* 
 
THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 370 
 ie6e 
 no. 36-47 
 
OnWersityofM^S 
 
 9 m 
 
 MftY^ 1963 
 
 W 
 
 L161-H41 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN 
 
 Issued Weekly 
 Vol. XXIV October 5, 1926 No. 5 
 
 [Entered as second-class matter December 11, 1912, at the post office at Urbana, Illinois, under the 
 Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in 
 section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 31, 1918.] 
 
 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH CIRCULAR NO. 46 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
 
 HOW TO MAKE COURSES OF STUDY 
 IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES 
 
 By 
 M. E. Herriott 
 
 Associate, Bureau of Educational Research 
 
 %5c. 
 
 fHE 
 
 .; 
 
 S27 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 URBANA 
 

 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. Introduction 5 
 
 Chapter II. Tendencies in the Social Studies 7 
 
 Chapter III. Function and Plan of Courses of Study 23 
 
 Chapter IV. Content of Courses of Study in the Social Studies 27 
 
 Bibliography. Selected and Annotated 42 
 
 
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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2012 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/howtomakecourses46herr 
 
HOW TO MAKE COURSES OF STUDY IN THE 
 SOCIAL STUDIES 1 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Purpose of circular. The purpose of this circular is to describe a 
 technique of preparing courses of study in the social studies and to give 
 suggestions as to their content and organization for both the elementary 
 and secondary school. "The social studies are understood to be those 
 whose subject-matter relates directly to the organization and develop- 
 ment of human society, and to man as a member of social groups." 
 They "differ from other studies by reason of their social content rather 
 than in social aim; for the keynote of modern education is 'social effi- 
 ciency,' and instruction in all subjects should contribute to this end." 2 
 The fields from which the subject-matter of the social studies is taken 
 are history, government, economics, sociology, and geography. Within 
 these general fields of study a great variety of school subjects is found. 
 The following enumeration includes most of the courses which are com- 
 monly classified as social studies: civics (including community, modern, 
 and vocational), economics (including modern and vocational), sociol- 
 ogy (including modern social problems, problems of democracy, social 
 science, general social science, social psychology, rural sociology, social 
 ethics, modern problems, and ethics of citizenship), elementary law, 
 current events, American, European, ancient, mediaeval, and modern 
 history, and geography (including commercial and local). 
 
 No attempt is made in this circular to present courses of study in 
 any of these subjects. The purpose is merely to tell how the work of 
 making courses of study for such subjects may be carried on and what 
 their characteristics should be when completed. A number of the better 
 courses of study in the social studies are referred to as examples of good 
 practices. 
 
 details of the form of educational writing are not discussed in this circular. For 
 such matters consult: 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Johnston, Nell Bomar. "Reporting educational re- 
 search." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 38, Bureau of Educational Re- 
 search Bulletin No. 25. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 63 p. 
 
 2 Dunn, Arthur William (compiled by). "The social studies in secondary edu- 
 cation." U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 28. Washington, 1916, p. 9. 
 
 [5] 
 
Relation of this circular to others on course-of-study making. 3 
 
 This is the fourth of a series of circulars on course-of-study making. 
 The first deals with the general problem of organizing for course-of- 
 study making. The second and third give detailed directions for pre- 
 paring courses of study in arithmetic and reading, respectively. This 
 circular presents similar directions for preparing courses of study in the 
 social studies. 
 
 x\rithmetic and reading are "tool" subjects as contrasted with the 
 social studies, which are essentially "content" subjects. The former are 
 taught in the elementary grades almost exclusively, but the latter are 
 taught in every grade of the elementary and secondary divisions of our 
 school system. Because of these and other reasons it must be recognized 
 that there are fundamental differences in the nature of the objectives, 
 the methods of instruction, the types of learning exercises, and so forth, 
 between arithmetic and reading on the one hand and the social studies 
 on the other. Such distinctions make it desirable to have a separate 
 circular dealing with the peculiarities of courses of study in the social 
 studies. 
 
 Plan of circular. Three major topics are discussed in the following 
 pages. First, in order to provide a proper background, the tendencies 
 that are evident in the organization and teaching of the social studies 
 in elementary and secondary schools, are briefly described. Second, in 
 order to make clear the more recent developments in course-of-study 
 making, the function and plan of modern courses of study in general 
 are considered. Third, there is a discussion of the nature of the content 
 of courses of study in the social studies and the way in which this con- 
 tent should be formulated. At the end of the circular there is a bibliog- 
 raphy made up of references that have been selected because of their 
 pertinence to the work of those who make courses of study in the social 
 studies. Throughout the circular reference is made to sources where 
 points under discussion are more fully or somewhat differently developed 
 and also where examples may be found of ways in which the ideas pre- 
 sented herein have been incorporated in courses of study. 
 
 3 The three circulars previously written, in the order of their publication, are: 
 
 Moxroe, Walter S. "Making a course of study." University of Illinois Bulletin. 
 Vol. 23, Xo. 2. Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 35. Urbana: University 
 of Illinois. 1925. 35 p. 
 
 Herriott, M. E. ' ; How to make a course of study in arithmetic." University of 
 Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 6. Bureau of Educational Research Circular Xo. 37. Ur- 
 bana: University of Illinois. 1925. 50 p. 
 
 Herriott, M. E. '"How to make a course of study in reading." University of 
 Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 2i, Xo. 18, Bureau of Educational Research Circular Xo. 42. Ur- 
 bana: University of Illinois, 1926. 37 p. 
 
 [6] 
 
CHAPTER II 
 TENDENCIES IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES 4 
 
 Because of a variety of forces that are being brought to bear upon 
 the social studies, numerous changes, many of which are fundamental, 
 are occurring at a comparatively rapid rate. These changes are so 
 widely distributed and exhibit definitely discernible common tendencies 
 to such a degree that we are justified in dignifying them by the term 
 "movement." This movement is closely linked up with some of the 
 major tendencies in the general field of education. First, the trends in 
 the social studies are greatly influenced by, and are mostly in accord 
 with, the so-called scientific movement in education which has taken 
 shape within recent years. Its chief characteristic may be said to be 
 an effort to deal with the problems of education as objectively as pos- 
 sible. Second, tendencies in the social studies evidence the influence of 
 the broader efforts to make education fit individuals more effectively for 
 participation in life (out-of-school) activities. Third, a correlative of the 
 second, the tendency is manifested in the social studies not only to make 
 those things learned in school function in life situations but also to make 
 them influence life conditions. Fourth, other tendencies of a somewhat 
 less fundamental character, such as the problem and project methods 
 and adaptation of courses to local conditions, are having their. influence 
 on the social studies. 
 
 The tendencies in the social studies may be grouped under three 
 major divisions: (1) a shift in emphasis from certain types of outcomes 
 to other types, (2) changes in methods of determining outcomes, de- 
 
 4 No attempt is made to give a complete resume of past developments in the or- 
 ganization and teaching of the social studies, but rather the purpose is to indicate the 
 more significant tendencies that are evident today. For more elaborate discussions, see: 
 
 Dawson, Edgar. "The social studies in civic education." U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation Bulletin, 1923, No. 23. Washington, 1923. 16 p. 
 
 Rugg, Earle. "How the current courses in history, geography, and civics came 
 to be what they are." Twenty-Second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
 of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1923, 
 p. 48-75. 
 
 Shiels, Albert. "The social studies in development," Teachers College Record, 
 23:126-45, March, 1922. 
 
 For the status of the social studies in high schools, see: 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Foster, I. 0. "The status of the social sciences in the 
 high schools of the North Central Association." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 20, 
 No. 18, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 13. Urbana: University of Illi- 
 nois, 1922. 38 p. 
 
 [7] 
 
sirable pupil experiences, and directive procedures, and (3) changes in 
 pupil experiences, and stimulative and directive procedures. 5 Each of 
 these is elaborated upon in the following pages. 
 
 1. Types of outcomes. Formal education is primarily concerned 
 with engendering controls of conduct by means of consciously directed 
 experiences. The outcomes of learning may be classified as (1) specific 
 habits, (2) knowledge and (3) general patterns of conduct. 6 Specific 
 habits are "fixed" controls, knowledge outcomes are "adaptive" controls, 
 and general patterns of conduct partake of the nature of both "fixed" 
 and "adaptive" controls of conduct. These distinctions are developed 
 somewhat in the following paragraphs. 
 
 Specific habits. "A specific habit is an acquired control of conduct 
 which results in unvarying response to a given stimulus." 7 Thus, one 
 who has appropriate specific habits, mostly fixed associations in the 
 social studies, is able to answer automatically such questions as: When 
 was the battle of Gettysburg fought? Where? Who were the opposing 
 generals? Which side won? What famous speech was made later on 
 this battle field? Who is the present Chief Justice of the United States 
 
 5 The term "pupil experiences" is used in this circular to include the total activity 
 of pupils in doing learning exercises or in realizing their own purposes. The learning 
 exercises that are assigned determine to a certain extent the differences in pupil experi- 
 ence, as for instance, "doing" exercises as opposed to "reading" exercises. In the main, 
 direct experiences are had in the former and indirect or vicarious experiences in the 
 latter. However, in learning exercises which involve reading as the chief activity, differ- 
 ences in experience are frequently determined not so much by the learning exercise 
 assigned as by the content of the material read. 
 
 The term "directive procedures" is used in preference to teaching technique or 
 method, because it lacks some of the limiting connotations of the latter terms and in 
 addition places the emphasis upon the teacher's function of directing or guiding the 
 learner. "Directive procedures" include all those things which teachers do in directing 
 or guiding the learner, such as formulating learning exercises, giving directions for work, 
 evaluating pupil achievement, diagnosing difficulties, giving remedial instruction, and 
 so forth. 
 
 6 For other discussions of the nature of these classes of controls of conduct see: 
 
 Bagley, William C. Educational Values. New York: The Macmillan Company, 
 1911, p. 14-77. 
 
 Bagley, William C, and Keith, John A. H. An Introduction to Teaching. New 
 York: The Macmillan Company, 1924, p. 210-61. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. "Teachers' Objectives." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 
 23, No. 39, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 45. Urbana: University of 
 Illinois, 1926, p. 4-6. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. "The teacher's responsibility for devising learning exercises 
 in arithmetic." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 41, Bureau of Educational 
 Research Bulletin No. 31, 1926, p. 7-25. 
 
 7 Reagan, George William. "Principles relating to the engendering of specific 
 habits." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 5, Bureau of Educational Re- 
 search Circular No. 36. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925, p. 3. 
 
 [8] 
 
Supreme Court? What proportion of the population of the United States 
 is urban? All of the responses inferred by these questions are of the 
 type commonly described as "memorized facts." Most of the specific 
 habits of the social studies are of this nature as contrasted with the motor 
 responses of typewriting, handwriting, manual training, and the oral 
 phases of foreign languages. 8 
 
 From this description, it is evident that specific habits of either the 
 motor or fixed-association type are "fixed" controls inasmuch as they 
 function in a definite way to given stimuli and are not applicable to 
 varying stimuli. 9 
 
 Knowledge. Knowledge outcomes ("ideas, concepts, and mean- 
 ings") consist of "conscious 'controls' which may serve to guide conduct 
 when one faces situations for which a mechanized habit-response has 
 not been developed." 10 Included in this category are ideas, perceptual 
 meanings, concepts, principles, hypotheses, laws, and similar products 
 of experience and thought. The possession of such controls of conduct 
 implies the ability to use them. Hence, in describing knowledge one 
 may include the technique of generalizing, of forming concepts, and of 
 thinking reflectively, that is, of dealing with knowledge. Thus, knowledge 
 in the field of the social studies includes such as the following: knowing 
 the meaning of such terms as democracy, institution, and bureaucracy; 
 understanding the law of supply and demand, the principles underlying 
 freedom of speech, and the reasons why certain types of industrial de- 
 velopment occur where they do; ability to formulate generalizations 
 from adequate and appropriate data; ability to construct clear ideas of 
 things about which one reads or hears; ability to follow and compre- 
 
 8 The term "skills" is also applied to fixed controls of conduct, but it generally 
 designates groups of specific habits, usually of the motor-response type. Skills, in this 
 sense, as outcomes of instruction in the social studies are negligible compared with mem- 
 orized facts, although they enter to a limited extent into (or at least are involved in) 
 such activities as map making. 
 
 9 This does not mean that the same response may not be associated with several 
 stimuli. It simply means that if such is the case, the response must be associated with 
 each of the stimuli individually, that a given response will not result unvaryingly from 
 a given stimulus except as it has been definitely asscciated with that stimulus. 
 
 10 Ba.gley, William C, and Keith, John A. H. Op. cit., p. 241. 
 
 Care should be taken to differentiate clearly the type of knowledge designated here 
 from the popular conception which includes fixed associations under the term "knowl- 
 edge," that is, what is generally thought of as "information." Examples of this type 
 of so-called knowledge are: knowing that two plus two equal four, that the Declaration 
 of Independence was signed Jul y_4, 177 6, and that the Battle of the Argonne was an 
 important battle of the World War. It is in this popular sense that the term "knowl- 
 edge" is used by Herbert Hoover in the phrase, "knowledge, however exact, is secondary 
 to a trained mind." (School Life, 11 :p. 4 of cover, April, 1926.) 
 
