WILLIAM WEST, (L.S.) Bennikgton CouNTy, Vermont, SS. : On the first day of May, 1878, before me came William West, to me personally known to be the individual described in, and who executed the above certificate, and acknowledged that he executed the same. JOHN HAMPDEN, J. P. No. 44. Assignment of Mortgage. Know all men by these Presents, that I, William West, of Dor- set, county of Bennington, State of Vermont, agent, of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of five thousand dollars, lawful money of the United States, to me in hand paid by John Howard, of the same place, farmer, of the second part, at or before the ensealing and delivery of these ipresents, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, have granted, bargained, sold, assigned, transferred, and set over, and by these presents do grant, bargain, sell, assign, transfer, and set over, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, a cei-tain inden- ture of mortgage, bearing date the 10th day of Aprif, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, made by John Hunter, and Margaret, his wife, and recorded in the office of the Register of the county of Benning- ton, State of Vermont, in Liber 36, of Mortgages, p. 50, togetlier with the bond or obligation thereto belonging, and the money due, and to be- come due thereon, with the interest, To have and to hold the same unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, administrators and assigns for ever, subject only to the proviso in the said Indenture of Mortgage mentioned. And I do hereby make, constitute, and appoint the said jDarty of the second part, my true and lawful attorney irrevocable, in my name or otherwise, but at his own proper costs and charges, to have, use and take, all lawful ways and means for the recovery of the said money, and interest, and, in case of payment, to discharge the same as fully as I might or could do if these presents were not made. In WITNESS whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and 'seal, the first day of May, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. WILLIAM WEST, (L.S.) In presence of V Duncan Fokbes, > John Reid, ) Note. — Deeds, mortgages, and assignments of mortgages should be put on record in the Register's office without delay after being executed. The foregoing forms (as well as the following) are suitable for either the United States or Canada. No, 45. Form of Will for Ileal and Personal Property. I, Joseph Knight, of the city of Toronto, county of York, and Province of Ontario, grocer, realizing the uncertainty of life, and being of feeble 816 BUSINESS FORMS. health, but of sound mind, memory, and judgment, do make and declare this to be my last will and testament ui manner and form following, to ■wit: First, I Rive, demise, and bequeath unto my eldest son, Robert Knight, the sum of four thousand dollars, now on deposit in the liank of Mon- treal, together with my grocery store at No. street, with all the tenements and improvements thereto belonging: to have and to hold unto my said son, his heirs and assigns forever. Second, I give and bequeath unto my beloved wife, Charlotte, abso- lutely, the house in which I now reside, at No. street, together with all the furniture therein, including piano, organ, linen, china, the plate, wearing apparel, etc. , together with ten thousand dollars in Bank stock and Railway bonds, now lodged in my safe; the same to be in lieu of her dower at common law. Third, I give and bequeath to my invalid mother, Ellen Knight, the income and rents from ray farm in Scarboro during the term of her natu- ral life. Said farm to revert to my sons and daughters in equal propor- tion upon the demise of my said mother. Fourth, I give and bequeath unto my youngest son, Joseph Knight, three thousand dollars, also my tenement house on street, with all the improvements thereto belonging; to have and to hold unto my said son, his heirs and assigns forever. Fifth, I give and bequeath the sum of one thousand dollars to my executors, to be equally divided between them, in full, for all services in the matter of the execution of this my last will and testament. Sixth, I direct that my debts and funeral expenses be paid from moneys now on deposit to my credit in Savings Bank of Toronto, the bal- ance of such money, together with all the rest and residue of my estate, to my three daughters, Mary, Ellen, and Isabella, to be equally divided between them for their use forever. I hereby nominate and appoint David TVaterson, Robert Ford, and James Thomson, the executors of this my last will and testanient, and re- voke all other and former wills made and executed by me. In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal this tenth day of April, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. JOSEPH kNIGHT, (L.S.) Signed, sgaled, published, ^ declared and acknowl- edged, by the above- named testator, to be his last will and testament, in our presence, and we each, at his request, and hi his presence, and in the presence of each . other, subscribe our names as witnesses. Alexander Adam, 75 King St., Toronto. Thomas Robson, 214 Yonge St., Toronto. Adam Clark,95 Adelaide St., Toronto. BUSINESS FORMS. 817 Note.— The provisions of Stephen Hamilton. ) 818 r.USINKSS FORMS. No. 47. Pvtver of Allorncy, General Form. Know all men p.y these presents, that I, Robert (J rant, of Brook- lyn, in the county of Kings, !ind State of New York, nicrcliant, have made, constituted and appointed, and by tlieso presents do mal " Silver, Rix Dollar, 0 " " Florin, 0 " " 20 Kreutzcrs, 0 " " Lira (for Loiubardy) 0 Baden, Gold, 5 Gulden, 2 " Silver, Crown, 1 " " Gulden, or Florin, 0 Bavnna, Gold, Ducat, 2 " Silver, Crown, 1 " " Florin, 0 " " CKreutzers, 0 Belgium, Gold, 20 Franc piece, R " " 2.5 Franc piece, 4 Silver, 5 Francs, 0 " " 2>^ Francs, 0 " " 2 Francs, 0 ' " " 1 Franc, 0 Bolivia, Gold, Doubloon, l.'J Silver, Dollar, 1 " " )4 Dollar (debased im), 0 " X Dollar (debased 1800), 0 Brazil, Gold. Piece of C,400 Keis, 8 " Silver, 1,200 Reis, 0 " " 800 Reis, 0 " " 400 Reis, 0 Bremen Silver, 30 Grote, 0 Britain, Gold, Sovereign, ; 4 Sliver, Half Crown, 0 " " Shilling, 0 Brunswick Gold, Ten Thaler, 7 Silver Thaler, 0 Central America, Gold, Doubloon, 14 " " Escudo, 1 " Silver, Dollar, 0 Costa Rica, Gold, Half Doubloon, 1850, 7 " Silver, New Real, 0 Chili, Gold, Doubloon (before 1&35), 15 " " Doubloon (since 1835), 15 " Silver, Dollar, 1 ' Dollar, 0 Dollar or Real , Denmark ,'goI,' Doub Fred, or 10 Thai. 7 " Silver, Rigsbank Daler, ^0 " " Specie Daler, 1 " 32 Skillings, 0 Ecuador, Gold, ^ Doubloon, 7 Silver, 14 Dollar, 0 Egypt, Gold, 100 Piasters, 4 " Silver, 20 Piasters, 0 France, Gold, 20 Francs, ?, " Silver, 5 Francs, 0 " " Franc, 0 Frankfort, Silver, Florin, 0 Greece, Gold, 20 Drachms, 3 Silver, Drachm, 0 Guiana, Br., Silver, Guilder, 0 Hanover, Gold, 10 Thaler, 7 " Silver, Thaler (iine silver), 0 " Thaler (750 fine). 0 llayti. Silver, Dollar (100 centimes), 0 Hesse Cassel, Silver Thaler, 0 " I Thaler, 0 12 0 27 5 75 0 97 0 48 5 If) 0 1(5 0 04 0 07 0 31) 5 27 0 00 5 30 5 03 0 83 2 72 0 »3 0 40 5 37 0 18 5 58 0 00 6 90 0 GO 0 33 0 35 0 84 5 54 0 21 7 80 0 08 0 96 0 07 0 67 0 62 0 05 8 57 0 66 0 01 0 22 4 U 2 88 0 52 3 04 7 17 0 60 0 18 7 97 0 96 0 85 0 93 0 18 5 39 5 45 0 10 5 26 2 89 0 69 2 68 0 25 7 67 5 11 0 1). Hesse Darmstadt, Silver, Florin, C llindoostan. Gold, Moluir (E. I. Co.), 7 " Silver, Rupee, 0 Mecklenberg, Gold, 10 Thaler, 7 Mexico, Gold, Doubloon, av. 15 " Silver, Dollar, av. 1 Naples, Silver, Scudo, 0 Nctherland, Gold, Ducat, 2 " 10 Guilders, 4 " Silver, 3 Guilders, 1 " " Guilder, 0 " " Twenty-five cents, 0 ', " 2>^ Guilders, 0 New Granada, Gold, Doubloon, 21 car. 15 " " including the silver, 15 " 9-lOths the stand., 15 " " including the silver, 15 " Silver, Dollar, U. S. weight, 1 " " Dollar, or 10 Reals, 0 Norway Silver, Rigsdaler, 1 Persia, Gold, Soman n, 2 " Silver, Sahib Koran, 0 Peru, Gold, Doubloon, Lima, to iSSS, 15 Cuzco, tol833, 15 " " Cuzco to 1&37, 15 " Silver, Dollar, Lima mint, 1 " " " Cuzco, 1 " " J^Dol., Cuzco, debased, 0 " " X Hoi., Arequipa " 0 " " ^ Dollar Pasco, 0 Poland, Silver, Zfoty, 0 Portugal, Gold, Half Joe (full weight), 8 Crown, " Silver, Ouzado, " " Crown of 1000 Reis. " Half Crown, Prussia, Gold, Double Frederick, " Silver, Thaler, average, " " i- Thaler, averasrc average, u " " D"ble Thai. 3X Gulden, 1 Rome, Gold, Ten Scudi, 10 " Silver, Scudo, 1 " " Seston (3-10 Scudi), 0 Russia, Gold, 5 Roubles, 3 " Silver, Rouble, 0 " " Ten Zloty, 1 " " 30 Copecs, 0 Sardinia, Gold, 20 Lire, 3 Silver, 5 Lire, 0 Saxony, Gold, 10 Thaler, 7 " " Ducat, 2 " Silver Species Thaler, 0 " Thaler (XIV E. M.) 0 Siam, Silver, Tical, 0 Spain , Gold (Qr. Doubloon). 3 ," Silver, Pistarcen (4 Reals Vella), 0 Sweden, Silver, Species Tlialer, 1 " " >^ Daler. 0 Turkey, Gold, 10f> Piasters, 4 " " 20 Piasters (new), 0 " Silver, 20 Piasters, " 0 Tuscany, Gold, Sequin, 2 " Silver, Lepoldone, 1 " " Florin, 0 Wurtemburg, Silver, Guidon, 1834, 0 C. M. 39 5 10 0 4-1 H 89 0 53 0 00 7 94 0 26 5 00 7 20 0 40 0 09 0 98 2 61 0 66 0 31 0 36 0 02 0 93 0 05 0 23 0 21 0 5.5 0 62 0 53 6 0 5 0 8 3 36 0 49 r. 11 2 65 0 81 Q 55 2 12 0 56 0 0 0 68 0 11 0 39 0 37 0 0 5 30 0 96 7 75 0 13 5 22 0 84 5 93 2 94 0 20 0 96 0 68 0 58 5 90 5 19 5 04 0 52- 0 37 4 82 0 30 0 05 0 26 2 38 0 The quarter of wlieat is equal to the quarter of a ton of 2240 lbs, or 560 lbs. ; 70 lbs. in weight are an English bushel of wheat, while 60 lbs. of wheat make our bushel ; so that the U. S- wheat bushel is just 6-7ths of the English or imperial, and a quarter of wheat in England is equal to bushels in the United States, though in capacity to only 81/4 bushels. The barrel of flour contains 5 Winchester bushels, and weighs, net 196 lbs. Tlie barrel of Indian corn contains 3 1-8 bushels. The weight of a gallon of molasses is usually 11 lbs. but sometimes 10 or 12. STATE AND PROVINCIAL LAWS. 827 State and PROvixciAr, laws kegatiding legal, axd special INTEREST, THE LIMIT OF TIME IN ACTIONS FOR DEBT, &C., TOGETHER WITH THE LARGEST SUMS OBTAINABLE BY LEGAL PRO- CESS BEFORE A JUSTICE OF THE PEACE IN VARIOUS STATES, TER- RITORIES AND PROVINCES. States and Territories. imit in istice Ct. car. onds ; | ears. 1 ccounts. 1 ears. 1 ■2 a O V ssault & 1 ander. 1 ears. i egal Int. [ !r cent. 1 pecial on tracts, er cent. Fcnalty lor Lsury, OJO p. ■ Alabama, i$100 10 3 6 20 I g 8 Forfeit all Int. Arkansas, 500 10 3 5 10 1 6 10 For. prin. and int. Arizona, 10 None. California, 300 5 2 4 5 1 10 None. Colorado, .300 3 6 6 3 1 10 None. Connecticut, IOC 17 6 6 20 3 7 7 For. excess of int. Dakota Ter., IOC 20 6 6 20 2 7 12 Forfeit all int. Delaware, 100 20 3 6 20 1 G G Forfeit prin. Dist. of Columbia. 12 3 3 12 1 G 10 Forfeit all int. Florida, Georgia, 50 20 4 5 20 2 g None. 100 20 4 6 7 1 12 Forfeit all int. Idabo Ter., 100 5 2 4 5 2 lo 24 Fine andimpris't Illinois, 200 10 5 1 A 10 20 1 G 10 Forfeit all int. Indiana, 200 20 6 20 20 2 G 10 Forfeit ex. of int. Iowa, 300 10 5 10 20 2 G 10 Forfeit all int. Kansas, 300 15 3 5 5 1 g 12 For. all int. over 12, Kentucky, 50 15 2 15 15 1 G 8 Forfeit all int . Louisiana, 100 20 3 5 10 1 8 Forfeit all int. Maine, 20 20 c 20 20 2 6 None. Maryland, 100 12 3 3 12 1 G 6 Forfeit ex. of int. Massachusetts, 300 20 6 20 20 2 6 None. Michigan , 300 10 6 G 6 2 7 10 For. ex. over 7 p. c. Minnesota, 100 6 G 6 10 2 7 12 None. Mississippi, Missouri, 150 7 3 6 7 1 G 10 For. excess of int. 300 10 5 10 20 2 G 10 Forfeit all int. Montana Ter., 10 5 lO 10 2 10 None. Nebraska, 100 10 4 5 5 1 10 12 Forfeit all int. Nevada, 300 4 2 4 5 2 10 None. New Brunswick 20 6 6 3 1/2 G None. New HanipBhire, 13.33 20 6 C 20 2 6 G For 3t the ex & costs New Jersey, 100 16 6 6 20 2 7 7 Forfeit of all int. New Mexico, 100 10 6 10 10 1 6 None. New York, 200 20 6 6 20 2 7 7 For, of contract. North Carolina. 200 10 3 3 10 3 G 8 Forfeit of all int. Ohio, 300 15 G 15 15 1 6 8 For. ex. over G p. c. Ontario, Can., 20 6 6 20 2 6 None. Oregon, Pennsylvania, 250 20 6 6 10 2 10 12 For. prin. and int. . 100 20 G 6 20 1 6 G Forfeit ex. of int. Quebec, Can., Rhode Island, 30 5 5 30 1.2 6 None. 100 20 G 6 20 1 6 None. South Carolina, 100 20 6 6 20 2 7 None. Tennessee, 500 6 6 6 10 1 G 10 Forfeit ex. of int. Texas, Utah Ter. 100 5 2 4 10 1 8 12 H <( « 300 7 2 4 5 1 10 None. Vermont, 200 8 6 14 8 2 6 6 Forfeit ex. of int. Virginia, 50 20 5 5 10 1 G 6 Forfeit of all int. Wash. Ter.. 100 6 3 6 6 2 10 None. West Virginia, 100 10 5 10 10 1 G 6 Forfeit ex, of int. Wisconsin, Wyoming Ter.. 300 20 6 3 20 2 7 10 Forfeit of all int. 100 15 6 15 15 1 12 None. 828 SPECIAL T;AW.S OF ALABAMA. Condensed synopsis ov the i.aws pkutaininc. to the COLLECTION OF DEBTS, TnROUOIIOUT THE UNITED STATES AND DOMINION OF CANADA, Prosciitins :i digest of the laws of eacli State, Territory and Province, relat- ing to Exemptions from Forced Sale, Mechanics Lien, Arrest and Attach- ment for Debt, Assignments, Garnishment, Bills and Notes, Jurisdiction of Courts, Judgments, Executions, Chattel Mortgages, Deeds, Kiglits of Married Women, Wills, &c. The immense utility of the following compilation will he self evident to every Mechanic, Farmer, Trader, Merchant, Business Man, Professional Gentleman and Householder, whose interests are in the slightest degree identified with, or dependent upon, the supreme rule of law and order tliroughout the community. The enormous losses resulting from ignorance of the law on the aforesaid subjects are absolutely incalculable, and the diffusion of information bearing upon them cannot become too general. The coercive appliances of the Law are regarded with much disfavor by schem- ing and dishonest debtors, for it is well settled upon sound principles and the highest authority, that every bargain to do anything which the law for- bids, or the omission to do anything which the" law enjoins, is null and void. No contract can be enforced which contravenes the principles of the common law, the provisions of a statute, or the general or public policy of the law. In Nellis vs. Clark (4 Hill's Rep. 424), it was held that the vendor of real estate sold for the purpose of defrauding his creditors, could not re- cover the price. Business men, and all others having outlying debts to collect, are referred to an invaluable work entitled. The Collection Compendium, ijublished by E. A, Smith, 516 Pine st., St. Louis. The work presents a new and original system for the collection of claims by means of local agents at all points in the United States and Canada, upon very low stipulated rates of percentages, without the intervention of third parties. With this work at liand no man need be at a loss to collect a debt in any part of the country (provided the debtor is responsible), ou the most reasonable terms, and with very slight loss of time. SPECIAL LAWS OF ALABAMA. Exemptions.— ZTome worth ^2,000 and Personal Property.— By the Constitu- tion of Alabama (1868), The personal property of any resident of this State to the value of one thousand dollars, to be selected by such i-esident, shall be exempt from sale or execution, or other final processof any court issued for the collection of any debt contracted since the adoption of the present Constitution (1868). Every homestead, not exceeding eighty acres of land, the dwelling and appurtenances thereon, to be selected by the owner, and not in a city, town or village, or in lieu thereof, at the option of the owner, any lot in a city, town or village, with the dwelling and appurtenances thereon, owned and occupied by any resident of the State, and not exceeding the value of $2,000, shall be exempt from sale on execution or any other final process from a court for a debt contracted since the adoption of this Constitution. Such exemption does not extend to any mortgage lawfully obtained ; but such mortgage or other alienation of such homestead, by the owner thereof , if a married man, shall not be valid without the voluntary signature and assent of the wife of the same. The homestead of a family, after the death of the owner, is exempt from the payment of debts contracted since the adoption of this Constitution in all cases during the minority of the children ; or if the owner dies leaving a widow and no children, the same shall be exempt for her benefit, and the rents and profits thereof shall enure to her benefit. This exemption does not extend to cases of laborers' liens for work done and performed for the person claiming such exemption or the mechanics' lien for work done on the premises, (Constitution of 1868.) i SPECIAL LAWS OF ALABAMA. 829 In addition to the above, the Legislature passed an Act (approved April 23d, 1873), exempting by statue the personal property of any resident of this State to the value of itf 1,000, to be selected by the resident. The homestead of every resident not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres of land, and appurtenances thereon, to be selected by the owner thereof, or in lieu thereof, at the option of the owner, any lot in a city, town or village, with the dwelling and appurten- ances thereon, said lot not to exceed $2,000 in value. LiEX OF MechAjStics akd Laboreks.— By act, approved March 19th, 1773, a lien is given to laborers and employees (except officers) of railroads in this State, for Avork and labor done by them as such. Such extends to all the property, rights, effects and credits of eveiy description of such railroad companies. A lien is also given to all contractors, mechanics, builders, bricklayers, plasterers, painters, and every other person whatever in the State of Alabama, for work and labor done by them as such, and for materials furnished ; and such lien extends to all the rights, title and interest of the person or persons for whom the work is done, or the materials furnished, in the property upon which such work is done and for which such materials are furnished, including the land upon which such property may be situated. Provided, that all the liens given under this act shall all be held to be waived, unless proceedings are commenced -within six months . after the completion of such work, to enforce same. Such liens are enforced by process of attachment. (Act, approved 19th March, 1875.) CoLLECTiox OF DEBTS. — ^Attachment may issue for the collection of a debt, "Whether due or not for any money demand, the amount of which can be certainly ascertained, to recover damages for the breach of a contract where the damages are not certain or liquidated ; and where the action sounds in damages merely, upon an affidavit made by the creditor, or his agent or attorney, that the debtor absconds, secretes himself, or resides out of this State, so that process cannot be served upon him, or is about to remove'his property out of this State, whereby the plaintiff may lose his debt or be compelled to sue for it in another State ; or that the debtor has fraudulently disposed of, or is about fraudulently to dispose of his property ; or that he has money, property or effects liable to satisfy his debts, which he fraudulently withholds ; and stating the amount due, and that the attachment is not sued out for the purpose of vexing or harrassing the debtor, upon the plaintiffs executing bond payable to the defendant in double the amount sworn to be due, or when ho is unable to give bond with sufficient surety, upon making affidavit to that fact, an attachment :nay issue against the estate of the defendant, real and personal. Attachments auxiliary to suits pend- ing may be issued on the same grounds as in original attachments, in which case the suit proceeds as if commenced by original attachment. Every action founded upon a contract, express or implied, must be prosecuted in the name of the party really interested, whether he have the legal title or not, subject to any defense the debtor may have against the payee or creditor previous to notice of transfer ; but this does not apply to bills of exchange, or instru- . ments payable in bank or at a designated place of payment, and commercial instruments. Arrest in civil action or imprisonment for debt is prohibited in this State. Estates of deceased persons are subject to the payment of all debts except cer- tain exemptions in favor of the widow and children of the deceased. Deeds, Mortgages, Rights of Married Women, Wills, etc.— Acknowl- edgments, and proof of convejances m.aybe taken by judges of the supreme and circuit courts and their clerks, chancellors and registers in chancery, judges of probate, justices of the peace and notaries public. If taken in other States of the United States, they may be taken by the judges and clerks of the federal courts, judges of any court of record in any State, notary public or commissioner appointed by the Governor of Alabama. Beyond the limits of the United States, such acknowledgements and proof may be "taken by the judge of any court of record, mayor or chief magistrate of any city, town, borough or county, notary public, or any diplomatic, consular or commercial agent of the United States. No, other proof or authentication of such acknowledgement is necessary than the certificate of such officer, unless such officer be a justice of the peace, when it must be certified that such officer was a justice of the peace, and that his attesta- tion is genuine, by some judge of a court of record, or a commissioner of that State. All conveyances of land must be written or printed on parchment or paper, and signed by the vendor, or by his agent, legally authorized in writing, and when the party cannot write, his name must be written for him, with a cross and the words as follows : " his mark ; " and when so executed must be attested by tvro witnesses who can write, who must write their names witnesses thereto. 8H0 SPECIAL LAWS OF ALABAMA. Tho wife may relinquish hor right to dower hy joining with her husband in a con- veyance of land, and acknowledging same as above i)rovided. Husband's must join in conveyance of wife's separate properly. If the grantor is unknown, his identity may be established by witnoBScs suffi- cient to satisfy the odiccr before whom the acknowledgment ifj made. [Acknowledgment of Husband and Wife.] [Form.] The State of Alabama, Butler County, I (name and style of officer) hereby certify that Thomas Clark and Sarah Clark, his wife, whose names are signed to the foregoing conveyance, and who are known to me, acknowledged before me on this day, that being informed of the contents of the conveyance, they executed the same voluntarily, ou the day the same bears date. Given under my hand this the day of , A.D. 187 . (Signature and title.) The real and personal property of any female in this State, acquired before marriage, and all property to which she may be entitled by gift, grant, inher- itance or devise, shall not be liable for any debts, obligations and engagements Of her husband, and may be devised or bequeathed by her as she were a femme sole. (Const, of 18G8). A conveyance of the wife's separate estate may be made by the husband and wife jointly, signed in the presence of two witnesses, or ac- knowledged before any officer authorized to take acknowledgments of deeds. The husband is not liable for the wife's debts contracted before marriage ; but she may be sued alone and her separate property is liable for the satisfaction thereof. When no officer is convenient for taking acknowledgments, a deed may be attested by two witnesses, and afterward proved in the following form : [Form.] The State of Alabama, ) Benton County. ) I (name and style of officer) hereby certify that , a subscribing witness to the foregoing conveyance, known to me, appeared before me this day, and being sworn, stated that , the grantor in the conveyance, voluntarily ex- ecuted the same in his presence, and in the presence of the other subscribing witness, on the day the same bears date ; that he attested the same in the presence of the grantor and of the other witness, and that such other witness subscribed his name as a witness in his presence. Given under my hand this the day of , A.D. 187 . (Signature and title.) The examination of the wife separate and apart from her husband is neces- sary to convey the title to any homestead exempt by the laws of this State. (See Exemptions). This exam'ination may be had before a circuit or supreme judge, chancellor, or judge of probate or justice of the peace, who must endorse thereon a certificate in writing in the following form : [Form.] State of Alabama, ) County of Morgan, j I, , judge, (chancellor, notary public or justice of the peace, as the case may be), hereby certify that on the day of , A.D. 18 , came before me the within named , known (or made known) to me to be the wife of the within named , who, being by me examined separate and apart from her husband, touching the signature of the within , acknowl- edged that she signed the same of her own free will and accord, and without fear, constraint or persuasion of her husband. In witness whereof, I hereunto set my hand this the day of , 187 . A. B. (judge, chancellor, etc., as the case may be). The widow, (if no provision is made for her by will), is entitled to one-third part of the real estate of which her husband died seized, and to which she has not relinquished the right of dower, and one-half of the personal property if there be no children or if there be but one child ; if there be more than one child, and less than five, she is entitled to a child's part ; if there be five children or more, she is entitled to one-fifth part in absolute right. She shall be endowed of one-half of her husband's absolute estate when he dies leaving no lineal des- cendants, unless the estate is insolvent. The widow may dissent from or waive provision in a will, and claim her dower, at any time within one year after the SPECIAL LAWS OF ARKxY]!^SAS. 831 probate of the wiil. The widow may retain the dwelling-place, house, plantation, &c. , free from rent, tmtil her dower is assigned her. Chattel mortgages, are legal in this State but are null and void as to creditors and purchasers without notice until recorded, unless the property is brought into this State subject to such incumbrance, in which case they must be regis- tered within four months, and if such property be removed to a different county from that in which the grantor resides, the conveyance must be recorded within six months from the removal, or it ceases to have effect as to creditors and pur- chasers from the grantee without notice. All such mortgages must be recorded in the county where the grantor resides, and also where the property is. Wills.— iEvery person 21 years of age, and of sound mind, may dispose of lands by will. Wills must be signed by the testator, or by some one in his pres- ence and at his request, and attested by three or more witnesses. Noncupative wills may be established Avhen the testator in his last illness calls on persons to take notice that such is his will. SPECIAL LAWS OF ARKANSAS. EXEMPTTOXS.— ^o?ne worth ^5,000, and jiersonal property §2,000, 160 acres of land, or 1 town or city lot being the residence of a householder or the head of a family, the appurtenances and improvements thereto belonging, to the value of 55.000, and personal property to the value of $2,000. Mechanics' Liek. — Mechanics, material men and laborers have a lien on land and improvements to the extent of their labor. The original contractor must lile his lien within three months after all the things shall have been done or fur- nished. Sub-contractors must give Jiotice to owner, proprietor, agent or trustee, before or at the time he furnishes any of the things or performs services. These have precedence over all other subsequent incumbrances. Collection op Debts.— Attachments may issue against a defendant's prop- erty upon the following grounds ; In actions for recovery of money where the action is against a non-resident ; one absent four months ; has left the county of his residence to avoid the service of summons ; about to remove, or has removed his property, not leaving enough to satisfy plaintiff's claim ; con- ceals himself ; has sold liis property with fraudulent intent to cheat, hinder or delay his creditors, or is about to do so. Bond in double the amount claimed, with good securities, residents of county. Boats running on the navigable water of Ihe state may be attached for debts contracted by the owner, &c., on account of work or supplies furnished the boat. No arrest is allowable for debt in any civil action or mesne, or final process, unless in cases of fraud. In suits on open claims, the affidavit of plaintiff, legally taken and certified, will be deemed sufficient proof unless the defendant shall, under oath, deny the correctness of the account, either in whole or in part, in which event the plaintiff must prove the disputed portion of his account by other evidence. Affidavits may be made out of the state before a commission appointed by the Governor of Arkansas for that purpose, or before a mayor of a city, a judge of a court, notary public, or justice of the peace, whose certificate shall be deemed proof of its execution. The affidavit must be signed by the afiiant, the certi- ficate of the officer shall be written separately, following the signature of tho affinut, and all verifications must be attached to the instrument verified. Garnishment can be issued upon judgments or attachments against any per- son owing the debtor, or having his property in possession. Assignments of bonds, bills, notes, agreements, and contracts in writing, for tho payment of money or property, are permissable here. Assignments for the benefit of creditors are held good. Every assignment of every instrument of writing must bear date of the true day on which it was executed. Every protested draft or bill of exchange draws 10 per cent, interest from date of protest. If drawn upon any person in the state, it is in addition subject to 2 per cent, damages, if on any person and payable in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, "Illinois, and Missouri, or any point on the Ohio river, 4 per cent, damages, if upon any person and payable at any other place in the United States, 10 per cent, damages on amount specified ijr the bill. If owned by any person within this state, 2 per centum ; if without this state, but in the U. S., 6 per centum, if without the limits of the U. S., 10 832 SPECIAL LAWS 0¥ ARKANSAS. per oeiitum. Tho holder eliaU liavo liis action acaljist the owner, ciulorscr, or ftcooptor, or citlior ot them, and the protest ia held to be evidence of demand and refusal of payment. .ludKinents in circuit courts are a lien npon real estate in county for 3 ycarH, and may be revived so as to continue lien to 10, after which no execution can is- sue. Judj^ments injustice courts can forui a lien by filing transcript in circuit clerk's olhco. Executions cannot issue for 10 days after judgment unless ordered by the court and when issued to the jiroper oflicer are liens upon property liable to seizure. If no goods be found the debtor and any one supposed to owe him, or have hifi property in possession can be made amenable to answer under oath what prop- erty or interest he has subject to execution. Jurisdiction of justice of the peace in matter of contract is $100 exclusive of interest, for damages $100 ; in replevin $300 : and in suits concurrent with tJie circuit court when amount does not exceed $300. Circuit courts have juris- diction of all sums over $100, both at common law, and in equity. Deeds, Moktgages, akb Chattel. Mortgages, IIights op Married Women, Wills, &c. — Deeds must be under seal— a scrawl is a seal. Acknow- ledgement, if made in this State, may be made before a justice of the peace of the county where the land lies, judge of supreme or circuit court, or clerk of any ' court of record, or notary public ; if out of the United States, before the court of any State, Kingdom or Empire having a seal, or any mayor or chief oflicer of any city or town having an official seal, or before any officer of any foreign country, who, by the laws of such country, is authorized to take probate of tho conveyance of real estate of his own country, if such officer has, by law, an offi- cial seal. AVhen taken out of this State, but within the United States or their territories, before any court of the United States, or any State or territory having a seal, or the clerk of any such court, or before the mayor of any city or town, or chief of any city or town having a seal of office, or before any commissioner appointed by the Governor of this State. The seal must be attached, when there is one, and the deed recorded in the county where the land lies. The following is the form Avhen husband and wife join in the deed, the latter releasing dower. It is necessary for husband and wife to join in, whether hia own or her property : [Form I.] State of , ) . County of , | Be it remembered that on this day of , one thousand eight hundred and seventy , before me, the undersigned, , came , who are personally known to me to be the same persons whose names are sub- scribed to the foregoing instrument of writing, as parties thereto, and severally acknowledged the same to be act and deed for the purposes and consider- ation therein mentioned. And at the same time the said wife of the said having been by me first made acquainted with the contents of said instrument, on an exam- ination separate and apart from her said husband, acknowledged that she exe- cuted the same and relinquished dower in all the property therein mentioned, freely and without compulsion, or undue influence of her said husband. In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal of office, the day and year first above written. (Signature.) Married women can hold property, both real and personal, free from the debts of her husband, but a schedule, under oath, and verified by the oath of some other reputable person must be made by the husband and wife, and filed in the recorder's office of the County where the property is, and of the County where they reside. A widow shall be endowed of the third part of the property where- of her husband was seized of an estate of inheritance at any time during the marriage, unless the same was relinquished in legal form. A Chattel mortgage is of no avail as a lien unless recorded in the County where the property is. Wills should be executed as shown in Business Form No. 45, on pp. 815-816, and established by the disinterested evidence of at least three unimpeachable witnesses to the handwriting and signature of the testator- J 1SPECIAL LAWS OF CALIFORNIA. 833 SPECIAL LAWS OF CALIFORNIA. EXEMPTIOKS From Forced Salk— toorth $5,000 and personal property. , Necessary household and kitchen furniture, one sewing machine and one piaiuj j in actual use ; wearing apparel and one month's provisions for the family. Farming utensils ; also 2 oxen, or 2 horses, or 2 mules, and their harness, ono cart or wagon, and food for such oxen, horses or mules for one month; also seed to $200 in value. Tools or implements of an artisan necessary to carry on hia trade; the seal of a notary ; the instruments of a physician, dentist and surveyor necessary to the exercise of their profession, v/ith their professional libraries,, and the professional libraries and furniture of lawyers, judges and ministers of the gospel. The cabin of a m.iner, not exceeding in value the sum of $500, also his appliances for mining, not to exceed in the aggregate the sum of $500, and 2 horses, mules or oxen, with their harness, and food for such oxen, horses or mules for one month. Four cows with their sucking calves, and 4 hogs with their suck- ing pigs ; poultry not exceeding in value $50. The earnings of tho judgment debtor for his personal services rendered at any time within 30 days next preced- ing the levy. The shares held by a member of a homestead association, not ex- ceeding in value $1,000, if the person holding the shares is not the owner of a homestead under the laws of this State. All moneys, benefits or annuities grow- ing out of any life insurance on the life of the debtor, in any company corporated under the laws of the State, if the annual premiums paid do not exceed §500. Homestead for the head of a family, not to exceed $5,000 in value. Mechanics' Lien.— Mechanics and material men have a lien for labor and materials on the land and improvements to the extent of their claims. The orig- inal contractor must file his claim within GO days, and the laborers within 30 days, after the debt accrued. This lien attaches from the commencement of tho work, and has precedure over any subsequent or previous unrecorded encum- brance. Collection of Debts.— Attachment may issue on affidavit and undertaking with two sureties, in a sum not less than $300, or greater than the amount claimed, in action upon a contract, expi'essor implied, for tho direct payment of money, where the contract is made or is payable in this State and is not secured, or the security becomes valueless ; and in an action upon a contract, express or implied, against a defendant not residing in this State. Every species of property not exempt is subject to attachment. Arrests in civil actions arc not allowable in this State except as follows :— 1. In an action for the recovery of money or damages on a cause of action arising tipon a contract, express or implied, when the defendant is about to depart from the State with intent to defraud his creditors. 2. In an action for a fine or pen- alty, or for money or property embezzled, or fraudulently misapplied, or con- verted to his own use by a public officer, or an officer of a corporation, or an at- torney, or factor, broker, agent or clerk, in the course of his employment as such, or by any other person in a fiduciary capacity, or for misconduct or neglect in office or in a professional employment, or for a willful violation of duty. 3. In an action to recover possession of personal property unjustly detained, when tho property or any part thereof has been concealed, removed or disposed of, to pre- vent its being found or taken by the sheriff. 4. When defendant has been guilty of fraud in contracting the debt or incurring the obligation for which the action is brought, or in concealing or "disposing of the property, for the taking, conceal- ing or conversion of which the action is brought. 6. When the defendant has re- moved or disposed of his property, or is about to do so, with intent to 4efraudjii3 ereditors. No female can be arrested in any action. Garnishment maybe made under execution or attachment against any bailee of the debtor, and when the debtor's interest or right is acknowledged in a specified sum or article, the said sum or article may be paid over to the Sheriff under order of court. Judgments in all courts of record and in the justices' court, when filed in tho county court, are liens from the time they are docketed, which must be within 24 hours after their rendition, on all real estate owned by the defendant not exempt and situated in the county where the judgment was rendered, for a period of S years, unless the defendant stay execution by an appeal bond, in which case tha lien ceases. By recording a transcript of the docket in any other county tlie lien, attaches to all defendant's real estate situated therein not exempt. No lien ia credited by judgment on personal property. Executions may be issued at aiiy time within 5 years after entry of judgmejit, and do iiot affect property until there is a levy. Out of justices' courts, as c^?\lfts 53 834 SPECIAL LAWS OF CALIFOKNTA. of rccorcT, Ihcy may 1)0 levied on personal or real properly. TiCal estate rold nndor execution is subject to redemption -within six months. Judj,'ment d(!l)torB or their bailees, after the return of execution not satisfied, may be examined under oath concerning; their property. Assifjiiments in trust for the benefit of creditors, arc null, nri against any credi- tor not assenting thereto. The deed of assignnuint must bo in wi lting, acknowl- edged and recorded like a conveyance of real estate. Made to secui'c indorserf) or sureties are valid. Notes, bills, bonds, accounts and almost every specica of contract, is assignable. The party in intei-est must sue on an assigned contract. Bolts and vessels navigating the waters of this State, are liable for debts con- tracted by the master, owner, agent, or consignee thereof, for work done or eup- plicr; fm-nishcd, or for fitting out, repairing, or cquii)piug sucli boats or vessels, or for all sums due for anchorage or wharfage, or for all injuries done to persons or property by such boat or vessel, provided the wages of mariners, boatmen, and othcra employed in the service of such boats or vessels, shall have the preference, and bo first paid. Vessels are also liable for damages accruing from the non- performance or mal-performance of contract touching the transportation of per- sons or property. All actions against boat;; or vessels must be commenced within 15 days after cause of action accrues. < Damages are allowed on bills of exchange protested for non-acceptance or non- payment in favor of holders for value only, as follows : 1. If drawn npon any person in this State, §2 on each §plOO of the principal sum specified in the bill. 2. If drawn upon any person out of this State, but in any of the other States or ter- ritory west of the liocky Mountains, $'5 on each $100 of the principal sum speci- fied in the bill. 3. If drawn upon any person in the United States east of the llocky Mountains, f 10 on each ^100 specified in the bill. 4. If drawn upoii any person in any place in a foreign country, ^?15 on each 3100 of the principal sum specified in the bill, and from the time "of notice of dishonor and demand of pay- ment, lawful interest must be allowed ripon the aggregate amount of -the princi- pal sum and damages. Notarial protest is evidence of demand and refusal of payment at the time and in the manner stated in the protest. Deeds. Mortgages, and Chattel Mortgages, Rights of Married "Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds are not required to be under seal, as all private seals are abolished in this State. Must be acknowledged within the State, before a justice or clerk of the supreme court ; or a judge or a clerk of a court of record ; or a mayor or recorder of a city ; or a court commissioner ; or a county recorder ; or a notary public ; or a justice of the peace. Without this State and in the United States, before a justice of the peace or clerk of any court of record of the United States ; or a justice, judge or clerk of any court of record of any State ; or a commissioner appointed by the Governor of this State for that pur- pose ; or a notary public or any other officer of the State where the acknowledg- ment is made, authorized by its laws to take such, acknowledgment. Without tho United States, before a minister, commissioner or charge d'affaires of the United States, resident and accredited in the country where such acknowledgment is made ; or a judge of a court of record of the country where the acknowledgment is made, or a commission appointed for that purpose by the Governor of tho State pursuant to special statutes ; or a notary public. The husband or wife, can each, without the consent or assistance of the other, convey his or her separ- ate property. They must join in a conveyance of their community property. The following is the general form of the certificate of acknowledgment : State of California, \ County of Amador. ) •On this day of , in the year of , before me, John Simpson, notary public, personally appeared, , known to me (or proved to me on the oath of , ') to be the person whose name is sub- Ecribed to the within instrument, and acknowledged to me that he (or they) exe- cuted the same. , John Simpson, Notary Public. The form of certifi.cate when grantor is a married woman must be substantially as follows : State of California, ) County of Nevada, j On this day of , in the year of , before me, John Johnston, notary public, personally appeared , known to me (or proved to be on the oath of ) to be the person whose name is subscrib- ed to the within instrument, described as a married woman, and upon an examin- SPECIAL LAWS OF COLOKADO. 8S5 ation, ratliOTii; Uio hearing of hci Tuisband, I made her acquainted with the con- tonta of the instruments, and tliereupon she acknowledged to nio that ehe exe- cuted the same, and that ehe does not wish to retract such execution. John Johnston, Notary public. Property of everi/ description acquired by the wife before marriage, and that acquired afterward by gift, bequest, devise, or descent, shall be her separata property, and will in no case be liable for the debts of her husband. The hus' band's property of every kind similarly acquired, will be his separate property, and not liable for debts due by his wife previous to marriage. The property of each shall be liable only for the debts of the owner. All property acquired sub- sequent to marriage, aside from that acquired by gift, bequest, devise, or descent, shall be common property, but under the husband's entire control. Such com- mon property cannot be sold unless by an instrument in writing, signed by both husband and wife, and acknowledged by her upon an examination separate and apart from her husband, before a justice of the supreme court, judge of the dio- trict court, county judge or notary public, or if Avithout the State, there to ac- knowledge before some judge of a court of record, or a commissioiier appointed by authority of the State to take acknowledgement of deeds. A full and complete inventory of the wife's separate property shall be made out and signed by the wife, and proved in the manner required by law for proof of a conveyance of land ; the filing of this inventory in the recorder's office in the county where such property is situated, shall be notice of the wife's title, and ali said property shall be exempt from seizure for her husbands debts. Upon the death of either husband or wife, one-half of the common property j:hall go to the survivor, and the other half to the descendants, of the deceased liusband or wife, subject to the payments of the debts of the deceased. If there be no descendants of the deceased'husband or wife, the whole shall go to the sur- vivor, subject to such payment. As to dower, no estate shall be allowed to the husband as tenant by courtesy xv^on the decease of his v/ife, nor any estate in dower be allowed to the wife upon the death of her husband. Chattel mortgages are void as to third parties, unless possession of chattels passes from mortgagor, albeit the mortgage may be recorded. Any married v/oman may dispose of all her estate by will, and may alter and revoke such will, but the consent of thehnsband, in writing, must be annexed to every such instrument, and it must be subscribed, attested, proven, and recorded in like manner as a will is required to bo witnessed, proven, and recorded, unles,j the wife has power to make a v/ill, conferred by marriage contract, signed by her husband before marriage. No wills, except noncupative wills, shall be valid, unless in writing, and signed by the testator or by some person in his presence, and by his express direction, and attested by two or more competent witnesses subscribing their i:ames to the will, in the presence of the testator. No noncupative will bequeathing an estate over $500, shall be valid, unless proved by two v/itnesses, who were present at the making thereof ; nor unless it be proved that the testator, at the time of pronouncing the same, did bid some one present to bear witness that such was his will, or to that eifect ; nor unless Buch noncupative will was made at the time of the last sickness, and at the dwell- ing-house of the deceased, or where he or she had been residing for the space of 10 days or more, except v/hen such person, was taken sick from home, and died before his or her return. SPECIAL, LAWS OF COLORADO. ExEMPTTOlTS FROM FORCED SALE— Worth S2000 and Personal Proprriy. Every person being a householder and liead of a family, is entitled to a home- stead not exceeding in value $2000. To entitle such person to this exemption, he must enter the word " Homestead" on the margin of his recorded title. The following property, v.'hen owned by any person being head of a family, shall bo exempt : Family pictures, school books and library, pew in church, burial sites, all wearing apparel of family, all beds, bedsteads, stoves and cooking uten- sils, kept for use of debtor and family, and other household furniture not ex- ceeding 55100 in value, provision and fuel necessary to the family for 6 months, tools, etc., of any mechanic not exceeding $!.30O in value, library and implements of any professional man not exceeding §300, draft animals to the value of $200, 1 cow and calf. 10 sheep and the necessary food for them for (5 months, 1 farm wagon, cart, etc., 1 plough, 1 harrow and other farming implements not exceeding 880 SPECIAL LAWS OF COLORADO. 550, 111 rahie. Persons not at tlio head of a family, only entitled to wearing apparel and property to the value of $300. Mkchanics' Lif.n. — rcrsons who perform work or furnish materials to the nniount of more tliau ^25 lor tlio construction or repairing of any buildinp;, may have a lien IJicreou. Principal contractors must lilc their liei'i in 40 and isub- contractora within 20 days after last work done or material furnished. Action thereof must be commenced witliin G months from date of llling lien. Collection OF Deists.— Plaintiff must llle a bond, with security, payable to tlefendant, in double the amount swore to be due, with the customary, condi- tions, and then liie an affidavit, alleging positively one or more of tlie f'ollowinj:^ causes before attachment can be issued: 1. That the debtor has departed, or is about to depart from the State with intent to conceal his effects. 2. That he is a non-resident, oris a foreign corporation, or conceals himself. 3. That he is about to remove or dispose of his property to the injury of his creditors, or that he fraudulently contracted the debt, or has removed away any of his property with intent to "hinder or defraud his creditors. In attachment, replevin or meritorious defence may be made, when necessary, by the affidavit of the attorney or agent for the plaintiff. In assignments a debtor has the right to prefer one or more creditors to the' e?:clusion of others, except when the assignment is fraudulent, or where bank- ruptcy interposes. Bills, notes, bonds, or other written instruments acknowledging indebtedness, r.nd made payable to any person or persons, are assignable by endorsement, and the assignee may sue in his own name. Assignments are ruled by the common law. Jurisdiction of justices courts extends to $300 for recovery of money or per- Bonal property, probate courts to 5?20OO, over all cases, both at law and in equity, district courts are without limit as to amount or character of claim. Summons to justice court must ba issued 5 days, and served at least 3 daya before trial ; in probate and district courts they must be issued and served at least 10 days before the return day. A judgment of a court of record is a lien on an estate, real or personal, of the judgment debtor, owned or afterwards acquired by him, within the jurisdiction of such court, for a period of Bcven years after the last day of the term of court at which such judgment was rendered; provided, execution be issued thereon Avithin one year from the time such judgment lien accrued ; judgment before justices of the peace may become a lien on real estate by filing a transcript of such judgment in the office of the clerk of the district court of the county in. which such judgment was rendered. Execution from justice of the peace can be issued immediately after judgment and is a lien on personal estate of the debtor from the time of the delivery to the constable, and can bo levied only on personal property. Execution from courts of record, bind the property of debtor from time of delivery to sheriff. Every species of property, i-eal and personal, and every interest in real estate, legal or equitable, is subject to execution. Lands sold on execution may, within six months after such sale, bo redeemed by the execution debtor. Execution creditor shall receive from sheriff a cerLificate of purchase, which should be re- corded. After expiration of six, and at any time before the expiration of nine months, any judgment creditor may redeem such land by sueing out execution on his judgment and paying to the officer the amount (with ten per cent, per annum thereto, from date of sale) for which the lands were sold. The process of garnishment may be exercised either on execution or attach- ment. Arrest and imprisonment on civil process is prohibited in this State. In suits on bills, bonds, notes, and similar instruments, the defendant, before lio \till be permitted to plead, demur, &c., must file an affidavit of merit that he has as he believes, a good and sufficient defence to . said suit or some part thereof. Affidavits of persons without the State may be made before any notary publie or clerk of any court of record under their respective seals. Bills of exchange exi'jressing " Value received," duly presented and proteste»fl for non-acceptance or non-payment, entitle holder to recover from drawer ol' endorser thereof, upon due notice of such protest, the amount of such bill, with legal interest from time when same should have been paid, and ten per centum damages in addition thereto, and costs and charges of protest. Parties to_ such instruments as endorsers, makers, acceptors, may be sued separately or jointlj', Eecord required to be kept by notaries public, competent evidence to prove tlma and manner of service of notice of protest, names of parties, and descriptio.'^ and amount of instrument. SPECIAL LAWS OF COLORADO. 837 Sheriffs are ameTiable in treble damages to aggrieved party, and fine not less than $25 nor more than $250 for any malfeasance in office. Deeds, Mortgages, Chattel Mortgages, Rights of Married "Womekt,. "Wills. &c.— Conveyances must be nnder seal ; a scrawl is sufficient. A con- Teyance made in compliance with all requisites carries with it right to immediate possession. All covenants in the deed run with the land conveyed. A power of attorney to convey should be under seal and recorded with the deed made thereunder. Acknowledgments of deeds wi'itten in the State may be made before any jus- tice or judge of the supreme or district courts, or before any clerk or deputy clerk of such courts under the seal thereof, or before any probate judge under the seal of his court, or before the clerk and recorder of any county or his de- puty under the county seal, or before any notary public under his notarial seal, or before any justice of the peace. Without the State and within the United States, before the secretary of any State or territory, the clerk of any court of record, or commissioner of deeds for this State, or before any officer authorized by the laws of the State were taken to take acknowledgments. The seal of any of the above officers must accompany the certificate, and when not taken before the secretary of a State or territory, or clerk of a court of record, the certificate of the clerk of some court of Record where the officer taking the acknowledgement resides must accompany such acknowledgement that such officer is the person tha assumes to be. Without the United States before any United States consul, mayor of any city under his official seal, any court of record of any foreign state, under tho certificate of the judge thereof and the seal of such court. [Form of Acknowledgment by Unmarried Grantor.] State of Colorado, ) County of Boulder, j * ' I, (name and style of office) in and for said county, in tho State aforesaid, do hereby certify that A. B., who is personally known to me to be the same person whose name is subscribed to the annexed deed, appeared before me this day in person, and acknowledged that he signed, sealed and delivered the said instru- ment of writing as his free dnd voluntary act for tho uses and purposes therein set forth. Given under my hand and (style of seal) this day of , A. D. 18 . (Signature.) [Official seal.] (Stylo of office.) Form of certificate where the husband and wife join in a conveyance is tho same as the foregoing form, except that after the name of the husband or wife, A. B,, is inserted, " and C. !)., his wife " (or her husband, as tho case may be), who are personally known, etc.," down to tho teste, before which is inserted the following : "And the said CD., wife of the said A. B., having been first examined by me separate and apart from and out of the hearing and presence of her said hus- band, and the contents, meaning and elfect of the within deed having been by me fully explained to her, acknowledged to me that she executed the same freely and voluntarily, and without any coercion or compulsion on the part of her said husband, and that she does not Avish to retract the same." Teste as in forerjoing form. AVitnesses to deeds are not necessary, but arc de- sirable. Any married women may bargain, sell and convey her estate, real and per- sonal, and make any contract with reference thereto, as though a fenime sole. She may also sue and be sued, contract debts in her own jiame and upon her own credit, execute any instrument of writing, and judgmeiits may be pronounced and enforced against her as though a femme sole. A chattel mortgage shall not be valid as against third parties, unless there be a delivery to the mortgagee of such property, in whose possession it shall remain until the lien expires ; or unless the mortgagor shall acknowledge such mort- gage before a justice of the peace in the justice's district where such mortgagor resides, who shall keep a memorandum of the same. If the mortgagor retain possession of the property mortgaged, the mortgage must expressly provide for such possession ; otherwise it is void. A mortgage of a stock of goods wherein the mortgagor has the right to sell the same is void. Chattel mortgages may be acknowledged in any township in which is situated the county seat. Where the mortgagor resides in such township, before any jus' tice of tho peace, notary public, or county clerk. 838 SPECIAL LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. SPECIAL LAWS OF CONNECTICUT, T^XKMrTTOTs'S FROM FoKOKT) SALIC— A^o Jlomc exempted— Yo.rmnhl property •Rs follows, viz. Of the property of a,ny one person, liiri necessary apparel and bedding and household furniture iieccssary for supporting life ; arms, niililary equipments, uniforms or musical instruments owned by any member of the mili- tia for military purposes ; any pension moneys received from the United Slates ■while in the hands of the pensioier ; implements of the debtor's trade, his li- brary, not exceeding $500 in value ; 1 cow, not exceeding 5?]5f) in value ; any number of sheep not exceeding 10, nor exceeding in all §fl50 in value ; 2 swine and the pork produced from 2 swine, or 2 swine and 200 lbs. of pork ; of the property of any one person having -wife or a family, 25 bushels of charcoal, 2 tons of other coal, 200 lbs. of wheat flour, 2 cords of Avood, 2 tons of hay, 200 lbs. each of beef and lish, 5 bushels each of potatoes and turnips, 10 bushels eacli of Indian corn and rye, and the meal or flour manufactured therefrom, 20 lbs. each of wool and flax, or the yarn or cloth made therefrom, and 1 stove and the pipe belonging thereto ; the horse of any practicing physician or surgeon of a value not exceeding §200, and his saddle, bridle, harness and buggy ; 1 boat owned by one person and used by him in the business of planting or taking oysters or clams, or taking Bhad, together with the sails, tackle, rigging and implements used in said busi- ness, not exceeding in value .'g200 ; 1 sewing machine, being the property of any one pei'son using it or having a family ; one pew, being the property of any person, liaving a family ordinarily occupying it, and lots, in any b.ii-ying ground appro- priated by its proprietor for the burial place of any person or family. The hut!- band's interest in the wife's estate cannot be taken for his debts during the lifo of the wife or any issue of their marriage, except for debts contracted for the support of such wife or issue. Any-xiebt that has accrued for personal service not exceeding $10, or if the debtor have a wife or family not exceeding $25, and all benefits allowed by any association in this State on account of sickness, are ex- empt ; provided, that in suits brought for a debt accruing for house rent, provisions, wearing apijarel or fuel, furnished to the debtor or for the use of his family, only §10 are exempt, and no exemption is allowed for personal board of the debtor or his family. Mechaxics' Liex.— Material men and mechanics have a lien on land and buildings for the amount of tbeir claim, provided the same exceeds $25. To render the lien valid, the claimant must fllo a certificate of the claim, verified by oath, with the town clerk within CO days from the time when he commenced to furnish materials or render services. Where the claimant is a sub-contractor he must, unless his contract with the original contractor is in writing, assented to by the proprietor, give nooice in writing to the proprietor within 60 days of the time he commences to furnish materials or render services that he intend^ to claim a lien, otherwise he can have none. This lien takes precedence of all subsequent incumbrances. , . . - Collection of Dkbts.— Attachment in civil actions, may be issued and levied upon any property of the debtor that is hot by statute exempt from attach- ment and execution. An attachment may be dissolved by the substitution of a bond. No action lies for damages arising from an attachment, unless the suit was malicious. Where the amount attached is so great as to be vexatious or oppres- sive, the court will order a release of a portion of the property. An attachnaent remains a lien for sixty days after the rendition of judgment in the case of per- sonal propei'ty, and four months in the case of real estate. The debtor is exempt from arrest in all actions founded on contract, express or implied. In actions sounding in tort and for fraud the debtor may be im- prisoned, but can obtain a discharge on taking the " poor debtor's oath," Assignments in insolvency are made to a trustee and in use to the benefit of all the creditors. A transfer of property made 60 days before the assignment is good. Conveyances made in the regular covirse of business, or for a present con- sideration, are valid in the absence of fraud. Jurisdiction of justice courts ex- tends to .$100, and either party has the right of appeal in all cases. Courts of common pleas and th6 district court have original jurisdiction of all causes in equity where the matter in demand does not exceed $500 and causes in law where the demand exceeds $100 and does not exceed $500, and appellate jur- isdiction in cases brought by appeal from justices. The superior court has originally jurisdiction in law and equity of all cases where the demand exceeds $500, and appellate jurisdiction where there is no common pleas or district court in the county. The supreme court of errors has SPECIAL LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. 839 final and conclnsive jurisdiction in all matters. In determining the amount oL the demand, interest to the commencement of the suit is included, bat not costs. Any debt owing to the defendant, or any goods or estate in the hands of a third party may be taken by process of garnishment. Execution maybe taken out any time during the lives of the parties. If either be dead, scire facias on the judgment must be brought. A judgment that has lain dormant for 20 years is presumed to be satisfied. The judgment itself creates no lien, but any property that has been attached in the suit in held to respond to the judgment. A negotiable note must be for the payment of money only, payable to some person or his order or bearer. A negotiable promissory note on demand is con- sidered over-due and dishonored after four months. Days of grace arc not al- lowed on sight or demand notes, or on bank checks. Protests of inland bills ot exchange and promissory notes, protested without this State, are prima facia evidence of the facts therein stated. "When a bill of exchange, drawn or liego- tiated in this State upon any person in any other, State, territory or district of the United States, shall be returned unpaid and duly protested, the person to "Whom the same is payable is entitled to recover the damages, according to tho place where payable, over and above the principal sum, together with the law- ful interest on the aggregate amount of such principal sum and damages from the time at which notice of such protest shall have been given, and pajment of t5aid principal sum and damages demanded. sheriffs refusing to pay over money collected, v/hen demanded, are liable to- pay ivfo per cent, a month on the amount received from time of demand ; fail- ing to execute process or making false or illegal returns, are liable to pay all damages. Any oflicer, indorsing, demanding or receiving more than legal 'fees on any civil process, is liable to pay to the person against whom the charge was made threefold the amount charged. No person is disqualified as a witness in a civil action by reason of any inter- est in the case or conviction of any crime, but the fact may be shown to discredit his testimony. Deeds, Mortgages, CnATTEii Mortgages, Eights of married women, &c. Conveyances of real estate must be in writing, sealed by the grantor and sub- scribed by him or his attorney duly authorized, attested by two witnesses, with their own hands, and acknowledged by the grantor as his free act and deed. A Ecrawl enclosing the letters L. S. (L. S.) is equivalent to a seal. The acknowl- edgment, if in this State, is made before a judge of a court of record of this State or of the United States, justice of the peace, commissioner of the school fund, commissioner of the superior court, notary public, town clerk or assistant town clerk ; if in any other State or territory of the United States, before a commis- sioner appointed by the Governor of this State and residing therein, or any offi- cer authorized to take the acknowledgment of deeds in such State or territory ; and if in a foreign country, before any consul of the United States, or notary public or justice of the peace in such foreign country. Conveyances of real estate situated in this State and powers of attorney therefor, executed and acknowledged in any other State or territory in conform- ity to its laws relative to the conveyance of lands therein situated, are valid. The wife need not be privately examined apart from her husband. The husband joins with the wife in the conveyance of her real estate, but con- veys his own without her signature. Dower attaches only to the real estate be- longing to the husband at his decease. The following form of acknowledgment is used in all cases : ment, and acknowledged the same to be his free act and deed before mef Married woman may hold real estate to their separate use in their own name. Ill all conveyances of the same the husband must join. The husband is trustee of the wife's personal estate, and accountable to her for the avails. He may be removed for cause, and another trustee appointed. She may be sued for her contracts and acts ; her husband is not liable upon any of such causes of action. She may also enter into a contract jointly with her husband for the benefit of her Bolc estate, or their joint estate, and be sued on the same. She may also carry on business, and if any right of action accrues to her therefrom, may sue upon the same as if she were unmarried. Tho widow shall have the right of dower in one third of tho real estate of which her husband died possessed in his own right, to be to her during her natural life. State of Connecticut. County op , Personally appeared ' ss. 840 SPECIAL LAWH OF DISTRICT OF COLUMDIA. A challol morigajto of j)Topcrty not porifihablc in ilanaturo is Rood, although tho grantor rotaiiirt possession, but tlie docd niuBt be (ixecuted with all the form- alities required in town reeords, as in tho case of real estate. Property exempt from exncutioii is also a jiroper subject for a chattel mortgage. Conveyances of otluir spe<-i('S of personal property, unaccompanied by possession, are void aa ngai)iat creditors. Wills must be in writing, subscribed by the testator, and at« tested by the witiicssus, all oi" them subscribijig in his i)rescucc. SPECIAL LAWS OF DISTRICT OF COLUM- BIA. Exemptions from Forcet) Sale.— iV'o JTome cxem,pfecL Personal Property cf the following value is exempt from distraint, attachment, or sale on execution, except for servants or laborers wages due : Wearing apparel, household furni- ture to the amount of $300 ; provisions and fuel for 3 months, mechanics tools or implements of any trade, to the value of 200, with stock to the same amount ; the library and implements of a professional man or artist, to the value of f 300 ; a farmer's team and other utensils, to the value of $100, family pictures aud library to value of $400. Mechanics' Liens.