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THE 
 
 CODE 
 
 OF 
 
 AGRICULTURE; 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON GARDENS, ORCHARDS, 
 WOODS, AND PLANTATIONS. 
 
 BY 
 
 THE RIGHT HONOURABLE 
 
 SIR JOHN SINCLAIR, BART. 
 
 SOUNDER OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Omnium rerum ex quibus aliquid acquiritur, nihil cst AgricuUura melius, nihil uberius, 
 nihil dulcius, nihil hominc libcro dignius. 
 
 CICERO DE OFFIC. 1 , C. 42 . 
 
 THIRD EDITION, 
 
 ENRICHED BY THE REMARKS, OF A NUMBER OF THE ABLEST PRACTICAL 
 FARMERS, IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND. 
 
 LOIS DON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR SHERWOOD, NEELY, AND JONES, PATERNOSTER 
 ROW ; ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND CO. EDINBURGH; 
 
 M. KEENE, DUBLIN ; TODD, YORK l AND 
 BARRETT AND SON, BATH. 
 
 1821. 
 

 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 B. M'Millan, Printer, 
 Pow-Street, Coven t. Garden. 
 
CODE OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 C'bO 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST EDITION, 
 
 AND 
 
 PLAN OF THE WORK. 
 
 Agriculture, or, “ The art of improving 
 and cultivating the Soil,” was formerly involved in 
 much doubt and mystery. Those who practised it, 
 generally followed the customs of their forefathers, 
 without inquiring into the circumstances which led 
 to their adoption, or justified their continuance; 
 while such individuals as endeavoured to explain 
 the principles of the art, were either unacquainted 
 with its theory, or seldom had the advantages of 
 experience. From the numerous improvements, 
 however, which have recently been made ; — from 
 the minute and extensive inquiries which have lately- 
 been carried on ; — and from the great increase of 
 knowledge which has of late years been acquired in 
 that art, the difficulties attending the practice of an 
 improved System of Husbandry, have in a great 
 degree been removed, and its principles have now 
 become so much simplified, and are so well under- 
 stood, that the time has arrived, when it is prac- 
 ticable, with peculiar advantages, to undertake, the 
 arduous task of drawing up, 
 
 “ A CODE OF AGRICULTURE.” 
 
 Ct) Before the present period, this attempt could not 
 have been made with any well-founded hopes of 
 success. For so many able and well-informed indi- 
 
 i I 47287 
 
VI 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 viduals, had, never, in any former era, directed their 
 attention to agricultural pursuits ; — so much capital 
 had never previously been employed in the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil ; — so many Practical Farmers, had 
 never before published the result of their experience, 
 and observations on agricultural subjects ; — nor had 
 those minute operations, on the due execution of 
 which the success of the Farmer, in a great measure 
 depends, been ever so distinctly pointed out. — 
 Hence the superiority of the present period for such 
 an undertaking. 
 
 But if such a Work may now be attempted, it is, 
 in a peculiar manner, incumbent on the person, who 
 ventures to lay before the Public the result of the 
 labours of so many able men, to shew, by what means 
 such an undertaking may be accomplished. On 
 his suggestion, the Government of Great Britain, 
 established a Board of Agriculture, and Internal 
 Improvement. Under its auspices, the greatest 
 exertions were made to collect useful information, 
 on every subject connected with the objects of the 
 new Institution ; and thus a great body of valu- 
 able materials was amassed *, and in some degree 
 arranged. In such a situation, it was natural for 
 that individual, who had taken the most active con- 
 cern in forming and directing the progress of the 
 Board, to attempt reducing the substance of the 
 whole, into so moderate a compass, that it would 
 require, neither much expence to purchase the work, 
 
 * For that purpose, the Agricultural as well as the Political 
 circumstances of every district in the kindom, were separately, 
 and repeatedly examined, and Reports published, of the state of 
 the several Counties of England, in 47 volumes, octavo, and of 
 Scotland, in 30 volumes more. Seven volumes of Communica- 
 tions, in quarto, and several other works on specific subjects, have 
 also been published by the Board. The whole was intended as the 
 foundation of such a Work as the one now proposed, which, from 
 the commencement of the new Institution, was in the Author's 
 contemplation. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 VII 
 
 nor much time to peruse it. How far that has been 
 accomplished, the reader will have it in his power 
 to judge, by a perusal of this publication. 
 
 But to enable any person to undertake, such a 
 task as the present, it was not only sufficient, 
 that he had access to Books, however numerous, 
 or however valuable the information they might 
 contain. It was necessary for him also, to con- 
 verse with Farmers ; — to discuss the various sub- 
 jects connected with Agriculture, with practical 
 men ; — to survey their farms ; — to examine their 
 various practices on the spot; — to compare the 
 systems of different countries and, above all, to 
 be himself a Farmer, and that on a great scale. 
 These requisites have not been wanting on the 
 present occasion. 
 
 After considering deliberately, how the pro- 
 posed plan could best be executed, the following 
 appeared to him, the most simple, and the most 
 comprehensive that he could devise. 
 
 I. To consider those “ Preliminary Points,” which a 
 Farmer ought to ascertain, before he undertakes to occupy 
 any extent of land, as — The Climate ; — Soil ; — Subsoil ; — 
 Elevation ; — Aspect ; — Situation ; — Size ; — Tenure, whe- 
 ther in property, or on lease ; — Rent ; — and other burdens 
 affecting the farm. 
 
 II. To inquire into “ The Means which are the most essen- 
 tial to ensure the Success of a Farmer namely, Capital ; 
 — Regular Accounts; — Arrangement of Agricultural La- 
 bour ; — Farm Servants ; — Labourers in Husbandry ; — Live 
 Stock ; — Implements ; — Agricultural Buildings ; — Com- 
 mand of Water; — Divisions of Fields ; — and Farm Roads. 
 
 III. To point out “ The various Modes of Improving 
 Land ” by Cultivating Wastes ; — Enclosing ; — Draining ; 
 — Manuring ; — Paring and Burning ; — Fallowing ; — Weed-* 
 
VII 1 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ing ; — Irrigating ; — Flooding ; — Warping ; — and Em- 
 banking. 
 
 IV. To explain " The various Modes of occupying Land,” 
 in Arable Culture ; — Grass ; — Gardens and Orchards ; — 
 Woods and Plantations ; — and 
 
 V. To offer some general remarks, on “ The Means of 
 Improving a Country By diffusing Information — By re- 
 moving Obstacles to Improvement ; and, — By positive En- 
 couragement. 
 
 In the body of the Work, general principles can 
 alone be dwelt upon : where particular information 
 is necessary, it will be inserted in notes ; and some 
 points, which require minute details, shall be con- 
 sidered in separate papers in an Appendix. 
 
 It is only necessary to add, that in drawing up 
 this Work, having utility, rather than any claim 
 to originality in view, the Author has availed him- 
 self, in addition to the publications of the Board, of 
 whatever useful information he could find, in pre- 
 ceding writers on Agriculture, of acknowledged 
 merit and authority ; and has not hesitated to 
 adopt their language and modes of expression, 
 where they were distinguished for perspicuity or 
 precision. 
 
 JOHN SINCLAIR. 
 
 Ormly Lodge , Ham-Common, 
 September, 1 S 1 7. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 TO 
 
 THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 In submitting this New Impression to the consideration 
 of the Public, the Author has to return his best acknow- 
 ledgments, for the important assistance he has received, from 
 several distinguished Farmers both in England and in Scot- 
 land. He thinks it proper, in particular, to mention, Mr. 
 Middleton, the Author of the Middlesex Report; — Mr. 
 Brown of Markle, so well known for his able Works on 
 Agriculture ; — and the Rev. Dr. Skene Keith, who wrote 
 the Agricultural Survey of Aberdeenshire. — With such aid, 
 and that of other eminent Farmers, whose communications 
 were extremely valuable, he flatters himself that the Work, 
 which he has been anxious to render as complete as cir- 
 cumstances would admit of, will be productive of some 
 important benefits to the Agriculture of the country. 
 
 J.S. 
 
 Ormly Lodge , Ham-Common, 
 Surrey , 31 si Oct. 1818. 
 
 1 
 
ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 TO 
 
 THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 The Author has now the satisfaction, of presenting to 
 the Public, an improved Edition of “ The Code of Agricul- 
 ture;” enriched by the Remarks, of a number of the ablest 
 Practical Farmers, in England, Scotland, and Ireland, whose 
 obliging communications, have essentially contributed, to 
 render this volume more complete. 
 
 It was long ago observed by Xenophon, that, ee In a 
 u highly polished community, the generality of persons 
 “ should be somewhat acquainted, with such a common 
 “ discussion, as that of husbandry.’’ That object, it is 
 hoped, will be greatly facilitated, by the publication of a 
 Work like the present, which containins a general view 
 of the principles of the art, and an account of its most 
 approved practices. By the diffusion of knowledge re- 
 garding these important particulars, the prejudices which 
 some unfortunately entertain, either against the' superior 
 importance of Agriculture, or the practicability of its fur- 
 ther improvement, will be most effectually removed. 
 
 At all events, it is presumed, that this Work, in its 
 present amended state, will prove, beyond the possibility of 
 doubt, the superior advantages attending, what the Author, 
 (for want of a better name), has been induced to call, 
 “ The Codean System of Knowledge.” — By that term is 
 meant the collecting and arranging , in one Code, or Volume, 
 
ADVERTISEMENT TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 XI 
 
 the general principles of any particular branch of Literature, 
 by which it. is not only reduced at first into a moderate size, 
 but may afterwards be re-printed, with corrections , at a 
 moderate expence, when additional knowledge, of im- 
 portant facts is acquired, which shall render a re-publication 
 necessary. A moment’s consideration must convince every 
 one, how much the diffusion of useful information, will 
 thus be promoted. 
 
 In addition to a Code of Agriculture, it would certainly 
 be desirable, to have a separate Work, fC On the Minutiae of 
 Farming ; 3 which the Author thinks might be accom- 
 plished in another volume, of a similar size. How that 
 plan is to be effected, requires a good deal of consideration ; 
 and it seems, on the whole, to be better adapted, for the 
 exertions of a respectable Society, than for those of a single 
 individual. A particular branch of the subject, should be 
 allotted to one person, the most likely to be acquainted with 
 its details; and his performance should be circulated, (in a 
 printed form), for the purpose of collecting the result of 
 the experience and observation of all the most intelligent 
 Practical Farmers in the country. — A Work would thus be 
 obtained, by means of which, many useful practices would 
 be generally disseminated, and many errors in husbandry 
 would be pointed out. Any trifling expence, which such 
 a plan might occasion, would be most amply compen- 
 sated, by the permanent advantages that would be derived 
 from it. 
 
 JOHN SINCLAIR. 
 
 133, George- Street, Edinburgh 
 1st January, 1821. 
 
 •I 
 
P M 'l A : • 
 
 V[ I i HitplH I 1, f , • ' * 
 
 ■ 
 
 . 
 
 
 
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 •• *, r.> * 
 
 
 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction, and Plan of tiie Work, v 
 
 CHAP. I. — Preliminary Points to ee considered, before^ 
 a Farmer can undertake with prudence the > 
 occupation of a Farm. j 
 
 Sect. 1. Climate, 1 
 
 2. Soil, 13 
 
 3. Subsoil, • • • * 33 
 
 4. Elevation, 35 
 
 5* Aspect, 38 
 
 6. Situation, 38 
 
 7. Size, • 41 
 
 8. Tenure, whether in Property, or on Lease, 49 
 
 9. Rent, 57 
 
 10. Parochial, National, and Miscellaneous Burdens, • • 64 
 
 CHAP. II. — On the most essential Means for carrying > 
 on the Improvement and Cultivation of a Farm. $ 
 
 Sect. 1. 
 2 . 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6 . 
 
 7. 
 
 8 . 
 9. 
 
 10 . 
 
 11 . 
 
 Capital, 
 
 Regular Accounts, 
 
 Arrangement of Agricultural Labour, and Domestic 
 
 Management, 
 
 Farm Servants, 
 
 Labourers in Husbandry, 
 
 Live Stock, 
 
 Implements of Husbandry, 
 
 Farm Buildings, and Cottages connected therewith, . . 
 
 Command of Water, • 
 
 Size and Shape of Fields, 
 
 Farm Roads, 
 
 70 
 
 74 
 
 77 
 
 81 
 
 86 
 
 93 
 
 114 
 
 138 
 
 147 
 
 152 
 
 157 
 
 CHAP. III. — On the various Modes of Improving Land. 
 
 Sect. 1. On the Cultivation and Improvement of Wastes, •••• 160 
 
 2. On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures, 181 
 
 3. On Draining, 195 
 
 4. On Manures, 213 
 
 5. On Paring and Burning, 255 
 
 6. On Summer Fallowing, 268 
 
 7. On Weeding Land, • •• 277 
 
 8. On Irrigation, 294 
 
 9. On Flooding Land, 308 
 
 10. On Warping Land, 312 
 
 11. On Embankments, 317 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. IV. — Of the Various Modes or Occupying Land. 
 
 page 
 
 Introduction, 324 
 
 PART I. — On the Cultivation of Arable Land, 325 
 
 Sect. 1. Of Ploughing, 326 
 
 2. Of Ridging, 340 
 
 3. Of Scarifying, and putting in Crops without Ploughing, 348 
 
 4. Of Harrowing, 351 
 
 5. Of Rolling, 353 
 
 6. Choice of Seed, 355 
 
 7. Change of Seed, 357 
 
 8. Quantity of Seed, 358 
 
 9. Preparing the Seed for Sowing, 364 
 
 10. Season for Sowing, 366 
 
 11. Of Sowing, (Drilling included), and on the Practice of ) 
 
 12. On Hoeing, r • 384 
 
 13. Of Treading, 385 
 
 14. Of Culture while growing, 386 
 
 15. Of Reaping, 392 
 
 16. Of Harvesting, * 397 
 
 17. Of Threshing Grain, 400 
 
 18. Of Dressing, or Winnowing Grain, 401 
 
 19. Improving the Quality of Grain, and Flour, • • 403 
 
 20. Of Preserving Corn, and Flour, • 404 
 
 21. Of the Accidents to which Grain is liable, 406 
 
 22. On the Diseases of Wheat, • 411 
 
 23. Of Straw, 427 
 
 24. Of Stubbles, 442 
 
 25. Of Gleaning, 444 
 
 PART II. — On Grass Land, 462 
 
 PART III. — OF Gardens and Orchards, 502 
 
 PART TV. — Woods and Plantations, 535 
 
 1. Of Natural Woodlands, 542 
 
 2. Of Plantations, 551 
 
 CHAP. V. — On tiie Means of Improving the Agricultu- } 
 ral State of a Country. $ 
 
 Introductory Observations on the Importance of Agriculture, 568 
 
 Sect. 1. On removing Obstacles to Improvement, 578 
 
 2. On relieving Agriculture from Burdens peculiarly affect- } ^ 
 
 3. On promoting the Collection and Diffusion of Useful i 
 
 Knowledge, ••••$ 
 
 4. To give a Preference to Domestic Agricultural Produc- ) 
 
 tions in the Home Market, \ 
 
 5. To Encourage the Exportation of any Surplus Produce 586 
 
 6. To Promote the Improvement of Waste, or unproduc- ) 
 
 7. To Encourage Permanent and Substantial Improve-} 
 ments, S 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I. 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 XII. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 XIV. 
 XV. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 XX. 
 
 XXI. 
 XXII. 
 
 Index, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 Of Leases, 
 
 Of Farming Accounts, 
 
 On the making of Watering Ponds, 
 
 On the Improved System of Summer Fallows, 
 
 On the Superiority of Cultivating Winter Tares, instead ^ 
 
 of a Summer Fallow, • $ ^ 
 
 29 
 31 
 31 
 37 
 46 
 50 
 54 
 57 
 59 
 
 On the Supply and Consumption of Grain, 
 
 An Account of Bills of Enclosure, passed in 40 years, . . 
 Description of the Mode of Hay-making in Middlesex, . . 
 
 On the Uses of Salt for Agricultural Purposes, 
 
 Mr. Hunter of Tynefield’s System of Farming, 
 
 On the Produce, Expence, and Surplus of Farms, 
 
 On General Statements of Produce and Expence, • • • • 
 
 On the Management of an Extensive Property, 
 
 Wheat necessary to supply the London Market, 
 
 On the Importance of the Distillery to British Agriculture, 59 
 
 On Drilling in Scotland, 62 
 
 On Ploughing-in Grain Crops for Manure, 65 
 
 An Account of an Improved Mode of Raising Crops of ) 
 
 Grain, by means of a Drill-Barrow, J ^ 
 
 Additional Hints as to Drilling and Ribbing, 68 
 
 Hints as to Turnips, and on the best Means of prevent- > 
 
 ing the Ravages of the Fly, } 
 
 Comparison between Horses and Oxen, as Beasts of 
 
 Draught, 
 
 On Blue Vitriol, or the Sulphate of Copper, as an infal-' 
 lible Remedy for preventing the Smut in Wheat, and 
 so strengthening the Plant, that it is less subject to 
 other Disorders; together with some additional 
 Hints, as to the Rust, or Mildew, by Sir John Sin- 
 clair, j 
 
 74 
 
 81 
 
 List of Authorities, 
 
 Explanations of the Plates, 
 
 88 
 
 135 
 
 144 
 
. 
 
 
 .. ■ ‘ 
 
CODE OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED, BEFORE A 
 FARMER, CAN UNDERTAKE WITH PRUDENCE, THE 
 OCCUPATION OF ANY EXTENT OF LAND. 
 
 Agriculture, though in general capable of being 
 reduced to simple principles, requires, on the whole, a 
 greater variety of knowledge, than perhaps any other art*. 
 In addition to the information which must be acquired by 
 a farmer, to enable him to cultivate the soil with success, 
 or to manage stock with profit, it is necessary for him, be- 
 fore he can undertake with prudence, the occupation of any 
 extent of land, deliberately to consider the following im- 
 portant particulars : — The climate ; — The soil ; — The sub- 
 soil ; — The elevation ; — The aspect ; — The situation ; — The 
 size; — The tenure; — The rent; — and the other burthens 
 affecting the farm. These preliminary points, it is here 
 proposed briefly to examine. 
 
 Sect. I. — Climate. 
 
 It is much to be regretted, that sufficient attention is 
 rarely paid by the farmer, to the nature of the climate in 
 which his operations are carried on. Unless the system he 
 adopts, be calculated for the weather his crops are likely to 
 experience, every exertion will often terminate in disap- 
 
 * Agriculture, even restricted to the management of farm lands, when 
 viewed in all its branches, and to their fullest extent, is not only Jthe most 
 important, and the most difficult in rural economics, but in the whole circle 
 of human arts and sciences. — Marshall's Rural Economy of the West of Eng- 
 land, vol. i. p. 56. — Dr, Coventry's Discourses , p. 23. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 Climate. 
 
 pointment. The system that is proper for warm and dry 
 situations, is not suitable for cold and wet ones ; and in a 
 bleak and backward climate, the nature of the soil ought 
 not only to be attended to, but the utmost care ought to be 
 paid, to the early sowing, of the earliest varieties of seed. 
 Even the species of stock to be bred, or kept on a farm, 
 should in a great measure be regulated by the climate. 
 Hence, this is a subject, which the diligent farmer will in- 
 variably study with the greatest solicitude*. 
 
 In considering the climate of a country, the following 
 points are of peculiar importance : — Its general character, 
 and the means of its improvement ; — Its local heat ; — The 
 light it furnishes ; — The quantity of its moisture ; — The 
 prevailing winds; — Its position, whether maritime or inland; 
 — The regularity of the seasons ; — The phenomena to which 
 it is liable; — The productions best suited to it; — The ex- 
 pences it may occasion in cultivation ; — The introduction of 
 exotic plants, and animals from other climates ; and — The 
 means of ascertaining the real nature of a climate, since 
 registering its variations, in the different seasons of the 
 year, would be attended with much advantage. 
 
 1. General Character . — This not only depends on posi- 
 tion, or latitude, but likewise on the elevation of a country 
 above the level of the sea ; — its general aspect ; — the vici- 
 nity to mountains, forests, bogs, marshes, lakes, and seas ; 
 — the nature of the soil and subsoil, and the power which 
 the former possesses of retaining heat and moisture ; — the 
 direction of the winds; — the length of time the sun conti- 
 nues above the horizon ; — the difference of temperature 
 between the day and the night ; — and the extent of dry 
 earth in its neighbourhood. The result of these particulars 
 combined, form, what may be called, “ The general cha- 
 racter of a climate.” 
 
 Some of these causes of an unfavourable climate, cannot 
 be remedied by any human effort ; in other cases, this may 
 be effected by various modes, and by the following in par- 
 ticular. 
 
 Where a district is covered with wood, it is moister, 
 and has a greater range of the thermometer between the 
 extremes of heat and cold, than one cleared of woods, in 
 
 * Climate and soil, as Mr. Curwcn justly remarks, are, above all other 
 considerations , those which the farmer ought constantly to keep in view. — 
 Report to the Workington Society , p. 36 . — He adds, “ that some practices, 
 which completely answer in a better climate, I have found to fail most 
 lamentably on my own farm.” 
 
Climate . 
 
 3 
 
 the same latitude. Thick woods exclude the rays of the 
 sun, and prevent the ground from being dried by evapora- 
 tion. Hence the summers, (for at least a part of the 
 day), are warmer, but the winters are colder. By cutting 
 down a great part of these woods, and leaving only what is 
 necessary for shelter, a more equal temperature may be 
 obtained. 
 
 An immense accumulation of cold, inert, and spongy 
 peat earth, in bogs or mosses, produce exhalations, which 
 chill the atmosphere, greatly injure the vegetables over 
 which they extend, and increase the bleakness of the cli- 
 mate in their respective neighbourhoods. They likewise 
 occasion great humidity in the atmosphere, and too fre- 
 quent falls of rain. By drainage and cultivation, these per- 
 nicious effects, are either wholly removed, or greatly mi- 
 tigated. 
 
 In bleak, and comparatively barren situations, it is highly 
 beneficial, to divide the land into small enclosures, with 
 hedges and belts of planting, for the sake of warmth and 
 shelter* j and if the heights of a country were likewise 
 planted with judgment, the force of the wind would be 
 diminished, its action divided, and the climate materially 
 softened* ; the benefit of which would be felt, not only on 
 the hills, but also, from the shelter and additional warmth 
 which would thus be given, on the plains below. 
 
 In low and flat situations, on the other hand, every ob- 
 struction to a free circulation of the air should be removed, 
 by enlarging enclosures, thinning and clipping hedges, and 
 judiciously pruning hedge-row trees. Particular atten- 
 tion ought likewise to be paid, to the important operations 
 of draining the soil. By these means, the climate may be 
 rendered more salubrious, and the fruitfulness of the earth, 
 augmented to a degree, not otherwise to be expected J. 
 And, 
 
 The climate of an extensive region may be much im- 
 proved, by cutting down large forests, by the draining of 
 great lakes, by the laying dry of extensive marshes, and 
 above all, by judicious cultivation. When the surface is 
 broken, water subsides into the soil, instead of either rest- 
 ing on it, or being thrown off in torrents, which are often 
 the source of much mischief ; and if the surface is formed 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 268; vol. iii. p. 671. 
 
 + Kincardineshire Report, p. 17 ; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 259. 
 J Middlesex Report, p. 16. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 Climate, 
 
 into ridges and furrows, the soil is not only enabled to im- 
 bibe the salutary rays of the sun, but the drainage of the 
 soil, from superfluous water, is greatly facilitated* * * § . These 
 processes, therefore, have the effect, of regulating mois- 
 ture, diminishing cold, and accumulating heatf . The in- 
 stances wdiich history furnishes of such improvements, 
 conducted on an extensive scale, and attended by these 
 advantages, are numerous, and well authenticated ; and 
 thence many countries now possess a genial climate, which, 
 in former times, were scarcely habitable for cold 
 
 2. Heat . — The importance of heat, as a stimulus to ve- 
 getation, cannot be doubted. It is at a certain degree of 
 heat that vegetation commences, and it becomes nearly 
 stationary, when the temperature falls below it. There 
 are, comparatively speaking, but few plants calculated for 
 very cold countries, and these are seldom valuable ; whereas 
 in warm and temperate regions, the variety is great, and 
 their value unquestionable. Indeed, such is the effect of 
 cold, that while the thermometer is below 40° of heat, the 
 strongest plants become torpid, and remain in that state 
 while it continues§. Revived by the warmth of spring, 
 and strengthened by the heat of summer, they acquire fresh 
 life and vigour, and are thus better enabled to withstand 
 the rigours of the succeeding winter. 
 
 Heat is essential for bringing every plant, fruit, or species 
 of grain, to perfection. Hence, an increased temperature, 
 when not carried to excess, will augment the quantity of nutri- 
 tive matter in a plant, or improve the quality of fruit grown 
 under its influence. Thus English barley, of equal weight, 
 is more valuable than the Scotch, because, from growing 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 f Wakefield’s Account of Ireland, vol. i. p. 166. 
 
 X Robertson’s History of the Atmosphere, vol. i. p. 170. Ovid takes no- 
 tice of the freezing of the Euxine during winter, and it would appear, 
 that it was sometimes covered with ice, even in summer. Ditto, p. 16. — That 
 latter degree of coldness, however, has long been unknown in those parts, 
 since they were cleared of woods. It appears from Horace, that about the 
 year 480 from the foundation of Rome, the Tiber was frequently frozen 
 over, and the ground was often covered with snow, during the space of 
 forty days at a time. Polybius describes the climate of Gaul and Germany, 
 as a perpetual winter. Tne climate of America has been greatly improved, 
 since it has been cultivated. See Transactions of the American Philosophi- 
 cal Society, vol. i. 
 
 § It is known, that water below 40° of heat, expands, in its progress to 
 congelation, to S2°, and as much as to 48° of heat upwards, when it is be- 
 coming warmer. In the progress down to congelation, no vegetation can 
 be carried on, as the water in plants, chills them in that state, and when 
 below 32®, often kills them altogether. 
 
Climate . 
 
 5 
 
 in a warmer climate, and enjoying the advantage of a 
 greater quantity of light, it is more fully ripened. It thence 
 acquires more saccharine matter, and produces a greater 
 quantity of spirits, or of malt liquor*. 
 
 It is also proved, by the experiments of Sir Humphry 
 Davy, that wheat ripened in a more regular and warmer 
 climate, contains more of that valuable article called gluten, 
 than the same species of grain, when raised in England. 
 
 The medium or average heat of the year, is not, how- 
 ever, of so much importance to the growth of plants, as 
 its duration, and its steadiness at a certain degree, during 
 the season when the grain is ripening. This gives the uni- 
 form climates of the Continent, a great advantage over our 
 variable seasons, in the production of the more delicate 
 sorts of fruit; which, in this island, are often injured by the 
 frosts in spring, and seldom ripen in a northern climate, 
 where the greatest summer heat is both unsteady, and of 
 short durationf. 
 
 3. Light . — The quantity of solar light which a climate 
 furnishes, is likewise an important object of inquiry. Plants 
 will grow in the dark, as in mines or cellars; but in such 
 situations, the colour of their leaves is not vivid, and their 
 seed is not brought to perfection. They have such an 
 affinity to light, that if put into a dark place, they will 
 always bend to any hole or window where light is admitted J. 
 Light is essential to increase the proportion of starch or 
 farina; — to complete the formation of oils in plants; — and 
 to give to fruits their proper colour, and flavour. It has 
 also the effect of augmenting saccharine matter, insomuch 
 that those sugar-canes which are exposed to the sun, have 
 more of that important ingredient, than when they grow 
 under a shade. 
 
 Nor ought the observation to be omitted, that darkness 
 and light have effects directly opposite upon vegetables. 
 Darkness favours the length of the growth, by keeping up 
 
 * Mr. Ker, an eminent brewer at Peebles, in Scotland, found, that Eng- 
 lish barley, on an average, yields fully one-fifth more of fermentable sub- 
 stance, from the same weight of grain, than Scotch barley. — Peebles-shirc 
 Report , p. 7, note. 
 
 •j* Ross-shire Report, p. 33. 
 
 £ Humboldt found some plants growing in the galleries of mines, which 
 retained their natural green appearance, though kept in places completely 
 dark. But this was owing to the uncombined hydrogen gas, which abounded 
 there. See Robertson’s Natural History of the Atmosphere, vol. ii. p. 190. 
 The plants called esquisetum y found anno 1812, in the cast-iron pipes which 
 supplied Edinburgh with water, were likewise green . — Communication from 
 John Farey, Esq. 
 
6 
 
 Climate . 
 
 the pliancy of their parts; light consolidates them, and 
 stops growth, by favouring nutrition. Hence, in the 
 northernmost regions, plants go through all their stages of 
 growth, at a time, when the sun no longer quits the hori- 
 zon; and the light, of which they thus experience the 
 unremitting effect, hardens them, before they have time to 
 lengthen. Their growth is therefore quick, but of short 
 duration. They are robust, but undersized* * * § . 
 
 4. Moisture . — The importance of moisture to vegetation 
 is obvious to every one. Water constitutes a large pro- 
 portion of 'every plant, and is the vehicle of the food of 
 plants held in solution. Hence, without so essential an in- 
 gredient, they must either become stunted in their growth, 
 or perish. In dry weather, when vegetation seems at a 
 stand, no sooner do showers of rain fall, than a rapid growth, 
 of every kind of herbage, or of corn, immediately succeeds, 
 even on poor dry soils, where otherwise, however well 
 manured, vegetation would make but slow progressf. 
 
 The quantity of rain that fails annually in any country, is 
 a very inferior consideration, when compared with that of the 
 general and equable distribution of that quantity, through- 
 out the several days and months of the year. A great 
 quantity, at the same time, is rather hurtful than beneficial ; 
 whereas those moderate, but golden showers , which regularly 
 fall on a soil calculated to receive them, are real sources of 
 fertility. It is by this that the character of a climate, 
 whether wet or dry, is chiefly determined, and the operations 
 of agriculture are principally influenced J. 
 
 The utility of moisture, with a view to vegetation, is, in 
 some respects, peculiarly remarkable. Thus in wet climates, 
 as on the western coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 crops of grain and potatoes are found to exhaust the soil 
 less than in dry situations. Oats in particular, are im- 
 poverishing in a greater degree in dry climates, than in 
 moist ones§; and in the former, should be sown much earlier 
 
 * General View of Vegetable Nature, by Mr. C. F. Brisseau Mirbell, 
 printed anno 1815, published in the Quarterly Journal of Science and the 
 Arts, printed by the Royal Institution, No. III. p. 48, where Mirbell’s work 
 is with justice stated to be, the best lecture, on the subject of vegetation, that 
 has hitherto appeared. 
 
 + Kent Report, p. 250. Hence the importance of destroying weeds, by 
 whose roots so much valuable moisture is absorbed, (more especially in light 
 soils), and taken from the nourishment of the crop sown or planted. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 136. 
 
 § Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures on Agriculture, first edit. p. 161; and 
 Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xv. p. 82. In Norfolk, and in other 
 
Climate. 
 
 / 
 
 than they usually are*, that, in their early growth, they may 
 have all the benefit of moisture. It has been remarked also, 
 that a soil of the same species, not retentive, will be more 
 productive in a wet climate, than in a dry one. Hence, on 
 the western coasts of England, as in Lancashire, where the 
 quantity of rain that falls annually, varies from forty to sixty 
 inches, a siliceous sandy soil is n^uch more productive, than 
 the same species of soil in the eastern districts, where seldom 
 more than from twenty-five to thirty-five inches of rain fall 
 in a year. In wet climates also, even wheat and beans will 
 require a less coherent and absorbent soil, than in drier 
 situationsf. At the same time, weather moderately dry, is 
 the most favourable to a great produce of corn ; and wheat 
 in particular is most abundant, if no rain falls when it is in 
 blossom^/ 
 
 The disadvantages of a wet climate to a farmer, more espe- 
 cially if accompanied with a retentive soil, are very great. 
 It is calculated, that in the richest district in Scotland, the 
 Carse of Gowrie, there are only about twenty weeks in the 
 year fit for ploughing; whereas in several parts of England, 
 they have thirty weeks, and in many cases more, during which 
 this essential operation can be performed. Hence ploughing 
 must be much more expensive in the one case than in the 
 other. 
 
 The season of the year in which rain abounds, is likewise 
 of much importance. An excess is prejudicial in any season, 
 but is peculiarly so in autumn, when it often lodges the 
 grain by its violence, or, by its long continuance, prevents 
 the corn from being properly harvested. The hopes of the 
 husbandman are thus blasted, and the fruits of his toil and 
 industry are frequently diminished, and sometimes entirely 
 lost§. 
 
 Besides rain, dews have a great effect in furnishing plants 
 with moisture ; and, indeed, without their aid, vegetation, 
 in warm and dry climates, could not go on. Even in tem- 
 perate regions, dews are beneficial. In Guernsey, on the 
 coast of Normandy, the autumnal dews are singularly heavy, 
 
 dry soils and climates, oats cannot be sown too early; or the grain might be 
 sown in autumn, as is practised in some parts of Ireland. 
 
 * In Ireland, they have been thence led to try the utility of autumnal 
 sowing of oats. 
 
 f Sir H. Davy’s Lectures on Agriculture, p. 164. 
 
 J Middlesex Report, p. 208, 215. 
 
 § Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xix. p. 249. In such latter case, 
 there is often a quick vegetation in the shocks of the grain after it is cut 
 down, or it heats in the stacks when carried into the barn-yard ; and drizzling 
 rains, during warm weather, when a crop of wheat is approaching to ripe- 
 ness, is almost certain to mildew it. 
 
8 
 
 Climate. 
 
 so much so, that in the middle of a hot day, the dew drops 
 are not quite exhaled from the grass. From this moisture, 
 the after-grass receives great benefit*. Dr. Hales esti- 
 mated the quantity of dew that falls in one year, at three 
 and a half inches : Mr. Dalton at nearly five inches. In this 
 matter, however, it is not easy to be correct. 
 
 5. Prevailing Winds . — These have a great influence on 
 the character of a climate, and powerful effects on vegeta- 
 tion. When they pass over a large expanse of water, they 
 are usually of a warmer or higher temperature in winter, 
 than those which blow over high lands ; more especially if 
 such come from countries covered with snow. Hence the 
 east and north-east winds, which have passed over the 
 coldest regions of Europe, are much colder than the west 
 and south-west winds, which blow over the Atlantic Ocean, 
 and oftener occasion blights. The former are comparatively 
 drier, unless when accompanied by those thick mists, called 
 haars , arising from the copious evaporation of the German 
 Oceant. The latter are loaded with the vapours of the 
 Atlantic, and often, from excess of moisture, are rendered 
 prejudicial. The strength of the prevailing winds, or the 
 violence with which they act, more especially during harvest, 
 ought likewise to be considered £. If they are very violent, 
 they are apt to affect the crops, and of course it becomes an 
 object, to suit the produce to them ; and to form fences, en- 
 closures, and plantations accordingly. 
 
 6. Position , whether Maritime or Inland . — A maritime 
 position occasions a more equal' temperature in a climate. 
 Where a great body of land is exposed to the heating rays 
 of the sun, the air becomes much warmer than it would if 
 resting upon a small body of land, contiguous to, or sur- 
 rounded by the ocean. On the other hand, as the sea 
 always preserves nearly the same temperature, and, except 
 in the most northern regions, is never frozen, it communi- 
 cates warmth, in the cold seasons of the year, to the air 
 passing over it, which had been cooled in its passage over 
 continents covered with ice and snow§. Hence islands arc 
 more temperate than continents. It appears indeed, that 
 
 * Survey of the Norman Islands, by Thomas Quayle, Esq. p. 242. 
 
 f The German Ocean is above three degrees colder in winter, and five 
 degrees warmer in summer, than the Atlantic. From that greater warmth, 
 a copious evaporation takes place, which produces those thick mists (or 
 haars, as they are called), which arise from the sea, and advancing upon 
 the land, occasion colds and other disorders . — General Report of Scotland , 
 vol. i. p. 42. 
 
 + Ross-shire Report, p. 3. 
 
 5 Forfarshire Report, p. 75. 
 
Climate . 
 
 0 
 
 the thermometer, has not so great a range on the sea-coast, 
 as in the more inland parts of Great Britain, even at an 
 elevation of 400 feet above the level of the sea* * * § . Of the 
 influence of proximity to the sea, many proofs might be 
 brought forward. It is in consequence of this circumstance, 
 that the city of Moscow, which is situated in some degree 
 farther south than Edinburgh, experiences winters much 
 more severe. 
 
 Another effect of a maritime position is, that strong winds 
 which blow from the sea, are sometimes accompanied by 
 salt spray, or vapour, which is injurious to crops of grain, 
 and the leaves of treesf. But when it comes in moderation, 
 those saline particles, with which the westerly winds are 
 loaded, contribute to the verdure of the fields in pasture;};. 
 
 The nature of the inland position is also of much import- 
 ance. The relative position of the neighbouring hills, occa- 
 sioning a material difference of climate, exposing some dis- 
 tricts to great severity of weather, and by protecting others 
 from that disadvantage, greatly promoting their fertility. 
 
 7. Regularity of the Seasons . — In many countries the 
 seasons are regular. In others, as in Great Britain, they 
 are extremely variable, and often change, in the space of a 
 few hours, from dry to moist, from hot to cold, from clear 
 to cloudy, and from a pleasant serenity, to all the violence 
 of a tempest§. But such irregularities of climate, however 
 uncomfortable, are often favourable to vegetation, and com- 
 pensated by the advantages they produce. It is not in 
 countries where the seasons of heat and cold, wind and rain, 
 are periodical, or where the greatest regularity of climate 
 takes place, that mankind are the most healthy or vigorous, 
 or the useful productions of the soil most perfect. Perhaps 
 a sameness of climate, as well as of other things, is preju- 
 dicial rather than useful. Where a climate is inconstant, 
 the air is refined and purified by the frequent changes it 
 undergoes|| ; and the disadvantages which originate from 
 that source, are often counteracted, or at least essentially 
 
 * See the Tables in the East Riding Report, p. 10. 
 
 + Cornwall Report, p. 4. — “ When the wind is impregnated with saline 
 particles, occasioned by the west and south-west winds beating the salt 
 water against the beach, all the hedges and trees on the windward side are 
 destroyed, and, generally speaking, the foliage wears the aspect of its win- 
 tery dress .” — Sussex Report , p. 3. 
 
 | Lancashire Report, p. 2. 
 
 § Williams on the Climate of Great Britain, p. 2 and 3. 
 
 i| Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 14*6 and 370. 
 
10 
 
 Climate. 
 
 mitigated, by judicious management, and persevering ex- 
 ertions* * * § . 
 
 8. Atmosphei ical and Natural Phenomena. — The climate 
 of a country is likewise affected by earthquakes ; — volcanos ; 
 — violent thunder storms; — lightning; — hail storms in sum- 
 mer early frostsf ; — whirlwinds and hurricanes ^water- 
 spouts; — and by that atmospheric appearance, known under 
 the name of the aurora borealis , so frequently to be seen in 
 northern, and sometimes, even in southern regions; but these 
 phenomena, are for the most part only occasional, sometimes 
 prevent greater cal amities J, and in this country, are rarely 
 attended with permanent evils. 
 
 9. Effects of Climate on Productions. — The size, and, in 
 many cases, the value of the productions of a country, de- 
 pend upon its climate, by whose influence their growth 
 may either be advanced or retarded. The same species of 
 tree, which, in a temperate climate, will rise to a great 
 height, and swell to an immense size,— in an exposed situ- 
 ation, will remain small and stunted. By a favourable cli- 
 mate also, the most barren spots, which in a cold country 
 must remain completely waste, in a warm one, may be 
 rendered productive. Thus, where the climate is adapted 
 to the culture of the vine, — rocks, which in Great Britain, 
 and in colder countries, would in general be of little or no 
 worth, in the southern provinces of France may yield as 
 much in valuable produce, as the cultivated land in their 
 neighbourhood §. The real excellence of a climate, how- 
 ever, depends on its yielding, in perfection and abundance, 
 the necessaries of life, or those which constitute the prin- 
 cipal articles of food for man, and for the domestic animals 
 kept for his use. In this point of view, a meadow is much 
 more productive, and in some respects more valuable than 
 
 * Fifeshire Report, p. 22. 
 
 Autumnal frosts creep along the beds of rivers, destroying the corn in 
 the flowering season, and blasting the stems of potatoes in low situations. 
 Winter frosts are ultimately rather favourable to vegetation ; and snow, 
 particularly when it covers the ground for some time, and gradually melts 
 away. 
 
 X For example, where the eruptions of a volcano, prevent the more fatal 
 shocks of an earthquake. See IF oodward’s Essay, p. 3, § 13. 
 
 § Young’s Travels in France, vol. i. p. 313. At the same time, it is an 
 undoubted fact, that in Dumbartonshire, rocks nearly bare of earth, and 
 almost perpendicular, under oak coppice, have brought, by the sale of wood 
 and bark, a price equal to an annual rent of from 18$. to 20 a. per English 
 acre. General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 248 ; Stirlingshire Report, 
 p. 212; Dumbartonshire Report, p. 15G; and Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. 
 p. 225. 
 
Climate . 
 
 11 
 
 either a vineyard or a grove of oranges ; though the one 
 may be situated in a cold and variable climate, and the 
 other in a country celebrated both for its regularity and 
 warmth of temperature* * * § . 
 
 The very nature of the articles raised, depends upon the 
 climate. Thus, in many elevated parts, both of England 
 and Scotland, wheat cannot be grown to advantage, and in 
 some of the low-lying districts of the latter, it has never 
 been attemptedf . In several of the northern counties of 
 North Britain, it has been found necessary to sow, instead 
 of the two- rowed barley, the inferior sort called bear, or 
 big; and oats, from the hardy quality of the grain, are 
 found to be a more certain and more profitable species of 
 corn, than any otherj ; while in humid districts, pease or 
 beans cannot be safely cultivated, from the periodical wet- 
 ness of the autumn. On the whole, without great attention 
 to the nature of the climate, no profitable system can be 
 laid down by any occupier of land§. 
 
 10. Effects of Climate on the Expence of Cultivation . — 
 An inferior climate, is highly prejudicial to a farmer, in 
 another respect, it greatly augments the expences of culti- 
 vation, because a number of horses are required for labour, 
 during the short period of the year, when the weather will 
 admit of it, which, at other seasons, are a useless burden 
 upon the farm. When to this are joined an uneven sur- 
 face, and an inferior quality of soil, arable land is of little 
 value, and yields but a trifling rent||. 
 
 11. Introduction of Exotic Plants , and Animals. — It has 
 been remarked, that many circumstances frequently oc- 
 cur, which render a greater knowledge of climate neces- 
 sary, than usually falls to the share of the generality of 
 husbandmen, even of the higher order ; and this observa- 
 tion is peculiarly applicable, when plants, not indigenous 
 in a country, or new breeds of animals, are introduced into 
 it^f. Daily experience proves, that the vegetable produc- 
 tions of one country, and many of its animals, may be na- 
 
 * In France, meadows are higher rented, and pay heavier taxes, than 
 vineyards; and it was well observed by an English sailor, when a Spaniard 
 taunted him with a display of oranges, which his country produced, he said, 
 
 twice a year — ** See,” (says he, holding up a great Cheshire cheese), “ what 
 my country produces twice a day'* 
 
 f Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 1 14. J Ibid. 
 
 § Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 151. 
 
 || Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 565. 
 
 Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol. xxxix. p. 487. 
 
12 
 
 Climate . 
 
 turalized in another ; but that this can only be done success- 
 fully, by paying attention to the climate whence they were 
 brought, and by endeavouring, either to render the one as 
 similar to the other, as circumstances will admit of, or to 
 counteract, by judicious management, the deficiencies of 
 the new one. 
 
 12. On the Means of ascertaining the Nature of a Cli- 
 mate. — In this respect the farmer, in modern times, has 
 many advantages which his predecessors wished for in vain. 
 The progress of science has given rise to many new instru- 
 ments, which ascertain natural phenomena, with a consider- 
 able degree of accuracy, instead of conjectures or systems 
 being founded on loose or general experience. It may still 
 be proper, to study the appearance of the Heavens, and not 
 to despise old proverbs, which often contain much local 
 truth* ; but the vane now points out the quarters whence 
 the winds blow, with all their variations; — the barometer f, 
 often enables us to foretel the state of the weather that may 
 be expected ; — the thermometer ascertains the degree of 
 heat ; the hygromeier% , the degree of moisture ; — and the 
 pluviometer , or rain-guage, the quantity of rain that has 
 fallen during any given period ; and by keeping exact re- 
 gisters of all these particulars, much useful information 
 may be derived. The influence of different degrees of tem- 
 perature and humidity, occurring at different times, may 
 likewise be observed, by comparing the leafing, flowering, 
 and after-progress of the most common sort of trees and 
 plants, in different seasons, with the period when the se- 
 
 * Dr. Graham very justly remarks, that in a variable climate, every 
 farmer should be somewhat versed in the prognostics of the weather. Long 
 experience has given rise to a set of maxims on this subject, which are not 
 unworthy of the attention of the physiologist, whilst they are the common 
 guides even of the most illiterate. — Stirlingshire Report , p. 12. 
 
 f The weight of the atmosphere is subject to frequent variations, and 
 the change of its density is made use of, to prognosticate the weather, by 
 means of an instrument called the barometer. During the prevalence of 
 easterly winds, from some unknown cause, (perhaps their greater dryness), 
 the indications of the barometer, are not so much to be relied on, on the 
 eastern coast of Great Britain. Nor is this instrument so useful in variable 
 weather, as when a great change is to take place ; and in the winter season, 
 it is of little avail. — Derbyshire Report , vol. i. p. 98. But on the whole, 
 the barometer furnishes the best indications of the state of the weather, of 
 any instrument we have. At Chatsworth, since 1763, the daily quantity of 
 rain has been carefully registered, and some curious deductions therefrom 
 will be found in the Derbyshire Report, vol. i. p. 99. 
 
 X The hygrometer is made with sponges, or other materials, affected by 
 dampness in the air, for ascertaining the degree of moisture at any parti- 
 cular time. 
 
Soil. 
 
 13 
 
 veral crops of grain are sown and reaped each year* * * § . The 
 farmer who thus attends to the character, the progress, 
 and the length of the seasonsf, and registers them with 
 accuracy, elevates himself above the station of an ordinary 
 cultivator, and the facts which it is -thus in his power to 
 furnish, may essentially promote <e The Science of Agri - 
 culturel 
 
 Sect. II. — Soil . 
 
 The surface, or outward coating of land, usually consists 
 of a collection of various earthy matters, in a loose and 
 porous state, with a mixture of animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances, partially decomposed, together with certain saline 
 and mineral ingredients. Where favourably combined, it 
 is admirably calculated to afford support to plants, to enable 
 them to fix their roots, and gradually to derive nourishment 
 by their tubes, from the soluble and dissolved substances 
 contained in the soil , (as this mixed mass is called), or 
 passing into it§. The strata on which it is incumbent, are 
 known under the general name of subsoil . 
 
 The importance of the soil has been described in various 
 ways. By some it has been called the mother, or nurse 
 of vegetation || . By others it is represented as discharging 
 functions to plants, similar to those which the stomach 
 does to animals, in preparing their food, and fitting it for 
 absorption by their roots. It furnishes the plant also 
 with heat ; for a well cultivated and highly manured soil, 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 126. — Dr. Graham, of Aberfoyle, in his 
 paper on climate (General Report of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 146, note), very 
 justly remarks, how much it is to be regretted, that almost none of our 
 Scottish naturalists, have thought of recording, from year to year, the ver~ 
 nation , or foliation of our indigenous plants. Such a register would furnish 
 the best criterion of climate, that could possibly be conceived ; and by com- 
 paring the differences of vernation in the course of a number of years, we 
 might be enabled to make an approximation, which no other data could 
 afford us. 
 
 f Dr. Coventry’s Discourses on Agriculture, printed an. 1808, p. 29. — If 
 it were possible, to ascertain the courses of the seasons, for a considerable 
 number of years, it might probably lead to some discovery, whether there 
 be any fixed law of nature, by which the revolutions of good and bad sea- 
 sons are brought about. — Clydesdale Report , p. 10. 
 
 X In the Dorset Report, p. 34, there are valuable hints on the advantages 
 that would result, by attention to the flowering of indigenous plants, and 
 preserving registers of the variations in temperature, moisture, &c. on each 
 kind of soil. 
 
 § Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures on Agriculture, p. 11. 
 
 jj Stirlingshire Report, p. 23. 
 
14 
 
 Soil. 
 
 is much warmer than the surrounding atmosphere* * * § . The 
 farmer, it is said, ought to study the relative value of the 
 different soils, as a merchant does the worth of the several 
 commodities he deals inf. Good soils, it has been re- 
 marked, will seldom yield a scanty produce. In short, a* 
 favourable soil and climate, are deservedly accounted, 
 
 “ The first riches of a countryX” 
 
 The necessity of paying attention to the nature and 
 quality of the soil, need not therefore be dwelt upon. By 
 ascertaining the qualities it possesses, or by removing its 
 defects, the profits of a farmer may be greatly increased. 
 
 He must, in general, regulate his measures accordingly, in 
 regard to the rent he is to offer, — the capital he is to lay 
 out, — the stock he is to keep, — the crops he is to raise, — 
 and the improvements he is to execute. Indeed, such is 
 the importance of the soil, and the necessity of adapting 
 his system to its peculiar properties, that no general 
 system of cultivation can be laid down, unless all the cir- 
 cumstances regarding the nature, and situation of the soil 
 and subsoil, be known§ ; and such is the force of habit, 
 that it rarely happens, if a farmer has been long accustomed 
 to one species of soil, he will be equally successful in the 
 management of another||. 
 
 From inattention to the nature of soils, many foolish, - 
 fruitless, and expensive attempts have been made to intro- 
 duce different kinds of plants, not at all suited to them ; 
 and manures have often been improperly applied. This 
 ignorance has likewise prevented many from employing the 
 means of improvement, though the expence was trifling, and 
 
 * Forfarshire Report, p. 55. It has been found, that according to 
 Fahrenheit, the heat of the ground is commonly 2° or 3° higher than that 
 of the circumambient air in warm weather, and considerably more in cold 
 weather. 
 
 f Inverness-shire Report, p. 12. 
 
 X La premiere riche c <se d’un peuple, est son sol, et son ciel. Thi3 maxim, 
 however, is more applicable to southern than to northern countries, for in 
 the latter, good culture is essential, even with a good soil. 
 
 § Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 163. And in this point of vievv, 
 Mr. William Smith’s large Map of the Strata of England, and the Memoir 
 accompanying it, are particularly valuable. Also Mr. John Farey’s more 
 minute, but local observations of the strata and soils of Derbyshire. — Report , 
 vol.i. p. 303, &c. & c. 
 
 || One of the most intelligent farmers in Norfolk, accustomed to a dry 
 and sandy soil, was asked, What he would do with a wet or clayey one ? 
 
 He very candidly answered, “ That he knew no more how to manage such 
 a soil, than if he had never seen a plough.” Farmers, when they change 
 their situations, are too apt to carry along with them, that plan of m:i " 
 nagement to which they have been accustomed, without considering that 
 it may not suit their new situations. 
 
Soil. 
 
 15 
 
 within their reach. From ignorance also, of the means cal- 
 culated for the proper cultivation of the different soils, many 
 unsuccessful and pernicious practices have been adopted. 
 
 Soils may be considered under the following general 
 heads : — Sand ; — Gravel ; — Clay ; — Chalk ; — Peat ; — Allu- 
 vial; and, — Loam, or that species of artificial soil, into 
 which the others are generally brought, by the effects of 
 manure, and of earthy applications, in the course of long 
 cultivation* * * § . While describing each sort, we shall briefly 
 state the modes of improving their texture ; — the crops for 
 which they are respectively calculated ; — and the districts 
 where they are cultivated with the greatest success. 
 
 1 . Sand . — A soil that consists entirely of small grains of 
 a hard nature, ( silex ) 9 which neither cohere together, nor 
 are softened by water, nor soluble in acids, though it ought 
 not to be totally abandonedf, yet is too poor to be culti- 
 vated with advantage. It would indeed be hazardous in the 
 extreme, from the risk of having the covering soil blown off 
 the new-sown grain, in the spring, by high winds! . Sandy 
 soils, however, generally have a considerable mixture of other 
 substances, by which their quality is greatly ameliorated. 
 
 The best mode of improving the texture of such a soil, 
 deficient in retentive or adhesive properties, is, by a mixture 
 of clay, marl, warp, (the sediment of navigable rivers), sea- 
 ooze, sea-shells, peat, or vegetable earth ; and it frequently 
 happens, that under the sand itself, or in its immediate 
 neighbourhood, the materials may be found which are re- 
 quisite for its improvement^ Even light sandy soils are 
 
 * It is well observed by Dr. Coventry, (Discourses, p. 83), that in describ- 
 ing and classing soils, the divisions should be simple and obvious, and should 
 have utility and practice in view, and not nice discriminations. Marshall 
 has divided 6oils into fifteen different kinds, which can only tend to confuse 
 the reader, by such minute distinctions. 
 
 f Where the soil is a mere blowing sand, the great object is, to prevent 
 its doing mischief, by what are called, “ sand-floods , or “ sand-drifts'' 
 This can only be done, by propagating maram, or sea-bent, and other 
 plants, which will grow in such soils, and will tend to fix them. This point 
 is particularly attended to, by the inhabitants on the shores of the German 
 Ocean. — Coventry's Discourses on Agriculture^ p. 116. It ha3 of late been 
 much practised in Flintshire, &c. On this subject see Sir J. E. Smith’s 
 Travels on the Continent. 
 
 X Fife Report, p. 29. 
 
 § The fuller’s earth, sandy stratum of Surrey, Kent, Berks, Bedford, and 
 other counties, is covered by a black blue clayey marl, and that rests upon 
 a luminous clay ; one or other of these tenacious strata, may very frequently 
 be obtained, and either of them applied liberally to the sandy soil, will 
 cure its defects. 
 
16 
 
 Soil. 
 
 thus rendered retentive of moisture and manure; and when 
 judiciously treated, are considered to be more profitable, 
 than the wheat and bean lands in their neighbourhood* * * § . 
 
 In some parts of Norfolk, they have availed themselves 
 of these auxiliaries, for improving a sandy soil, in an emi- 
 nent degree: they have thus entirely changed the nature 
 of the soil ; and by the continuation of judicious manage- 
 ment, have given a degree of fame to the husbandry of that 
 district, far surpassing that of others naturally more fer- 
 tilef. 
 
 The improvement of a sandy soil, is generally accom- 
 plished by fossil manures : but vegetable substances are 
 likewise effectual. A top-dressing of peat has been tried 
 for that purpose, and the experiment was attended, not 
 only with immediate good effects, but with permanent be- 
 nefit;!;. 
 
 Though sandy soils are not naturally valuable, yet being 
 easily cultivated, and well calculated for sheep, that most 
 profitable species of stock, they are often farmed with con- 
 siderable advantage. Where the land is hilly, rabbits are 
 frequently kept, for the rabbit can easily throw down the 
 light soil from the hole he excavates, where there is a de- 
 clivity. Hence it has been remarked by some, that loose- 
 soiled hills , will pay better in rabbit-warrens, than under 
 any other mode of occupation§. Others consider planting 
 to be a more profitable appropriation of such hills ; but this 
 is supposed to be a mistake, as shall be afterwards explained 
 in the Section on Plantations. (Chap. IV. Sect. 4.) 
 
 Sandy soils, however, of a good quality, under a regular 
 course of husbandry, are invaluable. They are easily 
 worked, and at all seasons ; they are cultivated at a mode- 
 rate expence ; are not so liable to injury from the vicissi- 
 tudes of the weather ; and in general they have a dry 
 soundness, accompanied by moisture, which secures excel- 
 lent crops even in the driest summers||. 
 
 The crops raised on sandy soils are numerous, such as 
 common turnips, — potatoes, — carrots, — barley, — rye, — 
 
 * Curwen’s Report, p. 14. 
 
 f Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 83. 
 
 J Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 178. On his recommendation, Sir 
 R. W. Vaughan of Nannau, in Merionethshire, tried peat on a sandy soil, 
 with much success. 
 
 § Marshall’s Norfolk, vol. i. p. 370; and vol. ii. p. 139. Minute 79. 
 
 || Young’s Calendar, p. 47G. Communication from Edward Burroughs, 
 Esq. 
 
Soil. 
 
 17 
 
 buck-wheat, — pease, — clover, — sainfoin, and other grasses. 
 This species of soil, in general, has not strength enough for 
 the production of Swedish turnip, beans, wheat, oats, flax, 
 or hemp, in any degree of perfection, without much im- 
 provement in its texture, the addition of great quanti- 
 ties of enriching manure, and the most skilful manage- 
 ment*. 
 
 When under a course of cultivation, it is a great advan- 
 tage to sandy soils, either to fold sheep upon them, or to 
 consume the crops of turnips upon the ground where they 
 are raised. These practices, greatly contribute to the im- 
 provement of such soils ; and they are thus enabled to pro- 
 duce luxurious crops of corn, not only by the dung and 
 urine thus deposited, but by the consolidation and firmness 
 of texture which the treading of the sheep occasions. 
 When cultivated, manure should be frequently applied, and 
 the vegetable matter should be less decomposed or rotted, 
 than on other soils. Some farmers, likewise, insert, the 
 putrescent manure they employ, at a considerable depth, 
 (8, 10, or 12 inches), to prevent a too rapid decompo- 
 sition. 
 
 The carrot husbandry, in the “ Sandlings” of Suffolk, as 
 they are called, is one of the most interesting objects to be 
 met with in British agriculture. After defraying all ex- 
 pences, the profit is considerable. Some prefer to fatten 
 bullocks with them ; while others, who have the advantage 
 of water-carriage, think it most beneficial to send their 
 carrots to the London market. Carrots are likewise an 
 admirable preparation for other cropsf . 
 
 In Norfolk and Suffolk, it is found that poor sandy soils, 
 not worth 5s. per acre for any other purpose, under sain- 
 foin, will produce, after the first year, about two tons per 
 acre, of excellent hay, for several years, with an after-grass, 
 extremely valuable for weaning and keeping lambs. How 
 much more beneficial, than any crops of grain that such 
 soils usually yields ! 
 
 The management of sandy land, according to the system 
 adopted by the celebrated Duckett of Petersham and Esher, 
 
 * The best method of raising wheat on sandy lands, i3 on a clover ley, 
 when the soil has got an artificial solidity of body, and is thereby rendered 
 capable of sustaining this grain till it arrives at maturity. — Brown's Treatise 
 on Rural Affair $, vol. i. p. 101. Wheat also may be successfully raised on 
 sandy lands after turnips, eaten on the ground by sheep, which consolidates 
 the soil. 
 
 f Suffolk Report, p. 125. J Young’s Calendar, p. 123. 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 Soil, 
 
 in Surrey, has been strongly recommended by an eminent 
 author. It was founded on three principles : 1. Ploughing 
 very deep, by which a due degree of moisture was preserved 
 in his light land, and the crops were flourishing in seasons 
 of drought, which destroyed those where the ploughing had 
 been shallow ; — 2. Ploughing seldom, but effectually, by a 
 trench plough, or what he called a skim-coulter plough, 
 with which he buried the weeds that grew on the surface : 
 he has been known to put in seven crops with only four 
 ploughings ; and, — 3. Occasionally raising a crop of turnips 
 the same season, after a crop of wheat, or of pulse*. 
 
 In the Pays de Waes in Flanders, sand is likewise cul- 
 tivated to great perfection. The soil of that district, which 
 was originally a barren white sand, by a slow, but sure 
 process, has at last been converted into a most fertile loam. 
 The surface, to the depth of three or four inches, was at 
 first alone cultivated, but the soil was gradually deepened, 
 as it became progressively enriched; and now the ground, 
 at the commencement of every rotation, is trenched by a 
 shovel , (the soil being very loose), to the depth of from 
 fifteen to eighteen inches, the exhausted surface is buried, 
 and fresh earth brought up, enriched by the manure washed 
 down to it, during the seven preceding years. It is then 
 subjected to the following course of crops: l. Potatoes; 
 2. Wheat, manured, sown in November, and carrots in 
 February, for a second crop in the same year ; 3. Flax, 
 manured, and sown with clover- seed, for the next crop; 
 4. Clover; 5. Rye or wheat, with carrots for a second crop; 
 6. Oats after the carrots ; and, 7« Buck-wheat ; at the end 
 of which period the ground is again trenchedf. 
 
 The double crops raised in the sandy soils of Flanders, in 
 the course of the same year, are attended with much ad- 
 vantage. The Flemish farmers thus obtain a greater quan- 
 tity of manure, than they could produce under any other 
 system, and by this are enabled to extract so much produce 
 from soils, which were originally sterile, and which would 
 
 * See Mr. Arthur Young’s Lecture on the Husbandry of Three Cele- 
 brated Farmers, (Bakewell, Arbuthnot, and Duckett), printed an. 1811, 
 p. 29. 
 
 f Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, printed an. 1815, 
 p. 10 and 76. Besides carrots, the Flemish farmers sow turnips after the 
 crop is reaped, slightly ploughing the land for that purpose ; also spurry, 
 for feeding milch cows, by which excellent butter is obtained ; and with 
 their oats, they sometimes sow trefoil, or yellow clover, and get one good 
 cutting of that crop, before it is necessary to plough the land. 
 
Soil. 
 
 19 
 
 soon revert to their former state of barrenness, without the 
 greatest industry, and the most unwearied attention*. 
 
 In the management of sandy soils, three rules are to be 
 observed : 1 . Never to pick off any small stones that may 
 be found in them, as they answer many valuable purposes : 
 they shelter the young stalk in bad weather ; they preserve 
 moisture, and prevent the crops from being burnt up by 
 scorching heats; they hinder the evaporation of the en- 
 riching juices ; and, by these means, greatly assist the pro- 
 gress of vegetationf. 2. Frequently to renovate the strength 
 of such soils, by laying them down with grass-seeds, and 
 pasturing them for a few years, as they are so apt to be ex- 
 hausted by aration, if corn crops are too frequently repeated; 
 and, 3. When farm-yard dung is applied to this description 
 of soil, always to give it in a state of compost, with a view 
 of adding to the tenacity of the soil, and to prevent the 
 manure from being dissipated in a dry season, or washed 
 down by rain 
 
 It may be added as a general maxim, that the fertility of 
 sandy, or siliceous soils, is in proportion to the quantity of 
 rain that falls, combined with the frequency of its recur- 
 rence. As a proof of this, in the rainy climate of Turin, 
 the most prolific soil has from 77 to 80 per cent, of siliceous 
 earth, and from nine to fourteen of calcareous; whereas in 
 the neighbourhood of Paris, where there is much less rain, 
 the silex is only in the proportion of from 26 to 50 per 
 cent, in the most fertile parts§. 
 
 2. Gravel . — Gravelly soils differ materially from sandy, 
 both in their texture, and modes of management. They are 
 frequently composed of small soft stones, sometimes of flinty 
 ones; but they often contain granite, limestone, and other 
 
 * See Improved Agriculture, and a Sketch of the Flemish System, by 
 F. Vanderstraeten, Supplement, p. 25, printed by Longman and Co. an. 
 1816 ; and Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. 71. Rad- 
 cliffe’s Agriculture of Flanders, p. 39 and 49. 
 
 f Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. vii. p. 142. A proprietor who had 
 carried the stones off a field by way of experiment, finding that it obsti- 
 nately refused to yield its usual crop, discovering his error, was glad to res- 
 tore what he had injudiciously taken away. Ditto. — See also Young’s Nor- 
 folk, p. 11. 
 
 f Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. This rule of preserving stones, 
 is by some extended beyond sandy soils, more especially in hot climates. 
 Even in this country, stones are said to be of use in promoting the depth of 
 thin soils ; in rendering the texture of clays less compact, and less apt to 
 subside ; and where the soils are puffy , in collecting the shifting looseness of 
 the materials. 
 
 § Notes on the Soils of Cornwall, by John A. Paris, M. D. Priflte4 
 an. 1815. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 
 
 Soil. 
 
 rocky substances, partially, but not very minutely decom- 
 posed. Gravel, being more porous than even sand, is gene- 
 rally a poor, and what is called, a hungry soil , more espe- 
 cially when the parts of which it consists, are hard in sub- 
 stance, and rounded in form* * * § . Gravelly soils are easily 
 exhausted, for the animal and vegetable matters they con- 
 tain, not being thoroughly incorporated with the earthy 
 constituent parts of the soil, (which are seldom sufficiently 
 abundant for that purpose), are more liable to be decom- 
 posed by the action of the atmosphere, and carried off by 
 waterf. 
 
 Gravelly soils are improved by draining, where they are 
 troubled with springs, though this rarely occurs ; — by deep 
 ploughing ; — by mixing them with large quantities of clay, 
 chalk, marl, peat, or other earth ; — by frequent returns of 
 grass crops; — by repeated applications of manure ; — and by 
 irrigation, if the water be full of sediment, and judiciously 
 applied. 
 
 Sometimes the ground is so covered with flints and stones, 
 that hardly any mould is to be seen. Land of this descrip- 
 tion is very troublesome to work, and is injurious to the 
 implements of husbandry employed in the cultivation ; but 
 with proper management, it can often be rendered highly 
 productive];. The stones on the surface, by sheltering and 
 keeping warm, in the cold seasons, any small quantity of 
 soil which is amongst them ; and by protecting it from the 
 scorching influence of the sun, in the hot seasons, frequently 
 produce abundant crops§. 
 
 The stone-brash , or com-brash soils, (as they are provin- 
 cially called) of Gloucestershire, and the midland counties 
 of England, may be included under the general head of 
 gravelly soils , being so much mixed with small stones. 
 They have frequently, however, more sand, or clay, or cal- 
 careous loam, in their composition, than gravelly soils usually 
 
 * Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 83 ; General Report of 
 Scotland, vol. i. p. 53. 
 
 f Sir H. Davy’s Lectures, p. 162. 
 
 X Kent Report, p. 15; Kincardineshire Report, p. 31. In Cornwall, (see 
 Report, p. 1 1), Mr. Janies, of St. Agnes, cleared a smafl paddock of the 
 quartz in it, at the expence of about 40/. per acre, and the experiment on the 
 whole is said to have answered, by the sale of the stones, and the improve- 
 ment of the soil. Breaking the stones of a gravelly soil by machinery, where 
 the stones are soft, has likewise been recommended, for it is the roundness of 
 the stones, which greatly contributes to render a gravelly soil so barren, 
 from its aptitude to part with its moisture. 
 
 § Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 325. 
 
Soil . 
 
 21 
 
 possess; and on that account, are treated of by some authors 
 as a distinct species of soil* * * § . 
 
 Gravelly soils, from their parting so readily with moisture, 
 are apt to burn , as it is called, in dry seasons; but in wet 
 ones, they usually produce abundant crops of barley, rye, 
 tares, pease, oats, and even wheat. It has been found that 
 a thin stratum of gravel, if mixed with shells, and other 
 marine productions, possesses many advantages for cultiva- 
 tion, in a wet climatef. 
 
 A gravelly soil, free from stagnant water, gives such an 
 additional warmth to the climate, that vegetation is nearly 
 a fortnight earlier, than where other soils predominate^. 
 About Dartford and Blackheath, in Kent, such soils produce 
 early green pease, winter tares, rye, autumnal pease, and 
 occasionally wheat, in great perfection§. When barley and 
 oats are cultivated, they should be sown very early, that they 
 may have full possession of the ground before the dry season 
 sets in||. Gravelly soils, in a wet climate, answer well for 
 potatoes ; and indeed, in Cornwall, in a sheltered situation, 
 with a command of sea-sand, and of sea-weed, they raise 
 two crops of potatoes in the same year^lf. 
 
 Poor gravelly soils, full of springs, and those sulphureous, 
 are very unfriendly to vegetation ; and are better calculated 
 for wood than for arable culture**; 
 
 3. Clay . — A clay soil is distinguished above every other 
 for tenacity. It feels smooth, and somewhat unctuous. 
 If cultivated in a wet state, it sticks to the plough like 
 mortar, and does not soon become dry. It is often, indeed, 
 of so adhesive a nature, that it will hold water like a dish. 
 In a dry summer, the plough turns it up in great clods, 
 scarcely to be broken or separated by the heaviest roller. It 
 requires, therefore, much labour to put it in a state fit for 
 producing either corn or grassff, and it can only be culti- 
 vated, when in a particular state, and in favourable weather. 
 Though it will yield therefore, under a proper system of 
 management, great crops, yet being cultivated at a heavy 
 expence, requiring stronger instruments, and stouter horses, 
 it is seldom that much profit is obtained, unless when occu- 
 
 * See Mr. William Smith’s Memoir on the Strata of England ; and Rudge’s 
 
 Gloucestershire, p. 15. 
 
 t Dumbartonshire Report, p. 7. X Berkshire Report, p. 19. 
 
 § Kent Report, p. 17. 
 
 || Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 255. 
 
 Cornwall Report, p. 9. ** Hertfordshire Report, p. 12. 
 
 -ft Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 81. 
 
22 
 
 Soil . 
 
 pied by a judicious and attentive farmer. The very superior 
 management of clay soils, as practised in the Lothians, is 
 fortunately an exception to this general rule* * * § . 
 
 The value of a clayey soil, depends materially on its 
 having an open subsoil, which renders it more tractable and 
 productivef. Its texture is ameliorated by a suitable mix- 
 ture of common sand, sea-sand, and above all, of limestone 
 gravel, where that can be obtained. Peat- moss also, that 
 has for some time been dug up, and exposed to the action 
 of the atmosphere, may be used with advantage. It is 
 likewise necessary to enrich it with putrid and calcareous 
 manures, in the course of its cultivation : and it may be 
 much improved by having a considerable quantity of ashes 
 mixed with its putrescent manures. It is this which renders 
 clayey soils, in the neighbourhood of towns, so extremely 
 fertile. 
 
 Under proper culture, clay soils are well calculated for 
 growing crops of beans, wheat, oats, clover, and winter 
 tares; but arc not adapted for barley, unless immediately 
 after a fallow ; nor for potatoes, unless under very peculiar 
 management!. In regard to turnips, they do not usually 
 thrive so well in clays, as in soils which are more free and 
 open. But it is now ascertained, that the Swedish§, and 
 above all, the yellow turnip, may be raised in them with 
 advantage ; — that the quality is superior ; — that if they are 
 taken up early, the soil is not injured ; — and that there is 
 no difficulty in preserving them. Clays become good mea- 
 dow-lands, and answer well for hay, or soiling, when in 
 grass ; but from their aptitude to be poached, they are, in 
 general, unfit to be fed by heavy cattle in wet weather. In 
 dry seasons the after-grass may be used to feed neat cattle 
 till October, and sheep till March ||. A stilF clay, however, 
 when not cold or wet, with a strong marl under it, is pre- 
 ferred in Cheshire and Derbyshire, for the dairy^[. 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 55. 
 
 f Derbyshire Report, vol. i. p. 303. 
 
 X An eminent agriculturist, J. C. Curwen, Esq. of Workington-Hall, in 
 Cumberland, raises both turnips and potatoes on a clayey soil ; but he 
 spares no pains or expence in their cultivation. They are grown in drills, 
 the ploughing is deep, and the manure abundant. In some parts of Eng. 
 land, cabbages are grown on clayey soils. 
 
 § The Swedes have the great advantage, that they can be transplanted, 
 and consequently the ground can be previously well worked. Thus also, 
 thay can be raised earlier, and sooner taken off; or they may be raised and 
 stacked in damp weather, and carry them off when the frost sets in. 
 
 |] Remark by Mr. Middleton ; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 130. 
 
 Cheshire Report, p. 170. 
 
Soil . 
 
 23 
 
 Ploughing previous to winter setting in, is of great use to 
 clays, by exposing the surface to the frost, which mellows 
 and reduces it in a manner infinitely superior to what could 
 be accomplished by all the operations of man. In this state, 
 the soil remains till spring seed-time, when it is either 
 ploughed with a shallow furrow, or merely scarified, (which 
 is the superior practice), and sown* * * § . 
 
 The fallowing of strong clay (a subject to be afterwards 
 more fully discussed), is by some eminent farmers deemed 
 to be unnecessary, provided particular attention be paid to 
 the bean crop, and to sowing early, horse-hoeing regularly, 
 and weeding completely. Yet there are certainly many clay 
 soils, both in England and Scotland, so tenacious and ob- 
 durate, so adhesive to every thing that comes in contact 
 with them when wet, and assuming, when dry, such a 
 stony hardness, that they are but ill calculated, in that stub- 
 born state, for the purposes of vegetationf. In that case, 
 a summer-fallow is indispensably necessary every six or 
 eight years; both to prevent such soils contracting a most 
 injurious sourness and adhesion from wet ploughing, and in 
 order that, by exposure to the sun and winds, during 
 the summer months, they may be thoroughly pulverized, 
 and aerated, and thus by cultivation, joined to the correc- 
 tive influence of the atmosphere^, may be brought into a 
 state, fit for bearing abundant crops of grain and grass§. 
 
 4. Peat . — This substance is unquestionably of vegetable 
 origin. The difference between it and vegetable mould is 
 this, that mould is derived from finer substances, as the 
 leaves of the trees, — the remains of arable cultivation, — and 
 the roots, as well as the leaves and stalks of the finer 
 grasses, which contain a large proportion of earthy matters; 
 whereas peat is chiefly composed of various sorts of aquatics; 
 which, instead of rotting on, or near the surface, are gene- 
 
 * See Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 229. This is the common hus- 
 bandry in the strong lands of Suffolk. Ditto, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 66 . In 
 Ireland, oats thus sown on a retentive clay, will be a fortnight earlier than 
 that sown on a spring ploughing. Comm, from the Rev. Thomas Radcliffe. 
 
 -f* Middlesex Report, p. 20. 
 
 X Marshall’s Kent, vol. i. p. 30. 
 
 § Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 81 and 100; Husbandry 
 of Scotland, vol. i. p. 239, where the subject of fallowing is discussed at 
 large. Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 102. Dr. Coventry contends, “ that 
 there are 'certain soils and situations, where summer-fallowing cannot be ad- 
 vantageously relinquished, for any other process of tillage whatsoever.” — 
 Discourses on Agriculture, p. 70. See also the Staffordshire Report, p. 50, 
 where the practice of fallowing strong lands is ably defended. 
 
24 
 
 Soil. 
 
 rally immersed in stagnant water, and only partially decom- 
 posed. In valleys, peat-moss has often a considerable 
 proportion of vegetable earth washed from the higher 
 grounds. 
 
 An author who has successfully explained the nature of 
 peat, has adopted the following classification : 1. Fibrous; 
 2. Compact ; and, 3. Bituminous peat ; 4. Peat mixed with 
 calcareous matter; 5. With sand or clay; 6. With pyrites; 
 and, 7- With marine salt. Each of these, he contends, 
 differs essentially in its composition and chemical qualities ; 
 and above all, each species requires different treatment, in 
 order to convert it, either into a soil, or into manure*. 
 
 In converting peat into earth, it is a rule, to plough or 
 dig it in autumn, that it may be effectually exposed to the 
 winters frost. If this labour be not commenced at a proper 
 season of the year, and if the peat be once hardened by the 
 summer’s sun, it is hardly possible afterwards to decom- 
 pose itf . 
 
 The crops best calculated for a reclaimed peat-bog or 
 moss, are, oats, rye, beans, potatoes, turnips, carrots, cole- 
 seed, white and red clover, and timothy. Wheat and bar- 
 ley have succeeded on such lands, after they have been sup- 
 plied with abundance of calcareous earth ; and the florin 
 grass, ( agrostis stolonijera latifolia) 9 seems likewise to be 
 well adapted to that description of soil, when moderately 
 surface-drained. 
 
 The improvement of peat-bogs, and of all wet lands, 
 must be preceded by draining; stagnant water being inju- 
 rious to all the nutritive classes of plants;};. Soft black peat- 
 earth, when drained, is often rendered productive, by the 
 mere application of sand and clay as a top-dressing. When 
 peat contains ferruginous salts, calcareous matter is abso- 
 lutely necessary to fit it for cultivation. When mosses or 
 bogs abound with the branches, or the roots of trees, or 
 when the surface entirely consists of living vegetables, they 
 must either be carried oft^ or burnt. In the last case, their 
 ashes furnish ingredients calculated to improve the texture 
 of the peat. For this soil, soap-ashes are found an excel- 
 lent manure. 
 
 * 
 
 * Dr. Rennie’s Essays on the Natural History and Origin of Peat-Moss, 
 vol. i. Essay IX. p. CIS. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 389; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii, 
 
 p. 396. 
 
 J Sir H. Davy’s Lectures, p. 178. 
 
Soil. 
 
 25 
 
 In Leicestershire, and other counties, they have great 
 tracts of meadow land, which, in many instances, are the 
 sites of lakes filled up, the soil of which is composed of 
 peat and sediment ; the former originally formed by aquatic 
 vegetation, and the latter brought down by rains and 
 streams from the upland. This forms a soil admirably cal- 
 culated for grass*. 
 
 The fens in Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and several 
 other districts in England, likewise consist of peat and 
 sediment. They are pared and burnt for cole-seed, to be 
 fed off by sheep, which, by their manure, enrich the soil. 
 After two crops of grain, they are sown with grass-seeds, 
 (two bushels of rye-grass, and eight or ten pounds of white 
 clover), and remain in grass for five, six, or seven yearsf; 
 the longer the better. In the fens, beans and turnips have 
 been cultivated, but have not been found to answer; nor 
 can fen land be fallowed with advantage ; for it does not 
 bear much stirring. On such soils, potatoes, and above all , 
 carrots , have been tried as an intervening crop, and with 
 success. 
 
 The great object, however, is, to adopt the most proper 
 management of fen or peaty land for hay crops ; and here 
 it is proper to mention a modern discovery of great mo- 
 ment. It is ascertained, that by suffering the second crop 
 of grass, that might often with difficulty be converted into 
 hay, to rot upon (he ground, an immense produce of hay 
 is ensured for the succeeding year, and that fen land may 
 thus become a perpetual hay meadow. This important 
 fact is corroborated by some experiments which have been 
 tried near Oudenarde in Flanders, where the same effect 
 has been produced, by leaving the second crop on the 
 ground every'second or third year : the grass produced the 
 succeeding year, being of extraordinary length J. 
 
 5. Chalk . — Chalky soils principally consist of calcareous 
 matter, mixed with various other substances, in greater or 
 lesser proportions. Where clayey or earthy substances are 
 to be found in such soils in considerable quantities, the 
 
 * Leicestershire Report, p. 3. 
 
 t* See “ Essay on the Management of Fen Land,” by[John Wing, Esq. of 
 Thorney Abbey, late Agent to the Duke of Bedford. 
 
 + Dumbartonshire Report, p. 331. See also, Hints on the Agricultural 
 State of the Netherlands, Appendix, No. 7, p. 18. This seems to be a most 
 extraordinary circumstance, but the facts stated in the text, are unddhbted. 
 The rotting of the second crop, evidently operates as a manure to the suc- 
 ceeding one. 
 
26 
 
 Soil. 
 
 composition is heavy and productive ; where sand or grav'd 
 abounds, it is light, and rather unfertile. 
 
 The crops chiefly cultivated on chalky soils, are, pease, 
 turnips, barley, clover, and wheat ; and however much the 
 soil is exhausted, it will produce sainfoin. 
 
 The chalky hills have seldom had proper attention paid 
 to them. They are distant from the cattle-yards, and the 
 roads to them lie up steep hills; consequently dung has very 
 rarely been carried to them. The crops raised upon them, 
 are drawn or carried into the vallies. Whether they are culti- 
 vated, or fed with sheep, they suffer in both cases : the 
 corn is drawn from the hills to the barns in the vallies ; and 
 in a state of grass, the sheep who feed on them during the 
 day, are folded at night in the vallies. This system of de- 
 teriorating the hills, ought to be counteracted, by cultivat- 
 ing green crops, and consuming them upon the land. 
 Gluey as many of these hills now are, they may be rendered 
 friable by animal and other manure. 
 
 The means of ameliorating the texture of chalky soils, 
 are, either by the application of clayey and sandy loams, 
 pure clay marl, or where the staple is deficient, by using 
 great quantities of peat, or of water-fed earth. The chalk 
 stratum, mostly, or perhaps generally, lies upon a thick bed 
 of black or blue tenacious marl, of a rich quality, which 
 ought to be dug up, and mixed with the chalk, to cure its 
 defects, as well as to enrich it*. 
 
 The ashes of a sort of peat produced in some parts of 
 Berkshire and Bedfordshire, of a red colour, and which 
 abound with iron, are found to be highly beneficial to 
 chalky soils, particularly when sown with trefoil, and other 
 grasses : on such soils, these ashes are of use, not only for 
 crops of barley, but likewise even of oalsf . 
 
 Chalky soils are in general fitter for tillage, than for 
 grazing ; for, without the plough, the peculiar advantages 
 derived from this soil by sainfoin, (one of the most valuable 
 grasses we owe to the bounty of Providence), could nqt be 
 obtained. The plough, however, ought not to extend to 
 those fine chalky downs, (called ewe leases in Dorsetshire), 
 which, by a very attentive management, during a number 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. Clay, occasionally fit for 
 the potteries, as well as pipes, and fire bricks, though more generally only 
 fit for % other bricks and tiles, is frequently met with incumbent on chalk, and 
 may be used as manure to it, with muen advantage. — Ditto. 
 
 i~ Sec Dr. Pearson’s Essay on the subject; Communications to the Board 
 of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 321. 
 
Soil. 
 
 27 
 
 of years, have been brought to a considerable degree of fer- 
 tility, as grazing land, and which are so useful to sheep in 
 the winter season* * * § . 
 
 A chalky soil that has been in tillage, permits water to 
 pass through it so freely in winter, and is so pervious to 
 the sun’s rays in summer, that it is the work of an age to 
 make it a good pasture of natural grasses , more especially 
 when the chalk lies near the surface. Hence, in the wes- 
 tern counties of England, several thousands of acres of 
 this soil, though not ploughed for thirty years, have scarcely 
 any grass of tolerable quality upon them, and are literally 
 worth nothingf . Such soils ought to be cultivated, as a 
 preparation for sainfoin, in the following manner : 1st year. 
 Pare and burn for turnips, to be eaten on the land by sheep, 
 with the aid of some fodder ; 2d, Barley, to be sown very 
 early with clover seed ; 3d, Clover, eaten off by sheep ; 
 4th, Wheat ; 5th, Turnips, with manure ; and, 6th, Bar- 
 ley with sainfoin. The corn crops must be carefully weeded, 
 and in particular cleared of charlock. Under this system, 
 which has been successfully practised by a celebrated Kent- 
 ish farmer, (Mr. Boys of Betshanger), the produce has 
 been great, and the ground has been laid down in the high- 
 est order with sainfoin, or any other grass calculated for 
 this species of soilj. By adopting this system, many thou- 
 sand of acres might be improved, which are now lying in a 
 miserable state§. 
 
 6. Mluvial Soils . — These are of two sorts ; one derived 
 from the sediment of fresh, and the other of salt water. 
 
 Along the sides of rivers, and other considerable streams, 
 water-formed soils are to be met with, consisting of the de- 
 composed matter of decayed vegetables, with the sediment 
 of streams. They are in general deep and fertile, and not 
 apt to be injured by rain, as they usually lie on a bed of 
 open gravel || . They are commonly employed as meadows, 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 112. 
 
 f Davis of Longleat’s Essay. See Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 85. 
 
 X Mr. Boys of Betshangcr’s Essay. Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 257. Paring and burning a tliin chalky soil, how- 
 ever strange it may seem, is justified by experience. A considerable cover- 
 ing of coarse worthless herbage, and mosses, accumulates by time, which is 
 thus got rid of, and produces fertility. 
 
 § It is only necessary to use the black subsoil of the chalk stratum as a 
 manure to this soil, in order to secure abundant crops of corn or grass. 
 Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 || Clydesdale Report, p. 23; Northamptonshire Report, p. 10; Derby- 
 shire Report, vol. ii. p. 176. 
 
/ 
 
 28 Sail. 
 
 from the hazard of crops of grain being injured, or carried 
 off by floods, if cultivated. 
 
 Those fine alluvial soils, arising from the operations of 
 salt-water, (called salt-marshes in England, carses in Scot- 
 land, and polders in Holland and Flanders), are composed 
 of the finest parts of natural clay, washed off* by running 
 water, and deposited on flat ground, on the shores of estua- 
 ries, where they are formed by the reflux of the tide, and 
 enriched with marine productions*. When analyzed, they 
 often produce the same ingredients, or nearly so, as mould, 
 with, in some cases, a mixture of calcareous earth. They 
 generally have a rich, level surface, and being deep in the 
 staple, they are well adapted for the culture of the most 
 valuable crops. Hence wheat, barley, oats, and clover, are 
 all of them productive on this species of soil ; which is like- 
 wise peculiarly well calculated for beans, as the tap-root 
 pushes vigorously through it, and finds its nourishment at 
 a great depth. From the great mass of excellent soil, the 
 fertility of these tracts is nearly inexhaustible ; but from 
 their low and damp situations, they are not easily managed. 
 Lime, in considerable quantities, is found to answer well 
 upon this species of soil. 
 
 7. Loam . — Where a soil is moderately cohesive, less 
 tenacious than clay, and more so than sand, it is known by 
 the name of loam\. From its frequency, there is reason to 
 suppose that, in some cases, it might be called an original 
 soil. At the same time, a constant course of tillage for 
 ages, the application of fertilizing manures, and where ne- 
 cessary, mixing any particular substance in which the soil 
 is deficient, (as clay with sand, or sand where clay predo- 
 minates), will necessarily convert a soil thus treated into a 
 species of loam J. 4 
 
 Loams are the most desirable of all soils to occupy. 
 They are friable; — can in general be cultivated at almost 
 any season of the year ; — are ploughed with greater facility, 
 
 * Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer, p. 323. 
 
 f Kirwan on Manures ; Transactions of the Irish Academy, vol. v. p. 135. 
 The sand which loam contains, is ns fine as mealy in the proportion of 87 of 
 sand, to 13 of clay. See Kirwan’s Elements of Mineralogy, vol. j. p. 324. 
 
 X AyrshireReport, p. 28, 29; Inverness-shire Report, p. 9 ; Kincardine- 
 shire Report, p. 28. In the valuable Report of Middlesex, p. 20, the same 
 observation is made. Mr. Middleton there remarks, that a perfect sand, 
 clean gravel, or pure clay, is not now, perhaps, to be found in any part of 
 the county. By the operation of the elements, by manure and cultivation, 
 the surface of all the lands of the county has assumed, more or less, the ap- 
 pearance of loam. 
 
Soil . 
 
 29 
 
 and less strength than clay ; — bear better the vicissitudes of 
 the seasons ; — and seldom require any change in the rotation 
 adopted. Above all, they are peculiarly well adapted for 
 the convertible husbandry ; for they can be changed, not 
 only without injury, but generally with benefit, from grass 
 to tillage, and from tillage to grass. They should not, 
 however, be kept in tillage too long, nor, white they are 
 in cultivation, should two white crops be taken in succes- 
 sion. 
 
 Loams are of various sorts: 1. Sandy; 2. Gravelly; 
 
 3. Clayey ; 4. Calcareous ; 5. Peaty ; and 6. That mixture 
 of soil known under the name of a hazel loam. 
 
 1. A sandy soil, and a sandy loam* * * § , are easily distinguished. 
 A sandy soil is always loose and crumbling, and never gets 
 into a clod, even in the driest weather ; whereas a sandy 
 loam, owing to the clay that is mixed with it, retains a 
 degree of adhesion or cloddiness, after wetness or drought, 
 and will not suddenly crumble down, without the applica- 
 tion of machinery for that purposef. 
 
 A mellow, rich, crumbling, sandy loam, adhesive enough 
 to fear no drought, and friable enough to strain off super- 
 fluous moisture, if incumbent on a sound subsoil, is the 
 most profitable of all soils, being managed with much less 
 expence than any other soil, and raising with advantage, 
 every species of crop that the climate will admit off. 
 
 2. Gravelly loams, when warm, sound, and dry, or free 
 from springs, are useful soils, more especially in wet seasons 
 and climates. 
 
 3. A clayey or stiff loam, or brick earth, however poor, 
 and cold in its original state, yet if it be well drained, ac- 
 cording to the Essex system, and highly manured, it will 
 yield great crops§. It is found well adapted for the dairy in 
 Cheshire||. 
 
 4. Calcareous loams have chalk for their basis, and are 
 admirably calculated for the production of sainfoin. 
 
 5. Peat, in some of its varieties, may likewise be con- 
 verted by culture, into a species of black soft-loam, and, in 
 that state, it becomes highly fertile and productive. 
 
 6. A hazel loam, is a mixture of various soils, which as- 
 
 * Some Authors make a distinction between “ sandy loams” in which 
 the loam predominates, and “ loamy sands” in which sand most prevails ; 
 the former as best calculated for pasturing large stock; the latter for sheep 
 pasture. 
 
 + Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 82. 
 
 X Young’s Calendar, p. 475; Young’s Norfolk, p. 4. 
 
 § Young’s Calendar, p.475. || Cheshire Report, p. 1^0. 
 
30 
 
 Soil 
 
 sumes a brownish colour, and is reckoned uncommonly 
 fertile. 
 
 Rich loams, besides the other crops usually cultivated in 
 this country, will produce hemp and flax in the greatest 
 perfection and abundance ; and in such loams, where the 
 subsoil is both dry and open, lucern might be more gene- 
 rally grown than it is, in preference to other grasses, and 
 would prove greatly superior in produce, to what are called 
 permanent pastures* * * § . 
 
 Before the subject of soil is dismissed, there are some 
 miscellaneous particulars which merit attention ; as, l. The 
 means of ascertaining their composition ; 2. The nature of 
 mould, so essential for their fertility; 3. Their colour; 4. The 
 importance of cultivating good soils ; 5. The necessity of 
 keeping up their fertility ; and, 6. The general principles 
 on which their improvement may be effected. 
 
 1. That the most efficient methods for improving soils 
 may be adopted, it is necessary that their composition 
 should be known. A distinguished philosopher has sug- 
 gested a plan for that purpose, which can easily be carried 
 into effect, by any person at all conversant in chemical re- 
 searchesf. But the generality of farmers have not the 
 means of entering into such researches ; yet they are able, 
 by observation and experience, to discover the most import- 
 ant deficiencies of the soil they cultivate. This may be 
 effected, by comparing their own soils with each other, and 
 with the most fertile in their immediate neighbourhood. 
 The great object they ought to keep in view is, to render a 
 soil capable of receiving, and retaining such a due quantity 
 of moisture, as may be sufficient to nourish the vegetables 
 that grow in it, and fo transmit, or to throw off', such super- 
 fluous water as would prove injurious J. 
 
 2. Mould principally arises, from the decomposition of 
 the roots, and leaves of vegetables on grass land, and the 
 stubble, and roots of grain crops, on arable§. It is an es- 
 sential ingredient in all fertile soils, and is of great use, by 
 attracting and retaining, a due proportion of moisture, in 
 the mixed mass which the soil contains. Its formation on 
 grass lands is extremely slow ; for it is calculated, that it 
 
 * The conversion of permanent pastures, to crops of lucern, where the 
 soil and climate is favourable, cannot be too strongly recommended. 
 
 + Sir Humphry Davy’s Essay. Communications to the Board of Agricul- 
 ture, vol. iv. p. 314. 
 
 X Stirlingshire Report, p. 23. — This may, in a great measure, be effected 
 by deep ploughing and good cultivation. — Remark by Edward Bur- 
 
 rougliSy Esq. 
 
 § Kirwan’s Elements of Mineralogy, vol. i. p. 324. 
 
Soil. 
 
 31 
 
 proceeds at the rate of only one inch in a century* * * § . Con- 
 siderable accumulations of mould, however, are produced 
 from the leaves of trees, amassed for a number of years, 
 and rotted on the surfacet. When, in addition to vege- 
 table, there are animal remains, in a state of decomposition, 
 the soil is distinguished for its fertility. 
 
 3. It is of essential consequence, when the surface is 
 bare, and exposed to the rays of the sun, that the colour of 
 the soil should be such, as to attract and absorb the greatest 
 heat from the sun and the atmosphere, more especially in 
 spring. 
 
 Soils are of various colours. The principal are white, 
 black, and red. Uniformity of colour, is always a more fa- 
 vourable indication of fertility, than when they are mottled , 
 which is generally owing to an inferior subsoil. The soil 
 of the Carse of Gowrie, in Scotland, so celebrated for its 
 fertility, is however of a pale colour, from a white clay 
 which forms its subsoil. 
 
 White stiff clays are heated with difficulty, and being 
 usually very moist, they retain their heat only for a short 
 time. 
 
 A black soil, containing much vegetable matter, is most 
 easily heated by the sun and air. Its temperature has in- 
 creased from 65° to 88° by exposure to sunshine for an 
 hour. A chalky soil, under the same circumstances, was 
 heated only to 69°. In the shade, however, the black mould 
 lost its heat more rapidly J. 
 
 The red colour in soils, is owing to iron in various com- 
 binations. It is favourable or adverse to fertility, according 
 to the nature of the combination. That which approaches 
 nearest to the metallic state, is considered by some the most 
 favourable^. Red soils are greatly improved by calcareous 
 manures, as the chalky are by ashes containing a consider- 
 able proportion of iron. 
 
 4. It has been justly remarked, that too much can hardly 
 be paid for a good soil, and that even a low rent will not 
 make a poor one profitable. The labour of cultivating a 
 rich and a poor soil, is nearly the same ; while the latter 
 requires more manure, and consequently is more expensive. 
 Poor soils, at the same time, may have such a command 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 117, note. 
 
 f Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. 72 ; Derbyshire 
 Report, vol. ii. pi 268. 
 
 X Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 156. 
 
 § Clydesdale Report, p. 32, note. 
 
32 
 
 Soil . 
 
 of lasting manures, as lime or marl, or even of temporary 
 sorts, like sea-weed, or the refuse of fish, as may render 
 them profitable to cultivate* * * § . 
 
 5. It is a wise maxim in husbandry, that the soil, like 
 the cattle by whom it is cultivated, should always be kept 
 up in good condition, and never suffered to fall below the 
 work it may be expected to pefformf. 
 
 6. There are various modes of improving soils. 
 
 Soils with acids, or salts of iron, may be ameliorated by 
 the application of lime, or chalk. The sulphate of iron is 
 thus converted into a manure. 
 
 If there be an excess of calcareous matter in the soil, as 
 in chalky soils, it may be improved by the application of 
 sand or clay, or earthy substances. 
 
 Soils too abundant in sand, are benefited by the use of 
 clay, or marl, or vegetable matter. 
 
 A deficiency of vegetable or animal matter, must be sup- 
 plied by manure. 
 
 An excess of vegetable matter is to be removed by burn- 
 ing, or to be remedied by the application of earthy mate- 
 rials. The substances necessary for improving soils, are 
 seldom far distantj. Coarse sand is often found immediately 
 upon chalk, and perhaps always under it ; while beds of 
 sand and gravel, are commonly below clay, and clay and 
 marl generally below sand. 
 
 The labour and expence of improving the texture or con- 
 stitution of the soil, it has been justly observed, are amply 
 repaid, by the great and permanent advantages they produce. 
 Less manure is afterwards required ; — the crops cultivated, 
 are more independent of particular seasons; — while the capi- 
 tal, thus expended, secures the future fertility, and conse- 
 quently the value of the land§. 
 
 * Young’s Calendar, p. 474. 
 
 *t' Curwen’s Report, p. 16. 
 
 X A great proportion of Ireland has, for its subsoil limestone gravel. In 
 Connaught, this valuable substance lies immediately under the surface, and 
 a sufficient quantity to manure Si plantation acre, costs only 40$. When 
 spread upon old grass land, it will yield two crops of potatoes, and ten or 
 twelve of corn, without any other manure . — Communication from the Rev. 
 Thomas Radcliffe . — The fens of Cambridgeshire, on the other hand, are un- 
 fortunately at a great distance from lime. 
 
 § Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 178. 
 
Subsoil . 
 
 33 
 
 Sect. III. — Subsoil *. 
 
 The value of a soil depends much upon the nature of 
 the subsoil, or under-stratum. On various accounts its pro- 
 perties merit particular attention. By examining the sub- 
 soil, information may be obtained in regard to the soil itself ; 
 for the materials of the latter, are often similar to those 
 which enter largely into the composition of the former, 
 though the substances in the soil are necessarily altered, 
 by various mixtures, in the course of cultivation. — The sub- 
 soil may be of use to the soil, by supplying its deficiencies, 
 and correcting its defectsf. — The hazard and expence of 
 cultivating the surface, are often considerably augmented 
 by defects in the under-stratum, but which, in some cases, 
 may be remedied;};. Disorders in the roots of plants are ge- 
 nerally owing to a wet or noxious subsoil. 
 
 Subsoils are, J. Retentive ; or, 2. Porous. 
 
 ]. Retentive subsoils consist of clay, or marl, or of stone 
 beds of various kinds. 
 
 A retentive, clayey, or tilly§ subsoil, is in general, found 
 to be highly injurious. The surface soil is soaked with 
 water, is ploughed with difficulty, and is usually in a bad 
 condition for the exertion of its vegetative powers, until the 
 cold sluggish moisture of the winter be exhaled. By the 
 water being retained in the upper soil, the putrefactive 
 process is interrupted, and manures are restrained from 
 operating, consequently the plants make but little progress. 
 Hence, its grain is of inferior quality, and when in grass, 
 its herbage is coarse ||. 
 
 A clayey subsoil, however, may sometimes be of material 
 
 * On this important subject, see Mr. William Smith’s Memoir, and Map 
 of the Strata, before referred to. 
 
 f Thus a peaty soil is improved, when properly blended with a clayey 
 subsoil, either by ploughing or trenching. — Remark by Edward Bur - 
 roughs , Esq. 
 
 X See Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol.i. p. 77 ; and Dr. Coventry’s 
 Discourses on Agriculture, p. 34. 
 
 § Till is a Scotch expression, implying, as a subsoil, a mixture of clay and 
 sand, and of usually small stones, devoid of vegetable matter, and impervious 
 to water. It is generally of a yellow colour, indicating iron, and hence is 
 called “ ferruginous schistus.” In Ireland, this description of soil is called 
 “ lackleagh .” It is there considered to be the most effectual mode of im- 
 provement, to break through the retentive stratum, by a plough of an im- 
 mense size and weight, called the miner , without a mould-board, drawn by- 
 eight oxen, followed, in the furrow formed by a four-horse plough. This 
 substance, once severed, never re-unites. — Communication from the Rev. 
 Thomas Radcliffe. 
 
 }] Clydesdale Report, p. 9, and 32; Dumfries-shire Report, p. 18. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 Subsoil. 
 
 advantage to a sandy soil, by retaining moisture in such a 
 manner, as to supply what is lost by evaporation, and the 
 consumption of plants* * * § . Alluvial subsoils are those which 
 can be raised and mixed with the soil, to the greatest ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 When soils are immediately situated upon a bed of im- 
 pervious rock or stone, they are much sooner rendered dry 
 by evaporation, than where the subsoil is clay or marl. A 
 stony subsoil, when in a position approaching to the hori- 
 zontal, is in general prejudicial, and, if the surface soil be 
 thin, usually occasions barrenness ; unless the rock should 
 be limestone, and then the soil, though thin, can easily be 
 converted into healthy pastures, and, in favourable seasons, 
 will feed a heavy stock. They will also produce good crops 
 of corn, though subject to the wire-wormf. 
 
 2. A porous subsoil, is uniformly attended with this ad- 
 vantage, that by its means, all superfluous moisture may 
 be absorbed;];. In regard to its admitting the fibrous roots 
 of vegetables to extend deeper in search of moisture, or nu- 
 triment, that is often pernicious rather than otherwise, and 
 must be checked by the useful operation of treading. 
 
 Below clay, and all the variety of loams, an open sub- 
 soil is particularly desirable. It is favourable to all the 
 operations of husbandry ; it tends to correct the imperfec- 
 tions of too great a degree of absorbent power in the soil 
 above ; — it promotes the beneficial effects of manures ; — it 
 contributes to the preservation and growth of the seeds; — 
 and ensures the future prosperity of the plants§. Hence 
 it is, that a thinner soil, with a favourable subsoil, will 
 produce better crops, than a more fertile one, incumbent 
 on wet clay, or on cold and non-absorbent rock. 
 
 Lands whose substratum consists of clean gravel, or sand, 
 can bear little sun, owing to their not having the capacity 
 of retaining moisture, and their generally possessing only a 
 shallow surface of vegetable mould. In England, this soil 
 was formerly called rye-land, being more generally cropped 
 with that species of grain, than any other. When such 
 soils are cultivated for barley, they should be sown early 
 and thick, with seed soaked forty-eight hours in water, or 
 
 * Sir H. Davy’s Lectures, p. 1 62. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 61. — Remark by Edward Bur- 
 roughs, Esq. The ravages of the wire-worm can easily be obviated. See 
 Sect, on the Rotation of Crops. 
 
 t Northamptonshire Report, p. 13. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 60. 
 
Elevation . 
 
 35 
 
 in the exudation from a dung heap. Thus its simulta- 
 neous germination, and ripening at the same time, may be 
 secured* * * § . 
 
 On the whole, there is a most intimate connexion be- 
 tween the soil and subsoil ; and the fertility of the former 
 essentially depends on the quality of the latter. It is indeed 
 evident, that the nature of the subsoil, as well as of the 
 soil, must be ascertained, before a farmer can, with pro- 
 priety, select his plants, determine on the species of ma- 
 nure to be employed, or arrange his course of cultivationf . 
 Such investigations, therefore, are of the highest import- 
 ance to agricultural economy. They may be the means of 
 explaining peculiarities and anomalies, which cannot at pre- 
 sent be accounted for, and they may suggest the best me- 
 thods of improving k soil, by correcting the defects in its 
 constitution, and removing the causes of its sterility. An 
 enquiry, conducted on a great scale, and aided by the pub- 
 lic, might thus lay a basis of general improvement, incom- 
 parably superior to any that has hitherto been attempted!. 
 
 Sect. IV. — Elevation. 
 
 The value of a farm must likewise depend upon its ele- 
 vation. Where- the ground is highly situated, it must be 
 more difficult and expensive to convey manure, and to 
 carry on the other operations of husbandry. Land also in the 
 same parallel of latitude, other circumstances being nearly 
 similar, is always more valuable, in proportion to the com- 
 parative lowness of its situation, in consequence of the 
 superior quality of its produce. In the higher districts, the 
 herbage is less succulent and nourishing, and the re-pro- 
 duction slower, when the land is in grass; while the grain 
 is less plump, runs more to straw, is less perfectly ripened, 
 and the harvest is also later, when the produce is corn§. 
 
 * Williams on Climate, p. 227. — It has, however, been asserted, that 
 though steeping accelerates germination, it produces weaker plants ; and 
 that the same end may be attained by early sowing, or putting the seed in 
 with the drills, by which it is properly covered, and moisture is secured. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 60. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. v. p. 63 ; and Dr. Paris’s Notes on 
 the Soil of Cornwall, p. 6. 
 
 § Clydesdale Report, p. 32. This remark is not applicable to tropical 
 regions. 
 
 1)2 
 
36 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 It has been calculated, that in Great Britain, sixty yards 
 of elevation in the land, are equal to a degree of latitude ; 
 or, in other words, that sixty yards perpendicularly higher, 
 are, in respect of climate, equal to a degree more to the 
 north*. 
 
 Many extensive countries have no perceptible rise. These 
 have their advantages, from uniformity of soil, where it is 
 rich. In other districts, the surface is of a waving descrip- 
 tion ; an inequality which contributes much to the ornament 
 of the country, by the agreeable relief which the eye con- 
 stantly meets with, in the change of objects, while the uni- 
 versal declivity which prevails more or less in every field, is 
 favourable to the culture of the land, by allowing a ready 
 descent to any water with which the surface may be encum- 
 beredf. Abrupt elevations, however, very much increase 
 the labour and expence of cultivation ; and the soil, in the 
 highest parts of the field, becomes shallower, by every ope- 
 ration of tillage. 
 
 In regard to hilly countries, they have many disadvantages. 
 On their sloping sides, the finer parts of the clay and mould 
 are washed away, while the sand and gravel remain. Hence 
 the soil in such districts, often wants a proper degree of 
 tenacity for supporting corn crops J. A great part of the 
 manure that is applied, in such situations, is likewise soon 
 lost* From various causes, also, they are colder than the 
 plains. They are more distant from the heat of the great 
 mass of the earth, and in a manner cut off from its influence. 
 The atmosphere around them is liable to be often set in 
 motion ; and thus any heat which may occasionally be 
 accumulated, is rapidly carried aw r ay. The attraction of 
 moisture by high grounds, is another cause of their being 
 colder. 
 
 In considering the crops to be raised in any particular 
 farm, attention ought therefore to be paid, to its height 
 above the level of the sea, as well as to its latitude. In 
 latitude 54° and 55°, an elevation of 500 feet above that 
 level, is the greatest height at which wheat can be cul- 
 tivated, with any probable chance of profit ; and even 
 there, the grain will prove very light, and will often be a 
 
 * Worcestershire Report, p. 4. This calculation does not apply to other 
 countries ; and in fact the degree of heat depends, not only upon latitude, 
 but upon the position of the land, whether horizontal, or lying to the south 
 or north ; also upon the angle at which the land is elevated, on either of 
 these directions. 
 
 + Mid-Lothian Report, p. ‘24. See also Northamptonshire Report, p. 8. 
 
 | Argyllshire Report, p. 8. 
 
Elevation . 
 
 37 
 
 month later in ripening, than if sown at the foot of the 
 hills. Between 600 and 800 feet, may be reckoned the usual 
 maximum of elevation, for the more common sorts of grain, 
 and in backward seasons, the produce will be of small value, 
 and sometimes will yield nothing but straw* * * § . It is proper, 
 at the same time, to remark, that in the second class of 
 mountains in the county of Wicklow, in Ireland, where no 
 other grain is considered to be a safe crop, rye is culti- 
 vated with successt. 
 
 Where the soil is calcareous, however, as on the Glou- 
 cestershire, and Yorkshire Wolds, from the superior warmth 
 of that species of soil, compared to cold clays or peat, bar- 
 ley grows in great perfection, at an elevation of 800 feet 
 above the level of the seaj. Some experiments have been 
 made to raise corn crops at even a higher elevation, on the 
 celebrated mountain Skiddaw, in Cumberland, but unsuc- 
 cessfully. 
 
 In the more remote parts of Scotland, the greatest height 
 at which corn will grow, so as to yield any profit to the 
 husbandman, is stated to be at 500 feet above the level of 
 the sea§. At the same time corn has been produced, in 
 other districts of that country, at still higher elevations, in 
 particular at the following places : 
 
 » Feet above the level 
 
 of the Sea. 
 
 Parish of Hume, in Roxburghshire, 600 
 
 Upper Ward of Lanarkshire, 760 
 
 Doubruch, in Braemar, Aberdeenshire, 1294 
 
 Lead-hills, in Lanarkshire, 1564 1| 
 
 These, and other instances of land being cultivated on 
 high elevations, however, are merely small spots, richly 
 manured, and, after all, producing nothing but crops of 
 inferior barley and oats, and seldom fully ripe, or success- 
 fully harvested. It is only where the soil is sandy or gravelly, 
 that corn will at all answer in Scotland, on such elevated 
 situations ; and even then, only when the seasons are pro- 
 pitious, and when there are local advantages, favourable to 
 warmth and shelter, in the situation of the lands. 
 
 * North Riding Report, p. 4 ; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 114. 
 
 f Communication from the Rev. Thomas Radcliffe. 
 
 X East Riding Report, p. 3. 
 
 § Ross-shire Report, p. 36. 
 
 }} General Report of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 130. 
 
38 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Sect. V. — Aspect, or Exposure. 
 
 In hilly or mountainous districts, this is an important 
 subject of attention to the farmer; more especially where 
 the climate is unfavourable. It is proved in a variety of 
 instances, both in the Central Highlands of Scotland, and 
 in other parts of the kingdom* * * § , that where the aspect of a 
 hill is towards the north, the soil is more fertile, than when 
 it lies with a southern exposure. This is attributed to the 
 variations from frost to thaw in the spring months, which 
 are greater in a southern, than a northern aspect. Hence, 
 while the soil to the north remains locked fast, and secured 
 from waste, the other is loosened by the sun, and carried off 
 by showers falling in the intervals of thaw. Soils also which 
 face the south, are more liable to have their substance carried 
 away by heavy rains, which are generally impelled from the 
 south and south-westf. 
 
 But though the soil to the north often produces the 
 heaviest crops of grass and hay, yet from possessing a more 
 genial climate, and from the earlier and more powerful 
 action of the sun, both corn and grass are harvested earlier 
 on land which has a southern, than on that which has a 
 northern aspect^ ; and superiority of quality, thus compen- 
 sates for any inferiority in the quantity of the produce. 
 
 Sect. VI. — Situation. 
 
 The system Of farming to be adopted on any particular 
 farm, and the expence attending it, must likewise depend 
 on its situation: 1. In regard to markets; 2. To the fa- 
 cility with which its produce can be conveyed, where a con- 
 tiguous market is wanting; 3. To vicinity to manure; and, 
 4. To fuel§. 
 
 1. The advantages resulting from a vicinity to a market, 
 or to a large town, by which that is insured, are very great. 
 
 * See Aberdeenshire Report, p. 52; Ross-shirc Report, p. 37; Mid- 
 Lothian Report, p. 23. 
 
 f Marshall’s General View of the Agriculture of the Central Highlands 
 of Scotland, p. 13; Aberdeenshire Report, p. 52. See also Dr. Home on 
 Vegetation. 
 
 X Kincardineshire Report, p. 17; Dumfriesshire, p. 13; Forfarshire, 
 p. 75 ; and Staffordshire, p. 10. 
 
 § The advantages of vicinity to water, shall be afterwards discussed. See 
 Part II. Sect. 8. 
 
Situation . 
 
 39 
 
 Some crops, as those of potatoes, turnips and clover, are 
 frequently sold on the ground , without any further trouble 
 or expence to the farmer ; and great quantities of manure 
 may be purchased at a moderate expence. In such situa- 
 tions also, there is a ready sate for every article the farm can 
 produce ; and the articles sold, are not only brought to 
 market at a small expence, but the payment is immediate*. 
 For all these reasons it is contended, and apparently with 
 justice, that the neighbourhood of a capital, is the most 
 profitable spot to farm in, notwithstanding the high rent of 
 land, and the great expence of labourf . 
 
 Where markets are not at hand, the farmer ought to take 
 into consideration, what articles will best suit those at a 
 distance, to which his produce must be sent. In such a 
 situation, unless there are facilities for the conveyance of so 
 bulky an article as corn, by good roads, or by water-carriage, 
 it is advisable, instead of cultivating grain, to attend either 
 to the dairy husbandry, or to the breeding of stock, which 
 can be fattened in other districts where good markets are 
 more numerous. This plan, by which the dairy, the breed - 
 ing, and the fattening of stock, are made distinct pro- 
 fessions, is highly beneficial to the country at large. Stock 
 can be reared cheaper in remote districts, than where land 
 is dear, and labour high. On the other hand, the pur- 
 chaser of lean stock, avoids the expence and risk of breeding 
 great numbers of animals. His attention is not distracted 
 by a multiplicity of objects. He can alter his system, from 
 cattle to sheep, or from sheep to cattle, as is likely to be 
 most profitable ; hjs business is simplified, and the capital 
 he lays out is speedily returned. The division of pro- 
 fessions between breeding and feeding, (though they may 
 be united in circumstances peculiarly favourable), is, on the 
 whole, a most important link in the progress of agricultural 
 prosperity^. 
 
 2. In regard to facility of conveyance, it cannot be dis- 
 puted, that the promoting of internal communication, by 
 means of roads, bridges, iron rail-ways, canals, rivers ren- 
 dered navigable, and harbours, is the most beneficial means 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 132. 
 
 f Annals of Agriculture, vol. xxxix. p. 518. Herts Report, p. 29 ; Surrey 
 Report, p. 113; Middlesex Report, p. 98. 
 
 X Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 107. This is the practice in the 
 Lothians, where the culture of arable land is carried to much perfection. 
 At the same time, it is the quality of the soil that principally induces a pre- 
 ference to tillage over grazing. 
 
"10 
 
 Situation. 
 
 that can be adopted for the improvement of a country. It 
 is well known, that the best cultivated districts, are those 
 which have the advantage of possessing the greatest facility 
 of internal communication ; without which, agriculture lan- 
 guishes in the most fruitful districts, while, with them, the 
 most ungrateful soil soon becomes fertile* * * § . 
 
 3. Another object deserving consideration is, the situation 
 of the farm in regard to manures ; for an easy access to 
 lime, chalk, marl, sea-weed, &c. is of essential advantage to 
 cultivation. The price at which these articles can be pur- 
 chased, their quality, their distance, and expence of con- 
 veyance, are likewise of importance. Farms, for example, 
 possessing the advantage of sea-weed contiguous, and in 
 abundance, can pay from 15 to 20 per cent, more rent, per 
 acre , than otherwise could be alfordedf. 
 
 4. in the cold and moist regions of Europe, vicinity to 
 fuel, and its quality, are important considerations to the 
 farmer. In the same county, even in England, the dif- 
 ference of expence is often material. In the Hebrides, from 
 the moistness of the climate, the expence of fuel is reckoned 
 equal to a third part of the rent of the land ; and farmers 
 who pay, in some cases, 150/. per annum, would give 200/., 
 if the landlord would supply them and their servants with 
 fuel];. Where a farmer is under the necessity of using 
 peat, from the labour attending the cutting, spreading, 
 drying, and conveying it from a distance, several weeks of 
 his horses and servants are devoted to that sole purpose ; 
 and much valuable time is lost, which ought to have been 
 employed in the cultivation of his farm. It has been well 
 remarked, that many farmers, to save five guineas on coal, 
 often expend twenty, in thus misapplying the labour of their 
 horses§. Where wood is used, it occupies a great deal of 
 ground, that might often be cultivated to advantage ; and it 
 is not of a lasting quality || . Coal is preferable, for general 
 purposes, to every other species of fuel ; and besides its 
 domestic application, its superiority for burning lime, that 
 
 * Memoire sur les besoms, t les ressources de l’Agriculture Frai^aise, 
 par M. le Comte Francis de Neufchateau. A Paris, anno 1816. 
 
 f Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 203. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 268, where the subject of fuel i» 
 treated of more fully. 
 
 § Aberdeenshire Report, p. 531. 
 
 || Wherever coal can be had, the consumption of wood diminishes. Essex 
 Report, vol. ii. p. 381 ; SulFollc Report, p. 204; Derbyshire Report, vol. iii. 
 p. 1 36. — In America, every fire-place requires at least ten acres. — Madison s 
 
 Address , American Farther t Sept. 3, 1819. 
 
Size. 
 
 41 
 
 important source of fertility, ie an object of great moment. 
 The tenant, therefore, who resides in the neighbourhood of 
 coal, more especially if limestone, or calcareous substances, 
 are at no great distance, farms at less expence, — can afford 
 to pay a higher rent, — and may derive more profit from the 
 land he cultivates, than if in these respects he were differently 
 circumstanced. 
 
 Sect. VII.— Size. 
 
 Among the preliminary points which demand the parti- 
 cular attention of any individual, about to commence the 
 profession of agriculture, the size of the farm he proposes 
 to occupy, is of the highest importance. If it be beyond 
 his capital to cultivate or improve, he can derive no profit 
 by taking it. On the other hand, a small occupation, may 
 not be worthy of his attention. 
 
 The size of farms, in general, is a subject on which vo- 
 lumes have been written, and respecting which, a great 
 diversity of opinion prevails. It is impossible to lay down 
 any precise or universal standard, as so much depends’upon 
 the nature and situation of the country, whether unculti- 
 vated or otherwise; — the size of estates in it* ; — the cha- 
 racter, skill, and capital of the farmer; — and a variety of 
 local circumstances. At the same time, it is necessary to 
 discuss the relative advantages of the different sizes, that 
 the subject may be the better understood. 
 
 Farms may be divided into three sorts : J. Small farms 
 under 100 acres; 2. Moderate-sized farms, from 100 to 
 200 acres ; 3. Large farms, from 200 to 1000 acres, and 
 upwards, of land fit for cultivation. 
 
 1. Small Farms . — When the object of a farmer, was 
 merely to procure a maintenance, (and formerly it was but 
 little more), and agriculture was not pursued, like manu- 
 factures and commerce, as a means of acquiring wealth, 
 small farms were adequate to the purposef. But the case 
 is now widely different. The expence of labour is now so 
 great, and the rent of land so high, that the profits of a 
 small farm, are not sufficient, with the utmost frugality, or 
 even parsimony, to maintain a family with comfort. How- 
 
 * Where estates are very small, it is impossible that many farms can be 
 large ; for a great number of proprietors, would never agree to let small 
 portions of their little properties, to the same farmer, 
 
 f Dr. Rigby’s Report, p. 92. 
 
42 
 
 Size . 
 
 ever, injurious therefore it may be, to the production of a 
 numerous and healthy population, large farms are increasing, 
 and must increase, in order to afford their holders a sub- 
 sistence ; and the tenants of smaller possessions will be 
 under the necessity of devoting themselves to other branches 
 of industry*. 
 
 The arguments in favour of small farms are: 1. That 
 industrious individuals, possessed of small capitals, may 
 have an opportunity of following the profession of a farmer, 
 to which they would do credit, but from which, unless small 
 possessions are to be had, they would necessarily be ex- 
 cluded ; 2. That young men may be enabled to commence 
 farming on a moderate scale, for though possessed of capital, 
 or regularly bred to the profession, they are so apt to fall 
 into errors, that they ought not at first to undertake the 
 management of too extensive a concern ; 3. That in dis- 
 tricts where the inhabitants possess but small capitals, they 
 may not be tempted to take larger farms, than they can 
 manage to advantage, for where farmers embark too largely, 
 they have often gone to ruin ; and, 4. That if agriculture 
 should cease to flourish, it is more likely to find persons fit 
 to occupy small farms, than those of larger dimensions. 
 
 It is also contended, that the stock of the small farmer is 
 less expensively maintained ; — that from the contiguity of 
 his fields to the stable, the stack-yard, and the dunghill, he 
 can cultivate his land cheaper ; — that he makes money by 
 the sale of a number of small articles, which the great 
 farmer disregards, and the supply of these useful articles is 
 thus diminished, to the inconvenience of the publicf; — and 
 that in districts, where nature has divided a landholder’s 
 property, by hills, rivers, or other natural boundaries, such 
 detached parts of an estate, should always be let in small 
 farms. 
 
 It is proper here to remark, that under the head of small 
 farms, cannot properly be included, those portions of land, 
 occupied by tradesmen, manufacturers, and labourers, more 
 as a convenience, than as a means of subsistence. The ad- 
 vantages of such holdings, involves a question, of great 
 extent, and of much importance, which cannot be here 
 entered into];. 
 
 * Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. v. p. 422. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, Appendix, vol. iv. p. 296. Dr. Rigby’s 
 Report, p. 103. 
 
 t It is fully discussed, in the Husbandry of Scotland, Dissertation 1. “ On 
 the size of Farms.” 
 
Size. 
 
 43 
 
 2. Moderate-sized, Farms. — These are well calculated, 
 1. For the dairy system ; 2. For the neighbourhood of large 
 towns; and, 3. Where capital is not abundant. 
 
 1. There are few trades, in which a small capital can be 
 employed to greater advantage, than in a dairy farm* ; yet 
 there is no branch in agriculture, where such constant and 
 unremitting attention is required. That is not to be ex- 
 pected from hired servants ; but it is in the power of the 
 wives and daughters of the farmer to perform, or at any rate 
 to superintend, the whole concern, without whose aid it 
 cannot be rendered productive. Nor is attention within 
 doors sufficient ; if cows are fed out of doors, they must not 
 be compelled to travel to their pasture, far from the place 
 where they are milkedt. Moderate-sized farms, therefore, 
 are in this respect advantageous ; and are still more likely to 
 answer, when the farmer considers his cows as his pride ; — 
 when he takes a delight in shewing his stock to his friends ; 
 — in detailing the history of their lives; — indwelling on 
 the condition to which he has brought them ; — and in 
 pointing out the beauties of their progeny, and the excel- 
 lence of their produce];. 
 
 2. In the neighbourhood of towns, moderate-sized farms 
 are general. This, necessarily results from the high rents 
 paid in such situations; the shortness of the leases usually 
 granted of land near towns ; and the necessity the farmer 
 is under, of selling, in small quantities, the articles produced 
 on his farm. Hence it is, that in Flanders, which is full of 
 large towns and villages, the farms are moderate in size. 
 This is likewise of advantage to the towns, for where there 
 are a great number of farmers, there will be more competi- 
 tion, lesser objects will be attended to, and the markets will 
 be more regularly and better supplied, at least with the 
 smaller articles. 
 
 On this subject it has been remarked, that farmers in the 
 vicinity of large towns, resemble retail shopkeepers , whose 
 attention must be directed to small objects, by which a 
 great deal of money is got, the greater part of which would 
 be lost, without the most unremitting attention. The 
 farmer at a distance from markets, who cultivates on a great 
 
 * Somerset Report, p. 84. It is said that a dairy farm should not exceed 
 50 cows, which is as many as one family can well manage. 
 
 t It would be well worth while for the dairy farmers in England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland, to visit the Flemish and Dutch dairies, where they might 
 derive many useful hints, regarding the most advantageous management of 
 that branch of husbandry. 
 
 + Ayrshire Report, p. 430. 
 
44 
 
 Size. 
 
 scale, may be compared, on the other hand, to a wholesale 
 trader, who, as his profits are less, requires a greater extent 
 of land, for the purpose both of engaging his attention, and 
 of enabling him to support that station of life in which he is 
 placed. There is this difference also, between farmers in 
 the neighbourhood of towns, and those who reside at a dis- 
 tance from them, that the former find it more profitable, to 
 sell their produce, even such bulky articles as turnips, po- 
 tatoes, clover, hay, and straw, than to fatten cattle for the 
 butcher; and they are enabled to do so, without injury to 
 their farms, as they can procure dung in return. Indeed 
 they are commonly bound to do so by their leases, when 
 these articles are sent to market*. 
 
 3. In all districts where capital is not abundant, moderate- 
 sized farms ought to be preferred. The size of a farm 
 ought always to be in proportion to the sum which the 
 holder can afford to lay out in stocking it. This rule ought 
 in a special manner to be observed, when the circulation of 
 a country is reduced; — when markets are consequently low; 
 — and when it is not easy to raise a considerable sum of 
 money, even on good security, should an unexpected de- 
 mand occur, and no sales have been made to meet it. 
 Where such circumstances take place, a large farmer may 
 be involved in difficulties, or reduced to ruin, which the 
 occupier of a moderate farm, whose business is conducted 
 on a smaller scale, may escape. 
 
 3. Large Farms. — Wherever agriculture is followed as a 
 distinct profession, a farm ought to be of such a size, as to 
 furnish regular employment, not only to the farmer himself, 
 but also to the servants and labourers employed by him ; in 
 order that the greatest possible profit may be derived from 
 their labour, at the least possible expence. It is evident, 
 that this can only be accomplished on a farm of considerable 
 extent, where judicious rotations of crops are adopted, and 
 where the economy of the farm is so conducted, that too 
 much work does not occur at one season of the year, and 
 too little at another ; in short, where that division of labour, 
 from which manufacturers have derived such essential bene- 
 fit, is applied to husbandry!’. 
 
 The arguments which have been adduced in support of 
 large farms, may be classed under the following heads. 
 
 1. When a farm is of a large size, less expence is incur- 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 126. 
 
 f Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. HI. 
 
Size. 
 
 45 
 
 red in building bouses and offices, and in keeping them in 
 repair, than if the farm were divided, and several sets of 
 houses, & c. were erected for the accommodation of two or 
 more farmers*. 2. The enclosures on a large farm being 
 on a greater scale, are originally made, and afterwards kept 
 in repair, at a less expence ; much ground is thus added to 
 cultivation, and less shelter is given to the vermin with 
 which hedges and walls abound. 3. There is also a saving 
 of expence in housekeeping, when two farms are united 
 into one, the amount of which must vary according to cir- 
 cumstances. 4. The saving in the expence of cultivation is 
 considerable. When a farm of 200 English acres, is united 
 to one of 300, the work of a pair of horses and a plough- 
 man will be saved ; fewer instruments of husbandry are also 
 necessary ; in particular, one threshing-mill may be suffi- 
 cient. 5. Though there are exceptions to that rule, yet in 
 general, from superior capital, on large farms, the land is 
 much better cultivated, more effectually drained, and more 
 improved by extraneous manures, which small farmers can- 
 not afford to purchase to much extent, or to convey to any 
 distance. 6. A much greater quantity of disposable produce 
 is sent to market. The small farmer and his family indeed, 
 raise so little, and consume so much of the produce of the 
 land they occupy, that the surplus they can share, must 
 always be trifling; and, in unfavourable seasons, none can 
 be expected. Hence it is only by means of large farms, or 
 a number of moderate-sized ones, that great towns or popu- 
 lous districts can be supplied, in sufficient quantities, with 
 such articles of primary necessity as grain and butchers’ 
 meat. In regard to the latter in particular, it is generally 
 sold by the large farmer, in a fattened state, which is sel- 
 dom done bv the small one. 7* The live stock on large 
 farms, is confessedly of a superior quality, because a large 
 farmer can better afford to purchase the best sorts, and to 
 maintain them afterwards : the implements of husbandry 
 are likewise of a more improved description, and capable of 
 performing their work in a superior manner. 8. The labour 
 on a large farin' can be better subdivided than on a small 
 one, by means of which, critical periods may be caught, 
 more strength of labour can be applied to particular parts 
 of the farm when wanted, and the work may be done bet- 
 
 * There are very few instances in Ireland, where the landlord builds either 
 a house, or offices, for the accommodation of the tenant. It is done at the 
 expence of the tenant, and is rarely allowed in his rent . — Remark by Ed- 
 ward Burroughs , Esq, 
 
46 
 
 Size. 
 
 ter, and with more expedition, in an adverse season. 9. The 
 *arge farmer has full employment, independent of manual 
 labour. He has enough to do in superintending others, 
 instead of working with his own hands ; and if he should 
 employ himself in doing a job at one part of his farm, he 
 would lose more than the value of his own labour, by his 
 servants being either idle, or ill directing their labour, in 
 other places. From thus having full employment, he is not 
 under the necessity of engaging in other undertakings, 
 which not only would abstract his attention from his farm, 
 but would often be attended with real loss. 10. A 
 farmer with a large capital, has usually enlarged ideas, 
 which generally expand with the extent of his possessions : 
 he usually receives a superior education, and understands 
 better every branch of his profession : he is able to travel 
 about to obtain useful information, and having more en- 
 terprise, and fewer prejudices to subdue, he is more 
 ready to adopt new improvements*. 11. On a large farm, 
 a greater variety of practice can be introduced, such as 
 pasturing a proportion of the farm alternately ; and while 
 the large farmer, may be both disposed and enabled to 
 change his intended system, should an unfortunate season, 
 or some other incident, render it necessary ; the farmer on 
 a limited scale, must continue in the trodden path, often 
 in opposition to the true principles of his profession. 
 12. Large farms are favourable to the improvement of land 
 in an inferior or waste state. The small farmer generally 
 leaves it as he finds it; whereas, when a great farmer, with 
 a considerable capital, gets such land into his possession, 
 on an improving lease, he soon renders the inferior land he 
 occupies, or even the neighbouring waste, nearly as valuable 
 as the old cultivated soil. 13. Large farmers, when they are 
 active, spirited, and intelligent, are the fittest persons to 
 try experiments, and to prosecute them to the necessary ex- 
 tent; small farmers cannot aflbrd it, and gentlemen farmers, 
 (though there are exceptions to the rule), seldom give such 
 unremitting attention, as is necessary for ensuring success. 
 14. Many operations on a large farm can be done better, 
 and, in proportion to their importance, at a cheaper rate, 
 
 * There are few branches of natural philosophy, chemistry, natural his- 
 tory, mechanics, &c. which may not be profitably applied to a large farm. 
 To take advantage of these, the occupier ought to be a man of education, 
 and competent to his own progressive scientific improvement, by reading, 
 observation, and intercoms with intelligent men. He may thus be enabled, 
 to discover some new processes, by which his own immediate profit, and the 
 general interest, may both be forwarded. — Rigby's Report , p. 88. 
 
Size. 
 
 47 
 
 than on a small one. For instance, where a large flock of 
 sheep are kept, or a number of cattle, careful and intelli- 
 gent servants may be hired for attending them, which no 
 farmer on a small scale can afford. A large farmer can also 
 sell at market, in the same space of time, ten times the 
 number of cattle or sheep, or ten times the quantity of 
 grain, than any small farmer can have to dispose of ; and 
 in general, has better information regarding the state of the 
 markets. 15. The large farmer, possessed of all these ad- 
 vantages, in addition to his superior capital and credit, can 
 generally afford to pay a higher rent, with more punctuality, 
 than the small farmer ; from whom the rent he agreed to 
 pay, cannot often be exacted without compulsion. 16. The 
 large farmer pays more taxes to government for his house, 
 windows, and horses, and for every article of his consump- 
 tion. Indeed, small farmers whose rents were under 50 l. a 
 year, were considered by parliament, and justly too, to be 
 in so humble and poor a state, that they were not made 
 liable to the payment of the income or property tax ; and 
 if all the farms in the kingdom had been under that amount, 
 government would not have received a single shilling from 
 the occupiers of land, on account of that tax. 17. Large 
 farms, in the occupation of wealthy renters, are a species 
 of magazines or repositories, kept for the use of the public, 
 but without any of those mischiefs which would attend 
 them if they were a public concern*. In the last place, 
 respectable farmers are a most important link in the great 
 chain of society, rarely to be found in any country, Great 
 Britain excepted; — a class of individuals, whose habits of 
 industry, intelligence, and spirit, and the extent of whose 
 capital, which it has required centuries to accumulate, form 
 a species of bulwark, materially tending to preserve the 
 existing order of society ; but if that bulwark were once laid 
 prostrate, it would baffle human policy, without the exist- 
 ence of similar circumstances, ever to renew itf. 
 
 On the whole, it appears, that, in an extensive tract of 
 country, there must be, owing to a variety of circum- 
 stances, a considerable diversity in the size of farms; — at 
 the same time, there is a regular progress in regard to their 
 general extent. 
 
 * Gloucestershire Report, p. 54. 
 
 t Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 150. . 
 
48 
 
 Size. 
 
 At first, when the art of agriculture is in its infancy, 
 farms must be small, because there is neither capital to cul- 
 tivate, nor skill to manage large occupations ; nor are 
 large farms necessary in that period of society, because it is 
 seldom that great numbers of inhabitants are collected in 
 towns, who must be provided with food. Besides, a feudal 
 chieftain is desirous of increasing the number of his fol- 
 lowers ; and, for want of other sources of employment, 
 a father has no other means of providing for his sons, when 
 they remain at home, than by giving them a share of his 
 farm. In the course of a few generations, therefore, a 
 farm of even a considerable extent, is thus frittered down 
 into very trifling possessions. Hence there is a strong 
 tendency, in the first stages of agriculture, to have' farms of 
 a small size, and to have' a number united together, under 
 what may be called the village system. 
 
 In process of time, however, as population advances, — 
 as capital increases, — and as skill improves, farms are en- 
 larged ; and it is found by experience, that one man can 
 cultivate any given extent of country, (say from 300 to 500 
 acres), at less expence, can raise a greater produce, and 
 can afford a higher rent, than a number of small occupiers. 
 During this stage of the progress, farms are conjoined, and 
 the farmer of skill and capital, not only rents tracts of 
 country in his own immediate neighbourhood, but is also 
 tempted to speculate even in remote occupations. Farms 
 thus increase to a very large extent, and indeed attain a 
 size, which, at first sight, appears calculated, (unless where 
 it is the practice to have married servants, or the culture is 
 of a very superior description), materially to diminish the 
 number of persons, deriving their subsistence from the cul- 
 tivation of the soil. 
 
 Two circumstances, however, afterwards take place, which 
 have a strong tendency again to diminish the size of farms. 
 
 1. As the great inducement of any individual to enlarge, 
 as far as he can, his concerns in agriculture, is owing to 
 the cheapness of land, and to the profits he derives from 
 that employment, in which he unites skill to capital ; so, 
 on the other hand, when by competition, the rent of land 
 increases, and when, from various causes, many compe- 
 titors appear, he has then no inducement to continue in 
 the occupation of more than what he can conveniently 
 and profitably manage. He diminishes therefore the ex- 
 tent of his concerns, by giving up some of his farms to 
 
49 
 
 Tenure, whether in Property or on Lease . 
 
 the proprietors, or establishing branches of his own family 
 on them, or sub-letting some of them, when he is authorised 
 so to do. 
 
 2. In the vicinity of towns, and on all lands approaching 
 to garden culture, the occupier has so many minutiee to 
 attend to, that a large farm becomes unsuitable. In such 
 situations, farms necessarily become smaller ; and indeed, 
 as the rent of land increases rapidly, a great extent of it 
 would prove a most hazardous experiment. 
 
 That it appears, that the size of farms must depend, on 
 the circumstances of a country . What is a proper size in 
 one district, is not so in another ; and what is a proper size 
 at one time, is not so at another, even in the same district. 
 That size, however, is always the best, whether small, or 
 moderate, or large, for which, in the state of any district, 
 there is the greatest demand at that time. That demand 
 ensures the highest rent, and the highest rent will neces- 
 sarily occasion, and indeed enforce, the greatest produce 
 that can be drawn from the soil*. 
 
 Sect. VIII. — Tenure , whether in Property or on Lease . 
 
 In this Section it is proposed to examine the advantages 
 and disadvantages attending the occupation of land, either 
 by the proprietor himself, or by tenants holding under him. 
 
 1 . Proprietors occupying their own Land . 
 
 It is certainly in various respects attended with public 
 advantage, that a large proportion of the soil, should be the 
 property of one class of the community, and in the occu- 
 pation of another. In some of the American States, where, 
 from a scarcity of population, leasehold tenure is hardly 
 known, the land is often so much exhausted by the inat- 
 tention of the owners, who think they may take any liberty 
 with their own property, that in many districts the crops of 
 wheat, do not exceed an average of seven or eight bushels 
 per acref. How different is the case in this country, where 
 the owner, instead of cultivating his own fields, lets them to 
 another ? A careful landlord, indeed, considers himself as a 
 trustee for his family* and for the public. He will not 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 164; General Report of Scotland, 
 vol.i. p.182. 
 
 + Sir William Strickland’s Observations on the United States of America, 
 in the Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 154, 155. 
 
50 Tenure , whether in Property or on Lease. 
 
 suffer his fields to be exhausted, by improper management, 
 or injudicious rotations ; and when he grants a lease to a 
 tenant, it is either to a person in whom he can safely place 
 confidence, or under such covenants, as are the most likely 
 to prevent that great source of public wealth, the soil of the 
 country, from being injured by improvident management. 
 It must be admitted, however, that such covenants are 
 often very injudiciously drawn up. 
 
 When a tenant also, has a rent to pay to a landlord, it 
 has a strong tendency to render him industrious. Without 
 that spur to exertion, he would not take half the pains he 
 usually does, to cultivate his farm, or to supply it with 
 stock. The burden of rent is likewise attended with an- 
 other advantage, for in order to be enabled to pay it, the 
 farmer finds it necessary to supply the markets more re- 
 gularly. When persons have no such stimulus, they are 
 induced to keep up their produce, that they may enhance its 
 value. 
 
 Besides, a tenant who cultivates the soil as a profession, 
 has but one object in view ; and he is therefore more likely 
 to manage the concern better than a proprietor, who has 
 often other avocations to distract his attention. Not only 
 is the tenant necessarily more attentive to his business, but 
 he carries it on at less expence ; — his cattle and servants do 
 more work ; — the produce of his farm is more carefully 
 looked after; — and no money is expended, without the 
 prospect of an adequate return. Expensive improvements, 
 such as erecting commodious buildings, making roads, 
 enclosing, draining, irrigating, and perhaps a very great 
 application of calcareous manures, may be advantageously 
 executed by the landlord ; but in regard to raising the pro- 
 ducts of the soil, by judicious rotations of crops, complete 
 aration, abundant manuring, selection of the best seeds, &c. 
 an intelligent farmer has evidently an advantage*. 
 
 As a proof of the justness of these doctrines, it is a well 
 known fact, that small proprietors, when they are men of 
 sense and ability, frequently let, or sell their own estates, 
 and take the lands of others on lease; knowing well, that if 
 they resided on their own property, they would be tempted 
 to live like gentlemen, and to indulge in idleness and in- 
 activity!. Instances also have not been wanting, where, 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 176. 
 
 '1* The Rev. Dr. Cartwright recollects a curious circumstnhcc of a person 
 who resided, about fifty years ago, in a village on the road between Newark 
 upon Trent and Sleaford, who had been obliged to sell his estate, took it on 
 
Tenure , whether in Property or on Lease. 5L 
 
 owing to negligence, or want of capital to improve it, the 
 owner of an estate, has been obliged to sell it, and has 
 hired the same land to farm, at a fair rent, and has done 
 well*. 
 
 When the proprietors of considerable estates, cultivate 
 their own land, they may have one of five objects in view : 
 I. Accommodation ; 2. The pleasure of farming ; 3. Profit; 
 4. To make useful experiments ; and, 5. The general im- 
 provement of their property./ 
 
 1. It is not only a healthy, but a most useful employment, 
 for gentlemen residing in the country, to have some land in 
 their own possession, for the purpose of providing them- 
 selves with various articles which their families may require. 
 Perhaps those articles might often be purchased fully as 
 cheap at market ; and it might be more profitable to the 
 proprietor, to let the land at a fair rent, than to occupy it 
 himself; but the occupation of land is a source of rational 
 amusement, and it is desirable for every proprietor residing 
 in the country, to have a spot he can call his own, where 
 he and family can take air and exercise. Besides, if at- 
 tention to a large extent of arable land be found incon- 
 venient, so much corn need only be raised by a landholder, 
 as may be necessary for his own purposes, and after his 
 fields are enclosed, and laid down to grass, he may let them 
 to farmers or graziers, the proprietor reserving what is ab- 
 solutely necessary for his own accommodationf. What the 
 extent of such accommodation land should be, need not be 
 here discussed; as it depends, upon the establishment 
 kept up by the proprietor, the portion of time spent by him 
 in the country, and the degree of superintendance that he 
 can give to his farm. 
 
 2. When operations of agriculture were first attempted, it 
 was for the purpose of procuring the mere necessaries of life, 
 but when these were once obtained, its conveniences and 
 comforts were next sought after, and ultimately its refine- 
 
 lease, and made as a farmer, so much money, that he was able to re-purchase 
 it. Small proprietors in general, are seldom possessed of capital sufficient to 
 improve their lands, and frequently indulge notions, which disqualify them 
 from the pursuits of industry. Dumbartonshire Report , p. 20. — Hence, in 
 the progress of society, this class of men gradually disappear. Stirlingshire 
 Report, p. 69. — It is found more profitable, to have a capital in money, judi- 
 ciously employed in farming, than a capital in land. 
 
 * Staffordshire Report, p. 30; Ayrshire Report, p. 77. 
 t General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 172; Husbandry of Scotland, 
 vol. ii. p. 139. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 Tenure, whether in Property or on Lease . 
 
 ments. Hence agriculture, which originally was consi- 
 dered to be a rude and simple source of employment, be- 
 came, in process of time, a liberal art, capable of contri- 
 buting to improve the scenery of a rich domain, or to 
 shelter and adorn the residence of the great and powerful*. 
 Hence ornamental agriculture arose, as distinguished from 
 the useful. The distinction between them is, in general, 
 abundantly obvious. The scheme of culture which a gen- 
 tleman may pursue in his park, or on lands near his seat 
 of residence, is generally a very different one from that 
 a husbandman should adopt in his fields. The principle of 
 the former is taste, that of the latter, economy, or thrifty 
 management ; the characteristic of the former, is ornament, 
 that of the latter, utility ; and the object of the former, is 
 pleasure, that of the latter, profit . When the latter object 
 is pursued on an extensive scale, it becomes a serious em- 
 ployment, requiring constant and great attentionf. 
 
 3. Though there are instances of spirit and great applica- 
 tion, producing effects creditable to the owners of estates, 
 who cultivate 'their own lands, for arable crops, yet their 
 profit, generally speaking, is much less than if the same 
 land were occupied by a farmer. Proprietors rarely attend 
 to all those minutiae which a corn farmer must not neglect. 
 Neither do they regularly oversee their servants, examine 
 the state of their working cattle, attend fairs and markets, 
 nor personally superintend the progress of all their farming 
 operations. These duties, therefore, are commonly en- 
 trusted to a bailiff, who is seldom sufficiently qualified for 
 them all ; nor does he almost ever possess so much attention 
 and frugality, as a prudent and well-informed farmer, whose 
 personal interest is at stake, and who manages all his trans- 
 actions. Though a landed proprietor, therefore, may have 
 acquired sufficient practical knowledge of husbandry, to 
 superintend the management of a farm ; yet his other pur- 
 suits preclude him from paying such attention to those in- 
 ferior objects, without which, it is impossible that he should 
 farm to advantage, upon a great scale. Hence a species*of 
 farming arises, which is justly denominated profuse, agri- 
 culture, founded on unlimited expence in tillage and manur- 
 ing ; by which, perhaps, double crops are obtained, but are 
 
 * Cicero, in his Cato Major, has well observed, “ That there cannot be 
 a richer, or a more ornamental object, than a well-cultivated field. Agra 
 bene culte, nil potest esse, nec usu uberius, nec specie, ornatius.” 
 
 f Coventry’s Discourses, p. 55. 
 
53 
 
 Tenure , whether in Property or on Lease. 
 
 raised at triple cost. Thus, with delusive notions of profit, 
 many are betrayed into real, though unheeded loss. In- 
 deed it is well known, that gentlemen cultivators, after hav- 
 ing pursued the profession of husbandry for some years, 
 with much ardour, have frequently relinquished it with cha- 
 grin*. Where their farming, however, is carried on with 
 economy, and in moderation, it is of much use, keeping up 
 a spirit of experiment in cultivation, and in particular, tend- 
 ing to promote the improvement in stockf. 
 
 4. It is next proper to observe, that since the attention 
 of the public has been so much directed to agricultural pur- 
 suits, many respectable proprietors of landj, have cultivated 
 extensive tracts of country, with the view of trying useful 
 experiments, and disseminating a knowledge of agriculture 
 in their respective neighbourhoods. Nothing can be more 
 laudable than such pursuits. The spirit of improvement 
 which they have thus excited, and the important facts which 
 they have established, must be in the highest degree grati- 
 fying to themselves, and useful to their country §. 
 
 5. Some landlords in remote and unimproved districts, 
 convinced that example, and not precept, will alone dispel 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 172; Dr. Coventry’s Discourse*, 
 p. 59 ; Kent Report, p. 50. 
 
 f Gloucestershire Report, p. 34. 
 
 X Among these, the Duke of Bedford, the Earl of Egremont, Lord So- 
 merville, Sir Joseph Banks, Mr. Coke in Norfolk, Mr. Western in Essex, 
 Mr. Curwen in Cumberland, Sir W. W. Wynne, and Sir Robert W. Vaughan 
 in Wales, and others might be enumerated. 
 
 This has likewise been much the case in Ireland, where of late years, the 
 landed proprietors have become agriculturists, either through necessity, (not 
 having been able to dispose of their lands to advantage), or from having 
 caught the patriotic spirit of improvement, so laudably set by the sister king- 
 dom. This has been attended with many beneficial consequences to that 
 country. Gentlemen, instead of devoting their time only to pleasure and 
 amusement, as was formerly the case, are now proud of being considered 
 zealous improvers on their own estates, and do not consider a knowledge 
 of rural affairs derogatory to their condition in life. — Remark by Edward. 
 Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 , § Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 140. Formerly a nobleman who 
 
 directed his attention to experiments in cultivating the various and useful 
 tribes of the vegetable kingdom, was considered by his brother peers as 
 degrading his high station in life. But now, what a cnange ? Every where 
 proprietors are to be met with, who, by every means in their power, either 
 by precept, — by example of improved culture, — by publications, — or by 
 premiums, combat the prejudices of their uninformed tenantry, and become 
 a blessing to their neighbourhood. — South Wales Report, vol. i. p. 178. — In 
 Ireland also, many of the nobility and gentry have become intelligent farmers ; 
 but as they seldom attend to the practical part of it, they often find it dif- 
 ficult to prevail upon their stewards to follow any new system. It frequently 
 happens, that a failure in this case, either through ignorance or obstinacy, 
 prevents a repetition of the intended improvement. — Remurk by Edwhrd 
 Burroughs , Esq. 
 
54 Tenure , whether in Property or on Lease. 
 
 ignorance, and remove prejudice in rural arts and practices* * * § , 
 have resolved to take a farm into their own hands, with a 
 view of showing an example of correct husbandry to their 
 tenantry ; and they look for profit, not from the produce of 
 the farm they occupy, but frop the general improvement 
 of their estatef . In other cases, improvements have been 
 carried on by the proprietors on a still greater scale. When 
 their estates have been in bad order, the farms ill arranged 
 in regard to extent, figure, and boundaries, and the farmers 
 dispirited, poor, and unskilled in agriculture, they have 
 taken a considerable tract of country into their own hands, 
 and, after improving it, have let it to enterprising and skilful 
 farmers. They have then removed their servants, cattle, 
 and implements of husbandry, to another part of the estate, 
 and after treating this in the same manner, they have pro- 
 ceeded to others, as far as circumstances rendered it ex- 
 pedient;];. 
 
 It is well known, however, that proprietors have in ge- 
 neral derived the greatest profit from farms, which they 
 have only partially improved. Indeed it seldom happens, 
 that a landed proprietor can thoroughly improve a farm, 
 without incurring much unnecessary expence 5 whereas, 
 when a foundation has once been laid, a judicious farmer, 
 with more attention and economy, can accomplish the same, 
 or nearly as much improvement, on far more moderate 
 terms§. Nor, in economical agriculture, is any practice 
 worthy of attention, in which the expence incurred, will not 
 be repaid with a fair profit||. 
 
 2. Farmers occupying Land. 
 
 In former times, the connexion between a landlord and 
 his tenants, was of a military description. The proprietor 
 
 * Cornish Report, p. 17. 
 
 f Some are of opinion, that instead of this kind of experimental farming, 
 it would be of more advantage, both to the proprietor and to the district, to 
 encourage a farmer from another county to set the example, as farmers are, 
 in general, more ready to imitate the practice of their equals, than that of a 
 large proprietor, who is so far removed from their own station in society, 
 and, as they observe, who pays no rent for his land . — General Report of 
 Scotland , vol. i. p. 172. 
 
 X In Scotland, this plan has been frequently adopted, and with much 
 success. The exertions of an Earl of Findlater, of a Craik of Arbigland, of 
 a Robert Barclay of Ury, of a Henry Home Lord Karnes, stand eminently 
 conspicuous in that honourable list. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 173. 
 
 || Marshall on Landed Property, p. 224. 
 
Tenure, whether in Property or on Lease . 55 
 
 of an estate was himself a warrior ; and those who possessed 
 land under him, were his soldiers, who were bound to mili- 
 tary service, and who paid him hardly any rent in money, 
 but only some personal services, and a moderate quantity 
 of some articles in kind, for the maintenance of his family. 
 
 When the feudal system was abolished, the landlord, at 
 first, still considered himself as the patron of those who 
 were placed under him. The rents continued low, the oc- 
 cupiers of the estate claimed, from generation to generation, 
 under the name of “ Kindly Tenants,” a sort of tacit patri- 
 monial interest in their respective possessions* ; and as they 
 paid very inadequate rents, and had no permanent security 
 in their possessions, nothing could exceed their indolence, 
 their ignorance, and of course the poverty of their condition. 
 
 The connexion between the two classes, is now of a de- 
 scription totally different. The landlord considers himself 
 as the owner of an estate, of which he must make the most 
 he can, for the benefit of himself and family. He lets it 
 for a certain number of years, to persons possessed of skill, 
 integrity, industry, and capital, under the obligation of 
 paying him annually, a specific share of the produce, con- 
 verted into money, besides being bound, if not to improve 
 the value of the property, at least that it shall not be dete- 
 riorated during the currency of the lease. The contract 
 becomes of course more of a mercenary nature, without, 
 however, totally destroying ties of a more pleasing nature ; 
 for the landlord, on the one hand, must feel himself deeply 
 interested in the success of his tenant, on which his own in- 
 come and prosperity materially depend ; while the tenant, 
 on the other, looks up to his landlord as a friend, whose 
 interests are necessarily interwoven with his own, and who 
 will naturally be inclined, to give an industrious and im- 
 proving tenant a preference, when the farm is to be re-let. 
 
 Under this system, it is essential both for the landlord 
 and tenant, that the connexion between them should be 
 established on just and liberal principles, so as to induce 
 men of knowledge, enterprise, and capital, to devote their 
 attention to the art of husbandry. That can only be ex- 
 pected, where leases are granted. These furnish the most 
 beneficial species of encouragement to agricultural improve- 
 ment ; indeed if any great exertions are necessary, they are 
 not to be attempted without that security! . Where a pro- 
 
 * See Alton’s Survey of Ayrshire, p. 175. 
 + Sussex Report, p. 43. 
 
56 Tenure , whether in Property or in Lease, 
 
 prietor, therefore, does not incline to occupy his land him- 
 self, he naturally resolves to surrender the temporary pos- 
 session of it to others, under such conditions as may be 
 mutually advantageous. 
 
 A lease, indeed, is properly a contract, founded on the 
 principles of equity, between two men for their mutual ad- 
 vantage. The one possesses an absolute right in the pro- 
 perty of a certain tract of land and its produce, the other 
 purchases the temporary privilege of appropriating the pro- 
 duce of that land to himself, at a certain stipulated price. 
 The proprietor of an estate, may thus be considered as in 
 the possession of a certain fixed capital in land, which is 
 capable of producing, when duly cultivated, a certain an- 
 nual value. The cultivator of the soil, on the other hand, 
 possesses a moveable capital, consisting of the necessary 
 funds for stocking a farm, his knowledge in the art of 
 agriculture, and his industry. Thus situated, the parties, 
 like other men who wish to enter into a joint concern, are 
 induced, by the prospect of mutual advantage, to agree to 
 unite their capitals, for the purpose of assisting nature in 
 producing human subsistence; and their respective inte- 
 rests, having been mutually considered, their agreement 
 constitutes the terms, or specific articles of the lease. On 
 this plain principle depends the connexion between landlord 
 and tenant. The capital invested by the cultivator, the 
 rent he pays, his skill and labour, the contingencies, and 
 chance of loss that may arise, from the inclemency of the 
 seasons, must all be compensated, by the value of the pro- 
 duce of the soil. Where these principles are fully under- 
 stood and acted upon, both proprietor and tenant will be 
 placed in the most favourable situation, of which the nature 
 of the transaction admits. But where these are departed 
 from, the interest of the one, or of the other, or perhaps of 
 both, must suffer, in proportion to the degree of aberration 
 from that equitable line, which so distinctly marks their 
 respective rights and obligations*. 
 
 In regard to the manner of settling a lease ; — the period 
 of entry, and the regulations therewith connected; — the 
 duration of leases,; — and the covenants to be inserted in 
 them, as these particulars require more detail than is con- 
 sistent with the nature of a work restricted to general prin- 
 ciples, it is proposed to discuss them in a separate paper, 
 (see Appendix, No. I.) As to- the form of a lease, and the 
 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 187. 
 
Rent. 
 
 b 7 
 
 stipulations essential for the interests of the two parties, 
 these must vary so much, that it is hardly possible to reduce 
 them to one uniform plan. 
 
 Sect. IX. — Rent . 
 
 The price periodically paid by the occupier, to the owner, 
 for the use of his land, is called rent. It formerly consisted 
 of a great number of particulars; as personal services, 
 trifling sums in money, and various articles in kind, as 
 grain, lambs, pigs, poultry, &c. In countries unprovided 
 with a sufficient quantity of circulating medium, payments 
 in kind were unavoidable ; nothing, however, could be more 
 injudicious, when circulation became more abundant, than 
 such payments. The grain, and other articles of a similar 
 nature, were uniformly of inferior quality, and the exaction 
 of personal services, was of little advantage to the landlord, 
 while it was an oppressive burden on the tenant, obliging 
 him to keep a greater number of men and horses than his 
 own farm required, and often interrupting the most import- 
 ant farming operations. Rent, therefore, in the present 
 more advanced period of society, ought in general to be re- 
 stricted to money payments*, and the imposing of any bur- 
 den ought to be avoided, which has a tendency to impede 
 the industry of the tenant, or to withdraw his attention 
 from the management of the farmf. 
 
 The amount of rent, in a general point of view, must 
 always depend on a variety of circumstances ; as the wealth 
 of the country ; — its population ; — the price of produce ; — 
 the amount of public and other burdens; — the distance 
 from markets ; — the means of conveyance ; — the competi- 
 tion among farmers ; — and other less important considera- 
 tions; — but the rent of any particular farm must be re- 
 gulated by, — The nature of the soil ; — The duration of the 
 tenure, and the covenants contained in the lease; — The 
 capital to be invested by the farmer in its culture ; — and the 
 expences to which he is liable. 
 
 * The propriety of varying, to a certain extent, the payments in money 
 according to the price of grain, shall be discussed in the succeeding section. 
 
 t General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 194; also Dumbartonshire Re- 
 port, p. 48, 49, &c. In imposing such payments and services on his tenants, 
 a landlord in fact buys the worst poultry, at the highest price, and pays for 
 a little work, imperfectly executed, more than would have hired the best 
 workmen to accomplish the same labour ; while the improvement of his 
 lands is retarded, and the progressive rise of his rents is checked. P. 45. 
 
58 
 
 Rent . 
 
 Poor land cannot possibly pay the same proportion of rent, 
 according to the amount of its produce, as the rich and 
 fertile. The labour of ploughing, harrowing, sowing, &c. 
 when the land is in cultivation, is nearly the same, and yet 
 the produce is greatly inferior, not only in quantity, but in 
 quality. Indeed, where the produce is inconsiderable, or 
 the quality much inferior, the whole, or nearly the whole, 
 may be swallowed up by the expence of labour, and no rent 
 whatever can be afforded, more especially in adverse seasons. 
 
 The duration of the tenure, must have a considerable 
 effect, in fixing the rent. No farmer can afford to pay the 
 same sum for land on a short, as if he held it on a long 
 lease. The covenants, also, which are in fact a species of 
 rent, must influence the money payments. 
 
 Rent must also depend on the capital invested in the 
 cultivation of the farm. Thus, if a farmer can lay out only 
 41. of capital per acre, he may not be able to afford for it 
 a higher rent than 10s. per acre ; if he lays out 71 . he may 
 pay 14s. ; and with a capital of 10/. per acre, he may be 
 enabled to pay 18s. or 20s. of rent. Hence the advantage 
 of wealthy tenants; and hence the justness of the maxim, 
 “ That capital in the hands of the tenantry, is of as much 
 consequence as the quality of the land*.” 
 
 It is obvious, that all the expences of a farm, must of 
 necessity be defrayed by a sale of the produce, before any 
 provision can be made for rent ; and when these charges 
 absorb more than the whole produce, there is nothing left 
 for the payment of the landlord. The increase of the te- 
 nant’s expences, taxes, assessments, tithes, law-charges, 
 and stamps, as well as losses by bad debts, and otherwise, 
 would have extinguished rent several years ago, if the price 
 of the bushel of corn, and the pound of meat, had not ad- 
 vanced in proportion to the tenant’s expences, and the other 
 burdens to which he is liable. In the present circum- 
 stances of the country, high prices for corn and meat, are 
 indispensably necessary to the existence of rent, more espe- 
 cially upon inferior soilsf. 
 
 Upon the subject of rent, it is proposed to consider : 
 1. What proportion of the produce should be paid to the 
 
 * Annals of Agriculture, vol. xxiii. p. 338. Mr. Young here justly 
 questions the good sense and understanding of those landlords, who argue 
 against rich tenants ; — who are jealous of seeing a farmer on a good horse, — 
 and think it presumption in him to drink a bottle of wine. In other words, 
 that is saying, that it is better to receive only 12 s. than 20 s. of rent, per acre. 
 
 + Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
Rent. 
 
 59 
 
 landlord ; 2. Whether a specific sum in money ought to be 
 paid, or whether it should vary according to the price of 
 produce ; and, 3. At what periods the rent should be made 
 payable. 
 
 1 . Proportion of Produce as Rent . — This is a question, 
 that has long been considered as abstruse, mysterious, and 
 very difficult to resolve. Some have supposed, that one- 
 fifth was a reasonable proportion, while others contend for 
 a fourth, or even a third part of the produce of arable land*. 
 But all former calculations on this subject, are rendered 
 fallacious, by the effects of modern improvements. The 
 rent ought certainly to depend upon the amount of the dis- 
 posable produce ; and that produce in grain, is greatly aug- 
 mented, both by a diminution of the consumption on the 
 farm, effected by improved implements'}-, and a more cor- 
 rect arrangement of labour, and likewise a better cultiva- 
 tion of the land in tillage. Hence, while the price of wheat 
 has greatly advanced during the last twenty years, above 
 the average price of the preceding twenty, the rent of land 
 has not only risen, but in a higher proportion. More 
 grain, and that of a better quality, has been produced on 
 the same extent of land, and a greater amount of dispos- 
 able surplus has gone to marketj. 
 
 Out of this surplus disposable produce, it is evident, that 
 the rent must be paid. But it is difficult to divide its 
 amount between the landlord and tenant, as so much de- 
 pends upon the seasons, qnd on the prices of the different 
 articles which the farm produces. In bad seasons also, 
 every deficiency of produce, in the acres set apart for sup- 
 porting home population, must be made up from the dis- 
 posable surplus; nor is it possible to apply the same rules 
 to all situations, soils, and climates, in all the various dis- 
 tricts of an extensive country. It may be proper, however, 
 to give some general idea,' of the proportion of produce paid 
 as rent, 1. In Scotland ; and, 2. In England. 
 
 I . In Scotland, the following table states what is consi- 
 dered to be a fair proportion, where the land is cultivated. 
 
 * It is an old remark, that every arable farm ought to produce three 
 rents ; one for the landlord, one for the expence of management, and one 
 for the farmer; to which a fourth ought now to be added, for taxes, and 
 parochial assessments. 
 
 f The use of two-horse ploughs, and the invention of the thrashing-mill, 
 by augmenting the disposable produce, have greatly augmented the rents in 
 Scotland. 
 
 + Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 173. In Chapter V. shall 
 be given, very important estimates of the amount of disposable surplus, on 
 a clay land, and a turnip-soiled farm. 
 
60 
 
 Rent . 
 
 Table of Rent on Arable Farms . 
 
 1. Where land produces 10 1. 10s. per acre 
 
 per annum, one-third, or 
 
 2. Where land produces 61. 12s. per annum, 
 
 one-fourth, or ., * 
 
 3. Where land produces only 4 1. 5s. per acre, 
 
 one-fifth, or 
 
 In regard to grazing farms, they are let on principles 
 totally different from the arable, namely, according to the 
 quantity of stock they can maintain ; and as they are not 
 liable to the same expence of management, both the land- 
 lord and the tenant receive larger shares of the produce, 
 than in the case of arable farms. 
 
 2. In England, on the other hand, the husbandmen and 
 their landlords, are in a kind of partnership, in which the 
 tenant provides all the capital, and undertakes the manage- 
 ment of the whole concern ; as a remuneration for which, 
 and for the interest of the money he has invested in it, he 
 is allowed, on arable land, equal to what is considered to be 
 one moiety of the surplus, after defraying the ex^ences of 
 cultivation, the taxes to which he is liable for the farm he 
 occupies, and every other outgoingf. Hay land requires 
 much less of his attention, and for this he only obtains one- 
 third of the surplus. But the profits of grazing, depending 
 much on superior judgment in buying and selling stock, as 
 well as skill in preventing, or curing. their diseases, the gra- 
 zier is entitled to a share of the surplus, fully equal to that 
 of his landlord};. 
 
 It has been contended, as a general principle, that as both 
 the expence of cultivating land, and the value of its produce, 
 are infinitely various, a farmer ought to calculate, what 
 profit he can make on his whole farm, without entering into 
 details ; it being of little consequence to him, whether he 
 pays at the rate of 10/. or 10s. per acre, provided he makes 
 
 * Dr. Coventry has drawn up “ Estimates of the Produce and Rent of 
 Arable Lands,” varying according to the fertility of the soil, and on the cli- 
 mate or height of situation; with some explanatory observations, wftich are 
 well entitled to the attention of proprietors, and their stewards, on the one 
 hand, apd the occupiers of the soil on the other. 
 
 + The nature of these deductions, from the actual produce, will be spe- 
 cified in a paper, written by John Middleton, Esq., which will be inserted in 
 the Appendix, No. I. 
 
 J Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 Per English Acre. 
 
 10 0 
 
 | 1 13 0 
 \ 0 17 0* 
 
Rent . 
 
 61 
 
 an adequate interest on the capital invested . That is cer- 
 tainly a fair criterion on which a tenant may calculate what 
 he ought to offer; but a landlord, in estimating the rent he 
 ought to insist on, must take into his consideration, the 
 produce that his land is capable of yielding, and what pro- 
 portion of it, or of its value, at a fair average, he has reason 
 to expect, under all the circumstances of the case, which 
 ought not entirely to depend, on the exertions of a timid, 
 or penurious tenant*. 
 
 What are the profits to which a farmer is entitled, is a 
 subject of much dispute. On the one hand it is contended, 
 that the produce of land, is of such universal and absolute 
 necessity to the existence of mankind, that it is not reason- 
 able it should yield to him who raises it, more than a fair 
 profitf. On the other hand it is urged, that a farmer is 
 entitled to be fully recompensed for the application of a 
 considerable capital, exposed to the uncertainty of the 
 seasons, when it is managed with economy, and conducted 
 with industry and skill J ; and it has also been observed, that 
 it is seldom more money is got by farming, than an adequate 
 interest for the capital invested. This is owing to competi- 
 tion , the articles produced, being in numberless hands, who 
 must bring them to market ; and necessity , the goods of the 
 farmer, being in general of a perishable nature, on the sale of 
 which he depends, for the payments he has to make, and the 
 subsistence of his family. 
 
 To prove how moderate the profits of farming in general 
 are, it appears from the most careful inquiries, that on arable 
 farms they rarely exceed from ten to fifteen per cent, on the 
 capital invested §, which is little enough, considering that 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 201. 
 
 f Worcestershire Report, p. 41. X Berwickshire Report, p. 143. 
 
 § In Bedfordshire (Report, p. 152), 10 per cent. ; in Bucks, (Report, p. 97), 
 10 percent.; in Berks, (Report, p. 114), 10 per cent.; in Sussex, (Report, 
 p. 45), 10 per cent.; in Caithness, (Report, p. 49), 10 per cent.; in Kent, 
 (Report, p. 49), 11 per cent.; in Dumbartonshire, (Report, p. 68), ll£ per 
 cent.; in Lincolnshire, (Report, p.47), 12 per cent.; in Essex, (Report, vol.i. 
 p. 106), 15 per cent. The profits of farming are not so much as is usual 
 with manufacturers and traders, who often benefit from new inventions. 
 Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 40. Farming profits are sometimes increased 
 by a large cultivation of some rare plant. Ditto. But on the whole, it ap- 
 pears, that the British cultivator is but poorly compensated for the capital he 
 sinks, and for the labour he undertakes. With such unfavourable prospects, 
 when this most useful class of the community can, with difficulty, obtain a 
 livelihood by their exertions, it cannot be expected, that the agricultural in- 
 terests of the nation will advance, more especially when there is to be added, 
 the risk of unpropitious seasons, and an inundation of foreign corn . — Rtmark 
 by Edward Burroughs , Esq . 
 
62 
 
 Rent . 
 
 few employments are more subject to casualties than farming, 
 or require more uniform attention. Some arable farmers, 
 possessed of superior skill and energy, and who have got 
 leases on reasonable terms, may clear from fifteen to twenty 
 per cent, while others, who are deficient in these qualities, 
 or pay too high rents, frequently become insolvent. 
 
 In grazing farms the case is different, as they are attended 
 with less expence of labour, and produce articles of a more 
 luxurious description, for which a higher price will be given. 
 Hence, in such farms, fifteen per cent, and upwards, is not 
 unusual*. Besides, the grazier is more of a merchant than 
 the mere arable farmer; is frequently buying as well as 
 selling stock, and sometimes makes money by judicious 
 speculations, though occasionally, from a sudden fall of 
 stock, his losses are considerable. The grazier who breeds 
 superior stock, and thence incurs great expence, is certainly 
 well entitled, to more than common profit, for his skill and 
 attention. 
 
 It has been observed, however, that a farmer seldom 
 makes much money, unless he is most advantageously si- 
 tuated in the neighbourhood of a great town, or unites with 
 farming, some other profitable employment. But those 
 who have capital and ability, adequate to the management 
 of more than one concern, merit to be amply rewarded for 
 their superior skill and industry. 
 
 2. Mode of paying Rents . — In regard to the mode in 
 which rent should be paid, it is proper to consider, whether 
 the whole, or, at least, part of the rent, ought not to de- 
 pend upon the price of grain, not for the season, but on an 
 average of a certain number of years preceding that for 
 which the rent is due. By this plan, neither the landlord, 
 nor the tenant, can suffer from the fluctuating price of 
 grainf ; whereas, without some such arrangement, the 
 tenant on the one hand, cannot make a fair offer of rent, 
 lest the price of grain should fall too low ; nor, on the other 
 hand, can the landlord grant a lease of considerable duration, 
 lest the price of grain should, in the progress of time, rise 
 much higher. It seems therefore to be for the interest of 
 both parties, that, on arable farms, a part of the rent should 
 be payable in money, and part in corn, not in kind, but in 
 money, according to the average value of a number of years. 
 
 * Cheshire Report, p. 12. 
 
 t Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 172; Derbyshire Report, 
 vol. iii. p. 631, note. 
 
Rent. 
 
 63 
 
 This plan is enforced by law, to the extent of one-third, in 
 college leases; and thus an income is secured, in some de- 
 gree proportioned to the value of money. 
 
 This mode, however, is not without its difficulties. The 
 amount of rent, for improvable, and well- cultivated farms, 
 does not depend so much on the price of grain, as is com- 
 monly imagined. A large proportion of such farms, usually 
 produce green crops, the value of which depends upon the 
 prices of beef, mutton, and wool, and not on that cf grain. 
 Various circumstances also may arise, which may reduce the 
 price of particular sorts of grain below its usual level, (for 
 example, barley, when the distilleries are stopped) ; or may 
 raise it disproportionably much higher, in case a large pro- 
 portion of the wheat crop should be destroyed by rust or 
 mildew*. But if the proposed payment, by the conversion 
 of corn into money, be extended to the various sorts of grain 
 usually cultivated in the district, and be restricted to one 
 half of the rent, it does not seem liable to any material 
 difficulty. If the payment also, depends, on the average of 
 seven or more years, the main objection to a corn rent, that 
 the farmer is often liable to pay the most, when he is the 
 least able to do it, is removed. 
 