 [9] 
 
hend the thinking of another; and ability to "manufacture" responses 
 to new situations such as those presented by thought questions like: 
 Why did not the North attempt in so far as possible to preserve intact 
 the institutions of the South after the Civil War? or, What is the rela- 
 tion between inventions and progress in the United States? 
 
 This discussion of the nature of the controls of conduct classed as 
 knowledge outcomes makes evident their "adaptive" nature. Such con- 
 trols function in a great variety of situations in contrast to the "given 
 stimulus" necessary to the functioning of a specific habit. 
 
 General patterns of conduct. General patterns of conduct include 
 ideals, attitudes, interests, tastes, appreciations, perspectives, prejudices, 
 and similar controls of conduct, the three major classes being ideals, 
 attitudes, and interests and tastes. General patterns of conduct are 
 characterized by the feeling of worth which they embody, although 
 there may or may not be a reasoned acceptance of the pattern. 
 
 Ideals are highly emotionalized. Many of them function as ends 
 or purposes and frequently are referred to as "emotionalized standards 
 of conduct." Ideals of service to others, of liberty, and of patriotism 
 may be engendered, at least in part, by the social studies. When the 
 ideal of service to others has been engendered, the pupil will have in 
 addition to an idea of what it means to be of service to others a feeling 
 of its worth, an impelling desire which will exert a directive influence 
 over his conduct toward that end. 
 
 Attitudes determine the manner in which situations are interpreted 
 rather than the end of conduct as do ideals. Some attitudes, such as 
 prejudices, may appear to be even more highly emotionalized than many 
 ideals, and other attitudes, such as mental sets, points of view, and per- 
 spectives, color reactions to situations but contain little of the emotional 
 element. Upton and Chassell 11 have described in part the behavior 
 of one who has the attitude of loyalty in the elementary school in the 
 following terms: 
 
 1. Respects those in authority. 
 
 2. Takes pride. in his group and in the school, and tries to foster 
 
 the right kind of spirit. 
 
 3. Expresses loyalty by removing his hat when the flag is presented 
 
 or when the national anthem is sung. 
 
 4. Honors those who have rendered distinguished service. 
 
 "Upton, Siegfried Maia, and Chassell, Clara Frances. "A scale for measur- 
 ing the importance of habits of good citizenship." Teachers College Bulletin, Twelfth 
 Series, No. 9. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, January- 1, 1921, p. 40. 
 (Reprinted from Teachers College Record, Vol. 20, January, 1919.) 
 
 [10] 
 
Interests and tastes are more closely related to attitudes than to 
 ideals in that they also determine the manner in which situations are 
 interpreted. For example, the behavior of one who has an interest in 
 biography may be described in part by the following: 
 
 1. The mention in his presence of a biographical work readily at- 
 
 tracts his attention. 
 
 2. He keeps informed on new publications of biography. 
 
 3. He reads biographical accounts as part of his leisure reading. 
 From the preceding discussion, it is evident that general patterns 
 
 of conduct partake a little of the nature of "fixed" controls of conduct 
 and a little of the "adaptive" controls. They are applicable to a multi- 
 tude of situations, yet they specify within limits what the nature of the 
 response will be. Thus, one who is "radical" in his attitude reacts to 
 most situations in a characteristic way which is easily differentiated from 
 the reaction characteristic of one who is "conservative" in his attitude. 
 Summary. The preceding paragraphs may be appropriately sum- 
 marized by the following outline of objectives. 12 
 
 I. Fixed Controls of conduct (specific habits) 
 
 A. Motor skills 
 
 B. Fixed associations 
 
 II. Adaptive controls of conduct (knowledge) 
 
 A. Perceptual or relatively concrete meanings 
 
 B. Generalizations 
 
 1. Concepts 
 
 2. Principles 
 
 C. Techniques of dealing with knowledge 1 " 
 III. General patterns of conduct (generalized controls) 
 
 A. Ideals 
 
 B. Attitudes 
 
 C. Interests and tastes 
 
 Ultimate and immediate objectives. From another point of view, 
 objectives may be classified as ultimate and immediate on the basis of 
 their remoteness and proximity to the learner's activity, and as general 
 and specific on the basis of their explicitness of description of the ends 
 
 "Taken in the main from: 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. "Teachers' objectives." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 
 23, No. 39, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 45. Urbana: University of 
 Illinois, 1926, p. 9. 
 
 "The writer is aware that acceptance of this idea involves acceptance of certain 
 of the more traditional aspects of the theory of formal discipline. However, the position 
 that there are such techniques seems highly defensible. 
 
 [11] 
 
to be attained. In the content subjects, such as the social studies, it is 
 particularly helpful to view the objectives as ultimate and immediate, 
 recognizing that there exist intermediate degrees between the extremes 
 of remoteness and nearness to the learner's activity. 
 
 The most immediate objectives are often spoken of as "lesson 
 aims," which generally incorporate the idea of completing a task. This 
 idea is prominent in assignments of the "take-pages-so-and-so" type. 
 A more typical example may be taken from the plan of a lesson in 
 American history. The aim was stated thus: "To show how the problem 
 of Reconstruction was attacked and the part that political rivalry played 
 in its early stages of solution." 14 Completion of the task designated is 
 an objective to be attained, but in turn it becomes only a means to a 
 slightly more removed objective, the acquisition of an ability. For in- 
 stance, completion of this task may contribute in part to engendering 
 the fixed associations which will enable the possessor to make a proper 
 and adequate response to the question: What was Congress' plan of 
 Reconstruction? It may contribute in part to engendering the knowledge 
 needed to solve the problem : How might valuable use have been made 
 of the social resources of the South in solving the problems of Recon- 
 struction? Or, realization of this lesson aim may contribute to engen- 
 dering certain general patterns of conduct such as the attitude of fair- 
 mindedness toward political issues. None of these abilities is as close 
 to the learner's activity as is completion of the task stipulated in the 
 lesson aim, yet each of them, relatively speaking, is an immediate 
 objective. 15 
 
 Two levels of immediate objectives are thus identified: first, the 
 accomplishment of tasks, and second, the attainment of abilities. How- 
 ever, any enumeration of such tasks and abilities will contain many 
 variations in degree of nearness to the learner's activity. 
 
 "Monroe, Walter S. "The planning of teaching." University of Illinois Bulletin, 
 Vol. 22, No. 7, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 31. Urbana: University 
 of Illinois, 1924, p. 17. 
 
 15 It is not necessary to state lesson aims in terms of tasks rather than in terms of 
 abilities to be acquired. In fact, wherever feasible it is preferable to state lesson aims 
 or immediate objectives of lessons in terms of abilities to be acquired, for the attention 
 of both pupil and teacher, in so far as possible, should be centered upon the ability to 
 be attained rather than upon the task to be done. For example, a lesson aim in Amer- 
 ican history might be stated: To memorize the names of the presidents from Washing- 
 ton to Jackson, with the dates of their administrations and their party affiliations. A 
 simple change of wording would shift the emphasis from the doing of the task to the 
 specific habit to be engendered. A statement of the lesson aim from this point of 
 view would be: Ability to repeat without error the names of the presidents from Wash- 
 ington to Jackson, with the dates of their administrations and their party affiliations. 
 
 [12] 
 
But even the more remote immediate objectives are only means to 
 the attainment of others still more remote which may be appropriately 
 called ultimate objectives. The term "ultimate" carries with it a double 
 connotation; first, remoteness, in this instance remoteness from the 
 learner's activity, and second, finality, that is, an end that is an end in 
 itself and not one which merely becomes a means to another end. How- 
 ever, two types of ultimate objectives may be distinguished on the basis 
 of the points of view from which they are formulated. From one point 
 of view ultimate objectives are stated in terms descriptive of future be- 
 havior or characteristics of individuals or of groups. \Six of the seven 
 objectives of secondary education promulgated by the National Educa- 
 tion Association are of this nature — health, command of fundamental 
 processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use 
 of leisure, and ethical character/] The second objective can scarcely be 
 considered as ultimate, but is rather a general statement of an immedi- 
 ate objective. Formulated from another point of view, ultimate objec- 
 tives have to do with the performance of duties or occasions for the use 
 of abilities. We speak of education for citizenship and in so doing imply 
 that the ultimate objectives of education are the performance of the 
 duties of citizenship. 16 The three aims of secondary education as stated 
 by Inglis 17 are formulated from the point of view of occasion for the use 
 of abilities. They are: 
 
 1. The social-civic aim, which "involves the preparation of 
 individuals for efficient participation in those activities of society 
 whose controlling purpose and primary object are desirable forms 
 of social cooperation." 
 
 2. The economic-vocational aim, which "involves the prepara- 
 ration of the individual for efficient participation in those activities 
 of society whose controlling purpose and primary object involve 
 economic efficiency." 
 
 3. The individualistic-avocational aim, which "involves the 
 preparation of the individual for those activities of life whose pri- 
 mary object and controlling purpose are personal development and 
 personal happiness through the worthy use of leisure." 
 
 In resume, we may say that the distinction between immediate and 
 ultimate objectives is on the basis of ends and means as well as on the 
 
 10 The method used for determining such objectives is known as "job analysis" or 
 "activity analysis." For an account of this method, see: 
 
 Charters, W. W. Curriculum Construction. New York: The Macmillan Com- 
 pany, 1923. 352 p. 
 
 "Inglis, Alexander. Principles of Secondary Education. Boston: Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, 1918, p. 367-75. 
 
 [13] 
 
degree of remoteness and nearness to the learner's activity. Although 
 immediate objectives are ends to be gained, they are also means to 
 ever increasingly remote ends. The most remote of these ends are ulti- 
 mate objectives, being ends in themselves without being means to further 
 ends. These two major classes of objectives may be summarized as 
 follows: 18 
 
 1. Learning activity. This type of objective is usually de- 
 scribed in terms of learning exercises to be done or 
 
 Immediate J "ground-to-be-covered." 
 
 Objectives 2. Abilities to be engendered. When objectives are 
 thought of in terms of "abilities to be engendered," the 
 doing of exercises becomes a means to this end. 
 
 3. Future behavior described in general terms. Using 
 such words as citizenship, character, culture, and so forth. 
 
 4. Duties or occasions for the use of abilities. The rela- 
 Ultimate J t j on between duties and "future behavior" may be de- 
 Objectives ] scribed by saying that the terms, such as character, citi- 
 zenship, social efficiency, and so forth used in describing 
 future behavior specify in a general way how the duties of 
 adult life are to be performed. 
 
 General and specific objectives. Both ultimate and immediate ob- 
 jectives may be phrased with varying degrees of generality and spe- 
 cificity, but the inclusiveness or explicitness of statement does not to 
 any appreciable extent determine the ultimateness or immediateness 
 of an objective. Thus, to know all the presidents of the United States 
 is more general in phraseology than to know the names of all the presi- 
 dents of the United States and their party affiliations, with the dates of 
 their administrations, but in no sense is the former more nearly an 
 ultimate objective. Or as a further illustration, to engender a love for 
 historical readings is a general statement of an immediate aim which 
 might be made specific by stating some of the particular historical 
 readings for which a love should be engendered, and by defining "love." 
 
 As a rule, ultimate objectives are stated with a high degree of gen- 
 erality, as for example the seven objectives of secondary education set 
 up by the National Education Association. Immediate objectives are 
 more frequently stated in specific terms, or at least a greater degree of 
 specificity is attempted in setting up immediate objectives. 
 
 ^Monroe, Walter S. 'Teachers' Objectives.*' University of Illinois Bulletin, 
 Vol. 23, No. 39, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 45. Urbana: University 
 of Illinois, 1926, p. 8. 
 
 [14] 
 
Trend of objectives in the social studies. A rather extended dis- 
 cussion of objectives has been given in order that a clear conception 
 might be had of the different ways in which objectives are conceived 
 and stated. Present practices in formulating objectives in the social 
 studies exhibit three major trends: first, to emphasize the knowledge 
 outcomes and general patterns of conduct in contrast to former emphasis 
 upon specific habits of the fixed-association type; second, to formulate 
 immediate objectives in as specific terms as possible rather than merely 
 to formulate ultimate objectives stated in general terms; and third, to 
 discover objectives by means of scientific techniques rather than to base 
 them upon opinion alone. 
 
 The emphasis upon knowledge outcomes and general patterns of 
 conduct is illustrated in the basic objectives that control the construction 
 of the program in social science in the University of Chicago High 
 School. As expressed by Hill, 19 they are: "First, the development in 
 boys and girls of social attitudes and social behaviors; second, the incul- 
 cation in pupils of an understanding of the social environment in which 
 they live, its character, its needs, and its problems." However, emphasis 
 upon such outcomes does not obviate the necessity for engendering 
 specific habits, particularly fixed associations, a large number of which 
 are fundamental to adequate development of the more adaptive controls. 
 It is frequently said that the principal object of instruction in content 
 subjects is to teach pupils to think, but it must not be forgotten that a 
 certain amount of information with which to think is necessary. 
 