— Any person who, by virtue of any contract with owner of any building or his agent, performs labor or furnishes materials for construc- tion or repair of such building, shall, upon tiling in otHce of clerk of the supreme court of the District, at any time after commencement of the building, and with- in three months after completion of such building or repairs, a notice of his inten- tion to liold a lien upon the property for the amount due or to become due to him, specifically setting forth the amount claimed, have a lien upon such build- ing and lot of ground upon which the same is situated, for such labor done or materials furnished, when amount exceeds $20. Any sub-contractor, journey- man or laborer employed in construction or repair of any building, or in furnish- ing any materials or machinery for same, may give, at any time, owner thereof notice in writing, particularly setting forth amount of h'is claim and services rendered for which liis employer is indebted to him, and that he holds the owner responsible, and the owner of the building shall be liable for the claims but not to exceed tlie amount due from him to employer at time of notice, or subsequently, •which may De recovered in an action. Collection of Debts. — A writ of attachment and garnishment may bo issued whenever plaintiff, his agent or attorney shall file in clerk's office, at commencement or during pendency of suit, an affidavit (supported by testimony of one or more witnesses,) showing grounds upon which he bases action, and setting fortli plaintiff has just right to recover against defendant ; and also stating either tliat defendant is a non-resident of district, or evades service of ordinary process by concealing himself or withdrawing from district temporally, or has removed or is about to remove some of his property from district to defeat just demands. Plaintiff must also file his' undertaking, with sufficient surely, to ■be approved by clerk, to make good all costs and damages by reason of wrongful Buing out of attachment. Arrest in civil actions is unknown here. Assignments are regulated by the principles of common law. Justices of peace have jurisdiction in all civil cases where amount claimed to be due for debt or damages arising out of contracts, express or implied, or damages for wrongs, or injuries to persons or property, does not exceed $100, ex- cept in cases involving title to real estate, actions to recover damages for assault, or assault and battery, or for malicious prosecution or actions against justices of peace or other officers for misconduct in oflftce, or in actions for slander, verbal or written. Supreme court of District of Columbia possesses same powers and exercises same jurisdiction as circuit courts of United States. Any one of justices of said court may hold a special term with same powers and jurisdiction possessed by United States district courts. Any one of said justices may hold a criminal court for trial of all crimes and offences arising in the District. Su- preme court of District has jurisdiction of cases arising under copy-right and patent laws ; and of all applications for divorce ; and also has jurisdigtion as a probate court- SPECIAL LAWS OF DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 841 Judgments arc lien on real estate from date of rendition and on personal property when execution is issued and in marshal's hands. Execution may Issue the day judgment is rendered. There is no redemption after execution sale. Deeds, Mortgages, Rights of Makried Women, etc. — Acknowledgments of deeds may he made before any of the following named officers of State, district, county or territory within United States, in which person making deed may he living, namely : Before any judge of court of record and of law ; any chan- cellor of State ; any judge of suprem.e, circuit, district or territorial courts of the United States ; any justice of the peace ; any notary public ; any commissioner of circuit court of district appointed for that purpose. The officer taking ac- Icnowledgment must annex to the deed a certificate under his hand and seal, tc following effect : cmTNTY^^ : } ^'^«-)' = I, Joseph Mercer, a notary public, (or other prescribed officer, giving his title) in and for the county (or city, or parish, or district) aforesaid, in the State (or territory, or district) of , do hereby certify that A. B., a party (or A. B. and C. D., parties) to a certain deed bearing date on the day of , and hereto annexed, personally appeared before me in the county (or city, etc.), aforesaid, the said A. B. (or A. B. and C. D., etc.,) being personally well known to me as (or proved by the oaths of credible witnesses before me to be) the person (or persons) who executed the said deed, and acknowledged the same to be hia - (her or their) act and deed. Given under my hand and seal this day of , A.D, 18 . [Seal.] JOSEPH MERCER. The following is the form where husband and wife join in the deed, the lattei relinquishing dower, or when she is a party with her husband to any deed : K?y'' :} (Orcity,etc.),to-wit: I, Joseph Mercer, a notary public in and for the county aforesaid, do hereby certify that A. B. and C. D., his wife, parties to a certain deed bearing date on the day of , A, D. 18 , and hereto annexed, jjersonally appeared before me, in the county aforesaid; the said A. B. and C. D., his wife, being personally well known to me as (or proved by the oaths of credible witnesses be- fore me to be) the persons who executed the said deed,- and acknowleged the samo to be their act and deed ; and the said C. D., wife of said A. B., being by me ex- amined privily and apart from her said husband, and having the deed aforesaid freely explained to her, acknowledged the same to be her act and deed, and de- clared that she had willingly signed, sealed and delivered the same, and that she wished not to retract it. Given under my hand and seal this • day of , A.D. 18 . JOSEPH MERCER. When acknowledgments are made beyond limits of District, within United States, the certificate of the same must be accompanied by a certificate of the register clerk or other public officer having cognizance of the fact under his offi- cial seal, that, at the date of the acknowledgment, the officer taking the same was, in fact, the officer he purported to be. Deeds made in a foreign country may be executed and acknowledged before any judge or chancellor of any court, master or master extraordinary in chancery, or notary public, or before any secretary of legation or consular officer of the United States. Chattel Mortgages— Must be recorded within twenty days after execution. No bill of sale, deed of trust or mortgage for property exempt by law from execution is binding, unless signed by wife of debtor. The right of any married woman to property, personal or real, belonging to her at time of marriage or ac- quired during marriage in any other way than by gift or conveyance from her- husband, are as absolute as if she were unmarried and are not subject to disposal of her husband nor liable for his debts. Any married woman may convey, devise and bequeath her property or any interest therein in the same manner and with like effect as if she were unmarried. Any married woman may contract and sua and be sued in her own name, in all matters having relation to her sole and separate property, in the same manner as if she were unmarried. Neither the husband nor his property is bound by any such contract made by a married woman, nor liable for any recovery against her in any such suit, but judgment may be enforced by execution against her gole gepai'ate estate la saiaQ man- ner as U she were unmarried. 842 BPTCCTAL LAWB OF DELAWARE. DAKOTA, HOMESTEAD LAW, EXEMPTIOX VKOM FoRCEi) Salic— //oHic o/'fiO Acrf.s wUh huildinrj.'j, or L'oufse, and one-half acre in a Villar/eor City, ami. /'irsoiiu/ I'roju'j-I if. 'Hio iiousclioldcr is entitled to a homestead coiisistiu.ij; of not iiior*; ( lin n so urrt'-i of land witli build- jnj^H and a|)i)nrtenance3 thereon, and poirfona l properly a,.;'j;r; .','atijJ:g in value not to exceed §1500, v/hich personal property is delined by'iJtaLute. SPECIAL LAWS OF DELAWARE. Exemptions fkom Fohckd Sale.— iVo Home Exernjjted, Personal Propcrfy, $275.— Family library, school books, family Bible, family pictures, seat or pew in church, lot in burial ground, all wearing apparel of debtor and family ; and in addition to above, tools, iniijlements and tixtures necessary to carry on trade t)r business, not exceeding $75. Head of family, in addition to above, or other personal property not exeee.ling $200. And in Newcastle county, wages for labor and service are exempt from execution attachment. Mecuanics Lien— Mechanics, builders, artizans, laborers or other persons, having performed or furnished work and labor or materials or both, to an amount exceeding §25, in or for the erection, alteration or repair of any house, building or structure, in persuance of any contract, express or implied, with the owner or agent of such building or structure, may at any time within six months from tlie completion of said work and labor, or the furnishing of such materials, file in the otiice of the prothonotary of the county in wliich said building ia situate a bill of particulars of his claim, with an affidavit setting forth that the defendant is justly indebted to the plaintiff in a sum of $25, and has refused or neglected to pay or secured to be paid to the said plaintiff the amount due on his claim. The atiidavit must identify the property and give the names of the parties claimant, and the owner or reputed owner of said building. Judgment obtained Bliall be a lien on said building or structure and the real estate attaclied thereto upon which the same is er'ected, and shall relate back to the day upon which the worker laborer furnisliing of materials was commenced, and shall take priority according. Where several contractors are employed, in pursuance of any con- tract with the owner or agent, there shall be no priority of lien, but all be paid pro rata. Collection- of Debts.— What is known as a " domestic attachment," may be i:sued against any inhabitant of this State after a return to a summons or capias issued and delivered to the sheriff or a coroner ten days before the return thereof, showing that the defendant cannot be found, and proof satisfactory to the court of the cause of action ; or upon atiidavit made by the plaintiff or some other credible person, and tiled with the prothonotary " that the defendant is justly indebted to the plaintiff in a sum exceeding $50, and has absconded from the place of his usual abode, or gone out of the State with intent to defraud his creditors or to elude process, as is believed." All creditors share in proceeds of Bale of property. A foreign attachment may be issued against a person not an inhabitant of this State, after a return to a summons or capias, issued and delivered to the - sheriff or coroner 10 days before the return thereof, showing that the defendant cannot be found, and proof, satisfactory to the court, of the cause of action ; or upon atiidavit made by the plaintiff or some other credible person, and tiled with the prothonotary, " that the defendant resides out of the State, and is justly in- debted to the said plaintiff in a sum'exceeding $50." Ko capias shall be issued on any judgment in a civil action (against any free white person) until the return of execution determines that the defendant has not sufficient real or personal property within the county to satisfy the debt or damage therein expressed ; or until the plaintiff in such judgment, or some credible person for him, sh 11 make a written atfidavit, to be filed in prothonotary's ofifice before the issuing of the writ, to the same effect ; nor then unless the plain- tiff in said judgment (or decree), or some credible person for him, shall, in addi- tion to the above requirement, make a written affidavit, to be filed in the protho- notary's office ( r register in chancery) before the issuing of the process stating "that the defendant in such judgment (or decree) is justly indebted to the said plaintiff in a sum exceeding $50, and that he verily believes the said defendant Iia.s secreted, conveyed away, assigned, cettled or disposed of either money, SPECIAL LAWS OP DELAAVAEE. 843 goods, chattels, stocks, securities for money, or other real or personal estate of the value of more than §50, with intent to defraud his creditors, and shall, more- over, in such affidavit, specify and set forth the supposed fraudulent transac- tions." As to remedy, the party arrested may have a hearing before any judge, upon the specification of fraud, upon petition and reasonable notice to the other side. As to assignments, all bonds, specialties, and notes in writing, payable to any person, or order, or assigns, maybe assigned, and the assignees, or indorsees, or their executors or administrators, may in their own name sue for and recover the money due thereon ; provided, that all such assignments of bonds and special- ties shall be under hand and seal, and before at least two credible Avitnesses. In assignments for the benefit of creditors, the assignee, within 30 days after iho execution of said assignment, shall file in office of the register of chancery of the county in which the real and personal estate of the assignor is situate, an in- ventory or schedule of the estate or effects so assigned, together with the affidavit of said assignee that the same is a full and complete inventory of all such estate and effects, so far as the same has come to his knowledge. The chancellor shall appoint two appraisers, who shall appraise the same and make return thereof under oath. The assignee shall give bond, with at least two sufficient sureties, to be ap- proved by the chancellor, in double the amount of the appraised value of the es- tate so assigned. The assignee to render annual accounts of his trusteeship until his final account is rendered and approved. Exceptions may be filed to the ac- count of said assignee, and a hearing be had npon the same and proceedings ba had upon said bonds for the protection of interested parties. As to garnishment, in writs of attachment, domestic or foreign, to compel ap- pearance of defendant, there is a clause commanding the sheriff, That he sum*- mon the defendant's garnishees to appear at tho next superior court, to declare what goods, chattels, rights, credits, money or effects of the defendant they havo in their hands respectively." The writ is dissolved at any time before judgment, by the defendant giving special bail to the action, and the garnishees arc dis- charged. If a garnishee, duly summoned, does not appear as required, he may be compelled by attachment to appear and answer or plead, and he shall be so compelled within tv/o terms, or the attachment, as to him, shall be dissolved. If he appear, and at the request of the plaintiff, answers under oath that he had no money, goods, chattels, rights, credits or effects of the defendant liable to attach- ment, in his hands or possession, at the time ho was iiotified of the attach- ment, or at any time after, he shall bo discharged. But if the plaintiff shall re- quire him to plead, he sball plead nulla bona, on which the plaintiff may tako issue and go to trial ; and if it be found that the garnishee had, at the time ho ■was notified of the attachm.ent, or at any time after and before his plea pleaded, any money, goods, chattels, or effects of the defendant in his hands or possession, the jury shall render a verdict for the plaintiff and assess damages to the value of Buch property, and judgment shall be entered against such garnishee therefor, with costs ; such judgment shall be pleadable by the garnishee in bar to any action at tho suit of the defendant. Judgments of courts are liens from the time of entering upon the real estate of defendant within the county in which they are rendered ; after the lapse of 20 years they are presumed to be paid, but this presumption may be rebutted. Upon a return of nulla bona, on execution issued by a justice of the peace, or when the defendant pleads Ms freehold, a transcript of said judgment may be filed in tho superior court of the county, and the judgment made allien upon laud, and exe- cution then issues out of said superior court. Executions may issue to any county : personal property must be first ex- hausted before real estate can be levied upon. Personal property is bound from the time the writ comes into the hands of the sheriff, if an actual levy be made within 60 days thereafter. The lien of such a levy remains in full force for 3 years, as against a subsequent execution levied upon the same goods. Sale at expiration of 30 days after levy. Notice by advertisement, posted at least 10 days in five or more public places in the county, two of which shall be in the hundred of defendant's residence. Goods and chattels of a tenant are liable to one year's rent inarrear or growing due, in preference to execution. After exhausting personalty, inquisition is held on lands, upon 10 days' no- tice. If the rents and profits for seven years are sufficient to satisfy the debt and costs, a writ of elegit may issue, under which the lands are delivered to the plain- tiff, to be held until the debt is satisfied. If not sufficient, a writ of venditioni exponas issues and the land is sold, upon 10 days' notice by advertisements and publication. When the sale is confirmed by the court the officer makes a deed to purchaser, capias ad satisfaciendum. 844 SPECIAL LAWS OF DELAWARE. Proporty of tlio dohtor in llio li.aiul;^ of third persons can bo rc.ichod f:il,licr b» fore or after lin;il judgment, .'iiul under attaclimcnt by process of garui«lniicnt, upon an allidavil, being made by the plaintilF, )ns agent or attorney, that lio doci not believe the ,„ County of , ) Beit remembered, that on the day of , in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and , personally came before the (Subscriber (name and title), John Wilson and Mary Wilson, his wife, parties to this indenture, known to me personally (or proved on oath of Eichard Roe) to be such, and severally acknowledged said indenture to be their act and deed re- spectively, and the said Mary Wilson being at the same time privately examined by me, apart from her husband, acknowledged that she executed the said inden- ture v/illingly, without compulsion, or threats or fear of her husband's dis- pleasure. Given under mj^hand and official seal the day and year aforesaid. (Signature and title.) [Form of Certificate where Grantor is Unmarried.] State of Delaware, ) County of . ) * Be it ren^embered, that on the day of , in tho year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and • , personally came before the subscriber (name and title), John "Wilson, party to this indenture, knov/n to me personally (or proved on oath of Peter Smith), to be such, and acknowledged said indenture to be his act and deed. Given under my hand and oflicial seal the day and year aforesaid. (Signature and title.) There is no statutory provision for proof of deed bv subscribing witness out of the State. Deeds must be recorded within one year after the sealing and delivery of the instrument. Mortgages are executed and acknowledged in the same manner as deeds, and are foreclosed by proceedings in the superior court by writ of scire facias, and after judgment, salo of the premises is made by writ of levari/acias. SPECIAL LAWS OF GEORGIA. 847 The wife must join with the husband in the execution of deeds to relinquish her dower, and the following should be in the certificate of acknowledgment : " Personally came C. D., wife of the said A. B., to me well known, etc., and acknowledged she made herself a party to and executed the same for the purpose of relinquishing her dower, in and to the lands and tenements therein described ; and the said C. 1)., on a private examination taken and made before me, separately and apart from her said husband, acknowledges and says that the said relin- quishment and renunciation of dower was and is made freely and voluntarily, and without any compulsion or constraint, apprehension or fear from her said hus- band, the said A. B., to which acknowledgment the said C. D. has in my presence and this day set her handand seal." (Signature and title.) All personal and real property owned by the wife before her marriage, or to which she shall become entitled by inheritance, gift, purchase or devise during marriage, shall be and remain her sole and separate property, and free from the debts of the husband. But, in order that it shall be free from his debts, an inven- tory of the same must be made out in six months after marriage, or after the samo shall be acquired by her, and recorded in the circuit court clerk's office in the county in which it is situated. A married woman can sell and convey all real estate iiiherited by her in the same way as she could if she were sole ; but in all conveyances of any. of her real estate her husband must join in the execution and acknowledgment. She is also entitled to dower in one-third of all the real estate seized by her husband at the time of his death, or at any time during his life, unless she has relinquished the same ; and she is also entitled to one-third of his personalty. No mortgage of personal property shall be effectual or valid to any purpose whatever, unless such mortgage shall be recorded in the office of record for the county in which the mortgaged property shall be at the time of the execution of the mortgage, and unless the mortgaged property be delivered at the lime of execution of the mortgage, or within twenty days thereafter, to the mortgagee, and shall continue to remain truly and bona fide in his possession. Mortgages of personal property shall be admitted to record upon the same proof as real prop- erty, or by proof being made upon oath by at least one credible person, before the recording officer, of the hand-writing of the mortgagor, in cases in which there ehall be no attesting witnesses to the mortgage. Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator or by some other person in Jiis presence, and by liis express directions, and shall be attested and su'jscribed in the presence of the testator by theeje or more witnesses. SPECIAL LAWS OF GEORGIA. Exemption's from: Forced Sale.— ^ Home worth 552000. and personal Prop- erti/ worth $1000. Each head of a family, or guardian or trustee of a family, of minor children, shall be entitled to a homes cead or realty to the value of 552,000 in specie, and personal property to the value of f 1,000 in specie, both to be valued at the time they are set apart. And no court or ministerial othcer in this State shall ever have jurisdiction or authority to enforce any judgment, decree or execution against said property so set apart— including such improvements a3 may be made thereon from time to time — except for taxes, money borrowed and expended in the improvement of the homestead, or for the purchase money of the same, and for labor done thereon, or material furnished therefor, or removal of incumbrances thereon. And it shall be the duty of the General Assembly as early as practicable, to provide, by law, for the setting apart and valuation of said property, and to enact laws for the full and complete protection and security of the same to the sole use and benefit of said families as aforesaid. Mechanics' Lien.— Laborers shall have a general lien upon the property of their employers liable to levy and sale for their labor, which is superior to all other liens, except liens for taxes, the special liens of landlords on yearly crops, and such other liens as are declared by law superior to them. Laborers shall also have a special lien on the products"of their labor superior to all other liens, except liens for taxes, and special liens of landlords on yearly crops, to Vvdiich they shall be inferior. All mechanics of every sort, who have taken no personal security therefor, shall, for work done and material furnished in building, re- pairing or improving any real estate of their employers, all contractors, material men and persons furnishing material for the improvement of real estate, all con- tractors for building factories, furnishing material for the samo or furnishing 848 SPECIAL LAWS OF GEORGIA. machinery for tlio same, ami all maohiiusts and manufacturers o£ machinery in- cluding corporations engaged in Buch l)U8incss, wlio may furnisher i)ut up in any county of tliis State any Htcani mills or other machinery, or wlio may repair the same, and all contractor.! to build railroada shall each have a Bi)ocial lien on bucIi leal estate, factories and railroads. OoLLKCTioN OF ACCOUNTS.— Attachment may issue where the debtor residca out of the State ; when he is actually removing or about to remove without tho limits of the county ; when he absconds; when he conceals himself; when ho resists a legal arrest ; when he is causing his proi)erty to be removed beyond tho limits of the State ; when the debt is created by the purchase of proi)erty, upon such debt becoming due ; when the debtor who created such debt is in the pos- Bession of the property for the purchase of which the debt was created ; when a debtor shall sell or convey or conceal his property liable for the payment of his debts, for the purpose of avoiding the payment or the same, orwhenever adebtor shall threaten or prepare so to do. Attachment bonds must be in double tho amount of the debt, and conditioned to pay the defendant all damages sustained in consequence of the attachment, in the event the plaintiff shall fail to recover. Arrest and imprisonment for debt is unknown in this State. An assigimient or transfer by a debtor, insolvent at the time, of real or person- al property, or choses in action of any description, to any person, either in trust or for the benefit of or in behalf of creditors, when any trust or benefit is reserved to the assignor, or any person for him, is fraudulent in law against creditors, and as to them null and void. A debtor may prefer one creditor to another, and to that end he may bona fide give a lien by mortgage, or other legal means, or ho may sell in payment of the debt, or he may transfer negotiable papers as col- laterial security, the surplus in such cases not being reserved for his own benefit, or that of any other favored creditor, to the exclusion of other creditors. All choses in action arising upon contract may be assigned so as to vest the title in the assignee, but he takes it, except negotiable securities, subject to the equities existing between the assignor and debtor at the time of the assignment and until notice of the assignment is given to the person liable. In cases where suit is pending, or where judgment has been obtained, tho plaintiff shall be entitled to the process of garnishment under the following reg- ulations- The plaintiff, his agent or attorney-at-law, shall make an aflidavit "before some officer authorized to issue an attachment by this code, stating tho amount claimed to be due in such action, or on such judgment, and that he has reason to apprehend the loss of the same, or some part thereof, unless the process of garnishment do issue, and shall give bond, with good security, in a sum at least equal to double the amount sworn to be due, payable to the defendant in the suit or judgment, as the case may be, conditioned to pay said defendant all costs and damages that he may sustain in consequence of suing out said garnish- ment, in the event that the plaintiff fails to recover in the suit pending, or it should appear that the amount sworn to be due on such judgment was not due. I - If any bill of exchange, draft or order, is made payable at any place out of this State and within the United States, and the same is returned under protest for non-acceptance or non-payment, the holder thereof shall be entitled to recover of the drawer and endorsers in the first case, and the acceptor also in the latter case, in addition to the principal, interest and protest fees, five per cent, on the principal as damages for non-acceptance or non-payment. If such bill, draft or order is payable at a place without the limits of -the United States, the holder may recover ten per cent, damages as right for non-acceptance or non-pay- ment. The superior courts are the highest courts of general original jurisdiction. They have exclusive jurisdiction of divorce suits, cases respecting titles to land and equity cases. The powers of a court of ordinary and probate are vested in an ordinary for each county. Justices of the peace have jurisdiction in all civil cases where the principal sum claimed does not exceed $100, except where jurisdiction is exclusively vested in other courts. Writs to the superior courts must be filed twenty days, and served fifteeen days before the first day of tho term to which they are returnable. Actions aro triable only at the second term, except suits for rent, which are triable at the first teiTB. In justices' courts, summonses shall bear date 15 days before tho time of trial, if the amount is under ^p50, and shall bear date 20 days before the time of trial when the amount is over §50, and shall be served at least 10 days before the time of trial. All judgments obtained in the superior, inferior, justices' or other courts of this State shall be of equal dignity and shall bind all tho property of the de- Cendaiit, both real and personal, from thQ date of such judgment, except aa SPECIAL LAWS OF GEORGIA AND IDAHO. 849 otherwise provided in this code. "When any person has bona Jide ond tor a \al- uable consideration purchased real or personal property, and has been in pos- session of such real property for four years, or of such personal property two years, the same shall be discharged from the lien of any judgment agahist the person from whom he has purchased. Yfhen a judgment lien has attached on personal property which is removed to another Slate and sold, if brought back again to this Statt^it will be subject to the judgment lien. No judgment here- after obtained in the courts of this State shall bo enforced after the expiration of seven years from the time of its rendition, when Jio execution has been issued upon it ; or when execution has been issued, and seven years shall have expired from the time of the entry upon the execution, made by' an ofhcer authorized to execute and return the same ; such judgments may be revived by scire facias , or be sued on, within three years from the time they become doimant. Execution may issue immediately upon the rendition of judgment. Deeds, Moktgages, Kights of Mareied Women, Wills, &c,, A deed to lands in this State must be in Avriting, under seal, signed by the maker, attested by at least two witnesses and delivered to the purchaser, or some one for him, and be made on a valuable or good consideration. No prescribed lomr is essential to the validity of a deed to lands or personalty. If sufficient in itself to niako known the transaction between the parties, no want or form will invalidate it. A deed to personalty needs no attesting witness to make it valid ; in other re- spects, the principles applicable to deeds to lands are applicable to it. Gener- ally a deed is not necessary to convey title to personalty. Every deed conveying lands shall be recorded in the office of the clerk of tho superior court of tlio . county where the land lies within one year from the date of such deed ; on fail- ure to record in this time, the record m"ay be made at any time thereafter ; but such deed loses its priority over a subsequent deed from the same vendor re- corded in time and taken without notice of the existence of the first. To au- thorize the record of a deed to realty or personalty, it must be attested, if execu- ted out of this State, by a commissioner of deeds for tho State of Georgia, or a consul or vice-consul of the United States (the certificates of these officers under their seals being evidence of the fact), or by a judge of a court of record in tho State where executed, with the certificate of the clerk, under the seal of such court, of the genuineness of the signature, of such judge. If executed in this State, it must be attested by a judge of a court of record of this State, or a justice of the peace, or notary public, or clerk of the superior court in the county in which the last three mentioned officers respectively hold their appointments ; or if subsequently to its execution the deed is acknov/ledged in presence of either of the above-named officers that fact certified on the deed by such officer shall entitle it to be recorded. If a deed is neither attested by nor acknowledged before either of the officers aforesaid, it may be admitted to record upon 'the affidavit of a subscribing witness before either of the above-named officers tes- tifying to the execution of the deed and its attestation according to Jaw. All property of the wife at the time of her marriage, whether real or personal or choses in action, shall be and remain the separate property of the wife, and all property given to, inherited or acquired by the wife during coverture, shall shall vest in and belong to the wife, and shall not bo liable for the payment of any debt, default or contract of the husband. The wife is afemme sole as to her separate estate, unless controlled by the settlement. Every restriction npon lier power in it must be complied with ; but while the wife may contract, she cannot bind her separate estate by any contract of suretyship, nor by any as- sumption of the debts of herjiusband, and any sale of her separate estate, made to a creditor of her husband in extinguishment of his debts, shall be absolutely void. Wills must be in writing, signed by tho testator or some person in his presence and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed, in the presence of the testator, by three competent witnesses if to pass real estate, and two If per- sonal property. SPECIAL LAWS OF IDAHO. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— JJonse worth $2000, and Personal Property worth $300. The head of a family, being a householder, either husband or wife, may select a homestead not exceeding in value f 2000 ; while furniture, teams, tools, stock, and other personal property enumerated by statute, to the value of $300 or more, according to valuation, shall be exempt from execution, except upon a judgment recovered for its price, or upon a mortgage thereon. 850 BPECIAL LAWS OF ILLINOIS. SPECIAL LAWS OF ILLINOIS. ExKMPTTOKS FTiOM FORCED SALE.— //ojw^? t/;or//« $1000, and Personal Property. Exemptions nro na follows, except for wages of any laborer or servant: An estate of lioniestead to the extent in value of ."i! 1 ,000, and proceeds of the Bale thereof to that amount for one year after hucIi sale. Insurance on liomcstead i:! exempt Avhero a loss occurs thereon to Iho extent property insured would have been if not destroyed, ]'ersonal property is exempt as follows : 1. The necessary v/earing apparel of every person. 2. One sewing jnachine. J!, The furniture, tools and implements of any i)crson necessary to carry on liis or her trade or business, not exceeding in value $5100. 4. Materials and stock designed and procured by him or her and necessary for carrying on his or her trade and business, and intended to be used or wrought therein, not exceeding .«> 100 in value. 5. The implements or library of any professional person, not exceeding $100 in value. And in addition to the above property, v/lien the debtor is the head of a fam- ily and resides v/ith the same, the following : 1. Necessary beds, bedsteads and bedding, two stoves and pipe. 2. Necessary household furniture, not exceeding in value, $200. 3. One cow and calf, and two sv/ine. 4. One yoke of oxen, or two horses in lieu thereof, used by the debtor in obtaining the support of his family, not exceediiig in value $200, and the harness thereof, not exceeding in value $40. 5. Necessary provisions and fuel for the use of the family for three months, and necessary food for the stock hereinbefore exempted for the same time. C. The bibles, school books and fa.rnily pictures. 7. The family library. 8. Cemetery lots or rights of burial, and tombs for repositories, for the dead. 9. $100 worth of other property suited to his or her condition in life, selected by the debtor. When the head of a family dies, deserts, or does not reside with same, such family is entitled to the bcnelit of exemptions just mentioned. The wages and services of a defendant, being the head of a family and residing with the same, to an amount not exceeding $25, are exempt from garnishment. Meciia^-ics' Lien.— Any person, by contract, express or implied, or both, with tlio owner of any lot or piece of ground, furnishing labor or materials in building, altering, repairing or ornamenting any house or building on such lot has a lien upon such lot or building for the amount due him for such labor or material. To the extent that the furnishing such, labor or materials has increased the value of such property,such lien takes precedence over prior incum- brances. Proceedings to enforce a mechanics' lien must be commenced by the original contractor within six months from the time when the last pay- ment for labor, or materials becomes due, in order to enforce such lien against other creditors or incumbrances Collection of Debts. — Arrests in civil actions, may be made under a Statute ■which, provides that when any person shall be about to commence a suit in any court of record in this State founded upon contract, if he shall file an affidavit setting forth tho cause of action, the amount due the plaintiff, and facts showing that defendant fraudulently contracted the debt, or that he lias concealed, assigned, removed or disposed of his property with intent to defraud such plain- tiif ; and shall present such affidavit to a judge of a court of record, or if there be no such judge in the county at the time^ then to a master in chancery ; and if sufficient cause be shown, bail may be given. The judge or officer ordering the issuing of such capias must require bond from the plaintiff, with security to be approved by tho clerk issuing the writ, in double the amount sued for,, con- ditioned for tho effectual prosecution of the capiashj plaintiff and payment of all damages defendant by him sustained, on account of the wrongful suing out of writ. AVrits of attachment may issue for the following causes : 1. Where the credi- tor is a non-resident, 2. When the debtor conceals himself or stands in de- fiance of an officer so that process cannot be served on him. 3. Where tho debtor has departed from the State with the intention of having his effects re- moved therefrom. 4. Where the debtor is about to remove his property from this State to tho injury of creditor seeking to attach. 5. Where the debtor has within two years preceding the filing of the affidavit required in this proceeding to be filed by attaching creditor, fraudulently conveyed or assigned his effects, or a part thereof, so as to hinder or delay his creditors. G. Where the debtor has, within tv/o years prior to the filing of such affidavit, fraudulently concealed or disposed of his property so as to hinder or delay his creditors. 7. When tho debtor is about fraudulently to conceal, assign or otherwise dispose of his prop- erty or effects so as to hinder or delay his creditors, 8. When tlie debt sued SPECIAL LAWS OF ILLmOIS. 851 for "was fraudulently contracted on the part of the debtor; provided, the statements of the debtor, his agent or attorney, which constitute the fraud, shall have been reduced to writing and his signature attached thereto by himself, his 'agent or attorney. To entitle a creditor to sue out an attachment, the claim v/hich he seeks to make the basis of this proceeding must exceed $20 in a court of record. Plain- tiff, in attachment before issuance of v/rit, is required to file with the clerk issuing same a bond to the defendant with sufficient surety in double the sum Bworn to be due to him, conditioned for the payment of all damages and costs re- covered against him for v/rongfully suing out such attachment. Attachments may be issued by justices of the peace where the amount claimed is within their jurisdiction for the same causes whch authorize their issue from courts of record and under substantially the same restrictions. Assignments for the benefit of creditors may bo made so as to prefer one cr more, or a certain class of creditors. If no preference is made by the debtor the creditors have an equitable lien for their j9ro rata proportions. If the assignment is made with the intent of delay- ing or defrauding creditors, it is void— not necessarily so, if its effect is to delay creditors. One partner can assign all the partnership assets for the payment of firm debts. Choses in action, except negotiable instruments, can not be assigned here so as to give assignee a right of action on them in his own name. Garnishee process may issue both from justices courts and courts of record, either on attachment or after judgment and execution returned nxdla bona against any person owing debtor or having money, property or effects belonging to the debtor in his possession. The acceptance of a bill need not be in writing. Where foreign bills, drawn within this State and payable out of the Unitetl States, are duly protested for non-payment or non-acceptance, the holder is entitled to ten per cent, damages, in addition to the costs of protest, from the drawer or indorser. On bills drawn in this State and payable out of the State, but within the United States, duly protested as aforesaid, to five per cent, damages. Any note, bond, bill or in- strument in writing, made payable in money or articles of personal property to any person named as payee therein, is assignable by indorsement under the hand of such person, in the same manner as all bills of exchange. Every assignor or indorser of such instrument is liable to the action of any subsequent assignee thereof, if such assignee has used due diligence by the institution and prosecu- tion of a suit against the maker thereof for the recovery of the money or proper- ty due thereon, or damages in lieu thereof, and has obtained judgment, but by the use of due diligence lias been unable to obtain satisfaction thereof. A note, bond, bill or other instrument in writing, payable to bearer, is transferable by delivery, and every indorser thereof is a guarantor, unless otherwise expressed in his indorsement. Justices of the peace have jurisdiction in their respective counties, where the amount claimed, including interest, does not exceed $200. 1. In all actions arising on contract for the recovery of money on]y. 2. In actions for damages for injury to real property, or for taking, detaining or injuring personal property. 3. In actions for rent and distress for rent. 4. In actions against railway com- panies and those operating railways for killing or injuring horses or other stock ; for loss or injury to baggage or freight ; and for inj ury or damage to real or personal property, caused by setting lire to the same by their engines or otherwise. 5. In replevin when the value of the property claimed does not exceed $200, 6. In actions for damages for fraud in the sale, purchase or exchange of personal l^roperty, and in all cases v/here the action of debt or assumpsit will lie. Circuit courts have, by the Constitution, original jurisdiction of all causes at l?.w and in equity, and such api^ellate jurisdiction as may be provided for by law. Appeals lie from justices' courts directly to these courts, defendant to plead at sa^d term. Before justices, summons must be served three days beforo returned. Judgments from courts of record are a lien on the real estate of tho judgment debtor, situated in the county vdierein judgment is obtained from the time same are obtained, are revived for the period of 7 years. When execution is not issued on a judgment within one year from tho time tho same becomes a lien, it shall thereafter cease to be a liaii ; but execution may issue on such judgment at any time within said 7 years, and it becomes a lieu on such real estate from the time of the delivery of* such writ to the officer for service. Such judgments may be sued upon or revived within 20 years after tho date thereof aud not after, judgments rendered by justices of the peace may 852 SPECIAL LA'.VS OF ILLINOIS. bo marlo a lien on real estate by filing .1 tranecript tliereof in the olTice of tbo clerk of the circuit court for the county in wliicli judj^ment was rendered. Such tr.iiiscTif)tR c;iii only bo tiled when it appears by return of execution on judg- mcuL ( (Iclendaiit has not personal pioporty in the county where same was obtained to satisfy sucli judgment and costs. Executions issue from courts of record immediately after rendition of judg- ment and at any time thereafter for seven years, and to any county in llio Stale. They are a lien upon the personal property of the judgment debtor from the time of delivery to the oflicer. ileal estate sold under execution may he redeemed in twelve months. Executions from justices' courts cannot be levied on real es- tate, and do not issue until twenty days after judgment, unless the judgment creditor or his agent make oath that the benefit of the judgment is in danger of being lost unless executioji issue immediately. Executions from justices' courts are also a lien upon the perscmal property of the defendant from tlic time of their delivery to the constable. There is no way of staying executions in this State ex- cept by appeal. 'Deeds, Mortgages, Eights of Mareied Womex, "Wills, &c. Deeds and other conveyances of real estate, must be under seal ; any scrawl intended for a seal is, however, sufficient. No subscribing witness is necessary, either to the validity of the instrument or to entitle the same to record. Such instruments may be acknowledged within this State before a master in chancery, a notaiy J)ublic, a United States com.missioner, circuit or county clerk, justice of the peace, or any court of record having a seal, or any judge, justice or clerk of such court. Such acknowledgment must be attested v/hen taken before a notary public or United States commissioner by his official seal. When taken before a court or clerk thereof, by the seal of such court ; and when taken before a justict; of the peace residing out of the county where the land conveyed is situated, a certificate of the county clerk of the county wherein such justice resides, must be added, under his seal of office, to the effect that the person taking such acknowledg- ment or proof was a justice of the peace in said county at the date thereof. "When acknowledged without the State, but within the United States, such acknowledgment may be taken before a justice of the peace, a notary public. United States commissioner, commissioner to take acknowledgments of deeds, mayor of a city, clerk of a county, or before any judge, justice or clerk of tho supreme court, or any circuit or district court of the United States, or any judge, justice or clerk of the supreme, circuit, superior, district, county or common. 1)1 eas court of any of the United States or their territories. When such acknowl- edgment is made before any notary public. United States commissioner, com- missioner of deeds or clerk, it shall be certilied by such officer under his official seal ; if before the mayor of a city, under the seal of the city ; if before a justice of the peace, a certificate must be added as in case of prcof or acknowledgment within the State before a justice of the peace residing without the county where the land conveyed is situated. Acknowledgments may be made in accordance with the laws of the State, territory or district where made, and the certificate of a clerk of a court of record in such jurisdiction to that effect, under his hand and the seal of said court, is evidence that such acknowledgment was so made. When acknowledged without the United States, such acknowledgment may be taken before any court of any republic. State, kingdom or empire having a seal, or any mayor or chief officer of any city or town having a seal, or before any minister or secretary of legation, or consul of the United States in any foreign country, attested by his official seal, or before any officer authorized by the laws of such foreign country to take acknowledgments of conveyances of real estate, if he have a seal ; such acknowledgment, in all cases, must be at- tested by the oflicial seal of such court or officer ; and in case such, acknowledg- ment or proof is taken other than before a court of record, or mayor, or chief officer of a town having a seal, proof that the officer taking the same was duly authorized by the laws of his country so to do must accompany the certificate of Buch acknowledgment. The following in the statutory form of certificate. It is the same, substan- tially, whether grantor is unmarried or deed executed by husband and wife : State of Illinois, ) C0UI«'TY OF SANGAMOX. ) ^* I, (name of officer and title), do hereby certify that (grantor and if wafe join her name his wife "), personally known to me to be the same person v/hosa name is subscribed to the foregoing instrument, appeared before me this day ii) person and acknowledged that he signed, sealed and delivered the said instrur me»t as his free and voluntary act, for the tises and purposes therein set forth. SPECIAL LAWS OF INDIANA. 853 Given under my hand and (private or ofScial as the case maybe) seal, this (daj of month) day of (month), A . D. (year). [Seal.] (Signature of officer.) No deed or other instrument can bo construed as releasing or waiving the riglit of liomestead, unless the same shall contain a clause expressly releasing or •waiving such right ; and in such case, the certificate of acknowledgment must contain a clause substantially as follows : " including the release and waiver of the right of homestead." No chattel mortgage or trust deed is valid as against the rights of third persons, unless possession thereof shall be delivered to and remain with the grantee, or the instrument shall provide for the possession of the property with the grantor, and be properly acknowledged and recorded. Such instruments may be ackowledged as deeds. They are valid for any period not exceeding two years. After the ex- piration of the tim.e provided in the nioi-tgage for the possession of the mort- gaged property by the mortgagor, such possession, if continued, renders the mortgage fraudulent and void as to third parties Avith or without notice, actual or constructive, of such mortgage. Married women may own in their own right real and personal property, and manage, sell and convey the same to the same extent, and in the same manner that a married man can, properly belonging to him. They may sue and be sued without joining their husbands, to the same extent as if unmarried. A married woman may make contracts and incur liabilities which may be enforced against her to the same extent as if she Avere sole, but she cannot enter into or carry on any partnership business without her husband's consent, unless he has abandoned or deserted her, is idiotic or insane, or is confined in the penitentiary. The es- tate of courtesy is abolished, and the surviving husband or wife is endowed of one-third part of all lands whereof the deceased husband or wife was seized of an estate of inheritance at any time during the marriage, unless the same has been relinquished in legal form. Dower may be barred by release thereof in due form of law, and by jointure or devise, accept in lieu thereof. Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some one in his presence and by his direction, and attested by two credible witnesses, SPECIAL LAWS OF INDIANA. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— //ojne and Personal Property of the fol- lowing value. — Any resident householder has an exemption from levy and sale under execution, of real and personal property, or both, as he may select, to the value of $300. The law further provides that no property shall be sold by virtue of an execution for less than two thirds of its appraised cash value, The pro- visions of this law can bo waived in contracts. To do this, the note or contract should read : " Payable without any relief whatever from valuation or apprais- mentlaws." Mechanics' Lien. — Material men and mechanics have lien for labor and material on the land and improvements to the extent of their claims. The ori- ginal contractor must file his claim within two months, laborers within 60 days, and all other persons claiming a lien within two months after the debt accrued. This lien has precedence over all other liens or encumbrances placed on the property subsequent to the commencement of the building or improve- ments. Must be foreclosed in 12 months. Collection of Debts.— No persons can be arrested here except in cases of fraud, actual. Writs of attachment, which may be obtained by any creditor, can only be issued on the following grounds : — 1. Non-residence of any of defendants. 2. Where any of defendants is secretly leaving the State, or has left the State with intent to defraud his creditors. 3. Or conceals himself that summons cannot be served upon him, 4. Or is removing, or about to remove, his property subject to execu- tion, or part thereof, out of the State, not leaving enough to satisfyplaintifE's claim. 5. Or has sold, conveyed or otherwise disposed of his property subject to execu- tion, or has suffered or permitted it to be sold with the fraudulent intent to cheat, hinder or delay his creditors. 6. Or is about to sell, convey or dispose of same with such intent. A statutory undertaking in all cases in attachment must be executed, the measure of damages in an action on which u in the discretion of the jury. 854 SPECIAL LAWS Ol'^ INDIANA. In .illachmcnta levied onronl cctato, the lory and dis prndcns notice for fvll purporics. In aLtaclimciits, except on ground of Jion-residcncc, caution ehould bo used. An assignment in trust, for tlio benefit of creditors, jnuro for tho benefit of all creditors of tlio grantor, •whether named in tlio dccayinent by them, aro valid. Kotos, bills, ac- counts and every species of contractor claim aro assignable, and tho assignee can sue on it in his own name. In notes and bills, acceptors aro chargeable only when their acceptance is in v/riting on the bill ; or, if on asepcrato piece of paper, when tho party who gavo the credit saw the sepcrate paper ; or if a promiso is mado in writing to accept a draft before it is drawn, and the draft is in the hands of any i)erson who gave credit on the strength of of this writing. All parties to notes or bills, whether indorsers, makers or acceptors, or parties in any manner, can be suc r l)roperty obtained under false pretenses. In No. 4, C, and P, attachment may be- commenced before the debt is due. Bond must be three times the amoun'. claimed, and sheriif may attach fifty per cent, in value more than amount claimed. Attachment can only be levied on property not exempt from execution. Assignments for the benefit of creditors must be made for the benefit of all creditors p?'ora/«. An inventory of assets and liabilities must be eworn to by the insolvent, with a list of the creditors and their respec- tive demands. Assignments must be duly acknowledged as transfers of 856 SPECIAL LAWS OF IOWA. real estate, mid recorded in llio county wlioro tlio insolvent rcRidos, or whore the businesH in respect oi" which the saiuo iH made; lias h(M;n conducted. The aBsigneo tihall lile the assi^nniont, inventory with Ihc chirk of the district court, and shall give bond for the |)ci-t'ut revivor. Judgments before justice can be made to create lieu on real estate;, by filing a transcript of the judgment in the circuit court. Execution may issue as soon as judgment is obtained, but one can be out at the same time. Execution from a court of record, may issue to any county in I'lo State. From a justice, can be levied on personal property 07ihj. Real ests-te may be redeemed within a year after sale ; but if defendant files stay bond, or appeals to supreme court, his equity of redemption is cut off. If the defendant fails to redeem in six months, any creditor of the defendant, whose demand is a lien on the real estate sold, may redeem within nine months from date of sale. Deeds, Bights of Markied Women, Wills, &c.— Acknowledgment of deeds, made in the State, must be before a judge of any court of record, clerk ot" supreme, district and circuit courts, or their deputies, county auditor or hia deputy, each notary public and justice of the peace in his own county. Acknow- ledgments out of State must be before some court of record, before some com- missioner for the State of Iowa, or before a notary public or justice of the peace. If before a justice of the peace the certificate of clerk of the district court of Iho county as to his official character must be attached. Chattel mortgages must be acknowledged as other conveyances and recorded in the county where property is situate. Foreclosures can 'be made by sheriff without action in court. The mortgaged property is left in possession of mort- gagor, unless otherwise provided. Sales under chattel mortgage foreclosures shall be in the same manner as other sheriff's sales. ]\Iarried women can hold property the same as any other person, and are lia- ble on all contracts made by them, but her own property is in no case liable for her husband's debts. The common law right of dower exists in this State, and in executing deeds, she must acknowledge separate and apart from her husband, that she was made acquainted with the contents of such conveyance, and reliii» quislied her dower freely and without compulsion from her husband. SPECIAL LAWS OF KANSAS. 857 All "Wills, except noncupative, must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some person in bis presence and by bis express direction, and attested and sub- scribed in liis presence by two or more competent witnesses. Subsequent incom- petency of tbe witness will not invalidate the will. Noncupative Avills, proved by two competent witnesses, when tbo value of the estate does not exceed $300, are valid. SPECIAL LAWS OF KANSAS. EXEMPTION'S FKOM FoECED SALE. — Home 160 Acres of Farm Land, or Tiouftc'^ and One Acre in a Village or City, and Personal Property, A homestead to the extent of 160 acres of farming land, or of one acre within tbe limits of an incor- porated town or city, occupied as a residence by the family of the ov/ner, to- gether with all improvements on the same, of whatever value is exempt. Exempt lions of personal property allowed a resident, being the head of a family, are : the family library, bible and school books ; family pictures and musical instru- ments in use ; a pew in a church and lot in a burial ground ; all the wearing ap- parel and all beds, bedsteads and bedding used by the family ; cooking-stove, appendages and cooking utensils, and other stoves and appendages necessary for the rise of the family ; a sewing machine ; all spinning wheels and looms, and other implements of industry and other household furniture not abve enu- merated, not to exceed $500 in value ; 2 cows, 10 hogs, 1 yoke of oxen, and 1 horse or mule, or, in lieu of the yoke of oxen and horse or mule, a span of horses 01 mules ; 20 sheep and wool from same, either raw or manufactured ; the neces- sary food for the stock mentioned above for one year ; 1 wagon, cart or dray ; 2 plows, one drag and other farming utensils not exceeding '^300 in A'aluo ; pro- visions and fuel on hand sufficient for a year ; the necessary tools and imple- ments of any mechanic, miner or other person, used and kept for the pvirpose of carrying on his trade and business, together with stock in trade not exceeding 5p400 iu value ; the library, implements and office furniture of any professional man. Exemptions of personal property allowed a resident of this State, not the head of the family, are : wearing apparel ; pew in a church and lot in a burial ground; necessary tools and instruments of any mechanic, miner or other per- son, used and kept for the purpose of carrying on his trade or business, together with stock in trade as above. The earnings of a debtor also, for personal ser- vices rendered within 3 months next preceding the issuing of an execution, aro exempt, if it appear they are necessary, in whole or in part for the support of his family. No personal property is exempt from attachment or execution for the wages of any clerk, mechanic, laborer or servant. MEcnA>:ics' Lien. — Material men and mechanics have lien for labor and material on the land and improvements to the extent of their claims. The original contractor must file his claim within four months ; all other persons claiming a lien, within two months after the debt accrued. This lien has prece- dence over all other liens or encumbrances placed on the property subsequent to the commmencement of the building or improvements. Collection" of Debts.— Arrest and bail, iu civil actions, are provided for by the laws of this State. The order of arrest is issued by the clerk, or by the justice, only upon positive affidavit showing one or more of the statutory grounds therefor ,similar to those on which writs of attachment issue. (See Attachments.) Before the order issues, the plaintiff must also file an undertaking, with sufficient surety, con- ditioned for the payment of damages occasioned by the arrest, if \\Tongful. In practice, this remecly is seldom resorted to in Kansas. Attachment, against the .property of defendant may issue in civil cases, when the defendant, or one of several defendants, is a foreign corporation or non-resi- dent (but not iu cither of these instances for any claim other than a debt or de- mand arising on contract, judgment or decree, unless the cause of action arose wholly within the limits of this State. It may also issue when the defendant or one of several defendants has absconded with fraudulent intent, or has left the county of his residence to avoid summons, or concealed himself to avoid sum- mons, or is about to remove his property, or a part thereof, out of the jurisdiction of the court with fraudulent intent ; or is about to convert it into money to put it beyond reach of creditors ; or has property which he conceals, or has assigned, removed or disposed of his property ; or is about to do so, with intent to defraud, hinder or delay creditors ; or fraudulently contracted or incurred the debt, liability orobligatiou ; or where the actionals brought for damages arising from 858 SPECIAL LAWS OF KANSAS. Iho commiRBion of any crime, or for Boduotioii, or v/lioro Uio debtor iailn to pay on delivery wlicrc, by the contract, lie was to ]);iy on delivery. Tbe order ia isHued (as in case of arrest and bail, svpra), only upon afiidavit and undertaking, I3ut, where tlie defendant is a foniign corporation, or Avbere the defendant or de- fendants arc all non-residenis of the State, the undertaking is not required. CaruLsheo process, in atlacbnient proceedings, is also provided for against any person or corporation having possession of property or being indebted to the de- fendant. Assignments in trust, for the benefit of creditors, inure for the benefit of all creditors of the grantor, •\vliethcr named in the deed of arisignmcnt or not ; tlio deed of assignment must bo acknowledged and recorded like other deeds. Assignments made to secure sureties or indorsors, jirior to any payment by them, are valid here. Assignment of every species of contract or claim inay be made in this State, and the assignee may sue thereon in his own name. Acceptors of notes and bills are chargeable only when their acceptance is in ■n-riting on tlie bill ; or, if on separate piece of paper, when the party wlio gave the credit saw the separate paper ; or if a promise is made in v/riting to accept a draft before it is drawn, and the draft is in the hands of any person v/ho gave credit on the strength of this writing. (Bills of exchange and notes duly pro- tested for non-payment or non-acceptance, entitle the holder to recover damages as follows : if drawn on or made by a person outside the State, six per cent. ; if outside any of the United States or territories, ten per cent, damages on the principal sum). All parties to notes or bills, whether endorsers, maker.-? or ac- ceptors, or parties in any manner, can be sued jointly or separately in the same or in several actions. Justices of the peace have jurisdiction in actions on contract on account, bill, 3iote or bond where the amount claimed or balances due does not exceed S300, iji actions on undertakings given in civil proceedings before them where the kuiu due or demanded does not exceed ^500; in replevin where the value of tho property does not exceed $100. District courts have general original jurisdiction in all cases, and appellate jurisdiction from inferior courts. Upon default, judg- ments may be obtained before justices after three days' service of summons, but in contested cases, a delay of thirty days may be readily obtained before judg- ment, and afterward by a stay of execution as above stated. (See Executions.) Jn the district court, if in session, judgment maybe taken npon default after forty days' service of summons, but in contested cases, issues must be m.ade up for trial ten days prior to the term. Terms of the several district courts of the State are held as often as every six months. Judgments are a lien upon the real estate of the debtor in the county where rendered, for the period of live years, and maybe made a lien upon real estate in other counties by filing in the clerk's oflice therein an attested copy of the jour- nal entry of the judgment. Justices* judgments may bo made a lien upon real estate in same manner. But if execution'be not taken out and levied within ono year after rendition of judgmant, the lien becomes inoperative as against other judgment creditors. Judgments which have become dormant may be revived by the court ui)6n motion of the judgment creditor and notice to the parties in- terested. Executions may issue the day judgment is ren^ereA.— Exceptions.— li the word " appraisement waived," or words of similar import, bo inserted in any mortgage, bond, note, bill or written contract, judgment shall be J'endered ac- cordingly, and execution shall not issue thereon for G days. If upon the docket, in cases of judgment rendered by justices of the peace, any person, resident- of the county, being good and sufficient security, shall, Avithin 10 days, undertake that the judgment shall be duly paid, execution shall be stayed for periods ranging from 30 to 120 days, according to the amount of tho judgment. Executions are a lien on personal i^roperty only from the time they are •ictually levied. Executions from a justice cannot be levied on real estate. Redemption, after execution sale, is unknown. If an execution (from a court of record) is returned unsatisfied, the debtors can be summoned and required to state under oath what property or interest they have or own, which may be reached by execution. Deeds, Rights of Makried "Women, &c.— Deeds in this State need not be under seal. "When acknowledged within this State, it must be before some court Laving a seal, or some judge, justice or clerk thereof, or some justice of tho peace, notary public, county clerk or register of deeds, or mayor or clerk of an incorporated city. When acknowledged without this State, it must be before Bome court of record, or clerk or officer holding the seal thereof, or before some notary public or justice of the peace, or commissioner to take acknowledgmenta SPECIAL LAAVS OF KENTUCKY. 859 appointed by tlie Governor of this State, or before any consul of the Lnited States, resident in a foreign port or country. If taken before a justice of the peace the acknowledgment must bo accompained by a certiticate of his official character, under the hand of some court of record, to which the seal of said court shall be affixed. The following is the form of acknowledgment required : State of , ) COU>'TY OF . ) ■ , . ^ On this day of , A. D. 187 , before mo, a m ;viid for said personally came , to me personally known to be the same per- son whose name affixed to the foregoing conveyance as grantor and duly acknowledged the execution of the same. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed my seal, the day and year last above written. (Husband and wife should always join in conveyances.) I\o separate ac- knowledgment is required on the part of the wife. Married women can hold real or personal property, to their separate use, the same as unmarrried. A note or endorsement made by a married woman will bind her property the same as if she were unm-arritd. Chattel mortgages 'of perishable articles, which are left in the hands of the mortgagor, with the right to use the same ; or of a stock of merchandise which is left in the hands of the mortgagor with privilege to sell in due course ot his business, or in any manner for his own benefit ; or of any chattels which are left in the possession of the mortgagor, the mortgage not being duly registered, are void as to the creditors of the mortgagor, unlcsii they have iiotico of the samo. SPECIAL LAWS OF KENTUCKY. Exemptions from Fouced Salt:. — Home worth $1,000, and Personal Prop- erfii. To bona fide housekeeper with a fam.ily, resident in the State : 2 work beasts, or 1 work beast and 1 yoke of oxen ; 2 plows and gear ; 1 wagon and a set of gear, or 1 cart or dray ; 2 cows and calves ; 10 head of sheep ; provisions suf- ficient to sustain the family one year, and provender sufficient to support the stock one year ; 1 sewing machine ; tho usual household and kitchen furnitura of limited value, etc.; the tools of a mechanic not exceeding $100 in value; tho libraries of ministers of the gospel, physicians and attorneys-at-law not to ex- ceed in value §500, but the last is not in addition to the two work beasts, wagon, cart or di-ay. In addition to the personal property exempt from execu- tion on all debts or liabilities created after the 1st of June, 18CG, so much land, including tlie dwelling-house and appurtenances owned by the debtor as shall not exceed §1,000, shall also be exemi)t to the bona fide housekeeper with a fam- ily- Mechanics' Liens. — There is a general law for the State (not applying to Jefferson county, Avhich has a special act in somo respects difilerent) giving mechanics and material men liens upon the improvements and interest of iho employer in the land for work done and material furnished. Sub-contractors and laborers may acquire a liSn, by giving the employer v/ritten notice of their claim, and that they look to the laiid and improvements for compensation. Liens must be filed in sixty days and suit brought in six months, to enforce claim^s, or they are lost. CoLiiECTioN OF DEBTS. — A defendant in a civil action may be arrested when an affidavit is filed and bond given, for causes for v/hich an attachment v/ill "Ae. The defendant may give bail, or in lieu of bail, deposit in the hands of tho sheriff, or in court, the amount of money mentioned in the order of arrest. In default of both, he will be committed to jail, there to remain until he pays the debt, gives bail or take the insolvent debtor's oath. Attachment, in a civil action for the recovery of money, may issue against tho property of the defendant, or a garnishee where the action is against: 1. A de- fendant, or several defendants, who, or some one of whom, is a foreign corpora- tion or a non-resident of the State. 2. Who lias been absent therefrom "four months. 3. Has departed from the State Avith intent to defraud his creditors. 4. Who has left the county of liia residence to avoid the service of a summons. 5. 860 SPECIAL LAWS OF KEXTUCKY. Bo conceals liimself that a summons cannot be eorvod on him. C. Is about to remove, or has romoveclhis property, or a material part thereof, out ol' tluH Stato, jiot leaving enough therein to satisfy the plaintilT';; elaiiii or the claim of said defend.'iut's creditors. 7. lias sold, conveyed or otlierwisu disposed of his property, or suftored or i)oi-mittcd it to bo sold, with the fraudulent intent to cheat, hinder or delay his creditors. 8. Is about to sell, convey or otherwise dispose of hi:! property with such intent. An attachment shall not be granted on tl.ie ground that the defendant, or defendants, or any of them, is n, foreign corporation, or a jion-residentof this State, for any claim other than a debt or e iu vv'ritintr, signed ])y tho testator or by some other person in his presence and by liis direction ; and if not written wholly by himself, must Ik; at- te;-,tod by two or more competent witnesses, subscribing their names iu his presence. SPECIAL LAWS OF LOUISIANA. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— J/ome o/lC.O Acres of Land, and Personal Property, in all worth ^72,000. — 160 acres of land, with buildings and improvements therson, occupied as a residence, and bona fide owned by the debtor, having a family, a person or persons dependant upon him for support ; together with personal property, making in all a value not exceeding $2,000. Tools of trade, salaries, wages, and personal services, all wearing apparel, all agricultural im- plements, working cattle, and provisions and supplies necessary for carrying on the plantation for the coming year. jSTo home exempted in the city or villages, and iu any case only for benefit of persons having a family. Mechanics' Lien — The contractor has a lien for the payment of his labor on the building or other work v/hich ho may have constructed. Workmen em- ployed immediately by the owner in tho construction or repair of any building tave the same privilege. If the contractor be paid by the employer, actions for work and supplies furnished tho former will not lie against the latter, but moneys due the contractor by tho employer may bo seized and applied towards payment. No agreement for work exceeding $500, unless reduced to writing and registered vvith the recorder of mortgages, shall be privileged as above. For amounts less than $C00, this formality is dispensed with, but the privilege is limited to G months from the time of completed v/ork. Workmen employed on vessels or boats have a lien on the same, and are not, in any case, bound to re- duce their contracts to writing, but their privileges closes if they allow the ves- Bols to depart without exercising their right. Collection of Debts.— Arrest, in civil action, may bo made of a debtor v/lio is about to leave the State without leaving sufncient property to satisfy tho judgment sought to be obtained by the creditor, and held until security is given that he will not depart from tho State v/ithout leave of court ; 23rovided, that no citizen of another State shall be arrested at suit of resident or non-resident creditor, except upon oath, that the debtor has absconded from his residence. Ar- rest or attachment may be made v/hether the debt is due or not, and agent or attorney may swear to the best of his knowledge and belief. Wilt of attachment may issue against a defendant for the following causes : 1. Where the defendant is a non-resident. 2. Where he is about to leave the State permanently. 3- Where he conceals himself to avoid being cited. 4. Where lie has mortgaged, assigned or disposed of his property, or is about to do so, with intent to give an unfair preference to some of his creditors, or place his property or evidence of debt beyond the reach of his creditors. In every case where an attachment is sought, the petitioning creditor must give a bond, payable to tho clerk of the court for an amount one-half over the claim demanded, with surety residing within the jurisdiction of the court. Writs of sequestration may issue in this State upon an aflidavit made by party, or agent, or attorney in his absence, showing one of the following grounds, after executing a bond with one good resi- dent surety in an amount to be determined by the judge ; 1, Where the plaintiff, who has had possession of the property for one year, has been ejected by force. 2. Where the plaintiff seeks the possession of movable property, and fears tho party having possession of the same may impair its value, may remove it beyond the jurisdiction of the court, or may conceal or dispose of it during the continu- ance of the suit. 3. Where a wife sues for separation from bed and board, or for Geparation from property alone, and lias reason that her husband may injure her dotal property or waste the fruits and revenues j)roduced by the same during tho pendency of the suit, 4. Where the defendant has aslted for a stay of proceeed« SPECIAL LAWS OF LOUISIANA. 863 ingg against liim, and at a meeting of Ws creditors tliey should fear ho v/ill avail himself of such stay of proceediiigy to dispose of tlie whole or part of his property. 5. Where the plaintiff has a lien or privilege on property. "Writs of sequestration may also issue, without the plaintifc giving hond, in cases where ho Keeks' to enforce a landlord's, seaman's, mechanic's or lahorer'8 lian. The assignment of notes, bills, accounts, or claims of any kind is valid, and the assignee may sue in his own name, but the assigument of a debt must be no- tified to the debtor. Garnishment can issue on an execution or attachment against any person owing the debtor, or having his property in possession. Justice of the peace lias jurisdiction up to ^100, including parish courts, origi- nal jurisdiction, from $100 to ??500. District courts on all amounts over §500. Ai)deals from justices, when over ?10, returnable to the parish courts, except in the parish of Orleans, whore returnable to third district court when over $10. Appeals lie from parish coiirt on sums over ??100. From district coxirt to supreme court over $500. Service of citation must be made for ten days before any action can be taken. Judgments, to operate as a lien, must be recorded in the mortgage book of the parish recorder. It then becomes a judicial mortgage on all the real estate of the debtor where recorded. There is no stay of execution, and it can issue at any time after judgment. No redemption of property sold under execution or mortgage. Deeds, Eights of Makkied Womex, Yv'illg.— Deeds are valid without Bcrawl or seal. They must bo acknowledged in the State before a notary publio , or recorder, or in presence of two witnesses, who may i)rovo the signature. If acknowledged out of the State, before a commissioner of Louieiana, or in confor- mity to the laws of the State where acknowledged, and in the latter case tho official character of the officer before whom tho acknowledgment is taken must bo properly verified. Tho husband must join in the eseoutio:i of a deed made by tho wife conveying her real estate, and authorize her. When the husband sells his own real estate, tho wife must join him and re- nounce all her rights, and she must bo examined apart from her husband and duly informed of the nature of the act. No particular form of words is necessary, except the above must be shown. This form is used : State of , ) COU^ITYOP .r Be it remembered that on this day came before me, John Hampden, a notary public within and for the county aforesaid, duly commissioned and acting as such, A. B. and his wife, C. D., to me known personally (or proved such by two credible v/itnesses) to be the persons whose names are subscribed to the foregoing deed ; and the said A. B. acknowledged that he had executed the said conveyance, for the consideration and purposes therein mentioned and set forth ; and the said C. D., being by me first made acquainted with the contents of said instrumeait, in an examination apart from her husband, and fully advised of the nature or her rights upon his property, acknowledged that she executed the same freely, and without compulsion or undue inJiuence of her said husband. Witness my hand and seal of office, on this day of , 187 . JOHN HAMPDEN, A^otory Public. The estate of a married woman, whether acquired before or after marriage, remains her separate estate, and cannot be sold by her husband. All i)roperty acquired during marriage from the joint er separate earnings of husband and wife, and the revenues of the separate property of each, is equally divided be- tween them. A married woman has no dower in her husband's estate, but it is best for her to join in any conveyance made by him, in order to renounce any claims che may have on his estate. (She has no claim unless her lien or mort- gage is recorded.) The husband must join his Avife in any conveyance of her £:cparate estate. There is no chattel mortgage in this State, but the law creates certain privi- leges upon movables, which are as. follows: 1. The vendors privilege on tho movables not paid for; 2- For debts due for necessary supplies furnished to any farm or plantation and for Eaoney actually advanced for the supplies and necessary erpenses for any farm or plantation on the crops of the year or the proceeds thereof ; 3. The lessor's privilege on the crops and movables on the property leased ; 4. Architects, undertakers, furnishers of material, etc.» on the edifices or other works built or repaired. These privileges are, however, preserved, andean be acquired only by having lecorded in the parieh where the property is the account containing the state- ment of indebtedness in detail, and tho balance due, under the oath, of thQ party 864 RrKCIAli L/VWS OF JNIAIXE. (loi)ig or liavijiff llio work dono, find thin to bo recorded the day tho contract was entered into, to liave eircot against third parties. Tho estate of a married woman, whether acquired hoforo or after marriage, remains lior separate estate, and cannot bo sold by tho knsband. All jjroperty acquired during marriage from tho joint or separate earnings of husband and wife, and tho revenues of the separate property of each, is equally divided be- tween them. A married woman has no dower in her husband's estate, but it is best for her to join in any conveyance made by him, in order to renounce any claims she may have on his estate. (She has no claim unless her lien or mort- gage is recorded.") The husband must join Iub wife in any conveyance of her separate estate. The wife may make her last will without tho authority of her husband. SPECIAL LAWS OF MAINE. EXEMPTIOKS FROM FORCED SALE.— //oine Worth ^500 and Personal Property. Homestead to the value of fi500, or lot purchased from the State, for a homestead. After the death of the debtor, his widow and minor children are entitled to tho ?ame exemption. A lot in a burying-ground ; wearing apparel ; necessary house- hold furniture not exceeding ^i!50 ; 1 bed, bedstead aiid bedding for every two in the family ; all family portraits ; bibles and school-books in use ; copy of tho statutes, and a library not exceeding $150 ; one cooking-stove, 12 cords wood, 5 tons anthracite coal and 50 bushels bituminous coal ; ^^10 worth of lumber, wood or bark ; all produce until harvested ; 1 barrel of flour ; 30 bushels corn and grain ; all potatoes ; all flax raised on 1 acre of land and all articles manufactured therefrom for the family ; tools in trade ; 1 sewing machine worth $100 ; 1 pair working cattle or mules ; 1 or 2 horses, not exceeding in value $300, and hay to keep them through the winter ; one cow and heifer ; 10 sheep, and the lambs and wool raised from them, and hay to keep them during the winter ; 1 plov/ ; a cart or truck wagon ; harrow ; yoke with bows, ring and staple ; 2 chains ; a mowing machine, and one boat of 2 tons. Mechanics' Lien.— Mechanics have a lien on buildings for labor and mate- rials furnished for erecting or repairing same, which may be enforced by attach- ment in ninety days after same are furnished or labor done, and against vessels for four days after same is launched. Collection of Debts. — Arrests in civil actions can be made. In actions of tort, the body is committed, unless bail is given. In actions on contract over ten dollars, and the debtor is about to depart from the State to reside beyond the limits of the State, and carries with him property more than sufB.cient for hi3 support, he can be arrested. Every assignment made by a debtor for the benefit of creditors shall provide for a proportional distribution of all his real and personal estate, except what is by law exempt from attachment, among all his creditors, becoming parties thereto, and in whatever form made shall have the effect aforesaid, and be also construed to pass all such estate, whether specified therein or not. A release may be inserted in the deed of assignment, which shall forever discharge the assignor from the claims of such creditors as become parties thereto. The assignor shall make oath as to the truth of the assignment. The assignee must, within fourteen days after the assignment is made, give public notice of his appointment in some newspaper printed in the county where the assignor lives, such notice to by continued three weeks successively. Three months from such assignment is allowed creditors to become parties thereto. If the assignment is not sworn to and notice not given, then the same is void against attaching creditors. All properly conveyed by the assignor previous to and in contemplation of tho assignment, with the design to delay, hinder or defraud creditors, or to give f>reference to one creditor over another, shall pass to the assignee notwithstand- ng such transfer. AVrit of attachment may be issued in any civil action and can be levied on all property not exempt, which ci'eates a lien that continues for 30 days after exe^ cution issues. Negotiable notes, bills, and bonds are assignable, so that assignees may sue in their own name. Any person Avho holds any goods, effects or credits belonging to a debtor may be required, under the " trustee process," to deliver up the same for the credtitor to reach, except $20 due the debtor for wages, and even then when the debt is for necessaries. As to notes and bills, on any promissory note, inland bill of exchange, draft SPECIAL LAWS OF MAIISTE. 865 or order for payment of money, payable in this State at a future day, or at sight, nnd not on demand, a grace of three daj'S shall be allowed. In an action on a promissory note, payable at a certain place, either on demand or on demand at or after a time specified therein, the plaintiff shall not recover unless he proves a demand made at the place of payment prior to the commencement of the suit. iNo person shall be charged as an acceptor of a bill of exchange, draft or written order, unless his acceptance shall be in writing, signed by him or his lawful agent ; and no waiver of demand and notice by an indorser of any promissory note or bill of exchange shall be valid unless it is in writing and signed in like manner. No action can be maintained upon any note or other security given for intoxicating liquors, sold in violation of the act relating to sales of intoxicating liquors, unless the security is negotiable paper in the hands of' an innocent holder, and for value. No agreement that personal property, bargained and dc- ^livered to another, for which a note is given, shall remain the property of tho payee till the note is paid, is valid, unless it is made and signed as a part of tho note ; nor when it is so signed in a note for more than $30, unless it is recorded like mortgages of personal property. Damages on protest of bills of exchange, of $100 or more, payable by the acceptor, drawer or indorser of one, in this Stato are, if payable at a place 75 miles distant, one per cent. ; if payable in the Stato of New York, or in any State northerly of it, and not in this State, three per cent. ; if payable in any Atlantic State or territoiy southerly of New York and northerly of Florida, six per cent. ; and in any other State or territory, nine per cent. The' jurisdiction of justice courts extends to ^20, supreme judicial court, of all civil and criminal matters, and, except in county of Cumberland, exclusive of all sums over $20 ; in county of Cumberland over $500, concurrent jurisdiction. Service must be had, in cases before justice of the peace, 7 days before the re- turn day. In the courts of record, on individuals, 14 days, and on corporations, 30 days, before the return day. Judgments are liens for 30 days where it is created by attachment, but not otherwise. Execution can issue on judgments after term of the court expires at ■which judgment was obtained for 3 years, and for the same length of time after ihe last execution. Judgments can be sued on for 20 years. The execution can- not be stayed unless it is issued wrongfully, and then only upon giving bond to the 3 udgment creditor. Peeds, Rights of Makried "Womeis", "WiiiLS, &c.— Deeds must be under seal ; a scrawl is not suflficient. It is not necessary to have witnesses, but it must be ac- knowledged in the State before a justice of the peace. Out of the State, before any justice of the peace, magistrate, notary public, commissioner for the State, or by any United States minister, consul, or any notary public in any foreign country. The wife must join in the deed to relinquish dower, or she may do it by a separate* deed. When she joins with her husband in the same deed, either can acknowl- edge the instrument. No separate examination of the wife is necessary. The following is the form of acknowledgment to be used in this State • State of Maine, ) County of Waldo, j On this day of , 187 , personally appeared the' above-named grantor, and aknowledged the foregoing instrument,"by him signed, to be his frea act and deed. Before me, Sam Johnson, Justice of the Peace, If acknowledged out of this State, use this form : State of Vermont, ) County of Windham. ) On this day of , 187 , personally appeared before me E. Anderson, notary public, the above-named , the grantor, and ac- knowledged this instrument to be his free act and deed. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my official seal the day and year aforesaid. rsEAL.] E. Anderson, Notary Public. As to property, both real and personal not obtained by them from their hus- bands, married women can control, dispose of, and encumber as though they wero femme sole, and free from the debts of their husbands. They can make contracts, lor which they and their property are liable, whether notes or otherwise, and their property may be attached and taken on execution to satisfy any judgment received against them. They cannot be arrested. A wife must join in a deed from the husband in selling his real estate, to relinquish dower, and he must joia with her ia selling her real estate only when it comes to her from him. 806 SPECIAL LAWS OF MARYLAND. All chattel mortgages made to Bccuro over $30 are void, unless possession is given to the mortgage!!, or rather talteu out of tho jjOssesKioii of the mortgagor, and tlio mortgage recorded in tho town where the mortgagor lives. Jn this State all wills must be in writing, signed by tho testator, or by Bomo pereon in his presence and by his express direction, and shall bo attested and Bubscribcd iu his presence by three credible witnesses. SPECIAL LAWS OF MARYLAND. ExEMPTiOKS moit Forced Salt^ — No Homestead Exemption, hut Personal Property. The property exempted is the personal property actually necessary for the sustenance of the family and the implements or tools necessary to earn a livlihood, and wearing apparel. The Constitution of the State directs" the Leg- islature to pass laws exempting from judicial sale property not exceeding $500, §100 is the amount fixed and exempted in pursuance of this constitutional re- quirement. The exact language of the law is, "all wearing apparel, books, and the tools of mechanics." Mechanics' Liex. — Every building erected, and every building repaired, rebuilt or improved to the extent of one-fourth of its value, shall be subject to a lien for the payment of all debts contracted for work done or material fur- nished for or about the same ; also vessels, boats or machines constructed or repaired within this State are subject to mechanics' lien. The lien must be filed in the record office within six months after the work has been finished or mate- rials furnished. If the contract shall have been made with an architect or builder, or any person other than the owner of tho ground o)i which the building is erected, or his agent, notice of intention to claim a lien must be given to the owner within sixty days. The mechanics' lien has priority over all other liens or incumbrances placed on the property after the commencement of the building, and over mortgages to secure future advances, where the loan or advance is not actually made until after the commencement of the building. Collection of Debts — ^No person can be arrested in civil action here. Writs of attachment may be obtained on the following grounds: Non-residence of the defendant, absconding or secretly removing from his place of abode, with intention to evade payment of his debts. When two summons have been re- turned non est in any action. No bond is required before issuing in the foregoing cases. Attachment may be had on any debt due by a married woman trading as a/e?nrne sole. Upon aflidavit and approved bond in double the debt claimed, attachment for fraud will be issued where debtor is about to abscond from the State ; or has, or is about to assign, dispose of, or conceal his property, or some part thereof, or to remove the same with intent to defraud his creditors ; or has fraudulently contracted the debt. In these cases caution should be used not to resort to attachment unless the proof of the alleged fraud is such as would satisfy a jury upon trial. Every species of property, or legal, or equitable interest in property, is sub- ject to attachment and execution at law. Assignments, in trust, for the benefit of creditors, are not regulated by any special enactments and are common in use. The debtor, so far as the State laws are concerned, may prefer any creditor or class of creditors, or may exact releases, if he assigns all his propertj\ Any chose in action, judgment, bond, legacy or distributive share of an estate may be assigned in writing, signed by the person authorized to assign the same, and the assignee may sue in his own name. As to garnishment, attachments, either on judgment or on original process, in those cases where attachments are authorized, may be laid in the hands of any person or corporation who may then be made to disclose under oath whether tliey owe or are indebted to the defendant or have any property of his in their possession. ^100 of the wages due to any laborer, or employee is exempt from attachment or garnishment. As to notes and bills, a protest made by a notary public for non-payment or non-acceptance, is ^jrtma/acie evidence of the presentment and non-jjayment or non-acceptance at the tim'e and in the manner stated in the protest, and that notices thereof have been sent or delivered in the manner therein stated. The holder of a protested bill of exchange, drawn in this State on a foreign country, shall recover so much current money as will purchase a good bill on the same country, and fif ten per cent, damages, and costs and legal interest. If the bill is drawn upon any person in any other State, district or territory of the United States, SPECIAL LAWS OF MAEYLAXD. 8G7 the holder shall recover bo much current money as will produce a good bill on the same place and eight per cent, damages, and costs and legal interest. Justices of the peace have jurisdiction in cases where the debt or damage claimed does not exceed one hundred dollars, and in all cases of greater amount the circuit courts of the several counties have jurisdiction, and in Baltimore city either the superior court, court of common pleas, or city court. An execution or attachment may issue at any time within 12 years from the date of such judgment, or, if there be a stay thereon, at any time "within 12 years after the expiration of cuch stay, v^here there has been no change of parties to such judgment. In the city of 'Baltimore, execution can issue on the day judg - ment is rendered. In somo of the counties, v/hen judgment is rendered at tha first trial term, there is a stay, by rule of court, until the next term. Every kind of property can bo reached either by execution or attachment. Kedemp- tion after sale upon execution is not allowed. Execution may be stayed for six months by superseding the judgment within sixty days after it is entered, by giving two securities v/ho must confess judgment. Judgments are a lien upon the real estate of the defendant from the date of the judgment, and upon all leasehold interests and terms for years, except leases for not more than five years and not renewable. But a judgment is not a lien upon personal property until execution is put into the hands of the sheriff. Execution may issue at any time within twelve jears, but after twelve years the judgement is barred by limitations, unless previously renewed by scire facias. Judgments of justices of the peace can be made a lien on real estate by being recorded. Deeds, Eights of Makried Wojiek, Wills, &c.— The form of convey- - ances have been simplilied by tlie code. No words of inheritance are neces- sary. A fee simple estata passes, unless a contrary intention shall appear by jCxpress terms or bo necessarily implied. Deeds must be under seal (a scrawl is sufiicient), and the signature must be attested by at. least one witness. A con- (Bideration must be stated. In deeds of fee simple property, the wife must join to release her right of dower. No special form of acknowledgment or separate examination i!^ necessary for a married woman. The following is the form of certificate. State of Makyland, ) County op Carrol, j I hereby certify that, on this day , in the year , before tlio subscriber (here insert the official style of the ofiScer taking the acknowledgment), ersonally appeard (here insert the name of person or persons making the ac- nowledgment), and acknowledged the aforegoing deed to be his act (or did each acknowledge the aforegoing deed to be their respective act). [Seal.] (Signature.) In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my official seal the day and year aforesaid- The acknowledgment, if made within the State, may be made before a justice of the peace for any county or city, or a judge of a court of a county or city having a seal. If acknowledged before a justice of the peace within the State, but out of the county or city in which the real estate lies, the official character of the justice of the peace must be certified by the clerk of the circuit court or superior court under his official seal. If acknowledged without the State, but within the United States, the acknowl- edgment may be made before : First, a notary public (who must atlix his notarial seal); second, a judge of any court of the United States; third, a judge of any court of any State or territory having a seal j fourth, a commissioner of Mary- land to take acknowledgment of deeds. If acknowledged without the United States, the acknowledgment may be made before : First, any minister or consul of the United States ; second, a notary public ; third, a commissioner of Maryland to take acknowledgments. To every certificate before a judge tlie seal of the court must be affixed. Married women hold their real and personal property for their own separate use and entirely protected from the debts of tlie husband, and there is no neces- sity for a trustee. They may devise the same as fully as a femme sole, or may convey the same by a joint deed with the husband. If the wife die intestate, leaving children, her husband has a life estate in her property ; if she die in- testate leaving no children, her husband has a life estate in her real estate and her personal property vests in him absolutely. A married woman may be sued jointly with her husband on any note, contract, or agreement which she has ex- ecuted jointly v/ith him, and the judgments recovered in such cases are liens ou the property of both, and may b© collected in the same manner as if the defend- 8GS SPECIAL LAV/S OF ?1ARR AOIIUSETTS. ants woro not husband and v.-ifo. A woman becomes of lef;al ago to conVey real estato at twenty-one, but may receive lier property and release her guardian at eightceii, or upon marriage. Bills of sale or cliattel mortgages aio valid, although the vendor or mortgagor of Lho chattels remains in poascssion ; provided, they aro jjroperly acknovvl(;dg(;d and recorded, and the vendee or mortgagee sliall make oath at the time of ex- ecution before some person authorized to tako the acknowledgment, that tlio consideration stated in the bill of sale or mortgage is true ajid bona Jide. They maybe acknowledged out of the State before any person authorized to take ac- knowledgment of deeds, and must be recorded in the county or city -whore the vendor resides, withiix twenty days from date. If aclcnowledged within the State, it must be before a justice of the peace or judge of the orphans' court of the city or county where the vendor resides. Wills should be in -writing, and signed by the party making them, or by some other person in his i^resence and by his express directions, and shall be attested and subscribed in the presence of the testator, by three or four credible wit- nesses. A wife may make a will and give all her property, or any part thereof to her husband, or any one other person, with the consent of the husband sub- scribed to said -will. Provided the wife shall have been privately examined by witnesses to said will, apart out of the presence and hearing of her husband, &c. (in the same manner as provided for in deeds), and provided also said will bo j'nade CO days before death of the testatrix. SPECIAL LAWS OF MASSACHUSETTS. Exemptions feosi Forced ^■A.-UE.—TIomeioorth ;?800, and Personal Property. Every householder having a family shall be entitled to an estate of homestead to the extent in value of $800, iu the farm or lot of land and buildings thereon owned or rightly possessed by lease or otherwise and occupied by him as a resi- dence, and such homestead and all right and title therein shall be exempt from attachment, levy or execution, sale for the paj^ment of his debts or other pur- poses. To constitute such catato of homestead and to entitle property to such exemption, it shall be set forth in the deed of conveyance by -which the property is acquired that it is designed to be held as a homestead, or after the title has been acquired such design shall be declared by a Avriting duly signed, sealed, acknowledged and recorded on the registry of deeds for the county or district Avhsre the property is situated. Personal property is exempt as follows : The necessary -wearing apparel of the debtor and his family ; 1 bedstead, bed, and the necessary bedding for every two persons of the family ; stove and fuel not exceeding $50 in value ; other necessary household furniture not exceeding in value $300 ; the family library not exceeding $50 in value ; 1 cqw, 6 sheep, 1 swine and 2 tons of hay ; tools, implements and fixtures for carryiiig on trade or business not exceeding $100 in value; materials and stock designed for his trade or business not exceeding $100 in value ; necessary provisions not exceed- ing $50 in value ; the boat, fishing tackle and nets of fishermen, actually in use in their business, not exceeding $100 in value ; the uniform, arms and accoutre- ments required by la-iv to be kept by the citizens ; 1 sewing machine to the value of $100, and the -wages for personal labor are exempt from attachment to the extent of $20 for, a debt or demand other than for necessaries furnished to the debtor or his family. Mechakics' Lien. — Any person furnishing labor and materials for the erec- tion, alteration or repairs of any building, shall have a lien on the same, but no lien for the materials shall attach unless he shall notify the owner, in case he is not the purchaser, in v/riting, that he intends to claim a lien for the same before they are furnished. Where the contract for furnishing labor and materials ia for an entire sum, a lien -will attach for the labor, if its value can be ascertained separate from the materials, but not beyond such entire sum. Notice in writing from the owner of such building, that he will not be responsible for the labor and materials to bo furnished to the party furnishing or performing the same, ■will prevent the lien from attaching. Collection of Debts.— When an arrest of the defendant in a civil action, on mesne process, in an action of contract, is desired by the plaintiff, the plain- tiff, or some person in his behalf, malces affidavit, and proves to the satisfaction of some justice of a court of record, police court, judge of a probate court, master in chancery, commissioner of insolvency, and, except in the county of Suffolk, tiial justice or of any justice of the peace,— 1. That he has a good cause of action, and reasonable expectation of recovering a sum amounting to $20. exclusive of all SPECIAL LAWS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 869 costs which have accrued in any former action. 2. That he believes, and has reason to believe, the defendant has property not exempt from being talcen on execution, which he does not intend to apply to payment of the plantiS's claim ; and, 3. That he believes, and has reason to believe, that the defendant intends to leave the State, 60 that execution, if obtained, cannot be served upon him ; or (instead of the seconder third), that the defendant is an attorney-at-law ; that the debt sought to be recovered is for money collected by the defendant for the plaintiff, and that the defendant unreasonably neglects to pay the same to the plaintiff. And such affidavit, and the certilicate of the magistrate that he is Batislied the same is true, thall be annexed to the writ. In actions of tort, tlie arrest of the defendant may be procured when tho plaintiff, or some one in his behalf, make3 oath, to the satisfaction of any one of said magistrates, that he believes, and has reason to believe, that he has a gootl cause of action against the defendant ; that he has reasonable expectation of recovering a sura equal, at least, to one-third tho damages claimed in the writ ; and that he believes, and has reason to believe, that the defendant intends to leave the State, so that If execution be obtained it cannot be served on him. An order for arrest on an execution issued on a judgment for debt or damages in a civil action, except in actions of tort, may be ol;)tained when the plaintiff, or some one in his behalf, makes affidavit and proves to tho satisfaction of any one of said magistrates : 1. That he believes, and has good reason to believe, that the debtor has property not exempt from being taken on execution, which he does not intend to apply to the payment of the plaintiff's claim ; or, 2. That since the debt was con- tracted, or the cause of action accrued, the debtor has fraudulently conveyed, con- cealed, or otherwise disposed of some part of his estate, with a design to securo the same to his own use and defraud his creditors ; or, 3. That since the debt was contracted, or cause of action accrued, the debtor has hazarded and paid money or other property to the value of §100 or more in some kind of gaming prohibited by the laws of this State ; or, 4. That sinco the debt was contracted the debtor has wilfully expended and misused his goods and estate, or some part thereof, for the purpose of enabling himself toswear that he has not any estate to the amount of ^520, except such as is exempt from being taken on execution ; or, 5. (If the action was founded on contract.) That the debtor contracted tho debt with an intention not to pay the same ; or, 6. That the debtor is an attorney- at-law ; that tho debt upon which the judgment on which the execution issued was for money collected by the debtor for the creditor, anZ that said attorney ■unreasonably neglects to pay the same. And such affidavit and the certiticate of the magistrate that he is satisfied there is reasonable cause to believe the charges therein contained, or some one of them, are true, shall be annexed to the execu- tion. No woman shall bo arrested on any civil process except for tort. But when- ever any person shall obtain a judgment against any woman, whether married or unmarried, for the sum of $20 and upwards, exclusive of all costs, which make a part of said judgment, and while so much as that amount remains uncollected, and shall take any execution upon the same, he may demand payment of the same, and upon failure to satisfy said execution, the judgment creditor may cite the judgment debtor to appear before the court and submit to an examination touching her estate and the disposition of the same. When a person is arrested on mes2ie^9roce.';s in actions of contract, as above described, he may obtain his release by proving, to the satisfaction of any one of Baid magistrates, that he does not intend to leave the State, so that execution, if obtained, cannot be eerved,on him, or by taking the oath for the relief of poor debtors, or by giving bail either to pay the judgment or to answer to the execu- tion. When a person is arrested on mesne process in an action of tort, he may obtain his release by giving bail. When arrested on execution, the defendant may obtain his discharge by taking the oath for the relief of poor debtors, before any one of said magistrates, and satisfying said magistrates of its truth. The oath is as follows : " I," A. B., " do solemnly swear that I have not any estate, real or personal, to the amount of thirty dollars, except the estate, goods and chattels which are by law exempt from being taken on execution, and that I have not any other estate now conveyed, concealed, or in any way disposed of with the design to secure the same to my own use or to defraud my creditors." When any of the charges of fraud aforesaid are proved, the debtor shall have no benefit from the provisions for the relief of poor debtors, and may be sentenced to confinement at hard labor in the house of correction. If the debtor is dis- charged on execution by taking the poor debtors' oath, the judgment remains in full force against his goods and estate, but he is not liable to a second arrest of tho body. y 870 SPECIAL LAWS OF MASS ACIItTSETTf!. An attaohmGiit of tlio property of defendanL in permitted in nil oases in mesne process; cither by direct altaeJiinent or l)y truetoc or garnisheci process. And wlioii th(3 pi;(>i)erty of tlio defendant <;annot 1)0 readied, so as to 1)0 attached in a suit at law, it may ho reached in equity. In cases of doubt as to the ownership of tho property to bo atlaclied, tlio officer requires a bond of indemnity. Besides the courts of minor jurisdiction, as of a justice of tlio peace outside of Suffolk county having a jurisdiction not exceeding ^100, and of police, dis- trict, and municipal courts having jurisdiction not exceeding §oOO, and establish- ed in tho larger towns and cities of tho State, there are two courts established liavi)ig jurisdiction throughout tho State. I'lrst— Tho superior court holds terms in mo.;t of the counties every three months. It har-i concurrent jurisdiction with the first-named courts from s520 to their limit, and exclusive jurisdiction of claims exceeding -IjSOO and not exceeding $1000 iu all counties except Sulfolk county. Ill the latter county, tho jurisdiction extends to $4000, and concurrent jurisdiction with tho supremo judicial court of all claims exceeding said Buma of 1000 and $ 1000. Service of process must bo made in tho superior court 14 days before return day. Sec07id— The supreme judicial court has juiisdlction in equity, concurrent jurisdiction with tho superior court as aliove described, ex- clusive jurisdiction of libels for divorce, and jurisdiction of questions of law brought up from tho superior court. Judgments are not a lien upon property, but when an attachment has been made on mesne 2)yocess, the Ilea holds for 30 days after judgment, in which to mako a levy on tho execution. Ko execution will be issued within 24 hours after judgment has been entered, and all original executions must be issued within one year after the party is entitled to sue it out, r.z.d i:o successive execu- tion will be issued unless within five years after the return day of tho one preced- ing it. All executions are returnable in sixty days from their date. Deeds, Eights of Married Womex, Wills, &c.— Conveyances of lands, or of any estate or interest therein, may be made by deed executed by any person haviiig authority to convey the same, or by liis attorney, and acknowledged and recorded in tha registry of deeds for tho county or district wliere tho lands lie, without any other act or ceremony, _ • A wafer, or other tenacious substance upon which an impression may be made, is a valid seal in this State. Tho acknowledgment of deeds shall bo by the grantors, or one of them, or by tho attorney executing tho same, and may bo made before any justice of tho peace, magistrate or notary public, or commis- Bioner appointed for that purpose by the Governor of this State within the United States, or in any foreign country, or before a minister or consul of tho United States in any fori^n country. No subscribing witness is required when the deed is acknowledged by one of tho grantors. Incase the grantor refuses to acknowledge tho same, it may be proved before a justice of the peaca in the county v/hero the land lies, or where the grantor or any subscribing wit- ness to the deed resides, by the testimony of the subscribing v/itness, an-dthe shall certify the due execution of same. In signing deeds it is not necessary that tho wife be separately examined ; it is sufficient to bar her dower, if she join with her husband in the conveyance. A married woman may hold real and personal property. May convey the same, make contracts, sue and be sued in the same manner as if she were sole ; but her separate conveyance of her real estate shall be subject to her husband's tenancy by the courtesy. Conveyances, contracts and suits are not authorized between husband and wife. Every woman shall be entitled to her dower at common law in the lands of her husband, to be assigned to her after his decease, unless she is lawfully barred thereof. Chattel mortgages of personal property shall be recorded on the records of the city or town where the mortgagor resides when the mortgage is made, and on the records of the city or town in which he then principally transacts his busi- ness, or follows his trade or calling. If the mortgagor resides without the Ste.te, his mortgage of personal property within the State when the mortgage is made, shall be recorded on the records of the city or town where the property then is ; unless a mortgage is so recorded within fifteen days from the dato thereof, or the property mortgaged is delivered to and retained by_ the mort- gagee, it shall not be valid against any person other than the parties thereto, except in the case of a mortgage, contract of bottomry or respondentia, or any ti-ansfer, assignment or hypothecation of a ship or vessel, and also except in case of any transfer or mortgage of goods at sea or abroad, if the mortgagee takes possession of such goods as soon as may be after their arrival in this State. When it is required that a mortgage of personal property shall be recorded in the records of two municipalities, such mortgage shall be considered aa dulj SPECIAL LAWS OF MICHIGA^^-. 871 recorded, ■when recorded in the record of one of them , provineci, it is recorded in the records of the other within ten days from the date of such first record. Wills must be in writing, and signed by the testator, or by some other person in his presence and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in tho presence of the testator by three or more competent witnesses. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— ^Tome worth S1500 and Personal Pro- •perty. A homestead consisting of any quantity of land, not exceeding 40 acres and dwelling house thereon and its appurtenances, not included in any recorded town plat or city, or village ; or instead thereof, at the ontion of the owner, ono lot in a recorded town plat or city, or village, and the dwelling house thereon and its appurtenances. Said property, however, must not exceed $1,500 in value ; if so, it may be sold and the excess applied in payment of the judgment. Personal property is exempt as follows : All spinning wheels, weaving loom with the apparatus, and stoves put up and kept for use in any dwelling house, a Beat, pew or slip occupied by a person or family in any place of public worship, all cemeteries, tombs and rights of burial, all arms and accoutrements required to be kept by any person, all wearing apparel of every person or family, library and school books of every individual and family not exceeding f 150 in value^ and all family pictures. To each householder 10 sheep with their fleeces, and the yarn or cloth manufactured from the same, 2 cows, 5 swine, and provision and fuel for six months' rise, all household goods, furniture and utensils not ex- ceeding in value $250 ; tools, implement, materials, stock, apparatus, team, vehicle, horses, harness or other tilings to enable any person to carry on tho profession or trade, occupation or business in which he is wholly or principally engaged, not exceeding in value 5250 ; and a sufiicicnt quantity of hay, grain, feed and roots for properly keeping for six months the animals hereinbeforo specified ; 1 sewing machine for family use is also exempt. No portion of tho property above specified, however, is exempt from execution upon a judgment for the purchase money. Mechanics' Lien. — Any person who shall, by contract with the owner, part owner or lessee of any piece of land, furnish labor or materials for constructing or repairing any building, wharf or appurtenances on such land, has a lien therefor upon said building, wharf, machinery, appurtenances, the entire in- terest of said owner, part owner or lessee in and to said land not exceeding one quarter -section ; or if in the limits of an incorporated village or city, in the lot or lots on which said building, wharf, machinery or appurtenances are situated, to the extent of his claim. He must file a verified certificate with the register of deeds, containing a copy of the contract, if in writing, or if not a statement of its terms, with a description of the land, and a statement of the amount duo and to become due, with all credits to which the owner may be entitled. The owner, part owner or lessee must be notified of the filing of the certifi- cate. In order to have the benefit of the lien, proceedings to foreclose must bo taken within six months after the last installment shall become due. A sub- contractor has a lien to the extent of the interest of the original contractor, upon complying with substantially the same provisions as in case of an original contractor. Mechanics, workmen, and other persons, also have a lien in certain cases, for performing labor or furnishing materials in building, altering, repair- ing, beautifying or ornamenting any house or other building, machinery oi; appurtenances to any house or building. Collection of Debts. — Persons may be arrested by capias ad respondendum,' in actions arising on contract, to recover damages for breach of promise to marry, for moneys collected by a public ofificer, for any misconduct or neglect in oluce, or in any professional employment, and in other actions than those aris- ing upon contract, where an order for bail shall be indorsed on the writ by a judge of the court, or by a circuit court commissioner. Arrests may also be made in other actions upon contract than those above specified, if it be made to appear that the defendant fraudulently contracted the debt or incurred the obligation, or that he has property which he has removed, or is about to remove, out of the jurisdiction of the court, with intent to defraud his creditors, or which he fraudulently conceals, or which he unjustly refuses to anply to the payment of any Judgmeut which shall have Ijeen rendered against SPECIAL LAWS OF MICHIGAN, 872 RPECTAL LA-^R OP MICHIGAN'. Attachi-nenta inay issue in favor of any creditor aRainKt any dcblor having property in tlio county in wlilcli the creditor or debtor may reside, Bubject to the aLLachnient, in tho circuit court of fiaid county; or in caso the de1>tor has no property in tho county, or is a non-resident of the Slate, then an attaclnnent may jSRiie in tho circuit court of any county where tho i)roj)erty of tho debtor may bo found. Tho following aro the principal causes of attachment : 1. That tlio defend- ant has absconded or is about to abscond from this State, or that lio is conccialed therein, to the injury of his creditors. 2. That tho defendant has asoij^ned, dis- posed of, or concealed, or is about to assign, dispose of, or coiiceal any of his property, with intent to defravid his creditors. 3. That tho defendant Ims re- moved or is about to remove any of his property out of the State, with intent to defraud his creditors. 4. That he has fraudulently contracted the debt or iii' curred the obligation respecting which the suit is brought. />. That, ho is a v.o-a^ resident of the State and has not resided therein for three months immediately preceding the timo of commencing the suit ; or, G. That tho defendant io a foreign corporation. No bond is required on commencement of suit, but the defendant may re- cover the possession of the pt-operty taken by virtue of the writ by delivering to the oflicer a bond conditioned for the payment of any judgment or tho return of tlip property. Unless this is done, the property must remain in the hands of the oflicer. Attachments may bo dissolved by a judge of the court, or by a circuit court commissioner, upon application of the defendant, if he .shall be satisfied that the plaintiff had not a good and legal cause for Buing out tho writ. Assignments of bonds, notes, and other choses in action not negotiable under existing laws, are valid, and the assignee may sue for and recover the same iu his own name. A writ of garnishment may issue in a personal action arising upon contract. As to notes and bills, no person in this State can be charged as an acceptor on a bill of exchange, unless his acceptance is in writing, signed by himself or Ms lawful agent. Bills of exchange, duly protested for non-acceptance or non- payment, if drawn or endorsed within this State, payable at any place without the State but in the Lnited States, entitle the holder to recover damages in ad- dition to tho contents of such bill, with interest and costs, as follows: When payable within either of the States of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Ohio and New York, three per cent, on the contents of the bill ; when payable within either of the States of Missouri, Kentucky, ]\laine, New Hampshire, Ver- mont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Mary- land, Virginia or the District of Columbia, five per cent,, and if payable else- where within any of the United States or territories thereof, ten per cent. No damages are allowed, if payable within this State. If payable outside of tho United States, five per cent, is allowed, besides the current rate of exchange at time of demand. All parties to notes or bills, whether drawers, makers, guaran- tors of payment, endorsers or acceptors, may be sued in one action, and judg- ment may be rendered and execution issued in the same manner as though all were joirit contractors. Any bill of exchange, note, or draft payable on demand, and any check, bill of exchange, or draft drawn upon any bank or banking insti- tution, is deemed to be due on the day mentioned for tho payment of tho same, without any days of grace being allowed. ■ Guarantees of payment or of the col- lection are negotiable, and pass to the holder of tho note. Notarial protest is evidence of non-acceptance or non-payment, at the time and in the manner stated in the protest, unless the defendant shall annex to his plea an affidavit denyinj^ the fact of having received such, notice. justices of the peaca have jurisdiction in all civil actions wherein the debt or damages do not exceed §100, and concurrent jurisdiction with the courts of record in all actions upon contract wherein the debt or damages do not exceed ^p300, except actions for a disturbance of a right of v/ay or other easement; ac- tions for libel, slander, or for malicious' prosecutions, and actions against execu- tors or administrators as such, except in cases specially provided by law. Cir- cuit courts, in their respective counties, have and exerciseoriginal and exclusive jurisdiction of all civil actions and remedies of whatever name and description, and of all prosecutions for crimes, misdemeanors, offences and penalties, except in cases where exclusive or concurrent jurisdiction is given to or possessed by some court or tribunal in virtue of some statutory provisions, or the principles and usages of law. Said court has such appellate jurisdiction and powers as are provided by law. Service of summons may be made at any time before return (lay. A judgment has no effect upon the property of a jud^ent debtor, either real SPECIAL LAWS OF MICIIIGA^T. 873 or personal, until the issuG and levy of an execution . A certified transcript o£ the judgment of a justice of tlie peace for twenty dollars and over, exclusive of costs, on certain conditions, may be filed in the office of the clerk of the circuit court of the county in which the judgment shall have been rendered, in which case the judgment shall be of the same effect as a judgment rendered in said cir- cuit court. Judgments may be entered in any court upon confession. Executions in courts of record may issue upon the reiidition of judgment to the proper officer of any county in the State, and successive or alias executions may issue one after another upon the return of any execution unsatisfied in whole or in part. They are not a lien upon property until a levy is made. Exe- cutions in justices' court, except in certain specified cases, may issue at the ex- piration, of five days from the rendition of judgment, unless the execution bo stayed. The defendant in the execution in justices' court may stay the same, except in certain specified cases, by filing proper security for the payment of lha money, with interest and costs for four months from the commencement of suit, if the judgment shall not exceed fifty dollars, and for six months if the judgment exceeds fifty dollars. Land sold under execution may be redeemed within one year from the timo of sale. Every species of property, real or personal, and the interest of the de- fendant in any property, except such as is exempt from execution by statute, is Bubject to execution and sale. Deeds, Rights of Markied Womex, "Wills, &c — Deeds must be under , seal, with two witnesses ; a scrawl is regarded as a seal. The execution of deed« must be acknowledged before any judge or commissioner of a court of record, or before any notary public or justice of the peace within the State. The deed must be recorded in the county where the land lies. Deeds executed in any other State muSt be executed according to the laws of such State, and the execu- tion thereof may be acknowledged before any officer authorized by the laws of Buch State to take acknowledgments ; or they may be acknowledged before any commissioner appointed by the Governor of this State for such purpose. If made before any other of&cer than a commissioner of this State, the deed must have attached thereto a certificate of the clerk of a court of record of the county or district within which such acknowledgment was taken under his seal of office ; that the person whose name is subscribed to the certificate of acknowl- edgment was, at the date thereof, such ofiicer as he is therein represented to be, that he believes the signature of such person subscribed thereto be genuine, and that the deed is executed and acknowledged according to the laws of such State. The acknowledgment of a deed by a married woman, when she joins with her husband in a deed of conveyance, must bo taken separately and apart from her husband, and she must acknowledge that she executes the same freely and with- out any fear or compulsion from any one. A husband is not required to join in a deed by the wife conveying her prop- erty. No particular form of certificate of acknowledgment is required, but it should appear from such certificate that the person making the same Avas legally authorized to take such acknowledgment ; that the grantor or grantors were personally known to him, and that they appeared before him and acknowledged the deed to be his or their free act. When executed by a married woman, it should show that she executed the same freely and without fear or compulsion from any one. Married women may hold teal and personal estate to their separate use, and may contract in reference to the same, and in the same manner, and with the like effect, as if they were unmarried. And they may sue and be sued in relation to their sole property in the same manner as if they were unmarried. Dealings directly between husband and wife are permitted. The husband has no interest in the property of the wife as tenant by the courtesy, Separate property acquired by females before or after marriage is not liable for the liusband's debt. The wife is entitled to dovv^er in all lauds owned by her husband during coverture. Wills must be in writing, subscribed by the testator or by some person in his presence and by his express direction, attested and subscribed in thQ pyesenco of the testator by two or more coinDetent -witnesses. 874 SPECIAL LAWS OF MINNESOTA SPECIAL LAWS OF MINNESOTA. Exemptions from Forcet) Sale .—Home ofFAghty Acrca in Farm Lands, and Lot in Villar/e or Citii, with I'crsonaL rropi'rtij. Jiiglity acres of laud nnd dwell- ing liouGO thereon, or instead thereof, one town or city lot and the dwelling houses thereon, regardless of value. Family Bible, books, pictures and musical instruments ; church pew and cemetery lot ; wearing apparel of debtor and family, also beds, bedsteads and bedding; Btovcs and appendages, cooking utensils, and furniture not enumerated not exceeding §500 in value ; 3 cows, 10 Bwine, 1 yoke of oxen, and a horse (or a span of horses or mules), 20 sheep ; neccs- Bary food for stock for one year ; 1 "wagon, cart or dray, 1 elcigh, 2 ploughs, 1 drag, and other farming utensils not exceeding $300 'in value ; one sewing machine ; seed grain for one year ; one year's provisions for debtor and family ; one year's fuel ; tools or instruments used for carrying on trade, and stock in trade not exceeding f 400 ; library and implements of any professional man ; 80 acres of land and dwelling house thereon, or instead thereof, one town or city lot, and the dwelling houses thereon, regardless of value. Also the wages of any laboring man or woman or their minor children, not exceeding $50, due for services rendered during the jiinety days preceding the issue of the process. Mechakics' Lien.— ]Mechanics and material men have a lien for labor done or material furnished on land and improvements. Such lien is subject to the rights of prior bona fide lien holders. The claim must be liled within one year, and this gives a lien for two years. Sub-contractors, laborers and persons furnishing materials to the contractors, may acquire a lien on the payments due to the orig- inal contractor by serving an attested account on the owner. Collection' of Debts. — Arrest in civil action is unknown here. Writs of attachment may issue on the following grounds : Defendant being a non-resident or a foreign corporation, or has departed from the State with intent to delay or defraud his creditors, or keeps himself concealed with like intent j that the debt was fraudulently .contracted ; or that defendant has assigned, secreted or disposed of his property with intent to delay or defraud his creditors ; or that ho is about to do so. Attachments are levied on bulky articles of personal property without removal, by fding a copy of the writ with the town or city clerk, and on real estate by recording the writ in the oflice of the register of deeds. Assignments for the benefit of creditors are not governed by statute and fol- low common law rules. No tiling or record is necessary. Garnishment may issue at the time of filing the complaint, or issuing Bummons, or at any time thereafter. The indebtedness of the garnishee, or the value of property in his hands, as well as the indebtedness of the defendant, must not be less than $25, besides costs, to entitle the plaintiff to judgment in the district court, and not less than $10 in the justice's court. On notes and bills grace is allowed, unless the contrary is expressed, on all time paper, and on that payable at sight, but not on that payable on demand. Liability of indorsers is fixed by protest and notice, same as at common law. Demand paper must be presented within sixty days from its date to charge the indorser. Acceptances must be in writing, and signed by the acceptor or his duly authorized agent. District Courts and Courts of Common Pleas have original jurisdiction in all equitable actions where a justice of the peace has not jurisdiction, regardless of amount ; and in all civil actions where the amount exceeds $100, and below that sum, with certain provisions as to costs. Justices of the peace have juris- diction oi all amounts under $100 in civil actions, except cases involving title to real estate, false imprisonment, libel, slander, malicious prosecution, crim. con., seduction, or promise to marry ; or for an action against an administrator or executor. Judgments upon being docketed in the office of the court of record, become a lion on all real property of the judgment debtor in the county where docketed, for ten years. No lien on personal property is created by a judgment. Justices' judgments become liens when a transcript is filed in the district court. Executions issue from district courts when demanded, or any time within ten years after judgment is rendered. They are returnable in district courts within sixty days ; personal property is first levied upon, and is sold at ten days' notice ; real estate is sold on a notice of six weeks, published in a newspaper of the county, and notices posted in three public places for the same time. Keal estate Bold on execution may be redeemed within one year SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSISSIPPI. 875 Deeds, Eights of Married Womek, &c.— Deeds mnst be signed, sealed (a Bcrawl answering for a seal) and acknowledged by the grantor, attested by two vdtnesses, and recorded in the county where the lands are situated. Acknowl- edgments in this State maybe made before a judge of the supreme, district or probate court, or a clerk of said courts, notary public, justice of the peace, or court commissioner. Out of this State, acknowledgments of deeds to lands in this State may be made before a judge of a United States court, judges or justices of any State or territorial court of record, clerks of any of said courts, justices of the peace, notaries public, or commissioners appointed by the Governor of this State for that purpose. Justices of the peace or other officers not using a seal, must have their official character certified to by the clerk of a court of record. No separate acknowledgment to a deed is required by a wife, but she must join in her husband's acknowledgment. The following form of acknowledgment is used indifferently for single persons and for husband and wife : State of Mini^esota, \ County of . ( Be it known that on this day of , A. D. 187 , personally appeared before me , to me personally known to be the same person described in , and who executed the foregoing instrument and acknowledged that executed the same freely and voluntarily, without any fear or com- pulsion from any one, for the uses and purposes therein expressed. Married women may hold property, real or personal, in their own name and for their own use, whether acquired before or after marriage. She may make contracts, and her property is liable for her debts ; but no conveyance of her separate real estate is valid unless her husband join therein. Chattel mortgages are void as against creditors and subsequent mortgagees and purchasers in good faith, when the mortgagor retains possession of the property, unless duly acknowledged and filed in the office of the town or city clerk, both where the mortgagor resides and where the property is located. They cease to be notice after two years from the date of filing. SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSISSIPPI. ExEMPTioxs FROM FORCED S ALE.— Worth §2,000 and Personal Property On debts contracted after Sept. 1, 1870, only 80 acres of land to the head of each family, being a housekeeper, to a resident of any incorporated town, being the head of a family, and a housekeeper, §2,000 worth of real property, comprising the proper homestead. The exempt personality is, 1. The tools of a mechanic necessary for carrying on his trade. 2. The agricultural implements of a farmer necessary for two male laborers. 3. The implements of a laborer. 4. The books of a student required for the completion of his education. 5. The wearing apparel of every person. G. The libraries of licensed attorneys-at-law, practicing physicians and ministers of the gospel, not exceeding in value ^250. 7. The arms and accoutrements of every person enrolled in the militia of the State. 8. All books, globe and maps used by teachers of schools, academies and colleges ; also, the following property of each head of a family or housekeeper : one work horse or mule, or 1 yoke of oxen , 2 cows and calves, 5 head of stock hogs and 5 sheep, 50 bushels of corn, 10 bushels of wheat or rice, 200 lbs. of meat, 1 cart or wagon, not to exceed in value $100, household and kitchen furniture not to exceed $100 in value; and $100 of the wages of laborers is exempt from garnishment, in the hands of their employers. Liens — Judgments, when enrolled, are liens on all property in the county where rendered ; may be made liens in any county by having abstract enrolled there. Mortgages and deeds in trust are also liens. They must be acknowl- edged and recorded in the same manner as ordinary deeds of conveyance. Mechanics have a lien for labor done and materials furnished in the erection and repair of buildings, but suits to eiiforce a mechanic's lien must be commenced in eix months. Collection of Debts.— No person can be arrested for debt in this State. ^ "Writs of attachment may be issued on one or more of the following grounds : 1. That the defendant is a foreign corporation, or is a non-resident of this State ; or, 2, That he has removed or is about to remove himself or property out of this State; on 3. That he so absconds or conceals himself that he cannot be served With a, summons ; or, 4. That he has property or rights in actions which he con- ceals, and unjustly refuses to apply to the payment of Ms debts ; or, 5. That he 876 SPECIAL LAWS OF MIRRISRIPPI. has .assigned or disposed of, or ii about to assign or disposo of his property or rights in action, or sonio part thereof, witli intent to dclraud his creditorn, or give an unfair i)roforenco to soiiio of them ; or, 0. Tliat ho iias converted or is about to convert liis property into money, or evidences of debt, with intent to l)hu;o it beyond tlie reacli of his creditors ; or, 7. That ho has fraudulently contracted the debt, or incurred the obligation for which tho suit has been, or is about to be brought. Before any writ of attachment shall issue, tho creditor, his agent or attorney, must malce an affidavit as to the amount an(l character of lii,^ debt or claim, and the existence of one or more of said grounds of attachment, and give bond iii double the amount of the principal of the claim, conditioned to pay all damages v.'liich tho defendant may eustain by reason of tho wrongful suing out of the attachment. Writs of garnishment may issue on suggestion that any party is indebted to or has property of tho defendant in his hands. The assignment of notes, bills, accounts, and other legal or equitable demands is valid, and when the assignment is in writing, the assignee may sue in his own name. No particular form of words is necessary to constitute a valid assignment. The maker of any bill, note, etc., may plead any payment, off-set or other equity in defense of tho same against the assignee, had or possessed by him against tha assignor previous to notice of the assignment. Justices' courts have jurisdiction up to $150 ; Circuit courts over that amount. Chancery courts have jurisdiction in the administration of estates, all probate matters over minors and lunatics, in matters of dower and divorce, and the fore- closure of mortgages, and they have nearly all the jurisdiction of English chan- cery courts. Executions are required to bo issued, unless otherwise ordered by the plaintiff, ■within 20 days after the adjournment of the term of court at which the judgment is rendered. No stay law for staying executions except in justices' courts, and only then upon giving bond. Parties may, by consent, however, have judgment entered up, with stay of execution for any specified time. Claims against deceased persons must be probated in the office of the clerk of the chancery court having charge of the estate, within one year from the date of the first notice to creditors to present their claims, otherwise they are barred. If the evidence of debt is a bond, note or bill, it must be filed, with the aflidavit of the creditor attached, that no portion of the money intended to be secured by it has been received, and no security or satisfaction given for the same except tho amount credited, if any. If it is an open account, the aflidavit must set out that tho amount stated is just and true, and that no part of the money stated to be due, nor any security or satisfaction for the same has been received except ■what is credited, if any. If it is a judgment, a certified transcript must be filed, accompanied with, a similar oath. The above affidavits jnaybe made by non-residents before a commissioner for the State of Mississippi, a judge or clerk of any court of record, a notary public, or justice of the peace, with the certificate of a judge or clerk of some court of record as to his official character. Deeds, Eights op Married WoME^-, Wili.s, «&c.— Deeds to lands must bo recorded in the office of the chancery clerk, in the county where the lands lie. Before being recorded they must be acknov/ledged. The acknowledgment must be substantially as follows : State of Mississippi, ) CouxTY OP Marion, j Personally appeared before the undersigned (here follows the name and title of the officer), John Leslie, who acknowledged that he signed, sealed and deliv- ered the foregoing deed of conveyance as his own act and deed, on the day and year and for the purposes therein mentioned. Given under my hand this day of , A. D., 187 . (Signature and title of officer.) If a married woman is a party to the deed, the following should be added to the foregoing form of acknowledgment, immediately after the word "mentioned : " Also personally appeared before me,MaryLeslie,wifeof the said John Leslie,who, on a private examination before me, separate and apart from her said husband, acknowledged that she signed, sealed and delivered the foregoing deed of con- veyance, as her own voluntary act and deed, freely, without any fear, threats or compulsion of her said husband, on the day and year and for the purpose therein mentioned. Given under my hand, etc. (as above). The foregoing acknowledgments may be taken before any judge of the Bupreme court, or any judge, of the circuit court, any chancellor, any clerk of a SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSOURI. 