 3. Periods of Payment . — These ought to be made so con- 
 venient to the tenant, that he may not be under the necessity 
 of selling the produce of his farm to disadvantage, for the 
 sake of ready money; nor should he be compelled to pay his 
 rent out of his capital, for that would cripple all his future 
 exertions. The periods should vary according to the nature 
 of the occupation, and the time when the tenantcy com- 
 menced. It is advisable, however, to have the rent payable 
 at two periods of the year, in order to divide the burden of 
 the payment, and that the tenant may not have any money 
 unemployed, which too often leads to waste, and unnecessary 
 expences. 
 
 On the whole, the most successful farmers are those, who 
 embark a capital sufficiently large in their undertaking ; — 
 who feel it their duty to watch over that capital with un- 
 ceasing care, and to add to it whenever it is practicable ; — 
 and who have agreed to pay a fair, but not a speculative rent, 
 for the lands they cultivatef. 
 
 * Shropshire Report, p. 128. 
 
 f Malthus’s Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Rent, p, 58. 
 
64 Parochial , National , and Miscellaneous Burdens . 
 
 Sect. X. — Parochial , National , and Miscellaneous Burdens . 
 
 Besides the rent paid to the landlord, the farmers in 
 England and Scotland, are subjected to the payment of 
 various taxes, some of them imposed for local purposes, and 
 others for the general expences of the state. The real 
 amount of such burdens, every careful tenant ought accu- 
 rately to know, before he bargains for his lease*. They 
 may be classed under the following heads: 1. Parochial; 
 2. National; and, 3. Miscellaneous. 
 
 1. Parochial Burdens. 
 
 These are, 1. For the support of the clergyman; 2. For 
 the maintenance of the poor ; and, 3. In Scotland, for pro- 
 viding a parochial schoolmaster. 
 
 1. The mode of supporting the Clergy, in Englandf, by 
 paying them a tenth part of the produce of the land in kind, 
 was established in the Christian world, when the revenue of 
 the crown, and the rents of the proprietor, were paid in the 
 same manner. But as the two latter are now commuted, 
 no good reason can be assigned, why the former should not 
 follow the same rule. It is certainly highly expedient for 
 the public interest, that an ecclesiastical establishment 
 should be maintained, and amply provided for, in proportion 
 to the opulence of the country. It is not the total amount 
 that is in general objected to, but the mode of payment, as 
 one highly injurious to agriculture, and a bar to improve- 
 ment. It is a great bar to improvement, because an im- 
 proving farmer, one more enlightened or more spirited than 
 his neighbours, would pay more tithe, by means of his out- 
 lay and exertions, but it is not certain that he would like- 
 
 * Dumbartonshire Report, p. 43. He should also ascertain if there are 
 any local burdens or servitudes upon the farm, as a right of common, after 
 the corn is harvested ; a privilege of cutting down wood, &c. Such burdens 
 render a farm less valuable. The vicinity of a rabbit-warren ; — of land- 
 owners over-anxious about their game ; — or the neighbourhood of hunts, 
 or coursing clubs, are all deductions from the rentable value of a farm. — Der- 
 byshire Report , vol. iii. p. 677. 
 
 f The same system prevails in Ireland, and is considered to be the princi- 
 pal cause of the periodical disturbances which have so frequently distracted 
 the peace of that country. It is, however, only doing justice to the Irish 
 Clergy to observe, that this imposition is in general, levied with moderation, 
 when vested in their own hands ; but it too often happens, that they leave 
 their tithes to others, who, to enrich themselves, exact the utmost shilling 
 which law or custom will authorise. — Remark by Edward Burroughs t Esq. 
 
Parochial , National, and Miscellaneous Burdens. 65 
 
 wise receive more profit. The produce would be more, but 
 the expence would be greater. Nothing can be more ob- 
 noxious than a law, by which, when a person expends a 
 large sum, either in reclaiming wastes, or augmenting the 
 fertility of land already cultivated, he should be under the 
 necessity of yielding up one-tenth of its produce to a person, 
 who has been liable to no share of the expence, — who has 
 run none of the risk, — and who has sustained none of the 
 labour attending the improvement* * * § . 
 
 Should the cultivation of corn become more operose, and 
 require to be carried on with greater care, attention, and 
 consequent expence, the burden of tithes will be still more 
 severely feltf. At present, great loss is experienced, when 
 they are exacted in kind, and conveyed, with much addi- 
 tional trouble and expence, not to the barns of the occupier, 
 but to those of the parson};. A commutation of tithe§, 
 therefore, instead of its being exacted in kind, would be 
 one of the greatest benefits that could be conferred on agri-r 
 culture ; and there is not the least difficulty in effecting it, 
 by giving to the tithe-owner, either a proportion of the land, 
 or by converting the tithe into a perpetual corn rent. Both 
 these plans have been adopted in a variety of cases, by local 
 acts in England, and they ought now to be enforced as a 
 general system. Others recommend giving a proportion of 
 the rent, (say 3s. or 4s. in the pound), to the tithe-owner; 
 which they are inclined to consider the most likely plan to 
 obviate every difficulty. It would at least put at end to any 
 uncertainty as to the amount of the demand ||. 
 
 2. An assessment for the maintenance of the poor, is 
 another parochial burden, which is annually increasing, and 
 which, if not speedily regulated, upon proper principles, will 
 inevitably absorb a very large proportion of rent in Eng- 
 land^. During infancy, in sickness, and in old age, assist- 
 
 * Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 351 ; Derbyshire Report, 
 vol. ii. p. SO. 
 
 f Worcestershire Report, p. 36. 
 
 I Kent Report, p. 42. 
 
 § Among other objections to taking tithe in kind, it is none of the least 
 importance, that a large proportion of the straw, the chief material from 
 which manure is obtained, is carried ofF the farm, and the means of preserv- 
 ing its fertility thus impaired. 
 
 It Dr. Skene Keith states, in his Report of Aberdeenshire, p. 176, that no 
 less a quantity than 2000 acres had been trenched in the neighbourhood of 
 Aberdeen, at a heavy expence, which would not have been incurred, to any 
 great extent, if tithes could have been exacted from the lands thus im- 
 proved. 
 
 H Mr. Curwen remarks, that the daily augmentation of the poor-rates i& 
 F 
 
66 Parochial, National, and Miscellaneous Burdens. 
 
 ance may be necessary ; but, as Malthus justly observes, the 
 poor-laws hold out support to the vicious and idle, at the 
 expence of the prudent and the industrious. These payments 
 also, destroy the spirit of independence, and those ideas of 
 honest pride, which stimulate a man, to use his utmost exer- 
 tions, in support of himself and his family*; and on its pre- 
 sent footing, the boon is administered by the parish officers, 
 with caution and reluctance , and received by the poor with 
 dissatisfaction and ingratitude^. The payment of the poor- 
 rates by the tenants, is attempted to be justified on two 
 accounts : 1 . With a view of guarding against unnecessary 
 waste of money, in the temporary relief of the poor, which 
 farmers are more likely to resist than landlords, who mostly 
 reside at a distance ; and, 2. To prevent new burdens being 
 brought on parishes, by the hiring of yearly, instead of 
 weekly labourers, and thereby settling them, and their fu- 
 ture families on the parish^. 
 
 In Scotland, the poor are, in general, maintained by vo- 
 luntary contributions^ ; but when these are not found to 
 be sufficient, the proprietors of the parish, with the clergy- 
 man and vestry, or kirk-session, are directed to make a list 
 of the indigent persons in the parish, and then to impose 
 an assessment for their relief ; one-half to be paid by the 
 proprietors, and the other half by the tenantry. Thus, in 
 general, the people who pay the poor-rates, are both the 
 judges of the indigence of those who claim charity, and the 
 imposers of the assessment for their relief ; and this, no 
 doubt, is the best guard that could well be devised, against 
 either an exorbitant assessment, or a prodigal distribution ||. 
 
 3. The system adopted in Scotland, by which there is a 
 schoolmaster appointed in every parish, onc-half of whose 
 salary is paid by the farmer, is certainly a wise regulation, 
 and becoming an enlightened nation. Why should not every 
 individual in a country, be enabled to read and write, and 
 to understand arithmetic ? The acquisition of these branches 
 
 most severely felt, and whilst their oppressive effects are deprecated by all, 
 as likely to absorb the whole landed rental of England, no specific plan for 
 their immediate or progressive reduction, or their remote abolition, is sug- 
 gested. — Curwen's Report , p. 32. 
 
 * Hereford Report, p. 40. 
 
 t Somerset Report, p. 36. 
 
 X Wilts Report, p. 28 ; Derbyshire Report, vol. iii. p. 184. 
 
 § In Ireland, the same plan is adopted ; and the most intelligent statesmen 
 of that country are convinced, that it is the most judicious mode of reliev- 
 ing the poor . — Remark In/ Ktlward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 || Clydesdale Report, p. 78. 
 
Parochial, National, and Miscellaneous Burdens. 6 7 
 
 of education, opens his mind, improves his morals, and fits 
 him for being a better and more useful member of society. 
 The means of acquiring these essential branches of know- 
 ledge, ought not to depend on the charitable disposition of 
 reluctant contributors, but ought to be secured, to the 
 poorest individual, by the municipal law of the land*. 
 
 2. National Burdens . 
 
 The national burdens in general, as the duties on houses 
 and windows, and other assessed taxes ; or assessments for 
 the support of militia-men’s wives and families, for the con- 
 veyance of vagrants, or the prosecution of felons, fall no 
 heavier upon the farmer, than upon other classes of the 
 community : but there is one impost which is severely felt 
 by the arable farmer, namely, the tax on horses employed 
 in husbandry. The inequality of that tax is strongly ob- 
 jected to ; for lands, when pastured, and necessarily subject 
 to the least expence, pay no part of it. The burden conse- 
 quently falls exclusively on the lands in tillage, which, as a 
 necessary consequence, must prevent the British farmer from 
 raising the productions of arable land, so cheap as the 
 foreign cultivator. 
 
 3. Miscellaneous Burdens . 
 
 There are likewise various miscellaneous burdens affecting 
 the farmer, as statute assessments for bridges, which are of 
 such public utility, that moderate rates for their maintenance, 
 properly applied, cannot be objected to;— statute labour on 
 the highways ; — constable dues, which are seldom of much 
 moment ; — charges of the churchwardens, including the re- 
 pairs of the church ; — and in some populous parishes, there 
 is sometimes a burial-ground tax. All these are paid by 
 the occupiers. In some places also, there is a sewer’s tax, 
 chargeable on the landlords, where it is not otherwise settled 
 
 * The erection and repair of churches, houses for the Clergy, and schools, 
 are parochial burdens, to which landlords in Scotland are liable. Scarcely 
 a year passes, without some demand on that account, on the pockets of the 
 proprietors, for one or more of these parochial buildings. The expence 
 varies, according to the population and rent of the parish. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 Parochial, National, and Miscellaneous Burdens. 
 
 by express contract*. Adstriction to mills, however, is the 
 severest burden, where it exists, for not only is the expence 
 of grinding, double or treble what ought to be exacted, but 
 the farmer is bound to carry his grain to be manufactured 
 by a person, in whose skill or honesty he cannot always place 
 any depen4encef. 
 
 Whether the public burdens should be paid by the pro- 
 prietor or the farmer, is a question of considerable import- 
 ance. When paid by the latter, it is attended with this 
 advantage, that the landlord has only to calculate on a real, 
 and not an ideal income, and he limits his expence ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 The vexations to which farmers in England are subjected, 
 from various uncertain burdens, operates as a premium to 
 Scottish agriculture. It is ingeniously and justly remarked, 
 that physical circumstances are much more favourable to 
 agriculture in England, than in her sister country ; but these 
 advantages are counteracted, by the accumulation of moral 
 evils, which might be removed, if the legislature were to 
 bestow, on matters connected with the internal improve- 
 ment of the country, and the means for promoting it, a 
 portion of that attention, which it so frequently gives, to the 
 amelioration or improvement of our foreign possessions^. 
 
 Concluding Observations . 
 
 Besides these, a variety of miscellaneous particulars re- 
 quire consideration, before a prudent farmer will finally re- 
 solve to undertake the cultivation of a farm; as, 1. The 
 nature of the property on which the farm is situated ; in 
 
 * As specifications are more satisfactory than general assertions, it may be 
 proper to insert the payments made by a farmer in England, whose rent is 
 
 annually 500/. 
 
 Tithes are compounded for at £100 0 0 
 
 Poor’s assessment is 5s. on the pound 125 O O 
 
 Church assessment 6 5 0 
 
 Highway assessment 13 10 0 
 
 House tax and window tax 10 O 0 
 
 Horse tax and dog tax „ 7 10 O 
 
 Stamped receipts for these and other payments 1 15 O 
 
 The whole are very nearly 53 per cent., or £264 0 0 
 
 — Communication from John Middleton , Esq. 
 f Clydesdale Report, p. 67 ; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 492. 
 
 J Brown’s Treatise on Rural Adairs, vol, i. p. 185. 
 
Parochial, National, and Miscellaneous Burdens. 69 
 
 particular, whether the estate is entailed, and to what ex- 
 tent the possessor of the estate is authorized to grant a 
 lease*. — 2. The character of the landlord, and in case of 
 his decease, that of his family, and of those whom they 
 are likely to consult. — 3. The real condition of the farm in 
 regard to the enclosure, drainage, building, &c. ; the crops 
 it has usually produced, and the manner in which it has 
 been managed for some years preceding. — 4. The general 
 state of the district, in regard to the price of labour, and 
 the expence of living ; the character of its inhabitants, in 
 particular of the neighbouring farmers and labourers ; and 
 whether they are likely to promote, or to discourage, a spirit 
 of improvement. 
 
 It is evident, that in hardly any one instance, can all 
 the circumstances above enumerated, be favourably com- 
 bined. But the active and intelligent farmer, will not be 
 discouraged by the obstacles he may have to surmount ; 
 but will strenuously endeavour, by exertion, industry, and 
 perseverance, to overcome the difficulties he must unavoid- 
 ably encounter. 
 
 * See the Cornwall Report, p. 22, where an allusion is made to a most 
 distressing circumstance ; the author of that work having unwarily ex- 
 pended large sums on an entailed estate. This too often happens, and the 
 unfortunate occupier is left at the mercy of his successor, if the lease given 
 by the proprietor in possession, exceeds the time he is permitted by the 
 entail, to grant such a deed. 
 
70 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 ON THE MOST ESSENTIAL MEANS FOIl CARRYING ON 
 THE IMPROVEMENT AND CULTIVATION OF A FARM. 
 
 When a farmer enters on the occupation of any extent 
 of land, a variety of most important objects must necessarily 
 engage his attention, and the following in particular, as fur- 
 nishing the most likely means of promoting his success. 
 1. The judicious expenditure of an adequate capital, in 
 stocking the farm ; 2. The keeping regular accounts, as 
 the only sure foundation of economical culture ; 3. The 
 formation of a skilful arrangement of agricultural labour and 
 domestic management ; 4. The hiring a proper number of 
 trusty farm servants ; 5. The procuring skilful day-labourers 
 when required for occasional purposes; 6. The purchase 
 and maintenance of live stock suited to his farm ; 7. The 
 acquisition of the most suitable implements of husbandry ; 
 8. The erection of buildings calculated for the objects to be 
 pursued; 9. A command of water; 10. A division of his 
 farm into fields of a proper size and shape ; and 1 1 . The 
 construction of good private roads of communication, in 
 cases where these have not been already executed. W hen 
 all these particulars are satisfactorily arranged, he may then 
 proceed, with spirit and energy, to the improvement and 
 cultivation of his farm. 
 
 Sect. I. — Capital. 
 
 It is indispensable for the success of every undertaking, 
 whether in farming, or any other branch of industry, that a 
 sufficient capital to carry it on, should be at command. When 
 there is any deficiency in that important particular, the farmer 
 cannot derive an adequate profit from his exertions, as 
 he would necessarily be frequently obliged to dispose of 
 his crops for less than their value, to procure ready money; 
 and it would restrain him from making advantageous pur- 
 chases, when even the most favourable opportunities oc- 
 
Capital. 
 
 71 
 
 curred*. An industrious, frugal, and intelligent farmer, 
 who is punctual in his payments, and hence in good credit, 
 will strive with many difficulties, and get on with less money, 
 than a man of a different character. But if he has not 
 sufficient live stock to work his lands in the best manner, 
 as well as to raise a sufficient quantity of manure ; — nor 
 money to purchase the articles required for the farm, he 
 must, under ordinary circumstances, live in a state of penury 
 and hard labour ; and the first unfavourable season, or other 
 incidental misfortune, will probably sink him under the 
 weight of his accumulated burdensf. Farmers are too 
 generally disposed, to engage in larger farms than they have 
 capital to stock and cultivate. This is a great error ; for it 
 makes many a person poor upon a large farm, who might 
 live in comfort and acquire property, upon one of less 
 extent:};. No tenant can be secure without a surplus at 
 command, not only for defraying the common expences of 
 labour, but those which may happen from any unexpected 
 circumstance^. When a farmer, on the other hand, farms 
 within his capital, he is enabled to embrace every favourable 
 opportunity of buying, when prices are low, and of selling 
 when they are highjj. 
 
 The amount of capital required, must depend upon a 
 variety of circumstances; as 1. Whether it is necessary for 
 the farmer to expend any sum in the erection, or in the 
 repair of his farm-house and offices ; 2. What sum an in- 
 coming tenant has to pay to his predecessor, for the straw 
 of the crop, the dung left upon the farm, and other articles 
 of a similar nature ; 3. The condition of the farm at the 
 commencement of the lease, and whether any sums must 
 be laid out in drainage, enclosure, irrigation, levelling 
 ridges, &c. ; 4. Whether it is necessary to purchase lime, 
 or other extraneous manures, and to what extent ; 5. On 
 the period of entry, and the time at which the rent becomes 
 payable, as this is sometimes exacted, before there is any 
 return from the lands, out of the actual produce of which it 
 
 * Wilti Report, p. 26. It has been justly remarked, that farmers in 
 general, cannot make their transfers of property, so frequently as manu- 
 facturers and merchants ; hence they have occasion for, proportionally, even 
 a greater capital at command. The shifts that farmers are often obliged to 
 resort to, for raising money, are highly detrimental to their real interests. 
 
 t Marshall on Landed Property, p. 391. 
 
 X North Riding Report, p. 76. § Warwickshire Report, p. 46. 
 
 || Marshall on Landed Property, p. 392. 
 
72 
 
 Capital. 
 
 ought to be paid j and, lastly, on its being 1 . a grazing, or 
 2. an arable farm, or 3. a mixture of both* * * § . 
 
 1. Grazing Farms . — In pasture districts, the common 
 mode of estimating the amount of capital necessary, is ac- 
 cording to the amount of the rent ; and it is calculated, that 
 in ordinary pastures, every farmer ought to have at his 
 command, from three to five times the rent he has agreed 
 to pay. But in the more fertile grazing districts, carrying 
 stock worth from 20/. to 30/. and even upwards, per acre, 
 (as is the case in many parts of England), five rents are 
 evidently insufficient. When prices are high, ten rents will 
 frequently be required, by those who breed superior stock, 
 and enter with spirit, into that new field of speculation and 
 enterprisef. 
 
 2. Arable Farms . — The capital required by an arable 
 farmer, varies according to circumstances, from 5l. to 10/. 
 or even 15/. per English acrej. An ignorant, timid, and 
 penurious farmer, lays out the least sum he can possibly con- 
 trive ; and consequently he obtains the smallest produce or 
 profit from his farm. These, however, will always increase, 
 when accompanied by spirit and industry, in proportion to 
 the capital employed, if judiciously expended. At the same 
 time, attention and economy cannot be dispensed with. It 
 is ill-judged to purchase a horse at forty guineas, if one 
 worth thirty can execute the labour of the farm ; or to lay 
 out sums unnecessarily upon expensive harness, loaded with 
 useless ornaments^. Prudent farmers also, who have not a 
 large capital at command, when they commence business, 
 often purchase some horses still fit for labour, though past 
 their prime, and some breeding mares, or colts ; and in five 
 or six years, they are fully supplied with good stock, and 
 can sometimes sell their old horses without much loss. In 
 every case, such shifts must be resorted to, where there is 
 any deficiency of capital. 
 
 3. A mixture of Arable and Grass Farming. — This, on 
 
 * The culture of hop*, a specie* of gardening, requires a capital of from 
 50/. to GOl. per acre. — Young's Calendar , p. 482. 
 
 f Leicestershire Report, p. 115. 
 
 X In Essex, 15/. per acre is necessary, where draining and chalking arc 
 essential. In Flanders, 61. 5s. per English acre, is required. The sum is 
 often lower, but then the farmer in general fails, unless he is assisted by an 
 industrious family, or is fortunate in other respects. — Hints on the Agricul- 
 tural State of the Netherlands , p. 9. 
 
 § Cambridgeshire Report, p.. 42. 
 
Capital, 
 
 73 
 
 the whole, is the most profitable method of farming. Inde- 
 pendently of the advantages to be derived from the alter- 
 nate husbandry, (which are always considerable), the chances 
 of profit are much more numerous from a varied system, 
 than where one object is exclusively followed. Where this 
 mixed mode of farming is practised, the farmer will fre- 
 quently rely on the purchase of lean stock, instead of 
 breeding his own ; and derives great advantage, from the 
 quickness with which capital hus employed is returned. 
 But, in that case, much must depend upon judicious se- 
 lection. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter into any detailed estimates, of 
 the capital required for stocking cultivated farms, as they 
 have been already explained in former publications*. In 
 general it may be said, that to stock a turnip-land arable 
 farm, will require, at this time, 5l. or 6l. and a clay-land 
 farm 71. or 81. per English acre, according to circumstances. 
 
 This capital is necessarily divided into two parts. The 
 one is partly expended on implements, or stock of a more 
 or less perishable nature, and partly vested in the soil ; for 
 this the farmer is entitled to a certain annual gain, adequate 
 to replace, within a given number of years, the sum thus 
 laid out. The other is employed in defraying the charges 
 of labour, &c. as they occur throughout the year ; the whole 
 of which, with the interest, should be replaced by the yearly 
 produce. These two branches of expence on a farm, are 
 the first to be attended to, both in order of time, and in 
 magnitude of amount. 
 
 The most satisfactory statement hitherto given, of the 
 profit derived from the expenditure of an adequate capital 
 in arable farming, is that furnished by George Rennie, Esq. 
 of Phantassie, in East Lothian. On a mixed soil of 702 
 English acres, he states the profits at 1/. 5s. per English 
 acre, or about 14- per cent, on the capital employed. On 
 this subject, it has been well observed, that unless some- 
 thing commensurate to their skill, capital, and industry, is 
 made by intelligent and industrious farmers, it would in- 
 jure both the proprietors of land, and the public. Adven- 
 turers who possess but little capital, would occupy the 
 farms, deceiving the proprietor, bv the offer of higher rents, 
 than could be derived from the employment of insufficient 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 182; Genera! Report of Scotland, 
 vol. v. p. 343. 
 
74 Regular Accounts . 
 
 capitals. The soil would consequently be inadequately cul- 
 tivated, and the landlords, as well as the public, would 
 sustain great loss*. 
 
 From the importance of capital to the farmer, it is evi- 
 dent, that where he unites prudence to energy, it would be 
 of very great utility, to enable him to procure the use of 
 capital, on as easy terms as the" manufacturer or the mer- 
 chant. He ought to gain at least from 10 to 15 per cent, 
 on the capital he lays outf *, and if so, he can conveniently 
 pay 5 per cent, for the money he may have occasion to 
 borrow. As the best means of enabling him to give ade- 
 quate security, it has been suggested, that the farmer shall 
 have the power of sub-letting his farm, or assigning his 
 lease, always securing a preference to the landlord on equal 
 terms. A prudent farmer, of respectable character, with 
 such a security to offer, would never want credit when ne- 
 cessary ; and his difficulties regarding capital, would in a 
 great measure be done awayj. If this system were en- 
 couraged by liberal proprietors, persons possessed of ardent 
 minds, and a turn for agricultural improvement, with a 
 power of sub-letting under reasonable restrictions, might 
 go on improving one farm after another, and thus be the 
 means of bringing extensive tracts of country, even in re- 
 mote districts, into a productive state. 13ut this plan can- 
 not take place, where the tenant is not enabled to pledge 
 the improvements on his farm, as a security to his creditors. 
 
 Sect. II .— Regular Accounts, 
 
 The keeping of regular accounts is not so common 
 among farmers as it ought to be ; and in this respect, per- 
 sons employed in other professions, are much more attentive 
 and correct. Among gentlemen farmers, it is true, there is 
 often a systematic regularity in all their proceedings ; and 
 their pages of debtor and creditor, of expence and profit, 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 192. The statement is printed in the 
 Appendix to this work, No. II. “ On Farming Accounts.” 
 
 -f* Essex Report, vol. i. p. 106. — Mr. Young observes, that if a farmer 
 does not make ten per cent, on his capital, he must either have a bad farm, 
 or manage it ill, or the times must be unfavourable. He ought to make 
 from twelve to fifteen per cent. Some farmers make more, when the crops 
 are good, and corn is at a fair price. — Calendar , p. 483. 
 
 X Husbandry of Scotland, voL ii. p. 182. Sec the subject more fully 
 entered into, p. 229. 
 
Regular Accounts . /5 
 
 are as strictly kept, as those of any banking house in the 
 metropolis* * * § . But with the generality of farmers, the case 
 is widely different. It rarely happens, that books are kept 
 by them in a minute and regular mannerf ; and the ac- 
 counts of a farmer, occupying even a large estate, and con- 
 sequently employing a great capital, are seldom deemed of 
 sufficient importance, to merit a share of attention, equal 
 to that bestowed by a tradesman, on a concern of not one- 
 twentieth part of the valuej. There is certainly some diffi- 
 culty in keeping accurate accounts, respecting the profit and 
 loss, of so uncertain and complicated a business, as the one 
 carried on by the farmer, which depends so much on the 
 weather, the state of markets, and other circumstances not 
 under his controul ; but the great bulk of farming transac- 
 tions is settled at the moment, that is to say, the article is 
 delivered, and the money instantly paid ; so that little more 
 is necessary, than to record these properly. Jn regard to the 
 expences laid out on the farm, an accurate account of them 
 is perfectly practicable, and ought to be regularly attended 
 to by every prudent and industrious occupier§. The Dutch 
 wisely inculcate, u that no one is ever ruined who keeps good 
 accounts” 
 
 The advantage to be derived from regular accounts, can- 
 not be doubted]]. By examining them, a farmer is enabled 
 to ascertain, the nature, and the extent of the expence he 
 has incurred, in the various operations of agriculture ; and 
 to discover what particular measures, or what general system. 
 
 * South Wales Report, vol. i. p. 180. 
 
 •j* Surrey Report, p. 107 ; Warwickshire Report, p. 43 ; North Riding 
 Report, p. 77, &c. 
 
 X Herefordshire Report, p. 42 ; Warwickshire Report, p. 43 ; Surrey 
 Report, p. 107, &c. 
 
 § Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 237. — Unless stock, for instance, 
 keep at their original value, the farmer may be apparently a gainer, whilst 
 in reality he is losing money. 
 
 || Besides the obvious advantages of enabling a man to understand his 
 own affairs, and to avoid being cheated, it has a moral effect upon the farmer, 
 of the greatest consequence, however small his dealings may be. Experience 
 shews that men situated like small farmers (who are their own masters, and 
 yet have very little capital to manage or to lose), are very apt to contract 
 habits of irregularity, procrastination, and indolence. They persuade them- 
 selves that a thing may be as well done to-morrow as to-day, and the result 
 is, that the thing is not done till it is too late, and then, hastily and imper- 
 fectly. Now nothing can be conceived better adapted to check this disposi- 
 tion, than a determination to keep regular accounts. The very conscious- 
 ness that a man has to make entries in his books of every thing that he does, 
 keeps his attention alive to what he is to do ; and the act of making those 
 entries, is the best possible training to produce active and pains-taking habits. 
 
76 
 
 Regular Accounts. 
 
 contributes to profit, or occasions loss* * * § . The principle of 
 economy, may thus be introduced into the management of a 
 farm j and the lessening of expence effected, which is every 
 day becoming of greater importance, bearing a higher pro- 
 portion to the produce of the farmf. 
 
 In order to facilitate the adoption of so useful a plan, as 
 the keeping of regular accounts, it would be of use, that not 
 only memorandum books, for the transactions of the day, 
 but account books were published, properly arranged, and 
 divided into columns, containing every head, which expe- 
 rience in the business of farming may suggest, together with 
 a broader column for general observations. The accounts 
 of gentlemen farmers, or of the bailiffs they employ, cannot 
 be too minutej ; but in regard to common farmers, the great 
 objects are, to have them short and distinct. Models of 
 such accounts will be in Appendix, No. II. 
 
 It is proper to add, that to record pecuniary transactions, 
 is not the only object to be attended to in the accounts of a 
 farmer. It is necessary to have an annual account of the 
 live stock, and of their value at the time ; — of the quantity 
 of hay unconsumed •, — of the grain in store, or in the stack- 
 yard ; — and of the implements and other articles in which 
 the capital is invested. An account, detailing the expence 
 and return of each field, according to its productive con- 
 tents, is likewise essential, without which, it is impossible to 
 calculate the advantage of different rotations ; — the most 
 beneficial mode of managing the farm *, — or the improve- 
 ments of which it is susceptible^. 
 
 * Bedfordshire Report, p. 160; Herefordshire Report, p.4‘2. — The ancient 
 Romans were perfectly aware of the necessity of economy, in cultivation. 
 It was a caution given by Varro, to take care, “ Nc sumptus fr actum super et.” 
 Let not the expence exceed the return. And Pliny, is even more pointed,since 
 he delivers as a maxim, “ Benecolere lucrosum, optime colere, damnosum.” 
 To till well is profitable ; but profuse agriculture is ruinous. — Coventry's Dis- 
 ( ourses , p. 58. 
 
 •f By carefully examining the accounts of the smith, the carpenter, and 
 other tradesmen employed by the farmer, important savings of expence may 
 be effected. 
 
 { Mr. Francis Blaikie, formerly bailiff to the Earl of Chesterfield, and now 
 to Mr. Coke of Norfolk, besides his accounts of money transactions, and an 
 accurate valuation of stock, both dead and alive, annually made out records, 
 of even the most minute particulars; for instance, respecting a hay-stack — 
 the date when carried in; where from; number of waggon-loads; how got 
 in; and the estimated number of tons; — whilst on the opposite side is 
 entered, the date when cut; where used; by what stock, &c. — Derbyshire 
 Report , vol. ii. p. 40. 
 
 § This subject is fully discussed in Young’s Farmer’s Calendar, p. 533 to 
 549. 
 
Arrangement of Agricultural Labour . 
 
 77 
 
 Sect. III . — Arrangement of Agricultural Labour , and 
 Domestic Management. 
 
 To conduct an extensive farm well, is not a matter of 
 trivial moment, or to the management of which every one 
 is competent. Much may be effected by capital, skill, and 
 industry; but even these will not always ensure success, 
 without judicious arrangement. With it, a farm furnishes 
 an uninterrupted succession of useful labour, during all the 
 seasons of the year; and the most is made that circumstances 
 will admit of, by regularly employing the labouring persons 
 and cattle, at such works, as are likely to be the most pro- 
 fitable Under such a system, it is hardly to be credited, 
 how little time is lost, either of the men or horses, in the 
 course of a whole year. This is a great object; for each 
 horse may be estimated at three shillings per day, and each 
 man at two shillings. Every day, therefore, in which a man 
 and horse are unemployed, occasions the loss of at least five 
 shillings to the husbandman. 
 
 As the foundation of a proper arrangement, it is necessary 
 to have a plan of the farm, or at least a list of the fields or 
 parcels of land into which it is divided, describing their pro- 
 ductive extent*, — the quality of the soil, — the preceding 
 crops, — the cultivation given to each, — and the species and 
 quantity of manure they have severally received. The 
 future treatment of each field, for a succession of years, may 
 then be resolved on, with more probability of success. 
 
 With the assistance of such a statement, every autumn, 
 an arrangement of crops for the ensuing year, ought to be 
 made out ; classing the fields or pieces of land, according to 
 the purposes for which they are respectively intended. The 
 number of acres allotted for arable land, meadow, or pasture, 
 will thus be ascertained. It will not then be difficult to 
 anticipate, what number of horses and labourers will be re- 
 quired during the season for the fields in culture, nor the 
 live stock that will be necessary for the pasture land. The 
 works of summer and harvest will likewise be foreseen, 
 and proper hands engaged in due time to perform themf. 
 
 As nothing contributes more to facility and satisfaction in 
 
 * The extent should only contain the land cultivated ; the fence* and 
 borders on a farm, should be thrown into one mass. — Young's Calendar , 
 p. 588. 
 
 f Marshall onY,andcd Property, p. 419. 
 
7S Arrangement of Agricultural Labour . 
 
 business, than to prepare for what must be done, a farmer 
 should have constantly in view, a judicious rotation of crops, 
 according to the nature and quality of his soil, and should 
 arrange the quantity and succession of labour accordingly. 
 Team labour, when frost and bad weather do not intervene, 
 should be arranged for some months ; and hand labour, for 
 some weeks, according to the season of the year, “ A ge- 
 neral memorandum list of business to be done,” is therefore 
 essential, that nothing may escape the memory, and that the 
 most requisite work may be brought forward first, if suitable 
 to the state of the weather*. In this way, the labour will 
 go on regularly, and without confusion, while by a proper 
 attention, either a distribution of labour, or an occasional 
 consolidation of it, may be applied to every part of the 
 farmf. 
 
 The following rules, connected with the arrangement, 
 and the successful management of a farm, are particularly 
 to be recommended. 
 
 1 . The farmer ought to rise early, and see that others do 
 so. In the winter season, breakfast should be taken by 
 candle light, for by this means, an hour is gained, which 
 many farmers indolently lose ; though six hours in a week, 
 are nearly equal to the working part of a winter day. This 
 is a material object, where a number of servants are em- 
 ployed. It is also particularly necessary, for farmers to in- 
 sist on the punctual performance of their orders. 
 
 2. The whole farm should be regularly inspected, and not 
 only every field examined, but every beast seen, at least once 
 a day, either by the occupier, or by some intelligent servant. 
 
 3. In a considerable farm, it is of the utmost consequence, 
 to have servants specially appropriated for each of the most 
 important departments of labour ; for there is often a great 
 loss of time, where persons are frequently changing their 
 employments. Besides, where the division of labour is in- 
 troduced, work is executed not only more expeditiously, but 
 also much better, in consequence of the same hands being 
 constantly employed in one particular department. For that 
 purpose, the ploughmen ought never to be employed in 
 manual labour, but regularly kept at work with their horses, 
 when the weather will admit of it. 
 
 * Marshall on Landed Property, p. 420. The Farmer’s Calendar, pub- 
 lished by Mr. Arthur Young, contains much valuable information, and would 
 furnish many useful hints, for the general memorandum book of business to be 
 done. 
 
 f Leatham’s Survey of the East Riding, p. 61. 
 
Arrangement of Agricultural Labour. 7^ 
 
 4. To arrange the operation of ploughing, according to 
 the soils cultivated, is an object of essential importance. 
 On many farms there are fields, which are soon rendered 
 unfit to be ploughed, either by much rain, or by severe 
 drought. In such cases, the prudent farmer, before the wet 
 season commences, should plough such land as is in the 
 greatest danger of being injured by too much wet ; and be- 
 fore the dry period of the year sets in, he should till such 
 land as is in the greatest danger of being rendered unfit for 
 ploughing by too much drought. The season between seed- 
 time and winter, may be well occupied in ploughing heavy 
 soils, intended to be laid down with beans, oats, barley, and 
 other spring crops, by means of the scarifier. On farms 
 where these rules are attended to, there is always some land 
 in a proper condition to be ploughed ; and there is never 
 any necessity, either for delaying the work, or performing 
 it improperly. 
 
 5. Every means should be thought of, to diminish labour, 
 or to increase its power. For instance, by proper arrange- 
 ment, five horses may do as much labour as six perform, 
 according to the usual mode of employing them. One horse 
 may be employed in carting turnips during winter, or in 
 other necessary farm work at other seasons, without the 
 necessity of reducing the number of ploughs. When driving 
 dung from the farm-yard, three carts may be used, one 
 always filling in the yard, another going to the field, and a 
 third returning ; the leading horse of the empty cart ought 
 then to be unyoked, and put to the full one. In the same 
 manner, while one pair of horses are preparing the land for 
 sowing turnips, the other three horses may be employed in 
 carrying the dung to the land, either with two or three carts, 
 as the situation of the ground may happen to require. By 
 extending the same management to other farm operations, a 
 considerable saving of labour may be effected. 
 
 6. A farmer ought never to engage in a work, whether of 
 ordinary practice, or of intended improvement, without 
 previously giving it the best consideration of which he is 
 capable, and being satisfied that it is advisable for him to 
 attempt it ; but when begun, he ought to proceed in it with 
 much attention and perseverance, until he has given it a 
 fair trial. 
 
 7. It is a main object, in carrying on improvements, not 
 to attempt too much at once ; and never to begin a work, 
 
80 Arrangement of Agricultural Labour. 
 
 without a probability of being able to finish it in due 
 season*. 
 
 8. Every farmer should have a book for inserting all those 
 useful hints, which are so frequently occurring in conversa- 
 tion, in books, or in the practical management of a farm. 
 Loose pieces of paper are apt to be mislaid or lost, and when 
 a man wishes to avail himself of them, for examining a 
 subject previously investigated and discussed, he loses more 
 time in searching for the memorandum, than would be 
 sufficient for making half a dozen new ones. But if such 
 matters are entered into a book, and if that book has a table 
 of contents or index, he can always find what he wants, and 
 his knowledge will be in a progressivejstate of improvement, 
 as he will thus be enabled, to derive advantage, from his 
 former ideas and experience! . 
 
 By the adoption of these rules, every farmer will be 
 master of his time, so that every thing required to be done, 
 will be performed at the proper moment ; and not delayed 
 till the season and opportunity have been lost. The impe- 
 diments arising from bad weather, sick servants, or the oc- 
 casional, and necessary absence of the master, will, in that 
 case, be of little consequence, nor embarrass the operations 
 to be carried on ; and the occupier will not be prevented, 
 from attending to even the smallest concerns connected 
 with his business, on the aggregate of which his prosperity 
 depends:};. 
 
 Besides an arrangement for carrying on operations with- 
 out. a settled plan, for the management of the family within, 
 ought not to be neglected. In regard to house-keeping, 
 the safest plan is, not to suffer it to exceed a certain sum 
 weekly, stating the value of every article taken from the 
 farm. An annual sum should be allotted for clothing, and the 
 personal expences of the farmer, his wife, and children, 
 which ought not to be exceeded. The whole allotted ex- 
 pence, should be considerably within the probable receipts ; 
 and at least one-eighth of the income actually received, 
 should be laid up for contingencies, or expended in extra 
 improvements on his farm, if it belongs to the farmer in 
 property, or is held for a term of years§. 
 
 * Marshall on Landed Property, p. 420. f Young’s Calendar, p. 51. 
 
 X L eat ham’s Survey of the East Riding, p. 61. 
 
 § Young’s Calendar, p. 437. 
 
Farm Servants. 
 
 81 
 
 Sect* * * § IV. — Farm Servants. 
 
 The domestic servants employed in carrying on the ope- 
 rations of a farm, are of four descriptions : 1 . Bailiffs, over- 
 seers, or upper servants ; 2. Ploughmen, and inferior male 
 servants; 3. Apprentices for agricultural purposes, where 
 such are to be had ; and, 4. Female servants. 
 
 1. Upper Servants . — In all large farms, a bailiff or over- 
 seer is necessary, to assist the farmer in carrying on so ex- 
 tensive and complicated a concern, and more especially to 
 act for him in cases of absence or sickness. His business 
 is, to be perpetually on the watch, wherever persons or 
 teams are employed, consequently he must not work him- 
 self, which would confine him to one spot. He should be 
 invested with sufficient authority, to compel the other ser- 
 vants and labourers to db their duty ; and if he does not 
 hire them, he should at least have the power of dismissing 
 them, subject to the farmer’s concurrence. All market 
 transactions, however, and all buying, selling, bargaining, 
 and receiving money, should be done by the master*. If 
 the bailiff be a person of the better sort, and single, many 
 advantages result from his eating at the farmer’s tablef . 
 
 2. Inferior Servants. — These consist of ploughmen, shep- 
 herds, cow-herds, carters, &c. Of these, the ploughmen 
 are the most important, for on them, in a great measure, 
 depends the success of all the crops;};. 
 
 It is interesting to trace the manner in which these infe- 
 rior servants, have been progressively maintained. 
 
 In former times, the servants lived at the same table with 
 their masters, and that is still the practice in those districts 
 where the farms are small§. On moderate-sized, and on 
 large farms, they are usually sent to a separate table ; but 
 of late a custom has been introduced, of putting them on 
 board-wages. This is a most pernicious practice ; which 
 often leads them to the ale-house, corrupts their morals, 
 
 * Young’s Calendar, p. 483. + Ibid. p. 485. 
 
 + The ploughing-matches so frequent in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 
 have been the source of much improvement in this important operation. 
 
 § Bedfordshire Report, p. 582. — This practice prevails much in Flanders. 
 
 It is productive of much order and decency at meals ; and the farmer is thus 
 enabled to return with his men to the work, which may not be the case, 
 when they eat separately; — -Comm, from the Rev. TUos. Raddiffe. 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 Farm Servants. 
 
 and injures their health*. It is a batter plan, with a view 
 of lessening trouble, to board them with the bailiff ; but it 
 is still more desirable for the farmer, to have them under 
 his own eye, that he may attend to their religious and 
 moral conduct. He will find much more useful assistance, 
 from the decent and the orderly, than from the idle and the 
 profligatef. 
 
 In consequence of the great advance in the price of pro- 
 visions, and the difficulty of pleasing persons with the fare 
 prepared for them, (who often make a clamour about a 
 trifling alteration in their diet, perhaps from circumstances 
 unavoidable), it is the practice, in the vicinity of the metro- 
 polis, to diminish the number of domestic servants of every 
 description, and instead of annual servants, to hire day- 
 labourers J. But these occasional servants are unsteady, 
 continually wandering from one master to another^, and are 
 very precarious supports of a tillage farm : for they may 
 quit their service at the most inconvenient time, unless 
 bribed by higher wages $ and the farmer may thus lose the 
 benefit of the finest part of the season J|. Where day-la- 
 bourers, however, are married, they are more to be de- 
 pended upon, than unmarried domestic servants, more espe- 
 cially when the labourer has a family, which ties him down 
 to regular industry^] - . 
 
 The following plan of maintaining the hinds , or plough- 
 men, in the best cultivated districts in Scotland, is found by 
 experience to be greatly superior to any other mode hitherto 
 adopted. 
 
 1 . Proper houses are built for the farm-servants, conti- 
 guous to every farmstead**. This gives them an opportunity 
 of settling in life, and greatly tends to promote their future 
 welfare. Thus also the farmer, has his people at all times 
 within reach, for carrying on his business. 
 
 2. The farm-servants also, when married, receive the 
 greater part of their wages in the produce of the soil, which 
 gives them an interest in the prosperity of the concern in 
 
 * Young’s Norfolk, p. 48. f Young’s Calendar, p. 485. 
 
 X Bedfordshire Report, p. 580. § Surrey Report, p. 540. 
 
 || Monmouthshire Report, p. 96. Tf Staffordshire Report, p. 157. 
 
 ** Mr. Curwcn has erected a dozen of cottages for his carters, adjoining 
 to his farm buildings, that the excuse of being a mile and a half from the 
 stables, should cease to be an apology for due attention to the horses, and 
 cleaning and dressing them at eight o’clock every night ; it being a well 
 founded maxim, that good grooming is as necessary, and almost equal to 
 good feeding. The advantages derived from this alteration, soon became 
 app »it. — Cur wen's Report , p. 78. 
 
Farm Servants . 
 
 83 
 
 which they are employed. Under this mode of payment, 
 they are certain of being supplied with the necessaries of 
 life, and a rise of prices does not affect them. Whereas, 
 when their wages are paid in money, they are exposed to 
 many temptations of spending it, which their circumstances 
 can ill afford ; and during a rise of prices, they are some- 
 times reduced to considerable difficulties. From the adop- 
 tion of an opposite system, habits of sobriety and economy, 
 so conspicuous among the farm servants in Scotland, and 
 the , advantages of which cannot be too highly appreciated, 
 have arisen, and still prevail in these districts. 
 
 3. A most important branch of this system is, that almost 
 every married servant has a cow, of a moderate size, kept 
 for him by the farmer, all the year round. This is a boon 
 of great utility to his family. The prospect of enjoying this 
 advantage, has an excellent effect upon the morals of young 
 unmarried servants, who, in general, make it a point, to lay 
 up as much of their yearly wages, as will enable them to 
 purchase a cow, and furniture for a house, when they enter 
 into the married state. These savings, under different cir- 
 cumstances, would most probably have been spent in dissi- 
 pation. 
 
 4. They have also several other perquisites, as a piece of 
 ground for potatoes and flax, (about one-eighth part of an 
 acre for each) ; liberty to keep a pig, and half a dozen hens ; 
 their fuel is carried home to them ; they receive a small 
 allowance in money per journey, when sent from home with 
 corn, or for coals or lime ; and during the harvest, they are 
 maintained by the farmer, that they may be always at hand. 
 
 There are no where to be met with, more active, respect- 
 able, and conscientious servants, than those who are kept 
 according to this system. There is hardly an instance of 
 their soliciting relief from the public. They rear numerous 
 families, who are trained to industry, and knowledge in the 
 operations of agriculture, and whose assistance in weeding 
 the crops, &c. is of considerable service to the farmer. 
 They become attached to the farm, take an interest in its 
 prosperity, and seldom think of removing from it*. 
 
 Under this system, every great farm is a species of little 
 
 * This system is fully detailed in the Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. 
 p. 240, also in the General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 22 6 . See likewise 
 the West Riding Report, p. 13, and the Surrey Report, p. 540. Both in 
 Berwickshire and Roxburghshire, many farmers have but one unmarried 
 male servant kept on their farm . — General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. 
 p. 241, note. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 Farm Servants. 
 
 colony, of which the farmer is the resident governor. Nor, 
 on the whole, can there be a more gratifying spectacle, than 
 to see a large estate, under the direction of an intelligent 
 landlord, or of an agent competent to the task of managing 
 it to advantage; where the farms are of a proper size, 
 where they are occupied by industrious and skilful tenants, 
 anxious to promote, in consequence of the leases they enjoy, 
 the improvement of the land in their possession ; and where 
 the cultivation is carried on by a number of married servants, 
 enjoying a fair competence, and rearing large families, 
 sufficient, not only to replace themselves, but also, from 
 their surplus population, to supply the demand, and even 
 the waste , of the other industrious classes of the community. 
 Such a system, there is no reason to believe, is brought to a 
 higher degree of perfection, and carried to a greater extent, 
 in the more improved districts of Scotland, than perhaps in 
 any other country in Europe*. 
 
 The mode of hiring servants, at what are called public 
 statutes , so general in many parts of England, is justly re- 
 probated, as having a tendency to vitiate their minds, en- 
 abling them to get places without reference to character, 
 exposing good servants to be corrupted by the bad, pro- 
 moting dissipation, and causing a cessation of country busi- 
 ness for some days, and an awkwardness in it for some time 
 afterward sf. 
 
 When hiring servants, it would be extremely important, 
 if possible, to get rid of any injurious perquisites, which are 
 often prejudicial to the interests of the master, without 
 being of any advantage to the servant. For instance, in 
 Yorkshire, and in other districts, it is a custom, to give farm 
 servants liquor, both morning and evening, whatever is the 
 nature and urgency of the work. Nothing can be more 
 absurd, than permitting a ploughman to stop for half an 
 hour, in a winter day, to drink ale, while his horses are 
 neglected, and shivering with coldj. 
 
 3. Apprentices . — In several parts of England, particularly 
 in the western counties, a number of farm servants, from 
 the poverty of their parents, lay the basis of their education, 
 and training in husbandry, as parish apprentices. This is 
 founded on the Act of the 43d of Elizabeth, but it is not so 
 generally enforced as it ought to be. It is in some cases 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 280. 
 
 f Leicestershire Report, p. 302. X West Riding Report, p. 203. 
 
Farm Servants. 
 
 85 
 
 extended to females, though, when young, they have not 
 strength for many of the common labours of agriculture. 
 But nothing can be urged against boys being so instructed 
 and trained ; and such are uniformly found afterwards, to 
 make the best servants, and to be the steadiest and best 
 labourers*. 
 
 In Scotland, the plan of apprenticeships, with a view of 
 training servants or labourers to husbandry, is not in prac- 
 tice , but it has been adopted, for the purpose of educating 
 farmers for their professional duties. As this seems to be 
 an admirable plan, it is proper to select an example of it. 
 Mr. Walker, of Mellendean, an eminent farmer in Rox- 
 burghshire, who rents about 2866 acres of arable land, and 
 is distinguished for his skill in agriculture, takes young men 
 under him as apprentices, who, instead of receiving wages, 
 have uniformly paid him ten pounds each. Some of them 
 remain with him two years, but the greater number only 
 one. They eat in his kitchen, where they have always 
 plenty of plain wholesome food. He takes none who are 
 above living in that way, or who will not put their hand to 
 every thing going forward on the farm. He has sometimes 
 been offered ten times the above sum, to take in young gen- 
 tlemen to eat and associate with his own family, but that 
 he has uniformly declined. These young men, have an op- 
 portunity of attending to every operation of husbandry, as 
 practised on Mr. Walker's farm-, and are taught to hold the 
 plough, to sow, to build stacks, &c. He considers them, 
 on the whole, rather profitable than otherwise, and in some 
 seasons, he finds them particularly usefulf . 
 
 4. Female Servants . — These are principally employed in 
 the dairy, in which their skill and diligence are usually in 
 the highest degree praiseworthy. Men often milk the cows, 
 but are not so well calculated as females, for the manage- 
 ment of the interior of the dairy house, where so much 
 depends upon attention to cleanliness. Female servants are 
 likewise usefully employed in weeding, in hay-making, at 
 harvest, and in barn- work ; and are well entitled to the in- 
 ferior wages usually given them. 
 
 * Devon Report, p. 359; Cornwall Report, p.85. 
 
 f Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 106. 
 
86 
 
 Labourers in Husbandry , 
 
 Sect. V. — Labourers in Husbandry, 
 
 Next to the ploughmen and other hired farm-servants, 
 labourers employed in executing the several branches of in- 
 cidental works upon a farm, are the most valuable to the 
 arable farmer, as without a sufficient supply of such hands, 
 it is impossible for him to carry on the various operations 
 connected with an accurate system of agriculture, either in 
 a perfect manner, or in the proper seasons of the year. It 
 is evident indeed, that the farmer, who depends entirely on 
 his regular farm-servants, whose chief employment is work- 
 ing with horses, must either allow many necessary jobs, that 
 daily occur, to lie over ; or if these are performed by the 
 ploughmen, the horses must often be completely idle. 
 Wherever agriculture, therefore, is carried on in any thing 
 like a perfect system, it is always a matter of essential im- 
 portance for the farmer, to have at his command, a sufficient 
 number of such useful assistants*. 
 
 This interesting subject of labourers in husbandry, in- 
 cludes the following particulars : 1 . The division of labourers 
 in regard to their possessions ; 2. The distinction between 
 day-labourers, and those who work by the piece ; 3. Female 
 labourers ; 4. The hours of working ; 5. The rate of wages ; 
 6. The practice of giving grain, &c. at a cheap rate to la- 
 bourers ; 7. The effect of high wages ; and, 8. The advan- 
 tages of labourers being trained to diligence and activity. 
 
 1 . Classes of Labourers according to their Possessions , — 
 With a view to the possessions held by labourers, they may 
 be divided into five classes ; 1. Those who have a house, but 
 no land ; 2. Those who have a right of common ; 3. Those 
 who have a garden, or potatoe ground ; 4. Those who have 
 some arable land 5 and, 5. Those who have grass land. 
 
 1. Where a labourer has only a cottage to protect him 
 from the inclemency of the weather, he cannot have the same 
 attachment to his dwelling, as if he had some land annexed 
 to it ; nor is such a state of the labourer so beneficial to the 
 community. When a labourer has a garden, his children 
 learn to dig and weed, and in that manner some of their 
 time is employed in useful industry. If he is possessed of 
 a cow, they are taught early in life, the necessity of taking 
 care of cattle, and acquire some knowledge of their treat- 
 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 237. 
 
87 
 
 Labourers in Husbandry . 
 
 ment. But where there is neither a garden to cultivate, 
 nor any cow kept, they are not likely to acquire either in- 
 dustrious or honest habits*. 
 
 So strongly were these ideas formerly prevalent, that by 
 the 43d of Elizabeth, no cottage could be built on any waste, 
 without having four acres attached to it. This is now by 
 far too much. If the quantity were reduced to half an acre 
 for a garden, and if no person could gain a settlement who 
 was not a native, or, if a stranger, who did not fairly rent, 
 in the same parish, a house and land worth twenty, instead 
 of ten pounds per annum, both the poor and the public, 
 would thence derive very essential benefits^ . 
 
 2. In many cases in England, cottagers have no land or 
 garden, but a right of common. This is of little or no real 
 benefit to them, unless to obtain fuel, the advantage of 
 which is great, and not easily compensated. With a com- 
 mon-right for a cow, or a few sheep, cottagers get an idea of 
 visionary independence, which renders them unfit for the 
 duties of their stationj. A labourer of this description, is 
 entirely spoiled for industry, and the generality of expe- 
 rienced persons in country matters, must have seen many 
 cases in point. Forest-side cottages in particular, are nur- 
 series of idleness, and seminaries of mischief §. 
 
 3. No labourer in the country, can be in a comfortable 
 state without a garden, or at least some ground to cultivate 
 for potatoes. The advantages attending such possessions, 
 shall afterwards be more fully detailed. (See Chap. IV. 
 Sect. 4). 
 
 4. In some cases, the cottager has good summer pasture, 
 or can hire it in the neighbourhood, and can raise, on arable 
 land in his occupation, turnips and other winter food for a 
 cow. This plan is adapted to countries, where is a mixture 
 
 * Letter from the Earl of Winchilsea ; Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture, vol. i. p. 30. Many instances are known in Ireland, of labour- 
 ers who were idle and ill conducted, becoming industrious and peaceable, on 
 obtaining an acre or two of land, to engage them in domestic pursuits. In- 
 deed the Irish peasant prefers what he terms, “ his little garden ,” to any 
 increase of wages which might be considered an equivalent : it is, however, 
 often the case, that his poverty incapacitates him from cultivating it to ad- 
 vantage, and thence it becomes a burthen to him : being necessitated to pay 
 a heavy rent, and foregoing, for that accommodation, a certain portion of 
 his wages. — Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 t Remarks by Sir John Thomas Stanley, Bart. Cheshire Report, p. 87, 
 note. The gaining of a settlement, by a year of hired servitude, is the oc- 
 casion of endless feuds and frauds, litigation and expence. 
 
 X Berkshire Report, p. 75. § Marshall on Landed Property, p. 105. 
 
88 
 
 Labourers in Husbandry. 
 
 of arable and grazing land ; but it is objected to, in the 
 more cultivated districts, as taking up too much of the time 
 of the labourer* * * § . 
 
 5. The most advantageous system, however, for keeping 
 a cottage cow, is that adopted in grazing districts, where a 
 cottager has a sufficient quantity of enclosed land in grass, 
 to enable him to keep one or two cows both summer and 
 winter, grazing the one half, and mowing the other, alter- 
 nately!. 
 
 It may be proper to add, that nothing tends more mate- 
 rially to teach the poor honesty, than allowing them to 
 have property which they can call their own. Feeling how 
 intensely they would deprecate all infringement upon it, 
 they are less likely to make depredations upon the property 
 of others j and this will produce more honesty among them, 
 than the best delivered precepts can instill^. By the culti- 
 vation of a small spot of land, a cottager not only acquires 
 ideas of property, but is enabled to supply himself with that 
 variety of food, as fresh vegetables in summer, and roots in 
 winter, which comfort and health require. If he should 
 fortunately be able to keep bees in his garden, and if its 
 surplus produce should also enable him to rear, and still 
 more, to fatten a hog, his situation would be much ame- 
 liorated}. But if, in addition to all these advantages, he 
 can keep a cow, the industrious cottager cannot be placed 
 in a more comfortable situation. 
 
 2. Labourers by the Day or the Piece. — On this subject 
 there is a great diversity of opinion. 
 
 In favour of working by the great, or piece, it is urged : 
 1. That when a number of labourers work together by the 
 day , much time is lost in idle conversation || ; 2. That it is 
 extremely difficult to oversee a number of workmen, and to 
 keep them to their dutyH ; 3. That working by the piece, is 
 the only way by which an active and diligent labourer can 
 
 * In Ireland, the labourer has, in some cases, grass for a cow supplied by 
 the occupier of the farm, during the six summer months, at from two to 
 three guineas ; and with his cottage, at least a plantation acre, one half for 
 potatoes, the other for winter forage for his cow.— Communication from 
 Che Rev. Thomas Radcliff'e. , 
 
 + Others recommend, as a better system, constantly to mow one half of 
 the land, and to pasture the other, as grass is most productive, when it is 
 uniformly treated according to the same system. — Communications to the 
 Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 191. 
 
 + Buckinghamshire Report, p. 46. 
 
 § Marshall on Landed Property, p. 150. 
 
 || Kent Report, p. 194. ^ Holt’s Lancashire, p. 183. 
 
Labourers in Husbandry . 
 
 89 
 
 be rewarded for his superior exertion* * * § ; 4. That he works 
 with more steadiness and perseverance, when he is satisfied 
 that it is in his power to apply the fruits of his extraordinary 
 labour, to the benefit of his familyf ; 5. That he likewise 
 works with greater satisfaction to himself, being more inde- 
 pendent in regard to time, and less under control! ; 6. That 
 the employer has the advantage of having his work executed 
 with dispatch^ ; and, 7. That the community is benefited, 
 in proportion to the additional quantity of labour thus per- 
 formed, by the same number of individuals||. 
 
 On the other hand it is contended, that piece-work is not 
 always so durable, nor so well executed ; and that such en- 
 gagements, are a strong inducement to labourers, to over- 
 work themselves ; insomuch that those, who make a practice 
 of engaging in task-work, soon wear themselves out by their 
 extra exertions, and become old men at fiftyf . 
 
 Contract work, or by the great , is however daily gaining 
 ground ; and in Middlesex in particular, a moiety or more, 
 of the whole labour in carrying on farming operations, as 
 mowing, reaping, &c. is done by the piece**. 
 
 The practice of mowing grass by piece-work, is to be pre- 
 ferred on the following grounds : 1. Because by doing more 
 work, fewer hands are required, at a time when they are 
 commonly much in demand; and, 2. Because, inconsequence 
 of such expedition, the object of securing the hay is much 
 sooner accomplished, which is often of incalculable im- 
 portance^. 
 
 In regard to the corn harvest, it entirely depends upon 
 the season and the climate. When the work is done by the 
 day, the week, or the month, it certainly requires attention, 
 to see that the men work properly j but in harvest, hours 
 are not much considered, and those who are employed in it, 
 when the weather is favourable, work in general without 
 reluctance, with moderate encouragement, as long as it is 
 
 * West Riding Report, p. 204. 
 
 + Donaldson’s Modern Agriculture, vol. i. p. 135. 
 
 X Suffolk Report, p. 223, note. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. iii, p. 247. 
 
 {] Kent Report, p. 194. 
 
 ^ Holt’s Lancashire, p. 183; Staffordshire Report, p. 158. — This ob- 
 jection may be urged in the case of manufacturers, but is certainly not so 
 applicable to those who are employed in agriculture . — Remark by Edward 
 Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 ** Middlesex Report, p. 380. 
 
 ft Mr. Dudgeon of Prora’s statement ; General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. 
 p. 347, note. 
 
90 Labourers in Husbandry . 
 
 practicable* * * § . When the harvesting is carried on by piece- 
 work, the farmer must be equally upon the watch, lest the 
 corn should be cut down in a damp state, or the reaping 
 carelessly executed, or that it should be brought in before it 
 is perfectly dry. Reaping the corn, binding the sheaves, 
 and setting them up to dry, is, however, frequently executed 
 by the acre. The subsequent care of the sheaves, as well as 
 carting them, and making the corn-stacks, is a separate 
 concern, which is generally done by the teams of the farmer, 
 under his own superintendance. When corn is reaped by 
 the method called bagging , it is more easily, and readily cut 
 low, than high ; for that reason, and for obtaining more 
 straw, as well as placing the land in better condition for the 
 plough, nearly all the corn is so reaped, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Londonf. 
 
 , One great objection to piece-work is, that it is often im- 
 perfectly done, which occasions disputes between the parties. 
 But this difficulty can, in many cases, be easily obviated. 
 Let a specimen be made at the commencement, and a penalty 
 fixed for any variation from it ; or let the contractor be 
 bound to accept of day-wages, at a fair rate, after all his 
 exertions, if he is detected in doing injustice to his employer : 
 This has been often acted upon with a happy effect:};. In- 
 deed a proper attention to persons while executing the task, 
 or reducing their hire, if the work is not executed in a proper 
 manner, is an effectual mode of preventing, or punishing im- 
 position§. 
 
 3. Female Labourers . — Women are very fit for taking a 
 share in the lighter toils of agriculture, such as weeding, 
 hoeing, reaping, hay-making, &c. Multitudes of them are 
 thus employed in the neighbourhood of the metropolis. 
 They are mostly from North Wales, and are distinguished 
 for their industry, and their healthy appearance||. In many 
 parts of the kingdom also, women are employed in reaping 
 corn, and when trained to it from their infancy, become 
 extremely expert in that operation. 
 
 4. Hours of Working . — Ten hours is the general length 
 of time for a day’s work, during the spring, summer, and 
 autumn quarters. Farmers, however, are not at all uniform 
 
 * In Herefordshire, labourers have worked in harvest fifteen hours a day 
 Report, p. 158. 
 
 -f Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 t General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 248, note. 
 
 § Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 || Middlesex Report, p. 382. 
 
9i 
 
 Labourers in Husbandry. 
 
 in their hours of working during these periods. Some begin 
 at five o’clock, rest three hours at mid-day, during the more 
 violent heat of the sun, and fill up their day’s work, by be- 
 ginning again at one o’clock, and ending at six in the even- 
 ing. Others begin at six, and end at six, allowing half an 
 hour at breakfast and an hour at dinner. But although 
 these be the ordinary hours, both for servants and labourers, 
 during the more busy seasons of the year, yet neither of 
 them will scruple to work either sooner or later, when occa- 
 sion requires*. In regard to the winter months, the hours 
 of labour are from the dawn of morning, as long as it is 
 light, with the allowance of about half an hour at mid-day 
 for dinner. 
 
 5. Rate of Wages . — It is a general principle, that the rate 
 of labour, must in a great measure depend upon the price of 
 grain. In England, the value of a peck of wheat, and in 
 Scotland, of a peck of oatmeal, (being the principal articles 
 of subsistence of the lower orders of the people in the two 
 countries), were long accounted an equivalent to the daily 
 pay of a labourer. In both countries, however, the price of 
 potatoes has, of late years, had a considerable influence in 
 the rate of labourf ; and in England, the effects of the poor 
 laws, have tended to keep down that rate, below the in- 
 creased price of provisions, and thus have deranged the 
 natural progress of rural economy. It has been ascertained, 
 that a man, his wife, and from two to three children, if 
 wheat is their habitual food, will require ten gallons weekly J. 
 When they live on bread, hard working people ought to 
 have the best kind, as that will furnish the most nutrition. 
 How then could a labourer and his family exist, upon wages 
 of from 6s. to 9s. per week, when wheat is from 8s. to 10s. 
 or 12s. per bushel^? The difference is compensated by the 
 poor-rates, a most exceptionable mode of making up the 
 deficiency ; for labour would otherwise have found its own 
 level, and the labourer would have obtained the price of a 
 bushel and a half of wheat v/eekly. 
 
 In Scotland, the rate of labour has increased beyond the 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 346. 
 
 f It is believed, that, in point of nourishment, one peck of oatmeal, 
 weighing S^lbs. avoirdupois, will go as far in supporting a family, as two 
 pecks or 56 lbs. of potatoes. The peck of oatmeal is not half the price of 
 a peck of wheat. The weight of the latter is from 14 lbs. to 15 lbs. 
 
 X This was ascertained by a respectable magistrate, Sir George O. Paul, 
 Bart, on the most careful enquiry. See his Letter addressed to Sir John 
 Sinclair, written an. 1796, p. 7. 
 
 § Staffordshire Report, p. 1 58. 
 
92 
 
 Labourers in Husbandry . 
 
 price of provisions. Prior to 1792, the average price of a 
 peck of oatmeal was 1#. Id. and the average price of a day’s 
 labour in summer* Is. l^d. which nearly corresponded with 
 the principle above stated : but the average price of a peck 
 of oatmeal, in 1810, was Is. 3^d. whilst the average price 
 of a day’s labour was Is. 10|d. which shews, in a most 
 satisfactory manner, the very great improvement that has 
 taken place, in the lot of the labouring classes, in that part of 
 the united kingdom*. 
 
 6. The practice of giving Labourers Grain , §c. at a 
 cheap Rate . — In order to compensate for the low rate of 
 labour, compared to the increased price of provisions, His 
 late Majesty, (George III.) who carried on farming opera- 
 tions to a considerable extent, adopted the plan of allowing 
 his labourers flour at a fixed price, whatever wheat might 
 sell for. This benevolent system, has been imitated by 
 several gentlemen farmers, some of whom have allowed 
 bread, and others a daily quantity of milk, at moderate 
 pricesf . The same system is general in several of the western 
 counties, as in Dorset, Devon, and Cornwall, where the 
 labourers have a standing supply of bread-corn ; — of wheat 
 at 6s. and of barley at 3s. per bushelf. 
 
 7. Effects of High Wages . — In the wages of labour, as 
 well as in every thing else, moderation is desirable. It is 
 remarked, that high wages have a tendency to throw la- 
 bourers out of employment, as farmers in general, and even 
 small proprietors, are unable to give such wages ; hence they 
 are obliged to carry on their work with fewer hands, or to 
 postpone improvements, which otherwise they would have 
 undertaken. Nor is that all. The labourers themselves 
 suffer by it, and so does the public. In the fens of Lin- 
 colnshire, wages have risen in harvest time, from 3s. 6d. to 
 7s. nay to 105. 6d. per day, everyday’s hiring, taking place 
 at a certain spot, where masters, whose work is in haste, 
 outbid each other, and thus raised the wages to that exor- 
 bitant height. The consequence was, that the labourers got 
 drunk, would not work above four days out of the six, 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 262. The wages of hinds, or 
 married ploughmen, have greatly increased. In 1792, they only received 
 thirteen bolls of grain, but it has since been augmented to seventeen bolls, 
 or at the rate of thirty per cent. 
 
 f Bedfordshire Report, p. 415. 
 
 t Dorset Report, p. 439; Devon, p. 365 ; and Cornwall, p. 159. In Dor- 
 set, malt and hops arc given ti^lhc cottagers, to brew ale for the u»e of their 
 families, in hay time and harvest. 
 
Live Stock. 
 
 93 
 
 dissipated their money, — hurt their constitutions, — con- 
 tracted indolent and vicious habits, — and their labour was 
 lost to the community, for at least one-third part of the 
 time, at a most important crisis.*. 
 
 8. On training Labourers to Activity and Diligence . — It 
 is of great importance, to train labourers employed in agri- 
 culture, to activity and diligence. In some districts, they 
 are proverbial for the slowness of their step, which they 
 teach their horses, whereas, these animals, if accustomed to 
 it, would move, with as much ease to themselves, in a quick, 
 as in a slow pace. Hence their ploughs seldom go above 
 two miles in an hour, and sometimes even less ; whereas 
 where the soil is light and sandy, they might go at the rate 
 of three miles and a half. Farmers are greater sufferers 
 than they imagine, by this habitual indolence of their work- 
 men, which extends, from the plough, to all their other 
 employmentsf, for it makes a very important difference in 
 the expence of labour. Where the land however is stiff, 
 and deep ploughing is necessary, the operation ought not 
 to be too much hurried. 
 
 Sect. VI. — Live Stock . 
 
 By far the largest proportion of the territory of almost 
 every country, is devoted to the breeding and support of 
 live stock. In early ages, these formed the only criterion 
 of wealth. They became of less consequence, when the 
 culture of grain was first introduced ; but their importance 
 afterwards, as the instruments of cultivation, as the means 
 of supplying a large proportion of our food, and as furnish- 
 ing a variety of our most essential accommodations, tends to 
 render this branch of the inquiry, peculiarly interesting. 
 
 In discussing this subject, a few general remarks , shall 
 only be offered : 1 . On the most desirable properties of live 
 stock ; 2. On the principles of improved breeding ; and, 
 3. On the management of stock. To enter fully into details 
 regarding these particulars, would require a volume of no 
 inconsiderable dimensions^. 
 
 * Lincolnshire Report, p. 445, note. f Wilts Report, p. 212. 
 
 X The various particulars connected with the management of live stock, 
 are probably still more numerous than those which' belong to the raising of 
 the several crops, and the cultivation of the different kinds of land under the 
 
94 
 
 Live Stock. 
 
 1. On the most desirable Properties of Live Stock. 
 
 Under the general term livestock, are comprehended, the 
 various sorts of domesticated animals, which are employed 
 by man as instruments, for assisting him in labour, or con- 
 verting to his use, those productions of the soil, which are 
 not immediately applicable, to supply his wants, in their 
 natural state*. Bakewell expressed the same idea, when he 
 described live stock, as machines, for converting herbage, 
 and other food for animals, into money. But money, in 
 fact, is only the sign of wealth, while live stock are real 
 riches. 
 
 The most desirable properties of live stock, may be con- 
 sidered under the following heads: 1. Size; 2. Form; 
 3. A tendency to grow; 4. Early maturity; 5. Hardiness of 
 constitution ; 6. Prolific properties ; 7. Quality of flesh ; 
 8. A disposition to fatten ; and, 9. Lightness of offal. The 
 following observations on these points are principally appli- 
 cable to animals destined for food. 
 
 1 . Size . — Before the improvements introduced by Bake- 
 well, the value of an animal was entirely judged of by its 
 bulk ; and if a great size could be obtained, more regard was 
 paid, to the price the animal ultimately fetched, than to the 
 cost of its food. Of late, since breeders began to calculate 
 with more precision, small, or moderate-sized animals, have 
 been generally preferred, for the following reasons : 
 
 1. Small-sized animals are more easily kept; they thrive 
 on shorter herbage, they collect food, where a large animal 
 could hardly exist, and thence are more profitablef. 2. Their 
 meat is finer grained, produces richer gravy, has often a 
 superior flavour, and is commonly more nicely marbled, or 
 veined with fat, especially when they have been fed for two 
 yearsj. 3. Large animals are not so well calculated for ge- 
 neral consumption, as the moderate sized, particularly in hot 
 weather. 4. Large animals poach pastures more than small 
 
 care of husbandmen ; (Coventry’s Discourses, p. 134), and would conse- 
 quently require a more extensive inquiry. 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 2. 
 
 f In regard to small-sized sheep, see Dr. Parry’s Essay on the Merino 
 sheep ; Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 460. By 
 breeding small sheep instead of large ones, the number was increased, on the 
 ground of a farmer who tried the experiment, from 660 to 890 ewes and 
 lambs, and the profit from 450/. to above 724/. — Ditto , p. 461. They should 
 not, however, be under their pasture, nor of a small sort, on rich land. 
 
 + The marbling of meat must in a great measure depend on the age of the 
 animal. When full grown, the Highland Scots have been fed to perfection 
 in Norfolk, in even eight months. 
 
Live Stock . 
 
 95 
 
 ones. 5. They are not so active, require more rest, collect 
 their food with more labour, and will only consume the 
 nicer, and more delicate sorts of plants. 6. Small cows, of 
 the true dairy breeds, give proportionately more milk than 
 large ones. 7. Small cattle may be fattened solely on grass, 
 of even moderate quality ; whereas the large, require the 
 richest pastures, or to be stall-fed, the expence of which 
 exhausts the profit of the farmer. 8. It is much easier to 
 procure well-shaped, and kindly-feeding stock of a small 
 size, than of a large one. 9. Small-sized cattle, may be 
 kept by many persons, who cannot afford, either to pur- 
 chase, or to maintain large ones ; and by whom the loss, if 
 any accident should happen to them, can be more easily 
 borne. 10. The small-sized sell better; for a butcher, from 
 a conviction that, in proportion to their respective dimen- 
 sions, there is a greater superficies of valuable parts in a 
 small, than in a large animal, will give more money for two 
 oxen of twelve stone each per quarter, than for one of 
 twenty-four stone. 
 
 In favour of the large-sized, it is on the other hand con- 
 tended, 1. That without debating whether from their birth, 
 till they are slaughtered, the large or the small one eats 
 most for its size, yet on the whole, the large one, will pay 
 the grazier or farmer who fattens him, as well for its food. 
 2. That though some large oxen are coarse grained, yet, 
 where attention is paid to the breed, (as is the case with the 
 Herefordshire), the large ox is as delicate food as the small 
 one. 3. That if the small-sized are better calculated for 
 the consumption of private families, of villages, or of small 
 towns, yet that large cattle, are fitter for the markets of 
 great towns, and in particular of the metropolis. 4. That 
 were the flesh of the small-sized ox, better, when fresh, yet 
 the meat of the large-sized is unquestionably more calcu- 
 lated for salting, a most essential object in a maritime and 
 commercial country, for the thicker the beef, the better it 
 will retain its juices when salted, and the fitter it is for long 
 voyages. 5. That the hide of the large ox is of very great 
 consequence in various manufactures. 6. That large stock 
 are in general distinguished by a greater quietness of dispo- 
 sition. 7. That where the pastures are good, cattle and 
 sheep will increase in size, without any particular attention 
 on the part of the breeder ; large animals are naturally 
 therefore the proper stock for such pastures. 8. That the 
 art of fattening cattle, and even sheep, with oil-cake, being 
 
96 
 
 Lite Siocki 
 
 much improved and extended, the advantage of that prac- 
 tice would be of less consequence, unless large oxen were 
 bred, as small oxen can be fattened with grass and turnips, 
 as well as oil-cake ; and lastly, that large oxen are better 
 calculated for working than small ones, two large oxen 
 being equal to four small ones in the plough or the cart. 
 
 Such are the arguments generally made use of on both 
 sides of the question *, from which it appears, that much 
 must depend upon pastures, taste, mode of consumption, 
 markets, &c. and that both sizes have their advantages. 
 The intelligent breeder, however, (unless his pastures are 
 of a nature peculiarly forcing), will naturally prefer a mo- 
 derate size, in the stock he rears. 
 
 The late Mr. Davis of Longleat, one of the ablest agri- 
 culturists this country has produced, has given some useful 
 observations on the subject of size. He laments, that the 
 attempts which have been made to improve the breeds of 
 cows, horses, and sheep, have proceeded too much upon the 
 principle of enlarging the size of the animal ; whereas, in 
 general, the only real improvement has been made in the 
 pig, and that was, by reducing its size, and introducing a 
 kind that will live hardier, and come to greater perfection 
 at an earlier age*. His objections indeed to the using of 
 large heavy-heel’d horses, in preference to the smart, the 
 active, and the really useful breeds, merit particular atten- 
 tion. In some situations, the steepness of the hills, and 
 the heaviness of the soil, require more than ordinary 
 strength ; but in such cases, he maintains, that it would be 
 better to add to the number of horses, than to increase their 
 size. Great horses not only cost proportionably more at 
 first than small ones, but require much more food, and of a 
 better quality, to keep up their flesh. The Wiltshire carter 
 also, takes a pride in keeping them as fat as possible ; and 
 their food, (which is generally barleyf), is given without 
 stint. In many instances, indeed, the expence of keeping 
 a fine team of horses, amounts to nearly the rent of the 
 farm on which they are worked. They are purchased 
 young when two years old colts, and sold at five or six 
 years of age, for the London drays and waggons. The ex- 
 pence of their maintenance is very seldom counterbalanced 
 
 * Wiltshire Report, p. 155. 
 
 + This is a practice which the Norfolk farmer should partly adopt ; and 
 indeed the importation of oats ought to be prohibited, as barley would 
 answer as well as food for horses, more especially with a mixture of Swedish 
 turnips. 
 
Live Stock. 
 
 97 
 
 by the difference of price, more especially as such horses 
 are gently worked when young, that they may attain their 
 full size and beauty. In ploughing light soils, the strength 
 of a dray horse is not wanted ; and in heavy soils, the 
 weight of the animal does injury to the land*. 
 
 2. Form. — Though it is extremely desirable, to bring the 
 shape of cattle to as much perfection as possible* yet profit 
 and utility ought not to be sacrificed for mere beauty, 
 which may please the eye, but will not fill the pocketf ; 
 and which, depending much upon caprice, must be often 
 changing. 
 
 In regard to form, the most experienced breeders seem 
 to concur in the following particulars : 1. That the form or 
 shape should be compact, so that no part of the animal 
 should be disproportioned to the other parts; and the whole 
 distinguished by a general fulness and rotundity of shape ; 
 2. That the chest should be broad.; for no animal whose 
 chest is narrow, can easily be made fatj ; 3. That the car- 
 cass should be deep and straight ; 4*. That the belly should 
 be of a moderate size ; for when it is more capacious than 
 common, in young animals, it shews a diseased state, and 
 in older ones, it is considered a proof, that the animal will 
 not return in flesh, in milk, or in labour, the value of the 
 extra quantity of food which it consumes^ ; 5. That the 
 legs should be short, for the long-limbed individuals of the 
 same family or race, are found to be the least hardy, and 
 the most difficult to rear or to fatten ; and, 6. That the 
 head, the bones, and other parts of inferior value, should 
 be as small as is consistent with strength, and with the 
 other properties which the animal ought to possess. In 
 animals bred for the shambles, the form must likewise be 
 such, as to contain the greatest possible proportion of the 
 finer, compared to the coarser and less valuable parts of the 
 
 * Wiltshire Report, p. 152. — It may thence be asserted with justice, that 
 thebenelitthe Wiltshire farmers derive from their excellent markets, are 
 not commensurate with the expence of maintaining these fine horses, to 
 carry the grain they send to them. 
 
 f The late intelligent Mr.'Davis, of Longleat, lamented that the Wilt- 
 shire farmers had that “ pride of stock," which induced them to prefer 
 beauty and size, to utility and profit. — Wiltshire Report , p. 203. 
 
 X Sir John S. Sebright’s Letter to Sir Joseph Banks, p. 22. 
 
 § Bedfordshire Report, p. 572. — All the fine breeds have a much less 
 bulk of intestines, and a smaller intestinal canal, than the inferior stock, 
 which is attributed to this, that getting rich food in early life, containing 
 much nourishment, in a small bulk, the parts are not so distended, as they 
 would have been with coarser fare. — Coventry's Discourses , p. 1C5 
 H 
 
98 
 
 Live Stock. 
 
 animal. This, by selection, may be attained ; and thus the 
 wishes of the consumer may be gratified. As to the broad 
 loins, and full hips, which are considered as a point of ex- 
 cellence in particular breeds, it is evident, that the old nar- 
 row, and thin make required improvement ; but the altera- 
 tion is now carried to a faulty excess, and often occasion 
 great difficulty and danger in calving*. 
 
 The form of animals, has fortunately attracted the atten- 
 tion of an eminent surgeon, (Henry Cline, Esq. of London), 
 the substance of whose doctrines is: 1. That the external 
 form is only an indication of the internal structure; 2. That 
 the lungs of an animal is the first object to be attended to, 
 for on their size and soundness, the health and strength of 
 an animal principally depend ; 3. That the external indica- 
 tions of the size of the lungs, are the form and size of the 
 chest, and its breadth in particular^ ; 4. That the head 
 should be small, as by this, the birth is facilitated ; — as it 
 affords other advantages in feeding, & c. — and as it generally 
 indicates that the animal is of a good breed ; 5. That the 
 length of the neck should be in proportion to the size of the 
 animal, that it may collect its food with ease ; and, 6. That 
 the muscles and tendons should be large, by which an ani- 
 mal is enabled to travel with greater facility. 
 
 It was formerly the practice, to estimate the value of 
 animals by the size of their bones. A large bone was con- 
 sidered to be a great merit ; and a fine boned animal, always 
 implied great size. It is now known, that this doctrine was 
 carried too far. The strength of an animal does not depend 
 upon the bones, but on the muscles ; and when the bones 
 are disproportionably large, it indicates, in Mr. Cline’s 
 opinion, an imperfection in the organs of nutrition:}:. Bake- 
 well strongly insisted on the advantage of small bones ; and 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 175, note. 
 
 These anatomical rules , as they are called, have been objected to. It 
 is said, that a broad-chested horse, is seldom a good hackney ; that in a 
 blood horse, it is desirable, that his chest should be lean, and rather tight 
 to the eye ; that a broad-chested ox is often light in the flank ; and that 
 broad and well spread shoulders, indicate a good ox, more than width be- 
 tween the fore-legs. These, however, are only exceptions to a general 
 rule. In regard to sheep in particular, an expanded chest, and the thorax 
 having ample room for the free play of the heart and lungs, is the charac- 
 teristic mark of health and vigour in the animal . — Doctor Rigby's Report , 
 p. 25. 
 
 X See the paper by Henry Cline, Esq. “ On the Form of Animals,” Com- 
 munications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 440. 
 
Live Stock . 
 
 99 
 
 the celebrated John Hunter declared, that small bones were 
 generally attended with corpulence, in all the various sub- 
 jects he had an opportunity of examining. A small bone, 
 however, being heavier and more substantial, requires as 
 much nourishment as a hollow one, with a larger circum^ 
 ference*. 
 
 3. A tendency to grow. — Among the qualities for which 
 thorough-bred cattle and sheep are distinguished, that of 
 being good growers f and having a good length of frame, is 
 not the least essential. The meaning of which is, that the 
 animal should not only be of a strong and healthy consti- 
 tution, but speedily should grow to a proper size. As spe- 
 cimens of rapid growth, a steer of three years old, when 
 well fed, will weigh from 80 to 90 or 100 stone, 14 lb. to 
 the stone ; and a two-year old Leicester wedder, from 25 
 to 28 lb. per quarter, immediately after his second fleece is 
 taken from him. Animals having the property of growing , 
 are usually straight in their back and belly *, their shoulders 
 well thrown back, and their belly rather light than other- 
 wise. At the same time, a gauntness and paucity of intes*? 
 tines should be guarded against, as a most material defect, 
 indicating a very unthrifty animal. Being too light of bone , 
 as it is termed, is also a great fault. A good grower, or 
 hardy animal, has always a middling sized bone. A bull 
 distinguished for getting good growers, is inestimable ; but 
 one whose progeny takes an unnatural or gigantic size, 
 ought to be avoided +. 
 
 4. Early Maturity . — Arriving soon at perfection, not 
 only in point of growth or size, but in respect of fatness, 
 is a material object for the farmer, as his profit must in a 
 great measure depend upon it. Where animals, bred for 
 the carcass merely, become fat at an early age, they not 
 only return sooner the price of their food, with profit to 
 the feeder, but in general also, a greater value for their con- 
 sumption, than slow-feeding animaisj. This desirable pro- 
 perty greatly depends on a mild and docile disposition ; and 
 as this docility of temper is much owing to the manner in 
 
 * Small bones, like those of the blood horse, are compact and heavy ; 
 large bones, like those of the common dray or cart horses, are extremely 
 porous, and consequently light for their apparent bulk. 
 
 f Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 112. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 6. Two calves kept and fed 
 alike, one of the improved breed, the other of the common unimproved 
 stock of the country ; the first got fatter, and fitter for the butcher at twp 
 years old, than the other did at three. — Durham Report , p. 236. 
 
 H 2 
 
100 
 
 Live Stock . 
 
 which the animal is brought up, attention to inure them 
 early to be familiar, cannot be too much recommended. A 
 tame breed also has other advantages. It is not so apt to 
 injure fences, or to break into adjacent fields * * * § , consequently 
 it is less liable to accidents, and can be reared, supported, 
 and fattened, at less expence. The property of early ma- 
 turity, in a populous country, where the consumption of 
 meat is great, is extremely beneficial to the public, as it 
 evidently tends to furnish greater supplies to the market ; 
 and this propensity to fatten at an early age, is a sure proof, 
 that an animal will fatten speedily at a later period of his life. 
 
 5. Hardiness of Constitution . — In the wilder and bleaker 
 parts of a country, the possession of a hardy and healthy 
 constitution, is a most valuable property in stock. Where 
 the surface is barren, and the climate rigorous, it is essential 
 that the stock bred and maintained there, should be able to 
 endure the severities and vicissitudes of the weather, as 
 well as scarcity of food, hard work, or any other circum- 
 stance in its treatment, that might subject a more delicate 
 breed to injury. In this respect, different kinds of stock 
 greatly vary ; and it is a matter of much consequence, to 
 select, for different situations, cattle with constitutions 
 suitable to the place where they are to be kept*. It is a 
 popular belief, that dark colours are indications of hardiness. 
 In mountain breeds of cattle, a rough pile is reckoned a 
 desirable property, more especially when they are to be kept 
 out all winter. It enables them to face the storm, instead 
 of shrinking from itf. Hardy breeds are exempted from 
 various diseases, as having yellow fatj, also being lyery , or 
 blackfleshed, defects so injurious to stock§. 
 
 6. Prolific Quality . — By this property is meant, that the 
 females of a breed, both bear more frequently than usual, 
 and also have frequently more than one at a birth. This 
 property runs more strikingly in sub-varieties, or individual 
 families; and though partly owing, to something in the 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 179. The same intelligent author justly re- 
 marks, that the breeds distinguished by early maturity, do not seem calcu- 
 lated for districts, where the climate is cold, and the food is poor and scanty. 
 Hence it is not improbable, that a slow-growing animal, capable of being 
 sustained on coarser fare, may prove ultimately more profitable in such a 
 district, more especially in cases where richer food is expensive, or ac- 
 quired with difficulty. Ditto, p. 177. 
 
 ■f* It is remarked in the Highlands, that in bad weather, hardy cattle 
 keep their back bones straight, whereas the more delicate sort set up a hog 
 back. Hence the crooked appearance of bad cattle. 
 
 t Middlesex Report, p. 57 6. 
 
 § Culley on Live Stock, second edition, p. 4S. 
 
Live Stock . 
 
 101 
 
 habits of animals, and partly to their previous good or bad 
 treatment*, yet in some degree, seems to depend upon the 
 seasons, some years being more distinguished for twins than 
 others. In breeding, not only the numbers, but the sex 
 of the offspring, in some cases, seem to depend upon the 
 female parent. Two cows produced fourteen females each in 
 fifteen years, though the bull was changed every year. It is 
 singular, that when they produced a bull calf, it was in 
 the same year. Under similar circumstances, a great num- 
 ber of males have been produced by the same cow in suc- 
 cession, but not to the same extentf. 
 
 7. Quality of Flesh . — Breeds are likewise distinguished 
 by the quality of their flesh. In some kinds it is coarse, 
 hard, and fibrous ; — in others of a finer grain or texture. In 
 some breeds also, the flavour of the meat is superior; — the 
 gravy they produce, instead of being white and insipid, is 
 high coloured, well flavoured, and rich; — and the fat is 
 intermixed among the fibres of the muscles, giving the meat 
 a streaked, or marbled appearance. Breeds whose flesh have 
 these properties, are peculiarly valuable. Hence two animals 
 of nearly the same degree of fatness, and weight, and who 
 could be fed at nearly the same expence to the husbandman, 
 will sell at very different prices, merely from the known 
 character of their meat}:. 
 
 8. A disposition to Fatten . — This is a great object in ani- 
 mals destined for the shambles. Some animals possess this 
 property during the whole progress of their lives, while in 
 others, it only takes place at a more advanced period, when 
 they have attained their full growth, and are furnished at 
 the same time with a suitable supply of food. There are in 
 this respect other distinctions : 1 . Most sorts of cattle and 
 sheep, which have been bred in hilly countries, will become 
 fat on lowland pastures, on which the more refined breeds 
 would barely live ; and, 2. Some animals take on fat very 
 quickly, when the proper food has been supplied, and some 
 individuals have been found, even in the same breed, which 
 have, in a given time, consumed the least proportional 
 weight, of the same kind of food, yet have become fat at 
 the quickest rate. Even in the human race, with little food, 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 183. 
 
 f Answers to Queries, by T. A. Knight, Esq. Husbandry of Scotland, 
 vol. ii. Appendix, p. 204. 
 
 + Coventry’s Discourses, p. 175. Culley on Livestock, second edition, 
 p. 43. The quality of the flesh, is much more attended to in the English 
 than in the Scotch markets. 
 
102 
 
 Live Stock. 
 
 some will grow immoderately corpulent. It is probably 
 from internal conformation, that this property of rapid 
 fattening is derived* * * § . 
 
 The advantages and disadvantages of fattening cattle and 
 sheep, at least to the extent frequently practised at present, 
 are points that have of late attracted much public attention. 
 But any controversy on that subject, can only arise from 
 want of proper discrimination. Fat meat is unquestionably 
 more nourishing than lean, though to digest this oily matter, 
 there are required, on account of its difficult solubility, a 
 good bile, much saliva, and a strong stomach ; consequently 
 none, excepting those who are in the most vigorous state of 
 health, or who are employed in hard labour, can properly 
 digest itf. Though fat meat, however, is unfit for general 
 consumption, yet experiments in the art of fattening ani- 
 mals, are likely to promote useful discoveries ; and, though, 
 in the course of trying a number of experiments, errors and 
 excesses may be committed, yet on the whole, advantage 
 may be derived from the knowledge thus to be obtained^. 
 As the bone also gains but little in the fatting animal, and 
 the other offal becomes proportionably less, as the animal 
 becomes more fat, the public has not sustained much loss 
 by over-fatted animals. To kill even hogs till they are 
 thoroughly fat, is exceeding bad economy. An ox or cow, 
 though the little flesh it has may be of good quality, yet 
 presents, when lean, little but skin and bone ; and if slaugh- 
 tered in that state, would neither indemnify the owner for 
 the expence of breeding and maintaining it, nor benefit the 
 public. A coarse and heavy-fleshed ox, which would require 
 a very long time, and much good food to fatten, may be 
 slaughtered with most advantage, while rather lean. It is 
 not, however, so much the extent of fat, as the want of a 
 sufficient quantity of lean flesh, of which the consumer com- 
 plains •, for it cannot be doubted, that the lean flesh of a fat 
 animal, is superior in quality, and contains more nourish- 
 ment, than any other meat§. 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 177, &c. 
 
 •f* Willich’s Lectures on Diet and Regimen, third edition, p. 316. 
 
 X Hints regarding Cattle, from Essays on Miscellaneous Subjects ; by Sir 
 John Sinclair, Bart. p. 74. 
 
 § See Answers to Queries regarding Live Stock, by T. A. Knight, Esq. 
 Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 108. Dr. Stark’s experi- 
 ments go to prove, that three ounces of boiled fat beef are equal, in point 
 of nutrition, to a pound of lean. Sec a tract printed an. 1801, entitled 
 
 Practical Economy,” &c. 
 
Live Stock . 
 
 103 
 
 Here it may be proper to mention, that indication of a 
 tendency to fatten, which is technically called handling 
 well . The graziers and butchers in various parts of the 
 kingdom, had recourse to the hand, and the feeling of the 
 skin, or cellular membrane, for ascertaining a disposition to 
 fatten* * * § ; but since Bakewell directed the public attention 
 so much to breeding, that practice has become more gene- 
 rally known. Handling cannot easily be defined, and can 
 only be learnt by experience. The skin and flesh of cattle, 
 when handled, should feel soft to the touch, somewhat re- 
 sembling that of a mole, but with a little more resistance to 
 the finger. A soft and mellow skin must be more pliable* 
 and more easily stretched out, to receive any extraordinary 
 quantity of fat and muscle, than a thick or tough one. The 
 rigid-skinned animal, must therefore always be the most 
 difficult to fatten. In a good sheep, the skin is not only 
 soft and mellow, but in some degree elastic. Neither cattle 
 nor sheep can be reckoned good, whatever their shapes may 
 be, unless they are first-rale handlers f . 
 
 The improved short-horned breed, besides their mellow- 
 ness of skin, are likewise distinguished by softness and 
 silkiness of hair. Too great a length, however, ought not 
 to be aimed at, since it is not easy, in that case, to preserve 
 a due proportion in the appearance of the animal, without 
 which it cannot be considered perfectf . 
 
 9. Lightness of OffaL — It is also of much importance, 
 that an animal solely bred for the shambles, should 
 have as little offal, or parts of inferior value as possible, 
 (consistently with the health of the animal), and conse- 
 quently a greater proportion of meat applicable as food for 
 man§. 
 
 * Young’s Lecture on the Husbandry of Three Celebrated Farmers, 
 p. 10. Mr. Mason’s Letter to Sir John Sinclair, Farmer’s Magazine, vol. xv. 
 p. 60. It appears from Columella’s description of the best land of ox, that 
 the advantage of a soft skin is not a new discovery, but was perfectly well 
 known to the husbandmen of ancient Italy. 
 
 i' Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 110. This is the technical 
 expression , though properly speaking, the man is the handler, and the skin 
 of the beast is handled. We are apt to say, in the same manner, that a horse 
 rides well. 
 
 X See Mr. Robert Colling’s Letter to Sir John Sinclair, Farmer’s Maga- 
 zine, vol. xv. p. 61. 
 
 § The great perfection of an animal is, when the dead weight of all the 
 eatable parts, approaches the nearest to the weight of the animal when 
 alive. The following statement of the live and dead weight of a Devonshire 
 
104 
 
 Live Stock. 
 
 II. 0)i the Principles of Improved Breeding. 
 
 The art of improved breeding consists, in making a care- 
 ful selection of males and females, for the purpose of pro- 
 ducing a stock, with fewer defects, and with greater pro- 
 perties than their parents ; by which their mutual perfec- 
 tions shall be preserved, and their mutual faults corrected*. 
 
 The objects of improved breeding, therefore, are, to 
 obviate defects, and to acquire and to perpetuate desirable 
 properties j hence, when a race of animals have possessed, 
 in a great degree, through several generations, the proper- 
 ties which it is our object to obtain, and any tendency to 
 
 ox, aged three years and ten months, will explain the manner in which these 
 
 accounts are drawn up. 
 
 Stone. 
 
 Live weight 1H 
 
 Offal. Stone. lb. 
 
 Tallow . .. 10 6 
 
 Hide 6' 3 
 
 Head and tongue 2 9 
 
 Heart, liver, and lungs 2 7 
 
 Feet 1 4 
 
 Entrails and Blood 11 13 
 
 35 
 
 ( Butcher’s meat, the carcass or four quarters 79 
 
 114 
 
 This proved to he a prime ox, as his beef or available food, weighed three 
 stone more than two-thirds of his live weight. It likewise appears in this 
 case, that 10 stones of live weight, produced 6 stones 13 lbs. of dead weight, 
 or butcher’s meat. Durham Report , p. 239. — The average of other experi- 
 ments is, from 6 stone 10 lbs. to 6 stone 13^1bs. of dead weight, to 10 stone 
 of live weight. When an ox is fed for two years in succession, a much higher 
 proportion of dead weight is the result, though it hardly ever exceeds three- 
 fourths of the live weight, or as 15 is to 20. 
 
 In sheep, On an average, from 101b. of living weight, 6 lb. 7 ounces of 
 dead weight, convertible into food, may be obtained .—Durham Report , 
 p. 251 ; consequently, in this respect, cattle are superior to sheep. 
 
 * Sir John S. Sebright’s Essay on the Art of Improving the Breed of Do- 
 mestic Animals, p. 5 and 8. — All breeding proceeds on the presumption, that 
 the tendency of any individual anirifal is, to transmit to its offspring, the 
 form, constitution, and qualities which it possesses ; and as two animals are 
 concerned in the production of one offspring, that one is expected to inherit* 
 a form and constitution, compounded on the joint qualities of its two parents. 
 Thus it is found, in numerous breeds of animals, as in deer, — in the West 
 Highland cattle, — in the North Devon, — and in the Wild cattle of Chilling- 
 ham* Park: t,he offspring, for an indefinite number of generations, have 
 borne the same general characters. — Observations bp C. Mason, Esq. of 
 Clifton , Co. Durham. 
 
Live Stock. 
 
 105 
 
 produce unwished for properties, has been extirpated, their 
 progeny are said to be well-bred, and their stock may be 
 relied on* * * § . 
 
 It was upon this principle of selection, that Bakewell 
 formed his celebrated stock of sheep, having spared no 
 pains or expence, in obtaining the choicest individuals, 
 from all the best kinds of long or combing woolled sheep, 
 wherever they were to be met withf ; and it cannot be 
 doubted, that any breed may be improved in the same man- 
 ner, namely, that of putting the best males to the finest 
 females. After a superior breed, however, has thus been 
 obtained, it is a point that has been much disputed, whether 
 it is proper to raise stock, 1. From the same family; or, 
 
 2. From the same race, but of different families ; or, 
 
 3. From races entirely different. 
 
 1. Breeding from the same Family . — This method is 
 called breeding in-and-in , or putting animals of the nearest 
 relationship together^. Though this plan was for some 
 time in fashion, under the sanction of Bakewell’s authority, 
 yet experience has now proved, that it cannot be successfully 
 persevered in. It may prove beneficial indeed, if not car- 
 ried too far, in fixing any variety that may be thought valu- 
 able§, but on the whole, it is so only in appearance. Under 
 this system, the young animal comes into the world, on, 
 comparatively, a very small scale. By keeping it fat from 
 the first moment of its existence, it is made to attain a 
 greater size than nature intended ; and its weight in conse- 
 quence will be very great, in proportion to the size of its 
 bones. Thus a generation or two of animals of an extraor- 
 dinary form, and saleable at enormous prices, may be ob- 
 tained ; but that does not prove that the practice is eligible, 
 if long persisted in||. On the contrary, if the system be 
 followed up, the stock get tender and delicate, they become 
 
 * Sir John S. Sebright’s Essay, p. 7. Incessant care and attention, how- 
 ever, are necessary, to keep them up to the mark ; and this is rather for- 
 tunate than otherwise, since it perpetuates the merit of breeders, and the 
 competition of stock. 
 
 f Young’s Lefcture, p. 9. 
 
 X It having been found, that this system produced animals quite deficient 
 in vigour, those who are now possessed of a capital stock, keep two or three 
 streams of bloody quite distinct, that they may avoid a consanguinity. 
 
 § Sir John S. Sebright’s Essay, p. 13. Paper by Henry Cline, Esq. Comm, 
 vol. iv. p. 442. 
 
 || Paper by T. A. Knight, Esq. Comm, to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. 
 p. 185. These dwarfish males, however, may not have an injurious effect 
 on the stock of another person, especially the first cross, if the females be 
 of a coarser quality, and, on Mr. Cline’s principle, if they are of a larger 
 size than the males put to them. 
 
106 
 
 Live Stock . 
 
 bad feeders ; and though they retain their shape and beauty, 
 they will decrease in vigour and activity, will become lean 
 and dwarfish, and ultimately incapable of continuing the race. 
 The instances of this are numerous. The celebrated breeder, 
 Prinsep, found, that decrease of size unavoidable, in spite 
 of all his endeavours, by keeping his young stock well, to 
 prevent it*. Hr John S. Sebright tried many experiments 
 by breeding in-and-in , with dogs, fowls, and pigeons, and 
 found the breeds uniformly degeneratef. A gentleman who 
 tried the system with pigs, brought them at last into such 
 a state, that the females gave over breeding almost entirely, 
 and when they did breed, their produce was so small and 
 delicate, that they died as soon as they were born. Nay, 
 Mr. Knight’s experience with plants have fully convinced 
 him, that in the vegetable, as well as in the animal king- 
 dom, the offspring of a male and female, not related, will 
 possess more strength and vigour, than where they are both 
 of the same familyf. This proves how unprofitable such 
 connexions are. That is no reason, however, why a breeder 
 may not manage a particular family of animals to great ad- 
 vantage, by shifting or changing, instead of breeding directly 
 from parents to offspring^. Hence the propriety of procur- 
 ing males, from the flocks and herds of those who have the 
 same, or a similar breed. It has been remarked, that those 
 farmers have in general the worst flocks, who breed from 
 rams produced on their own farms, and that an interchange 
 of males, is mutually beneficial||. 
 
 With respect to the doctrine, “ that when you can no 
 longer find better males than your own, then by all means 
 breed from them, for that best can only beget best it is 
 ably refuted by an intelligent author, who has devoted much 
 attention to the art of breeding. He observes, that there 
 never did exist an animal, without some defect in constitu- 
 tion, in form, or in some other essential quality ; and such 
 defect, however small it may be at first, will increase in 
 every succeeding generation, and at last predominate in such 
 
 * Paper by T. A. Knight, Esq. Comm, to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. 
 p. 185. 
 
 f Sir John 3. Sebright’s Essay, p. 13. 
 
 J; Paper by T. A. Knight, Esq. Comm, to the Board of Agriculture, 
 vol. ii. p. 186. 
 
 § Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 109. The same rule holds 
 good regarding the human species. By a train of unfortunate circum- 
 stances, a brother and sister German, ignorant of their close connexion 
 together, were married. They had ten children, all of whom died before 
 their parents. 
 
 f| Paper by T. A. Knight, Esq. Comm. vol. ii. p. 172. 
 
Live Stock. 
 
 10 7 
 
 a degree, as to render the breed of little value*. Breeding 
 in-and-in> therefore, would only tend to increase, and to 
 perpetuate that defect, which might be eradicated, by a ju- 
 dicious selection, from a different family, in the same race. 
 
 2. The breeding from different families, of the same race, 
 is therefore a preferable system. When these have been for 
 some time established in different situations, and have had 
 some slight shades of difference impressed upon them, by 
 the influence of different climates, soils, and treatment, it is 
 found advantageous, to interchange the males, for the pur- 
 pose of strengthening the excellencies, and remedying the 
 defects of each family. On this principle, the celebrated 
 Culley continued, for many years, to hire his rams from 
 Bakewell, at the very time, that other breeders were paying 
 him a liberal price for the use of his own ; and the very 
 same practice is followed by the most skilful breeders at 
 presentf. 
 
 3. Any attempt at improvement, by crossing two distinct 
 breeds or races, one of which possesses the properties which 
 it is wished to obtain, or is free from the defects which it is 
 desirable to remove, requires a degree of judgment and per- 
 severance, to render such a plan successful, as is very rarely 
 to be met with. Indeed, though such crosses may, by great 
 attention, answer at first, yet, it is generally found, that 
 great singularities attend such mixtures ; and, in breeding 
 bulls, though some of them may apparently do, yet their 
 breed is not to be trusted. The first cross between a good 
 short-horned bull, and a good Kyloe cow, will make a good 
 grazing animal ; but by proceeding farther, disappointment 
 will ensue, if a regular stock be wanted. If such a cross is 
 to be persevered in, the male should always be of the same 
 breed with the firstf . 
 
 Crossing with larger males from another country, is some- 
 times attempted, with a view of enlarging the size of stock. 
 But such attempts should be made with the greatest caution; 
 for by a mistaken practice, extensively pursued, irreparable 
 mischief may be effected. Where a particular race of ani- 
 mals has continued for centuries, it may be presumed, that 
 their constitution is adapted to the soil and climate. Any 
 attempt, therefore, to increase the size of a native race of 
 animals, without improving their food, by which their size 
 
 * Sir JohnS. Sebright on Improving the Breeds of Domestic Animals, 
 p. 11 and 14. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 17. 
 
 + Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 109. 
 
108 
 
 Live Stock . 
 
 is regulated, is a fruitless effort to counteract the laws of 
 nature. In proportion to their increase of size, by crossing, 
 they become worse in form, less hardy, and more liable to 
 disease*. The only satisfactory, and judicious mode, of 
 enlarging the size of any race of animals is, by maintaining 
 better the original stock of the country, more especially 
 during their youth. In every case, where the enlargement 
 of the carcass is the object, the cross breed must be better 
 fed than the native parent. Hence, if a good stock can be 
 otherwise obtained, crossing ought to be avoided ; for it 
 produces a species of mongrel ; and it is more difficult to 
 get rid of the imperfections thus introduced into a breed, 
 than is commonly imaginedf. 
 
 The eminent surgeon already alluded to, (Henry Cline, 
 Esq.), is of opinion, that any improvement of form by 
 crossing, must entirely depend, on selecting a well-formed 
 female, larger in size than the usual proportion between 
 females and malesj. The foetus will thus be better nourish- 
 ed, which is so essential to the production of an animal with 
 the most perfect form. Abundant nourishment is necessary, 
 from the earliest period of its existence, until its growth is 
 complete. Upon this principle, the breed of English horses 
 were improved, by crossing them with diminutive stallions. 
 Barbs, and Arabians. The celebrated Clydesdale breed of 
 horses in Scotland, originated from the introduction of some 
 large Flanders mares into that country *, and our hogs have 
 been improved, by crossing with small Chinese boars. Other 
 experiments on the same principle, have also succeeded. 
 Mr. Spearman, a farmer in Northumberland, tried a cross 
 between the Kyloe or Highland bull, and the large short- 
 horned cow ; and during the experience of twenty years, 
 found it to answer. The plan recommended by Mr. Cline, 
 has likewise been most successfully practised by M. Vander- 
 
 * Paper by Henry Cline, Esq. Communications to the Board of Agri- 
 culture, vol. iv. p. 445. This appears to be an important rule. 
 
 t A single cross, without ‘breeding from either the males or the females 
 thus produced, is often more profitable, than the pure breed ; but if the 
 crossing is continUed, many inferior animals will be found in a flock. Hence 
 it is, that improving a breed already established, by judicious selection, is to 
 be preferred with a view to permanent advantage. 
 
 X Mr. Cline’s doctrine has been much misunderstood. He does not re- 
 quire that the female should be larger than the male, but larger in size, than 
 is usually the proportion between females and males. Communications to the 
 Board of Agriculture, &c. vol. iv. p. 440. Where the female is too small, 
 or the male too large, the offspring is generally ill-shaped. A gentleman in 
 Forfarshire rears an excellent breed, by crossing the large Angus cows, with 
 a small Highland bull from Lochaber. 
 
Live Stock . 
 
 109 
 
 goes, near the Hague, who has perhaps the finest stock of 
 dairy cows in Holland. The excellence of his breed, he 
 entirely attributes to his using none but young bulls, who 
 have not attained their full growth or size, and which he 
 always parts with at three years of age. 
 
 The improvement of the fleece depends, however, upon 
 the male ; it being proved, that in the course of four or five 
 generations, using always the Merino ram, fleeces rivalling 
 the Spanish may be obtained, from ewes of British stock* * * § . 
 
 In regard to the period of commencing breeding, a cow 
 in general, should not produce a calf, at an earlier period 
 than three years old. A bull may be first used at fourteen 
 or eight een months. He then shews most vigour, and more 
 energy may be expected in his produce. At two or three 
 years old, they frequently become ungovernable, and are 
 killedf. Many contend, that the offspring of a bull, if well 
 bred, becomes generally better till he reaches seven or eight 
 years, and indeed till his constitution is impaired by agej. 
 This doctrine, however, does not agree with the practice of 
 Mr. Vandergoes in Holland; nor can the question be finally 
 decided, without a regular course of experiments. In breed- 
 ing sheep, the age of the ram is not considered to be a point 
 of much importance. 
 
 Some breeders maintain, that the offspring take consider- 
 ably more after the male, than the female parent}. It is 
 believed, however, that some parts of the offspring take after 
 the male, and some after the female. If the female be small, 
 and such a habit be permanent in her family, the length of 
 the legs of the offspring, will seldom be influenced by the 
 male, but much by the female parent in the womb, and will 
 not subsequently change. The width and depth, and con- 
 sequently the weight of carcass, will be greatly influenced by 
 the male ; and if it be of a large kind, the offspring will pre- 
 sent great weight in a small compass. This has been proved 
 by crossing a West-Highland cow, with a Herefordshire bull, 
 not with a view of continuing the breed, but to dispose of 
 all the animals produced by the cross. The offspring have 
 the short legs of the West- Highland cow, with the increased 
 
 * Dr. Parry’s Paper, in the Communications to the Board of Agriculture, 
 vol. v. p. 339. 
 
 t Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 178. 
 
 + Answers by T. A. Knight, Esq. Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Ap- 
 pendix, p. 104. 
 
 § Letter from Mr. Robert Colling to Sir John Sinclair, Farmer’s Maga- 
 zine, vol. xv. p. 61 . 
 
110 
 
 Live Stock . 
 
 weight that might be expected from a Hereford bull. They 
 are exceedingly hardy, their flesh is of excellent quality, and 
 they have, at two years old, nearly the proportions of other 
 stock at six. The females are consequently ready to be 
 fatted at two years old. The males require to be one year 
 older* * * § . The crossing the Herefordshire heifer, however, 
 with a West-Highland bull, would answer better, were the 
 formation of an entire new breed to be attempted. 
 
 Among the rules of breeding, one is, that the young 
 should be brought forth at the season of the year, when 
 there is usually a full supply of suitable food. This is par- 
 ticularly necessary to be attended to, on high and exposed 
 situations, where there is little, or no other provision than 
 common pastures. Where this rule has not been adverted 
 to, great losses have been sustainedf. It is necessary at the 
 same time to guard against an opposite extreme, and to take 
 care that the birth shall not be so late in the season, that 
 there shall be any risk of the young animal being unable to 
 bear the cold, and severities of the ensuing winterj. 
 
 Another rule in breeding is, never to fix on the ewes to 
 be put to a favourite ram, until the lambs got by him, the 
 preceding year, have been examined. The perfections and 
 defects of his progeny, are thus ascertained, and ewes are 
 given him accordingly. By such attention, and carefully 
 selecting from the lambs, rejecting all doubtful ones, a flock 
 is kept in a constant state of progressive improvement^ 
 
 A third rule is, in selecting a male from a small number, 
 not to chuse the weakest male, though it may possess the 
 most delicate form, and approach the nearest to female 
 symmetry ; for if the same system were to be continued for 
 a few generations, it may easily be supposed, that such a 
 breed will dwindle, compared to one, left to the process of 
 nature, in which the strongest males, driving off the weakest, 
 are exclusively employed for the propagation of the kind||. 
 
 It is farther necessary to observe, that any defect in a 
 breed, will not only be transmitted uncorrected, but will 
 necessarily increase in the progeny; a tendency to that de- 
 fect, being inherited by both parents, and both being imme- 
 
 * Answers by T. A. Knight, Esq. Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appen- 
 dix, p. 104 and 105. 
 
 + General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 21. 
 
 X Coventry's Discourses, p. 160. 
 
 § This was the practice of the late Duke of Bedford .— Younsfs Calendar , 
 p. 51 1. 
 
 || Remark by C. Mason, Esq. of Clifton. 
 
Live Stock . 
 
 Ill 
 
 diately descended from its original propagator. This defect 
 may be in respect of size, form, inclination to feed at an 
 early age, to feed fat with a comparatively small consump- 
 tion of vegetable food, to lay that fat on valuable points, or 
 in constitutional health ; and according to the nature of the 
 original defect, the breed will become bad feeders, or in- 
 capable of producing any but an unhealthy offspring. 
 
 On this branch of the subject, it may be proper to add, 
 that the justly celebrated Bakewell, was the father of the 
 improved system of breeding. He was, by nature, a strong- 
 minded man, and a superior judge of stock for the times in 
 which he lived. Experience, however, has since made the 
 art more perfect, though it is of all others the one in which 
 blunders are most easily committed. The art is eminently 
 useful, and is capable of almost unlimited improvement* ; 
 but it requires so much attention and expence, that it can 
 never be kept up with spirit, without liberal encouragement, 
 and good prices. 
 
 III. On the proper Management of Stock in general . 
 
 This is a subject which can only, in this place, be slightly 
 touched uponf. It is an object of very great consequence to 
 every husbandman, to expend, in the most economical and 
 advantageous manner, the vegetable produce allotted for 
 the maintenance of his stock, and to bestow it chiefly on 
 those, from whom he is likely to derive the greatest, and 
 the earliest benefit. Notwithstanding many recent, and 
 truly valuable improvements, there still prevails, in regard 
 to some particulars, a sad mixture of profusion on the one 
 hand, and penuriousness on the other. The saving to the 
 public, by careful attention to the feeding of live stock, would 
 at all times be great, but in times of scarcity, would be 
 incalculable. For the attainment of that object, it would be 
 necessary to pay regard to; 1. The due preparation, and 
 
 * This is the opinion of Messrs. Bailey and Culley, the intelligent authors 
 of the Northumberland Report. See p. 166. 
 
 t It is well observed in the Northumberland Report, (8vo. edition, p. 160), 
 improvements in stock are not so easily spread as those of cultivation. If a 
 farmer sees any modes of practice more beneficial than those he knew be- 
 fore, he can readily adopt them ; or, if he discovers and selects a new variety 
 of any species of grain, more productive and more valuable than any hitherto 
 known, it multiplies so fast, that it is readily disseminated ; but improved 
 breeds of stock are not so readily diffused ; they are much slower in their 
 propagation, and much more easily contaminated, and are only to be pre- 
 served by attention and judgment. 
 
112 
 
 Live Stock . 
 
 frugal expenditure of their food ; 2. The appropriation of 
 that food to the different sorts respectively, according to the 
 different species and breeds of stock, — their different habits 
 and degrees of hardiness, —and the different degrees of ex- 
 ercise, and modes of treatment to which they are sub- 
 jected ; and, 3. The requisite attention to the demands of 
 different periods, the relative effects of different seasons ; 
 and the state of the animals themselves, in regard to age, 
 fatness, &c.* 
 
 The following general rules, as to the feeding and ma- 
 nagement of stock, may deserve attention. 
 
 1. Animals intended for the butcher, should be kept in 
 a state of regular improvement. The finer breeds are highly 
 fed from their birth, and are almost always fat. With other 
 breeds, and on pastures of inferior quality, this is neither 
 necessary nor practicable. But in every case, the same 
 principle of improvement should be adhered to, and such 
 animals ought never to be allowed to lose flesh, in the hopes 
 of afterwards restoring it by better feeding. 
 
 2. The size should never be above that which the pastures 
 can support in a thriving condition *, nor can any thing be 
 more injudicious, than to endeavour to increase the size of 
 stock by crossing, without improving their pasture. The 
 stock of every kind, and of all the various breeds, should, 
 in respect of size, be proportioned to the quantity and the 
 quality of their intended foodf . 
 
 3. The best pasture should be allotted to that portion of 
 the stock which goes first to market ; the next in quality, 
 to the breeders j and the less valuable pasture, to the infe- 
 rior or growing stock. This division is highly advanta- 
 geous. One hundred acres under this plan, would feed 
 more than 120 promiscuously pastured. 
 
 4. Great care should be taken, not to overstock pasture, 
 a practice which is attended with great loss to the farmer, 
 and the community. This ought to be particularly avoided 
 in regard to young and growing animals. If they are kept 
 poor during one part of the year, they will scarcely thrive 
 during the remainder ; and when ill fed, will never attain 
 their proper size and proportion ; at the same time young 
 stock, (their powers of digestion being stronger), may be fed 
 on coarser and more succulent food, than those who are 
 more advanced, and of age capable of being fattened. 
 
 Coventry’s Discourses, p. 144. 
 
 f Middlesex Report, p. 228 
 
Live Stock . 
 
 113 
 
 .5. The kind of food given to animals, should be suited 
 to their ages. In the habit of very young animals, there 
 abounds, and seems necessary for their welfare, a great pro- 
 portion of fluid; and therefore more succulent food may be 
 preferable for them ; but when they are more advanced and 
 vigorous, the digestive powers being .stronger, and time 
 being requisite for the process of growth, provision less im- 
 mediately nutritious, or of a coarser quality, may suffice. 
 A dry kind of food would appear to agree better with all 
 animals in winter , when the perspiration i? less, than in sum- 
 mer, during which season, moister provision would seem to 
 be more suitable* * * § . When fed on dry food, and more espe- 
 cially if the quality is coarse, the stock should be well sup- 
 plied with water, to promote its digestion in the stomach. 
 It is indeed a good plan, previously to moisten any hay given 
 to cattle, and in a less degree even to horses. 
 
 6. In regard to the diseases of stock, it may in general be 
 observed, that the great object of the farmer ought to be, 
 to ward them off, by obviating their remote causes ; for 
 most of those which affect our domestic animals, when 
 once induced, are not easily cured, partly from their ob- 
 scure nature, and partly from the difficulty of exhibiting 
 remedies to the large numbers which are frequently seized 
 at' the same period, or in the same situation. In particular 
 districts, many herds and flocks are considerably thinned, 
 almost every year, by inflammatory and other disorders, 
 which a little care and good treatment, applied in time, 
 might easily have prevented-}-. 
 
 Lastly, the food, whatever it consists of, should not be 
 too suddenly changed. It is seldom profitable, to bring lean 
 animals immediately from coarse, to rich pastures ; and a 
 change from dry to succulent food, and vice versa , should 
 be gradually effected:);. A change of pasture, however, of 
 the same quality, tends to produce a greater accumulation 
 of fat§. 
 
 It may be proper to add, that nature seems to have de- 
 signed different sorts of animals for different purposes. A 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 166 and 168. 
 
 + Coventry’6 Discourses, p. 145. Breeding the lambs liable to have that 
 inflammatory disease, called the busy in Scotland, and giving them opening 
 medicines, or green food, would, in a great measure, prevent the ravages of 
 that disorder. 
 
 + General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 22. 
 
 § Paper by T. A. Knight, Esq. Communications to the Board of Agri- 
 culture, vol. ii. note, p. 186. 
 
 I 
 
114 Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 breed of cattle, equally well adapted to the butcher, to the 
 dairy, and to the plough or cart*, is no where to be met 
 with ; and, so far as experience enables us to judge, these 
 properties are hardly consistent with each other, and belong 
 to animals of different forms and proportions. A large 
 Herefordshire ox, for instance, would starve on a Highland 
 pasture, and heavy Leicestershire sheep, were never intended 
 to travel great distances, or to search for their subsistence 
 in a rugged or mountainous country. The judicious breeder, 
 therefore, will fix upon one object to be principally attended 
 to ; and he will endeavour to rear the species of stock, best 
 suited to attain the object he has in view, or, in other words, 
 the most likely to pay the most money, for the food he 
 gives them. That can only be obtained, by an attention to 
 the principles of breeding in general,— to the system best 
 calculated for his own situation in particular ; — and to the 
 practice of the most eminent farmers who have excelled in 
 the art+. 
 
 In regard to live stock, in general, it may be observed, 
 that we ought to have in view, the keeping up of such a 
 diversity of kind, of size, and of habit, as seem best adapted 
 to answer our principal demands, and are the most likely to 
 agree with the situation, — climate, — produce, — and other 
 general circumstances of the country;);. 
 
 Sect. VII . — Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 The superiority of British husbandmen, over that of other 
 nations, may, in a great measure, be attributed, to the nu- 
 merous valuable implements employed in executing the 
 various processes of agriculture. Both the abundance of 
 capital, and the ingenuity of our mechanics, have produced 
 that important advantage. The number of these imple- 
 ments, however, is so great, that the prudent farmer, in 
 
 * Perhaps the Herefordshire cattle approach the nearest to that perfect 
 state, of any of the larger breeds. They arrive soon to maturity, and, arc 
 fit for labour ; but it is a different variety of the same breed, that is preferred 
 for the dairy . — Paper by T. A. Knight , Esq. Communications to the Board 
 of Agriculture, vol. ii. — Mr. Coke, of Holkhaip, has chosen the North 
 Devons in preference ; and with the care he has bestowed on the breed, he 
 has already arrived at considerable success. 
 
 f Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 112. General Report of 
 Scotland, vol. lii. p. 7. 
 
 + Coventry’s Discourses, p. 149 and 135. 
 
Implements of Husbandry . 1 15 
 
 regard to that, as well as in every other branch of his art, 
 must study economy. He should not incur an unnecessary 
 expence in buying them, nor in purchasing more, than are 
 essentially requisite, and can be profitably used. This maxim 
 ought to be more especially attended to by young improvers, 
 who are often tempted, under the specious idea of dimi- 
 nishing labour, and saving expence, to buy a superfluous 
 quantity of implements, which they afterwards find are of 
 little use*. 
 
 In purchasing implements, the following rules are to be 
 observed : 1. They should be simple in their construction, 
 both that their uses may be more easily understood, and that 
 any common workman may be able to repair them, when 
 they get out of order. 2. The materials should be of a du- 
 rable nature, that the labour may be less liable to interrup- 
 tion from their accidental failure. 3. Their form should be 
 firm and compact, that they may not be injured by jolts and 
 shaking ; and that they may be more safely worked by 
 country labourers, who are but little accustomed to the use 
 of delicate tools. 4. In the larger machines, symmetry, 
 and lightness of shape, ought to be particularly attended to : 
 for a heavy carriage, like a great horse, is worn out by its 
 own weight, nearly as much as by what it carriesf . 5. The 
 
 wood should be cut up and placed in a position, the best 
 calculated to resist pressure; and mortises, so likely to 
 weaken the wood, should, as much as possible, be avoided : 
 at the same time, implements should be made as light as is 
 consistent with the strength that is necessary. 6. Their 
 price should be such, that farmers in moderate circumstances 
 can afford to buy them ; yet for the sake of a low price, the 
 judicious farmer, will not purchase articles, either of a 
 flimsy fabric, or a faulty form ; and, 7. Implements ought 
 to be suited to the nature of the country, whether hilly or 
 level, and more especially to the quality of the soil : for 
 those which are calculated for light land, will not answer 
 equally well in soils that are heavy and adhesive. 
 
 The subject of implements may be considered under the 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 47. It is remarked by an intelligent author 
 on matters of husbandry, that a great diversity of implements, as they are 
 more rarely used, prove in general a source of vexation and disappointment, 
 rather than of satisfaction to the farmer. The operations of husbandry, 
 cannot be performed by them properly, unless the person who is to use 
 such implements, hath obtained that facility in the use of them, which con- 
 tinued practice can alone insure. — Anderson's Recreations , vol. iv, p. 47. 
 
 + Kent’s Report of Norfolk, p. 121. 
 
 I 2 
 
1 16 Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 following general heads: 1. Implements of tillage, 2. For 
 drilling or sowing corn ; 3. For reaping corn ; 4. For har- 
 vesting corn ; 5. For threshing and cleaning corn ; 6. For 
 mowing and harvesting hay *, 7. Of conveyance ; 8. For 
 draining ; 9. For harnessing stock; 10. For rolling land; 
 11. For the dairy ; and, 12. For various miscellaneous pur- 
 poses. The intelligent farmer will be enabled to judge, 
 from the description thus laid before him, what implements 
 are the most essential, and the best suited for the purposes 
 he requires. 
 
 1. Implements of Tillage. 
 
 These consist of ploughs, harrows, horse-hoes, scufflers, 
 and a more recent invention, known under various names, 
 scarifier, grubber, & c. 
 
 1. The Plough . — It is proper to begin with the plough, 
 being the chief of all the implements employed in the ex- 
 tensive art of agriculture. There are several instruments 
 used in husbandry, which, perhaps, might be dispensed 
 with ; but land cannot be cultivated to any considerable ex- 
 tent, or to much advantage, without the plough : for it is by 
 means of that implement, that the strength of domesticated 
 animals can be most usefully employed in the cultivation of 
 the soil. In the formation of ploughs there is a great diffe- 
 rence ; and indeed they vary in almost every county, accord- 
 ing to the nature of the soil, and other circumstances. But 
 the great distinction necessary to be adverted to in this 
 place, is, between the swing, and the wheel plough. 
 
 1. The Swing Plough . — The advantages of the swing, 
 compared to the wheel plough, are, that its original cost is 
 less ;— that it is more easily kept in repair; — that, when 
 properly made, it requires less strength to draw it ; — that it 
 is not easily put out of order ; — that it is peculiarly well 
 calculated for light soils and that when the land is at all 
 wet, it is not liable to be clogged*. 
 
 As a decided proof in favour of swing ploughs, it is 
 stated, that a farmer, accustomed to wheel ploughs on the 
 light soils of Norfolk, proposed using them on a farm of 
 
 * Essex Report, vol. i. p. 128 . It is disputed, whether the swing or the 
 wheel plough, is least liable to friction. The additional action of the wheels, 
 must certainly occasion more friction ; but on the other hand, it is con- 
 tended, that as a plough must have a tendency to go a certain depth, the 
 pressure is relieved, and the draught is lightened, by having wheels in 
 front. 
 
Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 117 
 
 strong loam in Suffolk, to which he had removed ; but upon 
 trying swing and wheel ploughs against each other, he was 
 soon convinced, that the latter fatigued the horses more 
 than the former ; and that with wheel ploughs, he could 
 not support his horses in such good condition, as with swing 
 ones. He is now satisfied, that this would likewise be the 
 case, even in light land* * * § . 
 
 These observations, however, apply to swing ploughs 
 made on a light, and ingenious construction, and not to 
 those used in Middlesex, and other districts, which are of 
 so clumsy and heavy a form, as to require the draught of 
 one, or even two additional horsesf. 
 
 It is at the same time to be remembered, in regard to 
 swing ploughs, that they require experienced labourers. 
 But where these can be had, a swing plough, with a pair of 
 horses abreast, is a most efficient implement. Whether it 
 will work any land, at all seasons, is a subject of much 
 dispute. It is contended on the one hand, that a union of 
 drying winds, with much heat, continued for a few weeks 
 in summer, renders any clay land, hard and difficult to 
 plough ; and in such cases, if the clay should happen to be 
 mixed with gravel, flints, or pebble stones, they become so 
 firmly fixed, as to bid defiance to the efforts of swing 
 ploughs. — On the other hand, it is observed, that if all 
 these circumstances were admitted, it does not follow, that 
 wheel ploughs are necessary to working the land, when it 
 has got even into the hard state above described. That 
 swing ploughs will answer in the proper season , even though 
 the ordinary strength is only employed, is unquestionable ; 
 and when the proper season has been neglected, all that is 
 required is, to increase the strength of the impelling power, 
 by means of which every difficulty may be surmounted^. 
 
 2. fVheel Ploughs. — The advantages of wheel ploughs 
 are, that they require less skill in the ploughman ; — that 
 they keep a more regular depth§, and will turn a shallower 
 furrow; — that they afford assistance to the ploughmen in 
 soils of a stubborn, adhesive, or stony quality ; — and, that 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 89. 
 
 f Middlesex Report, p. 8G. — An engraving of the improved swing 
 plough, and an explanation of the principles on which it ought to be con- 
 structed, will be found in the Appendix. 
 
 + Hertfordshire Report, p. 36; Surrey Report, p. 128, 129. 
 
 § This is certainly an advantage, in ploughing up clover lays, or lands 
 where sheep have been fed on turnips, where a furrow-slice, of a regular 
 depth , is particularly desirable. 
 
I ] 8 Implements of Husbandry . 
 
 they are better calculated for trench ploughing. But, on 
 the other hand, they are more expensive, both to purchase 
 and repair; — they are more liable to be put out of order; — 
 they require more strength to work them; — they are more 
 easily disturbed by inequalities on the surface ; — they en- 
 courage the workmen to rest a part of their weight on the 
 handles of the plough, by which the draught and friction 
 are so much increased, that both the horses and the plough 
 wear out much sooner* ; — and neither good mechanics, nor 
 able ploughmen, can ever become numerous, while their 
 ignorance, or their unskilfulness, can be so easily remedied, 
 as by adding wheels to the ploughf. Hence, in various 
 places where experienced ploughmen could be had, wheel 
 ploughs have been given up, as expensive and cumbersome^ • 
 
 Wheels, however, are found to be useful, in cases where 
 either the trench, or the double-furrow plough is employed. 
 
 1. By the Trench Plough , two or more slices are taken 
 with the same instrument. The first cuts off the weeds and 
 stubble, and deposits them at the bottom of the furrow; 
 the second slice is turned over the former, and completely 
 covers it. This process suits only rather deep soils ; and in 
 them, many farmers consider it to be an advantageous mode 
 of culture. The ploughs by which this process is effected, 
 ought always to be furnished with wheels, in order that the 
 deepness of the slice or furrow, may be properly regu- 
 lated§. 
 
 2. Double -furrow Ploughs are recommended from high 
 authority, as saving the attendance of one person, and doing 
 nearly double the work, in the same space of time, with 
 little additional strength in the team||. They seem to be 
 well calculated for level land, free from stones ; or where 
 the soil has been previously well reduced by other ploughs, 
 but they are evidently less fit for general use, than single 
 ploughs. They may answer for giving the seed furrow to 
 barley land, where the soil is sandy, and has a flat surfaced *, 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 89. To oblige the ploughman to walk upright, 
 and to carry his own weight, the Norfolk and Suffolk ploughs, have but 
 one handle, which soon tires the hand of the man who presses upon it. Ditto. 
 
 f Surrey Report, p. 123. J Wilts Report, p. 68. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 92. 
 
 f| Lord Somerville’s Paper, in the Communications to the Board of Agri- 
 culture, vol. ii. p. 418. In the Papers of the Bath Society, vol. x. p. 82, 
 there is an account by the late John Billingsley, Esq. of 385 acres being 
 ploughed in eleven months by a team of six oxen, a ploughman, and driver, 
 by a double-furrowed plough. They also harrowed at the same time 291 
 acres. 
 
 f Surrey Report, p. 123. 
 
Implements of Husbandry . 119 
 
 but they will not work where the land is formed into narrow 
 and elevated ridges. 
 
 The Paring Ploughs, which have been long used in the 
 fens, instead of a coulter, have what is called a sheath , or 
 circular plate of iron, turning constantly round, the edge of 
 which, and also of the share, are steeled, and kept sharp by 
 a file, for cutting the turf*. 
 
 Swing Ploughs, on the whole, are greatly preferable for 
 general purposes. The Rotherham, or Yorkshire plough, 
 (with rather a straight mould-board ), was the first light 
 swing plough for two horses, that was used in this country. 
 It was thence introduced into Suffolk, and other English 
 counties; and into Scotland, about the year l742f. But it 
 was not sooner than the year 1764, that a plough, with a 
 curved mould-board., improved from the old Scotch plough, 
 by Small, a native of Berwickshire, came into general use in 
 that country. Some alterations on it have been suggested 
 by James Veitch, an ingenious mechanic, near JedburghJ. 
 The swing plough, constructed by the celebrated Arbuthnot 
 in Surrey, has been recommended by the most respectable 
 authority} ; and now, in almost every part of the kingdom, 
 and in Ireland, swing ploughs, of an improved form, can be 
 procured || . 
 
 2. Harrows . — Implements of this description are neces- 
 sary in the practice of husbandry, to pulverize the ground, 
 
 * Huntingdonshire Report, p. 32. In some cases, instead of the skeath , 
 they make use of a slice , as it is called, a sort of knife, difficult to describe, 
 but calculated to effect the paring of a very tough dry surface. 
 
 f Subjoined to the Select Transactions of the Society of Improvers in 
 Scotland, printed in January 1743, is this advertisement : — “ The Rother- 
 “ ham plough, the drill plough, and the horse-hoeing plough, are better 
 <c made by Mr. Dalziel, at Nevvliston, near Lord Stair’s house in West Lo- 
 “ thian, than by any other in this kingdom.” Tliis proves the period of the 
 introduction of these implements into Scotland. 
 
 X In the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 243, 
 there is a favourable report of Veitch’s improved plough, with an engraving 
 of it. It is longer than Small’s plough, and more likely, oil that account, to 
 be adopted in England, where length is preferred. 
 
 § Young’s Lecture regarding Three Celebrated Farmers, p. 20 
 
 || An improvement in the plough-ear, or mould-board, of swing ploughs, 
 has been recommended by the celebrated Jefferson, formerly President of 
 the United States of America, who has cultivated the mechanical branches 
 of agriculture with much, success. A particular description of it is to be 
 found in Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 260. The plan was 
 tried, at the desire of the Board of Agriculture, by C. C. Western, Esq. M.P. 
 of Felix Hall, in Essex ; when it appeared, that it was constructed on a new 
 and very ingenious principle. It was found, however, liable to this ob- 
 jection, that from the concavity, or flatness in the fore part of the breast, the 
 loose earth of the furrow was apt to rest upon it. — Essex Report, vol. i. 
 p. 138. 
 
120 
 
 Implements of Husbandry, 
 
 —to clear it of weeds, — to prepare it for the operation of 
 sowing, — and to cover the seed when sown. It is evident, 
 that the construction of harrows ought to depend on the 
 nature of the soil. Those which are best calculated for 
 strong clay, cannot be the most suitable for light sandy soils. 
 The following are the principal rules regarding the forma- 
 tion of harrows: 1. That not any two of the teeth, should 
 move in one track ; 2. That the tracks should be at equal 
 distances from each other ; and, 3. That the teeth should 
 either be round, or perhaps with a sharp edge bent forward, 
 like so many coulters, as they make themselves cleaner than 
 when they are square, or of any other shape, and work easier 
 after the horses. The teeth of harrows are frequently made 
 of unequal lengths, the front row being about half an inch 
 longer than the second, and the third row being about one 
 inch shorter than the first ; so that each row backwards, is 
 about one-half inch shorter than the one that precedes it. 
 Where crops are drilled, an instrument called “ the drill 
 harrow, v ’ is found a very great improvement. It thoroughly 
 cuts the weeds in the intervals, and harrows them up to the 
 top in a very complete manner. 
 
 3. Horse-Hoes . — These useful implements are calculated, 
 not only for destroying weeds, but also for pulverizing the 
 soil, between the rows of plants set in straight lines, such as 
 turnips, potatoes, or any sorts of grain, that have been sown 
 in drills, at regular distances from each other. By these 
 simple and. effectual instruments, a great deal of manual 
 labour is saved. At the same time, the hand-hoe is neces- 
 sary for cutting up weeds, and loosening the earth between 
 the plants, which the horse-hoe cannot reach. 
 
 4*. The Scufjier . — This implement is derived from the 
 Kentish nidget. It was originally, a small triangular and 
 heavy harrow, the tines longer, and inclined forwards ; — 
 sharp and penetrating, but having no plates at bottom. 
 Afterwards, however, a number of triangular plates, or feet, 
 the edges of which are steeled, and fixed at the bottom of as 
 many iron bars, somewhat similar to the legs and feet of a 
 duck*, were added to it. It is a useful implement on light 
 lands, that are free from stones, and of a plain surface, be^ 
 cause it not only cuts up all weeds, but pulverizes the soil. 
 Scuffling strong land, and exposing it to the sun and air, is 
 greatly preferable to harrowing, which tends to consolidate 
 
 Middlesex Report, p. 96. 
 
121 
 
 Implements of Husbandry . 
 
 the surface* * * § *, but it is necessary to have the land well re- 
 duced before the implement is employed. 
 
 5. The Scarifier , or Grubber . — This is an improvement 
 on the scuffler, by having the iron bars bent forward for 
 the purpose of penetrating the soil, and raising the root- 
 weedsf . It is such an efficient implement, that no extensive 
 farmer should be without it. If the ground has been pre- 
 viously completely loosened by the plough, it tears up the 
 couch and other root-weeds, and brings them to the surface; 
 acting at the same time both as a sort of plough and harrow. 
 The coulters are put either in a square, or in a triangular 
 wooden frame, with a small wheel, made of cast-iron, placed 
 at each angle of the frame, which roll on the land, and re- 
 gulate the depth to which the shares are intended to pene- 
 trate the ground. Such is the utility of this implement, in 
 saving ploughing, and keeping the land clear of weeds, that 
 it is supposed to have added considerably to the value of 
 every farm where it has been introduced. Indeed, not only 
 is labour thereby diminished, but the scarifier may be used 
 to advantage in the following cases : 1. Barley and turnip 
 land, after being once ploughed, may be made both clean 
 and fine, by its means, and the harrowings and subsequent 
 ploughings are thereby rendered unnecessary^. 2. Where 
 lands have been ploughed in autumn, the objection to the 
 sowing of spring crops on the winter furrow, may be ob- 
 viated, by the use of the scarifier^, as not only barley, but 
 oats, (if not grown after grass), also beans, pease, and tares, 
 may be sown without an additional ploughing. 3. Summer 
 fallows may likewise be advantageously carried on with 
 fewer ploughings, earlier in the season, and at less expence||. 
 4f. It may be effectually employed, to forward operations in 
 the preparation of land, for potatoes or turnips, and after- 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. i. p. 48. 
 
 + The edges should not be sharp, as they would cut the root-weeds, and 
 render it more difficult to collect them. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 66. 
 
 § There is a particular account of the introduction of the grubber or 
 scarifier into Scotland, in the Transactions of the Highland Society, vol. iv. 
 p. 549. Mr. Fellenberg, the celebrated Swiss agriculturist, has sent to the 
 Board of Agriculture, the model of a scarifier, with the coulters extremely 
 bent, and without wheels, consequently the machine would be much cheaper, 
 if, upon trial, if were found equally effectual. 
 
 H See Communication from Mr. Robert Hope, of Fenton, in East Lothian. 
 — Appendix, No. V. He there observes, that the plough is necessary in fal- 
 lows, to eradicate thistles, from the fast hold they take of the ground ; but 
 the grubber will extirpate every other root-weed. In soils where it is likely 
 to be choked, the number of coulters should be diminished. 
 
122 
 
 Implements of Husbandry . 
 
 wards for raising the potatoe crop ; and, 5. Its utility in 
 mixing lime or compost with the soil, is of the highest im- 
 portance ; not only doing it more effectually than by the 
 plough, but never placing these manures beyond their pro- 
 per depth. Hence the scarifier or grubber, is considered to 
 be one of the greatest improvements in the culture of the 
 soil, that modern times can boast of*. 
 
 2. Implements for Sowing Coin. 
 
 Corn is sown, 1. By the hand ; 2. By drill machines ; or, 
 3. Dibbled. 
 
 1. Hand-sowing. — Though there are machines for sowing 
 grain, and small seeds, not in regular rows, yet the most 
 general mode, where drilling is not practised, is by the 
 hand. In hand-sowing, it is necessary to have the assist- 
 ance either of a hopper or of a linen-sheet. A hopper or 
 basket, is a useful implement for the purpose, as with it, 
 the man has considerable freedom in stepping, which is of 
 as much importance as the management of the handf. 
 The sower likewise can fill a hopper himself, without the 
 aid of another person^. In several districts they use a hop- 
 per made either of chip or straw, bent, to favour the side of 
 the man who sows tlie grain, and swung by a strap over the 
 shoulder ; but on the whole, the sower walks rather more 
 at his ease, with the corn in a sheet, than when it is carried 
 in a basket§. 
 
 2. Drill- machines. — It is certainly desirable, that every 
 species of seed, should be sown in a regular manner, and at 
 a proper depth, and a variety of useful machines have been 
 invented for that purpose. They have been objected to, on 
 account of their being complicated and expensive ; but in 
 these respects, improvements have been already made, and 
 there is reason to hope, that they may still be brought to 
 greater simplicity and cheapness. 
 
 To facilitate the operation of drilling grain, much inge- 
 nuity has been displayed. The drills of the Rev. Mr. Cooke, 
 and of Mr. Bailey of Chillingham||, have been deservedly 
 celebrated. A new machine, invented by Mr. Frost, late 
 
 * Suffolk Report, p. 36. + Warwickshire Report, p. CO. 
 
 X Surrey Report, p. HO. 
 
 § Durham Report, p. 85. The Hertfordshire practice of sowing under 
 furrow, is described in the County Report. 
 
 || In Mr. Brown of Markle’s valuable work, “ Treatise on Rural Affairs,” 
 vol. i. p. 296, &c. there is a good account of Mr. Bailey’ 1 , drill-machine. 
 
Implements of Husbandry, 
 
 123 
 
 of Saham, has been exhibited at Holkham, and has met 
 with much approbation. It is found equally applicable to 
 strong and wet soils, or where ridges render the surface un- 
 even, as on light, dry, and flat lands. The different shape of 
 the coulters, in the respective drills, is also worthy of notice. 
 In the common drill, the groove in the soil is made by pres- 
 sure, leaving the bottom narrow and glazed, which, if a 
 drought comes on, frequently becomes hard j whereas, in 
 Mr. Frost’s machine, the groove is made, by cutting it out, 
 leaving the bottom and sides in a state perfectly loose and 
 friable. Hence this machine is peculiarly calculated for the 
 strong land farmer. In common drills, the seed deposited, 
 often varies in quantity, in going up or down hill ; and 
 though, by very great attention in the person who works 
 them, it may be somewhat regulated, it is effected, in Mr. 
 Frost’s machines, completely and accurately, without any 
 extra attention in the drill-men, the hoppers swinging on a 
 centre, are always perpendicular, and receive the seed 
 equally, on level, or unlevel ground, whether in going up 
 or in going down hill*. These improvements greatly re- 
 move the objections which have been made to the general 
 adoption of the drill system. 
 
 The simple drill machine for sowing turnip-seed, can- 
 not be too much recommended. It has been the means of 
 rapidly extending the culture of that valuable plant. Va- 
 rious useful machines for drilling pease and beans have like- 
 wise been constructed *, and an implement has also been in- 
 vented, not only competent to the task of sowing grain, or 
 turnip-seed ; but at the same time, it gives out the pulve- 
 rized manure to be used with them. 
 
 Connected with the drilling system, are the various im- 
 plements used for hoeing ; in particular, a machine invented 
 by the ingenious Mr. Blaikie, called “ The inverted horse- 
 hoe,” which tends greatly to improve the system of sowing 
 turnips on ridges ; the soil being thrown inwards, instead of 
 incumbering the young plant. The principle is adapted at 
 pleasure, to single, double, or treble rows of turnips ; and 
 to wheat, drilled, at nine inches interval *, as well as to 
 pease, and turnips at eighteen, or twenty-seven inchesf. 
 
 Among other machines calculated for the row-culture, 
 the drill-barrow ought not to be omitted, being peculiarly 
 adapted for small farms. It is very simple, and may be 
 used in two ways: — 1. Either a box or barrow is attached 
 
 * Dr. Rigby’s Report on the Husbandry of Holkham, p. 36, 37, and 38. 
 
 t Ditto, p. 53. 
 
124 Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 to the plough, by which the seed is deposited in the furrow 
 as the plough goes along, and it is covered by the next fur- 
 row slice ; or, 2. A boy, with a barrow, follows the plough, 
 depositing the seed in the bottom of the furrow. 
 
 3. Dibbling . — This practice has many admirers, and was 
 for some years much used in Norfolk, for wheat, till the 
 price of labour rendered it too expensive. On the whole, it 
 is rather on the decline, being found minute and troublesome. 
 The tools used are simple, being merely an iron dibble, about 
 three feet long, with the point of which, holes are made for 
 the reception of the seed. The dibbler walking backward, 
 holds one in each hand, with which two holes are made at the 
 same instant, about four inches from each other, and one 
 or two inches deep ; while women, or children follow, and 
 drop in the seed*. In light soils, this plan seems to be well 
 calculated for clover leys, the pulverization of which is un- 
 favourable to the culture of wheat ; whereas, by these in- 
 struments, the seed may be dibbled into the very centre of 
 the flag , or furrow-slice, (two rows in each), and the plant 
 has thus a better hold of the ground. But whenever the 
 soil has any mixture of clay, the dibbling of wheat has an 
 injurious effect on the soil, which stints the growth of the 
 plantsf. In Gloucestershire, they dibble beans and pease, 
 and many consider it a better plan than drilling them, un- 
 less in loamy soilsj. The bean drill, however, on strong 
 clays, answer the purpose effectually, and with more expe- 
 dition. 
 
 3. Implements for Reaping Corn . 
 
 Crops are cut down, by British farmers, either by the 
 sickle, the reaping-hook, or by the scythe. 
 
 The sickle is light and narrow, and has teeth ; the hook 
 is heavy and broad, and has a smooth edge. Respecting 
 the superiority between these tools, there was formerly a 
 difference of opinion ; but it is now generally admitted, 
 that, for the operations of what is technically called reaping , 
 
 * More complicated machines have been invented, as 44 the self-sowing 
 dibble , &c. ; but the simple one is generally preferred. 
 
 f In this case, the dibble has an injurious effect, by placing the seed in a 
 hollow pot, which collects and retains moisture ; and encircling it in a socket 
 of so tenacious a material as clay, through which water cannot percolate, or 
 by any means be discharged, it stints the growth of the plant, and often 
 causes the seed to decay before it vegetates . — Remark by the /lev. Robert 
 Hoblyn. 
 
 X Gloucestershire Report, p. 1L’5 and lL’9. 
 
Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 125 
 
 those with teeth are preferable to the smooth ones, owing to 
 the time required in sharpening the latter; for those with 
 teeth, may be employed for several weeks without being 
 sharpened, and the smooth ones require this several times 
 in an hour. Where the art of bagging is introduced*, the 
 hook without teeth is indispensable. But in the fen coun- 
 tries, they reap oats, and sometimes barley, by the hook, 
 the straw being long, and the crop often much inclined, 
 the work could not be commodiously executed with sickles. 
 
 The expence of cutting down by the scythe, is less than 
 by the sickle ; and, in a wet season, corn cut down by the 
 scythe is more easily harvested, or is less apt to heat in the 
 stack-yard. The celebrated Culley preferred the scythe for 
 barley. It is, however, objected to that instrument, that 
 it does not lay the ears of the corn so regularly, as is done 
 by the reaping-hook. This is a great disadvantage where 
 the threshing-mill is employed, as the corn should be put 
 into the mill as straight and regular as possible. 
 
 A method of reaping, new to us, has lately been in- 
 troduced from Flanders. It is executed in the following 
 manner : The reaper carries in his left hand, a stick with 
 an iron hook, with which he collects as much grain as he 
 can cut at one sweep, with a short scythe which he holds in 
 his right hand. By practice, they are able to carry on this 
 double process, with great spirit and dexterityf. Cradle 
 scythes have also been tried, but they do not work well, 
 where corn is long, or inclined, or foul, or where it is 
 grown in rows. 
 
 Various attempts have been recently made to construct 
 reaping machines. If they could be supplied at any reason- 
 able expence, their advantages would be very great ; for though 
 they can hardly succeed in rough or uneven fields, yet, on 
 level ground, they may be brought to answer. The gene- 
 ral price of reaping with the sickle or the hook, is about 
 twelve shillings per English acre. But with a well-con- 
 structed machine, if such could be invented, the expence 
 would necessarily be considerably reduced:):. 
 
 * Vide Chap. IV. Sect. 1. No. 8. 
 
 f George Rose, jun. Esq. has great merit, for his exertions to establish 
 the use of this implement in Hampshire. 
 
 X A machine for that purpose, has been invented by Mr, Smith, near 
 Dumblane, in Scotland, which displays much ingenuity. 
 
126 
 
 Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 4. Implements for Harvesting Corn. 
 
 It is now generally admitted, that the best mode of har- 
 vesting crops of grain, is by carts. They are more easily 
 loaded and unloaded, and managed with less difficulty than 
 waggons. 
 
 For the preservation of corn, stacks are greatly preferable 
 to barns, more especially since the plan has been adopted, 
 of placing them on stone or cast-iron pillars*, by which the 
 corn^ being clear from the ground, is kept perfectly dry, 
 and the access of mice or other vermin prevented. The 
 advantages resulting from these practices, may be estimated 
 at above one-thirtieth part of the cropf. 
 
 In some districts, if the season be wet, stacks have bosses 
 placed in the centre, consisting of a triangle of wood, 
 through which the air has freedom to circulate, nearly to 
 the top of the stack ; and which is of great service in pre- 
 venting the grain from spoiling, if it be not perfectly dry 
 when harvested . — (See the Engravings , Plate III.) 
 
 5. Implements for Threshing and Cleaning Corn . 
 
 There are three sorts of machines calculated for these 
 purposes : 1 . The threshing-machine ; — 2. A machine for 
 dressing barley ; — and, 3. Fanners, or winnowing-machines. 
 
 1. The threshing-machine is considered to be the most 
 valuable implement that modern times have produced. The 
 saving of manual labour, and that of a severe kind, by 
 means of this invention, is perhaps beyond calculation, 
 while the grain is separated from the straw, in a more per- 
 fect and expeditious manner, than has hitherto been ac- 
 complished by any other mode. Nothing could be more 
 barbarous, than the modes adopted by some of the ancients, 
 of separating the grain, either by burning the straw, or by 
 treading the corn with the feet of horses or oxen ; nor 
 could any species of labour be more fatiguing, than thresh- 
 ing, by so defective an instrument as the flail. Thence 
 many attempts had been made, at various times, for con- 
 structing machines, competent to the task of threshing in a 
 
 * A great improvement ha9 been made in the form of these cast-iron pil- 
 lars. They ought to be cast in tivo pieces, the head separate from the rest. 
 It is thus of a cheaper construction, and if the head is bent inwards, the ac- 
 cess of vermin up the pillar, becomes impracticable. 
 
 -f' Particular care should Ise taken, not to leave ladders, or other articles 
 caning against the stacks, for the vermin will climb up them. 
 
Implements of Husbandry. 12J 
 
 superior style. Is is to the ingenuity of a Scotch mechanic, 
 (Andrew Meikle), that we are indebted for the perfection, 
 if not the sole invention of a machine adequate to that pur- 
 pose. To him, at any rate, must be attributed, the merit 
 of suggesting the drum, with fixed beaters, by which the 
 corn and straw are separated in the most satisfactory man- 
 ner. In other attempts to construct this implement, the plan 
 of the flax-mill had been adopted* * * § . 
 
 Threshing-mills are driven by various powers, as by 
 horses ; — oxenf ; — wind alone •, — wind, or cattle when the 
 wind fails ; — water alone, or by cattle when the water is de- 
 ficient ; — and steam. Portable machines are not uncom- 
 mon in various parts of England ; and with them, from 16 
 to 24? quarters of wheat, or 33 quarters of rye, have been 
 threshed in a day. Some machines are driven by manual 
 labour, and they may be adequate to thresh the crops grown 
 on small farms, by introducing only the head of the grain 
 into the machine^ ; but even in that case, a moderate sized, 
 horse, or ox, or water, or wind, would be a better power to 
 apply. On the whole, it is most advisable, to have the 
 mills of a substantial construction. The saving a little 
 money, and getting a bad machine, is wretched economy. 
 A six-horse power is little enough for all the necessary ope- 
 rations, on a farm where wheat is cultivated ; though, by 
 shortening the drum, fewer horses may be used. 
 
 The specific advantages resulting from this invention, 
 may be thus briefly stated : 1. From the superiority of this 
 mode, one-twentieth part more corn is gained from the same 
 quantity of straw, than by the old fashioned method. 2. The 
 work is done much more expeditiously. 3. Pilfering is 
 avoided. 4. The grain is less subject to injury. 5. Seed 
 corn can be procured without difficulty from the new crops, 
 for those to be sown. 6. The market may be supplied with 
 grain more quickly in times of scarcity^. 7. The straw, 
 softened by the mill, is more useful for feeding cattle. 8. If 
 a stack of corn be heated, it may be threshed in a day, and 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 79. Every friend to merit must re- 
 joice to hear, that the inventor of so important a machine, was rendered 
 comfortable in his old age, and enabled to provide for his family after his 
 death, by the voluntary donations of his grateful countrymen. 
 
 f The advantage of using oxen, as the best animal power, can hardly be 
 doubted, provided the machines are very highly calculated. 
 
 + This plan is the most likely to be adopted in foreign countries. 
 
 § See an instance of this in the Kent Report, p. 59, where the bakers of 
 Deal and Dover, were thus immediately supplied with flour, which other- 
 wise might not have been practicable. 
 
12S Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 the grain, if kiln-dried, will be preserved, and rendered fit 
 for use. 9. The threshing-mill lessens the injury from 
 smutty grain, the balls of smut, not being broken, as when 
 beaten by the ’flail; and, 10. By the same machine, the 
 grain may be separated from the chaff and small seeds, as 
 well as from the straw. * Before the invention of threshing- 
 mills, farm-servants and labourers endured much drudgery ; 
 the large corn farmer, sustained much damage from bad 
 threshing ; and had much trouble, vexation, and loss, from 
 careless and wicked servants ; but now, since the introduc- 
 tion of this valuable machine, all his difficulties, in these 
 respects, are obviated. 
 
 Mr. Brown of Markle, in his Treatise on Rural Affairs, 
 has presented the following estimate of the profit that might 
 be derived by the public, were threshing-mills used in every 
 case, in this country, for separating corn from the straw. 
 He calculates, 
 
 1. The number of acres producing grain in Great Britain, at 8,000,000 
 
 2. The average produce in quarters, at 3 qrs. per acre, at 24,000,000 
 
 3. The increased quantity of grain produced by threshing-*! 
 
 mills, instead of using the flail, at one-twentieth part of > 1 ,200,000 
 
 the produce, or in quarters, at J 
 
 4. The value of that increased quantity at 40 s. per quarter 2,400,000 
 
 5. The saving in the expence of labour, at If. per quarter 1,200,000 
 
 6. The total profit per annum , to be obtained, at 3,600,000 
 
 7. The actual profit per annum , on the supposition that only ! j g 
 half of the grain produced, were threshed by machines, / ’ * 
 
 It is not then to be wondered at, that he should pronounce 
 the threshing-mill to be the most valuable implement in 
 the farmer’s possession ; contending, that it adds more to 
 the produce of the country, than any invention has hitherto 
 done ; and that it ought to be accounted, the greatest im- 
 provement that has been introduced into Great Britain, 
 during the present age*. 
 
 2. A machine has been invented for dressing, or taking 
 off the awns or spikes of barley, which is recommended as a 
 great improvement by those who have used it. Sometimes 
 it is attached to threshing-mills, and though there must be 
 some additional stress to the power by which it is moved, it 
 is but triflingf. In well-constructed threshing-mills, how- 
 ever, this operation is frequently done by the mill itself. 
 
 * The threshing-mill has been objected to, as diminishing the field for 
 labour. But those who are thus deprived of work, might be much more 
 .advantageously employed in making the farm roads. 
 
 Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, No. 6. 
 
Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 129 
 
 3. Many imperfect modes were used, in former times, for 
 separating the grain from the chaff, as by dropping it from 
 a sieve or basket, between the two doors of a barn exposed 
 to the wind ; — by throwing or easting it with shovels *, — 
 and by the common method of the fan and riddles , to 
 which was sometimes added reeing , or hand-dressing. In 
 modern times, machines have been constructed, to blow, 
 riddle, and skreen at one operation. By the use of these 
 implements, the husbandman can clean his corn at any time 
 when necessary*. Fanners, or dressing machines, have been 
 greatly improved since their first introduction, and are now 
 to be seen, not only in every corn-mill, but almost in every 
 barn, where the farm is more employed in tillage than graz- 
 ing. When annexed to threshing-mills, and properly fitted 
 up internally, with suitable riddles, and harps, or skreens, 
 corn is often rendered fit for the market, as it comes from 
 the machine}. 
 
 6. Implements for mating Hay. 
 
 The scythe, an essential implement in this operation, is 
 so well known, that it does not require to be described}. 
 
 Instead of the usual mode of tedding grass, or shaking it 
 out of the swathe, and strewing it evenly over the ground, 
 for the object of drying it expeditiously, a machine has 
 been invented, of a circular form, with spikes, by which 
 the largest crops are separated, thrown into the air, and 
 scattered about in a very perfect manner. By this means, 
 the manual labour of tedding natural grass is abridged, and 
 the work is done better and more quickly. It is not, how- 
 ever, calculated for clover, which ought to be as little shaken 
 as possible, its head and leaves being so apt to break off. 
 
 When the intention is, to stack the hay in the field in 
 which it grew, and it has been formed into large wind- 
 rows, it may then be put into what is called " a sweep,” a 
 machine made of wood, for holding the hay, by which it may 
 be dragged along the field by four horses in pairs, to the 
 
 * This useful machine, it is said, originated in China, and, along with 
 that for making pot-barley, was introduced into Scotland from Holland, 
 about a century ago, by Mr. James Meikle, father of Mr. Andrew Meikle, 
 inventor of the threshing-mill. Mr. Fletcher of Salton, sent him to Hol- 
 land for that purpose. See Farmer’s Magazine, vol. i. p. 158. 
 
 t General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 232. 
 
 + It may be proper to state, that they are variously made up, and are in 
 some places very defectively put together, for mowing smoothly, and with 
 care. In some parts of Bedfordshire, they excel in this particular. 
 
 K 
 
330 
 
 Implements of Husbandry . 
 
 place where it is to be stacked. This machine is so easily 
 and expeditiously loaded and unloaded, that it may be of 
 great use in securing the hay in precarious weather*. 
 
 7. Implements of Conveyance . 
 
 The inconvenient, tedious, and expensive modes of con- 
 veying agricultural productions, either on the backs of 
 horses, on hurdles, or on sledges, are now rarely to be met 
 with. The usual means of conveyance now are, by the cart, 
 the Irish car, the tumbril, and the waggon. 
 
 1. Carts are beyond doubt the cheapest, and also the 
 best kind of carriage for the farmer. They may be used 
 in almost any situation. In a flat country, they are evi- 
 dently preferable to any other ; and though in a hilly dis- 
 trict, some objections may be made to them, when going 
 either up or down hill, yet on the whole, no other carriage 
 can b^dragged up so easily, and means have been invented 
 by which their safe descent may be facilitated and insured. 
 By means also, of a light frame, or what is called a harvest 
 top (which may be occasionally fixed upon them), carts are 
 rendered fit for carrying a considerable quantity of corn, 
 hay, straw, or other bulky, but light articles. 
 
 It has been disputed, whether carts should have one, two, 
 or even more horses. 
 
 The arguments in favour of single-horse carts shall be 
 briefly stated, from the importance of the subject, and 
 the difficulty of surmounting the prejudices against them, 
 in those places, where larger machines have been in use. 
 
 In behalf of single-horse carts, it is contended : That they 
 are cheaper, both in regard to the original purchase, and 
 the repairs ; — that greater loads are carried per horsef ; — 
 that they are more effective in harvest than the waggon j ; — 
 that they are less liable to loss by accidents ; for if one 
 wheel of a waggon breaks down, the whole team is stopped $ 
 
 * There is a particular description of this machine, invented by John 
 Middleton, Esq. in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xiv. p. 190. 
 
 f See Annals of Agriculture, vol. xxix. p.148; where it is maintained, 
 that from 20 to 35 cwt. may be conveyed by a single horse. But a ton, or 
 even 1 6 cwt. is in general sufficient for a horse, even upon a good road, to go 
 any distance, 
 
 X Indeed, Dr. Anderson maintains, that the same number of horses, with 
 carts properly constructed, will do no more than double the work in harvest, 
 that can be done by waggons ; but were the difference only from two to 
 three days in a week, that is of immense consequence in a precarious cli- 
 mate. Dr. Anderson’s Recreations, vol. iv. p. 112. Waggons arc some- 
 times detaiued two hours in a field before they are filled. 
 
131 
 
 Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 —that the division of draught is useful, for no shill in driv- 
 ing can make all the horses in a waggon draw exactly 
 an equal share ; — that they are loaded with greater ease and 
 convenience, and are handy for almost every purpose; — 
 that the size of the wheels may be adapted with the great- 
 est nicety, to the height of the horses ; — that the load may 
 be so conveniently placed, as to lessen the draught; — that 
 in proportion to the load, the cart has less weight of car- 
 riage ; — that the power is nearer the weight drawn ; — that 
 they occupy less space when out of use, than waggons; — 
 that it is much better for the horses to act singly than con- 
 junctively, as a horse in the one case, has nothing but his 
 load to contend with, whereas in the latter, he is gene- 
 rally embarrassed by some difference in point of rate of 
 going, greater or lesser heighth, strength, temper, &c. with 
 his companion in the machine* ; and lastly, — -that single- 
 horse carts are greatly to be preferred for the preservation 
 of roadsf. % 
 
 Others maintain, that single-horse carts can only be be-f 
 neficially employed in dry weather, when the roads are 
 good; and though in such roads, one man can manage 
 two of these machines, yet, that in general, each single- 
 horse cart must have a man to drive it, which is of itself an 
 objection of great importance, more especially during the 
 harvest, when hands are scarce. 
 
 In regard to double-horse carts, many fanners are partial 
 to them, where much field labour is to be performed; and 
 where the roads are so bad, that a single-horse cart can 
 make but little progress. In drawing up steep banks, or 
 going to a great distance for lime, &c. two horses may like- 
 wise be desirable ; but such a load as two horses can draw, 
 is so heavy, that in going over a farm, the wheels sink into 
 the ground, to the great injury of the land, particularly 
 when in grass. 
 
 The practice of putting three or four horses in a cart, (as 
 is done in the neighbourhood of the metropolis), deserves 
 reprehension. When such carts are empty, they are consi- 
 
 * Lord Robert Seymour’s Paper, Annals of Agriculture, vol. xxvii. p. S37. 
 It is there maintained, that two horses singly, will do as much as three con- 
 junctively. 
 
 t Paper by Arthur Young, Esq. Annals of Agriculture, vol. xviii. p. 178. 
 In Ireland, the Scotch dray and cart, are very generally in use, the former for 
 conveying goods and merchandize, and the latter for agricultural purposes. 
 From 20 to 25 cwt.is a very common load for one horse under a dray, which 
 generally travels at the rate of 20 miles per day. — Remark by Edward Bur- 
 roughs, Esq. 
 
 K 2 
 
1 32 Implemen ts of Husbandry . 
 
 derably heavier than one horse can draw in constant work* * * § ; 
 and seldom much more than a ton is conveyed by such carts, 
 even with three or four horsesf. 
 
 Where oxen are used, it is better that they should be 
 yoked in pairs ; and Lord Somerville, with his usual zeal 
 for agricultural improvement, gave the description of a 
 drag cart for two oxen, by which they would be able to 
 draw a considerable weight, even in a hilly country!. 
 
 2. Irish cars have their advantages. They are easily 
 filled; — pass confined gateways with facility; — can be drawn 
 upon soft meadow or ploughed grounds, with little injury or 
 inconvenience ; — and the wheels being cylindrical, they are 
 much less destructive to roads. They were recommended, 
 for these reasons, by Bakewell, and the late Mr. Wilkes of 
 Measham§ ; but they do not carry such heavy weights, as 
 single-horse carts will convey||. The Irish car has, of late, 
 been much improved, having got iron axle-trees on the 
 same plan as carts^f. 
 
 3. Tumbrils with three wheels, are of use for particular 
 purposes ; as, for carrying dung, or conveying marie from a 
 pit. In the latter case they are so efficient, that Mr. Kent 
 calculates 30 per cent, might be saved by using them**. 
 
 4. Where the country is level, the roads free from ruts, 
 and the people rich, (as the brewers, distillers, and some 
 farmers of Surrey and Middlesex), they indulge in expensive 
 horses, and teams of parade and showff ; but in general, 
 these teams are but little adapted for agricultural purposes, 
 more especially for the corn or hay harvest, when expedition 
 is so essential. Heavy waggons also, are greatly to be ob- 
 jected to in hilly districts, as the wheels must be frequently 
 locked, by which the roads are ploughed up, and most es- 
 sentially injured. 
 
 8. Implements for Harnessing Stock. 
 
 Harness, or the traces, trappings, yokings, and furniture 
 of animals employed in draught, are articles of considerable 
 expence, but of great utility. If the best mode of applying 
 the power of different animals by proper ligaments, as well 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 94. 
 
 •f* Surrey Report, p. 159. — It is surprising that so prudent and intelligent 
 a people as the English did not find this out long since. — Remark by Edward 
 Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 J Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol.'ii. p. 415. 
 
 § Ibid. vol. ii. p. 417. || Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 61. 
 
 ^ Remark by Edward Burroughs, E*q. „ ** Kent’s Norfolk, p. 118. 
 
 ft Middlesex Report, p. 94. 
 
Implements of Husbandry. 133 
 
 as the materials of which they ought to be made, be taken 
 into account, it will be evident, that the subject is of more 
 importance, than farmers seem in general to be aware of. 
 Economy, however, in this article, where it does not inter- 
 fere with fitness, should be particularly adverted to* ; above 
 all, throwing away money in useless ornaments, ought to be 
 avoided. Great care ought likewise to be paid to the pre- 
 servation of the harness, as it consists of articles easily da- 
 maged, unless kept in the most perfect order. 
 
 9. Implements for Draining Land. 
 
 In the implements for this essential purpose, England 
 certainly excels. Where the ground is soft, the drains may 
 be cut with a spade ; but where it is hard, or full of stones, 
 the mattock or pick, must be made use of. The tools used 
 for hollow- draining, according to the Essex system, are ex- 
 tremely ingenious and appropriate for that purpose'. Va- 
 rious sorts of draining ploughs have been invented ; which, 
 being of a complicated construction, have seldom been used 
 with advantage. The mole plough, as it is called, is likely 
 to be of service in draining soils free from stones ; and is 
 found to be particularly useful in pasture land. These im- 
 plements shall be more fully discussed, when the subject of 
 draining is treated off. 
 
 10. Rollers. 
 
 The roller is the most valuable implement, for breaking 
 hard clods expeditiously, and smoothing the surface of the 
 land when in tillage, ever yet invented. It is likewise of use 
 to grass lands laid down for hay; and heavy rollers would 
 prevent those ant-hills, by which so many pastures are de- 
 formed J. Rollers are made of various substances ; as, wood, 
 freestone, granite, or cast-iron ; but on the whole, the two 
 latter are to be preferred. It is of importance, that the 
 weight of the roller, should be in proportion to the extent 
 of surface on which it rests, and the nature of the land on 
 which it is to operate. The best plan is, that of having two 
 rollers, each about two feet and a half in length, and both 
 
 * Anderson’s Recreations, vol. iv. p. 14. f See Chap. III. Sect. 3. 
 
 X Buckinghamshire Report, p. 114. Mr. Coke of Holkham, has a cast- 
 iron roller that cost 60/. It weighs three tons and a half. It is five feet six 
 inches in diameter, as well as in length. It leaves the grass fields in the best 
 possible order. — Young's Norfolk, p 50. 
 
134 
 
 Implements of Husbandry, 
 
 placed in one frame, so as to roll clear of one another. This 
 is the most suitable both for corn crops and sown grass, as 
 it neither tears up the tender soil, nor injures the young 
 plants, and also acts better, when any inequalities are to be 
 met with on the surface. Besides, the labour in turning is 
 much less severe on the frame, and on the cattle. Every 
 farm ought to be provided with rollers of different diameters 
 and weights, so as to suit the several purposes to which they 
 are destined; those of a small diameter are generally applied 
 to land in tillage ; and those of a large diameter, with double 
 shafts, to grass land. Heavy rollers are of great use, for 
 destroying worms, slugs, and other vermin in the soil*. 
 
 11. Dairy Implements . 
 
 The most essential implements for the dairy are : Milk- 
 dishes ; Churns ; and Cheese-shapes and Presses. 
 