 Although there is a tendency to formulate immediate objectives in 
 as specific terms as possible rather than merely to formulate ultimate 
 objectives stated in general terms, relatively little progress has been made 
 because of the difficulty of the task, undeveloped techniques, and similar 
 conditions. In the main, only the more simple phases of the problem 
 of formulating specific immediate objectives have been attacked by in- 
 vestigators. Such investigations as have been made have dealt mostly 
 with the fixed associations to be established. The investigations of 
 Washburne, Bassett, and Bagley 20 are illustrative of attempts to deter- 
 
 19 "The nation at work on the public school curriculum." Fourth Yearbook of the 
 Department of Superintendence. Washington: Department of Superintendence of the 
 National Education Association, 1926, p. 368. 
 
 20 Washburne, Carleton W. "Building a fact course in history and geography." 
 Twenty-Second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. 
 Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1923, p. 99-110. 
 
 Washburne, Carleton W. "Basic facts needed in history and geography; a sta- 
 tistical investigation." Twenty-Second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
 
 [15] 
 
mine objectives. The following statement of the attainments which sev- 
 enth-grade pupils should achieve in studying South America illustrates 
 an attempt by course-of-study makers to state immediate objectives in 
 as specific terms as possible. Certain inconsistencies and weaknesses 
 appear, but, as a pioneer attempt, the list is worthy of consideration. 21 
 Attainments. 
 
 A. Minimum. 
 
 1. To know the relative position of South America as related 
 to North America. 
 
 2. To know two principal highlands, three great plains and 
 three great rivers draining these plains. 
 
 3. A brief survey of the A. B. C. countries. 
 
 4. To name the leading industrial activities and center of each 
 of three other countries. 
 
 5. To know that South America and the United States have 
 seasons that are opposite from point of time, and to know 
 chief cause for this. 
 
 6. To know location of Panama Canal and bodies of water it 
 connects; and that canal is owned and controlled by United 
 States. 
 
 B. Average. 
 
 1. On an outline map of South America, place the surface re- 
 gions, three highest mountain peaks, principal river systems > 
 and five important sea ports. 
 
 2. Study intensively the A. B. C. countries. 
 
 3. Name the other countries and give their approximate 
 location. 
 
 4. An intensive study of two important products of South 
 America. 
 
 5. To know the leading industry of the minor countries with 
 its important trade center and why such industry is impor- 
 tant. 
 
 of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1923,. 
 p. 216-33. 
 
 Bassett, B. B. "The content of the course of study in civics." Seventeenth Year- 
 book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: 
 Public School Publishing Company, 1918, p. 63-80. 
 
 Marston, L. R., McKown, H. C, and Bagley, W. C. "A method of determining 
 misplacements of emphasis in seventh and eighth-grade history." Seventeenth Year- 
 book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: 
 Public School Publishing Company, 1918, p. 90-96. 
 
 ""Geography and science — secondary course of study." Trenton, New Jersey: 
 Board of Education, 1923, p. 30-31. 
 
 [16] 
 
6. To know the two cities at the extremities of the Panama 
 Canal and the value of the canal for trade between the 
 United States and South America. 
 C. Maximum. 
 
 1. To be able to appreciate the future possibilities of South 
 America. 
 
 2. To know how surface and climatic conditions have affected 
 the development of the leading countries of South America. 
 
 3. To appreciate why the United States should become better 
 acquainted with South America and develop trade relations 
 with her. 
 
 4. Value of the Panama Canal as a world highway of trade. 
 
 5. Give several results of the earth's rotation. 
 
 6. To explain the cause of the change of seasons. 
 
 The tendency to discover objectives in so far as possible rather 
 than to base them upon opinion alone is not discussed at this point but 
 is taken up in the following paragraphs since it is intimately related to 
 the tendencies in methods of determining pupil experiences and direc- 
 tive procedures. 
 
 2. Methods of determining outcomes, pupil experiences, and direc- 
 tive procedures. A reciprocal cause and effect relationship exists between 
 the types of outcomes emphasized and the methods of determining what 
 these outcomes should be. It cannot be said that one follows the other, 
 for each develops as the other progresses. However, they may be dis- 
 cussed separately. A similar relationship exists between the pupil ex- 
 periences provided, the directive procedures used by the teachers, and 
 the methods employed in determining what these experiences and pro- 
 cedures should be. 
 
 The changes in methods of determining outcomes, pupil experiences, 
 and directive procedures are closely related, being a part of the so-called 
 scientific movement in education. The newer methods of determining 
 outcomes, experiences, and procedures are characterized in the main by 
 a critical attitude toward present practices and objectivity of data in 
 determining what should be. Tryon 22 identifies the following fourteen 
 methods of determining the content of social studies. 
 I. Analysis of political party platforms. 
 II. Securing the judgments of representative citizens and groups 
 of citizens. 
 
 22 Tryon, R. M. "History and the other social studies in junior and senior high 
 school — a general survey and criticism," The Historical Outlook, 17:213-19, May, 1926. 
 An excellent bibliography for each of the techniques is given. 
 
 [17 J 
 
III. Analysis of newspapers, periodicals, magazines, readers' 
 guides, and indexes to periodical literature. 
 
 IV. Pooling of opinion of leading authorities by means of ques- 
 tionnaire method. 
 
 V. Analysis of textbooks in history and the other social studies. 
 VI. Analysis of books (other than texts) in sociology, economics, 
 and political science. 
 VII. Analysis of courses of study in history and other social studies. 
 VIII. Analysis of subject-matter outside the social studies field. 
 IX. Pooling the opinion of experts through committee reports. 
 X. Analysis of examination questions in history. 
 XI. Searching for references that one is apt to meet in contem- 
 porary life as revealed in best sellers, short stories, jokes, 
 comic pictures in newspapers, and legends of movie picture 
 shows. 
 XII. Determining the civic activities that laymen actually per- 
 form in the course of their daily life. 
 
 XIII. Analysis of encyclopedias for material in the social aspects 
 of life. 
 
 XIV. Setting up specific objectives and principles and seeking sub- 
 ject-matter to satisfy them. 
 
 In one of the Research Bulletins of the National Education Asso- 
 ciation, seven approaches to curriculum building are briefly described 
 and commented upon. 23 Most of the techniques mentioned in these two 
 references have to do with the determination of objectives and content. 
 However, some of them are also applicable to the determination of 
 teaching procedures. The principal characteristic of the techniques that 
 have been developed is the attempt to be objective, perhaps to an un- 
 justifiable extreme in some instances. 
 
 3. Pupil experiences and directive procedures. The trends in pupil 
 experiences and directive procedures are evidenced by the changes in: 
 (a) the content and number of subjects offered in the social studies 
 group, (b) the correlations between the social studies and other school 
 subjects, (c) the relation of the social studies to extra-curricular activi- 
 ties, (d) the adaptations to local conditions, and (e) the influence of 
 such variations in procedures as the problem and project methods and 
 motivation. 
 
 ^''Keeping pace with the advancing curriculum." Research Bulletin of the National 
 Education Association, Vol. 3, Nos. 4 and 5. Washington: Research Division of the 
 National Education Association, 1925, p. 116-17. 
 
 [18] 
 
a. Content and number of courses offered. As previously denned 
 in this circular, the social studies are those which relate directly to the 
 organization and development of human society, and to man as a mem- 
 ber of social groups. A wide variety of individual courses are designated 
 as social studies, their content coming chiefly from the fields of history, 
 sociology, economics, political science and geography. There is a ten- 
 dency to add two other closely related fields to this group: first, guid- 
 ance, including educational and vocational guidance; second, character 
 education. Although this is a tendency, it is not pronounced enough to 
 justify consideration of these last two fields in this circular. Also, their 
 problems at present possess such peculiarities that they should be dealt 
 with separately. 
 
 Although several fields of knowledge are being drawn upon for the 
 content of the social studies and a great variety of specific courses are 
 offered, there is a distinct tendency to form unified or combined 
 courses, 24 usually having a certain continuity throughout the elementary 
 and secondary schools, beginning in the early grades and progressing 
 more or less regularly through to the senior year of the high school, but 
 also tending toward subject-matter specialization in the later years. 25 
 
 In keeping with the tendency to scrutinize and reformulate the 
 objectives, there is a tendency to examine critically the content of the 
 social studies, asking to what extent each item of content contributes 
 to a realization of the objectives set up, and asking particularly to what 
 extent it is socially significant. Many studies are being made with this 
 general point of view in mind, as for instance, a study to determine 
 what civic instruction will make intelligent voters. 26 An underlying 
 
 2 The following table represents the results of a questionnaire study relative to 
 unification. It is based on 148 replies from representatives of county, city, and state 
 school organizations and teacher-training institutions. 
 
 Grades I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 
 
 FSSSiglW&n 90 - 6 88 - 7 8 ° 80 - 2 69 ' 9 65 ' 8 66A 67 - 2 58 ' 8 3 ' 13 31.9 37.7 
 
 "The nation at work on the public school curriculum." Fourth Yearbook of the 
 Department of Superintendence. Washington: Department of Superintendence of the 
 National Education Association, 1926, p. 327. 
 
 2i, One of the outstanding examples of the way in which a course has been worked 
 out along these lines is the Pennsylvania program of social studies. For a description 
 of it, see: 
 
 Gambrill, J. Montgomery. "Experimental curriculum-making in the social 
 studies," The Historical Outlook, 15:37-42, January, 1924. 
 
 20 Bassett, B. B. "The content of the course of study in civics." Seventeenth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, 
 Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1918, p. 63-80. 
 
 [19] 
 
philosophy of social usefulness and many investigations are resulting in 
 a refinement of the social-studies content. Much that is considered of 
 little probable usefulness to most individuals is being eliminated, for 
 instance, insignificant dates and names; and some material that is 
 thought to be of much immediate social value is being added to the 
 social studies, for example, subject-matter dealing with present-day 
 civic problems. 
 
 b. Correlation between the social studies and other school sub- 
 jects. 27 At present there are strong tendencies toward making English 
 and the social studies the core of the curriculum, particularly beginning 
 with the junior high school. English and the social studies have even 
 been combined into a single course in the first year of the high school. 28 
 It appears that correlation, one time an educational fad, has left a 
 definite impress on school practice. One evidence of it is the relationship 
 that many endeavor to bring about between the social studies and other 
 school subjects. For example, the equipment necessary for some projects 
 in the social studies is built in manual arts classes, the natural science 
 involved in the study of some civic problems is more fully developed 
 in natural science classes, at other times the correctness of data included 
 in papers written for social studies classes is passed upon by the 
 science teacher, or the same papers may be submitted for credit in both 
 courses. In brief, the tendency is to bring the social studies into vital 
 relationship with other school subjects wherever possible. 
 
 c. Relation of the social studies to extra-curricular activities. 
 Widespread efforts to make the citizenship training of the social studies 
 function has resulted in many schemes for carrying the work of the 
 classroom over into extra-curricular activities, and in some instances 
 for carrying the extra-curricular activities into the work of the social 
 studies classes. For example, current-events clubs are formed, students 
 participate to a greater or less degree in school control, civics classes take 
 charge of student elections, and so forth. But even when there is no 
 
 2T For a short bibliography on correlation of the social studies with other subjects, 
 see: 
 
 The Historical Outlook, 16:362-63, December, 1925. 
 
 28 For a description of one course, see: 
 
 Hill, Howard C. "Educational economy in the reorganization of the social 
 studies," Twenty-Second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 
 Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1923, p. 111-25. 
 
 The authors of a recent series of arithmetics have even gone so far as to classify 
 arithmetic among the social studies. See: 
 
 McMurry, Frank, and Benson, C. Beverley. Social Arithmetic, Books One, 
 Two, and Three. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1926. 
 
 [20] 
 
ostensible relationship between the social studies and extra-curricular 
 activities, the knowledge and general patterns of conduct gained in the 
 social studies are expected to function to a certain extent in other than 
 class-room activities of the pupils. There is also a strong tendency to 
 place more and more emphasis upon the citizenship training that is 
 given by means of extra-curricular activities. 29 
 
 d. Adaptation of the social studies to local conditions and needs. 
 
 The social studies have been affected about as much as any other group 
 of subjects by attempts to adjust curricula to local conditions. Courses 
 in local geography and history are frequently offered; civics courses are 
 frequently based chiefly upon local community 30 conditions; and the 
 teaching in many other courses is related to local conditions. In general 
 the tendency is either to take advantage of local conditions in order to 
 motivate the teaching of the social studies or to use the social studies 
 to help understand local conditions. We have here a special manifesta- 
 tion of two general tendencies that are evident in most teaching: first, 
 to make school subjects less abstract, and second, to make them function 
 in out-of-school activities. 
 
 e. Modifications of directive procedures. It is possible that inno- 
 vations, such as the project method, have influenced the directive pro- 
 cedures used in the social studies as greatly as in any group of subjects. 
 The general tendency is to get away from the traditional assignment 
 method, especially the catechetical aspects of it, and to introduce more 
 and more the project, the problem and the case method, student reports, 
 free use of supplementary references, much library work, field trips, 
 and studies of local situations. In brief, the liberalizing influences which 
 have wrought considerable changes in teaching procedures in all subjects 
 appear to find in the social studies one of the richest fields for expression 
 and development. 
 
 Summary. Looking at the matter broadly, it appears that the major 
 tendencies in the social studies are: to biing more fields of subject- 
 matter into close relation under the general designation of social studies; 
 to scrutinize the actual content of courses, particularly with regard to 
 
 29 For references bearing on this last statement, see: 
 
 Odell, Charles W., and Blougii, John H. "An annotated bibliography dealing 
 with extra-curricular activities in elementary and high schools." University of Illinois 
 Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 24, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 29. Urbana: 
 University of Illinois, 1925, p. 23-28. 
 