877 court of record, or any justice of the peace or member of the board of Bupervi' Bors, whether the land conveyed lie in or out of his county. If the party conveying land in this State is a non-resident, his acimowledg' ment may be made before any of the judges of the supreme court of the United States, or a judge of the district court of tho United States, or justice of the su- preme court or superior court of any State or territory of the Union, or any justice of the peace whose official character shall be certified to under the seal of soma court of record in his county, or before any commissioner residing in such State or territory who may be appointed by the Governor of this State to take acknowl- edgments and proof of deeds and other conveyances. Every deed must be sealed, but a mere scrawl answers for a seal. Property acquired by married women either before or after marriage, enures with the income solely to the wife's benefit. She may sell the same, provided her husband joins in the deed of conveyance ; and she may dispose of it by last will and testament. She cannot bind her property for her husband's debts beyond its income. All contracts made by the husband and wife or either of them, for supplies for the plantation of the wife, may be enforced and satisfaction had out of her separate estate. All contracts made by the wife, or by the husband with her con- sent, for family supplies or necessaries, wearing apparel of herself and children, or for their education, or for materials used or work done for the benefit of her separate estate, or for household furniture, are binding on her, and satisfaction may be had out of her separate estate. A married woman may engage in trade as a femme sole. "WTien she does, sho is bound as though unmarried for all contracts made in the course of her trade. She is liable for debts contracted before marriage. The husband is not liable for ante-nuptial debts. All other contracts than those enumerated, made by a mar- ried woman, are absolutely void. As to dower the widow is entitled to one-third of all lands of which her hus- band died seized and possessed, or which he had conveyed during his lifetime otherwise than in good faith or for a valuable consideration, during her life. If there are no children, she Inherits all of her husband's estate. The husband is entitled, in courtesy, to one-half of all his deceased wife's lands during his life, dependant, however, upon the common law prerequisites. Wills should be in writing, subscribed by the testator, and attested by three credible witnesses. If the will is wholly vmtten by the testator, and subscribed by him, it need not be attested by any witnesses. SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSOURL Exemptions from Forced ^ajje— Homestead ?P1500 to ??3000, and Personal Property. Homestead, if in the country, not to exceed ^150U in value, and in cities of over 40,000 inhabitants, not to iexceed $3000 in value. Personal prop- erty is exempt as follows : For heads of families, all wearing apparel, usual household furniture not to exceed ^100 in value, provisions in the house and the usual tools of trade of a mechanic ; for farmers, working and other kind of animals amounting in value to about $300. Persons may claim, in place of tho aforesaid animals, any kind of property, real or personal. Women, being aban- doned by their husbands, and being heads of families, m&y claim the same ex- emptions as the husbands. Persons, other than heads of families, are allowed, as exemptions, their wearing apparel and the necessary tools of a mechanical trade. The last month's wages, regardless of amount, are exempt from execu- , tion and attachment. Mechanics' Lien. — Material men and mechanics have lien for labor and material on the land and improvements to the extent of their claims. The orig- inal contractor must file his claim within six months, laborers within thirty days, and all other persons claiming a lien within four months after the debt accrued. This lien has precedence over all other liens or encumbrances placed on the property subsequent to the commencement of the building or improve- ments. Collection of Debts.— Arrest for debt is unknown here. Writs of attach- ment may be obtained on the following grounds : — Non-residence; being about to remove from the State ; concealment with view to avoid service ; removal of property from State, or concealment of the same, with a view to hinder and de- lay creditors ; where debt is contracted out of the State, and debtor absconds 878 SPECIAL LAWB OF MISSOURI. from thoro finil pncrctly removes his property into tliis Stato : for debt contracted fraudulently or from commission of felony; or -wJiero goods wcro bought and payment is to bo m.ido in cash and tlio same is not done ; bond must bo in double the debt claimed, with one or more sureties, who must bo resident householders in the county whero suit is brought. Attachments sliould bo resorted to in this Stato with great caution, and only where tlio proof hi strong and clear. Every ppccics of property, whether it bo legal or equitable, is subject to attachment .Tiid execution at law. When attachment is levied oji real estate, notice is to bo filed at the recorder's olFice, and this fixes legal notice of the encumbrance. Asiignmenls, in trust for the beiiclit of creditors, inure for the benefit of all creditors of the grantor, whether named intliedeedof assignment or not; tho deed of assignment must be acknowledged and recorded like other deeds. One partner cannot assign all the partnership assets for tho payment of partnership debts, but only liis own share of them. A creditor, if he attacks an assignment as fraudulent, and is defeated, cannot afterwards claim the benefit of the aa- eignmcnt and be allowed to prove his debt before the assignee. Assignments, made to secure sureties or endorsers, prior to any payment by them, are valid here. Notes, bills, accounts and every species of contract or claim is assignable, and the assignee can sue on it in his own name. Garnishment can be issued, either on execution or attachment, against any person owing the debtor or having his property in possession. The garnishee is entitled to compensation for his trouble and expense, including attorney's fees ; this is payable out of the fund, if any is found in his hands, or if nothing is due from the garnishee, then the plaintiff is bound to pay this sum. Acceptors of notes and bills are chargeable only when their acceptance is in VTTiting on the bill ; or, if on separate piece of paper, when the party who gave the credit saw the separate paper ; or if a promise is made in v^^riting to accept a draft before it is drawn, and the draft is in the hands of any person who gave credit on the strength of this writing. Bills of exchango and notes drawn and negotiated in this State or on any person within the State, expressing on their face for " value received," and duly protested for non-payment or non-acceptance, entitle the holder to recover dam- ages as follows . If drawn on a person residing in this State, four per cent. ; if outside the State, ten per cent. ; if outside any of the United States or territo- ries, twenty per cent, damages on the principal sum. These damages are not recoverable if the bill is drawn by and on a person residing in this State, and payment of the principal is made within twenty days after dishonor. All parties to notes or bills, whether endoi^sers, makers, or acceptors, or parties in any man- ner, can be sued jointly or separately in the same or in several actions. Drafts, orders or bills of exchange, payable at sight or on demand, are deemed due tho day they are presented for payment, and if tmpaid, may be protested. Notarial protest is evidence of demand and refusal of payment, at the time and in the manner stated in the protest. Sheriffs are liable, for failure to pay over money, to pay five per cent, dam- ages per month from the time demand 'is made of them, in addition to legal in- terest. They are also liable for the full value of property in replevin or attach- ment suits, when they have taken insufficient bond. The jurisdiction of justices' courts, in counties having over 50,000 inhabitants, on bonds and notes for the payment of money up to $300, on other contracts up to $200, on actions for torts up to $100. In counties having under 50,000 inhab- itants, on notes and bonds for payment of money up to $150, on other contracts up to $D0, and in torts up to §50. In actions for recovery of specific personal property, up to $)200, in the former, and up to $100 in the latter class of counties. All these amounts are exclusive of interest. Circuit courts have concurrent jurisdiction with justices' courts as follows, in counties irrespective of popula- tion : On written or verbal contracts, in sums over $50, and in the former class' of counties for torts, in sums over $25, and for recovery of specific personal prop- erty up to $200 ; in the latter class of counties for torts, in sums over $25, and for recovery of personal property in sums not exceeding $100. Service of summons must be made in circuit courts 15 days before return day, and all actions are triable, in counties having over 40,000 inhabitants, at the re- turn term ; in other counties, actions on notes and bonds are triable ' at the re- turn term, and other actions at the next term. Before justices, service must be made 15 days before trial, in cases where they have concurrent jurisdiction with circuit courts ; in other cases 6 days is sufS.- cient ; but in St. Louis county 15 days is required in all cases. Judgments, in courts of record are a lien from their rendition, and for three years thereafter, on all real estate owiied by the defendant, or subsequently ac- SPECIAL LAWS OF MISSOUKI. 879 quired by liim, and situated in tlio county wliero the judgment is rendered. Tho judgment can be revived so that the lien can bo kept up for ten years after its rendition. No execution can issue on a judgment in a court of record older than ten years, new suit lias to be brought on the same. Judgments in courts of rec- ord create no lien on personal property. No execution can issue on a justice's judgment three years after its rendition, Avithout revivor. Judgments befora justice can be made to create lien on real estate by filing a transcript of the judgment in tho circuit court. Execution issues the day judgment i3 rendered, and are a lien on personal property, when issuing out of a justice's court from the time they are delivered to the officer ; when issuing from courts of record, only from the time they aro actually levied. Executions from a justice cannot be levied on real estate. Every species of property, real ()r personal, books of account, debts and judg- ments, whether the interest in real estate be a legal or equitable title, is subjecli to execution and sale at law. Eedemption, after execution sale, is unknown here. If an execution from a court of record is returned unsatisfied, the debtors can be summoned and required to state under oath what property or interests they have or own, which may be reached by execution. Deeds, Eights op Markied Womex, Wills, &c.— Deeds must bo under seal, a scrawl is regarded as a seal. The acknowledgment, if made in this State, may be made before a justice of the peace of the county where the land lies, be- fore a court or judge, the court having a seal, or before a notary public ; if out of tills State, before a commissioner of this State, notary public, or before a court or judge or clerk of a court having a seal, or before the chief officer or mayor of a town or city who has a seal, or before a consul or minister of the United States who has a seal. The seal must be attached, and tho deed recorded in tho county where the land lies. The following is the form of certificate where the grantor is unmarried : [Form of Acknowledgment.] State of Missouiti, \ County of Pike, j Be it remembered, that on this day of , A. D. 18 , before tho undersigned, a , within and for tho county of , and State of Missouri, personally came , who are personally known to me to be the same persons whose names are subscribed to the foregoing and annexed instru- ment of writing as parties thereto, and acknowledged the same to be their act and deed for the purposes therein mentioned. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto sat my liand, and affixed my official eeal, at my office in , the day and year first above written. [L. S.] (Signature and title.) The following is the form where husband and wife join in the deeds, the latter releasing dower. Husband and wife always must join in deeds, whether her or his real estate are to b^ conveyed : [Form of Acknowledgment.] State of Missotjei, \ County of Pike, j - Be it remembered, that on this day of , A. D. 18 , before the ■undersigned, a , within and for the county of ' , and State of Missouri, personally came , who are personally known to me to be the same persons whose names are subscribed to the foregoing and annexed instru- 'ment of writing as parties thereto, and acknowledged the same to be their act and deed for the purposes therein mentioned. And the said , being by me first made acquainted with the contents of said instrument, upon an examin- ation separate and apart from husband , acknowledged that ex- ecuted the same, and relinquishes dower in the real estate therein men- tioned, freely and v/ithout fear, compulsion or undue influence of said husband. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, and affixed my official eeal, at my office in the day and year first above written. [SEAL.] (Signature and title.) Mai-ried women can hold real or personal property to their separate use, through a trustee. A note or endorsement made by a married woman will bind her separate estate ; it will not, however, bind her general estate, and will be a nullity unless she has a separate estate to be bound by the paper. If, however, lier note is for purchase money of property, then it will bind even her general estate. 880 SPECIAL LAWS OF MONTANA AND NEBRASKA. The wife's separate property, •whether acquired before or previous to mar- riage, is not liable for her husband's debts. The wife is endowed of one-third of r.ll the lands of which her husband, or any one to his use, was seized of an estate of inheritance, at any time during the marriage ; albo, of leasehold estate for the term of 20 years or more. A chattel mortgage of perishable articles, which are left in the hands of the prantor, with right to use the same, is void ; so is mortgage of stock of goods, the grantor having right to sell ^ so is any mortgage, if unregistered and the chattel left with the grantor ; so is also a registered mortgage, if the goods are left iinreasonably long with grantor, after default is made in jiayment. Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some person in his presence, and at his request, and attested by two competent witnesses, who shall subscribe their names as witnesses in the presence of the testator. Wilbi must be recorded 30 days after nrobate : if lands in different counties are devised a copy of the will will be recorded in the recorder's office in each county, withiu eix months after probate. SPECIAL LAWS OF MONTANA. ' Exemptions from: Fokced SaTj'k.— Home worth $2500, and Personal Prop- erty. A homestead not exceeding in value $2.500 ; in a city or village not to exceed one quarter acre, or farm land not exceeding 80 acres, the debtor taking his choice selecting either, Avith all improvements thereon included in the valuation. The lien of a mocbanic, laborer, or mortgage lawfully obtained upon the same is not affected by such exemption. In addition to the homestead, personal property to the value of ^1400, and more, according to value of articles enumerated by fctatute, is allowed to the householder occupying the same. SPECIAL LAWS OF NEBRASKA. ExETJPTiONS FKOM FORCED SALE.— 7Jo?ne wortJi §500, and Personal Prop- erty- A homestead containing any quantity of land not exceeding 160 acres, and the dwelling house thereon, and its appurtenances, to be selected by the owner thereof, and not included in any incorporated city or village ; or instead thereof, at the option of the owner, a quantity of contiguous land, not exceeding two lots in any incorporated town, city, or village, and according to the recorded plat of said incorporated town, city, or village ; or, in lieu of the above, a lot or parcel of contiguous land, not exceeding 20 acres, being within the limits of an incor- porated town, city, or village, the said parcel or lot of land not being laid off into Btreets, blocks, and lots, owned and occupied by any resident of the State, being the head of a family, shall not be subject to attachment, levy or sale upon ex- ecution, or other process issuing out of any court in this State, so long as tho eame shall be occupied by the debtor as a homestead. All heads of families, who have neither lands, town lots, nor houses entitled to exemption as a homo- Btead, under the laws of this State, shall have exemption from forced sale on execution the sum of $500 personal property. Mechanics' Lien.— Any person who shall have performed any labor, or furnished any material or machinery for the erection, reparation or removal of any house or other building or purtenances, by virtue of a contract, expressed or implied, with the owner thereof, or his agent, shall have a lien thereon to secure the payment for such labor performed or materials furnished. Said lien shall be obtained by filing, in the office of the county clerk for record, an account, in writing, of the items, and making oath thereto, within four months after furnish- ing such materials, or work and labor. The lien shall operate from the date of the first item till two years from the date of the last item. Collection of Debts.— An order for the arrest of the defendant may be ob- tained on affidavit by the plaintiff, his agent, or attorney, that the claim is just, and that one or more of the following particulars are true : that the defendant has begun to remove any part of his property out of the jurisdiction of the court with intent to defraud ; that he has begun to convert the same into money to place it beyond the reach of his creditors ; that he has property of rights of action which he fraudulently conceals ; that he has assigned, removed or disposed of his property or any part thereof with intent to defraud ; that he has fraudulently contracted the debt or incurred the obligation on which the action is based. Tho SPECIAL LAWS OF NEBRASKA. 881 affidavit must furtlier contain a statement of tlie facts claimed to justify a belief in one or more of tlie above particulars. A bond must be executed like tbat iu cases of attachment. Tbe plaintiff in a civil action may obtain a writ of attachment against all tlio lands, tenements, goods, chattels, stocks, or interest in stocks, rights, credits, moneys and effects of the defendant in his county, not exempt by law, iipon tho following grounds, in addition to those enumerated in the last above section : when the defendant, or one of several, is a non-resident or foreign corporation ; Avhen he absconds with intent to defraud ; when he has left tlie county to avoid Gcrvice, or so conceals himself that summons cannot be served upon him. "When the ground of attachment is that tho defendant is a non-resident or foreign cor' poratiou, the claim must be a debt or demand arising on contract, judgment or decree. A bond, in not more than double the amount claimed, with one or more sureties to be approved by the clerk, is required, except when the defendant is a non-resident or foreign corporation. In cases of attachment, " when the plaintiff, his agent or attorney, shall make oath in writing that he has good reason to, and does believe, that any person or corporation, to be named and within tho county where the action is brought, has property of the defendant (describing the same) in his possession," the said prop- ertv, whether debts, choses in action, chattels or other property, may be garnished and held the same as property otherwise attached. In all cases where an execu- tion shall be returned unsatisfied, and the judgment creditor, his agent or at- torney, shall file an affidavit, that any person or corporation (naming the same)- has property of, and are indebted to the judgment debtor, such person or corpo- ration may be summoned as garnishee. All bonds, promissory notes, bills cf exchange, foreign and inland, drawn for any sum or sums of money, certain and made payable to any person or order, or assigns, shall be negotiable by endorsement ; made payable to bearer, shall bo transferable by delivery without endorsement. All such negotiable paper shall be entitled to three days' grace. January 1st, February 22d, July 4th, December 25th, and any day appointed or recommended by the governor of this State, or tho President of the United States, as a day of fast or thanksgiving, are legal holi- days for commercial purposes ; when such day comes on Monday, then the day after is when the act is to be performed. "When any bill of exchange shall bo drawn for the payment of any such sum of money, and such bill shall be legally protested for non-acceptanco or non-payment, the drawer or drawers, endorser or endorsers, shall be Bubject to payment of twelve per cent, damages thereon, if drawn on any person or persons, or body-corporate, without the jurisdiction of tho United States, and six per cent, damages thereon if drawn upon persons or body- corporate Avithin the jurisdiction of the United States, and without the jurisdic- tion of this State. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction only except in cases relating to revenue, mandamtis, quo warranto, habeas corptis, and such cases of impeachment as may bo required to be tried before it ; and both the supreme and district courts Bhall have both chancery and common law jurisdiction. The district court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over all matters and suits at law and in chancery arising in each county in their respective districts, except when justices of the peace have jurisdiction, and concurrent jurisdiction with said justices of the peace, in cases where the cause of action exceeds fifty dollars, and not exceed- ing one hundred dollars, and has jurisdiction in all cases of appeals from a justice of the peace or judge of probate. Justices of the peace have jurisdic- tion co-extensive with their counties, and extends to all cases wherein the sum involved does not exceed ^5100. When action is rightly brought in any county, a summons may issue to any other county, and, unless otherwise provided for, shall be returnable on second Monday from its date, but when issued to another county, it may be made returnable, at tho option of the party having it issued, on the third or fourth Monday after its date. Personal service before justices of the peace, three days before trial ; constructive service may also be made in certain cases by publication. Judgments in district court, are liens upon the lands of the judgment debtor, situated in the same county, from tho first day of the term at which judgment is rendered ; but judgments by confession, and those rendered at the same term in which the action is commenced, are liens only from the day on which such judg- ments are rendered. To create a judgment lien in other counties, a transcript must be filed or levy made. Judgments in probate and justices' courts, operate as a lien upon the realty of the debtor when a transcript thereof is filed and docketed in tho office of tho clerk of the district court. ^ ^ 882 SPECIAL LAWS OF NEBRASKA. Lands, tciicmontfi, goods and cliattcls, not exempt by law, are subject to levy. Elocutions, unless stayed, irbuo at any time after judymont on order therefor. May issue to any county in the State, and simultaneously to any other counties ; must first exhaust goods and chattels, and afterwards realty. Are not liens on personalty or realty in counties other than the one in which judgment is obtain- ed, until levy has been made or transcript filed. Ko redemption of propertysold on execution or order of sale on foreclosure of mortgage ; title becomes absoluto on confirmation of sale. Judgments become dormant and ceai-e to be a lien on debtors' property if execution is not issued within five years from rendition of judgment, or if fivo years intervene between the issuing of two executions. Judgments cease to operate as a lien on the debtor's estate to the prejudice of any subsequent bona fide judgment creditors, unless execution is issued within ono year from date of said judgment ; but when the issuing of an execution is pre- vented by stay, appeal, proceedings in error, etc., such year does not begui to run until after tlio removal of said disability. If an execution be returned •unsatisfied, tho debtor can be summoned, and be required to state under oath what property or interests he has or owns, which may bo reached by execution. Chattel mortgages are valid against bona fide purchasers and creditors, if tho instrument shall be filed and recorded in tho office of the county clerk ; but cease to b^ valid against creditors, purchasers and subsequent mortgagees in good faith after the expiration of one year from the filing thereof, unless within thirty days next preceding the termination of said year a true copy of the mortgage, together Avith a statement exhibiting the interest of tlie mortgagee in the mortgaged prop- erty, shall again be filed and recorded. Sale or mortgage of chattels, unless ac- c:)mpanied by immediate, actual delivery and continued change of possession, are prima, facie fraudulent and void as against creditors and subsequent bona fide purchasers, unless tho instrument has been duly filed and recorded in the o£B.ce of the county clerk. Deeds, Rights of Makried Womeit, &c.— All deeds affecting the title to real property, or any interest therein, in this State, except leases for one year or for a less time, must be signed by ths grantor, of lawful age, in the presence of at least one competent witness, who shall subscribe his name as a witness thereto, and be duly acknowledged or proved and recorded. Acknowledgments or proofs may be taken in the State, before a judge or clerk of any court, justice of the peace, or notary public ; no officer can take any such, acknowledgment or proof out of his State jurisdiction. The certificate of acknowledgment must be indorsed on the instrument, and show that tho grantor acknowledged the same to be his voluntary act and deed, and that tho olficer before Avhom the same was taken knew him to be the ident- ical ]person whose name was affixed as grantor, or had satisfactory evidence of the fact. If, after the instrument is executed but not acknowledged, the grantor die, or if, from any cause, his attendance cannot be procured in order to make the same, or, having appeared, ho refuses to acknowledge it, proof of the execution and delivery of the deed may be made by any competent subscribing witness thereto, before any officer authorized to take the acknowledgment ; such witness must bs personally known to the officer, or such officer must have satisfactory evidence that the witness is the person who subscribed the instrument as a wit- ness. If all the subscribing witnesses are dead, or out of the State, the execution of the deed may be proved by proving the handwriting of the grantor and of any subscribing witness thereto. All deeds, duly executed and acknowledged, must bo recorded in the office of the clerk of the county in which the land lies ; in case the land is situated in an unorganized district, the deed is to be recorded in -the office of the clci-k of that county to which said district is attached for judicial purposes. All deeds, mortgages and other written instruments take effect, and are in force as to third parties, from and after the time they are delivered to the clerk for record. No separate examination is required in taking a wife's ac- knowledgment ; to convey her right of dower she must execute a deed with or without her husband. All deeds should have at least one subscribing v/itness. Private seals ai-e abolished, not even scrawls are required. [Form of Certificate of Acknowledgment of Husband an4 Wife-l State of , ) County of . ( * On this day of , A. D. 187 , before me (here insert namo and title of officer), duly appointed, commissioned (or elected) and qualified for, and residing in said county, personally appeared and , his wife, to me personally known (or by the oaths of one or more witnesses whose names are hereto subscribed, satisfactorily proved) to be the identical persons described in, and whose names are affixed to, the foregoing instrument SPECIAL LAWS OF NEVADA, 883 as crantors, and tliey severally acknowledged the same to be their voluntary act auu ueeu. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and ofTicial seal, at , in said county, the day and year last above written, [seal.] (Signature and title.) The property, real and personal, which any woman in this State may own at the time of her marriage, the rents, issues, profits or proceeds thereof, and any real, personal or mixed property which shall come to her by descent, devise or bequest, or the gift of any person except her husband, shall remain her sole and separate property, and not be subject to the disposal other husband, or liable for his debts. She may bargain, sell and convey her real and personal property, and enter into any contract in reference thereto, in the same manner, to the same extent, and Avith like elfect as a married man. She may sue and be sued as if unmarried, and carry on trade or business on her separate account. Her earnings are her sole property. If married out of the State, she may bere enjoy all rights to property there acquired. Exemptions Fkom Forced Saee. — A Homestead worth $5000, and Personal Property. A homestead owned by a head of the family, worth $5000, and the following personal property : household furniture to the value of $100 ; provis- ions and fire-wood for one month ; farming utensils of a farmer not exceeding in value f 200 ; two horses, two oxen or two mules, and two cows, one cart or wagon, mechanics' tools ; a miner's dwelling, in value $500, and his mining tools ; a library of a dentist, physician, lawyer or surgeon ; one sewing machine worth $150. A mortgage or other security on the homestead is void, unless for purchase money or mechanics' lien. MECHAifics' LiE?r. — Persons who perform labor or furnish materials for the erection or improvement of any building has a lien on the same for such work and materials for all amoiints over $25. And so have all laborers on all work done by them on any railroad, toll-road, canal, water-ditch, mine or mining-shaft, or tunnel, or building 'lot in a city or town ; jaroytfZecZ, the original contractor shall file his lien in sixty days, and the sub-contractor or laborer in thirty days after the work is completed, and suit commenced in six months. CoLEECTioif OF DEBTS. — ^A debtor may be arrested and held in custody or re- leased on bail, upon an affidavit being made by the plaintiff, or his agent or attor- ney, that the defendant is fraudulently disposing of his property, or is absconding from the State, or where the debt was contracted in some fiduciary capacity, or where the action is for libel or slander, or where the debtor is concealing bis prop- erty to defraud his creditors. Writ of attachment may issue against any property, whether real or personal, of the debtor maybe attached upon the plaintiff entering into abend, as require(l by the statute, not to be less than $200 in gold coin, with sufficient sureties, and making an affidavit that the debt claimed is an actual bona fide debt due to plain- tiff from the defendant ; that the attachment is not asked to hinder, delay or de- fraud the defendant or his creditors ; that the action brought is on a contract for the direct payment of njoney, and which is not secured by a mortgage or other lien, or upon a contract executed by a party not in this State, And the property so attached will be held to abide the judgment the plaintiii may recover. A debtor may prefer one or more of his creditors, by assigning his property for their benefit; provided, the assignment is bona fide, and bankruptcy does not in- tervene. Notes and bills for the payment of money are negotiable like bills of exchange, Acceptance must be in writing, on the bill or on separate paper ; it shall noi bind the acceptor, except in favor of the person to whom, such acceptance wua shown, and who gave value for the same on the strength of the acceptance. Kates of damages for non-payment or non-acceptance are as follows : On billa drawn on persons in the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, $15 on tho $100 ; if drawn on Europe or other foreign country, $20 on the $100 ; these dama^ ges are in lieu of protest fees. Paper maturing on any legal holiday m.ust be pro- tested the day previous. Legal holidays are : Sundays, January 1st, February 22d, July 4th, Christmas and Thanksgiving Days. Sight bills or drafts are not entitled to grace. The jurisdiction of justices' courts extends to $300, except when suits concern land or mining claims. » District courts have general jurisdiction' of all matters. SPECIAL LAWS OF NEVADA. 884 SPECIAL LAWS OF NKW HAMPSHIRE. cither of n legal or equitable nature, when the amount exceeds $300, and appellate jurisdiction m all casea wliich originates before a justice of the peace. The buprenie has appellate jurisdiction from district courts. Judf^monts from courts of record, are liens on the debtor's lands in the county where obtained, a)Kl uponliis land in any other county where transcript of same is tiled : and judgments br'l'oro justice of tlie peace become liciis on the debtor's land, where a trauscrii)t of the sauio is liled with the clerk of the district court of the county. Execution may bo stayed by the court in which the judgment was obtained a reasonable time ; and, unless same is thus stayed, it can issue at any time within the limitation, five years, and may be levied on any of the property of the de- fendant not exempt by law. It is not a lien on personalty until an actual levy. As the judgment is a lien on the debtor's land, it can bo enforced by the execu- tion. Deeds, Bights of Married "Women, &c.— Deeds must be in writing, a scrawl will answer for a seal. Witnesses are not necessary to its validity. If proven or acknowledged in this State, it must be before a judge, or olerk of a court having a seal, a notary public, or a justice of the peace. I f without the State, before any judge, clerk of a court havinulsiou of or from lier said husband. In witness whereof, I have hereunto s.st my hand and allixed my official seal the day and year aforesaid. Jorix Cukhje, Notary Pablic A married woman can hold, to her solo and separate use, all property, both real and personal, which she owned at the time of her marriage, or which sir- acquired during marriage by gift, grant, daiccnt, dcviso or bequest, and th-^ rents, profits and issues thereof shall not bo subject to the disposal of her hus- band, nor liable for his debts. She can bo sued Avith her husband for debts con- tracted for her own benefit, and v/hich cannot bo enforced against her in equity. "Widow is entitled to dower iu one-third of all tho real estate of which the hus- band died seized, and to the mansion house until dower is assigned her. All chattel mortgages to be valid as to creditors and subsequent bona fide putphasers, must be tiled with the clerk or register where the mortgagor resides, and if a non-resident, where tho property is situated, or the possession of the property mortgaged must be immediately delivered to the mortgagee, and this possession be continued. A.nd thirty days before the expiration of one year from the first filing of such mortgage, a truo copy of same must bo again filed with the clerk or register, accompanied with a statement showing the interest of the mortgagee in the property. The same bccom^is void as to creditors. Ail wills shall be in writing, and shall be signed, or acknowledged to have been signed, by the testator, and declared to be his or her last will, in the pres- ence of at least two credible witnesses present at the pame time, who shall sub-, scribe their names as witnesses in the presence of the testator. SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW YORK. ExEMPTioirs FROM FORCED SAI.E. — Home werth $1000, and Personal Prop- erty. Homestead to the value of $1000 ; but not as against an execution upon a judgment recovered for fraud. Burial plat not to exceed one-fourth of an acre. Personal property, when owned by a householder, is exempt as follows : Spin- ning wheels, looms and stoves in use in dwelling house, pictures and books in uso to the value of §50 ; a pew in a church, 10 sheep, 1 cow, 2 swines and their neces- sary food, necessary household furniture and library to value of $250 ; working tools, professional instruments, a team and necessary food therefor for ninety days, and a sewing machine, except on execution for purchase money for such things. Mechakics' Liex.— The laws on this subject are not uniform throughout the- State. Material men and mechanics have lien for labor and materials on land improvements to the extent of their claims. The claim must be filed within thirty days after completion of labor and furnishing of materials ; and in the county of New York, aud some other counties, within three months. The lien continues for one year. Collection of Debts.— The defendant is liable to be arrested and held to bail, at any time before judgment, in an action for injury to person or character, or vvTongfully taking, detaining or converting personal property ; in an action for money received or property embezzled or fraudulently misapplied by a public officer or attorney, or by an officer or agent of a corporation or banking associa- tion in the course of his employment as such, or by any other person in a fiduciary capacity ; in an action to recover the possession of personal jjroperty tin justly detained, where the property has been concealed or disposed of so that it cannot be found by the sheriff ; when the defendant has been guilty of a fraud in contracting the debt or incurring the obligation for which the action is brought, or in concealing or disposing of the property for the taking of which the action is brought ; or wlien the action is brought to recover damages for fraud or deceit, and when the defendant has removed or disposed of his jn-operty, or ia about to do so with intent to defraud his creditors. ' The plaintiff is required to give a bond in at least S?100, with one or more resident sureties, householders. The affidavit to obtain arrest may be mad© SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW YOEK. 889 by any one with knowledge of tlio facts. Arrest may bo made by non-resi- dents. Writ of attachment may issue on acconnt of non-residence ; departure from the State with intent to defraud creditors, or to avoid service, or concealment with like intent ; removal or intended removal of property from this State with intent to defraud creditors, or the assignment, disposition or secretion, actual or intended, of property with Intent to defraud creditors. The plaintiff gives a bond in at least $250, with one or more resident sureties, householders. Every species of property is subject to attachment and execution at law. Attachment on real estate becomes a iieu on filing of notice. Attachments may be made by non- residents. Assignments for the benefit of creditors must be acknowledged and recordeaxje.— Borne worth ?plOOO ; Provisions, $25 ; Furniture, $10 ; Tools, $20. Ileal estate to the value of $1,000 is exempt in farm, if the heads of the families reside on the same ; also the clothing, beds and bed- clothing required for the iise of the family, and firewood requisite for 30 days, when actually provided and intended for use. All Bibles, Testaments, hymn books, and school books used by the family, and family and religious pictures ; provisions on hand to the amount of $25, and kitchen furniture to the value of $10, both to be selected by the debtor ; also tools and implements belonging to the debtor that may be necessary to enable him to carry on his trade or business, whether agricultural or mechanical, to be selected by him, and not to exceed $20 in A'alue. Real estate when sold must be first appraised by two freeholders of the vicinity and must bring two-thirds of the appraised value. SPECIAL LAWS OF NORTH CAROLINA. Exemptions from Forced ^AiJE.—Home worth $1000,attfZ Personal Properly worth $500. Every homestead, and dwellings and buildings connected there- with, not exceeding in value $1000, to be selected by the owner thereof, or in lieu thereof, at the option of the owner, any lot in a city, town, or village, with the dwellings used thereon, owned and occupied by any resident of the State, and not exceeding $1000 in value. Personal property to the extent of $500 in value. Mechanics' Lien.— All laborers, material men and mechanics have liens on the houses built, improved or repaired by them, and on the lots on which they are built, to the extent of the interest of the party who had the improvements or repairs done. But they must take the necessary steps to enforce this lien, by filing same and bringing suit within ninety days after the work is finished. Collection of Debts.— The defendant may be arrested and held to bail, on the following grounds : Where, as an attorney, solicitor or agent of any kind, he has collected money and failed to account for it, or professional misconduct or neglect in office ; wiaere he has unjustly detained personal property, or where he conceals or disposes of his property with intent to depriA'e the plaintiff of the benefit of the same ; where he has been guilty of fraud in contractinpj the debt for which the action is brought ; wiaere he has removed or disposed of his prop- SPECIAL LAWS OF NORTH CAEOLINA 891 erty, or is about to do so, with intent to defraud hia creditors ; where ho is a non- resideut of the State, or is about to remove therefrom, or where the action is for breach of promise to marry. The court, or judge of the court in which the action is brought, jnust order the arrest of the defendant. No female can be arrested in any action, except for a Avilful injury to person, character or property. "Writs of attachment may issue on making affidavit to one or more of the fol- lowing reasons: 1- Where the defendant or corporation is anon-resident- 2. Where the defendant has absconded, or conceals himself. 3. Where any person or corporation is about to remove any of his or its property from the State. 4. AVTiere any person or corporation has assigned, disposed of or concealed, or i3 about to dispose of or conceal, any of his or its property, with intent to defraud his or its creditors. 5. Where the defendant has wrongfully converted property to his own use. Garnishment in this Stato is not regulated by statute, but is governed by the rules of common law. Bills and notes for the payment of money are negotiable, like inland bills of exchange, whether expressed to be payable to the order of a person or not. Bills of exchange payable at sight are entitled to grace ; but bills and notes payable on demand are not entitled to grace. Damages on protested bills are as follows : When drawn or endorsed in this State, and on a person outside the State but within the United States, three per cent. ; where it is drawn on persons in any other place in North A merica^ or in the West India or Bahama Islands, ten per cent. ; when drawn on persons m the Madeira, Canaries, Azores or Cape de Verde Islands, or in Europe or South America, fif- teen per cent. ; and any other place, twenty per cent. In default of a notary, a justice of the peace or a clerk of a court of record may protest paper. When any check, negotiable or promissory note, is endorsed, the endorser, unless he in the endorsement etipulatea to the contrary, becomes surety on the paper, and liable to the holder without any demand on the maker ; this rule, however, does not apply to bills of exchange, either inland or foreign. A!ssignment8 for the benefit of creditors, are governed by the rules of common law. The debtor has the right, therefore, to prefer one or more of his creditors, provided it is a bona fide transaction. The jurisdiction of the justices' courts extends to $200, the probate court has authority over probate of deeds and general probate business, the superior court has exclusive jurisdiction of all demands over §200, and the supreme court has only appellate jurisdiction. Judgments are liens on the land of the debtor, from the time they are docketed in the clerk's ofiice when the same are obtained in the superior court, and from the time a transcript from the justices of the peace is filed with the clerk of the superior court. Transcripts of judgment thus docketed may be filed in any county where the defendant has land ; and from the time the same is so filed •with the clerk of the court, it operates as a Hen on defendants lands. Executions may be levied on real as well as personal property, whether the realty is simply an equity of redemption, or whether it is in the name of a fraud- ulent vendee ; leaseholds of three years, or more duration are treated as real property. Executions from a justice of the peace are a lien on personal property from the time of the actual levy. Executions from courts of record issue in six weeks from the rendition of the judgment. Deeds, Eights op Married Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds must be acknowl- edged by the grantor, or proved by the subscribing witness, before clerks of the superior courts, or judges of the supreme court, or notaries public, within the State where the grantor or witnesses reside ; beyond the State, their handwriting may be proven iii this State before either of the above officers, or, where they reside beyond the State, the acknowledgement of the grantor can be taken, or proof by subscribing witnesses can be made, before a special commissioner ap- pointed under the seal of the probate judge having jurisdiction, authorizing such commissioner to take the acknowledgment of the grantor, or examination on oath of the witnesses to the deed, and the proceedings of such commissioner shall bo returned to the probate judge issuing the commission, who may adjudge the deed duly acknowledged or proven, and order it registered. Or, the deed may bo acknowledged or proven by witnesses before any regular commissioner of this State resident in the State or territory where the grantor or witnesses reside. Where the grantor and witnesses reside beyond the limits of the United States, the acknowledgment or proof may be taken or made before the chief magistrate of any city where they reside, or any minister, ambassador or consul o£ the United States, under the official seal of such magistrate or other officer, and then, the certificate so made must be exhibited to the probate judge having jurisdic* 892 SPECIAL LAWS OF OHIO. tion, who will adjudgo tho samo duly acknowlodgod or proven, a:id order thu eamo to be recorded in the jiropcr place in tliia SLatc. Tho wife must join tlio husljancl in the execution of all deeds conceniinj; real estate, to bar her dower, and her sif^naturo cannot bo i)roven, but her Beparato aoknowlcdgment must bo taken ; she must be examined privily and apart from lier husband, and nnist show sho does it to rclincpiish her dower. Wliero tho prantor and subscribing; mtnesses are dead, the proof of tho deed may bo mado "by provinjT the handv/riting of tho grantor or tho witnesses. Use this form in taking the acknowledgement of husband and v/ife : State of , ) County op . | Before mo (hero insert name and title of officer), this day, personally appeared A. B. and C, I)., his wife, grantors named in the foregoing deed of conveyance, and the said deed being also produced and exhibited beforo me, the said A. B. and C. D. acknowledged the execution thereof by them as their act and deed for the purposes therein expressed ; and the said C. D. being by me privily examined separate and apart from her said husband; touching her free consent in tho ex- ecution of the said deed of conveyance, in her examination declared to mo that she executed the samo f reely,voluntarily and without compulsion or restraint upon the part of her said husband, or any person whatsoever, and did still voluntarily assent thereto ; and this she does in relinquishment of her dower in tho land, mentioned in said deed. In witness whereof, I have set my hand and affixed my official seal this day of ,187 . (Signature and title.) There is no necessity of a seal to a deed, a scrawl is sutiicient. The i)roperty acquired by the wife either beforo or after marriage, either by inheritance, devise, gift or otherwise, shall be and remain her sole and, separate property, free from the debts or control of her husband, and she can convey tho same with the written consent of her husband. Sho has dov/er in all the real estate of her husband, owned or acquired during tho coverture, and join in con- veyances made by him to release the same. No chattel mortgage of personal property is valid unless the samo 13 duly re- corded in the county where the grantor resides, or the possession of the property i.3 removed from tho grantor, and la only authorized on property to tho valuo of §300. The will must be signed by the testator, or by some other person in his presence and by his express direction, and subscribed in his presence by two witnesses, no one of whom shall be interested in tho devise. Or, if found among his papers must be in his own handwriting, and his name subscribed thereto, inscribed in some part thereof, and the handwriting generally known to his acquaintances, and proved by three witnesses to be every part in the testator's own hand- writing. SPECIAL LAWS OF OHIO. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— 7/oms JForfh $1,000, and Personal Pro- perty. — Every head of a family, resident in Ohio, shall hold exempt from exe- cution, his homestead, not to exceed f 1,000. If the homestead exceed 5^1,000, the property will be partitioned and a homestead of $1,000 set off to the debtor. If he have no homestead, he shall hold exempt real or personal property not to ex- ceea $500, exclusive t)f general exemptions, which are : Beds and bedstead ; 1 stove ; 1 cooking stove ; fuel for GO days ; $100 of wearing apparel ; 1 cow, or instead $35 of household furniture : 2 hogs, or instead §15 of household furni- ture ; 6 sheep, or instead §15 of household furniture ; all Bibles and hymn books ; family pictures ; provisions not exceeding §50, and such other articles of household or kitchen furniture as may be needed, liot exceeding §50 ; a sewing machine ; a knitting machine : tools of his trade, not exceeding §100 ; his per- sonal earnings, and his minor children's, for not more than three months before judgment ; all specimens of natural history, if not kept for pecuniary exhibi- tion ; a doctor shall hold his horse, saddle, instruments and books, the two latter not to exceed §100, exempt ; a drayman, his horse and dray ; a faruier, his horse, wagon, and yoke of oxen. Widowers having unmarried nnnor children, widows and married people having no children, may have the benefit of this act. Tho wife raay claim exemption Avhen tho husband will or cannot, but tho two SPECIAL LAWS OF OHIO. 893 may not claim exemption at the same time. Unmarried women may liold SlOO of wearing apparel, ^25 of books, a sewing and a knitting machine, exempt. Mechaisics' Lien. — Material men and mechanics, whether they be contrac- tors, sub-contractors or laborers, may have a lien upon the buildings erected, and the land on which the buildings are erected, if v/ithin four months of the com- pletion of the labor or furnishing of the materials they file an account, under oath, of their claim, in the county recorder's office. This account must bo itemized. If the worlc be done or materials furnished under a written contract, such contract, or a copy thereof, must be filed with the account. The lien thus obtained dates back to the commencement of the labor or the furnishing of materials, and extends to two years after the completion of the labor or tho famishing of materials. Collection of Debts. — Arrest in civil actions can only be made in cases of^ fraud. The plaintiff may set forth, by afiidavit, fraud in the removal or conceal- ment of property, in the contracting of the debt, or of the conversion of the pro- perty into money. Escape of the prisoner, without the consent of the creditor, is not satisfaction of the debt, but non-payment of jail fees, which jailer may de- mand weekly in advance, at tho rate of forty cents a day, is constructive consent. This remedy is rarely, if over, resorted to. Writs of attachment may bo obtained on one or more of the following grounds : 1. When the defendant, or one of several defendants, is a non-resident or a foreign corporation ; or, 2. Has absconded with intent to defraud creditors; or, 3. has left the county of his residence to avoid service ; or, 4. So conceals himself that service cannot be made ; or, 5. Is about to remove his property out of the jurisdiction with intent to defraud his creditors ; or, 6. Is about to con- vert his property into money with like intent : or, 7. Fraudulently or criminally contracted the debt or incurred the obligation. An attachment on the first ground is only granted on claims founded on judg- ment, contract or decree. Tho affidavit in attachment may be made at or after commencement of any suit by plaintiff, his agent or attorney. Bond in attach- ment is in double the amount of the debt (except when obtained on the first ground, when no bond is required), executed by one or more sureties — it is the practice to have two sureties— need not be householders. There is no duty imposed upon tho creditor to publish any notice of attachment on real estate ; that is the sheriff's duty. Attachment may be had before the debt is due, when the defendant has disposed, or is about to dispose, of his property with intent to defraud or delay his creditors. Same lav/ as above. Assignments in trust, for the benefit of creditors, inure to the benefit of all creditors ; the deed of assignment, or a copy thereof, must be filed within ten days of its execution, in the probate court of the assignor's county of re- sidence, by the assignee. After all liens and mortgages, the wages of laborers and operatives, performed within six months, a^id not exceeding one hundred dollars, are to be first paid. Assignmejit made to secure sureties or endorsers are valid in any case, if for value. Every species of contract or claim is assignable; the holder of it must sue in his own name. Garnishment can be issued on attachment, and a process analogous to it on execution, against any person or corporation owing the debtor any moneys, or having his property in possession. In no case is the garnishee allowed anything but his costs in the case. All bills, notes, or other instruments payable to order, bearer, or assignor are ne- gotiable. They must be put in suit in the name of the real party in interest. Ko damages or attorney's fees can bo recovered in an action, save when there is an express and written clause in the note or bill, allowing the recovery of such damages or fees, in case it shall have to be sued upon. Notarial protest is evi- dence of demand and non-payment, in the manner and at the time stated in the protest. Justices of tho peace have exclusive jurisdiction up to ^100, and concurrent jurisdiction with common pleas and superior courts up to $300. They have jur- isdiction in actions for trespass on real estate -^here the damages do not exceed §100, and in actions for forcible entry and detention of real estate. Summons issued by justices of the peace must be returned witliin twelve days of their issue, and must be served on the defendant at least three days before trial. Courts of common pleas have original jurisdiction in all civil suits where the amount exceeds the jurisdiction of justices, in suits affecting real estate, in divorce and criminal prosecution, and appellate jurisdiction of cases before justices of the peace and probate judges. The superior courts of Cincinnati, Cleveland and Dayton have the same jurisdiction as courts of common pleas, ex- cept in divorce, criminal law, and justices' appeals. The district courts have 894 SPECIAL LAWS OF OIITO. appellixto juriSflioiion of common picas courts. Tlio superior courts in gene ral term review the superior courts' flecisious in special term. The supremo court lias appellate jurisdiction f)f district toixrt and general term of superior court decisions, and original juriadiction in mandamus^ quo warranto, habeas cor- pus and 'proccdciulo. Service of eunnnons must be made and returned, in common pleas courts, on or before the second Monday after their date. Actions arc triable the term after the issues are made up, or if they be made up during a term, at that term. Judpncnts of courts of record, execution having issued on them within one year of their rendition, are a lien upon all real estate of the judgment debtor's, f ituato in the county where the the judgment is rendered, and owned by him at that time, from the first day of the term at which such judgment is obtained, and for five years thereafter. Every issue of execution extends the lien for live years, and a judgment lien may be extended indellnitely. Judgments by confession, and judgments obtained"during the same term at which the action is commenced, date from their rendition only. If execution be not issued in one year, the judg- ment, though still a lien, dates only from actual levy of execution. Judgments, nre no lien on personal property and on real estate acquired subsequent to the ; date of judgment. Dormant judgments may be revived by new actions founded on them. Judgments obtained before justices of the peace may be made .liens, by filing a transcript of same in the court of common pleas. I In order to prevent the priority of a judgment lien on lands, execution must bo issued within one year after the rendering of judgment. Actual levy must be 1 made on personal property to create a lien. Executions from justices of the peace cannot be levied on real estate. All property, legal and equitable, is subject to execution, except as qualified by the exemption laws. Proceedings in aid of execution may be instituted at any time after judgment and execution by which tlie debtor, and any one hav- ing property of the debtor's, may be compelled to disclose its nature and i amount. Before the return of an execution issued, an order may bo granted by the court upon proper affidavit, which will have the force of an attachment, and a copy served on any third party is analagous to the proceedings in garnishment. Deeds, Rights of Markied Womeis", Wills, &c.— Deeds must be under seal, a scrawl is a seal, and must be signed and sealed in presence of two wit- nesses, who sign also as attesting the execution of the instrument, and acknow- ledged in presence of any officer empowered to take depositions. If the grantors be non-residents, their deed, etc., may be executed according to the laws of this State, or according to the laws of the State where it is executed and acknov.^- ledired. Mortgages in this State date and become liens only from the time of their entry for record. All other deeds are to be recorded within six months of 'their execution, in order to become notice as to subsequent purchasers without notice. This is the form where the grantor is unrtiarried : State of Itstdiana, ) ./ County of Stark. | Be it remembered that on (the date) before me, the subscriber (title of officer) personally came (the name of grantor) the grantor named in the foregoing iu- Btrumei^t, and acknowledged the signing and sealing thereof to be his voluntary act and deed for the uses and purposes therein mentioned. Witness my hand' and (if the officer have a seal of office he will here state : official) seal, on the day and year first above written. [seal.] John Harper, Notary Pitblic. The wife must join her husband in a deed or power of attorney, whether the land be in her own right, or she have but a dower interest therein! This 13 the form when the grantor is married : State of Indiana, ) ^ County of Stark. ) Be it remembered that on , before me, the subscriber (John Harper, .notary public) personally came and his wife, the grantors mentioned in the foregoing instrument, and acknowledged the signing and sealing thereof to be their voluntary act and deed for the uses and purposes therein mentioned. And the said , wife of the said , being by me examined separate and apart from her said husband, and the contents of said instrument by me ex- plained and made known to her, as the statute directs, declared that she did vol- untarily sign, seal and acknowledge the same, and tliat slie is still satisfied there- SPECIAL LAWS OF OKEGOX. 895 with as lier act and deed for the use and purposes therein mentioned. Attesta- tion same as in unmarried form. A married woman may own property, real or personal, in licr own right, with- out thie intervention of a trustee. She may manage it herself, but cannot dispose of it for any term longer than three years, without her husband joining her. She may be sued or sue alone, in actions concerning her seperate property, or upon a written obligation, contract or agreement signed by her, or if she be engaged in any business, and the cause of action grows out of such business, and in all such cases a personal judgment can be had against her, and her separ- ate property will be liable. In no case shall she be required to prosecute or de- fend by her next friend. If her husband has abandoned her, she will be con- sidered as/emme sole- The widow shall be endowed with one-third part of all tho lands owned by her husband during coverture. Chattel mortgages of every kind are valid, if the instrument itself, or a truo copy thereof, be deposited with the clerk of township where the mortgager re- sides ; or if he be a non-resident, where the property is situate at the time of tho execution of the mortgage. On every mortgage so filed the mortgagee shall make the following state- ment : [Form.] State of ■ > \ <•<. County of . , mortgagee, named in this mortgage, being duly sworn, makes oath Und says that his claim against , mortgager, of which a true statement is hereto annexed, amoimts to the sum of , and that said claim is just and unpaid. Sworn to before me and subscribed in my presence this day of , A.D. Every mortgage so filed shall be valid one year, and may be renewed within thirty days of the expiration of the year, by refiling the original mortgage, or a copy of it, with the statement as above. Each renewal is valid one year, and the mortgage may be so renewed indefinitely. Wills mu6t be in v/riting and signed by the testator, or by some person in his presence and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in the pres- ence of tho testator by two or more competent witnesses. See form No. 45 on page 815. SPECIAL LAWS OF OREGON. Exemptions from Forced Sat,^.— Personal Property. The following are exempted : Books, pictures, and musical instruments to the value of $75 ; necee- eary wearing apparel owned by any person to the value of $100, and if such person be a householder, for each member of his family to the valnie of $50 ; the tools, implements, apparatus, team, vehicle, harness or library necessary to en- able any person to carry on the trade, occupatioii or profession by which such person habitually earns his living, to the value of $400 ; also sutHcient quantity ' of food to support such team, if any, for sixty days. The word team includes only one yoke of oxen, or a pair of mules or horses, as the case may be. The follow- ing property, if owned by a householder and in actual use, or kept for use by and for his family, or when being removed from one habitation to another on a change of residence : 10 sheep, Avith one year's fleece or the yarn or cloth manu- factured therefrom ; 2 cows and 5 swine ; household goods, furniture and utensils to the value of $300 ; also sufficient food to support such animals, if any, for three months, and provisions actually provided for family use, and necessary for the support of such household and family for six months ; the seat or pew occupied by a householder or his family in a place of public worship ; all property of the State, or any county, incorporated city, town or village therein, or of any other public or municipal corporation of like character. No article of property, or if the same has been sold or exchanged, then neither the proceeds of such saio or the article received in exchange therefor, shall be exempt from execution issued on a judgment recovered for its prize. Mechanics' Lien.— Contractors for material or labor on any building have, from the time work is commenced thereon, a lien on the building and the ground on which it is situated, prior to all other liens on the same premises placed there- on after tlis commencement of work on the building. Suits must be brought 896 SPECIAL LAWS OF OREGOI^. ■within six months nftcr payments are due under the contract, but no credit given on payments can extend tlie lien beyond two years from the completion of tlic work. The lion extends in i'avor of tlio workmen to tlie extent of the con- tract price: if before payments are due, Ihoy give written notice of their inten- tion to hold the owner. And no payments made to the contractor before they are due, under the contract, can defeat tliis lien. (Jt)LLECTioN OF DEBTS.— Arrcst in civil actions is unknown here, except in cases of fraud or of absconding debtors. In actions for debt or tort, the goods of defendant may bo attached, -whenever the plaintiff, or his agent, shall make and file an allldavit that a cause of action exists against the defendant, and the grounds thereof, and that the defendant i.5 cither a foreign corporation or a iion-resident of this State, or has departed there- from with intejit to delay or defraud his creditors or to avoid service of sumnior.s or keep himself concealed therein -with like intent, or has removed or is about to remove his property from th3 State with intent to delay or defraud his creditors ; that he has assigned, secreted or disposed of, or is about to assign, secrete or dis- pose of any of his property Avith intent to delay or defraud his creditors, or that the defendant has been guilty of fraud in contracting the debt or incurring tho obligation for which the action is brought. Tho affidavit may be in the alter- native as to any of these causes, and may bo either i)ositive or upon information and belief. But upon information and belief, the nature and sources of the in- formation upon which tho belief is founded must be stated. All property, or right or interest therein, not exempt from execution, may be attached. The assignment of notes, bills, accounts, and every kind of contract or claim arising out of contract, is valid, and action thereon must be brought in the name of the real party in interest ; but the action by tho assignee^ except in case of negotiable promissory note or bill of exchange, transferred m good faith for a valuable consideration before due, shall be without prejudice to any set-off or other defense existing at the time of or before notice of the asi^ignment. Garnishment can be issued, cither on execution or attachment, against any person owing tho debtor or having his property in possession. As to bills and notes, no person is chargeable as an acceptor of a bill of ex- change unless his acceptanoe is in writing, signed by himself or his lawful agent. Grace is allov/cd on all bills and notes, unless they contain an express stipulation to the contrary. On bills of exchange drawn or endorsed within this State and payable without tho limits of the United States, duly protested for non-accept- ance or non-payment, on due notice and demand thereof, the party liable for tha contents of such bill shall pay tho samo at the current rate of exchange at the time of the demand, and damages at tho rate of ten per centum upon the con- tents thereof, together with interest on such contents, to be computed from the date of -protest ; said amount of contents, damages and interest to be in full of all damages, charges and expenses. On bills of exchange drawn within thia State, payable without this State, but within the United States, and protested for non-acceptance or non-payment, the drawer or endorser thereof, due notice being given of Buch non-acceptance or non-payment, shall pay said bill with legal interest, according to its tenor, and live per centum damages, together with costs and charges of protest. The jurisdiction of justices of the peace, in actions for tho recovery of money or damages only, extends to §250 ; for the recovery of specific personal property, when tli6 value thereof and the damages for the detention do mot exceed §250 ; for the recovery of any penalty or forfeiture, whether given by statute or arising out of contract, not exceeding §250. Tho county court has exclusive jurisdiction in the first instance of probato matters, and has jurisdiction, but not exclrfsive, of actions at law, and all pro- ceedings therein and connected therewith, when the claim or subject of con- t:;oversy does not exceed the value of §500, and exclusive jurisdiction of actions of forcible entry and detainer, without reference 1o the value of the property. The circuit court is clothed with all the judicial power, jurisdiction and authority not vested exclusively in some other court. Service of the summons in county and circuit courts, if made within tho county where action is brought, must be made ten days before judgment can be obtained ; or, if served within an;^ other county in the State, twenty days. Be- fore justices, service must be made not less than five, nor more than twenty days before day set for trial. Judgments in courts of record are a lien from their rendition, and for ten years thereaftei', on all real estate owned by the defendant, or subsequently acquired by him, and cituated in the county where the judgment is rendered. No execution can issue on a judgment older than teu years, unless on cause shown. SPECIAL LAWS OF OEEGOX. 897 Judgments create no lien on personal property. Judgments before justice can be made to create lien on real estate by filing a transcript of the judgment in the circuit court. Executions may issue the day judgment is rendered. They are a lien only from the time actually levied. Executions from justices' courts caniiot be levied on real estate. Every species of property, or right or interest therein, is subject to execution, except the exemption. Redemption of real estate sold under ex- ecution may be made at any time within sixty days after the confirmation of the sale, but the redemptioner, in addition to the price paid by the purchaser, must pay interest thereon, at the rate of two per cent, per mouth, from the date of sale to the date of redemption. Deeds, Rights of r\lARRiED Women, &c.