 1. A number of articles have been used for holding milk, 
 as, wood, stone-ware, slate, and lead, but none of them can 
 be compared to those made of cast-iron, lately invented. 
 They are softened by annealing in charcoal, turned smooth 
 inside, and then laid over with a coat of tin, to prevent the 
 iron coming in contact with the milk, the rust of which 
 might injure it. To prevent rust also, the outside of the 
 dish is painted over. They are easily kept clean ; and pre- 
 serving a proper degree of coolness, the milk throws up 
 more cream than in wooden dishes. Nor arc they expensive ; 
 for a dish, to hold an English quart, only costs Is. 2df. 
 
 It is objected to earthen-ware dishes, that they are com- 
 monly glazed with the glass of lead, which the acid of milk 
 very readily dissolves, and thus forms a compound of a most 
 poisonous nature. But some consider this to be a refine- 
 ment, as lead itself has been used for ages, (and still is in 
 Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, &c.) without any perceptible 
 ill effect ; and milk seldom stands to be sour. 
 
 2. A variety of churns are in use. Of these, the sort 
 shaped like a barrel, is much approved of, being simple, 
 easily wrought, and capable of being made of greater or 
 
 * Essex Report, vol. i. p. 147. — The drill roller is an efficient instrument 
 for breaking down the clods of rough fallows. — Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. 
 p. 46. — The spike roller is well calculated for stony clays, and will bring 
 them into a pulverized state, at a trifling expence. By the common roller, 
 large lumps cannot be reduced, unless they are in a moist state; whereas the 
 spike roller will accomplish that object, however large or hard they may be. — > 
 Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 + Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 118. 
 
Implements oj Husbandry. 135 
 
 lesser dimensions, according to the extent of the dairy. 
 Others recommend a churn somewhat in the shape of a 
 cradle, but on a frame of wood. It is rocked regularly, not 
 faster than the pendulum of a clock ; and answers the pur- 
 pose of making butter uncommonly well*. 
 
 3. In the manufacture of cheese, the shape, (called a vot) 
 and the press, are important articles. The best kind of 
 shape is that made of cast-iron ; and the kind of press most 
 esteemed is, that which is made of granite. Large hewn 
 stones, lifted by a screw, are advantageously used for pressing 
 cheesef . 
 
 12. Miscellaneous Articles. 
 
 A variety of small implements for the barn, for the stables, 
 and for the other offices, are necessary ; but do not require 
 any particular enumeration. There are four machines, 
 however, of greater importance than the rest, and of them 
 Nsome account may be given : 1. The straw-cutter; 2. The 
 turnip-slicer ; 3. The bruising machine for beans, pease, 
 or oats ; and, 4. The weighing engine. 
 
 1. Machines for cutting straw or hay, are certainly of use 
 in preventing waste, and preparing coarse food, as straw, 
 fo.r horses or cattle. These machines, till of late, were se- 
 parate, and the work was executed by manual labour ; but 
 the purposes of the cutter are more effectually accomplished, 
 when it is annexed to any machine, as a threshing-mill, 
 driven by water, by wind, or by cattle. 
 
 2. Machines have also been invented for slicing turnips 
 or potatoes, to be given to stock. In regard to the latter, 
 however, steaming, boiling, or bakingj, seems to be pre- 
 ferable. — There is something injurious in the juices of the 
 potatoe in a raw state, which cooking eradicates, or great 
 
 * There is an engraving of this implement in the Appendix, Plate IV. It 
 was first heard of at the Board of Agriculture from Wales. Doctor Skene 
 Keith, since states, that it has been used in Aberdeenshire for these forty 
 years past. In Lambert’s Travels through Lower Canada, and the United 
 States of America, (printed in London an. 1810), vol. ii. p. 109, the fol- 
 lowing account is given of the American cradle churn : ** At a farmer’s 
 near Lake Champlain, we saw a machine for churning butter. It was a 
 kind of half barrel, with a place where one of the farmer’s sons sat astride as 
 on horseback. The machine moving up and down, answered the double 
 purpose of a churn for making butter, and a rocking-horse for his children.” 
 
 t Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 56 . 
 
 X In the Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 296 , 
 there is an account of Mr. Pierrepont’s mode of baking potatoes, and an 
 engraving of the oven. The plan answers so well, that even large oxen are 
 fattened on them, when thus prepared. 
 
136 
 
 implements of Husbandry. 
 
 heat dispels. How far the increased value of the steamed 
 food, will compensate for the expence, has not yet been 
 ascertained. 
 
 3. Bruising beans, pease, or oats, for the feeding of horses, 
 is a practice much to be recommended 5 it having been found 
 by experience, that by feeding horses with bruised grain, 
 seven bushels, will go at least as far as eight of the same 
 quality given whole*. This saving is at all times an object 
 of importance, but more especially in times of scarcity. 
 
 4. A weighing machine is, certainly, to farmers, an ex- 
 pensive article ; but where it can be afforded, it is of much 
 consequence, more especially to those who fatten stock. 
 Indeed without it, no farmer can ascertain the progressive 
 weight of any particular animal which he feeds ; — nor the 
 value of the articles that he uses; — nor the return that stock 
 make for their food. It is otherwise all guess-work ; and 
 many vague assertions have been circulated as truths, which 
 have afterwards been found erroneous, when the experiments 
 were made with accuracyf. 
 
 A variety of other machines are to be found in the pos- 
 session of agricultural societies, who very properly patronise 
 every new invention that promises to be useful ; though few 
 of them can be employed by the farmer, with real profit. 
 Indeed, when these machines are complicated, though they 
 may succeed in the hands of an ingenious artist, yet they 
 can seldom be used with advantage, by the ordinary class of 
 labourers. 
 
 There are four additional points which remain to be con- 
 sidered on the subject of implements: 1. The materials of 
 which they ought to be made ; 2. The means of repair- 
 ing and preserving them ; 3. The propriety of introducing 
 new implements in a district ; and, 4. The means of im- 
 proving their construction. 
 
 1. Agricultural machines were formerly made almost en- 
 tirely of wood ; but now, in many instances, they are con- 
 structed either in whole, or in part, of hammered, or of cast 
 iron. The rapid extension of the great improvements made 
 in the plough, by Small, were chiefly owing to his getting a 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 248. The calculations of Ed- 
 ward Burroughs, Esq. go still farther. He is confident, after the experience 
 of four years, that he lias saved one-third of corn, in the quantity, which 
 his horses would have otherwise consumed, had it been given then> un- 
 broken. 
 
 t Mr. Salmon, of Woburn, has invented a portable machine for weighing 
 oxen, at from 2 51. to SO/. — Halfords hire Report , p. 215. 
 
Implements of Husbandry. 137 
 
 mould-board* * * § , and oilier parts of his plough, cast in iron, 
 from patterns in wood ; and plough-makers being thus fur- 
 nished, with an approved model, of the most difficult parts 
 of the plough, were soon enabled to put the rest together, 
 and to spread the same improved instrument all over Scot- 
 land!. The use of iron will probably, in many other in- 
 stances, supersede that of wood. It is peculiarly well cal- 
 culated for hot and dry climates, being inaccessible to the 
 attacks of insects. It may, indeed, be observed, that though 
 implements in constant use, may be made either totally, or 
 partly of wood, those which are only occasionally employed, 
 should, if possible, be made of iron, as, when the season is 
 over, they are apt to be negligently laid by, and if made of 
 wood, suffer much injury! . 
 
 2. Every careful farmer, will lay it down as a rule, to 
 have an inventory of all his implements, and other articles 
 therewith connected ; and frequently to inspect them, so 
 that when any part of them is observed to be in the least 
 damaged, or in danger of giving way, it may be imme- 
 diately repaired. An implement, likewise, that is not longer 
 wanted during the season, ought not only to be carefully 
 laid up; but before it is put aside, it should be well cleaned, 
 rendered perfectly dry, oiled, or, if made of iron, painted, 
 and kept so as to be ready for use when wanted. No cir- 
 cumstance marks more the character of an attentive husband- 
 man, than great attention to his farming implements. Upon 
 every farm, also, there ought to be one or more places, 
 properly constructed, for holding the larger implements; 
 and some secure place allotted, for containing the smaller 
 tools. Where machines are necessarily exposed in the field 
 a great part of the season, they require to be new painted, 
 at least every second year. This defends them, not only 
 from drought, but also from rain and rust§. 
 
 3. The introduction of new implements into a district, 
 is often a matter of great difficulty, owing to the ignorance, 
 the prejudices, and the obstinacy of farm-servants and 
 labourers. Many farmers, therefore, very absurdly retain 
 
 * Called also the plough-car, — earth-board, — plat,— wrest, &c. &c. 
 
 f Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, No. 5, p. 28. Some direc- 
 tions for cutting down, and preparing wood for agricultural machinery, 
 extracted from Lord Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer, will be found in the 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 251. 
 
 \ In laying by a plough, the share should always be knocked off, and the 
 head , or bottom, cleaned from earth. 
 
 § Coventry’s Discourses, p. 49. General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 252. 
 
138 
 
 Farm Buildings and Cottages . 
 
 their old implements, though convinced of their inferiority, 
 rather than sour the temper of their labourers, by attempting 
 to introduce new ones. In several cases, however* by at- 
 tention, perseverance, and by rewarding those servants who 
 have been induced to give the new machines a fair trial, 
 they have succeeded in the attempt. 
 
 4. The importance of proper implements is such, that the 
 melioration of those in use, would be an essential advantage 
 to agriculture ; and great as are the mechanical improve- 
 ments which have been already made, many of them are 
 capable of being brought to still greater perfection. Persons 
 of genius and experience, therefore, ought to be encouraged, 
 to devote their time and attention to this important object ; 
 and to exert themselves, either to improve the various sorts 
 of implements now in use, on scientific principles, or in the 
 invention of superior ones, as circumstances may require. 
 The discovery of an useful implement, by which the labours 
 of agriculture can be abridged, or brought to a still higher 
 degree of perfection, and the expence of cultivation, at the 
 same time, diminished, cannot be too much encouraged, as 
 likely to prove of essential service, both to the farmer, and 
 to the public. It is calculated indeed, that an immense ad- 
 vantage would accrue, from even the general adoption of 
 the improved implements now in use in particular districts. 
 Mr. Curwen is of opinion, that the farmers in the southern 
 counties of England, lose at the rate of 25 per cent, by the 
 heavy carts and waggons they employ* ; and there can be 
 no doubt, that the introduction of two-horse ploughs and 
 threshing-machines, where these implements are unknown, 
 would lessen the expence of labour, at least 10 per cent, 
 more. 
 
 Sect. VIII. — Farm Buildings, and Cottages connected 
 therewith . 
 
 The agricultural prosperity of a district, depends, in a 
 considerable degree, on the condition of farm-houses, and 
 offices, and of the cottages in which the labourers reside. 
 This cannot be too much inculcated. The health and hap- 
 piness of those employed in husbandry require, that they 
 should have a comfortable habitation to retire to, when their 
 
 Curwcn’s Report, p. 77. 
 
Farm Buildings and Cottages. 139 
 
 labours are over. In arable farms also, it is of much advan- 
 tage, to have a set of substantial and well-arranged offices, 
 adequate to the size of the farm, and suitable to the system 
 of husbandry adopted in it, without which, the servants 
 cannot do their work properly the cattle cannot be ex- 
 pected to thrive ; — nor can any operation in husbandry he 
 carried on with the same success, as when such accommo- 
 dations are provided*. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is proposed briefly to con- 
 sider ; — the general principles on which agricultural build- 
 ings ought to be erected ; — the proper position of a farm- 
 house and its offices; — The construction of the house itself; 
 — The arrangement of the offices y — Their construction ; — 
 Out-buildings where necessary ; — The accommodations re- 
 quired by the farm-servants and labourers ; — By whom 
 the farm buildings ought to be erected ; — How they ought 
 to be kept in repair; — and how insured. 
 
 1. General rules for the construction of Farm Buildings.— 
 In constructing farm-buildings, the following rules ought 
 to be attended to. 
 
 Though a circle contains most space, within the smallest 
 possible inclosure, yet, with few exceptions, it is the least 
 adapted for subdivision, and the most expensive in execu- 
 tion ; while the square and the parallelogram, will be found 
 the least costly, and the most commodious. 
 
 In low buildings, where the roof and joisting are the most 
 expensive articles, the oblong form will be preferable, par- 
 ticularly when such a form is, in other respects, best adapted 
 to the purposes required. 
 
 The cheapest buildings are those whose plan is contained 
 within four straight lines. All projections add consider- 
 ably to the expence, by the extra corners, breaks in the 
 roof, &c.f 
 
 To prevent as much as possible the spreading of fire, it 
 is highly important, to have all the cross division walls, in 
 any range of buildings, carried up through the roof, and 
 coped above the covering. 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 125. Surrey Report, p. 78. 
 
 f In the Bedfordshire Report, (p. 20), there are two plans of houses, of 
 equal area, one square, the expence estimated at 733/. and the other octa- 
 gonal, at 671/. but except where the houses are very wide, or where wood 
 is very dear, the square shape is reckoned the most economical. It may not 
 be improper to add, that in preparing lime for plastering the inside of a 
 house, it should, when quick, be immersed in hot water, instead of cold, 
 which rarifies the air in every particle of the lime, makes it softer to work, 
 and prevents it entirely from blistering. 
 
140 Farm Buildings and Cottages. 
 
 Farm buildings should be planned according to the size, 
 and the produce of the farm. Grazing and hay farms need 
 few offices ; a dairy farm requires more ; while an arable 
 one, notwithstanding the invention of the threshing-mill, 
 which contributes to render many large barns unnecessary, 
 must have very numerous accommodations. 
 
 Although in buildings of an agricultural description, 
 economy in their execution is an essential point, yet even 
 in these, a person of taste and judgment, will always en- 
 deavour to arrange them, so as to give them a good ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 2. Position of the House and Offices . — The first object, 
 when a new set of farm buildings is to be erected, is to fix on 
 a proper situation, which ought to be as nearly as possible 
 in the centre of the farm, more especially if it be arable. 
 Nothing can be more preposterous, than to continue the 
 old system, of having the farm-houses placed in villages, 
 totally detached from the farm ; a plan which originated, 
 from the want of domestic security in feudal times, or the 
 dread of foreign invasion. In many cases, a centrical si- 
 tuation, according to the size of the farm, and other local 
 circumstances, makes a very considerable difference in point 
 of rent. Indeed, if the houses and offices are placed at the 
 corner of a large farm, a part of the land will probably be 
 neglected; — less manure will be sent to it; — the expence 
 of cultivation will be materially increased ; — the strength of 
 the horses will uselessly be wasted in going backwards and 
 forwards ; — and the remote parts of the farm, will be left in 
 a state of miserable pasturage ; or, when occasionally broken 
 up, the crops will necessarily be inferior to what they 
 would have been, under a different system*. 
 
 It is sometimes assigned as a reason, for not having the 
 farm-houses and offices in a central situation, that at another 
 part of the farm, a better command of water can be pro- 
 cured, for family use, and for the farm stock, or for driving 
 a threshing- mill, by which a great saving in the labour of 
 horses is secured. That, however, is only an exception to 
 the general rule, for it may be laid down as an axiom, 
 “ That the Jarm- house and offices ought to be placed, as 
 
 * It is much to be lamented, that the old mode of open-field tillage, and 
 collecting all the farm-steads of the neighbourhood, into one spot, should 
 still continue in many parts of England. Where this miserable system is 
 persevered in, all the corn must be carted into the village, and all the ma- 
 nure carted back, sometimes up and down steep hills, with immense labour, 
 and an increased wear and tear of the stock and implements. 
 
141 
 
 Farm Buildings and Cottages. 
 
 nearly as possible, in the centre of a farm.” Even if water 
 be deficient, it may usually be obtained, by various con- 
 trivances to be afterwards explained ; (see Sect. IX.) and in 
 general, any difficulty of this kind, may be overcome, upon 
 a large estate, by a new arrangement of the farms. 
 
 Where the circumstances of the case admit of it, the 
 farm-house should front the south ; for by this means it is 
 less exposed to the cold northerly winds. The farm-stead 
 should be placed on a well-aired and dry spot of ground, 
 and, if it can be had, an elevated situation is always pre- 
 ferable. This is not only the most conducive to health, 
 but an advantage of considerable importance is obtained ; 
 namely, it puts it in the power of the farmer, to see what 
 is going forward in every direction* * * § . Where the house, on 
 the other hand, is built in a low and humid spot, the crops 
 of the occupier, however dry and well-conditioned when 
 brought from the field, will soon acquire a softness, and 
 perhaps mustiness, very injurious to their valuef. In erect- 
 ing farm-houses in bleak climates, shelter at the same time, 
 is not to be overlooked, for young stock thrive better in 
 warm-yards, than in exposed places ; and in such climates, 
 it is prudent, to guard as much as possible against tem- 
 pests;);. 
 
 3. Construction of the Farm House . — The propriety of 
 having suitable accommodations for the farmer, his family, 
 and his servants, in proportion to the rent he pays, need not 
 be dwelt upon. In the construction of the dwelling-house, 
 utility, and not ornament, ought principally to be kept in 
 view; castellated farm-houses, for instance, are evidently 
 absurd and incongruous. At the same time, every landlord 
 of taste, in fixing on the site and plan of a new farm-house 
 and offices, ought certainly not entirely to overlook the em- 
 bellishment of the country. It is disputed, whether the 
 house ought to have either wings, or a lean-to behind, or 
 whether the whole should not be under one roof. Many 
 think that a house of three stories, the kitchen half sunk, 
 is the driest, the cheapest, and the most convenient. 
 Others prefer, having the kitchen in a wing, attached to the 
 house, which, on the whole, is to be recommended§. 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 20. 
 
 f Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. i. p.46. 
 
 + Kent’s Norfolk, p. 112. 
 
 § In exposed situations, where no part of the house is intended to be 
 shaded from the western sun by an adjoining building, the house should 
 front the south, and the south-west angle should be extended to contain the 
 
142 Farm Buildings and Cottages . 
 
 A farm-house ought not only to be convenient, but should 
 have such a degree of neatness and uniformity, that an idea 
 of comfort and happiness may be given. It should have a 
 little plot of garden ground or shrubbery either before, or 
 behind it. In the latter case, it is placed more distant 
 from the effluvia of the dunghill. In the former, the offices, 
 servants, and cattle, are more immediately in sight. The 
 windows should be large, and the sashes should be placed 
 rather nearer the outside of the wall, than is usual ; because, 
 if wet, they will, in that case, sooner become dry. The 
 house should be at a moderate distance from the offices, not 
 only for the sake of purer air, but that the risk of setting the 
 offices on fire, by sparks from the chimnies of the house, 
 may be avoided*. This is another argument for having the 
 garden between the house and the farm-yard. 
 
 4. Arrangement of the Offices . — The proper arrangement 
 of farm offices, when first built, is of essential consequence, 
 for any blunder committed in this respect, can seldom after- 
 wards be remedied. Peculiarities in the situation, such as 
 a run of water for turning a threshing-mill, declivity of 
 ground, &c. will occasion a variety in the arrangement ; 
 but that set of offices, can alone be said to be laid out to the 
 best advantage, where the buildings are so placed, as to 
 carry on the business of the farm in the most economical 
 manner. Thus, easy access from the stack-yard to the 
 barn; — from the barn to the granary; — the proximity of 
 the straw-house, and turnip store-room, to the feeding- 
 houses, straw-yards, &c. a ready access from the road to 
 the cart-sheds, farm-stables, and other offices ; — together 
 with proper shelter and exposure, constitute the chief re- 
 quisites in the arrangement. By arranging the offices pro- 
 perly, more labour can be obtained from the servants, while 
 every operation on the farm, is carried on with more facility 
 and dispatch. 
 
 5. Construction of the Offices . — Nothing is more injudi- 
 cious, than to have farm buildings huddled together, round 
 so small an area, as from 60 to 70 feet. Where a farm con- 
 tains from 300 to 600 acres, the area of the offices should 
 not be less than from 100 to 150 feet square, formed into 
 divisions, that the stock kept may be more equally fed. If 
 
 kitchen, leaving a passage, or common entrance, west, between the 
 kitchen and parlour. In this case the dairy and cellar, larder and store- 
 room, may be commodiously shaded from the south and west, and thorough- 
 air may be obtained from the passage. 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol, i. p. 7. 
 
143 
 
 Farm Buildings and Cottages . 
 
 it be found expensive to surround the square with buildings, 
 a simple wall may afford shelter, till it is found convenient 
 to enlarge the farm-yard. In fact, none but a practical 
 farmer, who has had a large crop, and a number of cattle 
 maintained during the winter, and who has seen the farm- 
 servants, carelessly driving the cattle and carts in confined 
 court-yards, can fully appreciate the advantages of having 
 his offices with a large area. 
 
 Though farm-offices should afford ample convenience to 
 the occupier, for carrying on his business, yet all superfluous 
 buildings ought to be cautiously avoided. Those enormous 
 barns, usually attached to many English farms, are on that 
 account exceptionable ; for grain in the straw, keeps infi- 
 nitely better in the open air, than in close barns ; and when 
 it is put in stacks, it is less apt to be destroyed by vermin, 
 there is less risk of fire doing great damage, and the ex- 
 pence of repairing, as well as constructing great barns, is 
 saved*. Threshing-mills, when generally introduced, will 
 render the erecting, and the supporting such buildings un- 
 necessary. 
 
 6. Out- buildings . — In large farms, cattle-sheds, and other 
 buildings, are often necessary at a distance from the house. 
 The carting of green crops to the central set of offices, and 
 conveying back the manure to remote fields, are attended 
 with such great inconvenience, and such ruinous expences, 
 that it is highly expedient, to have cattle-sheds dispersed over 
 every part of an extensive occupation, and sometimes even 
 extra barns are requisite. 
 
 7. Accommodation for Farm Servants and Labourers . — 
 The habitations of labourers employed in husbandry, consist 
 either of cottages attached to farms, for the accommodation 
 of the servants employed in them, or the houses of day- 
 labourers. They constitute a description of buildings pe- 
 culiarly interesting, from their belonging to such valuable 
 classes of the community. 
 
 In regard to the houses of farm-servants, they should be 
 situated at a convenient distance from the offices, and have 
 a small garden {Attached to each of them. In the improved 
 districts of Scotland, married servants are commonly per- 
 mitted to have cows and pigs ; and where their cows are not 
 kept with those of their master, in the cow-house of the 
 
 * To large barns there are many objections. If com is damp, when put 
 in a barn, it is more liable to heat and settle, and more difficult to turn 
 over. Indeed in a late and wet climate, where corn can hardly keep in a 
 stack, it is infatuation to put it in a barn .— Curwens Report , p. 84. 
 
144 Farm Buildings and Cottages. 
 
 farm, sheds are placed for them, either against the back 
 wall, or at the end of the range of cottages where these ser- 
 vants reside* * * § . The cottages of day-labourers in Scotland, 
 are of a similar description with those of the farmer’s ser - 
 vants ; but in England, they are often constructed with pe- 
 culiar neatness and attention. 
 
 Cottages are built either with two floors, or with only one. 
 The former mode is very general in England, the latter is 
 more prevalent in Scotland, being supposed warmer, and 
 less liable to have the roofs damaged by the violent winds 
 so frequent in that country. 
 
 For the sake of economy, cottages are usually erected in 
 a line, by which mode, one gable answers for two cottages. 
 The inhabitants of cottages, also, when they are contiguous, 
 can furnish assistance to each other, in cases of accident or 
 sickness. 
 
 Wherever there are quarries of thin flat stonesf, and ma- 
 terials for common roofs are dear, cottages with arched roofs 
 have been recommended^. They are not only dry, warm, 
 and comfortable, but, when once erected, likely to last for 
 ages§. Where slates cannot be obtained at a low price, a 
 coat of Roman cement, plastered over the arched roof, -will 
 preserve the building equally dry and durable||. 
 
 Where cottages have upper chambers, and thin roofs of 
 tile or slate, they are so excessively hot in summer, and so 
 very cold in winter, as to be scarcely habitable. If there 
 are upper chambers, therefore, some arc inclined to prefer a 
 thatched roof^. Were it not for the tax on bricks, arched 
 roofs might be made of them, at a moderate expence, and 
 not liable to any particular objection. 
 
 8. By whom Farm Buildings ought to be erected . — The 
 value of an estate is so considerably augmented, by commo- 
 dious buildings, that the owner, who has a permanent inte- 
 rest in the soil, ought to be at the expence of making so 
 substantial an improvement. But this cannot in some 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 128. 
 
 f Thin flat stones employed in a roof, are much improved, by the prac- 
 tice adopted in Dumfries-shire, of painting over with coal-tar, or coftl-oil. 
 A covering that was almost useless in a moist climate, is thus rendered im- 
 pervious to water ; and straw roofs being thence rendered unnecessary, a 
 great addition is made to the dunghill . — Dumfriesshire Report , Appendix, 
 p. 507. 
 
 I In Monmouthshire, they build two cottages, one above another, and 
 the lower one is arched. — Report , p. 28. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 130. 
 
 || Remark by Mr. Middleton. U Middlesex Report, p. 41. 
 
145 
 
 Farm Buildings and Cottages . 
 
 eases be effected, where the estate is entailed, and the land- 
 lord has only a life-interest in the property. Sometimes 
 the tenant has a greater command of ready money than the 
 landlord, and he generally can lay it out with more econo- 
 my, and to more advantage. In such a case, it may be ad- 
 visable for both parties, to arrange a plan, by which the 
 buildings are to be erected at the expence of the tenant, the 
 farm being let at a rent proportionably lower, according to 
 the extent of the buildings required. In other cases, when 
 the tenant undertakes the construct ion of the farm buildings, 
 the landlord agrees to make an allowance of the first, the 
 second, and in some cases, even the third year's rent, for 
 that purpose. 
 
 Many an industrious farmer, however, has got the charac- 
 ter of being a bad husbandman, from having been unguard- 
 edly led, to exhaust his capital so much on buildings, as to 
 disable him from applying an adequate proportion of it, to 
 the purchase of proper stock, or to the cultivation of the 
 soil. And it may be laid down as a maxim, that though a 
 farmer is well entitled to accommodations, in proportion to 
 the size and produce of his farm, yet to erect these, on a 
 larger scale than circumstances require, is wasteful prodi- 
 gality. Above all, increasing the expence, by making or- 
 namental erections, cannot be too cautiously avoided. It 
 ought to be considered, that the repair of buildings upon a 
 farm, is a heavy burden upon an occupier during his lease, 
 and especially at its conclusion, when he is necessarily 
 obliged to put the whole in a good condition. A farmer, 
 without doubt, is entitled to comfortable and convenient 
 buildings, if they are not upon the premises when he enters 
 into the farm ; but in their erection, a prudent economy 
 ought never to be neglected*. 
 
 9. By whom the Farm-houses and Offices ought to be kept 
 in Repair. — The repairs may be done, 1. By the landlord; 
 2. By the tenant ; or, 3. At their joint expence. 
 
 1. When the landlord is to support the buildings, there 
 is often too little attention paid by the tenapt to trifling re- 
 pairs, which would frequently save much greater charges 
 afterwards. When they are chiefly done at the cost of the 
 landlord, they are estimated, on an average, at 10 per cent, 
 of the rent, including materialsf . They are in some cases, 
 however, so enormous, that on one estate, where the rent 
 
 f Kent’s Norfolk Report, p. Ilf, • 
 L 
 
 Coventry’s Discourses, p. 52. 
 
14G Farm Buildings and Cottages . 
 
 was 15,000/. a year, they amounted, in eleven years, to 
 40,000 1* * * § 
 
 2. The repairs of farm-houses and offices, in the greater 
 part of Scotland, are usually done by the tenantf. It is 
 a great addition to the incomes of the Scotch proprietors, to 
 be exonerated from so heavy a charge, and it is not found 
 to be attended with any material loss to the tenant. The 
 buildings, at least in the more improved districts of Scotland, 
 arc, in general, substantial, which the climate renders ne- 
 cessary ; and the materials being good, the houses are more 
 easily supported. 
 
 In Ireland, very little attention has hitherto been paid 
 to render farm-houses or offices either comfortable, or com- 
 modious. There are but few instances of landed proprie- 
 tors having made any allowance for improvements, and 
 much fewer, of the tenant being remunerated for any ne- 
 cessary or useful expenditure. The tenant is thus incapaci- 
 tated from turning his farm to the greatest profit, when he is 
 obliged to expend, perhaps a large part of his capital, un- 
 connected with the improvement of the soil J- 
 
 3. Some persons think, that the tenant should be at half 
 the expences of workmen’s wages, (which would interest 
 him in the preservation of the buildings), and that the land- 
 lord should furnish materials, and be at the remainder of the 
 expence§. Others recommend, that the materials should 
 be provided, and the repairs done by the tenant, at the joint 
 and equal expence of himself and his landlord. It is rather 
 more usual for the landlord, to put the buildings into a proper 
 state of repair, at the tenant’s entry ; and for the tenant, (who 
 is frequently furnished with rough timber for that purpose), 
 to leave them in that state at his departure. 
 
 The engraving (No. I.) will give a general idea of the ar- 
 rangement best calculated for the interest of the farmer, in 
 regard to his house, gardens, cottages for his farm-servants, 
 farm-offices, and stack-yard. To enter into details, would 
 far exceed the limited size of this publication. 
 
 10. Insurance of Farm Buildings . — This is a material ob- 
 ject both for the iandlord and tenant ; and a stipulation to 
 
 * Suffolk Report, p. lO. In England, the expence of erecting or re- 
 pairing farm-houses and offices, is in general regulated by the custom of the 
 estate. If the landlord finds materials, it is not without stint or controul ; 
 and if the tenant is bound to pay the labour, he cannot be compelled to 
 erect large and unnecessary buildings, against his will. 
 
 + Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 26. 
 
 I Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 § Kent’s Norfolk, p. 116. 
 
Command oj Water. 
 
 147 
 
 that, effect ought to be inserted in every lease. As it is at- 
 tended with trouble and expence to the tenant, to be annu- 
 ally going to insurance offices, it is better that the landlord, 
 should insure all the buildings on his estate, which might 
 be included in one general policy, and probably at a cheaper 
 rate. Means should also be taken, to preserve the buildings 
 from the effects of lightning* * * § . 
 
 Sect. IX . — Command of Water . 
 
 Those who have a command of good water, can have no 
 conception of the miseries which attend the want of it ; or 
 which are experienced, when this necessary article, can only 
 be had in small quantities, or of inferior quality. In the low 
 districts of Lincolnshire, the water is almost every where 
 brackish, and good river, or spring-water, is in such request, 
 that carts are sent for it, in some cases, as far as even six- 
 teen, or seventeen milesf. In the Wolds of Yorkshire, 
 there are instances still in recollection, before the improved 
 mode of making artificial ponds was discovered, of num- 
 bers of animals having perished of thirst J ; and in Hamp- 
 shire, from the long continuance of dry weather, during 
 the autumnal months, the wells became so exhausted, that 
 great labour and expence were incurred, in supplying the 
 family and the stock, by means of water-carts§. To avoid 
 the risk of such serious misfortunes, it was anciently the 
 practice, for the conveniency of having water, to erect 
 farm-buildings in low grounds, near brooks or rivers. This 
 plan, however, was attended with several disadvantages. 
 The house became damp ; the grain, from the moisture of 
 the atmosphere, was frequently injured, and, from the vi- 
 cinity of the water, accidents of various descriptions fre- 
 
 * For this purpose, it is recommended by Professor Jameson qf Edinburgh, 
 that an iron or copper rod, three quarters of an inch in thickness, and 
 
 pointed at both extremities, should be placed so, that the top fhall project 
 over the highest part of the building, and the lower end to ga below the 
 house, and be connected with the nearest piece of water. All the metallic 
 parts of the roof should be connected with the rod, and as chimnies, owing 
 to the charcoal and soot they contain, are good conductors, the rod should 
 be placed near them, but always higher. 
 
 T Lincolnshire Report, p. 16. J East Riding Report, p. 218. 
 
 § Hants Report, p. 48. The scarcity was so great, that it was said, 
 u There is more strong beer than water within the boundaries of the 
 parish." 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 Command of Water . 
 
 quently occurred* * * § . When the advantages, therefore, of 
 having a house and offices in the centre of the farm, and 
 rather on an elevated situation, came to be generally un- 
 derstood and admitted, various modes of obtaining a supply 
 of so essential an article as water, were devised. The chief 
 are, 1. From the roofs of the buildings; 2. Natural 
 springs; 3. Wells; 4. Artificial ponds; or 5. Artificial 
 rills. 
 
 1. Roofs of Buildings . — Water for common purposes, 
 may be obtained in most situations, by collecting the rain 
 which falls upon the buildings occupied by the family and 
 their cattle; and the means of freeing it from every impu- 
 rity, are simple and easyf. The buildings and yards of a 
 farm, are supposed to receive rain sufficient, if duly col- 
 lected, to supply both the family and the cattle of the place, 
 for a considerable part of the year ; and ponds, where ne- 
 cessary, may be made in any situation, at a very small ex- 
 pence, for the remainder. Cattle, therefore, ought not to 
 be driven to water beyond the limits of their pasture ; and 
 it is not requisite to be fetched in carts from distant places J. 
 
 2. Natural Springs . — Where natural springs are to be 
 met with, they will generally furnish a sufficient supply for 
 family use ; but they are seldom adequate to the necessities 
 of a great farming establishment. If sufficient attention, 
 therefore, has not been paid to the collecting of water from 
 the roofs of the farm-buildings, in that case wells, or ponds, 
 must be resorted to§. 
 
 3. Wells . — In Middlesex and Surrey, they have dug wells 
 to a considerable depth, (from 100 to above 5G0 feet), be- 
 
 * Shropshire Report, p. 29; Bedfordshire Report, p. 19; Worcestershire 
 Report, p. 20. How preposterous, to erect farm-buildings and barn-yards, 
 in low, marshy and boggy spots, fit only for the resort of frogs and wild 
 ducks . — Communications to the Board of Agriculture , vol. i. p. 44. 
 
 t It may be done by two water butts, placed on different vessels for fil- 
 trating the water by ascent. From the filter, it should be conveyed to a tanji 
 under ground, and there it may be preserved for use. When any of this 
 water is wanted, it must be raised by a pump, as is usual in the case of a 
 well. Those who live in countries abounding with water, have no concep- 
 tion of the importance of such hints, to districts inadequately supplied with 
 that essential article. 
 
 % Remark by Mr. Middleton. See an instance of roof-water being col- 
 lected . — Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p. 14. 
 
 § There are few springs like that of St. Winifred in Flintshire, which, 
 according to an accurate experiment, emits water at the rate of 120 tons a 
 minute, and in the short space of one mile and 274 yards, is the agent by 
 which eleven mills, of complex machinery, are driven. — North IF ales Re- 
 port, p. 75. 
 
Command of Water . 
 
 149 
 
 fore they could procure water*. In Essex they have been 
 obliged to go as deep as 500 feet, to obtain water of a good 
 quality, and, at that depth, they succeeded. In Hampshire 
 they have likewise dug ♦from 300 to 400 feet in depth, 
 through dry, cracked, or fissured chalk rock, and thus have 
 been able to supply whole villages with water, except during 
 the autumnal droughtsf. 
 
 4. Artificial Ponds . — In several parts of England, as in 
 Hampshire, in Lincolnshire, and in Norfolk};, artificial 
 ponds have been formed with varied skill and success. In 
 Gloucestershire, such ponds are made, either of a square 
 or a circular shape, and generally so situated, as to furnish 
 a supply to four fields. Three layers of clay, free from the 
 smallest stone or gravel, are so worked in, as to form an 
 impenetrable cement. The whole is afterwards covered 
 with sand, and finished with pavement§. In Derbyshire, 
 artificial meers, or cattle ponds, are made in their dry rocky 
 pastures, with great success. Having selected a low situa- 
 tion for the purpose, they deepen it ten or twenty yards 
 across, and spread over the whole excavation a layer, about 
 five inches thick, of refuse slacked lime and coal cinders ; 
 then they spread, trample, and ram down, a stratum of well- 
 tempered clay, about four inches thick ; and upon this they 
 place a second bed of clay, in a similar manner, of the same 
 thickness j the whole of the bottom and edges of the meer, is 
 then paved with rubble stones ; and small rubble stones, 
 several inches thick, are spread upon the pavement||. 
 
 A most ingenious, as well as economical mode of making 
 reservoirs of water, was invented about the year 1775, by 
 Robert Gardener, a well-sinker by profession, born at Kil- 
 ham, in the East Riding of Yorkshire. Prior to the intro- 
 duction of his plan of making artificial ponds, many parts 
 of the Yorkshire Wolds were scarcely habitable. But by 
 the ingenuity and exertions of one individual, the difficulties 
 which lay in the way of the improvement of an extensive 
 district, have been removed^. They are now universally to 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 34, note; Surrey Report, p. 70. — Lord Spencer’s 
 well at Wimbledon, is 563 feet deep. — Manning's History of Surrey , vol. iii. 
 p. 272. — Aikin’s Hist, of the Environs of London, 1 vol. 4to. printed an. 
 1811, p. 127. 
 
 f Hants Report, p. 48. 
 
 t Hants Report, p. 47; Lincolnshire Report, p. 17; Norfolk Report, 
 p. 15. 
 
 § Gloucestershire Report, p. 31. Some ponds at Holkham, done in the 
 Gloucestershire fashion, cost 28/. each. 
 
 || Derbyshire Report, vol. i. p. 494. 
 
 If East Riding Report, p. 218. 
 
150 
 
 Command of Water . 
 
 be met with in the East Riding, and are widely extended 
 into the North Riding, in situations that require such ac- 
 commodations*. A description of this useful discovery will 
 be given in the Appendix, No. III. 
 
 Ponds are much more eligible than wells, for watering 
 stock, the water being considered wholesomer, and much 
 labour being saved. Few servants like the trouble of 
 drawing water from wells. When stock, therefore, depend 
 upon water from wells, they are likely to have too much 
 water at one time, and to be ill supplied at another. Ponds 
 for stock, are best situated on elevated situations, being 
 then less apt to be injured by dirt running into themf. 
 
 5. Artificial Rills . — In the North Riding of Yorkshire, 
 there is a tract, extending for many miles, entirely destitute 
 of water, except what flows along the bottoms of the deep 
 valleys by which it is intersected, and little relief could 
 consequently be aft'orded by streams thus distantly and in- 
 conveniently situated, to the inhabitants of the uplands, or 
 their cattle. About the year 1 770, a person of the name of 
 Ford, devised the means of watering this district, by means 
 of rills brought from the springs that break out at the foot 
 of the still loftier moorland hills, that run parallel to, and 
 to the north of this tract, in some instances at the distance 
 of about ten miles. 
 
 These springs he collected into one channel, which he 
 carried, in a winding direction, about the intervening tract, 
 according to its level, and along the sides of the valleys, 
 until he gained the summit of the arid country which he 
 wished to supply with water; and when this was accom- 
 plished, the water was easily conveyed to the places desired, 
 and also to the ponds in all the fields, over a considerable 
 tract of ground. 
 
 The plan of thus watering a dry upland country, has 
 much merit. It is not expensive, the original charge rarely 
 exceeding 100/. per rill, while it affords a most important 
 accommodation to the occupier, and the value of the pro- 
 perty is thereby greatly increased. Though not generally 
 applicable, this plan might certainly be adopted, with great 
 advantage, in some other situations^. 
 
 It remains to state, how farm-yards and fields, may best 
 be supplied with water, in the abundance that is necessary. 
 
 * North Riding Report, p. 242. f Wilts Report, p. IS. 
 
 X North Riding, p. 241. It would be a great advantage, by such artifi- 
 cial rills, to convey water sufficient for the use of a threshing null. But this 
 can hardly be done, without a considerable tank or reservoir. 
 
Command oj Water . 
 
 151 
 
 Water in Farm-Yards . — When cattle are fed in winter on 
 dry food, as hay or straw, no expence should be spared, in 
 supplying them with a sufficient quantity of water. It has 
 been ascertained, that a bullock, feeding upon straw, hav- 
 ing water at command, will drink of it eight times a day : 
 hence it is evident, that he cannot get enough, if only 
 driven twice a day to an adjoining stream or pond. It is 
 therefore advisable, where it can be done, to bring water 
 into a cistern in the fold-yard, to which the cattle may go 
 whenever they are in want of it. The cistern may be made 
 of rough masonry, and consequently would not be expen- 
 sive. There can be no doubt, that cattle will improve much 
 more rapidly, more especially on coarse fare, when thus 
 supplied with water, than if they were only occasionally 
 driven to it*. 
 
 In Derbyshire, cisterns hewn out of large blocks, are not 
 only placed in most cattle-yards, but also in the fields, 
 where the springs on the sides of the hills admit of supply- 
 ing them. Many of them are so placed, that cattle can ap- 
 proach them on either side, and can avoid being injured by 
 a master beast attacking the others when drinking. For 
 conveying the water to the cisterns, thin zinc pipes are 
 sometimes used, as being cheaper. When the water enters 
 at one end of the cistern, level with the surface, and passes 
 off at the other, from the constant change and agitation of 
 the surface of the water, by this stream across it, the cistern 
 is not so apt to be frozen, even in the severest weather, 
 which is an object of much importance to the health of the 
 cattlef. 
 
 Fields . — A supply of water, is also an object of great v 
 importance, in every field where pasturage is intended. 
 With that viewj if there happens to be a small rivulet in 
 the neighbourhood of the lands, it may often be distributed 
 in branches, so as to water many fields. Springs, or the 
 collected discharges from drains, may also be applied to the 
 same purpose. All land used for grazing, requires to be 
 constantly well supplied with water. 
 
 In conducting water through fields, it is of material im- 
 portance to take care, that the slopes be gentle, and not 
 more than sufficient for easy transmission ; as, when water 
 is conveyed down fence ditches, or open conduits of consi- 
 
 * See an account of Mr. Dudgeon of Prora’s interesting experiment. — 
 Husbandry of Scotland , vol. i. p. 100. 
 f Derbyshire Report, vol. i. p. 495. 
 
152 
 
 Size and Shape of Fields. 
 
 derable declivity, it is too apt to do injury in its progress, 
 by washing away the sides of its channels. Sometimes water 
 is collected in a field, not only for the use of the animals 
 pastured there, but also to be afterwards diverted for other 
 uses, as for threshing and other mills, for irrigation, for 
 ponds, for bleaching, and similar purposes. To accomplish 
 these objects, and at the same time to prevent injury from 
 this element, the drains, conduits, sluices, bridges, gates, 
 and fence ditches, require to be designed with skill, and 
 constructed with scientific attention. 
 
 Sect. X . — Size and Shape of Fields. 
 
 It is of great advantage to the occupier, when his fields 
 are of a proper size and shape ; and a loss must inevitably 
 follow, when they are laid out arbitrarily, without attention 
 to any particular system. Where a whole farm is divided 
 into fields of various sizes, it is difficult to form a plan, so 
 as to suit a regular rotation of crops, or to keep very accurate 
 accounts. Whereas, by having the fields in general of a 
 large size, the whole strength of a farm, and the whole at- 
 tention of the farmer, is directed to one point ; while an 
 emulation is excited among the ploughmen, when they are 
 thus placed in circumstances which admit their work to be 
 compared. Some small fields, are certainly convenient on 
 any farm, for grazing, and other purposes to be afterwards 
 explained. On elevated situations also, the shelter derived 
 from small enclosures, is of use. 
 
 Nothing, however, is more inconvenient, in corn farms, 
 than to have a number of small enclosures, irregularly 
 shaped, surrounded with trees or high hedges, more espe- 
 cially in a flat country, where shelter is unnecessary. Be- 
 sides the original ^expence of making the enclosures, — the 
 injury done to the crops of grain, produced by the want of 
 a free circulation of air; — and the harbour alfordcd to num- 
 bers of small birds, — the very site of numerous hedges, with 
 their attendant ditches, and the uncultivated slips of land 
 on both sides of them, consume a much larger proportion 
 of arable land, than is commonly imagined. Hedges, es- 
 pecially if accompanied by rows of trees, greatly exhaust 
 the ground of its fertility; nourish weeds, the seeds of which 
 may be widely disseminated ; and by the exclusion of air, 
 the harvesting of the crop is carried on more slowly. Even 
 
Size and Shape of Fields . 
 
 153 
 
 upon meadow land, small enclosures, encircled by hedges, 
 are injurious, as they prevent the circulation of air for 
 making or drying the hay. Small enclosures, with high 
 hedges and trees, are also extremely injurious to the roads 
 in their neighbourhood. 
 
 On the other hand, with fields of a considerable size, less 
 ground is wasted, and fewer fences are to uphold. The 
 crops of grain, being more exposed to wind, can be harvested 
 earlier, and it suffers less from damp seasons. Small enclo- 
 sures in pasture, are more productive in winter, being better 
 sheltered ; but in summer, the larger and the more open the 
 enclosures are, the better ; for in hot weather, both cattle 
 and sheep always resort to the most airy places. It is easier 
 also, when they are in pasture, to obtain a supply of water 
 in large fields than in small ones : indeed fields are some- 
 times so small, that it is very difficult to procure an adequate 
 supply of water, even in winter. But the conclusive argu- 
 ment in favour of large arable fields is this ; that where 
 fields are small, much time and labour are wasted by short 
 turnings ; and it is now ascertained, u that if fields are of a 
 regular shape, and the ridges of a proper length, five ploughs 
 may do as much work as six ploughs in fields of a small 
 size, and of an irregular shape ; while every other branch of 
 labour, (such as dunging, sowing, harrowing, reaping, and 
 carrying in the harvest), can be executed, though not alto- 
 gether, yet nearly in the same proportion*.” 
 
 The circumstances on which the size of fields ought to 
 depend, are; — the extent of the farm in which they are 
 situated ; — the nature of the soil and subsoil ; — the rotations 
 adopted -the number of ploughs on the farm the in- 
 clination of the ground ; — its being in pasturage or other- 
 wise ; and — the nature of the climate. 
 
 1. Extent of the Farm. — The size of fields ought cer- 
 tainly, in some measure, to depend upon the extent of the 
 possession. In small farms, near towns, from six to twelve 
 acres may be sufficient ; but where farms are of a conside- 
 rable extent, fields from twenty to even fifty acres, and in 
 some particular cases, as high as sixty, may be used to ad- 
 vantage. In general, however, even on large farms, when 
 permitted by local circumstances, fields of a medium size, 
 as from fifteen to twenty-five English acres, are recommended 
 by competent judges. 
 
 2. Soil and Subsoil . — In dividing a farm into fields, the 
 
 Husbandry of Scotland, vol, i. p. 41. 
 
154 Size and Shape of Fields . 
 
 nature of the soil and subsoil ought to be kept in view. 
 Where the soil is various, it would be proper to separate the 
 light from the heavy. They are not only better calculated 
 for different crops, and different rotations, but are naturally 
 adapted to be cultivated at different seasons. It is unfor- 
 tunate, therefore, to have soils of a heterogeneous nature, 
 mingled in the same field. But where this partially takes 
 place, for instance, where there are only one or two acres of 
 light soil, to ten or twenty of strong soil, let the following 
 plan be adopted. At any slack time, either in summer or 
 winter, more especially when the field is under fallow, 
 employ two carts and horses, with four fillers, to cover the 
 acre or two of light soil, with the strong soil contiguous, 
 and the soil in the field will then become more uniform. In 
 fields where light soils predominate, the plan might be re- 
 versed. This plan, though at first expensive, is attended 
 with such advantages, that whenever it is necessary and 
 practicable, it ought to be carried into effect. 
 
 3. The Rotation adopted . — It may be considered as a 
 good general rule, to divide a farm, according to the course 
 of crops pursued in it ; that is to say, a farm with a rotation 
 of six crops, should have six fields, or twelve, according to 
 circumstances. It is proper to have a whole field, if the soil 
 be uniform, under one crop ; and every farmer of experience, 
 knows the comfort of having the produce of the farm, as 
 equal every year, as the soil and season will admit of. 
 
 4. Number of Ploughs . — It is likewise proper, that the 
 size of fields should be somewhat in proportion to the 
 number of horses and ploughs on the farm. For instance, 
 where six two-horse ploughs are kept, and where it is dif- 
 ficult, from the nature of the soil, to have the fields of a 
 larger extent, sufficiently dry, from 18 to 25 English acres 
 are considered to be a convenient size. With twelve horses, 
 a field of that extent can always be finished in four, or at 
 the utmost, in five days : there is less risk therefore of being 
 overtaken by bad weather, and prevented from completing 
 the preparation of the land for the intended crop. When 
 the fields are of too great an extent, in proportion to the 
 stock kept, a considerable interval must occur between the 
 sowing of the first and of the last part ; and it will in gene- 
 ral be desirable, to have each field cleared at the same time 
 in harvest. The harrowing also is done more economically, 
 when the field is sown at once, than in several portions ; 
 and where rolling is required, that operation being most 
 effectually done across, it cannot well be accomplished till 
 
155 
 
 Size and Shape of Fields. 
 
 the field has been completed. Hence the advantages of 
 having the size of the fields, in some degree commensurate 
 to the stock of working animals upon the farm. 
 
 5. Inclination of the Ground . — It is, however, evident, 
 that the size of the fields, must in some respects depend on 
 the flatness, or the hilly shape of the ground. Even on dry 
 land, if there be a rise on the ground, from fifteen to twenty 
 chains is sufficient length ; for if the ridge' be longer, the 
 horses become much fatigued, if compelled to plough a 
 strong furrow up-hill, beyond that length, in one direction. 
 This objection, however, to large fields, may in some mea- 
 sure be obviated, by giving the ridges and furrows, in such 
 fields as are on the side of a hill, such an obliquity, as may 
 diminish the difficulties of the ascent*. 
 
 6. Pasturage . — Where the system of grazing and tillage 
 is alternately followed, (more especially where the fields are 
 pastured for two or three years in succession), it is conve- 
 nient, to have the fields of from 20 to perhaps 30 English 
 acres. The fanner is thus enabled to divide his stock, 
 which he cannot well do with larger fields. The cattle or 
 sheep remain more quiet, than if a greater number were 
 collected together ; and less grass is destroyed by treading. 
 When such a field has been pastured for some time, the 
 stock should be removed to another, till the grass in the 
 former has renewed, and is fit for being eaten. Such a size 
 also, in general, suits graziers better than larger ones, and 
 consequently fields of this extent, when in pasture, generally 
 let for more rent. 
 
 7. Climate . — The last circumstance to be considered, in 
 determining the proper size of fields, is, the nature of the 
 climate. In dry and cold climates, small enclosures are 
 desirable, on account of shelter ; whereas in wet countries, 
 the fields under culture, cannot be too open and airy, for 
 the purpose of drying the ground, of bringing forward and 
 ripening the grain, and of enabling the farmer more easily 
 to secure it, during an unfavourable harvest, by having a 
 free circulation of air. 
 
 But though on large farms, fields should in general be 
 formed on an extensive scale, yet there is a convenience in 
 having a few smaller fields near the farm house, for keeping 
 the family cows ; — for turning out young horses, mares, and 
 foals ; — for raising a great variety of vegetables ; — and for 
 
 * Where the hills are steep, horizontal ploughing is to be preferred on 
 light soils, because sudden rains are not so apt to enlarge the furrows, and 
 to waste the soil. This plan has been adopted in America. 
 
156 
 
 Size and Shape of Fields. 
 
 trying experiments on a small scale, which may afterwards 
 be extended, if they shall be found to answer. 
 
 Where enclosures are too large for particular purposes, 
 and where no small fields, as above recommended, have 
 been prepared, large fields may be subdivided by sheep 
 hurdles, a sort of portable fence well known to every turnip 
 grower. In this way, great advantage may be derived, from 
 the constant use of land, that would otherwise have been oc- 
 cupied by stationary fences ; and the expence of subdivi- 
 sions, which, on a large farm, would necessarily have been 
 numerous, is thereby avoided. This fence is perfectly effec- 
 tual against sheep, though it is not so well calculated for 
 stronger animals. On dry soils, where sheep are generally 
 pastured, it is not unlikely, that by using moveable hurdles, 
 the expence of permanent fences might in a great measure 
 be saved. Iron hurdles, some cast, and others much lighter, 
 made of wrought iron, are also frequently used as temporary 
 fences. If made for sheep, the cast metal is only 7$. each, 
 but 9s. if strong enough for cattle*. 
 
 The shape of fields, may be either square or oblong. 
 
 Square Form . — The advantage of having the fences in 
 straight lines, and the fields, when large, of a square form, 
 is unquestionable, as the ploughing of them, under this 
 arrangement, can be carried on with much greater dispatch. 
 Some farmers, whose fields are of a waving or uneven shape, 
 and who enclose with hedge and ditch, carry their fence 
 through the hollows, or best soil, with a view of raising a 
 good hedge, thus often sacrificing, for the sake of the fence, 
 the form of their field. A straight line, however, is prefer- 
 able, even though it should be necessary to take some parti- 
 cular pains to enrich the soil for the hedge, where it is thin 
 and poor, on any elevation. By means of the square form, 
 an opportunity is afforded, of ploughing in every direction, 
 when necessary; and less time is lost, in carrying on all the 
 operations of husbandry, in a field of that form, than of any 
 other shape. Where the waving form is necessary to secure 
 proper water-runs, plantations may be so disposed, as to 
 reduce the fields to squares or oblongs, and the fences to 
 straight lines. Rectangular fields have another advantage, 
 that in fields of that shape, it may be known, whether the 
 ploughmen have performed their duty, the quantity of work 
 done being easily calculated, from the length and breadth 
 of a certain number of ridges. 
 
 Derbyshire Report, vol. li. p. 235. 
 
Farm Roads. 
 
 157 
 
 Oblong Form . — When fields are small, an oblong shape 
 should be preferred, that the ploughing may be dispatched 
 with as few turnings as possible. This form has also other 
 advantages. The fields are more easily subdivided, and 
 v^ater can almost in every case be got, by making proper 
 ponds in the meeting or joining of three or four fields, 
 whose gutters, or ditches, will convey water to the ponds. 
 In turnip soils, where the shape is oblong, it is easier to 
 divide the turnips with nets or hurdles, for the convenience 
 of feeding them off with sheep. If the ridges are too long, 
 and the field dry and level, the length may be reduced, by 
 making cross head-lands, or head-ridges, at any place that 
 may be considered the fittest by the occupier. 
 
 The same engraving, (No. I.) will likewise explain the 
 best plan for dividing fields on clay land, and turnip-land 
 farms, in square divisions, and the rotations that may be 
 adopted in each. 
 
 Sect. XI . — Farm Roads. 
 
 The profitable occupation of a farm, is essentially pro- 
 moted, by having the private roads through it, judiciously 
 planned, well formed at first, and afterwards kept in proper 
 repair. Attention to these particulars is often neglected ; 
 hence both the landlord and the tenant sustain much injury. 
 These private roads, like other substantial improvements, 
 ought to be made at the expence of the landlord ; but if he 
 is unable to advance the money, the tenant ought to be 
 encouraged, to make the necessary exertions, by a premium 
 for every yard he properly executes, or security given him, 
 that he shall be indemnified, to a certain extent, at the ter- 
 mination of his lease. 
 
 Where the farm is regularly divided into large enclosures, 
 it is seldom difficult to obtain the advantages of convenient 
 roads, with easy access from the farm-offices, to each field : 
 nor would the making of good roads in any case be difficult, 
 provided a regular plan were adopted for that purpose; 
 materials may be collected, and the stones broken, by the 
 farm-servants, at times, when, from the state of the ground, 
 other operations could not well be executed : and if a rule 
 were laid down, to make a certain quantity of road, from 50 
 to 500 yards, every year, according to the size of the occu- 
 pation, the roads, even on a large farm, would thus be pro- 
 gressively gone over, and its value would be materially 
 augmented. 
 
158 
 
 Farm Roads. 
 
 It is particularly necessary, to make a good piece of road 
 at the gate of every enclosure, being the spot which is most 
 frequently in use. Without this- precaution, it often be- 
 comes a mire, where corn is thrown down and spoiled in 
 harvest, or if it is attempted to avoid the mire, the gate- 
 posts and neighbouring fence are often damaged*. 
 
 In order to prevent accidents, it is necessary to have the 
 gates wide, and whatever may be the sort of fence, to round 
 the corners af the fields, instead of having them square. 
 By this plan, owing to the facility of turning, many acci- 
 dents, injurious both to the carts and to the cattle, may be 
 prevented. 
 
 The most effectual means, by which either public, or 
 private roads, can be kept in good repair, is, by the use of 
 broad cylindrical wheels, which are as well calculated for 
 farming, as for other purposes. A gentleman who has 
 given the experiment a fair trial, states, that no person, 
 whose mind is open to conviction, can use these wheels, 
 without at once perceiving their very great superiority over 
 the narrow conical ones. He is satisfied, that his farm 
 roads will be maintained at one-fourth of the expence that 
 had previously been incurred. In farming operations, their 
 superiority is so great, that he thinks it would be for the 
 advantage of every extensive farmer, to adopt them imme- 
 diately. He considers them to be the greatest improve- 
 ment in agricultural machinery, since the invention of the 
 threshing-mill ; and he conceives, that every month’s delay 
 that takes place in their general adoption, is a great indivi- 
 dual and national losst. 
 
 If a farmer be thus accommodated with good private 
 roads, the advantages which result from them are of the 
 highest importance. His work will be performed at much 
 less expence ; the labour of the horses will be much easier ; 
 — a greater quantity or weight of grain, and other articles, 
 may be more expeditiously carried over them ; — manure can 
 be more easily conveyed to the fields ; — the harvest can be 
 carried on more rapidly ; — and wear and tear of every de- 
 scription will be greatly reducedj . 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 251. 
 
 f See the substance of a Communication from William Cunningham, Esq. 
 of Lainshaw, in Ayrshire, upon this subject, Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. 
 p. 67. 
 
 | Mr. Blaikic, in his Observations on the Economy of Farm-yard Manure, 
 and on other Rural Subjects, has discussed the formation and improvement 
 of roads, with his usual ability; and Mr. Loudon M‘Adam’s exertions, so 
 important for promoting these object!, will certainly make a new era in the 
 History of Road-making. 
 
Farm Roads . 
 
 159 
 
 Concluding Observations . 
 
 Such appear to be the most essential means, for carrying 
 on the successful improvement and cultivation of a farm. 
 It is by attention to these particulars, that a good, is distin- 
 guished from a bad farmer ; and that the diligent husband- 
 man, lays the foundation of a system, which will prove the 
 source of his future prosperity. For that purpose, it is 
 necessary for him, — to proportion his farm to the capital he 
 can command ; — to keep regular accounts ; — to establish a 
 judicious arrangement in the cultivation of his farm ; — to 
 procure intelligent and industrious labourers ;« — to rear, or 
 to purchase well-selected stock ; — to buy implements, dis- 
 tinguished more by utility than number; — to have his 
 buildings well arranged, and abundantly supplied with 
 water ; — and to divide his fields in a regular manner, with 
 roads of communication to them, kept in a proper state of 
 repair. If these particulars be attended to, he has every 
 reason to look for success ; but in proportion as they shall 
 be neglected, he may expect to meet with disappointment, 
 and in many cases to experience real loss. 
 
160 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 ON THE VARIOUS MODES OF IMPROVING LAND 
 
 The ingenuity of man has, in no respect been more 
 usefully employed, nor, on the whole, been displayed more 
 conspicuously, than in the various modes it has discovered, 
 for rendering the surface of the earth more productive. 
 Not only have extensive tracts of waste land been reclaimed, 
 but by processes about to be described, the culture of the 
 soil has been improved ; — the quantity of its produce aug- 
 mented ; — and the quality of that produce amended : — 
 while, by the art of embanking, thousands of acres have 
 been protected from the ravages of a powerful and destruc- 
 tive element. In this Chapter, it is proposed to give a gc- 
 neral view, of the nature of these several processes, under 
 the following heads : 1. Cultivating and improving wastes; 
 2. Enclosing ; 3. Draining ; 4. Manuring; 5. Paring and 
 burning; 6. Fallowing; 7» Weeding; 8. Irrigating; 9. Flood- 
 ing; 10. Warping; and, 11 . Embanking. Any discussion 
 on the means of improving the soil by planting, is reserved 
 for the Fourth Section of the subsequent Chapter. 
 
 Sect. I.— Cultivating and Improving Wastes. 
 
 Land, when uncultivated, yields, from its natural pro- 
 ductions, but slender means of subsistence to man. Some 
 fruits, — articles of the nut species ; — and the leaves and 
 roots of several plants, may be used as food. The numbers, 
 however, that could be maintained either by these means, or 
 by hunting wild animals fed on natural herbage, or by the 
 flesh and produce of domesticated animals, maintained in 
 the same manner, are but inconsiderable, compared to the 
 millions of human beings, who enjoy the necessaries and 
 comforts of life, when the soil is properly cultivated. The 
 first object, therefore, to be attended to, in procuring food 
 from the soil, is, to bring it into a state of cultivation ; 
 
Cultivating and Improving Wastes . 161 
 
 the next, not only to prevent it from being exhausted, but, 
 if possible, to increase its fertility*. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is proposed to consider; 
 1. The various descriptions of waste lands ; 2. The natural 
 obstacles to cultivating and preparing them for the produc- 
 tion of crops ; 3. The various means of reclaiming such 
 wastes ; 4. The rules to be observed regarding this species 
 of improvement ; and, 5. The private and the public advan- 
 tages to be derived from it. 
 
 1. Of the various Descriptions of Waste Lands. 
 
 These may be classed as follow: 1. Mountainous, hilly, 
 or steep grounds ; 2. Moors ; 3. Bogs, or peat-mosses ; 
 4. Marshes ; 5. Warrens, or downs ; and, 6. Shores, or 
 beaches. 
 
 1. The highest peaks and ridges of mountains, are mostly 
 naked granite, slate, or volcanic productions. Their more 
 elevated sides, and the tops of those of moderate height, are 
 usually covered by a thin soil, producing a short dry herbage, 
 which is frequently mixed with a dwarf or stunted heath*. 
 Where the soil is not injured by moisture, these are best 
 calculated for sheep. When the height of mountains ex- 
 ceeds 800 feet of elevation above the level of the sea, unless 
 covered either with natural woods, or artificial plantations, 
 they can only be profitably used in pasture. 
 
 The hills, or land less elevated than mountains, have, in 
 general, a deeper and moister soil, and produce a more 
 luxuriant herbage, but of a coarse quality ; hence they arc 
 better adapted for small hardy cattle. Though the summits 
 of hills are generally unfit for raising grain, yet the plough 
 is gradually ascending along their sloping sides, and within 
 the last thirty years, many thousand acres, in such situations, 
 have been reclaimed in the United Kingdom. 
 
 Some steep lands along the sides of rivers, and small 
 streams, still remain in a state of waste, being inaccessible 
 to the plough, and unfit for tillage. The more rugged of 
 these, are well calculated for woods or coppice; while those 
 
 * All soils, by being cropped, have their fertility more or less diminished, 
 and, in process of time, will become no longer productive. Hence the ne- 
 cessity of renewing their powers by manures of various descriptions. Some 
 lands have borne crops of corn for a number of years, without their showing 
 any signs of exhaustion. But such soils have, in general, something peculiar 
 in their situation, composition, or subsoil, or the ingredients of which they 
 are composed, as to give them such a peculiar property, 
 t Communication by John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 M 
 
162 Cultivating and Improving Wastes . 
 
 in more favourable situations and climates, may be converted 
 into orchards*. 
 
 2. Moor-lands are of various descriptions. Sometimes 
 they are in low and mild situations, where the upper soil is 
 thin, or scantily supplied with vegetable mould ; and where 
 the bottom, or under-stratum, is impervious and barren. 
 These, in general, may be reclaimed with more or less ad- 
 vantage, according as they are near manure, or markets, 
 and other means of improvement. 
 
 Others, on the contrary, are in situations much elevated 
 above the level of the sea ; where the surface is covered 
 with heath, and other coarse plants, and frequently encum- 
 bered with stones. Such moors are seldom worth the ex- 
 pence of cultivation, and from their height, are only cal- 
 culated, either for woods or pasturage. 
 
 Moors, however, which are not placed in high or bleak 
 situations, and where the surface is close-swarded, or covered 
 with plants, and where the subsoil is naturally, either not 
 altogether wet, or capable of being made sufficiently dry at 
 a moderate expence, may not only be reclaimed, but often 
 can be highly improved. Indeed where such lands are to 
 be met with, they ought on no account to be suffered to 
 remain subject to commonable rights, and comparatively 
 useless to the country, as they are capable of being reclaim- 
 ed, and if allotted and enclosed, might be rendered highly 
 productive. 
 
 3. Bogs, or peat-mosses, occupy no inconsiderable por- 
 tion of the surface of the British Islesf . They are of two 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 101. 
 
 1* The extent of peat 6oil in Ireland is very considerable. The following 
 is its estimated amount : 
 
 English acres. 
 
 1. Flat red bog, capable of being converted to the general pur- ) j ~ 
 
 poses of agriculture J 1 * 
 
 2. Peat soil covering mountains, capable of being improved for^ 
 
 pasture, or beneficially applied to the purposes of plan- > 1,255,0Q0 
 tation J 
 
 Total 
 
 2,831,000 
 
 See 2d Report, on the State of Disease, &c. in Ireland, printed by the 
 House of Commons, 7th June, 1819, Appendix, p. 1 56. In the Appendix, 
 there are a number of valuable hints, on the means of improving the bogs 
 of Ireland, from which the practicability, and the utility of that system, is 
 clearly proved, and the great probability, if not the certainty, that it would 
 be attended with profit. Mr. Griffiths, junior, recommends, as the best ro- 
 tation for such land, 1 . Rape for seed ; 2. Potatoes in drills ; 3. Oats, with 
 grass-seeds; and, 4. Meadow. This rotation, he is of opinion, would yield 
 as much produce, as would pay for the expense of bringing the lands into 
 
Cultivating and Improving Wastes, 163 
 
 sorts, one black and solid, the other spongy, containing a 
 great quantity of water, with a proportion of fibrous ma- 
 terials. 
 
 Black mosses, though formerly considered irreclaimable, 
 are now found capable of great melioration. By cultivation, 
 they may be completely changed in their quality and ap- 
 pearance ; and from a peaty, become a soft vegetable earth 
 of great fertility. They may be converted into pasture ; — 
 or, after being thoroughly drained, thriving plantations may 
 be raised upon them; — or, under judicious management, 
 they will produce crops of grain and roots ; — or, they may 
 be formed into meadow-land, of considerable value*. 
 
 Flow , fluid, or spongy mosses, abound in various parts of 
 the British Isles. Such mosses are sometimes from ten to 
 twenty feet deep, and even more, but the average may be 
 stated at from four to eight. In high situations, their 
 improvement is attended with so much expence, and the 
 returns are so scanty, that it is advisable to leave them in 
 their original state ; but where advantageously situated, it 
 is now proved, that they may be profitably converted into 
 arable land* or valuable meadow. If they are not too high 
 above the level of the sea, arable crops may be successfully 
 cultivated. Potatoes, and other green crops, where manure 
 can be obtained, may likewise be raised on them with ad- 
 vantagef. 
 
 Peat is certainly a production, capable of administering 
 to the support of many valuable kinds of plants. But to 
 effect this purpose, it must be reduced to such a state, 
 either by the application of fire, or the influence of putre- 
 faction, as may prepare it for their nourishment. In either 
 of these ways, peat may be changed into a soil fit for the 
 production of grass, — of herbs, — or of roots. The applica- 
 tion of a proper quantity of lime, chalk, or marl, prepares 
 it equally well for the production of corn. But in cases 
 
 a fertile state, and cultivating them afterwards. It is said, (Report, p. 1(18), 
 that rye is frequently good, when other crops fail. 
 
 Mr. Burroughs observes, that since an additional duty has been imposed 
 on foreign rape, that article would pay well ; and no crop is more abundant, 
 or less precarious, on boggy soils. 
 
 * See Chap. I. Sect. 2, where mention is made of such lands, when im- 
 proved, becoming, under judicious management, perpetual meadows. In 
 regard to manure for such soils, it has been remarked, that the peat, whose 
 texture is the least fibrous, and which has the least porosity, is {he most easily 
 divided, and is best calculated for putrescent manures. The fibrous peat, 
 requires the application of lime. 
 
 f Dr. Coventry recommends the drainage of flow-mosses, for several years 
 before their cultivation is attempted. — Discourses , p. 110. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 Cultivating and Improving Wastes . 
 
 where peat is too wet for the production of fine grass or 
 good corn, the first operation is, to drain it completely * ; 
 and then to supply it with calcareous, and putrescent ma- 
 nures. 
 
 4. Marshes, or water-fed lands, are of two descriptions, 
 one formed by fresh, and the other by salt water. 
 
 Fresh water marshes are often found interspersed with 
 arable land, where springs rise, and redundant water has 
 not been carried off ; and may be improved by a course of 
 ditching, draining, and ploughing. Where large inland 
 marshes are almost constantly covered with water, or the 
 soil is extremely wet, they may be drained, as large districts 
 in the fens of Lincolnshire have been, and made highly 
 valuable. The object, in that case, is, by embankments, 
 draining, and other means of improvement, to converfthese 
 marshes into pasture, or meadow, or even arable lands. 
 Where such improvements cannot be accomplished, the 
 most useful aquatic plants, as willows, oziers, &c. may be 
 propagated, either by their seeds or roots, with much ad- 
 vantage to the cultivatorf. Some have strongly recom- 
 mended, on such wet and low lands, the florin grass ; others 
 the “ poa aquatica which would answer well where the 
 soil is clay, and where it lies under water all the winter. 
 
 In regard to salt water marshes, embankments are the 
 only means by which they can be improved; and they 
 might be rendered of thrice their present value, if spring 
 tides could be prevented from overflowing them. They are 
 in general deficient in pasture, but that pasture operates as 
 a medicine to diseased cattle, or those abounding with hu- 
 mours ; acting as salts upon the human frame, being pur- 
 gative, but not nourishing!. 
 
 5. Sandy downs on the sea shoye, are often more valuable, 
 in their natural state, than after cultivation. In a state of 
 nature, they frequently afford good pasture for sheep and 
 rabbits, and at other times, produce grasses that may be used 
 as food for cattle, or as litter. But the great object should 
 be, to raise plants which contribute to fix these soils, and 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 f Coventry’s Discourses, p. 1 14. 
 
 X It is difficult to improve land, which has been covered by the sea at 
 every neap tide. A field of this sort has been fenced off from tne sea near 
 Exmouth, and for seven years it would not produce either corn or grass, or 
 even pulse of any kind; indeed it still remains perfectly barren, yet the 
 earth seems fine, and rich in quality. 
 
 There must have been something peculiarly deleterious in the sea salt 
 with which it is sat urated.— */£e mar k by the Hev, Hubert Jloblyn , 
 
Cultivating and, Improving Wastes . 
 
 165 
 
 to prevent them from being drifted by the winds, which 
 often occasion incalculable mischief*. 
 
 On poor sandy soils, in inland districts, rabbits are the 
 usual stock. Many warrens have been cultivated for raising 
 crops of grain ; but rabbits would frequently pay better. 
 It would often be more profitable, therefore, to convert 
 them again into warren, or where wood is valuable, to plant 
 them w'ith fir. 
 
 6. Along the banks of lakes and rivers, as well as the 
 sea-shore, there are extensive tracts, in a waste state ; and 
 likely to remain neglected, from deficiency of soil. Where 
 the land, however, is composed of alluvial particles, it may 
 be embanked, and afterwards improved by the usual opera- 
 tions of agriculture. 
 
 2. Natural Obstacles to the Cultivation of Wastes, 
 
 The chief natural impediments to the cultivation of wastes 
 are, 1. Woods; 2. Shrubs, or woody plants; 3. Fern; 
 4. Heath ; 5. Coarse herbage ; 6. Stones ; and, 7* Rocks. 
 
 1. Woods . — The growth of large trees, though a great 
 impediment to cultivation, is a sign that the soil is naturally 
 fertile. It must also have been enriched, by the quantity 
 of leaves, which, in the course of ages, have fallen and rotted 
 upon the surface. Such are the beneficial effects of this 
 process, that after the trees have been cut down, the soil 
 has often been kept under crops of grain for a number of 
 years, without interruption, or any addition of manure. 
 Land thus treated, however, ultimately becomes so much 
 reduced, by great exhaustion, that it will not bear a crop 
 worth the expence of seed and labourf. It is evident, 
 however, that this deterioration, entirely proceeds from the 
 improvident management previously adopted. 
 
 In reclaiming such wastes, the branches of any trees that 
 are felled, are generally collected and burnt ; and the ashes 
 are either in whole or in part, spread on the ground, by 
 which the fertility of the soil is excited. Indeed, where 
 there is no demand for timber on the spot, nor the means 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 1 16. They pay much attention, in several 
 parts of the Continent, in particular on the shores of the German Ocean, to 
 prevent these “ sand-floods ,” as they are termed. A small rivulet, or the 
 planting of the juncus arenaceus , are found to be the most effectual barriers 
 against their encroachments. 
 
 f Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 257. 
 
166 Cultivating and Improving Wastes . 
 
 of conveyance to any advantageous market, the whole wood 
 is burnt, and the ashes applied as manure. 
 
 In various parts of England, much coppice land has been 
 grubbed up, and brought into tillage* * * § . In Oxfordshire, 
 the temptation is considerable, as from SOL to 35 1. per acre 
 may be obtained, and the land left in a state fit for the 
 ploughf. Sometimes woods are grubbed for pasture merely. 
 In that case the ground should be as little broken as possible, 
 because the surface of the land, owing to the dead wood 
 and leaves rotting time out of mind upon it, is much better 
 than the mould below. It soon gets into good pasture as 
 grass land, without sowing any seed J. But by far the most 
 eligible mode of converting woodland into arable, is merely 
 to cut down the trees, and to leave the land in a state of 
 grass, until the roots have decayed, cutting down with the 
 scythe, from time to time, any young shoots that may arise. 
 The roots, in this way, instead of being a cause of anxiety 
 and expence, as they generally are, become a source of 
 improvement ; and a grassy surface is prepared for the 
 operation of sod-burning§. Wherever it is practicable, the 
 land should be well limed, which will greatly increase its 
 value||. 
 
 In Scotland, natural woods and plantations have been 
 successfully grubbed up. In the Lower Torwood, in Stir- 
 lingshire, many acres of natural coppice were cleared, at an 
 expence of from 15Z. to 20 1. per acre; and the land is now 
 become as valuable as any in the neighbourhood^. On 
 the banks of the Clyde and the Avon, coppices have been 
 cut down, and after being drained, cultivated, and manured, 
 the land has been converted into productive orchards. 
 
 In Perthshire also, several thousand acres of plantations have 
 been rooted out, the soil subjected to the plough, converted 
 into good arable land, and profitably employed in tillage**. 
 
 * Hants Report, p. 297 ; Annals of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 412. 
 
 •f Oxfordshire Report, p. 221. 
 
 + Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol iv. p. 42. 
 
 § Marshall’s Yorkshire, vol. i. p. 316. In Oxfordshire, on the other 
 hand, owing to the great scarcity of fuel, the roots pay one half of the 
 expence. Report , p. 223.— In America, they find, that the roots of the 
 maple and the beech, decay of themselves in four or five years. The roots 
 of the oak require a longer period. 
 
 || Remark by John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 *|f Stirlingshire Report, p. 213. 
 
 ** Perthshire Report, p. 329. It is advisable to leave the roots, where 
 they are not worth the expence of removing, only boring a hole in the 
 middle, which brings on rottenness, even in two or three years. 
 
Cultivating and Improving Wastes. 16 / 
 
 2. Shrubs. — Land covered with furze, broom, and other 
 shrubs, is, generally speaking, well adapted for cultivation. 
 Furze, or whins, (ulex europceus ), will thrive in a dense clay 
 soil ; and where they are found in a thriving state, every 
 species of grain, of roots and grasses, may be cultivated 
 with advantage. The broom, on the other hand, prefers a 
 dry, gravelly, or sandy soil, such as is adapted for the culture 
 of turnips. A large proportion of the arable land, in the 
 richest districts of England and Scotland, was originally 
 covered by these two plants ; and vast tracts still remain in 
 that state, which might be profitably brought under cultiva- 
 tion. For that purpose, the shrubs ought to be cut down, 
 the ground trenched, or the plants rooted out by a strong 
 plough, drawn by four or six horses, and the roots and 
 shrubs, (if not wanted for other purposes), burnt in heaps, 
 and the ashes spread equally over the surface*. In many 
 places, shrubs and brushwood may be sold for more than the 
 expence of rooting them out. When coal is not abundant, 
 and limestone, or chalk can be had, the furze should be 
 employed in burning the lime that is used in carrying on 
 the improvementf. It requires constant attention, how- 
 ever, to prevent such plants from again getting possession 
 of the ground, when it is restored to pasture. This can 
 best be effected, by ploughing up the land occasionally, 
 taking a few crops of potatoes, turnips or tares in rows, and 
 restoring it to be pastured by sheep. In moist weather also, 
 the tender shoot of every shrub, as it arises, should be 
 pulled up and destroyed!. 
 
 3. Fern or Brakes §. — This is a very troublesome weed to 
 extirpate, as, in many soils, it sends down its roots into 
 the under stratum, beyond the reach of the deepest plough- 
 ing; but it is a sign of the goodness of any soil, where it 
 grows to a large size. June or July are the best seasons 
 for destroying it, when the plants are full of sap, and when 
 they ought to be frequently cut. They are not, however, 
 easily subdued, often appearing after a rotation of seven 
 years, including a fallow, and sometimes requiring another 
 rotation, and cutting them repeatedly, before their final 
 disappearance can be effected ||. Lime, in its caustic state, 
 is peculiarly hostile to fern ; at the same time, it can hardly 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol.ii. p. 260 . 
 
 t Oxfordshire Report, p. 232. J Remark by John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 § Pteris. 
 
 (| In pasture lands, they have been destroyed, by cutting them twice in 
 the season, by the scythe or hook. — ltcviark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
168 Cultivating and Improving Wastes. 
 
 be completely eradicated, but by frequent cultivation, and 
 by green crops assisted by the hoe*. 
 
 4. Heath . — This hardy plant is palatable and nutritious 
 to sheep; and under its protection, coarse grasses are often 
 produced. When young, or in flower, it may be cut, and 
 converted into an inferior species of winter provision for 
 stock. But where it can be obtained, it is desirable to have 
 grass in its stead. For that purpose, the land may be 
 flooded, or the heath burnt in March or April, and kept 
 free from stock for eighteen months, in consequence of 
 which, many new grasses will spring up, from the destruc- 
 tion of the heath, and the enriching quality of the ashes. 
 The improvement is very great ; more especially if the land 
 be, drained, and lime or compost be appliedf. But if the 
 land be too soon pastured, the grasses, being weak and 
 tender, the sheep or cattle will pull them up with their 
 roots, and the pasture is materially injured^. Where it is 
 proposed to cultivate the land for arable crops, the lime ap- 
 plied, should be in a finely powdered state, highly caustic, 
 and as equally spread as possible§. 
 
 5. Coarse Herbage . — It is often necessary to burn coarse 
 herbage, before the surface can be pared, and burnt. Some 
 have recommended, making a compost of the pared surface, 
 with lime, or building folds, or earthen walls of the sods, 
 which, by the action of the atmosphere, become friable and 
 fertile||; but these processes are slower, and not $o effectual 
 as paring and burning. 
 
 In coarse rough pastures, ant-hills frequently abound. A 
 successful experiment has been tried, of mixing these hills 
 with lime ; and the compost was found to answer well for 
 barley and grass-seeds^[. But if possible they should be 
 burnt**. 
 
 6. Stones . — The stones which impede the improvement 
 of land, are either loose, thrown up when the land is trenched 
 
 * Oxfordshire Report, p. 234, and 240. The Rev. Robert Hoblyn has 
 completely eradicated fern, by a tedious, but effectual process. He em- 
 ployed a weeding woman to cut off the fern, when young and full of sap, 
 (about five or six inches high), just below the surface of the ground ; and 
 another woman, with a basket of old salt, to apply a pinch of it, to the 
 severed and bleeding root. The acridity of the salt destroyed the weed. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 359. 
 
 X Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 465. 
 
 5 Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p.264. 
 
 || Ditto, vol. ii. p. 266, 268. 
 
 Lincolnshire Report, p. 255. 
 
 * * Remark by John Middleton, Esij. 
 
169 
 
 Cultivating and Improving Wastes, 
 
 or ploughed ; or fixed in the earth, and not to be removed 
 without much labour and expence. 
 
 Loose stones may often be converted into use, for the 
 purpose of covered drains, — of constructing walls or fences, 
 — or making and repairing the roads on the farm, or in the 
 neighbourhood; and on these accounts, are sometimes worth 
 the trouble of collecting. They may be removed, with the 
 least inconvenience, when the land is fallowed. Where 
 loose stones are of a moderate size, they are sometimes 
 found advantageous rather than detrimental, as in the stone- 
 brash soils of Somerset, and other districts. They prevent 
 evaporation, and thus preserve moisture in the soil. Hence 
 farmers have been induced to bring back again to their corn 
 fields, those very stones they have been induced to carry off*. 
 
 Where stones are large, and fixed in the earth, if they 
 appear above the surface, they should be removed before 
 the ploughing of the waste commences : but where they 
 are concealed under the surface, various modes to get rid of 
 them have been adopted. In some parts of Yorkshire, the 
 whole surface is gone over with sharp prongs, which, at the 
 distance of every twelve or fourteen inches, are thrust into 
 the ground, to the depth of about a foot, to ascertain where 
 stones are to be met with. The spot is marked by a twig, 
 and the stones are removed before the land is ploughed. 
 Sometimes the plough is used without such previous ex- 
 amination, and the place marked where stones are en- 
 countered, that they may be taken away ; — and sometimes, 
 in order to discover and remove such stones, the land is 
 trenched by the spadet. 
 
 Stones above the surface, may be avoided by the plough- 
 man, though not without loss of ground ; but stones under 
 the surface, are often not discovered till the plough is drawn 
 against them, and perhaps broken, by w'hich a day's work 
 is sometimes lostj. Clearing the ground from stones, notonly 
 prevents such mischiefs, but is attended with actual profit. 
 When removed, they may be used for various purposes, and 
 are often less expensive than if dug, or purchased at a quarry. 
 The soil round a large stone, is likewise, in general, the 
 best in the field, and is bought at a low rate, by the expence 
 of taking out the stone, as the plough has thus access to all 
 the land around it. In stony land, the plough must proceed 
 
 * Remark by the Rev. Robert Hoblyn. 
 
 f Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 253. 
 
 J A wooden bolt, to unite the horse-trees to the chain^# the plough, may 
 prevent mischief by giving way. 
 
170 Cultivating and Improving Wastes . 
 
 slowly, and cannot perform half so much work as it ought 
 to do; but, after such impediments have been removed, the 
 field may be ploughed with the usual facility, and cheap- 
 ness, and in a much more perfect manner. It frequently 
 happens, that when working stony land, more expence is 
 incurred in one season, by the breaking of ploughs, besides 
 the injury done to the horses and harness, than would cure 
 the evil*. 
 
 There are various modes of getting rid of stones. They 
 are generally of such a size as admit of their being conveyed 
 away in carts, or other vehicles calculated for that purpose. 
 Some ingenious artificers have constructed machines for 
 raising them, when of a large size+. On some occasions, 
 pits have been dug close to large stones, and the latter have 
 been turned into the former, at such a depth, as to lie out of 
 the reach of the plough. But it is frequently necessary, to 
 reduce their size, by the force of gunpowder, before they 
 can be 0 removed. 
 
 7. Rocks . — When rocks interrupt cultivation, recourse 
 must be had to blasting, unless the stone is in thin layers, 
 or beds, and can easily be penetrated by wedges. They 
 must be quarried out to a sufficient depth, and then covered 
 over with earth, to admit the operations of tillage. 
 
 3. Means of reclaiming Wastes . 
 
 There are six modes by which waste lands, according to 
 their nature and situation, are prepared for the production 
 of crops: 1. Paring and burning; 2. Trenching by the 
 spade and mattock; 3. Deep ploughing; 4. Covering the 
 surface with earth ; 5. Floating off the surface of peat-bogs, 
 when there is a valuable soil below; and, 6. Rolling, the 
 utility of which, in promoting the improvement of peaty 
 soils, by consolidating their texture, has not yet been suf- 
 ficiently attended to. 
 
 ] . Paring and Burning . — This operation, and its merits, 
 shall be more fully discussed in a subsequent Section, 
 (No. 5). At present, it is sufficient to remark, that it is 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 256 ; Karnes’s Gentleman Far- 
 mer, p. 58. 
 
 t One was invented by the Rev. Mr. Ramsay, of Maderty,in Perthshire, 
 and is described in the Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xix. p. 565. 
 Another machine has been successfully used by Mr. Spottiswoodc, of Spottis- 
 xvoodc, in Berwickshire, originally invented by Mr. Robert Richardson, of 
 Keswick in Cumberland. See Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxvi. 
 p. 190. 
 
Cultivating and Improving Wastes . 171 
 
 greatly to be preferred, to every other method for reclaiming 
 barren land, where the turf will produce an adequate quantity 
 of ashes*. It is proved by experiment, that it is much less 
 expensive than clearing the land by tillage : — produces 
 better crops ; — -and leaves the land in a better state for culti- 
 vationf. But where the ground is deficient in vegetable 
 matter, or if it be full of stones and rocks, or covered with 
 wood, other means must be resorted to. If it be covered 
 with wood, instead of attempting to burn the surface, the 
 trees and underwood must be cut down, and reduced to 
 ashes, by which some good crops are ensured. Previous to 
 the improvement of land covered with furze, or broom, these 
 plants must be burnt upon the ground, with a view, not 
 only of facilitating their extirpation, but of obtaining the 
 ashes they produce, which, with the ashes from the grass 
 and roots to be found on the surface, will greatly tend to fer- 
 tilize the soil. 
 
 2. Trenching . — Where the soil is shallow, and the sub- 
 soil hard and stony, it is frequently advisable, after extir- 
 pating the worthless plants, to manure the surface, and, 
 without attempting to remove the stones, to convert the 
 land into permanent pasture ; but, when there are circum- 
 stances which make it advisable, to render this soil arable, 
 the most effectual means of accomplishing that object is, 
 by the spade and the mattock. In that case, if the surface 
 be unfertile, it is laid flat, with the top inverted at the bot- 
 tom of the trench, where it operates as a kind of hollow- 
 drain. By means of trenching, every stone which can in- 
 terrupt the future ploughing of the soil, is discovered and 
 removed, either by the usual instruments, or by the appli- 
 cation of gunpowder ; the ground is deepened to the extent 
 of thirteen or fourteen inches ; and as it contains no weeds, 
 it only wants a sufficient quantity of dung and calcareous 
 earth, to put it in a state of vegetation, and to enable it to 
 produce crops of grain. By this plan, more or less per- 
 fectly conducted, about 20,000 acres in all, have been added 
 to the cultivated land of one single county, (Aberdeenshire). 
 The process, where stones abound, has been found very ex- 
 pensive, (as high as from 401. to 50 1. and some cases, 100/. 
 per acre) ; but one half of the expence has often been re- 
 paid by the sale of the stones, for paving, or building ; and, 
 in the vicinity of the city of Aberdeen, the land has after- 
 
 * North Riding Report, p. 208 and 213. 
 
 t See an Account of Sir John S. Sebright’s Experiments, Herts Report, 
 p. 150. 
 
17*2 Cultivating and Improving Wastes. 
 
 wards let for 51. per acre*, by which the expence has been 
 indemnified. Land, however, not attended with peculiar 
 difficulties, may be trenched at from SI. to 10 1. per acre, and 
 even for lessf. 
 
 3. Deep Ploughing. — This method of improving land is 
 applicable to poor clays, covered with heath or furze, and 
 rather wet and stony. The under stratum of such clays, 
 being uncommonly obstinate, it requires at least four, and 
 sometimes six strong horses to make a furrow of sufficient 
 depth. Care also should be taken, to lay the sod or turf as 
 flat on its back as possible, for fifteen or eighteen months, 
 in order that it may be thoroughly rotted. When the soil 
 is dry, lime may be spread upon the surface, and allowed 
 to remain in that state for two years, previous to its being 
 again ploughed. By these means, considerable tracts oi 
 waste land have been rendered capable of regular cultiva- 
 tion. But this is a tedious and expensive mode of accom- 
 plishing the object. 
 
 The most extraordinary improvement by ploughing, was 
 made by the late Mr. Barclay of Ury. The implements 
 he used were uncommonly strong, and he employed six, and 
 sometimes eight powerful horses in the draught. He made 
 the plough to descend, in spite of every obstruction, sixteen 
 or seventeen inches at once : and after carrying off the 
 stones, which were turned up as if from a quarry, he re- 
 peated these operations, till in the end he obtained a free 
 soil, cleared of stones, twelve or fourteen inches deep, and 
 fit for every agricultural purpose. Sometimes a thousand 
 cart-loads of stones were removed from one acre, and the 
 surface of the land was evidently lowered several inches, 
 before the improvement was completed^. So great an ex- 
 pence could hardly be indemnified. Where only small 
 patches of stony land, are in a field, it may be proper to 
 clear them of stones ; but as a general mode of improving 
 extensive moors, it is not to be recommended. 
 
 4. Covering the Surface with Earth , fyc. — In England, 
 this mode of improvement has been practised, not only in 
 regard to bogs, but also light sandy soils. 
 
 * There is an interesting paper on Trenching, by the Rev. Dr. Skene 
 Keith, in the General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p.395. — Mr. Monteath 
 of Closeburn, and Mr. Maclean of Mark, recommend, as a beneficial prac- 
 tice, to trench or delve mossy soils, to bury the light surface, and to bring 
 up the black decayed moss, which is much better calculated for improve- 
 ment than the surface . — General Report, vol. ii. p. 348. 
 
 + General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p.400. 
 
 J Kincardineshire Report, p. 398. 
 
Cultivating and Improving Wastes. 173 
 
 The celebrated Duke of Bridgewater effected a considera- 
 ble improvement in this manner. He covered a part of 
 Chat-moss, with the refuse of coal-pits, a mixture of earths 
 and stones of different qualities and sizes, which were 
 brought in barges out of the interior of a mountain ; and, 
 by compressing the surface, enabled it to bear pasturing 
 stock. Its fertility was promoted by the vegetable mould 
 of the morass, which presently rose, and mixed with the 
 heavier materials which were spread upon it* * * § . 
 
 The method of covering the surface of fen-land, with 
 clay or marl, is strongly recommended in a paper on the 
 Improvement of Huntingdonshire. It appears, that under 
 the fens of that county, and not far from the surface, there 
 is a species of clay marl, of a soft quality, that may be 
 easily worked. Where that substance is mixed with the 
 fen soil, the finer grasses flourish beyond what they do on 
 the fen soil unmixed ; and when the mixed soil is ploughed, 
 and sown with any sort of grain, the calcareous earth, ren- 
 ders the crops less apt to fall down, the produce is greater, 
 and the grain of better quality than on any other part of the 
 landf. In some parts of Thorney Fen, (on the estate of 
 the Duke of Bedford), the tenants have begun the practice 
 of claying the light surface, by trenching with a spade. 
 
 Mr. Rodwell, in Suffolk, has distinguished himself by 
 covering the surface of heath-land with clay and marl, to a 
 very extraordinary extent. With only two leases for 28 
 years, he clayed and marled 820 acres, and used about 
 1 40,000 tumbril loads, which, at 8-|d. per yard, cost him 
 495 SI. Having taken a third lease, in the space of about 
 49 weeks, he employed 11,275 cubical yards of clay more 
 in covering the soil. He prefers clay to marl on sandy 
 soils, some of which consist of coarse, poor, and even 
 black sand. The result was highly satisfactory : 350Z. per 
 annum were added to the value of the estate, which, at 
 30 years’ purchase, is 10,500/. ; and the public was bene- 
 fited by the produce of more corn, meat, and wool, to the 
 amount of 30,000/. in 28 years succeeding the improve- 
 ment, than in the 28 preceding it J. 
 
 In various districts, the soil is covered with chalk, at the 
 rate of from sixty to one hundred loads per acre, and it is 
 considered to be a profitable practice§. 
 
 * Marshall on Landed Property, p. 46. 
 
 t Huntingdonshire Report, p. 301. 
 
 $ Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol.ii. p. 451. 
 
 § Ditto, p. 44. — In Young’s Norfolk, Chapter VI. on Enclosures, various 
 
174 Cultivating and Improving Wastes, 
 
 In Scotland, this practice has been restricted to peat- 
 bogs. In several instances, the whole surface has been 
 covered with earth, clay, sand, gravel, shells, or sea-ooze, 
 two or three inches thick, or more, (for the covering cannot 
 well be over done), and land, originally of no value, has 
 thus been rendered worth from 21. to 3/. and even 41. per 
 acre. The horses upon this land, must either be equipped 
 with wooden clogs, or the work performed in frosty weather, 
 when the surface of the moss is hard. Coarse obdurate 
 clay, (provincially till), is peculiarly calculated for this pro- 
 cess, as, when it is blended with peat, and some calcareous 
 matter, it contains all the properties of a fertile soil*. 
 This is certainly an expensive method of improving land, 
 unless the substance to be laid upon it, is within 500 yards 
 distance : but where it can properly be done, the moss 
 thus obtains solidity, and after it has been supplied with 
 calcareous earth, it may be cultivated, like other soils, in 
 a rotation of white and green crops. In the neighbour- 
 hood of populous towns, where the rent of land is high, the 
 covering substance may be conveyed from a greater distance 
 than 500 yards. 
 
 5. Floating off the Surface of Peat-Bogs. — This singu- 
 lar mode of improving waste lands, is applicable only where 
 there is a command of water, and where the subjacent clay 
 is of a most fertile quality, or consists of alluvial soil. A 
 stream of water is brought into the moss, into which the 
 spongy upper stratum is first thrown, and afterwards the 
 heavier moss ; the whole is then conveyed, by the stream, 
 into the neighbouring river, and thence to the sea. The 
 moss thus got rid of, in the most remarkable instance of 
 floating, (that of Blair Drummond in Perthshire), was, on 
 an average, about seven feet deep. Much ingenuity was 
 displayed in constructing the machinery, to supply water 
 for removing the moss, previous to the improvement of the 
 rich soil below. It required both the genius and the per- 
 severance of Lord Karnes, to complete this scheme-; but by 
 this singular mode of improvement, about 1000 English 
 acres have been already cleared, a population of above 900 
 inhabitants furnished with the means of subsistence, and an 
 extensive district, where only snipes and moor-fowl were 
 formerly maintained, is now converted, as if by magic , into 
 
 instances are given, of the success attending this mode of improvement, 
 This dressing adds rather more than half an inch of calcareous earth to the 
 soil. 
 
 * Clydesdale Report, p. 150 , note. 
 
Cultivating and Improving Wastes, 1J5 
 
 a rich and fertile carse * * * § , or tract of alluvial soil, worth from 
 3/. to 41, per acref . 
 
 6. Rolling , — The improvement of peaty or moory soils, 
 by rolling, in conjunction with the other operations above 
 explained, is of the highest importance. The greatest de- 
 fect of soft soils is, that the drought easily penetrates them, 
 and they become too open. The roller is an antidote to 
 that evil, and the expence is the only thing that ought to 
 set bounds to the practice of this operation. It also tends 
 to destroy those worms, grubs, and insects, with which light 
 and fenny land is apt to be infested. 
 
 The roller for such soils, ought not to be heavy, nor of 
 a narrow diameter. If it be weighty, and the diameter 
 small, it sinks too much where the pressure falls, which 
 causes the soft moss to rise before and behind the roller, 
 and thus instead of consolidating, it rends the soil. A 
 gentle pressure consolidates moss, but too much weight has 
 a contrary effect. A roller for moss, ought therefore to be 
 formed of wood, the cylinder about four feet diameter, and 
 mounted, to be drawn by two or three men. If horses are 
 employed, they ought to have clogs or pattens, if likely to 
 sinkj. The oftener the rolling is performed, on spongy 
 soils, (as long as the crops of corn or grass will admit of it), 
 the better, and the more certain is the result. 
 
 After waste land has thus been reclaimed, it may of course 
 be still further improved, by the usual processes, to be 
 afterwards explained, under the several heads of enclosings 
 draining , manuring §, irrigation , &c. Where such land, 
 
 * Carse, it appears, is a Welsh word ; but spelt corse. It implies in Wales, 
 wet or fenny land. See the South Wales Report, vol. ii. p. 93 and 102. 
 
 + General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 364. In the Appendix to that 
 Report, vol. ii. p. 38, there is a particular account of this singular and im- 
 portant improvement, against which some prejudices are entertained, by 
 those who have not seen the effects. The alluvial soil at the bottom, is 
 found to be greatly preferable to the peat above it, a mixture of which, 
 however, is considered to be useful. 
 
 $ In the Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. and in the 
 second Report from the Select Committee of the House of Commons, on the 
 state of disease and the condition of the Labouring Poor in Ireland, (printed 
 in June 1819), there are engravings of these pattens, and a description of 
 them. 
 
 § It may be proper to mention here, the superior importance of lime, in 
 cultivating waste lands. Mr. Simpson, near Pickering, in Yorkshire, in the 
 course of improving some waste lands, left one acre of as good soil as any of 
 the rest, unlimed. The first crop was turnips, in which it was not per- 
 ceptible : but it was strikingly marked in the next crop, that of oats, and 
 still more so in the grass-seeds, as very little clover was seen. The other 
 
176 Cultivating and Improving Wastes. 
 
 however, lies in a cold and exposed situation, or is so en- 
 cumbered with rocks and stones, that clearing them would 
 be attended with much expence, and where it would be of 
 little value in pasture, the best mode of improvement is 
 certainly by planting . Indeed both in Scotland, and in the 
 Netherlands, it has been found, that planting waste lands, 
 even in low situations, is the surest means of laying a founda- 
 tion for their future fertility and cultivation ; the surface 
 being thus covered, and the soil enriched, by the annual 
 accession of vegetable matter, from the decayed leaves*. 
 
 4. Rules to be observed regarding the Improvement of 
 Waste Lands. 
 
 In the cultivation of wastes, the following rules may be 
 laid down. 
 
 1 . Not to put in practice any scheme of improvement, 
 without the fullest deliberation, nor without the command 
 of an adequate capital. 
 
 2. Not to begin on too great a scale, nor until, by expe- 
 rience it be found, that the design is suitable to the soil, 
 situation, and climatef. 
 
 3. When the intention is to cultivate bogs, or peat 
 mosses, not to begin cropping, till at least one season after 
 the drains are completed, and the soil thoroughly reclaimed 
 from superfluous moisture. In bogs abounding with fluid 
 matter, (flow mosses), a longer time is necessary. 
 
 4. To plough or delve peat-moss in autumn, that it may 
 first be effectually exposed to the winter frost and rains, and 
 not to the summer’s heat, which would harden it, and 
 prevent its decomposition. 
 
 5. Whatever is done, to do it effectuallyX ; not to think of 
 
 part of the field became tolerably good herbage, with some small branches 
 of ling or heath thinly scattered amongst it ; but that part of the field that 
 was unlimed , was nearly destitute of herbage , and covered with heath.— -North 
 Riding Report , p. 209; Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p. 436'. 
 
 * Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. vi. p. 5 SO. — Parish of Forfar: also 
 Hints as to the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, already alluded to. 
 Part I. p. 72. The same idea occurred to Dr. Beeke, that by means of fir 
 plantations, the staple from the decaying vegetable matter, might be so in- 
 creased, that the most barren wastes might be rendered fit for corn. — Rcrks 
 Report , p. 333. It has been remarked, that lands, covered with fir, by nature, 
 are not of much value for cultivation ; but they are in general of a barreii 
 rocky quality ; and the improvement is only effected by young trees. 
 
 t See the Rev. Mr. Willis’s valuable paper.— Communications to the 
 Board of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 17, and 23. 
 
 X It is upon this principle that the Flemish acted, who have improved 
 such an extent of waste land. — They never brought more barren soil into 
 
Cultivating and Improving Wastes. 177 
 
 laying on four acres, the manure necessary for three ; nor 
 the lime, chalk, earth, clay, sand, or gravel, upon two acres, 
 that should be employed in covering only one. 
 
 6* To carry on the improvement of waste lands, without 
 encroaching upon the dung necessary for the improved part 
 of a farm, as dung ought never to be brought from a good 
 soil, to lay upon a bad one. Unless dung therefore can be 
 procured from a neighbouring town or village, it will be 
 better to leave the lands in their natural state, except in 
 cases, where the soil, by being pared, burnt, limed, or marled, 
 or covered with chalk, clay, earth, &c. will pay the expence 
 of the improvement, and rendered so fertile, that it can 
 afterwards be preserved, in a good condition, from its own 
 resources. 
 
 7. The last rule is, to lay down any land, improved from 
 waste, in high and bleak situations, as soon as possible into 
 grass, and to retain it in that state as long as it is tolerably 
 productive. For though grain and roots may be cultivated 
 on waste lands, when properly improved, and favourably 
 situated, yet grass pastured, particularly by sheep, is prin- 
 cipally to be depended on for improving weak soils, in 
 barren districts, and remunerating the_improver. 
 
 5. Of the Advantages to be derived from the Culture of 
 Waste Lands . 
 
 These are either of a private, or of a public nature. 
 
 1. Private Advantages . — It has been thought, that greater 
 profit may be derived from the improvement of wastes, or 
 of lands not hitherto completely cultivated, than of similar 
 soils that have been long under the plough. The rent is 
 necessarily lower, they are freer from weeds, and if once 
 brought into good order, and properly managed afterwards, 
 will give lucrative returns. Instances might be stated in 
 support of the above doctrine, but unfortunately it has not 
 in every case been sanctioned by experience. The real cause 
 is, that a great expence must be incurred in the first in- 
 stance, while the subsequent advantages are uncertain. 
 
 As it is impossible to go through the numerous examples 
 of the profitable improvement of wastes, in such a con- 
 densed work as the present, it is proposed to state, two of 
 the most important instances, that England and Scotland 
 can respectively furnish. f 
 
 into cultivation at a time, than they had abundant manure for . — Communicate 
 tiona to the Board of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 225. 
 
 N 
 
178 Cultivating and Improving Wastes, 
 
 A variety of experiments in the culture of wastes, have 
 been made on the estates of Charles Duncombe, Esq. of 
 Duncombe Park, in Yorkshire, the principal particulars of 
 which are detailed in his Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture*. The whole contains about 840 acres, and 
 what renders these experiments peculiarly important, is, 
 that a considerable proportion of the land, was improved in 
 small lots, by several persons, and under different systems. 
 The following results have been drawn from these experi- 
 ments, 1. That by paring and burning, the matted sub- 
 stance of peat, and the roots of heath, were reduced to a 
 substance that assists vegetation, and the land being thus 
 sooner brought into cultivation than by any other process, 
 that plan ought to be preferredf. 2. That in an elevated 
 situation, and a bleak climate, rye ought to be the first crop. 
 3. That potatoes is the most productive crop, provided long 
 dung could be spared. 4. That lime materially assists in 
 decomposing vegetable substances, and ameliorating the 
 soil ; and, 5. That when such lands are laid down with 
 artificial grass-seeds, it is most advisable to keep them in 
 pasturage, and to refrain from cutting them with the scythe. 
 
 The exertions made for the improvement of Chat-moss, 
 in the county of Lancaster, do credit to the zeal and ability 
 of the ingenious Mr. Roscoe. This tract contains about 
 2500 acres, entirely composed of peat, from ten to thirty 
 feet deep. The drainage was begun in November, 1805, 
 but it was not till the year 1809, that any crops were raised, 
 and these were restricted to about 20 acres of oats and tur- 
 nips. In the succeeding year, 80 acres were cropped, of 
 which 20 were wheat ; and it soon appeared that, under a 
 judicious system, abundant crops of wheat, beans, oats, 
 potatoes, and clover, might be expectedj. 
 
 Mr. Roscoe has given a statement of the expence of im- 
 proving and cropping an acre of Chat- moss, in 1812, with 
 its produce. The expences, including 20 tons of Manches- 
 ter manure, for which, and its conveyance, b/. is charged, 
 amounts in all to 20/. 7s. per acre. He states, that the 
 
 * See vol. vii. Part I. p. J27 ; and Part II. p. 244. — Three premiums of 
 gold medals were voted by the Board for these exertions. 
 
 f In a valuable account of the improvement of a tract of waste land, by 
 Mr. Simpson, upon the Pickering Moors, in Yorkshire, he observes, “ That 
 the great error into which many have fallen, is the ploughing out the 
 tough mossy swards without paring and burning, which occasions an almost 
 total failure of crop, and of course a want of manure for the next succession. 
 —North Riding Report , p. 223; Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p. 404. 
 
 | Carrots might likewise have been tried. 
 
Cultivating and Improving Wastes. 179 
 
 crops, with the value of the straw, repaid the full expence 
 the first year, the price of grain being high ; but even at 
 more moderate rates, there can be no dofibt, that the money 
 expended in the improvement, may be speedily returned. 
 
 Mr. Roscoe considers calcareous manure as essential to 
 the improvement of peat-moss. As the quantity of lime 
 necessary for that purpose is so small, in proportion to that 
 of marl, where the distance is great, and the carriage high, 
 it is more advisable to make use of that substance; but 
 where marl is upon the spot, and can be obtained in suffi- 
 cient quantities, at a reasonable expence, the use of it ap- 
 pears to be preferable. 
 
 The result of Mr. Roscoe’s experiments is, that all tem- 
 porizing expedients are fallacious ; and that there is no 
 effectual method of improving peat-bogs, or moss land, but 
 by the application of calcareous substances , in sufficient 
 quantities to convert the moss into a soil , and by the occa- 
 sional use of animal or other extraneous manures , such as the 
 course of cultivation, and the nature of the crops, may be 
 found to require *. 
 
 In Scotland, Mr. Smith of Swinbridge-moor, near Beith, 
 in Ayrshire, and Mr. Maclean of Mark, in Galloway, are 
 two of the most distinguished improvers of waste lands. 
 
 Mr. Smith began, about the year 1783, to reclaim some 
 of the peat-mosses on his estate, and was perhaps the first 
 who recommended the application of lime alone to mossy 
 soils, and proved its efficacy. After cutting proper drains 
 in autumn, he formed the peat into ridges of seven or eight 
 yards in breadth, but of a moderate height, by the spade. 
 As soon after this operation as possible, the ridges were 
 manured with lime, (the more caustic the better), at the 
 rate of from 100 to 200 Winchester bushels of lime-shells 
 per English acre, and the next spring sown with oats. 
 Potatoes usually are a better and more profitable crop, but 
 they require dung. The annual clear profit, for the first 
 five years, is said to be, on an average, at the rate of 21. 10s. 
 per English acre, and the land thus improved, from a waste 
 of no value, lets at 11. per English acre. This system is 
 considered so advantageous, that it has already been ex- 
 tended to Russia and Swedenf. 
 
 Mr. Maclean has improved no less a quantity than 687 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. vii. p. 438. 
 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 367- Mr. Monteath of Close- 
 burn, has proved its efficacy, and has great merit for his extensive improve- 
 ment of waste lands. 
 
180 Cultivating and Improving Wastes, 
 
 English acres of waste land. He conducts this business 
 with such ability, joined to economy, that he never re- 
 claimed an acre, which has not made him a large return for 
 the capital expended. The land he has improved, is above 
 400 feet above the level of the sea, and the soils greatly 
 diversified. His example is a great encouragement to all 
 proprietors of waste lands, to set about improving them 
 without delay, as, in that way, their interest would be better 
 promoted, than by any other plan that could be suggested. 
 It is sometimes by paring and burning, and at other times 
 by covering the surface, according to the nature of the soil, 
 and other circumstances, that his improvements were car- 
 ried on*. 
 
 Among the various modes of improving wastes, that of 
 bringing them into a state of cultivation, by establishing 
 colonies of labourers, fishermen, tradesmen, &c. in advan- 
 tageous situations, has been found beneficial to the pro- 
 prietor and to the public. To the first, because his land is 
 improved, perhaps without any expence being incurred by 
 him ; and to the second, because, as a distinguished'character 
 has well observed, when land is given to a cottager for a 
 number of years, under a small reserved rent, he and his 
 family will exert in its cultivation, a quantity of labour, 
 which would not otherwise be called into action ; and by 
 which, many thousand acres of land may be cultivated, 
 which would not, in any other mode, pay the expence of 
 improvementf. 
 
 2. Public Advantages . — Whether exertions for the im- 
 provement of ^wastes, are beneficial or injurious to the un- 
 dertaker, there can be no doubt, that they are advantageous 
 to the public. By these means, thousands of acres have 
 been already added to the national stock of arable land, 
 which, in proportion to their extent, will continue to yield 
 food for our increased population. Besides the multitudes 
 employed in reclaiming these wastes, occupation is provided 
 for as many persons as are requisite for their subsequent 
 cultivation ; and the surplus food, beyond what the actual 
 cultivators may require, increases the fund of provisions for 
 maintaining those who are employed in manufactures and 
 commerce. In all these respects, the improvement of waste 
 and unproductive land, is an object of very high national 
 
 * They are described in the Galloway Report. 
 
 ir Preliminary Observations to the Westmoreland Report, by the late Dr. 
 Watson, Bishop of LandafT, p. 8. General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 388. 
 
On the Nature arid Advantages of Enclosures, 181 
 
 importance, and well deserves the attention, and indeed the 
 encouragement of the legislature*. 
 
 Sect. II.— On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures . 
 
 The benefit to be derived, from dividing lands under cul- 
 tivation, into regular fields, has been already explained. 
 (See Chapter II. Sect. 10). It is here proposed to con- 
 sider, — The advantages and disadvantages of having these 
 fields enclosed and fenced ; — The sorts of enclosures best 
 calculated for different soils and situations ; — The principal 
 fences to be recommended ; — The effect of hedge-rows ; 
 and, — Some miscellaneous particulars connected with the 
 subject of enclosure. 
 
 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Enclosures. 
 
 Enclosures and fences, when judiciously designed, and 
 properly executed, are attended with the following advan- 
 tages : 
 
 1 . The mere enclosure of wastes, lays the foundation of 
 their future fertility. By the shelter thus obtained, and by 
 the plants being protected from poaching, the natural 
 grasses are enabled to make more progress, than if the field 
 had been left open and exposed ; and by the dung of the 
 sheep or cattle pastured thereon, the ground is gradually 
 enriched, and ultimately rendered fit for cropping, when 
 cultivation is afterwards resorted tof. 
 
 2. Where lands are wet, the ditches employed in fencing 
 them, both render the enclosure dry, and may supply it 
 with running water, in situations where that article is re- 
 quired. 
 
 3. In cold climates, and more especially in bleak situa- 
 tions, the effects of enclosure, in sheltering the land, and 
 rendering it more productive, are hardly credible to those 
 who have not experienced themj. In a mountainous dis- 
 trict where that plan was adopted, the climate was rendered 
 
 * Mid-Lothian Report, Appendix, No. XI. p. 104. — Middlesex Report, 
 p. 107; where the advantages of improving wastes, in the neig hbourhood of 
 the metropolis , are fully explained. 
 
 + Caithness Report, Appendix, p. 141. Holt’s Lancashire, p. 103. 
 
 t Aberdeenshire Report, p. 221. In dry soils and in warm climates the 
 shelter of lofty trees is of use, to protect the crops from the violence of the 
 sun, and the evaporation it would otherwise occasion. This is found in the 
 Netherlands, particularly iu the Pays de Waes, and the same system might 
 be useful in some parts of England. 
 
182 On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures. 
 
 milder, the soil more productive, the tenantry became more 
 comfortable in their circumstances, and, some so affluent, 
 that they could purchase the fee-simple of their farms*. 
 
 4. In pasturage, the advantages of enclosures are of the 
 highest importance. The farmer is, in a great degree, re- 
 lieved, from the heavy expence of attending his stock ; and 
 he has it in his power to arrange them, according to their 
 age, condition, and other circumstances. — The pasturing 
 stock are not only protected, from being perpetually harassed 
 and interrupted in their feeding by dogs, or other intruders, 
 but, in general, have access to water when they please, and 
 by these means, improve much faster, than on the same 
 extent of unenclosed land. — The grass, owing to greater 
 warmth and shelter, is earlier and more abundant, where 
 protected by the fences, than in bleak exposed open lands 
 of similar soils, and in the same neighbourhood. — The live- 
 stock, in the summer season, suffer less from heat, are pro- 
 tected in cold and stormy weatherf, and in particular, have 
 sheltered places to resort to, where they may sleep or rumi- 
 nate. — The stock likewise, being more quiet, do not poach 
 the ground so much in wet weather J. From these advan- 
 tages, joined to] that important one, of being enabled to 
 shift from one field to another, for fresh supplies of grass, 
 experienced graziers entertain the highest opinion of their 
 utility §. 
 
 5. In the management of arable land, many solid advan- 
 tages are derived from enclosures. When the land is open, 
 it is exposed to trespass ; but when enclosed, the farmer is 
 secured against encroachment, — can adopt a correct and 
 profitable rotation of crops, — can proceed with vigour in its 
 cultivation, — and can reap its fruits with safety : — an in- 
 creased produce is the necessary consequence of these ad- 
 vantages. Where corn, however, is the principal object, 
 the enclosures ought to be large. 
 
 6. In some districts in England, coals are dear, or fuel 
 scarce, and mixed hedges, from the quantity of wood they 
 produce, are considered to be profitable. The fence, how- 
 ever, in that case, is not so good, and more ground than 
 usual must be allotted for the purpose. 
 
 * Perthshire Report, p. 118. 
 
 ■f Dr. Skene Keith observes, that the difference between enclosures, and 
 the bleak unsheltered lands in the same neighbourhood, is often from five to 
 eight degrees of the thermometer. 
 
 1 General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. L'76. 
 
 '§ Middlesex Report, p. lfJ7. 
 
On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures . 183 
 
 7. The oak-timber that grows in hedge-rows, is more 
 valuable than any other for naval purposes, furnishing that 
 knee-timber, so essential in the construction of ships of war. 
 
 8. The very appearance of enclosure indicates comfort 
 and security. Landlords, on that account, never fail to 
 draw very advanced rents from well-enclosed lands. They 
 generally let at from 2s. to perhaps 10s. or 15s. per acre 
 higher, than open lands, of the same description, in their 
 immediate neighbourhood. Besides this additional rent, 
 the farmer, from a consciousness of the benefit derived from 
 them, will often undertake to uphold the fences, at his own 
 charge, during the lease. 
 
 9. Enclosure also, by means of ditches, contributes both 
 to drain, and to improve the climate of a country ; while 
 the neighbourhood of open fields and commons, tend to 
 render the rigours of the climate more severe*. 
 
 In regard to “ The disadvantages of enclosures they need 
 not be dwelt on, as they can only be said to exist in the 
 abuse or mismanagement of the system. Enclosures too 
 small, especially on low fertile ground, harbour insects, and 
 produce too much shade ; these contribute to deteriorate 
 the quality of the produce ; and cattle and sheep are more 
 exposed to torment and danger from different species of 
 flies. 
 
 Another species of disadvantage arises from the ill shape 
 of enclosures, and their not being laid out according to 
 aspect or slope: these errors have been so glaring and in- 
 convenient, that in some instances, old enclosures have been 
 entirely new-divided, and the old fences grubbed up. 
 
 It has also been remarked, that enclosures are attended 
 with this disadvantage, that they retain moisture among the 
 trees and hedges, and prevent the full effect of wind in 
 drying the crop during harvest. But this inconvenience, 
 is in some degree compensated, by the corn becoming 
 earlier ripe, from the warmth which the enclosures fur- 
 nish. 
 
 Some have imagined, that the soil might be injured, by 
 the greater evaporation which the warmth of enclosures may 
 occasion. But it can hardly be disputed, that evaporation 
 is more promoted, by free air and wind, than by heat. 
 
 On the whole, it appears, that the arguments in favour 
 of enclosures, as a general system, greatly preponderate: 
 
 Middlesex Report, p. 108 . 
 
184 On the Nature arid Advantages of Enclosures . 
 
 nor is it an unimportant consideration, that they give a 
 country a more ornamental and picturesque appearance. 
 
 2. The Sorts of Enclosures adapted for differ ent Soils and 
 Situations. 
 
 The nature and size of enclosures, ought to vary according 
 to situation and other circumstances, the principles of which 
 shall be briefly explained. 
 
 1. Enclosures in the vicinity of Towns. — Near a town, 
 small enclosures are usually preferred. From five to ten 
 acres, may, in general, be considered as the most conve- 
 nient size. As wooden fences and dead hedges are liable to 
 depredations, the most advisable fences for such enclosures 
 are, either quick-hedges dressed thick and low, or stone 
 walls, edged or tipt with limef. 
 
 2. Enclosures in low and rich Soils . — Where the soil is 
 retentive of moisture, open drains or ditches are used, for 
 the double purpose, of dividing the fields, and clearing them 
 from superfluous water ; but unless the stock are accustomed 
 to such a fence, they are apt to fall into the ditches, by 
 which some are maimed, and occasionally destroyed ; and if 
 posts and rails are erected to prevent such accidents, they 
 seldom last long];. If smaller drains are wanted, they ought 
 to be covered, that all the valuable soil that can possibly be 
 obtained, may be turned to profitable use. Where it would 
 be an imprudent waste, to occupy valuable land in fences, 
 stone walls are to be preferred ; or a fence of white-thorn 
 may be raised. But that will require the protection of a 
 railing of wood, or a low stone wall, on the one side, and 
 a ditch on the other. After the hedge has grown to a pro- 
 per size, the temporary wall may be removed, the ditch 
 filled up, and from that time, the hedge itself, except 
 where an open drain is necessary, is the only remaining in- 
 cumbrance upon the land. 
 
 3. Enclosures in Low Arable Farms. — In such situations, 
 where circumstances permit, the fields should be from 
 fifteen to twenty-five to thirty acres ; and the fences cither 
 stone walls, or hedges trained close and low. Some smaller 
 enclosures, near the dwelling-house, are of use, according 
 to the size of the farm, for various purposes, in particular, 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 108. 
 
 t Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 259, 279; and vol, iii. p. 269. 
 J Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 45. 
 
On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures. 185 
 
 for the rearing of calves, or young horses, where they may 
 be attended to, and watched with greater convenience. 
 
 4. Enclosures in Upland Farms. — The soil of upland 
 farms is generally cold, and of inferior quality. To secure 
 early and rich grass, and to shelter the live stock, the en- 
 closures ought to be considerably smaller than in lower 
 farms ; belts of several sorts of wood should be raised, or 
 hedges of beech or holly, which, though of slow growth, 
 will certainly thrive in dry and gravelly soils, where the 
 thorn would fail. In Devonshire and Cornwall it is usual, 
 to make copse fences on large mounds of earth, which, in 
 time, pay for the ex pence of making them, by the fuel they 
 afford, and the shelter they furnish, both to the land and 
 the cattle. 
 
 5. Enclosures on Mountain Sheep- Farms. — No sheep- 
 farmer can carry on his business with satisfaction and profit, 
 without some enclosures. There ought to be at least a 
 tup-park , or enclosure for the rams ; an hospital park , for 
 such diseased or unfortunate sheep, as require better food, 
 or more shelter, than the rest of the flock ; an enclosure 
 for water-meadow, or early grass; and some enclosed ground 
 for cultivation. Without such aids, the sheep-farmer can 
 never expect to escape the baneful effects of fatal distem- 
 pers; — nor can he improve the breed and character of his 
 flock ; — nor maintain his sheep during severe weather, when 
 they are unable to dig through the frozen snow for subsist- 
 ence ; — nor protect them from general destruction, during 
 snow-drifts, if the farm be entirely open. For these ob- 
 vious reasons, every sheep-farm ought, if possible, to be 
 accommodated with several enclosures, well fenced with 
 strong walls, and constructed in the most effectual and ap- 
 proved manner. 
 
 6. Enclosures on New Fairnis. — The plan of enclosure 
 to be adopted on new farms, depends upon circumstances. 
 If a considerable extent of arable land must be separated 
 from mountain pasture, a ring-fence, consisting of a strong 
 wall, with a rough stone coping, placed edgewise, (the 
 Galloway dyke), ought to be constructed for that purpose, 
 within which is to be comprehended, the arable land, the 
 meadow, and the cow- pasture; and contiguous to this ge- 
 neral fence, plantations ought to be made for shelter and 
 ornament. — If the whole farm, though bleakly situated, is 
 capable of cultivation, belts of planting ought to be formed 
 on the more exposed parts, and hedges raised as subdivi- 
 
186 On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures . 
 
 sions. Besides the hedge-rows, or belts of planting, the 
 corners of the fields, which are not accessible to the plough, 
 may likewise be planted. It is proper to give a bend to the 
 clump, that the plough may be turned more easily : and, 
 adjoining to this clump of wood, a single pond, properly 
 placed, may accommodate several fields* * * § . 
 
 3. The Nature of the Fences . 
 
 There is a great variety of fences, calculated for different 
 purposes, but the most generally used, are, 1. Stone walls; 
 and, 2. Hedges of thorn, and other plantsf. 
 
 1 . Stone Walls. — This species of fence has one advan- 
 tage, that, according to a common saying, “ it is major 
 from its birth,” or, in other words, attains its greatest per- 
 fection as soon as made. Stone walls, however, have this 
 disadvantage, that they are gradually getting worse ; and, 
 according as they are well or ill executed, unless built with 
 lime, require, at the rate of from one to two per cent, per 
 annum, to keep them in repair J. The propriety of erecting 
 a fence of this kind, depends much upon the nature and 
 quality of the soil to be enclosed ; — the quantity and fitness 
 of the loose stones to be met with in the soil; — the vicinity 
 of the quarry where the stones are dug ; — and the advan- 
 tage of obtaining lime at a moderate expence, by which the 
 construction of the wall can be much improved, and rendered 
 more durable. Where all these favourable circumstances 
 are combined, stone walls, though not so ornamental as 
 hedges, are preferable in point of utility ; the benefit of 
 the enclosure being immediate. They also occasion the 
 least waste of ground; — do no injury to corn crops ; — do 
 not harbour vermin, if well built or edged with lime; — and 
 are free from the weeds and rubbish that almost invariably 
 accompany live hedges§. 
 
 The expence of erecting stone walls is considerable. 
 Where they are built with lime, and five feet three inches 
 in heignth, the expence of enclosing a field of moderate 
 size, cannot be estimated at less than ten pounds per acre, 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 48. Derbyshire Report, vol, ii. p. 84. 
 
 f In the Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 1, 
 there is a very interesting Paper on Enclosures, by the late Robert Somer- 
 ville, Esq., with engravings of no less a number than sixty-four modes of 
 enclosure, some of them quite simple, and others more complex. 
 
 J Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer, p. 26 9. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 135. Stone fences generally indicate a thin light 
 soil, and, on such land, quickset hedges could hardly he raised as a fence. 
 
On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosure 187 
 
 even in cases where the lines of division are neither crooked 
 nor irregular*. 
 
 Where lime is not used, “ the Galloway dyke ,” is pre- 
 ferred to every other species of dry stone wall. It is built 
 double ; that is to say, the two sides are formed of two dif- 
 ferent sets of stone, resting against each other, and con- 
 nected by larger stones, which, from time to time, are laid 
 across the wall. The whole, according to the more recent 
 improvements, is completed, by putting upon the top of the 
 dyke, as close as they can be laid together, stones placed 
 edgewise ; and when a considerable extent has been thus 
 laid, thin stones are driven in like wedges, at small intervals, 
 which bind the whole so firmly together, that, when well 
 built, a stone can hardly be taken out of the top, without 
 an iron crowf. Long experience has fully proved, that 
 animals are more deterred from attempting to get over 
 this rugged coping, than a more solid wall, even of a 
 greater height, without that peculiarity in its construction. 
 
 Through the whole range of the Cotswold hills of Glou- 
 cestershire, (from Bath to Stow on the Wold), and now fast 
 extending, (in practice), into the adjacent vales ; owing to 
 the uncontrolable disposition of the poor to destroy every 
 combustible article in fences, stone walls, about five feet 
 high, is the mode of enclosing. 
 
 The stone is of the white sort, and commonly lies near 
 the surface, in flat beds or strata. This stone perishes by 
 the action of frost, on any wet, being confined in it. The 
 use of lime or other mortar, is therefore necessarily rejected ; 
 and the prudence or propriety of erecting this fence, in no 
 sort depends on vicinity to lime. If the flat bedded stone 
 be carefully selected, and well put together, by masons ac- 
 customed to this work, the walls last an indefinite time, and 
 are repaired at a very easy expence. The original cost of a 
 five foot wall of this kind, where, (as is generally the case), 
 the stone lies near at hand, is not more than from 4s. 6d. 
 to (3s. the perch (statute measure). 
 
 It is not possible to say, what is the cost per acre, of 
 enclosing land in this manner, without defining the extent 
 and shape of the space enclosed. Suppose, (for instance), 
 
 * Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 297. 
 
 + Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 447. — Where the wall is not built too 
 open below, it is of great advantage, to introduce a little lime between each 
 stone, along with the wedges or pins .' — General Report of Scotland , vol. i. 
 p. 307. 
 
188 On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures, 
 
 a field of ten acres, enclosed in a square, the cost would be 
 about 4 1, per acre. If in an extended parallelogram of 80 
 by 20, the expence per acre would be raised to bl. ; and for 
 that sum, where the stone is within a moderate distance, 
 any field may be enclosed, whose shape does not greatly 
 deviate from the square * * * § . 
 
 2. Hedges of Thorn. — The hawthorn, (cratcegus oocy- 
 cantha , Linn.) or white thorn, is justly accounted preferable 
 for a fence, to every other plant, hitherto known in Europef . 
 If placed in a proper soil, it is a quick grower, is of a hardy 
 nature, produces numerous branches, has prickles for its 
 defence, becomes stronger by age, and when properly 
 trained and occasionally cut over, there is no period to its 
 duration. If suffered to grow too tall, it makes but a bad 
 fence, becoming open below, and from its height, injurious 
 to the crops in its neighbourhood. When hedges, therefore, 
 come to a proper height and strength as fences, they ought 
 to be cut into a shape, the least likely to give obstruction to 
 the motion of the air, or to do injury either to the roads, 
 or the fields in their neighbourhood J. 
 
 If hedge plants of five years old can be procured, Lord 
 Karnes maintains, that they deserve all the additional sum 
 that can be demanded for them, as they require less railing 
 for their protection§. Hence the establishment of nurseries, 
 for raising hedge* plants to a stature fit, or nearly fit, to form 
 a fence, with less necessity for their being guarded, has been 
 strongly recommended. Such plants would be of particular 
 use in filling up gaps and unnecessary gateways||. 
 
 Instead of posts and rails, which are apt to be destroyed. 
 
 * Communications from Sir George O. Paul, Bart. 
 
 + There is reason to believe that very useful plants might be obtained 
 from America, for the purposes of enclosure. — The cockspur, or Newcastle 
 thorn, produced and cultivated in the Delaware State, has a thorn, or pike, 
 strong and sharp, from one and a half to three inches in length. The Vir- 
 ginia thorn, which makes an excellent fence, i» a still more rapid, and 
 uniform grower, with an abundant armour of prickles, about an inch long, 
 and remarkably sharp . — American Farmer , June 25, 1819. It would be 
 extremely desirable, to have these plants tried, and compared with the 
 European white thorn. 
 
 X Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer, p. 272. — Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. 
 p. 47. Derbyshire Report, vol. iii. p. 270. 
 
 § Gentleman Farmer, p. 274. 
 
 11 Herefordshire Report, p. 50. — Marshall’s Review of the Western De- 
 partment, p. 322. Others think, that the old sets should be used only for 
 filling up gaps, and for this purpose to be planted with good roots, and with 
 careful digging below. They should also be left a foot and a half taller than 
 the adjoining stools of the hedge, because they do not shoot so early. 
 
On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures . 189 
 
 some have tried low walls of stones, to protect the young 
 hedge* * * § ; and others a mode of planting the hedge, protected 
 by a mound between two ditches, the whole occupying the 
 space of about fourteen feet. By the time the hedge be- 
 comes a fence, the ditches are completely filled up by the 
 earth of the mound, so that no ground is lostf . 
 
 If a farm is enclosed by hedges, and cultivated under the 
 alternate husbandry of tillage and pasturage, it is an excel- 
 lent rule, when the fields are broken up, to cut down the 
 hedges; and thus every objection to the injury sustained 
 from such enclosures, to crops of grain, is obviated. The 
 mode of cutting them down must vary according to cir- 
 cumstances : if the hedge is thin, let it be cut down about 
 six inches from the ground ; but if sufficiently thick, from 
 three to four feet. In the former case, all gaps ought to be 
 carefully filled up by planting ; but they may be filled up, 
 not only by inserting new plants, but by laying down 
 branches of the old ones in the gap, as those may be made 
 to take rootj . 
 
 The following rules are recommended to the planters of 
 thorn hedges : 
 
 1. With a view to utility, it is better to make the whole 
 hedge of one sort of plants, than to have a motley mixture 
 of various shrubs ; — unfit for being used as a fence ; — pro- 
 ducing weak and sickly plants ; — injuring each other's 
 growth ; — shedding their leaves at different seasons of the 
 year ; — and presenting a discordant and offensive appear- 
 ance^ 
 
 2. Thorns should be planted in the natural soil, if it is of 
 a good quality. Their roots thus receive abundant nourish- 
 ment, and spread, unchecked, with as much freedom as if 
 they grew in a natural state||. But when the line of a fence 
 passes through soils of different qualities, it is proper, either 
 to select such species of plants as are suitable for the re- 
 spective soil, or by drainage, cultivation, and manuring, to 
 
 * The Galloway fbrm, two feet high, with a coping, or a rugged row 
 of stones above the wall, would answer the purpose of protection suffi- 
 ciently. 
 
 f Stirlingshire Report, p. 123. This plan was adopted by a Gentleman 
 in Scotland, the late Mr. Forbes, of Callander, who planted six millions of 
 thorns, and whose line of fences measured about four hundred miles in 
 length. 
 
 + Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 51 . A long branch or stem must be 
 half cut through, near the ground, fixed firmly in the surface by notched 
 stakes, and covered with earth. The extreme end strikes root. 
 
 § Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 14. 
 
 H Marshall’s Review of the Northern Department, p. 41. 
 
ISO On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures. 
 
 equalize them as much as possible, all along the line of the 
 intended fence* * * § . In poor soils, it is advisable to sprinkle 
 a little rotten dung at the roots of the plants. 
 
 3. The young thorns should be planted with as much ex- 
 pedition as possible, after they are taken from the nursery j 
 — they should not be placed deeper in the ground than what 
 they had previously stood in the seed-bed ; — they should be 
 laid upon a gentle slope, or inclined plane, pointing down- 
 wards, so as to favour the transmission of moisture to the 
 roots ; — and they should not be cut, until they have been 
 planted in the ground, when it can be done with more re- 
 gularity ; — the age of the plants, (whether of one or two 
 years), is not so material, as that they should be healthy 
 and well grownf. 
 
 4. The cutting of hedge plants is an important operation. 
 They should always be cut upwards , and the best shape for 
 them to be formed into, as that of a step roof, or the 
 hogged mane of a horse ; that is, narrow at the top, and 
 wide at the bottom. Every twig thus receives its full share 
 of rain, sun, and air, and the lower branches, are not injured 
 and destroyed, by the dropping of water from those above J. 
 
 5. Besides preparing the ground for Jhe young plants, by 
 a crop of potatoes or turnips, or by a fallow, and enriching 
 it, if the soil is poor, by dung or compost, it is necessary, to 
 have the hedge regularly cleaned once, and when young, 
 twice in a season, that the young plants may be kept per- 
 fectly free from weeds§. 
 
 6. But the most important rule is, to plant the quicks, at 
 from nine to twelve inches apart from each other, accord- 
 ing to the fertility of the soils||, and some recommend even 
 a greater distance ; but at twelve inches, they make more 
 wood, and sooner become a strong and lasting fence. The 
 closer they are planted, the more difficult they must find it to 
 procure nourishment, and the greater number must die. It 
 is well known, that when a quick-hedge conies to be from 
 twenty to thirty years old, few of the thorns are nearer each 
 other than from twelve to eighteen inches^. 
 
 As hedges rarely thrive, after the roots of the thorns 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 312. 
 
 f See Blaikie’s Tract on the Management of Hedges, p. 0. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 314. Blaikie on Hedges, p. 33, 
 and 46. 
 
 § Brown on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 299. 
 
 || Quicks have been found to answer well in middling soils, at nine inches 
 asunder. 
 
 U Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 50, Note. 
 
On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures. 191 
 
 reach the close impervious bottom on which clays are in- 
 cumbent, it has been found an useful practice, to cast a 
 deep drain where the hedge is to be planted, and to fill it 
 with stones, covered with good earth. The thorns will 
 thrive as well by this method, as upon soils of a different 
 description* * * § . 
 
 Thorns may be raised from the roots cut off, when the 
 plants are to be set in a hedge, as well as from seed. They 
 must be put into a bed of fresh earth, and thus a perpetual 
 succession of vigorous plants may be obtainedf. 
 
 In making hedges, the plants should be assorted, and all 
 those of the same size put together ; where they cannot be 
 had of uniform strength, the most healthy should be put in 
 the poorest soil, and the weakly in the rich onesj. 
 
 In many cases, from circumstances connected with the 
 situation or soil, other shrubs are used for hedges than the 
 white thorn ; though none, on the whole, is comparable to 
 it on suitable soils, or, when properly trained, forms so 
 strong and durable a fence. 
 
 The common furze, gorse, or whin, (ulex europceus) will 
 grow on poor soils in exposed situations§ ; but is attended 
 with this disadvantage, that by the bursting of the pods, the 
 seeds are scattered to some distance, and in clearing out the 
 ditches, they are carried over all the fields, and are extir- 
 pated with great difficulty. The beech, therefore, is to be 
 preferred, where it will grow, more especially from the 
 shelter it affords, as the old leaves remain till the new ones 
 sprout out ; thus giving warmth to the adjoining fields, and 
 to the stock pasturing in them, even in the midst of winter. 
 The larch also has been tried with some success ; though, 
 it is obvious, that a fence of this sort, cannot answer for 
 sheep. 
 
 The holly (ilex aquifolium), is of slow growth, but forms 
 a close and beautiful ever-green fence. It ought to be 
 transplanted from the seed-bed, the first year, either in 
 May or June, which would, in general, ensure its thriving. 
 
 The horn beam has been strongly recommended, and 
 seems to merit more attention than has hitherto been paid 
 to it in this country. It is not delicate in point of soil, but 
 
 * Brown’s Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 300. 
 
 When thorns are planted in barren soils, it is found of use to dip their 
 roots in common oil, before they are put into the ground. 
 
 t Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer, p. 273. 
 
 + Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 42. 
 
 § See Essay on Whin Hedges, by John Gordon, Esq. of Swiney.— Trans- 
 actions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 341. 
 
192 On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures. 
 
 will thrive on ground seemingly barren. It is likewise a 
 quick grower, and becomes a fence peculiarly solid and per- 
 manent^. Its wood also, is preferable to yew, or crab, for 
 mill cogs, &c. It may be transplanted at a good size - • 
 and should be placed in such a manner, that the two plants 
 may intersect each other, in the form of a St. Andrew’s 
 cross; which soon becomes a sort of living palisado, or 
 chevaux defrise . It is not uncommon in Germany, to see 
 the sides of the high-roads thus guarded for ten miles to- 
 gether!* . 
 
 In the hedges of England, a great variety of trees are 
 planted, as the hazel, the oak, the ash, the maple, the crab, 
 the willow, &c. These furnish materials for manufacturing 
 various articles, — supply the hop-planter with poles, — or 
 may be used as fuel. Sometimes plums, gooseberries, and 
 other plants, yielding useful and agreeable fruits, are to be 
 met with J ; but this is a dangerous experiment, alluring idle 
 boys to do much mischief to the hedges; — and sometimes the 
 sweet-briar, and all the varieties of the wild rose are planted, 
 for their smell or beauty. 
 
 4. Hedge-rows i 
 
 The planting of trees in the line of a hedge is, generally 
 speaking, not to be approved of. Thorns do not thrive so 
 well near the roots, nor under the drop of a tree. The roots 
 also running into the field in all directions, often break and 
 damage the plough, and interrupt the field operations. The 
 corn growing under the shade and drop of trees, is almost 
 universally laid down, of course not filled, unequally ripened, 
 and not so soon ready for the stack-yard, as in the other, 
 parts of the field. In late and wet seasons, indeed, the corn 
 is seldom harvested in proper condition, and in some in- 
 stances it is totally lost. The ash, in particular, is a for- 
 midable enemy to corn. The influence of its roots, in at- 
 tracting moisture and fertility, may be seen in a circular 
 form, on every arable spot in their immediate neighbour- 
 hood. In fact, they are said to be the landlord’s thieves , as 
 they steal from the tenant’s crop every year, ten times the 
 value of their own increased value. The grass under their 
 
 * From the stiffness of its branches, it may grow well near the sea. 
 
 •f* See Harte’s Essays on Husbandry, p. 114; also Weston’s Tracts on 
 Practical Agriculture, second edition, p. 131, and opposite to p. 88, are plans 
 of what he calls the Palisade Horn-beam hedge. 
 
 X See a plan for that purpose in the Staffordshire Report, p. 43. 
 
On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures. 193 
 
 shade or drop, is likewise of inferior quality, compared to 
 the other parts of the field, and is unwholesome to stock*. 
 In flat countries, therefore, it is better to plant the corners 
 of such fields as are not accessible to the plough, and where 
 a great deal of useful timber may be raised. In hilly coun- 
 tries, on the other hand, belts of planting are advisable, from 
 the warmth and shelter they afford. 
 
 There are some trees, however, which, comparatively 
 speaking, do much less injury tha'n others. The narrow 
 leaved elm, and the black poplar, are of that description, 
 and above all, the oak, which, in hedge-rows, produces 
 timber, peculiarly well calculated for naval purposes. The 
 planting of the oak, therefore, under a judicious system, 
 ought not to be discouraged, for the growth and prosperity 
 of such timber, is of great national as well as private im- 
 portance!*. 
 
 Fruit-trees in hedge-rows promise a profit, which is never 
 realized ; the fruit being generally stolen, and the trees 
 mutilated!. 
 
 5. Miscellaneous Particulars . 
 
 These principally relate to, Gates ; Stiles ; and Wickets. 
 
 1. Gates . — This is a subject of considerable importance, 
 and includes the following particulars : Their position ; — 
 The substances on which they are placed; — Their dimen- 
 sions ; — Their form ; — and, The materials used in making 
 them. 
 
 1. Their position must be determined, by considering 
 the roads and other communications with which they are 
 connected, the size and form of the enclosures to which 
 they lead, and the purposes to which these are intended 
 to be applied. 
 
 2. Gates are fixed in various ways. — Sometimes on posts 
 of oak or larch, being more durable than foreign fir. Some- 
 times living trees of considerable size, are transplanted with 
 their roots, for gate-posts, a practice not to be recom- 
 mended. Sometimes blocks made from a single stone, of a 
 good quality, and a sufficient size, may be had, and are 
 
 * Mr. Middleton states, that these objections to timber-trees in hedge- 
 rows, might be in a great measure obviated, by keeping them closely pruned 
 below the height of fifteen feet. 
 
 t See Blaikie’s Tract on the Management of Hedges, &c. p. 8, where 
 there are a number of useful hints on the management of hedge-rows. 
 
 X Observation by Mr. Middleton. 
 
 O 
 
194 On the Nature and Advantages of Enclosures. 
 
 greatly preferable to timber* * * § ; and sometimes round or 
 square pillars, are built of stone and lime, with large stones 
 inserted at that part of the pillar on which the gate hangs, 
 to which the gates are appendedf . 
 
 3. No field-gate intended for carriages, ought to be less 
 than nine feet wide ; and if the resort is frequent, ten feet 
 is preferable. The height about five feet, or nearly the 
 same as fences are usually made. 
 
 4. With respect to their construction, there is room for 
 selection out of the various forms now in use. For inte- 
 rior enclosures, a cheap and simple plan is adopted, that 
 of having a pillar at each side, into which four or more 
 moveable bars may be made to slip in, or out at pleasure. 
 That plan, however, will not do for passages much resorted 
 to. The swing-gate, which turns on hinges at one side, 
 and fastens by a latch at the other, which may occasionally 
 be shut by a padlock and chain, is the most common in 
 fences. For all places of considerable resort, this gate 
 should be hung, so as to open easily, to the traveller, even 
 on horseback, and to shut of itself. The folding gate, con- 
 sisting of two parts, is best adapted to wide spaces, where 
 one gate, occupying the whole, would be too large and heavy. 
 
 The importance of having gates that will shut and open 
 readily, is known to every skilful farmer. When a gate is 
 left open, flocks prone to ramble are sure to find it ; they 
 will probably do much damage to the adjoining fields of tur- 
 nips, corn, or grass ; they will become unsettled, and dissa- 
 tisfied with their pasture, for many days, and even weeks ; 
 and thus the farmer, is not only injured in his crop, but in 
 his stockj. 
 
 5. The best materials for field gates are, split oak§, or 
 sound red Riga, Memel, or larch fir ; materials not very 
 heavy, and which will endure for some time. If oak be 
 not procurable, the gates ought to be made entirely of these 
 kinds of fir, or of pitch pine. In some parts of Scotland, 
 and at Birmingham, gates of cast-iron are manufactured. 
 They can be made as light as those of wood, and where 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 92. 
 
 1* Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 51. 
 
 J Remark by Isaac Leatham, Esq. in his Survey of the East Riding, 
 p. 27. There is the plan of a new gate in the Farmer’s Magazine for May, 
 1820, well adapted to straw-yards, if not for fields. 
 
 § Mr. Fane of Oxfordshire, finds the split oak superior to any other, in 
 point of duration, and not expensive. 
 
On Draining . 
 
 195 
 
 iron is cheap, nearly at as low a price*.- In Cheshire, gates 
 are sometimes made of bar iron, of the ordinary size, at an 
 expence of from two to three poundsf . Great care ought 
 to be taken* to guard gates and pillars by large stones, and 
 to make the roads in passing them, smooth and hard. 
 
 But notwithstanding every precaution, gates are a per- 
 petual source of expence and vexation to the farmer. It 
 has therefore been suggested, as a useful plan, to contract 
 with a carpenter, to keep them in repair at a certain sum 
 per annum. This would induce him to examine every 
 gate frequently, and thus to preserve them in good orderf. 
 For their better security, a respectable magistrate, (Sir 
 John Thomas Stanley), has suggested the propriety of an 
 express law, to punish offenders, who wantonly injure so 
 material a means of protection to agricultural property §. 
 At present, in some places, the stealing of gate hooks and 
 iron fastenings, is so common, as to compel the farmer both 
 to hang and to fasten his gates with wood; which is cheaper, 
 though not so secure, nor so lasting as iron||. 
 
 '2. Stiles and Wickets . — These are necessary in enclo- 
 sures, for the admission of foot passengers, while horses 
 and cattle are thus excluded. They should be simple in 
 their form, and made of durable materials. 
 
 On the whole, a well-enclosed farm, is a strong induce- 
 ment to any occupier, to exert his utmost energies, in car- 
 rying on every species of improvement that can be advan- 
 tageously undertaken ; while by enclosures, the appearance 
 of the country is improved, its climate ameliorated, and its 
 value materially augmented. 
 
 Sect. III . — On Draining . 
 
 Relieving land from superfluous moisture, is one of the 
 most important branches of husbandry, Unless that be 
 accomplished, every other improvement of which the soil 
 is susceptible, must often be unsuccessfully attempted. 
 Fortunately, no department in agriculture, has been of late 
 more anxiously studied, nor with greater practical success. 
 The basis was laid by the discoveries of a farmer in War- 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 299, and 328. 
 
 + Cheshire Report, p. 122. J Shropshire Report, p. 150. 
 
 § Cheshire Report, p. 122. 11 Middlesex Report, p. 137. 
 
19G 
 
 On Draining. 
 
 wickshire, (Joseph Elkington), who was led to it by an 
 accident . It is a happy event for society, when such ac- 
 cidents occur to those, who have sense sufficient to avail 
 themselves, of hints thus fortuitously suggested. 
 
 In discussing this subject, the following particulars shall 
 be considered: 1. The advantages of draining-, 2. The 
 causes of wetness ; 3. The sorts of drains commonly used ; 
 4. The instruments employed ; and, 5. The modes of drain- 
 ing the different soils, and the objects to which that im- 
 provement is applicable. 
 
 1 . Advantages of Draining . 
 
 The benefit of draining is experienced, 1. In arable land; 
 2. In grass land ; 3. In woods and plantations ; 4. In the 
 improvement of wastes ; 5. In the climate ; and, 6. In va- 
 rious miscellaneous particulars. 
 
 1. Arable Land. — While land remains in a wet state, the 
 manure laid upon it, whether putrescent or calcareousf, 
 is, comparatively speaking, of little use ; — the seed sown 
 often perishes J ; — the crops are sickly, and later of ripen- 
 
 * In the year 1764, Elkington began to drain some fields on his farm of 
 Princethorpe, which were so extremely wet, that it occasioned the rotting 
 several hundreds of his sheep. He had dug a trench for that purpose about 
 four or five feet deep, which did not however reach the principal body of 
 subjacent water , from which the evil arose. By accident , while he was de- 
 liberating what was to be done, a servant was passing with an iron crow, or 
 bar, for fixing sheep-hurdles in an adjoining part of the farm. Having a 
 suspicion that his drain was not deep enough, and desirous to know what 
 sort of strata lay under it, he took the iron bar, and forced it down about 
 four feet below the bottom of the trench. On pulling it out, to his astonish- 
 ment, a great quantity of water burst up through the hole thus made, and 
 ran along the drain. This led him to the knowledge, that wetness may 
 often be produced by water, confined farther below the surface of the ground, 
 than it was possible for the usual depth of drains to reach, and that an auger 
 would be an useful instrument to apply in such cases. From his success in 
 this, as well as other modes of draining, and the readiness with which he 
 communicated the principles on which his operations were conducted, to 
 the Board of Agriculture, the British Parliament granted him a reward of 
 one thousand pounds. He taught his art to Mr. Johnstone, who has drawn 
 up a valuable treatise on the subject, from which much assistance has been 
 derived in preparing this Section. It is singular, that another great modern 
 improvement, warping - , was likewise discovered by an accident. (See 
 Sect. 10.) 
 
 f There are instances in Cheshire and Roxburghshire, of lime being 
 applied to a wet soil, without any visible effect; but no sooner was it 
 drained, even some years after, than, without any additional quantity of 
 calcareous matter, it produced luxuriant crops. 
 
 t Too much moisture in the soil, may prevent springing, for the seed 
 cannot contend with moisture, till it gets green leaves. If there is any risk 
 of wet, the field should be water-furrowed, after the seed is sown. 
 
On Draining . 
 
 197 
 
 ing ;— and the operations of harvest are attended with per- 
 haps n jury to the soil, uncertainty, and danger. On the 
 other hand, when it is thoroughly drained, land can be 
 ploughed at any season with advantage, — it is easily ma- 
 naged, and can be kept clean at a moderate expence, — every 
 exertion of good husbandry is attended with success, — it 
 suffers less from the inclemency of the seasons, — the produce 
 is generally ample,— the quality of the grain is excellent, — 
 and the farmer will thrive, where his predecessor, cultivat- 
 ing a wet and undrained soil, was impoverished, or perhaps 
 totally ruined. 
 
 2. Gi'ass Land. — The beneficial effects of draining on 
 grass land, are also very great. It is less liable to be poached; 
 — rushes and other aquatic plants soon disappear; — the 
 finer grasses rise in abundance ; — the pastures maintain a 
 greater number of cattle and sheep ; — the stock becomes 
 superior in size and quality, and less subject to disease*; — 
 that destructive malady, the rot, so fatal to sheep, is pre- 
 vented;— and if the land be mown, the hay produced, is so 
 much improved in quality, as to be of much greater value. 
 
 3. Woods and Plantations. — Draining is likewise an im- 
 provement of the most essential consequence to plantations, 
 where they do not consist of aquatic trees. Land intended 
 for planting the generality of forest trees, if wet, particularly 
 requires draining ; for as the roots of trees, penetrate deeper 
 than those of any other plants, the necessity of removing 
 the water in the subsoil, as well as that on the surface, is 
 evident. Where this has been attended to, the plantations 
 thrive, and the trees grow to a considerable size, much 
 faster than can otherwise be expected. 
 
 4. Improvement of Wastes . — The improvement of wet 
 moors, must be preceded by draining, stagnant water being 
 injurious to all the valuable classes of plants. Care in par- 
 ticular should be taken, to render the land dry, before the 
 application of lime, dung, or compost, otherwise the at- 
 tempt will be ineffectual. At present, commons lying waste, 
 are, in respect of drainage, in a most wretched state. The 
 soil, in the first instance, absorbs as much water as it can 
 
 * In the southern districts of Scotland, particularly in the counties of 
 Berwick, Roxburgh, Selkirk, and Peebles, most of the principal sheep 
 farms have been very much drained, and the consequence is, that the size, 
 quality, and healthiness of the stock in these districts, have been thereby 
 so much improved, as appears almost incredible to those who were ac- 
 quainted with the former state of sheep-farming in those parts. In many 
 of these farms the rent has increased fourfold, and the rot is now hardly 
 known. 
 
198 
 
 On Draining . 
 
 contain, and the surplus water remains on the surface, in a 
 stagnant state, highly injurious to the healthiness of the 
 neighbourhood*. 
 
 5. Melioration of Climate . — By the removal of stagnant 
 water, and the prevention of noxious exhalations, the cli- 
 mate is rendered more healthy and genial, both to animal 
 and vegetable lifef . Indeed, since the introduction of drain- 
 ing into this country, agues, and other similar distempers, 
 occasioned by the humidity of the soil, and the consequent 
 impurity of the atmosphere, have been, in a great measure, 
 prevented ; and the general health of the inhabitants has 
 been greatly improved. Much water is discharged into the 
 atmosphere, by spouty land, through the aquatic plants and 
 coarse herbage which it carries ; and it is a curious and im- 
 portant circumstance, in an experiment recorded, that while 
 the air immediately above a wet soil, was only 57° of Fahren- 
 heit, the dry part of the same field, and of a similar soil, 
 was considerably higherj. 
 
 6. Miscellaneous Advantages . — The drainage of one tract 
 of land, may likewise furnish water, by which the accommo- 
 dation of another may be promoted, for various useful pur- 
 poses, as, for irrigation ; — for mills, and other machinery ; 
 — for supplying houses, ponds, enclosures, canals, or artifi- 
 cial navigations. By peculiar modes of applying the arts 
 of draining also, the quantity of water found in mines and 
 quarries, may be diminished, either by cutting off the re- 
 sources above, or by letting down that which often impedes 
 their working into a porous stratum below. 
 
 On the whole, there are no means by which the value of 
 land can be advanced, or from which, when usefully ap- 
 plied, so many advantages can be derived, at a moderate 
 expence, as that of draining. The owner is benefitted by an 
 increase of rent ; the occupier, by that of produce ; and the 
 public, by being thus supplied with greater quantities of the 
 most essential commodities, and by having a source of useful 
 employment furnished to the labouring classes of the com- 
 munity. Unfortunately in all parts of the United Kingdom, 
 a great deal of land stands more in need of draining than of 
 manuring; and there are very few districts, where a know- 
 ledge of this essential means of improvement, is so general, 
 or so perfect, as it ought to be. 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 288. 
 
 f Oxfordshire Report, p. 231. Derbyshire Report, vol. iii. p. 021 . 
 
 2 Forfarshire Report, p. 73. 
 
On Draining. 199 
 
 2 . On the Causes of Wetness in Land. 
 
 To proceed with any prospect of success in the art of 
 draining, it is necessary to ascertain the causes which pro- 
 duce wetness in land, and the different appearances which, 
 according to soil and situation, it assumes. These causes 
 are, 1. Surface-water; 2. Soils absorbing and retaining a 
 superabundant quantity of moisture, either from their own 
 texture, or the quality of their subsoils ; 3. Land springs 
 from surface-water; 4. Springs from subjacent water; 
 5. Back-water from ditches or ponds ; and, 6. Floods from 
 rivers, lakes, or the sea. 
 
 1 . Surface - Water. — On clay soils , wetness is commonly 
 produced by surface-water. These soils are of different 
 kinds, varying both in their colour and texture ; but they 
 all possess, in a greater or smaller degree, those adhesive 
 qualities, which retain the water that falls upon the sur- 
 face, until it is either drawn off by art, or exhaled by the 
 sun and the atmosphere. Such soils, therefore, can only be 
 relieved from superabundant moisture, by surface-drains. 
 
 2. Absorbing Soils.-— Loamy soils absorb water freely, 
 and swell with it. They usually retain, however, a greater 
 quantity than is necessary. This is particularly the case, 
 when they have a strong and impervious subsoil, through 
 which no water can penetrate. As this surplus quantity is 
 injurious to vegetation, it ought to be got rid of, either by 
 surface, or what are called hollow-drains. Sandy soils, on a 
 retentive bottom, also require draining, as the water cannot 
 descend lower, being lodged in the upper stratum ; but 
 there is seldom a necessity to go deeper than a few inches, 
 into the- clay, on which the upper soil is incumbent. 
 
 3. Land Springs.— In many cases, soils are greatly in- 
 termixed, and changes of sand and clay, or substances that 
 are porous and retentive, will be found in the same field. 
 Draining, in such cases, is attended with more difficulty, 
 and requires more skill, than where the surface, and inter- 
 nal strata are thick, and regularly disposed. The means by 
 which this can be best effected at a moderate expence, is to 
 ascertain the quality of the soil, by examining its produce. 
 The porous soils collect reservoirs of water, which augment 
 in times of rain, to the full level of the surrounding clay, 
 from which it bursts out, and forms a kind of temporary 
 springy which renders the land over which it flows, wet, 
 and unproductive. It then perhaps is absorbed by another 
 porous stratum, and produces similar effects. Formerly, 
 
200 On Draining . 
 
 this mischief was endeavoured to be remedied by small 
 drains, made over the whole field, which seemed thus to 
 be equally affected; but by cutting a trench, from the 
 nearest and lowest part of the field to be drained, up to the 
 highest and most distant sandbank, in such a direction, as 
 to pass through fthe intermediate sand-beds, the soil is ra- 
 dically cured. Besides these main-drains, however, side- 
 cuts are often necessary. 
 
 4. Springs from subjacent Water . — A knowledge of the 
 causes, and the nature of springs, arising from subjacent 
 water, is so closely connected with the principles of drain- 
 ing, that it is necessary to explain it at more length. The 
 earth is known to be composed of various strata, which, 
 being in their nature and quality of opposite consistence, 
 have acquired the distinguishing names of porous and imper- 
 vious. Sand, gravel, calcareous earths, and various kinds 
 of rock, the parts of which are separated by frequent chinks 
 and fissures, are denominated porous soils ; — clay of various 
 sorts ; — certain kinds of gravel, with a mixture of argil- 
 laceous and cementing particles in their composition ; — and 
 rocks of a solid and compact nature, and without fissures, 
 are the principal strata that resist the admission of water, 
 and are thence termed impervious. It is evident, therefore, 
 that springs must originate from water falling, either in 
 the shape of rain, or dew, or the melting of snow and hail, 
 upon such porous and absorbent bodies ; and that the 
 water subsiding downwards, until it is obstructed in its 
 passage by these impenetrable substances, there it forms re- 
 servoirs of considerable magnitude, which afterwards burst 
 forth in all those different appearances which are met with. 
 Thus springs are formed, the strength of which depends 
 upon the extent of high ground which receives and retains 
 the rain-water, the size of the reservoirs, and the supply 
 they furnish. 
 
 5. Back-water . — A frequent cause of wetness is, the stag- 
 nation of water in the ditches that surround fields, particu- 
 larly such as lie in the upper side of the enclosure, where 
 the water, being confined, finds its way downwards into the 
 open parts of the subsoil, and oozes out to the surface, 
 forming, in wet weather, all the appearances of, and pro- 
 ducing nearly the same effect as, a natural spring. Water 
 conveyed in a drain, or small stream for mills, or confined 
 in a mill-dam, or pond, has often the same effect. Where 
 this happens in drains, the stagnant water should be re- 
 moved, by giving more depth or declivity to the ditch in 
 
On Draining. 
 
 201 
 
 which it lies. Where a dam occasions the mischief, a cut 
 should be made on its lower side, to intercept any water that 
 may ooze through it. Old marl-pits full of water, and 
 cattle-ponds improperly constructed, sometimes occasion 
 this sort of mischief. 
 
 6. Floods from Rivers , Lakes , or the Sea. — In these 
 cases, the proper remedy is embanking, to be afterwards 
 explained, (Sect. II). But the aid of machinery, is often 
 necessary to assist in the drainage. 
 
 3. The Sorts of Drains commonly used. 
 
 There are four sorts of drains : 1. The open ; 2. The co- 
 vered; 3. The arched; and, 4. The vertical, or pit-drain. 
 
 1. Open Drains , or Ditches. — These often answer the 
 double purpose of conveying superfluous water, and of en- 
 closing the fields ; though they certainly make a hazardous 
 and inconvenient sort of a fence, without the addition of a 
 bank, a wall, a hedge, or a railing. 
 
 In cultivated land, where the ridges are of a proper 
 length, breadth, and height, and the furrows of an adequate 
 depth, and skilfully directed, much surface-water may thus 
 be carried off ; but where the country is flat, and the soil 
 peculiarly strong, a complete drainage is absolutely essential, 
 as the basis of its future improvement. The mode prac- 
 tised in “ the Carse of Gowrie” a district in Scotland, con- 
 taining about 30,000 acres of rich clay and loam, has been 
 attended with such great success, that it may be proper to 
 explain it, as the same system may be applied to all tracts 
 of clay similarly circumstanced. 
 
 The proprietors, by mutual consent, fixed on the most 
 eligible lines for cutting large drains, from fifteen to twenty 
 feet deep, (provincially pows ), resembling small canals, for 
 conveying the water collected in them to the adjoining river. 
 
 2. Ditches of a smaller size, were next drawn, surrounding 
 and intersecting the farms, so as to serve for divisions of 
 the different fields, the water of which they collected, and 
 emptied into the large drain or pow. The depth of these 
 ditches was seldom less than four feet ; their width at top, 
 six ; and at the bottom, from one, to one foot and a half*. 
 
 3. Where the fields are of an uniform level surface, the 
 common furrows between the ridges, if sufficiently clear, will 
 keep the ground dry ; but, as fields are seldom without some 
 
 * They must be scoured annually. 
 
202 
 
 On Draining. 
 
 inequalities, the last operation, after they are sown and har- 
 rowed, is, to draw a deep furrow through every hollow in 
 the field, in such a direction, as to communicate with the 
 other furrows that divide the ridges, and with the ditches at 
 the extremities of the enclosures. These cross furrows, 
 (provincially gaivs or gripes), are opened by the plough, but 
 widened, cleared out, and shaped by the spade, to enable 
 them to discharge the water freely*. To keep them clear, 
 is a very essential part of the clay farmer’s attention. The 
 effects of this system of drainage are such, as to render the 
 land so free and tender, that less labour prepares the ground 
 for the crop,— less seed is necessary, — less manure is re- 
 quired, — and as neither drought nor damp have any very 
 injurious effect upon the soil, an abundant crop may be ex- 
 pected in all common seasonsf . 
 
 The necessity of making these water-cuts, or furrows, in 
 wet fields, as soon as the plough leaves them, is strongly 
 inculcated, as essential for the future dryness and fertility of 
 the land. The cuts ought to be frequently examined, more 
 especially after the melting of snow, to see that no impedi- 
 ment prevents the free passage of the water. The cutting 
 of water* furrows, ought likewise to be carefully attended to, 
 after spring ploughing, to prevent water from lodging in any 
 part of the field, however wet the weather; and for that 
 purpose, the head-lands should be cut through, where ne- 
 cessary, that water arising from any sudden flood, may have 
 a free passage, the spit of earth dug out of the water-fur- 
 rows, should be laid on one side, opposite to the rise of the 
 land, to prevent overflowing, and all the loose mould care- 
 fully shovelled outf;. This simple operation of water-fur- 
 rowing, is attended with such beneficial consequences, that 
 wetness may often be removed by such means alone, with- 
 out the aid of additional drains ; while the omission of it, 
 may not only lessen the crop, but injure the soil for some 
 time afterwards. 
 
 Water-furrowing is likewise of great advantage, in pas- 
 ture fields ; and the cuts, or furrows, ought to be carefully 
 scoured out before winter. The water is thus prevented 
 from lodging and soaking into the soil ; — which is then less 
 likely to suffer from poaching ; — and the roots of the grass, 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 437. 
 
 + Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 61. 
 
 X Young’s Calendar, p. 45, 86, 160, 220, 450, and 468. Too much atten- 
 tion cannot be paid to water-furrowing strong land. 
 
On Draining . 
 
 203 
 
 not being chilled by superfluous moisture, will necessarily 
 come forward earlier in spring* * * § . 
 
 In open districts, open drains are made of the subjoined 
 shape. 
 
 and turfed to the bottom, so that there is no loss of herbage. 
 No water ever stands in these drains, and a part of a county, 
 (the Coventry estate in Worcestershire), that, half a century 
 ago, was a mere morass, has now become, by means of these 
 drains, perfectly dry, healthy for sheep, and fit for cattlef . 
 Mr. Johnstone recommends, that these drains should not 
 be ploughed with the rest of the field, but should always 
 remain in grass ; for, if loosened by the plough, the sides 
 might be washed down, and the shape destroyed^. 
 
 It is a general rule regarding open drains, with a view of 
 giving sufficient slope and stability to their sides, that the 
 width at top, should be three times as much as that which 
 is necessary at the bottom, and in the case of peat-mosses, or 
 soft soils, it should be still more. In regard to the fall or 
 declivity, it should be such, as to allow the water to run off 
 without stagnation, but not with so rapid a motion as to 
 injure the bottom. 
 
 In all drains, it is a rule to begin at the lowest place, and 
 to work upwards, by which the water will always pass from 
 the workman, and point out the level. This enables the 
 labourers also, to work in coarse weather, and prevents their 
 being interrupted by wet, so early in the season, as other- 
 wise might happen. 
 
 It is much recommended to all farmers, in low and moist 
 situations, frequently to perambulate their farms, for the 
 purpose of examining the state of their drains, and dis- 
 covering every obstruction ; nor ought even the trace of the 
 mole, crossing an open drain, to escape their notice §. 
 
 2. Covered Drains . — As open drains rather diminish the 
 extent of surface, and are sometimes injurious to stock, 
 covered drains are in many cases preferred. Here we shall 
 consider, — The season for executing them ; — The mode of 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 462. 
 
 f Worcestershire Report, p. 191. 
 
 + General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 450. 
 
 § Leatham’s East Riding Report, p. 22. 
 
204 
 
 On Draining . 
 
 doing it *, — Their size ; — Whether hollow or filled ; — Ma- 
 terials for filling ; — Distance from each other ; — Duration ; 
 — The expence ; — The state of the ground ; — and, The 
 impediments and enemies they have to encounter. 
 
 1. The summer is, in general, the best season for exe- 
 cuting such drains, because the labourers can then work 
 with more comfort ; — the materials for filling can be more 
 easily collected ; — the land is in the best state for bearing the 
 carriage of stones and more work can be done in a day*. 
 
 2. Drains intended to be ultimately covered, are some- 
 times made by the plough, as being the least expensive 
 mode. But only small drains can be made in this way; 
 and as drains in general cases, ought to be at least four feet 
 deep, spades of different dimensions must be employed. 
 The additional expence is amply repaid, as the work is done 
 more effectuallyf . The trench, however, is often begun by 
 the plough, and finished by the spadef . 
 
 3. The size of covered drains must be regulated by the 
 quantity of water to be conveyed away. In point of width, 
 there should only be room to work, unless, from the soft- 
 ness of the soil, a greater slope is necessary. -An overwidth 
 increases the quantity of materials requisite to be used in 
 filling, which, in many situations, is an object of no small 
 consideration. The depth should be such, as to allow a 
 proper quantity of earth above the drain, that the materials 
 in it, and what covers them, may not be injured by the 
 pressure of the horses or cattle in the act of ploughing. 
 
 4. Covered drains are frequently hollow, where the run 
 of water is large, or the materials good. This last is the 
 case, when the drain is made of stones, either inserted in a 
 triangular shape, or regularly built and covered by flags ; or 
 where common or draining bricks or pantiles are made use 
 of. These are preferable to stone in two respects, that they 
 can be more quickly and uniformly laid, and give less in- 
 terruption to water than the ragged edges of stone. Sod, 
 or turf drains also, are not filled^ ; nor the clay pipe 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 499 . In the border districts, 
 they consider March, to be the best period of the year, for determining the 
 proper line of a drain. In that month, if it be dry, the distinction between 
 the naturally wet and dry parts of a ploughed field, is more palpable than at 
 any oth^r season of the year. In that month, accordingly, it is the practice 
 in the border counties, both to mark out, and to work, the drains, while the 
 land is under preparation for turnips. But the same plan would not be 
 equally suitable to wet and heavy soils. 
 
 + Young’s Calendar, p. 30. + Essex Report, vol. ii. p. 169 . 
 
 § They are made by digging a trench of a proper width, not less than 
 three feet deep, and if the last spit is taken out by the narrow under-draining 
 
On Draining. 
 
 205 
 
 drains*. These last, however, are better calculated for small 
 aqueducts, for the conveyance of water, than for draining 
 land ; as when finished, the water can have no access into 
 them from without. 
 
 5. The materials for partially filling drains are numerous; 
 as, small stones , which answer for a considerable time, pro- 
 vided the drain be sufficiently wide at bottom, if stones to 
 the depth of at least two feet are used, and they are properly 
 covered; — bricks , which are sometimes expressly made for 
 the purpose of draining, and are exempted from duty on 
 that account ; — turf, or sods, which many recommend in 
 preference to any other substancef ; — wood, particularly old 
 thorns, cut into billets, which are well calculated for soft or 
 peaty soils, that are unable to bear the weight or pressure of 
 stones ; — green bushes, not in leaf, (in some situations green 
 willow is known to have lasted for ages)J; — black-thorn , 
 which is a favourite material in Essex; — heath or ling , 
 which has been found a durable substance ; — fern, furze , 
 or broom ; — and where the drain is small, and better ma- 
 terials cannot be had, even straw , either loose, or twisted 
 into ropes as thick as a man’s leg. The durability of the 
 materials, at the same time, is of less consequence in clayey 
 soils, than the probability of having a sufficient opening for 
 the water to flow through, for clay sometimes forms an arch 
 over these materials, capable of supporting the incumbent 
 soil, and leaving a clear passage for the water below when 
 they decay. The materials must be covered with loose 
 straw, stubble, fern, rushes, or turf, before the mould is 
 thrown in. The drains should be filled up, as soon as 
 possible after they are ready for that purpose, and by the 
 
 spade, a shoulder is left on each side, upon which a sod or turf is laid, grass- 
 side downwards, and the mould thrown in over it. These are the least 
 expensive drains of any, and may continue hollow, and discharge well, for 
 many years. 
 