 30 Community Civics doe, not necessarily mean a study of the local community 
 but of both large and small communities. The local community may furnish the point 
 of departure, but the state and nation, and even the world, are also studied as com- 
 munities in such courses. 
 
 [21] 
 
its immediate social significance for the pupils; to relate the work in the 
 social studies to the work in other subjects and to the extra-curricular 
 activities of the school; to make adjustments so as to take advantage 
 of local conditions as well as to meet local needs; and to change the 
 teachers' directive procedures so that they are in keeping with the more 
 liberal tendencies. 
 
 [22] 
 
CHAPTER III 
 FUNCTION AND PLAN OF COURSES OF STUDY 31 
 
 Course-of-study making a cooperative enterprise. The making of 
 courses of study is no longer thought of as a one-man task, but is gen- 
 erally undertaken as a cooperative enterprise. The number of persons 
 involved depends upon the school system, the courses of study to be 
 formulated or revised, and the specific plan adopted. If the course of 
 study for only one subject is to be made, the superintendent and the 
 teachers of the subject (and the supervisor, if there is one) are usually 
 the only persons involved, but if the courses of study for most or all of 
 the subjects taught in a school system are to be formulated, all of the 
 teachers and school officials may be working on the project, often with 
 the assistance of curriculum experts and sometimes with the help of 
 laymen. In some of the larger city systems elaborate organizations have 
 been built up, but in smaller cities the work is gone about more simply. 
 Nevertheless, a great deal of cooperation is possible even in the smaller 
 systems. Many superintendents state that cooperative course-of-study 
 making has proved to be the most valuable work that they have under- 
 taken for the improvement of teachers in service. 32 
 
 Function of courses of study. Courses of study serve a two-fold 
 function: first, to coordinate the work of the teachers of a school sys- 
 tem, and second, to help them as individual teachers. The coordinating 
 function is aptly discussed in the following quotation. "When a teacher 
 is provided with a carefully prepared course of study, she has a detailed 
 statement of the specific tasks assigned to her and the directions for 
 the performance of these tasks. Thus she is able to undertake her year's 
 
 31 For an enumeration of purposes and criteria for evaluating courses of study, see: 
 
 "Keeping pace with the advancing curriculum." Research Bulletin of the National 
 Education Association, Vol. 3, Nos. 4 and 5. Washington: Research Division of the Na- 
 tional Education Association, 1925, p. 179-81. 
 
 32 For discussions of plans of organization and benefits to be derived from cooper- 
 ative course-of-study making, see: 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. "Making a course of study." University of Illinois Bulletin, 
 Vol. 23, No. 2, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 35. Urbana: University 
 of Illinois, 1925, p. 11-17. 
 
 "The elementary school curriculum." Second Yearbook of the Department of 
 Superintendence. Washington: Department of Superintendence of the National Edu- 
 cation Association, 1924, p 35-76. 
 
 "The nation at work on the public school curriculum." Fourth Yearbook of the 
 Department of Superintendence. Washington: Department of Superintendence of the 
 National Education Association, 1926, p. 19-54. 
 
 [23] 
 
work, confident that if she complies with the specifications, she will be 
 cooperating with the other teachers in a consistent and unified effort to 
 educate the children of the community. Without a course of study a 
 teacher works more or less in the dark. Although, individually the 
 teachers of a school system may be capable, industrious, and conscien- 
 tious in their work, they will not, except by accident, coordinate their 
 efforts in the best way unless they are provided with a good course of 
 study." 33 
 
 The teaching tasks may be ever so well apportioned to the various 
 school grades, and thus each teacher be assured of her proper niche in 
 the task of educating the children, but that is not enough. There must 
 be a fair degree of certainty that each teacher will perform her tasks 
 satisfactorily. A well-prepared course of study provides a teacher with 
 many suggestions as to appropriate and effective procedures to be used 
 in accomplishing her apportionment of the work. These suggestions are 
 made in proximity to the enumeration of tasks to be performed, which 
 gives added pertinence to both. Without a course of study, reliance 
 must be placed on each teacher familiarizing herself with the books on 
 methods of teaching and with the numerous educational magazine arti- 
 cles on the subject, and then applying whatever she finds to be usable. 
 There is not a high degree of assurance that this procedure will achieve 
 satisfactory results. One reason for this lack of assurance is that such 
 material is not available to as many teachers as it should be. 
 
 Types of material in courses of study. The double purpose of 
 courses of study largely determines their content. In order to coordinate 
 the efforts of the teachers of a school system and to help them use ap- 
 propriate teaching procedures, the following two general types of ma- 
 terial should be included: (1) specifications of the detailed objectives of 
 each course and of the material aids to instruction, and (2) directions 
 relative to instruction, which consist chiefly of suggestions as to learning 
 exercises and methods of stimulating and directing learning. 
 
 Plan of organization of courses of study. Courses of study are 
 instruments designed to assist in making instruction more efficient. Next 
 to their actual content, probably the most important factor that deter- 
 mines the effectiveness of courses of study is the way in which this 
 content is presented, since a poor organization may conceal many ex- 
 cellent suggestions. The better practices in course-of-study making indi- 
 cate that a course of study should be organized along lines similar to 
 the following: 
 
 33 Monroe, Walter S. op. cit., p. 4-5. 
 
 [24] 
 
1. Introduction. The introduction to a course of study serves a 
 four-fold function: first, to make clear the function and plan of the 
 course of study to those who are to use it; second, to establish the point 
 of view which prevails throughout the course of study; third, to give 
 a broad view of the subject throughout the grades in which it is taught; 
 and fourth, to present discussions of the major aspects of class instruc- 
 tion. Each of these functions is discussed later with special reference 
 to the social studies. 
 
 2. Course of study by grades. Following the introductory section 
 should be a separate section for each grade in which the subject is 
 taught. The material in these grade sections may be grouped under 
 two general classifications: first, specifications; second, suggestions rela- 
 tive to instruction. The specifications for each grade include a detailed 
 statement of objectives, an outline of the work for that grade, the name 
 of the textbook to be used, a list of supplementary references, and any 
 desirable list of other instructional materials to be used. The sugges- 
 tions relative to instruction which are made in the grade sections are 
 made up chiefly of direct aids to the teacher such as lists of effective 
 learning exercises, good means to use in motivating pupil activity, and 
 lists of tests available for evaluating pupil achievement. 
 
 3. References for the teacher. Finally, there should be a short 
 annotated bibliography of selected references which the teachers may use. 
 
 Outline of a course of study in the social studies. An outline of 
 the salient items of a course of study in the social studies is given to 
 provide a guide for those attempting to prepare one. The assumption 
 underlying this outline, as well as all of the succeeding discussion, is 
 that one course of study is to be written for the social studies throughout 
 the entire elementary and secondary school, or at the most, one course 
 of study for each school division — elementary school, junior high school, 
 and senior high school — rather than a separate course of study for each 
 subject — history, civics, geography, and so forth. Such an assumption 
 does not necessarily presuppose a composite or unified course, for the 
 individual subjects may be kept separate from each other, although 
 there must be some recognition of their comparatively close relationship. 
 
 If a separate volume is published for each of the major school 
 divisions or for each subject, the introductory section should be presented 
 in a separate introductory volume or rewritten with appropriate modifi- 
 cations for each course-of-study volume. In the following outline the 
 grade divisions are not presented in full, but instead the outline which 
 should be followed for each subject is given. 
 
 I 25 1 
 
Although this outline is made on the assumption that one course 
 of study in the social studies is to be made for the entire school system, 
 and what is said in the following pages is written from the same point 
 of view, most of it is applicable to whatever organization may be adopted 
 by a school system for their courses and courses of study. Occasionally, 
 however, minor changes will be necessary in both point of view and 
 form of organization. 
 I. Introduction 
 
 A. Purpose and plan of course of study 
 
 B. Purpose of education and of the social studies (including state- 
 ment of ultimate objectives) 
 
 C. The social-studies program 
 
 D. Essential differences between instruction in elementary, junior- 
 high, and senior-high school 
 
 E. Technique of instruction in classes 
 II. Course of study by grades 
 
 The outline should provide a separate division for each of the first 
 six, eight, or nine grades, depending upon the administrative 
 organization of school divisions. Within each of the grade 
 divisions there should be a subdivision for each subject to be 
 taught in that grade. For the senior high school the course-of- 
 study divisions should be made on the basis of subjects only. 
 The following outline should be followed for each subject in 
 both the elementary and secondary divisions. 
 Subject of study 
 
 1. Specifications 
 
 a. Immediate objectives 
 
 (1) General 
 
 (a) Specific habits — fixed associations 
 
 (b) Knowledge controls 
 
 (c) General patterns of conduct 
 
 (2) Specific 
 
 (a) Definitely stated 
 
 (b) Implied in subject outline 
 
 b. Material aids to instruction 
 
 2. Suggestions relative to instruction 
 
 a. Learning exercises 
 
 b. Means of motivating pupil activity 
 
 c. Means of evaluating pupil achievement 
 III. References for the teacher 
 
 [26] 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 CONTENT OF COURSES OF STUDY IN THE 
 
 SOCIAL STUDIES 
 
 A. Introductory section. The four-fold function of the introduc- 
 tory section of courses of study in general was stated in preceding pages. 
 Each of the sub-functions is dealt with at this point with particular 
 reference to the social studies. 
 
 1. Function and plan of the course of study. The first service that 
 the introduction to a course of study should render the teacher is to 
 make clear the function of the course of study as an instrument of 
 supervision, that is, as a guide and help to the teacher in her task of 
 educating children. This statement of function may include suggestions 
 as to the way in which the course of study is to be used. There should 
 also be statements explaining the plan of organization so that the teacher 
 may proceed intelligently to the major portion of the course of study. 
 
 2. Point of view. Following the explicit statements of purpose, 
 ways of using, and plan, there should be a statement of the point of 
 view or educational philosophy that is exemplified in the succeeding 
 pages of the course of study. An educational philosophy is basic to any 
 formulation of courses of study, just as some philosophy is basic to any 
 large undertaking. If teachers are to make the most effective use possi- 
 ble of a course of study, they should explicitly recognize the assumptions 
 that lie back of it. The two major topics that should be given consid- 
 eration in a statement of educational philosophy with reference to the 
 social studies are: first, the general purpose of education; second, the 
 part that the social studies as a whole, and each subject in particular, 
 have in realizing this general purpose. 
 
 In the process of making courses of study, the statements of educa- 
 tional philosophy should be formulated early in order that the makers 
 may be fully conscious of their guiding principles. If a course of study 
 is formulated with a definite educational philosophy in mind, it will 
 assume a certain consistency which will add greatly to the effectiveness 
 of the finished product. 
 
 No doubt anyone who starts to write a course of study will have 
 an educational philosophy upon which to base a formulation of general 
 objectives, but neither the educational philosophy nor the objectives 
 may be clearly defined. In such instances, it would be well to read one 
 
 r 27 1 
 
or two books on educational theory and methods of teaching the social 
 studies before attempting to write out a point of view and ultimate 
 objectives. 34 
 
 A statement of the ultimate objectives of the social studies may 
 well be included with the statement of the part that the social studies 
 have in realizing the general purposes of education, or the ultimate 
 objectives may be discussed separately. However, under either plan, 
 they should be presented in the introductory section of the course of 
 study. 
 
 3. Broad view. In order to enable the teachers of the social studies 
 to orientate properly their particular courses, thev should be given a 
 broad view of all of the social studies that are to be taught in the ele- 
 mentary and secondary schools. This is more desirable for the social 
 studies than for some other subjects because of the tendency to draw 
 several subjects and fields of study into close correlation and even to 
 form unified or composite courses. In addition, there is general recog- 
 nition of a need to make the social studies continuous, and more or less 
 cumulative, from the early grades to the end of the high school. 
 
 A broad view may be provided by means of three or four devices 
 in the introduction to a course of study. There may be a general exposi- 
 tory passage that presents a view of the social studies in general. The 
 program of studies may be given, that is, a statement of the subjects 
 to be studied in each grade, the number of minutes per week to be 
 allotted each subject, and a list of required and elective courses, with 
 prerequisites, in the secondary school. The objectives of each subject 
 may be presented in a tabular, or at least cumulative, form of outline 
 so that the progress from grade to grade, as well as the interrelations 
 between courses, may be evident. .A general outline of the various 
 courses may also be included. It appears that the best practice in 
 course-of-study making provides for at least a general exposition and 
 statements relative to the program of studies. 
 
 4. Essential differences between instruction in elementary, junior- 
 high, and senior-high schools. As a group of subjects with a certain 
 continuity over a wide spread of school grades, the social studies involve 
 certain difficulties that are not pronounced in subjects, such as reading 
 and arithmetic, in which formal instruction is confined to a compara- 
 tively short span of school years. The differences in purposes of instruc- 
 tion, types of subject-matter, and methods of instruction at the various 
 grade levels are proportionate to the span of years intervening. The 
 
 4 See bibliography for suggested references. 
 
 [28] 
 
variations in these phases of instruction are chiefly dependent upon two 
 sets of factors: (1) the maturity of pupils, and (2) the different func- 
 tions to be served by education at various levels. The elementary school 
 and the senior high school include the two extremes; the junior high 
 school is the period of transition from one to the other. Of course a 
 certain amount of gradual change is wrought throughout the elementary 
 school, that is, by the time the upper grades are reached, the purpose, 
 learning exercises, and directive procedures are much more similar to 
 those of the high school than they are to those of the lower grades. 
 However, one of the explicit functions of the junior high school is to 
 effect a gradual transition so as to bridge the gap which usually exists 
 at this point in an eight-four form of organization. 
 