— Deeds must be under seal, but a scrawl with the pen, a wafer, or other adhesive substance, is regarded as a seal. They must have two witnesses ; and, to be entitled to record, must be duly acknowledged. Acknowledgment, if made in this State, may be made before any judge of the supreme court, county court, justice of the peace or notary public ; if out of the State, before any judge of a court of record, notary public, justice of the peace, or any other oflicer authorized by the laws of such State or territory, or country, to take acknowledgment of deeds therein, or before a commissioner of this State. Unless the acknowledgment be before a commissioner, when taken out of this State, there must be a certificate of the clerk or other proper certifying officer of a court of record, under the seal of his office, th?t the person whose name is sub- scribed to the certificate of acknowledgment was, at the date thereof, such officer as he is therein represented to be ; that he believes the signature of such person subscribed thereunto to be genuine, and that the deed is executed and acknowl- edged according to the laws of such State, territory or district. The following is the form of certificate of acknowledgment when tho grantor is unmarried : State of County of Be it remembered that on this day of > 18 , before me, the undersigned, a within and for , personally appeared A. B., to me Ijersonally known to be the identical person described in and who executed the foregoing deed, and to me acknowledged that he executed the same for the uses and purposes therein expressed. The following is the form where husband and wife join, the wife releasing dower or conveying her own lands : State of Ohio, ) County of Butlek, ) ^' Be it remembered that on this day of > 18 , before me, the under- signed, a noirary public within and for said county and State, personally appeared A. B. and his Avif e, C. D., to me personally known to be the identical persons de- scribed in and who executed the foregoing deed, and to me acknowledged that they executed the same for the uses and purposes therein expressed, and the said C. D., wife of the said A. B-, on a separate examination by me made, separate and apart from and without the hearing of her said husband, to me acknowledged that she executed thQ same freely and voluntarily and without fear or compul- sion from any one. [Seal.] John Mokgan, Notary Public. In this State married women can hold real or personal iproperty in their own names, and free from control of or liability for the debts of their husbands, but in the case of personal property a schedule must be filed with the county clerk. Chattel mortgages, to be alav/fullien, must be filed in the county clerk's office, and are in force for one year only from the date when so filed. They may be re- turned for a further period of one year by the mortgagee, within thirty days next preceding the expiration of the year, making and annexing to the "instru- ment on file an affidavit setting forth the interest which the mortgagee has by virtue of such mortgage in the property therein mentioned. Within thirty days of the expiration of the second year, another affidavit may bo made in like manner and with like elf ect. 57 898 SPECIAL J.A.WS CF PENNSYLVANIA. SPECIAL LAWS OF PENNSYLVANIA. Exemptions from Forced SAiAZ.—Real or Personal Property, Jg.SOO. Keal or pcr.sou.ll properly to the extent of .1^300, besides wearing apparel, bibles and school books and sewing machines in tlie use of the family, and the arms, ac- coutniments, and uniform of a soldier. The exemption may be waived in note or contract. M i;o II ANirs' Lien.— These bind houses and lands from the date of the com- mencement of work on the building (usually the cellar diggijig); for all worJ done .ind materials furnished toward the erection and construction of the buil ing ; provided, a lien for the same be filed within six months after the work baa been done or tbe materials furnished. I^iens may also ba filed for alterations or repairs ; they bind the property from the date of filing. The debts of a deceased person are a lien on his real estate for 5 years after his death ; the lien may be continued by suit brought within that time. The lien of judgments operates for 5 years from date of entry, when they must be revived by scire facias. The lien of a mortgage for purchase money is good from date of mortgage if rendered within 60 days ; other mortgages irom date of record. C0LI.ECTIOK OF Debts — Arrest and imprisonment for debt is abolished in all actions founded on contract, except where such actions arise from breach of a fiduciary relation, and in cases of fraud. In cases where imprisonment still exists, the debtor may l^e committed to prison until he pays the debt, or gives bond to take the benefit of the insolvent laws. The property of a non-resident debtor, who is not within the county at tbe time the writ is issued, may be attached in civil actions. The property of a resi- dent debtor may be attached upon affidavit, that the defendant is justly indebted to him in a sum exceeding 5100, and setting forth the natiire of indebtedness, and that the defendant is about to remove his property out of the jurisdiction of the court with intent to defraud his creditors, or that the defendant has trans- ferred, assigned or removed, or is about to transfer, assign or remove his proper- ty with intent to defraud his creditors, or that be has property, rights in action, interest in any public or corporate stock, or evidences of debt which he fraudu- lently conceals and refuses to apply to the payment of his debts. Plaintifi! must give bond of indemnity in double the amount claim.ed, with sufllcient sureties, to bo approved by the court before the attachment issues. Attachments may be is- sued in the nature of an execution, after final judgment, which is a means of reaching the property of tbe defendant in the hands or custody of another. Assignments for the benefit of creditors, must be recorded within 30 days after date, or they become void as to creditors. Preference in assignments are void, and fall into the general fund, except as to wages due laborers, miners and operatives, who are preferred to the extent of ^?100. One partner may make gen- eral assignment of partnership property for benefit of creditors. A judgment is a lien on all the real estate of the defendant within tbe county in which it is obtained. Its lien continues 5 years, after which it must be revived or continued by scire facias. Does not bind after-acquired property unless levied thereon or revived. An execution binds personal property of the defend- ant from the time it is placed in tbe hands of the sherifP, but executions issued by a justice of tbe peace only bind from time of actual levy. When personal property or any leased premises is taken in execution, the landlord is entitled to one year's rent out of the proceeds of sale. To stay execution defendant may plead his freehold, that is, allege bis owner- ship of unincumbered real estate, or put in si^ecial bail, and thereupon shall be entitled to stay of execution as follows : If under $5200, six months ; if over §200 and less than §500, nine months ; if over $500, twelve months. This does not apply to actions on judgments, mortgages or bail for stay of execution on former judgments. ^ In tax sales, unseated laiids may be sold after one year's taxes are due, but may be redeemed by owner within 2 years on payment of amount of sale, costs, interest, and 25 per cent, penalty. Improved lands' may be sold for non-payment of 2 years' taxes, but must be redeemed within one year after notice of sale. In Philadelphia, 2 years are allowed to i-edeem debts, not of record on a lien on tbo estate of the deceased person for five years, and may be continued for five years longer by suit commenced within that time. In case the personal estate of a de- cedent is not sufiicient for the payment of his debts, the orphans' court will direct the sale of the realty. The widow and children of a deceased person are entitled to $300 out of his real or personal estate. SPECIAL LAWS OF PENXSYLYANIA. 899 Deeds, Eights of Married WOMEif, "Wills, &c.— Deeds must be under seaj, a scrawl is not sufficient, and should be attested by two .witnesses. Acknowl- edgment of deeds may be taken m the State, by justices of the Supreme court of Pennsylvania, judges of the courts of common pleas, mayor, recorder, and alder- man of Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Alleghany and Carbondale, the recorders of deeds, the notaries public, and all justices of the peace. Out of the State acknowledgment may be taken by the mayor or chief magis- trate of the city, town, or place where the deed is executed (under the public seal) ; any justice or judge of the supreme or superior court, or court of common pleas, or of any court of probate, or court of record, or any State or territoy in the United States (certified under the hand of the judge and the seal of the court) ; by any judge of the United States supreme court, or of any United States district court ; by an officer or magistra^;e of any State or territory in the United States who is authorized by the laws of his own State or territory to take ac- knowledgments therein. The proof of such authority is the certificate of the clerk or prothonotary of any court of record in such State, under seal of the court, that the officer taking such acknowledgment is duly qualified to take the same ; by ambassadors and other public ministers of the United States (under official seal) ; consuls and vice-consuls of the United States (under consular seal) ; by any notary public in any State or territory in the United States, t)r in any foreign country ; by commissioners appointed by the Governor in any State, territory or foreign country, whose commissions last five years unless sooner re- voked. And, where the person making the acknowledgment is in the military service of the United States, before any person holding the rank of major, or any higher rank, in said military service. Proof of the execution of a deed may be made by the affidavit of a subscribing witness. Powers of attorney relating to real estate muse be acknowledged the same as deeds. Acknowledgments taken by notaries public or commissioners of deeds need not be certified. No deed or contract relating to the real estate by a wife is binding upon her, unless acknowledged substantially as below : [Certificate of Acknowledgment by Husband and Wife.] State of Pennsylvania, ) County op Lehigh. j Be it remembered that, on the day of , A. D. 187 , before me (here insert name and title of official), duly commissioned in and for said county, came . and , his wife, and acknowledged indenture to be their act and deed, and desired the same to be recorded as such. She, the said , being of lawful age, and by me examined separate and apart from her said hws- band, and the contents of said deed being first fully made known to her, did thereupon declare that she did, voluntarily and of her own free will and accord, sign and seal, and as her act and deed deliver the same, without any coercion or compulsion of her said husband. Witness my hand and seal, the day and year aforesaid. [seal.] (Signature and title.) [Proof by Subscribing Witness.] State of Pennsylvania, ). County of Leaigh. | Be it remembered that, on the day of , A. D. 187 , be- fore me (here insert name and title of official), duly commissioned in and for said county, personally appeared , one of "the subscribing witnesses to the execution of the above indenture, who being duly sworn (or affirmed) accord- ing to law, doth depose and say that he did see , the grantor above named, sign and seal, and as his act and deed deliver the above indenture (deed or con- veyance) for the use and purposes therein mentioned, and that he did also see subscribe his name thereto as the other witness of such sealing and delivery, and that the name of this deponent, thereunto set and subscribed as a witness, is of this deponent's own proper hand-writing. Sworn (or affirmed) to and subscribed before me the day and year aforesaid. Witness my hand and official seal. [seal.] (Signature and title.) A married woman may hold and enjoy as her own separate property all sucli as she owned at the time of her marriage, and all such as may descend to or vest in her during her coverture, and such is not liable for any debts or engagements of her husband, A married woman may petition the court for leave to enjoy her own earnings, which will be allowed ; her separate estate is, however, liable for necessaries purchased by herself for the use of her family. She cannot make a valid contract except for the improvement of her separate estate and for neces' <)()() KPKCIAL LAAVS OF IIIIODE ISLAXD. earies. Slio may mako a will of her separate estate, subject to her husband's rights as tenant by tlio courtesy. Wills must in writing : and, unless the person making the Fame shall be pre- vented by the extremity of his last sickness, shall be signed by him at the end thereof, or by some person in his presence and by his express direction, and in all cases shall be proved by the oaths or affirmation of two or more competent witnesses. SPECIAL LAWS OF RHODE ISLAND. ExEMPTioxs From Forced Sai-e.— iVo Home Exempted, hut Personal Prop- erty. — Householders are entitled to hold the following exempt from execution : The necessary wearing apparel of the debtor and bis family ; his necessary work- ing tools, to value of $200 ; his household furniture and family stores, to the value of $300 ; one cow ; one hog and one pig, and the pork of the same ; debts secured by bills of exchange on negotiable promissory notes. Mechanics' Lien. — Mechanics have a lien for labor, or labor combined with materials furnished, which, in the case of an original contractor, must be prose- cuted within six months, and in case of a sub-contractor or day laborer, within thirty days after commencing the work ; but no landlord is bound for the im- provements made by the tenant, nor a married v/oman, under any circumstances, unless the contract is in writing, assented to by them, and is clearly intended to bind them. Collection of Debts.— The defendant may be arrested in all cases of toits, where the form of the actions, as trover or trespass, or the necessary allegations of the writ, make a prima facie case of tort ; in actions of debt, convenant and assumpsit, which cover almost all collections. No arrest of females can be had, on original writs, but males may be arrested on original writ in the following cases : 1. In case of claims originating before July 1, 1870. 2. Where the plaintiff, his agent or attorney, makes atlidavit, on the back of the writ, " that the plaintiff has a just claim against the defendant, upon which the plaintiff expects to re- cover, in the action commenced by such writ, a sum suflicient to give jurisdiction to the court to which such v/rit is returnable ; and also," either " that the de- fendant, or some one of the defendants, is about to leave the State-, without leav- ing therein personal or real estate upon which an execution, that may be obtained in such action, can be served ;" or, " that the defendant, or some one of the de- fendants, has committed fraud in contracting the debt npon which the action is founded, or in the concealment of his property, or in the disposition of the same." To obtain a writ of attachment, the plaintiff must make afifidavit that the de- fendant ov/es him justly the claim set forth, and which must be a sum sufficient to give the court jurisdiction ; that defendant resides out of the State, or has left the State, and is not expected to return in season to be served with process before the next term of the court ; or that hfe has committed fraud in contracting the debt sued on, or in concealing his property, or in disposing of the same fraudu- lently, and all the legal interest of the defendant in property can be -attached, except what is exempt from execution. Assignments made for the benefit of creditors are valid whether a preference is shown or not, except where the grantor is imprisoned on execution. Assign- ments or other conveyances, given as security for past, present or future endorse- ments, if made in good faith, are valid, subject, of course, to the provisions of the bankrupt act- Assignees of contracts or claims, other than bills of exchange or negotiable promissoiy notes, must sue in the name of the assignor, unless they can prove a special promise by the defendant to pay to them. The usages relating to notes and bills are governed by the common law. For- eign bills drawn or endorsed within this State and returned protested from with- out the United States, are subject to 10 per cent, damages and interest. The holder of such protested bill may sue the drawers and endorsers jointly. Foreign bills of exchange drawn or endorsed in this State and returned to this State pro- tested for non-acceptance or non-payment, from any place without the limits of the United States, are subject to payment of 10 per cent, damages, besides protest fees. Inland bills drawn or endorsed in this State are subject to 5 per cent, damages, besides protest fees. Bills drawn at sight, payable in this State, are due on presentation, without grace. Notes, for the payment of money, only are SPECIAL LAWS OF RHODE ISLAXD 901 assignable and negotiable like bills of exchange. Legal holidays are 4th of July, Christmas day and February 22nd : also, any days appointed by the Governor, Legislature or President of the United States as days of thanksgiving or holidays, Paper maturing on any of those days must be protested the day preceding those holidays, severally, at his election. Foreign bills drawn or endorsed in this State and returned protested from without the State and within the United States, are subject to five per cent, damages and interest. Sight bills are without grace. Other bills and notes have three days' grace, except the last day be Sunday or a holiday they are payable the last secular day preceding. Holidays are July 4, Christmas, February 22, and all duly appointed thanksgiving and fast days. Corporations are authorized to issue promissory notes signed by their proper officers. The jurisdiction of justice courts extend to $100 ; the court of common plea* has original jurisdiction in actions for §100 and upwards, and has exclusive juris- diction on appeals from justice's courts. The supreme court has exclusive juris- diction in equity causes appellate from the court of common pleas. Judgments are not a lien on real estate, and only binds the property seized by the attachment. Execution issues after the rising of the court, or, in the county of Providence, five days after judgment, except on motion, when they may be granted imme- diately. They are to be levied oji property previously attached, before the return day (the first day of the next term), or the attachments are released. But where the property is replevied, and, by the final judgment in replevin, is restored to the officer, it must be levied on within 20 days after it is returned and becomes sub- ject to levy. Executions bind nothing except what they are levied upon. They may be levied upon anything that may be attached on original Avrit, and executions of justices' courts may be levied on real estate, but no exe- cution can be served by garnishment or trustee process. In such cases, where there has beeniio previous attachment, the only available mode of procedure is by a new suit on the judgment. Executions may also be served by arrest of the body of a defendant, not exempt from arrest, in actions for tort, or for the recov- ery of debts incurred before March 31, 1870, or where the defendant was arrested on the original writ or on a writ of mesne process, or where proof is made show- ing, to the satisfaction of the court or some justice thereof, facts which would have authorized an tirrest in the first instance, but no female can be imprisoned on a debt less than $50, not under seal. There is no redemption for execution sales. Deeds, Eights of Married Womek, "Wills, &c.— Every deed of real estate requires a seal (not a scrawl) but not witnesses are essentially necessary to their validity. Within the State, they may be acknowledged before a senator, judge, justice of the peace, notary public or town clerk. Without the State, and within the United States, acknowledgments may be taken by any judge, justice of the peace, mayor or notary public, or any commissioner appointed by the Governor of the State and duly qualified. As it has never been determined how long such an appointment as commissioner, and as some presume to act by virtue of old or uncertain appointment, it is better to resort to some one of the local officials named above — of course, selecting one whose official character could be easily proved. Without the JJnited States, deeds may be acknowledged before any minister or consul of the United States, or any commissioner appointed by the Governor and duly qualified. The following form is used in taking the acknowledgment of a deed where it is necessary for husband and wife to acknowledge the same, and can easily be used Avhere a single man or woman makes the acknowledgment; State of Rhode Islai^d, ) County of Providence. | Be it remembered that, on this day of , A. D. 187 , before me, Joseph Perkins, a notary public duly qualified, etc., personally appeared A; B. and CD., his wife, and the said A. B. acknowledged the foregoing instru- nient, by him signed, to be his free and voluntary act ajid deed ; and the said C D., being by me examined privily and apart from her said husband, and having said instrument shown and explained to her by me, declared to me that it is her voluntary act, and that she does not wish to retract the same. In witness whereof, I have set my hand and seal at Providence, R. I., the day and year above written. Joseph Perkins, JSfotary Public. The wife must join in the execution of a deed made by the husband, to relirr quish dower ; yet the husband alone is required to acknowledge it. 902 SPECIAL LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. Married women liold real and personal estate, not coming from the husband, free from all interference of the husband's creditors, and free from tlie husband's interference by means of trustees appointed in the ordinary mannei-, or by the supreme court on petition. They are not authorized to do business as traders. They may sell their i)ersonal estate in the same maimer as their real estate, and certain unimportant kinds, such as clothing, books and similar personal articles, except jewels, they may sell as if single. Their other contracts, except their warranties in conveyances of real estate, are utterly void and do not bind their separate estate. Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or by some one in his pres- ence, and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in the presence of the testator, by two or three competent witnesses. SPECIAL LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— //ome worth $1000, Personal Property $500. A homestead to the head of each family, his widow or the orphan minors, not to exceed $1000. Also, personal property, -as follows : " Household furni- ture, beds and bedding, family library, arms, carts, wagons, farming implements, tools, neat cattle, work animals, swine, goats and sheep, not to exceed in value in the aggregate $500,— except the homestead cannot be held exempt from exe- cution issued on a judgment obtained for the purchase money of the same, or for improvements made thereon, or taxes due thereon." One- third of yearly pro- ceeds of persons not the head of family is exempt, except as against taxes. Mechanics' Lien.— All persons who furnish materials or perform labor in the erection, improvement or repairing of buildings, have a statutory lien on the same, to the extent of the interest of the party who had the buildings erected or improvements done ; provided, that within ninety days after he ceases to labor a proper account be filed with the clerk of the court and suit thereon be begun in six months. Collection of Debts. — A debtor may be arrested upon an order from the court where the action is pending, upon an affidavit that he has removed or dis- posed of his property, or is about to do so with intent to defraud his creditors, or has been guilty of a fraud in contracting the debt sued for, or is concealing or disposing of the property, for the taking, detention or conversion of which the action is brought ; or where the action is brought for damages for fraud or de- ceit, or for money received and embezzled or fraudulently misapplied by a public officer, agent or officer of a corporation, factor, agent, broker, attorney- at-law, or one acting in any fiduciary capacity, or for misconduct or neglect in office or professional employment, or where he is anon-resident of this State, or is about to remove therefrom ; or when the action is for injury to person or char- acter ; or for injuring or for wrongful taking, detaining or converting property. No female can be arrested, except for wilful injury to property, person or char- acter. A writ of attachment may issue for the following causes : 1. When the de- fendant is a non-resident, or a foreign corporation. 2. Or where he has abscond- ed or concealed himself to avoid service of summons. 3. Or is about to remove his property from the State with intent to defraud creditors. 4. Or has assigned, or disposed of, or secreted, or is about to assign, dispose of or secrete his property, for the purpose of defrauding his creditors. Debtors, in making assignments, can prefer any, or any class of creditors, and make any provisions for the administration of the property, only cannot retain any advantage or benefit to himself. The assignee must, within ten days, call a meeting of creditors, to appoint an agent of creditors to act with him, who has joint control of the property. If no agent is elected, the assignee is both assignee and agent. Assignments to secure sureties or endorsers, prior to any payment by them, are valid. In fact, assignments, free from fraud, for any purpose, are valid, and can be set aside only in bankruptcy, according to the rules of the bankrupt act. Notes, bills, accounts and all choses in action are assignable. The assignee should sue in his own name. As to notes and bills, the principles of the common law apply to notes and bills of exchange, and negotiable papers of all kinds, as to endorsement, presen- tation and protest. No protest is necessary on a bill for less than $100, and all bills, foreign and domestic, payable at sight, are entitled to days of grace. Endorser or acceptor not liable, unless the endorsement or acceptance be in SPECIAL LAAVS OF SOUTH CAEOLINA. 903 writing on the note or draft, or protest be made for non-acceptance. Drawers and endorsers may be sued jointly and severally. All bills or promissory notes payable to order or bearer under ^1, are void. Justices' courts have jurisdiction to the extent of $100, and have concurrent jurisdiction with the court of common pleas. The court of common pleas has exclusive jurisdiction in all cases appealed from justices of the peace, and orig- inal and exclusive jurisdiction in all actions at law or equity where the amount sued for exceeds $100. If the debt recovered in the common pleas court is less than 5p50, the plaintiff must pay costs. The Supreme Court has appellate juris- diction of all cases in equity from court of common pleas ; corrects errors of law in cases at law from such courts, and has original power to issue writs of injunc- tion, mandamus, quo loarranto, habeas corpus, and such other remedial writs as; are necessary to give it a general supervisory control over all the courts in the State. Judgment, as soon as entered, binds all real estate in that county, and can be entered at same time in several counties, bu.t binds personal property only on levy, constructive or actual. Execution may issue at once after judgment, unless the court open a special day for the entry of judgments, or unless a notice of an appeal is given, and then it can issue, if plaintiff will execute to the defendant a bond, with good sureties in double the value of judgment, to pay all damages sustained by the defendant in case the judgment is reversed. Even then the defendaut can still secure the stay of the execution until the appeal is disposed of, if ho will execute a counter bond to plaintiff to pay him the debt, costs and damages, if the judgment be sus- tained. There is no redemption of property sold under execution. Deeds, Rights of Markied Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds of conveyance of real estate must be in writing, and signed in the presence of at least two witnesses, and must be recorded in the county where the land lies in thirty-three days after same is acknowledged. If acknowledged in this State, it must be done before a notary public or trial justice ; without the State, before a commissioner of this State only. Before the deed can be properly admitted to probate, one of the subscribing witnesses must go before a notary public or trial justice, if he is in this State, or before a commissioner for this State if he is without the State, and make affidavit that he saw the grantor sign, seal and, as his act and deed, de- liver that deed, and that he, with the other subscribing witness, naming him, did witness the execution thereof. And the officer before whom such affidavit is made must add this certilicate, which must be signed by the witness : State of South Carolina, ) County of Charleston. J Personally appeared before me A. B., and made oath that he saw C. D. sign, seal and deliver the within conveyance, for the uses and purposes thei-ein men- tioned, and that he, with E. F., in the presence of each other, witnessed the due execittion thereof. A. B. Sworn to before me this day of , A. D. 187 . (Signature and title of officer.) If the grantor has a wife, she should renounce her dower before a notary jmb- lic or trial justice, if withi3,i the State, or before a commissioner of deeds for the State if outside of it, and the officer will use this form : State of South Carolina, ) County of Charleston. j I (here insert name and title of officer), do hereby certify unto all whom it may concern, that G. H.,the wife of the within-named C. D., did this day appear before me, and upon being privately and separately examined by me, did declare that she does freely, voluntary, release and forever relinquish unto the within- named John Smitli, his heirs and assigns, all her interest and estate, and also all her right and claim of dower, of, in, or to all and singular the premises within mentioned and released. (Signed by wife.) Given under my hand and seal this day of . A. D. 187 . [Seal.] (Signature and title of officer.) All the property, both real and personal, belonging to a woman at the time of her marriage, and all which she acquires during coverture by gift, grant, inheritance or devise, shall remain her sole and separate property free from the debts of her husband, and may be disposed of by her, by deed, will or otherwise, in the same manner as if she were unmarried ; provided, no gift from husband shall injure the just claims of her creditors. She must, as previously stated, relinquish her dower. 904 .SPECIAL LAWS OP TENNESSEE. Chattel mortgagCH of i)ciishablo goods, of goods, wares, and incrchandiso, in fact, of any pei'Hoiial property, are valid, if rc(!orded witliin sixty days in the office of the registrar of vicsnc conveyances in the county wherein the property is situated. In all counties, except Charleston, the clerk of the court of common pleas is ex officio registrar. "Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or some person in his presence and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed in the presence of the testator by three or more competent witnesses. See Business Form, No. 45, p. 815. SPECIAL LAWS OF TENNESSEE. ExE^rPTTOXS FROM FORCED SALE.— /Tome roorth $1000, and Personal Prop- iRrty. The following property is exempt for garnishment, execution, or attacn- ment : Thirty dollars of the wages of mechanics or other laboring men in the hands of heads of families, two beds, bedsteads and necessary clothing for each, and for each three children of one family, one additional bed, bedstead and clothing, the value of such bedsteads in no case to exceed $25 ; 2 cowy K,nd calves, and if the family consist of C or more persons, 3 cows and calves, etc. ; 2 horses or 2 mules, or 1 horse and 1 mule, and 1 yoke of oxen ; 1 Avagon or cart, etc., not to exceed in value §75 ; 25 lbs. corn ; 20 bushels wheat ; 500 bundles oats, etc. ; 1,000 lbs. pork, or 600 lbs. bacon ; a homestead carpet, manufactured by the wife for family use ; G cords wood, or 100 bushels coal ; 1 sewing machine, if used for livelihood, etc. ; in the hands of mechanic, who is engaged in the pursuit of his trade, one set of mechanics' tools ; a homestead in the possession of each head of the family and the improvements thereon to the value of, in all, .'jSlOOO. Per- sons who are not the heads of families ai-e not entitled to the benefit of exemp- tions. Mechanics' Lien. — Material men, contractors and mechanics who furnish Avork or materials to aid in the construction or repair of any building or buildings, shall have a lien on the same for 1 year after the work is done, provided notice in waiting of said lien be first given to the owner, or his agent at the time said work is begun, or materials furnished. All debts incurred for repairing, fitting, building, navigating, or furnishing steam or keel boats, shall be a lien on sueli vessels provided suit be commenced within three months from the time the debt Is incurred. Collection of Debts.— Arrest in civil actions is unknown in this State. Writs of attachment on aflidavit being made to either of the following causes. 1. Where the debtor resides out of the State. 2. Where he is about to remove, or has removed himself or property from the State. 3. Where he has removed, or is removing himself out of the county priA^ately. 4. Where he conceals himself, 60 that the ordinary process of law cannot be served upon him. 5. AVhere he absconds, or is absconding or concealing himself or property. G. "Wliere he has fraudulently disposed of, or is about to, fraudulently dispose of his property. 7. Where any person, liable for any debt or demand, residing out of the State, dies, leaving property in this State. (Code, § 3455.) Bond, with good security, must be given in all cases before an attachment can Issue. And all property, both real and personal, legal a-nd equitable, of the debtor, can be seized. All assignments for the benefit of creditors inure for the benefit of only those creditors of the grantor named in the deed of assignment ; the acceptance of the creditor is presumed, imless jjroof to the contrary is made. Assignments can be made to secure endorsers or sureties. Assignments, like other deeds, must be acknowledged and recorded. Garnishment can issue on executions or attachments, and holds all the prop- erty of the defendant in the hands of the garnishee from the date of the service of garnishment to his answer. The garnishee is entitled to the payment and privileges of a witness and his costs. Every bill, note, or bond, whether sealed or not, whether payable to order for value received or not, shall be negotiable as inland bills of exchange by the custom of merchants. And the holder of any such instrument may maintain a joint action against the maker and any one or more of the endorsers, or a joint and several action against any one or more of the endorsers. The holder of a bill of exchange, drawn or endorsed in this State upon any person or corporation of or in any other State, territory or place, and which is protested for non-payment, may recover from the drawer or endorser, besides the principal and interest. SPECIAL LAWS OF TEXNESSEE 905 damages as follows : Three per cent., if drawn on any person or corporation in the United States or territories ; fifteen per cent., if in any other place in North America ; and twenty per cent, on any person in any other part of the world. Days of grace are not allowed on bills payable at sight. The certificate of a notary public in or on his protest is ^^riwia facie evidence of the facts stated therein. The jurisdiction of justice courts, extends, against makers of notes and accept- ors of drafts, to the extent of ^500. On acco"iints, obligations, contracts, and other evidences of debt, $^250. Damages and replevin suits, §250. The circuit and equity courts have general jurisdiction, and circuit courts have jurisdiction appellate from justices of the peace on all cases before them. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction only. Executions may issue from a justice after two days, and from a court of record after 30 days from date of judgment. An execution from a justice is a lien only on personal property from the day of its teste, audit becomes a lien on real estate only from the day of its levy thereon. The lien on real estate, under an execu- tion from a justice, can be enforced only by an order of sale from the circuit court, which is made upon the return of the execution, with the levy thereon, and all the papers into the circuit court. The legal interest of the defendant in all kinds of personal or real property, also in stock of a corporation , can be levied on under an execution. All judgments before a justice of the peace can be stayed for eight months, upon entering good and sufficient security on the justice's docket for debt, interest and costs, if same is done in two days after judgment. Iso stay allowed on judgment obtained in court of record. Eeal property sold under execution can be redeemed in two years by the debtor, or by a judgment creditor of the debtor. In case the debtor does not redeem until other judgment creditors redeem, he shall pay all the judgments which have secured a lien'by redemption. The legal title only can be subjected to an execution at law. An egaitable in- terest m lands can only be reached by bill in chancery. Deeds, Rights of Married Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds are valid without being under seal. Not good as to strangers, unless duly acknowledged by the grantor, proved by two witnesses under oath and recorded. Deeds must be ac- knowledged, if the grantor is in the State, before the clerk or legally appointed deputy clerk of the county court, or before a notary public. If before a notary public, the clerk of the county court where he received his appointment shall certify as to his official capacity. If the grantor is without the State, but in the United States or territories — L Before any court of record, or before the clerk of any court of record in any of the States of the Union ; or, 2. Before a commissioner for Tennessee, appointed by the Governor, in any State or territory ; or, 3. Before a notary public of such State or territory. If the grantor is beyond the limits of the Union and its territories — 1. Before a commissioner for Tennessee ap;x)inted in the country where the acknowl- edgment is made, 2. Before a notary public of such country. 3. Before a consul, minister or ambassador of the United States in the country where the ac- knowledgment is made. The certificate of the officer before whom the deed is acknowledged must be under seal, unless acknowledgment is made in the State before a justice or judge of some court, and then the certificate of the clerk of the county court, certifying to the signature, etc., of the justice, or of the clerk of the court certifying to the signature of the judge, must be under seal. The following is the form of the certificate necessary where the grantor makes the acknowledgment in person and in this State : State op Tennessee, ) County of Hardin. ) _ " Personally appeared before me, clerk (or deputy clerk) of the county court of said county, the within-named bargainer, with whom I am personally acquainted, and who acknowledged that he executed the within instrument for the pur- poses therein contained. " Witness my hand, at office this day of , A. D. 187 ." [seal.] (Signature and title.) As the wife has no dower in land granted in fee by the husband, it is not necessary for her to join in the deed, but if a trust deed is given, then the wife must relinquish dower by joining in the deed. When the land conveyed is the separate estate of the wife, the husband must always join her in the deed. In any deed where the wife has to acknowledge the same, the certificate of the officer or court before whom it is taken must contain this additional clause : " And C. D., wife of the said A. B., having appeared before me, privately and apart from 900 SPECIAL LAWS OF TEXAS. her liusband, the said A. B., acknowlodffed Iho execution of tlie said deed to hara heen done by her freely, voluntarily, juhI iiiHlcrslaiuliiifrly, without compulsion or constraint from Jior said huHbaiid, lor Ih.; pui posijs th(;nuii (ixprcssed." It is not ne(!0ssary, to the validity ol ;i . 187 . John Campbell, Commissioner for Tennessee, A married woman can hold real and personal property to her sole and sepa- rate use, without or through a trustee. She can, if over twenty-one years of age, and own the land in fee, or equitably, convey same without her husband joining Avith her by deed or will. And if settled upon her after marriage for her sole and separate use, at any age. A note or any other obligation, made by a married woman, will not bind her separate estate, unless it was executed with the express intention to bind the same ; or unless it was given for necessaries for herself or her minor children. Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator, or some other person in his presence and by his express direction, and subscribed in the presence of the tes- ator by two witnesses, no one of whom is interested in the will. SPECIAL LAWS OF TEXAS. ExEMPTioisrs FROM FORCED SALE — Home worth $5000, and Personal Prop- erty. To every citizen, householder, and head of a family, not to exceed 200 acres of land (not included in a city, town or village), or any city, town or vil- lage lot or lots, not to exceed S5000 in value at the time of their designation as a homestead, and without reference to the value of any improvements thereon. Also, all household and kitchen furniture, all implements of husbandry, all tools and apparatus belonging to any trade or profession, and all books belong- ing to private or public libraries ; five milch cows and calves ; 2 yoke of work oxen ; 2 horses and 1 wagon, 1 carriage or buggy ; 1 gun ; 20 hogs ; 20 head of sheep ; all provisions and forage on hand for home consumption ; all saddles, bridles and harness necessary for the use of the family ; and to every citizen, not a head of a family, one horse, bridle and saddle, all wearing apparel, all tools, apparatus and books belonging to his or her private library. Mechanics' Lien. — Any person or firm Avho may labor, furnish material, machinery, fixtures and tools to erect any house, improvement, or any improve- ment whatever, shall have a lien on such article, house, building, fixtures or im- provement, and also on the lot or lots or land necessarily connected therewith, to secure payment for labor done, material and fixtures furnished for construc- tion or repairs. Such person or firm shall, within six months after such debt become due, file his contract in the office of the district clerk of the county in which the property is situated, and-have the same recorded in a book kept for that purpose by the clerk. If the contract, order or agreement be verbal, a du- plicate copy of the bill of particulars must be made under oath, one to be filed and recorded by the clerk as provided for written contracts, the other to be served on the party owing the debt. When the contract or account is filed and recorded, they must be accompanied by a description of the property against which the lien is claimed. The filing and recording fixes the lien from the day it is filed. The lien, if against land in the country upon which said improve- ments have been made, shall extend to and include fifty acres ; if in a city, town or village, it extends to and includes such lot or lots upon which said im- provements are situated. The lien may be enforced against the land and im- provements, or the improvements alone. The purchaser having a reasonable time to remove the same. The sale to be upon judgment and order of sale. This lien extends as well to homesteads as to other property ; also, to all boats SPECIAL LAWS OF TEXAS. 907 navigating the waters of this State. All actions to enforce 11 3ns must he brought within two years. Collection of Debts.— Arrest for debt is unknown here. "Writ of attach- ment may issue for the following causes, viz. : When the defendant is not a »«' resident of the State, or is about to remove himself or property out of the State, or has abandoned the country, or secretes himself so that the ordinary process of law cannot be served on him, or is about to remove his property beyond the county in which suit has been or is to be instituted, or is about to transfer or secrete, or has transferred or secreted his property, for the purpose of defraud- ing his creditors, so that the plaintili will probably lose his debt. Attachment bond must be double the amount claimed, with two or more approved securities. AflEidavit made to facts claimed as ground of attachment. Everything, except choses in action and property exempted by law, belonging to the defendant in execution, may be levied upon and sold as his goods and chattels. An attach- ment levied upon real estate is a lien thereon from date of levy. An assignment in trust, for the benefit of creditors generally, inure for the benefit of all the creditors of the grantor, whether named in the deed of assign- ment or not ; but a failing debtor may prefer his creditors. Assignments can be made in this State to secure sureties or endorsers prior to any payment by them. Notes, bills, accounts and every species of contract or claim are assignable here, and the assignee can sue in his own name. An assignment proves itself in Texas, and can only be put in issue by a plea of non est factum. A parol assign- ment is good here, but must be proven. Garnishment may be issued upon attachment, judgment, or upon original suit, upon filing^proper bond and affidavit. May be issried either by district or justice court. Defendant may replevy property seized in hands of garnishee by tiling proper bonds. Garnishee is entitled to his reasonable costs. Ik As to notes and bills, acceptors are chargeable, either upon written or verbal acceptance. A holder of a bill of exchange drawn by merchants, resident in this State, upon their agents or factors out of the State, having fixed the liabil- ity upon the drawer or endorser, are entitled to recover and receive ten per cent, damages, and all costs of suit thereon accruing. An assignee can sue any assignor of any bill or note, but cannot sue any two or more of them in the same suit, unless they are joint assignees. When suit is brought against a remote as- signor by an assignee, he cannot only set up any defense he may have against the plaintiif , but any he may have against any of the intermediate assignors. Three days of grace are allowed here upon all bills of exchange and promissory notes assignable by law. A notarial protest or copy of record, certified to under the hand and seal of the notary public, is admitted in all the courts of this State as evidence of the facts therein set forth. The jurisdiction of justice courts, extends, against makers of notes and ac- ceptors of drafts, to §500. On accounts, obligations, contracts and other evi- dences of debt, f 250. Damages and replevin suits, f 250. The circuit and equity courts have general jurisdiction, and circuit courts have jurisdiction appellate from justices of the peace on all cases before them. The supreme court has ap- pellate jurisdiction only. Judgments and decrees in any court of record shall be a lien on the debtor's land from the time the same is rendered in the county where the debtor resides ; if rendered in any other county than where debtor resides, from the time when a certified copy of the same is registered in the county where the land lies. But this lien only exists for twelve months. Such judgment or decree does not give a lien on the debtor's equitable interest in land, unless within sixty days after rendition of same a memorandum of the same is registered in the county where the land lies. A lien on tlie legal title of the debtor in real estate can also be iixed under an execution from a justice of the peace, by filing the execution, with the levy of the same, and all the papers in the case before the justice, with the circuit court from which an order of sale issues. Executions in district court issue immediately upon the adjournment of court, unless court is in session twenty days after rendition of judgment, or the defendant is about to remove his property out of the county when they can issue sooner. In justice court ten days after rendition of judgment. Executions are not liens on any property in this State until levied. No stay laws here, except in justice court for three months' time. Everything except choses in action and property exempted by law belonging to the defendant in execution, may be levied on and sold as his goods and chattels. No redemption laws here. Deeds, Eights of Markied Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds, mortgages and deeds of trust are not required to bo under seal. Proof or acknowledgment of ©very instrument of writing for record may be taken before some one of the fol' roven without the United States, before some public minister, charge d'affaires, consul or consular agent of the United States, or notary public ; in 'all cases the certificate of such acknowledgment or proof shall be attested under the othcial seal of the officer taking the same, ajid tho deed recorded in the county where the land lies. The following is the form of the certificate where the husband and wife join in the deed : , State of Texas, I County of Travis, ( Before me personally appeared and , his wife, parties to the foregoing attached , bearing date the day of , A. D. 187 , both of whom are known to me, who acknowledged severally that they had signed, sealed and delivered the same for the purposes and consideratione therein stated. And the said having been examined by me privily and apart from her husband, and having had the same fully explained to her, she, the said , acknowledged the same to be her act and deed, and declared to me that she had willingly signed, sealed and delivered the same of her own free will and accord, without fear or compulsion on the part of her said husband, and that she wished not to retract it. Witness my ofiicial seal and signature at my office, this day of A. D. 187 . (Signature and title.) [Certificate when the Grantor is Unmarried.] State of Texas, (. County of Travis. ) Before me, John Smith, clerk of the district court in and for said county, personally appeared , who is to me known, and acknowledged that signed, executed and delivered the foregoing deed for the purposes therein specified. Witness my official seal and signature, at my office, in the city of Austin, this day of , A. D. 187 . (Signature of officer.) Deeds may be authenticated for record by affidavit of one or two attesting witnesses. Two witnesses required to every deed unless acknowledged. Married women can hold real estate or personal property to their separate use. A married woman can bind herself on a note, draft or endorsement, when for necessaries for herself or children, or for the benefit of her separate prop- erty. All property acquired by husband and wife during marriage is their com- mon property , except that acquired by gift, devise or descent, which is his or her separate property. The husband's consent is necessary to the alienation of the wife's separate property. The husband cannot alienate the homestead without the consent of the wife. The widow is entitled to the use of one-third of the real estate for her life. A chattel mortgage is valid here between the parties thereto, but void as against creditors and bonajide purchasers without notice, unless recorded in the county where the mortgagor resides. Wills must be in writing, signed by the testator or by some other -person in his presence and by his direction ; and, moreover, if not wholly written by him- self, be attested by two or more credible witnesses above the age of fourteen years, subscribing tlxeir names in his presence. SPECIAL LAWS OF UTAH. Exemptions FROM Forced Sale.— ^Tome loorth $1000, and Personal Property. To each memher of the family f 250. To the head of the family is allowed a home- stead not exceeding in value #1000, to be selected by the debtor, and personal property to the value of $700 or more, according to the value of articles exempt by statute ; aside from the homestead each member of the family is allowed f 250. JSio property shall be exempt from sale on a judgment received for its price, on a mechanic's lien, or a mortgage thereon. SPECIAL LAWS OF VEKMONT. 909 SPECIAL LAWS OF VERMONT. Ext:mptioks from Forced Sale.— ITome icorih $500, and Personal Property, Homestead to the value of $500, and products, such suitable apparel, bedding, tools, arms and articles of furniture as may be necessary for upholding life ; 1 sewing machine kept for use, 1 cow, the best swine, or the meat of 1 swine, 10 sheep, and one year's product of said sheep in wool, yarn or cloth ; forage suffi- cient for keeping not exceeding 10 sheep and one cow through one winter ; 10 cords of firewood, or 5 tons of coal; 20 bushels of potatoes, such military arms and accoutrements as the debtor is required by law to furnish ; all growing crops, 10 bushels of grain, 1 barrel of flour, 3 swarms of bees and hives, together with their produce in honey ; 200 lbs. of sugar, and all lettered gravestones ; the bibles and other books used in a family ; one pew or slip in a meeting-house or place of religious worship ; live poultry not exceeding in amount or value the sum of §10 ; the professional books and instruments of physicians, and the professional books of clergymen and attorn eys-at-law, to the value of §200, and also 1 yoke of oxen or steers as the debtor may select, with sufficient forage for the keeping of the same through the winter ; or in lieu thereof, 2 horses kept and used for team work not to exceed in value ^5200, with sufficient forage for keeping same ; also pistols, side-arms and equipments personally used by any soldier of the United States and kept by him or his heirs as mementoes. Mechanics' Liex.— Material men and mechanics have a lien for labor and material in building, repairing, fitting or furnishing any vessel until eight months after such vessel is completed. It may be secured by attachment, and has precedence of all other claims. They also have a lien upon a building, and the lot on which it stands, for erecting or repairing such building. The lien con- tinues three months after payment comes due, but does not attach until the per- son claiming it has filed and caused to be recorded, in the town clerk's office, a written memorandum, by him signed, asserting such claim. Collection of Debts. — No female can be arrested on any process in an ac- tion founded on contract. No resident citizen of this State, or any of tho United States, can be arrested on any process issued on any contract, unless the plaintiff, his agent or attorney file, with the authority signing the writ, an affida- vit, stating that he has good reason to believe, and does believe, that the defend- ant is about to abscond or remove from the State, and has property secreted about his person or elsewhere to the amount of $20, or sufficient to satisfy the demand in suit ; or file an affidavit stating that the defendant neglects or refuses to pay over on demand money which he holds for the plaintiff in a fiduciary ca- pacity. In actions of contract, writs of attachment may issue against the goods, chat- tels or estate of the defendant ; and in actions founded on tort, for want thereof, against the defendant's body. Assignments, for the benefit of creditors, are regulated by statute. To pro- tect the property in the hands of the assignee, it must be for the benefits of all the creditors. Choses in action may be assigned, but the assignee cannot sue in his own name, unless there has been a special promise to pay him, or the de- mand is what is known as "negotiable paper." In actions on contract a person having goods, effects or credits of the defend- ant in his hands, may be summoned as trustee in the suit, and he is required to attend and disclose. Judgment is rendered against him in favor of the plaintiif for the amount of his indebtedness or liability to the defendant, to the extent of the judgment against the defendant. This process cannot be sustained unless the debt due the plaintiff from the defendant, as Avell as that from the trustee to / the defendant, exceed $10. It does not reach debts due on a contingency, or due I on a judgment where the judgment debtor is liable to an execution on the judg- ment. As to notes and bills, &c., a promissory note payable on demand is considered overdue at the expiration of sixty days from date, and presentment and demand of payment must be made within that time to charge the endorser. All negoti- able paper, except that payable on demand or at sight, is entitled to three days of grace. Negotiable paper may be endorsed for collection and sued in the name of the agent or attorney, though he is not the real party in interest, and holds it for collection merely. Judgments are not a lien. Eeal estate and certain articles difficult of removal are attached by leaving a copy of the original writ in the clerk's office. Execu- tion may issue from county court twenty-four hours after the rising of the court, and by a justice of the peace two hours after judgment is rendered. They are re- 910 SPECIAL LAVVa OF VIRGINIA. Uirnablo in sixty days, and must bo issued and placed in the lianas of the officer ■within tliirty days after judirment, to liold personal property attached on mesne process, and within live months to hold real estate so attached. Ileal estate Kct off on execution (there is no power to sell real estate on execution) may be re- deemed -within six months, otherwi?;e it passes to the creditor. Personal prop- erty taken on execution is sold to the highest bidder. A justice of the peace has jurisdiction in all actions of a civil nature -where the matter in demand does not exceed .'5i200, except actions for slander, false im- prisonment, and replevin for goods and chattels -where the value thereof exceeds $20, and where the title to land is concerned. A justice also has jurisdiction in actions of trespass on the freehold where the sum demanded docs not exced The county courts have jurisdiction of cases appealed from the justices' courts, and of all actions where the justices have not jurisdiction. The municipal courts of Burlington, Rutland and St- Albans have concurrent jurisdiction with the county courts, to the extent of $500. Suit may be brought in the town where either party resides, and if neither party resides in the State, in any town in the State. ' Process, returnable before supreme or county court, must be served at least twelve days before the session of court to which 'it is returnable. Writs, returnable before a justice, must be served at least six days before, and not over sixty days from, the return day ; if against a party in another county, twelve days must intervene between day of service and return clay ; and in any case, if the defendant is a corporation, thirty days must intervene. Deeds, Kights of MAEPasD Women, Wills, &(;.— Deeds must be under seal (not a scrawl), signed in the presence of two subscribing witnesses, acknowl- edged before a proper officer, and recorded in the clerk's office of the town where the land lies. In this State, deeds may be acknowledged before a justice of the peace, a notary public, or a master in chancery. Acknowledgments out of this State, may be taken before a justice of the peace, notary public, commissioner from Vermont, or such officer as is authorized to take acknowledgment of deeds in that place. [Form of Certificate of Acknowledgment.] State of ,\ County of . j At this day of , A. D. 187 , personally appeared (and his wife), the signer and sealer of the above-written instrument, and ac- knowledged the same to be his (or their) free act and deed. Before me, (Signature and title.) Married women cannot make contracts. They may in some instances change their separate property so that it may be reached in equity. Her real estate, and the rents and profits thereof, are exempt from attachment for the husband's debts ; and also the husband's interest in the same during coverture, except for debts for necessaries for wife and family, or for labor or materials furnished upon such real estate. A married woman may dispose of her property by will. The widow is en- titled to dower, during her natural life, of one-third of the real estate of which her husband died seized, during his natural life unless she shall be barred. Chattel mortgages do not protect the mortgagee against bona fide purchasers or attach- ing creditors if the property is allowed to remain in the possession of the niort- gagor. Wills must be in writing, and signed by the testator or by some other person in his presen ce and by his express direction, and attested and subscribed by three or more credible witnesses in the presence of the testator, and of each other. SPECIAL LAWS OF VIRGINIA. Exemptions from Forced Sax.^:,.— Homestead and Personal Property to the Vahoe of 5?2000. In case of a husband, parent, or other person who is a house- holder and head of a family, the law exempts from distress or levy divers enumerated articles of household and personal use, furniture, bedding, etc., ranging in value from fifty to five hundred dollars, according to the condition and size of the family. Besides the foregoing, every householder or head of a family is entitled to a homestead exemption of two thousand dollars, to be set apart out of any property which he may select. Mechanics' Lien.— All artisans, builders, mechanics, lumber dealers and SPECIAL LAWS OF YIRGIiSriA. 911 others performing labor or furnishing materials for the oonstrnction, repair or" improvement of any building or other property, are allowed a lien upon such prop- erty for the work done and materials furnished. It must be asserted by suit within six months from the time the lien is secured. CoLLECTiOJf OF DEBTS. — Arrest, in civil actions, is permitted, when the plain- tilf, by affidavit, shows to the court in which the suit is pending, or to any judge or justice of the peace, that he has cause of action or suit against the defendant, and that there is probable cause for believing that the defendant is about to quit the State, unless forthwith apprehended. The defendant may be discharged from arrest by giving good bail, the condi- tion of the bail bond being, in substance, that incase judgment is rendered for the plaintiff, the defendant will, if thereto required, within four months after the judgment, discover and surrender whatever estate he may then have, for the satisfaction thereof. Writs of attachment may be issued : 1. Against the estate of a non-resident defendant, 2. Against the estate of any defendant who is removing or intends to remove the specific property sued for, " or his own estate or the proceeds of tlie sale of his property, or a material part of such estate or proceeds, out of the State, so that process of execution on a judgment," when obtained, will be unavailing. 3. Against the estate of a debtor, whether the claim be payable or not, when the debtor intends to remove or is removing, or has removed his effects out of the State so that there will probably not be therein sufiicieiit effects of the debtor to satisfy the claim, should only the ordinary process of law be used to obtain such judgment. 4. Against the estate of a tenant liable for rent, who intends to remove or is removing, or has, within thirty days, removed his effects from the leased premises, so that there will not be left on such premises property liable to distress, sufiticient to satisfy the rent to become payable— not exceeding one year's rent in all. 5. Against steamboats and other vessels, for materials, supplies, work, etc., furnished and done, and damages for certain torts and breaches of contract. The foundation of the attachment in each case is the affidavit of the plaintiff or of his agent, setting forth not only the particular ground of the attachment, as above given, but also divers partici\]ars as to the amount of the claim, whether due or not, etc. If the plaintiff desires that the property to be attached shall be taken into the possession of the officer, the plaintiff, or some one for him, must give bond, with good security, in a penalty equal to, at least, double the amount sued for, conditioned to pay all costs and damages occasioned by the suing out of the attachment. The sureties must either reside, or must have estate equal to the penalty of the bond, within the jurisdiction of the court. No bond is neces- sary, except in the case above specified. Every species of property, legal or equitable, is liable to seizure and sale, under attachment. Assignments, for the benefit of creditors, with preferences, are allowed by the law of this State. Bonds and notes, not negotiable, are assignable, and the assignee may sue upon them in his own name. Open accounts may also be assigned; but suit must be brought upon them in the name of the original creditor. Process of garnishment may issue, either on execution or attachment, so as to reach debts due to the defendant. Every promissory note or check for money payable in this State, at a partic- ular bank, or at a particular office thereof, for discount and deposit, or at the place of business of a savings institution or savijigs bank, or at the place of business of a licensed broker, and every iidajid bill of exchange payable in this State, is deemed negotiable, and may, upon being dishonored for non-acceptance or non-payment, be protested, and the protest be in such case evidence of dis- honor, in like manner as in case of a foreign bill of exchange. The protest, both in the case of a foreign bill and in the other cases above mentioned, is made prima facia evidence of what is stated therein, or at the foot or on the back thereof, in relation to presentment, dishonor and notice thereof. Damages are recoverable on bills of exchange— three per cent, if the bill be payable out of Virginia and within the United States, and ten per cent, if payable without the United States. The jurisdiction of justice courts extends to $50. Civil jurisdiction of the county courts is confined chiefly to matters of probate and guardianship ; with perhaps a few unimportant exceptions they have no jurisdiction of suits for the collection of debts. Circuit and corporation courts have general jurisdiction in all civil actions. Process in these courts is commonly made returnable to rules — held on the first Monday in each month— and two rule days, at least, nmst inter- vene between service and trial. 912 RPECIAL LAWS OF VIRGINIA. Judgments arc a lien on all the real estate of, or to. whicli the defendant is ot shall bo possessed or entitled at or after the date of the judgment, or the com- mencement of the term at which it is rendered. They create no lieu on iieraonal estate. Executions may issue within'a year, and a scire facias or action may be brought within ten years after the date of the judgment. Executions create a lien upon the personal property of the debtor from the date of tlio delivery of the writ to the officer, whether the property consists of chattels or of choses in action. As to the latter, however, the lien does not take effect against an assignee for valu- able consideration without notice, nor against a person making payment to the judgment debtor without notice. Ileal estate cannot be sold or levied on under execution. An execution debtor may be i-equired to discover, under oath, his whole estate, real and personal, and to convey and transfer, for the satisfaction of the execution, his ijersoualty and any realty which he may have out of the State, If execution be issued within the year, other executions may be issued, or a sctj'C facias or action may be brought within ten years from the return day of an execution on which there is no return by an otiicer, or within twenty years from the return day of an execution on which there is such return. Deeds, Kights of Married Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds may be admitted to record as to any party thereto, when proved, as to such party, by two witnesses, or acknowledged by him, before the court of the county or corporation in which it is to be recorded, or before the clerk of such court, in his office. Also, upon a certificate of his acknowledgment within the United States, before a justice of the peace, a commissioner in chancery of a court of record, a notary public or any commissioner appointed by the Governor ; or, upon the certificate of the clerk of any county or corporation court in this State, or of the clerk of any court out of this State and within the United States, that the deed was acknowledged by such person or proved as to him by two witnesses, before such clerk or before the court of which he is clerk, or upon certificate, under the offi.