 * A drain is dug to the necessary depth, as narrow as possible, in which 
 is laid a smooth round piece of wood, ten or twelve feet long, five inches in 
 diameter at one end, and six at the other, to which a ring and rope are 
 fastened. After strewing a little sand in the bottom of the drain, and on 
 the upper side of the tree, the toughest part of the stuff thrown out of the 
 trench, is first laid in upon it, and then the remainder firmly trodden down. 
 By means of the ring and rope, the tree is drawn to within a foot or two of 
 the small, or hinder end, and the same operation is repeated. Such a piece 
 of wood dragged along water-furrows, would be of much use in giving a 
 proper shape. 
 
 t Marshall, in his Midland Counties, vol. i. p. 1S9, gives a particular 
 detail of turf-draining , which he greatly prefers to the Essex method of bus fir- 
 draining , by which the drain is filled with perishable materials. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 292. 
 
206 
 
 On Draining. 
 
 most careful of the workmen. They should at any rate be 
 completed before winter, for, if exposed to frost, they are 
 apt to crumble down. 
 
 6. When the soil is very wet, it will be necessary to cut 
 the small drains near each other ; from forty to fifty feet 
 distant in common soil, and from twenty to thirty feet in 
 the more stubborn*. But deep and large ditches must be 
 cut around wet fieldsf, into which the water, from the 
 smaller drains, is to be conveyed. 
 
 7. When done with common skill and attention, drains 
 will last for 20, 25, or 30 years, and in many cases they have 
 endured much longer. 
 
 8. The expence is calculated at from 20s. to 60s. per 
 acre; except in very wet soils, where it is sometimes higher 
 than even 60s. ; but in most cases the whole of the expence 
 is repaid by the first arable crop. 
 
 9. The best period for making these drains, is, when the 
 land is in grass, or in fallow. 
 
 10. Hollow drains have several enemies, as moles, field 
 mice, the roots of trees, (in particular the poplar, and the 
 ashj), and a plant which sometimes grows in them, inter- 
 cepts the course of the water, by degrees weakens the current, 
 and at last chokes up the drain §. 
 
 3. Arched Drains . — The expence of arched drains, of 
 stone, or brick, prevents their being adopted, unless where 
 the ground is very loose, or where open drains are inadmis- 
 sible. Where flat stones abound, drains covered by them, 
 may in general be made large enough, for every essential 
 purpose || . 
 
 4. Vertical , or Pit Drains. — Drains of this description 
 may on some occasions be useful. If the spot where a con- 
 fined reservoir of water exists, can be ascertained, (which 
 sometimes may be done by boring with an auger), sink a pit 
 into the place, of such a size, as will allow a man to work 
 within its bounds, (or about three feet in diameter), until it 
 reaches the water meant to be brought up, which will rise 
 as soon as the pit reaches it. The pit should then be filled 
 with land stones, or pebbles, and the water be conveyed by 
 
 * Essex Report, vol. ii. p. 169. 
 
 + Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 397. 
 
 X Marshall on Landed Property, p. 107. 
 
 § This plant, (the cquisetum paluttre)^ was first noticed by Mr. Farey, in 
 the drains near Woburn Abbey. A description of it is given by Sir Joseph 
 Banks, in the Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol.ii. p. 319, 
 It belongs to the genus ** Conferva 
 
 || Marshall on Landed Property, p. 98. 
 
Oil Draining . 207 
 
 a proper drain, to some adjoining ditch, and thence to the 
 nearest stream or river *. 
 
 Spouts or springs also, rising in the middle of a field, 
 may, on some rare occasions, be led into a pit sunk through 
 the clay, and the water may thus escape downwards, into a 
 porous substratumf. 
 
 4. The Instruments employed. 
 
 The instruments employed in draining, are more numerous 
 than is commonly imagined. The principal are, — draining 
 ploughs *, — the miner ; — the mole-plough ; — spades, of va- 
 rious sorts ; — the sod knife *, — and the auger. 
 
 1. The common plough is frequently used to open the 
 trench ; various sorts of ploughs have likewise been invented 
 for that special purpose, and premiums given to the in- 
 ventors; but from the number of horses or oxen required to 
 work them, ploughs, calculated for effecting hollow-draining , 
 are more expensive than the spade, and never can come into 
 general use. 
 
 2. In Lancashire, an instrument called the miner , was in- 
 vented by the late Mr. Eccleston. It is a sort of ploughshare 
 fixed in a strong beam, without mould-boards, and is drawn 
 by four or more horses, along the bottom of a furrow made 
 by a common plough. Without turning the substratum, it 
 penetrates into, and loosens the soil, eight or ten inches 
 deeper than the plough had before gone ; which operation, 
 besides draining the land, renders the subsoil open or porous 
 for several years, and causes the water to carry with it any 
 noxious matters in the soilj. This, in particular cases, is 
 considered to be a useful practice, and the expence is incon- 
 siderable. 
 
 3. A particular account is given, in a valuable work, of 
 the first experiments with the mole-plough invented by 
 Mr. Adam Scott}. It was originally tried in the year 
 1795-6, under the auspices of the Society of Arts in Lon- 
 don. The addition of wheels was then recommended, 
 which has since been carried into effect. The accounts of 
 the advantages resulting from this instrument are extremely 
 contradictory. It has no doubt been effectual, when well 
 applied. It will succeed, where there is a regular stratum 
 of clay or stiff marl *, but not in loose, nor in mixed soils. 
 
 * Brown’s Treatise on Rural Improvements, vol. ii. p. 2 56 . 
 
 •f* General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 457. 
 
 + Holt’s Lancashire, p. 33, and p. 107. § Middlesex Report, p. 289. 
 
208 
 
 On Draining. 
 
 Without wheels, it requires from ten to fourteen horses, 
 the trampling of which must be extremely injurious to wet 
 soils : but with wheels, the team may be reduced to six 
 horses* * * § . It is sometimes worked, with a peculiar appara- 
 tus, by manual labour f ; but it can never become generally 
 useful, until a moderate power> whether of man or horses, 
 is sufficient to impel it. 
 
 4*. The spades used in hollow- draining, are of a peculiar 
 construction. The upper, or top-draining spade , is narrow 
 at the end, and the spade used for the lower part, or bottom 
 tool, is almost pointed. A narrow scoop also is used for 
 smoothing, and cleaning out the bottom of the drains, pre- 
 vious to the wood, straw, or other materials being put in. 
 A breast-draining spade has also been invented, and is found 
 useful : it is the common paring spade, with both sides 
 turned up ; and is driven forward by a man in the same 
 mannerj. 
 
 5. A sod-knife§ is useful in setting out the trenches, the 
 workmen treading it in by the side of a line, five or six 
 inches deep. It is more expeditious, and easier to the work- 
 men than the spade. 
 
 6. The borer , or auger, used in draining, is very similar 
 to that employed in searching for coal, or other subterrane- 
 ous minerals K. 
 
 5. Modes of Draining applicable to different Soils , and the 
 Objects to which they are applicable . 
 
 1. Clays. — It is a subject of great controversy, to be af- 
 terwards discussed, (Chap. IV. Sect. 1. § 1.) what is the 
 proper breadth of ridges, in a clayey soil, with a view to 
 drain it. The only point necessary to be here touched upon, 
 is, whether, in clays, the drains should be open, or covered. 
 In general, the open are to be preferred, being less expensive 
 to form, more easily kept in order, and more certain in their 
 effect. At the same time, in some particular cases, covered 
 drains have succeeded. In the Duchy of Limberg, they 
 
 * Young’s Calendar, p. 35. 
 
 f The apparatus is described in Rudge’s Gloucestershire, p. 261. 
 
 X Leatham’s East Riding Report, p. SO. 
 
 § In fen countries, called a “ Hodding spade” from its use in digging 
 peats for firing. These, of a certain size and shape, arc called “ Hods.” 
 
 || There is a particular description of this process, with engravings, in the 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 492. See also Derbyshire Report, 
 vol. i. p. 318. 
 
On Di 'dining. 
 
 209 
 
 prefer having such drains in the furrows of strong land, by 
 which less ground is lost, and the soil is rendered at all 
 times accesible to culture* * * § . The celebrated Arbuthnot, 
 (who is characterised by Mr. Arthur Young, as the best 
 farmer he ever met with, in the course of his long experi- 
 ence)!, practised that system near Mitcham in Surrey ; and 
 an intelligent Scotch farmer, (Mr. James Andrew, at Tilly- 
 lumb, near Perth), has carried the same plan into effect, 
 with the greatest success : he was formerly at the mercy of 
 every season, and found none so dry, but that in a certain 
 degree he sustained some injury ; but since he has adopted 
 the plan of a hollow drain in every furrow, he can plough 
 almost at any time \ the seed can be put in, if there be but 
 a single dry day * in the ordinary course of things he can 
 always rely upon a crop ; and the soil being nearly of the 
 same quality, and in a similar state, the crop is always 
 equal};. 
 
 2. foams , — When loams are allowed to rest, they some- 
 times acquire a degree of cohesion, little inferior to clay. 
 They generally absorb water rather freely, and after retain- 
 ing a proper quantity for vegetation, they allow the super- 
 fluity to run off*, where there is a descent *, but that opera- 
 tion is facilitated by hollow-drains, water-furrows, and 
 ditches, which collecting the water, operate like veins, and 
 convey it to a large drain made for carrying it off. 
 
 3. Meadow Land . — Along the sides of rivers or smaller 
 streams, much valuable land is met with, injured by water. 
 Sometimes land in this situation is protected from the over- 
 flowings of the river by embankments, as ought to be done 
 with respect to the fine meadows in Derbyshire and Staf- 
 fordshire, on the banks of the Dove§ *, but it frequently 
 happens, that by deepening the river or stream, or, in other 
 cases, by making a new, straight, or deeper channel, a con- 
 siderable addition may be made to the land, and the object 
 of drainage effected. Sometimes the wetness arises from 
 springs, which issue from the bottom of an adjoining high 
 ground. With much ingenuity, Mr. Edward Webbs, of 
 Stow, in Gloucestershire, has employed water collected by 
 
 * Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. 73. 
 
 t Young’s Lecture on the Husbandry of three Celebrated British Farmers, 
 >• 18- — It was Arbuthnot who first discovered the merits of the South-down 
 meed, now held in such high estimation. 
 
 X Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 56. 
 
 § Derbyshire Report, vol, ii. p. 4f)4. 
 
 P 
 
210 
 
 On Draining . 
 
 the upper drains, to drive a wheel, by which the water is 
 pumped from the lower parts, and carried off*. 
 
 4. Upland Pastures. — The draining of upland pastures is 
 an important branch of the subject. From the unwhole- 
 some quality of the plants produced on such pastures, where 
 there is a superabundance of moisture, whether stagnant on 
 the surface, or confined under it, proceeds that most de- 
 structive malady, the rot , and other diseases, to which many 
 thousands of valuable animals fall a sacrifice every year. 
 In the sheep farms of the Cheviot hills, the object has in a 
 great measure been obtained, by cutting surface-drains, about 
 one foot wide, and as much deep, in an oblique direction to 
 the declivity of the groundf . Others have been rendered 
 dry, by the following simple process : A deep furrow is 
 turned up, by a strong plough ; the sod is cleared from 
 earth, reduced to three inches in thickness, and thence 
 placed in the furrow whence it was taken. The grassy side 
 being placed uppermost, there is a hollow beneath, sufficient 
 to discharge a considerable quantity of surface-water, which 
 readily sinks into it J. The water collected from these 
 drains, is sometimes employed in running over such parts 
 of the ground below, as are dry and covered with heath, 
 where it has the effect of killing that plant, and encouraging 
 luxuriant grass§. No mode of improvement is attended 
 with more benefit, or occasions less expencell . 
 
 5. Bogs. — The successful mode of draining bogs, as prac- 
 tised by Elkington, and so ably described by Johnstone, 
 cannot be minutely detailed in this place ; it may be suffi- 
 cient to state the general principles upon which it depends : 
 these are, 1. Upon discovering the main spring or source of 
 the evil; 2. Upon taking the levels, and ascertaining their 
 subterraneous bearings'; and, 3. On making use of the 
 auger when necessary, if the depth of the drain is not suffi- 
 cient for that purpose, to reach and tap the springs. As an 
 example of this, it may be mentioned, that in a field near 
 Tamworth in Staffordshire, by boring a hole thirty feet deep, 
 through which water issued at the rate of three hogsheads a 
 minute , a great extent of wet land in that neighbourhood 
 
 * Gloucestershire Report, p. 263. 
 
 t Northumberland Report, p. 128. X Brown’s Treatise, vol. ii. p. 361. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 446. 
 
 H The expence varies in different cases, from three farthings to six far- 
 things per rod of six ells. There is a person near Peebles, who will contract 
 for executing such works, and will give in an estimate of the expence. 
 
On Draining . 
 
 211 
 
 was laid dry. Indeed in several cases, the Elkingtonian 
 system has been attended with extraordinary consequences, 
 not only in laying land dry, in the vicinity of the drain, but 
 also by having a material effect on springs, wells, and wet 
 ground, at a considerable distance, with which there was 
 no apparent communication*. 
 
 6. Lakes. — The objects in the draining of lakes are three- 
 fold : 1. For the sake of the land that may be gained, when 
 the water is removed; 2. For the marl and rich earth that 
 may be got at the bottom ; and, 3. For the purpose of ob- 
 taining a level to drain the tracts of meadow, and marshy 
 ground adjoining, which cannot otherwise be accomplished. 
 In this way, the climate in the neighbourhood may likewise 
 be improved. In many cases, such pieces of water have 
 been either partially or entirely drained by deep cutting 
 only, but sometimes, the aid of machinery is required. 
 
 7. Land-locked Bogs , or Morasses.— In several parts of 
 the kingdom, there are bogs of this description, which be- 
 come wet by an accumulation of rain-water, stagnating on 
 an impervious subsoil, through which it can have no descent, 
 and being surrounded by higher ground, through which 
 there is no vent, the water cannot be discharged. The 
 proper mode of draining these land-locked bogs is, by per- 
 forating the impervious bed of clay, on which the water 
 rests, if any such exists, and . letting the water downwards 
 into a sandy, or other porous stratumf. 
 
 8. Mines and Quarries. — In many cases, the workings of 
 mines and quarries are obstructed, by a flow of water, 
 whichj by attention to drainage, may be either entirely re- 
 moved, or diminished, before it reaches the mine or quarry. 
 For that purpose, it is necessary to drain all ground lying 
 higher than, or contiguous to, subterraneous pits and mines. 
 The water that gets into the pit, may, on some rare occa- 
 sions, be got rid of, by boring through the close or imper- 
 vious bed, to the absorbent strata below. 
 
 Concluding Observations on Draining. 
 
 So sensible are landed proprietors become, of the deep 
 interest they have, in executing this most important species 
 
 * The borings and pits made and sunk by colliers, in various parts of 
 Great Britain, had the same effect. — Derbyshire Report , vol. i. p. 501. But 
 till the time of Elkington, it never was the case in making drains. 
 
 'j' General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 456. 
 
 p 2 
 
212 
 
 On Draining. 
 
 of improvement, on a liberal and extended scale, that it is a 
 practice with many, to have a general plan for the drainage 
 and regular division of the different farms, when their estates 
 are newly let; thus availing themselves of an opportunity, 
 to have the plan executed in a methodical, substantial, and 
 permanent manner, under professed drainers and labourers, 
 solely employed in this essential work*. On this great 
 scale of drainage, the connexion of one farm, or part of an 
 estate, with another, renders the effect more complete, and 
 the ultimate charges much less. Indeed so sensible are 
 the tenants, of the advantages of this system, that they 
 give it a preference to that of having the work done at 
 their own expence, with the certainty of indemnification, 
 and in their own mannerf. 
 
 While such are the advantages to be derived from drain- 
 ing, it is unfortunate that any obstacles should exist to the 
 execution of such a useful improvement. Unless Parlia- 
 ment, however, will direct its attention to the subject, and 
 enact regulations for the encouragement of draining, the 
 efforts of private individuals will often be checked, and 
 much valuable land will continue unproductive. A more 
 complete exemption from the tax on draining bricks, would 
 be of great use. A law might also be passed, authorizing 
 proprietors, even on entailed estates, to charge their land 
 with three-fourths of the expence of drains, as they can at 
 present of enclosures ; and to compel the neighbouring pro- 
 prietors, to be at a share of the expence of draining, if they 
 derived any benefit from it, as is the case in Scotland, when 
 fences are made on the boundaries of different estates. 
 
 The laws of a nation ought to be improved from time to 
 time, to keep pace, with the accessions of knowledge which 
 the people acquire, and with the necessities of the country, 
 as it becomes more populous. The Code of Rural Legisla- 
 tion of Great Britain, unfortunately, has not improved in 
 the same ratio with its increased population, and thence it is 
 as little calculated for the number of its inhabitants at this 
 time, as its produce, a century, or even half a century ago, 
 would now be sufficient for their maintenance. It is not 
 here meant, that the law should interfere with the rights of 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 361, and 382. 
 
 + It is not unusual to divide the business of draining between the landlord 
 and the tenant. By the former the drains are made, in a proper direction, 
 and of a proper depth ; while the tenant bears half the expence of procuring 
 the stones, leading them, and placing them in the ditch. The laudlord 
 should appoint the men to put in the stones, and to fill up the earth. 
 
On Manures . 
 
 213 
 
 private property, farther than the public good absolutely 
 requires. More effectual regulations, however, for pro- 
 moting cultivation, drainage, and enclosure, ought now to 
 be enacted, the existing laws being imperfectly calculated 
 for promoting these essential improvements*. 
 
 Sect. IV . — On Manures . 
 
 The term manure , includes all those substances, which, 
 when artificially applied to, or blended with the soil, are 
 known from experience, either to retrieve, to maintain, or 
 to augment its fertility, and to render it, in any respect, more 
 favourable to vegetation. This includes all the articles, which 
 tend to correct any noxioUs ingredients in the soil, or to turn 
 to greater utility, certain substances previously contained 
 in itf. 
 
 In discussing this subject, attempts have been made by 
 various authors, to arrange these substances in a philoso- 
 phic manner, and to explain their properties on chemical 
 principles. In this work, restricted to practical information, 
 it is proposed to classify them under the general heads of 
 Putrescent ; — Calcareous ; — Earthy ; — Vegetable 5 — Those 
 of a miscellaneous nature and Composts. 
 
 1. Putrescent Manures J. 
 
 These unquestionably are the most important of the 
 classes above enumerated. They not only supply the soil 
 directly with the principal sources of fertility •, but having a 
 tendency to produce a strong germination at first, plants 
 have thence a better chance of reaching maturity. Putres- 
 cent substances being of a nature susceptible of decompo- 
 sition, are ultimately exhausted, when the soil has yielded 
 crops for any course of time. It is necessary therefore to 
 
 * A real statesman should always keep this maxim in view, “ That 
 laws ought to change with the circumstances of a country; and above all, 
 that the same system, which might be calculated to govern, and to secure 
 the sustenance of six millions of inhabitants, will not answer equally well, 
 when the population has increased to twelve millions, or upwards.” The 
 changes, however, should be gradual, and at a proper season. If they are too 
 long pertinaciously resisted, the evil increases, too many alterations must be 
 made at once, and the changes are then attended with the hazards of con- 
 vulsion. 
 
 f Coventry’s Discourses, p. 37. 
 
 J Called putrescent , being liable to natural decoffiposition or decay. 
 
214 
 
 On Manures . 
 
 replace them ; and the articles which may be employed for 
 that purpose, are comprehended under the following heads : 
 The dung of quadrupeds ; — the dung of birds; — town 
 dung , — night soil; — urine; — land animal substances; — 
 and fish. 
 
 ] . Dung of Quadrupeds. — This valuable substance, fur- 
 nishes immediate food to plants ; — excites heat in the soil ; 
 — opens its texture ; — attracts and retains moisture ; — and 
 promotes the decomposition of vegetable particles in the 
 earth, by the fermentation it occasions. Where animals 
 chew the cud, the dung is so thoroughly reduced, that it 
 may be incorporated with the soil, without requiring to be 
 collected in a dunghill ; but on many accounts, a mixture 
 of hot and cold, of dry and moist putrescent substances, in 
 the same heap, is found to be advantageous. 
 
 The subject of farm-yard dung, practically considered, 
 includes, 1. Collecting the materials; 2. Preparing them 
 for use ; and, 3. Applying them to the soil. 
 
 1. Collecting the Mateiials. 
 
 1. Farm-yard dung consists of the excrements of various 
 animals, mixed with their litter, and such other absorbent 
 articles, as are calculated to increase the quantity, without 
 injuring the fertilizing quality of the mass. Even weeds of 
 all sorts, may with safety and advantage be collected for 
 that purpose in summer ; — also leaves of trees, and shrubs, 
 which are often to be obtained in considerable quantities in 
 autumn ; — straw, and chaff*, not used as food or litter ; — like- 
 wise vegetable mould, or peat earth. 
 
 2. The most essential article, however, is, the excre- 
 ments of domesticated animals. Of these, the dung of the 
 hog, owing to the greater fatness of the animal, and the 
 nature of its food, is the strongest and richest ; — that of 
 the horse, the dryest and most heating ; — that of neat cattle, 
 the coldest, but the most lasting*. The dung of sheep is 
 seldom mixed with other articles, and being only calculated 
 for immediate use, is soon exhausted. 
 
 3. It frequently happens, that the dung of horses is sepa- 
 rately used, particularly when taken from towns; but, in 
 
 * In some experiments made at Great Ponton, near Grantham, on a poor 
 dry soil, the manure from a horse-yard, and that from a yard where neat 
 cattle were wintered, were used separately for turnips ; the former had greatly 
 the advantage. It would have been right to have tried the effect of a mix- 
 ture of the two. 
 
On Manures. 
 
 215 
 
 farm-yards, there is an opportunity of mixing cattle, horse, 
 and hog dung, which is always to be preferred, as the one 
 corrects the defects of the other, and prevents the ferment- 
 ing process from going too rapidly forward. These sub- 
 stances should be laid, stratum super stratum ; which can 
 easily be done every day, when the stables, cow-houses, 
 and hog-sties are cleaned out* * * § . If a small quantity of earth 
 can be put between each stratum, so much the better. 
 
 4. The quality of the dung of every animal, will in a 
 great measure be proportioned to the richness or poverty of 
 its foodf. Hence the dung from the stables and cow- 
 houses is preferred, to that of young cattle kept in the 
 farm-yard, on food of a less nourishing quality. It fre- 
 quently happens, however, where stock are kept in sheds, 
 or hammels , connected with the farm-yard, and liberally 
 supplied with turnips, carrots, and other nourishing articles 
 of food, that dung, equal to any to be otherwise obtained, 
 is furnished. 
 
 5. Next to animal excrement, straw is the chief mate- 
 rial of a dunghill j and too much attention cannot be paid 
 to collecting it. For that purpose, the greatest care is taken 
 by the diligent husbandman, to cut his crops low. When 
 reaping is carelessly executed, it has been calculated, that 
 one fourth part of the straw is left upon the ground, where 
 its strength and substance is wasted, by the rains and storms 
 of autumn and winter ; whereas by attention to the reaping 
 process, one ton, and even more, of additional manure, per 
 acre , may be obtained};. The value of straw is great, not 
 only in consequence of its own substance, but from the 
 quantity of liquid matter it absorbs. By an experiment 
 carefully made, it appeared, that dry wheat straw, by ab- 
 sorption, had increased in weight, from 300 to 719 stone, 
 making an increase of not less than 4*19 stone, during a 
 period of seven months};. 
 
 6. It is a good rule, to lay a stratum of peat, — mould, 
 
 * The propriety of this mixture of the dung of various animals, is very 
 ably enforced by Mr. Blaikie, in his short tract, “ On the Economy of 
 Farm-yard Manure, and on other Rural Subjects,” p. 3, & c. &c. 
 
 f Middlesex Report, p. 305. 
 
 X Brown’s Treatise on Rural Improvements, vol. i. p. 367, 368. 
 
 § Communication from Mr. Dudgeon of Prora, in East Lothian, of an ex- 
 periment made in 1814. Mr. Brown of Markie states, that if straw were 
 simply to be rotted by moisture from the heavens, the original weight would 
 be thereby doubled ; but when rotted by the urine and dung of turnip-fed 
 stock, there can be no doubt, but that for every ton of straw carried to the 
 fold-yard, four tons of dung will be carried to the field, provided the manu- 
 facturing process has been properly conducted. 
 
216 
 
 On Manures . 
 
 — marl, — chalk,— semirings of ditches, and other earthy 
 substances, on the surface of the farm-yard, before the dung 
 is collected, in order to absorb those valuable juices that 
 otherwise would be lost*. This forms a rich compost at a 
 small expence. It should be turned and mixed soon after 
 the cattle are removed out of the farm-yard : it will thus be 
 brought into a most advantageous state, either to be spread 
 upon the grass land in October, or on the arable, as a top- 
 dressing in spring. 
 
 7. As in heavy rains, notwithstanding every precaution, 
 some water will run from the yard, there ought to be a 
 covered reservoir to receive it, so situated, that the liquid 
 can either be pumped upon the dunghill, if it requires it, 
 or upon heaps of earth, collected for that purposef. The 
 stables and cow-houses ought also to be regularly washed, 
 as is done in Flanders ; and much useful matter might in 
 this way be collected, and conveyed to the reservoir. 
 Where land lies conveniently beneath the farm-yard, the 
 contents of this reservoir, or the overflowings of the dung- 
 yard, may be conveyed to it, for the purposes of irrigation^. 
 
 2. Preparing the Mater ials for Use. 
 
 On this head there is a great diversity of opinion, some 
 contending, that dung cannot be used too soon after it is 
 made : and others, that it cannot be too much rotted. The 
 various circumstances of climate, soil, and crops to be raised, 
 render different practices equally proper. 
 
 Much depends upon the climate. The farmers of Picardy, 
 and other parts of France, for instance, may find the con- 
 tinual carrying on their dung practicable, but this cannot 
 be accomplished in less favourable climates. What is found 
 beneficial in warm climates, will not answer in a cold one. 
 Besides, in wet soils and cold climates, when the dung is 
 bestowed only in small quantities, so little of it is kept to- 
 
 * Mr. Arthur Young’s Essay on Manures, p. 153. This valuable Trea- 
 tise is contained in the 10th volume of the Papers of the Bath Society. 
 
 -f- This liquid might likewise be conveyed in water-carts to the fields, and 
 applied, by means of a gardener’s watering pot, to fresh planted cabbages, 
 or savoys, and on some occasions to the potatoe-crop, or to meadow land. 
 This is constantly practised by several intelligent farmers. — Communication 
 from John Middleton , Esq. 
 
 I Marshall on l anded Property, p. 168. This author recommends, that 
 the reservoir should be furnished from time to time, with a flooring of good 
 mould, to absorb the sediment which the liquor will let fall. See also an 
 account of a tank at Bradby Park, Dc byshirc Report, vol. ii. p. 154. 
 
• On Manures . 
 
 217 
 
 gcthcr, that fermentation in the ground is retarded, until it 
 is too late to be of any material use to the crop sown with it. 
 
 The advantage of using fresh dung, must also depend 
 upon the soil. Practical farmers are in general of opinion, 
 that long dung is more applicable to strong, than to light 
 land ; and as it has a tendency, by its fermentation, to divide 
 and to loosen the constituent parts of the soil, and furnishes 
 matter which prevents the particles of clay, from coming 
 into contact, and adhering together, it must necessarily 
 have a much more desirable effect, on soils too compact, 
 than on those already too light and open*. Hence, it is 
 recommended, on a true carrot soil , to use dung, after all 
 its parts are dissolved, and incorporated into one complete 
 mass, by means of putrefactionf. 
 
 In regard to the crops, it is remarked by Sir Humphry 
 Davy, that straw fermented, is a more manageable substance, 
 and furnishes more manure for a single crop , than unfer- 
 mented. In the latter state, it decomposes more slowly, 
 and consequently, though its influence will be more lasting, 
 yet it produces at first, less effect. But in the case of 
 turnips, under a proper rotation, the first crop is all that is 
 necessary to manure ; the dung given to that crop, more 
 especially when the crop is consumed upon the land, being 
 the means of fertilizing the whole course of succeeding 
 crops, whether barley, clover, wheat or oats. 
 
 For raising potatoes, the dung of horses alone, from its 
 heating quality, may perhaps be used nearly fresh from the 
 stables, as it will ferment in the ground. It is this dung 
 alone , that some practical farmers mean, when they talk of 
 fresh dungf. But in a cold and wet climate, dung ought 
 to be moderately fermented, before it is inserted in the 
 ground. The utility of fermented dung, is proved from the 
 little advantage derived from what is dropt upon the ground, 
 and has not undergone that process. 
 
 Some farmers are of opinion, that stable-yard manure, 
 should never be stirred, till finally carted to the field, and 
 deposited in the soils 5 for that every time it is stirred, its 
 finest and most valuable parts escape into the atmosphere. 
 
 * Young on Manures, p. 158. f Middlesex Report, p. 300. 
 
 t Mr. Roberts of King’s Walden, would always carry stable dung , long 
 and fresh to the land; but he thinks that farm-yard manure should be turned 
 up once, yet not kept too long. — See Young*s Essay on Manures, p. 146. 
 Mr. Wilke3 also speaks of dung t^ken from the stable-yard. — Ditto, p. 148. 
 An intelligent farmer recommends half-rotted litter. 
 
218 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 But few occupiers are possessed of strength sufficient, to 
 manage the manuring of a large farm, on this system, and 
 at the same time to carry on the operations of ploughing, 
 harrowing, & c. It is therefore thought most expedient, to 
 remove the dung, from the yard in which it has been col- 
 lected, and to place it in heaps near the fields where the 
 crops are to be sown*. This may be effected, either, 1. Early 
 in the season; or, 2. Late in spring. The plan of manage- 
 ment should vary in these different cases. 
 
 1. Early in the Season. — When it is expedient to remove 
 the dung to the turnip fields, early in the season, large 
 quantities of clay, marl, or such other substances, should 
 be collected for the reception of the dung heaps. The bot- 
 toms for these heaps should consist of from six to eight 
 inches of these materials, and the dung should not be thrown 
 loosely upon them, to cause fermentation, but the carts 
 with their loads should be drawn upon the heaps, for the 
 purpose of compressing the dung, and thereby preventing 
 fermentation , until the proper period arrives. The dung 
 should be spread regularly, so as to render the ascent easy, 
 for the succeeding teams, as they come with their loads. 
 When the heap is completed, it should then be covered 
 with marl, clay, or earth, so as effectually to enclose the 
 dung heaps, in crusts. The dung is thus preserved in pies , 
 (as these heaps are called), without loss from exhalation or 
 evaporation, and in an unfermented state. A fortnight be- 
 fore the manure is required for the turnip grounds, these 
 pies ought to be carefully turned over, and thoroughly 
 mixed. They should be again covered with earth, and a 
 fermentation will then take place, by which the compost is 
 brought into an excellent state of preparation, as a manure 
 for turnipsf. 
 
 2. Late in Spring. — When the dung is taken out of the 
 yards, only a short time before it is wanted for the turnip 
 crop, bottoms should be prepared, as formerly directed, but 
 the dung should not be carted upon the heaps, to compress 
 them, and to prevent fermentation, but should be thrown 
 up lightly with the fork, upon the bottoms, so as to favour 
 it. The pies, when completed, should be covered with 
 
 * This is the plan of that distinguished Agriculturist, Mr. Curwcn, of 
 Workington Hall in Cumberland, whose farm produces, on an average, 
 1 0,500 single-horse carts of manure per annum. Such a quantity of dung 
 could not be managed on any other system. 
 
 + Blaikie on Farm-yard Manure, p. 13. 
 
On Manures . 219 
 
 earth*, they will soon take a gentle fermentation, and be 
 ready for use*. 
 
 From the great expence of cartage, more especially to the 
 remote parts of the farm, Mr. Curwen thinks it expedient, 
 to reduce the cubical contents of the putrescent manure to 
 be employed, before it is removed to its ultimate place of 
 destination. By this reduction in weight, as well as in bulk, 
 one third of the cartage is saved, and the manure is of a 
 more valuable qualityf. 
 
 When turnips are sown in drills, there cannot be a doubt, 
 that rotten dung, recently applied, is essential for that 
 cropf . This is the opinion of every intelligent farmer who 
 practises that system. The bulk of the manure is certainly 
 diminished; but the expence of its conveyance, and the 
 labour of depositing it in the ground, are lessened ; — and it 
 becomes much more manageable. 
 
 The old practice, of frequently stirring, turning, and 
 mixing the dung, without, in general, even covering the 
 heap with earth, when it was turned, is now generally laid 
 aside by every judicious farmer. Even for a crop of drilled 
 turnips, one, or at the utmost two turnings, will be sufficient. 
 After each turning, the heap should be carefully covered 
 with a stratum of porous earth, to catch the rising vapour, 
 and to retain the volatile matter, which would otherwise 
 escape. Indeed some farmers are of opinion, that dung 
 may be sufficiently fermented to be applied to crops of 
 grain or grass, without any turning, provided due attention 
 be paid to the previous steps of preparation. 
 
 * Blaikie on Farm-yard Manure, p. 15 ; where the process is more mi- 
 nutely described. The dung thus prepared, gets into a fine condition, being 
 at once heavy, short, and mellow. Dr. Rigby’s Report, p. 56. By this im- 
 proved method of preparing dung, Mr. Coke has saved 500/. per annum in 
 the price of oil-cakes, and his crops of turnips are as good, if not better, than 
 before. 
 
 + Curwen’s Report, p. 62. 
 
 X Mr. Walker of Mellendean, who rents about 2800 acres of arable land, 
 has found by the experience of thirty years, that a small quantity of rotten 
 dung, is sufficient for that crop, and if the soil and season are suitable, will 
 almost always ensure, not only a good crop of turnips, but that all the succeed- 
 ing crops, according to the common rotation, are good; but he never could 
 raise a full crop with long fresh dung, which, from its openness, tends to admit 
 drought, instead of affording moisture and nourishment to the roots while 
 they are young and tender. He is therefore at a considerable expence, in 
 carrying out, turning, and watering his dunghills, so as to have the dung in 
 a putrid state , when laid on the land in June. After all, he is obliged every 
 year to manure a part of his turnip land with fresh dung, and wherever that 
 is laid on, the crop is invariably much inferior.— Husbandry of Scotland, 
 vol. i. p. 161. 
 
220 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 It is highly dangerous to use unfermented dung with corn 
 crops, as it may contain the eggs of insects, and the seeds 
 of weeds, which nothing but fermentation cap destroy. 
 Unless, indeed, the crops were to be hoed, it would be 
 sowing the seeds of weeds, without ensuring their destruc- 
 tion*. 
 
 In the Netherlands, the greatest possible attention is paid 
 to putrescent manure. The more opulent, pave and line 
 with brick, the receptacles for their dung, which is thus 
 kept constantly plunged in a mass of liquid matter. The 
 fibrous parts of the vegetables, are thus completely decom- 
 posed, and four tons of this manure, go as far as five, col- 
 lected and kept with less precaution. 
 
 3. Mode of Application . 
 
 Dung is applied to, — Fallows ; — Green crops ; — Corn 
 crops — or Grass. This last mode of application will be 
 noticed, when the subject of grass lands is treated of. 
 
 1. Strong soils, not in a high state of fertility, when sub- 
 jected to the fallow process, are manured with dung ; and if 
 the land is thoroughly cleaned , the dung will be applied, 
 with more advantage to the occupier, than in any other stage 
 of the rotation. It ought to be spread the moment it 
 is taken from the cart, and completely incorporated with 
 the soilf. 
 
 2. The best application of farm-yard dung, in the case 
 of light soils, is to green crops of every description, more 
 especially when the manure is placed in the centre of the 
 drill, to crops of turnips or potatoes;};. In Flanders, they 
 have a practice which is attended with nearly similar effects. 
 After the dung is spread on the surface of a field to be 
 ploughed, and a furrow has been made, a person with a fork 
 or a rake, goes before the plough, and throws from the 
 surface, into the furrow, as much manure as has been 
 placed upon the soil that the plough will turn over, the next 
 bout. The dung is thus put at a proper depth, and not 
 liable to evaporation. 
 
 3. Farm-yard dung is likewise applied to clover stubbles, 
 upon which wheat is to be sown ; that crop requiring the 
 
 • Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 238. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 520. 
 
 J When used in this way for turnips, the dung should be made as moist 
 as possible, to promote a rapid vegetation. In cultivating carrots and pars- 
 nips, the dung ought to be thoroughly reduced, and placed deep in the gremndy 
 jo that the root* shall not reach it, otherwise they become forked, or divide. 
 
On Manures „ 
 
 221 
 
 land to be in a very fertile state. In some districts, the 
 clover stubble is likewise manured for oats. 
 
 There is a singular mode of applying dung in some dis- 
 tricts in Switzerland. The farmers there, consider liquid 
 manure as the most efficacious of any, and thence, after the 
 dung is fermentedy they dilute it in water, and the liquid 
 alone is carried to the field, and scattered over it. The 
 earth immediately imbibes the liquid, which soon reaches 
 the roots of the plants, and causes a rapid vegetation ; 
 whereas it is a long time before dung, in a solid state, fer- 
 tilizes the soil. The straw that remains, after the dung is 
 thus washed, is applied as manure for potatoes* * * § . In strong 
 clay soils, however, liquid manure would not be so effica- 
 cious as long dung. 
 
 The quantity of dung to be applied, is an important 
 question. Formerly too much was given, and the crops 
 were surfeited with a profusion of nourishment. According 
 to modern practice, only as much is furnished at one time, 
 as will fertilize the ground, and render it capable of pro- 
 ducing good crops, until a fresh supply can be administered! . 
 Formerly, from twenty to thirty tons were given, per acre, 
 whereas, now, one half of that quantity is found to be suffi- 
 cient:);. It was formerly supposed, that putrescent manure 
 was durable, in proportion to the quantity applied, without 
 considering that a great quantity rather accelerated than re- 
 tarded decomposition, and that the consequence must ne- 
 cessarily be, unprofitable fertility the first year, and disap- 
 pointment during the succeeding ones. A happy medium, 
 however, ought to be kept in view ; for manures ought not 
 to be applied too sparingly. If dung to the value of only 
 1 1. per acre is given, it may not refund the expence; whereas 
 by laying out at the rate of 3/. per acre, the profit may be 
 considerable. 
 
 Whatever quantity is used, the dung should be spread 
 equally, and divided so minutely, that every part of the 
 ground may receive an equal supply§. This cannot be done 
 so very equally, when the manure is laid in drills, for crops 
 of turnips or potatoes ; though even in such cases, it ought 
 not to be neglected, so far as it is practicable. To promote 
 
 * Hints as to the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. 67. Lord 
 Kames likewise recommends liquid manure. 
 
 + Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 384. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 518. 
 
 § This is particularly necessary, when applied to a crop of barley, the 
 ripening of which, ought as mucn as possible to be simultaneous. 
 
222 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 that equal division, the drills are sometimes drawn across 
 the field, and at other times diagonally ; or by cross-plough- 
 ing, after the crop is taken up, the dung in the drills is 
 mixed with the soil. 
 
 The last point to be considered is, the depth at which the 
 dung ought to be placed. If applied to grass land, it can 
 only be spread upon the surface, and all the advantage 
 possible in that case to be derived from it, is, the fertilizing 
 matter washed down by the rains. When applied to arable 
 land, it is strongly recommended, to cover the dung well. 
 But here, as in every thing else, extremes ought to be 
 avoided. Dung is of use to plants, either from the gases it 
 emits, or by the nourishment which it furnishes to them, 
 when in solution with water. The gases will rise, and it is 
 of less consequence, in that respect, to what depth the dung 
 is put ; but a solution of water will sink , and ought not to 
 be placed beyond the reach of the roots of the crops for the 
 nourishment of which it was intended. 
 
 The superior importance of farm-yard and stable dung, 
 (which have been justly denominated, the farmer’s sheet - 
 anchor), has rendered it “necessary to dwell on that subject 
 at greater length, than is practicable in regard to any other 
 manure, consistently with the intended brevity of this pub- 
 lication. 
 
 It now only remains, under the general head of dung 
 from quadrupeds*, particularly to mention that of sheep. 
 
 Sheep- Dung . — This valuable article is collected in several 
 ways. In various parts of the Continent, sheep are kept in 
 houses during almost the whole year, for the sake of their 
 manure. — When they are fed along the sides of roads, young 
 children are employed to collect the dung they have dropt. — 
 Sheep fed on upland pastures, are folded in the vale on 
 arable landh; and when crops of turnips or of rape are 
 
 * It may be proper to add in a note, that a zealous friend to agriculture, 
 (John Fane, Esq. Member for Oxfordshire), manures about 26 acres yearly, 
 with the dung of rabbits, kept solely for that purpose. The skins and car- 
 casses pay the expence, and the manure is all clear profit . — Oxfordshire Re- 
 port , p. SI 6. But the plan could not be carried to any great extent, as there 
 would not be a market for the carcasses. 
 
 'f' This is a point that has been much controverted. It is contended, on 
 the one hand, that the immediate application of dung and urine to all soils, 
 and of treading to loose ones, are so well known, that no doubt can be enter- 
 tained of the profit of the practice. Indeed, on many light soib, very little 
 wheat would be raised without it ; the manure, which, scattered over a 
 large surface, would be of little or no use, when collected, may prove highly 
 
On Manures . 
 
 223 
 
 grown, these useful animals are folded upon the crop, which 
 they consume upon the ground, and enrich the soil with 
 their dung and urine. — Sheep fed on linseed-cake, produce 
 an extraordinary fertilizing dung, by which any poor land, 
 whether it be arable or pasture, may be speedily enriched. — 
 A most useful plan has recently been adopted, that of folding 
 sheep upon straw in the corner of the turnip field, and 
 carrying the turnips to them*. — This is particularly suitable 
 for such soils as are too wet or tenacious to have turnips fed 
 upon them ; or on sloping grounds, where the manure might 
 be washed down. 
 
 2. Dung of Birds . — This head refers to the dung of 
 pigeons, domestic fowls, and sea-birds. 
 
 Pigeons’ dung certainly possesses much fertilizing power. 
 It readily ferments when moist ; but is generally applied in 
 as fresh a state as possible, in gardens, to onions, or to crops 
 of wheat or barley in the fields, sometimes with a mixture 
 of peat, in which case twenty bushels per acre are sufiicient. 
 The dung of domestic fowls is likewise carefully collected in 
 the poultry-house or yard ; it resembles pigeons’ dung in its 
 effects. But the most valuable article of this sort, is the 
 dung of sea-birds that live upon fish. This substance is 
 produced in such quantities upon some small islands in the 
 South Sea, that fifty vessels are annually employed to bring 
 it to fertilize the steril plains of Peru. It is there called 
 quano. If the rains of our climate should injure this manure 
 on the rocks and small isles on our coast, yet it may be 
 found in great perfection, in caverns or clefts, resorted to 
 by the cormorant and the gull; and in the West Indies it 
 may be found on rocks, equal to that used in Peruf. 
 
 3. Town Dung . — This is an important article, yielding, 
 in many cases, a considerable revenue to the towns, besides 
 
 beneficial. It is calculated that' 1000 ordinary sheep, when folded, will 
 manure an acrt in a night. On the other hand, the profit of such folding is 
 denied, and it is insisted on, that such a system, is pernicious to the sheep 
 pasture, and injurious to the animals. To manure one hundred acres of 
 arable in the vale, two or three hundred acres of pasture, are deprived of 
 any benefit from manure, in the hills. The profit of the fold is reckoned 
 only worth about 5s. per head per annum, and it is contended, the animal 
 is injured by the practice, nearly as much, even with little driving. One 
 advantage of folding, however, is, that the wildest sheep are rendered more 
 docile, they feed better, and more quickly, during the time they are pre- 
 paring for market. 
 
 * This plan is particularly described in the General Report of Scotland, 
 vol. ii. p. 511, on the authority of Mr. Hunter, of Tynefield. 
 
 | Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 259. 
 
224 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 fertilizing the neighbourhood*. In large towns, the quan- 
 tity to be obtained is enormous, though it is to be lamented, 
 that too much of it is thrown away and neglected. In 
 London, it is estimated, that the annual produce may amount 
 to 500,000 cart-loads, being only a part of the manure col- 
 lected by sweeping 3000 acres of pavement in streets and 
 market places, and the dung produced by 30,000 horses, 
 8000 cows, and now, including the environs, nearly a million 
 of inhabitantsf. The sweepings of streets is a species of 
 manure, the effects of which are immediate, but not very 
 durable. The dung produced by the cows and horses main- 
 tained in towns, if attention be paid to the preparation, is 
 particularly valuable, as the animals by which it is produced, 
 are generally maintained on food of the richest Quality. 
 That of horses being apt to become too dry, ought to be 
 regularly removed, and mixed with other substances. 
 
 4. Night Soil . — This is the richest of all manures, and if 
 dry, the cheapest:);. It is not only more quick in its opera- 
 tion than any other dressing, but supplies a great abundance 
 of food for plants. Three or four cart-loads are sufficient 
 to dress an acre for the first time, and afterwards, two loads 
 per acre would keep it perpetually in heart§. It may be 
 spread with peculiar advantage on grass lands after the hay 
 is cleared away, in October. Its disagreeable smell may be 
 destroyed, by mixing it with earth, sweepings of the streets, 
 or quick-lime, or by making it into cakes, with one- third of 
 its weight of rich marl, as practised in ChinaJJ. 
 
 5. Urine . — Every sort of urine contains the essential ele- 
 ments of vegetables in a state of solution^. That of a horse, 
 
 * The city of Aberdeen, containing about 30,000 inhabitants, lets its 
 dung for 1500/. per annum, or 1$. per head. At that low rate, the .whole 
 city of London ought to receive above 30,000/. per annum, for its street 
 dung. The street dung alone of Edinburgh, was lately let for 2000/. per 
 annum. In Derbyshire, particular attention is paid to town dung. — Report , 
 vol. ii. p. 453. 
 
 f Middlesex Report, p. 301. , f Young’s Essay on Manurcs,p. 168. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 301 , note. 
 
 || Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 255. This manure is made into cakes, 
 at Paris, under the name of poudrets , and is found of the utmost advantage, 
 particularly on strong lands. Mr. Joseph Clarke of Goswell-street, prepares 
 an article somewhat similar, in London. It appears highly probable, that 
 much advantage might be derived from the addition of quick-lime, both by 
 accelerating the desiccation, or by forming a chemical compound, as phos- 
 phate of lime, 60 important to the growth of wheat. 
 
 Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 257. M. Cazencuve, from Paris, by 
 means of his “ mobiles inodor es ,” proposes to separate the urine from the night- 
 soil, which would prevent the foetid effluvium produced by fermentation. 
 This would render the use of such manures, less objectionable. 
 
Sinclair, Sir John, "he Code of Agriculture; In- 
 cluding Observations on Cardend, orchards, Woods, 
 and Plantations. Third edition, enriched by the 
 Renarks, of a Nuraber of the ablest Practical Pum- 
 ers in 'Snaland, Scotland and Ireland, port. Bvo. 
 lea. 594, 1515pp. & plates. London, 1031. 
 
 5.00 
 
On Manures. 
 
 225 
 
 being so much lighter, and less bulky, would be more va- 
 luable than its dung, if both must be conveyed to any great 
 distance. The urine of six cows or horses, made in one 
 year, will enrich a quantity of earth, sufficient to top-dress 
 one English acre of grass land ; and as it would require 
 three pounds worth of dung to perform the same operation, 
 the urine of a cow or horse, is worth about eight shillings 
 and sixpence per annum, allowing 8s. per acre, as the ex- 
 pence of preparing the compost. Urine is much improved 
 by powdered rape-cakes thrown into the cisterns where it is 
 kept. The advantages of irrigating grass lands with cow 
 urine, almost exceed belief. Mr. Harley, of Glasgow, 
 (who keeps a large dairy in that town), by using it, cuts 
 some small fields of grass, several times in a year, and the 
 average of each cutting is fifteen inches in length* * * § . As this 
 article is of a scorching quality, it is unsafe to apply it to 
 growing crops, in great heat or drought. Hence it is un- 
 advisable to use it, except to grass, after the month of April 
 or May, unless diluted. It is particularly useful in spring, 
 when the application of liquid manure gives a new impetus, 
 to the plant, and makes its growth more vigorousf. This 
 manure, forces newly planted cabbages in a most remarkable 
 manner^. This valuable article is too often suffered to flow 
 away, without any attempt to collect it, either to throw' it - 
 over the dung-hills, or for the purposes of irrigation^ 
 
 6. Land Animal Substances . — These form a numerous 
 and valuable class of manures. In general, they require to 
 be blended with earthy substances, that a too rapid decom- 
 position may be prevented||. 
 
 Much useful matter of this description is lost : for instance, 
 if animals which have died of old age or disease, were covered 
 with five or six times their bulk of soil, mixed with one 
 part of lime, the earth would, in the space of a few months, 
 be so impregnated with soluble matter, as to be rendered an 
 excellent manurelf. Besides preventing a nuisance, the 
 putrifying flesh would be more valuable to the farmer, than 
 if sold for dog’s meat. 
 
 Much manure is got, from the offals of butchers, and the 
 
 * Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. G3. 
 
 f If bones or sea-shells are properly sprinkled with putrid urine, it excites 
 such a fermentation, as to dissolve them, and thus a manure is formed, much 
 more valuable, and more speedily efficacious. 
 
 X Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 § Curwen’s Report, p. Gl. 
 
 11 Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 251. 
 
 U Ditto, p. 251. 
 
226 
 
 On Manures, 
 
 blood and other substances that are collected in markets ; 
 the graves, or refuse of tallow-chandlers, are likewise ex- 
 cellent for turnip crops on the poorest soils. Every atten- 
 tion ought to be paid to the collection of these articles. 
 
 Bones, either broken in pieces by a mill, or the refuse 
 turnings and dust of bone manufacturers, are used with 
 much advantage as manures, and are peculiarly calculated 
 for limestone land. They are an admirable dressing for 
 turnips, and, when bones are used, it is said that the fly 
 does not injure the crop * the produce equals in quantity 
 that from dung, is supposed to be more nutritious, and the 
 succeeding crops of barley and clover, are excellent. The 
 expence is at the rate of 2s, per bushel, and sixty bushels 
 are sufficient for a statute acre. A three-horse cart or 
 waggon, will carry 300 bushels to a considerable distance. 
 If eight cubic yards of ashes, and twenty tons of crushed 
 bones, were employed per acre, the crop would be very 
 great, as the ashes would promote the early growth of the 
 plant, and the bones, being a more permanent manure, 
 would operate when the ashes were exhausted. Women 
 sow them in drills, and a person follows with a fork, to put 
 them as even as possible in the furrow*. 
 
 Every species of animal offal or refuse will act as a manure* 
 as, 1 . Woollen Rags , chopped in small pieces, from 5 cwt. 
 to 12 cwt. to be used per acre * they are best for dry, sandy, 
 or chalky f soils, as they attract moisture from the atmo- 
 sphere, and retain it. 2. Curriers ’ shavings, furriers’ 
 clippings, and leather rags, which are likewise calculated for 
 dry soils *, the quantity required is about thirty bushels per 
 acre. 3 . Horn shavings, equally applicable to all soils, worth 
 about 1,9. per bushel, 30 of. which are sufficient per acre. 
 4. The scrapings of sheep trotters, calves feet, fyc, hog’s 
 hair, feathersl; in short, all sorts of animal substances 
 should be collected, and, if ploughed in, will increase the 
 fertility of the soil. 
 
 7. Fish . — Along such an extent of coast as Great Britain 
 and Ireland possess, much advantage might certainly be 
 derived from fish as manure. In the fens of Lincolnshire, 
 Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, the small fish called stickle- 
 
 * Communication from George Baker, Esq. Elmere, near Durham. The 
 bones are to be had at Newcastle, (Tyne) and its neighbourhood. 
 
 f The effects of woollen and leather rags, on chalky soils, are said to be 
 peculiarly striking. 
 
 X Ten bushels of old feathers, have added two quarters to the produce of 
 an acre of wheat . — Lincolnshire Report , p. 143. 
 
On Manures . 
 
 227 
 
 backs, periodically swarm in the rivers to such a degree, 
 that they may be purchased at from 6d. to 8d. per bushel, 
 and applied in forming composts- Herrings, sprats*, and 
 the fish called sea-dogs, (after the oily parts are taken out), 
 are managed in the same way. The refuse of the pilchard 
 fishery in Cornwall, never fails to give great crops, wherever 
 it is spread. Whale-blubber offal also, is every where ap- 
 plied to this use, and with the greatest success. Such ma- 
 nures, minutely divide the particles of the soil ; and are 
 peculiarly beneficial to newly broken up barren soils. 
 
 2. Calcareous Manures . 
 
 This important class of manures is more generally, and 
 more correctly applied in this country, than in any other. 
 It comprehends a number of articles, as. Burnt, or calcined 
 limestone; — Pounded limestone; — Limestone gravel; — 
 Chalk ; — Marls ; — Sea-shells ; — Soapers* waste ; — and 
 Gypsum. 
 
 I. 
 
 Burnt , or Calcined Limestone . — Under this head may be 
 considered, 1. The advantages of this manure; 2. Its dis- 
 advantages ; 3. The principles on which the fertility pro- 
 duced by lime depends ; 4. The several sorts of limestone ; 
 5. The mode of preparing it for use ; 6. The application ; 
 7. The expence ; 8. The effects ; 9. The rules for its ma- 
 nagement; and, 10. Some remarks on the difference between 
 caustic and mild lime. 
 
 1. Advantages of Lime. — Though there are exceptions to 
 the rule, yet in general, it is confidently asserted, that unless 
 where a soil has by nature, enough of calcareous matter in 
 its composition, for the purposes of vegetation, it can neither 
 be brought into its most fertile state, nor will other manures 
 
 * Sprat9 are frequently applied as manure to the hop-gardens along the 
 borders of the river Medway in Kent ; and they produce great effects, though 
 only for one year. — Communication from John Middleton , Esq. — See Report 
 of Cornwall, as to the effect of fish on grass lands. In the county of Galway, 
 in Ireland, fish manure has been found highly advantageous. In Scotland, 
 it is calculated, that fourteen barrels of herrings, will yield one barrel of re- 
 fuse, or garbage, two barrels of which will be a single-horse cart-load. 
 Sixteen load of this manure, the produce of 84 barrels of herrings, when 
 mixed with 48 loads of earth, will manure an acre of land. If 300,000 barrels 
 of herrings therefore, are caught in Scotland, in one year, the garbage would 
 be sufficient to manure about 3600 acres of land per annum. —Communica- 
 tion from JVilliam Young } Esq. of Inver ugie. 
 
 22 
 
228 
 
 On Manures, 
 
 be so useful as they ought, if lime, or some other calcareous 
 earth, be not previously applied* * * § . By lime spread upon a 
 moory soil, either naturally dry, or properly drained, good 
 herbage is produced, where nothing but heath, and unpala- 
 table grasses grew beforef. By the same means, pastures, 
 instead of being ruined by fog, or yielding nothing but bent, 
 and other inferior grasses, have been covered with those of 
 a more valuable description^. The utility of lime to turnips 
 is so great, that though in the same field, where no lime 
 had been applied, the crop died away ; yet in the limed part, 
 the turnips flourished with unabated vigour^. On the Men- 
 dip lands in Somerset, by the application of lime, the value 
 of land was raised, from 4$. to 305. per acre ; and dung, 
 which previous to liming, had no sensible effect, operated, 
 after its application, as on other lands||. Macclesfield Forest, 
 in Cheshire, and vast tracts in the northern and more ele- 
 vated parts of Derbyshire, and the adjacent districts, have 
 been astonishingly improved by the same means^f. The 
 rye lands of Herefordshire, in 1636, refused to produce 
 wheat, pease, or vetches ; but since the introduction of lime, 
 they have been so fertilized, as to be successfully applied to 
 the growth of every species of corn**. By the application 
 of lime, a larger quantity of straw is produced, more dung 
 is procured, and the crop is less liable to be lodged. Its 
 utility in promoting the destruction of worms and other 
 vermin in the ground, is well known. In newly cultivated 
 soils of a tolerable quality, the richest manure will not 
 enable them to bring any crops, but those of oats or rye, to 
 maturity ; whereas if they receive a sufficient quantity of 
 lime, crops of pease, barley, or wheat, may be raised to 
 advantageff. The benefit resulting from the use of lime, 
 has been indisputably proved in the same farm, for the 
 richer parts that were left unlimed, were uniformly inferior 
 
 * Northumberland Report, p. 134. 
 
 •f- Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 170. Even the cover of limestone 
 quarries, has been usefully applied to heath, to rough stiinted grass lands, 
 and to meadow grounds. 
 
 X Westmoreland Report, p. 235. — Lime is supposed not to increase the 
 quantity of grass, though it improves its quality. It certainly renders the 
 herbage more nutritious, whether as hay or pasture, and preserves the stock, 
 sheep in particular, from some disorders. 
 
 § Northumberland Report, p. 131. || Somerset Report, p. 512. 
 
 f Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 38, 401, &c. 
 
 ** Herefordshire Report, p. 57. 
 
 tf Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 170. 
 
On Manures. 
 
 229 
 
 in produce, to the poorer that had been limed, during a 
 period of not less than twenty-one years, under the same 
 course of management* * * § . 
 
 2. Disadvantages of Lime as a Manure . — It must not 
 be imagined, however, that the application of lime, can 
 always be made with profit. When either bestowed in too 
 great a quantity at once, or too frequently repeated, it ren- 
 ders a soil sterile. It only operates advantageously, when it 
 has a super-abundance of vegetable matter to act upon ; and, 
 on light soils, it is peculiarly hazardous to repeat it too 
 often, except in compostf . 
 
 3. The principles on which Lime operates as a Manure . — 
 Quick-lime in powder, or dissolved in water, is injurious to 
 plants *, hence grass, watered with lime-water, is destroyed. 
 But lime freshly burht, or slacked, forms a compost with 
 vegetable matter, which is partly soluble in water, and 
 nutritive to plants. When applied to land in a powdery 
 state, lime tends to bring any hard animal or vegetable sub- 
 stance, into a more rapid state of decomposition;);. It also 
 renders salts, and other matters not easily decomposed, 
 miscible in water, thus promoting vegetation. If used in a 
 hot, or caustic state, to strong and retentive soils, it will not 
 only subdue their tenacity, but will communicate a certain 
 degree of warmth to the ground. Light soils, from the ap- 
 plication of lime, become adhesive, and more retentive of 
 moisture§. 
 
 4. The various sorts of Limestone . — Sometimes limestone 
 is almost perfectly pure, as is the case with marble, which 
 frequently contains scarcely any other substance but cal- 
 careous matter. Several sorts of limestone, however, have 
 mixtures of clay and sand, in various proportions, by which 
 the efficacy of the manure, in proportion to the quantity of 
 these substances, is considerably diminished. It is neces- 
 sary, therefore, to analyze limestone, to ascertain the pro- 
 portion of pure lime, before it is advisable to use so expen- 
 sive an article in great quantities, more especially if it must 
 be conveyed from a distanced. Bituminous limestone makes 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 186. — Lime has been successfully em- 
 ployed in the south of Scotland, to destroy the texture of that moorish 
 subsoil, which is so unfavourable to vegetation, 
 
 t Remark by Edward Burroqghs, Esq. 
 
 i Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 27 6, 278. 
 
 § Curwen’s Report, p. 60. 
 
 || From inattention to this rule, much money ha3 been uselessly expended, 
 and many have been led to doubt the efficacy of lime, because they employed 
 a sort of inferior quality. 
 
230 
 
 On Manures, 
 
 good manure. But the magnesian is the species which re- 
 quires the greatest attention. Limestone sometimes con- 
 tains from 20.3 to 23.5 of magnesia, in which case it would 
 be injurious to weak soils, from the peculiar qualities of the 
 lime, to apply more than from 25 to 30 bushels per statute 
 acre, though in rich soils, double that quantity may be used, 
 and still more with peat, on which soil it would have a most 
 powerful effect in producing fertility* * * § . 
 
 5. Mode of preparing it for Use. — Limestone is burnt in 
 kilns of various constructions, and with various sorts of 
 manure, as coal, peatf, furze, or faggots. It is applied with 
 advantage to soils recently reclaimed, in a caustic state ; but 
 is generally slacked , by throwing water upon the lumps, until 
 they crack and swell, and fall down into a fine powderj. 
 This operation, when it is to be done, should not be delayed, 
 for, if properly burnt, calcined lime is easily reduced into a 
 fine powder, which may not be the case, if the slacking be 
 postponed. If water cannot easily be obtained, the lumps 
 may either be divided into small heaps, and covered with 
 earth, by the moisture of which they are soon pulverized ; 
 or they may be made into large heaps, the lumps and earth 
 in alternate strata, the lumps four inches, and the earth six 
 inches thick, and the whole covered with earth. Where it 
 can easily be had, it is a great advantage, to slack the cal- 
 cined limestone for manure, with sea-water§. 
 
 6. Application. — Summer is the proper season for apply- 
 ing lime, for the land ought not only to be dry, but the 
 surface as free from moisture as possible, so as to promote 
 the equal distribution of the manure. That experienced 
 farmer, Mr. Rennie of Phantassie, is of opinion, that the 
 most profitable period for applying lime is, when the land 
 is under summer fallow, in the months of June and July, 
 that it may be completely mixed with the soil before the 
 crop is sown. This is also the general practice in other 
 
 * Magnesian limestones are generally coloured brown, or a pale yellow. 
 They are found in Yorkshire, (near Doncaster), in Somersetshire, and va- 
 rious parts of England ; and near Belfast in Ireland. The application of 
 this lime, would probably be the cheapest and most effectual mode of im- 
 proving peaty soils. See Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 281 ; and Der- 
 byshire Report, vol. ii. p. 409, &c. 
 
 •f* Nine-tenths of the lime used in Ireland, is burnt with peat. See Mr. 
 Dutton’s Letter, in the Farmer’s Journal, Oqt. 2, 1820. 
 
 J Slacked lime is merely a combination of lime, with one-third water. — 
 Sir Humphry Davy's Lectures , p. 277. 
 
 § Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 212. — Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. 
 p. 438, to 445. 
 
On Manures . 
 
 231 
 
 districts. For a turnip crop, it should be laid on in the 
 spring, or early in summer, before the turnips are drilled ; 
 in order that the lime may be thoroughly incorporated with 
 the soil, by the ploughings and harrowings it will receive* * * § ; 
 the land will thus have time to cool, and the lime will not 
 dry up the moisture necessary for bringing the turnips into 
 leaf, or destroying the young plants. When applied to old 
 ley, it is a good practice, to spread it on the surface, pre- 
 viously to the land being broken up, by which it is fixed 
 firmly on the sward. One year has been found of use, but 
 when done three years before, greater advantages have been 
 produced; in the former case, the increase of oats being only 
 at the rate of 6 to 1, and in the latter, that of 10 to 1, of 
 the seed sownf. The quantity applied must vary according 
 to the soil. From 240 to 300 bushels, of unslaQked lime, 
 may be applied on strong lands, with advantage, tven 600 
 bushels have been laid on at once on strong clays, with 
 great success^. On light soils, a much smaller quantity 
 will answer, say from 150 to 200 bushels, but these small 
 doses ought to be more frequently repeated. When ap- 
 plied on the surface of bogs or moors, the quantity used is 
 very considerable, and, provided the land is naturally dry, or 
 has been thoroughly drained, the more that is laid on, the 
 greater the improvement^ The real quantity , however, of 
 calcareous matter used, depends upon the quality of the 
 stone. It often happens, that five chaldrons do not furnish 
 more effective manure than three, because they do not con- 
 tain three-fifths of calcareous matter||. 
 
 7. The Expence . — So great is the variety, in regard to the 
 
 * The grubber, or scarifier, would answer this purpose effectually. No 
 more should be spread at a time, than can be immediately mixed with the 
 soil. It should not be spread in a windy day, for servants cannot judge so 
 well of its equal distribution, nor perform it so well. But a gentle breeze is 
 rather useful than otherwise. 
 
 f Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 231. — A pre- 
 vious application of two years, is in general considered to be sufficient. 
 
 + The late Mr. Barclay of Ury, often gave from 500 to GOO bushels of 
 calcined lime per Scotch acre, or from 400 to 430 bushels per English acre ; 
 but when he gave such great quantities, he never limed a second time, except 
 merely to give a slight top-dressing, when grass-seeds were sown. 
 
 § Young’s Essay on Manures, p. 322. 
 
 ]| A new mode of application, has lately been thought of in Cumberland. 
 
 It is, after the first cutting of clover, to spread immediately on the ground, 
 from 30 to 40 bushels of hot lime , per statute acre. This produces a great 
 increase. from the second cutting, greatly improves the value of the next 
 year’s grazing, and the succeeding crop of oats. — CurwetCs Report , p. 24, 
 and 42. 
 
232 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 prices of lime at the kiln ; — the cost attending its convey- 
 ance to the field ; — and that of slacking, carting, and spread- 
 ing it there ; — and above all, in respect of the quantities ne- 
 cessary for different soils, in different circumstances, that no 
 accurate statement can be given, of the expence of liming. 
 On the whole, for unslacked lime, about 6d. per bushel, 
 may be stated as an average price, all charges included ; 
 and from 120 to 300 bushels, as the quantity required, per 
 statute acre. The following table, will then furnish some 
 general idea of the probable expence : 
 
 Table of the Expence of Liming. 
 
 Quantity of Bushels 
 of Unslacked Lime. 
 
 Expence of the Lime 
 per Bushel. 
 
 Total Expence per 
 Statute Acre. 
 
 120 
 
 6d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 150 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 3 15 0 
 
 200 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 5 0 0 
 
 250 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 6' 5 0 
 
 300 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 7 10 0 
 
 8. Effects of Lime . — It is evident from the preceding 
 table, that many farmers must subject themselves to an ex- 
 pence, of not less than ten shillings per acre per annum, 
 for the lime they use, during the course of a rotation, and 
 yet they are amply remunerated. The benefit derived in 
 the cultivation of green crops, is sufficient for that purpose. 
 Such crops may be raised by large quantities of dung ; but 
 where calcareous substances are applied, it is proved by 
 long experience, that a less quantity of animal and vegetable 
 manure will answer the purpose. This is making the farm- 
 yard dung go farther, with more powerful, and more per- 
 manent effects ; for in consequence of the weightier crops 
 thus raised, the quantity of manure on a farm, .will be most 
 materially augmented. Indeed, upon land in a proper state 
 for calcareous application, (as old ley), lime is much superior 
 to dung. Its effects continue for a longer period, while the 
 crops produced, are of a superior quality, and less suscepti- 
 ble of injury from the excesses of drought and moisture. 
 The ground likewise, more especially if it be of a strong na- 
 ture, is much more easily wrought*, and, in some instances, 
 
On Manures. 
 
 233 
 
 the saving of labour alone , would be sufficient to induce a 
 farmer to lime his land, were no greater benefit derived from 
 the application, than the opportunity thereby gained, of 
 working it in a more perfect manner*. 
 
 9. Rules for the Management of Lime. — 1 . It is necessary 
 to ascertain, the quality of any soil to which lime is to be 
 applied, and particularly, whether it has formerly been 
 limed, and to what extent. In general, it may be observed, 
 that strong loams and stubborn clays, require a full dose of 
 lime to bring them into action, as such soils are capable of 
 absorbing a great quantity of calcareous matter. Lighter 
 soils, however, require less lime to stimulate them ; and 
 may be injured, by administering such a quantity, recently 
 calcined, as would prove moderately beneficial to those of a 
 heavy nature. 2. As the effects of lime greatly depend on 
 its intimate admixture with the soil, it is expedient to 
 have it in a powdered state before it is spread, and the 
 drier, and the more perfectly powdered, the better. 3. Lime 
 having a tendency, from its increased weight, by the water 
 it imbibes, to sink in the soil, cannot be ploughed in with 
 too shallow a furrow, or kept too near the surface. 4*. Lime 
 ought not to be applied a second time, to weak or poor soils, 
 except at a considerable distance of time, or unless mixed 
 with earth in compost. After a second application, the land 
 should be immediately laid down to grass. In many soils, 
 more especially when newly cultivated, calcareous earths 
 will, in the course of years, so far disappear, as to require a 
 renewal. This sooner or later takes place in all cases, but 
 more rapidly in pastures than in arable land, the plough 
 often bringing up the lime to the surface. 
 
 10. Difference between Caustic and Mild Lime. — This is a 
 point that has not hitherto been sufficiently attended to, and 
 yet, unless it is well understood, lime may often be misap- 
 plied. The following hints, extracted from a paper written 
 by an intelligent Agriculturistf, will throw some light on 
 this important enquiry. 
 
 Lime, when newly burnt, is of a caustic nature, and it 
 often retains that quality longer than is commonly imagined. 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 184; General Report of Scotland, 
 vol. ii. p. 586. 
 
 •fThe late Dr. Fenwick of Durham. It is a short Essay, entitled, “ Re- 
 flections on Calcareous Manures,” which the Doctor read to the Literary 
 and Philosophical Society of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and which was printed 
 at their request, but has not been published. 
 
234 
 
 On Manures . 
 
 If applied to dead, but undecayed vegetables, it shrivels 
 them up, and destroys their organization ; it may be used, 
 therefore, with great advantage, for the destruction of weeds 
 in fallows. It may be advantageously employed in all cases 
 where there is a great abundance of vegetable matter ; but 
 where the soil is deficient in nutritious substances, mild lime 
 ought to be preferred. Caustic lime is said to exhaust the 
 land, because it hastens the putrefaction of the animal and 
 vegetable matter in the soil, and thus a larger portion of 
 them is applied to the growth of plants, in a given space 
 of time, than would otherwise have been the case. In this 
 manner, it first produces more luxuriant crops, and in the 
 next place, it enables the farmer to continue his land in 
 tillage, until it is more completely deprived of the principles 
 of fertility, than could have been practicable, if the calca- 
 reous manure had not been laid upon. Caustic lime is of so 
 burning a quality, that the dung of horses, dropped round a 
 lime kiln, is so completely destroyed, by that which falls from 
 the carts in filling, or the particles blown about by the wind, 
 as to become absolutely useless. It is not fit, therefore, to be 
 employed with dung when in that state. If quick-lime also, 
 is used with a crop of potatoes, the sets are corroded by it, 
 and the crop rendered curled and scabbed. When lime, in 
 a caustic state, is applied to land, it is of service by destroy- 
 ing acidity ; but it exhausts the soil, of the carbonic acid, or 
 fixed air, which it contains. It is of great use in composts, 
 (as shall be afterwards explained), but no dung should be 
 mixed with caustic lime. 
 
 Mild lime, on the other hand, may often be applied with 
 advantage, when caustic lime would be injurious ; and more 
 especially to lands exhausted by injudicious cropping, or 
 weak, from a deficiency of manure. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Grantham, the farmers desisted 
 from the use of lime, because they found their lands had been 
 exhausted by it ; but the limestone being employed to repair 
 the roads in the neighbourhood, the scrapings, which con- 
 sisted of mild lime, were, with great advantage, applied to 
 the same lands. Lime made of chalk, has often been con- 
 demned as exhausting ; yet the same chalk, uncalcined, has 
 been found beneficial. In Dumfries-shire, where mild or 
 effete lime is used for potatoes, it makes the crop more pro- 
 ductive, and greatly assists the dung; and where mild lime 
 is used in compost, it is supposed that a portion of dung 
 may, without loss, be mixed with the heap. The pounded 
 
Sinclair, Sir John. The Code of Agriculture; In- 
 
 eluding Observations on Gar d end, Orchards, Woods 
 and Plantations. Third Edition, enriched by the 
 Remarks, of a Number of the ablest Practical Farm- 
 ers in England, Scotland and Ireland, port. 8vo. 
 lea. 594, 153pp. & plates, London, 1081. 
 
 3.00 
 

On Manures . 235 
 
 shells of oysters have lately been applied, as a manure, with 
 much success*. 
 
 In order to render caustic lime perfectly mild, it is some- 
 times necessary to turn it over frequently, so as to have it 
 completely saturated with fixed air, or carbonic acid, before 
 it is appliedf. 
 
 II. 
 
 Pounded Limestone . — This substance differs from cal- 
 cined lime, in containing fixed air, or carbonic acid, and 
 likewise as being insoluble in water. Machines were erected 
 in Scotland, for pounding limestone, many years ago, but 
 unfortunately, were destroyed, before the experiment had 
 been fairly tried. There is evidence, that the attempt was 
 attended with success so far as the experiment had gonej. 
 The practice might certainly be of use in districts where 
 fuel is scarce. The scrapings or dust of roads, made with 
 limestone, which is in fact pounded limestone, has been 
 used with advantage as a manure, in Yorkshire, Gloucester- 
 shire, and other districts, and ought never to be neglected. 
 The dust of marble, and the shiverings of limestone quarries, 
 are also of use. 
 
 * At Holkham, oyster-shells are broken to pieces, either by passing them 
 through oil-cake crushers, or repeatedly drawing a heavy iron roller over 
 them, when spread upon a stone, or hard-burned brick on-edge floor. A 
 mill for crushing bark, would answer the 6ame purpose. Anno 1816, 40 
 bushels of this manure were drilled in the usual way, upon 27 inch ridges, 
 slightly covered with earth, and the turnip-seed sown upon it. In the same 
 field, turnips were sown, on ridges of the same size, manured with farm-yard 
 dung, at the rate of 8 tons per acre. The turnips were a good crop on both 
 pieces, no difference perceptible ; the succeeding crop of barley, and the 
 crop of clover afterwards, to all appearance, were equally good on both. 
 Powdered shell manure was likewise tried, anno 1816 and 1817, in compe- 
 tition with powdered rape-cake, as a manure for wheat, partly drilled with 
 the seed when sown, and partly applied in spring, drilled between the rows 
 of wheat, and there was no perceptible difference in the produce, between 
 the land manured with the shell-powder, or with the powdered rape-cake. 
 
 f A curious circumstance is mentioned by the same author, which he in- 
 geniously accounts for. A quantity of very mild lime was laid in a heap, 
 where it remained for some time, and when it was removed, the spot was 
 covered with white clover. A heap of hot lime was left for the same space 
 of time, no vegetation took place for a considerable period, and the spot was 
 at length covered with couch-grass. — Neither the clover nor the couch- 
 grass could be produced by the heaps of lime, but the circumstance is thus 
 accounted for : — The hot lime retained its causticity much longer, and in 
 that state, destroyed any seeds contained in the soil; but the couch-grass 
 being less easily destroyed, or shooting and spreading from the neighbour- 
 ing land, soon took possession of the vacant spot. In regard to the clover’s 
 following the mild lime, there is nothing singular, as its seed is very gene- 
 rally diffused, and always vegetates in a calcareous soil. 
 
 + Perthshire Report, p. 283. 
 
236 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 III. 
 
 Limestone Gravel . — This excellent manure, (by some 
 called corn gravel, from its productive qualities in arable 
 soils), is peculiarly calculated for peat-bogs, the weight of 
 the article giving a pressure that is much wanted. It has 
 likewise been tried on sandy soils with success 1 , when mixed 
 with substances of a gluey or adhesive nature* * * § . Its effects 
 are equal in fertility, and more permanent than lime. It has 
 been of immense benefit to Ireland, and may probably be 
 found in many other parts of the United Kingdom, if dili- 
 gently searched for. Its value was accidentally discovered, 
 in a parish in Scotland, where it has since been used with 
 the greatest successf. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Chalk . — This calcareous substance proves an useful ma- 
 nure in many of the southern and eastern districts of Eng- 
 land, where it abounds. It is frequently applied in a crude 
 state, spread upon the surface in autumn, and left to be dis- 
 solved by the winter’s frost. From five to eight waggon 
 loads per acre, are attended with beneficial effects. When 
 calcined, from 100 to 200 bushels per acre are applied, but 
 the effects not being lasting, the application requires to be 
 repeated every four or five years. Calcined limestone, where 
 it can be obtained, is much more effectual. Both chalk and 
 marl are supposed to have the beneficial effects of all the 
 calcareous earths, in giving stiffness and whiteness to strawj, 
 as well as rendering the skin of corn thin, and increasing the 
 quantity of it$ meal§. 
 
 * Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 -f- A ridge of irregular hillocks runs across the parish, which consist of 
 large sand, or rather gravel. This gravel has of late been used with great 
 success, as a manure for the land in the neighbourhood. Its excellency was 
 discovered about twenty or twenty*five years ago, (that is, about the year 
 1770, the account being dated 1793). They use this gravel for repairing the 
 highway between Aberdeen and Peterhead; and some years after, they were 
 surprized to see fine white clover, growing very thick on those places of the 
 road, which had been repaired with this gravel, and every other place as 
 bare as ever. This induced them to try the gravel as a manure, which they 
 continue to use, and find it uncommonly rich and durable . — Statistical .4c- 
 count of Scotland, (Parish of Stains ) , vol. v. p. 280. 
 
 X Hence straw, for hats, and similar manufactures, is found in the greatest 
 perfection in the neighbourhood of Dunstable, Luton, and other places in 
 the Chiltern range of hills. It is probable, that the silex which the soil in 
 these districts contains, produces this effect. 
 
 § Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
On Manures . 
 
 237 
 
 V. 
 
 Marl. — Of this substance there are four sorts, — Rock 
 Slate ; — Clay ; — and Shell-marl. The three former are of 
 so heavy a nature, as to be seldom conveyed to any distance; 
 though useful when found below a lighter soil, to which it 
 can be applied without incurring much expence. 
 
 As in Lancashire and Cheshire, clay marl is the great 
 source of fertilization, and neither labour nor expence pre- 
 vents the most vigorous application of it ; it may therefore 
 be proper, to give a general view of the mode of using it, 
 adopted in those districts. 
 
 The first object is, the disposition of the pits. These are 
 made where the least land is thereby destroyed ; — where 
 they afford the least length of carriage ; — where they occa- 
 sion the least draught, by going down hill if possible ; — 
 where they will occasion the least damage to the lands in 
 future ; — and where, if that point can be obtained, it is 
 practicable to lay them dry, when no longer necessary*. 
 
 The pits are worked by undermining, and loosening on 
 each side large masses, and then by long piles driven in at 
 the top, sometimes with the aid of water, forcing the mass 
 down. This method is expeditious, but attended with dan- 
 ger to the workmen. 
 
 Marl is generally laid on grass lands, beginning the ope- 
 ration in May or June, and carrying it on during the sum- 
 mer : the older the sward the better. The union of the 
 marl and grass, causes a fermentation and putrefaction, which 
 seems necessary to produce a full effect. 
 
 The quantity of clay or red marl used, is enormous ; in 
 many cases about 300 middling cart-loads per acre, and the 
 fields are sometimes so thickly covered, as to have the appear- 
 ance of a red-soiled fallow, fresh ploughed. In some cases, 
 slighter coverings are preferred, and the process is more 
 frequently repeated. 
 
 Marl, after carting, is left on the ground in a rough lumpy 
 form, that it may be exposed as much as possible to the in- 
 fluence of the weather. It should partake of one summer’s 
 sun, and of one winter’s frost, by which it is reduced into 
 the form of an unctuous, but friable material, the further 
 dispersion of which, is easily effected by clodding beetles, or 
 mallets, spades and harrows. It is thus equally distributed 
 over every part of the surface, and afterwards ploughed in ; 
 
 * On the other hand, many valuable pits of water have been obtained, by 
 taking out clay-marl for the sandy lands in Norfolk. 
 
238 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 and the effects are represented to be in the highest degree 
 beneficial*. 
 
 In regard to shell-marl, it consists chiefly of calcareous 
 matter, the broken, and partially decayed shells of fresh- 
 water fish, found at the bottom of lakes or ponds, filled up 
 with mud. It may be applied as a top-dressing to wheat and 
 other crops, when it would be hazardous to use quick-lime. 
 In the counties of Selkirk, Forfar, Ross, Caithness, and in 
 other districts, shell-marl has been of great value in ferti- 
 lizing the soil — though from its stimulating powers, the land 
 has been often injured, by employing it in too great quan- 
 tities, and over cropping. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Sea Shells . — This manure abounds in various parts of the 
 British Isles. It is superior to the usual sorts of limestone 
 in purity, and in the proportion of calcareous matter it con- 
 tains. It likewise often contains a small portion of animal 
 matter. These shells have not, however, unless when burnt, 
 the same rapid and powerful influence on the soil. When 
 not burnt, they are much improved in their effects, if 
 broken by a mill resembling that used for tanners’ bark, to 
 give the air a readier access to promote their decomposi- 
 tion, and to enable them to be more equally distributed. 
 Where straw is scarce, they are used as a substitute for 
 litter : and the urine greatly contributes to the shells being 
 reduced. 
 
 Sea-sand, with a mixture of shells, is used with much 
 success as a manure, on the coasts of the North and East 
 Riding of Yorkshire! ; in Devonshire, and Corn wall J, in 
 
 * See Marshall’s Review of the Northern Departments, p. 287, &c, 
 where the information contained in the Lancashire Report upon this sub- 
 ject, is very ably analyzed. In many parts of Derbyshire and Cheshire, 
 there are the vestiges of ancient marl pits, though the practice of marling is 
 now almost forgotten by the inhabitants . — Derbyshire Report , vol. i. p. 148, 
 456; and vol. ii. p. 407. — Surface-draining, properly conducted, might re- 
 store to these lands, their former capability of profiting from the treasure of 
 red marl existing below them. As burnt clay is attended with such benefi- 
 cial effects, burning rock, slate, or clay marl, would be still more beneficial, 
 and it has been partially tried in Lancashire. 
 
 f North Riding Report, p.-238 ; East Riding Report, p. 55. 
 
 X This substance i$ much used on the coast of Devonshire and Cornwall. 
 Near Falmouth, 50 in 100 parts of the article consists of broken coral; but in 
 Cornwall, from 70 to 80 parts in 100 consist of broken shells. The farmers 
 prefer taking it, as near low-water mark as possible. They thus obtain a 
 small quantity of saline matter, (perhaps from 3 to 4 or 5 lbs.), but the ad- 
 vantages of this calcareous substance as a manure are, that it thickens, or 
 deepens the staple of the soil; — that some parts of the calcareous matter, 
 
On Manures . 
 
 239 
 
 Caithness, and on the coast of Buchan in Aberdeenshire. 
 It is particularly useful in strong clays, as both its com- 
 ponent parts, sand and shells, are beneficial mixtures in a 
 clay soil. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Soapers 1 Waste . — This is said to be a useful manure of a 
 calcareous nature, with an inconsiderable mixture of other 
 substances. It is best calculated for grass lands, to the bene- 
 ficial effects on which, the gypsum and saline substances it 
 contains, probably contribute. It is likewise of use to peaty 
 soils, and is excellent for gardens, from its destructive effects 
 on insects. The average quantity used is about 100 bushels 
 per statute acre, but greater quantities have been applied 
 with success. It is advantageously employed in compost. 
 Autumn is the best season for applying this manure to grass 
 lands. For arable lands, the quantity should be greater 
 than for grass lands, and greater on strong soils, and on 
 peat, than upon light loams, and least of all, on dry soils and 
 gravels*. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Gypsum . — This substance consists of sulphuric acid and 
 lime, and its application to crops of cultivated grasses, in 
 such moderate quantities, as five or six bushels per acre, is 
 often attended .with great effects. The ashes of sainfoin, 
 clover, and lucerne, when these plants are calcined, afford 
 that substance in considerable quantities ; and thence there 
 is reason to believe, that it is a necessary part of the woody 
 fibre of these, as well as a component part in most of the 
 other grasses. Cultivated soils in general, contain it in 
 sufficient quantities for the grasses they produce ; but where 
 there is any deficiency, fields, which have ceased to bear good 
 crops of clover, and other artificial grasses, may perhaps be re- 
 stored to their former fertility, by the use of gypsumf. 
 
 where it is required, enter into the composition of the plant ; — that is loosens 
 the earth, and rendering the soil more friable, enables the plant to take a 
 greater range in quest of food ; — and that being an absorbent of acids, it is 
 a corrector of the soil. Communication from the Rev. Robert Iloblyn . — In 
 the parish of Southend, in Argyllshire, there is a bank of fine coral, about 
 100 yards from the sea-mark. It is superior to lime for moist heavy lands, 
 and is of signal service to gardens, and to pasture and heath lands. — Statis- 
 tical Account of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 367. 
 
 * It is certain, that in several cases soapers’ waste has been found of use ; 
 but it is said to have been extensively tried in Surrey and Kent, upon both 
 old meadows, and arable land, of the stronger kind, without its producing 
 any beneficial effect. Perhaps it was applied in too small quantities. 
 
 t Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 287. The indifferent success which 
 has attended the trials of gypsum in Derbyshire, where this substance is dug 
 
210 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 In lands full of calcareous matter, the celebrated Ingen« 
 houz, strongly recommended sprinkling on the soil sul- 
 phuric acid, so as to make an artificial gypsum . This, he 
 contended, would be a likely means of benefiting the crops 
 of clover, and other valuable grasses, and might be useful 
 even to crops of corn. The plan is well worth a trial, where 
 calcareous earths too much abound. 
 
 3. Earthy Manures. 
 
 Under this head may be classed, vegetable mould or loam, 
 peat-earth, clay or sand, burnt clay, sea -ooze or warp, canal, 
 pond, or river-mud, and road-scrapings. 
 
 1 . Mouldy or Loam . — In many cases, as in forming roads, 
 making canals, erecting new houses, &c. considerable quan- 
 tities of excellent mould or loam are dug up, which, not 
 being required for any purpose on the spot, are removed, 
 and applied, either in making compost dunghills, or in 
 augmenting the staple of land, where there is any deficiency 
 of depth. 
 
 2. Peat Earth . — It is found that the dust of dried rotten 
 peat is, in some soils, an excellent manure for potatoes. 
 The peat is cut in pieces, as if intended for fuel, and after 
 being exposed to the atmosphere for some time, it is laid 
 upon the land*. Peat earth, called bog-stuff in Ireland, 
 when applied to light and gravelly soils, produces excellent 
 crops, more especially if mixed with a small portion of lime 
 or clayf . 
 
 3. Clay , or Sand . — The plan of improving the texture 
 of a soil, by conveying clay, where sand predominates, and 
 the reverse, has been already alluded to, in Chap. I. Sect. 2, 
 and has been attended with great advantage. Clay can 
 hardly fail to be useful to sand ; but it has been justly ob- 
 served, that many soils acquire the name of clays, because 
 they are cohesive for want of effective draining, which, when 
 examined, are found to be sandy Umms y and consequently 
 
 in large quantities, may be owing to its being burnt. Mr. Farey therefore, 
 recommends trying it ground, or in powder, as practised in America, and 
 on the Continent of Europe. Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p. -148. — This sub- 
 stance unburnt, was tried at Holkham, in 1819, on the recommendation of 
 Mr. Holdich, for clover and sainfoin. Six bushels of the powder were used 
 per acre, with prodigious effect. 
 
 * Argyllshire Report, p. 221, 222. 
 
 •j- Second Report from the Committee on the State of Disease in Ireland. 
 Printed by the House of Commons, 7th June, 1819. Appendix, p. 199. 
 
 X Young’s Essay on Manures, p. 126. 
 
On Manures . 
 
 241 
 
 have no occasion for any additional quantity of sand* * * § . In 
 Cheshire, sand is frequently used as manure on stiff lands, 
 with great success-}*. 
 
 4. Burnt Clay . — It is well known, that burning clay is 
 an old practice, which, at various periods, has been pursued 
 with energy and success, and at other times has fallen into 
 neglect. The oldest book in England in which it is men- 
 tioned, is, " The Country Gentleman’s Companion ,” by 
 Stephen Switzer, gardener; printed in London, m one 
 volume octavo, an. 1732J. In that work it is stated, that 
 the Earl of Halifax was the inventor of this useful mode 
 of improvement ; and that it was much practised in Sussex. 
 There are engravings of two kilns for burning clay, one 
 adopted in England, and the other in Scotland, where it is 
 said to have been ascertained, that lands, reduced by tillage 
 to poverty, would produce an excellent crop of turnips , if 
 the ground were ploughed two or three times, and clay 
 ashes spread over it. In the same work, there are several 
 letters written in the year 1730-1, which mention, that the 
 plan of burning clay had succeeded in several parts of England; 
 and accounts were received from Scotland, which stated, 
 that it had answered better than either lime or dung, but 
 was found too expensive. In 1786, Mr. James Arbuthnot, 
 of Peterhead, tried several successful experiments with 
 burning clay, so that though lately revived, the practice is 
 not a new one. From the energy, however, with which it 
 is now taken up, it is to be hoped, that new experiments, 
 on the different modes of burning clay, both to simplify 
 the process, and to reduce the expence, will be tried, 
 which will lead to a more extensive use of this article as a 
 manure§. 
 
 An intelligent correspondent maintains, that burnt clay 
 deserves to be ranked among the most valuable manures, 
 not only from the facility with which it is obtained, but 
 from its being suited to soils in general, and to crops of 
 every description ||. This is accounted for, by its eontain- 
 
 * Young’s Essay on Manures, p. 126. 
 
 + Cheshire Report, p. 22. 
 
 X In the Select Transactions of the Society of Improvers in Scotland, 
 from 1723 to 1742, it is particularly described, and strongly recommended. 
 
 § In a Letter published in the Farmer’s Journal of the 1 3th Dec. 1819, 
 signed John Day, the use of clay ashes is much recommended, as calculated, 
 at some future ptriod, to double the value of all the strong clay soils in the 
 United Kingdom, by changing them from a tenacious clay, to a friable gar 7 
 den mould. 
 
 || Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 R 
 
242 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 ing oxyde of iron, which is favourable to vegetation. It is 
 said, that more than one half of the potatoes raised in Ire- 
 land, more especially in the western parts of that country, 
 are produced from that manure* * * § . 
 
 5. Sea-ooze , or Warp. — This substance abounds at the 
 
 mouths of friths, estuaries, or arms of the sea, and of the 
 rivers which run into them. It is of a most enriching 
 nature, and adds to the staple of the soil. It is used as a 
 top-dressing in spring, for crops both of grain and grass, 
 more especially for the latter. It is an excellent material 
 for composts, particularly for thin soils. The late public 
 spirited Duke of Bridgewater, between the years 1790 and 
 1800, made considerable use of sea-ooze, brought up from 
 the Mersey, in barges, by his canal, to lands near Worsley. 
 It promotes the improvement of garden soils in a manner 
 hardly to be credited *, and wheat or oats, manured with sea- 
 ooze, is little subject to rust, mildew, or any other dis- 
 orderf. I 
 
 6. Canal , Pond , or River Mud . — This article is not of 
 equal use in every instance, as much of its quality depends 
 upon the substances with which it is mixed. Where the 
 water is resorted to by cattle, or water-fowl, or receives the 
 washings of towns, houses, farm-yards, Sic. or the imme- 
 diate drainage of large tractsj, it is richer, and will prove 
 valuable, in whatever way it is managed^. It must at 
 any rate add to the staple of the soil with which it is 
 mixed, and bring with it some useful ingredients. In the 
 Netherlands, it is found by the gardeners of Ghent, that 
 the mud of canals and rivers, is much improved in its qua- 
 lity, when it is exposed, in small heaps, to a winter’s frost, 
 and a summer’s sun, befofe it is used. This proves how 
 much the success of agriculture depends upon minutiae. 
 For the same substance, which, if mixed with the soil, im- 
 mediately after being taken up, might be of little or no use, 
 may, when properly prepared, be highly conducive to fer- 
 tility. 
 
 7. Road Scrapings . — The mud raked and shovelled from 
 the public roads, may, with great advantage, be used as an 
 
 * See Mr. Dutton’s Letter, in the Farmer’s Journal, Oct. 2, 1820. 
 
 + General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 5S0. This may arise from its 
 being so strongly impregnated with saline matters. It is desirable, however, 
 to have the mud applied as manure, fermented with dung, to destroy all 
 vegetative powers in the roots, or in the seeds of weeds, which the mud 
 might contain. 
 
 X As tracts of wood. Derbyshire Report, vol. iii. p. 187, 448. 
 
 § Young’s Essay on Manures, p. 160. 
 
On Manures, 
 
 243 
 
 ingredient for forming composts, particularly for clay soils. 
 Where the stones, of which the roads were made, consist of 
 limestone, such a compost is singularly useful. In parti- 
 cular instances, it is even more economical, to purchase 
 road scrapings, than town-dung, on account of the carriage*. 
 Indeed the impalpable dust of limestone roads, if collected 
 and kept dry, until spread on the land, would answer as 
 well, if not perhaps better, than mere lime, owing to the 
 dung of horses, &c. mixed with itf . 
 
 4. Vegetable Manures . 
 
 Manures from the vegetable kingdom, comprehend the 
 following articles : Sea-weeds ; — Fresh-water weeds ; — Com- 
 mon weeds •, — Malt-dust ; — Rape- cake ; — Tanners’ bark ; — 
 Vegetables ploughed in ; — Vegetables that have passed 
 through fire; — Water in which vegetables have been im- 
 mersed ; — and. Dry vegetable substances. 
 
 1. Sea-weeds . — In many districts, this is a most import- 
 ant source of fertility, and when used with judgment, never 
 fails to enrich the coast lands of every district when it can 
 be had, whether cut from the rocks, or thrown ashore. Its 
 effects, however, are by no means so lasting as those of farm- 
 yard dung, enduring only for one or two crops. 
 
 Sea-weed applied to arable land, cannot be spread and 
 ploughed in too soon after it is secured. If that cannot be 
 accomplished, from the season of the year, or otherwise, it 
 should be made into a compost with earth, or long dung, or 
 limej. Tangle, or drifted sea-ware, if spread on old graz- 
 ing pastures, not only improves the quantity, but the qua- 
 lity of the herbage; hence both cattle and sheep eat it 
 with avidity, thrive well, and are made sooner fat. It is 
 not so well calculated as dung for oats, or for a crop of 
 turnips ; but it answers exceedingly well for barley. If ap- 
 plied to the tender blades of young clovers after harvest, 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 544. Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. 
 p. 445. 
 
 t Communication from Mr. Farey. 
 
 X The late Duke of Richmond, found lime and sea-weed a most excellent 
 compost. He mixed six waggon-loads of sea-weed, with one load of lime 
 shells, in a heap 18 feet long, and 10 feet wide, in the beginningof August, 
 and in the September following, the compost was carried to the land, turned 
 over three times, and used as a top-dressing in October, when the wheat 
 was sown. The crop exceeded five quarters per acre. The compost had 
 the appearance of earth and lime mixed together, with some streaks of 
 white, which were very salt. The bulk was reduced one-third. 
 
 R 2 
 
*244 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 it will destroy the plant*. It may be advantageously mixed 
 with farm-yard dung, for the purpose of rotting the dry 
 parts of its contents. It requires one-third more by weight 
 per acre, than farm-yard dung. 
 
 Sea-ware has several advantages above other sorts of ma- 
 nure. It is not filled with seeds of weeds ; — it readily de- 
 composes j — does not require a long process of preparation ; 
 and is directly useful to the plant. With its aid, the farmer 
 is enabled to take more frequently crops of grain, or green 
 fallow crops, and thus increases his farm-yard manure. Its 
 good effects cannot be disputed, and nothing can be objected 
 to its use, but an idea, that the grain it produces is of an in- 
 ferior quality. 
 
 2. Fresh-water Weeds. — These substances are frequently 
 found in lakes, ponds, and rivers ; and being replete with 
 vegetable food, merit the particular attention of those, who 
 have such useful articles at their command. They may be 
 carried into the farm-yard, to increase the heap ; or made 
 into a compost with earth ; or ploughed into the ground for 
 barley ; or used in drills for turnips ; or reduced into a nu- 
 tritive mass, by a mixture with hot lime. 
 
 3. Common Weeds. — It has been found, that an excellent 
 compost can be prepared, by collecting all sorts of weeds, 
 as thistles, docks, nettles, fern, &c. before they have formed 
 seed, and laying them up with alternate layers of rich earth. 
 A great heat is soon raised, and by turning the heap over 
 next spring, the whole will be resolved into a soft pulpy 
 mass, the effects of which on the soil, are in no degree in- 
 ferior to dung. Thus a great nuisance may be converted 
 into a valuable manuref. Where lime is abundant, it 
 should be mixed in its caustic state, with green or succu- 
 lent weeds ; and as the moisture which they contain, will 
 slack the lime, a considerable degree of heat will be created, 
 by which the weeds will be speedily reduced^. When the 
 weeds are in a dry and withered state, they are not so easily 
 formed into a putrescent mass. 
 
 4. Malt-Dust . — In some districts this substance is em- 
 ployed, as a valuable article for feeding milch cows, or pigs ; 
 in others, it is used as a manure, and found to be highly 
 fertilizing. From 40 to 60 bushels are applied to an acre, 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 528. Beans and pease thrive 
 well, in a dry season, with ware as a manure ; and it is used in East Lo- 
 thian for a potatoe crop, with decided benefit. 
 
 1* Forfarshire Report, p. 416. 
 
 \ Roxburghshire Report, p. 142. 
 
On Manures . 
 
 245 
 
 cither for wheat or barley. It likewise greatly improves 
 cold grass-land* * * § . 
 
 5. Rape- Cake, — This species of manure, has long been 
 used in various parts of England, particularly in Yorkshire 
 and Norfolk. Half a ton per acre was formerly given ; but 
 the quantity, since the price of the article has increased, is 
 now reduced to one ton for three acres ; and Mr. Coke of 
 Holkham, makes a ton to answer for five or six acres, by 
 breaking it into small pieces, and ploughing/ it in, about six 
 weeks before the seed earth, that it may have time to dis- 
 solve in the ground. It is a still more economical and 
 beneficial practice, to sow the pulverized manure with 
 the seed, for which an ingenious machine has been in- 
 vented. Mr. Curwen has likewise ascertained, that five 
 hundred weight of rape-cake, with two tons of dung, will 
 manure an acre for turnips, and produce an admirable crop. 
 The rape-cake only cost 2/., and consequently this mode of 
 manuring, is not only cheap, but from its inconsiderable 
 weight and bulk, is peculiarly calculated for the more dis- 
 tant parts of a farmf . 
 
 It has been found in Flanders, that powdered rape-cake, 
 strewed over the surface of the ground, destroys the grytlo 
 talpa , so injurious in wet soils ; and every insect of the same 
 species, may be destroyed by the same means. 
 
 Such is the quantity of this manure used in the Nether- 
 lands, that a farmer, who only cultivates 75 English acres, 
 purchases at the rate of 5000 rape- cakes, and 3300 cakes 
 from poppy-seed, for manure, which cost him nearly 60/. per 
 annumj. 
 
 6. Tanners 9 Bark. — Mere woody fibre, like tanners’ bark, 
 requires fermentation to render it nutritive to plants^. It 
 is sometimes mixed with lime, but a compost with dung, is 
 more likely to be useful in rendering this substance fer- 
 tilizing. 
 
 7. Vegetables Ploughed in. — The propriety of this sys- 
 tem is much disputed. It was practised by the ancients, 
 and is still said to answer well in warm climates ; and in the 
 warm seasons of cold climates. Several successful experi- 
 
 * Young’s Essay on Manures, p. 182. — In Herefordshire, the pulp of 
 pears and apples, after the liquor is extracted from them, mixed with quick- 
 lime, and turned over two or three times the succeeding summer, is con- 
 verted into a good manure. — Report , p. 88. 
 
 | Curwen’s Report, p. 66. 
 
 X Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. 12. 
 
 § Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 247. 
 
246 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 ments with ploughing in vetches, — the tops of turnips, — 
 and the stalks of potatoes,— have been detailed by an intel- 
 ligent agriculturist in Ireland* * * § . But after being tried for 
 several years in Lincolnshire, with buck-wheat, it was ulti- 
 mately given up as doing no goodf ; and the general opinion 
 is, that more benefit is derived from green crops, when 
 consumed by stock, and converted into dung, than when 
 ploughed in, without any mixture of that animal matter 
 with which dung is necessarily impregnated};. Hie profit 
 derived from feeding the live stock , on the green food, ought 
 likewise to be considered . 
 
 8. Burnt Vegetables . — These are of various sorts, as 
 wood-ashes, — peat-ashes,— kelp, or the ashes of sea-weed, 
 — and burnt straw. 
 
 W ood-ashes are certainly a valuable manure, and are pe- 
 culiarly well calculated for gravelly soils and loams *, forty 
 bushels per acre is the common quantity, and spring is the 
 proper season for their application : if rain succeeds, the 
 effect may be relied on§. 
 
 The ashes of peat are a common manure, wherever that 
 substance is used as fuel ; but they are frequently of little 
 value. There are two sorts of peat, however, one to be 
 found in its greatest perfection, near Newbury in Berkshire, 
 and the other in some provinces in Holland, the application 
 of which is attended with astonishing results. 
 
 In some soils, particularly chalk, the Berkshire ashes maybe 
 of use, by supplying the oxide of iron, an article without 
 which no soil can be productive, and of which chalky soils 
 are extremely deficient. In others, the gypsum which such 
 ashes contain, may promote fertility. Whatever passes 
 through fire, also, does possess some valuable properties. 
 
 In Holland, they have two kinds of peat ; one which is 
 found on rising grounds, burns quickly and cheerfully, gives 
 a good heat, and leaves only light ashes of very little value. 
 The other sort is found in marshes, which are constantly 
 covered during the winter season, with water of a brackish 
 nature. This peat leaves a much heavier ash, frequently so 
 full of saline matter, that it is sometimes used as a substi- 
 
 * In the Appendix, some interesting experiments on this subject will be 
 detailed, from the Communications of Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 + Lincolnshire Report, p .'205. Perhaps vetches, rape, or clover, would 
 have answered better than buck-wheat. 
 
 J The practice of ploughing in, is strongly objected to by Lord Karnes. 
 — Gentleman Farmer p. .'$58. 
 
 § Young’s Essay on* Manures, p, 17(i. 
 
On Manures . 
 
 247 
 
 tute for soda, in the manufacture of green glass. These 
 ashes, are conveyed by the canals, in barges, into the interior 
 of Flanders ; and after they have reached Brussels, they are 
 sent by land, from 50 to even 100 miles into the interior. 
 The effects of these ashes are hardly to be credited. They 
 are sown upon young clover in spring, and ensure two good 
 crops of clover that year, and an abundant crop of wheat, 
 unmolested by the wire-worm, next year. If it be the 
 wish of the farmer to have clover for two years in succes- 
 sion, it may be obtained by the aid of these ashes. They 
 are in general carefully sown by the hand, like grain, in a 
 still, hazy morning. They are good for hops, and a hand- 
 ful should be spread on the surface of each hill, on which 
 the hop vines are planted, to destroy the worms that infest 
 them*. In various parts of England, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land, peat, producing similar ashes, may be met with ; but 
 experiments on a great scale, with the real Dutch ashes, 
 ought first to be tried, to ascertain their efficacy in this 
 country. 
 
 Peat-ashes, burnt in the Berkshire mode, are an excellent 
 manure for turnips. If as many ashes are strewed in the 
 furrow of a drill, as are sufficient to cover the surface, the 
 crop will be abundant, and if the turnips are afterwards 
 eaten off by sheep, the land, in the opinion of some, will be 
 as much enriched, as if the turnips were produced by farm- 
 yard manure. 
 
 Kelp, or the ashes of sea-weeds, has likewise been tried 
 as a manure in Yorkshire, and has succeeded on grass lands. 
 
 The ashes of coleseed straw, or haulm, and of common 
 straw, or stubble, have been made use of for turnips and 
 other crops, with success. Indeed it is now ascertained, 
 that the burning of straw, stubble, or any other combustible 
 material, on the surface of the ground, after it is prepared 
 for turnips, but before the seed is sown, is the most effec- 
 tual mode hitherto suggested, of destroying the fly, and pre- 
 serving the crop from their attacks. In France, more espe- 
 cially near Angers, and in Brittany, bushes are burnt, with 
 advantage to the succeeding cropf . 
 
 9. Water in which Vegetables have been immersed . — It is 
 well known, that the grass land on which flax or hemp is 
 
 * Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. 34. These 
 ashes, when analyzed, are said to yield 12£ per cent, of gypsum, which suf- 
 ficiently accounts for producing such effects on the clover crops, 
 t Communication from J. Altersoll, Esq. 
 
248 
 
 On Manures . 
 
 put to be dried, after they have undergone the process of 
 watering, is greatly improved, from the putrid fertilizing 
 substances which they furnish. This furnished a hint to an 
 intelligent agriculturist, (John Billingsley, Esq.) to try the 
 effects of flax water, by the use of which he advanced the 
 value of the land to which it was applied, to the amount of 
 105. per acre. 
 
 10. Dry Vegetable Substances, — It has been found in 
 Dumfries-shire, that the husks or shells of oats, form an 
 excellent manure ; fresh vegetable matter, as saw-dust, when 
 simply reduced by mechanical division, is of use by itself ; 
 but is much improved, by a mixture with other substances, 
 as the refuse of butchers’ markets, urine, &c. 
 
 5 . Miscellaneous Articles of Manure. 
 
 This head contains, Salt; — Soot; — Refuse of various 
 manufactures ; — Refuse of coal-mines ; — Refuse of lime- 
 kilns ; — and the mode of applying manures, by scattering 
 them over the surface, or top-dressing it. 
 
 1. Salt. — The utility of salt as a manure, and for other 
 agricultural purposes, is a subject of such great importance 
 and extent, that it will require a separate discussion. — (See 
 Appendix, No. IX.) There are three particulars, however, 
 connected with the subject of salt as a manure, which it 
 may be proper here to mention. 
 
 1. In a series of experiments tried by the Rev. Dr. Cart- 
 wright, he found a mixture of salt and soot, in moderate 
 quantities, preferable to any other sort of manure* ; a cir- 
 cumstance which might be attended with considerable ad- 
 vantages to farmers in the vicinity of large towns. 
 
 2. It has been ascertained in America, and confirmed by 
 the experiments of Mr. Lee of Enfield-Wash, near London, 
 that salt is an excellent manure for flax. The quantity of 
 salt should be double that of the seed used, and should be 
 sown at the same time. It is probable, that all oily seeds 
 should be treated in the same manner. 
 
 3. But the most important circumstance, respecting the 
 beneficial effects of salt, when employed as a manure, is the 
 probability that it will prevent the rust in wheat. That 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 370. — In lar^c 
 quantities, spot and salt arc of so acrid a nature, that no species of grain 
 will grow within the sphere of the lull exertion of their powet#.— Remark 
 it/ the Rev. Robert Ilobbjn , 
 
On Manures, 
 
 249 
 
 might justly be pronounced, the greatest agricultural dis- 
 covery of modern times, if it were found in all cases effec- 
 tual. 
 
 2. Soot . — This is an excellent manure, but it can only be 
 procured, in large quantities, in the neighbourhood of great 
 towns. It contains substances highly favourable to vegeta- 
 tion ; for the effects of soot, when spread upon the surface, 
 are discovered immediately after the first rain. It is like- 
 wise of use, from the saline matter it contains, in promoting 
 the destruction of slugs. When applied in its natural state, 
 as a top-dressing for clover, or young wheat, about twenty 
 bushels per acre, is the usual quantity *, but it is frequently 
 mixed with other articles . The most approved composition 
 is, one part soot, five parts earth, and one part lime*. The 
 earth and soot should be well mixed before the lime is applied. 
 It should remain in that state five or six weeks, then be 
 turned over again, and thoroughly incorporated, before it is 
 sown on the groundf. 
 
 3. Refuse of Manufactures. — Much excellent manure is 
 collected at various manufactories, where mineral acids are 
 not used. Soap-suds, lees, and other impurities, which are 
 taken from the boilers, should be mixed with ashes, straw, 
 turf, peat, or any other substance that would absorb the 
 moisture. Thus, what tends to render the water of streams 
 or rivers, into which these articles are at present too fre- 
 quently thrown, impure and unwholesome, would enrich 
 the landf. 
 
 4*. Refuse of Coal-Mines. — In the neighbourhood of coal- 
 mines, much advantage might be derived from their refuse, 
 which, at present, is not only lost, but is actually an incum- 
 brance, covering much ground that might be rendered fertile. 
 In many cases, these hills of coal rubbish ought to be re- 
 duced to ashes, which might be applied to grass lands with 
 
 * Mr. Middleton is of opinion, that this compost would occasion unne- 
 cessary expence, and recommends the following plan as preferable : sow the 
 soot upon the land, and harrow it in ; there it will have a sufficient quantity 
 of earth; and some time afterwards, lime the same soil, and harrow that in. 
 The effect will be the same, as would be produced by the proposed compost, 
 and the benefit would be obtained at much less expence. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 543. The truth is, that any 
 addition to soot, and making it into compost, can only be, for the purpose 
 of more certain distribution, and to prevent waste by blowing. To save 
 that expence, soot may be sown unmixed, in rainy weather, over the crop 
 when young. 
 
 + Renfrewshire Report, p. 135. 
 
250 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 infinite advantage. Some kinds of schistus, — shale, or blaes, 
 mixed with slacked lime, in the proportion of one-third, 
 has been found an excellent manure for wheat and other 
 crops*. 
 
 5. Refuse of Lime- Kilns. — Mr. Monteath, of Closeburn 
 in Dumfries-shire, places a grate at the bottom of his lime- 
 kilns, (which is of great benefit, by increasing the draught 
 of air through the kilns) ; and he thus acquires many hun- 
 dred cart-loads of refuse, consisting of coal-ashes, mixed 
 with small pieces of lime, which would have been of little 
 value, had the ashes been mixed and measured with the 
 large pieces of burnt lime. He has employed this refuse, 
 mixed with earth, to great advantage, in top-dressing peat 
 meadows, and grass lands of every description. In many 
 districts, immense heaps of this refuse are left totally ne- 
 glected, except by a few public-spirited individuals-)- . 
 
 Nothing can be more desirable, than to bring into action, 
 these sources of fertility, which are generally left unheeded. 
 They not only produce immediate profit, but they increase 
 and improve the staple of the soil ; and indirectly, are the 
 means of augmenting those putrescent substances, so essen- 
 tial to vegetation. 
 
 6. Mode of Application by Top-dressing. — These miscel- 
 laneous manures, and others distinguished by the smallness 
 of their bulk, as rape-cake, malt-dust, &c. are generally 
 scattered over the surface of the soil, and used as top- 
 dressings. It has been said, that one-third part of the nou- 
 rishment procured by dung and tillage, given in this mode 
 to grain, and other plants, at proper seasons, proportioned 
 to the different stages of their growth, would be more bene- 
 ficial to crops, than the whole applied at the time of sowingf . 
 In light soils, manure is apt to be washed down ; hence the 
 advantage of using top-dressings, either at the time that the 
 seed is sown, or shortly after it. Wheat, and other grains, 
 obtain the principal part of their nourishment, from the roots 
 which go some depth into the soil ; but another set of roots 
 shoot out in spring, which receive much benefit by top- 
 dressings at that season, for the rains wash it in *, and it is 
 absorbed by these roots. Top-dressings are of little use in 
 
 * Mr. Curwen, of Workington-hall, manures 20 acres per annum, with 
 this neglected rubbish. 
 
 + Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 414. 
 
 X Sir John Anstruthcr’s Remarks on the Drill Husbandry, p. 91. 
 
On Manures , 
 
 251 
 
 improving the texture of the soil, and seldom do good for 
 more than one or two seasons ; but in many cases, the 
 success of the crop has depended upon their being applied*. 
 
 6. Composts. 
 
 The subject of composts, the utility of which has been 
 proved in numberless instances, may be considered under the 
 following heads: 1. The materials used; 2. The soils or 
 crops to which composts should be applied ; and, 3. The 
 effects produced. 
 
 1. Materials . — Unslacked lime, and earth of different 
 sorts, are the substances commonly used. Quick-lime is 
 the proper stimulus for bringing the powers of a compost 
 into action ; operating upon a heap of earth in some degree 
 as yeast does upon a quantity of flour or meal. Enough 
 ought to be applied, to excite a species of fermentation in 
 the heap, and to neutralize or decompose, any pernicious 
 mineral substances which may exist in itf . 
 
 The preparation and conveyance of compost, being at- 
 tended with much expence, where circumstances will admit 
 
 * In the Farmer’s Journal, Mr. Joshua Wigfull, sen. has inserted an ac- 
 count of the following experiment in top-dressing wheat. A Quaker near 
 Sheffield, had a crop of growing wheat, which, during winter, seemed in an 
 exhausted state, and to require support. In the month of March, he gave it 
 a top-dressing of the following mixture, by hand : 21 lba. of common nitre, 
 reduced to powder, (value less than 10*.), well mixed with three bushels of 
 good earth per acre, having previously made a trial of the efficacy of the 
 mixture on quick growing vegetables in his hot-house and gardens. It is 
 most surprizing the beneficial effects it has had on the wheat. On good land, 
 more than 45 bushels per acre of wheat, have been produced, where the crop 
 made a much inferior appearance before harvest. In fact, few pieces of 
 wheat can look better, or be more promising than it does as present. A 
 common farmer has made a trial of the mixture, sown upon some of his spring 
 crops, when two or three inches high, with the same promising beneficial 
 effects. Mr. Wigfull conceives, that on failing crops, or any part of a field 
 that is so, the mixture will be found, where properly made use of, of incal- 
 culable value to the agriculturist and the public. His letter is dated July 26, 
 1 820, and has since been confirmed in a communication to the author. 
 
 f The following experiment, by which a considerable extent of waste 
 land was improved by Mr. Bruce of Grange-muir, in Fife, North Britain, by 
 a compound of moss and lime, merits particular notice. — He mixed 1200 
 tons of peat, more than half dry, with 280 tons of lime. The mixture stood 
 seven weeks. The temperature rose from 56 to 87. It was then turned 
 over, and stood three weeks longer. It was applied, anno 1808, to 32 Scotch 
 (about 38 English) acres. The first crop was wheat, ten Lothian bolls, or 
 32 Winchester bushels per Scotch acre. Rye-grass and clover, sown with 
 the wheat, produced a heavy crop, followed by an excellent crop of oats. 
 The land has ever since been in good order. The soil was partly clayey, 
 and partly loamy, was never before cultivated. It was first fallowed, 
 drained, and cleared of stones. The compost was applied before the last 
 ploughing for wheat. 
 
252 
 
 On Manures . 
 
 of it, horses, instead of manual labour, ought to be employed 
 in the several processes, and the compost should, if possible, 
 be prepared in the field, to which it is afterwards to be ap- 
 plied. 
 
 It has been ascertained by a number of experiments, that 
 two bushels of unslacked lime, are sufficient for each cubic 
 yard of earth of a medium quality, and as 80 cubic yards of 
 loose earth, are sufficient to manure an acre, 160 bushels of 
 unslacked lime is the quantity required, in an average of 
 cases, to bring forward the process of fermentation. To 
 obtain this quantity of earth, it is the practice of many 
 farmers, to plough the head-ridges at both ends of the field, 
 ten inches deep, and this can often be spared, without any 
 loss, as these ridges are generally too high, in consequence 
 of the earth accumulated in the course of years, from the 
 plough being cleared every time it turns. This affords an 
 easy mode of manuring a field with compost. 
 
 Composts are frequently made, not only of earth and lime, 
 or dung, but of various other materials, as green vegetables, 
 before they run to seed, soft chalk, tanners’ bark, saw-dust, 
 soap-ashes, &c. It is recommended, that instead of being 
 laid in regular layers, they should be mixed as much as 
 possible, in forming the heap. A fermentation is soon 
 excited, and the oftener the heap is turned, so much the 
 more will fermentation be promoted*. 
 
 A mode of making compost, was suggested by the late 
 Lord Meadowbank, of which peat is the basis. It was not 
 unusual, in various parts of Scotland, to bed cattle, and even 
 sheep, with peat, for the purpose of increasing the quantity 
 of manure ; but Lord Meadowbank was the first individual 
 in this ' countryf , who investigated the properties of that 
 species of manure, and explained them on scientific princi- 
 ples. The result is, that one ton of dung, will ferment three 
 tons of good peat, or moss earthj. If the moss be of infe- 
 
 * Young’s Calendar, p. 97. A rich compost may be thus made : mix saw- 
 dust with bullock’s blood ; add two waggon-loads of this mixture, to three 
 waggon-loads of common mould or earth. This will be quite sufficient for 
 an acre of wheat, applied as a top-dressing. 
 
 + Peat-bogs are confined to narrow districts in Italy, and were long con- 
 sidered as useless wastes. But in 1765, Count Fabio Asquini of Fayagna, in 
 the province of Friuli, in the Venetian territories, began to use peat by 
 way of compost . — Professor Symmonds's Account of the Ag riculture of Italy , 
 Annals of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 25. 
 
 X Lord Meadowbank likewise tried the mixture of animal matter, as 
 fish-refuse, whale-blubber, &c. with much success. — It is evident, that peat 
 would be an excellent substance in a compost heap, intended for sandy Or 
 
On Manures. 
 
 253 
 
 rior quality, it will only ferment two. But if, instead of 
 dung, the refuse of whale blubber be mixed with good peat, 
 a ton will ferment from four to five tons of peat moss. This 
 is a most valuable discovery, and must, if duly attended to, 
 greatly enrich, many hitherto neglected districts. The great 
 advantage of this compost is, that it has nothing but inert 
 vegetable matter to act upon, whereas, when lime is mixed 
 with rich earth, it may have the effect of dissipating the 
 gaseous matters it contains, and of rendering it propor- 
 tionably less valuable. 
 
 2. Composts are peculiarly well calculated for grass-lands. 
 They are likewise of great use to moorish soils, augmenting 
 their staple, and adding to them a number of valuable and 
 enriching substances. In regard to sandy or clayey soils, 
 composts, principally consisting of articles different from 
 their general nature respectively, will improve their texture, 
 and convert them into loams. 
 
 3. The effect of composts is highly satisfactory. In re- 
 gard to grass lands, experience has shown, that they at 
 once improve their quality, and check, for years, the pro- 
 gress of moss, or even unprofitable grasses*. In thin 
 moorish soils, composts properly and repeatedly applied, 
 alter the nature of the soil \ it becomes more fertile, retains 
 its moisture longer, and does not suffer by the summer’s 
 drought, as would otherwise happenf . The effects of the 
 Meadowbank compost are still more extraordinary : a farmer 
 in Roxburghshire, (Mr. Thomson, of Bewlie), having raised 
 crops of turnips, and of wheat after fallow, on good soils, 
 manured with this compost, as if it had been from dungj. 
 
 It is a circumstance not to be omitted, that lime will ope- 
 rate in compost, upon lands that had been exhausted by 
 the over frequent, or too abundant application of lime or 
 marl, even where it had not succeeded when used by itself. 
 This is a strong recommendation of such mixed manure, as 
 land may thus be cultivated to advantage, that would other- 
 wise remain unproductive. 
 
 On the whole, it may be safely asserted, that manure goes 
 much farther in composts than in any other way. It is a 
 safe and effectual mode of applying various substances to the 
 
 chalky soils, as it would not only add to them a portion of vegetable matter, 
 but would materially assist in giving them a deeper shade when blended 
 with the soil. — Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 * Westmoreland Report, p. 324. 
 
 ■f* General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 358. 
 
 J Ibid. vol. ii. p. 551. 
 
254 
 
 On Manures . 
 
 soil. The mass becomes one uniform body, equally nutritious 
 in every part. The gelatinous and mucilaginous substances 
 are dissolved, and intimately mixed with each other, and 
 when applied to the soil, become instantly the food of 
 plants. There is little or no waste from evaporation, but 
 rather a gain of nutriment from the atmosphere ; and the 
 quantity may easily be divided and appropriated, according 
 to the size of the field to which it is to be applied, and 
 the quantity which each part may require. It may be 
 mixed with the soil, or applied to the surface; — it may be 
 used at anytime of the year, but its effects are more certain, 
 when applied as a top-dressing, either early in autumn, or 
 when vegetation commences in spring ; — and it may be pre- 
 pared at any time, whenever occasion requires its help. If 
 two compost heaps are to be prepared, lime should be the 
 basis of the one, and stable dung of the other, for the sake 
 of comparison*. 
 
 From the perusal of this Section, it evidently appears, 
 what endless sources of fertility may be obtained by the 
 active and industrious farmer ; and which, aided by judi- 
 cious rotations of crops, can hardly fail to preserve his fields 
 in a constant state of increasing productiveness. It were to 
 be wished, however, that various doubtful points, regarding 
 the nature and effects of manures, and the most advanta- 
 geous modes of application, were ascertained by a series of 
 experiments, tried on different soils, in different climates, 
 and under different courses of crops. Agriculture will never 
 reach that perfection and certainty, which it ought to attain, 
 until that measure be accomplishedf. 
 
 * Remark by the Rev. Robert Hoblyn. 
 
 •f The 4te Dr. Fordyce drew up a plan for that purpose, which will be 
 found in the General Report of Scotland, Appendix, vol. ii. p. 124. — It may 
 be proper* here to remark, that Mr. Grisenthwaite, an ingenious chymist, 
 of Wells in Norfolk, is employed in discussing the subject of specific manures. 
 The theory has taken its rise from the analysis of clover, sainfoin, & c. and 
 the advantage of gypsum to those crops. It is inferred, that by analysis, 
 other specific manures may be applied to other crops. Thus, wheat yields, 
 by analysis, phosphate of lime , and a peculiar substance called gluten, of 
 which nitrogen is a constituent. Hence urine, (by folding, for instance), 
 and bone manure, in powder, are indicated for this crop. How much far- 
 ther the science will advance, is uncertain. 
 
On Paring and Burning. 
 
 255 
 
 Sect. V . — On Paring and Burning. 
 
 Paring the surface of the soil, and burning the sods or 
 turf thus obtained, is an operation in husbandry, highly ad- 
 vantageous, when judiciously executed ; though, if the sub- 
 sequent tillage and crops be improper, the soil must neces- 
 sarily be exhausted, and essentially deteriorated. Hence 
 it need not excite wonder, that the utility of this practice 
 has been much contested. The principles, however, on 
 which this improvement is adopted, are now in a great 
 measure ascertained. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is proposed to consider, — 
 The soils which are calculated for this operation ; — The in- 
 struments used in paring ; — The depth of the turf or sod ; — 
 The mode in which the burning should be conducted ; — 
 The expence; — The season ; — The nature of the ashes, and 
 the substances mixed with them ; — Their management ; — 
 The crops which should immediately follow ; — The rota- 
 tions to be afterwards adopted ; — The advantages of the 
 practice ; — Its disadvantages ; — and the result of the whole 
 inquiry. 
 
 1. Soils . — Paring and burning, are, in general, to be re- 
 commended, for the improvement of peat-mosses ; — of un- 
 reclaimed lands, with a sufficient depth of soil ; — of chalky 
 downs; — sainfoin layers ; — and old rough-swarded pastures . 
 With regard to sandy soils, and also those distinguished 
 for their fertility, the practice ought not to be adopted, un- 
 less under very peculiar circumstances. 
 
 Fens, and Peat-mosses. — It is scarcely possible to im- 
 prove fen and peaty soils from a state of nature, to that of 
 profitable cultivation, and in many cases, they cannot after- 
 wards be continued in an arable state, without the assist- 
 ance of fire*. The spontaneous growth is so worthless, 
 that it must be destroyed ; and this is most readily and effec- 
 tually accomplished by paring and burning, operations to 
 which these soils are peculiarly well calculated. The surface 
 is easily pared ; — the soil is more inflammable than any 
 other ; — and the turf can be converted into ashes at a mo- 
 derate expencef. 
 
 * Suffolk Report, p. 182 . 
 
 f Dr. Rennie, who has paid peculiar and successful attention to the sub- 
 ject of peat-mosses, considers those which are highly bituminated and 
 
256 
 
 On Paring and Burning. 
 
 Unreclaimed Lands. — Where the soil is in a wild un- 
 cultivated state, and its vegetative powers in a great mea- 
 sure dormant and inactive, they cannot be called into full 
 action without some stimulus. In that case, the ashes 
 produced by sod-burning, with the acid of lime, are gene- 
 rally necessary, and always effectual*. Indeed where land, 
 covered with thick-tufted coarse grass, is broken up and 
 sown, without having previously undergone this process, 
 the old rubbish carries most of the moisture from the seed, 
 and proves a harbour for grubs, slugs, and other vermin t ; 
 whereas when the turf is burnt, these enemies to cultiva- 
 tion are destroyed; — the causes of sterility are removed, — 
 and in its stead, a fertilizing power is created, which, 
 without the aid of this process, could not have been ob- 
 tained:):. 
 
 It is remarked in a work distinguished for its ability, 
 that the difference between the two methods of breaking up 
 rough ground , ( either paring and burning , or ploughing 
 merely ), is more than the value of the freehold in favour of 
 the former . The one opens an immediate source of gieat 
 profit ; whereas the other leads to nothing but disappoint- 
 ment and expence§. 
 
 Chalky Downs. — There can be no doubt, that the system 
 of paring te and burning, is peculiarly applicable to chalky 
 downs. Mr. Boys of Kent, has given a detailed account, 
 of experiments, tried on 267 acres, principally consisting 
 of such downs, and, when the season proved favourable, 
 with uniform success. A single crop thus Raised, was often 
 equal to the value of the land in its original state)). These, 
 and a number of other experiments equally satisfactory, are 
 decisive of the question, that downs and other pastures, 
 ought not to be preserved for the sole purpose of being 
 enabled to fold sheep 6n the arable land in the neighbour- 
 hood, with a view of enriching it ; when they can be pared 
 
 pyritous, also ferruginous soils, with a yellow or red tinge, as unfit for the 
 operations of paring and burning; but these form merely exceptions to a 
 general rule. 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p.294, note; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 401, 
 and 403. — In the Appendix will be given a detailed experiment by Mr. Hol- 
 dich, pointing out the necessity of continuing the paring and burning sys- 
 tem, on a fenny soil. 
 
 + Middlesex Report, p. 294, note. J Ditto, p. 295, note. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 296. Mr. Simpson’s experiments, (North Riding 
 Report, p. 207), are decisive upon this point. 
 
 fj Boys’s Treatise on Paring and Burning, annexed to the Kent Report, 
 Second Edition, p. 272. 
 
On Paring and Burning . 257 
 
 and burnt, and brought into cultivation with such advan- 
 tage*. 
 
 Sainfoin Layers. — Wherever there are old sainfoin lay- 
 ers, which ought to be broken up, paring and burning are 
 essential for the destruction of the insects, with which such 
 land is usually infested. The utility of this practice has 
 been proved in numerous instances. 
 
 Old, Pastures. — Many soils formerly cultivated, have 
 been subsequently neglected, till their surface has become 
 mossy, and unproductive, or covered with a luxuriant crop 
 of useless weeds, or coarse herbage. In these cases, paring 
 and burning is the proper system to render such land fit for 
 vegetation. Experiments have been tried of its effects, 
 compared to ploughing merely, and the result has been, 
 that the burnt part, after yielding crops superior to the 
 others in tillage, was free from rushes, and covered with 
 sweet grasses, but that the other part, when laid down in 
 grass, was full of rushes, and coarse herbagef. Indeed, 
 wherever old swards , full of matted vegetable fibres, are 
 broken up, they ought always to be treated in that way. 
 But this observation, is not applicable to land that has lain 
 only a few years in grass ; or to any land capable of produc- 
 ing good crops of grain, immediately on being ploughed:}:. 
 
 Sandy Soils.-— It can hardly be imagined, that fire would 
 add any thing to the nature of sand, or render it more fer- 
 tile. In the opinion of an eminent chymist, sandy soils can- 
 not be pared or burnt to advantage^ ; and as the tendency 
 of its operation on such a soil, would be to lessen, any small 
 small degree of cohesion which it may possess, from what- 
 ever cause arising, it must on that account be prejudicial}!. 
 
 Fertile Soils. — Where the soil produces sweet herbage, 
 and contains a just mixture of good earth, or where the tex- 
 ture is already sufficiently loose, paring and burning ought 
 not to be practised^!, nor ought turf, that will readily harrow 
 to pieces, be subjected to these processes. 
 
 The practice, therefore, in Devonshire** and Cornwall, of 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 •f* North Riding Report, p. 228. — See another instance in the Lincoln 
 Report, p. 292. 
 
 I Northumberland Report, p. 126‘. 
 
 § Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 307. 
 
 i| Young’s Essay on Manures, p. 131. 
 
 it Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 305. — Middlesex Report, p. 299. — 
 See also Kent Report, p. 291. 
 
 ** In many parts of England, paring and burning is called Denshiring , 
 said to be a corruption of Devonshiring y in allusion to the early and very 
 general practice of it in that district. 
 
258 
 
 On Paring and Burning. 
 
 paring and burning their dry-stapled lands , as a preparation 
 for whfeat, seems to be carried to an extreme, which de- 
 mands the attention of those who are interested in preserving 
 the permanent fertility, and agricultural resources, of these 
 important districts. The soil there, naturally produces clean, 
 sweet herbage, and never would become so coarse and rough- 
 skinned, as to require that operation. Hence, an intelligent 
 observer, has recommended it to the men of landed property 
 in that county, to guard against the abuse of this practice*. 
 In Ireland also, it appears, that paring and burning the soil, 
 for obtaining potatoe crops, have been carried to a very per- 
 nicious excess, and that much injury will be sustained, both 
 by the landlords and by the public, if this practice is not 
 put under some useful restriction*}- 
 
 2. The Instruments used for Paring. — The instruments 
 peculiar to this operation are, The fen-plough j — The breast- 
 plough ; — The cobbing-hoe \ — and, The prong-spade. 
 
 The fen-plough has been already briefly described. (Chap. 
 II. Sect. 7). In regard to the breast-plough, or paring 
 shovel, it is calculated to be worked by men. The upper 
 part is made of wood, with a share of iron, with which the 
 sod is cut. This instrument is pushed on by means of a 
 hilt at the top ; the labour is excessive, but a good hand, 
 will pare about an acre in a week, or rather more, if the work 
 be smooth, and free from impediments^. — The cobbing-hoe, 
 (ecobue), is a French tool, for cutting and raising up pieces 
 of turf, growing on coarse and rough lands, which cannot 
 be pared by the common breast-plough. — The prong-spade, 
 is a tool in the shape of the common spade, but with three 
 or four prongs instead of a plate. It is used for digging 
 the turf on the sides of waste-banks,' &c. where the soil 
 is too full of flints or stones, to admit readily the com- 
 mon, or plate-spade. It enters the ground with much less 
 labour than the common spade, and raises the turf equally 
 well§. 
 
 The common plough is also frequently made use of, and, 
 in many situations, it is the best instrument for the purpose *, 
 particularly when, instead of the usual share, it is equipped 
 
 * Marshall’s West of England, vol. i. p. 151. — A more enlightened system 
 of husbandry seems now to be gaining ground in these two counties ; and 
 the soil is expected to yield its fair produce, without the compulsive sacrifice 
 of its most valuable materials to avarice, or to ignorance. — Remarks by the 
 Rev. Robert Hoblyn. 
 
 •f* Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 X Young’s Calendar, p. 622. 
 
 § Boys’s Treatise in the Kent Report, p. 54. 
 
259 
 
 On Paring and Burning. 
 
 with a paring-spade. By using it, the business proceeds 
 with greater dispatch, and is attended with less expence in 
 the previous cuttings, though by this mode it costs more for 
 burning ; but then a greater quantity of the soil is pulve- 
 rized, and prepared for the ensuing crops, than when the 
 breast-plough is employed * *. 
 
 Where the plough is used, and the soil is a peat-moss, 
 the horses must often be accommodated with wooden pat- 
 tens ; a particular description of which, with engravings, is 
 given in the Communications to the Board of Agriculturef. 
 In the fen districts, particular attention is paid, to have horses 
 with broad hoofs, that they may be enabled to tread the soft 
 soil with more safety. By their going unshod, this object is 
 obtained.' 
 
 3. The Depth . — The usual depths are, from about one to 
 six inches J . In shallow soils the turf cannot be too thin. 
 In Devonshire indeed, they endeavour, by cutting them in 
 small pieces, and driving them about by harrows, to shake 
 out the earth, and to leave nothing but the grasses and their 
 roots to burn. Two inches are generally thought sufficient; 
 but the late Mr. Wilkes of Measham, in Derbyshire, fre- 
 quently ploughed old, rough pastures, eight or nine inches 
 deep, and burnt the whole furrow ; and with the ashes, he 
 not only manured the land pared, but as much more§. (This, 
 however, was rather burning the soil, than paring and burn- 
 ing the surface. 
 
 4. Modes of Burning the Sods . — When the sod or turf 
 is pared by any of these means, it is dried preparatory 
 to burning. This is commonly done by letting the sods lie 
 as the paring implement left them, several days, thus drying 
 their earthy side ; then turning the grassy side upwards for 
 two or three days ; and if more drying should be necessary, 
 they are placed on their edges, two sods supporting each 
 other a day or two, by which both sides may dry at the same 
 time. The burning process may be facilitated in moist sea- 
 sons and climates, by the use of portable furnaces, made of 
 old iron hoops of the following figure and dimensions. 
 
 A. 
 
 B- 
 
 £ 
 
 g 
 
 4 s A X— A 
 
 )) )) )) IF 
 
 g g g . g 
 
 * Boys’s Treatise in the Kent Report, p. 258. 
 f Vol. v. p. 5. X Kent Report, p. 243. 
 
 § Leicestershire Report, p. 185. 
 
 S 2 
 
260 
 
 On Paring and Burning'. 
 
 The two rods, A, and B, lie flat on the ground. The 
 small hoops, g and g, are ri vetted on them. The implement 
 jsfour feet long, and so light, that a boy can carry it. Turf, 
 after being dried a few hours, may thus be burnt, for if it be 
 laid on the top of the apparatus, with the grass side down- 
 wards, the opening left, through which the air passes, neces- 
 sarily encourages the operation of burning. 
 
 In general, however, the sod or turf is burnt, either in 
 small heaps, — in large ones, — or spread on the surface. 
 
 It is most convenient for the workmen to collect the sods 
 in small heaps on the field, ten or twelve feet apart, and to 
 fire the heaps by a few red-hot ashes, taken from the heaps 
 that had been previously fired. 
 
 Mr. Boys strongly recommends large heaps, each con- 
 taining twenty cart-loads, as more advantageous than small 
 ones. There would thus be more inside, if properly attended 
 to, converted, by the smothering process, into a carbona- 
 ceous substance, by which the ashes acquire more fertilizing 
 properties* * * § . 
 
 In one instance, instead of the sward being collected into 
 heaps, it was burnt all over the surfacef, in the state in 
 which it was left by the paring spade, and charred, instead 
 of being reduced into ashes. This plan was attended with 
 the best effects j for though the former produce was merely 
 heath and ling, yet it yielded spontaneously, a most luxu- 
 riant crop of grass, which continued permanent^. There 
 is something resulting from heat, applied to the surface of 
 the soil, the advantages of which are not yet sufficiently un- 
 derstood§. It certainly contributes to make the soil more 
 porous, through which both air and moisture more freely 
 penetrate. 
 
 5. The Expence . — This must depend on various circum- 
 stances ; as, — 1. The nature of the soil on which the opera- 
 
 * Boys’s Treatise, p. 256. It is on this principle that clay burned in 
 kilns, is considered a superior manure to clay reduced to ashes. 
 
 ■f- This is frequently done in the fens, but the ashes are not thought so 
 good, and in fact it can only be done, when the turf is very grassy, and cut 
 thin. It is considered, however, more useful than the condensed mode, in 
 one respect, that it insures the destruction of worms and grubs. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 370. 
 
 § The effect of heat, in the operation of paring and burning, is remarkable. 
 Wherever burning has been much practised, experience has demonstrated 
 the necessity of removing all the ashes where the fires were made ; and 
 though careful farmers remove some of the unburnt earth, still these spots, 
 manifest a deeper green in the crop, than is observable in any other part of 
 the field. The general warmth diffused, may probably have a greater effect 
 than is commonly suspected. — Young's Essay on Manures , p. 131. 
 
261 
 
 On Paring and Burning . 
 
 tion is to be performed, and the interruptions and obstacles 
 that may occur *; — 2. The price of labour at the time; — 
 3. The instruments that are used ; — 4. The skill of the la- 
 bourers employed ; and, — 5. The state of the weather. But 
 in general it may be remarked, that there is scarcely any 
 process, accompanied with such beneficial effects as that of 
 paring and burning, when properly applied, that can be 
 done at so moderate an expence. In the fens of Cambridge- 
 shire, for instance, the charges of paring and burning, and 
 spreading the ashes afterwards, (when the sod is cut by the 
 plough), costs only at the rate of from 12.9. to 15.9. per 
 acre ; but the manner of executing the work, by the plough, 
 is there brought to the greatest possible perfection. In 
 other districts, where this operation is less practised, it may 
 be stated at from 20 s. to 30s. per acre. When the breast- 
 plough is used, the amount, which in Kent, was formerly 
 only from 25s. to 30s., was raised, in 1803, to 50s. per 
 acref. Even at that sum, or still higher, the expence can 
 be no objection, when it is considered, that on soils suited 
 for the purpose, it is repaid by the first crop ; — that this 
 crop furnishes materials that will produce manure for the 
 succeeding crops ; — and that land thus brought into culti- 
 vation, if cautiously treated, under a proper rotation of 
 alternate green and white crops, and then laid down well 
 manured, and in good order, into grass, will continue pro- 
 ductive for a series of yearsj. 
 
 6. The Season . — The paring , in favourable seasons, may 
 commence in February ; and the sods will thus be ready to 
 receive the beneficial influence of the north-east winds, 
 which are so usual in spring, and which are distinguished 
 by their drying properties. The paring, however, should 
 always be executed in a dry season, to prevent the sods 
 getting into a growing state. The burning may begin in 
 March, and be continued till the end of October. What is 
 earliest done, may be planted with potatoes ; the next in 
 succession maybe sown with turnips; in July with rape ; 
 and what is executed later, may be reserved for winter rye, 
 or, on good soils, for wheat. Thus the improvement would 
 
 * In some parts of Devonshire, the soil is so tender, that it can be breast- 
 ploughed for 9s. per acre, and the burning and spreading the ashes cost only 
 6s. 6 <d. more. Devon Report, p. 151.— Such lands ought never to be burnt, 
 except the grass be very old. 
 
 f Kent Report, p. 259, 260. 
 
 X See Dr. Rennie’s valuable Section on Paring and Burning, General 
 Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 412. 
 
262 On Paring and Burning . 
 
 never stop, while the weather permitted the processes to be 
 continued*. 
 
 7. Nature of the Ashes, and the Substances mixed with 
 them . — It is proved by innumerable trials, that the sub- 
 stances produced by paring and burning, constitute a most 
 powerful manure, and that greater crops may be thus pro- 
 cured, than by any other means. That benefit results from 
 these substances, is put beyond doubt by the circumstance, 
 that if they are removed, the succeeding crop suffers greatlyf . 
 The nature of these substances may be thus explained : — 
 1. When the earth has been thoroughly heated by fire, its 
 particles, if separated, lose the quality of coalescing; it 
 freely admits, therefore, the delicate fibrous roots of young 
 plants, and thus promotes their vegetation. 2. Another 
 property which these substances possess, is, the power of 
 imbibing water, and retaining it in the earth, for the pur- 
 poses of vegetation ; and hence their utility, in all those thin 
 and chalky soils, where moisture is desirable 3. Soils 
 susceptible of the greatest improvement from burning, con- 
 tain a considerable portion of oxide of iron, which the pro- 
 cess tends to decompose, and the oxigen thus obtained, may 
 unite with the carbon of the ashes, and produce great ferti- 
 lity. 4. After it cools, the earth probably retains latent 
 heat, which it may communicate to growing plants^. — The 
 carbonaceous matter produced by burning, is, however, the 
 substance of the greatest importance. Though the charcoal 
 of perfect wood, or of pit-coa!, has hitherto been found in- 
 soluble, that of the smaller sorts of vegetables, readily dis- 
 solves in water, and administers food to plants. Great care 
 should therefore be taken, to conduct the process of burning 
 in such a manner, as to preserve this useful article. This 
 may be done effectually, by burning the turf in large heaps, 
 covered with fine mould, so as to keep up a slow smothering 
 fire, and in this way, the whole vegetable matter contained 
 in the turf, may be converted into a carbonaceous sub- 
 stance)! . Burning should never be carried so far, as some 
 writers have recommended. It is sufficient, if the living 
 vegetable principle in the plants, and in their roots, is de- 
 stroyed, and the texture of the mass, so completely reduced, 
 that it may become a productive soil. 
 
 * Young’s Calendar, p. 74, 380, and 421. 
 f Lincoln Report, p 295. t Kent Report, p. 250. 
 
 5 Communication from from John Mawmith, Ljq. 
 i! Kent Report, p. -49. 
 
263 
 
 On Paring and Burning . 
 
 8. Mode of Managing the Ashes. — There are four modes. 
 1. To spread and plough immediately after they are burnt. 
 This is the common method, and probably the best* * * § , though 
 it is not always practicable. 2. To spread the ashes on the 
 surface, exposed to atmospheric influence, for some months 
 before they are ploughed in. This is done from an idea, 
 (perhaps an erroneous one), that the ashes imbibe some 
 matter from the atmosphere, which adds to their fertilizing 
 qualitiesf. 3. To leave the ashes in heaps, and to spread 
 them before ploughing, for wheat ; a plan not to be ap- 
 proved of, as the alkaline salts will be washed out by the 
 rains ; and while the ground on the burnt spot will be 
 saturated, the effete-ashes will be of little or no benefit to 
 the circle around. And, 4-. After the land is pared and 
 burnt, to spread lime, at the rate of 1 50 Winchester bushels 
 per acre, with the ashes upon the surface, any time before 
 the middle of October ; the ashes and lime to be imme- 
 diately ploughed in, by which plan a good crop is insured 
 in the succeeding year|. 
 
 Two rules connected with this branch of the subject, may 
 be mentioned. 1. To sow the seed as soon as possible after 
 the ashes have been spread, and ploughed in ; for they 
 operate much more powerfully, when in a caustic state, and 
 the crop will be more abundant ; and, 2. To mix lime with 
 the ashes. The two manures seem to assist each other; 
 and indeed, unless there is calcareous matter in the soil, 
 various crops, in particular, barley, pease§, wheat, or clover, 
 cannot be expected to succeed. 
 
 9. Crops. — It is extremely material, that the first crop to 
 which the ashes are applied, should not be of an exhausting 
 quality J| . Turnips, rape, or tares, are generally recom- 
 mended^ ; or potatoes, when the ashes are got early, and 
 some dung can be applied. In regard to turnips, the ad- 
 
 * Where Mr. Ellison, of Sudbrook in Lincolnshire, spread the ashes as 
 burnt, he had a luxuriant crop. — Lincoln Report , p. 293. 
 
 f Young’s Essay on Manures, p. 135. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 416. — In North Wales, the ashes 
 of pared sods burnt in June, are frequently left in heaps, without being 
 spread, until seed time, in September or October, when rye is sown. — Re- 
 port, p. 293. See also Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 403. 
 
 § Though the produce of pease may be increased by liming or marling, 
 yet the boiling property is thereby often destroyed. — Derbyshire Report , 
 vol. ii. p. 132. 
 
 [| Kent Report, p. 292. 
 
 On moist-bottomed lands, rape will often succeed better than turnips; 
 and sheep feed better with rape on such lands. — Suffolk Report , p, 185, note. 
 — In Derbyshire they prefer turnips. — Report , vol. ii. p. 409. 
 
264 
 
 On Paring and Burning . 
 
 vantages to be derived from that crop, by means of paring 
 and burning, on land where perhaps they were never seen 
 before, and where they could hardly be otherwise obtained, 
 are inestimable. Each acre, in proportion to the goodness 
 of the crop, will support from five to twelve sheep, during 
 five of the worst winter months ; and, besides enriching the 
 soil with their dung and urine, will render the land firm, 
 and consequently an excellent tilth, for a crop of barley or 
 oats, in the ensuing season*. It cannot be too strongly 
 inculcated, that it is by the extirpation of weeds, under the 
 turnip husbandry, that the great advantages to be derived 
 from paring and burning, on chalky soils, can ever produce 
 their most beneficial effectsf. 
 
 In Scotland, on peaty soils, potatoe-oats are accounted 
 the most profitable first crop, being both early and less 
 liable to lodge, than any other description of oats, and like- 
 wise the most valuable variety of that grain ; but it is con- 
 sidered a very scourging crop, and, besides the ashes, 150 
 Winchester bushels of lime must be applied per acre|. 
 
 10. Rotations of Crops . — This must depend entirely upon 
 the nature of the soil. 
 
 In chalky downs, the following system seems highly ad- 
 vantageous: 1st year, Turnips, or tares, as already men- 
 tioned - 9 — 2d, Barley or oats. If these crops are sown early, 
 and kept clean from weeds, the result probably will be, a 
 crop equal in value to the fee-simple of the land in its 
 original state *, — 3d, Clover, trefoil, or rye-grass sown with 
 the preceding crop, to be eaten by sheep§ *, — 4th, Wheat, 
 which will probably be equal in value to double the fee- 
 simple of the land, before it was improved by paring and 
 burning 5th, Tares, or turnips, or both in succession, and 
 fed upon the land, which should be previously manured, in 
 proportion to the two years’ straw of the crops it had pro- 
 duced, mixed with any earthy substances that can be ob- 
 tained. Thus a foundation is laid for a fresh succession of 
 similar crops, while the land, after the original paring and 
 burning, is immediately placed in the highest state of pro- 
 ductiveness and improvement || . Most of the sheep pastures 
 and downs, by this system, may be loaded with the heaviest 
 
 * Kent Report, p. SGI. t Ditto, p. 293. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. '113. 
 
 § A second crop of grass will often be necessary, even on such soils, 
 where they are of inferior quality ; and in some districts, oats must be sown 
 instead of wheat. ' 
 
 || Kent Report, p. 261. 
 
On Paring and Burning. 
 
 265 
 
 crops of greens, roots, and corn *, and these, through the 
 medium of a vastly increased number of inhabitants and 
 domesticated animals, would yield to the public, from 7/. to 
 12 1. per acre, from lands, which at no time before had pro- 
 duced as many shillings*. 
 
 For such soils, however, laying them down with sainfoin , 
 as soon as they can be got into good order, is the most 
 eligible plan, as it produces great crops of the best hay, for 
 two years in succession, and for several years after, excellent 
 pasture for sheep. 
 
 When oats are taken as a first crop, according to the 
 practice in Scotland, dung can partly be procured, from the ■ 
 produce of the soil itself for raising a crop of either potatoes 
 or turnips, in the succeeding year; but the former is almost 
 always preferred. It is a good rule, that dung should be 
 applied the second year after burning ; for half the quantity 
 would do more good at that time, than double the quantity 
 at any time afterwards. After potatoes or turnips, with 
 dung, an abundant crop of grain, and next of grass, may be 
 obtained, and then excellent pasture. The great object is, 
 to lay down the land, as soon as it is practicable, with the 
 grasses best adapted to the soil ; and to let it remain in 
 that state, as long as it continues productive. For peat- 
 moss, the soft meadow-grass, ( holcus lanatus ), with a 
 mixture of rib-grass, is recommended. Marl-grass, with 
 some meadow foxtail, and a small mixture of the pacey rye - 
 grass, will likewise answer well on such soils. Marl-grass, 
 or cow-grass, though resembling red clover in appearance, 
 has quite different effects. It is friendly to all natural 
 grasses growing with it, which clover is not. It is safe for 
 cattle, when cut in a green state for soiling ; and not so 
 dangerous to the wind of horses, when made into hayf. 
 For drier soils, the seeds required are, four pounds of red 
 clover, five pounds of white, and one bushel of rye-grass ; 
 and if the land be continued in grass for six or seven years, 
 another rotation may then be commenced^. 
 
 A new mode of paring and burning has been tried in 
 Derbyshire ; that of paring the stubbles, and burning, in 
 small heaps, the straw, weeds, roots, and part of the soil; 
 the ashes are then spread, mixed with lime ; and sometimes, 
 on this preparation, wheat is sown after oats, or stubble 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 + Suffolk Report, p 183, note. 
 
 + Northumberland Report, p. 12b. 
 
266 
 
 On Paring and Burning. 
 
 turnips, followed by oats next spring* * * § . This practice is 
 exhausting, when a crop is immediately taken, but if it 
 were applied to day soils, preparatory to afallow y it might 
 meliorate their texture, and destroy a number of weeds. 
 
 11. Advantages . — The benefits resulting from paring and 
 burning, are numerous, and important. 1. By these pro- 
 cesses, the various tribes of grubs and insects, which lodge 
 in the surface of the soil, are destroyedf. 2. By the same 
 means, the seeds of many weeds are consumed, by which 
 the crops would otherwise have been injured:):. 3. Not only 
 are the stems and leaves of shrubs, furze, heath, ferns, &c. 
 destroyed, converted into charcoal, and thus prepared for 
 the food of plants, but by extirpating the old sickly roots, 
 room is left for others, younger and more vigorous§. 4?. The 
 soil is at once more completely pulverized. 5. The texture 
 of soils, in their natural state, tough, tenacious, and unfit for 
 corn crops, is improved, and prepared for cultivation. 6. By 
 paring and burning, manure is obtained, at a trifling ex- 
 pence, at the commencement of the improvement; it is 
 found on the spot, free from carriage, which in some cases 
 costs more than the manure itself*, and a stock of that ne- 
 cessary article is thus provided, which, under judicious 
 management, may serve to keep the land in fertility, until 
 it shall be brought into a regular course of husbandry. 
 These are important advantages, and he must be a bad 
 farmer, who cannot continue, for any length of time, land 
 so enriched, in a high state of productiveness ||. 7. Even 
 the heat communicated to the soil by burning^, and the 
 mixture of a substance that has passed through fire, is found 
 to be highly advantageous. 
 
 12. Disadvantages . — Among the objections to this prac- 
 tice it is urged by some, that shallow soils are thus rendered 
 shallower. But others maintain, that the earthy parts of 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 406‘. 
 
 t Gloucestershire Report, p.255. 
 
 X In new enclosures, where furze and heath abound, paring and burning' 
 is absolutely necessary, for these plants cannot be destroyed, even by good 
 husbandry, in any fixed period. On a new enclosure of some land in South 
 Mimms, that had been laid down to grass, after seven years’ cultivation, 
 they again appeared in such numbers, that it was necessary to plough the 
 land up again, which would not have been necessary, had the land been 
 pared and burnt . — Middlesex Report , p. 300, note. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 247. || Ditto, p. 297. 
 
 The Marquis of Tourbilly asserts, that one half of the seed requisite in 
 other soils, will serve on land that has been burnt, and that the crop is uni- 
 formly a month earlier than on the adjacent lands : but neither of these ad- 
 vantages has been experienced in this country. 
 
267 
 
 On Paring and Burning. 
 
 the soil are neither consumed nor diminished by burning* : 
 for though the bulk of the sod or turf be diminished, this 
 arises solely from the burning of the roots and vegetable 
 substancesf ; and that shallow soils are more improved by 
 the process, than any other ; for when thus improved, more 
 of the subsoil can be safely incorporated with themj. It is 
 likewise said, that as the animal and vegetable matters con- 
 tained in the turf are destroyed, the ashes cannot possess 
 any properties of a real fertilizing quality: but the crops 
 produced by these ashes, seem to refute that assertion. It 
 is farther contended, that the soil is thus deprived of its 
 natural grasses ; but it is also thus deprived of its natural 
 weeds , which is a most material object. In regard to grasses, 
 the artificial ones thus raised, afford a much more abundant 
 and valuable article of produce and fodder, than all the 
 natural grasses ; which, on lands such as those usually pared 
 and burnt, are generally of the worst sorts. 
 
 Some persons have maintained, that it would be a better 
 plan, to pare only , and to put the parings in heaps, there to 
 remain till the mass be reduced into mould ; when these 
 heaps might be spread on the land from which they came. 
 This, however, is a laborious and expensive process, which 
 it would require a considerable period of time to perfect, 
 and which, after all, would be much less effectual than paring 
 and burning^. 
 
 In regard to more general objections ; — that it dissipates 
 what ought to be retained ; — annihilates oils and mucilage ; 
 — calcines salts ; — and reduces fertile organic matter, into 
 ashes of very weak efficacy; — it may be answered, that they 
 seem to be either unfounded in fact, or that all these mis- 
 chiefs are principally to be attributed to the abuse of the 
 system, and are not found to be connected with it, under 
 judicious management||. 
 
 13. The Result. — By the process of paring and burning, 
 a stiff, damp, and consequently a cold soil, will be converted 
 into one that is friable, dry, and warm, and much more 
 proper as a bed for vegetation. Though some animal or 
 
 * Kirwan on Manures. Trans, of the Irish Academy, vol. v. p. 195. 
 
 f Northumberland Report p. 129. I Kent Report, p. 284. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 295. 
 
 H Young’s Calendar, p. 171. An intelligent agriculturist, (the Rev, 
 Robert Hoblyn), maintains, that the burning the roots of vegetables, to black 
 ashes , does little mischief ; but that the burning the soil to red ashes y induces 
 great future sterility. But where the staple is of an adequate depth, a por- 
 tion of the soil may be advantageously reduced to ashes by. the process of 
 burning. 
 
2fi8 
 
 On Summer Fallowing. 
 
 vegetable matter, or manure previously in the soil, may 
 thus be dissipated, yet such temporary disadvantages, are 
 amply compensated, by the destruction of the seeds of weeds, 
 and the roots of coarse shrubs, as well as by the texture of 
 the soil being permanently improved. In regard to soils in 
 which there is an excess of inert vegetable matter, the 
 getting rid of that excess must be beneficial ; for the re- 
 mainder will be rendered fitter for cultivated crops, not only 
 by the addition of calcareous earth, but by the carbonaceous 
 matter remaining in the ashes, which is likely to be more 
 useful, than the coarse vegetable fibre from which it was 
 produced*. 
 
 It is evident, that this practice, cannot be either so general, 
 or so successful, in a wet climate, like that of Scotland, as in 
 a country having a less humid atmosphere, and conse- 
 quently a greater space of time, in which the process can be 
 carried on ; but still it is a means of improvement, which is 
 entitled to be thoroughly investigated, wherever the culti- 
 vation of the soil is an object of inquiry. 
 
 Sect. VI . — On Summer Fallowing. 
 
 Over the greater part of Europe, 4 was long considered 
 as an advantageous practice, occasionally to dedicate an entire 
 season, to the cultivation of arable land, without raising from 
 it any crop. The expence of the process, it was supposed, 
 would be amply compensated, by the texture of the soil 
 being ameliorated, by the destruction of weeds and insects, 
 which would thus be effected, and by the increased produce 
 of the succeeding crops. But when the rent of land was 
 increased j — when the expences of cultivation were aug- 
 mented*, — when cleansing crops, as turnips, were intro- 
 duced;— and when the productions of the soil became more 
 valuable, it was natural for the farmer to consider, whether 
 such great sacrifices were really necessary ; and whether fal- 
 lows might not, in many cases, be diminished, and in others 
 totally given up. On this subject, a controversy has arisen 
 between two sects, the fallowists, and anti-fallowists, which 
 has been conducted with much keenness and energyf . 
 
 Of late years, ^the question at issue, has been much nar- 
 
 * Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures, p. 301. 
 
 t Mr. Kent, in his Norfolk Report, stated his sentiments in a section, en- 
 titled, “ Fallowing exploded,” which was ably answered by Mr. litown, in 
 the West Riding Report, under the title of “Fallowing defended.” 
 
269 
 
 On Simmer Fallowing . 
 
 rowed. It is now, on all sides, admitted, that light soils, 
 (where the culture of turnips is eligible), need not be kept 
 in an unproductive state ; and that on strong lands, under a 
 judicious system, summer fallows are not required, more 
 than once in the course of a rotation. The subject under 
 discussion therefore, is reduced to this short question : 
 
 Is it for the interest of a farmer, who cultivates cold, 
 strong, clayey, adhesive, and wet-bottomed lands, periodically 
 to fallow them* ? 
 
 The question shall be considered as applicable to the 
 climate, 1. Of Scotland; 2. Of England; and 3. Of Ire- 
 land. 
 
 1. Scotland . 
 
 Wherever the soil is of the nature above described, it is 
 the universal opinion of the most intelligent and experienced 
 farmers in Scotland, that a summer fallow cannot be dis- 
 pensed with, for the following reasons : 
 
 1. Strong clayey soils, if constantly cropped, must often 
 be ploughed and harrowed in a wet state : hence, in a moist 
 climate, they lose their fertility, become hard and stubborn, 
 impervious to the sun and air, as well as to the roots of 
 plants, and require repeated exposure to the atmosphere, 
 before these defects can be corrected. By a complete sum- 
 mer fallow, they are rendered tender and mellow. A tilth 
 is given to them, superior to what can be obtained from a 
 fallow crop, while the soil is rendered so friable, as to re- 
 semble that of a garden. 
 
 2. The grand object with the skilful agriculturist is, to 
 keep his lands clear of weeds of all sorts ; and on strong 
 soils, summer fallow, properly conducted, has ever been 
 found a sure method of accomplishing that object. During 
 the short period of dry weather to be found in spring, in 
 such a climate as that of Scotland, the foulness contracted, 
 during the time the land is under crop, cannot always be 
 got the better of, even by a whole summer’s labour ; any 
 expectations of success, therefore, of cleansing such land, 
 during spring alone, and thereby abolishing summer fallows, 
 cannot be well founded. Nor will hoeing crops answer, for 
 the proper time to clean the land effectually, is in July and 
 August, and it must be accompanied by deep ploughing , 
 which can never be performed, if the land be under a crop. 
 
 * At what intervals the operation should be repeated, will be explained in 
 the Section “ On the Rotation of Crops.” 
 
270 
 
 On Summer Fallowing . 
 
 Besides, under no other process, can that noxious weed the 
 thistle, be so effectually extirpated. 
 
 3. Fallowing is found to contribute essentially to the de- 
 struction of snails, and other vermin in the ground ; not 
 only by destroying them, and their eggs, in the course of 
 the operation, but by exposing them to the attacks of rooks 
 and other birds. 
 
 4. Its advantages for pulverizing, mellowing, and drying 
 the soil ; converting the roots and other remains of vege- 
 tables into soluble matter, as food for succeeding crops ; 
 for enabling the farmer to remove all obstructions to perfect 
 tillage; and to adjust the surface, so as to promote the dis- 
 charge of water, and to facilitate future culture, can hardly 
 be questioned. 
 
 5. During the fallow process, the land may in every re- 
 spect be brought into perfect order. All the small drains in 
 the field may be repaired ; lime and other manures, may 
 be applied at a proper time, and thoroughly incorporated 
 with the soil. A well-conducted fallow, is more favourable 
 to the early sowing of wheat, than a previous crop of beans ; 
 indeed on clay soils, in a northern climate, it is impractica- 
 ble to sow wheat extensively, unless a considerable part of 
 the land has been prepared during the summer months. It 
 is, indeed, almost uniformly observed, that the grain of wheat 
 crops, sown upon regular fallows in September, or early in 
 October, is of the best quality, probably owing to their re- 
 ceiving the greatest heat of the sun, and thereby reaching 
 maturity earlier. 
 
 6. But in no other way, than by a summer fallow, can 
 the clay land farmer depend upon a good crop of grasses. 
 Where beans are cultivated, the roots take away that nou- 
 rishment from the earth, by which the clover root should 
 be fed. The bean also encourages the white snail, a de- 
 termined enemy to clover. But the year after a fallow, the 
 land rarely fails to produce a crop of clover in great abun- 
 dance. There is no sacrifice that ought not to be made, to 
 secure a large crop of clover ; since, either for soiling, or as 
 hay, it goes much farther in feeding horses or cattle, than 
 any of the green crops that can be raised on a clay soil. Its 
 roots also are so bulky, as to enrich every soil on which it is 
 cultivated. 
 
 7. Another advantage of a complete fallow is, that less 
 manure will produce an abundant crop, than when the 
 practice is either neglected, or imperfectly executed. This is 
 an object of much importance, a scarcity of manure, being the 
 
On Summer Fallowing. 
 
 271 
 
 greatest evil, with which the arable farmer has to contend ; 
 and this fully compensates for the want of a crop, which is 
 so strongly urged against the fallow system. 
 
 8. Exposition to the atmosphere is another advantage. 
 The most stubborn, and unfertile soil, if exposed to atmos- 
 pheric influence, will be improved in its texture, and rendered 
 much better calculated for the process of vegetation. This 
 is effected, either by the soils acquiring properties from the 
 atmosphere, or by those substances which rendered it bar- 
 ren, being neutralized, destroyed, or washed away. The 
 fact is, that no other means but by a complete summer fal- 
 low, can a wet bottomed clay, be discharged sufficiently of 
 the moisture it has imbibed, which having been long locked 
 up in the soil, holds saline and mineral matters in solution. 
 These matters being discharged, the soil readily imbibes 
 fresh water, and gets into a mellow and fertile state. 
 
 By these means, the soil becomes more friable, the crops 
 it produces are vigorous, and abundant, and, comparatively 
 speaking, free from weeds. 
 
 Some have suggested, that instead of a fallow, the land 
 should be trenched. But even if hands could be procured, 
 heavy clay, the soil which it is alone necessary to fallow, is 
 seldom fit to be dug, as the rain makes it too compact in 
 winter, and in summer, the heat makes it too hard. In 
 Flanders, where so much land is trenched, light soils are 
 preferred for that operation, and it is frequently done by 
 the shovel instead of the spade*. 
 
 The expence, and the practicability of substituting a crop 
 in its stead, are next to be considered . 
 
 The expence attending this process is considerable. It 
 must vary according to the amount of the rent, and the 
 number of ploughings, harrowings, &c., but the following 
 is considered to be a fair average statement : 
 
 Per Statute Acre. 
 
 The six ploughings, harrowings, &c. cost £3 11 0 
 
 Rent for two years, at 21. 7^. per acre per ann 4 14 0 
 
 £8 5 Of 
 
 * The expences of trenching, in Flanders, are calculated as follows : 
 1. Light lands, eighteen inches deep , 11, 6s. per acre;— 2. Strong land, eighteen 
 inches deep , 1/. l].y. 2 d. per acre; — 3. Strong land, two feet deep, 21. 5s. per 
 acre. In those parts of England where men are to be found accustomed to 
 dig, light land would be trenched at 3d. per perch, or 40.?. per statute acre; 
 and even strong land, at the rate of 4 d. per perch, or 50s. per acre. 
 
 f In the Appendix, No. IV. there is a detailed account of the expence of 
 fallowing, on the improved system of the Lothians. In England, the fal- 
 low-ploughing is seldom begun, so early as it ought to be, nor is cross- 
 
272 
 
 On Summer Fallowing . 
 
 besides the expence of the crop to be raised, and its share 
 of the manure required for the whole rotation. But the 
 advocates for fallowing, maintain, that these ploughings, 
 and the rent of the land while in fallow, ought not to be 
 charged against the subsequent crop, but to the whole crops 
 in the rotation, as they are all, in a greater or lesser degree, 
 benefited by it. 
 
 From the objections urged against a summer fallow, va- 
 rious attempts have been made in Scotland to omit it, but 
 hitherto, unsuccessfully. Beans were tried, and they are 
 certainly well calculated for strong soils, being an excellent 
 preparation for wheat. When drilled, they enable the 
 farmer, in some measure to keep his land longer in a clean 
 state, than could be done were that operation to be omitted. 
 Yet their culture cannot prevent fallow from being ne- 
 cessary at certain periods, when the land becomes foul by 
 cropping. Potatoes , planted on part of a fallowed field 
 where the soil was favourable, with a greater allowance of 
 manure than the naked fallow, proved so severe a crop, 
 that the part cultivated with potatoes, yielded a less crop of 
 wheat, than the ground that had been fallowed ; — the after 
 crops on the fallowed part, were likewise more abundant ; 
 and the land much cleaner in the end. Swedish turnips 
 were also sown early , and taken off the field in September ; 
 but the soil was found to be so much exhausted by that 
 root, that the succeeding crop of wheat was less than the 
 usual average. 
 
 On this subject, so far as respects Scotland, it may be 
 proper to add, that a great reduction in the frequency of 
 fallows, has already taken place, since the introduction of 
 the turnip husbandry on light land ; and though on the 
 clayey adhesive soils above described, they can hardly be 
 ever totally abolished, in that part of the united kingdom, 
 yet there is ground to hope, that, in process of time, cir- 
 cumstances may occur, which may prevent the necessity of 
 recurring to them, even so often as is requisite at present. 
 The climate may improve as cultivation is extended ; — by 
 more effectual draining, and the frequent additions of lime 
 and dung, the texture of the strongest soil will be altered, 
 and necessarily become more of a loamy nature ; — by re- 
 peated cleanings, the quantity of weeds, of all descriptions. 
 
 ploughing attended to, without which the process is imperfectly done. 
 The ploughings should also be carried on in the dry seasons, being better 
 calculated for the destruction of root weeds. 
 
On Summer Fallowing . 
 
 27S 
 
 must be greatly lessened ; — instruments also may be in- 
 vented, which may prove more effectual for cleansing and 
 pulverizing the soil, than those at present in use ; — new 
 plants may likewise be discovered, or a more advantageous 
 mode of cultivating old ones may be introduced ; — and it 
 is impossible to foresee, what improvements may be effected 
 by draining ; in consequence of which, the cultivation of 
 wet and strong soils may be facilitated, and either stock may 
 be fed upon the ground, or its produce may be removed 
 with less injury. But till these alterations take place, the 
 Scottish farmer, will not easily be induced, to relinquish the 
 advantages he derives from a well-executed summer fallow. 
 
 2. England. 
 
 The climate of England, is certainly superior to that of 
 Scotland ; yet even in that part of the kingdom, many re- 
 spectable authorities consider an occasional fallow to be ne- 
 cessary. 
 
 Mr. Marshall states, that if land be in a state of foulness 
 with root-weeds, (as half of the old arable lands of the king- 
 dom may be said to be), a year’s fallow is the shortest , 
 the most effectual , and the cheapest , way of cleansing it*. 
 He also accounts it the best preventive of the wire-worm. 
 All animalcula living on herbs, which have not the power 
 of flight, at least in their early states, are best extirpated, 
 by keeping the soil they inhabit, free from every thing her- 
 baceous, especially during the summer months, when they 
 are in a state of activity, and doubtless require daily sup- 
 port. In that case, unabating tillage must prove their de- 
 struction-)-. 
 
 In Kent, they have what are called autumnal fallows , in 
 which way, the stubbles of fallow crops are prepared for 
 wheat, by several ploughings and harrowings. Barley also 
 is sown late, that it may be thrice ploughed, and operate 
 as a cleansing crop ; but after all, the intelligent Reporter of 
 the Husbandry of Kent, (Mr. Boys), states, that there are 
 some untoward soils, which all the art and industry of man, 
 cannot keep clean and in good order, fpr any considerable 
 length of time, without a fallow 5 that cold and wet clays, 
 if they were tolerably clear from weeds, are subject, after 
 two or three crops, to run together, to become exceedingly 
 stiff, and to require the intervention of a summer fallow to 
 
 * Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. i. p. 72. 
 f Marshall’s Southern Counties, vol. i. p. 95. 
 
 T 
 
274 On Simmer Fallowing. 
 
 mellow the soil ; that a good summer fallow is the best pre- 
 paration for a crop of clover; — and that the course of, 
 1. Fallow ; 2. Barley; 3. Clover, or beans ; and, 4. Wheat, 
 which is the system most practised in the Isle of Thanet, is 
 there considered to be, thp foundation of all good manage- 
 ment*. In Essex, fallowing is thought essential, especially 
 for barley. In some parts of the county, half the arable 
 land is under a dead summer fallow ; in others, a fourth, a 
 fifth, or a sixth ; but the practice is universal, except on 
 dry turnip soilsf. Mr. Cheere of Cambridgeshire is con- 
 vinced, by much experience, that a perfect clean fallow, is 
 indispensable every four, five, or six years. It is necessary, 
 however, that all the requisite ploughings should be given 
 in dry weather. 
 