 On the whole the elementary school is the period devoted to mastery 
 of the educational tools in both tool and content subjects. The predom- 
 inating function is the inculcation of abilities, attitudes, and ideals 
 common to everyone. On the other hand, the differentiating function 
 becomes of considerable importance, if not predominant, in the senior 
 high school. The subjects studied throughout the elementary school are 
 largely the same for all pupils. In the senior high school much election 
 of subjects is allowed and encouraged. Only English and the social 
 studies remain as subjects required of all pupils in many schools, although 
 occasionally other subjects are also required. Memorization is prominent 
 in the elementary school with consequent emphasis on drill. Although 
 drill is still much in evidence on the high-school level, there is a decided 
 shift toward an emphasis on reflective thinking or reasoning. Referring 
 to the previous discussion of objectives and the three classes of controls 
 of conduct to be engendered by the school — specific habits, knowledge, 
 and general patterns of conduct — it may be said that the outcomes of 
 the elementary school are mostly specific habits as direct outcomes, and 
 general patterns of conduct as incidental outcomes. In the high school 
 the knowledge outcomes take on greatly added importance. 
 
 5. The technique of class instruction. Although the course of study 
 should not be a treatise on the technique of teaching, it should contain 
 some discussion of the technique of class instruction along with numer- 
 ous "practical" suggestions which teachers may apply directly in their 
 teaching. Statements of general principles and other generalizations 
 need not be repeated for each grade and subject, but may be presented 
 at one place in the course of study, preferably in the introductory 
 section. The more detailed and immediately applicable aids to teaching 
 may be better placed in the grade and subject divisions so that added 
 
 [29] 
 
meaning and serviceability may be given them by their juxtaposition 
 to the specifications. 
 
 The function of the teacher is to stimulate and direct the learning 
 process. The activities in which he engages in realizing this function 
 may be classified more or less sequentially as follows: (a) devising 
 learning exercises, (b) assigning learning exercises, (c) directing the 
 doing of learning exercises, (d) motivating pupil activity, (e) evaluating 
 pupil achievement, (f) diagnosing pupil difficulty, and (g) giving direct 
 assistance. Most of the activities on the part of the teacher are carried 
 on in class or recitation periods. 
 
 Class periods serve a double function: first, to provide opportunity 
 for learning under the immediate direction of the teacher, and second, 
 to prepare for learning away from the immediate direction of the teacher. 
 Of course the second function is less prominent whenever all of the 
 formal learning is done in the class period, as happens with any scheme 
 of supervised study or laboratorized work when no tasks are assigned 
 to be done away from the immediate supervision of the teacher. In 
 realizing either of these two functions, the teacher engages in all seven 
 of the types of activity enumerated in the preceding paragraph. How- 
 ever, the activities of the teacher in relation to preparing for learning 
 away from his immediate supervision are characterized by greater 
 formality and directness than in providing for opportunities for learning 
 under his immediate supervision. For example, the teacher employs 
 formal tests in the main for the purpose of evaluating pupil achievement 
 in doing learning exercises outside of the class period, but much of the 
 evaluation of pupil achievement in doing learning exercises under the 
 direct supervision of the teacher is incidental and informal, being made 
 during the time that the pupil is doing the exercise or immediately on 
 completing it. 
 
 The purpose in this circular is to direct the attention of course-of- 
 study makers to the aspects of class instruction which are mentioned 
 in the preceding paragraphs and not to present a dissertation such as 
 might appear in a course of study. However, a brief discussion of the 
 seven types of teaching activity may assist in understanding them. 
 
 a. Devising learning exercises. Textbooks in the social studies are 
 chiefly compilations of material to be read and not of exercises to be 
 done, although at present there is a tendency for the makers of text- 
 books in the social studies to suggest exercises to be done by the pupils. 
 However, it is still largely left to the teacher to devise the learning 
 exercises which the pupils are to do in order that they may achieve the 
 objectives set for them. 
 
 [30] 
 
The learning exercises that a teacher assigns probably play a more 
 important part in stimulating and directing the pupils' learning than do 
 many of the directive procedures which he employs. For instance, the 
 kind of learning exercises which pupils do are probably more significant 
 than whether the project or assignment method is used if the teacher 
 is equally stimulating in using either method. However, comparatively 
 little attention has been given by either educational theorists, textbook 
 writers, or practical school administrators and supervisors to assisting 
 teachers in devising exercises. Observers often criticize teaching as 
 inefficient, yet are not aware that in many instances the kind of exercises 
 set by the teacher is the factor that makes for inefficiency. For example, 
 in assigning new lessons, teachers frequently direct the pupils merely 
 to read instead of stating a problem for which reading will be required 
 as a means. 
 
 The course of study should point out the purposes to be accom- 
 plished by various types of exercises, such as, comparison of two or 
 more authors' points of view on controversial matters, preparation of 
 topical summaries, making reports to the class, listening to pupil reports, 
 and the like. In this connection some suggestions should be made as 
 to ways in which the textbook and other material aids to instruction 
 should be used. For instance, as pupils progress through the school 
 the use of supplementary references should increase and less dependence 
 should be placed upon the text as a major source of information. The 
 discussion of learning exercises should also include whatever is said 
 about some of the more specialized aspects of instruction, such as the 
 use of projects, problems, notebooks, and current events, which are 
 chiefly significant because of the types of learning experiences involved. 35 
 
 35 Since most of the learning exercises in the social studies involve reading, exer- 
 cises of this nature need to be given especiai attention. The following twelve types of 
 learning in textbook study have been identified: 
 
 1. Comprehension of material read plus memorization so that it can be reproduced. 
 
 2. With the text at hand preparation of a summary which contains the central 
 ideas of the assignment studied. 
 
 3. With the text at hand preparation of an outline which gives the principal points 
 and supporting details arranged to show order or relative importance and rela- 
 tions to each other. 
 
 4. Obtaining information for the purpose of solving problems or answering ques- 
 tions. 
 
 5. Extension of one's range of general information by reading widely material 
 directly related to a given subject. 
 
 6. Discovery of collateral or illustrative material for topics or problems under 
 discussion. 
 
 7. Enlargement of vocabulary. 
 
 8. Appreciation of the significance of each word used in a concisely expressed 
 statement or principle. 
 
 [31] 
 
Relation of learning exercises to local conditions. In educational 
 writing and discussions, much attention is given to the effect of local 
 conditions on curricula and courses of study. The work of the school 
 may be adjusted to local needs in at least two ways: (1) by adaptations 
 of objectives and (2) by adaptations of learning exercises. The distinc- 
 tion between these two types of adjustments is seldom made, although 
 it is fundamental to any consideration of adaptations of school work to 
 particular localities. The objectives of the social studies are essentially 
 the same for most communities in the United States, but diverse means 
 may be used in different communities in order to arrive at the same 
 objectives. For example, it may be that one of the more recent and 
 special forms of city government, such as the commission or city man- 
 ager form, may have been adopted recently or it may be under dis- 
 cussion and subject to vote in an approaching election. Such a situation 
 offers unique opportunity on which to base learning exercises. Some 
 such situations are only temporary and must be taken advantage of as 
 they arise, for they cannot be foreseen to any extent. Other local con- 
 ditions are of a semi-permanent nature and can well be suggested in 
 the course of study. 
 
 Local conditions may handicap the work in the social studies as 
 well as afford advantages such as those just mentioned. The presence 
 of a large foreign element, for instance, may make it necessary to de- 
 
 9. A clear comprehension of the essential conditions of a problem which is to be 
 solved. 
 
 10. Discovery of new or supplementary problems related to the topic being studied. 
 
 11. Drawing valid conclusions from given data or statements. 
 
 12. Following directions with accuracy and reasonable speed. 
 From : 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. ''Types of learning required of pupils in the seventh and 
 eighth grades and in the high school." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 15, 
 Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin. No. 7. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1921. 
 16 p. 
 
 For an analysis of the causes of errors made by a group of high-school students 
 in doing the first of these types of textbook study, and the remedial measures suggested, 
 see* 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Mohlman, Dora Keen. "Errors made by high-school 
 students in one type of textbook study." School Review, 31:36-47, January, 1923. 
 
 In a manuscript which is soon to be published, Dr. Monroe views this matter of 
 textbook study with particular emphasis upon the point of view of the learner. He 
 distinguishes the following seven reading purposes or attitudes: 
 
 1. Reading to understand. 
 
 2. Reading to remember. 
 
 3. Searching for information. 
 
 4. Critical attitude toward statement of author. 
 
 5. Supplementing the text. 
 
 6. Analytical study of the text. 
 
 7. Reading for enjoyment. 
 
 [32] 
 
vise many learning exercises that are suited to meet the unusual situa- 
 ation. Thus, the content of a subject may be varied in order to appeal 
 to the particular interests of the pupils, to emphasize ideas and ideals 
 that demand especial attention for their inculcation, such as American 
 ideals of liberty, or to meet other needs. 
 
 b. Assigning learning exercises. Probably next in importance to 
 the learning exercises to be done is the assigning of them by the teacher. 
 In the lower grades most of the pupils' studying is done during school 
 hours and more or less under the immediate supervision of the teacher. 
 In the upper grades and high school the tendency is toward independent 
 study, that is, the teacher does not give the pupils so much immediate 
 direction. The importance of detailed assignments tends to increase as 
 the amount of immediate supervision by the teacher decreases. If pu- 
 pils are to work effectively and build up adequate study habits, they 
 must have well defined tasks to perform. The result to be attained must 
 be clearly conceived by the pupils and the method of procedure under- 
 stood. Of course the definition of tasks by the teacher must not be such 
 as to breed dependence on "cook-book recipe" types of directions, but 
 rather to develop ability to work independently and effectively. How- 
 ever, much of the inefficiency of methods of study which pupils exhibit 
 as well as much of study-period idleness and mischief-making, is trace- 
 able to poor lesson assignments, that is, poor directions for work. Pu- 
 pils attempt to study independently without having clear ideas as to 
 what should be accomplished or the means of accomplishing it. As a 
 result they work ineffectively or are idle because they do not know what 
 to do, or think that they have accomplished the assigned task when they 
 have not. The course of study should give suggestions on the char- 
 acteristics of good assignments, such as the time of making and the goals 
 set up. Criteria for judging assignments may also be given, as well as 
 some examples. ?G 
 
 c. Directing the doing of learning exercises. In the case of learn- 
 ing exercises which are to be done away from the immediate supervision 
 
 36 For suggestions on reading exercises see: 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Mohlman, Dora Keen. "Training in the technique of 
 study." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 2, Bureau of Educational Research 
 Bulletin No. 20. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1924. 66 p. 
 
 This is a study of training in the technique of study. Directions for study are 
 given; also, an analysis of the study habits of bright children. A bibliography is ap- 
 pended. 
 
 Also see: 
 
 Odell, Charles W. 'The assignment of lessons." University of Illinois Bulletin. 
 Vol. 23, No. 7, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 38. Urbana: Universitv 
 of Illinois, 1925. 20 p. 
 
 [33] 
 
of the teacher, the directing of the pupils in doing them is so intimately 
 tied up with the assignment that very little distinction is possible even 
 in an arbitrary analysis such as the one presented in this circular. But 
 in the case of learning exercises done within the class period, directing 
 the doing of learning exercises is an activity of the teacher which is 
 fairly prominent and distinct from the assignment. Outstanding prob- 
 lems for the teacher in this connection are such as the following: How to 
 secure maximum pupil activity that is educative. How to encourage 
 pupil initiative without undue inefficiency or ineffectiveness. How to 
 direct and yet make the pupil responsible. 
 
 A large proportion of the teacher's directing is incidental and in- 
 formal, as for example in directing pupil discussions. Frequently the 
 direction is simply implied by the action. For example, pupils are sel- 
 dom directed to follow a teacher's line of thought when he explains 
 something, although the direction is clearly implied. Occasionally di- 
 rections are formal and very explicit, as when the teacher directs the 
 pupil to look in a particular book for the answer to a question which has 
 been raised or tells him to follow a certain procedure in reading his 
 textbook. 
 
 On the whole, the directing of pupils in doing learning exercises is 
 an activity on the part oi the teacher which requires consummate skill 
 and judgment. The course of study may direct the attention of the 
 teacher to some of the more important features of this task, but assid- 
 uous practice and careful supervision are necessary in order to achieve 
 a high degree of ability. 
 
 d. Motivating pupil activity. Pupil activity is motivated in the 
 main by having pupils do things which are interesting to them. Many 
 pupils like to read historical novels, to look at pictures, to take part in 
 or witness dramatization of historical events, to visit places of historical 
 or civic interest in the community, to make cartoons or write poems 
 depicting historical facts, and to do many other things which teachers 
 ask of them. In turn, these activities add point and interest to some of 
 the more formal activities which pupils are asked to do, such as those in 
 connection with textbook material. The appropriateness of any moti- 
 vating procedure depends upon the need for motivation, which in turn 
 depends in the main upon the objectives to be attained, the type of 
 reading or other activity being engaged in, the age and interests of the 
 pupils, and the materials of instruction which are being used. The pre- 
 dominant use of textbooks in the social studies, with consequent nov- 
 elty when exercises are engaged in which involve other materials, makes. 
 