- cial seal of any minister plenipotentiary, charge cVaffairs, consul general, consul, vice-consul, or commercial agent, appointed ty the Government of the Uidted States to any foreign country, or of the proper officer of any court of such coun- try, or of the mayor or other chief magistrate of any city, town or corporation therein, that the said writing was acknov/ledged by such person or proved as to him by two witnesses, before any person having such appointment, or before such court, mayor or chief magistrate. [Form of Certificate of Acknowledgment in case of a'party other than a Married Woman.] State of , | County (or Corporation) of . J • I, , a justice of the peace (or commissioner in chancery of the court, or notary public), for the county (or corporation) aforesaid, in the State (or territory, or district) of , do certify, that E. F. (or E. F. and G. H., etc.), whose name (or names) is (or are) signed to the writing above (or hereto annexed), bearing date on the day of , has (or have) acknowledged the same before me, in my county (or corporation) aforesaid. Given under my hand, this day of , A. D. 187 . (Signature and title.) The acknowledgment of a married woman must be certified by two justices of the peace, or by some one of the other functionaries authorized to certify the acknowledgment of other persons. The certificate must be to the effect following : State of , ) County (or Corporation) of .] I, , a commissioner appointed by the Governor of the State'of Vir- ginia for the said State (or territory, or district) of , or and , justices of the peace, or I, , a commissioner in chancery of court (or notary public) for the county (or corporarion) of , in the State (or territory, or district) of , do certify that E. F,, the wife of G. H., whose names are signed to the writing above (or hereto annexed), bearing date on the day of , personally appeared before me (or us), in the county (or corporation) aforesaid (or, if it be a commissioner, in the State, LAWS OF WASH. TEE. AND WEST VIEGIISriA 913 territory or district aforesaid), and being examined by me (or ns), privily and apart from her linsband, and liaving tbe writing aforesaid fully explained to her, she, the said E. P., acknowledged the said writing to be her act, and declared that 8he had willingly execnted the same and does not wish to retract it. Given under -.my hand (or our hands) this day of , Anno Domini. ' (Signature.) Married women can hold real or personal property to their separate use through a trustee. To bind the separate estate of a married woman by her con- tract, the intention so to bind it should be expressed on the face of the contract The widow is entitled to one-third part of all the real estate owned by her hus- band during coverture, unless she has barred or relinquished the same. Chattel mortgages are unknown in this State, though their equivalent is found in deeds of trust of personal properly, by which personal property of any description may be conveyed for the benefit, and thus made available for tho security of creditors. Such deeds are not effective, as to other creditors and sub- sequent purchasers for value without notice, except from the time of their admis- sion to record in the proper clerk's ofiice. Wills should be in v/riting, and signed by the testator, or by some one in his presence and by his express direction, in such manner as to make it manifest that the name is intended as a signature, and, moreover, unless it be whally written by the testator, the signature shall be made, or the will acknowledged by him in the presence of at least two competent witnesses, present at the same time, and such witnesses shall subscribe the will in the presence of the testator, but no form of attestation shall be necessary. SPECIAL LAWS OF WASHINGTON TERRI- TORY. Exemptions from Forced Bajje— Home worth $1000 and Personal Property. To each householder being the head of a family, a homestead worth $1000, while occupied by such family. All wearing apparel, private libraries, family pictures and keepsakes ; to each householder, 1 bed and bedding, and 1 additional bed and bedding for every two additional members of the family, and other house- hold goods of the coin value of $1500; 2 cows and their calves, 5 swine, 2 hives of bees, 25 domestic fowls, and provisions and fuel f or G months. To a farmer, 1 span of horses and harness, or 2 yoke of oxen, and 1 wagon, with farming uten- sils not exceeding §200 coin value. To attorneys and clergymen, their libraries valued at not to exceed $500, with office furniture and fuel. Small boats and lire-arms kept for use, not exceeding $50 in coin value ; parties engaged in light- ering, 2 lighters and 1 small boat valued at $250 ; the team of a drayman. SPECIAL LAWS OF WEST VIRGINIA. Exemptions from Forced ^a.i.-e..— Home worth^lOQO, and Personal Property. Homestead to the value of $1000, is exempt, where the property of that value "is demised or granted by debtor, being a husband or parent, and resident in the State, as a homestead ; and where he, previously to contracting the debt or liability has placed a declaration of his intention to keep the property as a homestead on the land records of the county in which the real estate is situate. Personal property to the value of $300 is also exempted, provided debtor is a resident and a parent. Mechakics' Lien. — A mechanic or workman, or any person who shall per- form any labor upon or furnish material to erect, repair, alter or improve any building, has a lien on the same, which can be enforced by sxiit in chancery in six months ; provided, he filed his account under oath with the clerk of the county court in thirty days after the work was done or material furnished. Collection op Debts.— The debtor may be arrested in an action pending against him, until he give security that he shall answer such interrogatories as shall be propounded to him, or filed within four months after judgment and perform the requirements of the judgment or decree. But before tlie order for arrest will be made, the plaintiff must make affidavit — 1. That the claim is just and that the defendant is about to leave the State, to reside permanently in another State, without paying the debt for which the action was brought. ■ 2. Or that he fraudulently contracted the debt for which the action was brought 3. Or that he fraudulently conceals his property or rights of action. 4. Or that 58 914 SPECIAL LAWS OF AVEST VIKGIXIA. he has romovod or is about to rcmoro his property beyond the State "with intent to defraud his creditors. 5. Or that lie ]ias converted or is about to convert his property into nion(!y or necTirUics, or that lie lias assigned or removed liis prop* erty with like intoiit. And the phiiiiliff will also ho required to give bond and good security, to indemnify the defendant in case the order of arrest was ma- liciously made. Writ of attachment may issue upon the [plaintiff giving bond, for the same causes tha^t an order of arrest will be made, and the following additional causes : 1. That the defendant is a non-resident, or a foreign corporation, 2. Or that the defendant has left or is about to leave the State with intent to defraud his creditors, 3- Or that he conceals himself, so that a summons cannot be served. Assignments, for the benefit of creditors, are not regulated by statute ; the debtor can prefer one or more of his creditors, if the transaction be not tainted with fraud. As to notes and bills, every note or check :made payable at a particular bank of discount and deposit, or at any savings bank, and every inland bill of exchange, is negotiable, and may be protested, and the protest is evidence of the same ffects as in case of foreign bills of exchange. Bills of exchange, drawn or negotiated in this State, duly protested, entitle the holder, in addition to the usual protest fees, to the following damages : Three per cent, if payable out of this State and within the United States, and ten per cent, if payable out of the United States. Paper payable on Sunday, Christmas day, 1st o2 January or 4th of July must be protested on the day previous and notice of dishonor given on the day following Buch holiday. Any paper not negotiable as above stated, is subject, in the hands of the holder, to all equities existing against the assignor ; the equities, however, must have existed before the defendant had notice of the assignment of the papers. The jurisdiction of justice courts extends in civil actions to $100, exclusive of interest. The circuit courts, is appellate from inferior courts, and has original and general jurisdiction of all matters at law Avhere the amount exceeds $50. The supreme court of appeals has appellate jurisdiction from inferior courts ' where the amount exceeds $100. Judgments are a lien on the real estate of the defendant from the first day of the term, if rendered in a court of record ; but to make this lien available agairrst a purchaser for value, and without actual notice, an abstract of the judgment must be filed in the recorder's ofiice of the county where the land lies ninety days after the rendition of the judgment or before the deed to the real estate is delivered to the purchaser. Judgments of justice's courts also give a lien on real estate if an abstract of the same is recorded in the proper county. Executions are a lien on personal property from the date the same is placed in the hands of the officer, and may be levied on any property of the defendant not exempt by law. Executions cannot be stayed, except when obtained before a justice, and only then for a limited time, not more than four months, upon de- fendant giving security. No redemption of property sold under execution. Deeds, Rights of Married WoME^^, Wills, &c.— Deeds must be in writing and under seal ; a scrawl will answer for a seal if deed be made by an indi- vidual, but not if by a corporation. They must be acknowledged before a re- corder, prothonotary, clerk of any court, a justice of the peace, notary public, commissioner of deeds, or proved by two witnesses before the recorder of the court in the county where the same is to be recorded. If acknowledged out of the United States, before a minister plenipotentiary, charge'd affaires, consul-general, consul, vice-consul or commercial agent, or before the proper officer of any court, or before the mayor of any city or town, under the official seal of such oflticer. The wife must join with the husband in the deed to relinquish her dower. The following is the prescribed form of certificate of acknowledgment : State of West Yirgikia, | County of Wood. j I, (giving the name and official character of the officer), do certify that A. B. and C. D. , his wife, whose names are signed to the writing above, bearing date on the day of , A. D. 187 , have this day acknowledged the same before me ; and C. D., the wife of the said A. B., personally appeared before me, in the county aforesaid, and being examined by me, privately and apart from her husband, and having the said writing fully explained to her, she, the said C. D., acknowledged the eaid Avritiiig to be her act, and declared that she had willingly executed the same and does not wish to retract it. Given under my hand, this day of , A. D. 187 . (Signature and title.) SPECIAL LAWS OF WISCOISTSIX. 915 A married woman has dower in all the real estate her husband is seized of during coverture, and she must join her husband in the execution of all deeds to the same. She may hold her separate property free from the control and debts of her husband, and may convey the same as if she were unmarried ; provided, her husband joins in the deed with her. Her separate property is bound for her debts contracted before marriage, and her husband is not liable for such debts. She may deposit her separate funds in bank, and withdraw the same on her own check. Where tbe husband acquires any of the wife's separate property, bj ante-nuptial contract or otherwise, he becomes liable for her debts contracted before marriage to the extent of the property so acquired by him, but no fur- ther. Chattel mortgages are governed by the common law ; and the mortgage will bo void unless possession of the mortgage chattels is delivered to and continuously remains with the mortgagee. Wills should be drawn and attested according to form No. 45, p. 815. SPECIAL LAWS OF WISCONSIN. Exemptions from Forced SAiiE.— T^'arm of Forty Acres, or House and Lot in Village or City, and Personal Property. A homestead, consisting of land not exceeding 40 acres, used for farming purposes ; or in lieu of the above, at the op- tion of the debtor, a lot in any town or city not to exceed one-fourth of an acre. Family Bible, pictures, school books and private library ; church pew ; all wear- ing apparel ; usual household furniture, not to exceed $200; gun or rifle, not to exceed $50 in value ; 2 cows, 10 hogs, yoke of oxen and horse or mule ; 10 sheep and wool therefrom, and necessary food for said animals and for the debtor's family for one year ; wagon and other farming utensils not to exceed $50 ; also, all insurance money arising from the destruction of property exempt from exe- cution ; also, the earnings for the past sixty days of persons who have families to support. The tools, implements, and stock in trade of a mechanic or miner, or other person, not exceeding $200 in value ; library, or implements of any professional man not exceeding $200 in value. All sewing machines kei>t for use ; any swords, plate, books, or other article presented by Congress or the members thereof. Mechais'ICS' Liek. — All persons who perform labor upon or furnish materials for the building, improving or repairing of buildings, have a lien thereon for the same,which must be enforced by filing a petition for the lien in six months in the circuit court and an action to foreclose in one year. CoLLECTioif OF DEBTS.— In civil actions a defendant is liable to arrest in the following cases : 1. In an action for the recoverj^ of damages, on a cause of ac- tion not arising out of contract, where the defendant is not a resident of the State, or is about to remove therefrom, or where the action is for injury to person or character, or for injuring, or for wrongfully taking or converting property, and in actions to recover damages for the value of property obtained by the defend- ant under false pretences. 2. In an action for a fine or penalty, or for money or property embezzled or fraudulently misapplied by a public officer or an attorney, or by an agent of any corporation in the course of his employment as such, or by a factor or agent, or any other person in a fiduciary capacity, or for any miscon- duct in office or professional employment. 3. In an action to recover possession of personal property unjustly detained, where the property, or part thereof, has been concealed, so that it cannot be taken by the sheriff ; but no female can be arrested, except for wilful injury to person, character or property. 4, When the defendant has been guilty of fraud in contracting the obligation for which the suit is brought . Writ of attachment may issue on the plaintiff giving bond, and making affidavit that his debt is just, and that one or more of the following reasons for attach- ment exists : 1. That the defendant has absconded or is about to abscond from the State, or is concealed therein, to the injury of his creditors, 2. That he has assigned, disposed of, or concealed, or is about to assign, dispose of, or con- ceal his property,Avith intent to defraud his creditors. 3. That he has removed or is about to remove his property from the State with the same intent. 4. That he fraudulently contracted the debt upon Avhich the action is brought. 5. That he is a non-resident. 6. That the defendant is a foreign corporation ; or, 7. That he has fraudulently disposed of his property with intent to defraud his creditors. Attachment cannot issue unless debt exceeds $50. All assignments for the benefit of creditors are void, as against creditors, un* 916 SPECIAL LAWS OF WISCONSIN. loss the assignee is a resident of the State and gives bond, to tlie value of the property assigned, for the faithful performance of his trust. All notes or certilicatcs of deposit, payable to any ])er80u or his order, are nego- tiable. Bills of exchange, payable at siglit, are entitled to grace ; but when pay- able on demaiid they are not entitled to grace. Protested bills of exchange, drawn or negotiated m this State, entitle the holder to the following damages: If drawn on any person residing out of the United States, or in some one of the United Stales which adjoins this State, five per cent. ; if drawn on a person in some one of the Uiiited States, but which is not adjoining tliis State, ten percent. Legal holidays are January 1st, February 22d, July 4th and December 25th. Pa- per maturiii'g those days, or on Sunday, must be protested the day previous. And when any of those days fall on Sunday, then the Monday following is a legal holiday, and paper maturing on that Monday must be protested the Saturday preceding. Judgments are a lien on all real estate in the county where obtained, and in the county where a transcript is filed and docketed in the circuit coui't clerk's ofl&ce, and the lien remains on such real estate for ten years. , A transcript from a judgment before a justice may be also docketed and filed in the circuit court clerk's office, and likewise becomes a lien, same as a circuit court judgment. Execution may issue at any time within five years after rendition of judg- ment as of course, and where an execution was so issued within that period, then an alias may be issued at any time within twenty years from the date of the judgment ; but when no original execution within the first five years, then an alias will only be granted on affidavit that the judgment is unsatisfied. Execu- tions are of three kinds— against the property, against the person of the debtor, and for the delivery of personal or real property detained by the defendant. Execution gives a lien on personal property only from the time of actual levy, lieal estate sold tinder execution can be redeemed by the debtor in two years from the date of sale, or by his creditors in two years and three months from that time. Deeds, Rights of Married Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds must be in writing, and it is only necessary that they be in the form of a quit claim, as no covenant is absolutely necessary or implied ; not necessary to be under seal, a scrawl will answer, and must be executed in the presence of at least two witnesses, and must be acknowledged in the State before any judge or court commissioner, clerk of cir- cuit or county court, justice of the peace or notary public. But if acknowledged ou.t of the State, may be acknowledged before any person authorized to take the acknowledgment of deeds under the laws of the State where taken, or before a commissioner of deeds. But unless the acknowledgment is taken before a com- missioner of deeds, or a notary public, there must be attached to the deed a certifi- cate of the clerk of a court of record, under seal of his office, that the person who took the acknowledgment was at the date thereof such oflicer as he represents himself to be, that he believes the signature of suchofiicer to be genuine, and the acknowledgment is according to the laws of the State where taken. A married woman must join in the execution of a deed to her husband's prop- erty to bar her dower. She can do this by an attorney duly appointed. The form of certificate of acknowledgrhent may be the one in use in the State wliere taken. All the wife's separate real and personal property whether owned by her at the time of her marriage or acquii-ed by her after in any way, remains the sole and sepa- rate estate of the wife, free from the control and debts of her husband. She can convey the same as if sole, and without the written consent of her husband. She is liable for all debts contracted .by her before marriage, and after on account of her separate property, and can be sued for the same. She can sue without joining her husband, but if sued he must also be sued. She has dower in all the real estate of her husband, owned by him during coverture, unless she relinquishes the same. A chattel mortgage is not valid as to third parties, unless the property be do- livered to the mortgagee and remain in his possession, or the mortgage be filed with the clerk of the town where tlie mortgagor resides, or where the property is situated, if the mortgagor is a non-resident. No will made withi]i this State, except such non-cupative wills as are men- tioned in section number six, of chapter sixty-six of the Revised Statutes, shalj be effectual to pass any estate, whether real or personal, nor to change or in any way affect the same, unless it be in writing, and sig]ied by the testator, or by sorhe person in his presence, and by his express direction, and attested and sub- scribed in the presence of the testator by two or more competent witness«s, and SPECIAL LAWS OF ONTAEIO, ETC. 917 If the -witnesses are competent at the time of attesting the execTition of the will, their subsequent incompetency, from whatever cause it may arise, shall not pre- vent the prohate and allowance of the will, if it be otherwise satisfactorily proved. SPECIAL LAWS OF WYOMING. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— JTome loorth ^1500, and Personal Prop- erty. A homestead consisting of a house and lot in a village or city, or land not (Exceeding 160 acres, the value not in either case exceeding $1500, is allowed to a householder occupying the same. Also the following property of a householder, bt,ing the head of a family, is exempt. Wearing apparel, family Bibles, jnctures, school books, cemetery lots, bedding, furniture, provisions, and such other arti- cles tis the debtor may select, not exceeding in value $500. Tools, team, or stock in trade of a mechanic, miner, or other person, kept and used for the purpose of carrying oa his business or trade, not exceeding $300, are exempt. Library, in- struments, kSnd implements of any professional* man, worth not more than $300. The person Oaiming exemption must be a bona fide resident of the territory. SPECIAL LAWS OF ONTARIO, CANADA. Exemptions from Forced Sale .—The bed, bedding and bedsteads in ordi- nary use by the debtor and his family. The necessary and ordinary wearing apparel. One store and pipes, 1 crane and its appendages, 1 pair of andirons, 1 set of cooking ut-jnsils, 1 pair tongs, 1 shovel, 1 table, 6 chairs, G knives, 6 forks, 6 plates, G teacupj, 6 saucers, i sugar basin, 1 milk jug, 1 tea pot, 6 spoons, 15 hives of bees, all spinning wheels and weaving looms in domestic use, 10 volumes of books, 1 saw, 1 ^un, 6 traps, and such fishing nets and seines as are in common use. All necessaiY fuel, meat, fish, flour and vegetables actually provided for family use, not mcire than suflicient for the ordinary consumption of the debtor and his family for 3^0 days, and not exceeding in value the sum of $40. One cow, 4 sheep, 2 hogs antl food thereof for 30 days. The tools and implements or chattels ordinarily ui,'fid in the debtor's occupation to the value of $60. Exemptions froj>^ Forced Sales.— O/i. Free Grants and Homesteads in the Possession of Actuul Sttilers, in the Algoma and Nippissing Districts, and certain lands between the liiver Ottawa and the Georgian Bay, are exempt from seizure, while in personal propeirty, beds, bedsteads, bedding, and wearing apparel of the debtor and his family, household furniture, provisions, farm stock, tools, and implements to the value of $60, are exempt from seizure. Mechanics' Lien. — Mechanics, laborers and material men. have a lien on buildings and on the land on which said buildings are situate, for work or materials furnished for erecting or repairing same. Lien can be secured by filing a statement of the claim in the registrar's office within 30 days after the comple- tion of the work. It will pease to hold good after the expiration of 90 days. The Collection op Debts.— Defendant is liable to arrest on affidavit by the plaintilf that he is a concealed debtor, or is about to abscond from the pro- vince with the design and intent to defraud him out of his just debt. Writ of attachment may issue for any debt or damages arising \ipon any con- tract, express or implied, or upon any judgment where affidavit or affirmation is made before the judge of the county court, a justice of the peace, or the clerk of a division court, where the debtor absconds, or is about to abscond from the pro- vince, leaving property liable to seizure imder execution for debt in any county of Ontario, or shall attempt co remove his, her, or their property, either out of the province, or from one county to another therein, or from Ontario to Quebec, or shall keep concealed in any county of Ontario to avoid service of process. Such judge, clerk or justice of the peace, shall, on such aflidavit being made, forthwith issue a warrant under his hand and seal, directed to any constable of the county, or directed to the bailiff of a Division Court, within which the same was issued, empowering said constable or bailiff to attach, seize, take and safely keep all such effects and estate of said absconding or concealed debtor, wherever found Avithin said county, and shall within twenty-four hours after said seizure, call to his aid two freeholders, who shall, after being sworn, value and appraiso the said effects so seized, when the said bailiff or constable shall forthwith return gaid inventory with the property, to th.9 clerk of the Division Court within 018 SPECIAL LAWS OF ONTAKIO. which Bucli ■warrant wae iBSued. Proceedings may he conducted to judgment and execution in any case commenced hy attaclimcnt. Defendants, jigainet whoso cllects, &c., a warrant is issued, may tender a hond to their creditors, with sureties (in douhlc the amount of tlio sum claimed) prior to judf^rnent and obtain a release of the goods. No real estate is liable to seizure under Division Court writs of attaclimcnt. The jurisdiction of Division Courts (of which it is provided that there "Phall at no time be less than three, nor more than twelve, in a county, each to he held once every two months, or oftener at the discretion of the judge) extends to claims of debt, account or breach of contract, or covenant, or money demand, w hither payable in moiiey or otherwise, where the amount or balance claimed, does not exceed $100, and in all torts to personal chattels, to and including the sum of $40. Summons to be served 10 days before sitting of court. Personal service of summons necessary where claim exceeds $8. No unsettled account to a greater amount than $200 shall be sued for in any Division Court, in which, case judgment shall be in full discharge of all demands. No debt due for liquors, drunk in a tavern or ale-house, or any gambling debt, or any claim touching the title to real estate, or involving any right to custom or toll, or for (seduction, or breach of promise of marriage, is suable in a Divisioii Court. Trial by jury is accorded in cases of tort or trespass where claim exceeds $10, and in all other cases where amount exceeds $20. Debtor removing to another county may be served with summons from the Division Court where the debt was con- tracted, summons in this case to be mailed to the Clerk of the Division Court where the debtor may reside to be served by the bailiff of said Court, who will, through the Clerk of his Division, return the original of said summons duly en- dorsed with affidavit of service to the issuing clerk. "Writ of execution may be issued and judgment debtor's goods be levied on by the same means. Execu- tions are returnable within 30 days from date of issue, and affect personal prop- erty only ; if returned nulla bo7ia, a transcript of the judgment, if for $40 or up- wards, from the clerk of the Division Court, attested by the seal of said court, may be filed in the office of the clerk of the County Court where such judgment was obtained, or in the county where the judgment debtor's lands may be situate, and when thus tiled shall become a judgment of the said County Court and issue execution on said lands. Division Court judgments are made payable in ten, fifteen, or twenty days, more or less, at the discretion of the judge (but not for more than 50 days from the service of summons, unless plaintifif con- sents), but execution may issue forthwith on sufficient evidence, adduced by plaintiff, to satisfy the judge that the said plaintiff will be in danger of losing the amount of said judgment by delay till the day of payment before issuing execution. On return of execution endorsed nulla bona, judgment summons may issue citing judgment debtor to appear in court for examination under oath by the judge touching his ways and means of payment, what disposition he may have made of his property, the circumstances under which he contracted the debt, &c., on which the judge may order defendant to pay a stated sum per month on said judgment until the same be paid, and in default of such payments, or if guilty of fraud in contracting the debt, may commit said defendant to the com- mon ]ail of the county for a period not exceeding forty days. Such imprison- ment shall not, in any case, operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment of the debt, but the party imprisoned may be released forthwith on payment of the debt and costs. The judge in his discretion may suspend any judgment, order, or execution given, on being satisfied that any defendant is unable, from sick- ness or other sufficient cause, to pay or discharge the debt and damages recov- ered against him, or any instalment thereof, until it shall appear by the like proof that such temporary disability lias ceased. Wherever any goods, chattels, deeds, bonds, pro. notes, books of account, valuable securities, or other personal property, shall be wrongfully taken or un- lawfully detained, the owner, person, or corporation, who by law can now bring an action of trover or trespass for personal property, shall have and may bring an action of replevin for the recovery of said goods, with accrued damages for uidawful caption and detention. Judgment holds good for 10 years. The jurisdiction of County Court extends, in cases of debt contract, to $200 ; where the amount is ascertained hy the eignatare of the defendant, to $400 ; in all matters of tort relating to personal chattels, where the sum does not exceed $200. The Superior Law Courts have concurrent jurisdiction with the County Court. The above amounts may be sued for in the Superior Courts, but all concerned will only be liable to pay and receive County Court costs and fees. County Court writ of summons may be served on defendant in any county in the province, but SPECIAL LAWS OF ONTARIO. 919 suit must be brought in the county where the defendant, or one or more of them resides, or where tlie contract was made payable. The County Court jurisdictioii also extends to the relief of persons entitled to an account of the dealings and transactions of a partnership (the joint stock or capital not having been over $800) dissolved or expired, seeking such account, or to a creditor upon the estate of any deceased person, such creditor seeking payment of his debt, not exceeding $200, out of the deceased's assets not exceeding §800 ; or to a legatee under tho Avill of any deceased person, such legatee, seeking payment or delivery of his legacy, not exceeding Jit!200 in value, out of such deceased person's assets, not exceeding $800 ; or to a residuary legatee, or one of the residuary legatees of any deceased person seeking an account of the residue and payment, or appro- priation of his share therein, the estate not exceeding $800 ; or to an executor or administrator of any such deceased person seeking to have the personal estate, not exceeding $800, of such deceased person administered under the direction of the Judge of the County Court for the County v/ithin which such executor or administrator resides ; or to a legal or equitable mortgagee whose mortgage is created by some instrument in writing, or judgment creditor having only regis- tered his judgment ; or person entitled to a lien for security for a debt, seeking foreclosure or sale, or otherwise to enforce his security, when the sum claimed does arot exceed $200 ; or to any person entitled to redeem any legal or eqiiitable mortgage, or any charge or lien, seeking to redeem the same, where the sum actually remaining due does not exceed $200. Injunctions to restrain the com- mitting of waste or trespass to property by unlawfully cutting, destroying, or removing trees or timber, may be granted by the Judge of any County Court, which injunction shall remain in force one month, unless sooner dissolved on an application to the Court of Chancery. Judgment in a County Court is not a lien on real estate owned by defendant. Jurisdiction of Superior Court extends to claims of over $200 damages, and over $400 (secured claim) to any amount. Judgments in the County Court do not hold real or personal estate until the execution is in sheriff's hands. The jurisdiction of a justice of the peace is limited to $40, in actions for wages between masters and servants. Garnishment may issue to recover money due debtor. Deeds, Mortgages, Chattel Mortgages, &c.— Conveyances of real estate must be in writing, sealed by the grantor, and subscribed by him or his attorney duly authorized, and attested by two Avitnesses. Deeds must be under seal, a scrawl will not ansv/er. Deeds and mortgages of real estate are proved by affida- vit of one of the witnesses to said deed or mortgage, said afiBdavit being engrossed on what is called a memorial, setting forth a digest of the principal details of the deed ; this memorial shall be under the hand and seal of the grantee or the grantor, and is left for permanent record with the registrar of the county in which the property conveyed is situate. To illustrate : John Smith, and Mary his wife, convey property to Kobert Bell ; each will sign the deed in the order named, and John Gordon and Peter lloss will witness deed. In this case the af- fidavit on the memorial will read as follows : County of York. ) John Gordon, of Toronto, in the said county of York, gentle- To wit : ) man, in the within Memorial named, maketh oath and saith, that he was present and..did see the Indenture to which the said Memorial relates, duly executed, signed, sealed and delivered, by the therein named John Smith and Mary his wife, and that he is a subscribing witness to the execution of the said Indenture, and that he, this deponent, also saw the said Memorial duly signed and sealed by the therein named Robert Bell, for registry thereof. Which said Memorial was attested by him this deponent, and another subscribing wit- ness, and that both said instruments were executed at the city of Toronto, in the said county of York. Sworn before me at Toronto, in the said County of York, this 1 ninth day of November, A. D. 1878. I Samuel Hill, |- John Gordon. A Commissioner for taking affidavits in the Queen's Bench, in and for the said County of York. J Within the province the affidavit to execution of deed may be taken on said memorial before the registrar of the county or his deputy, or before any judge of the Court of Queen's Bench of Ontario, or any judge of a county court, or any commissioner of the said Court of Queen's Bench, in Ontari». Out of the Prov- ince, proof of deeds-, conveyances, or wills, may be made by affidavit (or declap 920 ILULICS FOIl f;()Ar]>UTIX('l PEIlCENTAfn^S, T.TQ. alion when Haiti declaration if? bylaw pcrmissablc) Bworn before the mnyor ol chief magistralo of any city, borough, or town corporate in (Jreat Britain or Ire* land, nnder the common seal of such city, borougli or town corporate, or before the chief justice or judge of any court of Queen's Bencli in Quebec, or of Iho supremo court of any British colony, or before the mayor of any city, liorough, or town corporate in any foreign country, or any consul or vice-consul of Her Majesty resident therein. Deeds, conveyances, judgments, &c., must be recorded in the county where property is situate, and bind lands according to priority of registration. A wife must join in a deed with the hiisband, in selling his real es- tate, to relinquish dower, and he must join with her in selling her separate real estate, acquired previoits to, or subsequent to marriage. No chattel mortgage is valid as against the rights of third parties (if the goods remain with the grantor) unless said instrument is duly tiled in the office of the clerk of the county, in which the property so mortgaged is situate, and it shall cease to be valid as against creditors, if not refiled before the expiration of the first year, together with a statement exhibiting the interest of the mortgagee in the property thereby claimed. Every chattel mortgage is void as against credit- oi-s„ unless accompanied v/ith an affidavit of the mortgagee, sworn before a com- missioner of the court of Queen's Bench or common pleas, that the mortgagor is justly and truly indebted to the mortgagee in the sum mentioned in said mort- gage, and that "it was executed in good faith and for the express purpose of secur- ing the payment of (he money so 3ustly due, and not for the purpose of protect- ing the goods and chattels mentioned therein against the creditors of the mort- gagor — and in case of an absolute sale, that the sale is bona fide and for good con- sideration (naming the sum) and not for the purpose of holding the goods against the creditors of the bargainor. The husband's property is not liable for debts contracted by his wife previous to her marriage, free from all liability for her husband's debts. For form of wills and mode of attestation, see Form No. 45, p. 815. RULES FOR COMPUTING PERCENTAGES, PROFITS, &C. Rate per Cent. — To find the Gain or Loss xolien the Cost and Bate per Cent. Us given. — Eide. Multiply the cost by the rate per cent, and point oft" two places to the right as cents. Example. — Bought flour for ©500.00, and sold it at an advance of 12 per cent. How much did I gain ? 500 multiplied by 12 per cent, equals $^60. To Find the Rate per Cent, when the Cost and Selling Price ARE Known — Eide. Find the difference between the cost and selling price, the difference will be the gain or loss ; then annex two ciphers to the gain or loss so found and divide by the cost, the result will be the rate per cent. Example. — Sold a drove of cattle for $10,000, which cost me $8,500. What per cent, did I gain ? ^ns.— $10,000— 8,500 equals $1,500 ; 150,000 divided by 8,500 equals 17 11-17 per cent. To Determine the Cost when the Selling Price and the Rate PER Cent, of the Gain or Loss are Given. — liule. Annex two ci- phers to the selling j)rice and divide by $1.00 Increased by the rate per cent, of gain or loss. Example. — A cargo of coffee was sold for $25,(X)0., realizing a gain of 25 per cent. What was the cost ? Ans. — 1 plus 2^ equals 1.25. 2500.00 divided by $1.25 equals 20,000. To Find the Cost when the Loss or Gain and the Rate peb Cent, are Given. — Rule. Annex two ciphers to the gain or loss and divide by the rate per cent. Example. — A lot of ice was sold at a profit of $3,000, the percentage of the profit being 15. What was the cost ? Ans.— 3000 divided by 15, equals $2,000. To Find the Rate when the Cost and Gain or Loss are Gwen. — Ride. Annex two ciphers to the gain or loss and divide by the cost. Example. — A wine merchant sold a lot of wine which cost him $650, and gained $130. Wliat was the gain per cent. ? J.?zs.— 13000.00 divided by 650 equals 20 per cent. SPECIAL LAAVS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 921 SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. ExEMPTioiN'S FROM FoKCED SALE. — There is no homestead law in this prov- ince. The wearing apparel, bedding, kitchen utensils, and tools of his trade or calling, to the value of §100, of any debtor, are exempt from levy or sale under execution. Mechanics' Liex. — Nbvjjouse or other property in the province can be held liable for debts due parties for furnishing materials for constructing or repairing same. Collection of Debts. — A person not having privilege may be arrested and held to bail or committed to prison on mesne process, in any cause of action within the jurisdiction of the Supreme or any County Court, if an affidavit be first made by the plaintifl: or his agent of the plaintiff's cause of action, and that the amount thereof not being less than $20 is justly due to the plaintiff, and that such arrest is not made for the purpose of vexing or harassing the debtor. When the cause of action is not a debt certain a judge's order must be obtained. In actions in justices' Civil Courts and Parish Coiirts, a person may be ar- rested on the plaintiff's making an affidavit of his cause of action, and that after giving full credit for all payments and offsets the defendant is indebted to him in a sum not exceeding $20 nor less than §2, as the case maybe, and that he is afraid of losing his debt, and that he, the defendant, is of the age of twenty-one years. Members of the legislature, judges, and witnesses attending trial, arc exempt from arrest, and in actions brought in justices' Civil Courts. Females also are exempt from arrest. No person can be arrested under an execution issued on a judgment in the Supreme or County Courts, but arrest may be made on a judg- ment obtained in justices' Civil Courts, the City Court of St. John, the town of Portland Civil Court, the city of Frederieton Civil Court, and in Civil Courts held by Police or Stipendiary Magistrates, and in Parish Courts, to the amounts for which such courts respectively have jurisdiction. Arrest and imprisonment may be had and allowed for : 1. Default in the pay- ment of a penalty or sum in the nature of a penalty other than a penalty in the nature of a contract. 2. Default in payment of any sum recoverable on summary conviction, 3. Default in payment of County, City, Town, Parish or District rates. 4. Default by an attorney or solicitor in payment of a sum of money, when ordered to pay the same in his character of an officer of the Court making the order. 5. Default by a trustee or person acting in the fiduciary character, and ordered to pay by the Court of Equity any sum in his possegsion or under his control. Decrees of the Court of Equity may be enforced by execution either against the goods or body. A debtor in custody may on notice apply, and on making requisite disclosure be discharged, but if any i3roperty appears on disclosure it may be attached. The real or personal property within the province of any defendant, which by law is liable to be taken in execution, may in respect of any cause of action upon a contract be attached and held as security to satisfy the judgment to the amount of the attachment. A person at the time of entering into a contract, may (ex- cept in the case of a negotiable instrument) agree and stipulate as part of such contract, that in respect thereof the property of the contracting party shall not be subject to attachment. Before any writ of attachment can issue the plain- tiff or some one on his behalf must make affidavit of his cause of action, and of the amount due, and (except in case of negotiable instrument, or when the cause of action arose prior to April Sth, 1874) lhat no agreement was made that an at- tachment should not issue, and alfso that the demand is not secured by morlgago or otherwise, and that the attachment is not sued out to vex, or to harass, or to hinder, delay, or defraud any creditor, and either : 1, That the defendant is a non-resident of the province, and the contract was made or is payable in the prov- ince, or that the plaintiff is a resident of the province, or, 2. That the defendant is a resident of the province, and that plaintiff is apprehensive that unless attach- ment is issued that he may lose his demand. In cases of a contract other than a contract for the payment of money, no attachment shall issue unless upon an order of the Court or a judge thereof. Garnishment may issue to arrest money due the debtor from third parties. The sheriff having an execution may seize and take any money, or bank or Do- minion notes, bonds, specialties or other securities for money belonging to the person against whom the execution is issued. A justice of the peace has jurisdietion in actions of debt when the sum de- 922 SPECIAL LAWS OF NEW JJIiUiN'S WICK. niandcd doos not exceed the sum of $20, and in actions of tort to real or personal proi)erty whore damages claimed do not exceed $8, but they have ]\ot jurisdiction over civil actions where the Queen is a party, or whoro the title to land comes in question. There is a Court in each parish (except when there is a resident Police or Sti- pendiary Magistrate) called " The pari,sh of {name, of ])arish) Civil Court," where the jurisdiction goes as high as .140 in actions of debt, and IJIG in actions of tort, but has no jurisdiction over civil actions Avhen the Queen is a party, or where tho title to land comes in question. There is also " The City Court of St. John," and " The Town of Portland Civil Court," having jurisdiction in actions of debt to the amount of -SSO, and ^'20 in actions of tort. There is also the City of Fredericton Civil Court, having juris- diction in actions of debt to the amount of .?80, and in actions of tort to the amount of §32, but no jurisdiction over civil actions where the Queen is a party, or the title to land comes in question. The names of the several Courts are : Supreme Court, Circuit Court, Equity Court, Divorce and Matrimonial Court, County Courts, Probate Courts, St. John City Court, City of Fredericton Civil Court, Small Debt Court of Fredericton, Town of Portland Civil Courts, Parish Courts, Justices' Civil Courts. Judgments obtained in the Supreme and County Courts bind the lands of tho debtor, on the party obtaining it filing a memorial of the judgment in the ofiice of the Registrar of Deeds for the County in -which the lands lie. Memorial must be renewed every live years. Execution placed in the sheriff's hands for the pur- pose of being executed will also bind the lands. A debtor may obtain a full discharge from his debts by making an assignment of his property and complying with the other stipulations required by the Do- minion Insolvent Act which is in force in this Province. Ox Deeds, Rights of Married Women, Wills, &c.— Deeds must be under seal ; a scrawl is not sufficient, and one witness only is required by law. Before 'the registry of any conveyance the execution of the same shall either be acknowl- edged by the person executing the same, or be proved by the oath of a subscrib- ing witness in the manner following, that is to say :— If the execution of such conveyance be acknowledged in the province, then such acknowledgment may be taken before a judge of the Supreme or any County Court, or a member of the Executive or Legislative Council, or before any Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Deeds, or any Notary Public appointed, and resident in the province, and certified Tmder his hand and oflicial seal, or before any justice of the peace of the County in which the conveyance is to be registered. If the execution of such convey- ance be proved in" the province, such proof may be taken by and before any of the officials hereinbefore in this section mentioned, except a justice of the peace : provided always, that in cases where the subscribing witness or witnesses to any such conveyance is dead or without the province, then the execution thereof may be proved before the Supreme Court, or some Circuit or County Court, by the or- dinary legal proof. If such acknowledgment or proof be taken out of the province, the same shall be taken by or before some one of the officials following, that is to say : — Any commissioner for taking affidavits and administering oaths under Chapter 36 ; or before any commissioner authorized by the Lord Chancellor to ad- minister oaths in Chancery in England ; or tefore any Notary Public certified tinder his hand and official seal ; or before the Mayor or Chief Magistrate of any city, borough, or municipality or town corporate, or the seal of such Mayor or Chief Magistrate, or before any Judge of the Court of Queen's Bench, or Com- mon Pleas, or Baron of the Exchequer in Great Britain or Ireland, or Master in Chancery in England or Ireland, or any judge or Lord of Session in Scotland, the handwriting of any such judge, baron, or Lord of Session being authenticated under the seal of a Notary Public, or before a judge of any Court of Supreme jurisdiction in any colony belonging to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland, or any Dependancy thereof ; or before any British Minister, Ambassador, Consul, Yice-Consul, Acting Consul, pro-Consul, or Consular Agent of Her Majesty, ex- ercising his functions in any foreign place ; or before the Governor of a State, and certified under the hand and Seal of office of such Minister, Ambassador, Consul, Vice-Consul, Acting Consul, pro-Consul, Consular Agent or Governor. If the conveyance be by a corporation, proof of the Corporate Seal shall in all cases be sufficient. A conveyance, or power of attorney for the same, by a married woman, of all her right and interest in land jointly with her Imsbaiid, shall be valid if executed without compulsion from him, and the person authorized by law to take acknowl- edgments of conveyances in other cases certifying thereon that he has examined her apart from her husband, and that she acknov/ledged that she executed the conveyance freely. SPECIAL LAWS OF XOYA SCOTIA A2sT> QUEBEC. 923 A wife's property acquired before marriage is in no case liable for ber Inis- band's debts. The husband's property is liable for the wife's ante-nuptial debts on judgment being obtained against liim. Mortgages on chattel property are valid, and require to be registered, but not every year. Bills of sale require to be registered in the Kecord Office. For Wills, consult Form No. 45, page 815. SPECIAL LAWS OF QUEBEC. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— Personal property exempt from forced sale being used and owned by the debtor : Bed, bedding and bedstead ; necessary apparel for himself and family ; set of table and stove furniture ; all spinning wheels and weaver's looms in use in the family ; 1 axe, 1 gun, 1 saw, G traps, fish- nets in common use, and 10 volumes of books ; fuel and food for 30 days, worth $20 ; 1 cow, 4 sheep, 2 hogs, with necessaiy food for 30 days ; tools and instru- ments used in his trade to the value of $20 ; 15 hives of bees, and wages and sal- aries not yet due ; besides certain other properties granted by the courts. SPECIAL LAWS OF NOVA SCOTIA. Exemptions from Forced Sale.— There is no homestead exemption law in this Province. Nothing is exempt from forced sale except personal property to the amount of $40, Mechanics' Lien. — No law exists to enforce a mechanics' lien in the Prov- ince. Creditor to secure himself on property must get a bill of sale on chattels, &c., and have it recorded in County Registrar's office. The Collection of Debts .—Defendant is liable to arrest under execution if the amount is §1 or upwards ; and on affidavit by plaintiff that defendant is a concealed debtor, or is about to abscond from the Province with the iiitent and design to defraud him out of his just debt, capias may issue and arrest ensue for sums of $4 and upward. Writ and attachment may issue under the Absconding Debtor's Act against defendant's property for sums of f 20 and upwards. A book account is outlawed in 6 years ; a bond in G years ; a note in G years, and a judgment in 4 years . Juris- diction of a justice of the peace is limited to $20 ; two justices may render judg- ment for $80. The largest judgment obtainable in the County Court is $500 ; the amount of judgment obtainable in the Superior Court is unlimited. Money can- not be seized under execution. Judgments bind defendant's real and personal estate as soon as obtained. The husband's property is liable for debts contracted by his wife previous to marriage, and as to his wife's estate acquired previous to marriage, the husband h.a& full control except over entailed property. 924 TABLES, &C., FOIl MINEItS Miscellaneous Facts and Processes relating to Met- allurgy, Gold and Silver Mining, Treatment of Ores, &c. In mining operations a knowledge of the following facts, calculations, &c., is of great utility. In Mbasubes of Earth, Rock, &;c. 25 cub. ft. of sand = 1 ton. 13 cub. ft. of quartz, unbroken in lode = 1 ton. 17 cub. ft. of clay = 1 ton. 20 cub. ft., brolten from lode = 1 ton cont. meas. 18 cubic ft. solid earth = 1 ton, 27 cubic ft. of loose earth = 1 ton. Table for the Conversion of English and Metric Units. 1 Meter ^ 3-2807 feet. 1 Foot = 0-3048 m. 1 Liter (vol. of 1 kilog. water) = 0-2202 gal. 1 Gallon (vol. of 10 lbs. water) = 4 -oil liters. 1 Kilog. per sq. meter = 0-2048 lbs. per sq. ft. 1 Kilog. per sq. mm. = 1422-28 lbs. per sq. in. 1 Lb. per sq. in. = 703-0958 kilogs. per sq. m. 1 Gram ^ 15-4323 grs. 1 Grain = 0 0648 gram. 1 Kilogrameter = 7-2331 ft. -lbs. For additional items consult pp. 12G 1 Foot-pound = 0-1383 kgm. 1 Atmosphere = 14*7 lbs. per sq. in. = 10 333 kilogs. per sq. meter = 29-922 in. or 760 mm. of mercury = 33-9 ft. or 10^ meters water. 1 Kilogram = 2-2046 lbs. av. 1 Pound av. = 0 4536 kilog. 1 Deg. Centigrade = 6-9 deg. F.— 32" 1 Deg. Fahrenheit = 9-5 deg. C. + 32° 1 Calorie (kilog. water raised 1° C.) = 424 kilogrameters = 3-9683 heat-units. 1 Heat-nnit (lb. water raised 1^ F.) = 772 ft. -lbs = 0-252 cal. and 576. Chapman's Tests for the Hardness op Gold or Silver Ores, Hardness = 1.5 yields with difficulty to the nail. Hardness = 2.5 does not yield to the nail, does not scratch a coin, but is easily scratched by it. HARDifESS = 3.5 scratches a copper coin easily, but is scratched by it with difficulty. For Table showing quantity of Gold to the ton of Ore, &c,, see page 667. There are in minerals ez^/ii shades of white, ?7me of grej^ Six of black, five of blue, twelve of green and yellow, fifteen of red, and eight of brown, iDesides clear, dark, light, or pale in these shades. Metals have five degrees of lustre, splendent, shining, glistening, glimmer^ ing, dull. Hardness of Minerals, beginning with the softest. 1. Talc ; common laminated, light green variety. 2. Gypsum, a crystallized variety. 3. Calcareous spar ; a transparent variety. 4. Fluor- Spar ; crystalline variety. 5. Apatite ; transparent variety. 5, 5. Scapolite : crystalline variety. 6. Feldspar ; white cleaveable vari- ety, 7. Quartz ; transparent. 8. Topaz ; transparent. 9. Sapphire ; cleaveable varieties. 10, Corundum. 11. Diamond. TABLES, &C., FOR MINERS 925 The hardness of Precious Stones is in the following order, be- ginning WITH THE HARDEST. 1. Diamond. 5. Plyadiith. 9. Agate. 2. Ruby. 6. Emerald. 10. Torqubise. 3. Sapphire. 7. Garnet. 11. Opal. 4. Topaz, 8. Ametliyst. In THE Scour of water-course Beds. I ft. per second will scour fine clay, i " '■' " " sand. I " " " coarse sand. 1 " " " fine gravel. 2 ft. per second will scour round shingle 1 in. diam. 3 ft. " " angular stone, size of an egg. 3 ft. " " conglomerate. Value of Gold according to fineness. — Pnre gold, 1000 fine, is worth $20.67 per oz. ; gold 500 fine, is worth $10.33 ; 600 fine, $12.40 ; 700 fine, $14.49 ; 800 fine, $16.53 ; 900 fine, $18.60. At the mint in San Fran- cisco, the charge for melting, assaying and refining is 14 cents per oz. Tlie charge for coining is ^ per cent. No deposits are received at the mint in less sums than $100. The value of a ton of pure gold is $602,799.21. The vahie of a ton of sil- ver is $37,704.84. The weight of $1,000,000 in gold coin is 3.685.8 lbs. avoir- dupois. The weight of $1,000,000 in silver coin is 58,929.9 lbs. avoirdupois. For other facts relating to the weight of the i)recious metals consult pp. 127- 331. Amount of Metallic Silver obtainable from the following sim- ple substances : Chloride of silver, three-quarters, or nearly seventy-five per cent. Sul- phide of silver, three-quarters, or seventy-five per cent. Bromide of sil- ver, one-half, or fifty per cent., generally a little more. Iodide of silver, three-sevenths, or forty-three per cent. Oxide of silver, nine-tenths, or ninety per cent., generally more. Carbonate of silver, three-fourths or seventy-five per cent, generally more. Nitrate of silver, two-thirds, or nearly sixty per cent. Table of some of the Properties of Various Metals. Names arranged in the order of their Ductility. Mallebility. Power of Conduct- ing Heat. Power of Conduct- ing Electricity. Gold. Gold. Silver. Silver. Silver. Silver. Copper. Copper. Platinum. Copper. Gold. Gold. Iron. Tin. Tin. Zinc. Nickel. Platinum Iron. Iron. Copper. Lead. Lead. Tin. Zinc. Zinc. Bismuth. Lead. Tin. Iron. Antimony, Lead. Nickel. Bismuth. To determine the proportion of Gold in a mixture of Gold and Quartz. — To find the specific gravity of a lump of gold, quartz or aurifer- ous quartz, divide the weight of the lump in air by the weight of an equal amount of water. To find the weight of an equal amount of water, deduct the weight of the lump in water from the weight of the lump in air. When the lump is to be weighed in water, it should be suspended by a horse-hair so as to hang into the water ; keeping, of course, all other parts of the scales clear of the water. 926 WIIEKE TO FIND CJOLD llEARINff QUARTZ. Pliillips gives the followin;^ riilo for ascertaining the amount of gold in a lump of auriferous quarts : " Tlie specific gravity of the gold— 19,000. *' The specific gravity of tlie quartz — 2,000, "Tliese numbers arc given liere merely for convenience in explaining the rule ; tliey do not accurately represent the specific gravities of quartz and quartz gold. (The quartz gold (>f California has not, on au average, a specific gravity of more than 18,600. ) " 1. Ascertain the specific gravity of the lump. Suppose it to he 8,067. "2. Deduct the specific gravity of the lump from the specific gravity of tlie gold ; the difference is the ratio of the quartz by volume : 19,000 — 8,067 = 10,933. " 3. Deduct the specific gravity of the quartz from the specific gravity of the lump; the difference is the ratio of the gold by volume : 8,067 — 2,'600 = 5,467. "4. Add these ratios together, and proceed by the rule of proportion. The product is the percentage of gold by bulk : 10, 9'33-f 5,467=16,400. Then as 16,400 is to 5,467, so is 100 to 33,35. " 5. Multiply tlie percentage of gold by bulk by its specific gravity. The jiroduct is the ratio of the gold in the lump by weight : 33,35X19,00= 643,65. "6. Multiply the percentage of quartz by bulk (which must be 66,65 since that of the gold is 33,35) by its specific gravity. The product is the ratio of the quartz in the lump by weight : 66,65X2,60=173,29. "7. To find the percentage, add these two ratios together, and proceed by the rule of proportion : 633,65+173,29=806,94 Then, as 806,94 is to 633,65, so is 100 to 78,53. Hence, a lump of auriferous quartz, having a specific gravity of 8,067, contains 78,73 per ceiit, of gold, by weight. Gold-bearing quartz is always found near granite and slate, so that it is labor lost to search for gold where the primary granite is covered, thousands of feet deep, with stratified rocks, as in the coal beds of Pennsylvania, or the blue limestone of south-western Ohio. The probabilities are that gold will be found where granite, slate, and quartz are found together. It is well es- tablished that all native gold either is or was at one time embedded in quartz, hence the common saying, " quartz is the mother of gold." Placer gold appears to have been liberated by the crumbling of quartz ; and wherever gold is found in granite, or other rocks, the theory is that it has been communicated from neighboring quartz while all were in a condition of fusion. The poorest quartz that is worked yields $10 per ton, some yields $4000 per ton, but the richest vein, on an average, will possibly not be over $100. Gold is usually found in metallic condition, but never free from silver. The proportion of silver in the gold of the Comstock lode is from 30 to 45 per cent., in that of the Gold Hill lode, N. T., 47 to 50 per cent. Gila River and Australian gold contains from 3 to 6 per cent. Up to July 2, 1878, the entire product of the two mines known as the California and Consolidated Virginia may be divided as $45,000,000 gold, and $55,000,000 silver. The color of gold varies according to the proportion of silver it contains, 00 per cent, of silver imparts a white color to the alloy. In gold mining, the precious metal not being found in ore, is eliminated from the containing quartz or alluvium by very simple mechanical or chemical processes ; in silver mining, the metal is found in many varieties of ore, each of which must be reduced by intricate chemical processes varied by the character of the mineral under treatment. The business of mining resembles a lottery ; in Mexico, the Count Eegla obtained for many years $5,000,000 per annum from them ; Count Valenciana $1,250,000, and the Marquis del Apardado got $4,000,000 in six months from a mine. In the United States, among those who have been lifted into nota- ble prominence by successful mining operations may be mentioned John EXORMOUS WEALTH OF PEKU. 927 Mackey, chief owner of the Consolidated Virginia mine, wliose Trealtli is esti- mated at about $80,000,000 ; Hon. William Sharon, of Nevada, supposed to be worth about $90,000,000 ; James G. Fair, supt. of the Consolidated Vir- ginia and California mines, estimated wealth about |50, 000,000 ; Hon. J. P. Jones of Nevada, worth about $70,000,000, and many others. All are highly gifted with practical sagacity in mining matters, and as a general rule work- ed their way upwards through many reverses. The miner who would at- tain success must qualify himself by toiling to obtain the knowledge neces- sary for his guidance in emergencies. Let him not dispense with it after tho fashion of the miner who once brought a specimen of a supposed very ricli gold ore to a San Francisco assayer for examination. On being informed ithat it Avas nothing but iron pyrites, and not worth a cent a ton, the as- tounded miner exclaimed in tho direst dismay : " Great Creation ! there is an old woman up our way who owns a hill of it, and I married her ! The silver mines of Potosi are so ]iotably rich that $47,000,000 have been coined there since 1845. On the opposite side of the chain are the celebrated silver mines of Guantajaya, once famous for the large lumps of silver form- erly found there, one of which weighed 800 lbs. A Peruvian legend of questionable veracity narrates the finding of a large lump or nugget of native gold weighing 400 ibs. at the mine of San Juan de Oro, on the headwaters of the Amazon river, during the reign of Charles the Fifth. From time immemorial the mines of Peru have been fabulously rich in silver i:)roducts. This was the inciting cause of the barbarous enormities and rapacity of the Spaniards at the time of their conquest of the country, in murdering the inhabitants and plundering the tombs of the Inca kings, the royal repositories, and ancient temples. From one temple, that of Cusco, the robbers obtained $11,000,000. By a parity of what wo must regard as retributive justice, much of the vast wealth obtained by these enormities from the helpless natives in Spanish South America and the West Indies, was in turn pillaged from the freebooters by armed vessels under the English flag. These mutual plun- derings extended over a long succession of years, and during the reign of various monarchs. In Peru, the immense silver-bearing deposits'of the Cerro de Pasco mines have been worked since 1630. They are situated on the eastern side of the western Cordillera of the Andes, at an elevation of 14,000 ft. above tide level, and in consequence have hitherto been difficult of access, but under the new conditions created by the construction of the Trans- Andean raihvay (one of the wonders of South America), an output of 20,000 tons of ore per day is spok- en of as a possible amount. At present there are 80 stamps at work, each witli an estimated capacity of crusliing 5 tons of ore per day, but 200 or 300 head are looked forward to as a small number at an early day. The ore will average about $30 per ton, and the anticipated annual production of the mines is $100,000,000. From $250,000,000 to $500,000,000 of free milling ores will be left above drainage level by the new tunnel lately constructed • these ores it is proposed to excavate by means of steam shovels, and loaa directly into railway trucks, which deliver them at the top of the mill. The water power is supplied from a stream issuing from a lake near the mines, and is utilized by six double turbine water wheels, manufactured by James Leffel & Co., Springfield, Ohio. Four of these turbines are of 30 ins. diam., each developing 200 horse-power, and two of 23 ins. diam., developing 100 horse-power each. The mineral railway, undoubtedly tlie highest in the world, is 7 miles long, and cost $1,200,000, the object of the road being to transport ores from the mines to water-power for milling purposes. The rolling stock, bridges, rails, &c., of the road, were transported from the coast, nearly 200 miles distant, on the backs of mules, over almost impassi- ble roads. Nothing Aveighing over 300 lbs. could be carried ; even the cylinders of the locomotives were brought in sections. 928 VAST WJ'^ALTII OF IJSIJIA. The silver mine of Potosi is sugar-loaf in form, 9 miles round, 1G,000 ft above the level of the sea, and 2700 above the i)lain. The upper part ha 5000 adits for mines. Soutli America, per Humboldt, yields per annun ^|i43,500,000 Avorth of silver ; at tlie present time tlic yield is much greatei One mine is a third of a mile deep, and 8 miles in length, employing 300 miserablcs. In Peru over 40 districts are famous iov their vast miuera Avealtli in gold and silver. In Russia, the immense mines of Siberia are government property, and ar ■worked by miserable unfortunates who have been banished by a cruel des potism for crimes ■which are in many cases merely imaginary ; the wretchec exiles, wlien once consigned to their gloomy depths, are never permitted ti emerge into the liglit of day, but death, more merciful than the tyrant soon ends the strife, for few survive the ordeal more than 9 years. The " wealth of the Indies " is no poet's dream ; there the mines are indi genous, and the accumulation of the xu'ecious metals has been such that it ii usually estimated that Nadir Shah, in 1740, carried away not less than 160( or $2,000,000,000. In Jahomqueir's auto-biography, he relates that a goldei platform around his throne weighed 40 tons. His throne and crown wer( worth $20,000,000. On his marriage he presented his queen with as manj lacs of rupees as amounted to $49,000,000, and Avith a necklace of 40 beadf which cost him $10,000 per bead. He spent besides $10,000,000 on the toml of his father Akbar, one of the wonders of India. The province of Berar on one occasion, furnished above $20,000,000 in gold. The ceiling of the pavilion of the Peacock Hall in Delhi was orginally cov- ered with silver filigree work, but in 1799 the Mahrattas, after the captun of the city, took the silver down and melted it, the value of the same beiu| estimated at $1,000,000. Here was the famous peacock tlirone, so callec from its having the figures of two peacocks standing behind it, their tails being expanded, and the whole so inlaid with sapphires, rubies, emeralds, and other precious stones of appropriate colors, as to represent life. The thron( itself is G ft. long by 4 ft. broad ; it stood on six massive feet, which, with the bodj^, were of solid gold, inlaid Avith rubies, emeralds and diamonds. It was surrounded with a canopy of gold supported by 12 pillars, emblazoned Avitli costly gems, and a fringe of pearls around the borders of the canopy. Be- tweeix the peacocks stood the figure of a parrot, life size, carved from a sin- gle emerald. On either side of the throne stood a chatta, or umbrella (one of the Oriental emblems of royalty) made of crimson velvet, embroidered and fringed with pearls. The handles were 8 ft. long, of solid gold, and studded with diamonds. The cost of this superb work of art was estimated at $25,000,000. The Melbourne Herald thus describes the " Welcome nugget," weighing 18^ lbs. Troy, and worth $42,000, found at Ballarat, Australia, on the 9th June, 1858, at a depth of 190 ft. below the surface of the earth : "A large, mis- shapen, irregular lump of gold, water-worn and rounded upon each of the numerous edges presented'by a surface completely and more or less honey- combed. Its total length is about 20 inches, its greatest breadth about 12 inches, and its greatest depth about 8 inches.'' Other nuggets varying in weight from 10 to 45 ozs. had previously been taken from the same claim. Another nugget weighing 145 lbs. was found at Korong, Australia, during the summer of 1857, in the form of a solid mass of virgin gold, 2 ft. 4 ins. long., 10 ins broad, and from 1 to 2 ins. thick, estimated value $35,000. Victoria, in Australia, is world renowned from the discovery of its im- mense gold fields in 1851, which in 1852 produced the enormous amount of $70,000,000. A nugget weighing 161 lbs. avoirdupois (including about 20 lbs. of quartz), of an estimated value of $29,000, was found in Calaveras Co., California, in November, 1854. # Perhaps not less than from 1800 to 2000 nuggets, weighing 1 lb. or more each, have been found from time to time in California. ^ Of these probably MINI^^"G IN COLORADO 929 Jess than 140 Aveigli over 20 lbs. each. Nuggets weighing from 1 to 7 ozn. have been found in immense iiumbers. Colorado presents a confluence of wonders in the form of mineral deposits, which it Avould require a volume to describe. In the Silver Cliffs, near Rosita, in Avhat is known as the Hard scrabble district, the newly discovered mine, worked by Powell, Edwards and Haf- ford (named the "" Racine Boy"), yields a return of 875 ozs. of silver to tlie ton. The low grade pans out 100 o/s. and upward. The mine is at present (ISTov. 