 That celebrated Norfolk farmer, Mr. Overman, gave a 
 strong proof of his concurring in that opinion, for enter- 
 ing upon a farm, where some fields were full of spear-grass, 
 and other weeds, he gave the outgoing tenant 5Z. 10s. per 
 acre, for the privilege of completely fallowing them. He 
 cleaned the ground thoroughly by four ploughings. The 
 soil was sandy, on which a hot July sun, destroyed the root- 
 weeds, without raking orburningj. Such are the effects of 
 climate. 
 
 The Reporter of the Husbandry of Staffordshire, (Mr. 
 William Pitt), explains, in an able manner, the advantages 
 of summer fallows ; acknowledging at the same time, that 
 he had once been a sufferer, by too implicit a confidence in 
 the opposite theory. He says, that fallowing for wheat, is 
 practised by the best farmers, on cold, wet, or strong lands ; 
 and that he who shall attempt to manage such lands with- 
 out fallowing, will most probably find his mistake. Fal- 
 lowing is there necessary, because the roots of perennial 
 grasses, such as couch-grass, &c. cannot otherwise be suf- 
 ficiently weakened or extirpated ; nor can any attempt at 
 extirpation be so successful, by any other means, as by re- 
 peated deep summer -ploughings § . It appears also, from 
 the Derbyshire Report||, that whenever the soil is strong, 
 clayey, adhesive, and wet-bottomed, many intelligent far- 
 mers in that district, approve of summer fallowing. 
 
 There is a most striking coincidence between these, and 
 
 * Kent Report, p. 69. 
 
 + Young’s Essex, vol. i. p. 201, and 205. In Essex they sometimes plough 
 eight times for a fallow. 
 
 X Young’s Norfolk, p. 192. § Staffordshire Report, p. SO. 
 
 || Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 102. 
 
On Summer Fallowing. 
 
 275 
 
 Mr. Boys’s remarks, and the doctrines already detailed on 
 the importance of fallows, from farmers residing in Scot- 
 land, though there could not be any previous knowledge, 
 that they followed the same practice, and approved of it on 
 the same grounds. 
 
 Mr. Curwen also states, in a recent publication, that the 
 practice of fallowing the more distant parts of his farm, has, 
 with great reluctance, been adopted by him. This practice 
 he considers both requisite and beneficial, in so wet a cli- 
 mate as that of Cumberland, where it is wholly impracti- 
 cable, in all seasons, to make green crops so free from 
 couch and other weeds, as is necessary for the successful 
 cultivation of the succeeding crops, particularly those of 
 clover*. 
 
 But as the system of fallowing, is condemned by authors 
 of great eminence, in reference to southern districts, as either 
 rarely, or not at all admissible, even on strong soils, we shall 
 briefly state their sentiments upon the subject. 
 
 Mr. Young only admits a fallow during the first course, 
 advising it to be rejected the second course, and ever after- 
 wardsf. 
 
 Mr. Marshall is of opinion, that when land is once 
 thoroughly cleansed, it may, by fallow-crops, and due at- 
 tention, be kept so for a number of years ; and more espe- 
 cially, that where the farmers attend so particularly to the 
 seed and vegetating processes, as in the Vale of Gloucester, 
 a whole year’s fallow, judiciously made, will be found suf- 
 ficient to keep land in a state of tilth and cleanness, for 
 ten, fifteen, or perhaps twenty yearsf. In another work 
 he maintains, that after an eighteen months’ fallow, land 
 may be so effectually reclaimed , that it would not require a 
 repetition of the operation of fallowing, for half a century 
 afterwards . 
 
 But the author who most decidedly disapproves of the 
 summer fallowing system, is Mr. Middleton, the Reporter 
 of Middlesex. Instead of a naked fallow, he recommends 
 a crop of winter tares, which may be obtained in perfection 
 before Midsummer. It is the nature of this crop, he ob- 
 serves, while growing, to render the soil more mellow, than 
 is done by a fallow. It tends to enrich the land, by retain- 
 ing the air stagnant while the crop is growing ; and when 
 the crop has reached maturity, it supports and fattens the 
 
 * Curwen’s Report, p. 59. t Suffolk Report, p. 51. 
 
 X Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. i. p. 75. 
 
 T 2 
 
On Summer Fallowing . 
 
 farmer’s stock. Green tares may be given in racks to cattle 
 and sheep upon the land, if the season permits, or in folds, 
 fixed in convenient parts of tlie fields. By either of these 
 modes, the soil is abundantly fertilized by their dung and 
 urine. The arguments in favour of a naked fallow, aris- 
 ing from a clay soil, and a moist climate, are thus in a 
 great measure obviated, in districts where winter tares will 
 thrive, and where they run no risk of being destroyed*. 
 As they delight in a moist climate, and, as in England, they 
 come to maturity in June, and require to be taken off the 
 ground during the driest months in the summer, hence the 
 farmer has all the months of July, August, and September, 
 to render his land as clean as a well-conditioned garden, 
 and as fertile as he can desiref. 
 
 3. Ireland . 
 
 In Ireland, the system of fallowing for wheat, is very 
 generally adopted, in most of the corn countries, particularly 
 in strong soils. It is, however, more generally practised by 
 tillage farmers from necessity, than from any real advantage 
 which they derive from it. Among the wealthy and intel- 
 ligent tenantry, fallow crops are usually substituted, except 
 in cases where the land requires draining, or some other 
 operation that could not be performed, if under a crop. 
 Fallowing on strong soils, has yet, however, still many advo- 
 cates, though all those lands which have been fallowed and 
 cropped alternately, have progressively become less fertile^ ; 
 while those on which green crops have been substituted, 
 have not been in the least deteriorated§. 
 
 The arguments both for, and against summer fallow, are 
 thus briefly stated, in reference to the circumstances of the 
 three united kingdoms. Difference of climate, may render 
 different systems, in this respect, advisable||. Nothing, 
 
 * Winter tares, unfortunately, are apt to be destroyed by hares and 
 rabbits, being their favourite food ; and they run great risks where these 
 vermin abound. 
 
 t For a detail of Mr. Middleton’s system, and his statements in proof of 
 the superiority which winter tares, and bastard fallows, have over a naked 
 fallow, see the Appendix, No. V. 
 
 X Nothing else could be expected from so detestable a system, which can- 
 not be too soon exploded. 
 
 § Remarks by Edward Burroughs, Esq. This intelligent agriculturist 
 adds, that he has known instances, in which lands thus exhausted, were 
 in a great measure reclaimed, by growing green crops, and ploughing 
 them in. 
 
 U Much must certainly depend upon climate. In Jamaica it has been 
 found, that exposing the soil to the heat of the sun, for any length of time. 
 
On Weeding Ldnd . 
 
 2 77 
 
 however, but a personal inspection of the crops grown in 
 Berwickshire and the Lothians, can give an adequate idea, 
 of the perfection to which the fallow system is brought in 
 those districts ; — of the immense crops produced after it; — 
 nor of the advantages which are derived from a well-con- 
 ducted fallow, by the subsequent crops in the rotation. In 
 the culture of wet tenacious clays, therefore, the fallow pro- 
 cess has been called, by an eminent farmer, (George Rennie, 
 Esq. of Phantassie), “ The main spring of Scottish hus- 
 “ bandry;” and it appears from the evidence of an able and 
 intelligent judge in those matters, (J. C. Curwen, Esq. 
 M. P.) who had frequently examined the husbandry of the 
 Lothians, “ That clay soils, subject to this process, will 
 6C produce the greatest crops, and yield the highest rents, 
 “ of perhaps any in the united kingdom*.” 
 
 Sect. VII . — On Weeding Land. 
 
 The subject of weeding, or cleansing land, is of much 
 greater extent and importance than has been commonly 
 imagined. It is not only necessary to clear corn-fields from 
 weeds, but grass lands demand an almost equal attention. 
 Nay, these enemies to useful produce, should be destroyed 
 wherever they are to be met with ; for if left unmolested, 
 they will spread their seeds over fields, with a greater 
 rapidity, and to a greater distance, than could well be cre- 
 ditedf. 
 
 exhausts its fertility, and the practice is disused. Even subjecting lands to 
 the fallow process, for some years, has destroyed their productive powers. 
 
 * Mr. Curwen’s Report to the Workington Society, an. 1810, p. 88. In 
 his evidence before the Salt Committee, (Report in June, 1818, p. 57), this 
 impartial observer states, “ When one looks to the first farming in theking- 
 ** dom, which I think one may, without injustice to any, attribute to the 
 “ Lothians, in that system of farming, fallowing is a favourite practice.” 
 
 + In Japan, the antipathy to weeds has been carried to such a height, that 
 botanists inform us, there is scarcely a single plant that grows naturally in 
 the whole empire ; and farmers there, prefer night-soil as a manure, as from 
 using it, they run no risk of propagating weeds. A celebrated naturalist, 
 thus laments the destruction of weeds, and the triumphs of cultivation: 
 “ There are beauties in a land yet wild and savage, which disappear at the 
 approach of civilization. In Europe, the soil abounds only in plants, which are 
 of use to man. Domestic vegetables, by the aid and protection of the culti- 
 vator, have so trenched upon the domain of the wilderness, that space is 
 scarcely left, for the existence of those, for which man has no call .” — Mir bell's 
 General Views of Vegetable Nature , inserted in the Quarterly Journal of 
 Science and the Arts, published by the Royal Institution, No. III. p. 41. 
 
278 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 From a perusal of the County Reports, it appears, that 
 both in England and Scotland, weeding is too much neg- 
 lected ; — though, in several districts, since the introduction 
 of turnip and other cleansing crops, with row culture, and 
 a more correct mode of fallowing, the ground is kept much 
 cleaner. But still on many farms, weeds continue to oc- 
 cupy a considerable portion of that surface, for which the 
 farmer annually pays rent and taxes ; and by their growth, 
 the production of useful articles is considerably lessened. 
 
 It is more necessary to attend to this subject, as Nature 
 seems to have made uncommon efforts to preserve these 
 species of plants. Many of them propagate both by their 
 seeds and their roots ; — in some cases, the roots are so deep 
 in the ground, that it is hardly possible to get out their 
 lowest joints ; while in others, every joint in the root forms 
 a new plant. The extirpation of weeds, under these cir- 
 cumstances, must be attended with difficulty, and it is evi- 
 dent, that where weeds produce seeds apt to fly about, the 
 measures to be adopted ought to be of a general, and not 
 of a partial nature. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is proposed to consider — the 
 various sorts of weeds, the descriptions of lands in which 
 they are respectively found, and how they may be eradi- 
 cated ; — the instruments made use of in weeding 5 — the 
 expence of the process ; — the means of preventing their 
 increase ; — the civil or legislative regulations which would 
 contribute to their destruction ; — and, the advantages which 
 would ensue, were their extirpation accomplished. 
 
 1 . Of Weeds in general . 
 
 Weeds are commonly divided into three classes — Annuals , 
 which continue only one year, the plant dying after its seeds 
 are perfected ; Biennials , which continue two years, and die 
 after maturing their seeds the second year ; and Perennials , 
 which continue in existence several years. Many of these 
 are propagated both from the root and from the seed. 
 
 These different sorts of weeds are found in corn-fields ; — 
 in grass-lands ; — in hedges ; — in waste and uncultivated 
 lands ; — and in woods and plantations ; and even gardens, 
 notwithstanding the care bestowed on their culture, are not 
 exempted from them. 
 
 1. Corn-Fields. — In a list given by an intelligent author, 
 of the weeds which infest our coni' fields, no less a number 
 
279 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 than fifty -five are enumerated*. Fortunately their extirpa- 
 tion can in general be accomplished, by nearly the same 
 processes. 
 
 Means of destroying Annual , and Biennial f Weeds,— The 
 most effectual means of ensuring their destruction, on strong 
 land, is by a clean and thorough summer fallow ; or by the 
 culture of turnips, potatoes, or tares, in rows, and kept per- 
 fectly clean, on light soils 5 but, for the attainment of that 
 object, it is necessary, 1. To bring the seeds within the 
 limits of vegetation $ and, 2. To destroy every weed which 
 vegetates. 
 
 1. Seeds of an oily quality, such as those of charlock, 
 (wild mustard), and several other annuals, will remain for a 
 long period of time in the ground, capable of vegetation, 
 when acted upon by moisture and heat. It is absolutely 
 necessary, however, to make them germinate, before their 
 destruction can be effected. This is accomplished, by the 
 operations of ploughing, harrowing, and rolling, by which 
 the ground is pulverized, and a vast number of seeds are 
 brought so near the surface, as to promote their vegetation. 
 In fallowing, those processes should be performed early in 
 the season, when the powers of vegetation are the greatest, 
 and the weeds most likely to come forward. 
 
 2. When the first crop of weeds appears above the sur- 
 face, a second ploughing should be given, by which that 
 crop will instantly be destroyed, and a foundation laid for 
 producing another crop of weeds. Harrowing, and where 
 there are clods, rolling, should also be resorted to, after 
 every ploughing ; and in this way, several crops of weeds 
 may be destroyed, in warm and moist seasons, before the 
 succeeding crops are drilled. During the growth of those 
 crops, both the hand, and the horse-hoe should be con- 
 stantly employed ; and the greatest care taken, to prevent all 
 weeds from running to seed. 
 
 As the several hoeings given to the cleansing crops, de- 
 stroy every annual weed as fast as it appears, if the seed 
 furrow, for the crop which succeeds, be not ploughed or 
 scarified deeper than the last furrow given to the cleansing 
 crop, (and a greater depth is then unnecessary), few weeds 
 
 * See Mr. William Pitt’s Essay on the Extirpation of Weeds, in the Com- 
 munications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 240. — In Marshall’s 
 Gloucestershire, 77 are enumerated. 
 
 f These are here conjoined with the annual, not having permanent roots, 
 by which new plants are produced after the seed has been perfected. 
 
280 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 will appear in the crop of grain which follows ; but as the 
 clover stubble, which follows the grain crop, must be 
 ploughed a little deeper than the seed-furrow formerly 
 given, a fresh growth of weeds may then be expected. To 
 get the better of these enemies, some farmers hand- weed 
 these crops, at an expence of from ten to twenty shillings 
 per acre, and have found it much to their advantage ; while 
 others have resorted to the drill husbandry, and in that 
 manner have been enabled to destroy them in a satisfactory 
 manner. 
 
 By an attention to these measures, the quantity of weeds 
 is regularly diminished; and many. farms, which, forty years 
 ago, were a nest of seed-weeds, are now brought into such 
 order, that these injurious plants no longer materially im- 
 pede the growth of corn*. 
 
 Means of destroying Perennial Weeds . — These are by far 
 the most difficult to eradicate, as several of them propagate 
 both by their seeds and their roots. Under this head are 
 comprehended, all the weeds to which the common name of 
 couch is given, one of the greatest banes that husbandry 
 has to contend with. Couch is sometimes so interwoven in 
 the soil, when the land has been long in neglected tillage, 
 as to form a perfect matting. Its destruction can only be 
 effected, by an early and complete summer fallow, when, 
 by repeated ploughings, with sufficient harrowings between 
 each ploughing, the roots may be worked out, and brought 
 to the surface. The scarifier or grubber, is also of peculiar 
 service in extracting the couch, after the land has been 
 completely pulverized. Besides collecting the roots by these 
 instruments, it is an excellent practice, to gather them 
 by hand-labour, employing boys and girls to follow the 
 plough, and to pick up every root as fast as it is turned up. 
 When collected, the roots should either be burnt, or de- 
 posited in a large heap, and mixed with lime, and thus may 
 become the basis of an excellent compost. 
 
 It is proper to observe, that the destruction of root-weeds, 
 as couch, and seedlings, as charlock, must be effected, in 
 arable land, uptm different principles ; the former, by work- 
 ing them out of the soil in dry weather only ; the latter, by 
 pulverizing the soil, so as to induce the seed to germinate 
 after rain, and afterwards ploughing in the young plants. 
 
 Among the perennial weeds affecting arable land, thistles, 
 
 * See the valuable Section on Weeding, drawn up by George Rennie, Esij. 
 of Phan lassie, in the General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 554. 
 
On Weeding Land. 281 
 
 docks, wild oats, and coltsfoot, or tussilago, require par- 
 ticular attention. 
 
 The common thistle, ( sermtula arvensis , Linn.)} is ex- 
 tremely injurious to all crops. It is for a time repressed, 
 rather than destroyed, by a well-conducted summer fallow; 
 but that is only a local remedy ; for its numerous seeds, 
 which are feathered, will often come from 'a considerable 
 distance, and replenish the field that has been cleared. It 
 is frequently cut close above the ground, by means of a very 
 simple instrument, called a weed-hook; but it is done much 
 more effectually, either by the hand, or by means of a pair 
 of forceps or nippers with two long handles, by which the 
 whole, or part of the roots are pulled up, and the plants 
 either much weakened, or totally destroyed*. In Derbyshire, 
 they make use of a species of tongs, or pincers, with fluted 
 jaws , which must be peculiarly effectualf. 
 
 The dock, (rumex acutus et obtusifolhis ) , is a hardy peren- 
 nial, very tenacious of growth by its roots, and producing a 
 great increase of seeds. In arable land, the roots should 
 be carefully picked off during the tillage season, otherwise 
 they' will produce vigorous luxuriant plants, drawing much 
 moisture and nourishment from the soil, to the injury of 
 the intended crop. Docks ought to be pulled up by hand, 
 after heavy rains, when the soil is soft enough to allow their 
 long tap-roots to be extracted without breaking, and long 
 before the seeds approach towards ripeness, or even before 
 they blossom. If the season be too dry for that operation, 
 th«y ought at any rate to be cut and carried off. 
 
 The wild oat, (avena fatua ) , is a most troublesome weed 
 to a farmer, and difficult to be eradicated. It formerly 
 abounded so much in some districts, as to constitute one 
 half of the crop. A farmer cleared a field of this weed by 
 a most singular experiment. He dressed and manured it 
 thoroughly, and sowed no crop, trusting to the oats. They 
 grew up most abundantly. He cut them for hay, before 
 
 • Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 66. It is said, that the best forceps for 
 that purpose, is the human hand, protected by a suitable glove. Thistles 
 were formerly pulled in Scotland, not because they were weeds, but because 
 they were useful ; for owing to the scarcity of grass in summer, they were 
 given to the farmers’ horses in the evening. Aberdeenshire Report , p. 442. — 
 It is said to be a practice in Germany, after they are collected, to beat them 
 in sacks, i ill their prickles are destroyed. Horses will then devour them 
 greedily. The roots of couch-grass, after being washed, have likewise been 
 given as food for cattle, in scarce seas< ns. 
 
 + Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 66. 
 
 On broad-cast crops of oorn, pincers are the only effectual means of re- 
 lieving the crop from thistles or docks, should they get but one weeding. 
 
282 
 
 On Weeding Land. 
 
 the seed was ripe, and the field was never afterwards in- 
 fested with that weed. Wild oats have likewise been extir- 
 pated by irrigation*. 
 
 Coltsfoot, (tussilago ferrara ), was long accounted almost 
 unconquerable, even by a fallow, the seeds ripening so early 
 in the spring, that they were usually shaken before the 
 ground had got the second furrow. It is now, however, 
 ascertained, that there is little difficulty in subduing this 
 noxious weed. For that purpose, the plants must be de- 
 stroyed in August, September, or October, after the crops 
 of corri are cut, at which time they are at their full growth, 
 and easily discovered. They ought then to be pulled up, 
 and every stock or root that can be laid hold of, carried off'. 
 This should be done most carefully, for about an inch below 
 the surface, the roots have a number of buds about the size 
 of a pea, which, if allowed to remain till next spring, will 
 flower, and shed their seeds in spite of every precaution. 
 This plan should be persevered in for a few years, to give 
 the experiment a fair trialf . 
 
 By these means, more especially if accompanied by drill- 
 ing, cultivated fields may be cleared from the dominion of 
 weeds ; and though these several processes are troublesome 
 and expensive, yet they cannot be dispensed with, as they 
 are the only sure methods known of eradicating weeds, for 
 the plan of ploughing them in, (which, at any rate, can 
 only answer in very deep soils), cannot be depended on. 
 
 It may not be improper here to notice, the great attention 
 paid by the Flemish farmers to the weeding of their land ; 
 and as they know nothing of the drill husbandry in the 
 culture of grain, the whole process is effected by manual 
 labour. In the best cultivated districts, their exertions are 
 incessant; and frequently from 20 to 30 women, maybe 
 seen employed in one field, kneeling, for the purpose of 
 greater facility in seeing and extracting the weedsj. In 
 the Pays de Waes, where the soil' is light, the trident, or 
 fourche a trois dents, is made use of, after the several crops 
 are harvested, to tear up the root-weeds ; and the same 
 
 * Dr. Skene Keith’s Report of Aberdeenshire. 
 
 f The public owes these valuable hints to Mr. Rennie of Phantassie. The 
 process is described at greater length in the General Report of Scotland, 
 vol. ii. p. 554. 
 
 It is much the custom with those who fallow land in Ireland, to permit 
 the weeds to shed their seeds, under the idea, that when the land is after- 
 wards ploughed, they will be destroyed. This is one of the reasons, why the 
 lands in that country, under this system, become progressively more foul 
 and more unfertile . — Remark by Edward Burroughs. Esq. 
 
 + This is likewise the case in the Fens of Cambridgeshire. 
 
283 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 tool is successfully employed, in breaking the clods in 
 strong land, when they become dry, for enabling the root- 
 weeds to be gathered, and facilitating the pulverization of 
 the soil*. 
 
 The clearing of arable lands from weeds, may in general 
 be accomplished by, 1. Complete and well-managed fallows, 
 whenever that operation is required ; 2. By taking care 
 that the manure used is free from the seeds of weeds, or 
 any roots that can vegetate ; for which purpose, ferment- 
 ing dunghills is advisable ; 3. By a careful choice of clean 
 seed-corn ; 4. By short tillages, or not taking too many 
 crops in a rotation; 5. By drilling crops, in soils applicable 
 to that culture; 6. By attentive hand-weeding, and a spi- 
 rited use of the hoe; 7» By "the strictest attention to the 
 choice of seeds, particularly those of grass, that no weeds 
 are intermingled with them ; 8. By weeding the land while 
 in grass, so as not to suffer the seeds of any injurious plants 
 to spread themselves ; and, 9. Upon breaking up the land, 
 by pursuing such a system of cropping, as will not increase 
 or encourage weeds, and in particular, by adopting rotations 
 in which green crops shall predominate^. 
 
 On the subject of weeds in arable land, it is highly mate- 
 rial to observe, that their seeds are often mixed with the 
 grain, and when ground with it, render the bread unpalat- 
 able and unwholesome. Such weeds are universal enemies, 
 from whose mischievous attacks no individual is exempted, 
 and whose destruction, it is every one’s interest, as well as 
 duty, to promote^;. 
 
 2. Grass [Lands . — It is difficult, in some cases, to dis- 
 criminate, in meadows and pastures, the useful plants, from 
 those that are injurious ; but amidst the great variety which 
 nature produces in such lands, there are several, which are 
 not calculated to feed domesticated animals, and ought 
 therefore to be removed, for the introduction of others bet- 
 ter adapted for that purpose. No person of common un- 
 derstanding, would ever think of allowing the live stock of 
 his neighbours to feed upon his pastures, as the diminution 
 of food to his own stock, by that circumstance, would be 
 
 * Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. 53. 
 
 f Pitt’s Essay on the Extirpation of Weeds, p. 255. 
 
 £ The white darnel, ( lolium temulentum) , for instance, if ground into 
 flour with wheat, and the bread eaten hot, will produce deleterious effects 
 on the human body; and if malted with barley, the ale soon occasions 
 drunkenness. Withering. — This, however, is a scarce plant with us. The 
 true darnel of agriculture, is the bromus secalinus of Botany. It is annual, 
 and grows almost as large and as strong as wheat. 
 
284 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 sufficiently obvious. A little consideration, however, may 
 convince every individual, that a multitude of weeds, inter- 
 spersed among his grasses, produce effects not less mis- 
 chievous, than those that would ensue from such depreda- 
 tions of live stock. Yet from the Cheshire Report it ap- 
 pears, that in some of the best-conditioned pastures in that 
 county, ragwort, docks, thistles, and knapweed, occupy at 
 least half the land, to the exclusion of an equal number of 
 useful plants*. 
 
 Above twenty different kinds of weeds infest grass lands, 
 besides about thirty more, of less importance, whose cha- 
 racters are doubtful, or whose uses are not ascertained. 
 Some of the most worthless, as the rush, (juncus), and the 
 sedge tribe, (earexes ), may be got the better of by draining ; 
 others, like the mosses, ( musci ) , either by cultivation or 
 manure ; but there are a few which require individual atten- 
 tion, before they can be eradicated, in particular the dock, 
 the thistle, and the rag-weed. 
 
 The dock has been already mentioned as a weed in arable 
 lands. It is equally injurious to grass, both on account of 
 its seeds and its roots. Its seeds are exceedingly numerous, 
 and heavy, but the stem is flexible, and the recoil from a 
 blast, with a high wind, spreads them to some distance. 
 Docks are found to vegetate equally on turf, and on naked 
 mould. Every bit of root forms a new plant, even after 
 the heart has been consumed by a species of caterpillar. 
 To eradicate this plant in grass lands, the root must be com- 
 pletely taken out by the dock-iron, on, or before the time 
 of flowering, and thoroughly destroyed : this can generally 
 be effected, after much rain. They are refused by cattle; 
 but are eaten by fallow deer, which prevents their flourish- 
 ing in parks. This plant is best exterminated when the 
 ground is in pasture. It is said, that if it is cut in June, 
 and the operation repeated as soon as the second shoot ap- 
 pears, the root is found to decay, and that it will not ger- 
 minate a third timef. 
 
 Thistles have also been mentioned as infesting arable 
 lands. They are generally weeded out of the corn, but are 
 too frequently left in full possession of the grass-land, by 
 which much damage is incurred ; yet these weeds are most 
 successfully eradicated when the land is pastured, .as they 
 then stand detached, and can easily be destroyed. The 
 
 * Cheshire Report, p. 244 . This is also the case in Derbyshire, vol. ii. 
 p. 191. 
 
 f North Wales Report, p. 305. 
 
285 
 
 On Weeding Land, 
 
 thistle ought to be torn from the main root every year, when 
 the plant is in its greatest vigour ; the root itself is thus 
 injured, gradually decays, and the plant is ultimately got 
 rid of. They have been destroyed in a cow-pasture, by 
 mowing the ground for hay three years in succession*, a 
 full proof of the advantages of regularly cutting this plant 
 for a succession of years. They ought to be let alone, till 
 their blossoms begin to appear, for if cut in a young state, 
 fresh shoots are produced from the sides of each plant. 
 When mow'n in full bloom, the stem is hollow, by which 
 the dew and rain descend into the heart of the plant, and 
 occasion it to rotf ; yet as the blossoms in that state, are' 
 capable of ripening their seed, the safer way is, for the 
 mowing to take place on the earliest appearance of the 
 blossoms. 
 
 The rag- weed, (senicio jacoLeea ) , infests some fields more 
 than the thistle, more especially when the soil is sound or 
 dry, for it is seldom to be met with in wet lands. From the 
 number of plants of this species, which are often seen 
 crowding fine pastures, leaving little room for other herbage, 
 it would seem, as if the possessors of the land, held it to be 
 invincible. Sheep are very fond of its young leaves, pro- 
 bably bite off the crown on its first appearance, and thus 
 contribute to banish it from the pastures on which they are 
 fed. But all pastures cannot be occupied by sheep, and 
 neither cows nor horses will touch it. The only effectual 
 mode to destroy rag- weed, is to pull the plant up, just be- 
 fore the flower expands, which is commonly very practicable, 
 as its fibrous roots do not penetrate deep, and are easily 
 taken out, after a plentiful showerj. 
 
 From the large size of the weeds above-mentioned, and 
 the numbers of them which are frequently to be met with 
 in grass land, it is obvious, that great damage is necessarily 
 incurred ; much of the herbage becomes inaccessible to 
 pasturing animals ; the soil is robbed of vegetable nourish- 
 ment and, in some cases, all the country round infested 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, (by T. A. Knight, Esq.), 
 vol. ii. p. 184. Mowing them twice in the same year, in pastures, would be 
 equally effectual. 
 
 f Kent Report, p. 164. 
 
 + From the Communications of John Naismith, Esq. on Grass Lands. 
 Others recommend cutting the stems before they run to seed, as likely, in 
 process of time, to be effectual. 
 
286 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 with flying seeds. The extirpation of weeds, therefore, is 
 not only essential for the interest of the farmer, but a matter 
 of general concern* * * § . On that account, it has been sug- 
 gested, that every farmer should be obliged, under a statutory 
 penalty, to cut over, in the course of the month of July, all 
 those weeds that are to be found in his grass-lands, in his 
 hedges, or upon the sides of any road that may lead through 
 the farm he occupies. The effects of such a regulation 
 would be highly beneficialf ; more especially when there is 
 a malicious encouragement given to thistles or other weeds, 
 as is sometimes the casej. 
 
 3. Weeds in Hedges . — Both young and old hedges suffer 
 greatly from the w r eeds which infest them, and of course 
 their growth is considerably impeded. Indeed young quicks 
 cannot thrive unless they are kept clean. Every weed 
 growing in hedges, is a nuisance, more especially, if it is 
 suffered to ripen its seeds, which are liable to be carried into 
 cultivated land by the wind, or conveyed by water to flooded 
 or irrigated meadows§. There are also some kinds of 
 hedge- weeds, which bear the character of being hurtful to 
 stock. On these accounts, all plants growing in hedges 
 should be extirpated, as useless in themselves, and often 
 injurious to the neighbouring fields, or the domesticated 
 animals which pasture in them. 
 
 4. Weeds in Waste Lands . — While lands of this descrip- 
 tion continue uncultivated, it is highly expedient, that, at 
 the joint expence of the parties interested, (if they be held 
 in common), measures should be taken, for destroying weeds, 
 and thus introducing better herbage. Furze and broom 
 might thus be extirpated, and the land sown with hay-seeds 
 in moist weather. Ferns should be mown and carried off in 
 summer, their value, as litter, being well worth the labour. 
 In Norfolk, they are mown by the cottagers, for fuel. 
 
 * It is much disputed, whether the butter-flowers, ( ranunculus biilbosus y 
 repens , et acris ), should be considered as a weed or not. Horses are cer- 
 tainly not fond of these plants, but cows will eat the foliage of the ranuncu- 
 lus repens , greedily with other herbage. — Pitt's Essay on the Extirpation of 
 f Feeds, p. 362. 
 
 + General Report of Scotland, vol. ii, p. 5 70. 
 
 X Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 101, note. — This would be a most bene- 
 ficial law, and were it extended to Ireland, it would be found doubly neces- 
 sary. The practice of cutting weeds on the sides of roads, is so very un- 
 common among the farmers in that country, that the clean and industrious 
 cultivator, has not only to eradicate the weeds natural to his own farm, but 
 also those created through the neglect of his neighbour .-— Remark by Edward 
 Burroughs, Esq, 
 
 § Ibid. vol. ii. p. 177, 478. 
 
On Weeding Land . 28/ 
 
 .Lands in common, would thus be rendered capable of main- 
 taining a greater number of stock. 
 
 As attention has seldom been paid to the draining of such 
 lands, much stagnant water, and several bog weeds, are to 
 be met with. These plants would give way to better her- 
 bage, if the bogs were drained, and this ought to be done, 
 by a rate levied upon the inhabitants having right of com- 
 mon, a majority of whom, in value of property, should be 
 authorized by law, to impose it. In this way, the herbage 
 produced would be of a better quality, and the health of the 
 stock pastured upon it, would be better preserved. 
 
 5. Woods and Plantations . — A great number of plants, 
 that may justly be denominated weeds , are to be met with 
 in woods and plantations. As cattle or sheep are not usually 
 admitted into these, until the trees are grown out of their 
 reach, as in groves, it is of less consequence what plants 
 grow upon the surface ; but if briars and brambles should 
 appear, they ought to be grubbed up, as making a planta- 
 tion inaccessible even to its owner; and as ivy is injurious 
 to the growth of timber, by confining and fretting the trees, 
 and depriving them of the nourishment they would other- 
 wise receive, it should be cleared away, before it has too 
 long established itself ; otherwise it becomes a kind of gar- 
 ment, the removing of which may chill, and in that way in- 
 jure the tree. 
 
 6. Gardens . — A list of twenty-two plants has been given, 
 to the growth of which gardens are liable. Several of them, 
 like the couch, the common thistle, the common nettle, &c. 
 are to be met with in the fields and hedges. Sometimes 
 the seeds are wafted by the wind, and at other times intro- 
 duced with the manure. Hence the advantage of using 
 fermented dung, by which the vegetative power of seeds is 
 destroyed. From the attention, however, paid to the garden 
 culture, it is seldom that weeds are suffered to grow to any 
 injurious excess. 
 
 2. Instruments made use of in Weeding, 
 
 There are several sorts of instruments used for that pur- 
 pose, in particular, those for cutting weeds ; — for pulling 
 them up; — for digging them out; — also hand-hoes; — 
 horse-hoes ; — harrows ; — and the scarifier, or grubber. 
 
 1, Thistles are sometimes cut by the sickle in corn crops, 
 and by the scythe, or spud, in grass fields ; but more gene- 
 
288 
 
 On Weeding Land. 
 
 rally by a simple instrument called the weed-hook, when the 
 crops are growing. 
 
 2. In several instances, thistles among corn are pulled by 
 the hand. Where this plan is adopted, the hand of the 
 weeder is covered by a strong glove, which enables the per- 
 son to take fast hold of the weed, and to pull it up. 
 
 3. Weeds are frequently rooted out by an instrument 
 called the docking-iron. It consists of a forked, or clefted 
 spike of iron, jagged within the cleft, and fixed to the end 
 of a wooden lever; this being forced down by the hand or 
 foot, so as to inclose the root of a dock or large thistle, will 
 easily wrench it up, particularly after rain. In Bucking- 
 hamshire, a small spade, or spud, is made use of for this 
 purpose, with which the best farmers are accustomed, to cut 
 thistles in their pastures, under ground, twice a year*. 
 
 4. Hand-hoes are of various sizes, suited to the work 
 intended. In several parts of Essex, wheat is sometimes 
 thrice hand-hoed, and if executed early, especially with a 
 thin crop, it is supposed to be beneficialf. But where so 
 great an expence must be incurred, drilling is to be pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 In Gloucestershire, hand-hoeing is still more prevalent. 
 The plants of wheat are set out by the hoe, about six inches 
 from each other, by which the heads are rendered larger and 
 more productive. If any weeds, after all, make their appear- 
 ance, they are destroyed by hand pulling:}:. 
 
 In hand-hoeing drilled turnips, the tool is struck down- 
 wards, unless when the turnips are to be thinned, or set out, 
 when the operator shoves and pulls with it, (as the operation 
 is technically termed), that is, the hoe is alternately pushed 
 across the drill, and drawn back, thus singling out the 
 plants. 
 
 5. Horse-hoes are either what are called Dutch-hoes, 
 (provincially scrapers), or small ploughs of the ordinary 
 construction. In either case, the hoeing is executed by the 
 aid of one horse; and skilful ploughmen are selected for 
 conducting this branch of rural labour. 
 
 * By this means, Mr. Westcar has completely eradicated thistles in his 
 extensive pastures. Bui kinghamshire Report , 239. — In Thorney Fen, the per- 
 manent pastures, have been gradually cleared by the same process, 
 f Essex Report, vol. i. p. 300. 
 
 X Gloucestershire Report, p. 116. It is also practised in Worcester- 
 shire. Report , p. 205. — In 1817, thistles are said to have abounded so much 
 among the barley crops, between Witney and Cheltenham, as frequently to 
 exceed the corn in height. 
 
On Weeding Land . 
 
 289 
 
 6. The brake-harrow is a more effectual and expeditious 
 mode of removing root-weeds than ploughing. The teeth 
 should be 15 inches long, not sharp, but set obliquely for- 
 ward. The land, if perfectly dry, should be rolled and 
 harrowed alternately. 
 
 7. But the scarifier or grubber, is perhaps the most effec- 
 tual implement hitherto invented for the extirpation of 
 root-weeds. (See Chap. II. Sect. 7, No. 1, p. 116), and 
 the knowledge of so useful an instrument cannot be too 
 generally diffused. 
 
 3. The Expence of the Process . 
 
 Considering the important advantages derived from weed- 
 ing, the expences cannot be accounted great ; and they 
 are always amply repaid, if the work be executed with 
 judgment. 
 
 The expence of cutting weeds, or pulling them up by the 
 hand, in crops of grain, must vary according to circum- 
 stances. Cutting thistles is often done at the rate of from 
 sixpence to one shilling per acre, according to the number 
 of plants with which the land is infested. Effectual hand- 
 weeding will, in general, cost at least 10s. per statute acre, 
 but in some cases more. The weeders begin as soon as the 
 annual weeds will bear pulling; they sit, or rather kneel 
 during the operation, as when weeding flax or carrots ; and 
 pull every weed that has made its appearance. This expence, 
 however, is amply repaid, by the extra produce of the crop, 
 and by the destruction of such a host of enemies, before they 
 have done any injury to the crop. The expence of hand- 
 hoeing crops of grain is very great. When thrice done, it 
 has cost in Essex 31 s. 6d. per acre*. 
 
 The expence of weeding turnips by the hand-hoe varies; 
 the first hoeing, being the most troublesome, will cost from 
 4$. to 5s. per acre : the second, about half that amount. In 
 some cases, it is necessary to hoe turnips a third time, 
 though the expence is then but trifling, seldom more than 
 Is. per acre; total, about 8s-. 6d. per acre. When beans 
 and potatoes are hand-hoed, the soil not being equally well 
 pulverized, the expence will be at least one-third more than 
 that of turnips, or from 9s. to 12s. per acre. 
 
 The scraper will go over an English acre, at the expence 
 of from Is. 8 d. to 2s. When the small plough is used, it 
 
 * Essex Report, vol.i. p. 300, 
 
 U 
 
290 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 will cost about 3s. 6c?. per acre for turnips, and 4s. 6d. for 
 beans and potatoes, each time that the land is hoed. 
 
 It must not be imagined, however, that the expence thus 
 incurred, can be productive of no other advantage than that 
 of cleansing the ground*. In the month of June, these 
 weeds are in their most succulent state ; and if they are col- 
 lected, and remain for a few hours to wither, cattle that 
 are not pampered, will eat them greedily. Sheep also will 
 eat charlock, and in the fens, if charlock appear among the 
 coleseed, lambs are put in, to eat' it off, when in blossom. 
 There is scarcely indeed a hedge-border, or corner of ^ a 
 field, that is not at this season valuable, and whose pro- 
 duce might not be converted into valuable manure; yet in a 
 few weeks, if the transient opportunity be not embraced, 
 it may become a nuisance. The mode of converting weeds 
 into a manure, by mixing them with earth, has been already 
 mentioned (See Sect. 5) ; but if that be considered a trou- 
 blesome operation, they may be mixed with quick-lime, or 
 at any rate collected and burnt, when their ashes will be 
 valuable. 
 
 4. Means of Preventing the Increase of Weeds . 
 
 This is a point which requires a number of precautions 
 on the part of the farmer. 1. There is a great risk of carry- 
 ing a nuisance to his fields, if he use unfetmented dung. 
 2. Great care should be taken, when corn is dressed, that 
 none of the offal, which contains the seeds of weeds, should 
 be thrown upon the dunghill. 3. Seed corn should be 
 thoroughly cleansed from all other substances, before it is 
 deposited in the ground ; and, 4. Attentive farmers, will 
 never purchase any seeds, but those of the cleanest and best 
 sorts. Many fields, after being completely fallowed, and 
 sown with grass-seeds with the fallow crop, have been found, 
 when reploughed, to be stored with weeds of various sorts, 
 most probably from some unfortunate mixture in the grass- 
 seeds. The seeds of docks are often sown with clover, and 
 those of other pernicious plants with ryc-grassf. 
 
 * In Flanders, weeds are collected by hand labour in spring, and are 
 boiled for milch cows, when green food is so difficult to be procured. The 
 farmers thus get their lands weeded by the neighbouring cottagers, for no- 
 thing , solely for the purpose of procuring these weeds for their cattle, and 
 the farmer is thus gratuitously freed from a great nuisance. 
 
 + Pitt’s Essay on the Extirpation of Weeds, p. 2 56. Marshall’s Yorkshire, 
 
291 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 The seeds of weeds, are sometimes brought from the up- 
 lands in floods, floating on the water, and are left in multi- 
 tudes by the eddies, along with mud, in particular places* * * § . 
 These ought to be collected and destroyed. 
 
 5. Regulations for the Destruction of Weeds. 
 
 In several countries, the legislature has interposed its au- 
 thority for the destruction of weeds. By a regulation in 
 France, a farmer may sue his neighbour, who neglects to 
 destroy the thistles upon his land at the proper seasons, or 
 may employ people to do it at the other’s expencef. In 
 Denmark, there is a law to oblige the farmers to root up the 
 corn marigold ( chrysanthemum segetum)%. But the oldest 
 regulation for that purpose, was probably in Scotland; a 
 statute of Alexander II. about the year 1220, having been 
 directed against that weed, which was considered to be pe- 
 culiarly pernicious to corn fields§. Under the authority of 
 that law. Sir William Grierson, a Scottish baron, was ac- 
 customed to hold Goul courts, for the express purpose of 
 fining the farmers in whose growing crops, three heads or 
 upwards of that weed were found||. Such a plan, if gene- 
 rally adopted, would soon extirpate weeds ; and as by a 
 clause introduced into many leases, (and which ought to be 
 universal), the landlord is empowered to cut down these 
 weeds, at the expence of the tenant, if the latter neglect to 
 do it himself ; it is much to be regretted, that so useful a 
 regulation should not be generally enforced. 
 
 The policy of some legislative provision for this purpose, 
 has been frequently suggested. A clause enforcing the 
 extirpation of weeds, in hedges, along the sides of roads, 
 passed the House of Commons; but was thrown out by the 
 Lords. It is to be hoped, that so useful a measure, even on 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 177. 
 
 + Maison Rustique, tom. i. p. 640. 
 
 £ See Withering, quoted by Pitt, p. 451. It is stated in the South Wales 
 Report, vol. ii. p. 195, that of all weeds, corn marygolds are the most dif- 
 ficult so extirpate. These weeds, if abundant, are apt to stick together, and 
 to turn into a kind a mucilage, which prevents the crop from drying, and 
 is injurious both to the straw and the corn. 
 
 § See Skene’s edit, of Regiam Majestatein ; Leges Alex. II. cap. 18. Also 
 Lord Hailes’s Annals, Appendix, No. 3. The statute is very sho/t, and 
 ably expressed. It denounces that man to be a traitor, “ Who poisons the 
 king’s lands with weeds, and introduces into them rt A host of enemies .” — 
 Bondsmen who had this plant in their corn, were fined a sheep for each 
 stalk. 
 
 || Statist. Account of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 4. 
 
 U 2 
 
292 
 
 On Weeding Land. 
 
 a more extensive scale, will soon be passed into a law. By 
 some it is recommended, that the destruction of weeds on 
 the sides of roads, should be done at the parish expence* * * § ; 
 others, by the road-surveyors, and the expence to be stated 
 in their accountsf. 
 
 6. Advantages to be derived from the Destruction of Weeds . 
 
 All plants which grow naturally, among a crop that has 
 been sown, may be regarded as weeds , or, in other words, as 
 enemies to the crop that is cultivated. The destruction of 
 such plants, therefore, must be considered as one of the 
 most important branches of the agricultural art ; for if that 
 is neglected, or even but slovenly performed, the crops may 
 be reduced to the amount of one-fourth, or one-third of a 
 fair average crop, even upon the very best soils. Besides, 
 it merits consideration, that if weeds are suffered to exist, 
 the full advantages of manuring land, and many other im- 
 provements, can only be partially obtained. Nor is this 
 all ; the mixture of weeds in the soil, prevents the crop from 
 receiving the beneficial influence of the atmosphere; — sucks 
 up that moisture so essential for the growth of the crop sown|| ; 
 — tends more than any other circumstance, to injure the crop 
 when -lodged by violent winds or heavy rains ; — augments 
 the risks at harvest, (for a crop that is clean, may be ready 
 for the stack-yard in much less time than is required to 
 harvest it, when encumbered with weeds) ; — and the seeds 
 of these intruders, deteriorate the quality of the grain. 
 Notwithstanding all the injuries thence sustained, how many 
 are there, who hardly ever attempt to remove weeds in an 
 effectual manner§? This negligence is the more to be blamed, 
 because, were farmers at the trouble of collecting all sorts 
 of weeds, before they have formed their seeds, and of 
 mixing them with rich earth, with lime, or fermenting them 
 with dung, they would soon be reduced into a soft pulpy 
 
 * Berkshire Report, p. 365. f North Riding Report, p. 240. 
 
 t This great source of mischief, is not so much thought of as it merits. 
 
 No plant can thrive without moisture, and hence those weeds, which absorb 
 much moisture, .are particularly pernicious. 
 
 § When weeds cannot be extirpated by the horse or hand-hoe, I have 
 always found it necessary, to cut them tivice when in corn crops — the first 
 about the middle of May, and the second early in July. Some farmers, 
 through economy, fa most mistaken one), cut only once, and this is not per- 
 formed, till the weeds have grown so rank, that part of the crop is destroyed, 
 and more of it seriously injured. By the two weedings, especially on thistles, 
 the crop is kept free of weeds, and the land, of the seed they would conse- 
 quently produce. — Remarks by Edward Burroughs, Esq, 
 
293 
 
 On Weeding Land . 
 
 mass, and in this way, a pernicious nuisance might be con- 
 verted into a valuable manure*. 
 
 Various experiments have been tried, to ascertain the 
 positive advantage derived from carefully weeding one part 
 of a field, and leaving another part undone ; among these, 
 the following, made with peculiar accuracy, may be safely 
 relied on. 
 
 1. Wheat . — Seven acres of light gravelly land were fal- 
 lowed, and sown broadcast ; one acre was measured off, 
 and not a weed was pulled out of it ; the other six were 
 carefully weeded. The unweeded acre produced 18 bushels; 
 the six weeded acres, 135 bushels, or 22f per acre, which 
 is 4 \ bushels, or J more produce in favour of weedingf. 
 
 2. Barley. — A six acre field was sown with barley, in 
 fine tilth, and well manured. The weeding, owing to a 
 great abundance of charlock, cost 12,9. per acre. The pro- 
 duce of an unweeded acre was only 13 bushels ; of the 
 weeded, 28. Difference in favour of weeding, 15 bushels 
 per acre, besides the land being so much cleaner for suc*- 
 ceeding crops. 
 
 3. Oats . — Six acres sown with oats ; one acre ploughed 
 but once, and unmanured, produced only 17 bushels. An- 
 other six acres ploughed three times, manured, and weeded , 
 produced 37 bushels. This experiment proves, that oats 
 require good management, and will pay for it as well as 
 other crops J. Ten bushels of the increased produce may 
 be fairly attributed to the weeding; and the other ten to the 
 manure. 
 
 The importance of weeding, both to the individual and 
 to the public, is such, that it ought to be enforced by law. 
 At any rate, a regulation of police, for fining those who 
 harbour weeds, the seeds of which may be blown into their 
 neighbours’ ground, can have no injustice in principle. In 
 England, the petty constable might be required, by precept 
 from the high constable, to give in presentments to the 
 
 * Forfarshire Report, p. 416. The diminution and deterioration of crops, 
 and in some cases the actual loss, by weeds, is equal to the rent. — Cornwall 
 Report , p. 136. 
 
 f Mr. Calvert in Nottinghamshh'e, had a crop of wheat that seemed to 
 be smothered with weeds. He hand-weeded it in April, and the produce 
 was nearly four quarters per acre, weighing 65 pounds per Winchester 
 measure. — Notts Report^ p. 117. 
 
 X See an Account of Experiments in Weeding Broad-cast Crops, by Mr. 
 John Wright, of Pickworth, Communications to the Board of Agriculture, 
 vol. vi. p. 387. The weed that grew in the wheat land, is a rampant branch- 
 ing plant, with a blue flower, and is provincially called Midsummer , from 
 its growing at that season of the year. 
 
294 
 
 On Irrigation. 
 
 Quarter-Sessions, containing a list of all persons who suf- 
 fered weeds to run to seed in their hedges or lands, such 
 presentments to be particularly specified to the court. 
 Those referring to the coltsfoot, to be given in at the Lady- 
 day sessions ; and those referring to thistles, rag- weed, &c. 
 to be given in at the Midsummer sessions. An order of 
 court might then be made, for the immediate removal of 
 such nuisances, and if not complied with, the offender 
 should be fined a sum not exceeding five pounds, one half 
 to the informer, and the other half to go for the relief of 
 the popr*. 
 
 If, in consequence of such a system being enforced, from 
 four to five bushels of wheat ; — fifteen bushels of barley ; — 
 and ten bushels of oats additional, were raised in all the 
 fields in the kingdom, whose crops are injured by weeds, 
 the benefit would be well worth the labour and expence ; 
 and the farmers would soon find, that however anxious they 
 may be, to have their lands tithe-free , yet to have them 
 weed-free, is of still greater importancef. 
 
 On the whole, keeping his land in a clean state, ought to 
 be a principal object with every farmer ; and if this be not 
 carefully attended to, he may rest assured of paying dearly 
 for his neglect. But the losses which he suffers, do not re- 
 medy the injury which the public sustains from his slovenly 
 conduct. The regulations, therefore, which have been 
 suggested, may be considered as both expedient and neces- 
 sary ; for were they adopted, it is evident, that many of the 
 evils alluded to would be removed, and the wealth and agri- 
 cultural resources of the nation, materially augmented. 
 
 Sect. VIII. — On Irrigation. 
 
 Water is employed in various ways for the improvement 
 of land. 1. By the process of what is strictly called irriga- 
 tion, when water is made to trickle over the surface ; 2. By 
 flooding, when it covers the soil completely for a period of 
 
 * Pitt’s Essay on the Extirpation of Weeds, p. 257. 
 
 + Cornwall Report, p. 136. Considering the vivacious principle with 
 which weeds arc endowed, it is not amiss to recollect, that if it were not so, 
 there would be little difference between the good husbandman and the 
 sloven. Thus incessant care is excited, and the reward is found, in the esteem 
 that is excited, and in the profit that is produced. 
 
295 
 
 On Irrigation. 
 
 time ; and, 3. By warping , when the water acts merely as 
 a conductor of the warp or mud ; by which the improve- 
 ment is effected. We shall consider these several processes 
 separately, beginning with irrigation. 
 
 This subject embraces the following particulars; — The 
 objects to which irrigation is applied ; — The methods of 
 conducting the process ; — The circumstances necessary to 
 be considered previous to the plan being undertaken ; — The 
 waters best calculated for that purpose ; — The proper soils 
 and subsoils for irrigated meadows ; — The effects of climate 
 on irrigation ; — The expence ; — The profit ; — The grasses 
 best adapted for water-meadows; — The stock fed upon 
 them ; — The making and preserving water-meadow hay ; — 
 The objections which have been urged against irrigation : — 
 The advantages attending it ; — And the improvements of 
 which it is susceptible. 
 
 1. The Objects of Irrigation . 
 
 It is generally supposed, that watering land is only calcu- 
 lated for the purpose of encouraging the production of grass ; 
 but irrigation is likewise applicable to the culture of grain, 
 and has even been made use of for promoting the growth 
 of timber. 
 
 1. Grass . — There are four modes by which water pro- 
 motes the melioration of grass lands. It preserves a favour- 
 able degree of temperature improves the crop, by the 
 nourishing substances it conveys ; — destroys heaths and 
 other weeds, which delight in a dry soil ; — and, as a mere 
 element it is beneficial, more especially in dry seasons*. 
 
 Water, as a carrier, likewise conveys other substances to 
 the soil, by which it is enriched. This is, obviously, the 
 case when land is irrigated by muddy waters, which leave 
 behind them rich mould, and other substances. If lime or 
 marl be held in solution, the waters become highly enrich- 
 ing. Other soluble and nutritive substances are also capa- 
 ble of being conveyed by water in the same manner, on 
 passing through fertile tracts. 
 
 Meadow plants, cut green, without any external moisture 
 on their stalks or leaves, and afterwards dried, lose by ex- 
 siccation, from 66 to 70 parts out of 100. This very large 
 proportion of moisture, (though water is perhaps not the 
 
 * See Dr. Singer’s Treatise on' Irrigation, in the General Report of Scot- 
 land, vol. ii. p. 574. — Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 464. 
 
296 
 
 On Irrigation. 
 
 only substance carried off), is a direct proof, that water 
 itself enters largely into the composition of these vegetables. 
 Water is likewise of use, by the more equable diffusion of 
 nutritive matter in the soil, which it necessarily occasions. 
 
 The system of watering land, however, can never be car- 
 ried to perfection, unless when accompanied by drainage 
 and enclosure. Stagnant water, and impetuous torrents, do 
 essential injury ; but if water is entirely under command, 
 so that it may be laid on, or taken off at pleasure, it may 
 become a most useful instrument, in the hands of a 
 skilful husbandman. Drainage is therefore a necessary 
 preparation for irrigation*. 
 
 With respect to enclosure, it can be of little real use to 
 water lands, unless they are previously secured, by suitable 
 fences, from poaching and trespass. Indeed these are ne- 
 cessary, not only for the advantage of the grass, but for the 
 safety of the stock, as sheep cannot be suffered to resort to 
 lands flooded in summer, from the risk of rot. 
 
 2. Corn . — In the East Indies, not only rice, but wheat 
 and barley, are raised by means of irrigation; and it has 
 Jong been a practice in some parts of Scotland, to enrich 
 the soil for crops of grain, by the same means. Mr. Scrym- 
 soure of Tealing, a gentleman in Forfarshire, followed the 
 practice for nearly fifty years, and with such success, that 
 an enclosure, which had got into an exhausted state, was 
 so enriched by it, that it preserved an uncommon degree of 
 fertility for a succession of crops, (one of them wheat), 
 without fallow, lime, or marl, and with very moderate as- 
 sistance from dungf. The common method was very 
 different. After watering for one or two seasons, they 
 ploughed for oats, and by taking two or three successive 
 crops, the soil was exhausted, and run out into weeds and 
 poverty J. Nothing else could be expected from such 
 management. But in other parts of Scotland, irrigation 
 was not only practised with considerable success§, and for 
 crops of grain, but immense quantities of wild oats, formerly 
 prevalent, were completely extirpated, and for the destruc- 
 tion of which no other means were known, previous to the 
 
 * In preparing irrigated meadows, covered drains can never be safely re- 
 sorted to, because the water would almost certainly get down into them, 
 and destroy them ; and in most instances, the ridges may be made sufficiently 
 high and steep, to effect a sufficient drainage . — Derbyshire Report, rol.it, 
 p. 465. 
 
 + Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. iv. p. 04. 
 
 X Ibid. vol. xv. p. S2. § Ibid. vol. xvi. p. 471, 
 
297 
 
 On Irrigation. 
 
 introduction of fallowing and of green crops*. Water alone, 
 however, without the addition of other substances, will not 
 bring grain to perfection. Hence, though from year to 
 year, it may be applied to meadow and pasture grass 
 with success, yet it cannot be repeated with advantage 
 to corn , except at considerable intervals of time, or accom- 
 panied with manuref. 
 
 The system of irrigating for corn, seems likewise to have 
 succeeded in Somersetshire, where a large tract of country, 
 suffered to remain in pasture for two years, was, during that 
 time, at stated intervals, regularly flooded by a stream de- 
 scending from the adjacent hills. It was then subjected to 
 the following rotation of crops : 1. Wheat on the ley; 
 2. Turnips; and, 3. Barley, and artificial grasses. The 
 produce of grain was very considerable, namely, of wheat, 
 from 40 to 50 bushels, and of barley, from 50 to 60 bushels 
 per statute acrej. In a late publication on the utility of 
 water-meadows, a question therefore is not improperly put, 
 whether, upon particular soils, and under certain circum- 
 stances, irrigation might not produce similar effects upon 
 wheat, and several other plants of the field and the garden, 
 as upon herbage ? The author adds, no good reason can 
 be assigned, why this valuable improvement should be re- 
 stricted to the cultivation of grasses§. 
 
 3. Plantations . — It is recorded in the Statistical Account 
 of Scotland, that irrigation was in one instance used for a 
 very singular purpose. Captain Shand, of Templand, in 
 Aberdeenshire, conducted water through his young planta- 
 tions, and found, that when done with judgment, it was the 
 cheapest and most effectual mode of encouraging the growth 
 of trees||. To the alder, the willow, and even the birch 
 and the ash, it may be of use ; unless in very dry soils, how- 
 ever, it must be dangerous to forest trees. 
 
 But, on the whole, the improvement of grass, seems to 
 be the great object to which the watering of land is ap- 
 plicable. 
 
 * Aberdeenshire Report, p. 444. 
 
 + Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xv. p. 88. 
 
 X Somerset Report, p. 266. This tract is on the demesne of Mr. Luttrel, 
 of Dunster Castle. 
 
 § Observations on the Utility of Water-meadows, by William Smith, En- 
 gineer and Mineralogist. Printed an. 1806, p. 39. — Marshall on Landed 
 Property, p. 260, calls it a probable improvement . — See also Derbyshire Re- 
 port, vol. ii. p. 484. — The late Duke of Bedford had it in view, to adopt 
 this plan of temporary irrigation, for arable land. It has been found of 
 great use, at Woburn Abbey, to irrigate strawberries. 
 
 i) Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xii. p. 286. Parish of Forgue. 
 
298 
 
 On Irrigation. 
 
 2. The Methods of conducting the Process. 
 
 Water meadows are of two sorts ; flowing , calculated for 
 a flat country; and catch-work, for sloping grounds. 
 
 Flowing Meadows . — Where the ground is flat, the soil 
 is formed into beds, or broad ridges, like those met with at 
 bleach-fields. They are commonly from 30 to 40 feet wide, 
 and nine or ten poles in length ; as, in such situations, the 
 great object is, when once brought on, to be able to carry 
 off the water quickly. Hence it is necessary to throw up, 
 the land in high ridges, with drains between them. More 
 of the failures in irrigation arise, from the ridges not being 
 sufficiently high, and the slopes not being sufficiently steep, 
 than from any other cause*. 
 
 Catch-work Meadows . — It is difficult to give an intelli- 
 gible written description of the mode of making these mea- 
 dows. To be properly understood, the operation must be 
 seen. It may, however, in general be remarked, that the 
 system is calculated for sloping grounds ; and that after the 
 water is brought from the original stream, into a new cut, 
 it is stopped at the end, on as high a level as the case ad- 
 mits of, by which the water is made to fill the trench, and 
 run over at the side, and flood the land below it. But as 
 the water would soon cease to run equally, and would wash 
 the land out in gutters, it has been found necessary, to cut 
 small parallel trenches, at the distance of from 20 to 30 feet, 
 to catch the water again, (hence the name originated), and 
 the same plan of spreading, or diffusing, is continued, until 
 the water reaches the main drain at the bottom of the 
 meadowf. It is a great advantage attending the catch- 
 work system, that it is not only less expensive, but the 
 same quantity of water will do much more work. 
 
 In either of these ways, irrigation promotes the growth 
 of grass. The herbage of dry land is impoverished from 
 the want of water; that of wet land, by its remaining stag- 
 nant ; but both these evils are remedied by the processes 
 above described. 
 
 3. Circumstances to be considered, previous to the Plan 
 being undertaken. 
 
 The first point to be ascertained is, whether there be a 
 sufficient quantity of water at command. For want of due 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 459, and 466. 
 
 t Wiltshire Report, p. 119. 
 
On Irrigation. 
 
 299 
 
 attention to this important circumstance, mistakes have 
 sometimes been made, both in England and Scotland, ex- 
 tremely prejudicial to the advancement of irrigation. 
 
 The next objects are, the quality of the water, and the 
 nature of the soil, and subsoil, of the land proposed to be 
 irrigated. 
 
 It is then proper to consider, how , and where , the water 
 can be taken out of the stream. This can only be done by 
 a proper level ; and the assistance of a professed irrigator 
 will be necessary. 
 
 Irrigation being an operation requiring considerable nicety 
 and skill, cannot be advantageously conducted, without 
 attentive hands to form the soil, to lay on and shift the 
 water, and to remove it ; also to cut down the produce, and 
 to make it into hay. On all these accounts, a supply of 
 trusty labourers, for carrying on these several processes, 
 must be provided*. 
 
 Nor is this all. It is likewise necessary to ascertain, 
 whether there are any obstacles to the proposed improve- 
 ment, arising from the claims of millers, or canal ownersf, 
 (which are often great impediments), the intervention of 
 other property, or from leases granted to the farmers on the 
 estate. The command of capital, adequate to the expence 
 likely to be incurred, is absolutely necessary. 
 
 4. Of the Water calculated for Irrigation. 
 
 Clear spring-water, in the state in which it issues from 
 the hills, (more especially where the strata are calcareous), 
 is certainly of a fertilizing quality. It is charged with a 
 considerable quantity of vital air ; near the source also, it is 
 usually warmer than other waters, and thence it answers 
 better for irrigation, more especially during severe weather 
 in winter. From these properties, there is always produced, 
 abundance of early succulent grass, for several yards where 
 the water first runs over the land near the spring. Clear 
 spring-water, may also be used longer than the foul or 
 muddy, being less apt to render the grass gritty, and un- 
 wholesome ; hence some give a decided preference to clean- 
 watered crops;];. 
 
 * Communications by Mr. Boulton, a flooder, or floater, from Gloucester- 
 shire. General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 596. 
 
 f The owners of canals, ought to be the greatest promoters of irrigation. 
 The waste water of the canals in England, might irrigate many thousand 
 acres. 
 
 | Smith’s Observations, p. 68 and 74. 
 
300 
 
 On Irrigation, 
 
 Mountain streamlets, fed principally by springs, are more 
 at command than rivers, and more convenient to be directed 
 over slopes, and are also better calculated for improving 
 grass. 
 
 Where river-water is accessible, it is commonly loaded 
 with many enriching substances from the country, and the 
 towns and villages through which it passes; and is thus 
 productive, not only of temporary, but of permanent im- 
 provement. 
 
 Sea-water also, where it can be employed for that purpose 
 in moderate quantities, or made use of within embanked 
 marshes, is applicable to the purposes of irrigation. It 
 contains, more especially near the land, not only animal and 
 vegetable substances, but also saline mixtures in solution. 
 The utility of salt marshes to diseased horses, and their 
 acting as a restorative to sheep in danger of, or infected by, 
 that fatal malady, the rot, in well known. Those ideas are 
 corroborated by an observation, that the meadows near the 
 mouth of the Severn, where salt water is spread over the 
 lands by the tide , are grazed, instead of being mown, and 
 are accounted the best possible pasture for horses and cattle 
 that require rest, and spring physic*. 
 
 In regard to waters much impregnated with iron, they 
 were formerly supposed totally unfit for the purposes of 
 irrigation ; but it is now fully proved, by the accurate ex- 
 periments of an able chymist, and by the extraordinary 
 growth of grasses in Prisley meadow, in Bedfordshire, that 
 ferruginous waters are friendly to vegetation, when properly 
 appliedf. Chalybeate springs, however, or water impreg- 
 nated with other mineral substances, as lead or copper, 
 never does good ; and it is well known, that waters of that 
 description, after they have been brought into fields, by 
 levels cut at a considerable exj)ence,have again been diverted, 
 and suffered to How in their original channels];. 
 
 Waters that are impregnated with the juices that flow 
 from peat- mosses, are considered by many, not worth ap- 
 plying to the soil§. It is objected to them, that they are 
 soon frozen; — that they convey no material nutriment; — 
 and that they are commonly loaded with such antiseptic 
 
 * Gloucestershire Report, p. 165- 
 
 Smith’s Observations on Irrigation, p. 28. 
 
 X Remark by the Rev. Robert Hoblyn. 
 
 § These waters generally hold in solution, a portion of oxide of iron, 
 commonly called “ green vitriol,” supposed to be a preventive of the rot, 
 as sheep in the Cambridgeshire fens, where that substance abounds, never 
 take that disease. 
 
On Irrigation . 
 
 301 
 
 substances, as will retard, instead of promoting vegeta- 
 tion*. It is urged on the other hand, that a want of suffi- 
 cient slope in the meadow, or of proper management in 
 regard to the water, may have occasioned the disappoint- 
 ments experienced in some cases, when bog-waters have 
 been appliedf. 
 
 5. Of the Soil and Subsoil. 
 
 Irrigation is not restricted to any particular description of 
 soil. Land naturally wet, may be greatly improved by it, 
 when accompanied by drainage ; and it is equally beneficial 
 to that which is dry!. 
 
 Rich loams produce the largest crops, even though the 
 waters be not of the first quality. Peat-bogs, when pro- 
 perly drained, will likewise yield good cropsj. Irrigating 
 adhesive clays is expensive, and the beneficial effects from 
 it do not soon appear ; but it is evident, from a meadow 
 near Longleat, that even this sort of land may, by good 
 management, be thus rendered more fertile ; and it is well 
 known, that some of the best meadows in Gloucestershire, 
 and at Woburn, are upon a clayey substratum||. 
 
 Barren slopes may be advantageously improved under the 
 catch-work system ; and in this way, much land, at present 
 covered with heath, furze, or broom, may be rendered pro- 
 ductive of hay, or valuable grasses. The most suitable soils, 
 however, are those of a sandy or gravelly nature ; more 
 especially when they can be irrigated by muddy streams, 
 the sediment of which corrects their excessive openness. 
 Indeed, by means of the warm and rich waters, of a low, 
 fertile, and populous district, impregnated with mud, and 
 containing animal and vegetable manures, almost any soil 
 may be converted into a rich meadow. 
 
 The bottom or subsoil of a water-meadow, is of more 
 consequence than even the quality or depth of the soil. A 
 loose gravel, or bed of broken flint, with little or no inter- 
 mixture of earth, where that can be obtained, is the most 
 
 • Dr. Stringer’s Treatise, p.579. f Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p.463. 
 
 X Smith’s Observations, p. 26. 
 
 § Water is of great benefit to peat-bogs, or mossy grounds, by washing 
 away improper ingredients, as the sulphate of alum, by which that descrip- 
 tion of soil is rendered unfertile. In this way peat-bogs may be enabled 
 to produce succulent and nutritive grasses, and to rival the best natural 
 meadows. 
 
 |j Smith’s Observations on Irrigation, p. 44 ; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. 
 p. 462. 
 
302 
 
 On Irrigation. 
 
 desirable subsoil. With such a bottom, in seasons when 
 water is abundant, a soil,' not six inches in depth, is quite 
 sufficient to produce large crops. 
 
 Effect of Climate . — The process of irrigation, seems to 
 be attended with much more beneficial effects, in warm, 
 than in cold climates. The difference of the seasons be- 
 tween Gloucestershire, in England, and Aberdeenshire, in 
 Scotland, produces very important consequences. The 
 latter is usually about five weeks more backward than the 
 former : hence, it is hardly possible, to get such early crops 
 of spring grass, in the districts of Scotland, as are easily to 
 be obtained in England ; and thus one of the principal 
 objects of irrigation, (feeding ewes and lambs in spring), 
 is thought to be unattainable. Nor will the application of 
 water produce two, and sometimes even three crops of 
 hay in Scotland, as it does in North America. The advan- 
 tages of water-meadows, however, are important, inde- 
 pendent of spring feed ; more especially when the catch- 
 work system can be adopted, as the expence of that process 
 is inconsiderable. 
 
 6. The Expence. 
 
 This varies according to the nature of the work. Where 
 the catch-work system is practicable, in favourable situa-^ 
 tions, the forming may be done as low as 10s. per acre. 
 This fact is, in many cases, decisively in favour of this 
 natural and simple mode, which requires also much less 
 water, and often answers fully as well as flat flooding*. 
 
 The expence of bed-work, as it is called, is, however, 
 considerable. If the ground to be flooded, be smooth on 
 its surface, or in regular ridges, and if the water can easily 
 be brought to the meadow, with a temporary weir, supposing 
 the extent to be almost 20 acres, it may be done at from 5/. 
 to 10 1. per acre ; but if the land be of large extent, with an 
 irregular surface; if a large conductor, and a proper weir 
 shall be required, with hatches both in it, and also in the 
 feeders ; and if the aid of a professional person, to lay out 
 and oversee the work, be necessary, (which is generally the 
 case), the expence will vary from 10Z. to 20Z. per acref. 
 Nay, in Wiltshire, where they are anxious to have their 
 meadows formed in the most perfect manner, with that re- 
 
 • Observations by Mr. Boulton, the Gloucestershire flooder.— General 
 Report, vol. ii. p. 599. 
 
 f Observations by Mr. Boulton. — General Report, vol, ii. p. 598. 
 
On Irrigation . 303 
 
 gularity which the nice adjustment of water demands, the 
 expence per acre, has amounted to forty pounds*. 
 
 7. The Profit . 
 
 The profit resulting from this operation, when properly 
 conducted, is always considerable. Mr. Wilkinson proves, 
 by authentic documents, that all the outgoings, both ca- 
 pital and interest, were refunded within two years, besides 
 a very considerable permanent increase in the value of the 
 landf . Mr. Eyres derived great advantage from his mea- 
 dow, even the first season, by pasturing on it sheep, cattle, 
 and even cart-horsesj. Mr. Clough found that land, which, 
 before irrigation was applied, was not worth more than six 
 shillings per acre, was thereby increased in value to 
 21. ]5s. per acre, even to a farmer; and if let to the in- 
 habitants of a market-town in the neighbourhood, would 
 fetch 3/. 10s. if not more§. 
 
 The following is the statement given, of profit from the 
 formation of an irrigated meadow, on the estate of the 
 late Mr. Ferguson of Pitfour, in Scotland ; who carried on 
 that species of improvement with much energy and success. 
 
 1. Interest, at per cent, on the original expence of making, 1 ** 
 
 10/. on an average per Scotch acre, J u 
 
 2 . The old rent of the land, O 10 O 
 
 3. The annual expence, 0 8 0 
 
 £ 1 13 O 
 
 The annual value being raised to 41. per acre, hence, it 
 is calculated that there is a clear profit of 21. Js. per acre, 
 per annum||. 
 
 * Smith’s Observations on Irrigation, p. 56 . — Various accounts were 
 transmitted to the Board of Agriculture, of the expence of making water- 
 meadows in different districts. The Rev. Mr. Clough, near Denbigh, in 
 North Wales, expended 868/. in forming about 30 acres into a water-mea- 
 dow, which is nearly at the rate of 30/. per acre. Comm. vol. i. p. 2G3. — 
 Mr. Eyres, of Lynford Hall, in Norfolk, improved in the same manner, 
 23 acres, at the expence of about sixteen guineas per acre, besides some 
 extra charges. Ditto , vol. vi. p. 329. — Mr. Wilkinson, of Potterton Lodge, 
 near Wetherby, in Yorkshire, converted thirteen acres into water-meadow 
 for about 12/. 12 j. per acre. Ditto t vol. vi. p. 48. — And two spirited 
 farmers of Norfolk, (Mr. Beck of West Lexham, and Mr. Purdy of Castle- 
 Acre), have tried irrigation with great success, at an expence of 30/. per 
 acre. — Ditto , vol, vii. p. 108 and 112. 
 
 + Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 45. 
 
 + Ditto, vol. vi. p. 329. § Ditto, p. 269. 
 
 || General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 601. 
 
304 
 
 On Irrigation. 
 
 A very distinct account is given, of the expence and profit 
 of a water-meadow, in the Hampshire Report. The pro- 
 duce is stated at 91. 3 s. 4 d. per annum, without including 
 the advantage of folding the sheep from the meadow, on 
 tillage or other uplands, which is estimated to be worth 
 16s. 8 d. more, or, in all, 10 1. The expences, including the 
 interest of the money expended in forming the meadow, 
 amount to 51. 18$. (5d. ; leaving a balance of 41. lx. 6d. in 
 favour of the meadow. 
 
 It is, however, contended, that neither the grass, nor the 
 hay, produced by irrigation, contains those feeding or fat- 
 tening qualities which are found in upland herbage. The 
 stock will “ hold their own,” or keep to the state they were 
 in, when put to such food ; they will increase in size, but 
 not in condition. Others will not admit to its full extent, 
 the truth of that doctrine ; and besides maintain, that the 
 benefits resulting from irrigation, are sufficiently ample, to 
 support the practice, even though its produce may not pos- 
 sess a feeding or grazing quality*. Nor is the pecuniary 
 profit arising from irrigation, so material, as those indirect, 
 or secondary advantages resulting from the system, which 
 shall afterwards be detailed. 
 
 8. The Grasses best adapted for JVater- Meadows. 
 
 Where the catch-work system is adopted, the surface of 
 the meadow is rarely much broken ; the natural grasses in 
 the ground are trusted to, and it is seldom necessary to pro- 
 cure any seeds, except for bare or vacant spots. When 
 ridges, however, are formed by the spade or the plough, 
 they are generally destitute of grass when first laid down. 
 It is necessary, therefore, to sow the seeds of such plants 
 as are best calculated to produce valuable and abundant 
 crops. The most usual are, 1 . Perennial red clover, cow, 
 or marl grass ; (trifolium medium) ; 2. The rough-stalkecl 
 meadow-grass, (poa trivialis) ; and, 3. The crested dog’s- 
 tail, (cynosurus crystatus). Timothy, (phleum pratense), 
 is greatly preferred for water-meadows in America $ and, in 
 boggy lands, florin, (agrostis stolonifera) , is found peculiarly 
 productive in that species of soil. Where the object is pas- 
 ture, rather than hay, white clover, rye-grass, and the mea- 
 dow fox-tail ought not to be omitted. The soil of itself, 
 when watered, will produce grasses, the most congenial to 
 the state of the land, and the degree of moisture applied to 
 
 Hampshire Report, p. 1277. 
 
305 
 
 On Irrigation . 
 
 it ; but a little manure, at the commencement of irrigation 
 by beds, (unless the turf has been pared, and preserved to 
 be put upon the surface), is thought by some advisable. 
 In short, the superior grasses in general, will thrive under 
 irrigation. 
 
 9. The Stock to be Fed on Water-Meadows . 
 
 The advantage which a sheep farmer derives, when the 
 climate will admit of it, by feeding his ewes and lambs in 
 spring * * * § , on a watered meadow, can hardly be sufficiently 
 estimatedf. At that pinching period of the year, food is 
 always scarce, — and lambs, once checked in their growth, 
 cannot afterwards be fattened. There is an interregnum, 
 (if the expression may be used), between the vegetation of 
 one year, and that of another, which is best supplied by an 
 early crop of grass. Where this expedient is not resorted 
 to, or where Swedish turnips, cole, or savoys, (kail), are not 
 extensively cultivated, the farmer may have no succulent 
 food to give his flocks, and he will of course suffer severely. 
 During spring, Bakewell recommends, that no heavier stock 
 than sheep, or calves, should be admitted on the meadow. 
 Much, however, depends, upon the quality of the soil and 
 subsoil, for where either consists of gravel, a farmer can feed 
 his milch-cows during the spring, and after making a con- 
 siderable quantity of cheese, may obtain three tons of hay 
 per acre|. In Wiltshire, after a crop of hay is taken, it is 
 not usual to attempt a second, unless hay is very scarce ; for 
 the grass being of a soft nature, it takes so much time to 
 dry, that it can seldom be well made into hay: and it is of 
 much greater value when fed with dairy cows, which may 
 remain on the meadows, till the flooder begins to prepare 
 for the winter watering§. In autumn, fatting beasts, and 
 even cart-horses, have been put on a water-meadow||. 
 
 * It is generally supposed, that sheep would be rotted , by pasturing on 
 watered-meadows at any time, except in the spring; but in Derbyshire, 
 there are several well authenticated instances to the contrary. Report , 
 vol. ii. p. 472 and 475. — Much probably depends upon the slope, but more 
 on the soil or water being calcareous. It is said that in Ireland, sheep and 
 lambs are rotted on water-meadows even in springy but that is not the case in 
 England. 
 
 f Half an acre of water-meadow will support 1000 sheep per day, in 
 spring. — Smith’s Observations , p. 111. — Wiltshire Report , p. 127. 
 
 + Smith’s Observations, p. 111. 
 
 § Wiltshire Report, p. 128. 
 
 It Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 47. 
 
 X 
 
30(5 
 
 On Irrigation. 
 
 10. On Water-Meadow Hay . 
 
 The grass of water-meadows, being frequently large, and 
 coarse in its nature, makes it advisable to cut it young ; and 
 then, if it be well made, the hay is of a nourishing and 
 milky quality, either for ewes or dairy cows. It has like- 
 wise been given to horses, and when properly made, they 
 thrive upon it*. 
 
 It is proper, however, to observe, that from the great 
 succulence of the herbage, the making of water-meadow 
 hay, requires a very considerable degree of attentionf \ and 
 that when the grass from which it is made, has been over- 
 watered, or rendered impure by scum or mud ; or when the 
 hay has been ill made in the fields, or injured in the stacks, 
 it will be hurtful to any stock to which it is given : but that 
 altogether originates from mismanagement ; and it has been 
 found by experience, that cows, if they do not fatten so 
 well, yet give much more milk from hay produced by irri- 
 gation, when cut early, and thence having much softness 
 and succulency, than from any hay produced from grass- 
 lands, that had not been irrigated^. 
 
 1 1 . Objections urged against Irrigation . 
 
 Some have asserted, that water-meadows render a country 
 unhealthy, by making the water stagnant ; but no opinion 
 can be more erroneous. In fact, where meadows are irri- 
 gated, the water must constantly be passing over the sur- 
 face, with a brisk current, and always kept in motion, to be 
 of any service. Many of the best meadows also, in their 
 original state, were unwholesome morasses, the draining 
 of which, has essentially contributed to the salubrity of the 
 air§. 
 
 Others think, that though the produce may be increased, 
 it becomes in a few years of so coarse a nature, mixed with 
 rushes, and water plants, that cattle frequently refuse to 
 eat it, and when they do, their appearance proclaims that 
 it is far from being of a nutritious quality || . But this ob- 
 jection is never applicable to meadows skilfully made, and 
 
 * Buckinghamshire Report, p. 283 ; Transactions of the Highland Society, 
 vol. iii. p. 201, and 283. 
 
 t Dr. Singer has given some very judicious directions for that purpose.— 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 610, &c. 
 
 X Berkshire Report, p.370, note. § Wiltshire Report, p. 122. 
 
 || Rutland Report, p. 114. 
 
On Irrigation . 
 
 307 
 
 properly managed; and whenever the grasses are coarse, 
 they should be cut earlier, if intended for hay. Rushes 
 and water plants are proofs, that the meadow lies too flat, 
 and is ill managed. 
 
 12. Advantages of Irrigation, 
 
 Where the situation is favourable, the following benefits 
 result from the practice of irrigation. 1. With the excep- 
 tion of i carping, it is by far the easiest, cheapest, and most 
 certain mode of improving poor land, in particular if it is of 
 a dry and gravelly nature. 2. Land, when once improved 
 by irrigation, is pul in a state of perpetual fertility , without 
 any occasion for manure, or trouble of weeding*, or any 
 other material expence. 3. It becomes so productive, as to 
 yield the largest bulk of hay, besides abundance of the very 
 best support for ewes and lambs, in the spring, and for 
 cows and other cattle in the autumn of every year. 4. In 
 favourable situations, it produces very early grass in the 
 spring, when it is doubly valuable; and, 5. Not only is the 
 land thus rendered fertile, without having any occasion. for 
 manure, but it produces food for animals, which is converted 
 into manure, to be used on other lands , thus augmenting, 
 in a compound proportion, that great source of fertility!. 
 
 Were these advantages more generally known, or more 
 fully appreciated, a large proportion of the kingdom might 
 become like South Cerney, in Gloucestershire, where every 
 spring, or rivulet, however insignificant, is made subservient 
 to the purpose of irrigation, fertilizing, in proportion to its 
 size, either a small quantity, or a large tract of landj. 
 
 13. Improvements suggested in the Practice of Irrigation . 
 
 In some recent publications on the subject of irrigation, 
 hints are suggested, for the farther extension and improve- 
 ment of that operation. 
 
 * The large water-dock is the weed that principally infests water-mea- 
 dows. It ought to be carefully eradicated. — Smith's Observations , p. 40. 
 
 •f* In Davis’s Wiltshire, it is calculated, that 2000 acres of water-meadows 
 will, on a moderate estimate, produce in four or five years, 10,000 tons of 
 manure, and will keep in permanent fertility 400 acres per annum of arable 
 land. 
 
 X Gloucestershire Report, p. 280^— Watering of land, is also of use, by 
 destroying vermin in the soil. Bakewell practised tins with success in 
 lands under tillage. Red worms were thus destroyed; and snails, and grey 
 slugs, though they in general like moisture, and injure crops most in damp 
 weather, yet do not agree with wetness. 
 
 x 2 
 
308 
 
 On Flooding Land. 
 
 The first is, that of watering land by machinery. If the 
 land be put in a proper form for irrigation, and supplied 
 with a good stream, at proper seasons, there can be no dif- 
 ference, from the method of getting it on the surface ; and 
 if all other circumstances are equally favourable, the same 
 fertility may be expected, from water thrown up by a drain 
 mill, as that which runs from a brook* * * § . A cheap and 
 effectual power, for raising water in sufficient quantities, to 
 flow about ten acres at a time, would be an invaluable ac- 
 quisition ; for a productive water-meadow, is probably the 
 true mark of perfection, in the management of a farmf. 
 
 The other suggestion is, that of employing machinery, to 
 raise not only fresh, but even sea-water, for irrigation^. It 
 is well known, how much all kinds of stock are improved by 
 salt marshes, and how beneficial to them, is a moderate 
 quantity of saline matter. There are many parts of the 
 kingdom, where, by the aid of machinery, these advantages 
 might be obtained at a moderate expence§. 
 
 Sect. IX . — On Flooding Land . 
 
 The mode of improvement by “ Flooding ” is, when the 
 land is overflowed, or drowned by a quantity of water, from 
 a stream or lake ; by means of which, (if it takes place in a 
 favourable season), the future production of crops, both of 
 grass and of grain, is promoted. It differs completely from 
 irrigation, in which the water ought constantly to be in a 
 jflowing state . whereas in the process of artificial flooding, 
 it is wholly or nearly stagnant. The great object of the 
 process is, 1. To admit the water, without any injury to the 
 surface of the soil from the force of the stream that is ad- 
 mitted j and, 2. To withdraw it in such a soft and regular 
 
 * Smith’s Observations on Water-Meadows, &c. p. 93. 
 
 The celebrated wheel invented by Mickle, and employed for raising 
 water to float off the moss, at Blair-Drummond, in Stirlingshire, might sup- 
 ply the water. Mr. Boys mentions a wind puinp near Deal, that costs only 
 thirty guineas, and would raise 1600 butts in twenty-four hours. 
 
 •f Middlesex Report, p. 322. J Smith’s Observations, p. 87. 
 
 § Several works are published, which give practical directions, for the 
 formation and management of water-meadows: as those of Wright, and 
 Boswell; — Smith’s Treatise, above quoted, — and Mr. Young’s Calendar. 
 In the Appendix to the General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 130, there 
 are a number of useful plans and suggestions, by Mr. John Boulton, a na- 
 tive of Gloucestershire, who had been for seven years an irrigator there, and 
 has since practised for above 12 years in Aberdeenshire. 
 
On Flooding Land . 309 
 
 manner, that none of the mud, deposited on the surface, 
 shall be taken away. 
 
 Along the margins of many of the rivers in England and 
 Scotland, the meadows are thus improved — When the 
 floods take place in winter, or spring, they produce the 
 most fertilizing effects ; but these flat grounds, being rarely 
 protected by, embankments, they often suffer severely from 
 overflowings in summer and autumn. The management of 
 these meadows, on improved principles, shall be discussed 
 in a subsequent Section. (Chap. IV. Sect. 3.) 
 
 The most striking instance known in Great Britain, of 
 advantage being derived from the inundations of a lake, is, 
 that of Loch Ken, in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright. At 
 the head of that beautiful piece of water, there is a flat of 
 about 240 statute acres, which is rendered, by flooding, one 
 of the richest spots in Scotland. Many acres in it, produce 
 at the rate of three tons of hay each, and some parts of 
 it, have been cropped with grain, for 25 years in succession, 
 without any manure, except what it receives from the inun- 
 dations it experiences. These, however, leave behind them, 
 a variety of enriching substances*. 
 
 The advantages of flooding, in favourable circumstances, 
 cannot therefore be too highly appreciated ; and it evidently 
 appears that water, in a stagnant state, may produce the 
 most beneficial effects, more especially where the surface is 
 incumbent upon an open subsoil or bottom. 
 
 From the advantageous consequences of flooding, when 
 done by nature, there is reason to imagine, that the same 
 benefit would result from it, when artificially executed ; 
 and this was formerly attempted in various parts of the 
 kingdom. Hence the obsolete practice of floating upwards, 
 as it was termed. For that purpose, the water was penned, 
 in times of floods, by means of a dam or flood-gate across 
 the bottom of the meadow, or flat to be watered. The 
 waters were not suffered to remain long upon the land, but 
 were let off, as soon as it was judged that they had dropped 
 their sedimentf . The benefit arising from this method of 
 using flood waters, it is said, was considerable ; but when 
 the improved mode of irrigation, by floating ridges, was 
 introduced, and found more advantageous, the other was 
 discontinued^. 
 
 * Statistical Account of Scotland, vol.iv. p. 260. 
 
 + The plan resembled in principle the modern system of warping. 
 
 X Marshall’s Midland Counties, Minute 27. — The system of floating up- 
 wards , ought, however, not to be given up, as it may answer in many 
 rases, where irrigation cannot be practised, but at an enormous expence. 
 
310 
 
 On Flooding Land, 
 
 Besides these meadows, mill-ponds thus fertilized, were 
 rendered dry, and cropped with oats ; artificial pieces o. 
 water, were likewise filled up, and became productive ; and 
 by means of sluices, and other contrivances, low grounds 
 and bogs were laid under water during the winter months, 
 and greatly enriched, with productive vegetable earth, from 
 the surface of the higher parts. The waters were let off in 
 spring, and the ground was then ploughed and sown*. But 
 in consequence of the great humidity of the soil, the crops 
 were very late, and in a wet summer, they were lodged and 
 spoiled. In dry seasons, however, and where proper atten- 
 tion was paid to the draining and ridging of the soil, the 
 returns were considerable, and the land was enabled, with- 
 out manure, to raise good crops of grainf. 
 
 In discussing this mode of reclaiming waste land, it is 
 proposed to consider the following particulars : — The man- 
 ner in which the plan ought to be carried into effect; — The 
 mode in which the flooding operates ; — The kinds of water 
 either proper or improper for the purpose ; — The seasons 
 fittest for the operation ; — and, The advantages and disad- 
 vantages attending itj. 
 
 1. Manner of carrying the Plan into Effect, — This plan 
 of improvement, is only calculated for tracts, where there 
 is a command of water, and an opportunity of stemming 
 it up, so as to overflow the whole surface. In many places, 
 there are such situations, in particular all land-locked peat- 
 mosses, that lie on a level lower than the adjacent springs 
 or rivers. In some districts, 200, 300, and even 400 acres 
 of mossy land, may be laid under water, by a single bank 
 at the outlet, which may be effected at a trifling expence. 
 Merely by shutting up such openings, and stemming the 
 streams that flow through them, this species of improve- 
 ment can be artificially accomplished. 
 
 2. Mode in which the Flooding operates. — Some inge- 
 nious reasons have been assigned, for the advantages re- 
 sulting from this process ; as, — that it promotes the fer- 
 mentation of any vegetable matter with which it comes in 
 contact; — and that the mechanical weight of a body of 
 stagnant water, must tend to consolidate, and to improve 
 
 * After fens are flooded by the breaking of banks, the water generally 
 lies on the ground during a whole year : much mischief is done, but the 
 land produces afterwards great and clean crops. 
 
 •f- Colonel Fullarton’s Report of Ayrshire, p. 48 ; and GencraT Report of 
 Scotland, vol. ii. p. 361. The crops should be sown on Iazy-bcds. 
 
 X The observations on the flooding waste lands, are principally taken 
 from Dr. Rennie’s Treatise upon that subject, printed in the General Report 
 of Scotland. — Appendix, vol. ii. p. 17. 
 
311 
 
 On Flooding Land • 
 
 the texture of a soft soil: — But the salutary effects of 
 flooding, may principally be ascribed to the advantages of 
 moisture, so essential for vegetation ; and to the particles 
 of sand, clay, earth, calcareous matter, and other adventi- 
 tious substances, with which the waters are impregnated. 
 In peat-bogs also, flooding has a powerful effect, in decom- 
 posing the antiseptic quality of the tan, or colouring mat- 
 ter contained in the bog, and carrying it off. 
 
 9. The Waters calculated for Flooding. — All sorts of 
 water, are not equally adapted for the beneficial practice of 
 flooding. Pure spring water, especially such as issues from 
 calcareous strata, answers the purpose well : and if it can 
 be used in sufficient quantities, will convert heath, and 
 coarse herbage, into sweet pasture grasses. Soft, and also 
 muddy waters, may be employed with advantage. River 
 water is often impregnated with a number of useful ingre- 
 dients ; and the quality of water may sometimes be artifi- 
 cially improved, by a mixture of calcareous and other sub- 
 stances. But waters that issue from peat-mosses, or soils 
 impregnated with pyrites, or bituminous oil, are said to be 
 injurious, 
 
 4. The Seasons fittest for the Operation.— The object of 
 watering meadows, is essentially different from that of im- 
 proving waste lands by means of flooding. In the former 
 case, water is frequently made use of, to nourish the grasses 
 already produced by the soil. In the latter, the purpose is, 
 to destroy the indigenous plants, as they are generally use- 
 less. Hence, though covering the soil with water in winter , 
 
 ^?s of use, yet the greatest improvement must be effected by 
 summer flooding. The heat of the sun, combined with water, 
 produces a putrid fermentation of the vegetable matter on 
 the surface of the land ; after which, when the land is left 
 dry, the coarse and useless herbage disappears, a rapid 
 growth of succulent grasses rises in its place : this is the 
 case on even steril mosses. 
 
 5. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Process. — The 
 great advantage of flooding is, the cheapness of the process, 
 and the facility with which it is executed. On the other 
 hand, it is only in very flat countries that it can be used 
 to any extent ; and if it be carried on upon a great scale, 
 covering great tracts of country with water, in cold, and 
 still more in the warm seasons of the year, it must render 
 the* climate moist and unwholesome*. At the same time, 
 
 * In the end of summer, and beginning of autumn, if there is a severe 
 frost for a few hours, its effects are peculiarly destructive near flooded lands. 
 
312 
 
 On Warping Land. 
 
 where the situation is favourable, it can hardly fail to be at- 
 tended with benefit, in a pecuniary point of view. 
 
 Sect. X. — On Warping Land. 
 
 There is no circumstance, which proves more clearly, the 
 advantages to be derived from minute and extensive in- 
 quiries, adopting for their basis, the political divisions of the 
 country*, than the discovery of the process called warping 
 land. This most valuable species of improvement, appli- 
 cable wherever tides in their course keep alluvial matters in 
 a state of suspension, was confined to a small district on 
 the banks of the Humber; and though it had existed there 
 for about 50 years, yet not a syllable concerning it, had ever 
 found its way into a page of printed husbandry, and it 
 might have remained unknown for many years longer, had 
 not the Board of Agriculture undertaken the survey of the 
 kingdom, in the course of which it was brought to lightf. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is proper to consider, — The 
 origin of the practice ; — The nature of the improvement; — 
 The means of effecting it ; — The season most suitable for 
 the purpose ; — The expence and profit ; — The mode of cul- 
 tivation and produce ; — The situations where it may be at- 
 tempted ; — and. The improvements and the extent of which 
 it is susceptible ; together with some account of a species 
 of river warping in Italy. 
 
 1. Origin of the Practice . — It is said, that the person who 
 made the first experiment of warping, was Mr. Richard 
 Jennings of Armin, near Howden, in Yorkshire, who tried 
 it about the year 1743];. But it was about the year 1753, 
 
 * When the political divisions of a country are made the basis of in- 
 quiry, no part of it is overlooked or neglected ; — and if there is reason to ex- 
 pect, that every local useful practice may be brought to light ; and ample 
 information obtained, regarding the real state of a country, and the means 
 of its improvement. 
 
 f Lincolnshire Report, p. 32 6. 
 
 J Mr. Day of Doncaster, (West Riding Report, p. 171), states, that 
 warping was first tried “ about 50 years ago,” and his information was 
 given anno 1793. Mr. Marshall was informed at Booth Ferry, near Armin, 
 that one Barker, a small farmer at Rawcliff, was the first warper of land ; 
 and that Jennings of Armin, was a steward or professional person, who ex- 
 tended the practice. Tradition says, that Barker, like other men of aspiring 
 genius, hurt himself at the outset, (as is too often the case), by the prosecu- 
 tion of his scheme, which he was, in consequence, on the point of giving 
 up; but laying his case before a friend, he advanced him fifty pounds, 
 which enabled him to complete his grand design, by which he afterwards 
 
313 
 
 On Warping Land . 
 
 before it was attempted by any other person ; and it re- 
 mained in obscurity, till the beginning of November 1793, 
 when it was made public by three eminent farmers, who 
 had been appointed by the Board of Agriculture, to draw 
 up a report of the husbandry of the West Riding of York- 
 shire*. As the Board had only met for the first time, on 
 the 4th day of September preceding, the discovery of warp- 
 ing, in less than two months, is a striking proof, of the zeal 
 and activity of those, appointed to carry on its inquiries. 
 
 2. The Nature of the Improvement . — The water of the 
 tides that come up the Trent, the Ouze, the Dun, and other 
 rivers which empty themseves into the great estuary of the 
 Humber, is muddy to an excess; insomuch, that in summer, 
 if a cylindrical glass, from twelve to fifteen inches long, be 
 filled with that water when the tide is high, it will presently 
 deposit an inch, and sometimes more, of what is called warp, 
 or a species of mud of great fertility. This substance pro- 
 bably originates from a variety of earthy particles, washed 
 down by the rivers to their mouths, where they are mixed 
 with saline and other matters, with which the sea abounds, 
 and by agitation are rendered so fine, as to be suspended, 
 when the water is agitated by the tide. Some of it was 
 analysed by an eminent chymist, whose report was, that it 
 contained mucilage, and a very minute portion of saline 
 matter ; a considerable quantity of calcareous and most 
 probably aluminous earths ; the residue mica and sand ; the 
 latter in by far the larger quantity, and both in very fine 
 particlesf. 
 
 3. Mode of carrying the Plan into Effect. — The plan of 
 securing by embankments, rich alluvial soil, has been prac- 
 tised for ages ; but it was reserved for modern times, to 
 conduct mud-laden waters, artificially , from the estuary or 
 river in which they flowed, for the purpose of furnishing 
 
 made a little money, so as to be able to forward his children’s progress in 
 life. One of his sons is now settled in business at Hull. Mr. Marshall very 
 properly adds, that those who have made, or are making fortunes by this 
 discovery, ought to ascertain who made it, and should lose no time, in 
 raising a monument to his memory. Eastern Department , p. 107, note.— 
 Mr. Wells, of Booth Ferry, near Howden, mentions it as a tradition, that 
 the utility of this process was an accidental discovery . A stubble field was 
 inundated with water from the river, and covered with mud. The benefit 
 which the field derived from the enriching substances thus brought to it, 
 was the cause of Mr. Barker’s proceeding. 
 
 * Mr. George Rennie of Phantassie, Mr. Robert Brown of Markle, and 
 Mr. John ShirrefF, then farmer at Captainhead in East-Lothian. 
 t Lincolnshire Report, p. 316. 
 
314 
 
 On Warping Land. 
 
 low and barren ground with a sufficient depth of fertile soil*. 
 The mode of executing the plan is extremely simple. 
 When the improvement is determined on, the ground must 
 first be surrounded with banks, from three to four, six, or 
 seven feet high, according to circumstances, that the water 
 may be of a proper depth on the land to be warped, and to 
 prevent the contiguous lands, whether cultivated or not, 
 from being overflowed. The tide is then admitted, and 
 detained, until the sediment in the water is deposited, upon 
 the surface of the land. To render the plan efficacious, 
 there must be a complete power over the water, either to 
 keep it out, or to let it in, according to circumstances ; and 
 to accomplish these objects, there must be, not only a cut 
 or canal made to join the river, but a sluice, (provincially 
 dough), to open or shut, as required. The effect is very 
 different from that of irrigation, for it is not the water that 
 produces the effect, but the warp or mud ; and the great 
 object is, not to manure, but to create a soil of the richest 
 quality, and that at a moderate expencef . 
 
 4. The Season for Warping . — June, July, and August, 
 are undoubtedly the best months for warping, on account of 
 their being in general the driest seasons of the year. Land, 
 however, may be warped in any season, provided the weather 
 be dry, and the fresh water in the river very low. When 
 the season is wet, and the river full of fresh water, this 
 operation cannot be advantageously executed. The fresh 
 water, in this case, stems the tide, and occasions a degree 
 of stagnation, favourable to the repose of the prepared 
 matter, and consequently it is not half so muddy, nor capable 
 of depositing the same quantity of sediment, as when the 
 tide flows in more freely, and stirs up the mud. Warping, 
 in spring, is attended with no peculiar advantage, more 
 than in summer, as there can be no crop the first year. 
 The sediment must lie to soak and dry, before the ground 
 can be cultivated J. 
 
 5. The Expence and Profit. — It is impossible to calculate 
 the expence, without ascertaining the situation of the lands 
 proposed to be warped; the sum it will require to em- 
 bank the lands, to build the doughs or sluices, — to cut the 
 drains, &c. ; and the -quantity of land, the same drains and 
 doughs will be sufficient to warp ; for the greater the 
 
 * Marshall’s Eastern Department, p. 103. 
 
 *f* West Riding Report, p. 164. — Lincolnshire Report, p. 315. 
 
 X Ditto, p. 170. — Marshall’s Eastern Department, p. 105. 
 
315 
 
 On Warping Land. 
 
 quantity, the less will be the expence per acre. There are 
 great quantities of land, however, which might be warped, 
 for so small a sum, as from 31. to 41. per acre ; an expence 
 trifling, when compared to the profit that is derived from 
 the operation. Mr. Webster, at Bankside, in Yorkshire, 
 purchased a farm of 212 acres, which he warped. The 
 price was 1 IZ. per acre, and the expence of warping about 
 12 1. more, or 23 Z. in all. It was immediately rendered by 
 warping worth 701., and in some parts, even 100 /. per acre, 
 at which price warped land frequently sells : but even at 
 701. the profit is immense. Mr. Webster warped some 
 moor-land, worth only Is. 6d. per acre, (for such land there 
 is in that neighbourhood), and could immediately let it for 
 bl. per acre. 
 
 6 . The Mode of Cultivation and Produce . — The best mode 
 of cultivating new warped land, is to sow it with clover, and 
 to let it lay under that crop for two years, in order that it 
 may be brought into a state fit for corn. — It does not answer 
 to sow land, immediately after it is warped, with wheat, 
 even though fallowed ; but after white, or red clover, for 
 two years, a good crop of wheat may be relied on, un- 
 less injured by the slug, which sometimes makes its appear- 
 ance*. 
 
 Nor is it proper, when land is warped, to plant it with 
 potatoes, or to sow it with flax, being at first of too cold a 
 nature ; though these crops may answer, if the land be not 
 too strong for potatoes, after it has been for two or three 
 years in cultivation. In the quality of warped land, there 
 are most essential differences ; some will be very strong, and 
 in the same field some will be very friable. The land 
 nearest the drain is in general the lightest, owing to the 
 quantity of sand that is deposited as soon as the water enters 
 the field : the land farthest from the drain, is, in general, 
 the best. The produce of warped land varies much 3 but 
 in general, it may be stated, of wheat, at from 20 to 40 
 bushels 3 of beans from 35 to 50, and in some rate in- 
 stances 90 bushels 5 and of oats from five to eight quarters 
 per acre. Warped lands require manure, and will not carry 
 many crops without its aid, even where the situation is dry, 
 and the soil fertilef . 
 
 * Their depredations might be prevented, by salt strewed on the surface 
 after the crop was sown. 
 
 *h It is not improbable, that the practice of warping, may be greatly 
 extended. Perhaps warp might be raised by machinery from the bottom of 
 the estuary, to be brought up by the tide ; and if the water impregnated with 
 
316 
 
 On Warping Land . 
 
 7. Ccm the Process be extended ? — Some doubts are enter- 
 tained, whether this great repository of highly prepared 
 matter in the Humber, may not be exhausted*. But there 
 seems no just ground for such apprehension, when the great 
 extent of the estuary in which it is found, is considered, or 
 the vast tract of country, which, for ages, has been pouring 
 down these valuable substances into its bosom. At the 
 same time, it would be desirable to remove every doubt of 
 that sort, by as accurate examinations of the banks or the 
 bed of the river and shoals in it, as is practicable in such 
 cases. If upon inquiry it should be ascertained, that the 
 quantity of warp is as immense, as there is reason to expect, it 
 is to be hoped, that such a treasure, surpassing perhaps, any 
 other that the country is possessed of, will not be neglected. 
 We have the means in our power, of converting land worth 
 only a few pence, to yield a rent of 51. per acre per annum ; 
 or in other words, of transmuting copper into gold. The 
 efforts made in Egypt, to obtain, and to secure the fertility 
 of its soil, in circumstances not very dissimilar, are well 
 known ; and shall nothing be done by the British Govern- 
 ment, to promote an imitation of the husbandry of the 
 Nile, on the banks of the Humber, and of other rivers where 
 it may be found practicable ? Why not give some species 
 of public encouragement to so great a national objectf ? 
 more especially as the valuable substance in question, (silt 
 or warp), is not confined to the Humber, but is to be met 
 with in many of our other rivers and arms of the sea, in 
 great perfection and abundance. 
 
 8. Of River Warping in Italy. — From some late accounts 
 which have been published, of the agriculture and statistics 
 of Italy, it appears, that a species of warping has been long 
 known in Tuscany. It is there called colmata. The rivers 
 
 it, were raised to a higher level, it might be conveyed to a greater distance, 
 and the sediment kept in a flowing state, would not be deposited, till it was 
 suffered to rest. Tt might be worth while to convey the warp itself, when 
 deposited, to a certain distance, on iron railways, or canals, which are so 
 easily made in a flat country ; and which was actually done by the Duke of 
 Bridgewater, to a considerable extent, on his celebrated canal. It is an ex- 
 cellent dressing for garden-ground, and is said to be an antidote to the rust 
 or mildew . — Dumfriesshire Report , Appendix, 531. 
 
 * Marshall’s Eastern Department, p. 1 15. 
 
 f In Chapter V. the means of promoting such undertakings, by public 
 encouragement, shall be explained. It is a most unfortunate circumstance, 
 that there should be such a prejudice against the granting of public encou- 
 ragement to promote agricultural improvements. Were such improvements 
 properly attended to by the Government of the country, no individual iii it 
 need to remain unemployed. 
 
On Embankments . 
 
 317 
 
 in that country, carry down with them vast quantities of 
 mud and sand, by which their discharge into the sea is im- 
 peded, and great marshes are formed, not only at the mouths 
 of these rivers, but in their courses, when they are passing 
 from one level to another. Torricelli, it is said, was the 
 first who taught his countrymen to enclose the marsh with 
 a dyke or embankment ; — to admit, into this enclosure, the 
 water of the rivers ; — to force this water, by means of sluices, 
 to remain stagnant as in a lake, so as to deposit its mud ; — 
 and by the sediment so produced, to raise the level of the 
 bottom. At one time, three or four inches of earth has 
 been often deposited ; — the operation has been several times 
 repeated in the course of a year ; — and the level so much 
 raised, that the ground is no longer liable to be overflowed 
 by the river. The soil thus acquired, is of the highest fer- 
 tility ; and an instance is mentioned, of a piece of ground 
 thus treated, which had yielded 25 measures of wheat from 
 one*. Necessity was the parent of this operation in Italy ; 
 whereas, on the banks of the Humber, it seems to have ori- 
 ginated from accident, and has been carried on, by a zeal 
 for improvement, and the prospect of gain. 
 
 Sect. XI . — On Embankments. 
 
 The nature and advantages of embanking are two-fold ; 
 l.To protect land, already under profitable production, 
 from the encroachment of the sea, of fresh* water lakes, or 
 of rivers, which often inundate the low grounds in their 
 neighbourhood; and, 2. To reclaim from the sea, or large 
 rivers, land overflowed by them, and to render it useful 
 territory. 
 
 1. Protecting Lands from Inundatims . 
 
 This is a subject of considerable extent and importance. 
 In many districts, the sea makes perpetual inroads on the 
 
 * Edinburgh Review, for March 1817, p. 44, 45. Torricelli, the cele- 
 brated inventor of the barometer, was born anno 1608, and died anno 
 1647. There is a good account of this Italian process, in the travels of 
 W. A. Cadell, Esq. in the years 1817, &c. See also the Scottish Farmer’s 
 Magazine, published in May, 1820, p. 160. It appears, that by the pro- 
 cess Colmata , the ground is rendered unproductive for seven or eight years ; 
 but by the Engli.h system of warping , it will produce clover immediately 
 after the process is completed. 
 
318 
 
 On Embankments. 
 
 land ; in others, lakes, during the rainy seasons of the year, 
 or after the melting of snow, spread their waters over the 
 adjacent flat land ; while, above all, there is scarcely a river 
 in the country, that does not, every season, commit devasta- 
 tions along its banks, either rendering large tracts unpro- 
 ductive, or destroying and sweeping away the harvests. 
 
 1 . Protection against the Sea . — Where the coast is de- 
 fended by bulwarks, consisting of loose, soft, and penetrable 
 materials, they are often broken down by the sea, more 
 especially in high tides. The extent of land on the coast, 
 is thus proportionably diminished, and considerable injury 
 sustained. Bulwarks for preventing such encroachments, 
 are, in most cases, both difficult, and expensive in the exe- 
 cution, and often precarious in point of permanency. The 
 power of water, when impelled by strong wind, is not 
 easily resisted ; and when the sea is to be contended with, 
 the barriers erected against it, ought to be constructed with 
 peculiar care, as many circumstances may occur, to obstruct 
 their execution, and to overturn them when supposed to be 
 completely finished*. 
 
 To prevent this mischief, artificial barriers of stone, or of 
 wood and stone, should be erected, to stop the progress of 
 encroachment ; but sometimes, banks of shingles, and even 
 of sand, found on the spot, have answered, by an attentive 
 imitation of nature, in the formation of shoals, and ridges 
 of the beachf. Where the object is, to protect such 
 low parts of the coast, as are subjected to inundation by the 
 flowing of high tides, a regular bank should be formed, the 
 breadth, height, and strength of which, should be made, in 
 proportion to the depth and weight of water it may have to 
 resist. As a farther security, piles should be driven into the 
 shore, in front of the bank, to break the force of the waves. 
 By this expedient, the walls receive no farther injury, as the 
 space between the piles, and the bank, is, in this manner, 
 rendered tolerably smooth, however tempestuous the waves 
 may be without^. 
 
 * Johnstone’s Chapter on Embankments, in the General Report of Scot- 
 land, vol. ii. p. 615. 
 
 f Mr. Smith, the mineral surveyor, has effected this on the coast of 
 Suffolk, with much ability. Mr. Maddocks’s great embankment on the 
 coast of Wales, seems to be of the same description . — Communications to the 
 Board of Agriculture , vol. vi. p. 150. 
 
 X Beatson’s Essay on Embankments ; Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 244. 
 
On Embankments . 
 
 319 
 
 2. Protection agamst Lakes . — In general, lakes are sub- 
 ject to temporary and extraordinary swells, occasioned by 
 violent winds, great falls of rain, or by the melting of snow; 
 consequently, they often spread beyond their usual limits, 
 overflowing and injuring the neighbouring land. The ef- 
 fects are so injurious, as to make it an object of importance, 
 to prevent or lessen them, by enlarging, and where the level 
 will admit it, deepening and widening the outlet, that the 
 water may at all times have a more free and easy discharge. 
 In some cases, the lake has been surrounded by an embank- 
 ment, extending not only along the sides of the lake, but of 
 the streams that flow from it, and that by which it is dis- 
 charged, as far as the level requires ; nay, it must sometimes 
 be carried to the higher ground on both sides, to prevent the 
 flood from having any access to the flat land exposed to be 
 overflowed. This, however, is a very operose and expen- 
 sive undertaking, and can only be effected, where a drain 
 from the embanked ground, will fall into a river below the 
 lake; otherwise the embanked ground would be filled with 
 water. 
 
 3. Protection against Rivers . — There are two modes by 
 which this can be effected : 1. Deepening the channel ; and, 
 2. Raising embankments to protect the flat ground in their 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 1. Where the course of a river is in a straight line, or 
 nearly so, it hardly ever makes any encroachment on its 
 banks, unless perhaps in very large rivers, when they rise 
 above their usual level, either by an increase in their own 
 waters, or their flow being in some degree interrupted by 
 the tides. Hence, whenever a river is narrow in its chan- 
 nel, and winds considerably, any mischief it commonly oc- 
 casions, may be prevented, by deepening and straightening 
 the course of the stream. In one instance, where this im- 
 provement has been effected, it has produced the following 
 important advantages. The waters, which in their crooked 
 course, were formerly almost stagnated, now run at the 
 ordinary rate of the declivity given them. They never 
 overflow their banks. Cattle can now pasture upon those 
 grounds in which they would formerly have been swamped. 
 The surface of the water being now, in general four, and 
 sometimes six feet, below that of the adjacent fields, this 
 cut serves as a general drain to the whole valley ; so that 
 three hundred acres of meadow, may be converted into 
 arable land ; sixty acres of moss, may be improved into 
 
320 
 
 On Embankments . 
 
 meadow; and five hundred acres of arable land, are rendered 
 of double their former value*. 
 
 2. The protection of banks against a river, to prevent its 
 overflowing, and inundating large tracts of country, if judi- 
 ciously executed, is the simplest and easiest of all sorts of 
 embankments. Few rivers of common size, rise more, 
 even in the greatest floods, than five or six feet above their 
 customary level, unless they meet with some considerable 
 interruption or confinement in their course, which probably 
 can, with little difficulty, be removed. In some cases, this 
 may even preclude the necessity of embanking, but where 
 that is necessary, the embankments on the two sides, ought 
 to be placed at a sufficient distance from each other, so as 
 to contain with ease between them, the largest contents of 
 the river, in the greatest floods. The distance and height 
 necessary to be attended to, in forming the banks, may 
 easily be ascertained, by measuring a section of the river, 
 when at its highest, or when the flood-mark is visible. 
 
 When a sufficient distance is allowed between the em- 
 bankments, their perpendicular height need not exceed four 
 or six feet, but their slope should be considerable. If irre- 
 moveable obstacles are in the way, which cause the river to 
 rise higher, the banks must be made either more distant, 
 or higher in proportion. 
 
 The materials for making these banks should be taken, 
 as much as possible, from the sides of the river, which will 
 have the double effect, of widening the river, and forming 
 the embankment ; and there should be a trench on the in- 
 side, (from which materials may also be taken), with some 
 sluices to discharge any water from the land side. It is 
 proper to add, that sluices ought likewise to be made, for 
 admitting the water from the l iver, the advantages of which, 
 for fertilizing meadows, at certain seasons of the year, can- 
 not be doubtedf. 
 
 When the facility, and the trifling expence at which this 
 improvement can be effected, are considered, it is matter of 
 surprize, that extensive tracts of the richest meadows, should 
 be allowed to remain in a state liable to be overflowed by 
 every flood. When these floods take place during the 
 winter, or early in spring, the water deposits a fructifying 
 
 * Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xviii. p. 220 — Stirlingshire Report, 
 
 p. 280. 
 
 + In the Gloucestershire Report, p. 2(54, there is an account of a valuable 
 embankment and drainage, by which 1300 acres of land arc improved, 
 where the surface of the river is above that of the adjoining meadows. 
 
On Embankments , 
 
 321 
 
 slime, which promotes vegetation, and is friendly to the 
 growth of the best kinds of natural grasses. But the floods 
 often come, when they are least of all desired, when the 
 grass is far advanced, when the hay into which it is con- 
 verted, is ready to be carried to the stack*, or when the 
 crops of grain are ready to be harvested. A crop may thus 
 be destroyed, the value of which would have erected an 
 embankment, that, with moderate repairs, might have pre- 
 served it in perpetuityf. 
 
 One great cause that prevents the improvement of such 
 meadows, is, that, in England, many of them, after the hay 
 has been cut, are in a state of commonage, the remains of 
 feudal barbarity. In such cases, the most spirited and well- 
 informed cultivator, is checked in his exertions to ameliorate 
 that property, in which others are thus interested, if they 
 will not contribute to the expence. A general law for pro- 
 moting the improvement of meadows thus circumstanced, 
 would be of essential benefit to extensive and valuable 
 tracts, and add considerably to the produce and opulence of 
 the country. 
 
 In Scotland, the strict fetters of entailed estates, are a 
 great obstruction to such improvements, which a general 
 law, with proper regulations, might in a great measure ob- 
 viate. 
 
 2. Reclaiming Land from the Sea , or at the Entrance of 
 large Rivers . 
 
 The embanking of land that has been, perhaps for ages, 
 overflowed by the sea, by large lakes, or rapid rivers, is one 
 of the greatest and boldest enterprises attempted by man ; 
 and the success with which it is generally attended, is an 
 ample proof, of what human industry is capable of effecting, 
 when its powers are called into action, and when self-pro- 
 tection and interest are the objects in view. The works of 
 this sort executed in Holland, would have been deemed in- 
 credible, had they not been accomplished in our own imme- 
 diate neighbourhood; nor are there wanting examples of 
 such embankments in our own country, which do credit to 
 the skill and enterprising spirit of those by whom they were 
 undertaken. 
 
 * Berkshire Report, p. 23 6 . 
 
 + This actually happened at Wester Fintray, in Aberdeenshire, where 
 several hundred quarters of corn were carried off, by a sudden flood, in 1 7 66 . 
 The farm has since been embanked. 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 On Embankments . 
 
 The first object to be considered, before attempting to 
 reclaim land, which, at low water, is left uncovered by the 
 sea, is, whether or not the soil to be gained, is of a nature 
 capable of cultivation, and fit for the other purposes of agri- 
 culture ; for in many cases, what is exposed at low water, 
 and might easily be embanked in, is an accumulation, to a 
 great depth, of barren sand or gravel, unfit for any useful 
 purpose*. 
 
 On many parts of the coast, however, the sea, at low 
 water, recedes so far, as to leave dry, large portions of sur- 
 face, in the bays and creeks of the shore, where the soil is 
 of a rich and fertile kind, being rather a deposition of fine 
 earth washed down from the land, than of barren gravel or 
 pebbles thrown up by the sea. Land of that description, 
 will, in general, amply repay the expence of the embank- 
 ment 5 the amount of which must depend upon the depth 
 of the water, the force of the tide, and the prevalence of 
 winds in that quarter. 
 
 At the entrance of large rivers, whose estuaries are wide, 
 and in which the tide ebbs and flows, immense tracts are 
 frequently left bare at low water, where much fertile land 
 may be acquired. Embankments, in such cases, have 
 strong claims to the consideration of those active and 
 public-spirited individuals, whose estates are contiguous, 
 and by whom the work may be executed at their joint ex- 
 pence. 
 
 The plans for carrying on such undertakings, do not be- 
 long to this workf. But from the preceding observations, 
 it is sufficiently obvious, that embanking is one method of 
 improving, or acquiring land, well entitled to general atten- 
 tion, and in many cases, to public encouragement. 
 
 Concluding Observations to Chapter III . 
 
 Whoever has fully considered the various particulars above 
 detailed, must be astonished at the perfection, to which 
 these branches of the art of agriculture, have been already 
 brought, in our time, and in this country. These have been 
 much promoted by the establishment of a Public Institution, 
 
 * Johnstone’s Chapter on Embankments, General Report of Scotland, 
 vol. ii. p. 626 . 
 
 •J* The plans of executing Embankments, are fully explained in Bcatson^s 
 Essay on that subject, Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. 
 p. 231 ; and in Johnstone’s Chapter on Embankments, in the General Report 
 of Scotland, vol.il p. 615 . 
 
On Embankments . 
 
 323 
 
 whose object was, not only the collection and diffusion of 
 useful information, but the exciting a general spirit for its 
 advancement. From the processes above described, it is 
 evident, that there is hardly any soil, however barren, which 
 may not be rendered in some degree productive •, and under 
 judicious management, its fertility may be periodically even 
 increased. With such means at our command, with such a 
 foundation of national prosperity, as an improved system of 
 agriculture furnishes, there can be no doubt, that the sub- 
 jects of this realm, if wisely governed, may enjoy all the 
 necessaries ; — most of the comforts ; — and many of the in- 
 nocent luxuries of life. 
 
324 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 OF THE VARIOUS MODES OF OCCUPYING LAND, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE principal articles of food, and the chief materials 
 of human industry, are obtained from the $oil. In order to 
 procure them, it is necessary for man to exert both his active 
 powers, and his intellectual faculties. By means of these 
 exertions, he is enabled to raise a greater produce from the 
 soil, than is requisite for the sustenance and accommoda- 
 tion of those who are employed in its cultivation. Unless 
 a surplus produce both of food, and of the materials of in- 
 dustry be raised, society would remain stationary, and every 
 species of improvement, in the condition of man, would 
 cease. It is therefore a most important subject of inquiry, 
 “ How the greatest surplus produce may be procured, by a 
 “judicious management of the surface of the earth?”— 
 There are four modes by which this can be effected : — 
 
 1. Cultivating land for arable crops. 
 
 2. Appropriating it to herbage. 
 
 3. Employing it as a garden or orchard — and, 
 
 4. Dedicating it to woods and plantations*. Each of 
 these modes shall be briefly considered. 
 
 * Gardening, and the management of orchards, woods, and plantations, 
 are essential branches of agriculture , taken in its more extensive sense ; and 
 cannot, therefore, with any degree of propriety, be left out, in a general 
 UVeatise on the subject , though many practical farmers, are not aware of their 
 importance. 
 
325 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ON THE CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LANIL- 
 
 In discussing this subject, the two great points to be 
 inquired into are; 1. Those operations of husbandry which 
 take place, from the ploughing and ridging of the land, until 
 its produce is ready for delivery; and, 
 
 2. What rotation of crops is best adapted for different 
 soils and situations, more especially those, which furnish 
 the greatest quantity of produce, without exhausting the 
 soil ? 
 
 On the Operations of Husbandry in the Production of Crops , 
 and in preparing the Produce for Market . 
 
 Previous to the commencement of arable operations, it is 
 necessary, 1. That the soil be cleared of any substance 
 which might either obstruct its cultivation, or become detri- 
 mental to the crop ; — 2. That it be of a texture or degree 
 of openness favourable to the growth of plants ; — and, 
 3. That it possess fertility sufficient, for the production of 
 those articles proposed to be raised on it. These particulars 
 being arranged, the subequent operations may be classed 
 under the following general heads : 
 
 1. Ploughing. 
 
 2. Ridging. 
 
 3. Scarifying. 
 
 4. Harrowing. 
 
 5. Rolling. 
 
 6. Choice of seed. 
 
 7. Change of seed. 
 
 8. Quantity of seed. 
 
 9. Preparing the seed. 
 
 10. Season for sowing. 
 
 11. Sowing (drilling included). 
 
 12. Hoeing. 
 
 13. Treading. 
 
 14. Culture, while growing. 
 
 15. Reaping. 
 
 16. Harvesting. 
 
 17. Threshing. 
 
 18. Dressing, or winnowing. 
 
 19. Improving the quality of grain. 
 
 20. Preservation till sold. 
 
 21. Accidents to which grain is 
 
 liable. 
 
 22. Diseases of grain. 
 
 23. Straw. 
 
 24. Stubbles. 
 
 25. Gleaning. 
 
326 
 
 Of Ploughing , 
 
 Sect. I . — Of Ploughing. 
 
 The various benefits arising from good tillage, cannot be 
 too much inculcated. By tillage, both the composition and 
 the consistence of the soil are improved, and adapted to the 
 nature of the different species of cultivated plants.— By its 
 assistance, the manure and the seed are most advantageously 
 deposited. — It is calculated to give considerable relief from 
 surface-water, and undue moisture, by enabling the culti- 
 vator to extend the depth, and to adjust the surface of the 
 soil*. — It can be employed to destroy almost all the varieties 
 of weeds which lurk in the soil, either as roots or as seeds, 
 bringing the former to the surface, and inducing the latter 
 to vegetate. — By the same means, various tribes of insects, 
 and their larvae, (more especially if the ploughing is given 
 before frost), are got rid of. — And by exposing the soil to 
 the influence of the atmosphere, the decomposition of dead 
 substances, and, at the same time, the growth of living 
 plants, are promoted. — As all these important advantages 
 are to be obtained by the operations of tillage, it is not to 
 be -wondered at, that skilful and experienced husbandmen, 
 have, in all ages and countries, entertained the highest ideas 
 of its utility +. 
 
 Indeed where tillage is imperfect, there can be no good 
 husbandry. In one extensively cultivated district, it is 
 stated as more than probable, that a third part of the crops 
 collectively, on some of the best fields, is every year lost, 
 through the want of sufficient tillage : nay, that perhaps, 
 from one-fourth, to one-sixth part, of the produce of the 
 arable lands of the kingdom , in general, is lost , from the 
 same causej. This is a subject, therefore, that cannot be 
 too minutely investigated. It is well known, that the horses 
 of a good ploughman, suffer less from the work, than those 
 entrusted to an awkward and unskilful hand ; and that a 
 
 * Deep ploughing permits the surface-water to pass beneath the roots of 
 the crop in winter, and admits the action of the air and influence of the 
 season in summer ; lienee a powerful evaporation is carried on, which sup- 
 plies the plants with moisture during the driest weather. After every 
 ploughing, the earth exhales as much as after the most copious shower of 
 rain . — Curwcns Report , p. 54. 
 
 Coventry’s Discourses, p. 75. 
 
 X Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. i. p. 12. It is contended by Marshall, 
 and others, that if the operations of tillage were better performed, it would 
 add one-third, or at least one-fifth to the produce of the kingdom. 
 
327 
 
 Of Ploughing. 
 
 material difference will be found, in the crop of those 
 ridges tilled by a bad ploughman, when compared to any 
 part of the field, where the operation has been judiciously 
 performed. 
 
 It will be necessary here to consider, first, the best mode 
 of ploughing ; and then, other particulars connected with 
 that operation. 
 
 1. Mode of Ploughing. 
 
 The simplest, the most economical, and perfect mode of 
 ploughingj^/br general purposes, is, by a swing-plough, with 
 a pair of horses, and without a driver. In the sandy soils 
 of Norfolk, a wheel-plough will run over more expediti- 
 ously, with a broad and thin furrow-slice, a greater extent of 
 ground ; but in loamy and clayey soils, wheels must always 
 be an incumbrance, and occasion additional labour to the 
 horses. 
 
 In working with the two-horse swing-plough, the off-side 
 horse walks in the furrow already made; the near-side 
 horse on the untilled land, the ploughman in the new fur- 
 row. His skill is proved, when there is no baulking , or 
 portion of the land left untilled ; and when the furrow-slice 
 is completely turned over*. If the bottom of the furrows 
 remain with pieces of land uncut, they preserve the thistles 
 from destruction, and prevent the descent of moisture from 
 above, to the open furrows left for carrying it off, and the 
 land is consequently soaked with water. 
 
 2. Form of the Furrow-Slice. 
 
 There is great difficulty, in considering the operation 
 of ploughing, to determine the width, and the depth of 
 the furrow-slice, as it must vary, according to the object 
 the farmer has in view, the nature of the preceding and 
 succeeding crop, and other circumstances. The following 
 table, will give some idea, of what is considered to be a 
 proper size, in different circumstances, though it must be 
 regulated, in almost every case, according to the nature of 
 the soil that is to be worked : — 
 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 344. 
 
328 
 
 Of Ploughing. 
 
 Table of Ploughing , 
 
 Nature of the Ploughing. 
 
 Width. Depth. 
 
 First fallow furrow, 
 
 Second furrow ditto, 
 
 Third furrrow, 
 
 Fourth furrow’, 
 
 Seed furrow, 
 
 Oat crop from turnips, 
 
 Oat crop from clover ley, 
 
 Beans, when on one furrow', 
 
 Beans, if with a second furrow, 
 
 Barley, first furrow, 
 
 Barley, second furrow, 
 
 Barley, last furrow, or after turnips, ♦ • 
 
 Potatoes, first furrow, 
 
 Potatoes, second furrow', 
 
 Inches. Inches. 
 
 10 6 - 8 - 10-12 
 
 9 6-7 
 
 8 5 £ 
 
 7 5 
 
 7 4 
 
 9 4-5 
 
 9 5-6-7 
 
 9 6-7-8-9 
 
 9 5 
 
 9 6-7 
 
 8 5 
 
 8 4 
 
 9 4-6 
 
 8 5 
 
 The following general rules regarding the depth of plough- 
 ing, are recommended to the reader’s attention, as the 
 result of much careful inquiry respecting this interesting 
 subject. 
 
 3. Maxims respecting the proper Depth of Ploughing. 
 
 1. The depth which land should be ploughed, must in 
 some measure be regulated by the deepness of the soil. On 
 thin soils, more especially on a rocky substratum, the 
 ploughing must necessarily be shallow ; but when the soil, 
 whether light or strong, will admit of it, a furrow ought to 
 be given as deep as a pair of horses can accomplish ; and it 
 is occasionally advantageous, to plough it even with four 
 horses, particularly at the commencement of every fresh 
 rotation. 2. Deep ploughing is highly advantageous upon 
 every soil, excepting those where the substratum is of an 
 ochry sand*. In fact, shallow soils, with such a substratum, 
 are scarcely worthy of being cultivated, unless in situations, 
 where much alluvial compost, or short town manure, can 
 be procured. 3. It is a general rule, never to plough so 
 deep as to penetrate below the soil that was formerly 
 manured and cultivated, excepting upon fallow, and then 
 only, when you have plenty of lime or dung to add to, and 
 
 * This is called Fox-earth in Derbyshire. — Report , vol. i. p. 305; and 
 Fox-bench in Cheshire. Ditto . — In Norfolk also, it is considered to be 
 hazardous, to plough up the black retentive subsoil, so frequent in that dis- 
 trict; but any soil, with a subsoil capable of being pulverized, may be gra- 
 dually, and successfully deepened. 
 
329 
 
 Of Ploughing. 
 
 »m prove the new soil*. 4. When fallowing land, it is 
 advisable, to go as deep as possible with the first furrow, by 
 which the subsequent furrows will be more easily executed, 
 thus exposing the soil to the winter’s frost, and to the 
 summer’s heat : but should a strong soil be ploughed in 
 spring, for a crop of oats, the furrow ought not to be deeper 
 than five or six inches. 5. Deep ploughing is advisable on 
 moorish cold soils, when they are first brought into culti- 
 vation, as it affords a greater scope for the roots of plants 
 to procure nourishment, admits the superabundant moisture 
 to subside from them, and prevents the summer drought 
 from making an injurious impression on the growing crops: 
 but where such poor soils are retained in cultivation, the 
 depth of ploughing ought in some degree to be in propor-. 
 tion to the quantity of manure that can be appliedf . 6. It 
 is unnecessary to plough deeper, immediately be/ore the 
 seed is sown, than the roots of the plants usually extend ; 
 and as beans, clover, and turnips, (the tap-rooted kinds 
 usually cultivated in this country), seldom send their shoots 
 above seven or eight inches down into the soil, and the 
 culmiferous species in general, not so far, it is probable, 
 from these circumstances, that from seven to eight inches 
 may be deep enough for all the purposes of ordinary culture. 
 
 Deep ploughing is not to be recommended: 1. When 
 lime or marl has been recently applied, such articles having 
 a tendency to sink, from their weight, and the moisture they 
 imbibe. 2. Where turnips have been eaten off by sheep, on 
 the land where they were grown. 3. When grass only two 
 or three years old, more especially where it has been pastured 
 with sheep, is broken up; because, owing to the extreme 
 condensation of the soil, bv the trampling of the sheep, a 
 furrow, even of a moderate depth to appearance , will make 
 the plough penetrate, below the staple that had been cleared, 
 by the culture given during the previous fallow. By this 
 means, myriads of the seeds of annual weeds are raised to 
 
 * When soils are deepened, lime should always be applied, to correct any 
 noxious ingredients in them ; — and putrescent matters, to give the soil an 
 adequate degree of fertility. It is a mistake, to suppose, that deepening the 
 soil, renders a much greater quantity of manure necessary. The most intelli- 
 gent farmers do not think that more than from ten to sixteen per cent, addi- 
 tional, is required. 
 
 f This maxim the farmers of Flanders acted upon, gradually deepening 
 their soil, as their manure was augmented. Mr. Young observes, that in 
 poor hungry soils, some proportion ought to be observed, between the depth 
 of a ploughing, and the quantity of manure annually spread. — Calendar , 
 p. 5 10. 
 
330 
 
 Of Ploughing. 
 
 the surface, where they vegetate, and materially injure the 
 crop cultivated, besides replenishing the soil with a fresh 
 supply of their own seeds. In all these cases, from four to 
 five inches deep will be found sufficient. And, 4. If land 
 is infested with natural grasses, which generally run much 
 on the surface, the first ploughing should not be deeper, 
 than is necessary to turn up the roots of the grasses, that 
 they may be destroyed. It is also necessary to observe, 
 that where the substratum is of an unfertile quality, plough- 
 ing deep cannot be safely adopted, except the land is under 
 the fallow process, so that the new soil may be exposed to 
 atmospheric influence, and improved by calcareous and 
 putrescent manures, which may then be applied with pecu- 
 liar advantage. 
 
 It is now proper to give, a general view of the advantages 
 of deep ploughing, a practice which slovenly farmers, and 
 even those who in other respects merit a different character, 
 too often neglect. Whereas those who have acquired su- 
 perior skill in their profession, in order that they may be 
 enabled to give a thorough deep ploughing, at the com- 
 mencement of every rotation, keep such a number of strong 
 ploughs, calculated even for four horses, as may be adequate 
 to the size of their farms, by means of which the stiffest soil, 
 may be cultivated, to the proper depth, whenever it is de- 
 sirable. 
 
 4. Advantages of Deep Ploughing*. 
 
 1. Bringing up new mould, is peculiarly favourable to 
 clover, turnips, beans, and potatoes ; and, indeed, without 
 
 * I have made many experiments in order to ascertain the advantages to 
 be derived from deep ploughing, all of which have proved the benefit of 
 the practice. Even in many instances, in which the subsoil brought up, was, 
 (to all appearance), very unfertile, the surface-soil was much benefited. A 
 very simple and curious circumstance led me into a knowledge of this fact. 
 A tenant on the land, had made a pit of potatoes in an angle of a field, then 
 a wheaten stubble : the pit was dug eighteen inches deep, and about twenty 
 yards long, after being filled with the roots and well covered by the soil 
 from both sides. On the potatoes being consumed, the wheaten stubble was 
 sown with oats, including the angle as already described. This crop proved 
 indifferent, except on the angle where the subsoil was thrown up, which 
 was most luxuriant, and which retained its fertility for two years afterwards. 
 In another case, when drains had been made to carry off the surface-water 
 from a field sown with rape, all the plants which grew near to the subsoil 
 thrown up in this operation, grew more luxuriant than those in any other 
 part of tne field. From the fertile effects which this subsoil produced, and 
 from its adhesive nature, I conceived it to be a species of marl ; but on trying 
 its properties, found it did not possess any calcareous matter . — Remark by 
 Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
33i 
 
 Of Ploughing, 
 
 that advantage, these crops usually diminish in quantity, 
 quality, and value. 2. Deep ploughing is likewise of great 
 consequence to every specfes of plant, furnishing not only 
 more means of nourishment to their roots, but, above all, 
 by counteracting the injurious consequences of either too 
 wet or too dry a season. This is a most important conside- 
 ration, for, if the season be wet, there is a greater depth of 
 soil to absorb the moisture, so that the plants are not likely 
 to have their roots immersed in water; and in a dry season, 
 it is still more useful, for in the lower part of the cultivated 
 soil, there is thus a reservoir of moisture , which is brought 
 up to the roots of the plants, by the evaporation which the 
 heat of the sun occasions*. 3. By deep ploughing, also, 
 the ground may be more effectually cleared of root-weeds 
 of every description ; in particular, it is the best mode of 
 eradicating thistles. 4. By deep ploughing, animal and 
 vegetable manures, which have a tendency to rise to the 
 surface, are properly covered. This cannot be done by 
 shallow ploughing, in consequence of which, much of the 
 value of these manures is lost. And 5. Bv deep ploughing, 
 a more abundant crop is raised, than can be got from a 
 shallow furrow, and the crop is more equal over the whole 
 fieldf. An intelligent farmer, indeed, after pointing out, 
 that deep ploughing increases the staple of the soil, keeps 
 the roots of the corn from being injured by wetness, and 
 also enables the crop longer to resist drought, adds, “ I 
 have ever found deep ploughing attended with good crops , 
 when ridges , shallow ploughed , in the same field , were hut 
 indijferent%:'* which seems a decisive proof in favour of 
 deep ploughing. 
 
 * Deep soils are generally the driest in wet seasons, but in very wet 
 seasons, they are thought to be the wettest, because they are the longest in 
 drying. 
 
 f In shallow soils, there are very often great inequalities in the crop, and 
 that in places of a field quite contiguous to each other. 
 
 J Mr. Parker, of Munden, prefers nine inches for the depth of ploughing, 
 and he has practised that system for many years, on good loamy land in 
 Huntingdonshire, a3 well as in the clay and flints of Hertfordshire. He 
 never lost a crop by it, but has met with unvaried success ; and he is clearly 
 of opinion, that the propriety of deep ploughing, ought not to be made a 
 question, but received as an admitted truth. Herts Report , p. 60. — The 
 farming gardeners near London, act upon the same system, with great suc- 
 cess. They plough to the depth of from ten to twelve inches for cabbages 
 and other crops, with implements made on purpose, and with from six to 
 eight powerful horses. Communication from John Middleton , Esq. — Mr. 
 Marshall has known a succession of shallow ploughing farmers, beggared 
 on a stiff-land farm ; and their successors, by deeper tillage, make a farmer’s 
 fortune upon it. Review of the Eastern Department , p. 339. — Great caution 
 however must be used, where the substratum is of an unfertile quality. 
 
332 
 
 Of Ploughing, 
 
 5. Preparation jor Deep Ploughing, 
 
 In Kent, the farmers have a practice which merits the 
 attention of their brethren in other districts, that of broad- 
 sharing their wheat and other stubbles, as a preparation for 
 pease and beans, and to enable them to plough deeper with 
 more advantage. It is by means of a broad-share , or strong 
 plate or hoe, with the ends a little thrown back, from 18 
 to 26 inches wide, having a staple in the upper surface, by 
 which it is fixed to the plough. With this implement, the 
 ground is cut to the depth of three or four inches, and the 
 soil thrown into slight baulks, which is done at the rate of 
 three acres per day, by three or four horses. These baulks 
 are harrowed down, and all weeds and rubbish carefully 
 carried off. After this operation, which is favourable to the 
 destruction of weeds, and collects a great quantity of mate- 
 rials for the dunghill, it is not difficult to plough the land 
 to any proper depth, and the raw bottom is turned up, and 
 meliorated, by the winter’s frost, and the succeeding sum- 
 mer’s sun, where fallowing is practised*. 
 
 6. Manner of laying the Furrow-Slice, 
 
 In several districts in England, it is usual to lay the fur- 
 row-slice quite flat, and this is particularly the case where 
 there are no ridges; but in Northumberland, and in Scot- 
 land, a contrary system is adopted. It is founded on this 
 idea, that as two of the principal objects in ploughing are, 
 to expose as much surface as possible to the influence of the 
 atmospheref, and to lay the land, so that the harrows may, 
 in the most efficient manner, raise mould to cover the seed ; 
 these objects are most effectually accomplished, when the 
 furrow-slice is raised with a proper shoulder, forming the 
 angle 45. The depth of the furrow for that purpose, ought 
 in general to bear a due proportion to its breadth, that is, 
 about two-thirds, or as six inches deep is to nine broadj. 
 
 * Communication from Mr. Gascoigne. 
 
 •f This is most effectually done by the process called ribbing ; but the 
 leaving the lower part of the triangle untouched, where the field is only 
 partially ploughed, is much objected to. 
 
 ♦ This is the general, if not the universal opinion of the Scotch farmers. 
 The angle 45 is strongly recommended in Bailey’s Essay on the Construction 
 of the Plough, in his Durham Report, p. 102, and in Brown’s Treatise on 
 Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 2J9. 
 
/. Seasons for executing the Work. 
 
 This must greatly depend upon the soil, and the state of 
 the weather. In very dry light lands, it is advisable, that 
 ploughing should be carried on in damp weather, particu- 
 larly the last ploughing, and the sowing of the seed*. On 
 the other hand, soils, of so retentive a nature, as to hold 
 water much more in quantity than is useful to vegetation, 
 ought to be ploughed in a medium state, neither wet nor 
 dry. When perfectly dry, they will not plough at all, being 
 so hard and tenacious ; and if ploughed when wet, the land 
 is ruined by poaching, and plastering; hard clods are 
 formed, which it is very difficult afterwards to reduce; and 
 a whole crop may consequently be lost. This circumstance, 
 renders the cultivation of clayey soils so extremely difficult. 
 It is highly advisable, when the season will admit of it, to 
 plough before the winter sets in, more especially strong 
 clays, for after the soil is saturated with moisture, it is so 
 pulverized by frost, as to be put in a state peculiarly calcu- 
 lated for the reception of spring crops ; and in Great Bri- 
 tain, where the winter is long, and the spring shorter than 
 in many other countries, the operations of agriculture must 
 be expeditiously conducted, thence it is necessary, to divide 
 the labour of ploughing, as much as possible, between har- 
 vest, winter, and spring. 
 
 All corn stubbles, (which are without clover or other 
 seeds), should be ploughed as soon after harvest as the 
 other works of the farm can permit, and thus put into a 
 state for receiving benefit from the winter frostsf . 
 
 8. The Hours of Working . 
 
 Where the arrangement of farm labour is properly regu- 
 lated, plough-horses should always work two journeys or 
 yokings in the day, except in the shortest days, when they 
 are not unyoked, but have a feed in the field at noon, by 
 which any loss of time, in travelling to and from the stable, 
 is prevented. The plan of two yokings a day, is highly 
 advantageous, though it does not seem to be understood in 
 those parts of the United Kingdom, where it is the practice 
 to go but one yoking a day, even in the longest days of 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 + In Middlesex, these corn stubbles, if tolerably clean, are frequently 
 sown with tares. — Communication from John Middleton , Esq. 
 
334 
 
 Of Ploughing . 
 
 summer*. That practice probably originated in the com- 
 mon-field system, and still continues, though the land to be 
 ploughed, is very remote from the farm offices. This is an 
 additional proof, of the importance of having these offices in 
 a central situation. In some districts, the farmers allow 
 four horses for each plough, two for a journey of five hours 
 in the forenoon, and the two others for five hours in the 
 afternoon. This practice, which must greatly increase the 
 expence of cultivation, cannot be too strongly reprobated. 
 
 9. Extent done in a Day. 
 
 This must vary according to the quality of the soil ; — the 
 width of the furrow-slice ; — the depth of ploughing ; — the 
 length of the field or ridge ; — and the season of the year 
 when the work is performed. Some general idea, however, 
 of the extent done, and of the time required to do it, may 
 be given. 
 
 A pair of horses can plough, of a medium soil, a statute 
 acre per day, in two journeys of nine hours in all, provided 
 the soil is not obstinate and tenacious. That extent is ten 
 chains long, and one chain, or 66 feet broad. There are 88 
 furrow-slices, nine inches wide each, in 66 feet, so that the 
 horses ploughing a furrow-slice of that width, travel 1 1 
 miles in ploughing an acre, exclusive of turnings. If the 
 turnings are equal to one-tenth, the horses actually travel 
 12 miles and 176 yards, in ploughing a statute acref. In 
 one day, that is very good work for two horses ; yet is a 
 very slow pace, when divided into nine hours’ work. In a 
 dry fine soil, and on level ground, a pair of good horses 
 will plough twelve chains ; on wet heavy land, nine ; but 
 sometimes not more than eight chains. In crossing or 
 stirring turnip land, in summer or spring, they will do 
 sixteen chains, and in some very fine land two acres. The 
 common day’s work in Norfolk, is from an acre, to an acre 
 and an half;f. In that district, the horses generally travel 
 at the rate of three miles an hour§, and the draught is so 
 light, as to be but little felt by the animals. 
 
 * Warwickshire Report, p. 67. When ploughing two yokings, the horse* 
 must be less fatigued, as post-horses, when driven SO miles in a day, are 
 better to perform their work in two stages, than in one. 
 
 f Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 225 ; Leicestershire Report, p. 87. 
 
 J Kent’s Norfolk, p. 37. — Marshall says, that the common day’s work, 
 except in wheat seed-time, is two acres; a fact, he adds, which nothing 
 but actual observation could have taught him to believe. — Norfolk , vol. i. 
 p. 139. 
 
 § Marshall’s Norfolk, vol. i. p. 139. 
 
335 
 
 Of Ploughing . 
 
 A gentleman who has paid much successful attention to 
 several branches of husbandry, calculates, that the number 
 of yards travelled in ploughing an acre and a half, with a 
 furrow-slice of nine inches, is 29,040 yards. 
 
 eight ditto, is 32,640 ditto*. 
 
 The following tables are given from the same authority, 
 founded on the above principle of calculation. 
 
 Tables , shewing the Quantity of Ground ploughed , accord- 
 ing to the differ ent Breadths of the Furrow- Slices, and 
 the Rates ofthe Horses vialking. 
 
 Breadth of the Furrow- 
 slice. 
 
 Rate per Hour. 
 
 Length of Way travel- 
 led in ploughing. 
 
 Quantity of Ground 
 ploughed. 
 
 Breadth of the Furrow- 
 slice. 
 
 Rate per Hour. 
 
 Length of Way travel- 
 led in ploughing. 
 
 Quantity of Ground 
 ploughed. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 | Miles. 1 
 
 Furlongs. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Roods. 
 
 Poles. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 co 
 
 jy 
 
 3 
 
 fcJD 
 
 S 
 
 _o 
 
 3 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Roods. 
 
 Poles. 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 14,144 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 _ 
 
 28,168 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 14,157 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 28,193 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 14,148 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 28,188 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 14,157 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 28.215 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 The rate of walking, being one 
 Mile and half a Furlong. 
 
 The rate of walking, being three 
 Miles. 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 14,960 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 42,296 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 
 15,004 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 42,350 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 15,012 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 42,336 
 
 9 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 15,048 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 42,273 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 The rate of walking, being 
 Mile four Furlongs. 
 
 one 
 
 The rate of walking, being four 
 Miles. 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 21,216 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 56,336 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 21,120 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 56,386 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 21,168 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 56,376 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 21,186 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 56,430 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 Communication from J. F. Erskine, Esq. of Mar, in Scotland. 
 
336 
 
 Of Ploughing. 
 
 It is supposed, that in England in general, the common 
 breadth of the furrow-slice, is about nine inches; but the 
 generality of the farmers in Norfolk, for various reasons, 
 prefer having their furrow-slices full eleven inches broad*; 
 so that the quantity of the ground stirred in the same num- 
 ber of hours, worked by them, must be considerably more, 
 than Farmers in other districts can do, where the nature of 
 the soil requires, to have the furrow-slice of a narrower 
 breadth. 
 
 The effect of short ridges, and consequently of frequent 
 turnings, is most strikingly exemplified, in the following 
 table, drawn up by the gentleman formerly alluded to, from 
 actual experiment. 
 
 Names of Fields. 
 
 Length of Ridges. 
 
 Breadth to give an Acre. 
 
 Breadth of the Furrow- 
 slice. 
 
 j Numbers of Furrows in 
 
 the Acre. 
 
 Time it takes in turn- 
 ing. 
 
 Time taken up in stir- 
 ring the Soil. 
 
 | Number of Hours in 
 
 | the Day’s Work. 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 H. M. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 7. South Gubber, • • • . 
 
 78 
 
 186 
 
 8 
 
 279 
 
 4 39 
 
 3 21 
 
 8 0 
 
 3. East Loch, 
 
 149 
 
 98 
 
 c— 
 
 147 
 
 2 27 
 
 5 33 
 
 8 0 
 
 11. Harperhill, 
 
 200 
 
 73 
 
 — 
 
 109 
 
 1 49 
 
 6 11 
 
 8 O 
 
 2. South Muir, 
 
 21S 
 
 69 
 
 — 
 
 103 
 
 1 43 
 
 6 17 
 
 8 0 
 
 17. Long Bog Croft, •• 
 
 274 
 
 53 
 
 — 
 
 79 
 
 1 19b 41 
 
 8 O 
 
 Thus it appears, when ridges are 78 .yards in length, that 
 no less a space of time, than four hours and thirty- nine 
 minutes, is spent in turnings, in a journey of eight hours ; 
 whereas, when ridges are ‘274 yards long, one hour nineteen 
 minutes is sufficient, in the same length of time. What 
 then must the waste of time be, in small paddocks, and 
 when four, or perhaps five horses are yoked, one after the 
 other ? 
 
 10. The Expence . 
 
 The cheapest ploughing, in any part of the United King- 
 dom, is upon the light lands of Norfolk. It was formerly 
 
 * A furrow-slice of this great width, will always be completely turned 
 upside down. 
 
337 
 
 Of Ploughing . 
 
 as low as from 3s. to 4s. per acre; but now, two horses and 
 one man, cost the farmers at the rate of 9s. per day ; 
 hence, as they generally plough an acre and a half a day, 
 the expence is about 6s. per acre. But when ploughing 
 is done by hire, the contractor finds every thing, and charges 
 on an average 8s. per acre* * * § . 
 
 The expence of ploughing in Scotland, from the diffe- 
 rence of soil, and the greater depth to which the operation 
 is carried on, is higher than in Norfolk. A ploughman, 
 with a good pair of horses, properly fed, including the ex- 
 pence of the plough, the harness, &c. must, on an average, 
 cost the farmer about 115Z. per annum ; and deducting from 
 thevyear, 52 Sundays, and allowing other 13 days to be lost 
 on different accounts, and supposing the team to be con- 
 stantly employed, the expence of ploughing one acre, 
 averaging the different states of the soil when ploughed, and 
 the different objects in view, cannot be estimated at less 
 than 8s. 6d. and in many cases it exceeds that sum. 
 
 By an experiment made in Oxfordshire, it appeared, that 
 with four horses, an acre could not be done under 14sf . 
 
 In Derbyshire and Kent, the cost is from 12s. to 15s. 
 per acre!, and in many cases, 1 Js. In the latter county, 
 from four to six horses are employed, to plough even a 
 loamy soil. 
 
 But it is in Middlesex, where the most expensive system 
 of aration is carried on. There, four horses at length, at 
 14s. per day, a man at 2s. 6d,, and a driver at Is. ; total 
 17s 1 . 6d. plough so little, that the expence is estimated at 
 more than 21s. per acre§. 
 
 Wherever two horses only have been employed to work 
 in a plough, the circumstances of the farmers have greatly 
 improved, owing to the expence of cultivation being so 
 materially diminished. This ought to be a strong induce- 
 ment, with gentlemen of landed property, to introduce 
 upon their estates, the practice of ploughing with only two 
 horses, and of going two journeys a day || . The prohibition 
 
 * Communicatiou from Mr. Blaikie at Holkham, in Norfolk. They fre- 
 quently change their horses in the middle of the day, and then plough from 
 an acre and a half, to two acres, with the same plough and ploughman. In 
 the heavy part of Norfolk, the quantity is only about an acre per day. 
 
 f In one instance specified in the Middlesex Report, p. 130, the expence 
 is estimated at 27 s. per acre, for one bad ploughing ; but that is a singular 
 circumstance. 
 
 X Marshall’s Norfolk, vol. i. p. 143. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 104. 
 
 || It is only within these few years, that the farmers in many parts of Ire- 
 
338 
 
 Of P long I ling. 
 
 of long teams, unless in particular cases, would not only 
 be a real improvement, but would ultimately produce an 
 increase in the rent-rolls of those proprietors who esta- 
 blished so useful a system*. 
 
 1 1 . Cross -Ploughing, 
 
 Though ploughing must in general be lengthwise, yet 
 crossing the ridge is occasionally advantageous ; sometimes 
 to secure the complete stirring of the soil ; — sometimes 
 to promote the intimate intermixture of the manure, after 
 a crop of drilled turnips; — and always, when the ground 
 is summer fallowed. The celebrated Tull recommended, 
 not to plough across the land, till the third furrow was 
 givenf, and this recommendation, is generally followed by 
 farmers on clay soils J. The head-ridge cannot well be 
 cross-ploughed, but it should be done first, whenever there 
 is more than one ploughing. If then neglected, it gets only 
 one stirring afterwards, and the produce is inferior to 
 what it would otherwise have been, not being so well pul- 
 verized. 
 
 12. Trench Ploughing. 
 
 The plan of ploughing double furrows, either by a plough 
 with a skim coulter, or by means of one plough following 
 another, though not often practised, is an excellent mode 
 of breaking up grass land. The first plough pares off the 
 surface from one to two inches thick, and turns it into the 
 bottom of the last made furrow ; while the second plough, 
 going three or four inches deeper, turns upon it a sod of 
 friable earth, which, being destitute of fibrous roots, har- 
 rows to a fine mould with little difficulty. The additional 
 expence, on common occasions, is only 6s. per acre, which, 
 in breaking up old swards, on clayey soils, is almost saved 
 in the expence of harrowing ; but where two additional 
 horses and a driver are necessary, the extra cost will be from 
 7s. to 10s. per acre. 
 
 In trench ploughing, it is, in general, necessary, not to 
 
 land have been convinced, that strong soils can be effectually worked, by 
 two horses, and a well-constructed plough ; but latterly, seldom more than 
 this number is used for this purpose, except when summer fallowing strong 
 soils. 
 
 * Observation made by Mr. Middleton. 
 
 t Horse-hoeing Husbandry, 2d edit. p. 43. 
 
 X Mr. Middleton observes, that where ridges are broad and high, this 
 beneficial operation is prevented. 
 
339 
 
 Of Ploughing. 
 
 go beyond the usual depth, but merely to separate the ve- 
 getable mould, or cultivated soil, from the lower stratum* * * § . 
 But in the sandy districts of Wiltshire, it is not uncommon, 
 when a second plough follows in the furrow of the first, to 
 go so deep as to throw up new soil, and to bury that which 
 is supposed to be exhausted. This is done likewise in many 
 parts of Devonshire, and is the same system, which, in 
 Flanders, is executed in sandy soils, by manual labour. It 
 is particularly desirable, to have such an extra depth of good 
 soil in reserve, to be turned up, when the surface indicates 
 exhaustion. Where the subsoil, however, is of a bad qua- 
 lity, it is not advisable to go so deepf. 
 
 13. Ploughing- Ma i ches . 
 
 From the great importance of good ploughing, every 
 means should be thought of, to extend a practical know- 
 ledge of the art; and no plan has been found more effectual 
 for that purpose, than the establishment of ploughing- 
 matches, and thus exciting a competition among plough- 
 men, by rewarding those who excel};. At such meetings, 
 farmers have beeen instructed, when they only came to be 
 amused ; their prejudices have worn away ; and they have 
 been induced to try new instruments of husbandry, and new 
 modes of culture. Were it possible to impress upon the 
 minds of farmers in general, the great importance of good 
 ploughing, more especially the advantages of using ploughs 
 with two horses, without a driver, and to make them sensi- 
 ble of the benefits of deep ploughing; the expences of cul- 
 tivation would be diminished, and seveval millions in value, 
 would be added to the produce of the United Kingdom§. 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol.iv. p. 147. 
 
 •f* Wiltshire Report, p. 52. 
 
 X In Ireland, the various ploughing-matches, encouraged by the Farming 
 Society, have been a chief means of forwarding the improved agriculture of 
 the country. — Remark by the Rev. Thomas Radclijf. 
 
 § This benefit might be obtained, were proprietors to resolve not to let 
 their land to any one, who did not become bound, to use improved swing- 
 ploughs, and, unless in particular cases, worked by two horses. It is 6aid, 
 that in the infancy of good ploughing, it is a great object, to have, by means 
 of wheels, a number of ploughs, upon the same farm, correctly worked by 
 unskilful boys, under the guidance of one good workman to regulate the 
 irons. — Remark by the Rev. Tfyomas Radclijf. — But they will soon learn to 
 plough, without the appendage of wheels, under a skilful and willing 
 overseer. 
 
340 
 
 Of Rulging . 
 
 Sect. II . — Of Ridging. 
 
 The next point to be considered is, the utility of hav- 
 ing the land divided into ridges, and where that is judged 
 expedient, the form in which they ought to be made. 
 
 Dry soils, being deficient in moisture, ought to be tilled 
 flat, as any sort of draining, which the furrows might afford, 
 would be prejudicial rather than advantageous. In Kent, 
 dry land, cultivated by the common turn- wrest plough, is 
 left as level as if it were dug with a spade. The moisture 
 is thus equally diffused, and retained under the surface of 
 the earth. This practice is likewise thought to be conve- 
 nient to the operations of the mower, (much of the crop 
 being there cut down by the scythe) ; — it is also favourable 
 for the conversion of arable land into grass ; — and it effects 
 a considerable saving of labour*. The plan of cultivation 
 without ridges, is sometimes done by going round and 
 round a hill, from the circumference to the centre, or 
 from the centre to the circumference. This mode requires 
 little more force than common ploughing ; it is likewise 
 an expeditious mode, as there is no occasion for turning, 
 and is economical, as by it every inch of the soil is movedf. 
 But ridges are essential in wet soils and climatesj, operating 
 as open drains, without the assistance of which, the crops 
 would be rarely productive in rainy seasons. It is therefore, 
 of much importance to the farmer, to be fully master of the 
 rules, by which ridges can be formed to the best advantage. 
 These may be considered under the following heads : 1. The 
 
 * Kent Rpeort, p. 65. 
 
 Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer, p. 73. — Where it is wished to have no 
 interfurrows, the best mode is, to plough the land in broad level ridges, 
 and then to fill the interfurrow, by going once round it with the plough. 
 The ridges direct the sower, &c. and yet the land, when harrowed, is left 
 quite flat. 
 
 X Lord Karnes is of opinion, that though clayey soils should in all cases 
 be ridged, yet loamy soils should be tilled flat in a dry country, but ridged 
 in a wet one, high or low, according to the degree of moisture and tendency 
 to clay. Gentleman Farmer , p. 73. — There is a peculiar mode of forming 
 arable land in some parts of Flanders, in particular, the “ Pays de IFaes" 
 which it may be proper to describe. — The fields are small, usually about 
 seven or eight English acres, and the whole ground is raised in the middle, 
 gradually sloping to the ditches, into which the water naturally descends, 
 the soil being of a sandy quality. These fields are called “ Terres IJombe s.” 
 They were formed by the spade, the digging commencing in the centre, 
 and the earth being thrown upwards. It is singular to see a whole district 
 full of these little hills or eminences. The fields arc in general surrounded 
 with trees, whose roots expand themselves in a lower stratum than the roots 
 of the grain. 
 
Of Ridging . 341 
 
 proper length of ridges ; 2. Their breadth; 3. Their straight- 
 ness ; 4. Their height; and, h. The proper line of direc- 
 tion, when the ground is steep. 
 
 1 . The proper Length of Ridges. 
 
 The length of a ridge must vary according to the size of 
 the field ; — the acclivity of the ground ; — and the nature of 
 the soil, whether wet or dry. 
 
 In fields with much acclivity, ridges of about 150 yards, 
 (7 chains), are found to be of a convenient length. A 
 longer ridge, in such situations, tends to fatigue the horses ; 
 and if much rain or snow should happen to fall on sloping 
 land, recently ploughed, the finest particles of the soil, and 
 the most valuable parts of the manure, will be washed out 
 of the ground, and conveyed, along the furrows, with too 
 much facility, by a long run, to the headland, or to the 
 nearest brook; or river. 
 
 In wet soils, where the ground is flat, a ridge from 240 
 to 300 yards, (from 11 to 14 chains), may be considered as 
 the proper length. If its exceeds 300 yards, the water may 
 not easily get away, or it may be necessary to form a head- 
 ridge across the field, so as to form a level for carrying off 
 the extra moisture ; — or, at any rate, to make grips , or small 
 open cuts, in the lowest parts of the field, to collect and 
 convey the water to the ditch. 
 
 In soils of rather a dry nature, and where the land is 
 level, the ridge may be still longer; though, on the whole, 
 a ridge from 350 to 400 yards, (from 16 to 18 chains), 
 seems to be the preferable length, when circumstances arc 
 suitable. If it exceeds the latter size, horses are apt to be 
 fatigued, from going so long on a stretch ; and the loss by 
 turning, when the ridge extends to 350 yards, is not consi- 
 derable. Besides, when the ridge is very long, it is not only 
 sown with more difficulty, but it has a tendency to discou- 
 rage the reapers, when employed in cutting it. 
 
 2. The Breadth of Ridges. 
 
 Few subjects in husbandry, have occasioned a greater 
 diversity of opinion, than the breadth of ridges. The rea- 
 sons urged in favour of the different sizes, shall therefore 
 be assigned, and the reader left to judge, from the state- 
 ments laid before him, which is most suitable to the soil he 
 cultivates. 
 
342 
 
 Of Ridging. 
 
 In poor, clayey, wet soils, it is maintained by many in- 
 telligent farmers in England, that the ridges should be 
 made only from three to six, or, at the most, seven feet 
 broad ; that on wet soils, small ridges keep the soil mode- 
 rately dry ; and that on thin soils, the staple is increased, by 
 putting the earth of five feet upon four, while the produce 
 is as great, as if the whole land had been under crop. 
 Plants, they contend, are more uniformly healthful, from 
 the freer admission of air, and ripen more equally on narrow, 
 than on broad ridges. There is an advantage also, in 
 cutting down the crop, as each reaper may have a separate 
 ridge*. 
 
 A variety of ingenious arguments have been urged, in 
 favour of ridges, varying in breadth from twelve to fifteen 
 feet. It is said, that they are easily kept dry ; — that the 
 furrows are not apt to be rendered bare ; — that the seed can 
 be sown at all times, even with an adverse wind, at once 
 going about ; — that two harrows, going once about, com- 
 pletely cover the ridge ; and that this is a proper proportion 
 or breadth for three reapers. 
 
 On the other hand, the farmers of East Lothian, where 
 this subject has been particularly studied, prefer ridges of 
 eighteen feet, which they consider to be, not only better 
 calculated, for preserving the land from receiving injury by 
 wetness ; but also, as tending to facilitate the several pro- 
 cesses of dunging, sowing, harrowing, and reaping. Indeed, 
 where the soil is deep enough to admit of three gatherings 
 from the flat, without sustaining injury, they are of opinion, 
 that a breadth of twenty-four feet will be found useful in 
 wet soils. 
 
 The practice in various parts of England and Scotland, 
 respecting the breadth of ridges, on wet soils, is so totally 
 at variance, that it is supposed to be partly attributable to 
 difference of climate. In Scotland, it is thought, that nar- 
 row ridges, unless there is an acclivity, soon become wet 
 and poachy, and are long in getting dry ; the rain that falls, 
 remaining in the interfurrows, and soaking into the ground,; 
 — that the crowns cannot be raised sufficiently high, to be 
 of much use in draining ; — that turning the horses short, at 
 the end of narrow ridges, is attended with difficulty ; — that 
 the loss of ground, by such a number of furrows, where no 
 plant can properly vegetate, is enormous ; — and that it is 
 
 * These were the sentiments of that eminent Norfolk firmer, the late Mr. 
 Money Hill. 
 
Of Ridging. 
 
 343 
 
 proved by experience, in climates more rainy than the 
 southern districts of England, (namely, in the Lothians), 
 that the strongest and most retentive soils, are kept per- 
 fectly dry in ridges, when properly rounded, of from eighteen 
 to twenty*four feet in breadth. 
 
 In opposition to these doctrines, it is contended, that 
 broad and high ridges are not favourable to the useful ope- 
 ration of cross-ploughing ; — that they cannot well be har- 
 rowed by horses walking in the furrows, which is an advan- 
 tageous practice ; — that they are not well calculated for the 
 drill husbandry ; — that when ridges are narrow, the crowns 
 may be so well raised, that no rain can lodge upon them ; 
 and that every possible objection to narrow ridges, on the 
 score of wetness, is obviated, where hollow-draining y as 
 practised in Essex*, is adopted ; — that the furrows are not 
 lost, acting not only as drains, but admitting much air ; — 
 that no inconvenience can arise by any length of furrows, 
 to a field ploughed in very narrow ridges, if proper use be 
 made of grips j — that where the ridges and furrows are 
 sufficiently narrow and numerous, the soil cannot be washed 
 away ; — and as a general maxim, it may be laid down, “ that 
 as in dry porous soils, the ridges cannot be too broad , so in 
 wet clays , they cannot be ploughed too narrow 
 
 From these adverse statements, the reader will be able to 
 judge, what size of ridge, will best suit his soil, and climate. 
 
 In regard to dry, porous, turnip soils, it is of little im- 
 portance, whether ridges are formed at all, unless to regu- 
 late the sowing and cutting down the crop. A thirty feet 
 ridge is, in such cases, considered to be a proper width, as 
 it saves time in ploughing, having fewer furrows to clear out 
 in finishing the field : it also saves time in forming the ridges, 
 when the land has been cross-ploughed ; and it keeps more 
 moisture in the soil, than ridges of a less width. 
 
 The peculiar mode which has been put in practice, by an 
 intelligent farmer in Scotland, (of having covered drains in 
 the furrows of broad ridges), would probably be of use, in 
 several districts of England; particularly in the Vale of 
 Gloucester, as in wet seasons, and more especially in winter, 
 each furrow, where these broad ridges are used, becomes a 
 
 * In Suffolk and Essex, where hollow-draining is universal, the ridges 
 are two bouts , or four furrows of the plough, when land is fallowed. By 
 the hollow-drains, every objection on the score o/ wetness, is removed, 
 but it is a very expensive opeintion.—Communicatiojifrom the late Arthur 
 Young , Esq. 
 
344 
 
 Of Ridging. 
 
 canal of stagnant water*. The farmers in that Vale, have 
 so far adopted the plan above recommended, as to plough a 
 small ridge between the high ones ; and they have nothing 
 to do, but to put a hollow drain under these small ridges, 
 in order to effect a most important improvement. The 
 following Sketch will give some idea of the nature of the 
 operation : 
 
 Ridge = Ridge — Ridge — Ridge = Ridge 
 
 T3 X5 ^ "3 
 
 ^ c £.5 
 
 <D "5 <u ‘S <u’rt <u 'rt 
 
 >2 > u 
 
 O r3 O -O OT3 OT3 
 
 u o u o 
 
 The drains are generally about two feet and a half deep, 
 and as narrow at the bottom, as an ordinary spade can con- 
 veniently work them. They may be filled with bricks, or 
 small stones, to the depth of rather more than a foot, and 
 covered in the usual manner with straw and earth. 
 
 It is evident, that in addition to every other considera- 
 tion, the breadth of ridges, must also depend upon the mode 
 of culture. Where the broad-cast system is followed, the 
 size must be calculated, for enabling the sower to scatter 
 the seed equally over the landf. Whereas, when the drill 
 system is adopted, the breadth must be adjusted to the size 
 of the machine. In wet or tenacious soils, it is an excellent 
 plan, to make the horses walk in the furrows, and to drill 
 a whole ridge at once. 
 
 3. Straightness of Ridge. 
 
 It is extremely material, to have the ridge as straight as 
 possible. It is the very essence of good ploughing, to hold 
 the plough even, which it never can be, if it has to work 
 in a curve. Besides, ridges, when very crooked, measure 
 more in the serpentine direction, than when takeh in a 
 straight line, and consequently they must require more 
 labour in ploughing, harrowing, See. than if they had been 
 perfectly straight. That does not imply, that there is 
 more land in the field *, but an improper form, by impeding 
 operations of the plough, materially tends to augment the 
 
 * Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. i. p. 79. 
 
 f It is said, that a good sower, will scatter the seed sufficiently correct, in 
 ridges of any breadth; hut such sowers are not always to be met with. 
 
Of Ridging. 
 
 345 
 
 labour. Every farmer knows, by experience, how awk- 
 wardly the plough moves in such ridges, and that in finish- 
 ing them, there must be much more turning. Where the 
 ridges, also are irregular, or broader at the one end than 
 the other, a considerable vraste of seed is likely to be the 
 consequence ; for the seed cannot possibly be scattered with 
 the same regularity, as if the ridge was altogether of the 
 same breadth*. 
 
 In regard to crooked ridges, straightening and levelling 
 them, in very stiff wet clays, is a very difficult operation, 
 and unless executed with considerable judgment and skill, 
 will be productive of some temporary loss. It should never 
 be attempted, but in a year of fallow, and the straightened 
 land, should be supplied with considerable quantities of 
 calcareous and enriching manures, and much c^oss plough- 
 ing, to mix. the old and new staple, and to rouse the ferti- 
 lity of the new soil. 
 
 4. Height . 
 
 It is necessary that ridges, on wet land, should be well 
 rounded, so as to form the segment of a circle, without 
 being carried to so ridiculous an extreme, as is the case in 
 Gloucestershire, where two men, standing in the furrows, 
 cannot see each other’s headsf. For the purpose of eleva- 
 tion, the soil is fathered, in the course of ploughing the 
 ridge, once or twice, according to its dryness or wetness. 
 Indeed, in very wet lands, the soil has often been gathered 
 thrice, with much success, especially for a spring crop ; 
 for this mode, not only lays the land dry through the winter, 
 but enables the farmer to commence his operations sooner 
 in the spring. The height, however, should not be too 
 great ; only sufficient to furnish a declivity to let off the 
 water ; for when the crown is raised too high, one-half of 
 
 * Donaldson’s Modern Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 267. 
 
 + The high ridges of the Vales of Evesham and Gloucester, have long 
 been proverbial. They are often from 15 to 20, and even 25 yards wide, 
 and from four feet, to four feet three inches, and sometimes more in heighth ; 
 but eight yards wide, and from two to two and a half feet high, is the fa- 
 vourite size. Even a ridge of these dimensions, however, is more steep- 
 sided than is necessary. These masses of earth, were probably accumu- 
 lated, in order to render the land dry ; but they cannot be too severely re- 
 probated, since the art of draining has been so much improved. See Mar- 
 shall’s Gloucestershire, vol. i. p. 75 ; Rudge’s Gloucestershire, p. 105. When 
 ridges are high in pasture lands, sheep are apt to fall upon their backs be- 
 tween the ridges : but this rarely happens but in moonlight nights, for in 
 dark ones they never stir. 
 