 [34] 
 
the situation such that the problem of motivation appears chiefly in 
 connection with pupil activities that involve the use of textbooks. 
 
 From a negative point of view, two things should be noted about 
 motivation. In the first place, teachers should not ask pupils to engage 
 in certain activities merely because the pupils like to do them, but rather 
 because engaging in them will definitely contribute to the engendering 
 of desired controls of conduct. Otherwise, motivation is likely not to 
 result in any desired educational product and may even produce unde- 
 sirable results. In the second place, teachers should not feel that they 
 must explicitly motivate every learning activity of pupils. Such a pro- 
 cedure frequently results in what is known as "sugar coating" and pro- 
 duces undesirable attitudes in the pupils. 
 
 e. Evaluating pupil achievement. The course of study should not 
 attempt to be a treatise on testing, particularly on the use of standard- 
 ized tests. References may be given which give a more extended treat- 
 ment of the subject. However, the course of study should present the 
 salient points with regard to methods and means of evaluating pupil 
 achievement. Some of the more important features that may be dis- 
 cussed are: the use of standardized tests, 37 the construction and use of 
 more or less informal tests of the "new examination" type, 38 the use of 
 the more traditional types of examination, particularly those involving 
 thought questions, 30 and the marking of test papers, especially making 
 the distinction between scores and marks or grades. 
 
 f. Diagnosing pupil difficulty. One of the most important uses to 
 which tests and test results may be put by the classroom teacher is the 
 diagnosing of pupil difficulty. The course of study should list and de- 
 scribe types of difficulties which frequently occur. For example, pupils 
 often exhibit a lack of understanding of a generalization. If a test re- 
 veals that the pupil has very little specific information of the type on 
 
 37 See: 
 
 Monroe, W. S., DeVoss, J. C, and Kelly, F. J. Educational Tests and Meas- 
 urements, Revised and Enlarged Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924, 
 P. 272-96. 
 
 38 See: 
 
 Odell, C. W. "Objective measurement of information." University of Illinois 
 Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 36, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 44. Urbana: 
 University of Illinois, 1926, p. 3-27. 
 
 Ruch, G. M. The Improvement of the Written Examination. Chicago: Scott, 
 Foresman and Company, 1924. 193 p. 
 
 39 See: 
 
 Monroe, W. S., and Souders, L. B. "The present status of written examinations 
 and suggestions for their improvement." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 21, No. 
 13, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 17. Urbana: University of Illinois, 
 1923, p. 7-77. 
 
 [35] 
 
which the generalization depends, it is probable that this is one of the 
 factors making for a lack of understanding. This is a phase of the 
 teacher's work which has been studied very little in the field of the social 
 studies. Because of the lack of information available, course-of-study 
 makers have an especially good opportunity to be of real assistance to 
 teachers. Inasmuch as most of the work in the social studies involves 
 reading, a large amount of what has been done with diagnosis of pupil 
 difficulty in reading is applicable. However, other types of difficulty 
 must be discovered. Some suggestions about how to proceed in making 
 use of test results, particularly how to diagnose pupils' difficulties should 
 be given. Yet the course of study should not go into too much detail. 
 It may be supplemented by references to good treatises on the subject. 
 
 g. Giving direct assistance. Some kind of direct assistance should 
 always follow diagnosis, for otherwise the diagnosis does not serve the 
 purpose for which it is made. Most assistance is given in study periods 
 in which the teacher assists the pupils by answering questions, telling 
 them where they may find certain materials, by assigning supplemen- 
 tary exercises that are designed to help the pupils overcome certain diffi- 
 culties, and the like. Most assistance should usually be of the nature of 
 assigning supplementary exercises. 40 
 
 By reason of the nature of the difficulties to be overcome, most as- 
 sistance must be individual, although sometimes the teacher may deal 
 with a group. Many school systems adopt some formal scheme, usu- 
 ally called supervised study, for the purpose of giving the teacher, 
 among other things, an opportunity to assist the pupils more than is 
 possible in a traditionally organized school. In the periods set aside for 
 such work the teacher may assist the pupils individually or in groups. 
 If a school system has adopted a particular scheme of supervised study, 
 some specific direction should be given so that the instruction in the 
 social studies will fit in with the general plan. In such instances, it is 
 frequently desirable to incorporate a separate topic in the introductory 
 section of the course of study rather than attempt to place all that is to 
 be said about supervising study under the topic of giving direct assist- 
 ance. 
 
 B. Course of study by grades. The general nature of the content 
 of the grade divisions of the course of study was set forth briefly in 
 
 M See: 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Mohlman, Dora Keen. "Training in the technique of 
 study." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 2, Bureau of Educational Research 
 Bulletin Xo. 23. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1924. 66 p. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Mohlman, Dora Keen. '"Errors made by high-school 
 students in one type of textbook study," School Review, 31:36-47, January, 1923. 
 
 [36] 
 
preceding pages. It will be helpful to consider a somewhat more de- 
 tailed analysis of this content with particular reference to the social 
 studies. 
 
 I. Specifications. There are two general types of specifications: 
 (a) objectives, and (b) material aids to instruction. 
 
 a. Objectives. Several types of objectives and ways of classifying 
 them have been recognized and discussed in preceding pages. In the 
 social studies, it seems that the most helpful classification of objectives 
 to guide their formulation and use is: 
 
 I. Ultimate objectives — General in statement and phrased in terms 
 of characteristics of individuals. 
 
 II. Immediate objectives 
 
 A. General in statement but in terms of 
 
 1. Specific habits — mostly fixed associations 
 
 2. Knowledge outcomes 
 
 3. General patterns of conduct 
 
 B. Specific in statement 
 
 1. Definitely stated in so far as possible — largely in terms 
 
 of standards of attainment 
 
 2. Implied in subject outlines 41 
 
 Ultimate objectives should be formulated first in order to furnish a 
 guide to the formulation of immediate objectives. Such progress has 
 been made in the development of objectives that the statement of ulti- 
 mate objectives can be fairly complete. Somewhat more difficult is the 
 formulation of an adequate list of immediate objectives. A moderately 
 comprehensive list stated in general terms can be made without much 
 difficulty, but anything like a comprehensive list of detailed and explicit 
 specific objectives in the social studies is at present unattainable. Pre- 
 sentation of a complete list of immediate objectives in terms of tasks to 
 be performed should probably not be attempted in a course of study. 
 Their formulation is a task that may well be left for teachers to perform 
 as the learners progress under their direction. 
 
 Aside from being explicitly stated, objectives are implied in speci- 
 fications of topics to be studied. In courses of study it may well be 
 considered that the chief function served by subject outlines is the de- 
 fining of objectives by implication — certain facts and topics are to be 
 
 "The work of determining objectives has not progressed sufficiently to make it 
 possible to give a satisfactory list of specific objectives in the social studies. Some fairly 
 adequate lists of personages, places, dates, and events are available, but in large meas- 
 ure the specific objectives must still be implied by means of outlines of subject-matter 
 to be covered. 
 
 [37] 
 
known in certain relationships, the degrees of thoroughness to be de- 
 termined by the teacher's judgment. 
 
 The course of study in the social studies should set forth the fol- 
 lowing objectives: first, in the introductory section, the ultimate ob- 
 jectives for the social studies as a whole; second, in the second division 
 of the course of study devoted to each grade and subject, the immediate 
 objectives for that grade and subject, for example, for Community Civics 
 in the ninth grade; and third, following the statement of immediate 
 objectives should be a subject outline for each grade and subject. If a 
 subject is to be considered as a distinct unit within the general field of 
 the social studies but is to be developed throughout two or more grades, 
 say American history in the seventh and eighth grades, then the imme- 
 diate objectives and content may be treated for these two or more grades 
 as it would otherwise be treated for one grade. 
 
 b. Material aids to instruction. The course of study should specify 
 the material aids to instruction, such as textbooks, supplementary books, 
 and other materials and devices which are to be used or which are 
 available for use if desired. Theoretically, at least, the textbook for a 
 course should not be selected until after the objectives have been form- 
 ulated, for the choice of a textbook should be largely determined by the 
 nature of the objectives set up. Actually, textbooks are often already 
 chosen and in use, so that those who write the course of study have 
 merely to accept the textbooks and make the best adjustments possible. 
 Usually, too, the supplementary books are already in the school library 
 and only a few are likely to be purchased on recommendation of the 
 course-of-study committee. About the same is true of other materials 
 and devices, such as maps, globes, lantern slides, models, and the like. 
 x\ll of these material aids to instruction should be enumerated in the 
 course of study, with discussions as to their availability and use. Al- 
 though such lists and discussions may be presented in one place for all 
 grades and subjects, it is probably better to give those most suitable for 
 a particular grade or subject at the beginning of the portion of the 
 course of study devoted to that grade or subject. In this way the dis- 
 cussions of the use of these tool materials are in proximity to the ob- 
 jectives and suggestions relative to instruction in each grade. 
 
 Provisions for individual differences by modifying specifications. 
 In formulating objectives and in selecting material aids to instruction, 
 consideration should be given to provisions for individual differences. 
 Two types of modifications may be made: those of a quantitative nature 
 and those that are qualitative. However, the two are so intimately re- 
 
 [58] 
 
lated that it is impossible in practice to make an uncompromising dis- 
 tinction between them. An example from the quantitative point of 
 view is the formulation of a set of minimum essentials to which addi- 
 tions may be made for those who are capable of going beyond the bare 
 minimum. From the qualitative point of view, some topics may be 
 designated to be studied more thoroughly or in a somewhat different 
 way by the more capable pupils. For instance, the minimum may be 
 to know what the Federal Reserve Bank System is, but the more able 
 pupils may go beyond this in comprehending some of the economic laws 
 underlying such a system. One of the most helpful features of courses 
 of study in assisting teachers with this qualitative aspect of specifica- 
 tions is the guidance which is given in selecting references suited to the 
 varying abilities of pupils. Some indications should be made in the 
 grade lists as to which reading materials are the more difficult and 
 which are the simpler. Designations of this sort will enable the teacher 
 to give the brighter pupils more difficult material and to assign simpler 
 reading to the slower pupils. 
 
 However, the provisions made for individual differences must be 
 dependent largely upon the policy of the school toward such provisions. 
 Consequently, they may be elaborate or meagre, for mixed classes or 
 for classes where pupils of different abilities are segregated, and so 
 forth. Most provisions for individual differences, especially when there 
 is no attempt at homogeneous grouping, must be made by adapting 
 learning exercises and methods of instruction. This is discussed on the 
 following page. 
 
 2. Suggestions relative to instruction. It was stated in preceding 
 pages that the introductory section of the course of study should contain 
 the discussion of general principles relative to class instruction and that 
 the grade and subject divisions should contain the more specific sugges- 
 tions which apply especially to a particular subject, such as lists of 
 standardized tests available for use in American history. Three types 
 of material of practical and direct use to teachers of the particular sub- 
 jects should be presented: first, lists of effective and desirable learning 
 exercises, such as projects and problems, with directions and occasionally 
 cautions for carrying out some of the more complicated or difficult 
 exercises; second, means of motivating pupil activity, such as lists of 
 books that have been found to have a particularly strong appeal to 
 pupils, or field trips of especial interest, with some suggestions as to the 
 particular educational value of some of the suggested means; and third, 
 means of evaluating pupil achievement, such as lists of standardized 
 
 [39] 
 
tests available and difficulties which pupils have, with evaluating pro- 
 cedures to be used in discovering these difficulties. Sometimes complete 
 tests which have been found to be especially effective may be given. 
 
 Adaptation of teaching procedures to individual differences. 42 
 Aside from purely administrative schemes, there are three outstanding 
 types of provisions for individual differences which may be made: (1) 
 modifications of objectives, (2) differentiations in material aids to in- 
 struction, and (3) modifications of teaching procedures. The modifica- 
 tions of objectives and differentiations in material aids to instruction 
 should be indicated in the outline of specifications which is given in the 
 introductory section and at the beginning of each grade section of the 
 course of study. Modifications of teaching procedures should be dis- 
 cussed in the grade sections of the course of study. 
 
 It is probable that the most significant provisions that teachers 
 make for individual differences are in modifications of their technique 
 of instruction, rather than in objectives and material aids to instruction. 
 Individual differences probably enter to a greater extent into the con- 
 tent subjects than into the drill subjects, not so much because of the 
 nature of differences in native individual capacities but because educa- 
 tional objectives place emphasis upon maximum development of pupil 
 ability in the content subjects as contrasted with acquisition of minimum 
 essentials in drill subjects. For these and other more or less obvious 
 reasons, it is highly important that courses of study in the social studies 
 should make suggestions to teachers for modifying their technique. It 
 is better to make these suggestions under the various grade and subject 
 divisions of the course of study rather than to include all such sugges- 
 tions under one heading in the introduction. 
 