1878) not over 10 ft. deep and almost 25 ft. wide, but yields, with a very small force of men, between |;2000 and $3000 per day. So far the mine has yielded nothing but horn silver, a chloride carried in decomposed porphyry full of seams ; the ore is found in deposits without any crevice veins or distinct Avails. Volcanic xiplieavals seem to have burst the primary granite, aiid to have forced through chimneyed j)assages masses of eruption bearing molten precious metals. The silver has been cooled amid a mix- ture of porphyry, manganite, feldspar, gypsum, and other miiieral substances more or less decomposed and unstratified. Four miles south-east of tlie Silver Cliffs is the great " Maine mine," which made a very poor man a mil- lionnaire in one year. In Leadville, a notable mining region, high up in the Colorado mountains, the miueral is found in layers, one above another, with a regular and con- tinuous dip iuto the ground. Some of the mines have disclosed the existence of two or three deposits underlying the first mineral vein struck by a shaft, and many singular variations from the usual form of mineral deposits have been observed here, presenting a notable contrast to the prevailing type in California and the other parts of Colorado. The mineral carries 100 ozs. of silver per ton and upwards, in high grade ores, and from 25 to 60 ozs. in low grade ores, while the percentage of lead varies from 20 to 70. The ores lie in a sand or soft rock and are easily dug out with pick and drill, the quality improving with the increase of depth. s,-; On September's, 1878, a miner, while prospecting about Imlf a mile in the gulch on Bald Mountain, discovered a mine of marvellous richness. The ore is of similar character, but of a much higher grade, than the ore above noted, much of it running as high as 3000 ozs. per ton. A mining expert es- timated the value of the mine at $1,000,000 ; tlie owiier asserted that he refused $250,000 for it, yet six weeks previously he had not money enough to buy a pair of boots ! ^ . * Mention is made of a prospector who, while recently exploring on the Avest side of Bodie Bluff, laid bare Avith few strokes of his pick an 8 inch vein of white quartz, almost filled with solid gold, and that the samples as- sayed $40,000 per ton in gold and $1500 in silver ! ■ Recent examinations of the Arizonia mining region by Prof. Cox of Ind.,' has demonstrated that the mining property of South Arizonia, once devel- oped, Avould supply the world Avith precious metals. Three shafts in the Tough Nut Mine, in the Tombstone district, averaging 10 ft. deep, shoAV a solid body of ore, Avhich, at the low average of $700 to the ton, Avill yield $2,400,000. He Avas present when assays Avere made of ore from this mine going from $1,000 to $27,000 per ton, The conditions as regards timber and Avater are A'astly superior to similar surroundings in the mining regions of Colorado and Nevada. For several years, mining under the most unfavorable conditions has been progressing on Silver Islet, a storm-beaten ledge, situate about f mile from the main land, aiid exposed to the full SAveep of 200 miles of Lake Superior tempests. The locality is on the Canadian shore, 17 miles north of Cape Royale, and 7 miles east of Thunder Cape. The ore, Avhen first dis-, covered, appeared as .streaks of shining Avhite, from 3 to 10 ft. under water,' and proved to be Avorth from $1400 to $7000 per ton, the general average being $1500, of the kind known as ^'packing ore," being sufficiently rich 980 MINEIiAL AVEALTII OF NORTH AMEIilCA. to bo shipped in barrels and smelted Avithoiit further treatment. The work-, ings, which penetrate 1000 ft. under water, arc protected by means of a system of breakwaters, cribs, coffer dams, &;c., ballasted with rocks and clay, erected at immense cost and Avith much difficulty. On many occasions furious storms have utterly Avreckcd the works, sweeping away cribs, rocks, buildings, &c., leaving nothing but ruin and desolation behind, causing in- credible expense to reclaim and maintain the mine. The richest deposit was found March 20, 1878. For the week ending September 28, 1878, 'the yield Avas $43,000 ; Oct. 5, ^1)73, 000 ; Oct. 12, $69,000; Oct. 19, $103,000; Oct. 28, $80,000. The richness of ore increases with the depth: 50 head of stamps crush 60 tons daily. The Homestake Mine, Black Hills, has an 80 stamp mill, crushing 175 tona of ore per day, yielding $900 per ton; another 80 stamp mill is to be finished by spring. The cost of mining and milling varies from $2.50 to $3.50 per ton ; daily profit $1000. It is estimated that 10 years' supply of ore is in sight, and that 500 stamps could be supplied. The mines on the Comstock lode yielded, during the 23 years following their discovery, $500,000,000 in gold and silver bullion, and have wasted $250,000,000 more. In North America, the mineral wealth of the United States, Mexico, and the British possessions, is absolutely incalculable. Notwithstanding the enormous yield of the mines during late years, the discovery of new fields of astonishing richness is at the present time (1878) a matter of almost daily occurrence. It is asserted, on good authority, that during 30 years prior to Jan., 1878, there have been created in the countries Avest of the Missouri River, and mostly on United States territory, bullion values to the amount of $1,948,000,000. Of this sum about $1,586,000,000 has been composed of gold, very little silver having been produced prior to 1861, Avlien the Com- stock deposits, discovered 3 years before, began first to turn out this metaj in notable quantity. Of the $36,000,000 turned out by the Comstock lode in 1877, 43 per cent, has been gold. Of the base bullion made in Eureka dis- trict last year (1877), valued at $12,000,000, over 16 per cent. Avas gold. The bullion from Nevada is nearly 40 per cent. gold. Since the beginning of 1861, the production of gold for the entire Pacific coast has been "$876,000,- 000; of silver, $372,000,000. During 1877, the bullion values consisted of about $51,000,000 gold, and $49,000,000 silver. The folloAving tabulated statement is interesting, as showing the gradu- ally increasing product of the mines on the Pacific coast during the 4 years noted in the table: 1873. 1874. 1875. - 1876. California $18,025,722 $20,300,531 $17,753,151 $19,000,000 Nevada 35,254,507 35,452,233 40,478,369 49,300,000 Oregon 1,376,389 609,070 1,165,046 1,200,OOC Washington 209,395 155,535 81,932 100,000 Idaho 2,343,654 1,880,004 1,554,902 1,700,000 Montana 3,892,810 3,439,498 3,573,609 2,800,000 Utah 4,906,337 5,911,278 5,687,494 5,600,000 Arizona 47,778 26,066 109,093 1.400,000 Colorado 4,083,268 4,191,405 6,299,817 7,000,000 Mexico 808,798 798,878 2,408,671 2,200,000 British Columbia 1,250,035 1,636,557 1,776,953 1,500,000 Total $72,258,693 $74,401,055 $80,889,037 $91,800,000 The product of 1876 will be swelled to $93,000,000 by adding the sum of $1,200,000 to represejit the yield of Wyoming, Dakota and New Mexico. As illustrative of the fluctuating value of mining property, it may be meutioued that during the early part of September, 1878, the stock of the TEMPERATUEE OF MI^^ES, &C. 931 Sierra Nevada and Union Consolidated Mines, whicli had been selling at $4 per share, took a sadden leap to $190, heing equivalent to the fabulous amouyt of $30,000,000 additional capital, each mine having 108,000 shares. No ore had previously been found below tlie 1,800 foot level, but an incalcu- lable quantity of rich ore had been found by still deeper penetration. Some specimens are reported to have assayed thousands of dollars to a ton, and one notable specimen not less than $10,000. The Gwin Mine in Calaveras Co., Cal., is 1400 ft. deep, runs 80 stamps, and yields $60,000 to $70,000 per month, of Avhich amount one-half is clear profit. Of the quartz mines in Soulumne Co., one, the Confidence, from a gros^^ product of $011,853, paid to the owners $195,000 in dividends, besides pay^ ing in full for equipment. The yield of the Gilpin Co. (Colorado) mines, for the year 1876, was $2,105,037, and the product of the Boston and Colorado Smelting Works at Black Hawk, Col., derived from Gilpin Co. ores, was $2,061,244, coin value. As evidence of the absorbing interest pervading the public mind regard- ing the vast mining industries of the country, it maybe noted that during the last two Aveeks of 1878 no less than 20 mining companies Avere incorpo- rated in San Francisco, with an aggregate capital of over $200,000,000. On the Pacific coast the productive capacity of the mines is greatly cur- tailed by dry seasons and a short water supplj^, as a full allowance of this element is indispensable in hydraulic mining, and for the operation of the ore-crushing mills wherever steam power is not available. Among the serious obstacles in mining at profound depths may be men- tioned the influx of water and the high temperature of the mine. Incases where the workings are kept above the adit level the water will -pass away through tills channel by its own gravity, and no pumps will be reqi-iired; but when the excavations penetrate deeper than this the water n:iust be ele- vated by pumps or other machinery up to that point. In causing the water to make its exit through the adit level an enormous saving is effected, for otherwise the water would have to be pumped to the summit of the shaft, frequently at a vast expense. It sometimes happens that a single adit is made to drain a chain of mines, as in the Avest of Cornwall the "great adit,'' as it is called, which extends, including its branches to various mines, over 30 miles, and conveys away a torrent of water resembling a small river. In addition to draining off the water, tlie adit subserves the important use of ventilating the mine by causing a circulation of air, and the passage may be still further utilized as a tram-way for the conveyance of ore and rubbish from the interior excavations, the outflow of the water being effected through a channel beneatlithe tram-waj^. The water is raised by the pump- ing machinery from the Sump," or bottom of the engine shaft, which is generally sunk below the deepest level of the mine, so as to form a pit into which the water may flow before being x^umped up In reference to the temperature of mines, the solar heat, as a general rule, exerts no influence at a greater depth than from 50 to 100 ft. At Pari;^, as determined by Poisson, a thermometer placed at a depth of 76 ft. remains stationary all the year round. By penetrating into the earth beneath tlie point affected by the solar heat, we find a regular and rapid increase of temperature. In Cornwall, with a surface temperature of 50°, thetemi^cra- ture of the rock in the Dalcoath mine, at a depth of 1381 ft., is 75.6° ; the temperature of springs at a depth of 1440 ft. is 82° ; in the United Cop- per Mines, Cormvall, the temperature of the rock at 1201 ft. is 88° ; in the Guanaxato Silver Mine, Mexico, with a surface temperature of 08.8°, the temperature of springs at a depth of 1713 ft. was 98.2°. The last noted iur stance indicates 1° of heat for every 45.8 ft. ; observations recorded in Eng- land give 44 ft. for a change of 1 degree ; in Saxony it is considerably great- er, being nearly 65 ft. to a degree ; and a few observations in the United COjMl'OSri'ION OK VARIOUS HOCKS. States indicate 54 ft. to a, degree. According to Kiiiyffer, tlic average for tho various countries Avliere observations liavo Ijecn made, is 30.81 ft. to a de- gree, but this rate of increase is manifestly too I'apid; for assuming if to be true, a heat sufficient to boil water -would be found at a depth ol; .'j!)()2 ft., or slightly more than a mile, at 48 miles a temperature of 7000°, sufFicient to melt all knoAvn rocks, and at tlie centre of the earth it would amount to 577,000°. The deepest artesian Avell in the world is at Pesth, Hungary, being 3250 ft. deep, or about twice the depth of that in Paris. It sends up a jet of boil- ing Avater 42 ft. higli. Of the rocks encountered by miners, it may be noted tliat the crystalline rocks are the granitic series of quartz, feldspar, mica, gneiss, syenite, por- phyry, green-stone, basalt, and compact lavas, all in varieties. Quartz is the base of all the silicious compounds hi nature, and is dis- tinguished by the hardness of the bodies, as crystals, gritty sand, itc. It cannot be cut Avith a knife, and strikes fire with steel. It is 96 or 97 parts silica in 100, and 2 or 3 of clay and lime. Syenite is a middle rock between granite and porphyry, composed of feldspar and hornblende, or quartz and mica. Feldspar is composed of lamina or plates. Its constituents are silica and alumina, Avith some potash. Abounds in granite, syenite, gneiss, and por- phyry. When large crystals of feldspar appear in granites they are called porphyritic. Feldspar, next to quartz, is the most abundant stone, being a constituent of granite and other rocks ; it scratches glass, gives out sparks Avith steel, is of a vitrified iiature, and Avhen crumbled forms tho basis of clay. Feldspar is white, red, or gray, and consists of 64 in 100 parts of silex, 19 of clay, 2 of lime, 13 of potasli, and 1 of oxide of iron. Mica, the other equal part of granite, is 47 silica, 22 clay, 14.5 potash, 15 oxide of iron, and 1.75 oxide of manganese. Mica is occasionally found in large plates, is tough, flexible, clastic, semi-transparent, and sometimes used as a substitute for glass. When decomposed by the atmosphere or Avorn down, it mixes Avith the clay of the feldspar or the sand of the quartz. Porphyry is stone, Avith a compact base, intermixed with crystals. The base is trap, and the crystals feldspar or quartz. tSerpentineis so called from its variegated colors, nsnally green ; composed of 32 silica, 37^ magnesia, half alumina, 10| lime, Avith iron and carbonic acid 15. Curved c/neiss proves that it Avas once fluid; it is in slaty layers or plates, formed of feldspar, quartz and mica, separated by thin layers of mica, it contains in its veins all the metals, and follows the sinuosities of the granite. Hornblende is 42 silica, 30 oxide of iron, 12 clay, and 11 lime. Av.gite is 54 silica, 22 lime, 12 magnesia, and 10 oxide of iron. The Schistose strata are inclined from 52 to 70 degrees in mountains. Mufinesian Limestone contains about 20 magnesia, 30 lime, 48 carbonic acid, clay and oxide of iron. It renders dilute nitric acid milkj^, and effer- vesces little in acids. Mica slate is mingled with quartz in masses ; clay slate has quartz in layers. Carbonate of lime, forming one-eighth of the crust of the globe, contains 56 parts in 100 of ox j- gen. Portland stone is coarse grit, cemented with earthy spar. Emery is a mineral containing 86 alumina, 3 silica, and 4 iron. Corio'idimi is a stone, Avhich in crystals is a six-sided prism, called ada- mantine spar. The hardness of rocks is a surprise to many, but all wonder will cease when Ave consider the effects of heat, combined with the pressure of super- incumbent rocks during millions of years, in forming rocks of primary graywacke from sand, and primary slates from clay. In exploring or pros- pecting for mineral veins, it is Ave'll to remember that gold is not coiifiued HOW TO FIND MINERAL DEPOSITS. 933 to one class of rocks. In Mariposa, Cal., some gokl-beariiig quartz veins are in granite, but the largest and ricliest are in slate ; the noted Oneida, Keystone, Eureka and Springliill veins are also in slate, together with the most valuable veins in Amador. Tlic vein of tlie Eureka liad a thickness of G ft. at its " outcrop " on the surface of tlie ground; and down to a depth of 1300 ft., to which it has been worked, the thickness and value has con- stantly increased Avitli the shiking. In the Calaveras district, rich gold-bear- ing quartz veins are found both in limestone and granite; in Tuolumne the richest veins occur in granite; in the Alta district the " wall-rock'' is serpen- tine, with white talc iu tlie richest deposits. Fig. 1. Ground plan of tha intersection of lodes in the Himmelfahrt mine. The engraving, sketched by Weissenbach, shows the appearance presented by the intersection of two veins in the Himmelfahrt mine, near Freiburg, German,y. ISIetallic ores exist in four ways : 1. In irregular masses. 2. In fissures or veins crossing the strata and filled with the ore, combined witii some matrix. 3. In regular interstratified layers or beds, and 4. Intermixed in small fragments among the rocks. A knowledge of geology and geometry is of the ntmost value to the practical miner to aid him in ascertaining the location of mineral deposits, and to oiDerate to the best advalitage in obtaining possession of them. Tlie instruments nsed are : 1. The magnetic compass; it is used to determine the direction of a metallic deposit in places where the influence of iron is absent. 2. The graduated semi-circle or clinometer, which is used to measure the dip or angle of the lode. 3. The chain or cord, to measure distances between two points. 4. A plane table or plate whenever the proximity of iron nullifies the action of the compass. In exploring for mineral veins, abundant experience has shown tho pri- mary importance of the following suggestions : 1. Tliat they are more numerous in mountainous and hillv districts than in the level territorv. 2. 934 THE VARIOUS MINERAL VEINS DESCRIBED. That tlio richest lodes occur about the junction of tlio crystalline and strati- fied rocks, and are more abundant in the former than in the latter. 3. That their situation is frequently determined by the color of the land, which is often influenced by the decomposition of part of the mineral coni])onents, and scattered fragments of the vein intermingled Avith the soil. 4. In cases Avhere the location of the bearing is partially ascertained, the lode may fre- quently be found by sluicing a shaft through strata into the underlying rock, and thence driving adrift or tunnel at right angles to the bearing of the lode. 5. The best in'oof of the existence of a lode is the discovery of its outcrops ; this sets every doubt at rest. For further information, see Pros- pectinrj for Quartz, page 452. Gold-bearing quartz veins, in California, generally run from north north-west to south south-east, with a steep dip to the eastward. The dif- fusion of gold through the quartz is very unequal, and the lodes vary from a line to 50 ft. Two ounces of gold to 1 lb. of rock is a rarity greatly ad- mired by quartz minerSj for that proportion is held to be exceedingly rich in the precious metal. Mineral veins arc usually graded into species, of which the prevailing forms are : 1. The Rake vein, which extends dowmvards to unknown depths, is frequently many miles in length, and is the prevailing type of the mineral veins most highly valued by miners. Beginning at the " out- crop " it perforates the strata downwards almost to tiieir i)lane of stratifica- tion. It also intersects or penetrates the granite rocks. The inclination or " dip " of these veins varies from a few degrees to a vertical direction. 2. The Interlaced vein, which is composed of many small veins grouped to- gether like irregular net work, is frequently surrounded by granite rocks, and more usually bear the ores of tin than any others. 3. The Pipe vein, Avhich appears like an irregular shaft filled with ore, is usually found be- ticeen the strata. This class of veins present a great variety of sizes, and the angle of inclination is generally less than the dip of the rake vein. 4. The Dilated or Flat vein, which in its extension is subject to varying con- tractions and expansions, is found in flattened, ma.sses in horizontal posi- tions like seams of coal, but differs from a coal bed by great variation in thickness within the distance of a few feet wherever breaks or interrup- tions occur. The best mineral deposits are often found at these faults. 5. The Accmnidated vein, usually found filling large vacancies in the earth, is a great irregular mass of ore, apparently'isolated from all other mineral deposits. Veins of this class occur interposed between the stratified rocks and also in the granite. As to the nature and origin of the spaces occupied by metallic veins, they are : 1. The cracks and fissures made in rocks. 2. Openings be- tween their layers, especially in Schistose or slaty kinds. These crevices or fissures are produced in great numbers Avhere a region of rock is under- going uplift or Avhere a folding of the strata is in progress, owing to earth- quakes or other movements of the earth's depths. The mineral contents of these crevices may have been charged : 1. When the fissures or crevices were filled from either side or below, and did not descend to regions of liquid rock, being not connected with igneous ejections. These include all banded mineral veins, and nearly all those filled Avith quartz or granite. The intense heat, acting on the moisture present, Avould inevitably decom- pose the rocks ; then their mineral matter vsooner or later w^ould be swept into the crevices, and, in combination with emanations from the deeper parts, form metallic lodes. Also, 2. Where the rents or fissures descended to regions of liquid rock and Avere filled from below. In this case the min- eral contents of the A^ein have been brought up in some state of combina- tion as solutions or vapors. The veins of silver ores in Nevada and many others thus originated in connection with subterranean disturbances. Werner's theory is that open fissures in the earth's crust Avere filled with crystalline and metallic matter by aqueous infiltrations from above, THEORIES OF NOTED Yv'ElTEIlS. 935 and that tlie substances of mineral veins have been precipitated from a chaotic menstruum into fissures in the eartli Avliile it Avas in some nascent condition. Dr. Hutton contends tliat the contents of mineral veins, like those of dikes, were formerly molten, and while in this condition were injected from below by mechanical force. Dr. liucldand and M. Neckar propound the theory that the contents of some metallic lodes were deposited in crevices and iissiircs in the earth's crust by the condensation of mineral exhalations from immense subter- ranean fountains of intensely lieated matter. Sir R. Phillips contends that metals arc generated by long continued galvanic action between mixed rocks, and are the Aura of rocks, combined with oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, whose actions and reactions are elec- tricity. The results are a matrix, a compound of some of tlie peculiar raira Avith oxygen and liydrogen ; exhalations from the lower parts of the vein are also to be considered. Ores and crystallizations are therefore direct products of the oxygeu and liydrogen rendered active in electricity, and of the exudations and aura of the rocks and strata. Proximity is not essential to electrical influences ; the Avails of fissures may be aff ected by excite- ments from a distance. It is asserted that a hole drilled into aurif erous quartz in the Urals, and intended to be used for blasting, but never so used, Avas examined 40 years after it was made, and found to be full of fine crystals of gold. From the present knoAvn existence of electro-currents "jn many Cornish veins, and the analogy between voltaic combinations and the arrangement of matter in mineral veins, Mr. Fox and M. Becquerel reason that the for- mation of many metallic lodes are due to electro-chemical agencies. When loicle fissures or fractures of strata are filled Avith stones or earth, they are called faults or dikes, but when charged with mineral contents they are called veins. The tests of a probable mine are metallic ores or sand at the outcrop, mineral Avaters, trees or grass discolored, and the i^ro- ducts of boring. The best systems of minerals are those of Berzilius, and the chemical arrangement of Mohs ; Naumann unites them. As a Avriter on the min- eral kingdom, mines, furnaces, the treatment of ores, &c., Emanuel Savc- denborg occupies a high rank. Of late years among Avorks of notable utility to miners may be men- tioned, PhitUps' Elements of Metalhirrjy ; Dana's Manual of Mineralogy ; Randall's Quartz Opeixitor^s Hand-Booh ; Silversmith's Practical Hand- Book for Min.ers ; liusteVs Processes of Silver and Gold Extraction. Most of the engravings of furnaces and some of the amalgamating pans de- scribed in this book are taken from the last noted work, Avhich may be re- garded as absolutely indispensable to every progressive miner. Due ac- knowledgments are also rendered to other standard autliors, successful miners and experienced mill-men, for much of the A^aluable information presented in these pages. The superficial appearance of the outcrop of A"eins often indicate the metals they contain. The iiresence of fluorspar indicates metallic associa- tions Avherever found. A broAvn powder at the surface indicates iron, and often tin ; a pale yelloAV powder, lead, and green, copper. Gold and silver are found in primary and transition rocks, porphyry, quartz, syenite, and the lowest sandstone, occasionally in coals, and abundantly in the sands of rivers. Platina, palladium, rhodium, osmium, and iridium are found almost AvhoUy in the sands of rivers. Mercury is found in slate, limestone, and coal strata. Copper in primary and transition rocks, syenite (sometimes sandstone), coal strata, and alluvial ground. Iron is found in every kind of rock, tin in granite, gneiss, mica-slate, and slate, lead and zinc in primary and transition rocks J except trap and serpentine), porpliyry, syenite, th« 936 MINING NOMENCLATUKE. lowest saudstono, and occ.asionally in coal strata. Gold is j'ellow, coppei, red, iron, grey, lead, blue, cobalt and numgaiiese, grey ; all the others are •white. Fig. 2 represents tlie transverse section of a mineral vein, in which, in mining nomenclature, A A represents the " covntry," or rock composing the fudes of the vein, C C is the vein, D, liangimi-wall, C, foot^waU, D D, selva(/e,0, vxufh, F, horse. Waste rock or rubbish is termed deads or atile ; workings in a mine by persons of AA-liom no record remains are termed old men ; an opening left for letting down ore is called a pass; the place at Avhich a lode divides in two is nained point of horse ; the lowest workings in a mine or level are called bottoms ; the appearance of a mineral lode at the surface is called an outcrop; the amount of slope of a mineral vein measured from a horizontal line is termed a dip ; a horizontal or nearly horizontal working in a mine is called a drift, cjallery, level, or gunny ; the substance in which ore is found embedded is termed the matrix ; a cavern or fissure in which water falls and disappears is called a swalloio ; the ascending air-current from a mine is termed an upcast, the downward current is called a doioncast, &c., &c. Most of these terms, together with a vocabulary of similar technicali- ties, derive their origin from the Cornish miners. Metals are always found as alloys, sulphurets, oxides, or salts. Goiti, platinum, and columbium, are found only as alloys. Silver, mercury, cop- per, iron, antimony, arsenic, and cobalt, in the four states. Lead and zinc in tlie three last. Tungsten, uranium, litanium, chromium, and tantalium, only as oxides. In density, the order of metals is platina, gold, silver, mer- curv, lead, copper, tin, iron, zinc. !Few metals are found pure or native, but in ores, gaugues or compounds, combined with oxygen or acids ; often two or more resulting metals, with sulphur, arsenic, &c., in veins of rocks, the foreign bodies being called mineralizers, as sulphur is to lead, forming sulphuret of lead, called galena. The age of metals is estimated by that of the containing rocks ; the age of the latter it is not possible to determine even approximately. In treating GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS, &C. 937 of geological epochs, Dana remarks ; "If time, from the commencement of the Silurian formations (tliose resting on the granite) included 48 millions of years, which some geologists wouldpronounce mucli too low an estimate, the Paleozoic part, according to the above ratio, would comprise 36 millions, the Mesozic, 9 millions, and Cenzoic, 3 millions. It should be noted, how- ever, that as rocks are formed of earth, and as metals are found mainly in veins and crevices of rocks, that they must be of more recent origin than the latter. ^ The above noted estimate of geological time will doubtless astonish many who have been led, by a mistaken apprehension of the true meaning of Genesis, to suppose that only about 6000 years have elai^sed since the crea- tion. For further evidence on this subject, see Geological Facts; Ac/c, Origin, and Ultimate Duration of the Earth, on page 728. The adamantine facts of geology render very slight homage to the cherished errors of the world, and have struck fearful blows at the old explanations of Genesis, but time is a powerful remodeller. Already nearly 300 centuries attest the eternal verity of the grand truths for the propagation of which Bruno suf- fered death and Galileo endured imj^risonmeut, for their alleged inconsist- ency with tlie Jewish cosmogony, Avhich, in describing an apparent truth, speaks of " the rising of the sun and the going down of the same " accord- ing to a])pearances as presented to the senses. The world has witnessed with astonishment the disgraceful treatment ac- corded to Sir James Y. Simpson, by infamous bigots, who insisted that his humane use of antesthetics to mitigate the pains of women in labor was neither more nor less tlian a direct contravention of the primeval curse, :^vhich affirmed that *' in sorrow she should bring forth children." It is safe to say tliat the bigot^i did not belong to the female sex. At this day such ab- surdity would not be tolerated a single hour. The popular outcry which at one time denounced the use of the lightning conductor as a llagrant defiance of heaven is also silenced forever. Railroads and telegraphs have been similarly denounced. These insanities are now numbered with the things of the past. It is notoriously true that in Scotland the fanning mill was fiercely as- sailed as an ungodly machine, and the inventor was subjected to persecution by arrogant lunatics who asserted that nothing could be either good or useful which contravened tlie passage which reads : — " The wind bloweth where it listeth." Now millions use fanning mills during their lifetime without ever thinking of such an objection. The science of geology is as yet in its infancy, but its teachings have met witli very general acceptance among intelligent observers. It is sophistry to afflrm"that what is new, must, for that reason, necessarily be false, for of the disclosures unfolded by the stony facts of geology we are compelled to affirm that they must be true, though at variance with the beliefs of a thou- sand generations. A high authority has classified the placers of California as follows : — 1. A coarse, boulder-like drift, the result of abrasion and powerful cur- rents in a great body of water. 2. A river drift or coarse alluvium, ancient and modern, 3. Alluvial deposits on flats and broad surfaces, not confined to river channels. 4. Lacustrine deposits made at the bottoms of former lakes and ponds. They are found in extensive, basin-shaped depressions in the surface of metamorphic rocks. These depressions have evidently been filled with deep quiet water, from which thick strata of clay, fine sand, and volcanic ashes have been deposited upon the auriferous layer at the bottom. In the gullies and ravines the auriferous dirt is generally a very stiff elay, abounding in coarse gravel and stones, and is usually as wide as the stream of water during the wet season. In a ravine where the extreme width of the stream does not exceed 5 ft., as a general rule the pay-dirt will 938 FLUME MIXIXG, &C. not be more than a foot dcc]), with a, bed of barren dirt oi\ top. Wl)orc the channel of a stream in a small ravine has slightly changed, the pay-dirt may be bnried under G or 8 ft. of alluvial soil. Tlie gold •will not lodge on the smooth or steep bed rock of a gully ; the richests spots will be found where the bed is level, and where the strata of the rock are almost vertical and pre- sent many jagged points to detain the gold, the largest pieces being usually found near the bed rock in the deepest part of the stream. In alluvial workings, near rivers and streams, the vai'ious companies who work neighboring claims often club togetlier and construct a large Hume, into which the stream is conducted by means of a strong barricade or Aving dam of rocks, timber, mud, &;c., Avhich causes a diversion of the currciit, leaving the bed of the river nearly dry, thus affording access for working it to good advantage. The stream affords plenty of water for mining pur- Fig. 3 — Flume Mining. poses, together with ample power for operating under shot wheels fox work- ing pumps to rid the claims of the surplus Avater Avhich accumulates in the Avorkings. See Fig. 3, representing liume mining. For Placer Mining, Board Sluice Process, see page 453 ; for Hijdraxdic Mining, Long Tom Process, &c., -see page 454; for Gold Assay by Smelting Process; Gold Assay iciih a Horn Spoon ; Assay of Rock containing Pyrites ; Silver Assay by Smelting ; A^ssay of Argentiferous Galena ; Silver Assay loith Testing Tiibe ; Test for Iron or Copper Pyrites, see page 451 ; for Pros- pecting for Quartz ; Prospecting a River Bar ; Prospecting in a Gidly ; Prospecting in Flats ; Prospecting with a Knife, &c. , see page 452. In order to thoroughly dispel the common illusion that a mine is merely a A^ast excaA^ation in the earth, exposed to the open air, rain, storms, &c., like a quarry, it may be well to enlighten the reader by presenting a few facts relating to some of the silver mines on the Comstock lode in Nevada. At the main shaft and hoisting works of the Consolidated Virginia Mining Company, we find a great mass of buildings, resembling a vast manufac- tory, containing engine and boiler houses, machine shop, blacksmith shop, carpenter shop, and numerous offices connected Avith the Avorks. Around DESCKIPTIOX OF A GKEAT MINE. 939 the buildings are enormous piles of timber and lumber, resembling the sur- roundings of an immense saw-mill with its accumulated stock. This timber is used for supports, &c., in the mine, and it is safe to say that more timber has been absorbed by these mines than there is iu all the houses in San Francisco. The main shaft appears as an opening in the floor, about 5 ft. in width, and 20 ft. in length, with a depth of 2000 ft., and is securely cribbed by means of substantial timbers. This opening is divided into four compart- ments by means of partitions running from the top to the bottom of the shaft ; three of these four compartments are used for hoisting purposes, and in these the hoisting cages pass up and down to and from the various levels, after the manner of an elevator through the various stories of a high building. The fourth compartment is occupied by the tanks and pump column ; an iron pipe from 12 to IG ins. diam., through which the water is forced from the lower levels of the mine to the surface by means of the massive pumimig machinery. The cages in the different divisions work independent of each other ; one may be going down while the other is going up, or one may be at rest while the others are in motion. The motive power for hoisting is supplied by powerful engines at the opposite end of the building, about 50 or CO ft. distant from the shaft, and the hoisting is effected by means of a flat cable, some 5 or G ins. wide, £ ins. thick, and braided of the best quality of steel wire. This cable is wound and unwound on an enormous reel situated near the engine, and the great iron wheels and pulleys which sustain the cables are supported on what is termed the gallows frame, a huge structure composed of massive upright and cross timbers constructed directly over the mouth of the shaft. The positions of the cages in the shafts are indicated to the engineer by means of a hand moving over a dial in the engine room, and the signals for elevating and lowering the cages are struck on bells near the engineer by parties in the cages or levels below. The entire machinery of the works is driven by a compound condensing engine of 600 horse-power ; the engine has two cylinders, the first 24 x 48 ins., and the second 48 x 48 ins. in size. The main shaft of engine is 14 ins. diam., and weighs 15,000 lbs. On this shaft is a fly wheel (which is also a band Avheel, carrying a belt by which the batteries are driven) 18 ft. in diam. , and weighing IG^ tons. On the extreme end of the main driving shaft is coupled a shaft 11 ins. diam. , extending into the amalgamating room, and driving the pans, agitators, &c. Engine weighs about 50 tons ; there are 8 boilers, each 54 ins. diam. and IG ft. iu length. The smoke stacks are 4 in number, 42 ins- diam. and 90 ft. high. In the new stamp mill of this company (100 ft. long and 68 ft. wide) there are GO stamps, each weighing 800 lbs., the whole requiring one car load (1800 lbs. ) of ore to be sent out from the shaft every 5 minutes during the day and night. The stami)s are driven by a belt from the main band and fly wheel ; the belt is 24 ins. in width, and 160 ft. in length ; speed 3600 ft. per minute. This runs the counter-shaft in front of the batteries, and from the pullies on this counter-shaft there are belts 14 ins. wide and 60 ft. long, which run each battery of 10 stamps. The batteries are fed by the Tulloch self-feeders, one feeder being required for every 5 stamps, and two men only are required to oversee the whole, without any handling of the ore. There are 32 amalgamating pans, each pan holding about 2000 lbs. of pulp from the batteries, and there are 8 settlers to each pair of pans. The monthly loss of quicksilver alone in the mills of the company is estimated at from $60,000 to $80,000. The owners have to-day 11 mills, ranging from 15 to 80 stamps, making altogether a battery force of 375 stamps, the largest stamp capable of pulverizing 5 tons of ore every 24 hours. The whole liuman force employed in these mills numbers 622 men, when the mills are running to their full capacity. From 500 to 700 men are employed and divided into three shifts, each 940 HEIGHT OF MINES. shift worldng 8 hours. One shift goes on at 7 a.m. ,0110 at 3 p.m., and another at 11 p.m. Order is respected in every thing ; there are superintend- ents, foremen, engineers, miners, timbermen, watchmen, pumpmen, pick- ho^'s, &c. Each employee in tlie mine has his duties assigned liim, which must be performed, and each is confined to his own level, and there only. Fig. 4.— Diagram Illustrating Height of Mines. To describe the mine, we will in imagination compare it to a house of enormous altitude and vast dimensions on the earth ; this house would require to be 2000 ft. high, with 20 stories or floors, each 100 ft. apart. It is safe to say that such a building was never constructed, and never Avill be iu this world. To an observer in Wall street, or on Broadway, New York, MINEES FAINTING FKOM HEAT. 941 Trinity Churcli presents an imposing spectacle, but our imaginary building, representing the Consolidated Virginia mine, would be nearly 7 times higher! In the mines on the Comstock lode there are TOO miles of drifts, galleries, cross-cuts, shafts, winzes, &c., and as one mine co inects witli another, there are what might be called streets, 3 miles long. The mnin workings are all lighted with lamps and candles Avhich are always kept burning. Quite a number of engines are in operation in the lower levels hoisting timber to the miners, elevating ore at the winzes, operating Burleigh drills, and driving fans or blowers (like those used in a foundry) to supply fresh air to the workmen who are pantin;? with the heat in distant parts of the mine. These engines are run by compressed air, furnished by powerful compressors at the sur- face, as owing to the high, temperature at these profound depths steam Fig. -MiNEKS FAIXTING FKOM HeAT IN THE LOWER LKVELS OF THE Comstock. engines could not be tolerated a single liour. When at work the miners are naked to the Avaist, and some from the middle of the thighs to tlieir feet. The only garments worn are a pair of thin pantaloons or overalls, stout shoes, and a light hat or small felt cap to protect the head from the fnlling sand. Notwithstanding all this many faint outright from the effects of the heat. One month's supplies for this mine may be estimated as follows, viz. : 500,000 ft. of timber, 560 cords of Avood, 350 boxes of candles, 2 tons of giant-powder, 100 gals, of coal-oil, 200 do. of lard oil, 800 lbs. of tallow, 20,000 ft. of fuse, 37 tons of ice, 3000 bush, charcoal, 1^ tons of steel, 5 tons of round and square iron, 4 tons of hard coal, 50 kegs of nails, «S:c. Monthly wages, ^i;90,000. Miners receive S4 per day, engineers, carpenters, machin- ists, blacksmiths, &c., from $5 to $7 per day. The Savage and Hale and Norcross mines on the Comstock lode have 942 THE SUTllO TUNNEL. sliate G X 20 ft., and 2r»00 ft. deep. Tlie Savage Company intend to sink their present shaft to a deptli of 4000 ft. Their great lioisting cable of steel Avirc is 4000 ft. long, Aveiglis 25,100 lbs., and is -wound and unwound on a cone-shaped reel 15 ft. long, Avitli a diam. of 22 ft. at the large end and 13 ft. at the small one. Tlic reel is suspended on a cast-iron shaft 10 ins. in diam., the ends of whicli revolve in i)onderous bearings sustained by foun- dations of cut stone resting on the solid roclc. The ciigines for driving the huge reel arc two in number, of 200 horse-power each, and are capable of hoisting from 480 to 500 tons of ore every 24 hours. The hoisting car used on tlie lower incline is made Avholly of iron and steel, runs on an iron track, and holds about 5 tons of rock. The incline begins at the foot of the vertical shaft, 1300 ft. below the surface, and runs to the lower levels of the mine. The hoisting cages on the mines of the Comstock arc all supplied with safety appliances, which operate instantaneously in arresting the descent of the cage in the event of the cable breaking. Fig. 6.— Sttteo Tuknel. As showing the vast sums of money disbursed by capitalists when full ' confidence exists of obtaiiiing renranerative returns from mining operations, ' it may be interesting to note the following items regarding the outfit of a mine which has not as yet produced a cent's worth of ore. The works Avill be, when finished, a boiler house 102 ft. long, 50 ft. wide, containing 10 boilers, 51 ins. diam., IG ft. long ; one main hoisting room, 151 ft. long, 40 ft. wide, 48 ft. high ; a carpenter shop, 50 ft. wide by 100 ft. long, for fram- ing the timbers for the shaft, a machine shop, 50 x 100 ft., and a black- smith's shop, 40 X GO ft. At the shaft is a double cylinder, high pressure, direct-acting engine, both cylinders being connected with one shaft carrying two reels for winding the ropes. It is of 1200 horse-power, and callable of hoisting 10 tons of ore from a depth of nearly, if not quite, one mile. The crank shaft weighs nearly 40 tons, and is one piece of wrought iron. The intended piston speed THE SUTllO TUXNEL. 04S 13 960 It. per minute, which Avill take a " cage " through tlic shaft at rail- way speed. The cables used in the shaft are made of annealed steel wire, 7 inches wide and -g ins. thick, and are Avound on the reels like a ribbon on a spool. The reels are 15 ft. diam., will hold 4000 ft. of cable, and each is fitted with powerful brakes and safety appliances to regulate tlie move- ments of the cages. The engine foundations are solid masonry, 5(3 ft. long, 38 ft. wide, and 22 ft. deep, to which the engines are bolted with 80 3-in. and 3j-in. bolts, reaching the bottom of the stone work. Tlie piston rods and all the valve rods are of steel, and the valves of liard brass. The pumping engine is a horizontal compound condensing engine, direct acting. The cylinders arc of the following dimensions : The initial cylinder is 33 ins. diam. and 12 ft. stroke. The expansion cylinder is G(3 ins. diam. and 12 ft. stroke ; engine shaft 20 ins. in diam., about 18 ft. long, and has a fly-wheel on each end 30 ft. in diam., and each Avheel weighs 30 tons. The engine and line of pumps for 1200 ft. weigli 749 tons. The cost price of engine and pumps before erection was $300,000. It is to drive two lines of 14" inch pumps of 10 ft. stroke. Its Aveb of cams, rods, cut-off gear, air- cushions, drop-weights, &c., display the highest skill hi workmanship. Fig. 7.— Longitudinal Section of the Comstock Lode, showing- the DIFFERENT MINING CLAIMS LOCATED THEREON, THE OBE BODIES EX- TRACTED, AND THE INTERSECTION OF THE SUTRO TUNNEL WITH THE Lode at B., etc. The Sutro tunnel, a work without a compeer in mining enterprises on this continent, was begun October 19, 1869 ; the object being to penetrate the mines on the Comstock lode at a point nearly 2000 ft. below the surface of the earth, and thus form an outlet for the drainage and rapid transit for the miners and their supplies, together with quick transportation for the ore and mineral matter taken from the mines. It enters the mountains in the valley of the Carson river, at the town of Sutro, 3-| m.iles below Dayton, ih miles from the river, 150 ft. above the river bed, and strikes the 1G40 ft level of the Savage mine at a point 20,018 ft. from tlic mouth of the tunnel. The work was prosecuted day and night with a result of from 13 ft. to 16h ft- l>ev daj, until on July 8, 1878, a connection was made with the above noted shaft. A wire-tramway, running from the Carson river to the mines, Avill soon be in operation through the whole length of the tunnel, with an outfit of rolling stock capable of transporting 1000 miners from the village of Sutro to the mines in 15 minutes. During the past years, nearly 3000 miners have been employed in these mines, and hours have been consumed at each shift in sending down the men in cages, a dozen or so at a time. The mines on the Comstock lode, and all other mines in the district, are com])elled for all time, to pay the Tunnel Company $^2 per ton for every ton of ore extracted and sent to the mills for reduction. The rates estab- li^lied for transportation is 25 cents per ton per mile over the 4 miles of 944 THE SUTIIO TUNNEL. main tunnel, and 25 cents each way for persons. Ice, now sold to the mining companies at .'ii!20 i)er ton, can Ijc supplied in nnliniited quantities ])y the Tunnel Company I'rom its ponds on the Carson river, at less tlian per ton. Cordwood, now sold in Vir<>;inia city at $12 ])er cord, can l)e ])assed through the tunnel, elevated nearly 2000 'ft. through the main shalt, and laid down for $S per cord. Fig. 8.— GEOLOGicAii Cross Section of the Country from the entrance OP THE SuTRO Tunnel to and beyond the Comstock Lode ; also THE Four Shafts on the Tunnel Line. The notable sanitary uses subserved by the tunnel has already dissipated the poisonous gases in the lower drifts of the Savage mines, and lowered the temperature of the 2000 ft. level from 120° to 90° Fahr. A covered steam- tight drain is to be constructed the entire length of the tunnel (under the railroad track) to form an outlet for the drainage of the mine. Much of the Avater in the workings stands at a temperature of 160° Fahr., and if this was passed through the tunnel in an open channel, no living thing could exist, owing to the hot, confined vapor. It is further .intended to utilize this water as a source of power for jnoving the long trains of cars used in transporting the miners, together with their necessary stores, tim- ber, ore, &c. The discharge of this Avater has heretofore been effected at an annual cost of $3,000,000. The drainage must pass through 10 punips and tanks, through 2000 ft. of iron pipe, from 12 to 16 ins. cliam., before reaching the surface. The great iron pump rod, 2000 ft. in length, and hung at several points with immense balance bobs to prevent it from being torn asunder by its own weight, is kept continually swaying up and doAvn at its round of duty. Henceforward this drainage will only require to be elevated to the tunnel level in order to find an outlet. The Tunnel Company- have so far expended on the tunnel, Avith the immense shafts, buildings, machine shops, engines, &c., connected therewith, the vast sum of $3,200,000, and the projected branches and extensions towards the various mines will still absorb a large additional sum. In carrying out this wonderful enterprise tlie obstacles presented by nature were of "the most formidable discription and well nigh insurmountable, but they Avere finally overcome hj the un- tiring energy and indomitable perseverance of Mr. Sutro, Avho brought to the execution of this herculean task, an iron Avill, and a rare combination of executive abilities. Many rich deposits of marvellous extent have been found on the Comstock lode, but on the 1500 foot level has been discovered Avhat appears to be the central mass, a body of ore unparalleled in extent and value by any thing hitherto knoAvn. This has enjoyed world-wide fame under the name of the " Big Bonanza" (a Mexican term denoting a large and rich body of ore — pros- perity. Borrasca is the very opposite of bonanza, and signifies barren-rock — bad luck — adversity), and measures 900 ft. in length,''550 in depth, and from 30 to 200 ft. thick. DYNAMICS OP VOLCANIC FORCE. 945 The imraeiiso cliasm, rent, or fissure in the rocks, which is filled by the " vein-matter," or gaugue (pronounced f/cmg) forming the Comstock lode, extends from the east country rock (prophylite) to the west country rock (syenite), a distance of from iOOO to 1200 ft. The gangue is composed of quartz, porphyry and clay, which incloses the ore. This chasm, known to he about 4 miles long and about 1200 ft. Avide, was undoubtedly formed during ages inconceivably remote, by means of volcanic action, and immense frag- ments of rock appear to have broken away from the edges of the chasm, fallen into the crevice, and thus prevented its closing, in mining nomen- clature these are termed "horses ; " they still remain in the vein, and the ore, quartz, &c., has filled up all the space around them. Some of the " horses " are of grea,t extent, being from 50 to 100 ft. in length, with i^ro- portionate thickness, while others are at least 1000 ft. in length, and from 300 to 400 ft. thick. The fragments from the west side of the crevice are syenite, those from the east side are prophylite, usually termed porphyry by the miners. The charging of this enormous crevice with what nov/ forms the mineral contents of the Comstock lode, is manifestly the Avork of subterranean forces combined with hot mineral wa.ter, steam, gases, &c., from boiling springs beneath, whiclx have filled up the vein with its rich sulphurets and other ores of silver. Traces of hot springs are everywhere visible on the neigh- boring hills to the eastward of the vein, and the noted steamboat springs, only a few miles distant, are even now in full blast, engaged in the formation of a metallic lode by the emission of hot mineral water, steam, and enormous volumes of heated gas, through a crevice over a mile in length. Who will not say that here we find one of the instrumentalities of creative power in the very act, as it were, of replenishing the earth with the gifts of a betief- icent Providence ? The action of boiling springs is due, 1. To the access of subterranean waters to heated rocks, producing steam, which seeks exit by upward vents : 2. To cooler superficial Avaters descending channels to where the steam prevents further descent, and gradually accumnlating until the channel is filled to the top : 3. To the heating of these upper waters by the steam from below, to near the boiling point, when the lower portion of these upper waters becomes converted into steam, and the eruption, or jet of Avater results. The dynamics of volcanic force is an interesting study. The roar of Niagara is a gentle zephyr compared Avith the bellowing of a volcano. The poAver required to rupture a battery of steam boilers is as nothing compared Avith the inconceivable energy necessary for the upheaval of mountains, the rending of rocks, the raising of islands from the ocean's bed, and forcing out the melted lava from 'beneath the gneiss and granite. Very frequently large fragments of these rocks are broken off and throAvn out Av'ith the lava: Cotopaxi, nearly 20,000 ft. high, has i^rojected a stone 109 cubic yds. in vol- ume to the distance of 9 miles, and has thrown matter 6000 ft, above its summit. This of itself would require a force of nearly 1500 atmospheres, or 22,500 lbs. to the square inch ! In 1660, the amount of lava ejected by Mount Etna Avas 20 times greater than the Avliole mass of the mountain, and in 1669, Avhen 77,000 persons were destroyed, the lava covered 84 square miles. In the eruption from Skaptar Jokul, in Iceland, during 1783, two streams of lava floAved in opposite directions, one of them 50 miles long and 12 broad, and the other 40 miles long and 7 broad ; both having an average thickness of 100 ft., which was sometimes increased to 500 or 600 ft. ; twenty villages and 9000 inhabitants were destroyed. The seat of volcanic poAver must be deeply seated beneath the earth's crust, where the heat is extremely intense ; lava ejected over 100 years ago from Jorullo, in Mexico, 1600 ft. high, is not yet cool. The lava thrown out of Etna in 1819, Avas in motion 9 months later at the rate of a yard a day, and lava from a previous eruption of the same mountain Avas in motion after the lapse of 10 years. 940 THE MINEF.AL AVEALTII OF TIIE WOllfJ). Not only do very many mountains and nilnci-al lodes owe their ol■^^■ill to volcanic action, but nunioi'ous islands as Avoll. Tlio Sandwicli islands, of which Hawaii, the largest, contains 4000 sfiiiarc miles of surface and rises 18,000 ft, above tlic ocean ; Tencriffe, l.".,000 ft. liigli ; tlie IMadcira,, Iceland, Sicily, Bourbon, St. Helena, Java, Sumatra, Tristan d'Acunha, Faroe and Azore islands, with much of Celebes, Ja])an, &;c., are mainly composed of lava and rocks, as sandstone and limestone, upheaved by volcanic action. Such are some of the effects of that tremendous power which in tlie liands of Omnipotence has played so imijortaut a part in the formation of the habit- able globe. During the most ancient times, and iu the divinely framed language of in- spiration, silver is used as the primary symbol to denote truth. Triitli is as an ocean, vast and inexhaustible. Of a verity the symbol is in tl)is instance true to its original, for such a thing as an exhausted silver mine has never been known within the memory of man. Pliny s])eaks of silver-mines being Avorked during his time to the depth of a mile and a half. The old Spanish mines, opened long before the time of Hannibal, are still worked with enor- mous profits ; the Hungarian mines, woi'ked by the Romans long prior to the Christian era, are still productive; the South American silver mines have yielded great profits during 300 years. The silver mines in the Hartz moun- tains, and at Freiberg, Germanj^, discovered during the 11th century, and worked constantly ever since, yield a steady increase. The Mexican silver mines have yielded, since the Spanish Conquest up to 1860, $2,039,100,000, and are even now enormously rich. In Sweden and Norway, silver mines worked before the discovery of America are still yielding profitable returns. The Cerro de Pasco mines, Peru, discovered in 1630, from whicli 5,000,000 lbs. of silver have been taken in 45 years, are still productive. The entire silver yield of Spain is at present about 100,000 lbs. troy per annum. In Bolivia, "S. A. , the annual production of silver is at present about 450,000 lbs. ; here are situated the famous mines of Potosi, formerly belonging to Peru, Avhich are said to have yielded $1,200,000,000. Of the silver lode mining dis- tricts of Mexico and South America, the Sierra Madre mines have yielded $800,000,000 ; Veta Madre, $235,934,636 ; Rio Grande, $650,000,000 ; Royas, $85,421,015 ; Valencia, $31,813,486 ; Santa Anna, $21,347,210 ; Biscania, $16,341,000. The Russian mines in the Urals, according to Marshall, yielded in 10 late years, 65,330 lbs. of gold, 412,246 lbs. of silver, and 6067 of pla- tina, from the serpentine rocks. According to approximate estimates by the best American and German authorities, the total product of all the gold and silver mines in the Avorld, from the year 1500 to 1874, is as follows : Pounds of gold, 17,000,000, valued at $6,450,000,000. Pounds of silver, 364,000,000, valued at $8,175,000,000. Total pounds of gold and silver, 381,600,000,000, valued at $14,625,000,000. In 1810 the annual supply of bullion to Europe was estimsted at $40,000,000, of which one-third was nsed for manufactures ; at the present day the an- nual supply is ranch greater. The wealth of France is about $ 40,300,000,000. Among civilized nations the greater part of this enormous mineral wealth is absorbed by tlie coinage. The British mint has 8 melting furnaces, 2 cranes, and 2 pouring machines. The furnaces are used three times per day, and as each pot is about 420 lbs. they melt 10,080 lbs. in a day of 10 hours. The gold pots are about 100 lbs, and melt it in an hour. The gold bars are rolled cold to the thickness of the coin, and the silver bars hot. The 8 presses in the mint strike 60 blows per minute, and produce 3600 coins per hour for 10 hours, or at least 30,000 per day, making 240,000 for the 8 presses. Good steel dies make 300,000 to 400,000 impressions before wearing out. A lb. troy of gold yields 46^/5% sovereigns, a lb. troy of silver yields 66s. (the alloy is extra), and there are 107,520 halfpence in a ton of copper, worth £224. Griffin estimates the wealth of the United Kingdom at $39,200,000,000. The ores of silver, tin, copper, lead, &c., are generally found in what are called " lodes," which resemble deep fissures in the earth, filled up with ore DETAILS OF MINING. 947 and vein stuff. Tliere firo no ores of gold, but it is found to pervade similar lodes in quartz rock. These lodes are known to penetrate the earth to pro- found depths, and most frequently assume the form of a wedge, with the tliin Kg. 9. end uppermost, widening as it descends downwards to an 'unknown dis- tance. In some cases these lodes enter the earth with a slight incline, and they are known to extend to a distance of several miles in a horizontal direc- Fig. 10. tion, with a width ranging from less than 1 inch to many feet. Fig. 9, repro- duced from Weale's adxnirable series, represents two lodes, the first, o, b, to ICX I'LOI TA riON IN MINKS. tlic ri<;lit, enters the earth at an angle ; c, d, represents a lode undcrlyins to the left ; /, represents a cross-cut ; r/r/rj, a shaft, at first perijeiidicular, after- wards upon the lode. Fig. 10 rc])resents a longitudinal section of a mine in which the shaded part Vepresents the excavations penetrated l>y two perpendicul shafts, a b, the adit level, c d, c d, c d, otlier levels, usually 10 fathoms or GO ft. below each other ; e e, -winzes, or small shafts connecthig two levels, and used for the purposes of ventilation and exploration. A shaft may he vertical or inclined. It is styled a tunnel when it forms with the horizon au angle less than 45 degrees. Underhand Stopino. Fig. 11. Overhand Stoping. Fig. 11 represents the process of stoping or exploitation in veins of the Rake species, by which the ore is extracted from the workings. Stoping may be classified under two heads: 1st. Overhand stoping ; as shown on the right side of the figure, by which the ore is extracted by working from below upwards. Overhand stoping is the method in general use in this country ; by this method of working in ascending steps, the ore, as detached, falls lay its own gravity. 2nd. Underhand stoping ; as shown on the left of the cut, by Avhicli the mineral is taken from the vein by working in descending stej^s from above downwards. In the cut, B A is the hoisting shaft, C D and E F are air shafts, S is the sump or well at the bottom of the shaft, and D F a tunnel, level, or gallery in the mine. Imagine the ore in the vein to be laid out in rectangular masses as exhibited in the cut ; these steps or benches, generally 15 or 20 ft. long, 6 or 8 ft. high, and as wide as the vein, form in consecutive succession the ground from whence the ore is extracted by stoping or working in steps. The miners, in overhand stoping, use temporary stages from which they attack the vein by means of "drills, picks, &c. ; the ore and rubbish are blasted down and piled behind the miners on a strong scaffolding of timbers, from whence the ore is discharged through suitable apertures called mz7/s or passes (located at proper distances apart) to the level below, to be conveyed by cars, &c., to the mouth of the level, or to the hoisting shaft, for elevation to the surface. The worthless rubbish is sorted out and used for filling material to occupy the vacancies and to support the mine. When this material is de- ficient it must be supplied from the surface, especially when the ore deposits jire of great extent and the vacancies large. The filling should be tamped solid. In the vicinity of the working shaft and other suitable places, pillars of vein HOISTING MACtlI>4ERY. 949 stone may be allowed to remain with good results. lu Mexico, very exten- sive mines are wholly sustained by pillars of ore, the number, size, distance ajiart, &c., of which are clearly defined by law. The first process in opening a mine is to find the lode, then a hole is usually driven straight down into the earth so as to strike the lode, as rep- resented in Fig. 9. This is termed " sinking the shaft," which is tlieii carried down upon it as shown in the cut, although it frequently happens that the shaft is carried down on the lode from the surface. As tlie shaft descends the adit level is driven ; this is merely a tunnel dug from the nearest valley or water-course right into tlie mountain or hill in which tlio lode is located, so that all the Avaler above the level will flow away of itself. In going deeper other levels are driven to the right and left, extending to great distances from the shaft, but always following the direction of the lode, and these levels are interpenetrated at suitable distances by smaller shafts, called winzes, which are of great use in promoting proper ventilation in the mine. As the workings are extended other shafts are dug from the surface as necessity may require, but they should be at least 300 ft. apart ; and where a mine has more than one lode, a gallery or level, called a " cross- cut," is driven to it as shown at /, in Fig. 9. The size of shafts vary accord- ing to the duty required. To accommodate pulhping and winding machinery for elevating the kibbles," or buckets of ore, by steam power, it should be from 6 to 8 ft. in width and from 14 to 20 ft. in length. Square shafts are usually lined in whole or in part with timber, and circular shafts are gen- erally built up with stone. For a depth of from 50 to 100 ft. the elevation Fig. 12.— Windlass. of the ore may be effected by means of a windlass, as shown in Fig. 12 ; in sinking a " wiiize " from level to level, but not ])enetrating to the surface, the same means are used, but in deeper excavations it is usual to raise the ore by what is styled a " wjiim," worked by horse-power, as shoAvn in Fig. 13, in which the cable which elevates the ore is wound around a vertical drum. Fig. 13 — Horse 'Whim. The next illustration, Fis:. 14, represents an ingenious miner's hoisting; ■ power constructed by Reynolds, Rix & Co. , of San Francisco, who claim that 050 HOISTING MAOIIINEIIY. it will do the work of .1 steam engine at onc-tentli the expense, :is one liorso cau eiisilj'- hoist by it 1000 lbs. at a deinh of 500 ft. Fig. 14.— Mkjer's Hoisting power. For deep mines the horse wliim is generally superseded by reversible winding engines, Fig. 15, in which the chain or wire-rope passes around a horizontal drum, which is driven witli great rapidity by steam-power, but this costly machinery is seldom applied to mines unless it is settled beyond a doubt that they will become of permanent value. Fig. 15.— The Gbiefith & "Wedge Winding Engine. Water-power, if availahle, can also be used to good advantage for lower- ing into the mine timbers, tools, supplies, hate of soda, and liberatiiig the muri- atic acid, which in its turn attacks the base metals, forming chlorides of copper, zinc, antimony, etc., together with chloride of silver, and leaving metallic gold. All the acid used in the ])rocoss is prepared in the process it- self, Jind the chemical changes are produced in tlic nascejit state, whicli is the most favorable condition for effecting theni, and tlie sulphur being thus combined Avith the soda, a smaller proportion escapes into the atraospherc thau when ores are simply roasted alone. Fig. 37.— Kent's AMALGAMATiira BakeeLs. '* 'By the application of the salt in solution, one bushel will make suffl- cient for a ton of ore ; and by making the ore into bricks, wduch may be done witn one machine, at the rate of 25 tons per day, the use of expensive rever- beratory furnaces, as nsed at Freiberg, is avoided, and 25 tons of gold or silver ore, in a common lime-kiln, or 1200 tons in a brick-kiln composed of the caked ore in the form of bricks, may be calcined at one operation, in the cheapest and best manner, without any furnace at all, by the passage of a current of hot air through the interstices of the brick so formecl. " After the chemical decomposition of the ore is thus effected, it becomes so soft that it may be ground with common burr-mills, at the rate of 40 bushels per hour, for amalgamation in barrels, or it may be ground and amalgamated at the same time, by the use of the "VVaslioe pans. When two different kbids of oi'e are mixed together, in suitable proportions, before caking, which is sometimes of very great advantage, and the calcination and amalgamation are done in the best manner, about five times as much gold or silver as from crude ore, or from seventj^-five per cent, to the full assay value, may be obtained." Extraction of Silver by Hot Process in Copper Kettles. — This MIXTURES OF OEES, ETC. 9T7 process is mainly used in Sontli America, on ores rich in native silver, or in the chloride, iodide, or bromide of silver, -which are first linely pulverized and concentrated by washing, and then placed in kettles fitted with copper bottoms where they are boiled with a considerable volume of water. From 10 to 15 per cent, of salt is then introduced into the boiling mass and thor- oughly stirred. Next, quicksilver, of less weight tlian that of the silver present, is added to the pulp, with continued stirring, adding more quick- silver whenever a test discloses the slightest dryness in the amalgam. Lastly, the amalgam and gangues are separated by washing ; the amalgam is squeezed, retorted and refined, while the gangues, if desired, may be sub- mitted to the Patio process. In the Parke Process, lead containing silver is fused in massive cast-irou pots, and melted zinc is added and well intermixed. The fire is then Avith- drawn from under the pot, and the mixture is allowed to rest for a brief period, while the silver and zinc, separating from the lead, rise to the sur- face of the molten metal, and are skimmed off as long as the alloy con- tinues to rise. Next, the scum alloy combined with some lead is heated in a liquation retort ; the silver and lead fuse, and are then in large proportion conducted into j^repared moulds. The alloy thus obtained is afterwards cupelled, and the alloy of zinc and silver remaining in the retort is sub- mitted to distillation in order to effect a partial separation, while the silver thus obtained is deprived of its impurities by cupellation. The proportions used in charging the pot are : argentiferous lead, G to 7 tons ; quantity of silver to the ton of lead, 10 to 15 ozs. ; estimated quantity of zinc to each oz. of silver, 1.5 to 2 lbs. The alloy should be stirred from iO to 15 liours after the addition of the zinc, and the proportion of silver (to the ton of alloy) when ready for cupellation should be 1000 ozs. The Liquation Process is based on tlie principle that an alloy of lead and copper, melted together, separate if slowly cooled, but cohere in intimate union if quickly cooled. A compound of copper and lead, if slowly heated to near the melting point, will also separate, and the silver, if any be i^res- ent, Avill go with the lead. In practice, an alloy of copper and silver, or copper matt (as it comes from the smelting furnace) containing silver, is melted with about four times its weight of' lead in a cupola, and cast in annular plates, which are rapidly cooled. These circular plates are termed liquation cakes, and are arranged in a liquation furnace, on their edges, with alternate layers of charcoal. The latter being lighted, the heat is raised to a degree slightly less than the melting point of copper, when the silver and lead fusing, are conducted to a receiver, while the copper, in a honey-combed condition, remains in the original form. If the separation jiroves defective the cakes may be submitted to the further treatment of a higher degree of heat in the sweating furnace. The separation of tLe silver from the lead is finally effected by cupellation. The following mixtures of ores and fluxes are noted in Mr. Kustel's excel- lent work, as possessing reliable proportions for smelting purposes. No. 1. MixTURK roB Ores without Roasting, and liEFORE Litharge IS Obtained from the Manipulation. — Silver ore, 100 lbs. ; Granulated lead (or 200 lbs. lead ore), 85 lbs.; Soda ash, 25 lbs. ; Iron, 25 lbs. ; Lime (and 26 lbs. slag, when obtained), 3 lbs. No. 2. Mixture for Roasting Ore.— Silver ore, 100 lbs. ; Granulated lead, 85 lbs. ; Soda ash, 20 lbs. ; Iron, 8 lbs. ; Lime, 3 lbs. No. 3. Mixture of Silver Ore after Products of Smelting are at Hand.— Silver ore, 100 lbs. ; Granulated lead, 25 lbs. ; Litharge, 75 lbs: ; Hearth, 10 lbs. ; Soda ash, 15 lbs. ; Charcoal. 5 lbs. ; Iron, 8 lbs. ; Lime, 3 lbs. ; Slag, 25 lbs. When the melting is executed with an addition of lead ore, Nos. 2 and 3 do not require granulated lead, but it is always very useful to add sufB- «ient litharge. The quantity of flux required depends much on the quality of the ore. If tlie slag is tob thin it is not necessary to use so much soda- 978 TIIEATMEXT OK SILVER DUES, 1:TC. ash. The mixture is introduced with a sliovel -when the furnace is at a Avhito heat, and fqu'cad about 5 or G ins. deep, to about lialf the len.utli of the flux, between the door and the crucible. Tlio door is closed, and the h.rhv^ continued so that the flame reaches the end of the flux. The ore -will Hoon begin to melt and run into the crucible, when a new charge must be intro- duced as soon as the melting ore malccs room for it. Stir the charge thoroughly with a long iron bar, and continue the process until the crucible is filled. Use the furnace illustrated on page 983. Treatment of Silvek Okes by Solution. — Augiistin's Process. The principle on -whicli this process is based is the soluLility of chloride of silver in a hot concentrated solution of common salt. The "ores, which should bo free from zinc, antimony and arsenic, are first submitted to dry crushing by stamps, and further pulverized by grinding in suitable mills, after which they are roasted in a reverberatory furnace at a Ioav temperature, Avith a fr6e admission of air. A thorough, uniform roasting, at a dull red heat, ])romotes the formation of various sulphates of the different metala joresent. This object being attained the heat is increased to a cherry red, by which the aforesaid sulphates (with the sole exception of the sulphate of silver) are decomposed. The sulphate of silver is next converted into chloride of silver by adding common salt, previously melted, ground, and intermixed with cold ore, to the hot ore in the furnace, with wliicli it is thoroughly incor- l^orated by vigorous stirring The apparatus for the hurried portion of the process consists of the fol- lowing, arranged in the order of mention, viz. : 1 spacious heating reser- voir, a set of dissolving tubs, 2 large settling cisterns, 4 precipitating tubs to each dissolving tub, and 2 roomy recei)tacles, all arranged on descending steps. The aforesaid tubs are nearly circular in form, and are arranged Avlth filters composed of straAV and broken sticks, covered with cloth. Each tub is divided into two unequal divisions by means of a vertical partition placed on the filter. The chloridized ore being placed into the largest divisions of the dissolv- ing tubs, a hot salt solution, sufficient in quantity to completely saturate the ore, is conducted into the tubs from the heating reservoir aforesaid, and allowed to remain one hour. The outlet cocks of the heating reservoir and tabs are now opened,, and the hot salt solution is permitted to filter through the ore in the tubs, and pass off through the smaller compartments through apertures at first above the level of the ore, and afterwards through orifices near the base of the tubs, into the large settling cisterns above noted. The current is shut off when it is ascertained by a piece of clear copper that no trace of silver exists in the filtrate. The next step is to place copper (copper cement) in each of the upper two precipitating tubs in the different classes of four, and wrought scrap iron in each of the corresponding lower two, and conduct the chloride solution slowlj^ from the settling cisterns by filtering it through the various precipi- tating tubs into the large receptacles beloAv. The chemical effect is to pre- cipitate the silver by means of the copper in the upper tubs, and the copper in solution, if it be present in the ore at first, is precipitated by the iron in tlio lower tabs. The silver is removed every three days from the precipitat- ing tubs and refined, while the filtrate in the large receptacles is pumiced into the heating reservoir for future operations. The ore, previous to roasting, should contain at least 20 per cent, of sulphur, and the proportions of the charge to the furnace, should be, of ore for roasting and calcining, 500 lbs. ; melted salt, pulverized, 35 lbs. ; roasted ore, cold, and mixed witli the salt, 220 lbs. ; time of roasting on ui^per hearth of furnace, 4 to 4^ hours ; calcining on lower hearth, 4 to 4| hours ; time occupied in chloridizing, from 15 to 20 minutes ; heat of salt solution, 131° Fahr. The depth of copper in the precipitating tubs should be about G ins., of iron in do. (provided the ore contains copper in quantity worth saving), G ins. The time for dissolving and precipitating will occupy 20 to 24 liours ; solution of salt run through each tub to 1000 lbs. of ore, 200 to 250 cubic feet TKEATMENT OF SILVEIl OliES, ETC. 979 Teeatment of Silvek Ores by Sulphuric Acm.