346 
 
 Of Ridging. 
 
 the ridge is often covered from the sun, (a disadvantage 
 which is far from being slight in a cold climate), and the 
 crop, which is always best on the crown, is more easily 
 shaken by the wind, than where the whole crop is of an 
 equal height* *. Besides, with high ridges, there is a ten- 
 dency to work the fertile soil to the centre, and to leave the 
 rest of the land very bare, and consequently deficient in 
 produce. There cannot be a worse error in tillage. But it 
 may be remarked, that the height of a ridge by gathering, 
 entirely depends upon the deepness of the furrow slices *, for 
 some farmers, by two gatherings, will raise the ridge as high, 
 as others will do by three. 
 
 5. Line of Direction. 
 
 The last point regarding ridges, which it is necessary to 
 consider, is, the line of direction, more especially in steep 
 grounds. There are four modes in which the ridges may 
 be laid out, on such declivities. 
 
 1 . When they are planned on the same Line or Level , thus : 
 
 This is done partly with a view of preventing the soil 
 and manure from being washed down, and partly from the 
 idea, that it is easier for the cattle to work it. But unless 
 the subsoil is porous, it detains the water in the furrows. 
 It is likewise an awkward mode of cultivation, if the com- 
 mon plough is used ; and if a plough with a shifting mould- 
 board, (usually called a turn-wrest plough), is employed, it 
 always throws the furrow-slice down hill, and consequently 
 brings, lower and lower, the staple of the soil. 
 
 * Gentleman Farmer, p. 74. From about three to four inches in height 
 per yard in width, is considered a proper height. In spring crops, oats arc 
 better on flat land than barley, file ordinary varieties of oats requiring more 
 moisture than those of barley. 
 
Of Ridging. 
 
 34 7 
 
 2. When the Ridges are straight up and down . 
 
 This is objected to on the ground, that the soil and ma- 
 nure are both apt to be washed down, and when the plough 
 is going up the declivity, the earth makes such a resistance, 
 that the cattle have great difficulty in dragging the plough 
 up the hill. 
 
 3. From the top of the Bank sloping to the left. 
 
 This mode also does not answer, for when the plough is 
 going up, the ploughman has to force the earth against the 
 hill, which makes but very imperfect work ; and it does 
 great injury to the cattle. 
 
 ' 4. From the top of the Bank sloping to the right. 
 
 When the ridges are laid in this manner, the horses have 
 a better footing, and the ground always falls from the 
 plough, as it goes upwards, >vithout any great exertions on 
 the part of the ploughman or the cattle. By this plan, no 
 part of the soil is forcibly turned against the acclivity ; but 
 it is so contrived, that, on returning down the hill, the fur- 
 rows fall freely from the plough, and thus every inch of the 
 soil is perfectly turned over. These diagonal ridges, are 
 likewise extremely favourable to the cartages of both produce 
 and manure. If there be soil enough, any ground, however 
 steep, may be cultivated on this principle, and by this mode , 
 
348 Of Scarifying. 
 
 land may be ploughed , which would otherwise be impracti- 
 cable* * * § . 
 
 On this subject, it is farther to be observed, that the 
 ridges should be directed north and south, if the ground 
 will permit. By this means, the east and west sides of a 
 ridge, have the influence of the sun equally divided between 
 them *, and the crops they produce, will ripen at the same 
 timef. ( 
 
 Sect. III. — Of Scarifying, and putting in Crops without 
 Ploughing. 
 
 It is remarked by an eminent author, that if one plough- 
 ing to the full depth be given, once in 12, 18, or 24 months, 
 shallow tillage afterwards, by scaling, scarifying, scuffling, 
 skimming, or broad-sharing, is, in many cases, preferable, 
 to frequent deep-working, and especially for wheat, which 
 loves a firm bottom^. 
 
 This doctrine, if not carried to an extreme, is, in parti- 
 cular cases, entitled to the attention of the practical farmed. 
 
 It appears, that the system of sowing upon the winter 
 furrow, was adopted in Scotland many years ago, and was 
 strongly enforced by Lord Karnes, in his Gentleman Farmer, 
 printed an. 1776. He there proposed, that the surface 
 should be pulverized by a strong harrow, the scarifier or 
 grubber being then unknown in the Lothians$. 
 
 The practice of sowing on the winter furrow, both oats 
 and barley, has been followed with much advantage, in the 
 
 * Some farmers, where the field is very steep, plough only down hill, 
 the plough being drawn up empty ; but this is hardly ever necessary, if the 
 fourth plan is adopted. Where the declivity is very considerable, it is 
 questionable whether the land ought to lie ploughed at all, the soil is so apt 
 to be washed down the hill. — (See Statistical Account of Scotland, vol.ii. 
 p. 142, note). 
 
 f Gentleman Farmer, p. 79. 
 
 £ Young’s Calendar, p. 510. 
 
 § “ The preferable method for sowing oats, and especially in a clay soil, 
 is to turn the field over after harvest, and to lay it open to the influences of 
 frost and air; which lessens the tenacity of clay, and reduces it to a fine 
 mould. The surface soil, by this means, is finely mellowed for the reception 
 of the seed; which it would be a pity to bury , by a second ploughing, before 
 sowing. We are taught by experience, that this soil, ploughed before win- 
 ter, is sooner dry, than when the ploughing is delayed till spring; and as 
 early sowing is a great advantage, any objection, on account of the super- 
 ficial crusting, is easily removed by a strong harrow, which would pro- 
 duce abundance of mould for covering the seed. — Acmes' s Gentleman 
 Farmer, p, 95 and 96. 
 
Of Scarifying, 349 
 
 counties of East Lothian, Kincardine, Dumfries, and Rox- 
 burgh, and the crops have always been more certain, and 
 much more abundant, especially when a dry spring and 
 summer took place. It thence evidently appears, that 
 ploughing lands in spring, when sufficiently clean, and 
 prepared before winter, is an unnecessary increase of labour, 
 for oats, and in many cases for barley* •, that turning up a 
 clay soil, at that season of the year, is a dangerous and pre- 
 carious operation *, and that all the advantages of a fine 
 mellow surface, which cannot be regained after a spring 
 ploughing, are lost. There is also the risk of rain during 
 the operation, which, in many instances, puts the land so 
 much out of good condition, as to render the chance of a 
 crop very precarious. 
 
 The farmers in the Carse of Gowrie, however, do not 
 think the system applicable to their strong soils. They are 
 of opinion, that it is impossible to keep the ground clean, 
 and in such good order for a succession of crops, without 
 spring' ploughing. The scarifying system, however, goes 
 upon the idea, that the ground upon which either barley or 
 oats is proposed to be sown, has been previously cleared 
 of weeds, either by a summer fallow, or by some cleansing 
 crop, as beans ; and did not depend upon any process to 
 be administered, in the course of that very spring on which 
 the grain crop was to be sown. 
 
 The scarifier, with some improvements, being now esta- 
 blished in the Lothians, under the name of f€ grubber ,” 
 there can be no doubt, that so beneficial a practice will 
 spread, as much as the nature of the Scotch system of hus- 
 bandry will admit of it, where oats generally succeed grass, 
 which in backward seasons, cannot be got ploughed sooner 
 than February or March ; in which case, the plan cannot be 
 adopted. In regard to the ground that has carried turnips, 
 and has been fed with sheep, it has been found that scarify- 
 ing is preferable to ploughing, for the succeeding crop. 
 
 With respect to England, it is maintained in several dis- 
 tricts, that spring crops may.be successfully sown without 
 spring ploughing : that the land may be sufficiently stirred 
 
 * For potatoes or turnips, spring culture is considered necessary in Ire- 
 land. Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq . — But the practice of spring 
 sowing, without ploughing, has been adopted on strong land in some part* 
 of Ireland, with great advantage ; and the oat crop thus sown upon a re- 
 tentive clay, will be a fortnight earlier, than that sown upon a spring 
 ploughing . — Remark by the Reu. Thomas Radcliff. 
 
350 
 
 Of Scarifying. 
 
 and pulverized by the scarifier or scufHer* : that it is of 
 very great consequence, to expose a strong clay soil to the 
 winter frosts, (which can only be done by ploughing in 
 autumn, or the beginning of winter), but the benefit of that 
 practice would be lost, if that part of the soil were ploughed 
 down, that had been meliorated by the frost and the at- 
 mosphere. They consider it as absurd to bury the dry fri- 
 able porous surface, which the frosts have left in so favour- 
 able a state, and upon which, if rain falls, no plastering en- 
 sues, as it dries speedily, and remains in a porous state ; 
 but which, if ploughed in spring, is often so impregnated 
 with moisture, that if worked, it plasters, and the north- 
 east winds harden it like stone. 
 
 These opinions are strongly sanctioned, in various in- 
 stances, on a great scale, and by the practice of a number 
 of farmers in Dorsetshiref , Buckinghamshire, Norfolk, and 
 more especially in Suffolk. The practice of scarifying, has 
 become so predominant in the strong land district of that 
 county, from the fine tilth it gives to the lands, that there 
 is reason to believe, it will entirely exclude the application 
 of the plough to heavy lands in spring. The management 
 for this purpose, is excellent. While the land is yet dry in 
 autumn, the fields are carefully ploughed into ridges, exactly 
 of the breadth which suits the various implements to be 
 employed in the spring, such as harrows, scufflers, scarifiers, 
 and drill machines, all adapted to one given breadth, so 
 that no horse, when drawing any of them, may ever set a 
 foot on the ridge, but move solely in the furrows. This 
 improvement is applicable to the broad-cast system, as well 
 as to the drill ; but it certainly removes the main objection 
 to the drilling of spring crops on strong landsj. 
 
 Nor is this practice of scarifying for a spring crop, solely 
 applicable to a winter furrow, on strong lands, but it has 
 
 * It is likewise aerated, for in fine free soils, the scarifier enables the air 
 to pass two or three inches below the surface of the soil. 
 
 f An experiment of the effects of scarifying, compared with spring 
 ploughing, was tried in spring 1811, by Mr. Robert Roberts, of Gorewell, 
 about seven miles from Bridport in Dorsetshire. He had a field of about 
 forty acres of flinty loam, under a crop of broad-cast turnips, eaten off 
 by sheep. Not being able to plough the whole field in time for a crop, 
 he got a scarifier, and used it at the rate of about 12 acres a day, followed 
 by the sower, and the harrow ; four acres were ploughed, the rest were 
 scarified. The crop was oats, and the scarified part was greatly superior 
 to the ploughed, in the proportion of nearly one-third. 
 
 + Communications by the late Arthur Young, Esq. in the Husbandry 
 of Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 66 — Mr. Middleton remarks, that this 
 excellent practice is inconsistent with broad ridges. 
 
351 
 
 Of Harrowing. 
 
 likewise been tried, and most successfully, in autumn. Pea 
 and bean stubbles have been scarified, and sown with drilled 
 wheat, without any ploughing, and the crops have proved 
 better than after the usual system* * * § . In late and rainy 
 seasons, sowing wheat after beans, is extremely precarious, 
 but if this system uniformly answers, there is an end to that 
 difficulty. 
 
 Some doubts are still entertained, whether, though the 
 plan may succeed in regard to one crop, it may not injure 
 the succeeding ones in the rotation. If that should be the 
 case, it ought not to be persevered in. But from the best 
 information that could be procured, in consequence of in- 
 quiries made expressly to ascertain that fact, there is no 
 reason to apprehend, that the future crops will be thereby 
 deteriorated!. 
 
 Sect. IV . — Oj Harrowing. 
 
 This process is of essential use in the culture of arable 
 lands. By harrowing, the soil is pulverized ; — root- weeds 
 near the surface, are torn out and collected, more especially 
 during the operation of fallowing y — the manure that has 
 been inserted in the soil, is more thoroughly mixed with 
 it *, — and the seed is more effectually covered^. The large, 
 or what are called the brake harrows, are of great use also 
 in the cultivation of rough land§. 
 
 To answer so many various purposes, harrows of different 
 dimensions, weight, and strength, have been invented, suit- 
 able to the strength and condition of the soil, and adapted 
 to the particular purpose intended to be accomplished. 
 
 There are two modes of driving the harrows, either lead- 
 
 • Essex Report, vol. i. p. 420. 
 
 f In the Suffolk Report, Appendix, p . S50, there is an account of about 
 twenty intelligent practical farmers, who have persevered in the practice 
 for several years with success. See also Mr. Moseley’s Letter to Sir John 
 Sinclair, dated in April 1813, confirming that information. In Derbyshire, 
 scuffling strong land is preferred to harrowing, the former loosening the soil, 
 and exposing it to the sun and air, whereas harrowing tends to consolidate 
 it. — Report, vol. ii. p. 48. 
 
 X Comparative trials have been made of the effects of harrowing for a 
 barley crop ; and the difference in favour of harrowing, was above 21. per 
 acre, while the expence was only three shillings. In regard to crops of 
 wheat, however, sown before winter, an idea has become prevalent, that too 
 much harrowing is detrimental. When the surface is rendered too fine and 
 smooth, the plants are apt to be thrown out. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 217 and 360. 
 
352 
 
 Of Harrowing . 
 
 ing the horses, or driving them by whip-reins. The latter 
 ought to be preferred, as the horses move with a quicker 
 step, and the driver runs no risk of injury, while he is always 
 at hand, to remove any obstructions that . may occur, from 
 the accumulation of weeds, and other extraneous sub- 
 stance among the tines, or by the harrows riding on each 
 other*. 
 
 Harrowing is usually given in different directions ; first 
 in length, then across, and finally in length, as at firstf. 
 .An excess of harrowing is prejudicial to wheat ; it is better, 
 for that crop to have the land rough and cloddy*, but the 
 process ought to be effectually done for barley, (more espe- 
 cially if accompanied by grass-seeds), and for turnips. 
 
 The quantity done must vary according to the pace of 
 the horses. In Norfolk, it is the custom to walk the horses 
 against the rise, if any, and to trot them back again in the 
 same'place. The quantity done in this way, is about seven 
 acres per dayj. In Scotland, a man and a pair of horses, 
 will do a single tine, as it is called, to the extent of ten 
 acres ; but if a double tine, only five acres per day. The 
 expence in the one case is lO-^d, and in the second Is. 8c/. 
 per acre. 
 
 As the treading of horses is injurious to the land, when in 
 wet condition, attempts have been made, to discover a mode 
 of harrowing, which might be performed by horses walking 
 
 * Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 276. — Some farmers pre- 
 fer finishing heavy land by cross-harrowing, to facilitate the descent of 
 surface-water from the crowns of the ridges, to the interfurrow. — General 
 Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 361. 
 
 t Young’s Norfolk, p. 191. When done only once, they go over from 
 12 to 15 acres. 
 
 X General Report, p. 362. It is proper to observe, that, to a certain ex- 
 tent, the greater number of harrows, attached under the same yokes , the 
 more work, in proportion, will be done; and of course the cheaper it is 
 executed. A driver with one horse, and one harrow, makes an extremely 
 thriftless operation ; two horses, and two harrows are better ; but three is 
 the best mode of any ; for more than three it is very difficult to manage. 
 The reason why two harrows are better in proportion than one, and three 
 than two, is, that a small piece of land, at the extreme diagonal corners of 
 the space covered by the harrows, is insufficiently done, and must be over- 
 lapped the next time the harrows go round. This piece is to the same ex- 
 tent, when one harrow is used single, as when two or three are yoked 
 together. Thus, when one harrow is yoked by itself, it will not sufficiently 
 harrow more than two feet and a half. But two harrows together, will 
 harrow six feet, and three will harrow ten feet and a half equally well. 
 Each harrow, after the first, adds four feet to the space, properly harrowed. 
 Hence, three harrows in a set, arc better than four harrows separately, be- 
 sides requiring only one driver, instead of four. — Communication from Mr. 
 George Robertson , author of the Mid- Lothian Report. 
 
Of Rolling . 
 
 353 
 
 in the furrows* * * § . But where the ridges are broad, such ma- 
 chines are complicated and expensive, though, with narrow 
 ones, they have succeeded ; and this is one of the advantages 
 which narrow ridges have over broad ones. 
 
 Sect. V . — Of Rolling . 
 
 An intelligent farmer maintains, that if draining is the 
 first, manuring the second, and cultivation the third, that 
 rolling ought to be considered the fourth principal operation 
 in the processes of agriculturef. Its importance indeed is 
 every day becoming more apparent, and new advantages are 
 derived from its use, both on arable, (to which the inquiry is 
 now restricted), and on grass lands. 
 
 Without rolling, the process of summer-fallow, on strong 
 land, cannot be completely executed ; but by its aid, the 
 strongest and most obdurate clods may be reduced, and the 
 harrows and the scarifier, are thus enabled to tear out the 
 roots of the couch grass, and of other destructive weeds. 
 How much cheaper is rolling, than the old practice, of 
 breaking such clods by wooden mallets, or by large three- 
 pronged forks, as is practised in some parts of Flanders ! To 
 facilitate this process, rollers, with spikes, and knives, (which 
 are found more effectual), are sometimes usedj. Lord Karnes 
 recommended for that purpose, surrounding a wooden roller 
 with circles of iron, six inches asunder, and seven inches 
 deep, which would cut the most stubborn clods, and reduce 
 them to pieces of a moderate size. In stiff clays, this may 
 make the difference of a plentiful, or a scanty crop§. 
 Others prefer the drill -roller, consisting of solid, wedge-like 
 
 * Bedfordshire Report, p. 278. General Report of Scotland, volume of 
 Engravings, Plate 5, Figure 10. _ 
 
 t Essay on Rolling, by Mr. Christopher Morley. Comm, to the Board 
 of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 148. 
 
 J North Wales Report, p. 118. — Mr. Blaikie at Holkham, recommends, 
 a double spike roller, as preferable to a single one, for the purpose of pul- 
 verizing strong soils. It is formed, by two rollers hung in the same frame, 
 so close, that the spikes of one work through those of the other. It is a 
 ponderous implement, not liable to be clogged; and literally grinds the 
 soil. It is necessary to wind this roller up, when it turns at the end, or for 
 safe conveyance front one field to another. This is done by a hand-rack 
 fixed on the frame ; the fulcrom, a pair of low strong wheels, attaches to the 
 side of the frame. 
 
 § Gentleman Farmer, p. 26. For this purpose a roller with sharp pointed 
 darts, made either of forged iron, or cast metal, has lately been invented, 
 which effectually reduces these clods. An Fingraving of one is in the General 1 
 Report of Scotland, volufne of Engravings, Plate 6, No. viii. 
 
354 Of Rolling . 
 
 rings of cast-iron, with a hole through them, to receive a 
 stout wooden axis* * * § . 
 
 In preparing every species of adhesive soil, for a spring 
 or summer crop, in particular when barley, potatoes, or 
 turnips are to be sown, rolling is essentialf *, but it is after 
 the seed has been sown, that the greatest advantages are 
 derived from the process. 1. Wheat should always be rolled 
 in the spring, after frosts, as it makes the soil adhere more 
 closely to the roots of the plants, encourages vegetation, 
 strengthens the stems, and renders the grain more perfect. 
 2. When any crop of grain is sown with artificial grasses, 
 rolling is particularly necessary, to make an even surface, 
 bruising all clods, and pressing down any stones it may not 
 be thought necessary to carry off, to facilitate the future 
 operation of the scythe. 3. Oats, in a light soil, may be 
 rolled with advantage, immediately after the seed is sown, 
 unless the ground be so wet as to cling to the roller. 
 4. After turnips are sown in drills, they ought to be imme- 
 diately rolled, to make the soil compact, and to promote 
 their speedy germination J. 5. Not only for turnips, but 
 for all other crops, rolling, particularly a little after mid- 
 night, is found to be useful for destroying slugs§, snails, the 
 wire-worm, and other vermin, so destructive to young plants. 
 And, 6. Flax ought to be rolled immediately after sowing ; 
 it makes the seed vegetate equally, and prevents after-growth, 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 46. 
 
 f It is improper to roll land before winter, for wheat. It is better that 
 the surface should be lumpy and uneven. — In 99 cases out of 100, when the 
 surface is too smooth before winter, the crop is hurt by tiie frost. Even 
 when wheat is sown in February, the roller must be used with caution. 
 
 If the land lies rough in winter, in all probability, the water passes through 
 it more freely, by which the plant is more effectually preserved dry; and it 
 is well known, that strong soils are the more liable to become cohesive after 
 being well pulverized, particularly if the operation is not performed when 
 they are in a very dry state. — Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 I A small stone, or wooden roller, is commonly used ; but it is now ascer- 
 tained by experience, that, on light soils, a heavy roller is much more effec- 
 tual for the destruction of the fly, or rather beetle, which is thus cither 
 crushed, or so shut up in the ground, that it cannot extricate itself. General 
 Report of Scotland , vol. iii. p. 406. — At the same time caution is necessary in 
 using the roller on turnip-seed when the land is moist, and the soil is at all 
 of an adhesive quality; as the seed is apt to adhere to the earth collected in 
 the course of the operation. When the land is not perfectly dry, a few 
 bushes tied together like a large broom, and drawn by a boy down the 
 drills, is the most advisable mode of covering the seed, and it may be done 
 at the rate of two acres per day. — Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 § Mr. Vagg of Chilcompton, was rewarded with several hundred pounds, 
 for publishing an account of the means of destroying slugs by midnight- 
 rolling. For the fly or beetle, day-rolling is more likely to be useful. 
 
Choice of Seed. 
 
 355 
 
 the mischievous effects of which are visible in every step of 
 the process for dressing flax. 
 
 The other advantages of rolling arable land are, that it 
 renders a loose soil more compact and solid. This en- 
 courages the growth of plants, by pressing the soil to their 
 roots. It likewise keeps in the moisture, and prevents 
 drought from penetrating. When the soil is worked up 
 lightly, moisture either filters through it too quickly, or is 
 easily evaporated. In a dry season this may occasion a very 
 material difference in the crop, more especially in a light 
 soil. 
 
 Rolling is executed to most advantage, across the di- 
 rection of the ridges, because more adapted to ensure full 
 benefit to the furrows, which otherwise may not be properly 
 gone over. 
 
 The heavy roller, allowing for a slight overlap, and the 
 time spent in turning, may roll about six acres per day, the 
 expence of which may be from Is. 9d. to 2.9. per acre. 
 
 Farmers are rarely provided with a sufficient number of 
 these implements. When a large field is to be rolled, a 
 number of rollers ought at once to be set at work, other- 
 wise an opportunity maybe lost, never to be regained*; 
 and where oxen are kept, they may be usefully employed in 
 this operation. 
 
 Sect. VI . — Choice of Seed. 
 
 Cultivators often commit very serious blunders in the 
 choice of seed ; yet by attention to this object, they might 
 frequently add considerably to the quantity of the produce, 
 and to the intrinsic value of the crop. 
 
 By some, this hazardous rule has been recommended, that 
 of taking the worst grain for seed ; but it is a much safer 
 system, unless in cases of real necessity, to save none, but 
 what is fully ripened, for such seed is less affected by local 
 circumstances, and unfavourable seasons. The ripest seed 
 may be obtained by beating, or slightly threshing the sheaves. 
 The shape of the seed merits attention, for though size or 
 magnitude, is generally owing to the soil in which it has been 
 grown, yet it is likewise a sign of its ripeness. In regard to 
 figure, much depends upon the climate, for warm and early 
 situations produce round grain ; whereas a long figure de- 
 notes the reverse. Colour is a popular mark in some cases, 
 
 * Brown on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 279, 
 
 A a2 
 
356 
 
 Choice of Seed. 
 
 but is not itself of importance. It is prudent, however, to 
 raise that sort, that is most suitable to the market, in re- 
 gard to colour, and in other- respects. Sometimes seed, 
 apparently quite sound, is incapable of producing plants. 
 This should be ascertained by sowing a certain number, and 
 seeing how they spring. 
 
 On the whole, though blighted grain will often vegetate, 
 and though it is possible, that in rich soils, and in very favour- 
 able seasons, it may produce even an abundant harvest ; yet 
 the prudent farmer, will not rely upon the chance of such an 
 event , as a practice on which he ought to depend, more 
 especially, when his crops are sown in winter, or early in 
 spring, and consequently are exposed to much severity of 
 weather*. 
 
 Care also must be taken, that the seed has not suffered 
 injury, by being bruised, or having imperfect lobes, or 
 broken husks, or that there is no risk of sterility from agef. 
 
 Where domestic seed is relied on, it is proper to change 
 the seed from the heavier, to the lighter parts of the farm, 
 and vice versa, if there be much difference. On clay farms 
 in general, domestic seed may be safely used for some time ; 
 but with a view to prevent degeneracy, it is an excellent 
 practice, to select, from the growing crops, the ears which 
 are the soonest ripe, and which are of the plumpest quality ; 
 by this means, those husbandmen who devote themselves 
 in a peculiar manner to this object, cannot only supply 
 themselves, but can always command a much higher price 
 
 * After the miserable crops of 1,782, some experiments were tried in 
 Scotland, to fix, if possible, on some decided marks, by which good seed 
 might be distinguished from such as was injured by frost. It was soon 
 found by experience, that no stress at all was to be laid on the appearance 
 of the grain in its natural §tate. In regard to oats, it was found ; 1. That 
 the clearest, and best looking oats, when sown, often produced the worst 
 crop ; 2. That the grain which yielded, when milled, the greatest quantity 
 of meal, wa3 far from having the best vegetative powers ; and, 3. That 
 because the grain sprung readily when put into a pot of earth, it could not, 
 therefore, be depended upon for good seed ; for it often sprung readily 
 through the ground, without having strength enough to bring the plant to 
 maturity. On the whole, it was found, that the best mark by which sound 
 seed oats can be distinguished from such as are injured by the frost, was, to 
 examine the grain, when stripped of the outer husk ; and to consider that as 
 the best seed, which, in that state, is plump, and clear, and free from shri- 
 velling, and darkness of colour, more especially at the extremities. Statisti - 
 cal Account of Scotland , vol. iv. p. 550. — It has been found, that seed, when 
 it has been much exposed to frost, will often never vegetate ; that it does 
 rise above the surface; above double the quantity is necessary; that it will 
 not yield one-third of the produce of good seed, and that the quality is 
 much inferior. 
 
 + Coventry’s Discourses, p. 82. 
 
357 
 
 Change of Seed, 
 
 than others, by selling the grain raised upon their /arms for 
 seed, either among their neighbours, or to be sent to other 
 districts*. 
 
 Sect. VII. — Change of Seed, 
 
 A change of seed, is in general to be recommended, 
 as founded on rational principles. Every species of grain has 
 a climate adapted to it, where it flourishes, — where it grows 
 to perfection, — and where it never degenerates. — In a country 
 where wheat grows naturally, as in Sicily, seed dropping 
 from the mother-plant, arrives at perfection, though neither 
 the seed nor the soil be changed. But as wheat is not a 
 native of Britain, it has here a great tendency to degenerate, 
 more especially in the more northern districts ; — and, it de- 
 generates rapidly , if the seed be sown, year after year, where 
 it was produced. Nor is it sufficient that the seed be taken 
 from a different field, it ought also to be taken from a diffe- 
 rent soil, and from a different atmospheref. 
 
 Besides preventing a degeneracy in the quality of the 
 grain, the crops of the farmer, by a judicious change of 
 seed, will sooner reach maturity; an object, in 'many cases, 
 of the greatest moment. It is well known, that a change 
 of constitution in plants, originating from the situation in 
 which they have been placed, is commonly transmitted to 
 their offspring. — Plants propagated from seed, produced in 
 a warm sandy soil, will therefore grow fast in whatever 
 soil the seed is sown ; and plants from seed produced in a 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 373. 
 
 t Gentleman Farmer, p. 333. — Marshall’s Southern Counties, vol. i. 
 p. 120. — Farmers on the borders of Lincolnshire, make a considerable ad- 
 vantage, by purchasing their seed wheat from the Fens ; they find the change 
 useful, and at the same time save in the price. — The annual change of the 
 different seeds, is found to be of great advantage, as the same seed, sown 
 successively for years, in the same soil, becomes gradually small and unpro- 
 ductive. Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 337. — In Flanders, they 
 never use the grain or seeds grown on the lands to be sown, nor regard the 
 additional expence attendant on the purchase of seed that is heavier and 
 more healthy. Their flax-seed they bring from Riga or Memel, and their 
 potatoes from Brabant. Vanders true ten's improved Husbandry , p. 51. — 
 The Farming Society of Ireland, by its premiums, introduce the habit of 
 sowing seed imported from England. By this means, the quality of the 
 Irish grain is greatly improved, and the samples of corn now produced for 
 sale at the Irish, would not disgrace any English market. Remark by the 
 Rev. Thomas Radcliff. — Englisji grain, sown in Ireland, generally comes to 
 maturity ten days, or even a fortnight, earlier than the native seed under 
 similar circumstances. — Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. — Potatoes pro- 
 duced in burnt land, produces the best seed of Irish growth. — Ditto. 
 
358 
 
 Quantity of Seed . 
 
 cold stiff soil, are late of growing, even in a warm soil. 
 Hence the advantage of changing seed from a warm to a 
 cold soil ; for though seed from a warm soil, will not grow 
 so quickly in a cold, as in a warm soil, it will, however, 
 always grow more quickly than seed from a cold soil*. The 
 quantity also will be increased. From an experiment made 
 by the celebrated Lord Karnes, it would appear, that the 
 produce of changed seed, exceeds that of old seed, at the 
 rate of nearly twenty-six per centf. The farmer, however, 
 ought not to alter his seed, while it gives him fair and rea- 
 sonable satisfaction, unless he has every reason to be con- 
 vinced, that better can be obtained by a change. 
 
 It is proper to add, that in two cases, it has been found 
 expedient to change the seed from an inferior to a superior 
 climate. In Flanders, where great quantities of flax are 
 grown, the seed must be brought from the Baltic ; other- 
 wise the crop will be deficient. In the case of potatoes, 
 also, seed is imported from an inferior climate, as the most 
 likely means of preventing the disease called the curl. It 
 has fortunately, however, been discovered, that by taking 
 up potatoes for seed, early, or sowing them so late that they 
 cannot reach maturity, the same object may be obtained. 
 
 Besides changing seed, crossing different varieties has been 
 found of use. Mr. Knight, has not only raised new va- 
 rieties of apples, and of the garden pea, but has likewise tried 
 experiments with crossing wheat, which he has effected by 
 sowing the different kinds together. This was attended 
 with a most extraordinary result ; for when, in the year 
 1796, almost the whole crops of corn in the island were 
 blighted, the varieties obtained by crossing, alone escaped, 
 though sown in different soils, and in very different situa- 
 tions:);. 
 
 Sect. VIII. — Quantity of Seed. 
 
 It is hardly to be credited, how little this branch of the 
 inquiry is attended to, or understood, in several districts. In 
 
 * Gentleman Farmer, p. 330. — To ascertain these points, an intelligent 
 farmer in the Lothians, sowed English seed wheat, from London, with some 
 of his own, and it was always earlier by several days. He has likewise tried 
 sowing seed wheat, equal in quality to his own, from a situation where the 
 climate produces crops ten days later than the farm he occupies, and it was 
 nearly a week later than his own seed sown at the same time .— Husbandry 
 of Scotland, vol. i. p. 3 55. 
 
 f Gentleman Farmer, p. 327 to 336. 
 
 1 Sir Humphry Davy’s Elements, edit. 1813, p. 2 25; and the Philosophi- 
 cal Transactions for the year 1709. 
 
Quantity of Seed. 
 
 359 
 
 some, the quantity of seed sown is enormous, as a quarter 
 of oats, or eight bushels per acre*. In others, they sow 
 the some quantity of wheat in all seasons of the year, with- 
 out paying much regard to the time of sowing; though two, 
 or three bushels of seed sown in August or September, is 
 equal to four bushels and upwards, sown in the latter end 
 of November, or in spring. Thick sowing must occasion 
 a great deficiency in early sown wheats, in weak and shal- 
 low soils ; for though they may be in heart sufficient to 
 push a number of plants through the winter and spring, yet 
 the vigour of the soil is spent in the earlier stages of vegeta- 
 tion : the straw is slender and scanty, and the ears abridged 
 of half their load. Whereas, had there been only a due 
 proportion of plants, the exhaustion, during winter and 
 spring, would have been less severe, and the strength of the 
 soil would have been reserved, for the more material pur- 
 pose of perfecting the plants in harvestf. 
 
 In treating of this subject, it may be proper to lay down, 
 1. The rules to be recommended respecting the quantity of 
 seed in general ; — and, 2. The fittest proportions for the dif- 
 ferent crops. 
 
 General Rules . 
 
 1. The first point to be considered, is. The Climate . — In a 
 district where a crop is likely to experience favourable sea- 
 sons, a less quantity of seed will be required, than where it 
 is liable to a succession of variable weather, and occasion- 
 ally, to great storms of rain or snow, or to severe frosts. In- 
 deed, where the climate is uncertain, it is necessary to em- 
 ploy a sufficiency of seed, to provide against accidents. 
 
 2. The nature of The Soily and its state of fertility, are 
 the next points to be discussed. — On light thin soils, for 
 the reasons already assigned, the quantity of seed ought to 
 be moderate *, whereas, in strong, stiff, wet, retentive soils, 
 on the other hand, as the plants seldom branch off much 
 from the roots, a large proportion of seed will be necessary, 
 in order to secure such abundant crops, as lands of this de- 
 scription are capable of supporting. But where such lands 
 are well prepared, rendered friable by a summer fallow, and 
 in high condition, a small quantity of seed is sufficient ; for 
 though the crop may appear thin during the winter, the 
 seedling plants have time and vigour enough to fill up the 
 
 * Marshall’s Yorkshire, vol. li. p. 20. 
 f Marshall’s Norfolk, vol. i. p. 224. 
 
360 
 
 Quantity of Seed. 
 
 field, by means of suckers, or lateral plants, which branch 
 out from the principal root, and produce a full crop in au- 
 tumn* * * § . 
 
 3. The next point for consideration, is, The Season when 
 the Seed is soivu , for it is evident, that seed sown early, 
 takes deeper root, and has more time to branch out addi- 
 tional shoots, than that which is late sown. Hence a less 
 quantity is sufficient. Indeed, with late sowing, the pro- 
 gress of the crop may be retarded by dry and hot weather, 
 unless a large quantity of seed be employed, so as to afford 
 protection to the soil, from the mischiefs of evaporation, by 
 the plants growing closely together. It seems to be a judi- 
 cious rule, on soils of a medium quality, where wheat is 
 sown broad-cast, to use about two bushels and a half, towards 
 the latter end of September, and to add a gallon of seed for 
 every fortnight afterwardsf. 
 
 4 . The state of the Weather , when the Seed is put into the 
 ground , must likewise be considered ; for where the season 
 is very dry, and where there is a small proportion of mois- 
 ture in the soil, more of the seed may fail to vegetate, than 
 where the contrary is the case. Hence a larger quantity is 
 required ; and hence the propriety, not only of a larger 
 quantity of seed, but the practice of steeping and putting 
 in the seed in such dry seasons, immediately after the 
 ploughi. 
 
 5. The manner in which the Operation of Sowing is carried 
 on, it is obvious, must make some difference in the quantity 
 sown. Where the broad-cast system is adopted, a larger 
 quantity of seed is required, than where the grains are de- 
 posited, with equality and exactness, only on certain portions 
 of the land, as is the case in the drill and dibbling methods. 
 Where the grain is scattered over the whole surface of the 
 soil, in some measure, at random, it is exposed to the de- 
 predation of birds, and some of the seeds may not be placed 
 in a situation favourable to vegetation. At the same time, 
 the saving of seed, under the drill system, cannot be carried 
 to any great extent, without the risk of disappointment^, 
 though it may in dibbling. 
 
 6. In regulating the quantity of seed, it is necessary also 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 4 56. 
 
 "t Remark by John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 X Dickson’s Practical Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 451. 
 
 § Impressed with this idea, Mr. Coke of Norfolk, sows, under the drill 
 system, four bushels of wheat, three of barley, and six of oats, per statute 
 acre. 
 
361 
 
 Quantity of Seed . 
 
 to have in view, Whether Clover is to be sown with the Grain ; 
 for in that case, it is evident, that a smaller quantity of the 
 grain seed ought to be used, otherwise the clover may be 
 materially injured, by a superabundant crop of grain. 
 
 7. The Quality of the Seed , is another point to be at- 
 tended to, for it cannot be doubted, that a less quantity will 
 be sufficient, where it is known, to be good and perfect of 
 its sort, than when from age, an unfavourable harvest, or 
 otherwise, it is known to be the reverse. In the former 
 case, every seed will vegetate, whereas, in the latter, many 
 must prove faulty. 
 
 8 . The last point relates to the size of the Seed ; for the 
 smaller the size, the greater number of plants will be pro- 
 duced from a certain weight of corn; and when the grain 
 is round and plump, its being moderate sized, does not make 
 it less fit for the purposes of vegetation*. 
 
 Proportions of Seed for the different Crops. 
 
 It is to be regretted, that the proportions of seed best 
 calculated to afford the fullest and most abundant produce, 
 in different crops, and under various circumstances, has not 
 yet been decided by the aid of experimental investigation. 
 The following hints, it is hoped, will throw some light on 
 this branch of the subject. 
 
 Wheat. — When land is in high condition, and adapted 
 for wheat, more especially after a summer-fallow, about two 
 bushels per acre has been generally found sufficient, in the 
 best cultivated districts of Scotland. Bean stubbles require 
 more seed than summer-fallows, because the seed, from the 
 roughness of the surface, cannot be so equally distributed ; 
 and clover leys, ought to have more seed than even bean stub- 
 bles. Turnip land, sown with wheat in spring, must have a still 
 more ample allowance, as the shorter period of growth, does 
 not leave a sufficient interval for tillering, and many of the 
 suckers that are produced, never come to maturity. In 
 these cases, from three bushels up to rather less than four, 
 may be requiredf . In England, it is calculated, that about 
 two bushels dnd a half is the medium quantity of seed wheat 
 throughout the kingdom^, though it is often more. 
 
 * Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 456. Brown on Rural Affairs, 
 vol. ii. p. 16. 
 
 X Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol i. p, 118. 
 
362 
 
 Quantity of Seed. 
 
 Barley . — The quantity of seed for a crop of barley, varies 
 from two bushels and a half, to four bushels per acre ; but 
 it is always safer to give too much, than too little seed. It 
 is a rule, indeed, with all spring-sown grain, to give a suffi- 
 cient quantity of seed, to ensure a full crop from the first 
 growth, and not to depend upon tillering, or planting out. 
 With a full quantity of seed, the crop grows, and ripens 
 equally, and, unless in very unfavourable seasons, the grain 
 is uniformly good. Barley, being generally sown in the dry 
 seasons of the year, the plants are often stunted in their 
 growth, and unable to send out off-sets to stock the soil. 
 The plant may afterwards stool or tiller at a later period, 
 but these young shoots, cannot be expected to arrive at 
 maturity, or if their ripening is waited for, there is a great 
 risk of losing the first, or earlier growth of the crop*. 
 
 Oats . — The quantity of seed for a crop of oats, is gene- 
 rally from four to five Winchester bushels per statute acre ; 
 though in Devonshire they go as far as six bushels, and in 
 Yorkshire to eightf. The amount must depend upon the 
 richness of the soil, and the variety that is cultivated. The 
 potatoe-oats, not having any tail-oat, like the ordinary 
 sorts, and tillering well, require much less seed, in point of 
 measure, than the other sorts; and maybe safely trusted, 
 when the land is equally well cultivated, with as small a 
 quantity of seed as barley, namely, from two and a half to 
 four bushels^. It is, however, to be observed, that as oats, 
 in general, are cultivated on weak and inferior soils, and in 
 cold climates, the quantity of seed should be increased in 
 proportion as these circumstances operate. 
 
 Beans . — In the culture of beans, different quantities of 
 seed are used in England and Scotland. In the former, 
 three bushels per acre is considered to be a sufficient quan- 
 tity, if drilled, and four, when broad-cast ; but in Scotland, 
 four bushels are required when the beans are sown in drills, 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 489.— Brown on Ru*nl Affairs, 
 vol. ii. p. 45 . — The ideas and experience of the farmers in Ireland, 
 are totally different. In that country, barley, in well cultivated and good 
 soils, tillers as much as wheat, and the head produced from these collateral 
 shoots, are as productive, as from the main stem, or parent plant. Some of 
 the best farmers in Ireland, sow their barley thin , on well prepared land, 
 and find it injudicious to sow it on lands on which the plant would not 
 tiller .—Remark by Edward Burroughs^ Esq. 
 
 f Marshall’s West of England, vol. i. p. 194. Ditto, Yorkshire, vol. ii. 
 
 p. 20 . 
 
 t General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 501. Brown on Rural Affairs; 
 vol. i. p. 49. 
 
Quantity of Seed, 
 
 363 
 
 and five bushels if sown broad-cast. Perhaps this may be 
 partly owing to the difference of climate, beans being sown 
 early, and exposed to much severity of weather. Besides, 
 it is maintained in Scotland, that unless the rows of beans 
 close effectually over the land, weeds will unavoidably grow, 
 and flourish, after the cleansing process is finished. The 
 land will thence become foul, so as to defeat the very object 
 of the drill husbandry, the crop will be proportionably in- 
 jured, by being robbed of its nourishment, and the land will 
 be left in a wretched condition, compared to that in which 
 it ought to have been placed* * * § . 
 
 Pease . — When drilled, four bushels of seed 'are consi- 
 dered to be sufficient, but when sown broad-cast, from four 
 to five bushels are supposed to be necessary. Much, how- 
 ever, must depend upon the size of the pea, the luxuriance 
 of its growth, and the peculiar qualities of the variety sown, 
 for three bushels of the grey pea, as seed, is found equal to 
 four of whitef . 
 
 Clover and Rye-grass . — It is not advisable to sow at the 
 same time, a mixture of light and heavy seeds, as clover, 
 and rye-grass. It is impossible that it can be done correctly ; 
 and it is much more prudent, to go once over the ground, 
 with each sort of seed. The usual quantity per statute acre, 
 is from ten to twelve pounds of red clover seed, and about 
 a half, or two-thirds of a bushel of clean and well-dressed 
 rye-grass seed. If the rye-grass is cut young , it is not in- 
 jurious to the soil. 
 
 On the whole, seed ought not to be distributed with too 
 rigid economy, as a full crop of any grain whatever, is 
 cheaply purchased, by giving a sufficiency of seed ; while a 
 scanty crop, besides being in itself unprofitable, is sure to 
 poison the land, by facilitating the growth of weedsf. 
 There is a happy medium, however, in this, as well as 
 every thing else. For a crop may not succeed, when the 
 plants are too numerous in the ground, any more than when 
 they are too few. Their over-luxuriance may likewise be 
 prejudicial, by retarding the ripening, and hazarding the 
 safety of the crop§. 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 519. Brown on Rural Affairs, 
 vol. ii. p. 61. 
 
 f Marshall’s Norfolk, vol. i. p. 251. 
 
 j General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 530. 
 
 § Coventry’s Discourses, p. 84. 
 
364 
 
 Preparing the Seed for Sowing. 
 
 Sect. IX. — Preparing the Seed Jor Sowing . 
 
 W ith a view of bettering the future crop, husbandmen 
 have attempted, in various ways, by preparing the seed for 
 semination, to accomplish four objects: — 1. The discovery 
 of weak or faulty seed ; — 2. The preservation of the seed 
 from the attacks of vermin of various sorts *, — 3. The pro- 
 moting of the semination and growth of the future plants *, — 
 and, 4. The prevention of certain disorders, to which they 
 might otherwise be liable*. — The fourth point shall be the 
 subject of Future discussion ; — the- other three shall be briefly 
 considered in this place. 
 
 1. In order to detect and separate imperfect and disor- 
 dered seeds, from those which are sound, and fit for sowing, 
 it is only necessary, to pour the grain, gently, either into 
 common water, or into a solution of salt and water. — In this 
 way, the imperfect and disordered seeds, from being lighter, 
 are soon discovered *, for they swim on the surface, and can 
 easily be skimmed off, either when at first poured in, or every 
 time the mass is stirred. — Common water is in general con- 
 sidered to be sufficient ; but the addition of salt is of use, 
 by increasing the specific gravity of the liquor, and conse- 
 quently bringing up grain, in a lesser degree deficient in 
 weight. The solution should be made so strong, that an egg 
 will swim in it. 
 
 2. Steeping seed for its preservation against vermin, (as 
 insects, birds, field-mice, &c.), is principally effected, by 
 employing some article, as train oilf, stale urine, &c., that 
 has an offensive smell, and deters them from approaching 
 it. — For that purpose, the Romans used the lees of oil, 
 decoctions of cypress-leaves, juice of house-leeks, &c. and 
 they placed great dependence on the virtues of these appli- 
 cations. In modern times, saline and caustic particles, are 
 applied to the seed of barley and oats, as well as of wheat, 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 80 . 
 
 f For three seasons, the plan of steeping turnip-seed in train oil, pre- 
 vented the attack of the fly at Lord Orford’s, in Norfolk. — The evening 
 before the seed was to be used, as much as would be required the next day, 
 was first steept in train oil, and then kept in salt pickle during the night. — 
 Seven gallons of oil, is sufficient to prepare seed for two hundred acres of 
 turnips. There was a partial failure of this process, to the amount of thirty 
 acres, which was attributed to an excessive rain having fallen, by which the 
 noxious quality of the oil was destroyed .— Annals of Agriculture, vol. xiv. 
 p. 168 . 
 
365 
 
 Preparing the Seed for Sowing. 
 
 to preserve it from the attacks of vermim, or to destroy such 
 as may venture to eat it. 
 
 3. Attempts have also been made, to promote the germi- 
 nation, and the growth of plants, by steeping them in water, 
 and other substances, with a view of securing in spring, a 
 few days’ start in vegetation. 
 
 Some farmers have steeped barley in pure water, from 16 
 to 24 hours, if it is to be sown in light soils, where there is 
 not a likelihood of sufficient moisture being in the land, 
 to promote germination ; and some accounts have been 
 published, of considerable success attending that practice. — 
 It is very hazardous, however, oversteeping the seed, lest it 
 should destroy the embryo plant *, and it is recommended, 
 to roll the soil afterwards, that the moisture in it may be 
 retained. — The application of dunghill water, however, to 
 seed-corn, seems to be still more useful*, more especially if 
 the urine of cows is made use of, which contains a great 
 deal of ammonia, and in which no seed can be safely kept 
 above an hour. 
 
 Gardeners frequently steep beans to accelerate their 
 growth, and some farmers have found it of advantage, in 
 late situations, to adopt this practice, to a considerable 
 extent. 
 
 They have a practice in Switzerland of steeping the seed 
 of clover, in common oil, for an hour or two, to prevent 
 the attacks of insects. It should then be mixed with 
 powdered gypsum, to promote a rapid vegetation. The same 
 plan might have similar effects on turnip-seed, and prevent 
 those risks to which the crop is liable in its early stages. 
 Oil is peculiarly destructive to insects, when applied out- 
 wardly, as it stops up the pores of the skin. When taken 
 inwardly, it is not so injurious. 
 
 * In the spring of 1783, a farmer in Cornwall, (Mr. James Chappie, in 
 Bodmin), soaked his seed barley in dunghill-water, in which it lay for 24 
 hours. All the light corn which floated on the surface, was skimmed off. — 
 On taking it out of the water, a sufficient quantity of sifted wood-ashes, to 
 make it spread regularly, was mixed with the seed ; and three fields were 
 sown with it. — The produce was 60 bushels per acre, of good clean barley; 
 while several fields belonging to the farmer himself, and to his neighbours, 
 where no preparation had been used, were very poor, not producing more 
 than 20 bushels per acre. ( Papers of the Bath Society), vol. iii. p.305. — 
 Dunghill water, however, must be used with great caution, as a steep. If 
 diluted, it can do no great harm, but if kept for some time, in a concen- 
 trated state, it becomes highly putrescent, and may prove detrimental, and 
 indeed may destroy the vegetative powers of the plant. 
 
366 
 
 Season for Sowing . 
 
 Sect. X. — Season for Sowing. 
 
 The period of sowing the different grains, varies so much, 
 according to situation, — soil, — climate, — species, — and a 
 number of other circumstances, that it is impossible to lay 
 down any general rule, but this, “ That early sowing is, on 
 the whole, to be recommended*. — It has been found, by a 
 number of accurate experiments, registered in Dr. Hunter’s 
 Georgical Essays, that, in England, from the middle of Sep- 
 tember, to the middle of October, is the best time to sow 
 wheat. — It is true, that all farmers cannot complete their 
 seeding within this time, but it is important, that they should 
 attend to it as far as it is practicable. 
 
 On several accounts it is desirable, to sow before winter, 
 or early in that season, to as great an extent as circum- 
 stances will admit of. — 1. Because when a good deal of work 
 is over in winter, there is less to do in the spring ;~-2. As 
 when the seed is sown in winter, a less quantity will suf- 
 fice; — 3. Because the crop will be ripened earlier, which in 
 times of scarcity, may prevent the calamities of famine ; — 
 4. As when a crop is sooner ripe, it is less liable to disease 
 in its progress ; or to injury in time of harvest ; — and, 5. As 
 it may be possible, to obtain a second crop in the course, 
 even, of that year. — This is frequently the case in Flanders, 
 and even in England, where “ stubble turnips,” as they are 
 called, are often raised. 
 
 On all these grounds, it is well entitled to the consider- 
 ation of the farmers of Great Britain and Ireland, whether 
 two sorts of grain, barley, and oats, commonly sown in spring, 
 may not, to a certain extent, be sown previous to winter. 
 
 In regard to barley, the two-rowed grain will not answer; 
 but there can be little doubt that the four-rowed, or the 
 six-rowed varieties, would succeed. The Flemish derive 
 great advantage from the cultivation of sucrion , or winter 
 barley, which they greatly prefer to the spring. It ripens 
 earlier; — is more productivef ; — sells at a higher price; — 
 
 * It is an old proverb, “ That an early sowing sometimes deceives, but 
 a late sowing never, for the crop from it is always had." — Dickson's Hus- 
 bandry of the Ancients , vol. ii. p. 18. 
 
 •f* Its produce on the Polders , or carse lands, is ten quarters per English 
 acre, or fifteen bolls and a half, per Scotch acre. Carse land is peculiarly 
 calculated for this species of grain. Radcliff's Flanders > p. 15. — In Ireland, it 
 is known under the name of here or higg^ and is frequently sown in autumn, 
 with much success. It is considered a valuable crop on lands that have 
 
367 
 
 Of Sowing, and Drilling. 
 
 and yields a greater quantity of malt liquor, or spirits. A 
 valuable crop of turnips may likewise be raised after it*. 
 
 As to oats, autumnal sowing is strongly recommended by 
 its success in Ireland. The plan is not calculated, however, 
 for cold or poor soils ; but in rich and fertile land, there 
 can hardly be a doubt of its success. The oats should be 
 sown in September, or the beginning of October. As the 
 crop will tiller in the spring, about half the usual quantity 
 of seed will be sufficient. This practice answers best in a 
 dry soil, but where moisture is likely to be injurious to the 
 crop, the furrows should be gone over by a plough, with- 
 out a mould plate, and the mould or loosened earth, should 
 be thrown, by spades or shovels, upon the land sown with 
 the oats. If the crop is too luxuriant in spring, it may 
 either be cut with the scythe, or fed off with sheep, in the 
 months of February or March. This is of use to the crop, 
 though it may retard the ripening. But after all, it will 
 be a fortnight or three weeks earlier for the sickle, than the 
 spring sown, and the produce will be more abundant. If 
 possible, seed should be procured from a crop that had been 
 sown in winter, as such, oats will naturally produce plants 
 of a hardier nature, than could be obtained from spring- 
 sown corn. The Tartarian oat, as being of a sort pecu- 
 liarly hardy, has been strongly recommended for trying 
 the experimentf. 
 
 Sect. XI.- — Of Sowing, (Drilling included), and on the 
 practice of Transplanting Grain. 
 
 The most advantageous mode of depositing the seed in 
 the ground, and also of covering it, is one of the most im- 
 portant subjects of agricultural inquiry. It has of late at- 
 tracted particular attention, and has been discussed, not only 
 in various publications, but at numerous meetings of practical 
 farmers. It may be treated of under four heads: 1. Broad- 
 cast, or surface-sowing ; — 2. Ploughing in ; — 3. Drilling, 
 and other modes of cultivating in rows; — and 4. Dibbling. 
 
 been pared and burnt, and on lands of a friable, and a fertile quality. — 
 Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 * Winter barley has been sown by Mr. Ellman of Glynde, in Sussex, 
 principally as spring feed for his sheep, but on the whole, he prefers rye, 
 being a fortnight earlier. 
 
 t Communication from Thomas RadclifF, Esq. of Globe-Hill, near En- 
 niscorthy, in Ireland. 
 
368 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling, 
 
 To these we shall subjoin, some observations on a The trans- 
 plantation of crops.” 
 
 1. Broad- casi, or Sowing on the Surface , and Harrowing 
 in the Seed . 
 
 This mode, which formerly was most probably universal, 
 is still very generally adopted in many districts of these 
 kingdoms, and is the usual practice in the greater part of 
 the Continent. — The process is a difficult one to execute well; 
 and it is impossible, from any description, to form an idea, 
 of the measured step, the regular handfuls, and the artificial 
 cast which the sower acquires, and which can be learned only, 
 by inspection, imitation, and practice. A skilful and ex- 
 perienced sower, regulates the prescribed quantity of seed to 
 the acre, with wonderful precision, and distributes the seed 
 over the ground, with the most exact equality. It is often, 
 however, very imperfectly executed ; and even where it is 
 done well, it must depend upon the subsequent operation of 
 harrowing, whether the seed is deposited at the proper depth, 
 so as to germinate with advantage. 
 
 It is objected to this process, by those who have adopted 
 a more correct one, that it is slovenly ; — that it is difficult 
 to conduct it properly in windy weather that the seed is 
 placed at unequal depths ; — that a very large proportion of it 
 is either left but thinly covered, or is sunk too deep in the 
 soil ; — that a heavy loss must be sustained, from the quantity 
 that is exposed to the attacks of birds, and to the injury that 
 may be sustained from great droughts, or severe frosts ; — 
 and that unless skilfully done, a part of the ground may re- 
 main unoccupied. 
 
 Notwithstanding these objections, the broad- cast system 
 has continued to prevail in various districts, not only on 
 account of its simplicity, and its requiring less expensive 
 machinery, but, where the climate is unfavourable, or the 
 seasons unusually backward, from the expedition with which 
 it is executed, and the greater certainty of effecting the 
 object in any season*. Indeed where the climate is un- 
 
 * Several farmers, who are friends to the drill, admit, that in unfavour-* 
 able seasons, they are sometimes under the necessity of resorting to surface- 
 sowing. Mr. Denny , of Kgmerc in Norfolk , states, “ That at times, every 
 practical farmer will admit, that a good seedsman may be employed to ad- 
 vantage, more especially in a backward season ; if flag-land , (or clover later), 
 the common harrow to follow; if broken (or cultivated) soil, ploughing 
 under. In a wet time, he prefers sowing barley broad-cast, and to harrow 
 in, or plough under, as the state of the soil best admits of.” See also Mr. 
 Grove's Letter, dated 1 8th October, 1819, (Farmer’s Journal). 
 
369 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling . 
 
 favourable, any additional time and labour required, more 
 especially during the seed process, are very important con- 
 siderations to farmers. Their establishment of men and 
 horses, (the heaviest of the charges on agriculture), is econo- 
 mically proportioned to the work of the whole circle of the 
 year; and, independently of all other considerations, the 
 sowing by the drill, requires more time than surface-sowing. 
 
 Instead of sowing broad-cast by the hand, machines for 
 that purpose have been invented. By them, the corn is 
 delivered with great regularity, from a horizontal trough, 
 ten feet in length, by brushes, upon a turning axle, worked 
 by the rotation of the wheel of the machine. The most 
 improved kind has two wheels, and is drawn by a mule, or 
 light horse, in shafts. A great saving of seed, and equable 
 sowing, result from the use of this implement*. Such ma- 
 chines are likely to be particularly useful for clover, and other 
 small seeds, which are distributed, by the hand, with more 
 difficulty. 
 
 2. Ploughing in the Seed . 
 
 In the greater part of England, where drilling does not 
 prevail, the seed is not harrowed, but ploughed in, or covered 
 by a furrow. This is often done on light soils, by a light 
 one-horse plough, immediately after the seed is scattered 
 over the surface. But in many of the heavy soils of England, 
 the seedsman follows the plough, scattering the seed by 
 hand, in the trenches of each furrow, as they are successively 
 formed, (called straining in, or spraining), and on the return 
 of the plough, the seed is covered with earthf. As a prepara- 
 tion for this plan, the land is commonly fallowed, and cleared 
 of weeds ; it receives, where the process is properly con- 
 ducted X, five summer plougliings, the three first to the depth 
 of seven inches, and the two last shallower, sufficient to 
 
 * Communication from the Rev. Thomas Radcliff. — This machine has 
 lately come into considerable use in Ireland. 
 
 f This seems to be a most tedious process. Why should not the plough 
 be followed by a small drill barrow, or such a barrow attached to the 
 plough itself, which would at once introduce the row culture, into all the 
 districts where the seed is covered by a furrow ? 
 
 \ It is much to be regretted, that fallowing is far from being, in general, 
 ■properly conducted , in the open fields of England. Two ploughings, or at 
 the utmost three, besides the seeding earth, is all that is given. It is not to 
 be wondered at, that deficient crops should be produced by such deficient 
 tillage. The land, though fallowed, is generally foul, because the land is not 
 brought into a pulverized state sufficiently early to promote the germination* 
 of annual weeds, and to facilitate their destruction. 
 
 B b 
 
370 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling . 
 
 bring into a completely pulverized state, a quantity of mould 
 for covering the seed, as soon as it is deposited. The bot- 
 tom contains from four to five inches of, comparatively, 
 firmer texture ; but yet considerably tempered, on which 
 the seed may rest. It is thus inserted at a proper depth, 
 and deposited on a bed, the most congenial that can be de- 
 vised, to promote germination, and the most favourable to 
 its first efforts of growth. The substratum gives an admi- 
 rable anchorage for the roots in the soil, and the fine earth 
 by which it is covered, gives the least possible obstruction 
 to its upward shoots. It is likewise protected from being root- 
 shaken by frost, and from all those depredations, which are 
 made upon seed sown on the surface, and afterwards merely 
 harrowed. — By this method of preparation, therefore, many 
 advantages are obtained, and a crop so conducted, may rea- 
 sonably be expected, to be both luxuriant, and abundant in 
 produce*. 
 
 Some eminent agriculturists, are so partial to the system 
 of ploughing in, that they think it ought to be generally prac- 
 tised, in preference to every other mode of sowing grain ; 
 and that owing to its not being adopted, thousands, and tens 
 of thousands of bushels of grain, are annually lost to the 
 country. But it is evident, that on very strong soils, there 
 is some risk of caking, more especially when the crop is 
 sown in autumn, and exposed to the winter rains ; — that if 
 unskilfully executed, there is some hazard of throwing too 
 much earth on the seed, so as to prevent vegetation ; — and 
 that it requires nearly as much time and labour as drilling, 
 though without its expensive machinery. 
 
 3. Of the Row Culture by Drillings and other Modes of 
 depositing the Seed in Lines . 
 
 The question next to be considered is, whether broad-east 
 sowingy by which all the surface, is more or less regularly 
 occupied with plants ; or sowing in rows , with intervals, 
 larger or smaller between them, for the admission of atmos- 
 pheric influence, and for hoeing, to promote the destruction 
 of weeds, be the preferable practice. 
 
 The system of drilling seed in regular rows, by machines 
 invented for that object, is no new discovery. It has been 
 
 * Extracted from the Communication of Thomas Greg, Esq. of Coles, in 
 Hertfordshire, to the Author, dated 7th January, 1819. The above is a 
 description of the ploughing-in system, when executed in the best manner ; 
 but unfortunately, that is far from being generally the case. 
 
371 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling, 
 
 practised from time immemorial in the East Indies*, and like- 
 wise been long known in Spainf. The introduction of that 
 mode of sowing in this country, is justly attributed to the 
 celebrated Tull, who founded it on the erroneous doctrine, 
 that tillage, even without manure , would produce an endless 
 succession of abundant crops. — That theory is fortunately 
 abandoned, and the practice of drilling, being now established 
 on rational principles, it is progressively increasing, much 
 to the advantage of the farmer. 
 
 In discussing the subject of drilling, it is necessary to 
 make a distinction between leguminous , or green, and culmi- 
 ferous , or grain crops. 
 
 Drilling Leguminous , or Green Crops . 
 
 There is no question, but that the culture in rows, is best 
 calculated for them, because, 1. It carries off the extra 
 moisture in wet soils ; — 2. It exposes more surface to atmos- 
 pheric influence, by s which the soil is ameliorated ; — and 
 3. It gives an additional opportunity for the vegetation, and 
 the destruction of weeds. 
 
 Beans should be drilled, not only on loamy soils, but even 
 on strong, and rich clays. — When drilled, from the manner 
 in which the plants grow, the pods are placed on the stem, 
 from the root upwards, and of course they must derive essen- 
 tial benefit, when filling, by the admission of air through the 
 open space left between the drills. The soil is likewise 
 meliorated by the hoeing, and weeds are destroyed^. 
 
 Drilling for turnips is likewise greatly to be preferred. 
 The superior facility afforded by the drill culture, of sim- 
 plifying, and expediting hand-labour ; — the advantages of 
 applying recent and moist manure directly to the seed ; — 
 the more regular and correct adjustment of the number of 
 plants to be left on a given space ; — and the more equal ad- 
 
 * Engraving! of these ancient machines, are inserted in the Communica- 
 tions to the Board of Agriculture, vol. i. p.352. 
 
 + It appears from the London Philosophical Transactions, (Lowthorp’s 
 Abridgement, vol. ii. p. 738), that the Spanish “ Sembrador ,” or drill ma- 
 chine, was invented by a Spaniard, prior to the year 1663 ; and the same 
 arguments, as those now used in favour of drilling, were urged in its behalf. 
 
 X An experiment was tried between the drill and broad-cast husbandry, 
 in the cultivation of beans, by M. Auguste Weiland of Ostend. He dedi- 
 cated eighty French ares of land for that purpose, one half of which was 
 sown broad-cast, and the other half drilled. Besides a considerable saving 
 of seed, there was an increase of produce on the drilled part, in the pro- 
 portion of eleven to nine. Next year the same field was sown with barley, 
 when the produce, on the drilled part, was likewise increased as 34 to 27. — • 
 See Radcliff's Report of the Agriculture of Flanders , p. 10. 
 
 B b 2 
 
372 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling . 
 
 mission and circulation of air among the plants ; entitle the 
 drill system to a decided preference*. 
 
 Potatoes also, ought to be planted in rows by all farmers, 
 whatever plan gardeners or cottagers, cn small patches, may 
 adopt. There ought to be a distance of from 24 to 30 inches 
 between each row, so that the fibres which nourish the 
 plants, may not be disturbed by the hoeing ; for if they are 
 injured, the stems will be puny, and the bulbs few and 
 smallf . Drilling is greatly preferable to dibbling potatoes, 
 as appeared from an experiment, expressly made to ascertain 
 the advantages of each mode of culture^. 
 
 The drilling of carrots has not been found to answer in 
 Suffolk; but it has succeeded in the experience of Mr. But- 
 terworth, and others, in Scotland, and of M. Chateauvieux, 
 in Switzerland, with very wide intervals. This useful plant, 
 can thus be cultivated with profit, on soils where otherwise 
 it would hardly be practicable ; — the drills furnishing an 
 artificial depth of soil, in which this root can be raised. 
 Fourteen inches between the rows is recommended as the 
 proper distance^ 
 
 In regard to pease, whether sown with a mixture of beans, 
 or not, drilling is to be preferred to the broad-cast system, 
 though the hoeing is attended with difficulty, owing to the 
 plant falling so early down upon the surface. The rows ought 
 to be from 20 to 27 inches asunder, and the intervals re- 
 peatedly hand-hoed. — Any weeds that may grow among the 
 pease, may be pulled up by hand. It has been found that 
 pease, properly drilled, and carefully hoed, were, at harvest, 
 nearly as clean as the beds of a garden, and the produce, 
 both of grain and of haulm, quite satisfactory ; whereas the 
 head-lands, which had been sown broad-cast, had a miserable 
 crop of grain, thinly scattered among a multitude of annual 
 weeds, and scarcely worth reaping!}. 
 
 As to tares, they are sometimes drilled, particularly when 
 sown in spring^ ; but broad-cast is the more general prac- 
 tice, when sown in autumn. When drilled, the rows should 
 be fifteen inches apart ; and in strong tenacious clays, this 
 crop, when repeatedly hand-hoed, \s said, in dry seasons, to 
 be more profitable than beans**. 
 
 * Communication from Mr. John ShirrefF. 
 
 •f* The drills of potatoes are in general much too close. In Ireland, 3% feet 
 is recommended. 
 
 X Phytologia, p.441. § Amos on Drill Husbandry, p. 190. 
 
 H General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 5‘2 9. % Kent Report, p. 107. 
 
 ** Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
Of Sowing , and Drilling. 
 
 373 
 
 Drilling Culmiferous or Corn Crops ; with Observations vn 
 the Row Culture , for Crops of Grain . 
 
 The question, whether it is most expedient or profitable, 
 to raise culmiferous crops, according to the broad-cast, or 
 drilled system, has agitated the agricultural world for a num- 
 ber of years ; and as it is a point, respecting which there still 
 exists a great diversity of opinion, it may be proper here to 
 detail, the arguments on both sides, that the reader may be 
 enabled to form a decided opinion, which ought generally to 
 be preferred ; and in what particular cases, either the row, or 
 the broad-cast system of culture, ought to be adopted. 
 
 The arguments against drilling, are, 1. That it is not 
 likely to be profitable on a small scale, on account of the ex- 
 pence of the machinery for the different operations of sow- 
 ing, hoeing, See. ; — 2. That these operations, must often occa- 
 sion delays, incompatible with the hurry of an extensive au- 
 tumnal or spring sowing ; at least in wet seasons, and on wet 
 soils, however little it may be felt in dry seasons, and on dry 
 soils ; — 3. That the drill machine does not answer where 
 the soil is too full of small stones, to allow the coulters to 
 sink to a proper depth, and, of course, that the seed is not 
 sufficiently covered to produce an abundant crop**, — 4. That 
 it is not so well calculated for steep lands f; — and 5. That 
 the grain is more liable to be shaken by winds, and the 
 harvest to be later on drilled fields, than on those which are 
 sown broad-cast, and consequently, that it is not so well 
 calculated for a windy and a northern climate. 
 
 Some other objections were formerly urged against drill- 
 ing, which the recent improvements in the system have effec- 
 tually removed. — For instance, it was anciently the practice, 
 to earth up the plants , the consequence of which was, that in 
 rich soils, the vigour of the soil was exhausted on the stems 
 or foliage, instead of the fruit, and though the straw was 
 strong and abundant, the grain was often defective in quality, 
 or greatly diminished in quantity *, whereas, now, it is a 
 maxim in the school of Holkham, “ That white straw crops 
 will be injured, if' earthed up upon any soi/J.” 
 
 * The use of “ The Lever Drill," removes this objection. 
 
 + This objection is obviated, by an addition to the machinery. The seed- 
 box is fastened on a pivot, or by a screw, and the position of the box is 
 adjusted to the ascent or descent, without any difficulty. 
 
 + Communication from Mr. Blaikie, at Holkham. Yet, in very poor soils , 
 it may be expedient to try the effect of earthing up, with wider intervals, 
 so that the hoeing will not injure the surface roots. In rich soils, it 
 would be decidedly injurious. It was only on that point, that the Author 
 
374 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling. 
 
 It is likewise urged, that it migjht not be practicable in 
 many districts, to find a sufficient dumber of labourers, to 
 hoe the drills, were all the crops on a farm to be subjected 
 to that process. But in the present state of the country, 
 with an overflowing, and unemployed population, a new 
 source of occupation to the peasantry, would be most de- 
 sirable, provided their employers were remunerated for the 
 expences they incurred* ; — and where there is a scarcity of 
 male labourers, women and boys, have, in many of the 
 agricultural districts, as in Gloucestershire, been taught the 
 art, and have been found most expert at hoeing. 
 
 It has farther been urged, against the use of the drill 
 machine, that where seed has been steeped, and encrusted 
 with lime, as a preventive of the smut, the lime destroys 
 the brushes, and impedes the regular delivery of the seed. — 
 But this objection is easily removed, by using cups , instead 
 of brushes, or by steeping the seed in a solution of the sul- 
 phate of copper, in a manner to be afterwards described, (See 
 Sect. 22). The seed, in that case, might be sown in a few 
 hours after the solution has been applied, without lime , and 
 with a certainty of preventing smut. 
 
 The introduction of the drill system, is, by numbers of 
 the most distinguished agriculturists, considered to be, the 
 most important of all modern improvements, and to be well 
 entitled to universal adoption. It is principally recom- 
 mended on the following grounds : — 1. That the broad-cast 
 system, is a less perfect, and a less economical mode of cul- 
 tivation, than that of drilling, for the seed can neither be 
 deposited in the soil, with the same exactness in regard to 
 depth, regularity, or proportion-)-, nor be so placed, that the 
 crop can afterwards be improved in its progress to matu- 
 rity:): 2. That in light soils, drilling has the important 
 
 advantage, of giving the grain a good hold of the ground, 
 and of giving all the seed the same depth of soil§, by which 
 the frost is prevented from throwing out the plants in spring, 
 
 entertained any doubt as to the utility of drilling, which the new practice, 
 of avoiding earthing up, has removed. 
 
 * Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 + It is a great advantage to place the seed at a proper depth, so as to se- 
 cure a sufficient degree of moisture to promote germination ; and to make 
 this deposition uniform, that the grain may spring and ripen more equally. 
 
 X Dickson’s Husbandry, vol. i. p. 456. 
 
 § This is an advantage peculiar to drilling, for when crops are ploughed in, 
 some of the seed will go to the bottom of the furrow, some will be left half 
 way, and some will even be left at the top. In fact, the depth of seed, when 
 ploughed in, unless well executed, is often more irregular than when har- 
 rowed in. — Remark Inj Mr. TFilkie of JF impale. 
 
Of Sowing , and Drilling . 375 
 
 or the wind from loosening the roots, after the stem gets 
 high, or when the ear is filling * * * § , — 3. That by the im- 
 proved practices in drilling, the use of manures is both 
 encouraged and economized, so as to diminish the quantity 
 necessary, and to increase its powers, by bringing it into im- 
 mediate contact with the plant* ; and that a heavy crop of 
 drilled corn, where the weeds are thoroughly destroyed, will 
 be found much less injurious to the fertility of the soil, 
 though raised with less manure, than the same crop grown 
 broad-cast, with a greater quantity of manure, but incum- 
 bered with weeds ; — 4. That it gives an opportunity for 
 cleansing the ground, even when the crop is growing ; — of 
 completely extirpating annual weeds ; — of checking the 
 growth of root-weeds ; — and of preventing weeds in general, 
 from being injurious to the crop ; — 5. That if the land is 
 not hoed, but hand-weeded, less damage will be done to the 
 crop, by the weeder’s feet passing between the rows of plants, 
 than by treading upon them , as must inevitably be the case, 
 when working promiscuously over the ground 6. That the 
 progress of the grain, after the scarifier has worked upon the 
 soil, is attended with the most beneficial effects f; — 7. That 
 drilling is peculiarly calculated for inferior soils , and brings 
 their produce more nearly on a footing with that of fertile 
 land, than could otherwise be obtained J; — 8. That the 
 pulverization of the soil between the rows of autumn or 
 winter-sown wheat, is of the greatest benefit to the clover 
 seeds sown in spring, and that the admission of air between 
 the rows, is of use to the corn crop§, as well as to the grass- 
 
 * On a field sown in drills 12 inches apart, which received one hoeing 
 in spring, a more productive crop, and by far more valuable grain was 
 raised, than on a broad-cast crop, which had received three times the 
 quantity of dung. The manure for the drilled crop of wheat, was applied 
 in drills made by the plough, the seed sown, and then harrowed down. — 
 Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 f Communication from J. C. Curwen, Esq. M. P. 
 
 + Mr. Blaikie, at Holkham, states, that it is no uncommon circumstance, 
 to have from inferior land in Norfolk, rented only at from 15 to 30 shillings 
 per acre, as much produce as from land, that, in other districts, pays from 51. 
 to 61. per acre. From land of an inferior quality, paying only 20s. for rent, 
 and 5s. for tithe, 41 bushels of wheat per acre nave been obtained, under 
 the drill system. 
 
 § It is absurd to suppose, that the access of air , so essential to the growth 
 and health of plants, should not be of service to the roots of plants, if means 
 could be contrived, (as is the case under the drill system), by which its 
 access can be obtained. 
 
 Where soils are very poor, the plan adopted in the cultivation of turnips, 
 ought to be extended to grain, that of placing the manure, in the centre of 
 a drill, and sowing the grain above it. 
 
376 
 
 Of Sowing y and Drilling. 
 
 seeds sewn with it * * * § , — 9. That drilled crops of white corn, 
 from the greater strength of their straw, are less apt to lodge, 
 or to be beaten down in wet seasons* ; and are much less sub- 
 ject to other casualties, in particular, to the diseases to which 
 wheat is unfortunately liable ; — 10. That the expence of cut- 
 ting down a drilled crop in harvest, is uniformly less, than 
 of one which is sown broad-cast, since three reapers will do 
 as much work in the former case, as four in the latter-}* •, — 
 11. That drilled crops are more equal in growth, and in 
 general better in quality than the broad-cast ; and 12. That 
 drilling may be of use in regard to the grub, and other 
 vermin. The hoeing in spring may assist in destroying 
 them, or, at least, by the treading of the hoers.and the stirring 
 of the soil by the hoes, a check may be given to their depre- 
 dations. The treading also, may be of use in preventing the 
 mildewj. 
 
 In regard to any saving of seed, which by some is consi- 
 dered an advantage, Mr. Coke of Holkham is decidedly of 
 opinion, that such an idea is founded on erroneous princi- 
 ples, and that any economy of that sort, ought not to be 
 attempted §. 
 
 Innumerable instances might be brought forward, of heavy 
 crops having been produced under the drill system, by those 
 who have bestowed much care in trying the experiment ; 
 
 * This has been doubted, but the drillists are in this point supported 
 by respectable authority : the Rev. Adam Dickson, in his Treatise on 
 Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 61 and 62, remarks, u That weeds keep the air 
 from the roots of corn, and thereby expose it to be lodged.” He observes, 
 in another place, “ That when corn is sown in rows, with intervals, the 
 admission of air, strengthens the stalks, which prevents the corn from 
 lodging,” vol. i. p. 526. Besides, it is well known, that when corn is lodged, 
 it suffers less, if it has been drilled, than the broad-cast, there being, between 
 the rows, an admission of air, which tends to dry the stems, and to render it 
 sooner fit for being harvested. 
 
 f Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 347. 
 
 X Drilling was also considered to be greatly superior to broad-cast, when 
 the seed was sown in windy weather ; but machines have been invented, by 
 which grain may be scattered over the surface with regularity and safety, 
 whatever the state of the weather may be. 
 
 § Many practical agriculturists, however, warmly oppose the universal 
 application of this doctrine, more especially in regard to rich and mellow 
 soils. — It is justified, however, by the following remark by the Rev. Adam 
 pickson, a clergyman in East-Lothian, who published in 1788, an Account 
 of the Husbandry of the Ancients, in which, (vol. i. p. 526), there is the fol- 
 lowing paragraph : — “ Plants of corn, to a certain number, placed near to 
 each other, instead of being weakened, are thereby strengthened. It is an 
 advantage, therefore, to sow corn, either in broad rows, or where the rows 
 are narrow, very thick , provided there are sufficient intervals to admit the 
 air , and to give the plants room to extend their roots.” — One would think, 
 that this intelligent author, had foreseen the system of the Holkham school, 
 as to thick sowing. 
 
377 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling . 
 
 and it has often answered, even on a great scale, when 
 properly executed*. — But its success must depend upon the 
 intelligence, attention, perseverance, and capital of the farmer. 
 
 As it has been carried to the highest perfection, and cul- 
 tivated to the greatest extent, on the farm, and on the estates, 
 of that distinguished agriculturist, Mr. Coke of Holkham, it 
 may be proper to give a short account of his practice. He 
 uses the Rev. Mr. Cooke’s drill, which sows six rows at a 
 time, and an acre in an hour, drawn by a single horse. His 
 wheat he sows at nine inches asunder, his barley at six inches 
 three quarters. The quantity of seed he sows per acre, is 
 three bushels of barley, and six of oatsf. — In regard to wheat, 
 the average quantity he prefers, is four bushels per acre.— By 
 depositing such a quantity of seed, there is no occasion to 
 earth up the plants, for the sake of promoting tilleringj . On 
 rich soils, it is the practice, to draw the drills from north to 
 south, because the rays of the sun, when in his greatest alti- 
 tude, striking directly between the rows of corn, have a 
 powerful effect in strengthening the straw, and by absorbing 
 the damp from the earth, become a powerful auxiliary in 
 preventing mildew. — On poor soils, on the other hand, the 
 lines should be drawn from east to west, if the nature of 
 the ground will admit of that plan being followed. Cooke’s 
 fixed drill-harrow is used once in spring, the hand-hoe is 
 used twice, the land is cleared of weeds, but the soil is not 
 
 * The following is an account of a most important experiment tried by 
 John Brodie, Esq. of Scoughall, in East Lothian : — Ann. 18 L§> he drilled, 
 in all, about 150 Scotch, or 188 English acres, with wheat. — The soil prin- 
 cipally consisted of light loam, much subject to annual weeds. — On com- 
 paring the produce on that soil, the broad-cast produced only 35 Winchester 
 bushels per acre, the drilled 42 ; — but as the broad-cast weighed 66lbs. 
 per firlot; the drilled only 65 ; the difference in favour of the drill, is as 41 
 to 34. — By hoeing the drilled crop, great vigour was given to the young 
 crops of wheat. All the weeds of the mustard tribe, were as carefully taken 
 Out of the broad-cast crop, as out of the drilled, but the smaller weeds could 
 not be equally well extirpated in the broad-cast. — The grass-seeds sown with 
 the drilled crops answered better than with the broad-cast, owing to the 
 ground being effectually cleansed of weeds by the hoeing; whereas, under the 
 broad-cast system, grass-seeds, even after they have come up, are frequently 
 injured by small weeds, which could not be got at when the ground was 
 covered with a broad-cast crop. — Mr. Brodie, who is perhaps the greatest 
 arable farmer in Europe, paying of rent, about 7000/. per annum, states, 
 in a recent communication to the Author, That he continues to drill every 
 year, and that he is convinced, his crops are benefited by the practice. 
 
 + Communication from Mr. Blaikie, at Holkham. 
 
 + Dr. Rigby’s Report, p. 18. This is the greatest improvement that has 
 taken place in the drilling system ; for it was the earthing up , in rich soils , 
 which rendered the crops too luxuriant, and consequently unproductive. 
 The great quantity of seed sown at Holkham, has the effect of preventing 
 tillering ; the ears thus become ripe, at nearly the same period »f time, and 
 thus a sample equally ripe i is produced, in which respect, drilled corn, is 
 sometimes deficient. 
 
378 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling. 
 
 earthed up, or accumulated against the corn. — The hoeings 
 cost about twenty pence each, per acre. — The largeness of 
 the crops, particularly of barley*, and oats, raised even on 
 poor land, under this system, is hardly to be creditedf ; and 
 they are sometimes also of a superior quality;);. 
 
 A great improvement has recently been made in drilling, by 
 the introduction of “ The Inverted Hoes,’’ invented by Mr. 
 BlaikieJ. They consist of a pair of blades for each interval, 
 going one before the other, and each having the heel turned 
 to the row. This disposition of the blades prevents, 1 . Cut- 
 ting the plants, or their roots ; — 2. Moulding up ; — and, 
 3. Clogging. They may be used, though the rows of corn 
 are only nine inches distant from each other; and it is 
 found, that the occasional trampling of the horse, on the 
 young plants, is not attended with injurious consequences|l. 
 
 It was formerly believed, that drilling was only appli- 
 cable to light soils ; but in Suffolk, strong or heavy land is 
 now cultivated for spring crops, in drills, in a most perfect 
 manner. The ridges are all carefully ploughed in autumn, 
 or early in winter, to the exact breadth which suits either 
 one movement of the drill machine, or two. In the spring, 
 the land is only scarified or harrowed, as it has been ren- 
 dered thoroughly friable by the winter’s frost, and the com 
 is drilled, without a horse’s foot treading any where, except 
 in the furrows between the ridges^. Unless this practice 
 is adopted, it would be difficult, in very wet seasons, to 
 carry on the operations of the drill system, on heavy soils, 
 with the regularity and exactness that is necessary**. 
 
 # The crop of barley is sometimes so strong, that if a hat is thrown into 
 a field, it rests on the surface. This is called hat-barley. — Young's Norfolk , 
 p. 251. 
 
 f It is observed, that on light soils, short ears of wheat are the most pro- 
 ductive, and that the sample is most uniform and weighty. In barley, 
 long ears are preferred. 
 
 J Young’s Norfolk, p. 246. 
 
 § 44 The inverted hoe? is so called, from the shares being turned inwards, 
 and placed something in the form of a cock’s spur. This hoe, it is said, far 
 surpasses any other now in use, being worked with perfect safety between 
 rows of plants, while in their infancy, even as soon as they appear above 
 ground; and it effectually cuts up all weeds between the rows. It is well 
 calculated for a potatoe crop, sown in ridges, being less likely to injure the 
 fibres of the plant. The inverted hoes are of two descriptions, one is adapted 
 for clearing between the rows of plants, either at wide or narrow intervals, 
 sown upon the flat ; the other at wide or narrow intervals, upon the ridge. 
 
 || This would be a sufficient answer to the objection on the score of a 
 scarcity of labourers, to carry on the drill system. 
 
 ^ Communication from the late Arthur Young, Esq. Husbandry of 
 Scotland, vol.ii. Appendix, p. 66. 
 
 ** Dickson’s Husbandry, vol. i. p. 401. 
 
379 
 
 Of Sowing , and Drilling . 
 
 In other parts of England, as in Kent and Hertfordshire, 
 the drilling of strong lands is practised, for winter as well as 
 spring crops ; and Mr. Childe, in Shropshire, drills all his 
 crops, on the most adhesive clay, and in a hilly country, 
 with the greatest success. 
 
 The propriety of drilling in Scotland, owing to the pecu- 
 liar circumstances of its soil and climate, requiring to enter 
 more into detail, it shall be discussed in the Appendix. 
 
 Besides drilling, &c. as above described, there are other 
 modes by which grain can be cultivated in rows. Sometimes, 
 by means of a drill -roller, a number of ruts are made at the 
 distance of from eight to ten inches apart, over the whole 
 of which, the seed is sown broad- cast, and swept into the 
 hollows by a bush-harrow. In this way wheat has been 
 raised on light lands, where otherwise it would have been 
 impracticable*. 
 
 There is another mode of cultivating wheat in rows, called 
 u ribbingf ,” which merits particular attention. As soon as 
 the ground is properly prepared, it is made up into small ribs, 
 by a single-horse plough. The seed is then sown broad-cast 
 among the ribs, or a person with a barrow-drill, goes along 
 every rib, and drops the seed along the bottom, which is 
 covered by a light harrow, drawn straight up and down the 
 ridge. In either case, the plant makes its appearance nearly 
 at the same time above ground ; nor is there any difference, 
 in this respect, between the two systems. The mode of 
 ribbing is a simpler process than that of drilling ; — it may 
 be executed in worse weather ; — the expence of a drill-ma- 
 chine is saved ; — and the crop may have all the advantages 
 of hoeing, as if it had been drilled:):. 
 
 To those, however, who are accustomed to plough-in their 
 seed, the drill-barrow, either attached to the plough, or fol- 
 
 * A machine is invented by “ Plenty ,” an agricultural engineer, which 
 operates by pressure , and makes two drills at once, by one horse, which is 
 likewise well calculated for light soils. 
 
 f The mode of ribbing wheat, first occurred to the Rev. Adam Dickson, 
 in the course of his examining the Husbandry of the Ancients. — He describes 
 the first trial of it, in the following terms : “ A field having been prepared 
 for the seed-furrow, was ribbed across, each rib being formed by one bout , 
 or veering of the plough, throwing two furrows upon, or towards each 
 other. In this situation the field was sown, and the corn appeared in dis- 
 tinct rows, at about 14 inches distance the one from the other. The field 
 was twice hand-hoed, and produced a very good crop.” — Dickson's Hus- 
 bandry of the Ancients , vol. i. p. 523, note. 
 
 X Mr. Morton, of Leith-Walk, Edinburgh, has a machine in contempla- 
 tion, by which several ribbs will be made at once, and the process will be 
 rendered nearly as expeditious as drilling. 
 
380 Of Sowing , and Drilting. 
 
 lowing it in the furrow, pushed on by a boy*, would at 
 
 ONCE ESTABLISH THE ROW-CULTURE, WITHOUT DIFFI- 
 CULTY, AND WITH LITTLE EXPENCE, OVER AN EXTENSIVE 
 
 tract of cultivated land in England. The advantage 
 of this simple improvement, can hardly be sufficiently ap- 
 preciated . — Annual weeds would be extirpated, and root 
 weeds checked *, — and without dwelling on the immediate 
 advantages of the system, the observation is perfectly well 
 founded — u Were it even admitted, that drilled crops are 
 not at first superior to the broad- cast, (the contrary of 
 which has been found in numerous instances), yet in a suc- 
 cession of years, the progressive effects of constant hoeing, 
 will render the drilled ones greatly superior f.” 
 
 The cultivation of culmiferous crops in rows , may there- 
 fore be justly accounted, the best method hitherto known, 
 of raising crops of corn *, and by promoting, at the same 
 time, the destruction of weeds, of preserving the fertility of 
 the soil. 
 
 It is an additional reason for recommending drilling, 
 that it would lead to habits of accuracy and neatness, in 
 all the other branches of arable culture ; whereas broad- 
 cast sowing, encourages those slovenly practices, which 
 still prevail but too generally in farming concerns. There 
 is every reason, indeed, to believe, that the system would 
 become general, were it once admitted to be an established 
 maxim , (which the information above detailed, sufficiently 
 justifies), that drilling corn, like drilling turnips, was supe- 
 rior to broad-cast. Farmers would then prepare for it, by 
 furnishing themselves with the necessary implements, and 
 by dressing and cleansing the soil, with peculiar and minute 
 attention. There might still be some exceptions, as on very 
 strong clays, or in very unfavourable seasons j but these 
 exceptions, as in the case of drilling turnips, would be- 
 come every day less numerous. Our fields would then be 
 cultivated with the same regularity and neatness as our 
 gardens, and would become equally productive. 
 
 On the whole, such is the importance of the drill sys- 
 tem, that its general adoption ought to be promoted, as far as 
 is practicable. Models or engravings of the simplest, and best 
 machines, and directions for their use, ought every where to 
 be circulated, and liberal encouragement given to those, who 
 
 * In the Appendix, will be found, an account of the advantages of the 
 drill-barrow, accompanied by an engraving and description, by which any 
 workman, accustomed to agricultural machines, will be able to make one. 
 
 t Young’s Essex, vol. i. p. 100. By destroying weeds, the nourishment 
 they would have absorbed, is preserved in the soil. 
 
381 
 
 Of Sowing, and Drilling . 
 
 will prove, by accurate experiments, in districts where it is 
 at present either entirely unknown, or but little practised, 
 the utility of the system, and the profit to be derived from 
 it. By the extension of drilling, inferior soils might soon 
 be rendered nearly as productive as those naturally more 
 fertile. In many cases, also, by the introduction of this 
 system, naked fallows might be abolished, where at present 
 they are unnecessarily practised ; and by these means, a trea- 
 sure of solid and permanent wealth, in useful and valuable 
 produce, might be rapidly spread, over the whole surface of 
 the country*. 
 
 4. Dibbling . 
 
 This process has been already described, Chap. II. Sect. 7, 
 p. 124. Its recommendations are, 1. That only one plough- 
 ing is necessary ; — 2. That the seed is regularly deposited 
 in the heart of the flag, where it feeds on the vegetable 
 matter turned underneath, without any assistance from the 
 subsoil; — 3. That in common with the other branches of 
 row culture, it may receive all the advantages of hoeing;— 
 4 . That there is a great saving of human food from the 
 lesser quanticy of seed usedf ; — 5. That it furnishes young 
 labourers with employment, and thereby inures them to in- 
 
 * The following are the Resolutions on the subject of Drilling, which the 
 Author moved, at a great agricultural meeting held at Holkham in July, 1819, 
 where they met with the cordial approbation and concurrence of above 500 
 practical farmers there assembled: 
 
 Resolved , 1. That the drill, or row system, is admirably calculated for the 
 culture of leguminous and other crops, not strictly culmiferous, exposing 
 more surface to atmospheric influence; carrying off, where the ridges are 
 raised, any superabundant moisture in wet soils ; and admitting the soil to 
 be cleared of weeds in the simplest manner, and at the smallest expence ; 
 while the several plants cultivated, are benefited and improved by the re- 
 peated stirrings given to the soil, during the several processes. 
 
 2. That the drilling of culmiferous, or corn crops, when conducted with 
 skill and attention, is a practice highly meritorious, as the seed may thus 
 be deposited in the soil at the most desirable depth, and of an equal depth, 
 by which the growth of the crop is considerably promoted; and as the crop 
 can afterwards be improved in its progress to maturity. 
 
 3. That on all lands where weeds are abundant, corn crops may be drilled 
 with peculiar advantage, for the purpose of cleansing the land more effec- 
 tually; and at a cheaper rate, than hand-hoeing and hand-weeding broad- 
 cast crops. That lands of moderate or inferior quality, will thus yield a 
 greater produce, and may be brought more nearly on a footing with fertile 
 land, than under the broad-cast system. Hence, that drilling corn crops, 
 in such soils, cannot be too strongly recommended, as a most important na- 
 tional object. 
 
 t Dibbling is much practised in China, with a view of saving seed ; and 
 it is said in a recent publication, (Storch’s Cours d’Economie Politique, vol.iv. 
 p. 72, and vol. vi. p. 15), that the saving thus effected in China, would feed 
 a large proportion of the people of England. 
 
382 Of Sowing , and Drilling . 
 
 dustry ; — and, 6. That the treading of the labourers em- 
 ployed in the operation, is favourable to production in light 
 soils . It is certainly an advantageous mode of planting 
 wheat, upon a one year’s layer, on light and moderately 
 deep soils ; but it never can become a general practice in 
 other cases. In tenacious soils, it does not answer, as the 
 dibble forms a pan for the water, in which the seed perishes* * * § . 
 It likewise occasions more expence than the other process of 
 semination ; — and, owing to the greater hurry and fatigue 
 of the children employed in it, and sometimes from a desire 
 of making higher earnings, is often imperfectly performed. 
 Nor can it ever be extensively carried on, unless where the 
 population is very considerable. 
 
 The dibbling of pease has been practised from time imme- 
 morial in Norfolk *, and dibbling beans is not uncommon in 
 that county, and several other parts of Englandf . In Mid- 
 dlesex, the beans are all dibbled in rows, and the pease are 
 put in by hand-hoesj. 
 
 5. Transplanting Crops. 
 
 This mode of propagating grain, though long known in 
 the philosophic world, has not hitherto attracted the atten- 
 tion of the practical farmer ; yet it is considered by an emi- 
 nent philosopher, to have a great advantage over the drill 
 husbandry, as the root- scions can be divided, and conse- 
 quently their crowding each other may be prevented. As 
 there is a wonderful increase of produce in this way from a 
 single pickle§, a prodigious multiplication of the stems of 
 wheat, or of any other grain, may be effected, by trans- 
 planting them three or four times in the summer, autumn, 
 and spring, after they have been sown. 
 
 The effect of these operations, will appear in a striking 
 point of view, from an experiment tried by Mr. Charles 
 
 * Young’s Essex, vol. i. p. 272. 
 
 + Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 98, and 133. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 190, 195. 
 
 § Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 291. See also. Bogle’s Essay in the Papers of 
 the Bath Society, vol. iii. p. 494, and a Treatise on the Culture of Wheat, 
 1 vol. 8vo. printed anno 1812, p. 225. The plants from a peck of seed per 
 acre, would be sufficient. The plants should be set at about five inches 
 apart, in drills 14 inches asunder, — rolled with a moderate sized machine, — 
 horse-hoed when weeds appear, and afterwards earthed up with a double- 
 mould plough. The produce, when skilfully done, was at the rate of 44 
 Winchester bushels per statute acre, and the grain was plump and heavy. 
 Ditto, p. 228. In the Monthly Review for July, 1796, p.329, there is an 
 account of a curious experiment in the transplantation of wheat. 
 
Of Sowing , and Drilling. 383 
 
 Miller of Cambridge, and recorded in the Philosophical 
 Transactions*. 
 
 Dr. Darwin states a number of advantages which may 
 be derived from this systemf \ and Mr. Bogle, who has 
 paid particular attention to the subject, observes, that he 
 has known instances of wheat, being transplanted in Sep- 
 tember, and thence monthly to the middle of May, which 
 have all answered extremely well. 
 
 This mode of propagating grain, should be kept in view 
 on two accounts ; first, that any valuable species of wheat 
 might be more rapidly increased ; and, secondly, in case of 
 any very great scarcity , transplanting would be by far the 
 most effectual means of saving seed-corn. Besides, though 
 it may not become a general practice, yet in cases where the 
 ground is not regularly covered, a farmer may always find 
 some places in his fields, whence plants may be drawn, with- 
 out doing any injury ; and the crops may thus be rendered, 
 not only more regular and uniform, but also more abundant, 
 and of a better quality, than where the vacancies are filled 
 with spring wheat J. 
 
 The experiments tried by Mr. Falla of Gateshead, near 
 Newcastle, in Northumberland, by which spade cultivation 
 is united to transplanting crops of wheat, are highly satis- 
 factory. The length of the plants, and the size of the 
 heads, astonished every person who saw them, and the pro- 
 duce was at the rate of sixty-eight bushels per statute acre, 
 though from five to six bushels were lost from the crop be- 
 ing shaken by the wind, and preyed on by the birds. By 
 this plan, numbers of the unemployed poor might be pro- 
 vided with work, and enabled to raise their own sub- 
 sistence. 
 
 The transplanting of the Swedish turnip, is an excellent 
 practice, which has succeeded in Cheshire, Derbyshire, 
 and Herefordshire, and is found to answer, both for clean- 
 ing the crop more perfectly, and raising a greater pro- 
 duce. The seed is sown in the latter end of April, in a 
 garden. If the weather be favourable, the turnips are ready 
 to be transplanted early in June ; sometimes, however, it is 
 
 * Vol. Iviii. p. 203.— It is said, that one plant, frequently re-planted, ulti- 
 mately produced 576,840 grains or pickles. 
 
 'h Phytologia, p. 290. 
 
 + A successful experiment of transplanting wheat, was tried in Essex, 
 an. 1797, taking up plants where they were too thick in a field, and dib- 
 bling them where too thin. Essex Report , vol. i. p.282. — It was done in 
 May, but would probably have been still more successful if executed in 
 April, when the season was wet. 
 
384 
 
 On Hoeing . 
 
 protracted, owing to the season, until the middle or end of 
 July. The land is manured, and prepared, as if for drilled 
 turnips; and the plants are set from twelve to eighteen 
 inches apart in the row : the greater the distance, the 
 weightier in general is the crop. The transplanted Swedes, 
 are afterwards treated in the same manner as the common 
 drilled. When transplanted , it is of use to dip the roots 
 in dung-water. The produce is from 20 to about 30 tons 
 per statute acre. But it has been remarked, that though 
 transplanting might be expedient when the seed was scarce, 
 the practice has become less necessary, since the seed has 
 become more abundant ; and that a crop of Swedes, raised 
 from the seed, and not transplanted, often exceeds 30 ton 
 per statute acre. 
 
 Sect. XII . — On Hoeing , 
 
 This is a mode of tillage, which is performed during the 
 growth of a cultivated crop, and its object is, both to im- 
 prove the present crop, and to prepare the ground for the 
 succeeding ones. — It is certainly of much use, by breaking 
 up the surface, if it has become encrusted ; — by promoting 
 the admission of air, and of moisture into the soil *, — by im- 
 proving its texture; — by preparing it for the reception of 
 grass-seeds ; — and by counteracting that tendency to weeds, 
 in all tilled and corn-bearing ground, which, from their 
 prevalence in the country around, or from their seed-roots 
 lodging in the soil itself, must be as invariable as the return 
 of the year. This process, however, can never supersede 
 the necessity of thorough fallowing, where root-weeds do 
 much abound*. 
 
 Tull, and his disciples, considered hoeing, as more be- 
 neficial than common tillage. They contended, that land, 
 when cultivated by the plough, soon begins to coalesce; 
 whereas hoeing, always keeps it in a loose and pulverised 
 state : hence, by hoeing, that the plants are kept moist, even 
 in dry weather, their roots being nourished, by the dews 
 which are absorbed, in proportion to the fineness of the soil; 
 and that plants, which would flourish and grow strong in 
 fine ground, are starved if the soil is hard and crustyf. 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 71. 
 
 f Sir John Anstruther’s Remarks on the Drill Husbandry, p. 01. 
 
Of Treading. 385 
 
 It is now, however, ascertained, that hoeing is a process, 
 which, in moderation, is useful, but which is hazardous, if 
 carried to an extreme. It is of use, when plants are young, 
 for the reasons above detailed ; and if, in the course of the 
 operation, the roots of the plant are injured or destroyed, 
 there is vigour enough in it, when young , to replace what 
 has been lost, and to repair the mischief. But if the hoeing 
 takes place when the crop is more advanced, the new roots 
 are less efficient, the growth of the plant is hardly percep- 
 tible, the increase of bulk is slow, and the ripening becomes 
 irregular. This brought drilling into disrepute, while hoe- 
 ing was indiscriminately practised; and hence the opinion 
 delivered by the late celebrated Arthur Young, <c That 
 those who have made careful experiments, have determined, 
 that equi-distant drilling, hoeing only while the plants are 
 young, is superior to broad-cast*.” 
 
 In cases where it is necessary to employ the hoe, for the 
 destruction of weeds, when the crop is more advanced, the 
 earth should be moved at a greater distance than in the first 
 instance ; and in all cases it is necessary to be cautious, in 
 regard to hoeing rich soils, otherwise the crop will be apt to 
 rise in a weak state ; if heavy rains take place, it will be 
 lodged, the quality will be inferior, and the quantity con- 
 siderably less. 
 
 Sect. XIII .— Of Treading , 
 
 After the seed is sown, treading the surface, is a practice 
 that has been strongly recommended on light soilsf. 
 
 In some districts of England, it is usual either to fold the 
 sheep on the ground sown with wheat, between the sowing 
 and the coming up of the crop, or to drive the flock repeat- 
 edly over it, at that juncture ; in order to give firmness to 
 
 * Communication from the late Arthur Young, Esq. (dated Bradfield-Hall, 
 Sept. 9, 1818), to the Author. Duckett considered hoeing necessary for the 
 object of destroying weeds, but often hurtful in the application. If done on a 
 sandy land, in hot sunshine, it would prove highly injurious to the crop. 
 Where the soil is hard and dry , there is less risk of injury from the operation. 
 
 t In Flanders, where the minutiae of agriculture are so much attended to, 
 it is not unusual, to tread fields of a moderate size, by the human feet ; but 
 this plan cannot be carried to any great extent. — The superior sample ob- 
 tained from the dibble, compared to the drill, is by some attributed to the 
 additional solidity the land receives from the treading of the children em- 
 ployed in the operation. 
 
386 
 
 Of Culture while growing, 
 
 the soil, and greater stability to the crop. By this means, 
 wheat may be raised on land, which is, naturally, too loose 
 in its texture, for the profitable production of wheat* * * § . 
 
 Some farmers, on light soils, prefer pigs for that purpose, 
 as better calculated for the process than any other animal, 
 from their great weight, compared to the size of their feetf . 
 But in West Sussex, the lighter soils, in dry seasons, are 
 trod by the plough horses , when turning the seed-furrow. 
 Three plough horses, instead of going at length, draw the 
 last made plough furrow a-breast, and thereby tread or 
 compress the line of soil they are turning^. 
 
 The advantages of treading, as more effectual than even 
 rolling, in destroying the larvae of insects, and preventing 
 the harbouring of vermin in the soil§, cannot be question- 
 ed. It may likewise contribute to check the vegetation of 
 weeds $ — it prevents evaporation ; — and it is found, that the 
 crops on land thus trod, are not liable to be rusted. It is 
 certainly most applicable to dry light soils ; but even in wet 
 ones, when it is impossible to roll the land after it is sown, 
 owing to the wetness of the season, it may be trod afterwards 
 by sheep. 
 
 Sect. XIV . — Of Culture while growing. 
 
 Where husbandry is either imperfectly known, or care- 
 lessly practised, farmers are too apt to leave their crops 
 almost totally neglected, from the time they are sown, until 
 the harvest commences. Any mark of their attention, 
 principally consists in pulling up docks, or cutting down 
 any thistles, that make a prominent appearance, as they 
 know well, if they were left in the ground, that it would 
 render the harvesting more difficult and expensive *, but 
 
 * Marshall’s Southern Counties, vol. ii. p. 329. 
 
 f Bedfordshire Report, p. 373. 
 
 J Marshall’s Southern Counties, vol. i. p. 174. — He adds, that the advan- 
 tages of this practice are so great in light soils, in dry seasons, that it would 
 be worth while, in many cases, to be at the expence of an additional horse 
 and driver, in countries where two horses a-breast are the ordinary team, to 
 have the land thus compressed. 
 
 § Treading by sheep, or other stock, would be a more effectual mode of 
 destroying slugs, or the wire-worm, than even rolling. The head-lands, 
 upon which the horses have turned, and where the earth is compressed, are 
 in general free from damage. It is in hollows, therefore, where the slug is 
 sheltered and breeds, and the remedy is to be found, in pressure , cither by 
 a heavy roller, or, still better, by the tread of animals. 
 
Of Culture while growing . 387 
 
 where the drill system does not exist, careful weeding is by 
 no means so general as it ought to be*. 
 
 In Essex, the greatest pains are bestowed to hand-hoe 
 wheat. Five shillings per acre, are very generally expend- 
 ed ; 20s. is not uncommon ; and sometimes it reaches lL 
 11 s. 6d. f and even more. The operation is frequently done 
 twice, and occasionally thrice, when necessary. The hoes 
 are powerful, and make a great impression upon the ground. 
 The plants at first look sickly after it ; but they soon re- 
 cover, and are greatly improved by the operation. If exe- 
 cuted too late, drought gets access, and does evident mis- 
 chief ; but if executed early, and especially where the plants 
 are thin, it is very beneficial, in a considerable degree 
 thickening and improving the cropj. 
 
 The process of hand-hoeing broad-cast crops of wheat, 
 is likewise conducted in Gloucestershire, with great atten- 
 tion and success; in the Vale, and forest districts in parti- 
 cular, few farmers hoe less than twice, at an expence of 7s, 
 6d. per acre. The first hoeing is begun as soon as the 
 weather permits in April ; the second follows soon after, 
 and must be completed before the crop tillers, otherwise the 
 stalk will be exposed to injury, and liable to be bent or 
 broken. The hoes are in general from five to six inches in 
 the plate, and have the corners rounded off. It requires 
 much attention, and a quick eye, to stir the surface well, 
 and to avoid the destroying too many plants, as well as to 
 leave the rest at proper distances ; and this must be ascer- 
 tained by the nature of the crop, and the fertility of the 
 soil. If the plants are left to crowd each other, the heads 
 will be small ; on the other hand, should a greater distance 
 be left, than at first sight may seem desirable, if the land is 
 in good condition, the plants will have room to tiller, and 
 the heads will be larger and more productive. On an 
 average, about six inches between the plants, are thought 
 
 * This observation is very applicable to the Irish farmer, who seldom 
 attends to minutiee in any branch of his business. This is a very unfortunate 
 fact, as it is by attending to minor matters, that the husbandman, and even 
 the cottager, derive their principal sources of profit. It is in vain to cultivate 
 well, if the corn is not afterwards attended to, and protected from trespass ; 
 neither -of which, the Irish farmer thinks of doing effectually . Generally 
 speaking, the industrious and assiduous husbandman, will find a source of 
 emolument by attending to objects, from which the indolent and ignorant 
 occupier, would not think of deriving any advantage.— Remark by Edward 
 Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 f This sum is not to be considered a common expenditure, but a peculiar 
 and extraordinary case. 
 
 + Essex Report, vol.i. p. 306. 
 
 c c 2 
 
388 Of Culture while growing. 
 
 sufficient. The advantages of this practice are great, the 
 weeds which infest arable lands, are generally luxuriant in 
 their growth, and unless checked in their early state, get 
 the better of the more valuable plants that are near them ; 
 or, where they are of the creeping sort, they exhaust the 
 nutritious particles in the soil, and by covering the ground, 
 keep up a kind of stagnant moisture on the surface, at the 
 same time excluding atmospheric influence, and the ani- 
 mating influence of the sun. The effect of this attention 
 to the destruction of weeds, is experienced in the produce, 
 the return being from 20 to 30 , and on high conditioned 
 lands, 40 bushels of wheat per acre*, a considerable pro- 
 portion of which is attributed to the crops being so carefully 
 hoed. 
 
 This practice has been deservedly celebrated. In general, 
 crops remain in a state of neglect from seed-time to harvest ; 
 whereas, in the Vale of Gloucester, the business of the 
 arable process, does not seem to be set about in earnest, 
 until the crops get above ground. By means of this atten- 
 tion to the crops while vegetating , many extensive common 
 fields in Gloucestershire, have been cropped year after year, 
 from time immemorial, without the intervention of a fallow ; 
 and thence have obtained the name of “ Every Year’s 
 Land.” It is a maxim in this district, however, that pulse 
 and corn shall be grown alternately. The hoeing is chiefly 
 performed by women and children, industry is encouraged, 
 the poor-rates kept down; and both the farmer and the 
 public are essentially benefited by the processf. 
 
 When a dry spring succeeds a wet winter, the surface of 
 strong land is often rendered so hard, and crusted, as to 
 exclude the air, and by confining the seed, to prevent the 
 due evolution of its parts. The roots of the corn, being 
 unable freely to penetrate into the soil, the wheat assumes 
 a yellow and sickly appearance ; — a diseased state, which 
 may, and ought to be cured, by harrowing the wheat 
 moderately, and immediately rolling itj. 
 
 Another useful practice, during the process of vegetation, 
 
 * Gloucestershire Report, p. 115, &c. — Similar practices are adopted 
 with success in several other districts. Perhaps were more attention paid 
 to the preparatory processes, or, were the fallowing system adopted, there 
 would be less occasion to work the land, after the crop was above ground. 
 But above all, by the adoption of the “ Drilling system” such tedious pro- 
 cesses might be avoided. 
 
 •f Marshall’s Gloucestershire, p. 91, and 100. 
 
 J Middlesex Report, p. 213. 
 
Of Culture while growing . 389 
 
 and which is extensively practised in various parts of Eng- 
 land, is, that of top-dressing the growing crop, when it is 
 suspected, that the land is not rich enough to bring a full 
 crop to perfection. This should be done early in the spring, 
 when the land is sufficiently dry to bear the treading of 
 horses, without poaching. After the manure has been ap- 
 . plied, the land should generally be harrowed and rolled. 
 Soot, ashes, and other light manures, are thus most advan- 
 tageously made use of. 
 
 Sheep are variously employed during the process of ve- 
 getation. In some parts of England, they are turned into 
 crops of beans, to devour the weeds, and they leave the 
 beans untouched. — They are frequently folded on fresh sown 
 wheat, which requires treading* * * § . — When the crop is likely 
 to suffer from the grub or wire-worm, turnips are spread 
 upon the surface, and a flock of sheep brought to eat them, 
 by which the vermin hav« been destroy edf. — When the 
 crowns of the roots of wheat, are exposed in the spring, two 
 or three inches in length above the mould, the treading of 
 sheep, after a moderate shower, will frequently force the 
 wheat into the moist ground, where it will produce fresh 
 roots:f. — To check the luxuriance of wheat in spring, and 
 sometimes to force the roots to throw out a greater quantity 
 of collateral shoots, wheat is often fed in spring ; but it 
 ought not to be continued later than April §. Nay, in sea- 
 sons particularly favourable to the growth of wheat, when it 
 has become rank in autumn, the experiment has been tried, 
 of turning in a flock of sheep, to check its growth ; but they 
 ought not to be kept longer, than merely to eat off the 
 more luxuriant leaves ||. In France, they feed their cattle 
 in spring, on their young wheats, without any injury to the 
 crop •, and sometimes, when the crop is over luxuriant, the 
 scythe, or the sickle is applied. 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 213.— On the naked chalk soils about Dunstable, 
 
 this is beneficially practised with sheep, and sometimes with swine. —Bed- 
 fordshire Report, p. 373. 
 
 t Herts Report, p. 85. J Middlesex Report, p. 213. 
 
 § Bedfordshire Report, p. 374. 
 
 |j Gloucestershire Report, p. 115. Some sorts of sheep, particularly 
 wedders, do not agree with such succulent food as young corn. 
 
390 
 
 Of Culture while growing. 
 
 Culture oj Beans while growing, 
 
 A circumstance of great importance with regard to the 
 management of beans, has recently become the subject of 
 much discussion, and may prove highly useful to the culti- 
 vator of that crop. It is well known, that beans are an ex- 
 cellent preparation for wheat ; but it was often so late be- 
 fore the crop could be cut down, and carried to the stack- 
 yard, that the season for sowing the succeeding crop to ad- 
 vantage, was lost. The injury thence likely to be incurred, 
 may be diminished, if not prevented, by a simple expe- 
 dient. 
 
 It has long been a practice with gardeners, to cut off the 
 tops of beans, in order to accelerate their podding. From 
 its success in the garden, it was natural to suppose, that it 
 would answer in the fields; and some experiments were 
 made in different places, to ascertain that fact*. It was 
 never, however, much attended to ; and as it has probably 
 been tried on the greatest scale, by John Lowther, Esq. 
 Member for Cumberland, it may be proper to give the fol- 
 lowing account, of the origin and progress of the system, 
 on his farm, as communicated to the Author. 
 
 His bailiff, George Lane, who had been a gardener, was 
 instrumental in applying the garden culture of beans, to that 
 of the field, and hence the practice of cutting off their tops 
 originated with him. It was begun about the year 1804, 
 and has already been tried on more than 200 acres. The 
 operation is performed by means of a sharp-edged instru- 
 ment or knife, 12 or 14 inches long, exclusive of the 
 handle ; but it may be done by a sickle or reaping-hook. 
 The expence has never exceeded 3s. per acre, and it is done 
 by contract. At a certain stage of its growth, the head of 
 the bean-stalk does not seem essential for the purposes of 
 vegetation, but by its luxuriance, to exhaust the strength of 
 the plant. The proper time to cut off the top is, when the 
 first blossoms begin to drop ; if done sooner, a fresh shoot 
 will put forth. As soon as the tops are cut off, the pods 
 rapidly increase in size, and the period of ripening is ac- 
 celerated. The timely removal of those parts where the 
 
 * It was tried more than forty years ago in Oxfordshire. — Mr. John 
 Blackwall, an intelligent farmer in Derbyshire, has long practised this 
 mode with great success. Report , vol. ii. p. 183. — The same plan of top- 
 ping, may be extended to pease, with much advantage, for the purpose of 
 accelerating their ripeness. 
 
Of Culture while growing . 391 
 
 insects chiefly lodge, materially contributes to the health 
 and vigour of the plant, and probably increases the weight 
 of the crop. The harvest is by this means advanced at 
 least a fortnight*. In the ordinary mode of managing a 
 bean crop, their tops are green when reaped, consequently 
 they absorb and retain moisture, and require a considerable 
 exposure in the field, to prepare them for the stack; 
 whereas, without their tops, the crop is sooner in a condi- 
 tion to be carried, and less risk is incurred, from the effects 
 of frost and wet seasons. — The tops are left to rot upon 
 the ground. The loss of some fodder, and the trifling ex- 
 pence, are the only objections that can be urged against 
 the practice. It is peculiarly calculated for the drill sys- 
 tem, all the plants not being otherwise accessible ; and it 
 furnishes an additional reason, in support of that superior 
 mode of culture for pulse crops. 
 
 In the General Report of Scotland-)-, in which this pro- 
 cess is briefly noticed, an old scythe-blade, set in a wooden 
 handle, is recommended ; and the expence is only estimated 
 at about one shilling per acre ; but even a much greater 
 expence, is not to be put in competition with the advan- 
 tage of having the crop ready for the sickle, a fortnight 
 earlier, and perhaps an additional week gained in the drying 
 of the sheaves. Where reaping-hooks are in use* this ope- 
 ration may be easily and accurately performed by that im- 
 plement. 
 
 The other improvements to be afterwards detailed, in the 
 reaping, and the harvesting of beans, in addition to that 
 of drilling already mentioned, have brought the culture of 
 that plant to such perfection, as to render it a much more 
 advantageous preparation for wheat, than it has hitherto 
 been considered. 
 
 * Nothing, perhaps, would be of more importance, in the cultivation of 
 the clay soils of Britain, than a variety of beans, that would ripen a month 
 or six weeks earlier than the present kind. It would be useful to see some 
 account of any trials that have been made for that purpose. Mr. Burrell, 
 Member for Sussex, and Mr. Stone of Basildon, in Berks, strongly recom- 
 mend the Heligoland bean, as both early and productive, and more easily 
 harvested in a wet season. By others, the superiority of this bean is dis- 
 puted. 
 
 -f- Vol. i. p. 522. 
 
392 
 
 Of Reaping . 
 
 Sfxt. XV. — Of Reaping , 
 
 Experienced husbandmen think, that wheat should be 
 cut down some days before it is fully or dead ripe*. As 
 the grain hardens well in the sheaf, and the sample is often 
 better. The harvest thus begins earlier, and its labours are 
 more equally distributedf. 
 
 Barley ought likewise to be cut before it is too ripe, 
 otherwise the straw becomes brittle, which occasions much 
 loss by the heads breaking off. 
 
 Though oats are reckoned a hardy grain, yet the more 
 early varieties, being liable to damage from high winds, or 
 from exposure to much wet, ought to be cut as soon as they 
 are nearly ripe, in order to lessen the risks to which they 
 are exposed J. 
 
 Beans should be cut down, as soon as the eye has attained 
 a deep colour, and if the weather be dry, made up as soon 
 as possible, into sheaves. The straw will thus be of triple 
 value, and the grain of superior quality§. 
 
 Where the crop is lodged, whatever may be the state of 
 ripeness, it should be immediately cut down ; more espe- 
 cially if grass- seeds have been sown with it, which may 
 otherwise be lost||. 
 
 The nature of the instruments for cutting down the crops, 
 is the next point to be considered^ . 
 
 * Mr. Coke cuts down his wheat very early, even when the ear and stem 
 are greenish, and the grain not hard. He says that the wheat, thus early 
 reaped, is always his best sample, and he gets 2s. a quarter for it more than 
 for wheat cut in a more mature state. He perhaps, loses something in the 
 measure, the skin being thinner, and the grain probably, not quite so bulky ; 
 but, if this be true, it is fully compensated from his suffering no loss by 
 shedding on the ground, which, when the ear is ripe, and the weather 
 windy, is often not inconsiderable. — Dr. Rigby's Report , p. 29. 
 
 Brown’s Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 310. — Young’s Calendar, p. 420. — 
 Whenever the greater proportion of the crop is fully ripe, no delay in cut- 
 ting it should take place, more especially if the season is advanced, or the 
 corn is in a high and exposed situation. In such circumstances, the green 
 may never ripen, and the ripe may be lost. 
 
 X An experienced farmer, the late Mr. John Shirreff, recommended, 
 that all sorts of grain should be cut, whenever the straw immediately below 
 the ear, is so dry, that on twisting it, no juice can be expressed; for then 
 the grain cannot improve, a6 the circulation of the juices to the ear is 
 stopped. It matters not that the stalk below is green. Everv hour that the 
 grain stands uncut, after passing this stage, it is attended witli loss. 
 
 § Paper from Mr. John Shirreff; Comm. vol. iv. p. 172. 
 
 || Curwen’s Report, p. 72. 
 
 <1 Sometimes the crop is pulled up by the roots, where long straw is 
 much wanted, as is the case in the western counties of England ; and beans 
 are occasionally pulled, where the pods are lowly situated. But these 
 practices are considered to be tedious and expensive. 
 
Of Reaping . 393 
 
 Various plans have been devised for that purpose, as, 
 reaping by a sickle, or reaping-hook ; — mowing by a scythe ; 
 — and bagging . The plan of cutting down corn by ma- 
 chinery, though it has made some progress, has not yet 
 been brought beyond the line of partial experiment. 
 
 1 . Reaping by the Sickle , or Reaping-Hook. 
 
 For districts in which a sufficient number of hands can 
 be procured, reaping either by the sickle, or the reaping- 
 hook, are excellent modes of cutting down the crop, if 
 attention is paid to low cutting. With careful reapers, 
 there is very little waste ; — the heads of the corn are all 
 put in regular order; — and the crop placed in a position 
 favourable to threshing, either by the flail, or by machinery. 
 
 The sickles are jagged on the edge with teeth; but reap- 
 ing-hooks are ground sharp and smooth. The former is 
 preferred in those districts where the practice of bagging , 
 (to be afterwards explained), has not been introduced. The 
 teethed sickle, requires but little sharpening ; — it has the 
 advantage of keeping the corn better together; — and in 
 careless hands, some of the heads are cut off and lost, in 
 using the sharp reaping-hook, when it enters among the 
 crop, before the reaper has gathered the corn with his 
 hand*. 
 
 Reaping by the sickle is performed by the day ; — by the 
 acre by the harvest season ; — or by the work that is 
 executed, for instance, a certain sum for any given num- 
 ber of sheaves. Of these modes, the one per acre is the 
 most advantageous, where the practice can be introduced. 
 
 It is a most essential object, to cut the crop very low, 
 that any waste of straw, or loss of grain may be prevented. 
 The additional quantity of grain thus procured, will pay the 
 expence, and the increased quantity of muck is mostly clear 
 profit ; because mowing the stubbles afterwards, imperfectly 
 supplies the place of close cutting in the first instance. 
 
 Cutting corn when wet, ought to be avoided, for when 
 put up in a damp state, in a close sheaf, it cannot get 
 dry. In bad harvests, the sheaves ought to be gaited , 
 that is, set up single, loosely tied near the ear-ends of the 
 
 * An improved implement for cutting corn, one half from the point, 
 hacked like a sickle, and the remainder smooth and sharp, was invented by 
 Mr. Joseph Hatton, junior ; and effecting a great saving of corn, has had a 
 considerable sale. — See Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxviii. 
 p. 54; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 122. 
 
394 
 
 Of Reaping, 
 
 straw, and spread out circularly on their butts, or ends, to 
 give them a firm standing. 
 
 The sheaves ought to be of a moderate size, not exceed- 
 ing nine inches in diameter, or thirty inches in circum- 
 ference. In wet seasons, from six to eight inches in dia- 
 meter is quite enough, and instead of binding with two 
 lengths of the corn made into a rope, one is sufficient ; nor 
 ought the knee to be applied, when the sheaf is bound, as 
 the air is thereby too much excluded. The binder’s arm 
 will compress the sheaf as much as it ought to be, provided 
 the size be such as is here recommended*. 
 
 It is calculated, that three good reapers will cut down an 
 English acre, and that one man will bind, and put into 
 shocks or stooks y two acres per day. The expence of these 
 operations, varies from 10s. to 16s. per English acre. Tak- 
 ing all charges into consideration, if the crop be good, and 
 the reaping process be duly executed, the farmer has no rea- 
 son to be dissatisfied, if he can get it done for about 15s. 
 per statute acre. 
 
 2. Mowing by the Scythe, 
 
 This instrument is frequently made use of for cutting oats 
 and barley ; and in some districts of Kent, it is even used 
 for wheat. It is either plain, or furnished with a bow, or 
 cradle, to assist in laying the heads more regularly in one 
 direction. The late celebrated George Culley maintained, 
 that this was the completest mode of cutting down barley ; 
 that when properly mown, it could be neatly tied up in 
 sheaves, and could be threshed without difficulty by a ma- 
 chine. Whenever the crop, however, is much lodged, or 
 irregularly broken down, or interwoven by squalls of wind, 
 or heavy rains, the scythe cannot act with efficacy, or even 
 with safety. The use of the scythe, therefore, is only ad- 
 missible, when the corn stands upright, or with a regular 
 inclination, or nearly so, in one direction-}-. But the use of 
 the scythe is objected to on the following grounds : 1. When 
 clover, or any other grass, has been sown with the crop of 
 corn, the scythe will cut nearly all the grass that has grown, 
 which, mingled with the stems of the corn, in so large a 
 proportion, must render the harvesting extremely hazar- 
 dous. 2. It is more difficult, with such a load of grass, to 
 
 * Gentleman Farmer, p. 161. 
 t General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 384. 
 
395 
 
 Of Reaping. 
 
 put the crop in shocks, or stooks, and the operation is more 
 wasteful ; and, 3. The crop cannot be so easily, or so safely 
 stacked* * * § . 
 
 A comparison has been made, between the expence of 
 reaping by the sickle, or cutting down by the scythe. By 
 the sickle, it would cost about 125. per English acre, for 
 barley, and 155. for wheat. By the scythe, it will be cut 
 down at least 25. cheaper, and with from two to four addi- 
 tional inches of straw, the manure from which, will be 
 worth from 45. to 7 s . t It may be added, however, that it 
 is practicable to obtain nearly as much straw, by the sickle, 
 as by the scythe, provided the farmer is disposed to bestow 
 the necessary time and attention to the conduct of his 
 reapers, and will give them a moderate addition to their 
 wages, when the work is properly executed. 
 
 3 . Bagging . 
 
 This is a practice, principally confined to the counties of 
 Middlesex and Surrey, where it has been adopted, with a 
 view of securing an increased quantity of straw. This it 
 does, to the amount of from 45. to 7s. per acre. In De- 
 vonshire, the crops are chopped down, in a similar man- 
 ner, so as to leave hardly any stubblej. It is done by a 
 toothless reaping hook, of about twice the weight of a 
 common sickle, which is sharpened as often as is necessary. 
 The operation is performed by cutting the crop down by a 
 succession of blows, made within two or three inches of the 
 ground. It is, in fact, mowing with one hand, against the 
 standing corn. By bagging, the straw is cut much closer 
 to the ground, than is generally done by hand-reaping§. 
 There is little or no difference of expence between bagging 
 and common sickle reaping, whilst it is equally expeditious. 
 Beans are usually bagged as well as wheat. The expence of 
 bagging, is generally about fifteen shillings per acre ; but it 
 varies from twelve to twenty shillings, according to the bulk 
 and condition of the crop||. 
 
 * Remarks by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 f General Report, vol. i. p. 386. A crop of oats, if abundant, takes 
 longer time to cut with a sickle, than a crop of wheat, if it is cut low ; 
 there being more handfuls of oats, than of wheat. 
 
 | Devon Report, p. 142. It is said, that in some parts of England, bar- 
 ley may be mown, at from 3s. 6d. to 5s. per acre ; but that is independent 
 of tying. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 152. 
 
 !1 Surrey Report, p. 215. 
 
396 
 
 Of Reaping . 
 
 It would appear that the mode of reaping, as executed 
 by Welsh labourers, in the counties of Hereford and Salop, 
 is the most perfect, and the cheapest, of perhaps any hitherto 
 known. It is performed by an instrument, a little longer 
 than the common sickle, and about double the breadth •, it 
 has no teeth, but is sharpened like a scythe. This sickle is 
 known by the name of the Cardigan hooky which may be 
 purchased at Ludlow, and all other towns in that neighbour- 
 hood, for 2 s. 8 d. each. With the hook, a whetstone is 
 bought for 3 d. This mode of reaping is equally applicable 
 to wheat, barley, oats, beans, and pease. — The reaper bears 
 up what he cuts against the standing corn, with one arm 
 and leg, pushing it before him, uritil he gets about half a 
 sheaf. It is cut down close to the ground. In the harvest 
 of 1818, the common price given, was 4 kv. 6d. per statute 
 acre, the employer finding food, drink, and lodging ; but 
 when these are not furnished, the usual price is, from seven 
 to eight shillings per acre for wheat ; and for that sum, the 
 reaper not only cuts, but binds up the grain. The general 
 adoption of so useful a system cannot be too much recom- 
 mended*. 
 
 The Flemish mode of cutting grain, by a stick with an 
 iron hook, and a short scythe, has been already describedf. 
 It is only a small deviation from bagging, and is said to be a 
 most expeditious mode of cutting grain. 
 
 Sheaf Bands. 
 
 In the Isle of Thanet, they have an excellent practice, of 
 preparing, at leisure times, bands of straw, which are carried 
 by children to the field, and given to the workmen when 
 wanted, for tying up the corn. Where there is a threshing- 
 mill, this can easily be effected. In this way, the band may 
 be made of any required dimensions, the waste of much corn 
 is prevented, more especially when the crop is ripe, less 
 time is wasted in reaping, and there is no risk of the bands 
 growing in wet weather. Even children are thus taught a 
 degree of subordination, and rendered useful in carrying on 
 
 * Communication from Mr. John Hope, a native of East-I.othian, to the 
 Author. This shews the advantage of minute and extensive inquiries. One 
 would not have expected, that so perfect a system of reaping would be 
 practised, by the natives of a remote and mountainous district, as that of 
 Cardigan. See also the Herefordshire Report, p. 49. 
 
 t Chap. II. p. 110. — It was described as far back as the year i 763, in the 
 Gentleman’s Magazine, p. 528. 
 
Of Harvesting . 397 
 
 the business of the farm, without being subjected to labour 
 above their strength* * * § . 
 
 Sect. XVI . — Of Harvesting . 
 
 Corn, when cut down, is usually put into sheaves and 
 shocks , (provincially stooks ), or two rows of five or six 
 sheaves each, with two more spread open on the top, for 
 protection against rain, called the hooding , or head-sheaves. 
 In wet seasons, the crop is sometimes put into small stacks 
 in the field, where it remains, till it be fit to be removed to 
 the stack-yard. The expence, when the work is properly 
 conducted, is not considerable, and the corn is put out of 
 risk. By making the stack in the centre of the space from 
 which the corn is to be carried, the operation goes on very 
 quickly. In one day, in the precarious harvest of 1816, an 
 eminent farmer in East Lothianf, secured, in this way, 
 thirty-two statute acres, in which grass-seeds had been sown, 
 at an expence of about two shillings per acre. Nineteen 
 men were employed, of whom twelve were put to carry the 
 corn upon hand-barrows to the stack, three to build, three 
 to fork, and one to dress the stacks, and to rake up the 
 loose corn. The ground was so wet at the time, that had 
 carts and horses been put upon it, the young grass would 
 have been destroyed. In Cornwall, from the dread of mois- 
 ture, they are accustomed to put up their corn in small stacks, 
 the very evening in which their crops are cut down ; and the 
 farmers consider their crops to be perfectly safe, if once put 
 dry into one of these wind, or arish mows , as they are 
 called. Each stack contains 180 sheaves, and there are gene- 
 rally three to an acre. Mr. Curwen is accustomed to stack 
 his corn in the field, regard being had to future convenience 
 in its removal afterwards^. 
 
 When corn is sufficiently dry, it is carried^, either into 
 a barn, or stacked in a yard adjoining to the farm offices. 
 The latter plan is preferable, on various accounts. 1. The 
 grain and straw, if put into a barn, must be much drier 
 than is necessary for the largest ricks, and consequently, 
 
 * Marshall’s Southern Counties, vol. ii. p. 25 and 28. 
 
 •f* Robert Browne, Esq. of Markle. 
 
 | In one year, he erected 144 stacks in the field. — Report , p. 74. 
 
 § The comparative advantages of using carts or waggons, for conveying 
 corn in harvest, has been already discussed. See Chap. II. p. 115. 
 
398 
 
 Of Harvesting . 
 
 must be longer exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather. 
 2 . In barns, the grain is peculiarly liable to the depreda- 
 tions of vermin. 3. Corn in the straw, keeps much better 
 in the open air, than in close barns. 4. The expence of 
 constructing, and keeping these buildings in repair, is very 
 considerable. — Few operations at the same time, require to 
 be more scrupulously attended to, than the erecting of corn- 
 stacks, which should not only be substantially done, so as to 
 secure the crop effectually, but neatly executed*. 
 
 The old practice, of stacking corn on the ground, in the 
 yard, even though bottomed with loose dry straw, was not 
 a little exceptionable ; part of the grain being apt to imbibe 
 moisture, and the whole liable to the depredations of vermin : 
 but now, corn may be preserved in the open air, either in 
 corn-stands built of stone or brickf, or upon pillars made of 
 stone or cast-iron, without receiving the slightest damage. 
 Where cast-iron is accessible, that material is to be pre- 
 ferred, as no vermin can get up so slippery a surface. Seven, 
 or nine pillars of cast-iron, are sufficient for a common- 
 sized round stack, the expence of which, will not exceed 
 from forty to sixty shillings, according to the price of ironj. 
 The frame of coarse wood, on which the corn is laid, usually 
 costs from eight or ten, to thirty or forty shillings more. 
 The whole amount is often repaid by the saving of the first 
 year. 
 
 There is a practice in Scotland, of using what is called 
 bosses , which, when joined to cast-iron pillars, has brought 
 the stacking of corn to great perfection. They are thus 
 formed : A triangle is first erected in the middle of the 
 frame, which forms a boss or hollow, about three feet wide: 
 a few spars of fir are nailed across the boss, so close, as 
 to preserve the sheaves from falling into it ; but when these 
 cannot be got, a straw rope is commonly used in their stead. 
 After the builder has reached the top of the boss, he places 
 
 * Curwen’s Report, p. 76. 
 
 •f* See a description of those at Woburn Abbey. Communications to the 
 Board of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 72. When built with brick, the stacks are 
 kept down, and hold more corn in the same height than the other sorts ; 
 consequently, they claim a preference in exposed situations. They will 
 not admit, however, the plan of bosses ; and are sometimes damp, from 
 the rain water they receive before harvest. To obviate that objection, 
 ricks are sometimes built on solid masses of stone, instead of being hollow. — 
 Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p.67. 
 
 I For ricks, or long square stacks, the number must be even; the prac- 
 tice of building these, called wheat-hovels in Lincolnshire, is very ancient ; 
 their posts are of stone, and covered with a stone cap, on which the timber 
 rests. 
 
399 
 
 Of Harvesting . 
 
 on it a sack filled with straw, which, when he builds round 
 it, he pulls up, until he reaches the top of the stack. By 
 this means, crops of wheat, barley, or oats, can be har- 
 vested with less exposure to the weather, and in better con- 
 dition. It may be proper to add, that, in very bad harvests, 
 by means of the invention of bosses, one row of sheaves of 
 corn, may be put on the stacks, “ from the sickle,” (placing 
 the heads of the sheaves to the centre), and may thus be 
 effectually secured — a great object in a wet climate*. When 
 these sheaves are thoroughly dry, others may be added. 
 
 Engravings are annexed, for the purpose of giving a bet- 
 ter idea, than any description could furnish, of these useful 
 inventions. (See Appendix, Plate III). 
 
 The harvesting of beans, being often attended with pecu- 
 liar difficulties, the improvements which have been made 
 in that operation, deserve to be more fully described. After 
 they are cut down, and put in small sheaves, not exceeding 
 from six to eight inches in diameter, they ought to be im- 
 mediately conveyed, if intended to be followed by a crop of 
 wheat, to dry in another field, otherwise the season of sowing 
 may be lost. The additional trouble and expence of their 
 removal, is amply compensated, by the difference in value, 
 between a crop of wheat, and that of any other grain. Beans, 
 on this plan, if put in an airy situation, will be sufficiently 
 dry to be stacked on cast-iron pillars, with bosses, in ten, 
 twelve, or fourteen days, according to the state of the 
 weather, after they were cut, but always in less time than 
 they would be fit for stacking, if left on the soil where they 
 were raised. By the operations above detailed, namely, the 
 cutting off the tops of beans ; — reaping them early ; — con- 
 veying them to another field to dry ; — and stacking them on 
 cast-iron pillars, with bosses, the harvesting of beans may 
 be considerably accelerated, while more time is given to pre- 
 pare the soil, for the succeeding crop of wheat ; — advantages 
 of no common magnitude. 
 
 Corn stacks are, in some districts, built in an oblong, 
 instead of a round form ; but though these oblong con- 
 structions, require less time and labour, and fewer covering 
 materials than the others, yet they are objected to, as inter- 
 rupting the free circulation of the air in the corn-yards, — 
 being more liable to injury in damp weather, — and, unless 
 
 Husbandry of Scotland, vol.i. p. 373. 
 
400 
 
 Of Threshing Grain. 
 
 carefully placed, more apt to be overturned by wind, than 
 those of a round construction. 
 
 Before concluding this subject, it is proper strongly to 
 inculcate the necessity, of unceasing activity, at that cri- 
 tical period when the labours of harvest are going on. 
 Some husbandmen have rarely, if ever, any spoiled grain in 
 their possession ; while others, of more tardy habits, are 
 seldom without it. A disposition to trifle or procrastinate, 
 and to rely on the continuance of good weather, is quite 
 unbecoming the character of an industrious and intelligent 
 husbandman ; and there cannot be a better criterion, to 
 judge of the agricultural skill and spirit of any particular 
 district, or the management of those who cultivate it, than 
 to ascertain, how the business of the harvest is conducted*. 
 
 Sect. XVII. — Of Threshing Grain. 
 
 The operation of separating corn from the straw, has 
 been recently brought to a degree of perfection in this 
 country, that some years ago, would have been considered 
 as unattainable. The advantages of the new mode, in a 
 general point of view, have been already explained, (Chap. II. 
 p. 124); and it would have been desirable to have given a 
 statement, of the pecuniary profit derived from it, in this 
 place ; but such is the diversity of opinion respecting the 
 expence of keeping horses, and such the difference of wages 
 in the several counties, that it was found impossible to 
 make a calculation, that would be generally acceptable, or 
 that would be applicable to more than one or two districts. 
 The average profit from the mill, worked by horses, when 
 compared to the flail, it would appear, is from 3s. to 4s. 
 per quarter for wheat, from 2s. to 3s. for barley, and from 
 Is. to 2s. for oats ; but where oxen are used, instead of 
 horses, or where the machine is driven by' water, or wind, 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 85. — The pleasures of the harvest, is thus 
 ably, and eloquently depicted by Mr. Curwen : “ I was never absent from 
 the harvest-field an hour from its commencement to its conclusion ; for, in- 
 dependently' of all other considerations, there is a gaiety in it, which is de- 
 lightful, and peculiar to itself. The successful termination of the labours of 
 the year; — the recompense of unwearied exertion; — the alleviation of soli- 
 citude ; — the solace of hope ; — all combine, to inspire the liveliest gratitude 
 to Heaven ; — to call forth the sensibilities of the human heart, and to kindle 
 the best feelings of nature ; whilst the responsive notes of the motley group, 
 reiterate mutual good-will, universal sympathy, and thankfulness to Pro- 
 vidence !” — Curwen' s Report , p. 74. 
 
401 
 
 Of Dressing , or Winnowing Grain . 
 
 the expence of threshing by the mill, is considerably re- 
 duced, and the advantage comparatively augmented. 
 
 If the old plan of threshing by the flail, had continued in 
 use** the task was so severe and irksome, while, in time of 
 war, labourers fit to perform it, were so scarce, that the 
 expence must have greatly reduced the profit of the farmer, 
 and the value of landf. But the waste of grain from that 
 imperfect mode of threshing, and the pilfering which often 
 attended it, was yet more vexatious ; and the labourers 
 could not always be prevailed upon, to thresh the corn 
 wholly out of the straw, even when they knew that their own 
 families were in danger of suffering from the want ofbread%. 
 Nor is that to be wondered at. Few men are dexterous 
 at handling a flail j and labourers in general, would rather 
 work without doors, even in wet weather, than subject 
 themselves to the severe, dusty, and unwholesome toils of a 
 barn§. 
 
 In the western districts of England, they are desirous of 
 extracting the grain, with as little injury as possible to the 
 straw. For that purpose, the ears are cut off, and threshed 
 separately from the straw||, which is converted into a species 
 of reed for thatching, or used for litter^. 
 
 Sect. XVIII. — Of Dressing, or Winnowing Grain * 
 
 The old imperfect modes of dressing grain, either by the 
 action of wind operating between two doors of a barn, or 
 by conveying the corn to the summit of some adjoining 
 eminence, where it was winnowed by a natural breeze, are 
 
 * In 1795, owing to the badness of the crop, some farmers paid 10$. per 
 quarter for threshing wheat. Kent Report , p. 190. — In 1807, threshing 
 wheat, cost in Essex, 4$. per quarter. Report , vol. ii. p. 371. — In the winter 
 of 1815-16, the price in Surrey was from 8$. to 9$. per quarter. But the 
 price of labour is so involved with the poor-rates in England, that it is dif- 
 ficult to ascertain its real amount. 
 
 f Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 315. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 548. 
 
 § Roxburghshire Report, p. 58. || Somerset Report, p. 97. 
 
 t Devonshire Report, p. 149. — The small mill invented by Mr. William 
 Johnstone, of Langholme, in Dumfries-shire, which costs only from ten to 
 eighteen pounds, would be a most valuable improvement to those western 
 districts ; for by it the ears might be threshed, without separating the ears 
 from the straw, merely inserting the heads of the sheaves ; and the straw 
 would remain unbruised. This mill is more likely to be adopted in foreign 
 countries, than the larger machines. It is likewise to be had at Gutzmer’s, 
 Leith-Walk, Edinburgh. Mr. Silvestre has lately exhibited a hand threshing- 
 mill, which saves the straw whole, and is recommended for its simplicity. 
 
 d d 
 
402 Of Dressing , or Winnowing Grain . 
 
 now laid aside. The idea of a winnowing machine, for the 
 purpose of raising wind artificially, is supposed to have ori- 
 ginated in China, and was there applied to the dressing of 
 rice. It was thence brought into Holland, and attached to 
 mills for making pot or pearl barley. Its introduction into 
 Scotland, above a century ago, is attributed to the patriotism 
 of Andrew Fletcher of Salton, and the ingenuity of James 
 Meikle, whose son was the inventor of the threshing. mill. 
 But its construction on a larger scale, so as to render it ap- 
 plicable to all sorts of grain, is said to be owing to a person 
 named Rogers, a farmer near Hawick, in Roxburghshire, 
 who, about the year 1733, commenced a manufacture of 
 them, which he and his descendants carried on to a consi- 
 derable extent*. It is impossible to calculate, to what in- 
 conveniences and losses the farmers must have been sub • 
 jected, before their difficulties were removed by this most 
 useful invention! . 
 
 The threshing-mills erected, have, almost in every case, 
 a set of fanners attached to them j and those on the largest 
 scale, are sometimes provided with a second pair, by which 
 the cleaning of the grain, is rendered so complete, as to re- 
 quire little or no dressing afterwards. From the inequality 
 of motion, however, necessarily attendant on so violent an 
 operation as that of threshing, and the additional strength 
 required, which is severe on horses, when they are employed, 
 the second pair of fanners is now generally laid aside ; the 
 judicious husbandman, who wishes to secure at market, a 
 character for well-dressed grain, finding it more for his in- 
 terest, to give the final dressing to his grain, in a deliberate 
 manner, by hand-fannersj. 
 
 By these machines, with the aid of riddles attached to 
 them, all dirt, seeds of weeds, chaff, and other refuse, are 
 separated or blown away, and the grain parted into divisions, 
 according to its quality, by which it is rendered intrinsically 
 more valuable than if the good and the inferior were mixed 
 together ; in the same manner as a fleece of wool, fetches a 
 much higher price, when broken or sorted by the wool- 
 stapler. 
 
 The thorough dressing of grain, and making the whole 
 stock correspond with the sample produced at market, are 
 important objects for a farmer to attend to. In this way, 
 
 * Roxburghshire Report, p. 59. f Brown’s Treatise, vol. i. p. 356. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 409. 
 
Improving the Quality of Grain , and Flour, 403 
 
 all disputes with purchasers are avoided, and the grain 
 fetches its full value. One or two per cent, of bad grain 
 left in the stock, will often lessen the price from five to ten 
 per cent, when the market happens to be dull ; whereas the 
 imperfect grain, if dressed out, and given to the farmer’s 
 horses, or, if not sold separately, otherwise used at home, 
 would be got rid of to more advantage. 
 
 Sect. XIX . — Improving the Quality of Grain, and Flour, 
 
 When wheat has been injured during a bad harvest, it 
 ought to be put into small stacks, in which state it will dry 
 much more quickly, and be sooner rendered fit for grinding 
 into flour. If large stacks are used, bosses , or triangular 
 frames ought to be employed. If stacked in a damp con- 
 dition, it should rarely be threshed earlier than the summer 
 after it has been harvested, when its condition will be greatly 
 improved. 
 
 Wheat, if not in good condition, is much improved by 
 kiln drying ; but it should not be ground, (unless in cases of 
 necessity), until some time after it has undergone that ope- 
 ration. It ought to be moderately kiln-dried, with a slow 
 heat, and frequently turned. But if the grain be musty, it 
 ought to pass through a previous process, which is thus 
 described by an eminent chymist. 
 
 The wheat must be put into any convenient vessel, ca- 
 pable of containing at least three times the quantity, and 
 the vessel must be subsequently filled with boiling water ; 
 the grain should then be occasionally stirred, and the hol- 
 low and decayed grains, (which will float), may be re- 
 moved ; when the water has become cold, or, in general, 
 when about half an hour has elapsed, it is to be drawn off. 
 It will be proper then to rinse the corn with cold water, in 
 order to remove any portion of the water which had taken 
 up the must ; after which, the corn being completely 
 drained, it is, without loss of time, to be thinly spread on 
 the floor of a kiln, and thoroughly dried, care being taken 
 to stir, and to turn it frequently, during this part of the 
 process*. 
 
 By this simple operation, corn, however musty, may be 
 completely purified, with very little expence, and without 
 
 * A Letter to the Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart, by Charles Hatchett 
 Esq, Printed an. 1816, in 4to. 
 
 d d 2 
 
404 
 
 On Preserving Corn, and Flour . 
 
 requiring previous chemical knowledge, or any expensive 
 apparatus. Mere ventilation, however, has been recom- 
 mended, as a means of preparing grain for use, sufficiently 
 effectual*. 
 
 When grain is infected by smut, it can be thoroughly 
 cleaned, however black it may be, in the course of three 
 washings, in a wooden tub, resembling a mill for washing 
 potatoes*. The wheat must afterwards be kiln-dried. 
 
 It is generally supposed, that if wheat be much injured 
 during a bad harvest, the flour made from it, will not fer- 
 ment, or bake into loaf-bread, and that it is only fit for dis- 
 tillation, or to be eaten by live stock. But with the aid of 
 soda, the flour may be much improved ; and, at any rate, 
 may be made into cakesf, or biscuit, and consumed with 
 safety and advantage. In France, they recommend, in 
 such cases, that the water used in making the bread, 
 should not be so hot as usual ; — that the dough should be 
 made firmer, and with a greater quantity of salt *, — that the 
 bread should be made into smaller loaves ; — that the oven 
 should be more heated •, — and the loaves kept longer in it. 
 The more the bread is baked, there is the less danger in 
 using it, and it should, if possible, not be consumed, till 
 two or three days after it has been baked|. 
 
 Sect. XX . — On Preserving Corn, and Flour . 
 
 In several countries, such as Switzerland, Poland, &c. 
 great labour and expence are bestowed, in storing and pre- 
 serving corn for times of scarcity. In some places, deep 
 pits are made in the solid rock, and in others, caves are dug 
 in the sides of hills, in which the grain is deposited. Large 
 granaries have been also built of stone, so as to admit of a 
 free ventilation, and a frequent stirring of the corn. But 
 for any moderate period, (say one or two years), there is no 
 mode so advantageous, as the keeping grain in the straw, 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 377. — The corporation of bakers at 
 Perth, have a machine for that sole purpose. 
 
 f It may likewise be made into what are called flour scones in Scotland, 
 prepared with milk instead of water, a species of bread, which is both good 
 and palatable. 
 
 | Instruction sur les moyens de tirer le meilleur parti possible des grains 
 cereales, &c. Redigde par ordre du Ministre de l’lnterieur, par une Com- 
 mission de la Society Royale et Centrale d’AgricuIture. Paris , 18 (/««'», 
 
 1817. — The Government of France does itself infinite credit, by its attention 
 to such objects, and the useful information which it circulates. 
 
On Preserving Corn , and Flour. 405 
 
 in a large and well-built stack, properly secured from 
 vermin. 
 
 As the straw, however, becomes less valuable the longer it 
 is kept ; and as stacks are exposed to the risk of fire, whether 
 malicious or accidental, the discovery of a cheap and effec- 
 tual mode of constructing a granary, has long been wished 
 for. 
 
 Farmers, indeed, seldom incline to have much of their 
 threshed corn on hand at once ; but there ought to be, on 
 every farm, places of security, capable of containing a por- 
 tion of the grain annually produced upon it, in case there 
 should be a deficiency of market. Such granaries, scattered 
 over the whole country, would be the best security against 
 famine that has hitherto been thought of, and being less 
 visible, would not be so obnoxious, nor liable to the same 
 hazards, from popular frenzy, as large stacks, or even well 
 filed barns*. 
 
 If there should be any objection to granaries, there is no 
 difficulty in preserving flour, in a manner that would an- 
 swer the same object. When Buonaparte took possession 
 of Leipsic, prior to the battle which proved so fatal to . the 
 French army, he found a number of barrels of flour, that 
 had been kept there for several years, and was in perfect 
 good condition : a sufficient proof that flour, when properly 
 manufactured, and closely packed in good condition, is not 
 an article so liable to injury, or so difficult to preserve, as 
 is commonly imagined. In vessels made of block-tin, and 
 sufficiently hard pressed, it may likewise be kept sound, for 
 a great length of time, and during the longest voyages. 
 The same plan would likewise answer if the cases were made 
 of iron. 
 
 * In the first volume of the collection of printed papers, known under the 
 name of “ De Re Rustical p. 118 , there is an account of a treatise on the 
 construction of granaries, by a Hanoverian architect, called Dinglinger, 
 which merits attention. It is accompanied by an engraving. In the works 
 of Dumonceau, Duhamel, and Chateauvieux, there are descriptions of a 
 ventilating granary, which is much recommended ; and M. Descroizilles, 
 has lately published a work at Paris, explaining a new mode of pre- 
 serving grain, in what he calls “ conservatory towers invented by M. 
 Chenest, which has received the approbation of the Royal Agricultural 
 Society of Paris. 
 
406 
 
 Of the Accidents to which Grain is liable . 
 
 Sect. XXL — Of the Accidents to which Grain is liable . 
 
 This subject is highly interesting *, but in a condensed 
 work like the present, only a general view of the accidents 
 to which grain is liable, can be given. These may be treated 
 of under the following heads : Heavy rains *, — fogs or mists ; 
 — dew ; — frost 5 — hail ; — snow } — violent heat ; — blights *, — 
 calms ; — variable weather ; — insects ; — birds ; — and vermin. 
 
 1 . Heavy Rains . — When wheat is in flower, heavy rains 
 will prevent the process of fructification from going for- 
 ward ; — will wash away the pollen, or farina fcecundans, and 
 hinder the flowerets from being fecundated ; — and will keep 
 the roots of the plants in so wet a state, as to occasion an 
 abortion in the ear. — By heavy rains also, corn is frequently 
 lodged, in which case, unless raised again by the wind, it 
 may never reach maturity, the ears being deprived of air, 
 and the roots kept in too moist a state. The securing the 
 crop must always be attended with much difficulty, when it 
 has been thus lodged. But the injury is less, when the crop 
 has been drilled, which admits of air to nourish the ear, and 
 to dry the stem. 
 
 2 . Fogs, or Mist. — The diseases of grain are often occa- 
 sioned by thick gloomy weather, more especially if it hap- 
 pens, when the corn is at the height of its vegetation. This 
 is particularly the case in regard to wheat, which, though it 
 grows in a great extent of latitude, requires the advantages 
 of a favourable climate, to preserve it in a healthy state, and 
 to bring it to perfection. 
 
 3. Dews . — Grain, and other plants, are frequently sup- 
 posed to be injured, by a species of moisture falling upon 
 them, of a clammy and glutinous nature, which checks the 
 perspiration of the plant, hinders the circulation of the 
 nutritious sap in the proper vessels, and binds up so closely, 
 both the straw, and the tender ears of grain in general, and 
 of wheat in particular, as to prevent the future growth of 
 the plant, and the filling of the grains. If there be sun- 
 shine next day, the damage is said to be certain, but it does 
 little mischief, if damp or windy weather follows imme- 
 diately*. What is called the honey -dew, (suffusio mellita ), 
 
 * Dorset Report, p. 209. — Dew-drops have frequently been shaken off 
 fchc ears of grain, by means of ropes, and other contrivances, and if done 
 before the sun rises, with Jtucccss. About liakcwcll in Derbyshire, it was 
 
Of the Accidents to which Grain is liable . 407 
 
 does not proceed, however, from the atmosphere, but is a 
 diseased action, or perspiration of the plants on which it is 
 found*. 
 
 4. Frosts . — Grain is frequently injured by frosty weather. 
 The lands most liable to frost, in general lie low, are shel- 
 tered by plantations, and have a southern rather than a 
 northern aspect ; being thence more exposed to the warmth 
 of the sun. The more elevated lands often escape from the 
 coldness of their atmosphere, and their being less liable to 
 damp. Frost also hurts plants soonest, when the air is still, 
 which is more frequently the case in low, than in high 
 situations. 
 
 In winter, if the ground is in fine tilth, the surface is 
 full of moisture, and the frost has great influence, elevating 
 the surface of the soil, together with the plant, and separat- 
 ing it from its seminal roots, which sometimes remain sta- 
 tionary in the ground, and at other times come with it. 
 When a thaw takes place after a sharp frost, the wheat 
 plant is observed to turn black, or to die, in consequence of 
 the tube of communication between the seed vessel and the 
 plant being ruptured, and the supply of nourishment con- 
 sequently cut off. During the continuance of the frost, the 
 plant remains in a torpid state ; but heat and moisture 
 succeeding, if the plant can perfect its coronal roots, it 
 may still be productive-}-. In general, however, wheat, 
 while it continues in a grassy state, recovers from the checks 
 which it receives. But when it makes its principal shoot, 
 previously to its producing its blossom, it grows as much in 
 a few days, as it does at any other period in a month *, and 
 and in this state, it must of necessity be so tender, as to be 
 sensible of every change in the atmosphere, consequently 
 it is then in most danger^. 
 
 Sudden transitions also, from heat to cold, during the 
 delicate crisis of the wheat, at the period of blossoming, are 
 highly pernicious ; and corn frosted in this state, cannot be 
 
 formerly the practice, for two men, walking in the furrows, to lash the 
 dew off the ears of wheat, to prevent the effects of the mildew. — Derby- 
 shire Report, vol ii. p. 123. 
 
 * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 3.5, 325. — Others contend, that the honey-dew, 
 (which is a transparent glairy matter), is deposited by some species of in- 
 sect. Mischief has often been fancifully ascribed to this cause. 
 
 f Communication from the Rev. Robert Hoblyn. — The wire-worm fre- 
 quently destroys the same tube of communication between the seed vessel 
 and the plant, just below where it is connected with the surface of the 
 earth ; but the plant may still revive, if it can produce coronal roots. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 205. 
 
408 Of the Accidents to which Grain is liable. 
 
 depended on for seed. Some attribute even the rust, to 
 wheat plants being ruptured by frosty nights, succeeded by 
 hot days* * * § . Wheat with large porous stalks, which absorb 
 a great deal of moisture, is more liable to injury, than 
 where it has a smaller and more solid stem. The damage 
 done by frost, however, depends much on the tempera- 
 ture and brightness of the succeeding day. Should it be 
 cold and gloomy, the injury is less, and if rain should fall, 
 the plants will escape unhurt. But if the morning be warm 
 and bright, the leaves of the plant often become black, and 
 never revive, the effect corresponding to the degree of the 
 returning stimulusf. 
 
 5. Hail . — In many parts of the Continent, storms of hail 
 do infinite mischief to the crops, and often desolate entire 
 districts. This is particularly the case in autumn, when, 
 from their weight, and the violence with which they fall, 
 hailstones beat down, and shake out, ripened grainf. It is 
 rarely so injurious in this, as in other countries ; but even 
 in England, storms of hail have occasionally been destruc- 
 tive^ 
 
 6. Snow . — When snow covers the young plant in winter, 
 it is rather favourable than otherwise to its future growth; 
 but when snow falls upon grain, either in the blossom, or in 
 the early stages of its ripening, as is sometimes the case in 
 very elevated situations, and in northern climates, it pre- 
 vents it from reaching maturity, and if later in the season, 
 occasions its being harvested in bad condition. 
 
 7. Heat . — It must not be imagined, that the effects oj 
 cold on grain, are alone to be apprehended, since those from 
 
 * Pliny, b. xviii. c. 28, likewise attributes the rust to frost. When frosty 
 nights are succeeded by hot gleams, wheat will be more liable to receive, or 
 less able to expel the malady . — Bedfordshire Report , p. 383. 
 
 -f* It is ascertained, that if early pease, or potatoes, in a garden, have 
 been attacked by the frost, any damage may be prevented by watering 
 them before the sun has got up; for it is the warmth of the sun, acting on a 
 frosted plant, that occasions the damage. 
 
 X In Italy, hail is a formidable enemy to vegetation. In Tuscany, in the 
 spring, and in Lombardy, in summer, it has destroyed, in one hour, the 
 most flourishing crops of wheat and rice . — Professor Symonds ’ Communica- 
 tion on the Husbandry of Italy , in the Annals of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 207, 
 
 § In the Buckinghamshire Report, p. 8, there is an account of a hail 
 storm that happened in that county, which did considerable damage ; but 
 the effects of those storms on the Continent arc quite terrific. One hap- 
 pened near Rome, on the 23d July, 1813, where the hail-stones weighed 
 eighteen ounces. Several persons were dangerously wounded; a number of 
 animals were killed, and the crops, which promised a magnificent harves t, 
 were totally destroyed. See also an account of a dreadful hail storm in Scot- 
 land . — Statistical Account , vol. iii. p. 70. 
 
OJ the Accident s to which Grain is liable. 409 
 
 excessive heat, are equally pernicious. When exposed to 
 that evil, the plants suffer from a privation of moisture, be- 
 come sickly and feeble, are forced into a premature ripe- 
 ness, and become light and unproductive. If great heats, 
 which weaken the plants, should happen to be succeeded by 
 heavy rains, the quick succession of two such adverse cir- 
 cumstances, is doubly injurious. 
 
 8. Blights . — Plants are sometimes injured by atmosphe- 
 rical influence, or by means of blights , as they are called. — 
 These sometimes arise from the unequal distribution of the 
 electric fluid, or from lightning, which frequently kills the 
 plants, injures their health, or prevents their filling. The 
 effects may be observed by the blackish spots and patches in 
 fields of wheat, sometimes in a zig-zag direction, where the 
 stalks have little or no grain in the ears. — In the spring sea- 
 son, after a warm and dry wind, there is sometimes a blight of 
 a different sort, arising from an excessive perspiration, which 
 enfeebles the plants, more especially if the wind is easterly, 
 — and it either destroys them, or checks their growth. 
 Against these accidents, all human precautions are in vain. 
 
 9. Calms . — The necessity of air, for the life and health 
 of plants, cannot be questioned. It is in no small degree, 
 by the motion and circulation of that fluid, that they are 
 supported and brought to perfection. Soon after it ceases 
 to move, the plant makes no further progress, it decays and 
 dries up. Wind promotes the growth of plants, not only 
 by the air being moved about, but by its shaking off the 
 dews, and the moisture from rain, that might otherwise be 
 prejudicial. Indeed, the motion or exercise it gives to the 
 plant itself, is of much use. Hence, high hedges, and large 
 woods and plantations, promote diseases, by preventing the 
 beneficial influence of the air. When orchards are sown with 
 corn, the more open parts bear good crops, but the grain 
 produced in the shade, is of an inferior quality. In hot 
 countries also, the wheat grown in large and open cultivated 
 fields, is Less subject to disease, than in an inclosed field of 
 small or moderate dimensions. Open fields, from the same 
 circumstance, generally produce a brighter and heavier sam- 
 ple than inclosed land. 
 
 10. Variable Weather . — Great wetness, cold, or heat, is 
 injurious to grain, more especially when the weather is 
 variable to any extreme, and when there are sudden tran- 
 sitions from heat to cold, and that followed, perhaps, by a 
 long continuance of wet weather. In that case, it is not to 
 
410 Of the Accidents to which Grain is liable . 
 
 be wondered at, that crops of grain should be affected, as 
 the tender organs of plants, must be injured, by the alter- 
 nate expansion by heat, and contraction from cold. Indeed, 
 the diseases to which they are subject, are often owing to 
 the weakened state of the plant, and ought not to be ascribed 
 to any one cause, but to the variableness of the season, the 
 weakness taking place some days, and perhaps weeks, 
 before any diseased appearance is discovered in the plant 
 itself. 
 
 11. Insects . — The injuries which crops sustain, from the 
 attacks of insects, are often very great. The roots are in 
 every season more or less destroyed by grubs* and worms ; 
 and in many places, as in the southern parts of England, 
 insects attack the ears of wheat, and occasion considerable 
 damage ; the grain become shrivelled, and in some instances, 
 a considerable part of the crop is destroyed. In fact, if 
 these insects, in particular the ear-worm , or tipula tritici , 
 were not attacked and devoured by a number of enemies, 
 as small birds, &c. the destruction occasioned by them would 
 be immense. 
 
 12. Birds , and Vermin . — When the crop is ripening, and 
 until it is secured in the stack or barn, it is exposed to the 
 attacks of hosts of enemies, as sparrows, pigeons, crows, 
 game, &c. from whose depredations, much injury is sustained. 
 Nay, after the grain is stacked, or housed, and even depo- 
 sited in a granary, depredations to a very great extent, are 
 often committed by rats and mice, unless they are guarded 
 against with much care. The following recipe for de- 
 stroying rats, will be found to be the most effectual hitherto 
 prepared : — Take a quart of oatmeal, two ounces of pounded 
 sugar, four drops of oil of rhodium, four drops of oil of 
 carraway, four drops of oil of aniseed, a quarter of a grain 
 of musk, one ounce of powder of fenegrate ; mix these all 
 together, and put some of the mixture on a board in a place 
 where rats resort ; let them feed on this for four nights ; 
 and, when they appear accustomed to it, take half an ounce 
 of arsenic, finely pounded, and mix it with the other ingre- 
 dients. In the morning take up what is left. — This mixture 
 is sufficient to destroy three hundred rats ; and more than 
 this number have been found killed by it. 
 
 * For destroying grubs or slugs, sowing salt with the seed, strewing bar- 
 ley chaff over the surface, so as to entangle and destroy them, — spreading 
 hot lime over the field, — rolling it, or treading it with sheep, have all been 
 recommended. 
 
On the Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 411 
 
 All these circumstances prove, that the profits of the 
 husbandman are precarious ; and that the hazards to which 
 these crops are liable, on which our subsistence depends, are 
 more numerous, than at first view could well be imagined. 
 
 Sect. XXII. — On the Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 The two principal diseases of wheat, are, Smut, and Rust , 
 or Mildew, the nature of both of which, and the means of 
 preventing them, in so far as it has hitherto been accom- 
 plished, shall be briefly explained. To discuss the other 
 diseases of grain, would be entering into a field too wide for 
 a publication of a nature so limited and condensed. 
 
 The Smut*. 
 
 This disease is a species of degeneracy of the grains in the 
 ear, by which the substance that should form flour in the 
 grain, becomes entirely changed into a black powder, similar 
 to a puff* ball, or dusty mushroom, ( lycoperdon glohosum.) 
 This disease destroys the value of the seed ; — renders the 
 flour of a dark colour, which diminishes its prices; — and some 
 are of opinion, that it possesses noxious qualities. It has 
 likewise a great tendency to spread, and to contaminate all 
 the adjoining grain, and rapidly to widen the mischief. 
 No wonder, therefore, that its ravages should have com- 
 manded the attention of husbandmen, in all ages, and in 
 almost every country. It was formerly so common, that in 
 some countries it was not unusual, to see twice or thrice as 
 many smutted ears of corn, as sound ones. Fortunately, 
 the means of preventing it, have long been in the power of 
 every farmer, for any operation that completely frees the 
 seed from smutty powder (the source of the infection), or that 
 destroys it by acrid, corrosive, or poisonous applications, will 
 have the effect of securing a clean cropt ; and though some- 
 
 * In French, Le Carte; in botanical language, ustilago. Tull inform* 
 us, that brining seed wheat, to prevent smut, was first practised about the 
 year 1660, when a vessel with wheat was sunk near Bristol, and the grain 
 so much injured by salt water, that though it would vegetate, it was consi- 
 dered to be unfit for bread. It was taken out of the vessel at low water, 
 and sown in different parts. It was free from disease at the following har- 
 vest, when wheat in general happened to be smutty. This accident led to 
 the practice of brining. 
 
 t Sussex Report, p. 85, note. 
 
412 
 
 On the Diseases of Wheat, 
 
 times crops may escape without preparation, that is no rea- 
 son, why every rational means should not be adopted, to 
 guard against such an evil. 
 
 As a safeguard, it is an excellent practice, when the wheat 
 seed is first put into any liquid, to run it, very gently , 
 through a riddle, when not only the smut balls, but the im- 
 perfect grains, and the seeds of weeds, will float, and may 
 be skimmed off at pleasure, which is not the case, when the 
 seed is put hastily into the brine or water*. 
 
 Numerous are the modes by which smut may be pre- 
 vented *, as, 1. By pure cold water and lime ; 2. By boiling 
 water, and lime *, 3. By water impregnated with salt ; 4. By 
 urine pickle ; and, 5. By a variety of other processes, to be 
 briefly enumerated. 
 
 1. Pure cold Water and Lime . — So important an opera- 
 tion, as the preparation of seed wheat, ought not to be 
 performed in a slovenly manner, if the object be, to secure 
 with certainty, the future crop, from so destructive a disease 
 as smut. It may be effected, however, by pure cold water, 
 provided the seed be washed in several waters, frequently 
 stirred, so as to give the light grains an opportunity of 
 rising, that they may be skimmed off ; and repeatedly 
 changed, until it be perfectly clean. It should then be 
 dried by quick-lime, slacked either with sea, or with boiling 
 waterf. 
 
 2. Boiling Water and Lime . — This mixture, when pro- 
 perly applied, is found to be effectual. Sometimes chalk 
 lime, recently burnt, is put into a copper of boiling water, 
 and as soon as the lime is dissolved, the mixture, at this 
 degree of heat, is poured upon the wheat, previously spread 
 upon a stone floor, and the wheat and mixture are imme- 
 diately well turned together with shovels];. Sometimes the 
 wheat, put into a common wicker basket, is dipped two or 
 three times, in a mixture of hot water and quick-lime§ ; 
 and sometimes boiling water and quick-lime, have been 
 successfully used, after the seed has been well washed and 
 skimmed || . 
 
 • Communication from Mr. Blaikie, at Holkham. 
 
 f Northamptonshire Report, p. 89 ; Surrey Report, p. 217; Cornwall 
 Report, p. 60; North Riding Report, p. 112; Annals of Agriculture, 
 vol. xxi. p. 210. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 207. § Dorset Report, p. 212. 
 
 U Buckinghamshire Report, p. 179. An experienced agriculturist, has 
 used this pickle for his sted-wheat during the space of 15 years, and with 
 
On the Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 413 
 
 3. Salt Water. — It is a still more effectual practice, to 
 make use of either fresh water, so impregnated with salt, 
 that an egg will float in it, or of sea W3ter, with such a 
 quantity of salt dissolved in it, as to be equally strong, by 
 which its specific gravity will be so increased, that all un- 
 sound grains will swim in the pickle. About a bushel of 
 wheat at a time, is put into a sufficient quantity of this 
 pickle, in which, when stirred, all the light or diseased 
 grains will rise to the top, and may be skimmed off. The 
 seed wheat is then separated from the pickle, spread upon 
 the floor, and a sufficient quantity of new slacked lime, to 
 dry the whole, sifted upon it*. If the wheat is to be 
 drilled, after being limed, it should lie a day on the floor, or 
 be kept for that space of time in sacks. 
 
 4-. Urine Pickle . — Some farmers are satisfied, with merely 
 sprinkling a heap of seed with stale urine, and then drying 
 it with lime ; and there can be no doubt, that by this mode 
 of pickling, if carefully done, the object may be effectually 
 answered. Others prefer steeping the seed in pure water, 
 (skimming off any light grains that may float on the surface), 
 and then applying the urine to the seed. The grain thus first 
 imbibes a harmless species of moisture, and the more acrid 
 matter, to be afterwards applied, only acts upon its surface, 
 where the source of the evil is deposited. This is attended 
 with some additional trouble, but is an excellent precaution, 
 by which any risk of injury, from the after application of 
 the urine, is prevented, should the grain not be immediately 
 sown, which, however, is desirable. After the wheat has 
 been pickled with urine, and dried with quick-lime, if not 
 immediately used, it ought to be spread as thin as possible, 
 upon a stone floor, to become dry. If it be put close 
 together, and lie in that state for a day, not a grain will 
 vegetate. » 
 
 5. Various other steeps and practices have been recom- 
 mended, as, soap-boilers’ leysf, — a ley of wood ashes, — 
 
 uniform success, though he was twice or thrice under the necessity of using 
 smutty seed. He generally added one gallon of soap-lees to ten of water, 
 and kept the seed in steep, from 15 to 24 hours. But he agrees with the late 
 celebrated Arthur Young in opinion, that steeping for 24 hours is necessary 
 to prevent smut effectually . — Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 * East Lothian Report, p. 111. — In Norfolk, wheat, previously moistened 
 with pure water, is candied with lime, slaked by very strong urine. The 
 lime is applied in its hottest state, and smut is thus prevented. — Marshall's 
 Norfolk, vol. i. p. 219. 
 
 f Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 116. 
 
414 
 
 On the Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 lime water, — a solution of arsenic*, — powdered wormwood 
 in stale urine, — and kiln-drying the seed, which, though a 
 hazardous, is, when properly executed, a successful mode 
 of preventing smutf . 
 
 In every preparation it is necessary, either to kill, or 
 mechanically to force off, the semina of the smut. 
 