 3. References for the teacher. The course of study in the social 
 studies should have appended a few references that in the opinion of 
 the course-of-study makers will be of most value to teachers of social 
 studies. This list should not be an extended bibliography, but should 
 contain selected references that will be of immediate value to the class- 
 room teacher. Each reference should be annotated in order that the list 
 will be readily usable. 
 
 Such a bibliography should include titles covering the more impor- 
 tant phases of at least the following: (1) methods of teaching the social 
 
 42 Sec: 
 
 Herriott, M. E. "Modifying technique of instruction for gifted children." Uni- 
 versity of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 18, Bureau of Educational Research Circular 
 No. 41. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926. 20 p. 
 
 [40 1 
 
studies, (2) standards of attainment in the social studies, and (3) test- 
 ing and remedial instruction in the social studies. In addition to refer- 
 ences on these phases of instruction, a few educational journals that 
 frequently contain articles on the teaching of social studies should be 
 listed. Also, it is well to refer to a few of the better courses of study 
 "with brief comments on what is of most worth in each. 
 
 [ 41 J 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 SELECTED AND ANNOTATED 
 
 Introductory statement. The following references have been selected 
 because of their pertinence to the work of those who make courses of 
 study in the social studies. No attempt has been made to include all 
 possible references; in fact, so many of the references included are of a 
 summary nature and include excellent bibliographies that the list has 
 been limited. The following divisions are made: first, general references 
 on curriculum and course of study making; second, books and articles 
 on methods of teaching; third, courses of study in the social studies; 
 fourth, references on testing and standards of achievement in the social 
 studies; and fifth, reports of investigations and miscellaneous references. 
 
 1. GENERAL REFERENCES ON CURRICULUM AND 
 COURSE OF STUDY MAKING 
 
 Bobbitt, Franklin. How to Make a Curriculum. Boston: Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, 1924, p. 1-75. 
 
 This is a report of the work on revising the curriculum in Los Angeles which Dr. 
 Bobbitt directed over a period of two years. 
 
 Caldwell, Otis W. "Types and principles of curricular development/' 
 Teachers College Record, 24:326-37, September, 1923. 
 Address delivered at meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the Na- 
 tional Education Association at Cleveland, February 28, 1923. Outlines the methods 
 and results of two types of curricular investigations and states certain principles for 
 use in reorganizing school subjects. 
 
 Charters, W. W. Curriculum Construction. New York: The Mac- 
 
 millan Company, 1923, p. 3-168. 
 
 This portion of the book gives a good background theory of curriculum construc- 
 tion and presents Charters' point of view. 
 
 Clement, John Addison. Curriculum Making in Secondary Schools. 
 
 New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1923. 534 p. 
 
 This is a collection of "some of the principles, problems and practices bearing upon 
 the business of curriculum making in secondary education." 
 
 Counts, Geo. S. "The senior high school curriculum." Supplementary 
 Educational Monographs, No. 29. Chicago: University of Chicago, 
 1926. 160 p. 
 
 This is a report of a survey of curriculum practices in fifteen city senior high 
 schools. 
 
 [42] 
 
Cox, Philip W. L. Curriculum-Adjustment in the Secondary School. 
 
 Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1925. 306 p. 
 
 This is one of the best of the many new publications on the secondary-school cur- 
 riculum. The author states the present situation, examines the scientific basis of the 
 curriculum, and finally adduces principles for the guidance of curriculum adjustment. 
 
 Glass, James M. "Curriculum practices in the junior high school and 
 grades five and six." Supplementary Educational Monographs, 
 No. 25. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1924. 181 p. 
 This is a report of a survey of curriculum practices in fourteen municipal school 
 
 systems. 
 
 McMurry, Charles A. How to Organize the Curriculum. New York: 
 The Macmillan Company, 1923. 358 p. 
 
 The curriculum is discussed in terms of projects, type studies, and large units of 
 study. A suggested curriculum of large teaching units is given, covering the fields of 
 geography, history, science, and literature. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. "Making a course of study." University of Illinois 
 Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 2, Bureau of Educational Research Circular 
 No. 35. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 35 p. 
 This circular presents the best present-day ideas on general make-up of courses of 
 
 study, the way to go about making a course of study, and the benefits to be derived 
 
 from such work. A lengthy bibliography on curriculum and course-of-study making is 
 
 included. 
 
 Threlkeld, A. L. "Curriculum revision: how a particular city may 
 attack the problem," Elementary School Journal, 25:573-82, April, 
 1925. 
 
 This is a report of the method of attack used in Denver, Colorado. 
 Wilson, H. B. "The course of study in the work of the modern school." 
 
 Course of Study Monographs, Introductory. Berkeley, California: 
 
 Board of Education, 1921. 14 p. 
 
 "Introductory to all (Berkeley) Courses of Study presenting the general point 
 of view which has guided the formulation of the detailed courses in all subjects for the 
 various schools." (Introductory note.) 
 
 "Cardinal principles of secondary education." U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
 tion Bulletin, 1918, No. 35. Washington, 1918. 32 p. 
 
 This is a classic report with which all should be familiar. 
 "The elementary school curriculum." Second Yearbook of the Depart- 
 ment of Superintendence. Washington: Department of Superin- 
 tendence of the National Education Association, 1924. 269 p. 
 The elementary curriculum situation in the United States in 1923 is well described. 
 "Facts on the public school curriculum." Research Bulletin of the Na- 
 tional Education Association, Vol. I, No. 5. Washington: Research 
 Division of the National Education Association, 1923, p. 310-50. 
 This bulletin furnishes good source material on time allotments, statutory require- 
 ments, grade combinations of subjects, and other pertinent matters. A list of courses 
 of study published in 1920 is valuable. 
 
 [43] 
 
"Keeping pace with the advancing curriculum." Research Bulletin of 
 the National Education Association, Vol. 3, Nos. 4 and 5. Wash- 
 ington: Research Division of the National Education Association, 
 
 1925, p. 107-92. 
 
 This bulletin makes an intensive survey of the curriculum advances that are being 
 made in the United States. It is crowded with facts and helpful suggestions. A list of 
 889 courses of study published between January 1, 1923, and November, 1925, is very 
 useful. 
 
 "The nation at work on the public school curriculum." Fourth Year- 
 book of the Department of Superintendence. Washington: Depart- 
 ment of Superintendence of the National Education Association, 
 
 1926. 520 p. 
 
 The major portion of this yearbook is made up of reports of national subject com- 
 mittees which discuss research studies that have been made and methods of procedure 
 in curriculum revision. However, there are two introductory sections dealing with cur- 
 riculum reconstruction in general. 
 
 "Research in constructing the elementary school curriculum." Third 
 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. Washington: 
 Department of Superintendence of the National Education Associa- 
 tion, 1925. 424 p. 
 
 This yearbook is devoted chiefly to the research studies that have been made in 
 the various school subjects. There is a discussion in two introductory sections of a co- 
 operative plan for the revision of the American elementary school curriculum and vari- 
 ations in curricula to meet community and individual needs. 
 
 2. METHODS OF TEACHING 
 Almack, John C. Education for Citizenship. Boston: Houghton Mif- 
 flin Company, 1924. 287 p. 
 
 The following phases of citizenship training are discussed: the civic basis of school 
 organization, the teaching of civic materials, and integration of the school and the com- 
 munity. 
 
 Bourne, Henry E. The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elemen- 
 tary and the Secondary School. New York: Longmans, Green, and 
 Company, 1902. 385 p. 
 This is a standard work that was revised in 1910. Somewhat out of date but 
 
 still very helpful. 
 
 Branom, Mendel E., and Branom, Fred K. The Teaching of Geog- 
 raphy. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1921. 292 p. 
 The teaching of geography by the "project, or active, method" is well presented. 
 
 Dawson, Edgar. Teaching the Social Studies. New York: The Mac- 
 
 millan Company, 1926. 
 
 The most recent book by an author who has given much thought to the subject. 
 Not yet off the press but should be soon. 
 
 [44] 
 
Dodge, Richard Elwood, and Kirchwey, Clara Barbara. The Teach- 
 ing of Geography in Elementary Schools. Chicago: Rand McNally 
 and Company, 1913. 248 p. 
 This is a book of practical considerations. The authors call attention to the 
 
 double point of view, "that we are teaching children geography . . . and also that we 
 
 are teaching geography to children." 
 
 Herriott, M. E. "Modifying technique of instruction for gifted chil- 
 dren." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol 23, No. 18, Bureau of 
 Educational Research Circular No. 41. Urbana: University of 
 Illinois, 1926. 17 p. 
 
 Six modifications of learning exercises and three modifications in the directing of 
 the doing of learning exercises are given as a result of considering the factors involved 
 in modifying technique of instruction. 
 
 Klapper, Paul. The Teaching of History. New York: D. Appleton 
 
 and Company, 1926. 348 p. 
 
 This is one of the mere recent books on the teaching of history in the elementary 
 and junior-high schools. It also includes the teaching of civics. Part I consists of one 
 chapter on the meaning of history; Part II contains nine chapters devoted to a dis- 
 cussion of how to attain the values of history; Part III is composed of three chapters 
 in which the content of history through the ninth year is discussed; Part IV has four 
 chapters on methods of teaching history; and Part V is devoted to the teaching of civics. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. "Types of learning required of pupils in the sev- 
 enth and eighth grades and in the high school." University of Illi- 
 nois Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 15, Bureau of Educational Research 
 Bulletin No. 7. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1921. 16 p. 
 Twelve types of textbook study, or purposes for which pupils read, are distin- 
 guished. Teachers' opinions as to the prevalence in various school subjects and the rel- 
 ative difficulties of these various types of study are reported. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Mohlman, Dora Keen. "Errors made by 
 high-school students in one type of textbook study," School Re- 
 view, 31:36-47, January, 1923. 
 
 This article presents an analysis of the causes of errors made by a group of high- 
 school students in studying for "comprehension of material read plus memorization so 
 that it can be reproduced." Remedial measures are suggested. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. "Projects and the project method." University of 
 Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 30, Bureau of Educational Research 
 Circular No. 43. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926. 20 p. 
 This is a critical study of the project method which might well have been given 
 
 the descriptive title: "The project vs. the assignment method — an evaluation." 
 
 Odell, Charles W. "The assignment of lessons." University of Illinois 
 Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 7, Bureau of Educational Research Circular 
 No. 38. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 20 p. 
 The following are discussed: function and importance of the assignment, when to 
 make the assignment, planning the assignment, goals of the assignment, motivating 
 pupils' study, statement of work to be covered, directing pupils in their study, and mis- 
 cellaneous suggestions. 
 
 [45] 
 
Tryon, Rolla Milton. Teaching of History in Junior and Senior High 
 Schools. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1921. 294 p. 
 This is probably the best recent book on the teaching of history. 
 
 Weatherly, Mrs. Josephine. "The correlation of history and litera- 
 ture," Teaching, No. 53, p. 12-16, October, 1920. 
 
 The major contribution of this article is an excellent list of literature books on 
 historical subjects, such as Ebers, An Egyptian Princess. 
 
 Wilgus, A. Curtis. "Maps and history instruction," The High School 
 
 Quarterly, 12:245-50, July, 1924. 
 
 Enumerates types of maps and ways of having them made by pupils. Some of 
 their uses are indicated. 
 
 Woellner, Frederic P. Education for Citizenship in a Democracy. 
 
 New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923. 252 p. 
 
 The present-day point of view toward civics, sociology, economics, ethics, and 
 Americanization is well presented here. 
 
 Committee of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association. "Standard- 
 izing library work and library equipment for history in secondary 
 schools," School Review, 29:135-50, February, 1921. 
 Lists of books that, have been found valuable for intensive and extensive reading 
 
 in American and European history are given and recommendations made. 
 
 3. COURSES OF STUDY 
 
 Pierce, Bessie L. "Courses in the social studies for junior high schools." 
 College of Education Series, No. 1. University of Iowa Extension 
 Bulletin, No. 97. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1923. 
 
 Although the writer has not seen this bulletin it should be similar to the ones de- 
 scribed just below. 
 
 Pierce, Bessie Louise, and Sharpe, Eloise. "Courses in the social 
 
 studies for senior high schools." College of Education Series, Nos. 
 
 8, 9, and 10. University of Iowa Extension Bulletin, Xos. 118, 119, 
 
 and 120. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1925. 102, 174, and 122 p. 
 
 These bulletins are not courses of study, properly speaking, but are syllabi worked 
 out in great detail. These syllabi are for the social studies in the University High 
 School of the University of Iowa. The courses are organized on the cycle plan. 
 
 "The course in history," Francis W. Parker School Studies in Educa- 
 tion, Social Science Series, Vol. 7. Chicago: Francis W. Parker 
 School, 1923. 196 p. 
 
 The point of view of the Francis W. Parker School is admirably presented with 
 many illustrations of the work done. The course in history is discussed from the first 
 grade through the high school. 
 
 The following references are not individually annotated because it can 
 hardly be said that any one of them makes an outstanding contri- 
 bution. However, all are representative of the better practices in 
 course-of-study making. The usual bibliographical form is not used, 
 the courses of study for each school system being grouped together. 
 
 [46] 
 
Baltimore, Maryland: Warwick and York. 
 