—Freiberr/ Process. The argentiferous cop])er matt, as it comes from the furnace, is thoroughly pulverized, roasted and chloridized as in the last described process, in tubs, and submitted to the action of hot sulphuric acid. By this means the cop- per and iron (if any is present) are dissolved, while the silver remains intact. Tlie copper solution is conducted into vats, and crystallized into sulphate of copper, while the intact remainder, containuig the silver, is smelted Avith lead and cupelled. Treatment of Silver Ores by Solution. — ZiervogeVs Process. The ore, of the class described under Augustin's process, is effectually pul- verized, roasted and calcined to decomi^ose the sulphates of iron and other Inferior metals, the sulphate of silver only remaining unaffected. The test of complete calcination being a slight blue color given out by a small quantity of the roasted ore when thrown into water. The process is predicated on the solubility of sulphate of silver in liot water, the sulphatized ore being treated in every way as the chloridized ore in Augustin's process, with the sole cxce]:»tiou"tbat pure water, at a temp, of 149'? Fahr., is used instead of the hot salt solutioii. Treatment of Silver Ores by the Rammelsberg Process. — Argen- tiferous granulated copper ore is placed in tubs exposed to the atmosphere, and submitted to the action of hot sulphuric acid, which is slowly flowed over it in a small stream, converting it into sulphate of copper. The solu- tion of dissolved copper is conducted through an arrangement of troughs, in which it is deposited in the shape of rough crystals, while the liquid por- tion is returned and reheated, to be again poured over the ore in the tubs. The next step is to wash the rough crystallized salt deposited in the trouglis, conduct it into vats, and allow it to recrystallize. The silver present in the ore will be found in the dissolving tubs, and is finally smelted Avith lead and cupelled for its silver. Pattinson's Process. — 1st. This process is founded on these facts : If a melted alloy of silver and lead is stirred Avhile cooling slowly, crystals of lead form and sink, which may be removed by a drainer. A large por- tion of the lead may thus be separated from the silver, 2nd. Cast-iron pans, capable of holding about 5 tons each, provided Avith fire-places, are arranged in a series, as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, in a straight line. 3rd. The metal of ores containing silver and lead as it comes from ordinary smelting works, is melted, for instance, in pan D, and then allowed to cool A^ery sloAvly. The metal, while cooling, is stirred, especially near the edges of the pan with an iron bar. As soon as crj^stals form and sink to the bot- tom they are taken out Avith an iron drainer, raised to a temperature some- what higher than that of the metal bath. From one-half to two-thirds of the charge is thus removed to pan E, and the balance taken to pan C. Other cliarges of D are similarlj'" treated, and disposed of in like manner, except that the crystals of E go to F, and the balance to D, and the crystals of C go to D, and the balance to B. Thus, after successive meltings and drainings, the alloys, rich in silver, pass to A, wliile the lead, almost entirely deprived of silver, goes to G. The alloys obtained in pan A are then sub- jected to cupellation. 4th. The lead of an alloy treated by this process often contains less than $1 in silver to the ton. The silver of the enriched alloy should not exceed $600 to the ton. — Qnartz Operator's Hand-Boolc. To Purify Mercury.— Quicksilver, to be in prime condition foramalgani- ating purposes, should be free from irapurites and foreign substances, as zinc, bismuth, lead, &c., AAdiich impair its poAver for combining with the i^recious metals. To effect this the impure quicksilver should be distilled in a common covered retort, or if this is not available a retort may be readily improvised by using a common quicksilver flask and an iron pipe bent in tlie shape of a syphon, the short leg of the pipe being inserted in the flask in the orifice at the top, Avhile the long leg, a yard or more in length, extends doAvnwards beloAV the bend, and must, Avhilc in operation, be kept cold by means of wet 080 CUrELLATION FUKNACE. clotlis find cold wuter. Fill tlio retort two-thirds full with the impure quick- silver, apply tlic heat first of all to the short leg of the syphon and thou])pcr part of the retort, then to all parts of the flask alike, keeping the discharge end of the syphon in cold water, Avithin the receiver. Keeptlie heat regular and do not hurry the distillation. Lastly, treat the distilled quicksilver, in thin sheets, by frequent agitation with 2 parts of pure water and 1 part nitric acid, niaintahiing nieanwhilc a temperature of 120^ Fivhr. for several hours. The operations may be re- peated until the impurities are removed, when the quicksilver may be poured off for use. To Restore Quicksilver when "Floured," or " Sickened."— "When quicksilver becomes inoperative through being " floured," or "sickened," or in a state of minute division, or in the scum form, the trouble may be rec- tified by the addition of 1 part of sodium to 2000 or 2500 parts of quicksilver by weight. With a very slight degree of heat sodium and quicksilver com- bine with a i-)0Avcrful affinity for each other, forming sodium amalgam, which possesses an energetic chemical attraction for the precious metals and some other substances. Its use is of unquestionable value in extracting gold or silver from sweepings, in the treatment of gold-bearing quartz in batteries, barrels, pans, arastras, &c., or in amalgamating silver ores in which the sil- ver has been reduced to a metallic condition. Fig. 38. CUPELLATION FuRKACE. Fig. 39. CuPELLATiON OF GoLD AND SiLVER.— This process is based on the re- fractory nature of these precious metals and their affinity for lead in a state of fusion, conjoined with the well known tendency of the latter metal to ox- idize Avhile being subjected to the action of heat. The alloy, composed of lead, gold, and silver, or lead and gold or silver, is fused in a furnace con- structed with apertures for the admission of a blast of air, and the exit of the litharge, vapors, &c., dissipated by the heat. Figs. 33 and 39 represents a furnace of this kind. The- iron pan is 4 ft. in diam. with a throat, /, 16 EEFIlSriJSrG OF GOLD AND SILVER. 981 inches long and 12 wide for the escape of the litharge, which falls upon the cast-iron plate, g. The pan is filled with wood-ashes, marl, bone-ashes, or a combination of pulverized limestone and clay, well beaten together. The bars of lead are passed in at i, where a fire-tile is placed inclining slightly inward, and the blast, introduced at is directed on the surface of the fused alloy on the hearth. This connects the melted lead into an oxide of lead or litharge, which is partially absorbed by the porous substance of the cupel and partially dissipated by tlie heat. If copper, or other inferior metals bo present in the alloj^, they will also be oxidized. The base metals being tluis dissipated, absorbed, and oxidized, the gold (and silver, if any is present) will remain a brilliant mass on the hearth of the furnace' in a nearly pure condition. If any lead remain it can be removed by the humid method of assay. REFijrnsrCr of Gold and SrLVER. — If, after cupellation as above described, ,tho metal obtained be an alloy of gold and silver, it is submitted to, 1st. Quartation : This consists in the alloying of one part of gold witli three parts of silver. 2d. Granulation: This is performed by passing the prepared melted alloy through tlie fine meshes of an iron sieve into water, or upon a bundle of wicker or small branches lying in the vpater. Parting : This is ef- fected by submitting the granulated metal to the action of boiling nitric acid or concentrated sulphuric acid. For this purpose use a glass vessel and 149 parts nitric acid of specific gr. 1.32 to 100 parts of silver. Tiiis dissolves the silver and any base metals that may be present out of the alloy, leaving the gold pure, lleduction : In this process the gold is removed from the dissolv- ing vessel and further treated by boiling in jiitric acid, then Avashed, dried, and melted in a crucible Avith a flux of nitre and cast into ingots. The silver in the parting solution may be precipitated by means of copper plates or by a solution of salt. In the former case the i)recipitate is purified by washing in water, then pressed, melted Avitli saltpetre and pulverized borax, and cast into ingots ; in the latter case the chloride of silver is melted with a flux of carbonate of soda or other suitable flux, then run into bars. Flttxes fob Redtjcing Photographic Wastes.— 1. BlacJc JP'lux— Cream of tartar 8 ozs., saltpetre 4 ozs. Place the mixture upon an iron pan and ignite it with a red-liot coal. When the combustion is completed, the black mass should be powdered and sifted while still hot, and placed in a closely-stoppered bottle to prevent the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Is both a fusing and reducing agent. 2. Muxes for Chloride of Silver— Common rosin, finely pulverized and intimately mixed with the chloride, is an excellent flux. Pul- verized castile soap, molasses, or sugar, are also reliable fluxes for chloride of silver, 3. Mux for Beducing the Ashes of Paper Clippings and Filters— Carhomxte of potash 8 ozs., carbonate of soda 2 ozs. Mix the ashes (previously powdered and sifted through a fine flour sieve, to cleanse them from impurities and foreign matters) thoroughly with their own weight of the flux ; fill a Hessian crucible about three-quarters full of the compound ; scatter a thin layer of salt over the mass, and place on the fire. 4. Flux for Developer Drainings — When these have been prepared by adding a solution of salt (after the black powder has been thoroughly dried), it may be mixed with its weight of the following flux, placed in the crucible, and submitted to the fire : carbonate of potash 10 ozs., saltpetre 2 ozs. An excellent flux. 5. Flux for Collodion Film ^s/tes— Carbonate of potash 16 ozs., carbonate of soda 2 ozs. Use 4 ozs. of flux to every 5 ozs- of ashes, and proceed as with the last. G. Flux for Boasted Sul2yhide of Silver— CarhonatQ of potash 714 ozs., carbonate of soda 5 ozs. Use 14 ozs, sulphide to IG ozs. of flux, and treat as before described. 7. Flux for Toning Bath Precijntate-Gold pre- cipitate (dry) 8 ozs., saltpetre G to 7 ozs. Fill the crucible not over half full, bring to a bright red heat, and the gold obtained will be nearly pure. 8. Flux for Chloride of Silver— Garhonate of potash 8 ozs., powdered rosin 1 oz. Mix the chloride (well dried) with half its weight of the flux, tamp the crucible jiearly three-quarters full, with a thin layer of salt on top, and submit to the fire. 9. Flux for Old Collodion i^iZms— Saltpetre 8 ozs., carbonate of potash 4 ozs. Use half as much flux as ashes. To obtain the best results from these fluxes, they must be kept in well-stoppered bottles. 082 DESClllPTIONH OF FUKNACEH, ETC. DESCRIPTIONS OF FURNACES USED IN ROASTING ORES. Figs. 40 li the i'nnnel,;), jind dischar^^cd lliroiigli the opcnin<(, d, .'59 ins. lon.i,' and 4 wide, with a iilngcd iron door, into tl)0 fun- nel, CjWliich carries itoutside the furnace. The cog-wliecls Ijy wliich the heartli is rotated, and tlie balls and rollers on wliich it rests, arc shown at (j and h. Fig. 45.'-FUENACE FOE EOASTIXG ORE. Fig. 46. Furnace for Operating Crucible. Fig. 47. DESCRIPTION OF FURNACES. 985 Fig. 40 represents e flame should be very little, if any, larger than those represented in tha cuts. With many kinds of a refractory character very thiii specimens should be selected, as thereby fusion is greatly promoted, where otherwise it would be impossible. The size of the whole assay should be less than the bulk of a small pea. Many minerals are absolutely infusible without a flux to aid reduction. The substances in common use as fluxes, are : carbonate of soda, borax, bi- sulphate ofpotassa, and salt of phosphorus or microcosmic salt. The carbon- ate of soda should be free from sulphuric acid, as any contamination will induce a reddish tint in the glass obtained by the fusion of silica. To obtain the full energy of borax it should be vitrified by melting, on a sheet of iron or in a crucible, common borax into a clear, transparent glass, which is sub- sequently pulverized and set away in glass stoppered bottles for use as required. This mvst be kept where it will not absorb damp or moisture, which ruins it for use. To prepare bi-sulphate ofpotassa, mix in a porcelain cup 2 ozs. pulv. sulphate of potassa and 1 oz. sulphuric acid ; heat over an alcohol lamp until the mixture assumes a quiet, clear, transparent appearance. It is then removed from the fire and poured on a piece of sheet iron. It is used for testing ore for bromine and iodine. To prepare salt of phosphorus, dissolve 16 parts of sal-ammoniac in a small quantity of boiling water, then add 100 parts of crystallized phosphate of soda, boilincf gently the whole, then set off to cool. The salt of phosphorus is deposited in small crystals. Too much heat while boiling will cause decomposition. The fluxes should be carefully pulverized and mixed with the powdered mineral in the mixing scoop previous to being inserted in the paper tubes and placed on the charcoal. Tough silver ore may be treated in small pieces, and three times as much lead as silver should be used. Proportion of borax should be about 60-lOOOths, but more may be added if necessary. Soda, when used, may preferably be added in small successive quantities. The paper tubes for receiving the assay are formed by cutting note paper into strips 1^ ins. by 1, and winding the strips around the small wooden cylinder (above noted) so as to form a tube, in which the asi=ayis packed previous to placing it on the charcoal. One part of the tube should project a little over the cylinder, and this projecting part should be turned down so as to close one end. In addition to the apparatus above noted, the assayer should have on hand a quantity of fine platinum wire (bent at one extremity into a circle one or two lines in diameter) for holding the assay during the operation ; also, platinxim foil, for enveloping minerals that decrepitate. The following chemicals, etc., will also prove useful in many cases as reliable tests : 1. Tin-foil, for using with various per-oxides of metals to reduce them to protoxides. By touching the assay, previously heated in the reducing-flame, with the extremity of the tin-foil, a very small quantity of a metallic oxide may at once be detected, 2. Anhydrous bisulphate of potash, used for de- tecting lithia. It should be kept (well pulverized) in a bottle where it will not absorb moisture, 3. Saltpetre is used in detecting manganese. It devel- opes the peculiar amethystine color when the amount of this mineral is too small to color glass without this re-agent. The heated globule is touched with the point of a crystal, just at the instant of suspending the blast. The fused mass swells, foams, and either turns immediately colored, or becomes so soon, upon cooling. 4. Boracic acid and iron wire is used for testing for phosphoric acid. 5. Mtrate of Cobalt (ipure) in solution, is used for distin- guishing alumina and magnesia. Use a platinum wire inserted in cork stopper to apply a drop when required for use. G. Gypsum and flvor, as tests of each other. Two parts of calcined gypsum and one of fluor, when intermixed and heated, fuse into a clear glass, presenting a milk-white en- D94 TEST TUJiES, CUPELLATION, &C. amol on coolinjj. 7. Oxalate of 2Tickd, or Nitrate of Nickel, is used to detect potash. It should be free from cobalt, for which it may bo tested by treat- ing it with borax ; the result Hhould give a brown, not a blue bead. The behavior of different minerals before the blow-pipe is various. Some are so refractory as to bo wholly infusible ; some specimens melt only at the edfres ; others are easily fused, while some are dissii)ated wholly or in part. Kobell's scale for representing the various degrees of fusibility by figures, is as follows: 1. Gray Antimony. 2. Nairoliie. 3. Cinnamon Stone (Var. of garnet). 4. Black Hornblende. 5. Feldspar. G. Chrondro- dite. The fusibility, when equal to that of natroliac. is represented by 2 ; or if like hornblende, by 4, etc. The tost tubes above noted are used to determine the presence of water and other volatile components of various ores. The mode of operation ia exhibited by Fig. 59, in which A represents the tube, B the mineral under treatment in the flame of a spirit lamp, and C the aqueous or volatile pro- ducts as usually condensed on the np])er part of the tube. Acid fumes may be detected by inserting a strip of litmus or other test paper in the up- per part of the tube ; the fumes, if acid, v/illturn the paper red. CurELLAXioN. The object of this process is to separate gold and silver from lead, by absorbing and oxidizing the base metal while the other is left pure. Fig. GO rej)resents the manner in which this process is performed by the blow-pipe. A is the assay under treatment, C is the cupel, and B is the cupel holder. A circular perforation, about J in. each Avay, is made in a firm piece of charcoal ; in this cavity place some moistened bone-ashes, pressed down smooth ; dry, and on this place the assay, and submit to the ac- tion of the outer flame. Under this treatment fusion takes place ; the lead is eliminated as an oxide and is absorbed by the bone ashes, while the sil- ver is left as a small brilliant globule in the cavity. As usually performed, the assay is treated in a cupel made of bone-ashes (or in a small hollow on charcoal, containing bone-ashes, as above noted), Avhere the air has free admission. The assay being melted, the action of the atmosphere effects the oxidation of the lead, which disappears iu the porous cupel, being absorbed by the bone-ashes. Fijj, 59. Fig. 60. HYDROSTATIC BALANCE, &C. 995 The specific gravity of a, mineral is determined by tlic blow-pipe bal- ance, which is adapted 'for hydrostatic weigliings, as represented by Fig. 61, where A is the balance whose scales are suspended by threads of unequal length. To obtain a density by the balance, the inineral a must be placed in a sling suspended by a iiair or a filament of silk from the small hook below the scale b. The ore, thus suspended ou the thread, is weighed and Fig. 61.— Hydrostatic Balance, &c. the contents noted. The mineral, still suspended, is next immersed about J in. below the surface of the water, in the glass vessel c. All adherent bubbles of air are carefully wiped away from the ore ; it is now weighed a Becoud time, and the loss by immersion calculated. By the specific grav- ity, or density of a mineral, is understood its weight as compared with tliat of an equal bulk of distilled water, at the temp, of 00° Fahr. The preceding instructions cannot fail to prove of immense utility to the operator in proceeding with the practical tests noted in the following elab- orate details relating to minerals, etc. HOW TO IDENTIFY AND TEST METALLIC ORES : CONDENSED SYNOPSIS OF THE CHEMISTRY, GEOGNOSTIC SITUATION, &C., OF METALS. Characteristics of Metals. — Metals are distinguished by the i^roperties of fu.sibility, malleability, ductility, tenacity-, ela,sticity, crystalline texture, and brilliancy, combined Avith the quality of conducting heat and electricity. GOLD. — This metal is seldom found in its native purity ; it is found only in its metallic state in combination with other metals, generally in veins perv\ading primary and secondary rocks, as granite, slate, hornstone, quartz, limestone, sandstone, gneiss, mica-slate, mica, and sometimes in graywacke and tertiary strata ; also in veins of silver, copper, antimony, zinc, lead, iron ore, barytes, &c. The attrition of the elements operating on the containing rocks and metallic lodes during uncounted ages, has washed thousands of millions into the beds of streams, the margins of i-ivers, and alluvium or drift deposits. In the primary rocks it is found mainly in schi.stose or slaty fissures. In external appearance gold is of a golden or orange yellow color, pass- ing into grayish or brass yellow, and is the heaviest of metals except pla- tina. It is the most ductile, tenacious, and malleable of all the metals.' On being struck with a hammer it will flatten out ; iron and copper i-)yrites, and yellow mJca, which resemble it, will crumble under this test. Inter- nally it is bright yellow, shining, glistening and metallic. It lias equal axes like the cube, has no cleavage, has a hackly fracture, and often exists crystalUzcd in cubes, octohedrons, rhomboidal dodecahedrons, and tetra- hedrons. ' 99G SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, AO. Gold is fusible with tlio blow-plpo (use the reducing flame with carbon, ate of soda for lliix), inelts at 255)0°, is soluble in nitro-muriatie acid, -which is simply 2 ])arts muriatic acid and 1 part nitric acid, and remains unal- tered by exposure to simplo acids, air, or moisture. Nitric acid (aqua fortis) will dissolve any suspected brass filings in gold dust. Specific grav- ity 19.20 to 19.5. ly Solutions of Gold (Peroxide), Ammonia produces a yellow precip- itate (aurate of ammonia or fulminating gold) ; Ferrocyanide of Fotassuivi produces an emerald green color ; Oxalic Acid produces a precipitate of metallic gold ; Protosnlphate of Iron produces in concentrated solutions an instant precipitate of metallic gold. In dilute solutions a blue coloring is first perceived, followed by a brown-colored precipitate ; Potassa (in heated solutions), after a time produces a trifling reddish-brown precipitate, con- sisting of teroxide of gold mixed with terchloride of gold and potassa. Protochloride of Tin, to which a drop of nitric acid has been added, im- parts a reddish purple color to very dilute solutions ; in concentrated solu- tions a red-purple precipitate (purple of Cassius) is formed. A Bar of Metallic Zinc precipitates metallic gold in the form of a brown coating. PLATINUM. — This metal is mainly found in alluvium or drift, some- times in granite^ syenite, &c., combined witli gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, &c,, but always in the metallic state in round grains and rolled pieces about the size of peas, and like largo iron filings. In color platinum is steel-gray, nearly resembling silver, but not quite so bright. In lustre it is shining and glistening ; in structure it is some- times lameller ; is malleable and ductile ; with hardness almost equal to that of iron. Platinum is infusible in the hottest furnaces, but melts readily before the reducing flame of the compound blow-pipe at a temp, of 3080°. Dis- solves in nitro-muriatic acid, and is unaffected by exposure to air, mois- ture, or simple acids. Specific gravity 20.98. In Solutions of Platinum (Peroxide), Potassa produces a yellow crys- talline precipitate, consisting of the double chloride of platinum and potas- sium ; the addition of hydrochloric acid favors its formation ; it is insolu- ble in acids, bxit dissolves in potassa Avith the aid of lieat ; it is very slightly soluble in water, and insoluble in strong alcohol ; Chloride of Tin, in pres- ence of free hydrochloric acid, imparts to solutions of bichloride of i)lati- uum a deep-brown color without producing any precipitate ; Subnitrate of Mercury produces a yellowish red precipitate. SILVER.— This metal is found native, as also combined with muriatic acid and sulphur in primary and secondary slates. Great quantities exist in the metallic state combined with gold, copper, arsenic, and lead, in rocks composed of mica-slate, gneiss, clay-slate, graywacke, Native Silver occurs in primitive and secondary rocks, irregular quartz, &c., with the ores of copper, silver, cobalt. In color it is white, sometimes a tarnished gray, or reddish shade. It occurs in plates and spangles, and crystallized in tubes, octohedrons, rhomboidal docabedrons and tetrahe- drons, dentiform, capillary, ramose, reticulated, rarely large, and generally disseminated. When broken if appears fine and hackly, with a bright, shining lustre. Its color and malleability are prominent characteristics. It is composed of silver with a little iron, antimony, copper, or arsenic, is soluble in nitric acid, is fusibl* into a globule, and melts at ISTS** Fahr. Oxide of silver with borax in oxidizing flame, before the blow-pipe, forms a white opaque glass ; in reducing flame, with carbonate of soda, readily re- duces to metal. Specific gravity 10 to 10.5. Antimonial Silver, composed of silver, 84 parts ; antimony, 14 parts ; oc- curs in granite and clay-slate, combined with the other ores of silver ; is found in curved laminie, also in grains, in cylinders. Is massive ; yields to the knife ; has a coiichoidal fracture ; and is fusible under the blow-pipe SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY. 997 (evolving nntimonial vapors) into ii button of silver. The characteristics are, the antimonial vapor, a silver or tin-wliito color, the want o£ ductility, and not giving a blue globule with borax. Sulphuret of Silver, composed of silver, 85 parts ; sulphur, 15 parts ; a very productive ore ; occurs in the primary and secondary rocks ; is of a dark, lead-gray color ; frequently with an iridiscent tinge, and exists in tubes and octohedrons ; also ramose, reticulated, araori)lious, lamelliform, and in plates. The characteristics are, malleability ; imperfect cleavage ; flat, conchoidal fracture ; can be cut with a knife ; has less specific gravit}; than native silver, and fnses Avith intumeseuce and a sulphurous odor un- der the blow-pipe. Specific gravity, 7. Brittle Sulphuret of Silver, composed of silver, G6. 5 parts ; antimony, 10 parts ; sulphur, 12 parts ; iron, 5 parts ; arsenic and sulphur, 5 parts ; is a very rich ore, and occurs in the primary rocks with otlier ores of silver. It exists in crystalline structure and diffused ; also in hexahedral prisms, and is of a dark, lead-gray hue, or bluish-gray, passing into iron-black. The structure is foliated ; crystals mostly intercept each other, Avith a dull, me- tallic lustre. The ore is soft and brittle ; the fracture is conchoidal. Solu- ble in nitric acid, and fusible, with the emission of sulphur, antimony and arsenic, into a globule of silver surrounded by a slag. The character- istics, compared with other ores, are its darlc color and brittleness ; from sulphuret of silver it differs in its lack of malleabilit3\ Specific gravity, 7. Salphureted Antimonial Silver {Red Silver), composed of silver, (JO parts ; antimony, 20.3 parts ; sulphur, 14.7 parts ; oxygen, 5 parts ; is an excellent ore, and is found in primary rocks, mainly in mica-slate, granite and por- phyry. It possesses a metallic adamantine lustre ; structure is imperfectly foliated, has a red color of various tints, passing into lead-gray and grayish- black ; the powder is crimson red. It exists in masses and grains, also dentritic, capillary, membranous, and crystallized in hexahedral prisms, terminated by hexahedral i^risms ; also in double six-sided pyramids ; is translucent, opaque. The characteristics are, malleability, differs from sulphuret of arsenic in leaving a globule of silver, and in possessing greater specific gravity. Is fusible, with emission of antimonial fumes. Sulphuret of mercury volatil- izes under the blow-pipe. The red oxide of copper is readily reduced to the metallic state by the blow-pipe ; specular oxide of iron is rendered magnetic by the same process. Specific gravity, 6.20 to G.68. Muriate of Silver (Horn Silver), composed of muriate of silver, 88.7 parts; oxide of iron, G parts ; alumine, 1.75 parts ; sulphuric acid (oil of vit- riol), 0.25 parts ; an excellent ore ; is found in the primary rocks, with other ores. In color is pearl gray, greenish or reddish-blue, yellowish or greenish- white and brown. In lustre is glistening and wavy. Is malleable ; feebly translucent ; becomes brown by exposure. Exists massive, investing otlier minerals, amorphous, reniform, and crystallized in tubes, octohedrons, and acicular prisms. The characteristics are, the emission of muriatic acid fumes before the blow-pipe ; fusibility in the flame of a cahdle ; softness ; yields to the knife and to pressure. Abraded on damp or wet zinc it leaves a film of silver. Muriate of mercury volatilizes before blow-pipe without leaving a film of silver. Specific gravity, 5.5. MERCURY. — This metal rarely occurs in its native stat6. By far the greater part is found in the form of Sulphuret of Mercury {Ci7inabar), composed of mercury, 84.5 parts ; sul- phur, 14. 75 parts. It occurs mainly in new red sandstone ; occasionally in limestone, mica-slate, graywacke, gneiss, deposits of bituminous shale, com- bined with black mineral resin, alluvium, clay, gray sandstone and limestone, and in rocks of the coal formation. In color it is scarlet or carmine, shading off into cochineal red and lead-gray, occasionally witli a yellow tint. la tmnsluccut or opaque. Occurs massive and crystallized in acute rhomboids; 998 SYNOPSIS OF MKTALLIFRGY, &C. certain kinds with a yellow tint; is somctiincs found in thin pI:itof< or tubnlai crystiils. Lustre is adamantino, varying to metallic ; occasionally shining silky. The fracture is granular or fibrous. Tlie characteristics are, the emission of sulphur vapors, Avhilc the com- pound volatilizes before the blow-pipe. Tiiis test determines the difference between this ore and red silver ore, arsenate of cobalt, red oxide of copper, and sulphuret of arsenic. Specific gravity, 8. COPPER. — Copper is found in ])rimary and transition rocks, syenite, pandstono, coal strata and alluvial ground. It occurs in beds and largo blocks. The ores of copper are the following : Native Copper is nearly pure, and is found in the veins of primary and secondary rocks. In color is copper-red, brownish-black ; tarnished exter- nally ; is malleable, fusible at 2518° Fahr., and soluble in acids. Occurs dentritic, reuiform, capillary, amorphous ; also crystallized in tubes and octohedrons. Specific gravity, 8.5. Gray Copper, composed of copper, 52 parts ; iron, 23 parts ; and sulphur, 14 parts ; is found with other ores of copper. In color is steel-gray, verging into black, with brownish streak. Is brittle, with metallic lustre, and small crystals. Specular oxide of iron gives out arsenical fumes Avhen heate"^ ; is magnetic, and softer than arsenical iron. Gray copper ore is fnsible but very refractory. Specific gravity, 5. Copper Pyrites, composed of copper, 40 to 35.3 ; iron, 40 to 33: sulphnr, 20 to 35; a very valuable ore; is found in beds and veins in primary and second- ary rocks as well as in other prominent formations. The color is brass-- yellow, with metallic lustre ; lamellar structure ; tessular cleavage, and uneven fracture. Is the most abundant ore of copper ; yields to the knife. It occurs dendritic ; stalactical ; amorphous ; in concretions, and crystallized in tetrahedrons and dodecahedrons. Is fnsible, and tinges borax green. Iron pyrites does not tinge borax green. Lacks malleability. Native gold is malleable and native bismuth is lamellated. Specific gravity, 4.3. Sidphitret of Copper, composed of copper, 76.50 parts ; sulplmr 22, ; iron, 0.50 ; is found located same as the last noted ore. Exterior color is blackish steel-gray, occasionally iridescent ; internally is lead-gray. Has lamellar structure ; conchoidal fracture ; is easily sectile, with brilliant faces ; crumbles readily, and has equal axes like the cube. The characteristics "are, fusibility, with the emission of sulphur fumes ; is also soluble in hot nitric acid. Is distinguished from gray copper oi-e by being softer, also by the latter decrepitating, before the biow-pix)e. A very productive ore. Specific gravity, 5. Blue Carbonate of Copper, composed of oxide of copper, 70 parts ; carbonic acid, 24 parts ; w.ater, G parts ; is found in the primary and secondary rocks. The color is blue, fracture irregularly foliated, generally showing broad fibres. Occurs massive ; diffused ; stalactical ; incrnsting, and crystal- lized. The chai-acteristics are, solubility in nitric acid with effervescence, is refractory without a flux ; fused with borax yields a green glass ; does not become magnetic under the blow-pipe, and is insoluble in water. Copper melts at 2548o. Red Oxide of Copper, composed of copper, 88.5 to 91 parts ; oxygen,from 11.5 to 9 parts ; is found Avith other ores of copper. Is of a red color, lamel- lated structure, metallic, adamantine lustre ; is brittle, translucent, easily sectile ; has irregular and conchoidal fracture. Is found amorphous and crystallized in octahedrons and cubes. The prominent characteristics are, easy reduction and solubility ; is soluble in nitric acid with effervescence and in muriatic acid without. Oxide of copper fuses in the oxidizing flame, before the blow-pipe ; in the reducing flame forms metal ; Avith borax, in the oxidizing flame, colors the glass green ; in the reducing flame, browu-red. Specii5e gravity, 4 to 5.9. SYNOPSIS OF METALLUKGY, &C. 999 IRON. — Occurs both in primary and secondary rocks. Tlie principal ores from whicli iron is extracted are the following : Broxon Hematite. — This ore is found in primary rocks and occasionally in secondary formations. It yields a superior iron. In color it is brown, yellowish, or blackish-brown ; on the outside resembling black glazed earth- en-ware. It yields to the knife ; is fibrous in structure, with silky and res- inous lustre. It occurs stalactical, tuberous, nodular, and amorphous. A variety of this ore lias a compact structure, devoid of lustre, with yellow- ish-brown streak, and conchoidal or earthy fracture. Specxdar Oxide of Iron {Iron Glance), composed of iron, G9 parts ; oxygen, 31 parts ; yields an excellent malleable iron, and occurs mainly in primary rocks, associated with magnetic iron, red hematite, quartz, &c. ; occurs also in secondary rocks. In color is steel-gray, with a highly polish- ed surface ; often tarnished. Occurs crystallized in pyramidal dodecahe- drons, hexahedral tables ; also massive, disseminated, in concretions. Has a cherry-red streak, lamellar structure ; brilliant lustre ; is slightly attracted by the magnet ; infusible ; and insoluble iu acids. Affords a red powder on being heated, and becomes magnetic. Specific gravity, .5.52. Eed Hematite, composed of oxide of iron, 90 parts ; silica, 2 parts ; lime, Ipart; yields a first-class iron for drawing and rolhng ; is found mainly in primarj^ rocks ; frequently in lead mines. In color is blood-red; also steel- gray. Yields readily to the knife ; occurs massive, and in plates; also re- niform, globular, and pulverulent. It adheres to the tongue; the fracture is uneven and earthy. Is infusible, but becomes magnetic. Specific gravity, 4.75. Spathic Iron {Clay Iron Ore), composed of oxide of iron, 58 parts; car- bonic acid, 35 parts; oxide of manganese, 4.25 parts ; magnesia, 0.75 parts; lime, 0.05 parts ; yields an iron well adapted for steel making ; is found principally in carboniferous limestone, arranged in thick formations ; also in veins in granite, mica-slate, clay-slate, gneiss, and gray wacke ; associated •with ores of silver, lead, and cobalt, but seldom in nickel or bismuth ; more frequently with galena, iron pyrites, antimony ore, and copper ore. In otlier veins it is associated with brown, red, and black iron ore, quartz, and calcareous spar ; occurs also filling up amygdaloidal cavities in trai>rocks. The colors of the ore are, yellow, brown, white, and black. It yields to the knife, is easily broken ; the structure is foliated or lamellar, vpith shining, vitreous lustre, and white, or yellowish-brown streak. It occurs massive, disseminated with pyramidal impressions; also in granular distinct concretions ; nodular and crystallized. Crystals are usually small, and exist in groups. The chemical tests are : effervescence -with muriatic acid ; is infusible, blackens, and becomes magnetic. Heated with borax, it makes an olive- green glass. It m.-fy be distinguished from earthy minerals by its -weight, from other iron ores by its crystalline foliated cleavage, and from blendo by its yielding magnetic iron. Specific gravity, about 4. Magnetic Oxide of Iron {Iron *S'and), composed of oxide of iron, 85.50 parts ; oxide of titanium, 14 parts ; oxide of manganese, 0.50 parts ; an ex- cellent ore, yielding from 50 to 90 per cent, of the best bar iron, is generally found imbedded in trai)-rocks, and styled mountain ore. The color is iron- black ; is found in octahedral crystals, also in minute grains. The powder is black ; the fracture conchoidal ; intensely magnetic, and infusible by the blow-pipe. Peroxide of iron remains unchanged in the oxidizing flame of the blow- I)ipe ; in the reducing flame, blackens and becomes magnetic ; with borax, in the oxidizing flame, forms glass bright-red while hot, pale dirty-red when cold ; in the reducing flame, forms glass varying from bottle-green to black- green ; with carbonate of soda, on charcoal, reduces to metal as a dark magnetic powder. Specific gravity,. G.22. 1000 SYNOPSIS OF METALLUIIGY, &C. Tests for Iron. — Prussiato of ]x)ta.sli added to iron dissolved in an acid causes a blue precipitate, and an infusion of galls a black precipitate. LEAD. — The principal ore from which the great mass of the lead ol commerce is obtained is the stilplmret of lead, or r/alena. It is com- posed of lead, sulphur, lime, and silex, and is often combined with ores of silver, and frequently with ores of zinc, copper, and iron. It occurs in beds, veins, and imbedded masses in primary jind secondary rocks ; fre- quently in the latter, and very often in limestone ; also in alluvial deposits. Tiie shades of color are bluish-gray, lead-gray, and on the outside blackish- gray. Is soft ; yields to the knife ; has a lamellated structure ; metallic lustre, very brittle, and opaque Submitted to heat, it first decrepitates, Avitli the emission of sulphur fumes, then melts into a globule of lead ; blende, molybdena and graphite, which resemble this ore, arc infusible. Tests for Lead. — Oxalic acid produces in neutral solutions of oxide of lead a white precipitate. Glauber's salts and an infusion of galls, give to a solution of this metal a white precipitate. Oxide of lead, in oxidizing flame before the blow-pipe, turns first blue, then fuses to a glass of orange color ; with carbonate of soda, on charcoal, in the reducing flame, reduces to metal ; with borax, forms glass yellow while liot^ colorless Avhile cold. TIN. — The regular ore from which this metal is extracted is : Oxide of Tin ( Tinstone), composed of tin, 77.6 parts ; oxygen, 21.5 parts; oxide of iron, 0.25 part ; silica, 0.75 part ; usually occurs in primary rocks in veins, traversing gneiss, granite, mica-slate, poqAyry, and clay-slate, and is generally found with iron pyrites, chlorite, quartz, topaz, fluor, &c The metal obtained from ores thus located is called block tin. The grain tin of commerce is obtained from the stream tin ore found in alluvium and drift. The colors are black, brown, green, red, white, and yellow. It is brittle, gives sparks with steel ; has a lamellar structure, with adamantine or resinous lustre, and grayish-white streak. Occurs iu crystals, and in masses from the size of grains to that of the fist. On a chemical test it decrepitates, but by the blow-pipe it may be reduced to tlie metallic state on charcoal. It may be distinguished from spathic iron by the latter leaving an iron button under the blow-pipe. Blende cannot be reduced, and is not so hard. Specific gravity, 6.7 to 7. Tests for Tin. — In solution of tin oxide, phosphate of soda produces a white precipitate. A bar of metallic zinc precipitates tin in small grayish- white metallic spangles. To a solution containing the metal, present a per- fectly clean sheet of iron, the result is metallic tin. Oxide of tin, in the oxidizing flame, before the blow-pipe, presents a dirty-yellow color ; with carbonate of soda, in reducing flame, on charcoal, reduces to metal ; with borax forms a clear glass. ZINC. — One of the ores of zinc is : Blende {Mock Lead, False Galena, Black Jack), composed of zinc, sul- phur, iron, and silica ; is found in veins of primary and secondary rocks, usually united with iron and copper, with galena. It is frequently used after roasting in the preparation of brass, but is usually too much dissemi^ nated in its gangue to make its extraction profitable. The colors are brown, yellow, and black. It is brittle, yields to the knife, has a foliated structure, with shining, adamantine lustre. It occurs massive, disseminated, lamelliforra, in granular concretions, and crystal- lized. It decrepitates when heated ; evolves the smell of rotten eggs when thrown into oil of vitriol ; is infusible, and does not tinge borax green. Specific gravity, 3.7 to 4. Calamine, composed of oxide of zinc and carbonic acid, is found in veins, often associated with oxide of iron, and occasionally with galena ; is also found in beds, nests, filling up or lining hollows, in conglomerato rock and secondary limestone. SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, &C. 1001 The colors are sometimes nearly "white, at others gray, greenish, or brown- yellowisli. Is easily sectile. Occurs compact, amorphous, pseudo- morphous, crystallized, and cupriferous. In chemical tests it dissolves with efferveseuce in heated nitric acid, or muriatic acid, and is infusible. Oxide of zinc, in the oxidizing flame, before the blow-pipe, exhibits a whitish-green color ; while hot this oxide is slightly yellow— Avhen cold is white : with borax forms glass, which in an intermittant flame becomes milky ; in the reducing flame, on charcoal, reduced to metal, which readily sublimes. Eed Ore of Zinc, composed of oxide of manganese and oxide of zinc, is found in primary and transition rocks, limestone, and iron mines. It is brittle ; yields to the knife ; has a foliated structure and shining lustre, becoming dull by exposure. The color is red ; it occurs massive and dis- seminated. In chemical tests it dissolves with effervescence in strong acids. Is distinguishable by its weight and iufusibility . Specific gravity, G.22. MANGANESE.— This metal in its metallic state is of no avail in the arts. The ore, which subserves all required uses without preparation, is called BlacJc Oxide of Manganese. — ^It is composed of manganese, oxygen, and water ; is found in imbedded masses and veins in primary rocks, and often with ores of iron. The color is of a dark steel-gray, with metallic lustre, black streak, and conchoidal earthy fracture. It occurs massive, in fibrous concretions, and crystallized. In a chemical test is decomposed by being thrown into water, and turns the water green. On exposure to the air ab- sorbs so much oxygen that it falls into powder. Is infusible alone, but with borax yields a purple globule ; becomes brown by lieat ; with borax, in the oxidizing flame, much oxide employed, the glass is black ; little oxide em- ployed, the glass is of an amethyst color — in the reducing flame, and on charcoal, this latter globule becomes colorless, and so remains if quickly cooled ; with soda in the oxidizing flame, and on platinum foil, forms an opaque green glass. COBALT. — This metal is of no avail in its metallic state for use in the arts ; is in use mainly by painters and bronzers, as zaffre, smalt, &c. The ore producing them is. Arsenical Cobalt, composed of cobalt, arsenic, and sulphur, is found combined with silver, bismuth, nickel, arsenic, and copper, in veins trav- ersing primary rocks. The color is silver-white, with a reddish copper tint. Has a metallic lustre ; is brittle ; difiicult to cut ; with conchoidal fracture. Occurs massive, reticulated, dendritic, stalactical, and crystallized in cubes and octahedrons. Fused with borax it yields a blue glass. Turns black, with the emission of garlic fumes, in the blaze of a candle. The oxide is unchangeable by itself (before the blow-pipe), but with carbonate of soda, on charcoal, forms a gray magnetic powder ; with borax, both in oxidizing and reducing flame, gives a deep blue bead. Specific gravity, 6.30 to 7.30. For full directions for preparing smalt, see page 283. NICKEL, — The ore from which this metal is derived is. Arsenical Nickel {Knpfer, or Copper Nickel), composed of nickel, arsenic, sulphur, lead, iron, and cobalt, is found associated with cobalt. It occurs massive, reticulated, and botryoidal. In color is copper red, with metallic lustre ; is cut with difficulty ; forms a green solution in aqua fortis, and emits garlic fumes when heated. Oxide of nickel (before the blow-pipe) is infusible alone ; in the oxidizing flame, with borax, forms an orange-red globule which becomes nearly colorless on cooling ; in the reducing flame, on charcoal, the bead becomes gray ; in the reducing flame, with soda, on charcoal, reduces to a magnetic jjowder. Specific gravity, 6.60 to 7.70. BISMUTH. — This mineral is often found in its pure state fit for imme- diate use, but more frequently associated with cobalt, iron pyrites, galena, arsenic, silver, &c., in the primary rocks, especially in gneiss, quaitz, and mica-slate. In color is silver-Avhite, with a reddish tint. Is softer thaij 1002 SYNOPSIS OP METALLURGY, &C. copper ; tarnishes ; has a metallic lustre, lamellar structure, and melts ai 47{j*^. Before the blow-pipe, bismuth fuses and gives off inodorous fumes. On charcoal it becomes surrounded with a dark brown oxide, which is pale- yellow on coolinj? ; the flame directed on the coatinpc is not tinged ; ulti- mately the metal is wholly vaporized. The oxide of bismutli, with carbon- ate of^soda, on charcoal, reduces to metal. Specific gravity, 9. ANTIMONY.— The ore from which commercial autimoiiy is obtained is the Sulplniret of Antimony, composed of antimony, 74 parts ; sulphur, 2G parts ; and found chiefly "in granite, mica-slate, and gneiss, associated with ores of iron, copper, arsenic, blende and galena. It occurs crystallized and massive, composed of delicate threads or needles. Is brittle ; yields to the knife ; has fibrous fracture and splendid lustre. Tested in a candle-flame it melts. The ores of antimony afford fumes usually white on charcoal, which are inodorous. The oxides form, with soda on the platinum wire, a clear, colorless bead, whicli becomes white on cooling ; on charcoal they are reduced. In an open tube, antimony gives white funics, which coat tlie glass and vaporize easily on a new application of the heat, without fusion to globules. Specific gravity, 4 to 4.80. GRAPHITE (Black Lead, Plumbago), composed of carbon, 9 parts ; iron, 1 part ; is found in clay-slate, also in the coal formation. The Dixon Crucible Co., of Jersey City, N. J., obtain their graphite from the " Black Lead Mountain," near the village of Ticonderoga, Essex Co., N. Y. The ore is chiefly of the foliated variety, interspersed in gneiss and quartz in veins. Graphite is also found in great abundance near Ottawa, Canada. ROCK SALT is found in secondary strata ; frequently associated witli gypsum, marl, clay, &c. Near Goderidi, in Canada, at a depth of about 1000 ft., there is a bed of rock-salt 14 to 40 ft. thick. The salt of Salina and Syracuse, N. Y., is obtained from wells of saltwater 150 ft. and upwards in depth, which are borings in saliferous rocks, which here are from 700 to 1000 ft. thick. From 35 to 45 gals, of the water yields a bushel of salt, while of sea water it takes 350 gals, for the same quantity. PRECIOUS STONES. — Diamonds are found in association with sand or alluvium which contain grains of gold. In Brazil the diamond district is called Minas Geraes, 50 miles by 25, near Tejuco. The emerald, garnet, amethyst, tourmaline, chalcedony, topaz, chryspraso, chrysoberyl, sapphire, iolite, spinel, are always found in the primary rocks. The sardonyx, jas- per, carnelian, cacholong, are often found in secondary strata, principally in the trap rocks. Cairngorm is a species of quartz. The exudations which form crystals are a very extensive mode of rock formation in all varieties. For hardness of precious stones see page 925. COAL. — Among the varieties of coal may be noted Anthracite {Blind or Glance Coal), sometimes called stove coal, is found in imbedded masses, veins and beds in primary and secondary rocks, fre- quently in trai>rocks, graywacke, slate, sandstone, &c. Black or Bituminous Coal occurs chiefly in the secondary rocks, some- times in sandstone, limestone, and clay. The various kinds are styled slate, coarse, foliated, and cannel coal. The coal beds vary in thickness from a fraction of an inch to 30 or 40 ft., but seldom exceed 8 ft., and are generally much thinner ; 8 to 10 ft. is the thickness of the principal bed at Pittsburg, Pa. ; 29^ ft., that of the " Mammoth vein" at Wilkesbarre, Pa., 37^ ft. that of one of the two great veins at Pictou, in Nova Scotia. The coal beds, taken together, make up not more than one-fiftieth part of tho coal formation ; that is, there are 50 feet or more of barren rock to 1 foot of coal. An acre of coals 2 ft. thick yields 3000 tons, 3 ft. thick, 4840 tons, and 5 ft., 8000 tons. Lignite (Broion Coal) occurs in secondary rocks, and occasionally ih alluvium. For facts relating to coal, fuel values, &c., see page 627. SYNOPSIS OF METALLURGY, &C. 1003 LIMESTONE, composing most of the rocks below the drift, is a com- pact rock of grayish aud other dull shades of color to black. Consists es- sentially of carbonate of lime. When impure, and therefore good foi making hydraulic lime (lime that will set under water), it is called hyclmvl- ic limestone. ' When composed of carbonate of lime and magnesia it is called dolomite. Wlien containing fossils it is called fossilifei^ons limestone. The limestone rocks owe their origin to the organic remains of various species that have lived and died during past time. The best marble is found in the upper part of the primary, aud lower parts of the secondary rocks. Lime (oxide of calcium), before the blow-pipe, is infusible alone ; with borax, effervesces ; with a comparatively large quantity of borax, forms a clear glass which becomes angular on cooling ; in the flame of the oxyhy- drogen blow-pipe emits a dazzling white light, and fuses at the edges. BORAX {Bihorate of Soda), before the blow-pipe intumeses> and fuses to borax-glass ; with fluor-spar and bisulphate of potash, colors the flame green ; soluble in water ; the solution changes vegetable blues to green. ALUMINA (Sesquoxide of aluminum), before the blow-pipe, remains unaltered both alone and with soda ; fuses with borax with great diffi- culty, also with salt of phosphorus ; moistened with cobalt solution and brought to a high heat, becomes blue ; is not attacked by acids. SULPHUR, heated in an open glass tube, emits fumes of sulphurous acid ; heated with soda, the compound, moistened with water, blackens sil- ver. TELLURIUM (Oxide), before the blow-pipe, colors the flame green, fuses and sublimes ; with borax, in the oxidizing flame, forms a colorless glass ; in the reducing flame the glass becomes gray ; its behavior with car- bonate of soda is similar as with borax ; on charcoal, readily reduces to metal. QUARTZ (Silicic acid), before the blow-pipe, undergoes no change alone ; with soda, readily fuses to a transparent glass. NITRE, before the blow-pipe, deflagrates vividly ; detonates with com- bustible substances ; dissolves readily in water ; not altered by exposure. FLUOR-SPAR (Fluoride of Calcium), before the blow-pipe, decrepitates and fuses to an enamel ; the flame continued, the specimen assumes a cauli- flower ; heated with salt of phosphorus in a glass tube, it etches or rough- ens the inside of the glass. PHOSPHORUS, moistened with sulphuric acid and heated, gives a green, tinge to the flame. CHLORINE.— A substance containing chlorine, combined with the salt of phosphorus and oxide of copper, on the platinum wire, colors the flame deep blue. SODA ( Oxide of Sodium), colors the flame deep yellow. ARSENIC (Oxide), before the blow-pipe, volatilizes in white fumee of a garlic odor ; heated to redness burns with a pale bluish flame. The following additional tests, &c,, for the determination of gold and silver ores, is extracted from Mr. Kustel's incomparable work, Seo. 10. The use of the following systematic proceedmg can be under- stood easily by an example : A silver mineral, for instance, approved as such by an examination on silver, must be observed first as to what lustre it shows, or whether it is dull. Suppose, then, the mineral has a metallic lustre. (See I.) The color must be observed next, and compared with those under I. The ore is fur- ther found to be " lead gray." We have then to proceed from the indicated letter, B, on the right side, to B on the left, and examine accordingly, whether the mineral gives a sublimate or not. If, for instance, no sublimate has been obtained, we must proceed to c, as indicated. On the described examination under c, the mineral appears tough ; it can be cut with a knife. 1004 METALLURGY OF GOLD AND SILVER. Wo go over to Section 10, and see the numberH 2 and 20, Silvcrglance and Hcssitc. The description of both will lead to the right determination of the mineral. I.— Lustre metallic or Sub-metallic. Color, white, greyif5h-white, yellowish-white, or yellow, sec A Color, lead-gray, blackish lead-gray, or iron-black, IJ Color, light steel-gray C Color, reddish lead-gray, J) Color, piuchbcek-brown, E 11. — Lustre Eesinous and Adamantim. (jolor, pearl-gray, yellowish-green, green, olive-green, lemon-yellow, or light yellow, see. F llh—Dull. Color, red, dark red (sometimes externally lead-gray), G Color, blackish-blue, ' // Color, greenish-black, / A It can be cut with a knife, see , a A Cannot be cut ; is brittle, 6 B In a closed tube, no sublimate, even under the plow-pipe, c B It gives a sublimate, with or Avithout the blow-pipe, d G In a closed tube, no sublimate, e G It gives a sublimate, , f I) In a closed tube, dark-red, sublimate. See Sec. 16 (8 or 9). E In a closed or open tube, no sublimate. See Sec. 6 (4). F In a closed or open tube, no sublimate, 7 F Gives, with the aid of the blow-pipe, a slight sublimate, h G In a closed tube, red-brown or reddish-yellow sublimate. Sec. 16 (10). G It gives three sublimates— black, yellow, and gray. Sec. 16 (16). TI In an open or closed tube, no sublimate. Sec. 16 (3 a'). I In an open or closed tube, no sublimate. Sec. 16 (11 a'). a It melts on charcoal to a metallic white globule. Sec. 16 (1). a It melts on charcoal to a metallic yellow or yellowish globule. Sec. 15 (I) . b It melts on charcoal to a globule of metallic lustre, coating the coal white. Sec. 16(17). 6 It decrepitates somewhat, giving, before fusing, a slight, very volatile whitish coating. Sec. 15 (4), or Sec. 16 (22 or 23). i c It can be cut with a knife. Sec. 16 (2 or 20). I c It cannot be cut ; is brittle. Sec. 16 (3 or 4 a or 6), or Sec. 15 (2). i d In a closed tube, it gives a reddish-yellow sublimate. Sec. 16 (6 a'). | e On charcoal it fuses, giving a yellow and white coating. Sec. 15 (3). f In a closed tube, by aid of the blow-pipe, a dark red sublimate. Sec. 16 (II) . g On charcoal it fuses, emits an acrid odor, and leaves globules of silver ; in a closed tube, with bisulphate of potassa, emits no colored vapors. Sec. 16 (12). (/ It gives, with bisulphate of potassa, red-brown vapors. Sec. 16 (13 or 14). h In a closed tube, with bisulphate of potassa, violet vapors. Sec. 16 (15). DESCRIPTION OF GOLD AND SILVER ORES. A. Gold Ores.— Sec. 15. Gold appears mostly in metallic condition, but never free from silver. It is found generally in the form of grains, scales, dust, also in the shape of leaves, threads, or crystals. It is not ascertained but supposed that a part of the gold in iron pyrites does not exist in metallic state, but com. METALLURGY OF GOLD AND SILVER. 1005 Dined with sulphur, or with arsfenic in the arsenical pyrites. The gold is found in combination with the following metals : 1. Silver.— In different proportions. The gold of Gold Hill lode, N. T., contains forty-seven to fifty per cent, of silver ; that of the Com stock lode, thirty to forty-five ; Gila River and Australian gold, three to five per cent. According to the amount of silver, the gold appears more or less whitish. Sixty per cent, of silver renders the alloy white. On charcoal, treated with the oxidation flame, it gives sometimes a bluish-white coating of antimony. With borax, played upoji with reduction flame, a reaction of copper may be observed. 2. With Tellurium. — It contains gold, 26 ; silver, 14 ; tellurium, 59 ; with traces of lead, copper, and antimony ; hardness, 1.5 ; gravity, 5.7 to 6.8 ; lustre, metallic ; color, light gray. In an open tube it emits white fumes, and gives a gray sublimate of tel- lurium. Directing the flame on the sublimate, it melts into transparent drops. The fumes have a peculiar sour odor. On charcoal, it melts to a dark-gray globule. Played upon with the oxidation flame, it gives a white coating, Avhich disappears with a bluish-green color, under the oxidation flame." Continued blowing yields a yellow, bright gold button. 3. With Tellurium cuid Lead.— Gold, 9 ; tellurium, 32 ; lead, 54, with traces of copper, sulphur, and antimony ; H. = 1.5 ; Gr. =7.72 ; color, dark lead-gray. In an oi:»en tube it fumes, and yields a gray sublimate, the upper part of which, formed by antimonious acid, can be driven away by the flame. On charcoal it fumes and gives two coatings — a white one, which is volatile, consisting of tellurous and antimonious acids and sulphate of lead ; the other coating is yellow, less volatile, and consists principally of oxide of lead. Continued blowing leaves a small metallic button, showing gold color when cupelled. 4. With Mercury and Silver. — Gold, 36 ; silver, 5 ; mercury, 58. The gold is found also alloyed with molybdenum, platinum, and rhodium. i?.— SILVER ORES. Sec. 16. Silver is found mostly in combination with sulphur, also alloyed with other metals and substances. It appears often in metallic condition. 1. Native Silver is found crystallized, in threads or filaments. It often contains a small amount of antimony, arsenic, iron, gold, or copper. The native sliver, one variety of the Comstock lode, N. T., contains, silver, 60-85 ; gold, 1.9 ; lead, 8-30 ; copper, 1-5 ; H. = 2.7-3 ; Gr. =- 10.6-11.3. Heated on charcoal, it becomes covered with lead globules, disappearing again when red hot. It gives a yellow coating of lead, and further off, a bluish-white of antimonious acid. It colors the borax glass green with the oxide of copper. a. Combination with Sulphiir.—2. Silver qlance {Sulphuret of Silver). —Silver, 87 ; sulphur, 12.9; H. =2.5; Gr. =6.9-7.2; lustre, metallic; color and streak, blackish lead-gray ; streak, shining. It may be cut like lead. On charcoal, it melts into a dark blue globule, generally emitting metallic silver on the surface on cooling, especially if a small particle of borax glass is added, which dissolves impurities. It yields a silver globule when melted with soda. 3. Stromeyerite {Silver-Copper (jlance). — Silver, 50-53 ; copper, 31 ; sul- fihur, 15 ; H. = 2.5 ; Gr. = 6.2 ; lustre, metallic ; color, blackish lead-gray, n a closed tube, gives sometimes a little sulphur sublimate ; in an open tube, sulphurous acid. On charcoal, it fuses to a steel-blue globule, emit- ting sometimes metallic silver on cooling. Melted with soda, it gives a cop- per button, which yields silver when refined. It occurs in the Heintzelman mine, Arizona. a' . A variety of this ore, containing 40-33 per cent, of silver, with a dull blackish-blue color ; streak, shining ; can be cut ; occurs in Arizona. 4. Sternhergite [Sulphuret of Silver and /ro»).— Silver, SO-33 ; iron, 36 ; lOOG METALLUKdY OF (iOLI) ANT) SILVER. f5ulphur, 00; H. — 1; Gr. = 4.2; metallic lustre ; color, ])inclibcck -brown; fling hot journal boxes is composed of a mixture of sulphur with oil or ase. Used on the hot bearings of steamships, etc., it is unequalled. VOODS HEAVIER THAN WATER.— These are French box, Irish f oak, pomegranate, vine lignum vitae, Indian cedar, eboliy, mahogany, 1 heart of oak. Lignumvitte is one-third heavier than water, pomegranate her more. Cork and poplar are the lightest woody products. V. COMSTOCK LODE MINING PUMP.— The new Chollar Potosi ning pump consists of double columns of 15 in. plungers. The rods with ich these are worked are 14 x 14, each stick being of Oregon pine and 100 ft. in gth. They are locked together and held by iron plates 10 ins. wide and 1 in. ck. The motive power is a compound, condensing, direct acting engine, of ' H. P., the initial cylinder being 10 ft. 10 ins. long, by 33 ins. diam. ; the )ansion cylinder being 8 ft. long and 65 ins. diam. ?HE DEEP MINES OF THE WORLD.— The Yellow Jacket is the ipest mine on the Comstock Lode, being now (March, 1879) 2,500 ft. below mouth of the main shaft, and 2,933 ft. below the Gould & Curry crop- gs, the datum line of the Comstock Mines. The highest heat known in se mines is, for air 1.54°, in a closed drift in the Crown Point Mine, and for ber 154°, in the Savage, Hale \li^^^—BeMtqenhacK& Process. — Gradually dissolve 5 lbs. of a mix- e of 35 parts of colophonium, 2}4 parts graphite, and 2}^ parts of lamp- ck, in 40 lbs. of boiling gas-tar, adding about 1 lb. of tallow. The solution, PROCESSES, ETC., IN VAllIOUS TKADES. 101 0 with about 50 per cent, of petroleum, is applied in a warm state. It has a pun- gent smell, and should be put on rapidly, taking the precaution of using closed lanterns. Its effect is to cause the scale to come off in large flakes when picked. PLUMBAGO AS A LUBRICANT FOR STEAM CYLINDERS.— A practical engineer, in a communication to the American Machinist, gives the result of his remarkable experience with dry plumbago as a lubricant for steam cylinders, which fully establishes its vast superiority over the oil, tal- low, etc., generally used for that purpose. The engine upon which the experi^ ments were carried on was an 11 x 30 horizontal engine, with a piston speed of SO'J ft. per minute, and was worked to its full capacity. To obtain the best results, the common oil-cup was exchanged for a goblet-shaped tallow-cup with a lid, after which the piston-follower and springs were taken out and cleaned. Before starting the engine, one-third of an ounce of finely pulverized plumbaso was placed in the cup, "When fairly under way the valve of tho tallov/-cup was opened half way, and a little later it was opened to its utmost extent. The piston-rod became coated with tho plumbago soon after starting, and by noon tho whole had passed from the tallow-cup into the cylmder. On starting up in the afternoon, one-third ounce more was placed in the cup, and the engine ran till six o'clock with a like result. There was no noise in the cyl- inder, either in tho starting, running, or stopping of the engine, and after eighteen months' use, with the aljove-named quantity applied twice a day, no noise had been heard in the cylinder, except when the steam was shut off for the purpose of stopping the engine, when it would be heard during on© or two strokes of the piston just before the engine stopped. This occurred not more frequently than would have taken place if tallow or oil had been used. Soon after beginning to use it, a portion of the plumbago would be found re- maining in the cup. To obviate this, about one ounce of water was poured into the cup, after tho plumbago had been put in, when a decided improve- ment was observed, in that it could bo fed into the cylinder as readily as oil or tallow. After four weeks' use, the cylinder-head was taken off, and tho working part of the cylinder was found coated with plumbago, which could not be easily rubbed off with the fingers. The interior of the piston was found as clean as when it left the lathe, so far as dirt of any kind was concerned, and such was the condition at the time of writing. There was an absolute freedom from all choking in the steam passages. Tho gum joints, six in number, had been renewed a few days before the new lubri^ cant was applied, and at the latest advices all were in perfect condition, show- ing no signs of leakage, whereas, if oils or tallow had been used, they would have required two renewals during that time. SILVER POLISH STARCH ENAMEL.— Melt 3K l^s- of the very best A X paraffino wax over a slow fire. When liquified, remove from the fire and stir in 100 drops oil of citronella. Have a lot of round new pie-tins, clean and nice ; place them on a level table and coat them slightly with sweet-oil, and pour about G tablespoonf uls of the enamel into each tin. The pan may bo floated in water to cool the contents sufficiently to permit the mixture to be cut or stamped out with a tin cutter into small cakes about the size of a peppermint lozenge. Two of these cakes added to each pint of starch will cause the smoothing-iron to impart the finest possible finish to muslin or linen, ])esides perfuming th3 clothes in first-class style. Thousands of dollars have been made by manufacturers and dealers out of this one article, for, when well made and attractively put up in boxes, etc., the sale is great and the profits immens«s. SUPERIOR BAKING POWDER.— Take 2 lbs. best tartaric acid in crys- tals, 3 lbs. bi-carbonate of soda, and 3 lbs. potato starch. Each article must be pulverized separately and slowly dried by a gradual heat, and afterwards thoroughly mixed by being passed through a fine sieve. In quality this arti- cle has no superior, and, when attractively packed in tins, lead foil, or paper glazed on tho outside (it must bo hopt free from damp), it commanda a most profitable sale. 1010 PKOOESSES, ETC., IN VARIOUS TRADES. VIOLET WRITING INK.— For 2 gals., heat 2 gills of alcohol in a water bath ; add to the alcohol 2 ozs. of violet aniline, and stir till dissolved, then add the mixture to two gals, of boiling water ; mix well, and it is ready for use. Smaller quantities in proportion. Tijis is the secret, from the sale of which, together with the products of manufacture, so many fortunes are said to have been made. Some parties assert that it is worth to an active man more than $1,000, on account of the large profits obtainable from possible ■ales. MANIFOLD PAPER, sometimes called copying-paper, is produced by mixing finely pulverized plumbago or lampblack into a putty-like paste. Pass the substance over tissue paper with flannel, and remove the surplus matter with a soft rag. In use, tnese sheets are alternated with black carbon paper, and when written on with a hard graphite pencil the product will be several copies of a letter with one writing. DUNCAN, FLOCKHART & CO.'S BLUE-BLACK AND COPYING INKS. — Blue Aleppo galls (fres from insect perforations), 4X ozs. ; bruised cloves, 1 dr., cold water, 40 ozs., purified sulphate of iron, 1}4 ozs., pure sulphuric acid (by measure), 35 minims, sulphate of indigo (in the form of a paste) and which should be neutral, or nearly so, 1 oz. The weights used are avoirdupois, and the measures apothecaries' measures. Place the galls, when bruised, with the cloves, in a 50 oz. bottle, pour upon them the water, and digest, often daily shaking for a fortnight. Then filter through paper in another 50 oz. bottle. Get out also the refuse of the galls, and wring out of it the remaining liquid through a strong clean linen or cotton cloth, into the filter, in order that as little as possible may be lost. Next put in the iron, dissolve completely, and filter through paper. Then the acid, and agitate briskly. Lastly the indigo, and thoroughly mix by shaking. Pass the whole through paper ; just filter out of one bottle into another until the operation is finished. Note. — No gum or sugar is proper and on no account must the acid be omitted. When intended for copying, b}4 ozs. of galls is the quantity. On the large scale this fine ink is made by percolation. GLAZE FOR ROAST COFFEE.— In one patented process the roasted coffee is coated with a preparation composed of Irish moss, 3^ oz,, gelatin, ^ oz., isinglass, 3^ oz,, white sugar, I oz,, eggs, 24, The first three are boiled in water and the moss strained clear. Another recipe is 1 oz. French isinglass and 4 ozs, water, the moss mixed and molded to form.— American Grocer. VALUE OP FOREIGN COINS.— By a recent official statement of the Secretary of the U. S. Treasury, the value of foreign coins in U. . S. money is rated as here shown, and the values of all foreign merchandise made out in any of these currencies, imported on or after Jan. 1, 1879, will be estimated on the following basis : Belgium, franc, gold and silver, lO.h cents. Bolivia, dollar, gold and silver, 9G.5 cents. BrazD, milreis of 1000 reis, gold, 54.5 cents. British Possessions in N. A., dollar, gold, Bogota, peso, gold, 96.5 cents. Central America, dollar, silver, 96.5 cents. Chili,- peso, gold, 91.2 cents. Denmark, crown, gold, 26.8 cents. Ecuador, dollar, silver, 93.5 cents. Egypt, pound of 100 piasters, gold, $4,97.4. France, franc, gold and silvei-, 19,3 cents. Great Britain, pound sterling, gold, $4 86 Greece, drachma, gold and silver, 19,3 cents. German Empire, mark, gold, 23.8 cents, Jndia, rupee of 16 annas, silver, 44.4 cents, Italy, lira, gold aud silver, 19,3 cents. Japan, yen, gold, 99.7 cents. Liberia, dollar, gold, $1. Mexico, dollar, silver, 01.015. Netherlands, florin, gold & silver, 38.5 cents. Norway, crown, gold, 26.8 cents, rem. dollar, silver, 93.5 cents. Portugal, milreis of 1000 reis. gold, $1.08. Russia, ruble of 100 copecks, silver, 74.8 cents. Sandwich Islands, dollar, gold, $1. Spain, peseta of 100 centimes, silver, 19.3 cents. Sweden, crown, gold, 26.8 cents, Switzerland, franc, gold and silver, 19.3 cents, Tripoli, mahub of 25 piasters, silvo , 84.4 cents. Turkey, piaster, gold, 4.3 cents. U. S. of Columbia, peso, silver, 93.6 cents. • I. I