 Mr. Benedict Prevost, a Swiss naturalist, has recently dis- 
 covered, that a solution of blue vitriol, (the sulphate of 
 copper), likewise insures so desirable an object. Indeed 
 the practice, when carefully executed, is considered to be 
 infallible , for it destroys the vegetative powers of the 
 smut. The process is a simple one. Dissolve three 
 ounces of blue vitriol, in three English gallons of water 
 (wine measure), for every three bushels of grain to be pre- 
 pared. Let the liquid be put in a vessel capable of holding 
 from sixty to eighty gallons, in such a quantity, that when 
 three or four Winchester bushels of wheat, shall be poured 
 into the prepared liquor, it will rise five or six inches above 
 the corn. The grain should be frequently stirred, and all 
 that swims on the surface carefully removed. After the 
 wheat has remained half an hour in this preparation, it 
 should be taken out of the vessel, and thrown into a basket, 
 that will allow the water, but not the grain, to escape. It 
 should then be immediately washed in rain, or pure water, 
 which prevents any risk of its injuring the grain. The 
 seed ought afterwards to be dried, without applying lime 
 before it is sown. It is proper to observe, that the grain 
 should not be put into the prepared liquor, unless it has 
 been well dressed, and is thoroughly dry$. It may be kept 
 without injury. 
 
 * This is strongly objected to, from the hazard attending it, and its 
 destruction of game. A farmer in Essex, who was accustomed to steep his 
 wheat in a solution of arsenic, had his crops exempted from smut, but he 
 was remarkable for bad health. 
 
 •f- At Wooler, in Northumberland, it is said, that passing seed-wheat 
 loosely through mill-stones, so as not to injure the grain, has been found to 
 prevent smut ; the seed of the disease, which is commonly lodged in the 
 downy part of the grain, being removed by that operation. — Mr. Prevost 
 has proved, that smut originates from the seeds of a fungus, for he has grown 
 it on moist cloths. See Hints on the Agricultural’ State of the Netherlands, 
 Appendix, p. 5. — There is a luminous exposition of the chemical nature of 
 the smut in wheat, and a correct analysis, extracted from the works of 
 Fourcroy and Vauquelin, in Mr. Hoblyn’s Prize Essay on the Diseases of 
 Wheat, in the Papers of the Bath Society, vol. xiv. p. 8S. 
 
 X The Prefect of the Tarn and Garonne, in France, in 1814, publicly re- 
 commended it to his department; and in a recent communication from the 
 Academy of Dijon, the sulphate of copper, is strongly recommended. It 
 has been tried with the greatest success in the neighbourhood of Birming- 
 ham, of which Mr. Hipkiss has given, in the Farmer’s Journal, the most 
 
On the Diseases of Wheat . 
 
 415 
 
 The following miscellaneous particulars respecting smut, 
 and the means of preventing it, merit attention. 1. The 
 same water should never be used but once in washing wheat *, 
 — with brine, on account of its expence and acrid qualities, 
 the same precaution is not required. 2. Liming is not only 
 of service to dry the seed, but by its caustic and antiseptic 
 qualities, it tends to destroy putridity, and animalculae of 
 every description*. 3. If smutty grain is not threshed, till 
 the June or July succeeding the year it was reaped, the dust, 
 it is said, will become too volatile to attach itself to the grain 
 when threshed, particularly by a millf ; nor is old seed 
 wheat so liable to occasion smut, which, by age, loses the 
 power of reproduction^;. 4*. Notwithstanding the violence 
 of threshing-mills, they do not bruise the smut balls so much 
 as the flail §. 5. Great care must be taken, not to thresh 
 clean wheat on a floor where smutty wheat has been threshed, 
 nor to convey the seed, In a sack in which smutty wheat 
 had been formerly put[|. 6. It is contended, that every pre- 
 caution will be in vain, if the land is manured with dung 
 made from straw where the crop was infected ; and thence 
 that the disease may appear, notwithstanding the seed has 
 been carefully steept. But this risk is not greiat, and the 
 evil can only be partial or local. 
 
 The Rust%, or Mildew . 
 
 It is now proposed to discuss, 1 . The nature; — 2. The 
 causes; — and 3. The probable remedies for the rust, or 
 
 convincing evidence. In his letters in that paper, published on the 22d Octo- 
 ber 1818, and 6th November 1820, (signed Nemo), he says, “That the ex- 
 pence of the sulphate is trifling, and its operation is so much more agreeable, 
 than some of the disgusting processes had recourse to for the same purpose, 
 that it furnishes every inducement to make the trial.” 
 
 * Dorset Report, p. 209. Hoblyn’s Essay, p. 89. 
 
 + North Wales Report, p. 187. 
 
 X Mr. John Finch of Billericay, who farmed in the Hundreds of Essex, 
 constantly used old wheat , and never had any smutty wheat. He was ori- 
 ginally led to the practice from parsimony. He had remarkable good crops. 
 
 § Berwickshire Report, p. 231 ; Bedfordshire Report, p.354; Northamp- 
 tonshire Report, p. 87. 
 
 {j Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 117. 
 
 ^ Rust is the proper name, being a literal translation of the French ** La 
 Rouille ,” and the Latin Rubigo .” The disease has at first, a brownish, rusty 
 appearance, which afterwards becomes black. By some, the term rust is 
 given to a disease which attacks wheat in the shape of a red powder on the 
 leaves and ear. In most cases, it does not greatly affect the produce, or 
 even the quality of the grain. Blight, an accident arising from atmospheric 
 influence, has been already described, p. 409. 
 
416 On the Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 mildew ( rubigo ), that source of so much injury to the 
 farmer. 
 
 1. Nature of Rust . — A distinguished naturalist is of 
 opinion, that this disease is occasioned by the growth of a 
 minute parasitic fungus or mushroom, on the leaves, stems, 
 and glumes or chaff of the living plant ; and that the roots 
 of the fungus, intercepting the sap intended by nature for 
 the nutriment of the grain, render the corn lean and shrivel- 
 led, and in some cases, rob it completely of its flour*. Nor 
 is that all : the straw becomes black and rotten, unfit for 
 fodder, or little better than a caput mortuum, possessing 
 neither strength, nor substance. 
 
 A respectable clergyman in Devonshire, who has paid 
 great attention to this destructive malady, observes, that the 
 same fungus is generated on many other vegetable substances, 
 besides wheat, such as trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, & c. 
 varying in colour and size. These, receiving the infection 
 at different seasons of the year, form, as it were, conductors 
 from one to the other, in which fungi germinate, effloresce, 
 disseminate, and die, during the revolutions of the seasons +. 
 The fungus , having arrived at maturity in the spring, on a 
 few shrubs, bushes, or plants, its seeds are taken up by the 
 next humid atmosphere, (hence the erroneous idea, that the 
 rust or mildew is caused by the fog alone), wafted into the 
 adjoining fields, and the nearest wheat is sure to suffer 
 principally from it. In damp weather also, its seed is 
 more immediately received into the leaves of trees and 
 shrubs, or into their barks and fruits, or the stems of 
 plants, through the medium of those valves or mouths, 
 with which nature has supplied them, for the admission of 
 moisture. 
 
 Indeed, whoever examines mildewed plants, with a mi- 
 croscope of sufficient power, will admit, that the spots on 
 the stalks, consist of bunches of small fungi , which have 
 their roots inserted in the sap vessels, by means of which, 
 
 * Sir Joseph Banks’s Account of the Cause of the Mildew in Corn. Com- 
 munications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 399. See also the Trans- 
 lation of M. Desmazieres’s Paper on the Diseases of Wheat, annexed to 
 “ Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands,” p. 2‘2< The celebrated 
 Tessier was the first naturalist, who directed his particular attention to this 
 subject, in his work intitled, “ TraitS des Maladies des Grains.” 
 
 •f- See the valuable communication on the Mildew, by the Rev. Thomas 
 Clack, Rector of Milton Damarell, in Devonshire. Devon Report, p. 438. 
 The intelligent author, there traces the fungus, in a number of the different 
 trees, shrubs, &c. in which it is found, at the different seasons of the year. 
 
On the Diseases oj Wheat . 417 
 
 they consume a great part of that nutriment, which nature 
 had intended for the supply of the corn in the ear*. 
 
 2. Causes of Rust . — Several of the accidents enumerated 
 in the preceding section, may contribute to the production 
 of rust ; but the principal causes are, having the land in too 
 rich a state for corn crops ; — a too frequent repetition of so 
 exhausting a crop as wheat, more especially on weak soils, 
 when accompanied by much manure;— or the, crop meeting 
 with a check in its progress to maturity, and in that weakened 
 state, being exposed to heavy rains, or variable weather. 
 
 It has been well observed, that when crops, intended to 
 ripen their seed, are objects of culture, there is only wanted, 
 a degree of vigour and luxuriance in the plants, sufficient 
 for that purpose ; and if the fertility of the soil be raised to 
 a much higher pitch than is necessary, or consistent with 
 that object, injurious, rather than beneficial consequences, 
 may be the resultf. Land may be too rich for corn crops, 
 and it is better to keep it in a well-balanced condition, or in 
 a medium state of productiveness, than in too fertile a statej. 
 The greater quantity of sap and juices, , in vegetables growing 
 on highly cultivated lands, it is evident, must necessarily 
 render them more susceptible of the effects of sudden and 
 
 * Dorset Report, p. 210. — It is proper to remark, that those parts of the 
 straw, enveloped by the leaves of wheat, are not rusted. This circumstance 
 is unfavourable to the doctrines of those who are of opinion, that rust is 
 neither owing to fungus, or to atmospheric influence, but to a weakness or 
 imbecility, from whatever causes they originate, which induces spontaneous 
 decay. But if that were the case, the whole plant, whether covered or 
 uncovered, would be equally affected by it. If the crop is cut down, as 
 soon as the disease appears, its progress is arrested in the stem, so far as it is 
 separated from the ground ; but we are told, that if the plant of wheat is 
 left to ripen its seed, and to shed it spontaneously, without molestation, upon 
 the earth, the stalk, from the effect of old age, is invaded by the rust, and its 
 concomitant fungus, and is brought to decay in the same manner, as by its 
 premature decline. The stubble also is liable to perish in the same way, 
 while any life remains in the roots, after the ear has been separated from 
 them by the sickle. The stem and the ear, after they are separated from the 
 root, are not liable to the operations of the fungus. The portion of the 
 stem, remaining attached to the root, is liable to be attacked, while the living 
 principle remains in the root, but not afterwards. It is then attacked by 
 another species of fungus. — These are important points to ascertain. 
 
 •f Hence the great advantage of having previously a green crop, to 
 absorb the superabundant and injurious richness of the dung. 
 
 J Communication from Dr. Coventry. It is stated in a letter from Mr. 
 Wm. Scott of Horncastle, (Farmer’s Journal, Nov. 20, 1815), “That wet 
 falling on soils full of manure , causeth too luxuriant a growth of corn, from 
 whence springs mildew.” This doctrine is sanctioned by the authority of 
 Parmentier, who ascribes the rust, “ A l’abondance d’un sue nourricier, 
 resultant d’une vegetation trop vigoureux, plutot qu’aux brouillards, qui n*y 
 ont aucuns part directe. Traits sur la culture des grains.” — Vol. j. p. 242. 
 
418 
 
 On the Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 extreme changes, and consequently more liable to disease. 
 Besides, as mushrooms are produced on beds of dung, great 
 quantities of manure, must promote the growth of fungi, or 
 parasitical plants, on the crops of wheat, if they are once 
 infected. The wheat produced on the site of a dunghill, is 
 always rusted, even in the most favourable seasons j and if 
 the whole field is a species of dunghill, how can it escape* ? 
 The whole fungus tribe are seldom seen to grow, but from 
 superfluous vegetable matter, as rotten wood, thatch, de- 
 cayed hay, or some light rich substance, aided by a certain 
 degree of heat and moisture ; and there is no substance 
 more analogous to such a production, the offspring of cor- 
 ruption, as dung. This may be regarded at least, as a 
 proximate, or predisposing cause. If the seeds of the fungi, 
 float in the atmosphere, they may more easily find a nidus , 
 on too succulent and lusty growing plants, the substance of 
 which is in a tender state, and the pores more dilated, 
 whereas a compact soil produces hard strawf . 
 
 A too frequent repetition of crops of wheat, more espe- 
 cially when accompanied by great quantities of manure, to 
 force a crop, or raised on soils unsuitable to the growth of 
 that crop, will often have the same effect. The rust was 
 but little known in the western, or the northern parts of 
 England, or the southern counties of Scotland, until of late 
 years, when every exertion has been made, to increase the 
 quantity of that grain. Even clay lands, so congenial to 
 wheat, have been injured by such severe cropping ; but on 
 weaker soils, as sandy and calcareous loams, the plant has 
 suffered, in respect both of quantity and quality. 
 
 It is well known, that loose and open soils, such as turnip 
 lands in general, are the most apt to be rusted ; and the 
 reason is, that the roots in them, are the largest and the 
 longest, and generally in search of moisture, run the deep- 
 est into the soil. The stems are thence luxuriant, large 
 and porous. The roots being long and straggling, often get 
 into a noxious stratum below, or into one not productive 
 of nourishment. When that is the case, the plant, for- 
 merly luxuriant, meets with a sudden check, (for it is only 
 from the extreme points of the roots, that the plant de- 
 rives its nourishment by absorption) ; and this sudden check, 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 + It is remarked by Mr. Holdich, that the disease is generally in pro- 
 portion to the broadness of the leaf ; that it first takes place upon the upper 
 leaf or spatha , out of which the ear issues ; when this is narrow, small, and 
 early withered, there is little danger from rust. 
 
On the Diseases of Wheat . 
 
 419 
 
 predisposes it to disease. If then the month of July is ac- 
 companied by warmth and moisture, or even the beginning 
 of August, the plants of wheat, in their weakened state, will 
 be attacked by those fungi, to the propagation of which, that 
 description of weather is so favourable, more especially in 
 places where a free circulation of air is wanting. 
 
 In proof of these doctrines, it may be observed, that in 
 loose and open soils, treading the land thoroughly , after it 
 is sown, is an effectual preventive of the mildew ; the 
 roots being thus hindered from becoming loose and strag- 
 gling, or getting into poor or noxious strata, whence no 
 nourishment can be derived. 
 
 3. Remedies against Rust. — Among the remedies likely 
 to diminish the effects of this fatal malady, the following 
 have been particularly recommended* * * § : 1 . Cultivating hardy 
 sorts of wheat ; 2. Early sowing ; 3. Raising early varieties ; 
 4*. Thick sowing ; 5. Changes of seed ; 6. Consolidating the 
 soil after sowing ; 7. Using saline manures ; 8. Improving 
 the course of crops ; 9. Extirpating all plants that are re- 
 ceptacles of rust; and, 10. Protecting the ears and roots of 
 wheat, by rye, tares, and other crops. 
 
 1. In a plant of which there are such a number of va- 
 rieties, as in the case of wheat, it is evident, that there 
 may be some, distinguished by peculiar properties, and 
 consequently less liable to diseasef. It is said that the red 
 wheats^ are hardier than the white, and that the thin, or 
 smooth-chaffed, are less apt to be rusted, than the thick- 
 chaffed sorts. A variety of red wheat, called, creeping^ heat , 
 is much cultivated, on that account, in Yorkshire, and on the 
 borders of England and Scotland^; and in Worcestershire, 
 the farmers are partial, on account of its hardiness, to a 
 
 * Mr. Benedict Prevost, and other ingenious naturalists, are of opinion, 
 that the rust and the smut are intestine parasitical plants, what the botanists 
 call uredos and puccinias , and that both might be prevented by the same 
 means, namely, solutions of copper ; but as the seeds by which rust is sup- 
 posed to be produced, are much smaller than those whence smut originates, 
 it demands more minute attention to prevent that disease. Though such 
 solutions, however, have been effectual in regard to smut, it has not hitherto 
 proved equally successful in preventing rust, excepting in once instance 
 mentioned by Mr. Hipkiss of Birmingham. See p. 415. 
 
 f Spring wheat is said to be not so liable to be rusted, as other wheat, in 
 Dorsetshire, (Report, p. 213) ; and in South Wales, (Report, vol. i. p. 399J; 
 but equally so in Derbyshire, (Report, vol. ii. p. 119); and in other districts. 
 
 X Near Exeter, they have lately got a red foreign wheat, which, it is said, 
 is not liable to be rusted. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 447. 
 
 E e 2 
 
420 
 
 On the Diseases of Wheat . 
 
 species of cone wheat, originally from Courland, which is 
 not so apt to be injured in bad weather* * * § . 
 
 2. Sowing wheat early, is a preventive that has been long 
 recommended, with a view of having the ear filled, before 
 the season is likely to be injuriousf. In confirmation of 
 that doctrine, it is remarked, that in the county' of Somer- 
 set, the crops were formerly reaped much earlier than at 
 present, the wheat harvest being generally over in the month 
 of July), and that the rust or mildew was then unknown J. 
 A farmer in Essex, who was accustomed to sow his wheat 
 after beans, had his crops constantly rusted, but was no 
 longer troubled with that disease, when he sowed early , 
 either on clover leys, or after a fallow. In Bedfordshire, 
 it is remarked, that wheat which mays , or turns yellow in 
 that month, (which is, in general, the consequence of being 
 sown early), never mildews^. It is no advantage, however, 
 to have the wheat too forward in spring, and the sowing 
 should not, on that account, be commenced earlier, than the 
 beginning of September, even on fallows. A distinction 
 ought likewise to be made, between cold, wet, and heavy 
 soils, and the light, dry and porous ones. It is well known, 
 that the latter, though even a month posterior, will be as 
 soon, if not earlier, ready for the sickle. 
 
 3. As sowing early, is attended with some disadvantages, 
 (the nourishment in the soil being exhausted by the stcdk y 
 
 * Mr. Holdich reports a very interesting experiment with a variety 
 of wheats, to ascertain which were the most liable to mildew. It was tried 
 at Thorney Fen, (anno 1819), on lands subject to mildew. The seed was 
 dibbled in, in equal quantities, side by side, in small squares in the middle 
 of a wheat field. The result was as follows : 
 
 Hungary white, or chitty wheat, short strawed red. These were nearly 
 free from mildew, and were superior in the order in which they are placed. 
 
 Square-eared white, velvet white, or egg-shell, were pretty good, but 
 diseased. 
 
 Old red lammas, (awned and smooth), Sussex thicket hedge-row. These 
 were much worse mildewed ; they are all red wheats. 
 
 Talavera-Cape wheat. These were almost good for nothing; not merely 
 with the mildew, but partly owing to the May frost. 
 
 f Worlidge’s Systema Agricultura, vol. i. folio, p. 210. Printed an. 1681. 
 On the advantage of early sowing, see Oxfordshire Report, p. 151, 152; 
 Northamptonshire Report, p. 86; Berks Report, p. 200; Dorset Report, 
 p. 209, 210, &c. By early sowing, the autumnal rains may be avoided, 
 which put the plant in a succulent or plethoric state, and consequently liable 
 to infection. In dry weather, the straw is of a firmer texture, and afford 
 no admission to the seeds of the fungus that may be slightly attached to 
 them, if the disease be thus propagated. — Bedfordshire Report, p. 383. That, 
 however, is much doubted. 
 
 X Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 202. 
 
 § Bedfordshire Report, p. 377. 
 
On the Diseases of Wheat . 
 
 421 
 
 before the formation of the seed commences, the plants be- 
 coming winter proud, as it is called, or too forward for the 
 season, and the crop being more apt to be injured by spring 
 frosts) ; it would be very beneficial, to procure a sort of 
 wheat, either from some foreign country, or raised by se- 
 lection at home, that would ripen early, without being sown 
 much sooner than at present. Nature produces numerous 
 varieties of the same species , belonging to the same genus ; 
 and it is incumbent on the attentive and industrious farmer, 
 to avail himself of a circumstance, from which so much ad- 
 vantage might be derived*. 
 
 4. It is a maxim in husbandry, “ That thick crops are 
 sometimes mildewed, but that thin ones , generally are so, 
 in a greater or lesser degree f.” This arises from the fol- 
 lowing circumstances : When the seed is sown thick, the 
 roots, instead of becoming long and straggling, are short 
 and numerous. They are retained in the soil, more espe- 
 cially’when the crop is drilled, that has been prepared for 
 their reception, instead of wandering into strata, either poor 
 or noxious. From the number of these roots and stems, 
 that richness, that would be injurious to a few plants, only 
 does justice to a number ; for the same quantity of dung 
 that might give twenty stems a disposition to disease, would 
 only yield a proper quantity of food, when it had fifty to 
 nourish. By thick sowing in drills, all the advantages of 
 treading, in so far as respects rust or mildew , will be ob- 
 tained, for the roots of the plants will be short and nume- 
 rous, and matted together, instead of being long and strag- 
 gUngt- 
 
 It is proper here to allude to a communication of much 
 moment, from which it appears, that in former times, when 
 four bushels of wheat per acre were sown, the mildew was 
 of much rarer occurrence, than since the practice of thin 
 sowing has been adopted^ ; and there can hardly be a doubt, 
 if the land is in good order ; if the crop is sown early ; if 
 four bushels of seed are sown under the drilling system ; 
 
 * In Cornwall, they frequently sow a mixture of red and white, (provin- 
 daily dredge-corn ) t and the crops are more abundant when sown mixed, 
 than when sown separately. When separate, the produce may not exceed 
 18 bushels per acre ; whereas when the two sorts are mixed, the produce 
 will amount to 24 bushels. 
 
 + It may be said, what is thick and what is thin sowing ? That must evi- 
 dently depend upon the fertility of the soil, and the period of the year when 
 the seed is sown. 
 
 + In regard to the quantity of seed, sec Sect. 8, of this Chapter. 
 
 § See Mr. Purt’s Letter, annexed to Mr. Blaikie’s, printed in the Farmer's 
 Journal, dated Holkham, Oct. 12, 1820. 
 
422 
 
 On the Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 and if the wheat is preceded by a green crop, so as to ex- 
 haust the pernicious qualities of the dung, that the crop of 
 wheat will not be rusted. 
 
 It is proper to add on this subject, that it is much more 
 prudent, to rely on the abundance of seed, than on the effects 
 of tillering. When the latter is depended upon, during 
 the time that the process is going on, much time must be 
 lost, in the progress of the plant to maturity. The con- 
 sequence is, both a later, and a more unequal ripening. 
 
 5. As wheat is not an indigenous, but an exotic plant, it 
 might be less liable to disease, if the seed were occasionally 
 changed by importations from foreign countries. The best 
 Flemish farmers, regularly change their seed every two years, 
 and assert, u that by this renewal of seed, all the maladies 
 of grain are prevented.” Some purchase their seed from 
 d’Armentiere, near Lisle, in French Flanders, while others 
 recommend wheat grown in the Polders , (a species of salt 
 marsh) in Holland, by means of which, they maintain, that 
 the rust is avoided*. 
 
 It is likewise stated, on the respectable authority of an 
 eminent naturalist, (T. A. Knight, Esq.) that by crossing 
 different varieties of wheat, a new sort may be produced, 
 which will completely escape being rusted, though the 
 crops in the neighbourhood, and in almost every district 
 in the kingdom, may suffer from it in the same yearf. These 
 circumstances tend to prove, that the rust does not depend 
 solely on atmospheric influence, otherwise it could not be 
 prevented by changes of seed, or by the crossing of different 
 varieties. 
 
 6 . The advantages of treading light soils, have been already 
 explained J. It may be proper, however, to state, the fol- 
 lowing facts, in support of the doctrine that treading will 
 prevent the rust. — In 1804, a farmer sowed 25 acres of a 
 pea-stubble with wheat. After the usual operations of 
 
 * That eminent farmer, Robert Barclay, Esq. of Ury, in Scotland, 
 brought his wheat seed from England every two years; and sowed only 
 what was produced from English wheat the preceding year. 
 
 f In Italy, they recommend thin sowing, alleging, that as the infection 
 may go from ear to ear, it is less apt to spread, when the ears are not in con- 
 tact. But this seems to be erroneous doctrine. 
 
 £ A farmer has gone so far as to assert, that if the land, be the soil v'hat 
 it may, was trodden by a troop of horse, or a drove of cattle, after being 
 sown with wheat, there would be scarcely such a thing as the rust known. 
 But it is obvious, that treading in this way would do no good to clay land , but 
 on the contrary, might much injure the crop. Light soils arc more liable 
 to produce mildewed wheat, because the plants grow too fast in spring, and 
 have long and straggling roots. » 
 
On the Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 423 
 
 ploughing, scarifying, manuring, sowing and harrowing, it 
 was trodden with sheep, to the consistency of a highway. 
 The produce was 32 bushels per acre. For the sake of 
 comparison, a part of the field was left in a light state, un- 
 trodden, and it was rusted. The same farmer had 14 acres 
 of wheat planted with potatoes. The potatoe tops were 
 pulled up, and the wheat sown on the surface. The po- 
 tatoes were then forked and dug up, and the wheat trodden 
 by the women and children in picking up the potatoes. The 
 crop was free from rust, and of excellent quality. It has 
 often been remarked, that when a field has been destroyed 
 with rust, the head-lands, which the horses have trodden 
 much in turning, have generally escaped*. 
 
 7. The advantage of using saline manures as a remedy 
 against the rust, (a late discovery), is an important circum- 
 stance. Its success seems to be proved, by the successful 
 practice of several farmers in Cornwall, who have been in 
 the habit of sowing, about a fortnight before the turnips, 
 the refuse salt of the pilchard fishery, as a manure for that 
 crop, in the proportion of 3 If bushels of salt, (56 lbs. each), 
 per statute acre. They all agree, that they have never had 
 any rust on their wheat, where this practice was adopted, 
 though before, they were greatly affected by itf. The ex- 
 pence would be inconsiderable, for, if it were free from duty, 
 salt might be had from Liverpool, for less than Is. per 
 bushel, and rock salt would be still cheaper. The uses of 
 salt in animal life, prove how beneficial it would be to ve- 
 getables. In animals, it is found to promote perspiration, 
 and to prevent corruption in the juices J ; and consequently 
 it is the most likely means of checking the propagation of 
 fungi, and preventing that rottenness and corruption, to 
 which wheat is liable when it becomes rubted. This doc- 
 trine is strongly supported by the following facts : 1 . Rust 
 is rarely experienced in the immediate vicinity of the sea, 
 unless when the ground is greatly over-manured§ ; 2. When 
 sea-ooze is employed as a manure, impregnated as it is with 
 saline particles, the crop generally escapes that disease ; 
 and, 3. That rust is little known in Flanders, where Dutch 
 ashes, full of salts, are in use. 
 
 * It would not be difficult to invent a machine that would compress the 
 land, if that operation would effectually prevent the rust. 
 
 t Particularly Mr. Henry Sickler, whose practice was communicated in 
 a letter, to a respectable Member of Parliament, Davies Gilbert, Esq. — See 
 also the evidence of Dr. Paris, before the Salt Committee of 1818, p. 30. 
 
 + Code of Health, 4th Edition, p. 178. 
 
 § Essex Report, vol. i. p. 301; Dorset Report, p. 209. 
 
424 
 
 On the Diseases of IVheat. 
 
 8. As land in too rich a state is apt to produce rust, it is 
 found to be an effectual remedy, if, previous to a crop of 
 wheat, the dung be applied to a smothering crop, as tares, 
 hemp, or cole-seed, on strong lands, or potatoes on light 
 soils. Indeed wheat after cole-seed, is scarcely ever kn’own 
 to be rusted*. The general culture of that article, and the 
 use of Dutch ashes, impregnated with saline matter as a 
 manure, tend greatly to that exemption from rust, by which 
 wheat in Flanders is distinguished. Potatoes, when the 
 crop is large, have sometimes had the same effect. A field 
 was sown with wheat, partly after summer fallow, partly 
 after clover ley, and partly after potatoes ; the two former 
 were found rusted ; whereas the part where the potatoes 
 had been sown, produced grain, plump and equal, and only 
 deficient about one-tenth of the usual quantity. Wheat, 
 after a thin crop of potatoes, is, however, often rusted in 
 this country ; but in Flanders, where the wheat is never 
 materially injured by rust, potatoes are considered, in its 
 highest cultivated district, (the Pays de Waes), as the best 
 preparation for that crop. If too much dung occasion the 
 propagation of fungi, which there is reason to believe is the 
 case, smothering crops, by exhausting and diminishing the 
 strength of dung, may take away that tendency. 
 
 9. Mr. Clack, whose valuable communication on the 
 subject of rust, has been already adverted to, recommends, 
 the cutting down all those plants which retain the fungi, in 
 their various stages, even during the severest frosts of win- 
 ter, and which, on the return of a little mild or humid 
 weather in spring, are thought to contribute to affect, with 
 an astonishing rapidity, the earliest leaves and shoots of 
 those vegetables, which are congenial to their propagation. 
 These fungi flourish with such an extraordinary luxuriance, 
 that in the course of a week or two, they seem to arrive at 
 maturity, and disseminate their baneful effects throughout 
 thousands of acres, on which depend the profit of the hus- 
 bandman, and a large proportion of the sustenance of the 
 communityf. 
 
 Among the common plants, the colts-foot, the yellow 
 corn thistle, and the common couch, are said to be so fa- 
 vourable to the growth of these fungi, that no field can 
 be free from rust, in which they are to be met with. Every 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 580; Dumfries-shire Report, 
 p. 81, and Appendix, No. VI. p. 581. 
 f Devon Report, p 436. 
 
On the Diseases of Wheat. 425 
 
 exertion ought therefore to be made, for their total extir- 
 pation. 
 
 Some evergreens seem to retain these fungi , during the 
 coldest seasons, as the box, when planted in low and damp 
 situations, and above all, the bramble-bush, which ought 
 to be cut down as close as possible, in hedges and coppices, 
 at least once or twice a year. The arbile, or silver poplar, 
 and willows, ought to be kept under, as some of the chief 
 causes of rust in their neighbourhood. 
 
 Several trees, also, retain old fungi during winter, on 
 their barks, as the black alder, the common willow, the 
 hazel, the birch, and sometimes oak coppice. The bar- 
 berry retains this source of mischief, in any fissure or cleft 
 in the bark occasioned by injury, exhibiting numerous black 
 pustules. These should be cut out. The contradictory ac- 
 counts- regarding the effects of the barberry-bush, in occa- 
 sioning rust, may thus be explained. Where the skin is 
 smooth and entire, the barberry does little or no mischief ; 
 where there are fissures in the bark, it proves the source of 
 destruction. Hence, also, when the barberry-bush is small, 
 it does not occasion mildew*. 
 
 The practice of cutting the hedges, when a crop of wheat 
 is sown, ought to be universally adopted, as a likely means 
 of lessening the quantity of fungi , that would otherwise 
 injure the crop. By this attention to the improvement of 
 his hedges, Mr. Clack’s glebe, on which, from time imme- 
 morial, the wheat was subject to rust, has been rendered 
 nearly as clean as the fields of his neighbours! . 
 
 10. A curious and most important circumstance, connected 
 with the rust in wheat, remains to be stated. In the 
 northern counties of England, where it is the practice to 
 sow what they call meslin , (blend corn), or a mixture of rye 
 and wheat, it has been there remarked, that wheat, thus raised, 
 
 * Bedfordshire Report, p. 379. — The facts brought forward in the County 
 Reports, Cheshire, p. 135; Cambridge, p. 131, seem to prove the fatal 
 effects of the barberry, in occasioning rust. 
 
 + In a recent communication, dated 16th June, 1817, Mr. Clack states, 
 that in the year 1811, he sowed a field of wheat after clover, which was 
 notorious for rust ; but the crop produced next year, was the best in the 
 neighbourhood, which he attributes to his continued attention, in cutting 
 out such shrubs, as were congenial to the growth of rust, in the adjoining 
 coppice and hedges; and to the consolidation of the soil, by spreading it with 
 sheep after sowing, for which purpose, a number should be collected, and 
 slowly driven in a compact body, so as to give a simultaneous effect to the 
 land. 
 
426 On the Diseases of H heat. 
 
 is rarely infected by the rust*. It is singular, that the same 
 circumstance has been observed in Italy. In an account 
 drawn up by the late Professor Symonds, of Cambridge, on 
 the climate of that country, it is recorded as a known, but 
 extraordinary fact, u that wheat, mixed with rye or tares, 
 (for it is a frequent practice there, to sow tares with wheat), 
 escapes unhurt f” It would appear, from tares being so 
 useful, that the seed of the fungus, must be taken up by the 
 root , and that if the root be protected, it is sufficient. This 
 seems to be countenanced by other circumstances, as, that 
 by treading the ground, and thick sowing crops of wheat, 
 the crop is less liable to be infected by this disease ; the 
 access of the seeds of the fungi, to the root, being rendered 
 more difficult. The effect of tares as a preventive, may 
 easily be tried. The double crops sown in Flanders, where 
 the rust is hardly known, is another circumstance strongly 
 favourable to the idea, of the advantage derivable from 
 covering the roots of wheat from infection. Mr. Knight is 
 decidedly of opinion, that the disease is taken up by the rooty 
 (every experiment to communicate it from infected straw, to 
 others, proving abortive) ; and indeed, if it were introduced 
 at the ear of the plant, how could it descend, and infect 
 solely the stem ? which is the case, unless when the disease 
 is inveterate. Others attribute rust to the influence of the 
 sun upon the roots. — Hence the advantages of having a 
 thick, rather than a thin crop ; and hence, it is said, the 
 beneficial effects of mixing rye with wheat, the rough bending 
 head of the rye protecting the earth from the power of the 
 sun. It is also a singular fact, that plants of wheat under 
 trees, escape rust, though the neighbouring crop is infested 
 with it. This may be owing, either to the protection from 
 the violence of the sun, or the moisture which is retained 
 in the soil, by the means of the shade thus procured. 
 
 It may be proper to add, that if a field be evidently 
 affected, and the progress of vegetation stopped, the only 
 way to preserve the straw, and the grain, if any has been 
 formed, from being entirely lost, is to cut it down irnrne- 
 
 * East Riding Report, p. 127. — Mr. Tuke, the intelligent author of the 
 North Riding Report, in a letter to the author, dated 7th March, 1818, 
 states, that until the year 1815. rye grown amongst wheat, was generally 
 allowed to be, in that district, a sure preventive of rust or mildew ; but that 
 year, rye itself was infected ; and there was very little either wheat or meslin 
 that escaped in Yorkshire. 
 
 f See Annals of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 158. 
 
Of Straw. 
 
 42 7 
 
 diately, even though the crop should not be ripe. The 
 straw is thus preserved either for food or litter ; and it is 
 maintained, that any nourishment in the stem, will pass into, 
 and feed the grain, and makes a greater return than could 
 well be expected*. 
 
 By one or other of these means, and the improvements 
 which may be effected, by the observations of ingenious 
 naturalists, and the experience of intelligent farmers, there 
 is every reason to hope, that the diseases of wheat may, in a 
 great measure, be so mitigated in their effects, that they will 
 not in future be felt as a national calamity. For that pur- 
 pose, however, it is necessary, that the diligent farmer, should 
 seize every opportunity, of improving his knowledge in the 
 diseases of wheat; should note down all the circumstances 
 connected with the subject, as they occur ; and should com- 
 pare his observations with those of others; that whether the 
 causes of rust are general, or local, they may, as much as 
 possible, be obviatedf . He may be assured, that it is “ The 
 perfection of good management,” to discriminate the causes 
 to which the disorders of grain are owing, and to apply the 
 cheapest, and the most effectual remedies. 
 
 Sect. 'XXIII.-O/ Straw . 
 
 The subject of straw, is of greater importance than is 
 commonly imagined ; and the value of that article, taken in 
 the aggregate, entitles it to more attention than has hitherto 
 been bestowed upon it. Farmers are apt to consider it as of 
 little or no worth, because it is not usually saleable, and is 
 rarely estimated, separately from the yearly produce of the 
 soil. But though seldom sold (except in the vicinity of 
 towns), it has an intrinsic value, as a fund for manure, and 
 other useful purposes. 
 
 * M. De Chateauvieux recommends, cutting the leaves infested with rust 
 as soon as it appears on them, as a means of checking the progress of the 
 malady . — Truitt sur la Culture des Grains , vol. ii. p. 243. 
 
 •f* Hoblyn’s Essay, p. 73. Mr. Hoblyn’s system is, that if the plant be kept 
 in a proper state of health, it will never be injured by the attacks of any 
 parasitic enemy ; it must have a predisposition to decay , before disease can 
 begin its undermining ravages. — In the human species, the same predisposi- 
 tion to various diseases exists, as generally to the small-pox, and partially to 
 the gout ; but that general position does not prevent a careful inquiry into 
 the means of preventing and curing each particular disease. 
 
428 
 
 Of Straw . 
 
 1. On the Weight of Straw produced by the different Crops , 
 
 It is evident, that the quantity of straw produced per acre, 
 must differ, according to a variety of circumstances ; as, 
 1. The species of grain cultivated : 2. The different kinds 
 of the same grain, for red oats produce less straw than other 
 sorts* ; 3. The season, for in a dry season the quantity is 
 less than in a moist ; 4. The soil, for in fertile soils, the 
 straw is more abundant than in poor ones ; 5. The season 
 when the seed is sown, for spring-sown wheat has less straw 
 than that which is sown in winter; and, 6. The manner in 
 which the straw is cut, for an inch at the root-end of the 
 straw, is heavier than two at the topf. 
 
 It is desirable, notwithstanding these diversities, to be 
 enabled to form some general idea , of the average produce in 
 straw , of each kind of grain; and the average weight of the 
 whole : but owing to the little attention hitherto paid to the 
 subject, and the scantiness of authorities, the weight cannot 
 be ascertained, with the accuracy that could be wished. It 
 is probable, however, that the following estimates are not 
 far from the truth. 
 
 Mr. Young stated, that the average produce in straw , 
 stubble included, of all the different crops, rejecting those 
 upon the weaker soils, might be calculated at 1 ton 7 cwt. 
 per English acre. 
 
 * Red oats, producing perhaps seven quarters per acre, will often yield 
 much less straw than Angus oats, which may produce only five quarters of 
 grain. 
 
 f In Middlesex, wheat is cut so close to the ground, as to add Is. per acre 
 to the value of the straw. Report, p. 172. — Near London, where the wheat 
 is bagged, the marketable straw, which yields one Winchester bushel of 
 wheat, averages about three truss, of 36lbs. each. The yield of wheat in all 
 England, is supposed to average nearly 24 bushels ; which, multiplied by 
 three, produces 72 truss of straw, per English acre. One load of straw in 
 the London market is 36 truss, and that is the produce of half an acre ; 
 therefore an acre produces two such loads of marketable straw, and as each 
 load weighs 11 cwt. 2qrs. 8 lb,, the two loads, or one acre of straw, weigh 
 23 hundred weight of 112 lbs. each, and 16 pounds. If to this should be 
 added, for short straw, chaff and stubble, nearly three hundred weight, 
 the result will be 26 hundred weight per acre. Twenty-four bushels of 
 wheat, of 60 lbs. each, is equal to 12cwt. 3qrs. 12lbs. per acre, of clean 
 marketable corn. Add the weight of the straw, &c. 26 cwt. to that of 
 the corn, nearly 13 cwt., and we have 39 hundred weight as the whole 
 crop. The variations for all England, arc from one half to double these 
 amounts, or from one ton to four.- Communications hi/ John Middleton , 
 £s t . 
 
Mr. Middleton calculates the produce of the different 
 
 crops in straw, per acre, 
 
 as follows : 
 
 Cwt. lbs. 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Bedns or Pease, 
 
 _ 
 
 31 or 3472 
 
 - 
 
 25 — 2810 
 
 Oats, 
 
 - 
 
 25 — 2800 
 
 Barley, - 
 
 - 
 
 20 — 2240 
 
 
 Average nearly 
 
 25 or 2828 
 
 or about 1£ ton. 
 
 
 
 Mr. Brown of Markle, has drawn up the following esti- 
 mate, of the produce of straw, from the different crops 
 usually cultivated in Scotland. The weight calculated in 
 Scotch stones, of 22 lbs. avoirdupois each. 
 
 
 
 Stones. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 . 
 
 - 160 
 
 or 3520 
 
 Beans and Pease, 
 
 - 
 
 130 
 
 — 2860 
 
 Oats, 
 
 - 
 
 130 
 
 — 2860 
 
 Barley 
 
 - 
 
 100* 
 
 — 2200 
 
 
 Total 
 
 - 520 
 
 or 11,440 
 
 
 Average - 
 
 - 130 
 
 or 2860 
 
 Crops of rye furnish much straw, having, in some cases, 
 yielded two tons per statute acre. But on the whole, 
 about 1 ton 5 cwt. may be stated as the average of the 
 kingdomf. 
 
 2. Of the Value of the diffei'ent kinds of Straw , and its total 
 Amount . 
 
 The intrinsic value of straw, must vary materially, ac- 
 cording to its feeding properties ; — the quantity of manure 
 into which it may be converted when used as litter ; — its 
 fitness to be employed as thatch; — or its use in manufac- 
 
 * Dr. Skene Keith remarks, that though barley has the least weight of 
 straw, it has a considerable proportion of chaff and light corn. 
 
 f In Flanders the weight and value of the different sorts of straw per 
 English acre, is estimated as follows - 
 
 Crops. Quantity of Straw. 
 
 Rye, - 40001b. 
 
 Wheat, - SOOOlb. 
 
 Oats, - 30001b. 
 
 Barley, - 15001b. 
 
 Price. Total value . 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 one-fourth of a penny 4 3 4 
 one-fourth - 3 2 6 
 
 one-eighth - 1 11 3 
 
 one-eighth - 0 15 7f 
 
430 
 
 Of Straw . 
 
 lures* * * § ; — these being the chief purposes to which it is appli- 
 cable ; but, in general, the price principally depends on its 
 vicinity to large towns, where straw is wanted for litter, 
 which can be re-purehased when converted into dung, and 
 where other manures can also be obtained in its stead. 
 
 At Bath, during the winters of 1791 and 1792, wheat 
 straw was so dear, that inn-keepers, from a principle of 
 economy, used their worst hay, instead of straw, as litter. 
 At Oxford, in 1806, straw sold at from 2 1. 2s. to 4 1. per 
 loadf . But this article is commonly dearer in London and 
 its neighbourhood, than in any other part of the kingdom. 
 It is there sold by the load, which consists of 36 trusses, 
 of 36 lbs. each, or 11 cwt. 2 qrs. and 8 lbs. in all. The 
 price was formerly from 25s. to 405. per load ; it afterwards 
 rose to 3 l. I2s.^, but in February 1817, had again fallen 
 to 21. Even at that price, it produces above 4 1. per statute 
 acre. 
 
 In the vicinity of Edinburgh, wheat straw has sold for 
 9 d. per stone (22 lbs. avoirdupois to the stone), for litter ; 
 and calculating the quantity at 160 stone per English acre, 
 the amount is 6l . — Oat straw sells nearly at the same price, 
 being reckoned more palatable and nutritious both for cows 
 and horses ; and the crops are often so weighty, that it 
 fetches 71. per English acre. In Aberdeenshire, on the 
 other hand, straw is seldom worth more than 21. per 
 acre§. 
 
 The value of straw for feeding stock, depends much upon 
 the season when it is consumed. From the beginning of 
 November, to the 1st of March, when black cattle have 
 turnips in abundance, the straw of oats, and likewise of 
 beans and pease, if well harvested, may be safely used as a 
 substitute for hay, and may, during that period of the year, 
 be reckoned at from one half to nearly two thirds of its 
 value, whatever the price of hay may be. Nine -pence per 
 stone, however, when hay is Is. 6d . per stone, may be con- 
 
 * About Dunstable, Luton, and other places in the Chiltern range of 
 chalky hills (where the whitest straw is produced), very important profits are 
 derived, from the sale of the top joint of the straw of wheat, to persons who 
 come to the farmers’ barns, to draw out, and cut off this part of the straw, 
 tying it into short bundles, which sell, by the pound, to the plaiters. 
 
 f Oxford Report, p. 153, 22^ cwt. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 176, note. 11. 4 s. per English acre. 
 
 § Communication from Dr. Skene Keith. In any year in which fodder 
 is plentiful, little more than 1/. can be got for an acre of straw ; but before 
 the introduction of the turnip husbandry, when fodder was scarce, and hay 
 from sown grasses unknown, from 21. to 31. was the price in Aberdeenshire. 
 
Of Straw. 
 
 431 
 
 sidered its fair value for feeding, during spring ; and 6d. as 
 the average during the whole year. 
 
 In regard to straw used entirely as litter, it is calculated 
 by Mr. Brown of Markle, that 130 stones of straw, the 
 average produce of an acre, will yield four two- horse cart- 
 loads of dung, worth, in East Lothian, 10s. per load; that 
 is, at the rate of 3d. per stone for the straw, and 1/. 12 s. 
 per English acre. Straw for thatching will be nearly of the 
 same value. On the supposition, therefore, that there are 
 eight millions of acres of cultivated land, annually sown in 
 Great Britain, producing, on an average, 130 stone of straw, 
 one-fourth of which is consumed by feeding, and in that 
 case worth 6d. per stone, and three-fourths as litter or 
 thatching, worth only 3d. the total value of the straw in the 
 kingdom, may be estimated as follows : 
 
 Two millions of acres of straw, at 130 stones per acre, ^ 
 
 worth 6d. per stone, employed in feeding stock, S ^ ; ’ 
 
 Six millions of acres, at 130 stones per acre, worth 3d. } 
 
 per stone, for litter or thatching, 1/. 12s. 6d. per > 9,730,000 
 
 acre, - -- -- -- -3 
 
 Hence eight millions of acres, produce in straw up- > 
 
 wards of 2/. each ; in all, .... * ci 10,250,000 
 
 The straw, therefore, annually produced, is of much more 
 consequence, than is commonly considered ; more especially 
 when its great importance, as a means of renewing the fer- 
 tility of the soil, is duly estimated*. 
 
 * It is evident, that the money value of the straw, cannot be charged, 
 according to the prices specified in the text, to farmers in general, because 
 most of them are prohibited from selling or disposing of it, and it is essential 
 to them for preserving the fertility of their land. But in a national point 
 of view, the value of the straw is to be included among that of other agri- 
 cultural productions. — On this subject, Mr. Holdich remarks, that all straw, 
 hay, and vegetables, consumed by cattle, are to be estimated in the cattle 
 only which come to market ; and not separately by themselves, which 
 would be to reckon them twice. — Seed-com, and manure, also, butter, 
 cheese, bacon, &c. consumed by farmers' families , are to be considered, like 
 the soil itself, as necessary adjuncts to cultivation. Implements of husbandry, 
 wear and tear, fences, and drainage, are to be deducted in a national view, 
 from the produce of 'the soil; so likewise are all expences in purchased manure, 
 excepting when the sale of the straw pays for it. When hay is sold, manure 
 is'bought ; and the difference only, in both cases, ought to be carried to the 
 credit of the account. 
 
4 32 
 
 Of Straw i 
 
 3. Of the various Purposes to which Straw is applicable » 
 
 These may be considered under the following general 
 heads: 1. Feeding stock; — 2. Litter;— 3. Thatching;— 
 and, 4. Miscellaneous purposes. 
 
 1. Feeding Stock . — In former times, this was the great 
 object to which [straw was applied ; almost every stalk, ex- 
 cept what was employed in thatching, was devoted to that 
 purpose, and scarcely any left to litter the stalls. The hus- 
 bandry of the celebrated Bakewell was then much com- 
 mended, who used no straw for litter ; but if he had more 
 than his own cattle could consume, would rather take in 
 those of his neighbours, and give straw and attendance for 
 nothing, than use it for litter. No species of dung was then 
 valued, that had not passed through the body of an animal ; 
 and though, by littering, more muck was made, yet the dung 
 produced from straw, when eaten, was considered most pro- 
 fitable. Bakewell, however, became convinced, by expe- 
 rience, that he had adopted an erroneous system, and latterly 
 littered his stock amply. His stock were thus also kept 
 in a superior condition, and his supply of manure was 
 abundant. 
 
 But though the plan of feeding stock solely upon straw, 
 cannot be approved of, yet neither is the opposite extreme, 
 that of expending the whole straw, even that of pulse, in 
 littery deserving of approbation. A moderate quantity of 
 straw given to cattle, with turnips, or other succulent food, 
 contributes much to their health. The straw of pulse, 
 when properly harvested, with an adequate proportion of 
 corn, may be given with advantage to working horses, and 
 may save more expensive articles. Without some article 
 of inferior quality, rich food, in too great quantities, would 
 become loathsome and injurious. Dry food is advantageous, 
 by its absorbing the fluids in the stomach, by which that 
 organ has greater power to act upon them ; and though 
 such food may not be so necessary, for the sake of the nou- 
 rishment it affords, an animal may thus be enabled, to take 
 greater quantities of more nutritive aliment. Unless the 
 stomach and bowels be properly distended, digestion is but 
 imperfectly accomplished, and the richest food, will not 
 nourish an animal, with equal success. 
 
 The price of hay, indeed, has become so enormous, that 
 it enforces, to a certain degree, the consumption of straw ; 
 nor can the soiling system, so advantageous to the farmer. 
 
Of Straw. 
 
 433 
 
 be carried to the same extent, unless cattle and horses are 
 partly fed with straw and haum during the winter season. 
 Indeed, in the early stages of fattening cattle, straw is as 
 good as hay, for using along with turnips. A greater quan- 
 tity of clover might, under this system, be employed in 
 summer soiling, which otherwise must have been made into 
 hay, and consumed in winter, instead of straw. But it is 
 absurd to suppose, that the straw should be wholly con- 
 sumed by cattle, for such food alone, would not fatten them, 
 and their dung would be of little worth. 
 
 The properties of the different kinds of straw, for feeding 
 stock, shall next be considered. 
 
 Wheat Straw. — On account of its strength, this sort of 
 straw is frequently cut into chaff, and given to horses, with 
 their corn. The chaff is likewise mixed with other food, 
 in particular with potatoes, and given to feeding and work- 
 ing cattle. This straw has confessedly the most heartening 
 quality in it, and is not found, as some have surmised, to 
 be exhausted by ripening its seed ; but on the contrary, the 
 plumper the grain, the more solid and nutritious is the straw, 
 the excellence of the one adding to the perfection of the 
 other. Wheat straw is frequently employed for litter, and 
 sometimes for thatching ; but in that case the heads of the 
 straw should be threshed separately. In the west of Eng- 
 land, they cut off the ears, from the stem, for the purpose 
 of thatching. 
 
 Oat Straw. — This straw should be given uncut. It was 
 formerly excellent feeding for stock, when raised on land 
 full of couch, and other natural grasses ; but since the intro- 
 duction of fallow, and horse-hoed crops, very little grass, 
 comparatively, is now found in the straw of any kind of corn. 
 In some counties in England, oats are given in the straw , or 
 corn and all, as a species of fodder, which is technically called 
 “ cut meat. 7 * But that plan is condemned as slovenly and 
 wasteful ; for the proportion between straw and corn being 
 so different, it is impossible for a farmer to do justice to his 
 cattle or horses, by a process attended with so much uncer- 
 tainty. When given in this state, there is a great risk of 
 having the corn unmasticated and totally wasted. 
 
 Barley Straw. — When this straw is grown in a southern 
 climate, it is much relished by stock, not being tough, con- 
 sequently easily eaten ; and so sweet, that cattle are particu - 
 larly fond of it. In Scotland, however, it is considered to 
 be much inferior to oat straw, for its feeding properties 
 But it is extremely difficult to save it in any tolerable order. 
 
434 
 
 Of Straw . 
 
 more especially with clover, and its quality is much injured, 
 when, instead of being put in sheaves, it is spread on the 
 ground (the practice in many English counties), for the air 
 and dew, tend to injure every species of fodder* * * § . 
 
 Bean Straw . — If well harvested, this straw forms a very 
 hearty and nutritious kind of food, for working horses and 
 cattle, in the winter season ; but does not answer so well 
 with carriage or saddle horses , being apt to hurt their wind. 
 As bean straw alone is rather dry, a mixture of pease straw, 
 particularly of white pease, which is sweet and nourishing, 
 improves the fodderf. 
 
 Pease Straw . — The haum of white pease, if cut green, 
 and dried quickly, in the full vigour of its sap, is fodder of a 
 superior quality, and horses will thrive on it nearly as well 
 as on hay. For sheep, this food is so excellent, that on 
 some farms, where they make a part of the stock, pease are 
 sown wholly on their account:):. The straw of early white 
 pease, applied to sheep, Mr. Young observed, was the most 
 valuable return made by straw. Pease haum, sometimes 
 produces a ton and a half per acre, and if well harvested, 
 will sell, according to the price of hay, at from 4/. to 71. 10s. 
 per acre, being often of almost equal value to the grain 
 itself. 
 
 Tare Haum , or Hay . — Tares have sometimes produced , 
 from ten to twelve tons of green food, which, when dried 
 into hay, were found to be one-fourth part of the weight of 
 the fresh-mown tares, or from two and a half to three tons 
 per acre ; that is, when they are not suffered to stand for 
 seed, but the whole crop is mown, partly for soiling, and 
 partly for hay, which is of the highest quality. When suf- 
 fered to stand for seed, the weight of the hay is still lessf. 
 
 * It would be advisable, when barley and clover are sown and cut to- 
 gether, to bind the sheaves, and to stook the corn for some days, until the 
 bottom of the sheaves are soaked and withered. By this means, the clover 
 will retain its succulency, and the straw will imbibe the nutritious properties 
 of the clover. 
 
 + Both bean and pease straw will give some horses colic pains. Half an 
 ounce, or a table spoonful of laudanum, with four ounces of castor-oil, or 
 three table spoonfuls of turpentine, will remove the complaint; to be applied 
 a second time, if tlie first is not effectual. 
 
 1 The haum of white pease is esteemed very proper for sheep on turnips. 
 It prevents scowering, and in that respect contributes to preserve them in 
 good health. In many districts, it is much used for that purpose. Commit * 
 nication from John Middleton , Esq. — If pease straw has not been well har- 
 vested, it ought to be kept till the succeeding season after it was cut. 
 
 § When tares are permitted to ripen their seed, the weight of the crop is 
 considerably reduced, but its money value is increased. The clean tares arc 
 
Of Straw.. 
 
 435 
 
 For the purpose of making the best hay, the crop should be 
 mown, as soon as the blossoms begin to fall off, or the pods to 
 form. They require a continuance of dry weather, to be 
 cured in perfection ; but if well harvested, they are worth, 
 from 8l. to 121. or even 15/. per statute acre*. 
 
 The rules respecting the consumption of straw in feeding, 
 maybe considered as applicable to, 1. Cattle; 2. Horses ; 
 3. Sheep ; and, 4. To some particulars of a general nature. 
 
 1. Cattle. — Straw, of good quality, may, at the commence- 
 ment of the fattening process, be given to cattle, as an eco- 
 nomical mode of feeding them, accompanied by turnips; 
 but in the more advanced stages of that process, hay is so 
 much superior, that it should, if possible, be supplied. If 
 straw be given for only a month or six weeks in winter, it will 
 be a great saving in' so expensive an article as hay. In spring, 
 hay, from its being closely packed, and less exposed to the 
 influence of the atmosphere, retains its nutritive juices much 
 better than straw ; hence the former has greatly the advan- 
 tage over the latter, and is therefore to be preferred. When 
 cattle are fed with distillery offals, straw should be given 
 them twice a day, with the grains or wash ; for it has been 
 found, that without straw or hay, cattle would not feed $q 
 well, owing to their not being able to chew the cudf. 
 
 2. Horses. — It is disputed, whether working horses should 
 be fed in winter, with straw or hay, though all parties admit, 
 that during the severe labour of the spring months, hay is 
 essential. But pease and bean straw, certainly make good 
 fodder for horses, early in the season ; though, if that kind 
 of straw be injured by rain, white straw must be given. 
 With that food, and two feeds of corn, horses will not only 
 plough three quarters of an English acre per day, but are 
 usually full of health and vigour, when the sowing season 
 commences. In regard to horses that are not worked, it is 
 a good practice, to throw the straw before them in the stall, 
 before it is spread under them, particularly if it be sweet and 
 fresh. They always find something to pick out of it ; and 
 it makes a wholesome variety in their diet. 
 
 generally from twenty to thirty bushels, but in that state the haum is only 
 from one to two tons per acre. — Communication from John Middleton , Esq. 
 
 * Tares produce but a light return on poor or sandy soils, unless well 
 prepared for that crop. But on loams, or strong clay, they may be sown 
 with one ploughing after wheat, with every prospect of success. In many 
 cases, cattle have preferred the haum of tares, to hay given them after the 
 seed was threshed out. — Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 f Middlesex Report. 
 
 f £2 
 
436 
 
 Of Strav:. 
 
 3. Sheep . — There is no food of which sheep are fonder 
 than pease straw* ; and where circumstances are favourable 
 to that crop, pease ought to be cultivated, merely for the 
 straw, from the advantages that would thence be derived by 
 the sheep farmer. Indeed, when it is proved by experience, 
 that this crop can be obtained from lands preparatory to 
 sowing wheat, without any expence, or injury to the soil, 
 no opportunity should be lost, by which such valuable fod- 
 der could be obtainedf. Tare straw would answer the same 
 purpose. In Flanders, the straw of beans is reckoned ex- 
 cellent for sheep, and to produce superior mutton. 
 
 4. General Rules . — The value of straw for feeding, de- 
 pends upon the soil and climate. In regard to soil, straw 
 from fertile land, is much more nutritive than from land of 
 inferior quality. As to climate, it is asserted, that the straw 
 of wheat, barley, and oats, contains more saccharine matter 
 in the southern, than even in the northern provinces of 
 France, and that the superior sweetness of the one over the 
 other, may be ascertained by masticating itj. In good 
 seasons, therefore, it must be more nutritious in this coun- 
 try, than when they are unfavourable. 
 
 Straw keeps much better unthreshed, in a large stack with 
 its corn, than in a barn ; but straw, in whatever way it is 
 kept, more especially white straw, loses part of its value as 
 fodder, after the sharp dry breezes of the spring months 
 have set in. It is seldom given to working horses, after the 
 month of March. 
 
 Straw given to stock, should be constantly made use of as 
 soon after it is threshed as possible ; for if exposed to the 
 influence of the atmosphere, it becomes either musty or 
 too dry j and in that state, cattle neither relish, nor thrive 
 on it so well. If it must be kept a length of time for fodder, 
 it should be bound in trusses , in which state it is easier 
 moved, lies in less room, and retains its strength and flavour 
 rather longer, than when loose ; or it may be secured, in a 
 stack properly built, trodden down, and covered. 
 
 There is certainly much nourishment in the heads of 
 grain in general, and particularly in the awns of barley ; but 
 these require, either to be steeped in cold water, or to have 
 
 * It is stated in Young’s Essex, that sheep are fonder of pease straw than 
 of hay. 
 
 t Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. — Hogs are likewise very fond of 
 pease straw. 
 
 X Cours Complet d’Agriculture, par Roxier. Vide PaiUe. 
 
Of Straw . 
 
 437 
 
 boiling water poured upon them, before they are given to 
 stock. Cow-keepers will give even a higher price for the 
 awns of barley, than for the heads of wheat. 
 
 Jt is an useful practice, to mix a portion of straw, particu- 
 larly the straw of oats, with the aftermath of grass, or second 
 crop of clover, at the time of stacking it. The straw absorbs 
 the gasses and moisture as they exhale from the hay, by 
 which the straw acquires juices and a flavour, which are 
 agreeable to cattle; the hay which, in other circumstances, 
 would be spoiled, is in this manner cured, and the mixture 
 is excellent food for stock ; while the harvesting of the 
 grass, or clover crop, is thereby accelerated. 
 
 Some farmers give the best straw to the young stock, and 
 the inferior sort to oxen. Others, however, reverse the 
 practice, on the idea, that the older the cattle, the better 
 food they require. Indeed the best straw, without the ad- 
 dition of turnips, or other sorts of roots, or cabbages, is but 
 miserable food for oxen. The prudent method is, to give 
 the inferior straw, in the beginning of winter, while there is 
 plenty of other nourishing articles to be eaten with it. 
 
 In the consumption of straw as fodder, the inferior sorts 
 should be first made use of, and afterwards those of a better 
 kind. It is necessary that stock, when fed on so coarse an 
 article as straw, should have an abundant supply of water at 
 their command*. 
 
 It is disputed, where straw is the chief food for cattle, 
 whether it should be given sparingly, or in abundance. By 
 the advocates for the sparing system, it is maintained, that 
 cattle may be satiated with straw, if served with it in too 
 great plenty ; and that they do better, when straw is regu- 
 larly dealt out to them, which is more the case in years of 
 scarcity, than in plentiful seasons, when it is thrown before 
 them in profusion. On the other hand, it is contended, that 
 straw is not rich enough to produce satiety, though, when 
 cattle are tied up, it may be a good plan to give them but 
 little at a time, as any change must be acceptable to them. 
 But cattle in a straw-yard, require fodder in profusion, that 
 they may pick out the best, and leave what they do not 
 relish, for litter. More straw should be given, when the 
 weather is wet, and less when it is dry ; and care should be 
 taken, to proportion the quantity of straw given, to the 
 
 * It is found by experience, that store stock do very well upon straw, till 
 some time after Candlemas, but when the days get longer, and drying winds 
 come on, they should have either succulent food, in small quantities, or a 
 little hay, though of inferior quality. 
 
438 Of Straw. 
 
 number of cattle in the yard, in order that the dung may be 
 properly prepared. 
 
 The straw of some varieties of wheat, has a pith resem- 
 bling rushes. It has not yet been ascertained, whether the 
 straw of those kinds of wheat, be in any respect more valu- 
 able, than that of the common sorts ; but there seems little 
 doubt, that the straw of autumnal-sown wheat, is more 
 harsh, and less agreeable to cattle, than the straw of wheat 
 sown in the spring*. 
 
 It is remarked, that the straw of corn is weaker, in coun- 
 tries where the vegetation is rapid, as in Scotland, than in 
 the southern counties of England, where the growth is 
 slower and more regular ; and that the straw of barley, 
 sown in the month of March, or beginning of April, grows 
 shorter between the joints, and is much stiffer than the 
 straw of the same crop, sown in the latter end of April, 
 or the beginning of May, which latter crops, in wet seasons, 
 generally fall down, while the former stand. This is a cir- 
 cumstance which is favourable to the practice of early sow- 
 ing, in northern climates. 
 
 The ancients were accustomed to prepare their straw for 
 feeding stock, by keeping it for a considerable time, sprink- 
 led with brine ; — it was then dried, rolled up in bundles, 
 and given to oxen instead of hay+. The addition of brine, 
 or salt, was certainly an excellent plan, and by a similar 
 practice, the straw consumed in this country, might be greatly 
 improved. 
 
 2. Litter . — The use of straw, for littering or bedding 
 stock, answers two purposes : 1. It keeps the animals warm 
 and dry, and enables them to repose in comfort ; and, 2. By 
 the same means, straw is mixed with the dung and urine of 
 cattle, horses, &c. and converted into a rich manure. 
 
 All the various sorts of straw answer the purposes of 
 litter. Some farmers prefer the straw of rye, others that of 
 wheat, which absorbs a great quantity of urine and mois- 
 ture. The straw of pease and beans, when well broken by 
 threshing, makes soft bedding; but, if well harvested, 
 should be applied to feeding stock. Cattle, when soiled on 
 clover, and other articles, or fed on turnips, are kept in a 
 state of greater comfort when they have a sufficiency of 
 litter. 
 
 In the London markets, straw for litter is drawn straight 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 220 . 
 
 f Dickson’s Husbandry of the Ancient*, vol. ii. p. 409. 
 
Of Straw . 
 
 439 
 
 in handsome trusses ; and if threshed in mills, is less sale- 
 able, on account of its being more bruised, less sightly in 
 the truss, and less durable in use, an object of some im- 
 portance, where straw is so dear ; at the same time, it is 
 probable, that the advantage of a softer bed for the horses, 
 would more than compensate for the additional expence* * * § . 
 It is singular, that the ancients were accustomed to break 
 straw upon stones, for the purpose of rendering it more easily 
 mixed with dung, sooner dissolved, and better adapted for 
 litterf ; an operation which is now so effectually done by 
 means of the threshing-mill. 
 
 By some, littering stock with straw, has been considered 
 to be unnecessary j others contend, that all the straw of a 
 farm ought to be exclusively appropriated to that purpose, 
 and none of it applied to feeding stock : the truth seems to 
 lie between these extremes. 
 
 In Arabia, where the finest horses in the world are kept, 
 no straw is used as litter. In Sweden, and in Russia, in- 
 stances are quoted, of horses lying on boards, and of cattle 
 standing and lying on a framing of wood-work, without any 
 straw, or substitute for it, as bedding;}:. Such plans, however, 
 will not answer for horses, if exposed to severe labour, as, 
 in that case, they require rest, in the most advantageous 
 manner in which it can be given them. 
 
 It may likewise be observed, that the principal advantage 
 of littering, with a view to manure, arises from the straw 
 absorbing the urine, for which purpose it is certainly well 
 calculated. But wherever straw is scarce or dear, peat earth, 
 or fine mould, might be advantageously employed for the 
 mere absorption of urine. Other substitutes also might be 
 used for litter, as fern, shellings of oats§, or small shell sand, 
 all of which have been found to answer. 
 
 Straw, however, is the fittest article for this purpose, 
 for, by fermentation, it is reduced into a gaseous state, and 
 by moisture into a fluid state, and in either case, its whole 
 substance is applicable as food for plants. The more of that 
 article, therefore, that can be converted into manure, consist- 
 ently with the other objects which require the farmer’s atten- 
 tion, so much the more will his interest be promoted. 
 
 Mr. Young was of opinion, that it was impossible to raise 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 175. 
 
 f Dickson’s Husbandry of the Ancients, vol. ii. p. 408. t 
 
 J Middlesex Report, 328. 
 
 § Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 186; and vol.iii. p. 23. 
 
440 
 
 Of Straw. 
 
 sufficient quantities of manure, more especially where soiling 
 was practised, if any straw were eaten; and the number of the 
 best farmers in Norfolk maintain, that all straw should be 
 used as litter, and trodden into dung, by animals feeding 
 on much better food, as turnips, hay, or oil-cake. The prin- 
 ciple is a good one, but it can never be generally carried 
 into effect. All farms, as now cultivated, do not produce 
 turnips, which is the best article to use for rotting straw, 
 from the immense quantity of urine it produces ; though 
 there are many, in which that crop is now unknown, where 
 a greater or lesser quantity of that valuable root, might be 
 raised. In regard to hay, or oil-cake, these articles are too 
 expensive, and often too scarce, to make the use of them 
 general ; and besides, such dryjood, furnishes little moisture 
 to the dunghill, without which it cannot be so effectually 
 converted into manure. 
 
 It appears from the statements of several eminent farmers, 
 that one ton of straw, if properly manufactured, that is, 
 augmented in weight, by the dung and urine of the stock 
 maintained upon the farm, will produce nearly four tons of 
 manure* ; and as an English acre of grain, yields more than 
 a ton of straw, hence, on a farm where 300 acres are sown 
 yearly, 100 of them may be manured from its own produce, 
 at the rate of 12 tons per English acre, without the aid of 
 extraneous substances, provided the four-course rotation 
 of, 1. Turnips; 2. Wheat, or Barley; 3. Clover; and, 
 4. Wheat, or Oats, be adopted. Where the clover is 
 pastured the second year, (which is an excellent system), 
 even less manure will be required than the quantity above- 
 mentioned, while the produce of straw, will annually become 
 more abundant, during the remainder of the course. 
 
 As 12 tons of dung per English acre, are necessary in 
 general cases, which would require all the straw produced 
 on the farm, according to its average produce, means ought 
 to be devised, without the aid of any extraneous manures, 
 to make up the deficiency, where a part of the straw is 
 applied to the feeding of stock. The greatest care ought, 
 therefore, to be taken, that the crop be cut as low as pos- 
 sible ; while by the aid of mould or peat earth, much urine 
 may be absorbed, that would otherwise be lost. The making 
 
 * This is according to the practice of the farmers, in the Lothians. In 
 some districts of England, they maintain, that a ton of straw, when converted 
 into dung, would be reduced to half a ton in weight. But it is evident, 
 that straw mixed with the dung, and saturated with the urine of cattle, 
 tnust be much heavier than in its dry state. 
 
Of Straw. 
 
 441 
 
 of composts, likewise, ought not to be neglected, and where 
 this system is practised, stock are maintained with economy, 
 and the soil kept in a fertile state, in a great degree, from 
 its own resources. 
 
 3. Thatching . — For many ages straw was the common 
 material for roofing farm-buildings and cottages, and was 
 formerly made use of even in towns ; but the risk of fire, (to 
 which whole villages have fallen a sacrifice from a single 
 spark) ; the loss sustained by vermin, which shelter them- 
 selves in the straw; — the expence of additional rates of 
 insurance on thatched buildings, from Is. to even 3 s. per 
 cent, in cases where they were considered to be doubly 
 hazardous ; — the increased difficulties attending making a 
 roof with straw, that was threshed by mills, and in a broken 
 state*; — the practice of covering buildings with slate or 
 tiles ;— and the greater demand for manure, in consequence 
 of the improved state of agriculture, have all contributed, to 
 diminish the quantity of straw used in thatching. This is a 
 fortunate circumstance for agriculture, as little straw can be 
 spared from litter, even for feeding stock, and still less for 
 the covering of houses. On this subject, Mr. Young very 
 justly observed, that thatched roofs lessened the quantity of 
 dung on a farm, to such an extent, that they ought to be 
 universally prohibited. Fen reeds, and in mountainous di- 
 stricts, heath, may be used, when slates or tiles cannot be 
 had on reasonable terms. 
 
 In the more northern districts of Scotland, straw is 
 mixed with clay, and thus a plastered roof is made, which 
 consumes but little straw, and is not liable to take fire. 
 But it is heavy, and requires much, strong rafters, &c. on 
 which more durable materials might be placed. Walls of 
 clay, mixed with straw, are not unusual in several districts 
 of Englandf and Scotland, for gardens, cottages, and even 
 farm-houses. 
 
 4. Miscellaneous uses of Straw . — There are few articles, 
 which are applied to a greater variety of purposes than straw. 
 Besides the uses above-mentioned, it is employed for cover- 
 
 * In the county of Somerset, wheat is seldom threshed with the straw, but 
 the ears are cut off, and the straws, which are bound in sheaves, tied very 
 tight, are used for thatching . — Somerset Report , p. 97, 98. 
 
 f Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 14. Mr. Farey remarks, that this prac- 
 tice is found to stretch through England, along the course of the blue lias 
 clay, as the same is depicted in Mr. William Smith’s large map of the strata. 
 Several other local practices, modes of culture, and products of the soil, 
 depend upon the nature of the mineral strata beneath the soil. 
 
442 
 
 Of Stubbles • 
 
 ing hay and corn stacks ; — twisted into ropes, for draining ; 
 — mixed with sea-weed in a compost ; — burnt for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining pot-ash ; — manufactured into paper ; — 
 used in bottoming of chairs, — stuffing collars for working- 
 horses, — and beds for the lower orders ; — packing glass, 
 china, and earthenware ; — and the straw of grain, and of 
 wheat in particular, in the manufacture of hats, bonnets, 
 trinkets, and various ornaments, by which numbers, who 
 might otherwise find it difficult to subsist, are furnished with 
 the means of employment. 
 
 Sect. XXIV .— Of Stubbles . 
 
 It is not unusual, in some parts of England, when the 
 grain is reaped by the sickle, to cut it knee-high. This 
 probably originated from a wish to save barn-room ; and to 
 get the corn more expeditiously carted and stacked, and 
 more easily threshed. But the plan of high-cutting de- 
 serves reprobation. By it much grain is lost, for a stubble 
 of 12 or 18 inches, and still more, of two feet, can never be 
 a clean one. By this plan, also, the expence both of the 
 sickle and of the scythe is incurred. Many consider the 
 part nearest the root, to be the most nourishing of the 
 straw, but at any rate, the culling and picking the best part, 
 may be safely left to the instinct of the cattle to whom it is 
 presented. Stubble left in the field, retards much the 
 operation of ploughing, more especially when the plough is 
 turned ; and as it is often neglected, and left standing, until 
 its whole substance has been materially injured, by the 
 variable weather to which it is exposed, it may be accounted 
 of little value to the farmer ; while, under a different ma- 
 nagement, if cut with the crop, it would have proved a 
 source of much profit. 
 
 Wherever agriculture, therefore, is practised on improved 
 principles, crops of grain are cut so close to the ground, as 
 to leave no stubble that can be mown, or employed to any 
 particular use. It may be proper, however, to state, to what 
 purposes stubble is applied, when left on the ground. 
 
 By some farmers it is mown, and collected, to litter the 
 yards, or bottom the dunghill*, but, too often, after its 
 
 * Young’s Norfolk, p. 300. — It is calculated that this mode of using 
 stubble, unless there is an absolute want of litter, will never pay the ex- 
 pence; for estimating the quantity of stubble got, at seven, or eight cwt. per 
 
Of Stubbles. 
 
 443 
 
 substance is wasted. — It is sometimes burnt on the ground 
 as manure, more especially when the land is foul, as tend- 
 ing to the destruction of weeds*. It is sometimes ploughed 
 in, but often to the injury of the succeeding crops ; for the 
 stubble renders some lands too open, so that every fall of 
 rain or snow, fills the soil with moisture, which cannot 
 easily be got rid of. — Stubbles are sometimes formed 
 into walls, for rendering farm-yards warm and comfort- 
 able for stockf. — Where stubbles are properly managed, 
 they are mown, and as carefully harvested, as any other 
 part of the produce; being brought home, stacked up, 
 and kept for thatching, either buildings, or the stacks of 
 the succeeding year, or for other purposesj. But by far 
 the most advantageous mode of applying stubble, when 
 mown and harvested, undoubtedly is, to spread it on the 
 surface of the soil, after the land has been completely pre- 
 pared for turnips, and then to burn it. This is an infallible 
 mode of preventing the ravages of the fly in turnips, for they 
 are either destroyed by the fire and smoke, or driven out 
 of the field. 
 
 In Derbyshire, a paring plough is used for wheat and 
 other stubbles, by which the roots of the corn and weeds 
 are cut ; the ground is then harrowed and raked, and all the 
 stuff thus collected, is carried home to be spread in the 
 bottom of the fold-yard, and trodden into muck. By this 
 operation, not only is the quantity of dung increased, but 
 the seeds of the weeds are brought to vegetate on the stubble 
 land thus cleared, and are easily got rid of§. In the same 
 county, another practice has of late grown up, that of paring 
 the stubbles, and burning the straw, weeds, and roots, inter- 
 mixed with some earth, in small heaps in the field. This 
 is done, not only for raising a crop of turnips, but with a 
 view of sowing wheat, sometimes even after oats, and must 
 greatly tend to the impoverishment of the soil||. 
 
 In Kent, there is a practice similar to the above, that of 
 
 acre, this weight of straw, of the best quality, could be bought for less 
 money than what it would cost to mow, and carry home the same quantity 
 of stubble. Besides, there is little doubt, that the soil would be thereby 
 deprived, of a portion of manure, and of vegetable matter, by which it 
 would be benefited . — Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 * This was an ancient practice. See Virgil’s Georgies, i. v. 84 ; and is 
 mentioned in Scripture, Isaiah, chap. v. ver. 24. Obadiah, v. 18. 
 
 f Essex Report, vol. i. p. 325. X Huntingdonshire Report, p. f28. 
 
 § Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 124. || Ditto, vol. ii. p. 131 and 406. 
 
444 
 
 Of Gleaning . 
 
 shimming the stubble of beans with a plough, having a very 
 broad share, as a preparation for wheat. The weeds and 
 roots cut by this implement, are afterwards harrowed out, 
 and either burnt on the ground, or carried to the compost 
 dunghill. The same cleansing process, is likewise applied 
 to wheat stubbles, as a preparation for pulse and other crops. 
 This operation is very useful for clearing the soil from sur- 
 face-weeds, especially those of a trailing or creeping growth, 
 and for bringing the seeds of weeds, which lie upon or near 
 the surface, into a state of vegetation, and capable of being 
 destroyed*. 
 
 Sect. XXV . — Of Gleaning. 
 
 The origin of gleaning is of great antiquity. Formerly, 
 when the practice was under proper regulations, it was at- 
 tended with profit to the industrious poor, without occasion- 
 ing any particular injury to the occupier. Each farmer, in 
 ancient times, had his particular set of gleaning retainers, 
 who assisted him in the labours of the harvest, and they 
 were indulged with the perquisite of gleaning, after the corn 
 had been gathered. This tended to excite, and to preserve, 
 a mutual attachment between the two classesf . 
 
 But this privilege came to be abused. Persons who had 
 given no assistance to the farmer, nay, who resided in other 
 parishes, presumed to glean, not only among the sheaves, 
 but too often from them, conducting themselves in so dis- 
 orderly a manner, as to occasion perpetual disputes. The 
 mischief which this gave rise to, was often great, particularly 
 in the common -field system, where the loss incurred has 
 been calculated as high as 30 per centj. To avoid such 
 depredations, the wheat crop was often cut too late, and 
 carried home too quickly, because the farmer dared not 
 trust it in the field, while the poor were perpetually among 
 the sheaves. In several districts it is still the case. 'I' he 
 courts of law have decided against any right to gleaning 
 being vested in the poor *, but as the practice, under due re- 
 gulations, tends to promote a friendly intercourse, and kindly 
 connexion, between the upper, and the lower orders of 
 society, it ought not to be given up. 
 
 • Marshall’s Southern Districts, vol. i. p. 61, 78. 
 
 + South Wales Report, vol. i. p.428. J Ditto, p. 341. 
 
On Rotations of Crops . 
 
 445 
 
 II. 
 
 On Rotations of Crops best adapted for different Soils and 
 Situations. 
 
 Notwithstanding the multitude of books on agriculture, 
 there is scarcely an author, who, prior to the middle of the 
 last century, seems to have formed any just ideas, either of 
 the importance of judicious rotations, or the principles on 
 which they ought to be regulated. All courses of crops, 
 appeared to them alike, and neither to merit praise nor 
 censure*. Happily the case is totally altered, and this most 
 essential branch of husbandry, is now grounded on princi- 
 ples, as distinct and certain, as those which form the basis 
 of any other science, or direct the practice of any other artf. 
 
 It is not without much anxiety respecting the execution 
 of the task, that so essential a branch of the present inquiry 
 is undertaken. It is considered, as the most prominent 
 feature in good farming ; — as the most important particular 
 that has been treated of by modern writers of husbandry, 
 and the article respecting which, they have thrown the 
 greatest light *, — as capable of furnishing a considerable in- 
 crease to the produce of the land : — as peculiarly constituting 
 what may be called, the soul or essence of husbandry ; — in 
 short, as the true ground-work of general improvement ; — 
 and, if well understood, as the most likely means, of pro- 
 moting the cause of agriculture, and the interests of the 
 country. It cannot indeed be represented in too important 
 a light, nor too minutely examined, its object being to 
 ascertain, tc that mode of management , which is the most 
 likely , for a series of years, to yield the greatest quantity of 
 useful produce, at the smallest comparative expence and risk , 
 from any given extent of land.” 
 
 Here it is proper to give, 1. A general view of the prin- 
 ciples, which ought to regulate the rotation of crops in every 
 country ; and, 2. A list of the crops usually raised on the 
 different soils of Great Britain. 
 
 1. The propriety of adopting any particular system of 
 
 * Young’s Calendar, p. 503; Derbyshire Report, vol.ii. p. S07, note. 
 f Coventry’s Discourses, p. 91, note. 
 
446 
 
 On Rotations of Crops, 
 
 cropping, will be considerably influenced by the following 
 circumstances : The Climate , whether it be wet or dry, 
 warm or cold ; and the situation , whether high or low. 
 Wet climates, and high situations, for instance, are rather 
 favourable to the growth of oats; dry climates, and low 
 situations, to that of barley. — The Soil: for sand, gravel, 
 clay, chalk, peat, alluvial soils, and loam, have various crops 
 calculated for each respectively; and the subsoil , on the 
 quality of which, the crops to be raised must greatly depend : 
 The means of improvement by extra manure , (as lime, marl, 
 sea-weed, town-dung, &c.), at reasonable rates. — The state 
 and condition of the soil , whether it be old cultivated land, 
 or recently improved; — whether it be land that has been 
 cropped judiciously, or under an exhausting system of ma- 
 nagement ; — whether it be in good heart, or the reverse; — 
 whether it be foul, or clean ; and lastly, the situation of the 
 farm in regard to markets, whether they are near, or at a 
 considerable distance ; and whether they are adapted to the 
 sale of some articles of produce more than others. For 
 instance, a field of potatoes might be worth 25 1, per acre 
 near a town, which would not fetch from Si, to 10/. in a 
 remote part of the country. 
 
 2. It is of the greatest importance to determine, for what 
 crops the soil and climate of any particular district are best 
 calculated ; and what objects may be obtained by their cul- 
 tivation. In Great Britain, wheat is, with the exception of 
 potatoes, the principal field crop; whereas, in Flanders, it is 
 considered as only the fifth in point of value*, and it is often 
 raised, merely as a means of procuring manure, for the more 
 lucrative productions of flax or hemp. That these crops 
 should have been prohibited in former times, when hus- 
 bandry was imperfectly understood, is not to be wondered 
 at ; but, that the same prohibition should be still continued, 
 when the experience of Flanders proves, beyond the possi- 
 bility of doubt, that flax and hemp may be cultivated once 
 in every five or six years, without diminishing the fertility 
 of the soil ; and, when the farmer can hardly pay his rent, 
 from the burden of rates and taxes, to which he is sub- 
 jected, and requires every possible encouragement, can hardly 
 be rationally accounted for. — Every crop should now be 
 
 * Vandersiraeten’s Improved Agriculture, p. 36. The more valuable crops 
 are, I. Flax; 2. Hemp; 3. Cole-seed, and 4. Potatoes. Rape for seed is 
 much grown. Besides other advantages, the farmers thus supply themselves 
 with oil for their lamps, and have their light at a trifling expence. 
 
447 
 
 On Rotations of Crops . 
 
 raised, that will pay best , at least on the estates of those 
 landlords, who wish to have their lands occupied by thriving 
 tenants. The employment which might be given to the 
 poor, by the cultivation of flax, and the advantage of being 
 rendered independent of foreign nations for naval stores, by 
 the raising of hemp, are separate considerations. . 
 
 The crops usually raised on the different soils in Great 
 Britain, at present, are as follow : 
 
 Crops cultivated on the different Soils in Great Britain : 
 
 1. Sand. 
 Turnips, 
 Potatoes, 
 Carrots, 
 
 Mangel Wurzel, 
 Barley, 
 
 Rye, 
 
 Buck-wheat, 
 Tares, and oats 
 wet climates. 
 
 4. Chalk. 
 
 Barley, 
 
 Pease, 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Turnips, 
 
 Rape. 
 
 5. Peat. 
 Potatoes, 
 Carrots, 
 
 Tares, 
 
 2* Gravel . 
 
 Pease, 
 
 Tares, 
 
 Rye, 
 
 Barley, 
 
 (and on good 
 gravels) 
 Wheat, 
 
 3ats. 
 
 i+iL 
 
 Turnips, 
 
 Rape, 
 
 Oats. 
 
 6. Alluvial . 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Barley, 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Beans. 
 
 3. Clay. 
 Beans, 
 Wheat, 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Tares, 
 
 Cabbages*. 
 
 7. Loam. 
 Turnips, 
 Potatoes, 
 Carrots, 
 
 Mangel Wurzel, 
 Barley, 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Pease, 
 
 Beans, 
 
 Tares, 
 
 Hemp and flax. 
 
 And on all these soils, clover and other grasses, are, in a 
 greater or less degree, periodically cultivated. 
 
 Of the various Sorts of Rotations. 
 
 It is not unusual, in treating of this branch of the inquiry, 
 to consider rotations, merely as they are applicable to diffe- 
 rent soils, for instance, sand, gravel, clay, loam, &c. ; but the 
 
 * Cabbages succeed best on grounds which are too rich for either turnips 
 or potatoes. They are apt to be injured by frost ; and in cold districts, there- 
 fore, they ought tQ^ be consumed early in the season. Cabbages require so 
 much manure, that they can only be raised with advantage, in places where 
 plenty of dung can easily be obtained. They are rarely, on that account, 
 included, in common rotations. 
 
448 
 
 On Rotations of Crops* 
 
 subject will be better understood, by discussing the diffe- 
 rent courses of crops, according to the number of years they 
 respectively require to finish the rotation ; specifying, at the 
 same time, the soils for which they are respectively the best 
 calculated. 
 
 In particular cases, some farmers have adopted a course 
 of only two years crops , as wheat and beans alternately ; or 
 wheat, with crops of potatoes and beans, alternately. On 
 the richest loams, or alluvial soils, reclaimed from the sea, 
 or in the immediate neighbourhood of large towns, where 
 any quantity of manure can be commanded, such a system 
 may be practicable, but in other situations can hardly be 
 adopted. A farmer who had followed this plan for the space 
 of fourteen years near a town, during which he had four 
 crops of potatoes, three of beans, and seven of wheat, found, 
 though the quantity of produce had not diminished, yet that 
 the quality of the wheat and beans had degenerated. In 
 Essex, however, on a soil of peculiar excellence, wheat and 
 beans were tried for 36 years in succession, and continued 
 profitable during all that period. There are many farmers 
 in the neighbourhood of London, also, who obtain three 
 crops, every two years, as, 1. Winter tares and turnips ; and, 
 2. Corn, generally wheat ; and preserve their land in as 
 clean and rich a state as could be desired. This system is 
 more profitable than any other, and may be found applicable 
 to a larger proportion of the southern districts of England, 
 than is commonly imagined*. 
 
 We shall now proceed to consider, what may be pro- 
 perly called a rotation, where the course commences with a 
 cleansing crop. 
 
 Three Years * Rotation. — Mr. Mundy, in Derbyshire, has 
 adopted with success the following course: 1. Swedish 
 turnips ; 2. Barley ; 3. Cloverf. But the most productive 
 course of cropping, for a period of three years, commenc- 
 ing with what may be called, under proper management, 
 a cleansing crop, was that adopted by Mr. Greenhill, in 
 Essex: 1; Potatoes; 2. Wheat ; 3. Clover. He manured 
 amply for potatoes, of which he raised from eight to ten 
 tons : his wheat usually produced about forty bushels ; and 
 he commonly had four tons of hay per acre. This system 
 has been successfully repeated, on the same soil, for thirty 
 
 * Remark by John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 •f* Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 103. 
 
On Rotations of Crops. 449 
 
 years, and has been adopted by a great number of other 
 farmers* * * § . 
 
 Four Years' Rotation. — Under this head, the first to be 
 pointed out is, the course known under the name of the 
 Norfolk system, namely, 1. Turnips; 2. Barley ; 3. Clo- 
 ver ; 4. Wheat. This rotation, however, is not found suf- 
 ficiently meliorating ; for without a plentiful supply of ex- 
 tra manure, and deep ploughing, both the turnip and the 
 clover crop will often fail, unless the land is refreshed by 
 grass, for at least two or three years. To obviate this diffi- 
 culty, it has been proposed to begin with, 1. Winter tares, 
 followed by turnips, and both fed upon the land by sheep. 
 The soil, thus enriched, will produce, 2. Wheat; 3. Clover; 
 and 4. Barley, or oats, in succession-)*. 
 
 In Scotland, on turnip soils, the following rotation has 
 been found to answer : 1. Turnips ; 2. Winter wheat, sown 
 in spring^, or barley; 3. Clover; and, 4. Oats, introducing 
 partly winter wheat after the turnips, and oats after the 
 clover. This is certainly a productive rotation, and being 
 recommended by farmers, justly accounted among the first 
 in their profession, is entitled to attentive consideration^. 
 
 Under careful management, a rotation still more severe, 
 has succeeded ; namely, 1. Turnips; 2. Wheat ; 3. Grass, 
 (mostly sheep-fed) ; 4. Four-fifths winter wheat sown in 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. — In places at a considerable 
 distance from a large market town, 1. Winter tares; 2. Wheat; and 3. Clover, 
 is an advisable mode of cropping, on strong land, in a climate where winter 
 tares can be successfully cultivated. — Ditto. 
 
 f Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 X In regard to winter wheat 60 wn in spring, after turtiips y an expe- 
 rienced farmer, in East-Lothian, (Mr. Dudgeon of Prora), observes, that 
 it may be safely sown as late as the middle of March, and even later ; and 
 that on fine land, it is frequently grown, in preference either to barley or 
 oats, if sheep have eaten the turnips upon the ground, which is the most va- 
 luable, and the least expensive method of using the turnip crop. But good 
 land, by this scheme, would be over dunged, were it not for the practice 
 adopted, of stripping out a part of the turnips, to the amount of one- 
 fourth, one-third, or even one-half, (leaving the alternate rows), and car- 
 rying those drawn out to be used by cattle. When a certain breadth is 
 thus stripped, the hurdles can be set upon the drills which remain, and the 
 stripping be carried on as the sheep may require more ground. 
 
 § Mr. Rennie of Phantassie, and Mr. Brown of Markle, in East-Lo- 
 thian. — In the Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 104, the same course is recom- 
 mended. — By the profits resulting from the adoption of that rotation, an ac- 
 tive and intelligent farmer, (John Tennant, Esq. of Girvan Mains, in Ayr- 
 shire), has gradually been enabled to stock three different farms ; and be- 
 ginning with a rent of only 501. per annum, he now annually pays 27001. or 
 fifty-four times the sum he originally paid when he commenced farming. 
 There can hardly be a stronger argument in favour of that system, where the 
 soil will bear it. 
 
450 
 
 On Rotations of Crops. 
 
 spring, and one-fifth oats. Under this course of crops, the 
 produce of a farm has been imprbved, both in quality and 
 in quantity, since its commencement to the present time, 
 and continues to improve . The additional quantity is, to 
 the amount of not less than four bushels per English acre*. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Dunbar, in Scotland, a course 
 distinguished for its severity, has been tried ; namely, 
 1. Turnips*, 2. Drilled wheat ; 3. Clover; 4. Drilled wheat. 
 It appears, however, that even in a dry and favourable cli- 
 mate, such as that to be found in the lower part of East- 
 Lothian, and the advantage of great quantities of sea-weed, 
 such a rotation could not long be continued on a light soil. 
 The quantity of dung usually applied, was to the amount of 
 about twenty two-horse cart-loads per English acre, to the 
 land intended for turnips, whereas only twelve such cart- 
 loads are commonly given by the majority of farmers. The 
 turnips were always eaten on the ground by sheep. The 
 same quantity of dung, or of sea- weed, was also applied on 
 the grass-land before ploughing. Notwithstanding all these 
 advantages, it was found, that wheat could not be grown 
 with success, on light lands, every other year, for any length 
 of time. After practising* if for fourteen years, the result 
 was, that though by the force of manure, abundance of straw 
 could be grown every other year, yet the wheat was light 
 and unproductive. Instead of the second crop of wheat, 
 therefore, oats were preferredf. 
 
 The rotation of four crops, adopted near Edinburgh, 
 namely, 1. Potatoes; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover; and, 4. Oats, 
 is a very productive one, but is only calculated for the 
 neighbourhood of great towns, where there is an ample 
 command of manure, and a demand for potatoes. It ap- 
 pears from the experience of that neighbourhood, that there 
 cannot be a better preparation for wheat than potatoes, nor 
 one more valuable in respect to produce, and that the crop 
 of clover afterwards, is abundant:); ; but potatoes require a 
 
 * Communication from William Hunter, Esq. of Tynelield, in East- 
 Lothian. 
 
 *t* Communication from William Hume, Esq. 
 
 t Yet in Northumberland, one of its most intelligent farmers, Mr. Bailey 
 of Chillingham, states, that clover almost universally fails after wheat and 
 potatoes, and the same has been found in Roxburghshire. — Perhaps a suffi- 
 cient quantity of manure, with two such scourging crops, has not been ap» 
 plied. An experiment was tried in Ireland, to ascertain, whether potatoes 
 was an exhausting crop or not. Four acres of land were equally well pre- 
 pared, on two of which potatoes were planted with dung, which produced a 
 good crop. The other two were fallowed, and dunged in the same proper- 
 
On Rotations of Crops. 
 
 451 
 
 great quantity of dung, and are not always marketable, while 
 their value in the feeding of stock, is far inferior to turnips, 
 in particular to Swedes. 
 
 Five Years' Rotation. — Rotations of Jive crops , have in 
 many cases been recommended, both for strong and light 
 lands. 
 
 Above fifty-seven years ago, the following system was 
 adopted in the neighbourhood of Glasgow: 1. Potatoes; 
 2. Wheat ; 3. Grass ; 4. Pasture ; 5. Oats. In this course, 
 there were only two crops of corn, to three of green crops ; 
 and it was ably maintained, that when farmers were con- 
 vinced, they would be as well paid by cultivating food for 
 the use of cattle, as for man ; — (from the increased quantity 
 of manure procured under that system), the importation of 
 corn into this country, would cease to be necessary. It is a 
 safe maxim, that grain should only be sown, when the ground 
 is laid down to grass, or ploughed from it*. 
 
 Upon mossy or peaty soils, after effectual draining, the 
 following course is recommended : 1 . Potatoes, or turnips ; 
 2. Oats, barley, or bigg; 3. Clover; 4. Pasture; and, 
 5. Oatsf. Peaty soils, however, are apt to get puffy by 
 tillage, and require, in general, more pasture to consolidate 
 them. 
 
 An experienced farmer in Huntingdonshire, considered 
 the following course of crops preferable to every other : 
 1. A cleansing crop, of whatever kind, as best suited to the 
 soil, as turnips, tares, or cole-seed, to be hoed, but not to 
 
 tion as the potatoe ground. Both were sown with wheat at the same time, 
 when, to the surprize of every one, the potatoe ground produced the best 
 crop of corn. There can be no doubt, that dung is brought into a more 
 perfect state of putrefaction by being previously applied to a green crop, 
 and more especially under a crop of potatoes, as it has the advantage of 
 being effectually blended with the soil. The tops of the potatoes are also 
 peculiarly fertilizing; and from shedding their decayed leaves, and excluding 
 the surface of the soil from incessant heat, a quantity of vegetable mould is 
 created on its surface. Hence it is, that the best crops of wheat have been 
 produced, where the cfops of potatoes have been the most luxuriant. This 
 experiment was tried at the Viscount de Vesci’s, Queen’s County, Ireland. — 
 Communication from Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
 * Mr. Curwen concurs in these sentiments. He remarks, in his Report 
 to the Workington Society, anno 1816, p. 108, that the first lesson in modern 
 husbandry is, to correct and controul too extensive ploughing, which is 
 effectually done, by confining the tenant to alternate white and green crops. 
 The proportion of green crops, with few exceptions, is too little, even in the 
 best cultivated farms in this country. When this shall be fully understood, 
 a great and essential point will be gained, and the progress of good husbandry 
 will become very rapid. 
 
 1* The potatoe-oat would be the most productive, but the red-oat is the 
 best calculated for a peaty soil. 
 
 G g 2 
 
4 52 
 
 On Rotations of Crops, 
 
 stand for seed ; 2. A crop of white corn, of the kind best 
 suited to the soil, to be laid down with seeds ; 3. Clover, 
 either grazed or mown ; 4. Beans, where suited to the soil, 
 to be sheep-fed and hoed, or some other meliorating crop 
 adapted to the soil *, 5. White corn suited to the soil ; and 
 he contended, that however various the soils, and however 
 different in their nature, the same order or course of cropping 
 ought to be pursued, (fen lands always excepted), changing 
 only the species of the corn and vegetables, and adapting 
 them to the nature of the soil to be worked upon, and 
 the demand in the market, for the articles that are cul- 
 tivated*. 
 
 It is obvious, that by such a system of cropping, a soil of 
 tolerable natural richness, might not only be supported 
 without foreign aid, but might increase in fertility. A cer- 
 tain degree of richness, however, is sufficient to produce 
 maximum crops of grain. Land may be too rich, as well 
 as too poor, for growing corn. The injudicious application 
 of a few cart loads of manure, per acre, more than was 
 required, has often rendered crops of wheat of little or no 
 value. Upon lands made too rich, corn is very apt to 
 lodge, which not only injures the crop of grain, but like- 
 wise destroys the clover and artificial grasses sown along 
 with itf. 
 
 Six Years' Rotation , — Rotations of six crops, are pecu- 
 liarly calculated for large farms. On small farms, and even 
 large ones near great towns, where manure can be had in 
 abundance, a succession of two, or of three crops, may be 
 safely adopted J. But on large farms, a variety of articles 
 ought to be cultivated, by which the risk of loss, either 
 
 * Mr. Maxwell of Fletton, Huntingdonshire Report, p. 108. If the soil 
 or climate is unfavourable to pulse crops, a second year of herbage would be 
 preferable to beans or pease. 
 
 f Northumberland Report, p. 185, note. The danger of having the land 
 too fertile, particularly from the hazard of rust or mildew, has been long 
 remarked. Ellis, in his “ Chiltern and Vale Farming explained,” p. 200, 
 has the following remark : “ I also further prove, that these blights happen 
 by the richness of the earth, and the wetness of the summer season ; because 
 the best wheat that England enjoyed this year, (an. 1732), grew on the 
 poorest dry lands.” When the straw is firm, and compact, rust is seldom 
 experienced ; but when it is large and porous, and full of sap, it seldom 
 escapes. 
 
 + Middlesex Report, p. 183.— Mr. Grecnhill of Stratford, in Essex, is said 
 repeatedly to have had fit 0 acres of potatoes, 600 of wheat, and 600 of clover 
 in one year, and thereby to have accumulated a large fortune. Ditto . — He 
 had the good sense to discover, how much may be done by an intelligent 
 farmer, who avails himself of the advantages he may derive from being near 
 a metropolis, or a great market town. 
 
453 
 
 On Rotations of Crops. 
 
 from the weather, or the markets, is diminished •, — less 
 manure is required ; — the labours of cultivation, can be more 
 equally divided, during all the seasons of the year ; — and 
 fewer horses are necessary* * * § . 
 
 This species of rotation may be considered under the 
 three great divisions, of, 1 . Clay lands ; 2. Sandy lands ; 
 and, 3. Loams. 
 
 1. Clay Lands . — On wet or adhesive lands, which have 
 been long in cultivation, a fallow, and in some cases a fallow- 
 crop, once in six years, is strongly recommended ; the 
 favourite rotation being, 1. Fallow, winter tares, Swedish 
 turnip, or cabbages; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover; 4. Oats; 
 5. Beans ; 6. Wheat. In Suffolk, the years for producing 
 the clover and the beans, are reversed f . But for reasons 
 to be afterwards assigned, clover cannot be too near the 
 fallow. 
 
 2. Sandy Lands. — A rotation of six, may also be adopted 
 in sandy soils ; as 1 . Carrots, tares, turnips, or potatoes ; 
 2. Barley, or oats, with seeds ; 3. Hay, or soiling ; 4. Pas- 
 ture ; 5. Pasture; 6. OatsJ. Under such a course, such 
 soils become highly productive, and, instead of being ex- 
 hausted, improve in fertility. The first year’s grass ought 
 not to be made into hay, unless where sheep have been fed 
 on the ground, with the turnip crop, or the land is in good 
 heart. Indeed, if the soil be thin, it should be pastured 
 during the whole three years that it carries grass. 
 
 3. Loams. — On this species of soil the following plan is 
 recommended: 1. Turnips, or fallow; 2. Wheat, or bar- 
 ley § ; 3. Seeds, either clover alone, or clover and rye-grass, 
 with the addition of a little yellow or hop clover : 4. Oats ; 
 5. Tares, pease or beans ; 6. Wheat ||. 
 
 Rich loams adapted to this productive rotation, will pay the 
 
 * Mr. Brown of Markle, in East-Lothian, has ascertained, that a pair of 
 horses, properly fed, and regularly employed, under a judicious system, can 
 carry on the cultivation of 50 English ; cres in a rotation of six ; namely, 10 
 acres in fallow, or, on light soils, in turnips ; — 10 acres in wheat or barley, 
 with either of which grass-seeds should be sown ; — 10 acres in oats, after 
 these grasses ; — 10 in beans in strong soils; — and 10 in wheat. 
 
 f Suffolk Report, p. 51. 
 
 X The same rotation answers on light gravelly soils . — Derbyshire Report , 
 
 vol. ii. p. 104. 
 
 § It is the practice in Northumberland and the Lothians, to sow the 
 winter species of wheats, more especially on light, friable, and warms soils, 
 as late as the end of February, and even the beginning or middle of March, 
 after turnips; but barley is sown after turnips consumed at a later period. 
 
 1J The clover should be ploughed down before winter, and the oats sowed 
 on theuale furrow, after being scarified. The stubbles should be shimmed , 
 
454 
 
 On Rotations of Crops. 
 
 highest rent of any, more especially when early oats are sown 
 after clover, for invariably, on all friable soils, that grain is 
 the most beneficial of crops, seldom producing less than 60 
 Winchester bushels per English acre, and much more pro- 
 fitable than wheat, which is apt to be blighted. 
 
 By this plan also, the crops are divided in a most advan- 
 tageous manner. All the most valuable grains are grown, 
 without any being twice sown in the same course, except a 
 little barley, owing to a part being sown with it, after the 
 turnips latterly consumed. Some farmers sow early oats 
 after turnips, more especially in the northern districts, where 
 oats are much in demand. But barley generally answers 
 best to sow late after turnips, and oats are found on many 
 soils, to succeed worse after turnips than any other grain. 
 Besides, clover seldom succeeds with oats, rather better with 
 barley, but usually the best with wheat sown in spring. 
 Amongst barley, if not lodged, it will succeed ; but from 
 the rich state of the land, barley is apt to lodge (which 
 circumstance ruins the seeds), except sprat or battle-door 
 barley be sown, which seldom falls down. Grass-seeds rarely 
 fail among spring-sown wheat, which is not so apt to lodge 
 as winter, or autumnal-sown wheat, or perhaps any other 
 grain. It is proper to add, that as the wheat is sown earlier 
 than the barley or oats, so is the clover, and this early sowing, 
 secures moisture, and promotes vegetation. 
 
 Seven Years' Rotation . — The following rotation is adopted 
 in some of the rich deep soils of Suffolk : 1. Turnips ; 
 2. Barley; 3. Beans; 4. Wheat; 5. Barley; 6. Clover; 
 7. Wheat. Under that system, the crops are said to be 
 productive ; the land to be clean, and to have the neatest 
 possible appearance *. 
 
 Eight Years' Rotation . — Upon rich loams and clays, or 
 where there is abundance of manure at command, a course 
 of eight crops has been strongly recommended : 1. Fallow, 
 with dung ; 2. Wheat ; 3. Beans, drilled and horse-hoed ; 
 4. Barley; 5. Clover and rye-grass; 6. Oats, or wheat; 
 7. Beans, drilled and horse-hoed ; and, 8. Wheat, or oatsf. 
 
 according to the Kentish practice, (See Chap. IV. Part I. Sect. 24), and 
 the land ploughed as early as the season will admit of it, after the crop has 
 been harvested. 
 
 * Suffolk Report, p. 52, note. These protracted rotations, however, arc 
 much condemned by Mr. Middleton, as tending to promote weeds and 
 exhaustion. He is of opinion, that they occasion the necessity of fallow, and 
 the erroneous idea, that it is generally advisable. 
 
 f Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 464. The fallow, in this 
 case, is only oricfe in eight years. 
 
On Rotations of Crops. 
 
 455 
 
 This rotation is calculated to insure an abundant return 
 throughout the whole period, provided dung be given to the 
 clover stubble. Without that supply, the system would be 
 crippled, and only inferior crops would be obtained in the 
 concluding years of the rotation. 
 
 It is proper here to observe, that in none of those rota- 
 tions are pease included, it being found by experience, that 
 they will not succeed, above once in ten years, consequently 
 they are chiefly adapted, for protracted rotations , or soils 
 which are not of sufficient depth for beans, as light turnip 
 soils, or thin weak clays. They are most likely to answer, 
 when sown after grass, but even then, the crop is precarious, 
 and is apt to encourage the growth of weeds*. 
 
 These observations are sanctioned by the authority of 
 Mr. Coke, who, on weak soils, after the common Norfolk 
 course of, 1. Turnips; 2. Barley; 3. Clover; 4. Wheat; — 
 adopts the following, as a second rotation : 1 . Turnips ; 
 2. Barley; 3. Cocksfoot and other grasses, pastured ; 4. Pas- 
 ture ; 5. Pease ; and, 6. Wheat f. 
 
 Double Crops in the same Year. 
 
 In the vicinity of the metropolis, and in other parts of 
 England, also in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh:}; and 
 Aberdeen, double crops, in the same year, are raised on the 
 same ground, not only in the gardens, but in the fields. 
 There are many farmers near London, who manure for 
 tares, and then have turnips in the same year, and next year 
 wheat, by which they obtain three valuable crops in two 
 years, which average from 161. to 20 1. per acre per annum}. 
 Some farmers grow clover the third year, by which the 
 average annual produce is kept up to nearly, if not quite, 
 c 20l. per acre. This system used formerly to be limited to 
 a few fields near the farm* yard ; but it now extended over 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 526. 
 
 f It would be more consistent with the principles of the alternate hus- 
 bandry, to take a crop of oats after grass, and then pease. See Brown’s 
 Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 74. 
 
 I Two crops in the same year, are not very uncommon near Edinburgh, 
 early potatoes, and turnips, being taken in the same year. Turnips may 
 also be got after clover, especially when it has been cut for soiling. 
 
 . § Middlesex Report, p. 163. — In the southern parts of England, where 
 the barley can be got off the ground in July, transplanted Swedes might be 
 put in ground drilled to receive them, in the beginning of August, and the 
 crop would be nearly as forward, as if they had been raised from the seed 
 in May. 
 
456 
 
 On Rotations of Crops. 
 
 many whole farms*. In favourable seasons, what are called 
 stubble turnips , are likewise occasionally raisedf. 
 
 In Flanders, the system of double cropping is carried to 
 a very great extent. On their light soils, they sow carrots 
 in February, on a crop of wheat, sown with manure, in 
 November. In other cases, they sow turnips after a crop 
 of grain is reaped, slightly ploughing the land for that pur- 
 pose ; also spurry, for feeding milch cows, by which excel- 
 lent butter is obtained ; and with oats, they sometimes sow 
 trefoil, or yellow clover, and get one good cutting of that 
 crop, before it is necessary to plough the land. The quan- 
 tity of manure which the Flemish farmer derives from these 
 practices, is very great; and he is thereby enabled, to extract 
 so much produce from soils, originally light and sterile, and 
 which would soon revert to their former state of barren- 
 ness, without the greatest industry, and the most unwearied 
 attention^;. 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 188. — Mr. Hutchins, and other farming gardeners 
 in Kensington and Fulham, raise a succession of cabbages, and then potatoes 
 or turnips the first "year, and wheat the second year ; and by repetition, they 
 obtain these three valuable crops every two years. 
 
 + The variety called “ The stone turnip” ought to be procured. A sandy 
 loam is the soil where they thrive best. They should be sown very thick, 
 broad-cast, as soon as the land can be got into good tilth. The success of 
 the crop principally depends upon the long continuance of mild and growing 
 weather, in October, November and December. Crops of stubble turnips 
 near London have produced 10/. per acre, and upwards. — See The Farmer's 
 Journal , published on the 13th September, 1819. 
 
 t Hints on the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, p. 71 . The second, 
 and in some cases, the preparatory crops in Flanders, are estimated at the 
 following sums, in English money, per statute acre : 
 
 Sterling Moiiey. 
 
 £. i. d. 
 
 Carrots after Flax 5 3 10 
 
 Spurry after Wheat 6* 2 0 
 
 Turnips after Rye 6 4 7 
 
 Turnips after Oats 6 4 7 
 
 Green Corn, before Flax — 2 10 0 
 
 Green Corn, before Potatoes, per English acre 2 10 O 
 
 (Vanderstraetcn' s Improved Agriculture , p. 67J. 
 
 Sometimes a farmer procures three crops in one year. — 1. A crop of corn, 
 to be cut green ; 2. Flax, with which carrots are sown, or after the flax is 
 pulled, turnips, spurry, or buck-wheat. If potatoes begin the course, they 
 are preceded by a crop of grain, to be eaten green. The corn must be sown 
 in winter, and cut in the beginning of May, when the cattle are very fond 
 of it, as other green crops are so scarce. — (Ditto, p. 58). After a crop of cole- 
 seed, or hemp, spurry, carrots, or turnips are grown, and after wheat, a crop 
 of carrots, sown with the wheat, or spurry, or turnips sown after the crop 
 is reaped. Carrots, are also sown with rye, or turnip, or spurry, after the 
 crop is cut down. It is indispensable to vary the immediate crops, and never 
 to sow the same for two years in succession . — ( Fandcrstruetens Improved 
 
On Rotations oj Crops. 
 
 45 7 
 
 Rape is an excellent crop, to introduce in this manner, as 
 it is more easily raised than any other green crop, and at 
 a trifling expence. If sown immediately after the corn crop 
 is cut, on good land, a crop of rape, that will afford a good 
 bite for sheep, will be obtained for winter feed, and the land 
 much improved for a succeeding crop of oats*. 
 
 Questions connected with judicious Rotations. 
 
 Before any general deductions are drawn from the pre- 
 ceding observations, it is proper to discuss the following 
 points : 1. After a fallow on strong land, ought the succeeding 
 crop to be wheat or barley ? 2. After clover, are oats, or 
 wheat to be preferred ? 3. In a rotation, which includes 
 beans and clover, where ought they respectively to be placed ? 
 and, 4. What is the best system for improving and pre- 
 serving the fertility of weak soils ? 
 
 1. In Essex, and many other counties of England, barley 
 is the usual crop after fallow ; and to render strong land 
 better adapted for that plant, the fallow is frequently ploughed 
 eight times. It is remarked, that when fallows are limed, 
 the soil is so open, as frequently to throw out the young 
 wheat ; and that with barley, dung is often unnecessary, 
 though in general required with wheat. The barley also, 
 might be sown on the winter furrow in spring, and would 
 be a productive, and not a precarious crop. The crop of 
 clover afterwards, would likewise be great ; if not destroyed 
 by the weight of the barley crop, which is more apt to be 
 lodged than wheat. About thirty years ago, barley qsed to 
 be the first crop after fallow in Scotland. But, the risk of 
 losing the clover crop ; — the greater profit derived from 
 wheat ; — and the difficulty that would be found, to raise a 
 sufficient quantity of that grain, for the demands of the 
 British consumers, if wheat on fallows were universally given 
 up, is unfavourable to the barley system. Besides, if it is 
 necessary to plough the fallow eight times for barley, ac- 
 cording to the Essex system, and only six times for wheat, 
 that is a strong argument in favour of the latter practice. 
 
 2. In England, the culture of wheat, on a clover ley, is 
 generally practised. The crop, however, is liable to great 
 risk, from the depredations of wire-worms ; and in Scotland, 
 
 Husbandry , p. 42). The moist climate, and mild winters of England and 
 Ireland, are favourable to the plan of double crops. 
 
 * Communication from Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
458 
 
 On Rotations of Crops . 
 
 it has been clearly ascertained, that oats are a surer and 
 more profitable crop, and that they leave the land in a better 
 condition than wheat. Three methods, however, have been 
 suggested, by which the mischief effected by the wire- 
 worm might be obviated. 
 
 The first is, that of ploughing clover in the beginning of 
 July, immediately after the crop of hay is taken off, or the 
 land has been cut for soiling ; then sowing it with rape or 
 cole-seed, with one furrow, and after eating it down with 
 sheep in September and October, to sow wheat. By this 
 plan, the feed in September and October, compensates for 
 the loss of the aftermath or pasture ; — the ground is more 
 sensibly enriched, than by the usual mode of pasturing ; — 
 the soil is brought into so mellow a state, that it can be 
 drilled, if necessary ; — while by the treading of the sheep, 
 any insects in the ground are got rid of*. 
 
 The second mode of destroying such insects, is, by delay- 
 ing ploughing clover stubble till December, if ploughed 
 in October or November, the worms, when turned up, are 
 able to creep again into the soil, where they lie dormant till 
 revived by the warmth of spring, and then they prove ex- 
 tremely mischievous. But if exposed, in a torpid state, to 
 the frost, and the inclemency of the season, they are speedily 
 destroyedf. 
 
 The third plan is, to sow the wheat (even winter wheat ac- 
 customed to that culture), in spring, instead of winter. This 
 may be done with success, so late as the beginning, or even 
 the middle of March. The wheat thus raised, is generally 
 as productive in quantity, but seldom so good in quality, as 
 after turnips, — pease, — or beans. The plan, however, me- 
 rits attention, as the attacks of worms are thus got rid of J. 
 
 3. When beans and clover are included in the same rota- 
 tion, the former should be placed near the termination of 
 the course, and not at its commencement. Beans and 
 clover, both draw their food from a considerable depth, and 
 the one must therefore interfere with the nourishment re- 
 
 * Communication from Mr. Church, of Hitchill ; Husbandry of Scotland, 
 vol. i. p. S27. This idea, was first suggested by Mr. George Syme at Red- 
 kirk, near Annan. 
 
 f Communication from Mr. Hunter of Tynefield ; Husbandry of Scotland, 
 vol. ii. Appendix, p. 52. This opinion is strongly confirmed by the authority 
 of Mr. Brown of Markle, who has, for several years, followed the practice 
 recommended by Mr. Hunter, with equal success. 
 
 X Where this plan is tried, the seed wheat ought to be brought from Ber- 
 wickshire, or the Lothians, accustomed to that mode of culture. A greater 
 quantity of seed should be used, than if sown in the autumu or winter 
 months. 
 
459 
 
 On Rotations of Crops. 
 
 quired by the other; but the clover, being the more im- 
 portant crop, is therefore entitled to the greater attention 
 of the two. Besides, beans encourage the white snail, and 
 that is a determined enemy to clover. 
 
 4. One method of increasing and preserving the fertility 
 of weak soils, is, by having a division of them in pasture, 
 thrown out of the usual rotation, for three, four, or live 
 years, and then brought in again ; so that in the course of 
 a twenty-one years* lease, each division, in its turn, remains 
 in grass for a period of time. In lands which are not natu- 
 rally fertile and productive, this plan must be attended with 
 very useful consequences. Every part of a farm, thus de- 
 rives a proportional share of the advantage of being kept in 
 grass, which is preferable to the plan, of preserving one part 
 of a farm constantly in grass, and the remainder under cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 General Deductions respecting Rotations . 
 
 The following important rules, in regard to rotations, are 
 particularly recommended. 
 
 1. When any farm or district begins to be improved, it 
 is necessary to commence with such crops as are the most 
 likely to produce manure . Hence, barley ought to be avoided, 
 as it yields, when compared to other crops, the smallest 
 quantity of straw. Two exhausting crops also, should never 
 be attempted in succession ; if the soil has not acquired a 
 considerable degree of fertility, or naturally possesses it, as 
 is the case in regard to alluvial lands. Green crops are 
 greatly to be preferred, as, from their greater bulk, they are 
 more productive of manure, and go farther in supporting 
 live stock. In similar soils and situations, green crops will 
 furnish, at least, one-fourth, and in many cases, one-third 
 more putrescent manure, than can be obtained from the 
 straw of corn crops, grown on the same land. After green 
 crops also, the weight and quality of the next crop of corn, 
 are greatly improved, and it fetches a higher price at market. 
 
 2. The crops should be so arranged, that the labour of 
 ploughing for each, and of sowing, weeding, reaping, &c. 
 may proceed in a regular succession; by which the labour 
 of cultivation is not too much crowded on the farmer, at any 
 one season of the year, nor is any quantity of extra stock 
 rendered necessary. All the crops produced on the farm, 
 may thus be cultivated by the same labourers, (with the ex- 
 
460 
 
 On Rotations of Crops . 
 
 ception of hand-hoers in spring and summer, and assistants 
 during the harvest), and with the same cattle*. 
 
 3. All forcing crops, or frequent repetitions of the same 
 articles or species , should be avoided ; as a diminution both 
 in the quantity and the quality of the produce (except in 
 very rare instances), is the usual consequence. Indeed, in 
 soils of moderate fertility, as they are commonly cultivated, 
 the greater distance, at which the repetition of any sort of 
 crop can be kept, whether it be leguminous or culmiferous, 
 the better is it likely to provef . 
 
 4. Those crops should be raised which are the best calcu- 
 lated for the extirpation of weeds. The most effectual plan 
 for that purpose, would be, (except on the richest soils), to 
 cultivate a greater proportion of green crops, than of grain . 
 By this means, a constant succession of large products may 
 be secured];. 
 
 5. As a general system , the most productive rotation, on 
 a light soil, would be, 1. Winter tares, and turnips sown 
 early ; 2. Barley; 3. Clover, and rape in July , to destroy 
 the wire- worm ; and, 4. Wheat. — On strong soils, 1. Fal- 
 low, winter tares, or beans ; 2. Winter-sown wheat, drilled, 
 for the sake of the succeeding crop of seeds ; 3. Clover ; 
 and, 4. Oats. In regard to more protracted rotations, they 
 are objected to, as tending to render the land so foul, that 
 it is difficult to cleanse it thoroughly, without a complete 
 summer fallow. 
 
 It may be proper to add, that where the situation is high, 
 and the climate humid, it is essential, not only to fix on a 
 judicious rotation, but to raise those articles, which are most 
 likely to thrive, under the hazard of backward seasons. In 
 an upland farm, where the fixing of a proper rotation is of 
 peculiar importance, the following system was recommend- 
 ed by an eminent farmer : 1. Turnips; 2. Bear, or bigg; 
 3. Clover ; 4. Red oats, being the species of oat, from its 
 rapid growth, the best calculated for such situations. Instead 
 of the two- rowed barley, the four-rowed, or that inferior sort 
 called bear, or bigg (hordeum tetrastichon) , should always be 
 
 * A skilful farmer cultivates his wheat land in October; his beans in Ja- 
 nuary; his oats in March; his barley in April and May; and his turnips in 
 June or July ; all with the same cattle. — Gentleman Farmer, p. 336. 
 
 f Mr. Andrew of Tillilumb, near Perth, finds, that if clover be culti- 
 vated only once in eight year's, the produce is not only nearly double, but 
 that the succeeding crop of oat6 is better, by eight bushels per acre. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 196. For that purpose, tares and turnips, to suc- 
 ceed each other in the same year, are pre-eminent. 
 
On Rotations of Crops. 
 
 461 
 
 cultivated in unfavourable climates. Even in very high ele- 
 vations, where other crops have failed, rye will prosper. 
 If the soil be poor, it ought to be pastured for two years or 
 more, before it is broken up for oats. 
 
 On the whole, the convertible system of husbandry, 
 where a large proportion of a farm is cultivated for grain, 
 and the remainder is employed in raising grass and green 
 crops, is in general to be recommended. By the grain crops, 
 a sufficient quantity of straw is provided, partly to be used 
 as food, but principally, (under the improved system of 
 husbandry), to be employed as litter for cattle ; while at 
 thq same time, a fair profit is to be derived from the grain. 
 By the grass and green crops, a number of domesticated 
 animals are maintained, both in summer and winter ; and 
 when they are abundantly littered as well as fed, a regular 
 and sufficient supply of valuable manure is secured. Hence 
 it is, that alternate crops, for the food of man, and of the 
 inferior animals, is in general indispensable, for the profit- 
 able production of both corn, and of animal food on all 
 soils susceptible of cultivation. The superior advantages of 
 that system, can only be questioned by those, who have had 
 no opportunity of obtaining accurate information. These 
 departments of husbandry, when they are conjoined, instead 
 of being kept separate, reciprocally contribute to each other’s 
 prosperity*. 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 224. — The advantages of this 
 system are thus ably enforced by the intelligent Dr. Coventry. By selecting 
 the proper species of plants for culture, and pursuing a proper succession, 
 and regular order in raising them, land may be kept in a constant state of 
 fertility. In this way cultivators, in common situations, who may not have 
 an extraneous supply of manure, are able to sustain, and even to increase the 
 productiveness of their arable lands; while at the same time, the fullest effect 
 is given to the manure, when applied, by the soil being retained in a proper 
 state of texture and cleanness ; some species and proportion of crops, being 
 more deteriorating or hostile to good tilth and perfect cleanness, than 
 others. — Coventry's Discourses , p. 37. 
 
462 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ON GRASS LAND. 
 
 The variety of grasses , or esculent herbage, with which 
 our fields are generally clothed, whether produced by nature, 
 or by art, furnishes subsistence to a number of animals, sub- 
 servient to the human race. From them man derives food, 
 clothing, and other conveniences, in such abundance, that 
 the skilful management of grass land, (on which their sub- 
 sistence so much depends), is a subject of inquiry, which, 
 next to that of land in arable cultivation, is essential for the 
 interests of mankind. 
 
 But besides the immediate importance of grass, (more 
 especially since the use of animal food has so much in- 
 creased), its indirect effect on the production of corn, by 
 communicating additional fertility to the soil, in the alter- 
 nate courses of tillage and pasturage, is a most important 
 consideration. It seems indeed beyond a doubt, that the 
 soil not only obtains a recruit of food, for the nourishment 
 of grain when cultivated, from the decayed herbage rotting 
 on its surface, and the manure it obtains when pastured, 
 but also acquires, a consistence favourable to fertility, while 
 it remains in grass, defended from the variations of the sea- 
 sons, under the protection of a close carpet. 
 
 The different particulars regarding grass, may be compre- 
 hended under the following heads: Upland pastures; — 
 grass-lands of a medium quality ; — rich permanent pastures; 
 — the proper management of rich grazing lands; — that of 
 natural hay meadows, and the mode of converting their 
 produce into hay ; — rowen, or after-grass; — fogging grass- 
 lands; — transplanting turf; — cultivated grasses, and the 
 means of consuming their produce, either by soiling, or 
 making it into hay ; — and the conversion of arable into 
 grass- land, under the system of the alternate, or convertible 
 husbandry. 
 
 1 . Upland Pastures . 
 
 In several districts, where the management of stock is 
 the most systematically conducted, the farmers have greatly 
 improved upland pastures, by drawing surface-drains diago- 
 nally across the face of the hills, wherever injurious mois- 
 ture appears. The produce of these pastures are thus ren- 
 dered, not only more palatable and wholesome, but the 
 
On Grass Land . 
 
 463 
 
 waters, by being conducted gently downward, in different 
 small channels, are prevented from cutting those deep 
 chasms in the hill sides, by which, in the times of heavy 
 rain, the mountain pastures are often much injured*. 
 
 The next great improvement of which these tracts are 
 susceptible, is that of filling the soil, with the earliest and 
 most productive plants, that will grow in such soils and 
 climatesf. For that purpose, the ground, where it will 
 admit of cultivation, ought to be ploughed, and laid down, 
 after being limed, with the best grass-seeds, in particular 
 with the most useful varieties of rye-grass, (lolium perenne ) , 
 mixed with white clover, and the later flowering gramina. 
 
 Among the rules which judicious farmers practise, in re- 
 gard to the management of upland pastures, the following 
 deserve to be selected: 1. To inclose those pastures ; — as 
 the same extent of land, when sheltered, and properly 
 treated, will feed a greater quantity of stock, and to better 
 purpose, than when in an open and exposed state. 2. Not 
 to overstock upland pastures; — for when this is done, the 
 cattle are not only starved, and the quantity of herbage di- 
 minished, but the soil is impoverished. 3. When the pas- 
 ture ground is inclosed and subdivided, so as to admit of it, 
 the stock ought to be shifted from one inclosure to another, 
 at proper intervals ; giving the first of the grass to the fat- 
 tening, in preference to the rearing stock. This practice 
 tends to increase the quantity of grass, which has thus time 
 to get up ; and the ground being fresh and untainted, when 
 the stock return to it, more especially if rain has fallen, they 
 will feed with greater appetite and relish. 4. The dung 
 dropt by the stock, while feeding, should be spread about, 
 instead of its being suffered to remain, in a solid body, on 
 the place where it was dropt. 5. Where the large, and the 
 
 * Messrs. Howlan, at their Merino sheep farm in Ireland, have improved 
 20C acres, in the following manner : A horizontal drain is first formed, at a 
 considerable elevation on the hill, and a corresponding one at the bottom. 
 The intermediate space is scored with the plough merely, in such directions 
 as to catch the oozing from the upper drain, (which cuts off the water from a 
 peat bog at top), and to convey that, as well as the surface-water, to the 
 lower drain. — Then, in perpendicular and parallel compartments of 12 acres 
 each, they lay on rock lime, at the rate of 40 beer barrels, of 32 gallons each, 
 per acre, which is done at Is. per barrel, including carriage. This saves break- 
 ing up, and laying down ; and produces an immediate and wholesome pas- 
 ture ; — the lime causing the ground, though elevated, to yield white clover 
 in abundance. Under this management, without the aid of turnips, it car- 
 ries three sheep per acre all the summer. — Communication from the Rev . 
 Thomas Hadclijf. 
 
 *(' ft is remarked that hardy plants , are of a coarser quality, more fibrous, 
 less succulent, and less nutritious for live stock ; but these mu3t be resorted 
 to in upland and hilly countries. 
 
4(54 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 smaller kinds of stock, are to be fed on the same pastures* 
 the larger species should have the first bite ; and, 6. It is not 
 thought by some advisable, to pasture land with a mixed 
 collection of different species of live stock, unless the field 
 be extensive, or unless the herbage varies in different parts 
 of the field. It is generally found, that the grass produced 
 by the dung of cattle or horses, is injurious to sheep, pro- 
 ducing grass of too rich a quality, for that species of stock. 
 
 There is no mode by which such pastures are more effec- 
 tually improved, than by the application of lime, either 
 spread upon the surface*, or mixed with the soil. In the 
 latter case, it is essential, that the lime should be mixed 
 with the surface soil only ; as lime is apt to sink, if covered 
 deep by the plough. The coarse grasses would, in that 
 case, regain possession of the soil, and the dung afterwards 
 deposited by the cattle, will not enrich the land, in the 
 same manner, as if the lime had been incorporated with the 
 surface onlyf. 
 
 2. Grass Lands of a medium Quality . 
 
 There can hardly be a doubt, that a much larger propor- 
 tion of the United Kingdom than is at present so cultivated, 
 might be subject to the alternate system of husbandry, or 
 transferred from grass to tillage, and then restored to grass. 
 Much of the middling sorts of grass-lands, from 200 to 400 
 feet above the level of the sea, is of this description; and 
 all well-informed husbandmen, and friends to the general 
 prosperity of the country, regret, that such lands are left 
 in a state of unproductive pasturage, and excluded from 
 tillage J . 
 
 In consequence of a requisition from the House of Lords, 
 to the Board of Agriculture, in December 1800, a very ex- 
 tensive inquiry was made, “ into the best means of convert- 
 ing certain portions of grass-lands into tillage, without ex- 
 hausting the soil, and of returning the same to grass, after a 
 certain period, in an improved state, or at least without in- 
 jury and the information collected by the Board, upon 
 
 * Near Buxton, on the Devonshire estate, 1500 bushels of powdered or 
 slacked lime, per acre, have been applied to the surface. The cxpetice was 
 2d. per bushel, including leading and spreading. The effect, though slow, 
 was striking , the heath being exterminated by the lime, and succeeded by 
 a sweet and good herbage . — Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p.437. 
 
 Communication from Mr. Dawson of Graden ; Farmer’s Magazine, for 
 March 1812, p. 69. 
 
 J Coventry’s Discourses, p. 127. 
 
On Grass Land. 
 
 465 
 
 that subject, is in the highest degree satisfactory and im- 
 portant*. 
 
 From that inquiry it appears, that an acre of clover, tares, 
 rape, potatoes, turnips, cole, or cabbages, will furnish, at 
 least thrice as much food, as the same acre would have done, 
 had it remained in pasture of a medium quality ; and con- 
 sequently, that the same extent of land, would maintain, at 
 least as much stock as when in grass, besides producing, 
 every other year, a valuable crop of corn ; and this, inde- 
 pendently of the value of the straw, which, whether con- 
 sumed as litter, or as food for cattle, will add considerably 
 to the stock of manure'. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is necessary to attend to the 
 following particulars: 1. Whether any previous steps are 
 necessary, before lands in grass are broken up. 2. The 
 proper mode of effecting that object. 3. The course of 
 crops. 4. The manure necessary. 5. The system of ma- 
 nagement during the rotation. 6. The mode of laying 
 down the land again to grass. 7* That of sowing the grass- 
 seeds ; and, 8. The subsequent management. 
 
 1. If the land be wet, it is advisable to drain it com- 
 pletely, previous to its being broken up ; for it is not im- 
 probable, that its being kept in pasture, was partly on ac- 
 count of its wetness.. 
 
 Land that has been long in pasture, does not require dung, 
 during the first course of crops that is taken after being 
 broken up; but the application of calcareous manure is 
 always, in such cases, expedient. Sometimes lime is spread 
 on the ground, before it is ploughed ; at other times, when 
 it is either under summer fallow, or a drilled crop of turnips. 
 Marl and chalk also, have been used for the same purpose, 
 with great advantage. The land thence derives additional 
 strength and vigour; — the succeeding crops are much im- 
 proved ; — the soil is commonly so softened in its texture, 
 that it may be ploughed with half the strength that would 
 otherwise be necessary; — and whenever it is restored to 
 grass, the herbage is abundantf. 
 
 2, Wherever the soil is not too shallow, nor of a friable 
 nature, or when the turf cannot soon be rotted, if land is to 
 be broken up from old pasture, paring and burning is the 
 proper system to be adopted. In this way, good tilth is 
 speedily procured ; — the damage that might otherwise be 
 
 • It is printed in the third volume of the Communications to the Board. 
 
 + Essay by Mr. Bridge, of Winford ; Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture, vol. iii p. 612 . 
 
 H ll 
 
466 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 sustained by the grub, the wire-worm, and other insects, is 
 prevented -while the soil receives a stimulus, which in- 
 sures an abundant crop. 
 
 Where paring and burning, from any circumstance, can- 
 not take place, the land may be trenched or double-ploughed. 
 This is effected, by means of two ploughs following each 
 other, the first plough taking off a thin surface of about 
 three inches, and the second going deeper in the same place, 
 covering the surface sod with fine mould ; both furrows not 
 exceeding the thickness of the vegetable mould or other 
 good soil*. 
 
 If the land is ploughed with one furrow, the operation 
 ought to be performed before winter, that it may receive the 
 benefit of the succeeding frosts, by which the success of the 
 future operations will not only be promoted, but most of the 
 insects lodged in the soil will be destroyed. 
 
 When one furrow alone is taken, the best size is four 
 inches and a half deep by eight or nine broad. The strain 
 on horses, in ploughing ley land, is mostly from the depth. 
 
 3. The rotation of crops to be adopted, when grass lands 
 are broken up, must partly depend upon the soil, and partly 
 on the manner in which it is prepared for cultivation. As 
 a general principle, however, it may be laid down, that 
 unless, by the course of cropping to be pursued, the bad 
 grasses, and other plants indigenous in the soil, are extir- 
 pated, they will, when the land is again laid down to grass, 
 increase and prevail, with more rapidity and effect, than the 
 seeds chosen by the farmer; and the consequence must be, 
 a heavy disappointment in the future crops of grass, perhaps 
 solely, or at least principally attributable to a previous de- 
 fective managementf. It is necessary, therefore, to enter 
 into details upon this subject, as applicable to clay; — chalk; 
 — peat ; — loam ; — and sand. 
 
 Clay . — The process of conversion, in clayey soils, should 
 be commenced with paring and burning, especially where 
 the grub is suspected. The following course may then be 
 adopted : 1. Rape, fed with sheep ; 2. Beans ; 3. Wheat ; 
 4. Beans; 5. Wheat; 6. Fallow; 7* Wheat, sown with 
 grass-seeds. This may seem severe cropping, but is justi- 
 fied by experience, when old grass clay land is broken up. 
 
 * Duckett’s skim coulter plough does the same work, at one operation ; 
 but every farmer has not that tool in his possession ; and as it requires four 
 horses and two men, there is no saving in the use of it. 
 
 t Young’s Essay ; Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. 
 p. 1S1. 
 
On Grass Land # 
 
 467 
 
 If the land has not been pared and burnt, the first crop 
 ought to be either oats, or dibbled beans. To do justice to 
 the plan of restoring the land to grass, there ought to be, in 
 all cases, according to the soil, either a naked, or a turnip 
 fallow, before the sowing of grass-seeds be attempted. 
 
 But on mellow, loamy clay-land, consisting of fine old 
 grass pasture, where it is thought necessary or advisable to 
 break up such land, it should be done in detached pieces, 
 so as to suit the convenience of the occupier , and the fol- 
 lowing course should be adopted : 1 . Autumnal ploughing for 
 oats in spring; 2. Fallow for rape, to be eaten with sheep ; 
 
 3. Beans; 4. Wheat, sown with clover; 5. Clover; 6. Clo- 
 ver; 7. Wheat ; 8. Rape to be partially eaten, and hoed in 
 spring, and to stand for seed ; and 9. Wheat with grass 
 seeds. — This is a very profitable rotation, and applicable to 
 the best grazing land in Lincolnshire*. 
 
 Chalk. — Paring and burning is considered in this case to 
 be indispensable, as a preparation for turnips, which ought, 
 where manure can be got, to be raised two years in succes- 
 sion : then barley, — clover, — wheat ; and after one or two 
 additional crops of turnips, the land may be laid down with 
 sainfoin to great advantage. 
 
 Peat. — On this soil, paring and burning is essentially 
 necessary. Under a judicious system, the greatest and 
 quickest profit is thus secured to the farmer, with advantage 
 to the public, and without injury to the landlord. Draining, 
 also, must not be neglected. The crops to be grown on 
 peat soils, are, 1. Rape, or potatoes ; 2. Oats ; 3. Turnips ; 
 
 4. Oats or wheat, and 5. Clover, or grass-seeds. A liberal 
 application of lime, where it can be obtainedf, is of the 
 greatest service, in enabling such soils to bring corn to its 
 full perfection. 
 
 In the fens of Thorney, &c. the following course was re- 
 commended by the late Mr. Wing: 1. Paring and burning 
 for rape ; 2. Oats, and 3. Wheat with grass-seeds, if the 
 land was safe from water, the Lammas sort, if not, spring 
 wheat. This short course, he contended, preserved the land 
 in heart ; and it afterwards produced abundant crops of 
 grass. But long courses, in such a soil, run the land to 
 weeds and straw, without quality in the grainj. 
 
 Loam . — The courses of crops applicable to this soil, are 
 
 * Communication from Mr. Holdich. 
 
 f In Ireland, a quantity of limestone gravel answers the same purpose. — 
 Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 f Communication from Mr. Holdich. 
 
 h h 2 
 
468 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 too numerous to be here inserted. If the sward be friable, 
 the following rotation may be adopted : 1. Oats; 2. Tur- 
 nips; 3. Wheat, or barley ; 4. Beans ; 5. Wheat; 6. Fal- 
 low, or turnips; 7 * Wheat, or barley and grass-seeds. If 
 the sward be very tough and coarse, instead of taking oats, 
 it may be pared and burnt for turnips. 
 
 Sand . — On rich and deep sandy soils, the most valuable 
 crop that can be raised is carrots. For inferior sands, tur- 
 nips, to be eaten on the ground, then to be laid down with 
 barley and grass-seeds. 
 
 4. According to the improved system of laying down 
 lands to grass, land ought to be made as clean and fertile as 
 possible. With that view, all the green crops raised, ought 
 to be consumed upon the ground ; fallow, or fallow crops, 
 ought not to be neglected, and the whole straw of the corn 
 crops, should be converted into manure, and applied to the 
 soil that produced it. Above all, the mixing of calcareous 
 matter with the sjuil, either previous to, or during the course 
 of cropping, is essential. Nothing generally improves mea- 
 dows or pastures more than lime or marl. They sweeten 
 the herbage, render it more palatable to stock, and give it 
 more nourishing properties. 
 
 5. When turnips are raised upon light land, sheep should 
 be folded on them ; whereas, if the land be strong or wet, 
 the crop should be drawn, and fed in some adjoining grass 
 field, or in sheds. If the land be in high condition, it is 
 customary to cart off half the turnips, and eat the other on 
 the ground. But this is not a plan to be recommended on 
 poor soils. 
 
 6. It has been disputed, whether grass-seeds should be 
 sown with, or without corn. In favour of the first practice, 
 that of uniting the two crops, it is maintained, that where 
 equal pains are taken, the future crop of grass will succeed 
 equally well, as if they had been sown separately; while the 
 same tilth answers for both*. On the other hand, it is ob- 
 served, that as the land must, in that case, be put into the 
 best possible order, there is a risk, that the corn crop will 
 grow so luxuriantly, as to overpower the grass-seeds, and, 
 at any rate, will exclude them from the benefit of the air 
 and the dews. If the season also, be wet, a corn crop is 
 apt to lodge, and the grass will, in a great measure, be de- 
 stroyed. On soils moderately fertile, the grasses have a 
 
 * Young’s Essay; Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. 
 p. 142. 
 
On Grass Land. 
 
 46 9 
 
 better chance of sucseeding ; but then, it is said, that the 
 land is so much exhausted by producing the corn crops, 
 that it seldom proves good grass land afterwards*. In 
 answer to these objections, it has been urged, that where, 
 from the richness of the soil, there is any risk of sowing a 
 full crop of corn, less seed is used, even as low as one-third 
 of the usual quantity ; and that a moderate crop of grain, 
 nurses the young plants of grass, and protects them from 
 the rays of a hot sun, without producing any material 
 injury. 
 
 Where the two crops are united, barley is the preferable 
 grain, except on peat. Barley has a tendency to loosen the 
 texture of the ground in which it grows, which is favourable 
 to the vegetation of grass-seeds. In the choice of barley, 
 that sort should be preferred, which runs least to straw, and 
 which is the soonest ripe. On peat, a crop of oats is to be 
 preferredf . 
 
 7. The manner of sowing the grass-seeds, also, requires to 
 be particularly attended to. Machines have been invented for 
 that purpose, which answer well, but they are unfortunately 
 too expensive for the generality of farmers. It is a bad 
 system, to mix seeds of different plants before sowing them, 
 in order to have the fewer casts. It is better, to sow each 
 sort separately, for the expence of going several times over 
 the ground, is nothing, compared to the benefit of having 
 each sort equally distributed. The seeds of grasses being 
 so light, ought never to be sown in a windy day, except by 
 machinery, an equal delivery being a point of great conse- 
 quence. Wet weather ought likewise to be avoided, as the 
 leist degree of poaching is injurious. Grass* seeds ought to 
 be well harrowed, according to the nature of the soilj. 
 
 8. When the corn is carried off', the young crop of grass 
 should be but little fed during autumn, and that only in dry 
 weather; but heavily rolled in the following spring, in order 
 to press the soil home to the roots. It is then to be treated 
 as permanent pasture§. 
 
 By attention to these particulars, the far greater propor- 
 tion of the meadows and pastures in the kingdom, of an in- 
 
 * Remark by Edward Burroughs, Esq. — This intelligent agriculturist has 
 tried several experiments, which convince him, that sowing grass-seeds, 
 without a crop of corn, is best calculated for the climate of Ireland, where 
 there is such a risk, if the corn crop is very abundant, that it will be lodged 
 in autumn. 
 
 f The Rev. Dr. Cartwright’s Essay ; Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 184. 
 
 I Middlesex Report, p. 302. ■§ Ditto, p. 302. 
 
470 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 ferior, or even medium quality, may be broken up, not only 
 with safety, but with great profit to all concerned. 
 
 3. Rich Permanent Pastures. 
 
 There are various sorts of grass lands that ought not to 
 be broken up; as water-meadows ; — salt-marshes; — lands 
 apt to be overflowed ; — lands near large populous towns, 
 where the produce of grass land is always in demand, and 
 consequently dear ; — and low lying tracts, in the valleys of 
 mountainous countries, (particularly in chalky districts), 
 where old meadow land is scarce, and where a portion of it, 
 to raise early and late food for slock, gives a great addi- 
 tional value to the adjoining upland. But whether rich 
 lands , which have long remained in grass, and continue pro- 
 ductive, should ever be converted into tillage, is a question 
 respecting which a great diversity of opinion has been en- 
 tertained. 
 
 In order that the reader may be the better enabled to de- 
 termine a question so much controverted, we shall proceed 
 to give a concise description, of the nature and quality of 
 the several sorts of land, usually retained in the state of 
 permanent pasture ; the conversion of which into tillage, 
 has been so much deprecated ; and also a short state- 
 ment of the advantages which such lands are supposed to 
 possess. 
 
 The lands considered as best adapted for permanent 
 pasture, are of three kinds : 1 . Strong tenacious clays, unfit 
 for turnips, or barley ; which are said to improve the more, 
 the longer they are kept under a judicious system in grass*. 
 2. Soft clayey loams, with a clayey or marly bottom or sub- 
 stratumf ; and, 3. Rich sound deep-soiled land, or vale 
 land, enriched by nature at the expence of the higher 
 
 * This assertion is thus explained. In the course of years, on the surface 
 of such a soil, there is formed a rich, light, black mould, two or three inches 
 in thickness, which is the matrix of these rich grasses. When the soil is 
 ploughed up, this valuable surface is mingled with the colder and less fertile 
 strata below, and cannot be renewed for many years. Youngs Essay; Com- 
 munications, vol. iii. p. 191. — It is contended, on the other hand, that strong 
 clays do improve, when first sown down with grass , and that by repeated 
 trials, it has been completely ascertained, that such soils will yield as much 
 grass the first year after they are sown, as in the two following years. 
 Hence, instead of keeping them in grass, it is desirable, frequently to break 
 them up, and to stock them with fresh plants. — Communication from Robert 
 Brown , Esq . of Marlde . — But the question is, if a rich surface has been yot, 
 should it be destroyed ? 
 
 f Wilkes’s Essay ; Communications to the Board, vol. iii. p. 319. 
 
On Grass Land. 471 
 
 grounds, generally lying in a situation favourable with re- 
 spect to climate*. 
 
 The advantages of such pastures are represented in the 
 strongest light. It is affirmed, that they feed cattle to a 
 greater weight ; — that they are not so easily scorched by the 
 summer’s drought ; — that the grasses are more nutritive 
 both for sheep and cattle ; — that milch cows fed upon them 
 give richer milk, and more butter and cheese ; — that the 
 hoofs of all animals pastured on them are much better pre- 
 served ; — that they produce a greater variety of grasses; — 
 that when properly laid down, they yield a succession of 
 pasture throughout the whole season ; — that the herbage is 
 sweeter, and more easily digested ; — and that they return an 
 immense produce at a trifling expence. 
 
 To break up lands possessing these advantages, it is said, 
 can only be justified by the most urgent public necessity, 
 and to prevent the horrors of famine. 
 
 The real value of such lands will appear, by considering 
 their rent and produce. 
 
 The grass lands in Lincolnshire, are accounted the richest 
 in the kingdom. The rents are various, from 1 /. 15s. to 31. 
 per acre, and the value of the produce from 31. per acre, to 
 30/. 8s. This produce arises from beef, mutton, and wool, 
 and is obtained, subject to little variation from the nature of 
 the seasons, and at a trifling expence. 
 
 The stock maintained per acre on the best grazing lands , 
 surpasses what could be fed by any arable produce f. It is 
 not at all uncommon to feed, at the rate of, from six to 
 seven sheep, in summer; and about two sheep in winter. 
 The sheep, when put on the grass, may weigh from 18 lbs. 
 to 20 lbs. per quarter, and the increase of weight would be 
 at the rate of 4 lbs. per quarter, or 16 lbs. per sheep. But 
 suppose, in all, only 100 lbs. at 8 d. per pound, that would 
 amount to 3/. 17$. 10cl. The wool would be worth about 
 two guineas more, besides the value of the winter keep, and 
 the total may be stated at about seven pound per acre, got 
 at little expence. Such lands, it is evident, cannot be better 
 employed than in feeding stocky. 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 125, note; Wilkes of Measham’s Essay, Com- 
 munications, vol. iii. p. 319. In that kind of soil, no cracks or fissures are to 
 be met with, even in the driest summers. — Lincoln Report , p. 72. 
 
 In Scotland, such rich grazing land as that to be met with in England, 
 is hardly known. “ The richness of the soil is hardly credible to those who 
 have not seen it.” — West Riding Report , Appendix, p. 5, and p. 9. 
 
 X Lincoln Report, p.219. In'the dairy, good grazing land will produce 
 5 cwt. of cheese per acre. Wilkes’* Essay; Comm. vol. iii. p. 320; Derby- 
 
47*2 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 Grass land of the first and second kinds, the tenacious 
 clays , and heavy loams , when brought, in a succession of 
 years, or perhaps of ages, into a state of great productive- 
 ness, cannot be ploughed, without the risk of great injury, 
 and are more profitable, in the production of herbage, than 
 they could be in the production of grain. 
 
 Lands of the third kind, or the deep-soiled sound vale 
 lands, would be productive of corn if ploughed ; but would 
 probably be injured by cultivation ; from their texture being 
 altered, and rendered unduly loose and open by tillage; — 
 from the native plants being more or less destroyed or en- 
 feebled ; — and from the great decomposition, and waste of 
 the principles of fertility resident in the soil*. 
 
 The extent of these three descriptions of land, however, 
 is not so great, that the advantages of breaking them up, 
 could probably ever be a national object ; or worth the risk 
 of injuring their future productiveness in grass. But there 
 are pasture lands of an inferior sort, which are too apt to 
 be confounded with those already described, and respecting 
 the propriety of occasionally appropriating them to arable 
 culture, there can hardly be a doubt. Such lands do not 
 depend upon their intrinsic fertility, but upon annual sup- 
 plies of manure, derived from the arable land in their neigh- 
 bourhood f. 
 
 The question then is, whether it is most for the advantage 
 of the parties interested, that one half of a farm should be 
 in perpetual grass, and the other half in perpetual cultiva- 
 tion ; or the whole alternately, under grass and grain, and 
 subjected to convertible husbandry, with the exception of 
 the rich grazing lands above described ? 
 
 The objections to the division of a farm, one-half into 
 permanent grass, and the other half into permanent tillage , 
 are very great. The arable is deteriorated, by the abstrac- 
 tion of the manure it produced, if applied to enrich the 
 grass ; while a part of the manure thus employed, is wasted; 
 
 shire Report, vol. iii. p. 44. In general, however, 4cwt. of cheese, is con- 
 sidered to be a fair produce. The strongest grazing lands do not produce 
 cheese of the best quality. 
 
 * Coventry’s Discourses, p. 125, note. It is not improbable, that such 
 soils would be found admirably calculated for lucern, the produce of which 
 would be much more valuable than any crop they can yield in their pre- 
 sent state. 
 
 f The economy of procuring hay from meadow grounds, recruited by 
 top-dressings, is doubtful; and this valuable article, had better, in most 
 instances, (in nineteen out of twenty), be raised from lands, usually under 
 tillage, and yielding our ordinary arable crops, in some regular order. — • 
 
 Coventry'^ J) iicwrscs, p. 100. 
 
On Grass Land, 
 
 473 
 
 for spreading putrescent substances upon the surface of a 
 field, if done at an improper season , is to manure, not only 
 the soil, but the atmosphere* * * § . The miserable crops of corn 
 produced, where this system prevails, sufficiently prove its 
 mischievous consequences. 
 
 So injurious is this mode of management, that of im- 
 poverishing the arable land, for the sake of the grass, that 
 in the opinion of experienced farmers, the landlord loses 
 one-fourth of the rent he otherwise would get, for every 
 acre thus debarred from cultivation; while the public is 
 deprived of bushels of grain, for every stone of beef or 
 mutton thereby obtained f. 
 
 This is a point that cannot be too much inculcated, in a 
 country increasing in population, and which finds it neces- 
 sary, to import foreign grain, for the maintenance of its inha- 
 bitants. For with the exception of rich pastures, arable 
 land is, on an average, superior to grass-land, with respect 
 to furnishing articles of human food, in the proportion of 
 three to one]; ; and consequently every piece of land, unne- 
 cessarily kept in grass, the produce of which will only 
 maintain one person, is depriving the community of food, 
 capable of maintaining two additional members. Many 
 respectable farmers, however, are partial to the top-dressing 
 of meadows, and of pastures, with dung, and where it can 
 be accomplished, without robbing the arable land, the objec- 
 tions to it may be got over by judicious management. Mr. 
 Middleton recommends for that purpose, that the dung 
 should be spread on the grass land in October , just before 
 the expected falls of rain, which generally occur at that 
 season of the year, and which will wash the dung into the 
 soil. The loss would not then be material, and might be 
 totally avoided, if composts were made use of§. 
 
 Landlords, in many parts of England, are apt to be 
 apprehensive, that their interests may suffer from a change 
 
 * Berwickshire Report, p. 136. — The loss is less material, when the dung 
 is spread on the grass land in October , just before the expected fall of rain 
 sufficient to wash it into the soil. — Remark by John Middleton , Esq. 
 
 f See the opinions of Mr. Rennie of Phantassie, and Mr. Brown of 
 Markle. — Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 35, 37. 
 
 t Young’s Essay, Comm. vol. iii. p. 110. 
 
 § The practice of top-dressing has become very general in Ireland. The 
 manure is turned out in the months of August or September, and it is found 
 that land so treated continues a long time fertile. It is there considered to 
 be an advantageous mode of reclaiming grass-lands, and should compost 
 manure be used, instead of pure dung, it will make the improvement cheaper 
 and more effectual. — Remark by Edu ard Burroughs , Esq . 
 
474 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 of system*; and it is much to be lamented, that the law 
 scarcely does afford them adequate protection for their pro- 
 perty, against tenants who are inclined to break through 
 their engagements. Were it not for this circumstance, the 
 interests of the landlord might be sufficiently guarded against 
 injury, by judicious covenants, and by prescribing an im- 
 proved management. A regular system of convertible 
 husbandry, might thus be established, by which the value 
 of landed property, would not only be greatly augmented, 
 but the true interests of the country be most essentially 
 promoted. 
 
 The principal objection, to the conversion of old turf into 
 arable land, arises, from an alleged inferiority in the new, 
 when compared to the old herbage; a complaint, which 
 probably originates, either from the improper choice of 
 seeds, or from giving them in too small quantities, thus 
 favouring the growth of weeds. A gentleman who had a 
 large farm, principally consisting of strong rich clay, (every 
 field of which, with hardly an exception, he occasionally 
 broke up), was accustomed to lay them down with a crop of 
 barley, and to sow fourteen pounds of white clover, a peck 
 of rib-grass, and three quarters of hay-seeds per acre. By 
 this liberal allowance of seed, he always secured a thick 
 coat of herbage the first year, which differed from old pas- 
 ture, only in being more luxuriant. Such lands, therefore, 
 under judicious management, will rarely be injured by the 
 plough. When laid down from tillage into grass, they may 
 not carry, for the first year or two, such heavy cattle as they 
 would afterwards, but they will support more in number , 
 though of a smaller sizef, and bring a greater weight of 
 butcher meat to market. 
 
 It is often desirable, to keep one or two moderate-sized 
 inclosures, of from ten to twenty acres, according to the 
 size of the farm, in perennial pasture, for the feeding of 
 cattle and sheep ; and as a resource for the stock to go to, 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 39, and 175. 
 
 f Dr. Cartwright’s Essay; Communications to the Board of Agriculture, 
 vol. iii. p. 131. The Doctor is certain, that three quarters of hay-seeds were 
 used per acre, collected from common meadow-hay, probably one half of 
 which had lost the power of vegetation, by being overheated in the stack, 
 and a great portion of the remainder had never been sufficiently ripe. 
 Hence the necessity of sowing what appears to be such a superabundant 
 quantity. The price was then, (about 50 years ago), from 3s. to 4 j. 6d. per 
 quarter. It is a pity, that instead of a mixture of hay-seeds, in so imperfect 
 a state, persons were not employed to collect only those worth the sowing, 
 and perfectly ripe. 
 
On Grass Land . 
 
 475 
 
 in case of a severe spring, or summer drought ; but the re- 
 taining of any considerable portion of a farm in old turf, or 
 permanent pasture, unless of the richest quality, is, in 
 general, injurious to the landlord, the tenant, and the public. 
 The value of any estate, where the system of permanent 
 pasture has been carried to an unreasonable extent, may be 
 easily and greatly augmented, by appropriating the manure 
 of the farm, to turnips and other green crops, and by the 
 adoption of the convertible system of husbandry. 
 
 There are many cases, however, where this doctrine, 
 though in general to be recommended, ought not to be car- 
 ried to an extreme. It is remarked, that in Norfolk, where 
 the land is commonly light, and where sheep are both bred 
 and fed upon the same farm, a proportion of permanent pas- 
 ture is essential. Much injury in particular has been sus- 
 tained, by breaking up permanent pastures, on such soils, 
 more especially when subject to rectorial tithes. Many 
 lands of an inferior soil, which kept two sheep on an acre, 
 paying only vicarial tithes, and rented at ten shillings per 
 acre, since they have been broken up, cannot pay, even 
 without rent, the tithe of corn, and the expence of cultiva- 
 tion. A farm in general lets best, with a fair proportion of 
 grass land upon it, which admits of a mixed management, 
 in consequence of which, if one object fail, another may be 
 successful*. 
 
 4, On the Management of Rich Grazing Land . 
 
 The rules for the management of rich grazing land, are 
 neither numerous, nor difficult to execute. 
 
 1. The sorts of manure, and the season for applying them 
 to grass land, are first to be considered. Light dressings, 
 such as soot, coal-ashes, peat or wood ashes, lime, malt- 
 dust, &c. are often highly beneficial, if applied in February 
 or March, when the weather is dry enough to admit the ap- 
 plication, without poaching the ground; but as they do not 
 suit all soils, their efficacy should be tried by experiments, 
 before much expence is incurredf. As there are strong 
 objections to the application of pure dung to grass lands, 
 (much of its strength being evaporated, from its being ex- 
 
 * Communication from Mr. Blaikie at Holkham. 
 + Young’s Calendar, p. 87. 
 
476 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 posed to atmospheric influence* * * § ), composts are greatly to 
 be preferred. They may be applied, at the rate of from 30 
 to 40 cubic yards per acre. To keep grass land in good 
 condition, a dressing to this amount, is required every four 
 years f. The application of un mixed putrescent manure, 
 will thus be rendered unnecessary^, which ought at least to 
 be avoided, in meadows appropriated for the feeding of 
 dairy cows, from its affecting the quality of the milk. 
 
 2. Attention to the weeding of grass lahds, has been 
 already recommended§. It is likewise necessary to clear 
 them of all rubbish likely to affect the young grass, such as 
 the cones of ant-hills sticks and bushes left after hedging, 
 or strewed by the wind also, every thing that may injure 
 the stock, if pastured, or that can obstruct the scythe, 
 should it happen to be used. If mole-hills are spread about 
 with a spade, or bush-harrow, the grass will be improved ||. 
 
 3. Rolling was formerly considered as indispensable, in 
 the management of grass lands, tending to smooth and 
 consolidate the surface to prevent the formation of ant- 
 hills ; —to promote the growth of valuable herbage $ — and 
 to render the effects of drought less pernicious. But scari- 
 fying the turf with a plough, consisting only of coulters, 
 or harrow-teeth, so that the whole surface may be cut or 
 torn, is to be recommended, when the pastures are hide- 
 bound. That tenacious state, rolling tends to increase ; 
 whereas by scarifying, the surface is loosened, and the roots 
 acquire new means of improved vegetation. This opera- 
 tion seems particularly useful, when it precedes the ma- 
 
 * In the northern counties of England, it is usual to cart the dung on their 
 pasture land, in time of frost, that they may not injure the sward, and having 
 more leisure at that period of the year. This practice is justly reprobated by 
 the intelligent Dr. Fenwick. While the frost lasts, the land can derive no ad- 
 vantage from the manure, and when a thaw supervenes, it is evident, that the 
 wash from melting snow, or from the rains which generally fall in such 
 weather, must deprive the mass of every part that is soluble : the ground, 
 in the mean time, retains the frost for many days, and is therefore incapable 
 of absorbing the wet, which falls upon its surface ; and even when the influ- 
 ence of the milder air has reached it, can imbibe but little, being in gene- 
 ral previously filled with water, and the quantity which flows over it, being 
 too great for the soil, under any circumstances, to drink up. — Dr. Fenwick's 
 Essays, p. 23. 
 
 t See Greenall’s Observations on Composts; Comm. vol. iii. p. 290; also 
 Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 184. 
 
 + Those who apply putrescent manures, with the best effect, prefer mo- 
 derately moist and warm weather, that the dung may be quickly covered. — 
 Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p. 185. 
 
 § Chap. 111. Sect. 7. || Young’s Calendar, p. 221. 
 
On Grass Land. 
 
 477 
 
 nuring of grass-lands ; for if well scarified, the ground is so 
 opened, that any manure spread on it, gets at once to the 
 roots, consequently a small quantity thus applied, goes as 
 far, as a larger one laid on in the old mode, and without 
 such an operation. 
 
 4. When land of a retentive quality, is pastured by cattle 
 or horses in wet seasons, it receives much injury from their 
 feet. Every step they take, leaves an impression, which 
 rain fills with water, and then the hole stands full like a 
 cup. This wetness destroys the herbage, not only in the 
 hole, but that also which surrounds it, while at the same 
 time, the roots of the grasses, as well as the ground, are 
 chilled and injured. No good farmer, therefore, will per- 
 mit any cattle to set a foot on such land in wet weather, 
 and few during the winter months, on any consideration. 
 Sheep are generally allowed to pasture on young grasses in 
 dry weather, from the end of autumn to the beginning of 
 March ; they are then removed ; and it rarely happens, that 
 any animal is admitted, till the weather be dry, and the sur- 
 face so firm, as to bear their pressure, without being poached 
 or injured. 
 
 5. One of the greatest difficulties in the management of 
 old pasture lands, is, to prevent that immense growth of 
 mosses, ( hypna ), by which the finer species of grasses are 
 apt to be overwhelmed. Drainage, and the use of rich 
 composts, are in this case necessary. Harrowing, and cross- 
 harrowing, with a common harrow, loaded with a weight, 
 so as to go from one to two inches deep, with a sprinkling 
 of grass-seeds afterwards, and some lime*, or well prepared 
 compost, are the most likely means of destroying the moss, 
 and improving the pasture. Feeding sheep with oil-cake, 
 and allowing them to pasture on the land, has also been 
 found effectual for the destruction of moss, and bringing up 
 abundance of grassf . But the radical remedy is, to plough 
 up such grass lands, upon the first appearance of moss, or 
 before it has made any considerable progress. 
 
 6. Rich pastures, in general, should rarely be mown. 
 Many valuable marsh-lands have been injured by that prac- 
 tice, for they seldom afterwards fatten stock so wellj. If 
 cut, the mowing should take place early in the season, be- 
 fore the grass-seeds ripen, and the aftermath should only 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 196. 
 
 *h Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 + Lincoln Report, p. 222. — Any patches of coarse grass may be removed 
 by the scythe. 
 
478 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 be fed lightly by sheep, whose droppings are more fertiliz- 
 ing, and do not scald the crop, as those of black cattle. 
 
 In some cases, however, rich grass lands, when annually 
 mown , become subject to weeds ; for it tends to encourage 
 moss, and gives advantage to the stronger rooted grasses, 
 which gradually change, and deteriorate the nature and 
 quality of the herbage. The bottom becomes thin, the 
 white clover disappears, and coarser plants occupy the 
 ground. When this takes takes place, the pasture should 
 be fed, instead of being mown, for the space of two or three 
 years, until the weeds have been subdued, and the finer 
 grasses re-appear # . 
 
 In regard to the plan of mowing and feeding alternately, 
 it is a point much disputed among intelligent agriculturists. 
 By adopting that system, a farmer, it is said, may go on 
 longer, without the application of manure, but his fields, in 
 the end, will be ruined by it. It is contended, that to 
 maintain a proper quantity of stock, the land must be ac- 
 customed to keep it, particularly in the case of sheep ; — 
 that where land has been used to the scythe, if manured for 
 pastures, it will often produce more grass, but that grass 
 will not (c ceteris paribus), support so much stock, nor fatten 
 them nearly so well ; — and that old pasture will not produce 
 so much hay, as land that has been constantly mowed ; for 
 each will grow best as they have been accustomed to grow, 
 and will not readily alter their former habitsf. On the other 
 hand, it is asserted, that many experienced farmers, prefer 
 the system of feeding and mowing alternately, as they find, 
 that under that system, the quality and quantity of the hay 
 has been improved ; and the pasturage, in the alternate 
 year, has been equally sweet and productive};. 
 
 7. It is a most important point to ascertain, in what 
 cases cutting, or feeding, is most beneficial. If fed, the 
 land has the advantage of the dung and urine of the pas- 
 turing stock; but the dung being dropt in irregular quan- 
 tities, and in the heat of summer, when it is devoured by 
 insects, loses much of its utility. If the dung arising from 
 the herbage, whether consumed in soiling, or as hay, were 
 applied to the land, in one body, and at the proper season. 
 
 * Communication from Mr. Holdich. 
 
 -f- Essay by Charles Goring, Esq. ; Communications to the Board, vol. iii. 
 p. 191. — This rule ought probably to be adopted with respect to the pastures 
 of Rutlandshire, let to cottagers for keeping their cows, see Chap. II. Sect. 5, 
 p. 86. 
 
 X Communication from Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
On Grass Land . 
 
 479 
 
 the operation would be more effectual. The smother of a 
 thick crop, continued for any time upon the ground, greatly 
 tends to promote its fertility ; and it has been pretty uni- 
 formly found, after repeated trials, upon soils of almost every 
 description, that oats taken after clover that has been cut, 
 either for soiling or hay, is superior to the crop taken after 
 clover pastured by sheep* * * § . 
 
 5. Of Natural Hay Meadows . 
 
 There are three descriptions of these meadows : — 1 . On 
 the banks of streams and rivers ; 2. On the uplands, or 
 more elevated grounds ; and, 3. Bog meadows. 
 
 1. Were the water-side, or low flat meadows judiciously 
 inundated, when the stream is turbid with earth, or ma- 
 nure washed into it from the country through which it 
 passes, they would reach a high degree of fertility! ; but 
 being rarely protected by embankments, and frequently 
 overflowed at improper seasons, the soil is often chilled ; — 
 the best grasses destroyed, and a worthless herbage be- 
 comes substituted in their place. This is particularly the 
 case with common-field meadows, whose drainage is like- 
 wise in general neglected. Such meadows, produce about 
 a ton of ordinary hay, and let for about 25s. per acre. If 
 they were inclosed, embanked, and properly drained, they 
 would probably be as well worth from 3 1. to 41. per acrej. 
 
 In some cases, low flat meadows have been improved by 
 the application of sand, at the rate of from 10 to 15 tons 
 per acre ; but the sand must be spread carefully, and applied 
 at different seasons, so as to prevent any risk of the grass 
 being smothered by an unequal distribution^ 
 
 The advantage of protecting such meadows from useless, 
 and often ruinous inundations||, having been already treated 
 of (Chap. III. p. 285), it is unnecessary to dwell upon the 
 
 • See the evidence of this fact, on the authority of Mr. Brown of Markle 
 and Mr. Hume of East-Barns. Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 13; also 
 
 Young’s Calendar, p. 357. — This is confirmed by the experience of Mr. John 
 Webb . — Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 158. 
 
 + Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 494. X Middlesex Report, p. 219. 
 
 § This plan has been tried in Norfolk, with very great success. Meadows 
 have there been done over with sand, by which the quantity and the quality 
 of the grass were greatly improved ; whereas a portion of the same meadow, 
 left in its former state, was quite worthless. 
 
 || In Derbyshire, as a protection of stock from inundations, it is not un- 
 common to raise mounds of earth in each meadow, two or three yards high, 
 for the cattle to retire to, in case of a sudden fiood. — Report , vol. ii. p. 1 76 ; 
 they are called “ safety-mounds .” 
 
480 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 subject in this place. The management of upland mea- 
 dows producing natural grasses, shall therefore be discussed. 
 
 2. The upland meadows of Middlesex contain about 
 70,000 acres, or T 7 ^ parts of that county. The soil being 
 of a tough and gluey nature, and much mixed with flinty 
 gravel, was ill adapted to tillage ; but having been cleared 
 of rubbish, and laid down to grass, and manured by the rich 
 dung of the metropolis, in a higher degree than any other 
 meadow land in the kingdom, it became, and has long con- 
 tinued to be, meadow of the first quality. 
 
 Manure is almost invariably laid on the meadow land of 
 Middlesex, about the month of October, while it is suffici- 
 ently dry to bear the drawing of loaded carts without injury, 
 and when the heat of the day is so moderated, as not to ex- 
 hale the volatile parts of the dung*. At that season of the 
 year, rains generally occur, which force the dung into the 
 soil. Where such quantities of dung can be had, the same 
 caution in the use of it, or the mixing it in composts, is not 
 so necessary as in other cases. 
 
 This extensive tract of clay land , would have been of 
 very little value, if attempted to be kept in cultivation. The 
 difficulty in tilling it,— the expensive teams which must have 
 been employed to subdue land of a quality so peculiarly 
 stubborn,— -the short periods in the year when it could be 
 ploughed with success, — and the uncertain produce of such 
 a soil, are circumstances, which would have greatly kept 
 down its value; but converted into permanent meadow, and 
 enjoying the advantages of vicinity to the metropolis, (which 
 renders grass land more valuable than arable), its rent has 
 been raised from 31. to 5 /., or 6/., and, in some cases, to Jl. 
 per acre. Nay, a few acres, for accommodation, have 
 fetched as high as 10/. On a medium of seasons, this land 
 produces, besides the aftermath, two tons of hay per acre, 
 of the very best quality, for the feed of horsesf. 
 
 Meadow land for cows, is generally mown two, or even 
 three times in a summer. The grass is rarely permitted to 
 stand till the seedling stems fully rise, the great object, in 
 this case, being, to procure hay of a soft grassy quality. It 
 is generally mown the first time each season, early in May, 
 from two to four weeks sooner than it would be advisable 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 223. 
 
 f The excellent quality of the hay, in these meadows, is supposed to be 
 greatly owing to the absence of broad and thick-leaved plants. They are 
 apt to turn black, mould in the stack, and greatly injure the whole crop.— 
 Derbyshire Report^ vol. ii. p. 197. 
 
On Grass Land. 
 
 481 
 
 to do, if the hay were intended for the support of horses*. 
 In all other cases, good farmers never think of mowing their 
 meadow lands more than once a year, unless they have, or 
 can easily procure, dung sufficient to cover the ground, im- 
 mediately after the second mowing. In general, where hay 
 for horses is the object, it is thought most advisable, to 
 mow but once, and to feed all the after-grass, with a view 
 of increasing the principal crop of the following yearf. 
 
 The mode of making hay in Middlesex, being considered 
 the most systematic and perfect of any hitherto known, a 
 general account of it shall be given in the Appendix. 
 
 Stacking Hay . — This important operation is done, in 
 many parts of England, with peculiar care and dexterity. 
 The stacks are frequently round, and the sides, and part of 
 the roof, is brought to the most regular form, by hand-pull- 
 ing, so that no rain makes any impression upon the stack. 
 The hay thus pulled, is used to top the stack or cock ; and, 
 on the whole, answers the purpose better than straw, which 
 is not so pliable, and unless done with great attention, is 
 apt to admit water J. 
 