 "Course of study, public schools, Baltimore County, Maryland, 
 
 Grades I-VHI," 1921, p. 158-88, 189-216, 412-72, 473-576, 577-92. 
 Baltimore, Maryland: Board of Education. 
 
 "Geography-history-arithmetic, course of study for kindergarten 
 
 and grades one, two, and three," 1924. 78 p. 
 
 "Geography, course of study for grades four, five, and six," 1924. 
 
 74 p. 
 
 "History, course of study for grades four, five, and six," 1924. 103 p. 
 
 "The social studies, course of study for senior and junior high 
 
 schools," 1925. 577 p. 
 Berkeley, California: Board of Education. 
 
 "English, history, science, mathematics, foreign languages — course 
 
 of study monographs for Junior High Schools, Number 1, 1922. 
 
 132 p. 
 Cleveland, Ohio: Board of Education. 
 
 "Course of study in geography — grades three to six, inclusive," 
 
 1925. 240 p. 
 Lawrence, Kansas: Board of Education. 
 
 "Geography, course of study, elementary schools." (Xo date 
 
 given.) 66 p. (Mimeographed.) 
 "Social study syllabus, secondary schools," 1924. (Not paged consec- 
 utively.) .(Mimeographed.) 
 Los Angeles, California: Board of Education. 
 
 "Course of study, fifth and sixth grades," 1924. 335 p. 
 
 "Social studies, course of study monographs, No. 23," 1923. 176 p. 
 Trenton, New Jersey: Board of Education. 
 
 "History, elementary course of study," 1923. 139 p. 
 
 "Civics, elementary course of study," 1922. 89 p. 
 
 "Geography, report of committee on elementary course of study," 
 
 1924. 28 p. 
 
 "Geography, elementary course of study," 1922. 94 p. 
 
 "History, secondary course of study, grades seven and eight," 1924. 
 
 76 p. 
 
 "American history, secondary course of study," 1923. 72 p. 
 
 "Early European history, secondary course of study, grade ten," 
 
 1924. 98 p. 
 
 "Modern European history, secondary course of study, grade 
 
 eleven," 1924. 65 p. 
 
 "Geography and science, secondary course of study," 1923. 100 p. 
 
 [47] 
 
4. TESTING AND STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT 
 Doherty, Margaret, and MacLatchy, Josephine. "Bibliography of 
 educational and psychological tests and measurements." U. S. 
 Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1923, No. 55. Washington, 1924. 
 233 p. 
 
 This bibliography gives not only a list of the tests but a rather complete list of 
 references that discuss the particular tests, the use of tests in general and the uses of 
 tests according to types of schools. 
 
 Monroe, Walter Scott, DeYoss, James Clarence, and Kelly, Fred- 
 erick James. Educational Tests and Measurements. (Revised 
 Edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924, p. 272-96, 
 417-30, 469-86. 
 
 The structure, uses and iimitations of most of the standardized tests in geography 
 and history are discussed in the sections referred to. The general theory of testing is 
 discussed and practical suggestions made. An excellent bibliography on testing in geog- 
 raphy and history is given on pages 294-96. 
 
 Odell, Charles W. "Educational tests for use in elementary schools, 
 revised." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 16, Bureau of 
 Educational Research Circular Xo. 33. Urbana: University of Illi- 
 nois, 1924. 22 p. 
 
 An annotated bibliography of tests that are now available. 'Tests that are known 
 to be distinctly unsatisfactory are omitted." Norms are available for most of the tests 
 listed. The bibliography is preceded by a brief discussion of the characteristics and 
 use of tests. 
 
 Odell, Charles W. "Educational tests for use in high schools, revised." 
 University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 37, Bureau of Educa- 
 tional Research Circular Xo. 34. Urbana: University of Illinois, 
 1925. 19 p. 
 
 This circular does much the same for high schools that the preceding circular does 
 for elementary schools. 
 
 Odell, Charles W. "Objective measurement of information." Univer- 
 sity of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 36, Bureau of Educational Re- 
 search Circular No. 44. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926. 27 p. 
 This circular presents a brief discussion of the so-called '"'new examination" and 
 
 its use. Examples of fifteen types and numerous sub-types of the "new examination" 
 
 are given along with a brief discussion of the use of each. 
 
 Bureau of Cooperative Research, Indiana University (Compiled by). 
 
 "First revision of bibliography of educational measurements." Bul- 
 letin of the School of Education, Vol. 1, No. 5. Bloomington, In- 
 diana: Indiana University, 1925. 147 p. 
 
 ''This bibliography is compiled for the double purpose of listing all efforts, so far 
 as they have come to our attention, which have been made in the United States to de- 
 velop achievement tests, and of giving a brief description of each test, including in the 
 description not only an analysis of the test and its purpose, but also available infor- 
 
 [48] 
 
mation concerning the range of the test, administration cost of the test in money and 
 in time, information as to the time of year in which it was standardized, the publisher 
 of the tests, and the date of publication." (From foreword of first edition.) 
 
 5. REPORTS OF INVESTIGATIONS AND MISCELLANEOUS 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Barnard, J. Lynn, Carrier, F. W., Dunn, Arthur William, and 
 Kingsley, Clarence D. "The teaching of community civics." U. S. 
 Bureau of Educational Bulletin, 1915, No. 23. Washington, 1915. 
 55 p.' 
 
 This bulletin laid the foundation for much of what is being done at present in 
 community civics. It should be read by those who wish to understand the develop- 
 ments since 1915. 
 
 Dawson, Edgar (Edited by)^_J!Dutlines of Responsible Government." 
 
 New York: The National Municipal League. 
 
 This is only one of several publications dealing with governmental subjects. They 
 are intended to enlist the cooperation of teachers in teaching the principles of organi- 
 zation which have passed beyond the stage of hypothesis. 
 
 Dawson, Edgar. "The social studies in civic education." U. S. Bureau 
 of Education Bulletin, 1923, No. 23. Washington, 1923. 16 p. 
 A good resume of the present situation of the social studies. 
 
 Dunn, Arthur William (Compiled by). "The social studies in sec- 
 ondary education." U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 
 28. Washington, 1916. 63 p. 
 
 This is the report of the committee on social studies of the Commission on the 
 Reorganization of Secondary Education of the National Education Association. 
 
 Gambrill, J. Montgomery. "Experimental curriculum-making in the 
 social studies." The Historical Outlook, 14:384-406, December, 
 1923; 15:37-55, January, 1924. 
 
 This is a report of an investigation of several experimental curricula in the social 
 studies. The salient points of each are well discussed. 
 
 Good, Carter V. "An experimental study of the merits of extensive 
 and intensive reading in the social sciences," School and Society, 
 22:758-60, December 12, 1925. 
 
 Methods of and conclusions from an experiment at the University of Chicago are 
 reported. 
 
 Hughes, R. O. "Recent tests in the social studies," The Historical Out- 
 look, 14:373-76,' December, 1923. 
 
 The compiler endeavored to include every textbook for general use in the social 
 studies (history, civics, sociology, and economics) in the junior and senior high school 
 which was published between 1916 and 1923. Approximately 100 titles are listed. The 
 school grade for which each text is intended is given along with a brief annotation. 
 
 [49] 
 
Kimball, Reginald Stevens. "A selected bibliography of works help- 
 ful in teaching the constitution of the United States," The Histori- 
 cal Outlook, 16:211-16, May, 1925. 
 
 The list includes approximately 200 briefly annotated titles classified as follows: 
 A — For teachers' reference 
 B — Source material 
 C — Popular treatments 
 D — 1. Advanced texts 
 
 2. Secondary texts 
 
 3. Elementary texts 
 E — For pupils' reference 
 F — Constitutional law 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. "Teachers' Objectives." University of Illinois 
 Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 39, Bureau of Educational Research Circular 
 No. 45. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926. 28 p. 
 This is a thoughtful discussion of the objectives of education, particularly of the 
 immediate objectives of instruction. There is a succinct discussion of the lack of har- 
 mony between the objectives expressed by teachers and the objectives implied by the 
 learning exercises which they have pupils do. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Foster, I. 0. "The status of the social sci- 
 ences in the high schools of the North Central Association." Uni- 
 versity of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 18, Bureau of Educational 
 Research Bulletin No. 13. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1923. 
 38 p. 
 
 The title is sufficiently descriptive. 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Herriott, M. E. "Objectives of United States 
 
 history in grades seven and eight." University of Illinois Bulletin, 
 
 Vol. 23, No. 3, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 33. 
 
 Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926. 68 pp. 
 
 The dates, events, personages, and miscellaneous facts in United States history 
 which the elementary teachers of Champaign and Piatt counties. Illinois, think pupils 
 should know on completion of the eighth grade are compared with some current prac- 
 tices and the results of other investigations. A study of thought questions in United 
 States history is reported. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S., and Johnston, Nell Bomar. "Reporting educa- 
 tional research." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 38, 
 Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 25. Urbana: Univer- 
 sity of Illinois, 1925. 63 p. 
 
 Most of the principles relating to the reporting of educational research are ap- 
 plicable to the writing of a course of study. This bulletin will be of real assistance to 
 the one who does the actual writing of a course of study. 
 
 Robinson, James Harvey. The New History. New York: The Mac- 
 
 millan Company, 1912. 266 p. 
 
 This is a collection of essays illustrating a modern tendency in point of view toward 
 history and history teaching. It is a classic of such literature. 
 
 [50] 
 
Shiels, Albert. "The social studies in development," Teachers Col- 
 lege Record, 23:126-45, March, 1922. 
 
 An excellent resume of the development of the teaching of the social studies in 
 the elementary and secondary school, with special emphasis on the reports of commit- 
 tees and tendencies evidenced in them. 
 
 Shryock, Richard H. "An analytical and descriptive guide to the 
 materials in the History Teacher's Magazine and the Historical 
 Outlook, Vol. I to XVI, 1909-1925," The Historical Outlook, 16: 
 355-94, December, 1925. 
 
 For those who have access to The Historical Outlook this is an excellent guide. 
 
 Department of History, University of Iowa (Compiled and annotated 
 by). "Great Charters of Americanism." University of Iowa Ex- 
 tension Division Bulletin No. 60. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 
 1920. 120 p. 
 
 Contains ten documents, from the Mayflower Pact to the Covenant of the League 
 of Nations, illustrating the progress of the American people toward greater liberty and 
 self-government. Valuable bibliographies included. 
 
 "Books for historical reading in schools," The Historical Outlook, 15: 
 306-13, October, 1924. 
 
 This is a list for outside reading and includes recent books not yet tested and 
 novels as well as ten best books in each of the following fields of history: Ancient, 
 European, English, and American. 
 
 "List of references on education for citizenship." U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, Library Leaflet No. 30. Washington, 1925. 16 p. 
 
 The list includes references on training for citizenship in general as well as refer- 
 ences on the problems of government. Both book and periodical references are given. 
 
 "New materials of instruction." Nineteenth Yearbook of the National 
 Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: 
 Public School Publishing Company, 1920, p. 69-82, 156-74. 
 
 The chapters referred to have the following titles: "A book of local history," 
 "Lessons in local history and geography." and "Community life." 
 
 "Studies in Secondary Education, I." Supplementary Educational Mon- 
 ographs, No. 24, Chicago: University of Chicago, 1923, p. 88-115. 
 The pages referred to are three divisions of the monograph as follows: Hill, How- 
 ard Copeland — "A two-year sequence in high-school history"; Barnard, Arthur Fairchild 
 — "Survey of Civilization"; and Hill, Howard Copeland — "A course in modern history." 
 
 "Studies in Secondary Education, II." Supplementary Educational Mon- 
 ographs, No. 26. Chicago: Lmiversity of Chicago, 1925, p. 137-59. 
 The pages referred to are two divisions of the monograph written by Howard C. 
 
 Hill and Mildred Janovsky Wiese, respectively, entitled, "Experiments with advanced 
 
 courses in social science for high-school seniors," and "The worker in modern societv: a 
 
 new social science course." 
 
 [51 J 
 
"The social studies in the elementary and secondary school." Twenty- 
 Second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa- 
 tion, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Com- 
 pany, 1923. 343 p. 
 
 This is the most comprehensive collection of material relative to the organization 
 of courses and curriculum making in the social studies that has been made. 
 
 "The teaching of citizenship in the elementary school." Maryland School 
 Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 1. Baltimore, Maryland: State Department 
 of Education, 1926. 272 p. 
 
 This bulletin is divided into two parts. Part One is a somewhat theoretical dis- 
 cussion of the nature of good citizenship and the training of citizens in school. Part Two 
 is made up of concrete examples of civic training submitted by teachers of Maryland. 
 
 The Chronicles of America Photoplays. New Haven: Yale Univer- 
 sity Press Film Service. 64 p. 
 
 A description of the Chronicles of America Photoplays for school use. It is free 
 for the asking. 
 
 On minimum essentials: Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society 
 for the Study of Education, Part I; Sixteenth Yearbook, Part I; 
 Seventeenth Yearbook, Part I; and Eighteenth Yearbook. Part II. 
 Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1915, 
 1917, 1918, 1919. 
 
 These are reports on economy of time and minimum essentials in elementary 
 school subjects. The discussions furnish a background for such provisions in courses 
 of study. Some concrete material and suggestions are also provided. 
 
 fHE 
 
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