 Sailing Hay . — The salting of hay, at the time of stack- 
 ing, has been practised in Derbyshire§, and in the North 
 Riding of Yorkshire||. The salt, particularly when applied 
 to the second crop of. clover, or when the crop has received 
 much rain, checks the fermentation, and prevents moulding. 
 If straw be mixed with the hay, the heating of the stack is 
 still further prevented, by the straw imbibing the moisture. 
 Cattle will eat, not only such salted hay, but'even the straw 
 mixed with it, more eagerly, than better hay not salted, and 
 also thrive as well upon it. The quantity recommended is, a 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 224. 
 
 Mr. Curwen does npt view these meadows in the vicinity of London, 
 in the same favourable light, as the intelligent Reporter of Middlesex; on 
 the contrary, he laments, that so much rich ground, surrounding the me- 
 tropolis, should principally be dedicated to the production of hay, instead 
 of being applied to the raising of green crops, when manure is ready and on 
 the spot, without distant carting; which in other districts, is often carried 
 above twenty miles, for that special purpose. Every field now permanently 
 appropriated to hay meadows, might, he maintains, under proper manage- 
 ment, be made to produce turnips, tares, and wheat ; by which the pro- 
 duce of food from the soil, would be augmented above four fold , not in 
 quantity only, but in effect. There can be no doubt, that every acre near 
 London, might be made to yield from thirty to forty tons of green food, in- 
 stead of its present produce, in dried hay, of about two tons per acre; and 
 the addition of a little aftermath, from which little profit is derived.— Report , 
 p. 68. 
 
 X Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 180. § Ditto, vol. ii. p. 182. 
 
 || North Riding Report, p. 177. Perhaps it would prevent firing entirely. 
 
482 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 peck of ground rock salt, to a ton of hay. By this applica- 
 tion, hay that had been flooded, was preferred by cattle to 
 the best hay that had not been salted. 
 
 Bog Meadows. 
 
 In many of the hilly and pastoral districts of the kingdom, 
 bog meadows are still considered by the farmer, as an im- 
 portant acquisition. In some cases, the grass is of so soft a 
 quality, that it is difficult to convert it into hay. To pre- 
 vent its being consolidated in the cocks, it must be fre- 
 quently opened up, and when the weather permits, com- 
 pletely exposed to the sun and wind ; this sort of grass, 
 being only capable of sustaining a very moderate degree of 
 fermentation. 
 
 When the natural herbage, however, is of a coarser de- 
 scription, it may be put into small cooks, in rather a green 
 or damp state, so as to go through the progress of “ a 
 sweating ,” or slight fermentation. The woody fibres in 
 coarse hay, are thus rendered more palatable and nutritious, 
 while its condition for becoming fodder, is considerably 
 improved : but when any warmth becomes perceptible, if 
 the weather will permit it, the hay should be spread out, 
 and put into large cocks the moment it is in a dried state*. 
 
 In the moister pastoral districts, in the north-west parts 
 of Scotland, hay-barns are necessary, the construction of 
 which is as open as possible, for the purpose of drying , as 
 well as preserving the hayf. In some of these districts, a 
 curious device has been fallen upon, of making the hay, 
 when dried, into ropes of two fathoms in length, and then 
 twisted twofold. Being thus compressed, less room is re- 
 quired in the barn, and in this shape, it is carried, with 
 greater facility, to distant glens, for the use of cattle during 
 stormy weather 
 
 6. After-Grass , or Rowen. 
 
 After-grass, in Middlesex, is often let by the farmer, at 
 about 20s. per acre, to be fed off by heavy cattle, till such 
 time as the land would run the hazard of being injured by 
 their poaching, were they continued in the field. It is well 
 known, wherever a bullock makes a hole with his foot in a 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. IS. 
 
 + Inverness Report, p. 193. 
 
 j Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. vi. p. 248. — Parish of Kintail, 
 
On Grass Land. 
 
 483 
 
 clayey soil, it holds water, and destroys the herbage, which 
 is not quite replaced, till several years after the hole has 
 grown up. When the cattle are removed, sheep are kept 
 till Candlemas. Sometimes they are permitted to consume 
 the whole after-grass, at from 3s. to 5 s. per score per week. 
 
 In some districts, rowen, or the second growth of grass 
 after the hay is mown in July, is preserved from every 
 species of stock, until the spring months, or the beginning 
 of May, when it is fed with sheep. Where there are no 
 water-meadows, this seems to be the most valuable resource 
 that the sheep farmer can resort \o. The value of after- 
 math, as usually consumed, is inconsiderable, not worth 
 more than from 7s. 6d. to 15$. or 20$. per acre. Tolerable 
 rowen, will carry five, in some cases even ten ewes per acre, 
 with their lambs, throughout the most pinching periods of 
 the spring, when the turnips are done, and the forward 
 grasses are not ready. It is therefore well worth from 30$. 
 to 40$. per acre, at that period of the year, and in severe 
 and backward seasons, it must prove of still higher value*. 
 
 7. Fogging Grass Lands. 
 
 In the original Report of Cardiganshire, a practice is re- 
 commended, to which the term of fogging is applied. 
 Under that system, fields in pasture, are shut up early in 
 May, and continued in that state till November or Decem- 
 ber, when the farmer’s stock is turned in, and continue to 
 pasture, till the May succeedingf. Such management, 
 however, can only be advisable on a soil of the driest nature, 
 which will not be injured by poaching in the wettest 
 seasons. 
 
 8. Transplanting Turf. 
 
 This is a new practice in agriculture, originally attempted 
 in Norfolk^, whence it is spreading to other districts. By 
 this process, a piece of good, clean, sweet old turf, which 
 ought principally to consist of fibrous rooted plants, is cut 
 into small pieces, of about three inches square, and placed, 
 about six inches apart, on the surface of ground prepared 
 
 * Suffolk. Report, p. 21 S. Young’s Calendar, p. 208. Derbyshire Re- 
 port, vol. ii. p. ] 83. 
 
 + South Wales Report, vol. i. p. 545. It is said, that, by this practice 
 the stock are kept in good condition, and cxpence is saved. 
 
 J Mr. John Blomfield of Warham, a tenant of Mr. Coke’s, has the credit 
 ©f originating this novel practice. 
 
 i i2 
 
484 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 for that purpose. In this way, one acre of turf*, will plant 
 nine acres of arable land. The pieces of flag should be 
 carefully placed^ with the grass side uppermost, and the 
 plants pressed well into the ground. No more turf should 
 be cut, carried, and spread in any one day, than is likely to 
 be planted before night. If the transplanted turf is found 
 deficient in any particular species of favourite plants, as 
 white clover, permanent red clover, &c. the seeds of those 
 plants, should be sown upon the young pasture in April. 
 When the ground is in proper temper, (between wet and 
 dry), the pasture should be frequently well pressed down by 
 heavy rollers, which will cause the plants to extend them- 
 selves along the ground, rather than rise into tufts, which 
 otherwise they would be apt to do. No stock should be 
 permitted to feed upon the transplanted pasture, in the first 
 spring or summer, nor until the grasses have perfected and 
 shed their seeds. Indeed the pasturing should be very 
 moderate, until the mother grass-plants, and their young 
 progeny, have united, and formed a compact turf. The 
 expence of this operation is about 21. 10$. per statute acre ; 
 without making any allowance, for the charges incurred by 
 summer fallowing the arable land, on which the turf has 
 been transplanted ] nor for the year's rent, poor’s rates, and 
 taxes, for that year ; nor for restoring the land, whence the 
 turf plants were taken, to its previous statef . 
 
 This plan seems to be well calculated to promote the 
 improvement of light soils, not naturally of a grassy nature, 
 for the grasses and their roots, being once formed, on a rich 
 soil, will probably thrive afterwards even on a poor one, as 
 they will derive a considerable proportion of their nourish- 
 ment from the atmosphere. For light and gravelly soils, 
 therefore, where permanent pasture is desirable, the plan 
 cannot be too strongly recommended ; and if it were found 
 to answer on peat, after the surface was pared for the re- 
 ception of the plants, and burnt to promote their growth, it 
 would be a most valuable acquisition to sheep farmers in 
 many districts of the country. 
 
 * The grass of orchards would probably be well calculated for the 
 purpose. 
 
 f See Mr. Blaikie’s valuable tract, on the Conversion of Arable Land into 
 Pasture, where the whole process is fully detailed. The tract likewise con- 
 tains several useful hints on other rural subjects. 
 
On Grass Land . 
 
 48b 
 
 9. Cultivated Grasses . 
 
 The advantages which have been derived from the intro- 
 duction of cultivated grasses, cannot be too highly appre- 
 ciated. Amidst the variety of natural produce, there must 
 be many plants of an inferior quality, which are rejected by 
 horses, cattle, and sheep. Old turf, on that account, is 
 seldom eaten so bare, as a field where a few selected plants 
 alone are cultivated, known to be grateful, salubrious, and 
 nourishing to stock. Natural meadow also, often contain 
 plants with narcotic and poisonous qualities, by which cattle 
 suffer much injury. Animals in a wild state, discover, by 
 the smell, when plants are noxious ; but stock, when do- 
 mesticated, pay less attention to the information furnished 
 by this sense ; and* they are often driven by hunger, to eat 
 plants, which they would otherwise have rejected. 
 
 The cultivated grasses to be here treated of, are, 1. Red 
 clover ; 2. White clover ; 3. Sainfoin ; 4. Lucern ; and, 
 5. Some miscellaneous articles, as yellow clover, rye- 
 grass, &c. 
 
 1. Red Clover . — This variety of grass, is peculiarly pro- 
 fitable to the farmer, from the greatness of its produce, and 
 the improvement which it occasions to the soil. Land ex- 
 hausted by corn, and not accustomed to clover, is always 
 restored to fertility, by the shade, smother, and putrefaction, 
 arising from a weighty crop of this article*. It is more cal- 
 culated, however, for strong soils, than for those which are 
 loose and sandy. It will thrive on the former, even when 
 not in a very fertile state, if sufficiently pulverized. 
 
 To insure a continuance of this fertility, in succeeding 
 rotations, it is of great advantage, to give a deep ploughing 
 to the summer fallow, or turnip crop that is taken, prepara- 
 tory to the crop of clover, as has been proved in numerous 
 instancesf. 
 
 * Remark by John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 f Mr. Mason of Chilton, an eminent farmer in the county of Durham, 
 entertains an idea, that clover has a tendency to promote mildew or rust in 
 wheat. A field that had been partly oats, and partly clover, was sown with 
 wheat : the crop was mildewed where the clover had been, but not where 
 the oats had been grown. This is an additional circumstance, favourable to 
 the idea, that land, for a crop of wheat, ought not to be in too rich 'a state. 
 A farmer in the West of England, lately complained, that his rich crops were 
 always mildewed, while his neighbours, whose land was full of couch, and 
 out of condition, did not suffer from that malady. Hence it has grown into 
 a maxim, “ That the worst managers, get the best crops, once in seven years.” 
 
48G 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 The cultivation of red clover, is too well known, to require 
 being detailed in this place. The propriety of mixing other 
 seeds with it, has been questioned; though some think the 
 mixture of a small quantity of rye-grass, is of great advan- 
 tage ; more especially as that grass, being an early plant, 
 serves as a nurse, or assistant, to protect the young clover 
 from the severities of the season*. Rye-grass, if cut young , 
 is not exhausting ; it is rather of use in converting the 
 clover into hay, and it improves the quality of the food, 
 when cut for soiling, bringing it earlier forward f. This 
 may render it more necessary in Scotland than in England. 
 It likewise greatly improves the quality of the hay for 
 working horses ; rendering it more strengthening and sub- 
 stantial. 
 
 The most important particulars connected with the cul- 
 ture of red clover are, 1. The soiling process; 2. Con- 
 verting it into hay ; 3. Feeding it ; and, 4. Retaining it in 
 pasture. 
 
 Soiling . — Ry this term is meant, the feeding of stock in 
 a house, shed, or fold, with cut green food, instead of making 
 the grass into hay, or depasturing the field. 
 
 Various articles are used for that purpose in this country, 
 as tares, lucern, and meadow-grass ; also barley, rye, oats, 
 and beans, all in a green state ; but red clover, either alone, 
 or mixt with rye-grass, is the substance most commonly 
 applied J . 
 
 Soiling is attended with the following advantages : — 
 1. The saving of land ;-^2. Advantages to the fences; — 
 3. The saving of food ; — 4. The improvement of stock ; — 
 5. The greater product of milk ; — 0. Increasing the quan- 
 tity, and improving the quality of manure; — and, 7* Ob- 
 taining a higher value for the produce of the soil §. 
 
 In future, however, that slur, on goo<J culture, may be prevented, by the 
 diligent farmer, paying proper attention, to the diseases of grain, and the 
 means of preventing them. 
 
 * Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 157. The principal ob- 
 jections to rye-grass are, that it not only exhausts the soil, if suffered to seed, 
 but makes the land too dry and solid. 
 
 f The quantity of clover-seed sown, is from 10 to 12 lbs. per statute acre, 
 on dry friable soils; and from 14 to 18 lbs. on strong loams or clays, with 
 one peck of perennial rye-grass. — Northumberland Report , p. 112. 
 
 J In America they likewise apply Indian corn, millet and buck-wheat, to 
 the purposes of soiling. 
 
 § In “ The American Farmer ,” vol. ii. Nos. 23 and 24, there arc some 
 valuable remarks on soiling, communicated by the Hon. Josiah Quincy, 
 which do great credit to that gentleman’s knowledge of agriculture ; and 
 from which I have extracted several useful hints in the discussion of that 
 subject. 
 
On Grass Land. 
 
 4S7 
 
 1. The Saving of Land . — Exaggerated accounts have 
 been given of the saving of land. Some have contended, 
 that it is as one to seven, if not more. — By accurate expe- 
 riments, it appears* that it may safely be stated as one to 
 three, an advantage alone well entitled to the attention of 
 the industrious and intelligent farmer. 
 
 2. Advantages to the Fences .■ — Where stock are stall-fed, 
 fences are hot so necessary, and in this way there may be a 
 saving of land, and a diminution of expenditure. — But if 
 the same fences were to be kept up, they are not so liable 
 to injury from the stock maintained, nor from the careless- 
 ness of those who are employed to catch them. 
 
 3. The Saving of Food. — Animals destroy the grasses, 
 destined for their food, when pasturing upon them, in six 
 different ways 1. By eating; — 2. By treading ; — 3. By 
 dunging ; — 4. By staling ; — 5. By lying down ; — and, 6. By 
 breathing on them.— Of these six, the first alone is useful. 
 — All the others tend to waste, and that waste is always in 
 proportion to the richness and productiveness of the soil. 
 
 4. The Improvement of Stock.— This advantage is appli- 
 cable to all the different sorts of stock, more especially in 
 dry seasons, when pastures are apt to fail. 
 
 Working horses, or oxen, derive great benefit from soiling. 
 They are saved the trouble of collecting their food, after their 
 work is over, and run no risk from noxious vegetables, or 
 unwholesome water. — They can fill themselves much sooner, 
 and consequently have more time for rest ; — and they can 
 take their repose much better, in a stable or shed, with 
 plenty of litter, than in an open field, where there are so 
 many things to annoy them. 
 
 The experiments of soiling cattle, have likewise been 
 successful. — Young steers become more tractable for work; 
 and are exempted from many accidents and disorders to 
 which they are otherwise liable. — The size and the sym- 
 metry also, to which cattle may be brought, when thus kept 
 constantly sheltered, in a progressive state of improvement, 
 without receiving any check whatever, justifies the idea, 
 that such stock will surpass those exposed to the vicissitudes 
 
 * It is singular, that an experiment was reported to the Board of Agricul- 
 ture, of 33 head of cattle being soiled from the 20th of May to the 1st of 
 October, 1815, on statute acres, in which it is stated, that it would have 
 required 50 acres to have pastured them. — The result of Mr. Quincy’s expe- 
 riment, was nearly the same ; for he kept the same amount of stock, by 
 soiling them on 17 acres of land, which had always previously required 50 
 acres. It is a curious coincidence. 
 
488 
 
 On grass Land. 
 
 of climate, and other inconveniences inseparable from the 
 grazing system, though pastured on fields of the richest and 
 most luxuriant herbage*. 
 
 Sheep, also, thrive equally well when fed in houses, as 
 when pastured out of doors, while their wool is much im- 
 proved in quality, (not being exposed to the extremities of 
 either heat or cold), and they escape several disorders, as the 
 rot, &e. which are so often fatal. 
 
 Pigs may be soiled on clover, with much advantage, and 
 for that purpose, there ought to be a patch of clover in the 
 garden of every cottager. But green beans are perhaps a 
 still more profitable article, as pigs are peculiarly fond of 
 them. The Windsor sort are preferred, and the beans 
 should be planted at different times, to insure a regular suc- 
 cession. Horses are also fond of green beans, after being a 
 little accustomed to them ; and stall-fed cattle, in general, 
 thrive well on that food. 
 
 5. The greater Product of Milk . — It is highly expedient 
 to soil milch cows, at least in the middle of the day, that 
 they may not be tormented with flies in the field, nor in- 
 duced to stand in brooks, or ponds of water, nor in the 
 shade of spreading trees or hedges, by which much valuable 
 manure is lost. The stock are thus kept in a healthier state, 
 and the milk is of superior quality. — During the flush of the 
 season, the quantity of milk may be as great from good 
 pastures ; but when they begin to fall off, cattle, regularly 
 and abundantly fed in a house, must be greatly more pro- 
 ductive for the purpose of the dairy. 
 
 6. Increasing the Quantity , and improving the Quality of 
 the Manure . — This advantage cannot be controverted. — 
 When land is pastured, the dung that falls upon it is de- 
 stroyed in various ways, and does not go through the pro- 
 cess of fermentation. — Whereas, by soiling, not only a 
 greater quantity of rich dung is obtained, but it may be 
 “ manufactured to more advantage.” — Besides, dung made 
 in summer is always superior to that made in winter, for the 
 warmth of the weather, promotes a rapid fermentation, and 
 generates several valuable substances, the formation of 
 which, the cold of winter, and the superfluous moisture of 
 that season of the year, in a great measure preventsf. By 
 this means also, clay-land farmers are, in respect of manure, 
 put more on a footing with turnip soils. 
 
 7. Increasing the Value of Land Produce. — There is cer- 
 
 1 Curwcn’s Report, p. 80. 
 
 f Young’s Calendar, p. 874. 
 
On Grass Land . 
 
 48 9 
 
 tainly no mode, by which cultivated grasses will pay so 
 well, as by soiling. In the neighbourhood of towns, the 
 same land will produce at the rate of from 20 1. to 25 1. per 
 statute acre, cut for soiling, which would be considered 
 high at 91. or 10 1. if let in pasture. The expence of cart- 
 ing the cut grass, must, however, be deducted. 
 
 There are also, some other subordinate advantages at- 
 tending the soiling system ; — as the opportunity which it 
 furnishes of using all the grass grown in plantations, or 
 orchards, which often supply early food, before the first 
 crop of clover is ready for cutting*. Cattle, and other 
 stock, are also thus prevented from breaking fences, and 
 getting into fields, where they often do material damage to 
 corn, turnips, and other crops. — It is likewise attended 
 with this advantage, in arable culture, that when clover is 
 cut, the succeeding crop is uniformly better than when the 
 field is pasturedf ; — and in regard to grass-lands, they are 
 exempted from the mischievous effects of poaching in wet 
 weather. Hence it is that sheep, are a preferable stock to 
 cattle, unless where the soiling system is adopted. 
 
 In conducting the soiling process, the following rules are 
 recommended : — To give food often, and in small quanti- 
 ties; — to attend to the manner in which the food is eaten 
 by the cattle, reducing the quantity, on the slightest symp- 
 tom of loss of appetite ; — and to be cautious that clover is 
 given sparingly, especially when it is wet, to prevent the 
 cattle being hovenj. This may be effectually avoided, if 
 care be taken, to mow the clover two days in advance. — It is 
 likewise advisable, (unless the cattle have been brought up 
 from their infancy in houses), to give them the liberty of a 
 yard, in which they may enjoy fresh air and exercise; and 
 when they are fed in stalls, it is indispensably necessary, 
 that they should be kept thoroughly clean, and frequently 
 curried. 
 
 That the soiling system is attended with great labour, in 
 cutting, — collecting, — and conveying the food, — in feeding, 
 and keeping the stock clean, — in carrying the manure to 
 the fields, — and also occasions some expence in buildings, 
 cannot be denied ; but surely these objections, are amply 
 compensated by the advantages above detailed. — In all 
 cases, therefore, where the soil and climate are favourable to 
 
 * Curwen’s Report, p. 81. 
 
 f The authorities for this important fact, are stated in a Note to Sect. 4. 
 £ Curwen’s Report, p. 82. 
 
490 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 the practice of soiling, there cannot be a doubt of its utility, 
 and the propriety of its adoption*. 
 
 Making Clover into Hay. — This process is quite different 
 from the plan of making hay from natural grasses. In all 
 cases, clover ought to be mown before the seed is formed ; 
 and indeed before the plants have fully blossomed, that the 
 full juice and nourishment of the clover, may be retained in 
 the hay. By the adoption of this system, the hay is cut in 
 a better season, — it can be more easily secured, — and it is 
 much more valuable. Nor is the strength of the plant 
 lodged in the seed, which is often lost. 
 
 The great advantage of converting under-ripe grass into 
 hay, is now beginning to be known. There is much more 
 saccharine matter in it, and it is consequently greatly more 
 nutritious. The crop of clover, when cut in the early part 
 of the season, may be ten per cent, lighter, than when it is 
 fully ripe ; but the loss is amply counterbalanced, by ob- 
 taining an earlier, a more valuable, and more nutritious arti- 
 cle ; while the next crop will proportionably be more heavy. 
 The hay from old grass, will carry on stock, but it is only 
 hay from young grass , that will fatten them. 
 
 After being cut, the clover should remain in the swath, till 
 it is dried about two-thirds of its thickness. It is then, not 
 tedded or strewed, but turned over, either by the hands, or 
 the heads of hay-rakes. If t urned over in the morning of a dry 
 day, it may be cocked in the evening. The hay should be 
 as little shaken or scattered about afterwards as possible ; 
 and if the weather be good, after remaining for some time, 
 according to the season, in the cock, it may be carted into 
 the stackf. 
 
 A crop of clover will yield from two to three ton of hay 
 per statute acre. It sells, in the London market, for about 
 J5s. per ton higher than meadow hay. 
 
 A new mode of making hay, originally tried in Lan- 
 cashire, called “ gaiting,” or “ tippling ,” (that is, tying 
 
 • In Flanders, they only sow six pounds of clover-seed to the English 
 acre, for a full soiling crop ; and the cost of the seed at market, is only six- 
 pence per pound. — What an encouragement to cultivate a crop, which 
 constitutes the ground-work of all good farming ! — It is the cost of the seed, 
 which deters the common farmer from having clover, and yet that seed 
 is taxed on importation. — Radcliff's Report of the Agriculture of Flanders , 
 p. 61 . 
 
 + In dry climates, the practice varies : where the plant is not in a moist 
 state, there is less risk of tedding it. In a good season, it may thus be got 
 thoroughly dry in three or four days. It may be stacked without danger 
 of over heating, on the fourth day ; and will come out of the stack in perfect 
 order. — Communication from. Mr. Jloldich. 
 
On Grass Land, 
 
 49 J 
 
 up the grass in small bundles, as soon as it is cut), has been 
 strongly recommended. When the weather is favourable, 
 it may be stacked, by this process, on the fifth day. The 
 expence of binding, and of setting up, costs only 2s. 6d, 
 per acre ; and a finer sample cannot be had from any stack 
 of clover, than what it produces. The colour of the hay is 
 beautifully green, and the smell most flagrant*. 
 
 Feeding . — With the exception of lucern, and the her- 
 bage of rich marshes, there is no crop, by which so much 
 stock can be supported, as by clover. It may be profitably 
 employed in fattening sheep in spring, and with this food, 
 they will soon be ready for the butcher. Afterwards, a crop 
 of hay may be got, and two or three weeks after the hay has 
 been taken off, sheep intended to be fattened on turnips, 
 may be turned in, and kept there, until the turnips are ready 
 for themf. 
 
 On Tethering Stock. 
 
 TetlieringX . — In some districts of Scotland and Ireland, 
 instead of soiling, they tether their stock upon the land. 
 
 In the Agricultural Report of Aberdeenshire, it is stated, 
 that there are some cases, where the plan of tethering, can 
 be practised with more profit than even soiling. In the neigh- 
 bourhood of Peterhead, for instance, they tether milch-cows 
 on their grass fields, in a regular and systematic method ; 
 moving each tether forward in a straight line, not above one 
 foot at a time, so as to prevent the cows from treading on 
 the grass that is to be eaten ; care being always taken, to 
 move the tether forward, like a person cutting clover with a 
 scythe, from one end of the field to the other. In this way, 
 a greater number of cows can be kept, on the same quantity 
 of grass, than by any other plan ; except where it grows 
 
 * It was introduced from Lancashire, into Scotland, and mentioned in 
 the first edition of the Husbandry of Scotland, printed anno 1812. It has 
 lately been tried by Mr. Curwen, with the greatest success. Report, p. 42. 
 — It is highly desirable, to be peculiarly attentive to the process of hay-mak- 
 ing, for an acre of well-cured hay, is more nutritious, than an acre of both 
 straw and oats ; and affords more manure to promote future fertility. 
 
 + Young’s Calendar, p.345. 
 
 X The most proper and effectual tethers are made of iron chains, the links 
 short, and two swivels to each chain, to prevent them from twisting. Those 
 for cattle should be five yards long, with a strong leather strap and buckle, 
 to fasten to the fore leg of the animal, near the hoof : those for sheep, may 
 be much lighter, and only three yards long, with belts to fasten round the 
 neck. The tether is secured by a large iron pin, on the head of which, is a 
 large swivel, which should play round the pin freely, otherwise the chain 
 is apt to get entangled .— Comm unication from Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
492 
 
 On Grass Land . 
 
 high enough to be cut, and given them green in houses. 
 In one instance, the system was carried to great perfection, 
 by a gentleman who kept a few sheep upon longer tethers, 
 following the cows. Sometimes also, he tethered horses 
 afterwards upon the same field, which prevented any pos- 
 sible waste, for the tufts of grass produced by the dung of 
 one species of animal, will be eaten by those of another 
 kind, without reluctance. This system was peculiarly cal- 
 culated for the cow-feeders in Peterhead ; as, from the 
 smallness of their holdings, they could not afford to keep 
 servants to cut, or horses to carry home the grass to their 
 houses, to be consumed in a green state*. 
 
 In Ireland, the plan of tethering stock, is strongly recom- 
 mended, in preference to that of promiscuous pasturage, 
 even though accompanied by a herdsman, or keeper, it 
 is there observed, that both cattle and sheep must thrive 
 better, and feed faster, when they have a fresh bite of grass 
 regularly given them, than when they are permitted to 
 wander over a whole field. This is effectually done, when 
 they are not allowed to range indiscriminately over pasture 
 lands, destroying more than they consume, but when each 
 animal is secured by a tether, to the spot on which he is al- 
 lowed to feed. By changing this spot, he is enticed to eat, 
 from having a clean and fresh bite, perhaps twice a day 
 given him. He does not acquire rambling habits, which 
 exhausts his strength, and prevents his fattening ; but be- 
 coming docile, he necessarily thrives much better. The 
 pasture also is improved, for the young grass is not bit off 
 prematurely , which checks its progress, but remains un- 
 touched, till it is ready for consumption. 
 
 Some eminent and extensive agriculturists in Irelandf, 
 have practised this system with success; — have produced 
 by it, beef and mutton, of the best quality; — and their 
 lands have been materially improved, since they followed 
 that plan. In other cases, it has been tried with milch-cows ; 
 store cattle, sheep, and lambs ; with all of whom it has 
 completely answeredj; and by its adoption, it has been 
 
 * Observations by Dr. James Anderson. — See Dr. Skene Keith's Report of 
 Aberdeenshire , p. 357, &c. 
 
 f Lord De Vesci has had beef of better quality, and fed in a shorter time, 
 by this system, than by any other he ever tried ; — and he is now improv- 
 ing some inferior land, op the principle of tethering. 
 
 I This practice is recommended as fit to be adopted in the following 
 cases. 1 . When grass-lands are not fenced off from the adjoining fields in til- 
 lage ; 2. When there are young plantations in the neighbourhood of grass- 
 lands, which cannot, without great cxpencc, be secured from trespass ; — 
 
On Grass Land, 
 
 493 
 
 found, that land will improve more in two years, than under 
 indiscriminate pasturage, in five ; and, that at least, one- 
 third more stock may be maintained per acre, under the one 
 system than the other* The reason is obvious, the cattle 
 being better fed, deposit more dung, which falling in a 
 narrow compass, is trod into the ground, by the time the 
 spot of grass, on which they are tethered, is nearly eaten ; 
 whereas, when dung is scattered about, the land is not 
 much benefited by it*. 
 
 But though superior to promiscuous pasturage, the plan 
 of tethering cannot, as a general practice, be compared to 
 soiling. The latter is to be preferred, as securing a larger 
 proportion of the crop of grass, of which some part must be 
 injured or destroyed when stock are tethered on it; — as 
 the grass, when cut for soiling, seems sooner to recover, 
 and to grow up more quickly, and more equally, than what 
 has been eaten off by the cattle ; — as animals consuming 
 grass in the house, are free from the excessive heat of sum- 
 mer, and from the stings of flies, which to them are ex- 
 tremely vexatious ; — and as their dung and urine are of 
 much greater value, when preserved in dung-hills or cis- 
 terns, and in a state fit to be carried wherever they are most 
 wantedf, than even trod into the ground where dropt. 
 
 The plan of tethering, however, ought to be kept in view, 
 as an assistant to the soiling system ; — for where preparations 
 have been niade for soiling, and, owing to the coldness or 
 dryness of the season, the clover has made little or no pro- 
 gress, so as to be unfit for cutting, it might be advisable, 
 to try the plan of tethering , till the grass is more advanced. 
 
 Hurdling Off . — Where tethering is objected to, the plan 
 of hurdling may be adopted, either with natural, or arti- 
 ficial grasses. By this mode of feeding, a portion of land 
 in grass, is enclosed by hurdles];, in which sheep are con- 
 
 3. When extensive fields are to be partly grazed ; which cannot be so con- 
 veniently divided, so as to separate the grazing, from the arable land ; and, 
 
 4. When the grass is too short to be cut. 
 
 * Communication from Edward Burroughs, Esq. Mr. Burroughs tethered 
 seven sheep per acre in spring ; and finding that there was better grass in 
 the field in the middle of May, than when they were first turned on it, he 
 was obliged to put two sheep more per acre to keep down the grass, in a 
 state fit for that species of stock. In the Highlands of Scotland, they con- 
 tend, that sheep, when tethered, fatten more rapidly than in any other 
 manner. 
 
 t Agricultural Report of Aberdeenshire, by the Rev. Dr. Skene Keith, 
 p. 356. 
 
 + Sometimes strong nets are made use of ; but hurdles are preferable, un- 
 less the sheep are very tame. 
 
494 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 fined ; and as the crop is consumed, the pen is changed to a 
 fresh place, until the whole is fed off. This practice is 
 very extensively adopted at Holkham, and is peculiarly cal- 
 culated for light and dry soils. Its advantages are, that the 
 grass is more economically consumed; — that the stock 
 thrive better, having daily a fresh bite ; — and that the dung 
 that falls, being more concentrated, is more likely to be of 
 use*. An experienced farmer in Berkshire, (Mr. Stone of 
 Basildon), consumes all his pastures, in portions divided 
 by hurdles, with store sheep, (but not when fattening) ; by 
 which, he estimates that the pasture will go twice as far. 
 He even hurdles his wheat stubbles. In parks, or in the 
 neighbourhood of woods, the sheep, when thus folded, may 
 be littered in autumn, with the leaves of trees, and an ad- 
 dition thus made to the quantity of manure upon the farm. 
 By this system, it it said, that lands in grass, will go twice 
 as far, as when the stock are unrestricted, and can wander 
 at large over the pasture. 
 
 Remaining in Pasture . — If the ground is to be pastured 
 after the first year, it is necessary to sow a variety of grass- 
 seeds with the clover. In Flanders, by means of the appli- 
 cation of Dutch ashes, which destroys the vermin so inju- 
 rious to the crops of the second year, and which often con- 
 tain a portion of gypsum, the clover remains productive for 
 two years ; but as it fails the second year, under our ma- 
 nagement, it is necessary to supply the vacancy. If it were 
 cut earlier the first year, the crop would be more abundant 
 the next one. 
 
 The great object to be kept in view, is, to have a variety 
 of grasses that will flourish at different seasons of the year. 
 For that purpose, the late Mr. Bridge of Dorsetshire, .re- 
 commended a mixture of from six to seven pounds of white 
 clover, as much of marl -grass, the same quantity of hop- 
 clover, and one bushel of the best Devonshire rye- grass. 
 By this means, there is a succession of feed during the sea- 
 son. The hop-clover and rye-grass flourish early in spring ; 
 the marl-grass is in perfection in July, when the others go 
 off ; and the white clover is abundant in August, and con- 
 tinues during the remainder of the seasonf. 
 
 2. White Clover . — On rich dry soils, white clover (tri- 
 folium repens ), is strongly recommended, for bringing such 
 lands into a state of sward ; being accounted the best of all 
 
 * See Essays on Practical Husbandry, by Edward Burroughs, Esq. (a re- 
 cent valuable publication), p. 7. 
 
 t Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 10. 
 
On Grass Land . 
 
 495 
 
 pasture-grasses. It is a beneficial practice, to sow this 
 species of clover with barley, and after pasturing the land 
 for one year, to plough it up for wheat. 
 
 3. Sainfoin . — The improvement made by the culture of 
 sainfoin, is very great. Poor soils, not worth more than 
 from 2$. 6<2. to 5 s. per acre, for any other purpose, will, 
 under this crop, yield from a ton and a half to two tons 
 and a half of valuable hay, worth a guinea per ton more 
 than meadow hay equally well cured; besides a considerable 
 quantity of after-grass. It also lasts in the ground, equally 
 productive, for a number of years. 
 
 It is unfortunate that so useful a plant, is not more ex- 
 tensively cultivated. The general idea is, that it will only 
 succeed in chalky soils, or on lands resting on limestone ; 
 but it would probably thrive on other soils, if they were 
 manured with a large quantity of calcareous matter; more 
 especially on dry and shallow uplands, with a loose stony 
 subsoil. The land ought to be in good order, thoroughly 
 cleared of weeds before the seed is sown, and accompanied 
 by barley or buck-wheat. An early seed-time ought to be 
 preferred, as the end of February, or beginning of March ; 
 for, in dry weather, it does not vegetate. When in its 
 infantine state, it is apt to be destroyed by the fly*. 
 
 Sainfoin is in general sown without being mixed with 
 other grasses, though a small proportion of white clover, is 
 considered to be rather beneficial than otherwisef. It may 
 be disputed, whether sainfoin is equal to clover, on rich 
 soils, but its great value is, that it produces an abundant 
 crop, where clover will not succeed. 
 
 4. Lucern . — This valuable grass requires a dry and rich 
 soil, which must be thoroughly cleansed, by two or three 
 previous green crops of tares, turnips, or cabbages. It may 
 be sown either broad-cast, which is the usual method, or 
 drilled, nine inches apart, between rows of barley equally 
 distant. It is better to sow it with barley, or oats, thinly 
 seeded, both on account of the profit of the crop, and as 
 the grain furnishes some protection to the plant from the 
 attacks of the fly, which does great injury to it when very 
 young. If drilled, from 12 lb. to 15 lb. of seed will do ; if 
 sown broad-cast, not less than 201b. It sometimes affords 
 cutting four times a year, but will generally yield three good 
 cuttings in the season. Lucern is much superior to clover for 
 
 * Young’s Calendar, p. 106. 
 f Annals of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 359. 
 
496 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 soiling milch-cows, giving no taste to the milk or butter, and 
 one acre is sufficient for three or four cows during the soiling 
 season. In rich land, a quarter of an acre per head, will be 
 sufficient for all sorts of large cattle, taken one with another, 
 but on moderate soils, half an acre is the proper allowance. 
 Lucern requires to be kept thoroughly clean, by hand- 
 hoeing, and scarifying between the drills. All other grasses 
 in the rows should be carefully plucked out*. If the third 
 kind of land kept in permanent pasture, (the deep-soiled vale 
 land), would answer for lucern, as there is every reason to 
 believe it would, what a treasure there is at the command of 
 the possessors of such soils ? In proof of which, it is to be 
 remarked, that in the island of Jersey, since the superior 
 importance of lucern has been ascertained, grass land, of a 
 good staple, has been often dedicated to the culture of that 
 plant. It is trenched by the spade, which is an expensive 
 process, but that is fully counterbalanced, by the certainty 
 of success, the early maturity of the plant, and the employ- 
 ment which it would furnish to labourersf . 
 
 5. Miscellaneous Articles. — A variety of other grasses, in 
 particular circumstances, might be grown with advantage. 
 Trefoil, or yellow clover, (medicago lupulina ), is an useful 
 plant, mixed with other grasses, as it comes rapidly forward. 
 Marl, or cow-grass (trifolium medium), being more lasting 
 than common red clover, is well entitled to the attention of 
 the farmer, when lands are to remain some time in a state 
 of grass. In America, Timothy-grass, (phleum pratense), 
 is the principal growth of their meadow lands ; succeeding 
 well in moist soils and situations. It is very productive, 
 and is coming gradually into use in England. It is rather a 
 late grass, and its coarseness renders it at first objectionable; 
 but the hay is abundant, and very nutritious. On mere 
 bogs, the florin yields a great weight of herbage; and is 
 perhaps the most useful plant that bogs can produce. The 
 utility of rye-grass, (lolium perenne), has been much dis- 
 puted, but when stocked hard, and kept down, — or fed with 
 sheep, — or, if intended for bay, cut early, the objections to it 
 are removed J. Cock’s- foot ( dactylis glomerataj , is early, 
 
 * Young’s Calendar, p. 198, 255. 
 
 f Report of the Norman Islands, p. 113. — On the recommendation of the 
 British Board of Agriculture, lucern has been introduced into our East 
 Indian possessions; and potatoes are now more extensively cultivated there 
 than formerly. Both are likely to prove most valuable productions in those 
 countries. 
 
 X There is every reason to believe, that the common, or old rye-grass, is 
 inferior to the new varieties. 
 
On Grass Land. 
 
 497 
 
 hardy, and productive, but is a coarser plant than rye-grass, 
 and requires even greater attention in regard to being cut 
 soon, or fed close*. It does best by itself, and the time of 
 its ripening, being different from that of clover, it does not 
 suit well to be mixed with that plant. The pasturage it 
 affords is luxuriant, and particularly agreeable to sheepf. 
 Chicory also, is strongly recommended, as hardy ; — cal- 
 culated for the poorest soils ; — and adapted even for bogs ; 
 — though not fitted to be converted into hay, yet excellent 
 for pasture or soiling ; — producing a greater quantity of 
 food for sheep, than any other grass now in cultivation. 
 
 There are in all 215 grasses , properly so called, which are 
 capable of being cultivated in the climate of Great Britain. 
 Of these, only two have been employed to any extent in 
 making artificial meadows, — rye-grass, and cock’s-foot. 
 The Duke of Bedford was thence induced to institute a 
 series of experiments, to try the comparative merits and 
 value of a number of other grasses, to the amount of 9 7, 
 the result of which is annexed to Sir Humphry Davy’s 
 Lectures, and has since been separately published, with 
 more full details. 
 
 According to these experiments, tall fescue grass (festuca 
 elatiorj, stands highest, as to the quantity of nutritive matter 
 afforded by the whole crop, when cut at the time of flower- 
 ing ; and Timothy, or meadow cat’s-tail grass, affords most 
 food, when cut at the time the seed is ripe. Sea meadow- 
 grass produces the greatest quantity of aftermath 
 
 The paucity of cultivated grasses, has been a reproach to 
 the agricultural enterprise of British farmers ; but though 
 the catalogue is extensive, the list of those worth cultivating , 
 does not exceed from 10 to 12, and of these, some have 
 seeds so small, and others so chaffy, that they can neither 
 be dressed, nor easily sown. Some ripen very little seed, 
 while others are but ill calculated for general soils and situa- 
 tions^ 
 
 * Cock’s-foot is cultivated to a great extent, and with astonishing success , 
 at Holkham. The quantity of sheep kept upon it, summer and winter, is 
 quite surprising; and the land becomes renovated by laying two or three 
 years under grass, and enriched by the manure derived from the sheep. — 
 Communication from Mr. Blaikie , at Holkham. 
 
 + Curwen’s Report, p. 42. — Cock’s-foot does not suit low land, as in such 
 situations, it is apt to grow too coarse. Mr. Falla strongly recommends the 
 festuca pratensis. 
 
 + Sir H. Davy’s Lectures, p. 315, and the Appendix, containing the result 
 of the experiments instituted by the Duke of Bedford. See also the Memoir, 
 in folio, printed by Mr. George Sinclair, gardener to the Duke of Bedford. 
 
 § Mr. George Sinclair states it as the result of his experiments, that no 
 grass is so well suited for all purposes as cock'sfoot. A new variety of the 
 
 K k 
 
On Grass Land . 
 
 10. Of Laying down Arable Land into Grass, for recruit- 
 ing its Fertility , and on the Alternate, or Convertible 
 Husbandry. 
 
 It cannot be doubted, that if one-fourth part of the land, 
 which at present is sown with corn, were properly laid down 
 in grass, for the purpose of feeding stock, until it became 
 again fit to bear abundant crops of grain, it would be of the 
 greatest benefit both to the farmer, and to the public, as the 
 other three-fourths would be better manured, more easily 
 cultivated, and would produce as much for consumption, as 
 the whole now does. The failure of new crops of grass, is 
 in a great measure owing to a deficiency of seed, or to the 
 land being sown, when out of condition, and without an 
 adequate supply of manure ; and great tracts have, in these 
 circumstances, been continued under a course of aration, to 
 the impoverishment of the occupiers, and the loss of the 
 public* 5 whereas improved rotations, and in particular, a 
 greater number of green crops, would enrich any poor, or 
 exhausted arable land. 
 
 The laying down a portion of the arable land of the 
 country into grass, is a subject of great importance, which 
 may essentially contribute to prevent any apprehension of 
 scarcity. Indeed nothing would give so much relief to any 
 difficulty with respect to grain, as to increase the number of 
 cows. Milk, used with rice, bread, biscuit, or with pot- 
 barley boiled like rice, or meal or flour, would save a large 
 proportion of the consumption of those articles. Nothing 
 can be substituted so quickly, or so cheaply. Each cow, so 
 used, would save one load of wheat per annumf. 
 
 Where the land is laid down to grass in good order, and 
 is worth, in meadow, about 40.9. per acre, it will keep a cow 
 on two acres and a half. Each cow will give two gallons 
 of milk per day, for twelve months out of thirteen, allowing 
 
 lolium perenne, (rye-grass) has been lately offered to the experimental farmer, 
 by Mr. Holdich, under the name of “ Bussell- Grass of which considerable 
 expectations are formed. 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 203, and 210. 
 f Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 210. — Mr. 
 Curwen thus estimates the profit derivable from milch cattle. On an average, 
 each cow, of a good breed, and properly fed, will produce, S7S9 quarts per 
 annum, which, at 2 d. per quart, is 30/. 3-y. 2rf. per cow. The feeding may 
 cost 10 d. per day, or 15/. 4s. 2d. per annum. The interest of capital, risk, 
 insurauce, may be stated, at 3/. Hence the clear profit from the cow alone, 
 is above 12/. per annum, exclusive of the calf. Allowance is made, in this 
 estimate, for the losses which must unavoidably happen. 
 
On Grass Land . 
 
 499 
 
 one to be dry. Two gallons per day, at 8d. each, would 
 produce 22 1 . 8s. per annum ; but to prevent objections, let 
 the amount be stated at 20 1 . per annum, the produce, being 
 at the rate of 81. per acre per annum, which is more than it 
 would yield, if in an exhausted state, under corn, and at less 
 expence. After recruiting its strength in this way, it may 
 be again returned to arable culture. 
 
 But, in general, arable land is converted into pasture, for 
 the purpose of feeding sheep. Various plans have been 
 adopted for that purpose. In Rutlandshire, on dry loams, 
 the following course has been adopted with success : 1. Tur- 
 nips, or white pease; 2. Barley; 3. Clover; 4. Wheat; 
 5. Turnips; 6. Barley; and then grass for three or more years. 
 Others recommend, as a more speedy and more profitable 
 system ; l. Tares, and then turnips; 2. Wheat ; 3. Clover ; 
 4. Oats ; and after a crop of tares and turnips, wheat with 
 grass-seeds to continue. Such lands are, by these means, 
 much recruited, and will, after a term of years, enrich the 
 occupier, by the superior corn crops which five or six, or 
 even three or four years of sheep-feeding, will enable them 
 to produce*. 
 
 It is a great error, in laying down land to grass, to sow 
 an insufficient quantity of small seeds. In general, 12 or 
 14 lbs. of clover is the usual average allowance. But that 
 quantity, it is contended, ought greatly to be increased. 
 In several instances, land has been laid down with ten 
 pounds of red clover, ten of white, and ten of trefoil, or 
 30 lbs. in all, of small seeds, with the addition of three 
 pecks of rye-grass, per statute acre, and the herbage proved 
 most abundantf. This seems to confirm the doctrine already 
 laid down, respecting the advantages of a liberal allowance 
 of seed, when land is laid down to grass, more especially for 
 any length of time. The plants, however abundant at first, 
 will die off, to a proper standard, as they become older. 
 
 Another point to be strongly inculcated is, that land in- 
 tended to be converted from tillage to grass land, must 
 either be dry by nature, or be made so by art, before it is 
 possible to get a valuable crop of artificial grasses; all the 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol iii. p. 138. 
 
 •f* This observation is made by Mr. Wright, of Ranby, near Retford. — 
 Comm. vol. iii. p. 505. — The crop of clover, however, often fails, not fropi 
 deficiency of seed, but from defective cultivation, and want of management. 
 The seeds should always be bush-harrowed, and rolled after being sown, 
 according to the nature of the soil, and other circumstances. 
 
 K k 2 
 
500 
 
 On Grass Land. 
 
 best sorts abhor a wet bottom when they are young, and 
 will not root deep enough in it, to bear the vicissitudes of 
 the seasons ; and not increasing by the roots as they ought 
 to do, will die when they have perfected their seed, and 
 leave the land bare*. In laying down arable land into grass, 
 broad and high ridges have been likewise recommended. 
 In this way the surface is indisputably enlarged. — Herbage, 
 especially when it is pastured, spreads every way upon the 
 ground, and does not rise perpendicularly, as corn. Be- 
 sides, in this case, there is a variety of herbage, and a variety 
 of soil, suited to every season, if the season be moist, the 
 ridges afford plenty of sweet pasturage, and dry ground for 
 the pasturing stock to rest upon ; and in the dry year of 
 1763, it was remarked, that while the ridges, and flat lands 
 in general, were burnt up with drought, the furrows of high 
 lands continued in full herbage. It is observable, however, 
 that in cases, where the subsoil is retentive, every furrow 
 should have its under-drain, otherwise the herbage, espe- 
 cially in a wet season, will be of a very inferior qualityf. 
 
 The advantages to be derived from the alternate, or con- 
 vertible husbandry, cannot be loo much dwelt on. None 
 but those who have tried it, can be fully aware of the vast 
 improvement effected, by laying down old ploughed land 
 into grass, as well as converting pasture lands into arable. 
 If one million of acres of old tillage land, were gradually 
 laid down into herbage, and the like extent of old pasture 
 broken up, and put under judicious rotations, it would pro- 
 bably be the means of supplying the public market, with 
 not less than two millions of stones of beef and mutton, 
 additional, and three millions of quarters of grain J. Under 
 that system also, when judiciously conducted, the crops are 
 
 * Davis of Longleat’s Essay ; Communications to the Board of Agricul- 
 ture, vol. iii. p- 95. — In Norfolk, they have discovered a new mode of laying 
 down arable land into grass, called “ Inoculating land for grass f which has 
 been already described, p. 483. By means of that discovery, it is said, that 
 a good sward may be given to arable land in two years, which would not 
 otherwise produce good pasture in the course of a number of years, 
 f Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol i. p. 81. 
 
 X The convertible system of husbandry is much approved of in Nor- 
 thumberland. In light soils the rotation is, 1. Turnips, drilled. 2. Barley, 
 or wheat, drilled. 3. Clover and grass-seeds, pastured, at first, partly with 
 cattle, but principally with sheep, but afterwards pastured by sheep 
 alone, for three or more years ; then oats. On strong land, the same plan 
 is pursued, substituting fallow or beans, instead of the turnip crop. Under 
 this system, the land never refuses to produce abundant crops of all these 
 several articles. 
 
On Grass Land. 
 
 501 
 
 always abundant, and the soil is kept in a constant state of 
 increasing fertility*. 
 
 At the same time, it is proper to remark, that too much 
 pasture, in a populous country, ought to he avoided. It 
 diminishes the necessaries of life, while it increases and 
 cheapens the luxuries, and its produce is much less efficient, 
 in furnishing subsistance to manf. 
 
 On the whole, it has been justly remarked, that the alter- 
 nate system of husbandry, is the most beneficial to the 
 cultivators and the public. A considerable capital is neces- 
 sarily required, to commence, and carry it on ; and it must 
 occasion some trouble in its execution ; hut these are cir- 
 cumstances, which indispensably accompany every improved 
 system. If one half of a farm be kept under artificial 
 grasses, and other green crops, as much live stock may often 
 be supported, and fattened upon their produce, as if the 
 whole farm were pastured ; while the other half, enriched 
 by the large quantity of dung produced by the consumption 
 of these crops, will furnish as much disposable produce, for 
 supplying the market with the various sorts of grain, as if 
 the whole farm had been sown with culmiferous crops. 
 Hence the superior advantages, and profit derived, from a 
 conjunction of stock, and of corn husbandry ; by the union 
 of which, wherever such a plan is practicable, British hus- 
 bandry, can be more substantially improved, than by any 
 other means that has hitherto been suggested];. 
 
 * Brown’s Treatise bn Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 197. — Doctor Coventry 
 supports these doctrines in the following terms: — The keeping of ground 
 for too long a period, in a state of ley, or under grass, is an error arising 
 from a predilection for grass-land, particularly if inclosed. Ill many parts 
 of the country, this has given rise to a singular combination of profusion and 
 remissness in the treatment of lands lying adjacent, and in every respect 
 equally well adapted for regular and proper culture. — Coventry's Discourses , 
 
 p. 16. 
 
 f It appears, from the most careful researches, that potatoes will produce, 
 on an average, per statute acre, from 10 to 13 ton weight of food, fit for the 
 human species. Wheat, after deducting seed, will produce, about 21% 
 bushels per acre, or 1240 lbs. in weight. Whereas, the quantity of animal 
 food produced on an acre, when grazed, wilf only be about 180 lbs., and 
 even under the dairy system, which is more productive, will rarely exceed 
 240 lbs. — See Communications to the Board of Agriculture , vol. vii. p. 47. 
 The same weight of animal food, however, goes farther, than of vegetable, 
 and it is raised at less expence. 
 
 X Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 200. In England, unfor- 
 tunately, the alternate system of husbandry, cannot be generally adopted , 
 until the property of the landlord, is more.distinctly protected from injury, 
 either by an act of the legislature, or the decisions of the courts of law, en- 
 forcing covenants. 
 
502 
 
 Of Gardens. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 OF GARDENS AND ORCHARDS. 
 
 Gardening is the most productive and advantageous 
 mode of occupying the surface of the soil. It also produces 
 the most refined and luxurious articles of human food, and 
 in some respects the most wholesome. Gardens, as shall 
 afterwards be more fully explained, likewise employ, for 
 their extent, the greatest number of labourers, and furnish 
 the greatest quantity of useful produce, from the smallest 
 space of ground. The greater the extent of land, therefore, 
 thus cultivated, the more beneficial to the community. 
 With gardens, orchards are frequently united ; and their 
 productions are often the same. The latter, however, will 
 require a separate discussion. 
 
 I. Of Gardens. 
 
 In the garden, not only fruits of various descriptions, but 
 also roots, salads, culinary vegetables*, and pulse, are 
 raised, each of which has its respective advantages. 
 
 Fruits were probably the first substances to which men 
 directed their attention, with a view to aliment, though 
 they have now become, rather an article of luxury, than 
 of substantial diet. They are produced by nature, in that 
 season of the year* when such substances, with their 
 cooling, refreshing, and diluting qualities, are peculiarly 
 acceptable. 
 
 Roots contain a greater proportion of nourishing matter, 
 though in that respect they are inferior to grain. There are 
 
 * In Scotland, these are called pot-herbs, or vegetables fit for culinary pur- 
 poses, and that boil 6oft ; but in England, by that word is meant, (at least 
 by gardeners), thyme, sage, mint, and other articles of a similar nature. 
 
Of Gardens. 
 
 503 
 
 above forty different kinds produced in this country ; but 
 the potatoe, and the turnip, are the only sorts very ex- 
 tensively cultivated. By using these, less bread and ani- 
 mal food is rendered necessary, and if taken in sufficient 
 quantities, the human frame can be supported by them 
 alone, more especially in youth, or when severe labour is 
 avoided*. 
 
 Salads have been considered rather as an article of luxury 
 than of aliment. Some of them, as the lettuce, are valuable 
 for their cooling qualities; but, from their narcotic qualities, 
 several of them cannot be eaten with safety, unless they are 
 blanchedf. 
 
 Cabbage, cauliflower, and other culinary vegetables, in 
 their natural state, are but little calculated for human food. 
 They are hard and difficult of digestion.'; and can scarcely 
 be too much softened in their texture, to render them fit 
 for the stomach. They are of considerable use, however, 
 to counteract the putrescency of animal food, being of a 
 watery, and somewhat sourish or acescent nature. Being 
 laxative, they are useful in summer, to relieve the bowels, 
 when costiveness takes place, which often happens in that 
 season of the year, from the increased discharge by the 
 skin. 
 
 A portion of garden ground is also employed in raising 
 pulse, in particular, beans and pease, with a view of pro- 
 curing the more delicate sorts, and much earlier in the 
 season, than could be expected from field culture. The 
 consumption of pulse, however, as human aliment, is ne- 
 cessarily circumscribed. In their earlier state, as green, 
 succulent food, they are generally acceptable ; and when 
 they have reached even maturity, they may be used in 
 soups ; but if ground into meal, when all their parts have 
 come to maturity, they are only calculated for those who have 
 strong powers of digestion J. Many of these vegetables are 
 of immense importance, as a resource in times of scarcity, 
 since two or three crops of them might be obtained, while 
 we are waiting for those of grain. 
 
 * The lower orders of the Irish, who are a strong and handsome race of 
 people, live almost entirely upon potatoes, with the addition of buttermilk. 
 The ancient Romans lived much upon turnips. 
 
 i* This is done by tying them up, by which their colour is improved ; — 
 any acrimonious bitterness in the plant is prevented ; — and they are rendered 
 tenderer for eating. 
 
 + Perhaps the proper boiling pea may be an exception. 
 
504 
 
 Of Gardens . 
 
 After these general remarks, we shall proceed to con- 
 sider, 1. The advantages of gardens in general ; 2. The dif- 
 ferent sorts; 3. The rent of gardens; and, 4. The means 
 of their improvement. 
 
 1 . Advantages of Gardens in general. 
 
 These are evident, from the great number of individuals 
 they employ, and the immense quantity of valuable produce 
 thereby raised. 
 
 The quantity of productive labour, depending upon the 
 gardens in the neighbourhood of London, is particularly 
 great. The digging, hoeing, trenching, harrowing, plant- 
 ing, grafting, pruning, budding, gathering, and marketing 
 the fruit, and other productions of the garden, together with 
 the carriage, and the great number of dealers, who either 
 sell the articles at the market, or cry them about the nu- 
 merous streets of the metropolis, and adjoining villages, 
 must furnish a very great quantity of labour and profit to 
 numerous individuals* * * § . 
 
 There are said to be 14,000 acres occupied as fruit and 
 kitchen gardens, for the supply of London with fruit and 
 vegetablesf ; the average produce of which, even at the 
 present reduced price of the various articles brought to 
 market J, may be stated at the rate of about GO 1. per acre, 
 or 840. 000 L per annum. This places the gardener's art in 
 the most favourable point of view, as no other application 
 of land, nor of rural labour, can, supply so great a pro- 
 portion of human food, — or yield so much employment to 
 the cultivators, — or pay so liberally for the labour bestowed 
 on it§. 
 
 In the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh, there are about 
 500 statute (400 Scotch) acres, employed in gardens, be- 
 sides those at from six to fifteen miles distance, which occa- 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 2 65. 
 
 f It is incredible how much the middling and lower orders live upon 
 vegetables, in the summer and autumn. In these seasons, it is supposed that 
 the gardens feed more people than the fields. —Lysons' Environs of London t 
 vol. i. p. 28. 
 
 X The reduction is from one-third to two-fifths of the value of the 
 average produce, with very little diminution of the running and unavoid- 
 able expences. 
 
 § Middlesex Report, p. 2G7. The profits of the dealers arc not included 
 in this calculation. 
 
Of Gardens. 
 
 503 
 
 sionally send supplies to the market. The total produce is 
 stated at 18,000/. in all, or 3 6/. per statute acre, per 
 annum*. This is considerably less than the average pro- 
 duce of the gardens near London ; but the latter are situated 
 in a better climate, — a large proportion of them employed 
 in the production of luxurious articles ; — and they are close 
 to a superior market, where higher prices are obtained ; — 
 where greater quantities of suitable manure can be readily 
 procured ; — and where more labour can be bestowed with 
 advantage. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, the market gardeners 
 find onions the most profitable article they can raise, pro- 
 curing from 45 /. to 58 /. per acre, according to the price the 
 article sells forf. Carrots yield about half these sums. 
 Turnips from 14Z. to 18 1 . ; and potatoes, from 15/. to 20/. 
 according to the crop and season J. 
 
 On the whole, there can be no doubt, that from their 
 higher cultivation, and, (unless under very peculiar circum- 
 stances), their greater fertility ; — from the higher value of 
 the articles produced, in consequence of either their supe- 
 rior quality, or earlier growth ; — and from more than one 
 erop being generally raised in the same year, on the same 
 ground, the produce of the garden must be more valuable, 
 than that from arable or pasture land. 
 
 From the superior quantity and value of garden-produce, 
 it might be supposed, that a larger proportion of the coun- 
 try would be cultivated in that style. But the expences are 
 so great, that if the price of the articles sold were much 
 reduced, (which would be the necessary consequence of a 
 more extended culture), gardening would be no longer fol- 
 lowed as a lucrative profession. Competition has probably 
 already gone as far as it ought ; and the consumption of 
 fruits and vegetables in London, comparatively speaking, 
 already far exceeds that of any other part of the kingdom. 
 It is at the rate of 16s. 9c/. per head, while that of Edin- 
 
 * Mr. Neill’s Chapter on Gardens, General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. 
 p. 85. The produce is about 45/. per Scotch acre. Even strawberries do 
 not yield more than 40/. to 50 /. — Ditto , p. 90. 
 
 f An experiment was tried, what quantity of onions could be produced 
 by dint of manure, and on a quarter of an acre, three tons, gross weight, 
 were raised ; which sold for 241. and left a profit of 13/. after paying the 
 expences, which amounted to 11/. — The seed was originally from the white 
 Lisbon onion, naturalized to the soil. — Communication from the Rev. Robert 
 Hoblyn. 
 
 + Aberdeenshire Report, p. 364. 
 
506 
 
 Of Gardens, 
 
 burgh does not exceed 3s. 6d. estimating its inhabitants at 
 103,000, and the fruit and vegetables sold at 18,000/. per 
 annum. 
 
 2. The different Sorts of Gardens, 
 
 These may be classed under the following heads : private 
 fruit-gardens ; — private kitchen-gardens; — market-gardens, 
 either for fruit or vegetables, cultivated by the spade ; — 
 field-gardens, chiefly cultivated by the plough ; — cottage- 
 gardens ; — and village-gardens. 
 
 1. Private Fruit-Gardens, — It is fortunate, that a taste 
 for the cultivation of fruit, often prevails among the rich. 
 It affords a pure, rational, aud pleasing amusement ; and 
 furnishes inducements to those, who are possessed of landed 
 property, to reside on their estates, and to abridge the 
 time, which otherwise they might be induced to spend in 
 crowded cities. 
 
 Fruit-gardens may be divided into two classes : those 
 where fruits are cultivated, which require hot-houses to 
 bring them to perfection ; and such as raise fruit capable of 
 being brought to perfection, under judicious management, 
 by the ordinary temperature of the climate*. In numerous 
 cases, however, both kinds are united. 
 
 The pains taken, and the expence bestowed, in raising 
 fruit by artificial means, in England and Scotland, are very 
 great, and must necessarily increase, in the more northern 
 districts, in proportion as the climate is more severet. In 
 the construction of hot-houses, some improvements have 
 recently been made. It is found a saving of expence, to 
 have the sashes fixed, instead of sliding up and down, 
 which occasions the breakage of glass ; air being admitted 
 at the bottom, by ventilators in front, and likewise at the 
 top of the back wall. — Standing -flues within the house, are 
 also found greatly preferable to the old practice of having 
 the back walls of hot-houses flued like hot walls ; and those 
 
 * This depends much upon the soil. Mr. Middleton observes, that the 
 best soil for a fruit-garden, is a free marl (malm). This soil prevails at 
 Brentford and Isleworth, in Middlesex, and advantage has been laken of 
 that circumstance, to build numerous walls, ten feet high, from the produce 
 of which, the fruit shops in London are supplied with the very best apri- 
 cots, peaches, nectarines, and even pears. — Communication from John Mid- 
 dleton, Esq. 
 
 •f It is calculated, that for the prptection of exotic fruits, 479,360 square 
 feet of glass are employed in Scotland alone. — General Report of Scotland, 
 vol. ii. p. 121. 
 
Of Gardens. 
 
 50 7 
 
 flues should be made wider or broader than usual, but not 
 deeper. When flues are of small dimensions, there is not 
 capacity in them for allowing the heated particles of air to 
 expand; and a large proportion of the heat, therefore, 
 escapes with the smoke, in a latent state, which is obviated 
 by the greater width. In small hot-houses, where economy 
 is studied, the best kind of flue is made of earthen-vvare, the 
 same as used for pots to the tops of chimnies, only some- 
 what thicker. The pieces are two feet and a half long, and 
 about ten inches in diameter, inside measure. They are 
 laid end to end, and every joint rests upon bricks, with a 
 semicircular hollow made on purpose. Such flues are 
 cheap, and require much less fuel than brick ones. 
 
 It may be proper to add, that cast-iron is a very advan- 
 tageous substitute for wood in hot-houses. It is incom- 
 parably more lasting ; — its appearance is more light and 
 elegant ; and by the proper disposition of columns and 
 screws, rafters are saved, and expence lessened, while all 
 the requisite strength is preserved*. 
 
 The heating of walls by flues, is another mode of em- 
 ploying artificial warmth for the production of fruit. With- 
 out the aid of this contrivance, peaches and nectarines 
 could very seldom be brought to perfection, in the open 
 air, in such a climate as that of Scotland. They are fre- 
 quently so constructed, that a temporary glass frame can 
 be raised against them ; and they are generally furnished, 
 with an apparatus for temporary covers, either of nets, or 
 canvass, or of worsted. 
 
 Various devices are resorted to, for protecting the blos- 
 som of the more delicate and early-flowering fruit-trees on 
 the open wall, from the effects of the frosty winds, which 
 often prevail in March, April, and May; but nets made of 
 coarse woollen yarn, with the meshes only large enough, 
 when stretched out, to admit the point of the finger, are 
 preferredf. 
 
 The advantages attending the pruning of fruit-trees are 
 well known. It tends to diminish over-luxuriance, which 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 131 ; and Appendix, vol. iv. p. 452, 
 where there are some additional hints for improvements of a more minute 
 description. 
 
 f Mr. Middleton states, that some of the fruit-growers of Brentford, 
 Middlesex, protect the blossoms and fruit till out of danger, by a deal or 
 other board, ten or twelve inches in width, placed horizontally upon brack- 
 ets, near the top of their fruit-walls ; and these are said to afford consider- 
 able security to their fruits, (which arc supposed to be the finest in Britain), 
 against frost, & c . — Communication from John Middleton , Esq. 
 
508 
 
 Of Gardens. 
 
 retards fructification ; and by it free access is given to the 
 air, and to light, which promote the ripening, and aug- 
 ments the flavour of the fruit. The proper time for sub- 
 jecting trees to this operation, is, when the sap has as- 
 cended, which is generally early in spring, and when the 
 leaves have fully expanded*. 
 
 Peeling the outer bark of fruit-trees, is an ancient prac- 
 ticef, to which the attention of the public has lately been 
 called, by the successful experiments made, on a great scale 
 in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh;];. Three useful pur- 
 poses are answered by this operation: 1. The stricture of 
 the bark, or its being hide-bound, which frequently impedes 
 the circulation of the sap, is removed. 2. A number of in- 
 sects, and their larvae, which have been deposited in the 
 bark, are destroyed, and the young leaves and blossoms are 
 protected from their attacks. And, 3. The air has admis- 
 sion to the trunk, by which it is nourished. It is not, how- 
 ever, advisable, to take off the bark of young trees, or of 
 new branches of old ones, or by any means to destroy dr 
 even to injure the inner bark. When done to old trees, 
 with judgment, they throw *Rit healthy bearing wood, more 
 especially when the bark has been cracked or diseased, or 
 become a shelter for insects. 
 
 The same plan has been tried on vines, with great suc- 
 cess ; and it may prove a practice highly advantageous to 
 the extensive vineyards on the Continent. It must be done, 
 however, judiciously, both with vines and fruit-trees, for 
 the inner bark must be carefully preserved. 
 
 * See White’s Canada, p. 128. 
 
 -f* “ If the trees have their bark base, you must, with a bill, take away the 
 old hark to the quick ; for the trees being thus discharged, do shoot forth 
 with new strength,” &c. Le Gendre, Curate of Hunonville, translated 
 and printed at Loudon, an. 1GGG, a small octavo volume, p. 13G. — In Hitt's 
 Treatise on Fruit-Trees, printed an. 175G, 8vo. p. 122, it is said, “ For those 
 trees that are not dressed at all, taking off the old rind , and cleansing the 
 cankered parts, destroys many insects and their eggs.” — In Rivington’s An- 
 nual Register, for 172G, title “ Useful Projects,” p. 109, we are told, that 
 it is customary in Connecticut, to strip ofT the bark of old decayed apple- 
 trees, taking care not to injure the inner bark, to renovate the trees. In 
 M‘Phail’s Gardener’s Remembrancer, p. 28 and 29, notice is taken, of ex- 
 periments made at Kensington Gardens, an. 1802, of peeling or cutting ofF 
 the outer bark, without damaging the inner bark. Also, in p. 119, the peel- 
 ing off the loose bark of the vine, and washing the plant with water and 
 soap, with a sponge, is recommended. 
 
 X Mr. P. Lyon of Comely Garden, near Edinburgh, has tried the experi- 
 ment on above 800 fruit trees, both young and old, and with great success. 
 T. A. Knight, Esq. recommends, in the case of old trees, after taking ofF the 
 old bark, to graft, on the old stump, new varieties. Phis hint may be cl 
 the greatest service in decayed orchards. 
 
Of Gardens . 
 
 509 
 
 In many cases, particularly in pear-trees, cutting out a 
 narrow ring of bark, from one-half to one-third of an inch, 
 quite round the stem, has rendered the crop abundant, 
 which otherwise would have failed*. If the incision be 
 covered with a rag, the hollow will be filled up with new 
 bark in the space of a few weeks. 
 
 In many cases, fruit-trees are at first planted too deep in 
 the soil. The roots are thus excluded, by a superabun- 
 dant load of earth, from the beneficial influence of the 
 atmosphere. By a removal of part of the useless covering, 
 leaving only a few inches of loose earth over the roots, 
 vigour has often been restored to the tree. 
 
 It is proper to add, that taking off the earth, in a circle 
 of three feet in semi-diameter, round a fruit-tree, throwing 
 in two or three pailfuls of soap-suds, that have been used in 
 washing, and then replacing the earth, has a most bene- 
 ficial effect, in rendering every species of fruit-tree pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 The same system may be successfully applied to currant, 
 gooseberry, and raspberry bushes; and to vines, merely 
 throwing the soap-suds on the ground where they grow, 
 has been found of use. 
 
 2. Private Kitchen-Gardens . — To those who reside in 
 the country, a well cultivated kitchen-garden is a most 
 essential object, with a view to health, comfort, and eco- 
 nomy. 
 
 It requires attention to the following particulars : 1. Soil; 
 2. Trenching; 3. Manures; 4. Vermin; 5. Rotations; and, 
 6. Articles to be raised. 
 
 1. It is found that a, sandy loam, is peculiarly adapted for 
 a kitchen-garden, more especially when the grains of sand, 
 of which the soil is composed, are small, as by that means 
 the soil is capable of retaining a greater quantity of manure, 
 and of moisture, in dry seasons. A free marl, or a soil with 
 a good mixture of clay, so favourable to retention of these 
 articles, will likewise be found well calculated for garden 
 culture. The addition of a moderate quantity of oxide of 
 iron, is of much use in promoting fertilityf. It is fortunate, 
 however, when a garden contains a variety of soils : as some 
 
 * Lancashire Report, p. 83i; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 215. — In May 
 1808, Mr. Shephard’s bailiff, cut out a ring of bark, between two and three 
 inches broad, and the full depth of the bark, from a very old pear tree, that 
 had never borne fruit, and the consequence was an abundant crop. — Buck- 
 inghamshire Report , p. 252. 
 f Bedfordshire Report, p. 156. 
 
510 
 
 Of Gardens. 
 
 vegetables require a strong and heavy soil, and do not thrive 
 in a light one. Where the subsoil is wet, draining is indis- 
 pensable. 
 
 2. Preparing the soil, and trenching it to the proper 
 depth, is not always sufficiently attended to in garden cul- 
 ture. The soil ought to be from one foot and a half, to two 
 feet and a half deep, particularly where tap-rooted vege- 
 tables are cultivated. The roots can thus, with greater 
 facility, extend their fibres, in all directions, in search of 
 vegetable nourishment, and a reservoir is provided, for any 
 superabundant moisture, which may be occasioned by heavy 
 rains, where it is retained till Wanted. 
 
 3. The species of manure must depend upon the soil. 
 Rotten dung is preferred by gardeners, as, in the course of 
 fermentation, the seeds of weeds, and the larvae of insects 
 are destroyed ; and the more putrid the dung, the greater 
 effect it has in promoting the rapid growth of the plant*. 
 Sea- weed, where it can be procured, is an excellent manure 
 for garden crops, in particular for onionst. Soapers’ waste 
 used in moderation by itself, or in a compost with earth, is 
 an excellent manure for garden soils. This substance, not 
 only destroys insects and their larvaej, but, consisting prin - 
 
 * It is much disputed, whether rich and putrid dung- is of use to vege- 
 tables. Some contend, that all vegetable produce is sweeter, and more de- 
 licate, in proportion to the quickness of its growth, and that none have so ill 
 a flavour, as those on poor soils, ill manured, that will not advance them 
 sufficiently quick. It is the quick-formed juice that is the sweetest : and 
 thence, it is contended, that the rankest and most putrescent manures, give 
 the finest taste, because they make the plants shoot away with the greatest 
 celerity. Young's Annals of Agriculture, vol. xxxix. p. 303. — These doctrines 
 are supported, by the high repute in which the unusually large and luxuriant 
 vegetables are held, which are grown at Mr. John Gratian’s garden at Bclper, 
 by the aid of liquid night-soil, and sewer-water, applied in the way of irriga- 
 tion. Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 209. — On the other hand, it is maintained, 
 that vegetables raised by abundant fetid manure, can never be so well tasted, 
 nor so wholesome; — that London brocoli, for instance, has a strong, and 
 most disgusting flavour ; — and that a turnip from a common tillage field, is 
 much superior to what can be obtained from a rich garden. On the whole, 
 it would appear, that when a large portion of dung is used, the vegetable is 
 forced so rapidly, that it is insipid, or deficient in flavour, — that a moderate 
 quantity of dung, produces plants of a better quality, — but that vegetables, 
 grown luxuriantly in a fresh maiden earth, are the sweetest. In such soils, 
 the leaves of the brassica, or cabbage tribe, are sometimes to superior in 
 quality, as to be nearly transparent. 
 
 'f' General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 94. When sea-weed could be 
 had at Kirkcaldy, at a reasonable rate, the crops of onions were remarkable 
 for their produce. Sometimes from eight to twelve pecks were got per fall, 
 and sold for 4 j. per peck. Ditto. — Onions thrive well when transplanted. — 
 Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p. 212. 
 
 X Soapers’ waste is found to check, and to destroy the club or bodge , so de- 
 structive to the growth of the brassica , or cabbage tribe. This disease is 
 
511 
 
 Of Gardens . 
 
 cipally of calcareous matter, every species of vegetables are 
 greatly improved in quality, where it is applied. Cow-dung, 
 mixed with water, is a good manure, when frequently ap- 
 plied in a liquid state. In Flanders, they use no other dung 
 but that of the cow, for peaches, the dung of hogs and 
 horses being of too burning a quality*. The best manure 
 for apple trees, is said to be tanners’ bark, A tanner’s 
 orchard rarely fails. In the rich garden -ground, in the 
 neighbourhood of London, the application of stone lime in 
 powder would be of singular utility. 
 
 4. Slugs and snails are very destructive in a garden. 
 Slacked lime, sifted coal-ashes, saw-dust, or the awns of 
 barley, spread on the surface, or laid in rows, in various 
 places, are useful in destroying them. Salt would probably 
 be still more effectual. 
 
 5. Skilful gardeners recommend attention to a rotation of 
 crops, and occasionally fallow portions of their gardens, or 
 lay them down with clover, which seldom fails to restore 
 them to their former fertility. The most experienced hor- 
 ticulturists are now agreed, that even the currant, goose- 
 berry, and raspberry quarters, should be changed every 
 seven or eight years, and the strawberry ground every four 
 or five years. The chief market-gardeners near Edinburgh, 
 think it essential to adopt a certain rotation of principal 
 crops, to be afterwards stated. 
 
 6. With respect to the articles cultivated in kitchen-gar- 
 dens, there are above eighty different sorts, raised even in 
 Scotland, notwithstanding its inferiority of climate; the mere 
 enumeration of which, with some remarks on their nature 
 and quality, and mode of culture, would fill several pages, 
 and must therefore be omitted in so limited a work as 
 tbisf. 
 
 3. Market-Gardens cultivated by the Spade . — The market- 
 gardens in the neighbourhood of London, from the amount 
 and value of their produce, are entitled to peculiar attention. 
 Owing to the natural richness of the soil ; — the quantity of 
 manure given them ; — the labour bestow T ed in their cultiva- 
 tion ; — and the skill with which they are managed, the pro- 
 duce of those in the immediate vicinity of the metropolis, 
 
 occasioned by a hard maggot perforating, and depositing itself, in the stem 
 part of the root, by which the juices, intended for the growth of the upper 
 part, are prevented from ascending, and are converted into a hard substance 
 beneath the surface, which sometimes weighs a pound or more. Soapers’ 
 waste might prevent a disease of a similar nature, to which turnips are liable. 
 
 * Vanderstraeten’s Improved Husbandry, p. 162. 
 
 f See this subject very ably treated of in the Chapter on Gardens, by 
 Mr. P. Neill; General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 105. 
 
512 
 
 Of Gardens. 
 
 is estimated at from 100L to 200L per acre, per annum. 
 As such produce is so unusually large, it may be proper to 
 explain whence it arises. 
 
 The gardens situated at the Neat Houses, near Chelsea, in 
 Middlesex, are distinguished for their produce and value ; 
 but they have many advantages in their favour. The soil is 
 naturally fertile ; — for a great length of time it has been 
 cultivated for kitchen-gardens, and abundantly supplied 
 with dung ; — by attention to the sluices, the occupiers can 
 have the command of water ; — and being situated in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of the metropolis, the expence of convey- 
 ance is moderate*. 
 
 But the place, where the greatest quantity, and value of 
 produce, is raised from the smallest extent of land, is in the 
 neighbourhood of Blue-anchor-lane, Bermondsey, Surrey. 
 That is effected, by covering from a third, to a fourth part of 
 each garden, with hand-glasses and frames, the former, to 
 assist in forwarding the growth of the articles planted ; and 
 the latter, to preserve, during the winter season, such plants 
 as are to be placed out in the spring, to succeed the former. 
 Gardens managed at such expence, may well produce to the 
 great amount of even two hundred pounds per acre , per an- 
 num . But when the subjoined statement of the expences 
 attending the culture, is considered, even that produce does 
 not furnish more than an adequate remuneration, for the 
 outlay of capital, and the unceasing fatigue and anxiety of 
 mind attending such a troublesome concern. 
 
 Expence of cultivating ten acres of garden ground, where 
 a considerable proportion of the soil, is covered with hand- 
 glasses and frames. 
 
 Rent of ten acres, at 10/. per acre, per annum, ,£T00 0 O 
 
 Poor-rates, tithes, and other taxes, at 8/. per acre, • • • • 80 0 0 
 
 Ten women, on an average, 5^/. per annum each, • • • • 520 0 0 
 
 Four women, at 20/. each 80 0 0 
 
 Five horses, at 52 1. per annum, 260 0 0 
 
 Two carters, at 50/. per annum, 100 0 0 
 
 Manure, seeds, and water, • • 200 0 0 
 
 Baskets, tools, &c. 100 0 0 
 
 Market expences, 50 0 0 
 
 Blacksmith’s, wheeler’s, and carpenter’s bills, 100 0 0 
 
 c£ 1590 0 0 
 
 Interest of capital, and profit, 410 0 0 
 
 ,,£2000 0 0 
 
 Middlesex Report, p. 3'iO. 
 
Of Gardens. 
 
 513 
 
 The produce must be immense, and the prices high, to 
 compensate for such heavy charges, as must be incurred in 
 such cases, where 3000 hand-glasses* are employed, and 60 
 frames, for securing an early produce. 
 
 In market-gardens, where cultivation is carried "to the 
 greatest perfection, cauliflowers and cucumbers are raised 
 under glasses , and yield large sums. Cauliflowers, when 
 grown early in spring, in a good season, will yield at the 
 rate of 80/. per acre ; and cucumbers, when the crop is 
 abundant, and when they are brought to market in warm 
 weather (which greatly promotes their consumption), will 
 fetch from 100/. to 120/. per acre. Between the glasses, 
 there is generally an inter-crop of celeryf, which in many 
 cases is continued in the same soil for years. A variety of 
 other articles are likewise raised, as radishes, lettuce, beet, 
 onions, spinnage, brocoli, coleworts, or cabbages, either in 
 succession, or intermixed with each other, according to the 
 judgment of the gardener. 
 
 Among the crops produced by market-gardeners, that of 
 asparagus merits particular attention. The general average 
 value of its produce may be stated at from 50/. to 75/. per 
 acre, per annum ; but that is the only crop that the soil 
 yields during the season, and it is attended with considerable 
 labour and charges, in the gathering and preparing it for 
 market. The original expence, in laying down an acre of 
 asparagus in a proper manner, cannot be stated at less than 
 105/. to which ought to be added, the rent of the land, 
 before it makes any return. It may remain productive for 
 ten years, but 10/. per annum may be stated for the ex- 
 pence of labour, and as much for collecting the article, 
 and sending it to market, besides rent, taxes, interest of 
 capital, &c. 
 
 The average produce of market-gardens, of the first and 
 second quality, may be calculated at 150/. per acre, per an- 
 num ; while the average expences, and probable profit, may 
 be stated as follows : 
 
 * The expence of glass used in artificial gardening, to force an earlier pro- 
 duction, is very considerable. They are of two sorts, hand-glasses, and 
 glob’e-glasses. The former cost 5s. each, the latter 8j. But these are not 
 now to be purchased, except at sales, even at that price. If bought new, 
 they would cost from 10^. to 12 s. each, in proportion to their weight, accord- 
 ing to which the duty is levied. 
 
 f From 200 to 300 acres of celery may be annually grown in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the metropolis, to be consumed as a salad, to flavour soups, &c. 
 Celery is considered to be a powerful antiscorbutic. 
 
 L 1 
 
514 
 
 Of Gardens. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Rent, tithes, and taxes, <£*20 0 0 
 
 Labour, 50 0 0 
 
 Teams and manure, 40 0 0 
 
 Marketing, and other expences, 10 0 0 
 
 *£120 0 0 
 
 Profit, including interest of capital, &c. 30 0 0 
 
 Total, ,£150 0 0 
 
 There are many market-gardens, however, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of London, of an inferior quality, the produce 
 of which, though cultivated by the spade, does not exceed 
 in value above 90 1. per acre, and some very inferior soils, 
 not above 50 1. The returns, indeed, are extremely fluctuat- 
 ing : some crops may afford large profits one year, from 
 the growth of which, next year, loss may be incurred. The 
 expences are always great, and there are few pursuits, where, 
 considering the skill and industry applied, less profit is in 
 general made, than by the market-gardener. 
 
 In various parts of England and Scotland, market-gardens 
 are to be met with, but greatly inferior, in respect of produce 
 and value, to those above described. It requires great in- 
 dustry, and severe labour, to derive much profit from such 
 occupations, where the rents are high ; yet many families 
 do subsist, by cultivating from two to ten, and sometimes 
 sixteen acres each, as garden-ground. This is accomplish- 
 ed, by a regular succession of crops in the same year, of 
 which the following examples, as practised in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Edinburgh, may be adduced. 
 
 I st Rotation . — Early potatoes, planted in March or April, 
 the ground cleared in June or July, and sown with yellow 
 turnip and cauliflower, or green savoys. 
 
 2d Rotation . — Early pease, sown in December, January, 
 February, or March. Green savoys and German greens, 
 sown between the rows of pease in spring, to remain for 
 crop, after the haum of the pease has been cleared off the 
 ground. 
 
 3d Rotation . — Early turnips, sown in March or April ; 
 the ground cleared in June or July, well manured, and 
 sown with onions, spinnage, and lettuce, for winter and 
 spring use*. 
 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. ii.tp. 90. 
 
Of Gardens . 
 
 515 
 
 The average produce of land, cultivated under these rota- 
 tions, will be at the rate of from 401. to 451. per acre. The 
 expence of manure and labour is very great, and without 
 unremitting attention and industry, the market-gardener 
 could not make money*. 
 
 4. Field Gardens cultivated by the Plough . — Some gar- 
 deners occupy a large extent of land, and using agricultural 
 implements, are distinguished by the name of “ Farming 
 Gardeners There are not less than 8000 acres in all, in 
 the neighbourhood of London, cultivated by such gar- 
 deners, and principally by the plough, instead of the spadet. 
 Their crops commonly are, 1 • Early pease, sown in Ja- 
 nuary or February, the price and produce of which vary, 
 but the average may be stated at 40 sacks (four bushels 
 each, in their pods), at 7s. 0 d. per sack, or about 15 1. 
 The haum of these early pease, is nearly equal to hay, and 
 may be. moderately stated at 3 1 . ; hence that crop produces 
 18 1. in all. 2. The ground is cleared from the pease in 
 June or July, and sown with turnips, which produce above 
 20 1. per acre, when sold in the markets of the metropolis 
 for immediate consumption. 3. When the turnips are sold 
 off, the ground is again ploughed, and planted with col- 
 lards, or coleworts. If the pease are late, they are generally 
 succeeded by a crop of savoys, or of late cabbages. The 
 average produce of land cultivated in this manner, may be 
 stated at 50Z. per annum. 
 
 The rent of land thus cultivated, does not in general 
 exceed from 31. to 5 1. per acre ; for though the expence of 
 labour is cheaper, yet the articles raised by plough culture, 
 are generally large, as cabbages, carrots, turnips, potatoes, 
 coleworts, savoys, &c. and being of great weight, are ex- 
 pensive to convey. Articles of common produce also, will 
 not command such prices as the finer sorts, consequently 
 
 * Near Devizes, and other towns in Wiltshire, many families subsist by 
 occupying from two to five acres each, as garden ground. The soil is sandy, 
 and applied to the produce of esculent vegetables, for the consumption of the 
 neighbouring towns and villages. Wilts Report , p. 82 . — So productive are 
 gardens, when well managed, that three brothers, who followed the art 
 of gardening, supported as many families, very decently, and gradually 
 acquired some wealth, by the cultivation of about five acres of land. — 
 Berks Report, p. SOI. 
 
 + The Rev. Mr. Hoblyn thinks, that gardens in the country, are more 
 advantageously cultivated by the plough than the spade, for as much work is 
 done in a day by the one power, as in a month by the other. In his own 
 garden, the first ploughing is carried to the depth of nine inches, the seconc 
 in the same furrow to six more, the whole depth fifteen inches. Having a 
 command of space, the ground was only cropped once a year, and by this 
 means, it was kept clean and in good condition. 
 
516 
 
 Of Gardens . 
 
 the returns are not in proportion to the difference of ex- 
 pence, between plough and spade culture*. 
 
 Sometimes farming gardeners, raise not only vegetables, 
 but grain and grass, in which case, after a crop of early 
 potatoes, and then turnips in the same year, wheat is sown 
 with clover. This is considered to be the most profitable 
 plan that can be pursued by farming gardeners, from the 
 saving in the expence of labour. Where manure cannot be 
 had without difficulty, to carry on a succession of vegetable 
 crops, oats, barley, or green tares, is occasionally taken after 
 the clover, thus refreshing the land, with crops of a varied 
 description. 
 
 5. Farmers' Gardens . — A garden, under a proper system, 
 is a most valuable acquisition to a farmer, with a view both 
 to comfort and economy. Many culinary articles may be 
 obtained, from a well-cultivated and sheltered garden, which 
 cannot be raised in the field, or will not grow in exposed 
 situations, with equal luxuriance and perfection. Attention 
 likewise should be paid, to the sowing of different articles at 
 various seasons, by which an earlier and a more equal, as 
 well as more regular supply for the table may be obtained. 
 It is also of use, to employ a piece of ground in a garden, 
 for raising cabbages, Swedish turnips, and other plants, to 
 be afterwards transplanted into the fields. The refuse of 
 the garden, may be given with advantage to pigs, and milch 
 cows. At the same time, working in the garden, should 
 always be considered as of inferior consideration to the 
 business of the farmf ; and on no account ought the farmer's 
 attention, to be materially drawn off, from his crops of grain 
 and grassj. 
 
 The size of the garden ought to depend, not on the ex- 
 tent of the farm, but the number of the family, and on the 
 mode of cultivation, whether by the spade or the plough. 
 In general, from one half, to about three-fourths of an acre, 
 is sufficient, when cultivated by the spade, including a por- 
 tion kept in grass, in rotation, for the drying of clothes, 
 whether spread on the grass, or hung on lines. 
 
 If the ground is cultivated by the plough, according to 
 
 * Trench ploughing, for garden farming, costs from SOj. to 50s. per acre; 
 whereas digging and trenching, with the spade, costs from 50s. to 41. per 
 acre; and deep trenching with the spade, from 41. to 01 . ; and in some cases, 
 even 8/. per acre. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 74 ; Gloucestershire Report, 
 p. 196; Berks Report, p. S05. 
 
 X Berks Report, p. 305. 
 
Of Gardens. 
 
 517 
 
 the system adopted by the farming gardeners near London, 
 the garden may contain an acre with advantage. By sub- 
 stituting the plough for the spade, the work will require less 
 attention ; the necessity of having a professed gardener, 
 accustomed to digging, will be prevented ; — and a consider- 
 able expence saved*. 
 
 The propriety of enclosing a garden substantially, cannot 
 be too strongly inculcated. A wall of stone or brick, from 
 seven to ten feet high, is the preferable fence, as it answers 
 the purpose, not only of shelter, but of preventing every 
 species of intrusion, even that of poultry, so destructive to 
 gardens, and frequently the source of much irritation, where 
 the garden becomes an object of particular attention. Walls 
 of brick, however, are much to be preferred to those of 
 stone. The brick, when once heated, retains its warmth 
 for some time, often during the space of a whole night, 
 and absorbs all the moisture with which it comes in con- 
 tact ; whereas stone-walls grow cold immediately after sun- 
 set : and whenever warm air touches a stone that is colder 
 than itself, the air is decomposed, the matter of heat en- 
 tering the body of the stone, and the watery particles re- 
 maining on its surface ; and this moisture frequently causes 
 the rotting of the fruit. — All walls preserve fruit much better 
 when coped. 
 
 The articles raised in a farmer’s garden, ought to be of 
 easy culture ; — of the sorts best calculated for family con- 
 sumption *, — nor ought some aromatic herbs, or medicinal 
 plants, to be omitted. Fruit-trees may also be reared along 
 the walls, and some, in the interior of the garden ; for 
 though they may injure the garden vegetables, yet the value 
 of their fruit is generally far greater, than the amount of 
 their pernicious effectsf. Gooseberry, raspberry, and cur- 
 rant bushes also, which the industrious housewife can manu- 
 facture into various articles, and which in particular may 
 in a great measure be the means of superseding the use of 
 foreign winesj, ought not to be neglected. 
 
 6. Cottage Gardens . — This interesting subject, shall be 
 
 * On the subject of farmers’ gardens, more especially cultivated by the 
 plough, some valuable hints will be found, in the Annals of Agriculture, 
 vol. xxxix. p. 228, and 304. 
 
 t* Bedfordshire Report, p. 458. 
 
 X The best white wine is made from the large Dutch white currant, but 
 the sugar must not be of inferior quality, from the black currant, an 
 excellent liquor is manufactured, which is called gentle ivitte in Kent. See 
 the recipe in Marshall’s Southern Districts, vol. i. p. 318. 
 
518 
 
 Of Gardens . 
 
 considered under the following heads : 1 . The advantages 
 resulting from cottage gardens ; 2. The proper size ; and, 
 3. The mode of management. 
 
 1. No labourer in the country, can be in a comfortable 
 state, without a garden. There are many cottagers unable 
 to pay the rent of their cottage, when they have no land ; 
 but who, with the advantages of a garden, would find no 
 difficulty in doing it. The cottage garden yields a great 
 addition to the food, tends to promote the health of the 
 family, and employs only their spare hours, in which nothing 
 else would be done*. Hence, their families are supplied 
 with culinary vegetables in summer, and roots in winter, at 
 a moderate expence : and the value of this benefit, is greatly 
 enhanced by the consideration, that it is the fruit of their 
 own exertionsf . The variety of food thus procured, con- 
 tributes, not only to comfort, but to health. For the alle- 
 viation of some diseases, and the extirpation of others, is in 
 many cases justly ascribed, to the more general introduction 
 of cottage gardens. When a garden is of sufficient extent, 
 the cottagers are also able, from its produce, not only to 
 rear, but to fatten a hog, a valuable acquisition to every 
 farm labourer, and indeed without whose manure, the 
 garden could not be cultivated with success. Profit may 
 sometimes also be derived from fruit ; and in favourable 
 situations, bees may be kept with advantage. The moral 
 effects resulting from such a system, cannot be too highly 
 appreciated. When these gardens are of a moderate extent, 
 they merely occupy the leisure hours of the family ; thus 
 tending to promote the comfort of the whole, to produce 
 habits of industry, and to cherish a taste for, and knowledge 
 of gardening, in the rising generation^. 
 
 2. The extent of the garden should be such, as not to 
 occupy more of the labourer’s time, than the regular engage- 
 ments of the day will admit of. It is calculated, that the 
 whole time which a farming labourer can spare from his 
 
 * It is an additional argument in favour of cottage gardens, that when a 
 labourer is obliged to return home, in consequence of bad weather, he may- 
 do something in favour of his little plot, in case the weather clears up, in- 
 stead of loitering in public-houses, and other places of public resort. 
 
 f Where a garden is small, it is an useful plan for the labourer, to procure 
 a ridge of land, from some neighbouring farmer, for raising a stock of 
 winter potatoes. The cottager manures the land, and gets the produce in 
 return for the manure laid on, the benefit of which afterwards accrues to the 
 farmer. This is an advantageous system to both parties . — General Report of 
 Scotland , vol. ii. p. 64. 
 
 £ General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 62. 
 
Of Gardens . 
 
 519 
 
 ordinary occupations, to be employed on his own land, is 
 273 hours, or about twenty- three days in all* * * § ; but as these 
 consist of fractional parts, and as the greatest leisure occurs, 
 when the spade is least wanted, there will be some difficulty 
 in adapting it to the necessities of the garden. It is pro- 
 bable, however, that matters may be so arranged, that a 
 cottager may, in some instances, with the assistance of his 
 family, cultivate from a quarter to even half an acre, with- 
 out improperly interfering with regular labour, provided a 
 portion of it is kept in grass for feeding a pig. But in many 
 cases, without assistance, he cannot advantageously attempt 
 to manage one half of that quantity ; and it is well known, 
 that a small spot, when properly cultivated, will raise a 
 greater and more valuable produce, than one of double the 
 size, if the management be imperfect. 
 
 3. A cottage garden, ought to be managed on a simple 
 plan, at the same time, some variety of productions is de- 
 sirable, as, under a proper system, it may be made to yield 
 a weekly, and almost a daily tribute, to the table of the 
 cottager. Much must depend on the cottager being supplied 
 with good seeds ; for five shillings per annum, laid out in 
 the purchase of seeds, properly selected, and sown in due 
 season, would render his garden doubly valuablef. 
 
 The fittest articles for cultivation in a cottager’s garden, 
 are, summer cabbage, winter kail, potatoes^; , carrots, tur- 
 nips, beans, leeks, and onions §. French beans are recom- 
 mended as being very productive and profitable ; and the 
 imperial cabbage, as being early, of a good size, and fine 
 flavoured. At Wytham near Oxford, the culture of straw- 
 berries, in cottage gardens, has been found productive ||. 
 In other districts, the gardens of cottagers contain goose- 
 berries and currant bushes, by which they frequently make 
 some profit among their more opulent neighbours If. Use- 
 ful herbs, as balm, mint, parsley, chamomile, &c. ought 
 not to be neglected. In Cumberland, cottagers often pay 
 
 * Gloucestershire Report, p. 199. 
 
 t* Communication from Mr. Salisbury, of the London Botanic Garden. 
 
 X Cottagers should cultivate both early potatoes, as the champion or bread- 
 fruit ; and the red apple, or the red Cheshire, for late use. 
 
 § Plain directions for the culture of these plants in cottage gardens, by 
 the late Mr. Nicol, are inserted in the General Report of Scotland, Appen- 
 dix, vol. iv. p. 426. — It has been remarked, that the gardens of labourers are 
 frequently seen better cultivated than those of farmers, as the labourer occu- 
 pies no other land to distract his attention from the culture of his garden. — 
 North Riding Report t p, 180. 
 
 |J Berks Report, p. 30b', note. Bedfordshire Report, p. 458. 
 
520 
 
 Of Gardena . 
 
 their rent from the produce of two or three trees of the 
 Carlisle codlin* * * § . Other fruit-trees may also be planted 
 with profit, but unless a cottager or his family, have a turn 
 for horticulture, and the soil and climate are favourable to 
 the production of fruit, it is more advisable to restrict his 
 attention to the common vegetables. 
 
 The benefit of a garden to cottagers, must greatly depend 
 on its being well enclosedf ; — on its having no forest trees 
 planted in itj ; — and on the ground being well trenched, 
 for if shallow, moisture is not retained in the soil, and its 
 fertility is soon exhausted. In favourable situations, bee- 
 hives are kept with profit. Bee husbandry, however, re- 
 quires so much attention, skill, and management, that it 
 ought to be attempted only by those who have a real taste for 
 the pursuit. 
 
 In some parts of England, the gardens of labourers, and 
 the entrance to their cottages, are adorned by flowering 
 creepers, shrubs, and plants ; which, though not attended 
 with any profit, yet indicate a greater attention to neatness, 
 and an enjoyment of more comfort, than the occupiers of 
 the miserable unadorned huts in other countries, can pos- 
 sess^ The sight of such superfluities , is a gratifying 
 voucher, in the words of Burke, “ That necessaries are not 
 
 wanting 
 
 7. Village Gardens . — Round many villages and small 
 towns, gardens of a moderate size are numerous and pro- 
 ductive. It is a fortunate circumstance, when manufac- 
 turers and mechanics take a delight in them, since their 
 
 * See a description of this species of apple ; General Report of Scotland, 
 Appendix, vol. iv. p. 4GO. 
 
 -f* A good fence is necessary, as labourers are obliged to be from home a 
 great part of the day, and sometimes take their families with them into the 
 held .- — Gloucestershire Report, p. 197. 
 
 X In some cottage gardens, forest trees are to be met with, though inju- 
 rious to the produce, and in particular the ash, which on no account ought 
 to be tolerated in that situation. The ash is frequent in such situations in 
 Scotland, in consequence of an old Scotch statute, which required the 
 planting of a certain number of ash trees, for every house that was built. — 
 See General Report of Scotland , vol. iv. p. 432. 
 
 § Derbyshire Report, p. 214. — The situation of the Irish peasantry, is 
 extremely different from the same class in England. Excepting near popu- 
 lous towns, the general hire given to labourers in Ireland, is only eight-pence 
 in winter, and ten-pence in the summer and spring months. It is evident, 
 therefore, that a large proportion of this class in Ireland, must be in an 
 extreme state of poverty ; and so far from being able to attend to minutise, 
 and neatness about their cottages, they often find it difficult to keep themselves 
 and their families in existence . — Communication from Eduard {hiccoughs, 
 Es'p 
 
Of Gardens . 
 
 521 
 
 health is promoted by the exercise in the open air, for 
 which an opportunity is thus afforded ; while at the same 
 time, any tendency to immorality, is greatly checked, by 
 an agreeable and useful means of occupation. The village 
 garden is frequently the retreat of the occupier, in the 
 summer evenings, after the labours of the day, where he 
 agreeably employs himself, in watching over the progress 
 of his crops, and the success of his exertions. In those 
 manufacturing villages, or small towns*, where a num- 
 ber of inhabitants have gardens, a taste for keeping them 
 in good order is prevalent, and few instances of dissi- 
 pation occurf. In such gardens, not only aromatic herbs, 
 and medicinal plants, are cultivated, but flowers of various 
 sorts are raised, as carnations, pinks, auriculae, polyanthus, 
 &c. by the sale of which some money is obtained. The 
 Florist Society at Paisley, in Scotland, is a sufficient proof 
 of the advantage to be derived, from directing the atten- 
 tion of manufacturers to such innocent pursuits. The 
 rearing of beautiful flowers, is found to improve their taste 
 for manufacturing elegant patterns of fancy muslin ; while 
 the florists of Paisley, have long been remarked, for the 
 peaceableness of their dispositions, and the sobriety of their 
 mannersj. 
 
 3. The Rent of Gardens. 
 
 The most superficial observer must be satisfied, that the 
 value of landed property, has been considerably augmented, 
 by the increase of gardens. From their artificial riches; — 
 their high cultivation ; — and their great fertility and pro- 
 duce, the rents afforded, are higher than those derived from 
 arable or pasture land§. The expences, however, are so 
 great, that the rent, in proportion to the produce, is often 
 moderate. 
 
 * A carpenter at Steyning, plants about 20 rods of his garden with what 
 is called “ the under ground onion and potatoe sprouts, and sells annually 
 20 bushels of onions at 10f. per bushel, and 30 bushels of potatoes at 2s. or 
 13/. in all. As there are 160 rods in an acre, the above is a large return. 
 He also raises radishes and celery on the same ground. Communication from 
 Mr. Bannister of Steyning . — The ground onions are sown in March, as po- 
 tatoes, and earthed up like them. The principal advantage derived from 
 cultivating them is, their being earlier than the common onion, unless 
 the latter are sown in autumn, and transplanted in the spring, which is 
 often done in the neighbourhood of London, with the aid of glasses, 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 65. 
 
 X Ditto, vol. ir. p. 422. § Essex Report, vol. ii. p. 131. 
 
522 
 
 Of Gardens. 
 
 The rent of common garden ground, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Fulham, Turnham-Green, Brentford, and other 
 places near London, is from 6/. to 71. per acre. Nearer 
 London, and where the ground is rich, the rents rise to 
 10/. ; and where a garden has a considerable extent of wall, 
 covered with choice and thriving fruit-trees, the rents are, 
 according to the quantity and goodness of the walls and 
 fruit-trees, from 15/. to 20/. per acre. In each of these 
 cases, the rents are exclusive of forcing-houses; and the 
 several gardeners have also to pay for tithes, taxes, and 
 assessments, from one-half to two-thirds of the amount of 
 the rents*. 
 
 The rent of the best garden ground near Edinburgh, 
 an. 1814, was, on an average, from 8/. to 12/. per statute 
 acre, for rent alone, tithes not affecting the occupier of land 
 in that part of the kingdom. It is remarked, however, that 
 unless the soil and exposure be particularly excellent, the 
 tenant cannot have a profitable bargain at such rents, and 
 that the land is likely to suffer from over-cropping, unless a 
 sufficient quantity of manure can be procuredf . 
 
 The garden ground at Sandy, in Bedfordshire, rents at 
 from 2/. 10s. to 3/. pet acre, 'subject to the occupier paying 
 tithes, taxes and assessments ; and a field manured and 
 cleaned, and in a state fit for producing potatoes or onions, 
 will only let for one year, at from 5/. to 6/. per acrej ; while 
 in the neighbourhood of many of the third and fourth rate 
 towns of Scotland, from 6/. to 8/. and even 10/. per statute 
 acre, is often paid for land upon which potatoes, and other 
 vegetables, are cultivated §. In the neighbourhood of sea- 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 The necessity of accurate inquiry, is strongly exemplified by the following 
 anecdote. A gentleman had mentioned in conversation to the author, that 
 some gardens near Brentford were let for 80/. per acre. He was requested 
 to ascertain the fact, when he stated in a letter, dated December 13, 1815, 
 “ That a little mistake had been made in the rent, which is only 40/. per 
 annum, instead of 80/.” and after all, the rent turned out to be only about 
 20/. per acre, per annum. It is said that some land is let, near Hoxton, to 
 some London citizens who amuse themselves with gardening, at the rate of 
 51. for a plot of ground containing only two hundred square yards, which is 
 the highest rented lend, for cultivation , known in the kingdom. 
 
 General Report of Scotland, vol.ii. p. 89. 
 
 j Bedfordshire Report, p. 457. — The soil at Sandy, is so favourable to ve- 
 getables, that cucumbers and onions are sown broad-cast, in the open fields. 
 The produce is partly sent to the London markets. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol ii. p. 93. — The acre mentioned in this 
 chapter of the General Report of Scotland, is the Scotch one; which is one- 
 fifth more than the English. A proportional deduction from the rents 
 therein specified, has been made, to make the rent applicable to the English 
 or statute acre. 
 
Of Gardens . 
 
 523 
 
 port towns, market-gardeners are found peculiarly useful ; 
 for nothing tends more to preserve the health of seamen, 
 than a plentiful supply of vegetables, not only when on 
 shore, but to be consumed at sea. 
 
 4. Means of Improving the Art of Gardening, 
 
 With a view of exciting emulation, it Ts a good plan, to 
 have annual shows of fruits or vegetables, for the purpose of 
 directing the attention of gardeners to the best varieties of 
 the different sorts. In Manchester, they have celery shows* * * § , 
 and in other parts of Lancashire, those for gooseberries, &c. 
 But the institution of horticultural societies, is attended with 
 still more important consequences. A society of that de- 
 scription was established in London in 1805, which is con- 
 ducted with much ability and success; in 1809, another was 
 formed at Edinburgh, under the title of <c The Caledonian 
 Horticultural Society and one has been lately established 
 in Dublin, which is conducted with great spirit. Institutions 
 of this description, must promote horticultural improvements, 
 by exciting emulation ; — by facilitating the communication 
 of the valuable knowledge, often acquired by individual 
 practical gardeners, from the result of their own experience; 
 — and by fostering a taste for horticultural pursuits in every 
 class of society, from the great landed proprietor, to the 
 possessor of a cottage garden^. 
 
 Perhaps nothing is now wanting, to complete the science 
 of horticulture in this country, but that of sending persons, 
 properly qualified, to examine the state of gardening on the 
 Continent §, and to promote the introduction of such im- 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 213. 
 
 +* The objects of the latter institution are declared to be, “ The promoting 
 and improving the cultivation and improvement of the best kinds of fruit; — 
 of the choicest flowers ; — and of the vegetables which are most useful in the 
 kitchen.” The display of fruits, flowers, and vegetables, at some of the 
 meetings, has been such, as to draw forth the admiration of the most expe- 
 rienced amateurs, and of the best practical judges. Upwards of 150 prize 
 medals have been distributed by the Society since its institution; and a 
 number of valuable papers have been published in its memoirs. 
 
 X It may be proper here to mention a curious fact recorded in the Survey 
 of the Hebrides. A cottager there, had his cabbages much injured by the 
 caterpillar. He surrounded his little garden with hemp , and was no more 
 molested by them, the smell of that plant being noxious to insects. The 
 same idea exists in France, as appears from the following paragraph : 
 
 “ Quelques personnes ont cru reconnaitre qu’on semant du chauvre sur 
 toutes les bordures d’un terrain, les chenilles n’ont point ddpassd cette barriere, 
 quoiqu’elles infestassent tout le voisinage.” 
 
 § On the recommendation of the author of this work, that plan has been 
 adopted by the Horticultural Society of Scotland, its intelligent Secretary, 
 
524 
 
 Of Orchards. 
 
 provements as can be discovered there, or in other coun- 
 tries*, in the management of fruits, or of garden vegetables. 
 
 II. Of Orchards. 
 
 It has been a subject of dispute, whether the system of 
 occupying land as an orchard, is advantageous to the indi- 
 vidual, and to the public ; and whether the soil might not 
 be more usefully employed. In some situations, as in steep 
 banksf, where they are sufficiently sheltered from cutting 
 winds, there can be no doubt, of the superior pecuniary 
 profit derivable from orchard trees, compared to any other 
 species of produce ; more especially to a small farmer, who 
 attends personally to the whole business, and whose wife 
 and children are his assistants^. In various cases also, the 
 produce of an orchard, in favourable seasons, will pay the 
 rent of the industrious cottager §. But whether it is the 
 profitable appendage to a large farm, and advantageous on 
 an average of years, either to the landlord or the tenant, is 
 a different question ||. It is objected to the formation of an 
 orchard, that the returns, for the first twenty years, will be 
 small, and that it will be thirty years, before the landlord 
 can put any additional rent on his land, on account of his 
 plantation. But this depends upon the management. With 
 due care, the land may be cultivated, for several years, by 
 the spade, with advantage to the plants, and benefit to the 
 proprietor; inasmuch as the loosening of the earth, and 
 manuring it well, is advantageous to their growth ; and 
 when the plants have got to a size, to protect themselves 
 
 Mr. Neill, having gone to the Continent, for that purpose, in July 1817. 
 Much useful information may be obtained from a country, where, it is said, 
 that no species of fruit tree, that the country was ever possessed of, has be- 
 come extinct . — Vanderstractens Improved Agriculture, p. 160, note. 
 
 * It is probable also, that much useful information might be obtained 
 from China, regarding fruit trees and gardening. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 182. 
 
 X Marshall’s West of England, vol. i. p. 233. § Berks Report, p. 475. 
 
 II This will in a great measure depend on the peculiar fitness or otherwise 
 of the soil and situation of the spot selected, for apple culture. Mr. IVillium 
 Smith , in carrying on the investigations for his large map of the sti'ata of 
 England , &c. discovered, among some other things relating to vegetable 
 products, that all the chief cider districts, and the sites of all the best apple 
 orchards, were on the same stratum of red marl , which stretches across the 
 island from Dorsetshire to Yorkshire. Wherever it appears, the soil is fitted, 
 by nature, to the purposes of orcharding, in a peculiar degree, perhaps more 
 so than any other in our island. Comm, from Mr. Farcy . — On which Mr. 
 Middleton observes, • that valuable fruit, hops, and corn, can only be raised, 
 with much success, on calcareous soils. 
 
Of Orchards . 5>25 
 
 from pigs and sheep, the ground may be laid down, in good 
 heart, and become profitable pasture. 
 
 The profit of a tenant from an orchard, may arise, from 
 selling cider, either as soon as it is made ; — or after keeping 
 it for some time *, — or disposing of the fruit ; — or using the 
 cider in his own family, in lieu of beer. 
 
 In a good year, an acre will produce 800 gallons of cider, 
 which, at 4 d. per gallon from the mill, is 13/. 6s. 8d. subject 
 to the following deductions : 20s. for tithes, 405. for making, 
 and 105. for gathering; total, Si. 105.; balance of profit 
 9/. 165. 8d. But it is seldom that such a crop happens 
 above once in three or four years. At 400 gallons, which 
 is considered to be a fair average, 'the return would be 
 6l. 135. 4 d. per acre, subject proportionably to lesser de- 
 ductions. 
 
 If the farmer, however, has capital sufficient to retain the 
 produce of his orchard, and suitable accommodation for 
 keeping it, until a proper opportunity for a sale occurs, 
 should a bad year take place, the price will be advanced to 
 8d. or 15. per gallon, and a greater profit, than in the cases 
 above stated, may be obtained. Few farmers, however, have 
 such cellars to keep it in, and all such who have not, must 
 either sell it, or drink it soon after it is made. 
 
 But where farmers reside near a canal or navigable river, 
 the most certain profit arises, by selling the fruit for table 
 use, (the finer kinds for desserts, and the coarser sorts for 
 baking and stewing), instead of converting it into cider. 
 For the same quantity of fruit, (eleven seams of nine pecks 
 each), which would fetch, 8/. 165. unground, would only 
 bring in cider, Si. 15s* 
 
 It is objected to orchards on large farms, that they are apt 
 to interfere with the more important concerns of husbandry; 
 and to abstract that manure, which ought to be applied to 
 the arable land. The cider system has likewise a tendency 
 to introduce a dissoluteness of manners ; nor is cider so 
 wholesome or strengthening a liquor as malt liquorsf . 
 
 But it is contended, that lands in pasture, worth only from 
 
 * Gloucester Report, p. 2S8. 
 
 f Marshall’s West of England, vol. i. p. 233. — Inferior grass lands are 
 often much benefited by being planted with fruit-trees. As orchards, the 
 shelter of the trees, and the dropping of the leaves in autumn, promote their 
 fertility. They should not, however, be planted too close, as the trees would 
 soon become mossy, and decay ; and the grass, from being too much sheltered, 
 would become sour and unkind : both objects would thus be defeated. — 
 Remark by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
526 
 
 Of Orchards. 
 
 1 2s. to 30s. per acre, would probably be worth 3 1. per annum 
 as an orchard ; — that Great Britain contains many thousand 
 acres, capable of that species of improvement, at a small 
 expence, and within a short period of time* ; — and that by 
 increasing the better sorts of fruit, and pursuing a proper 
 system, fruit grounds and orchards, might be rendered a 
 source of riches to those districts, where they can be suc- 
 cessfully cultivated, and at the same time, would prove a 
 source of benefit to the nation at largef. Many instances 
 might be adduced, where small farmers have been enabled 
 to pay their rents, from the produce of their orchard har- 
 vest, where care had been taken, in selecting the most 
 useful sorts of fruit trees, and properly managing them. 
 
 It is the more necessary to attend to orchards, as in the 
 opinion of one of the ablest naturalists this country has pro- 
 duced, there is no reason to suppose, unless a great change 
 in the heat of our climate should take place, that vineyards 
 will succeed in England ; or that the grape will ever, in such 
 a climate, afford a liquor, equal in merit, to the produce of 
 the apple or the pear, when the liquors these afford, shall 
 reach their greatest state of perfection 
 
 Several points are here to be considered, as, 1. The kinds 
 of fruit-trees raised in orchards ; 2. The distance at which 
 they are planted; 3. The rent given; 4. The produce; 
 5. The under-crops; 6. The stock that are kept in them ; 
 and, 7. Some particulars regarding the mode of manage- 
 ment. 
 
 1 . Sorts of Trees . — Besides the pear and the apple, se- 
 veral other trees are raised in orchards. Of these, cherries 
 are in some districts, as in Kent and Hertfordshire, the most 
 abundant. They begin to bear about ten years after they 
 are planted ; and on an average, they will produce annually, 
 about six dozen of pounds, from the tenth till they reach 
 their twentieth year. A full grown tree, will produce 50 
 dozen of pounds in a good year. The price varies, from 
 lOd. to 3a*. per dozen of pounds. At 2a. per dozen of 
 
 * Herefordshire Report, p. 91. 
 
 f Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. ii. p. 295. In regard to the idleness 
 and debauchery which cider orchards are alledged to occasion, it is justly 
 observed in the Somerset Report, p. 126, “ That we ought not to confound 
 the abuse of a thing, with its intrinsic value.” 
 
 X A Treatise on the Culture of the Apple and the Pear, by T. A. Knight, 
 Es<j. p. 44, note. That, however, is of less consequence, as an acre of pear 
 trees, the fruit converted into perry, is found to equal what many persons in 
 France, derive from good vineyaras. 
 
Of Orchards, 
 
 b'27 
 
 pounds, a tree would yield 5l. per annum. The gathering 
 gives considerable employment to the poor* * * § . Some or- 
 chards in Kent, have Spanish chesnuts planted in them. The 
 produce is extremely uncertain, though very profitable in 
 good seasonsf. Walnut trees are likewise to be met with ; 
 and are calculated to yield about 5l. 5s. per tree per annum f. 
 Filberts , under proper management, are a profitable crop in 
 an orchard, but they are supposed to be great impoverishers 
 of the ground^. Plums are sometimes raised with advan- 
 tage near good marketsj|. Where apples thrive, as in the 
 counties of Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, other fruits are 
 too apt to be neglected. 
 
 2. Distance and Mode of Planting.— In Devonshire, 
 orchard trees are small, and are seldom found standing at a 
 greater distance than sixteen feet from each other. In some 
 places their branches are so interlocked, intermixed with dead 
 wood, and covered with moss, that the fruit is hardly visi- 
 ble^. To remedy this objectionable practice, it is recom- 
 mended, that the trees should be planted at sixty feet every 
 way from each other, by which means they become produc- 
 tive, and the pastures suffer but little injury. The desire of 
 having a great deal of fruit, on little ground, is the cause of 
 planting too close *, but by this method, the intended object 
 is defeated**. 
 
 In the grass grounds of Gloucestershire, and arable fields 
 of Herefordshire, twenty yards is the usual distance ; some- 
 times even twenty-five ; a chain, or twenty-two yards, is 
 a proper mediumff . Young trees ought not to be planted 
 in the same spot whence the old ones were removed. The 
 roots of the old tree, are the habitations of multitude of 
 worms, and they should be carefully removed, otherwise 
 they will do serious damage to the young trees. 
 
 3. Rent. — The orchards in Somersetshire let at from Si, to 
 6l. per acrefl:. In Hertfordshire the rent is about 4 J. per acre. 
 They are generally under grass, and fed with sheep§§. At 
 Coldstream, in Scotland, an orchard is let for 21 years, at 
 61. per acre for the first seven, and 7Z. for the remaining 
 
 * Herts Report, p. 443. f Marshall’s Southern Districts, vol. i. p. 30 5. 
 
 X Oxfordshire Report, p. 220. The high value of walnut-tree wood, as 
 
 well as the profit derived from the fruit, seems to require a more extensive 
 planting of them. See Derbyshire Report, voL ii. p. 215. 
 
 § Marshall’s Southern Districts, vol. i. p. 307. 
 
 |i General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 180. 
 
 if Devonshire Report, p. 239. ** Somerset Report, p. 220. 
 
 ft Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. ii. p. 271 . 
 
 XX Somerset Report, p. 124. §§ Herts Report, p. 143. 
 
528 
 
 Of Orchards . 
 
 fourteen years*. In the West of Scotland, the rent is still 
 higher, varying from 6l. to 12/. and sometimes it is as high 
 as 1 6/. per statute acre ; but the produce is sold as fruit, to 
 an extensive manufacturing district, and not converted into 
 ciderf. 
 
 4. Produce . — In orchards, a full crop once in five years, 
 and an average crop once in three years, is as much as can 
 fairly be expected^. 
 
 In Devonshire, the average produce of an orchard is 
 reckoned at 3| of a hogshead per acre, per annum. The 
 average price at the press is 50s. consequently the average 
 produce of an acre is about Si. 10s. per annum§. 
 
 In Herefordshire, from 24 to 30 bushels of apples will 
 make a hogshead of cider, or 110 gallons. Twenty hogs- 
 heads of cider have been made from an a.cre. This is only 
 at the rate of 40 trees per acre, and half a hogshead per 
 tree. The average price of cider is from 25s. to two guineas 
 per hogshead. 
 
 The entire produce of four counties, (Gloucestershire, 
 Monmouth, Hereford, and Worcester), may be calculated at 
 30,000 hogsheads, raised at the rate of 20 hogsheads per 
 acre, on 1500 acres||. At 2 1. per hogshead, this would 
 amount to 60,000/. or 40/. per acre. At 30s. per hogshead, 
 the return would be 30/. per acre. 
 
 It has been disputed, whether pears or apples ought to be 
 preferred in orchards. The pear in general produces an in- 
 ferior liquor, but it possesses many advantages over the 
 apple, for general culture. It flourishes in a greater variety 
 of soils j — it is more ornamental its fruit is less liable to 
 be stolen, (those sorts which are proper for perry, being 
 unfit to be eaten, or applied to common culinary pur- 
 poses) ; — and it is more productive, trees in general, when 
 nearly full grown, producing annually 20 gallons of liquor ; 
 and as each acre is capable of containing 30 pear trees of 
 the usual dimensions, hence the average produce may be 
 stated at 600 gallons per acre. On the other hand, though 
 an acre planted with apple trees, will produce but one- 
 third as much liquor, yet the apple begins to bear at an 
 earlier age, and cider will ever be generally preferred to the 
 juice of the pear^J. 
 
 Apples are superior to cherries, as they will keep till they 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 166. + Ditto, p. 181. 
 
 $ Berks Report, p. 306. § Devon Report, p. 244. 
 
 || Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. ii. p. 392. 
 
 <Jf Herefordshire Report, p. 90. 
 
Of Orchards . 
 
 529 
 
 are wanted, either for sale or use ; but cherries will burst 
 or drop, if they are not gathered when ripe, and there is not 
 always a demand for them*. Cherries are likewise apt to 
 be destroyed by birds. 
 
 It is said, that the importance of apples, as food , has not 
 hitherto been sufficiently estimated. The labourers in Corn- 
 wall, consider them to be nearly as nourishing as bread, and 
 more so than potatoes. — In the year 1801, when corn was 
 so scarce and dear, apples, instead of being converted into 
 cider, were sold to the poor ; and the labourers asserted, 
 that they could stand their work, on baked apples without 
 meat, whereas a potatoe diet, required either meat or 
 fishf. 
 
 5. Under Crops. — These are of various sorts, depending; 
 on the age of the orchard ;— on the extent of distance be- 
 tween the trees ; — on the situation of the orchard ; — on the 
 quality of the soil, and other less important circumstances; 
 but they may be classed under the following heads : arable 
 crops ; — -garden crops ; — grass ; — and miscellaneous articles. 
 
 In young orchards, the ground, if flat and arable, is not 
 unfrequently put under a rotation of corn and green orops; 
 as, l.Oats; 2. Potatoes, with dung; 3. Oats, sown down 
 with clover and rye-grass; 4. Hay; and, 5. Hayf. But it 
 is much more advisable, to cultivate the land with the spade 
 than the plough. The harness and the implement do so 
 much injury to the trees, that they cannot be depended on 
 for the production of fruit. Their roots, also their drip, and 
 shade, are destructive, not only to corn, but to clover and to 
 turnips ; impeding the free circulation of air, and obstruct- 
 ing the teams when ploughing. While the trees are young, 
 however, the land cannot be too much stirred§. 
 
 In Gloucestershire, orchards are kept in grass, in which 
 state, under ordinary management, the progress of the trees 
 is comparatively slow, for want of the earth being stirred 
 about their roots, while the trees are injured (more especi- 
 ally low-headed drooping trees), by the grazing stock. 
 Cattle also, if admitted at the season when the fruit is grow- 
 ing, destroy all that is within their reach, and often suffer 
 from the fruit lodging in their throats. Notwithstanding 
 these disadvantages, when the trees become of such a size, 
 as to be injurious to the arable crops, the ground ought to 
 
 * Berks Report, p. 364. 
 
 t Communication from the Re'C'. Robert Hoblyn. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 186. 
 
 , § Marshall’s Gloucestershire , vol. ii. p.286, 
 
 m m 
 
530 
 
 Of Orchards . 
 
 be converted into a state of grass*. The herbage produced 
 in an orchard also, comes very early in the spring, when it is 
 peculiarly valuable to the farmer. Under judicious manage- 
 ment, it is never suffered to grow long or coarse ; and an 
 orchard in this condition, will be found to support a very 
 considerable quantity of stockf . 
 
 The fruit-gardeners near London, have, what they call an 
 upper and under crop, growing on the same ground at one 
 time. The upper crop includes apples, pears, cherries, &c. 
 The under crop consists of raspberries, gooseberries, cur- 
 rants, strawberries, and other fruits, shrubs, and herbs, 
 which are known to sustain the shade and drip from the 
 trees above them, with the least injury;):. Near Glasgow, 
 small fruits are in great demand, and are frequently grown 
 in orchards. There are instances of 100/. being got for an 
 acre of gooseberries, near a manufacturing town§. 
 
 In young orchards, the spaces between the trees, are in 
 some cases occupied with hops||, and in others with filberts. 
 In grown orchards, the filbert is frequently seen, though 
 far from generally. Some old orchards are in permanent 
 sward ; others bear arable or garden crops : some are in sain- 
 foin ; others in lucern^f. Sometimes the interstices are 
 used as nursery ground ; but this seems a bad plan, as it 
 exhausts the land, and prevents its being properly stirred. 
 
 In Devonshire, the trees of orchards are kept so low, 
 that the use of the land is in a great measure lost. Horses 
 are sometimes allowed to run through them ; and calves 
 in early spring ; but grown cattle and sheep are at all times 
 prohibited ; likewise swine, when the fruit is on the trees**. 
 
 6. Stock . — Cows are frequently grazed in orchards when 
 in pasture. To prevent the animals from eating the fruit, 
 when the trees are loaded with apples, their heads are some- 
 times secured to the fore feet, by means of halters-f-f- 
 
 The same plan, to prevent cows from raising their heads 
 
 * Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. ii. p. 286. 
 
 f Herefordshire Report, p. 91. J Middlesex Report, p. 324. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 180. 
 
 || This plan was strongly recommended by the late S. Dyot Bucknall, Esq. 
 If hops are cultivated by the spade, they can do no injury to the roots of the 
 trees, if judiciously worked, while the loosening of the earth, to a good 
 depth, and the liberal expenditure of manure, tends evidently to the benefit 
 of the plants, as well as to the ensuring rich pasture, whenever the size of the 
 trees i6 such, as to be prejudicial to the further cultivation of hops. It is 
 evident, however, that this practice can only be applied to congenial soils. — 
 Communication from Sir Charles M. Burrell, Bart. M. P. 
 
 ^ Marshall’s Southern Districts, vol. i. p. 319. 
 
 ** Marshall’s West of England, vol. i. p. 223. 
 
 f t Report of the Norman Islands, p. 123. 
 
Of Orchards . 
 
 531 
 
 high enough to browse the branches of the trees, is adopted 
 in the cherry orchards of Essex*. 
 
 Sheep are injurious to orchards, by barking the trees, 
 which may easily be obviated by a wash of lime and night- 
 soil, applied to the height of three or four feet on the stem 
 of each tree, previous to the sheep being admitted. This 
 precaution is particularly necessary for the first ten years 
 after an orchard has been planted. 
 
 It is an useful practice, to turn hogs into orchards, and 
 give them there beans or other food. The turning up the 
 earth, in search of roots, is thought to be of use to the trees, 
 and tends to the destruction of weeds, grubs, and insectsf. 
 It is necessary, however, to use precautions, when any 
 species of stock is admitted into an orchard, as swine are 
 fond of fruit ; sheep eat it with avidity ; and deer are still 
 more partial to it:f. 
 
 The chief orchards in Scotland, being either upon banks, 
 so steep as to be inaccessible to cattle, or in clayey soils, 
 which might be injured by poaching, are seldom pastured. 
 Yet orchards thus kept, must have a disgusting appearance, 
 since weeds, instead of grass, are likely to abound. Grazing 
 with sheep or cattle, and if necessary, using some manure 
 to the trees, would seem to be preferable to the admission 
 of swine un-rung. The trees in general, are only trained 
 as half-standards. The grass is therefore cut with the 
 scythe, and given to cows and horses, to whom it is ac- 
 ceptable, though there are not wanting prejudices against 
 this practice^ It is not approved of in England, where 
 mowing the grass of orchards is thought to exhaust the 
 ground so much, as to be destructive to the trees in it. 
 Some orchards which were very productive when fed, have 
 produced nothing after a few years mowing||. Perhaps this 
 may, in part at least, have been owing to other causes ; and, 
 if tried, some kind of manure or compost, might doubtless 
 be found, to supply the place of the dung of the cattle. 
 
 7. Management . — The forming an orchard is a work of 
 time. Where shelter is necessary, a belt of planting, 50 
 feet wide, and 30 yards from the fruit-trees, should be pre- 
 pared. It is advisable, to plant only 25 feet of the belt first, 
 and the remaining 25, about 12 or 15 years afterwards : a 
 
 * Essex Report, vol. ii. p. 132. 
 
 + Marshall's Southern Districts, vol. i. p. 312. 
 
 £ Marshall’s Gloucestershire, vol. ii. p. 322, note. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 185. 
 
 || Herts Report, p. 143. Tethering stock in orchards, is a better plan than 
 mowing, or allowing them to pasture at large. 
 
 Mm2 
 
532 
 
 Of Orchards . 
 
 close screen is thus secured, for a much longer period, than 
 if all the trees had been planted at once*. 
 
 No excellence of culture or management, can make up 
 for the want of a dry and sound bottom. Hence the neces- 
 sity of draining thoroughly, whenever moisture is suspected. 
 When young trees are planted, the earth should be dug 
 sufficiently deep, to facilitate the passage of the water, that 
 it may not injure the roots. The surface should likewise 
 be trenched with a spade, the year before planting, to the 
 depth of at least two feet, and as much long manure , ashes, 
 lime-shells, or sand, used, as can be spared, or conveniently 
 got, increasing the quantity as the soil is poor. 
 
 On soils that have a cold, and hard subsoil, it is advi- 
 sable, when planting the trees, to put a flag, or pavement 
 under each tree, in order to prevent the tap-root from 
 striking into the unfertile soil below, which often occasions 
 their producing bad fruit ; and often prevents them totally 
 from bearing. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary also, to give an artificial and 
 protecting subsoil. For that purpose, a pit ought to be dug, 
 eight feet deep, and filled with brick-bats, cinders, rubble- 
 stones, &c. at the top of which, two or three coarse flags 
 should be laid, to prevent the main roots of the trees from 
 descending, and to give them a horizontal direction f. 
 
 It is recommended as an useful practice, in wet soils, or 
 where the substratum is not suited to the apple or the pear, 
 to plant the trees, on hillocks of easy ascent, as for instance, 
 one foot higher in the centre than the level of the field, and 
 sloping gradually to that level, for three or four feet every 
 way from the centre. By that practice, the roots will 
 naturally follow the good surface earth ; whereas, if they are 
 planted in holes, the roots are apt to shoot into the preju- 
 dicial subsoil, to the eventual injury of the plants, by canker 
 and other diseases. When trees are thus planted on small 
 hillocks, the under-drains may pass between the rows with 
 greater utility^. 
 
 * Herts Report, p. 143. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 183. In all the old monastic 
 orchards in Scotland, this plan was followed. No tree, however, can stand, 
 without having some of its roots at a depth proportioned to its top ; and if 
 flags prevent their descent immediately below the trunk, they must descend 
 as soon as they can get beyond the flags : in the case above described, the 
 benefit must be derived, from having a pit below filled with rubble , in and 
 round which the roots may range better, than in a hard and cold subsoil, in 
 addition to the having no unfertile matter to injure their roots. 
 
 X Communication from Sir C. M. Burrell, Bart. M. P. 
 
Of Orchards . 
 
 533 
 
 For guarding the stem of trees in orchards, from the 
 attacks of sheep and hares, a white- wash is applied, com- 
 posed of lime, night-soil, and water, of such a consistency, 
 as to be put on with a brush. Sometimes, not only the 
 lower part, but the whole stem is frequently seen smeared 
 over*. 
 
 Others recommend wrapping up the trunk of the young 
 tree with straw ropes, for the first 18 years, which effec- 
 tually protects the bark from the attacks of hares and 
 rabbitsf. Tying bunches of furze (whins), round the stems 
 of trees, likewise prevents all injuryj. 
 
 It is a maxim in the management of the orchards in Scot- 
 land, (which is peculiarly necessary in that country, on 
 account of the variableness of the climate), to plant a consi- 
 derable number of different sorts, both of the early and the 
 late kinds : for at one time, the blossom of a particular 
 variety, may be destroyed by frost or a moist north-east 
 wind, while the blossom of another kind, either earlier or 
 later, may escape. 
 
 Where the Devonshire plan is adopted, of covering the 
 ground with trees, they should be planted in quincunx , or 
 in the centre of circles, in contact with each other, according 
 to the following plan§. 
 
 To understand this properly, the trees should be planted 
 at 15 yards distance from each other in the rows, and 13 
 between the rows, and the trees of the second row should 
 be in the middle between the trees in the first and third 
 
 * Marshall’s Southern Districts, vol. i. p. 310. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 164. + Dittos p. 191. 
 
 § Bedfordshire Report, p. 312, 
 
534 
 
 Of Orchards . 
 
 rows. If a larger distance is preferred, the proportion of 15 
 in the row, to 13 between the row, should be preserved. 
 
 In all the orchard districts, there are the greatest com- 
 plaints of the decay of trees, and the state of unproductive- 
 ness into which they have fallen*. Where that takes place, 
 the plan of peeling the outer bark of these decayed trees, (as 
 already explained in the Section of Gardens), and either 
 trusting to their natural growth, or engrafting on them new 
 varieties, ought to be tried. 
 
 An easy remedy for the white blight, or American bug, 
 has been discovered. It is only necessary to clean the 
 diseased parts, and to apply to them common fish-oil, 
 such as is used in coarse out-door work, with a brush, 
 and the nuisance may be got rid of, without injury to the 
 plantsf. 
 
 It is a rule, that standard trees in orchards, should be 
 trained, pruned, and cleaned, with as much care as wall- 
 trees, in order to ensure their productiveness, at least while 
 they are young. When the stems are well swelled, the head 
 well formed, and there are three or four flourishing main 
 branches, it is only necessary to take off the annual shoots 
 which form on the limbs, or any foul and ill-directed shoot 
 accidentally produced. 
 
 It cannot also be too strongly inculcated, that to permit 
 young plants to bear fruit for some years , is eventually to do 
 essential injury to their future fruitfulness and duration;}:. 
 
 * Surrey Report, p. 422. 
 
 f Communication from Sir C. M. Burrell, Bart. M. P. — Fish-oil is pre- 
 ferable to linseed-oil, on account of its stench, which is highly injurious to 
 insects. Olive-oil is also injurious to them, and promotes the health of the 
 trees. It is said, that to have water applied with a hand-brush, would answer, 
 and it is a cheap application. The following liquid is the most effectual of 
 any: — Take two ounces of quicksilver, and the same quantity of salt. 
 These two substances to be mixed together, so as to kill the quicksilver, by 
 stirring them about with a stick six or seven inches long. The hand not to 
 touch the mixture on any account. — When the two substances are well in- 
 corporated together (which is generally in about five minutes), add one gill 
 of rape-oil, and two table-spoonfuls of spirit of turpentine — Stir them till fit 
 for use. — The liquid to be applied with a feather, and it will be found an 
 infallible means of destroying every species of vermin, in houses, hot-houscs, 
 gardens, or orchards. 
 
 X Communication from Sir C. M. Burrell, Bart. M. P. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 WOODS AND PLANTATIONS. 
 
 I. Of Woods. 
 
 T he occupation of land, either in natural wood, or planted 
 timber, is attended with numerous advantages. Trees con- 
 tribute to the ornament and the shelter of a country* ; and 
 the importance of timber, as applicable to naval uses; — to 
 the building and repair of houses ; — to the construction of 
 machinery ; — to husbandry to mines ; — to various manu- 
 factures; — to utensils ;— to fuel ; — and to several miscella- 
 neous objects, as the feeding of stock ; the construction of 
 bridges ; the production of pitch and tar, &c. has been so 
 frequently laid before the public, that these particulars need 
 not here be dwelt uponf . 
 
 Notwithstanding these advantages, and though woods are 
 considered by many, as amongst the most profitable lands in 
 
 * In a paper drawn up by the Right Hon. William Adam, (General Report 
 of Scotland, Appendix, vol. iv. p. 472), the advantages of shelter, are ably- 
 explained ; as well as several other important particulars connected with the 
 success of plantations. See also Kent’s Norfolk, p. 92. 
 
 f They are detailed in the Chapter on Woods and Plantations, in the Ge- 
 neral Report of Scotland, Chap. X. vol. ii. p. 197; and in Marshall, on 
 Planting and Rural Ornament, vol. i. p. 47. — The advantages furnished by 
 trees to the feeding of stock, are not much attended to in this country, 
 though in others, as in Italy and Sweden, trees are considered a great re- 
 source. The leaves of the elm, the maple, and the poplar, are preferred in 
 Italy ; but those of the oak and the ash are also used, particularly mixed 
 with others. They are gathered about the end of September or beginning 
 of October, and after being spread on a pavement to dry, for three or four 
 hours, they are put in wooden casks, or in pits covered first with straw, 
 and then with clay or earth. There is no dry food on which cattle and 
 sheep thrive better, than on leaves well preserved. Professor Symonds 
 Communication, Annals of Agriculture , vol. i. p. 207. — The sheep of Sweden, 
 who are kept seven months in the house, have one meal every day, of the 
 leaves of the birch, the willow, &c. Communications to the Board of Agri- 
 culture, vol. i. p 313. — The late Sir Cecil Wray found, that the boughs of 
 the Scotch fir, given to sheep in snow, saved much hay, and kept deer per- 
 fectly well in winter, — Lincolnshire Report , p. 216. 
 
536 
 
 Of Woods. 
 
 their possession* ; yet others contend, that whether in re- 
 spect to the landlord or his tenant, to individuals or the 
 public, woods are considerably inferior to corn and herbage. 
 It is ingeniously urged, that as the kingdom advances in 
 cultivation, woods and forests are made to disappear ; — that 
 when they vanish before population and corn, it may be 
 considered as a most convincing proof of national prospe- 
 rity *, — and that to complain of scarcity of wood, is prefer- 
 ring a produce that yields only 205. to another that produces 
 at least 4/. per acre, per annumf. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is proper to consider, 
 1. What soils are peculiarly calculated for the production 
 of timber ; 2. What soils may be applied to the growth 
 either of timber, or of grain and herbage; and, 3. Whe- 
 ther those soils, which are peculiarly calculated for the 
 growth of corn, or of artificial grasses, may not have some 
 timber intermixed with them, without detriment to the corn 
 or herbage. 
 
 1. There can be little doubt, that where the soil is not 
 worth more than two or three shillings per acre, it can 
 hardly be more advantageously employed than in the growth 
 of wood, suited to its soil, situation, and climate ; and 
 there are very few of the most exposed and barren wastes, 
 where, by proper care and attention, timber of one species 
 or another may not be produced f . By planting also, such 
 pastes are often improved •, the falling and putrefaction 
 of the leaves, tending to thicken the soil, and to render 
 it by degrees richer, and more capable, either of pro- 
 moting the growth of timber, or of being converted into 
 arable land§. 
 
 Where the land is steep and precipitous, and more espe- 
 cially covered with stones, there are no means, by which so 
 much profit can be derived from the soil, as from woods. 
 This is particularly experience4 in some districts in the 
 
 * Kent Report, p. 146'. f Sussex Report, p. 184, 185. 
 
 + West Riding Report, p. 129. 
 
 § Staffordshire Report, p. 99. — In Flanders, barren lands have been 
 planted in general with the Scotch fir, principally with a view of supplying 
 them with the materials of future cultivation. It has been found, that in 
 thirty-five years, an arable soil of from five to six inches thick, is formed from 
 the decayed leaves. If the trees are their cut down, and young ones planted 
 (for young trees produce the greatest quantity of leaves,', the vegetable 
 mould will become a foot in depth, and may then be cultivated in perpetual 
 rotation, with all the various crops raised in the neighbourhood. This is 
 certainly a tedious mode, but there is a profit from the trees in the interim, 
 joined to the prospect of future improvement. 
 
Of Woods. 
 
 537 
 
 counties of Perth, Stirling, Dumbarton, and Argyle, where, 
 the annual produce of a statute acre of copse wood, may be 
 stated at 1 /. per annum (1/. 5s. per Scotch acre); a return 
 which far exceeds, what could be drawn from the soil on 
 which it grows, in any other way* * * § . In a favourable situa- 
 tion, (as in the case of Somersetshire, to be afterwards men- 
 tioned), the profit is still more considerable. 
 
 2. In regard to soils calculated either for wood or culti- 
 vation, it is said, that the proprietors, in many instances, 
 derive more profit from the sale of wood, than could be 
 obtained from the rent of land, if cultivated. In some 
 parts of England, where black sallow abounds, an acre, at 
 twelve years growth, is worth 15/., and pays better than 
 the adjoining arable fieldsf. Where the Spanish chesnut 
 is cultivated, instead of the black sallow, the profit is still 
 more considerable. In Kent, the late Lord Barham cut 
 down a plantation of chesnut, for hop-poles, at nine years 
 growth, and drew from it 10 4*1. per acrej. In eleven years, 
 a plantation of larch, on a very poor light loam, not worth 
 more than from 65. to 7s. per acre for cultivation, produced, 
 for hop-poles, at the rate of 91/. per acre§, or 61. 8s. per 
 annum, subject to the usual deductions. 
 
 Much, however, depends on the nature of the soil , and 
 of the subsoil ||. The situation, also, merits consideration, 
 before we can properly decide, whether the growing of wood 
 is to be preferred to cultivation. 
 
 Lord Bagot’s woods in Staffordshire, are upon a gravelly 
 loam, incumbent on a clay or marl bottom. It is a soil of so 
 cold a quality, that it would not be worth a rent of 10s. per 
 acre, if cultivated ; and it pays much better when covered 
 with timber and underwood^. 
 
 In the county of Somerset, the ancient forest of Selwood, 
 contained about 20,000 acres, of which 18,000 have been 
 converted into arable, pasture, or meadow land ; the re- 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 249. + Herts Report, p. 145. 
 
 | Kent Report, p. 145. — This is about 10/. per acre, per annum, from 
 
 which deduct taxes and other burdens, and it stills remains very profitable. 
 
 § Kent Report, p. 146. 
 
 || In many cases, the successful growth of forest-trees, depends more on 
 the underground, than on the soil itself. — The latter is principally of use in 
 the early stages of the growth, but ultimate perfection entirely depends on 
 the nature of the subsoil, its depth, soundness and moisture. Poor sandy 
 soils in Norfolk, not fit for corn, and producing nothing but bent grass, will 
 yield thriving timber, if the subsoils are loamy. — In some parts of France, 
 soils incapable of producing crops of corn, are clothed with luxuriant tim- 
 ber. — See Young’s Travels in France. 
 
 If Staffordshire Report, p. 98. 
 
538 
 
 Of Woods . 
 
 mainder still continues in a state of coppice. Much of the 
 land that has been brought into cultivation, does not rent at 
 more than from 10s. to 12s. per acre ; whereas some of 
 those coppices which lie towards the northern end of Sel- 
 wood, though, from the soil and exposure, they cannot be 
 cut oftener than in eighteen or twenty years, yet produce an 
 annual value in timber and underwood, of from 1 5s. to 30s. 
 per acre* * * § . 
 
 In an extensive wood in the same county, but disafforested 
 in the reign of Charles I., the profit of woodland, under any 
 tolerable degree of management, may, it is said, be fairly 
 taken at nearly double the value of the adjoining land, 
 whether in an arable or pastoral statef . 
 
 The coldness and sourness of some descriptions of land, 
 when brought from woodland into culture, tend much to 
 depreciate its value, however it may be employed. In an 
 arable state, it will not, in the first instance, produce grain 
 kindly for many years. In a favourable season, it may yield 
 a tolerable crop of oats, but it is totally unfit for barley, and 
 unless it be heavily manured, is too poor for beans. Wheat 
 is late of ripening, and requires more dung than can well be 
 afforded. If in grass, from the lateness of its growth, the 
 value of the land is much reduced, and it is less suited to 
 the dairy, though that is the mode of application to which it 
 is best adapted;}:. But as a general rule, it may be laid 
 down, that all land capable of bringing the oak to maturity, 
 and not too steep or too rugged to be cultivated, should be 
 applied to the purposes of agriculture §. After the most 
 accurate investigation, it appears, that where the soil is of 
 good quality, more profit is derived from cultivation, than 
 from retaining land in wood || . 
 
 In most cases, however, the profit depends upon situa- 
 tion. 
 
 In the county of Wilts, notwithstanding the general use 
 
 * Somerset Report, p. 1 29. 
 
 ■f> Somerset Report, p. 229. — But when cut only once in 20 years, it 
 reduces the real annual produce, to half the nominal produce, or from 20j. 
 to 10.y., and this subject to taxes and other deductions, which would diminish 
 the real to about one-third of the nominal produce. 
 
 X Somerset Report, p. 23S. — In a note to p. 234, it is stated, that Mr. 
 Parsons, of West Camel, had greatly improved such wet clay soils, by 
 burning all the earth and clay he could find in his ditches, with wood, and 
 reducing them into a pulverized state; he mixed the whole with any manure 
 he could command, and spread it with great advantage, on cither arable or 
 pasture land. 
 
 § Marshall’s Review of the Northern Department, p. 224, 225. 
 
 || Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 224, and 225. 
 
539 
 
 Of Woods. 
 
 of pit-coal has considerably diminished the consumption of 
 wood and charcoal, for domestic purposes, the demand for 
 underwood is still so very great, that woodland will not 
 only yield a sufficient rent, but , if in good situations , and 
 well managed, will produce at least half another rent, by 
 the timber which may be raised, without any material injury 
 to the underwood* * * § . 
 
 In Somersetshire, the growth of coppice or natural wood, 
 if secured from the south-west breezes, is so rapid, that the 
 profit is more certain than from any other produce ; and 
 greater than any individual would believe, who has not had 
 experience of it. From rapidity of growth, it is more pro- 
 fitable to cut down the coppice every twelve years, than to 
 let it remain longer. An acre produces 16/. every twelve 
 years, after the expences of cutting, carriage, &c. have been 
 deducted. This is nearly at the rate of 285. per annum, 
 besides the accumulating value of the timber trees. This 
 great profit, howeyer, is principally owing to these woods 
 being near coal-pits, where ash poles fetch a high price. 
 The 28s. received in this case, at the distance of twelve 
 years, is equal to 205. per annum, liable to taxes, and some 
 other deductions. But it would be difficult to let such land 
 for cultivation, at a rent of even 105. per annumf. 
 
 It were endless to go through the various other instances 
 of profit derivable from woodland. It may be sufficient to 
 add the following instances : 1 . The woods belonging to Sir 
 Joseph Banks, at Revesby, in Lincolnshire, pay at the rate 
 of 45/. 7 5. cut once in twenty-three years, which is 1/. 195. 
 5d. per acre, per annum ; but if let at 175. per acre, per 
 annum, payable half-yearly, and put out on simple interest, 
 the amount would be the samej. The land, however, is of 
 so indifferent a quality, that it would not produce, if culti- 
 vated, more than from 105. to 125. per acre §. 2. The under- 
 wood of Col. Beaumont’s woodlands in Yorkshire, is cut 
 down every twenty-one years, and is worth, upon an average, 
 55/. per acre, besides 18/. worth of wood left to stand for a 
 
 * Wilts Report, p. 86. f Somerset Report, p. 128. 
 
 £ If compound interest were allowed, as it ought to be, the comparison 
 would be much in favour of cultivation. Deduct taxes and other burdens, 
 and from 17 j. it would be reduced to 10.?., and when the profits of a tenant 
 
 are considered, it is supposed that a rent of 10s. is as much as could be 
 obtained . — Remark by John Middleton , Esq. 
 
 § Lincoln Report, p. 217. Marshall’s Review of the Eastern Department, 
 
 p. 12. 
 
540 
 
 of mods. 
 
 future fall. These woodlands, in general, if they were 
 cleared of all timber, underwood, &c. and put into cultiva- 
 tion, which would be at an enormous expence, would, on 
 an average, be worth only 5s. per acre # . 
 
 But, on the other hand, when land is cultivated, it yields 
 a return every year ; whereas in wood, the profit is only oc- 
 casional, and in the case of timber, extremely distant \ and 
 various comparative estimates have been made, to prove the 
 superiority of cultivation, particularly on good land. 
 
 In Derbyshire, a fall of wood of twenty-five years growth, 
 varies from 4-0/. to 100/. per acre, clear of all expences of 
 fencing, draining, and superintendence. About 65/. is nearly 
 the averagef. Forty pounds worth of timber, however, is 
 always lying dead, in the trees remaining in the ground, 
 deducting the interest of which, the rent of the woodland, 
 is only 1 2s. 8£cf. per acre, per annum. Compound interest 
 on the 40/. at S\ per cent, would reduce the value of the 
 next cutting to Is. 4 d. per acre, and if calculated at four 
 per cent, compound interest, the dead stock would be 66/. 
 12 s. 8 d. exceeding the cutable produce, by 1 5s. 2d f. 
 
 In the Weald of Sussex, the common system of husbandry 
 is, a fallow, two crops of corn, and one of clover, the pro- 
 duce of which, during that course, is stated at 15/. 2* * * § '. or, 
 for the four years, Si, 1 5s. 6d. per annum §. 
 
 The highest produce, in the most favourable soils for 
 wood in Sussex, is 1/. Os. 5d. ; consequently the gross pro- 
 duce by corn, is 2/. 15s. Id. per annum, more than by wood, 
 though obtained at greater expence ||. 
 
 Besides, were it admitted as a general maxim, that the 
 strength of a country depends more upon the number of 
 
 * West Riding Report, p. 128. This is about 31#. per acre, which is ^ 
 equal to about 20#. clear of taxes. Mr. Surties, of Newbiggen, obtains up- 
 wards of 100/. per annum from 60 acres of woodland. Northumberland Re- 
 port , p. 125. — In Cornwall, copse wood of common oak, cut down at from 
 20 to 30 years growth, sells at from 20/. to 60/. per acre. Cornwall Report , 
 p. 98. — The tithe laws of England, in many cases, render it more profitable 
 to raise wood than grain, in many descriptions of soil. 
 
 ■f* This is about 27 #. per acre, per annum, or 20#. per acre, deducting 
 taxes, &c. 
 
 | Report, vol. ii. p. 224. The Reporter is a strenuous advocate for clear- 
 ing many of the best woodlands, and bringing them under cultivation. 
 Plantations, he admits, should at the same time be extended, over steep and 
 stony wastes. — Ditto , p. 226, 236, and 261. 
 
 § Sussex Report, p. 179. 
 
 || Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 526. — 1/. in 15 years, is less than 10#. per annum, 
 after paying taxes, and other deductions. The rent would not exceed 7#. 
 per acr e. — Remark by John Middleton , Esq. 
 
Of Woods. 
 
 541 
 
 men, than the number of trees, and that those lands, which 
 can be employed in the immediate production of animal or 
 vegetable food, should not be occupied in the tedious culti- 
 vation of future timber* ; yet still, there are exceptions to 
 that rule, which well merit consideration. 
 
 In many districts, were they divested of wood, fuel could 
 not be obtained, manufactures must cease ; mines must be 
 abandoned *, several branches of husbandry, and the culture 
 of hops in particular, could not be carried on : And when it 
 is said, Ci Let timber then be imported,” it is not considered, 
 that the expence of conveying so bulky an article, more 
 especially to inland districts, or places where trade is but 
 little known, would be intolerable. Indeed, those only who 
 live in a country where wood is difficult to be had, can form 
 any idea, of the situation of the people, where that essential 
 article is not to be met withf. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of great towns, and of the metro- 
 polis in particular, woods are not to be encouraged, being 
 nurseries for thieves ; and because the ground, in such situa- 
 tions, can evidently be more profitably employed. 
 
 3. As to soils, peculiarly adapted for the culture of corn, 
 even there, by a judicious planting round the borders of 
 arable fields, or of corners, liable otherwise to lie waste, 
 much timber may be raised, that would be equally adapted 
 to house and ship building. The profit of plantations, on 
 the borders of fields, is very great in FlandersJ, and, though 
 the vicinity of wood is not favourable to the production of 
 corn, yet the shelter it affords, improves the climate, pre- 
 vents evaporation, and the moisture it occasions, greatly 
 promotes the growth of herbage. 
 
 * In the Cotswold Hills in Gloucestershire, from the want of wood, they 
 are under the necessity of using straw as fuel, thus destroying the fertility of 
 their arable land. Turner's Report of Gloucestershire,^. 54. — In the Stafford- 
 shire Report, p. 98, note, their earthenware could not be sent out of the 
 country, unless packed up in crates or baskets. Coal mines without wooden 
 props could not, in many cases, be worked. 
 
 t The inhabitants of the Hebrides, for instance, have to undertake a 
 dangerous voyage, of from thirty to seventy miles, before they can build a 
 barn ; — or make a plough, even of the rudest construction ; — or procure a 
 flail ; or even the handle of a spade. This want of timber, distresses the 
 people in their houses, in their husbandry, and in every art. — Dr. Walker's 
 Economical History of the Hebrides, p. 207. 
 
 t Analysis of the views of “ Improved Agriculture, &c.” by F. Vander- 
 straeten (a Flemish author), p. 18. In Britain, proprietors generally receive 
 the value of the soil cultivated, in 25 years, by annual instalments ; but in 
 Flanders, the plantations round their fields, will yield, it is said, the value of 
 the cultivated, as well as planted soil, in 40 years. 
 
542 
 
 Of Woods. 
 
 The remaining points to be considered in this Section are, 
 1 . The different sorts of natural wood, and their manage- 
 ment ; and, 2. The various kinds of plantations, their mode 
 of management, expence attending them, &c* 
 
 1 . 
 
 Of Natural Woodlands. 
 
 Natural woodlands are divided into four sorts : coppices 
 containing underwood merely, — mixed woods , consisting 
 both of timber and of underwood ; — groves , which contain 
 nothing but trees ; — and forests , or extensive tracts of coun- 
 try, covered with large timber and bushes. 
 
 1 . Coppices. 
 
 It is not usual to have woodlands entirely copse ; as it is 
 considered more advantageous, to have wood of various 
 sizes, so as to suit all kinds of customers. In this way, it is 
 disposed of with more advantage to the owner, and more 
 convenience to the neighbourhood. The small wood is used 
 for laths, baskets, hedge-stakes, puncheons for coal-pits, &c. ; 
 those of a larger size, for husbandry implements of every 
 description ; while the largest timber is employed, in the 
 construction of houses, and the building of ships*. At the 
 same time, in some districts in England, no standards, or 
 saplings, are reserved. It is laid down as a maxim, “ that 
 small gains, and quick returns , make the dealer rich ; but 
 that long credit ruins him.” It is a rule, therefore, with 
 that view, to cut down the whole coppice as soon as it is 
 saleable. The loss of the interest of the money, and the 
 damage which the underwood receives from the drop of the 
 standards, are favourable to this systemf . 
 
 The principal points to be attended to, in the manage- 
 ment of coppices are, 1. Fencing; 2. Draining ; 3. Shelter ; 
 4. The age of cutting down ; 5. The season of the year 
 for performing that operation ; and, 6. The application or 
 uses. 
 
 1. Fencing. — The enclosing of coppices, is the most es- 
 sential of all particulars connected with their management. 
 
 * West Riding Report, p. 123. 
 
 f Wilts Report, p. 89. Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p, 221, 228,815. 
 
Of Woods. 
 
 543 
 
 A landlord had better admit cattle into his wheat field, than 
 into his underwood. In the one case, they only injure the 
 crop of one year, whereas in the other, by biting and mangling 
 one year’s shoot, mischief is done to the amount of at least 
 three years’ growth. By the bite of cattle, there is a pecu- 
 liar injury done to the growth of wood, the irregularity of 
 the incision, bruising and lacerating the plant. At five, or 
 even six years of age, the young shoots are neither high 
 enough to be out of the reach of cattle, which eat them 
 greedily, nor strong enough to resist their weight, when they 
 press upon them, in order to reach the succulent buds on the 
 top. When oak woods are eaten, or cropt by cattle, they 
 will never thrive, until they are cut over at the ground, and 
 where the injury has taken place, the sooner it is done the 
 better*. 
 
 Great mischief has been done to many thriving woods in 
 England, from their being subject to common rights of pas- 
 turage for cattle, and in some instances, of deer ; in conse- 
 quence of an idea, that cattle or deer do little injury to woods, 
 after they are seven years old. But it may be remarked, 
 that if the owners of such woods, saw this injury in its pro- 
 per light, they would not hesitate to make ample compensa- 
 tion to the commoners, to induce them to abandon such 
 rights of pasturef. 
 
 While in a state of commonage, the young plants that 
 spring up spontaneously, are so much exposed to injury, 
 that few of them will come to perfection^. 
 
 Mr. Davis calls the stools, that produce coppice wood, 
 under-ground pollard trees , which have their youth, their 
 perfection, and their decay. During the first and last stages 
 of growth, they are particularly susceptible of injury, and 
 if the wood is constantly cropped, it will ultimately perish. 
 
 Sheep, are likewise considered to be destructive, as they 
 frequently rub against the trees. 
 
 Horses are not apt to do so much mischief as cattle, un- 
 less they are pressed with hunger ; but hogs do the least in- 
 jury, and where acorns abound, this species of stock, are the 
 most profitable. At the Conquest, woods were valued, not 
 by their quantity of timber, but by the number of swine their 
 acorns would maintain}. 
 
 2. Drainage . — Oak timber always flourishes best in woods 
 moderately moist, rather than in those that are wet. Where 
 
 Berkshire Report, p. 240. 
 Wilts Report, p. 85. 
 
 f Wilts Report, p. 84. 
 
 § Sussex Report, p. 165. 
 
544 
 
 Of Woods. 
 
 woods therefore are wet, they should be drained, by open 
 cuts, because the roots would soon disturb and stop up 
 covered drains. This is now, in some cases practised, and 
 is found to be as profitable in respect of woods, as in arable 
 land. Where that plan is not adopted, the willow and the 
 sallow ought to be multiplied. Attention to draining, would 
 prove highly beneficial, in the wet heavy woodland counties, 
 and greatly promote the growth and durability of oak and 
 other valuable timber* * * § . 
 
 3. Shelter. — The great object, in the management of cop- 
 pice is, to accelerate the growth. It makes an immense 
 difference, in point of profit, when a coppice can be cut in 
 twelve, instead of twenty-four or thirty years. The slow- 
 ness of the growth, is either owing to injury done by cattle, 
 or the native coldness of the soil or climate (which may 
 be improved by draining), or is occasioned by exposure to 
 the violent south-west winds. This, however, may, to a 
 certain degree, be obviated, by skirting the wood, according 
 to the nature of the soil, with Scotch fir, Spruce firf, and 
 other hardy plants ; and a moderate quantity of timber, may 
 likewise have the effect, of screening the underwood from 
 the severity of the blast. 
 
 4. Period' of cutting down . — Customs vary, as to the num- 
 ber of years* growth, at which coppices ought to be cut, 
 from 9 to 27 and 30 years. It must depend on the rapidity 
 of its growth, and the uses to which it is to be applied. In 
 favoured situations, a grovrth of twelve years is considered 
 to be sufficient j but in many instances, underwood cannot, 
 by the best management, be made worth more than 8/ . per 
 acre, at 16 years’ growth. Twelve small oaks, "however, 
 per acre, worth 20 shillings each, may be cut regularly 
 at the same time, which renders the total produce 20/. per 
 acre every 16 yearsf. The great wood proprietors in Scot- 
 land, generally cut their oak coppices from 20 to 24 years, 
 and it is sometimes extended to 30 years. The principal 
 object in that country is the bark, which is considered to 
 arrive at its greatest perfection, at the age of between 20 
 and 30 years. Under that age, at least in the climate of 
 Scotland, its virtues are weak ; above it, the bark becomes 
 coarse, and loses its sap§. 
 
 5. Season for cutting down. — There are many opinions, 
 
 * Vancouver’s North-East Essex, pi. 02. Young’s Calendar, p. 33. 
 
 •f- Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 264. 
 
 X Somerset Report, p. 230. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 81. 
 
Of Woods . 
 
 545 
 
 respecting the proper season of the year, for cutting under- 
 wood, but there is one rule, which, for the advantage of the 
 seller, should be steadily ^adhered to, namely, that the 
 older the wood is, the later in the spring it should be cut. 
 When old wood is cut early in the winter, and a severe 
 season follows, the damage done to the old stock, and to 
 the standards, is very great. On the other hand, it is sup- 
 posed to be for the interest of the buyer, that all wood 
 should be cut in the most stagnant state of sap, as being, 
 in that case, more durable ; and in all cases where bend- 
 ing is required, such as hurdles, hoops, and even dead 
 hedges, the wood cannot be cut too early in the winter, for 
 if cut when the sap is rising, it becomes brittle, and unfit 
 for those purposes*. With regard to seasoning timber, 
 there is a difference of opinion, at what period timber should 
 be felled. But as the value of bark is considerable, the 
 spring, on the whole, is the most profitable to the owner. 
 
 6. Application and Uses \ . — It is well known, that in an 
 oak coppice, the principal profit is derived from the bark, 
 and that sometimes, at 16 years’ growth, when the wood 
 fetches only 6l. for charcoal, the bark will produce I5lf 
 The wood of coppices, may likewise be converted to various 
 minute purposes. Charcoal was formerly a great means of 
 consumption^, but since the practicability of employing 
 chayred pit-coal, in the manufacture of iron, that is no longer 
 so great ah object, and the charcoal of wood has consider- 
 ably gone into disuse. In some districts, as in Sussex, the 
 brushwood is employed with great advantage, in the burn- 
 ing of lime. Fortunately also, a new mode of using the 
 small wood of oak, &c. has been discovered, namely, that 
 of extracting from it, a liquid pyrolignous acid, in consider- 
 able quantities, for the use of the manufacturers of dying 
 and printing colours, and for various other purposes. The 
 extreme twigs and buds of the oak, may likewise be used in 
 tanning[|. 
 
 * Wilts Report, p. 89. 
 
 ■J* Mr. Davis, Wilts Report, p. 86, enumerates the various purposes to 
 which young trees are applied, as Ash poles, for sheep cribs, rind hoops for 
 barrels, rigging for ships, &c. Hazel— Sheep hurdles, spars for thatching, 
 and pease and bean sticks, dead hedges, &c. Alder , Willow, Birch, Sec . — 
 Poles for rafters, pattens, clogs, shoe-heels, coal-pit uses, rails for fencing, 
 &c. Oak — For hop-poles, where the culture of that plant prevails, &c. 
 
 X Preliminary Observations to the Westmoreland Report, p. 288. 
 
 § It is still so about Wingerworth, AlderWasley, See. — Derbyshire Re* 
 port, vol. ii. p. 235. 
 
 |j Cheshire Report, p. 826. Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 339. — These 
 twigs and buds are collected by women and children, and pressed into bags 
 
 n n 
 
546 
 
 Of Woods. 
 
 2. Mixed Woods . 
 
 The management of woods, where there are both large 
 trees, and underwood, though not without its difficulties, 
 does not require the same degree of skill, or unceasing la- 
 bour and attention, as the cultivation of arable land, or the 
 management of live stock. It is principally necessary, that 
 the woods should be properly fenced that they should 
 not be damaged by the inroads of cattle or other stock ; — 
 that drainage, and other practical modes of improvement, 
 should not be neglected \ — that the wood should be divided 
 into regular falls, or portions, so as to furnish an annual 
 income, with as much certainty as arable land ; — and that 
 when sold, every pains be taken to procure their full 
 value. By these means, and the reservation of an ade- 
 quate share of large timber, the proprietor will generally 
 have a safe, and perhaps an improving treasure at his com- 
 mand*. 
 
 In Scotland, it is the general practice of wood holders, 
 to reserve , at every cutting, a certain number of trees, of the 
 most beautiful and promising appearance, to become timber 
 at a future period. At the first cutting, about the age of 
 24? or 30 years, between 3 and 400 trees per acre, are gene- 
 rally reserved. At the second cutting, when they are 48 
 years standing, the number is considerably diminished. They 
 are still farther reduced when they are 72 years old, and the 
 process is sometimes extended to a longer period, when 
 timber is obtained of a considerable size, and applicable to 
 various domestic and naval purposes. The abstraction of 
 nourishment, and the droppings of a large tree, will, in a 
 considerable degree, affect the young shoots in the neigh- 
 bourhood ; but the injury thus sustained, must perhaps be 
 borne, because, in a public point of view, the possession of 
 large timber is an object of national importancef. 
 
 The trees principally grown in woods are the oak, the 
 beech, and the birch. 
 
 1. Some of the best English oak is produced in the 
 Weald of Sussex, and underwood is there considered to be 
 
 when dry. They should be used early by the tanners, after being crushed 
 under their rolling stones. 
 
 * Sussex Report, p. 182. 
 
 Hence it is strongly recommended, as a matter of policy as well as 
 justice, that higher prices for large timber, should be paid by the public, 
 than heretofore has been usual . — Derbyshire Report , vol. ii. p. 225, 227, 
 315. 
 
Of Woods . 
 
 547 
 
 its best screen or nursery, contributing greatly to the growth 
 of the trees mixed with it, by its shelter and protection. 
 The standards in Sussex produce about 5s. per acre per 
 annum ; and the underwood, while it grows, at the same 
 rate ; which brings both to a par with the arable and grass 
 land in the neighbourhood, as they rent at about 10s. per 
 acre. But the trees, when they increase in size, do mischief 
 to the underwood, and when the timber is left standing for 
 100 or 120 years, the underwood is effectually destroyed. 
 Lord Sheffield sold 30 acres of wood for 1400/. or 46/. 13s. 
 per acre, which divided by 100, when the oak arrives at 
 perfection, is 9s. per acre per annum, besides the profit of 
 the underwood, while it remained productive* * * § . Some of 
 the best thriving woods on the Petworth estate, yield of 
 gross produce, at the rate of 20s. per acre per annum, and 
 of net profit about 12s.f The profit from timber, how- 
 ever, in other places, was so inconsiderable, that the income 
 produced, was less from woods, than from arable, or pas- 
 ture lands, of similar quality : and this disproportion ex- 
 isted, though timber has increased, within the last 15 years, 
 as 1 1 to 7, and bark, as 1 5 or more, to 8 ; and other arti- 
 cles, the produce of such woods, in nearly the same pro- 
 portion:]:. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of our naval arsenals, however, the 
 case is now different. Formerly, while the Navy Board 
 availed itself of the monopoly of large timber, which it in a 
 great measure enjoyed, to keep down the price, it became a 
 maxim with timber growers, on account of that debased 
 price, that it answered better, for the sake of the quickness 
 of the return, to cut down an oak, before it reached the 
 value of 40^. or even 205.} than to suffer it to remain, till it 
 acquired a large size. The highest price, 30 or 40 years 
 ago, did not exceed five guineas per load : the same, or even 
 inferior timber, has recently sold for 15/. per load. A good 
 price being of late obtained, there is a much better prospect 
 that oak timber will be permitted to reach a large size *, and 
 if a greater difference of price were allowed for timber of the 
 
 * Nine shillings per acre, per annum, for 100 years, payable at the ter- 
 mination of that period, is leBs than a rent of 4 d. per acre per annum, payable 
 every year. One shilling per acre per annum, in 100 years would amount 
 to ISO/. 
 
 f Sussex Report, p. 171, 172. 
 
 X Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 226. 
 
 § Ditto, vol. ii. p. 330. 
 
 N n 2 
 
548 
 
 Of Woods . 
 
 largest dimensions, compared to those of inferior sizes, the 
 growth of large timber would be essentially promoted. 
 Under a proper system, therefore, it can scarcely be doubted, 
 that Great Britain, could with ease furnish, the utmost quan- 
 tity of oak timber, which can ever be required for her mi- 
 litary and commercial shipping, without any material inter- 
 ference with other branches of land produce* * * § . 
 
 2. In Buckinghamshire, the Chiltern districts of Oxford- 
 shire, in some parts of Hampshire, and generally where the 
 soil is chalky, or incumbent upon limestone, beech is the 
 most abundant wood. In Buckinghamshire, they are drawn , 
 or thinned annually, by certain portions, the young trees 
 being left for succession, and the large single stems, at 
 30 or 40 years’ growth, being cut down, sawn into lengths 
 of about four feet, converted into billets for fire-wood, 
 and conveyed by the Thames to the London markets. 
 Good beech woods, on this system, will, it is said, pay 
 about 20 s. per acre, clear of all >expencesf. It requires 
 some judgment to thin these woods, so as to prevent the 
 standards from hanging too much over the young seedlings ; 
 and in southern aspects, to prevent the injury that may take 
 place, if the soil is too much exposed to the sunj. Mr. 
 Fane of Oxfordshire, pays great attention to the training of 
 his beech trees, to lead and keep them as erect as possible, 
 that a spreading growth may not drip on and check the 
 young succession^. The Bishop of Durham at Mongewell, 
 possesses beech woods, which are managed on the thinning 
 system, at 20 years’ growth, and pay about as well as letting 
 the contiguous arable land||. The beech excels all other 
 trees for producing great quantities of mast , which is an 
 
 * Sussex Report, Appendix, No. II. p. 469. It is said that a 74 gun ship 
 requires 8000 loads of wood, the produce of 50 acres, each tree standing 
 about 38 feet apart, which at 15/. per load, would be 900/. per acre. At 
 one rod apart, the extent required would be twelve acres and a half. 
 Marshall on Planting , vol. i. p. 112. — Ip the Memoirs of the Academy of 
 Brussels, vol. iv. p. 263, there is an essay by M. De Limbourg Le Jeune, on 
 the means of improving timber for the navy, which seems to merit attention. 
 By previously barking the tree, it is said, that the whole timber it produces 
 is thereby rendered equally firm and solid. But this is a point on which 
 there is a difference of opinion. Derbyshire. Report^ vol. ii. p. 331. — The 
 fact ought to be ascertained by accurate experiment. The American white 
 oak is strongly recommended, as superior to every other for the wheels of 
 carriages. 
 
 f Young’s Calendar, p. 34. 
 
 X Oxfordshire Report, p. 224.—- The north side of a hill, produces a better 
 growth of beech than the south side; a proof of the hardiness of the plant. 
 
 § Sussex Report, p. 222. || Oxfordshire Report, p. 222. 
 
Of Woods* 
 
 549 
 
 article much relished by hogs and deer, and yields much oil, 
 fit for various important purposes*. 
 
 3. In several districts of England and Scotland, there are 
 extensive tracts of natural birch. They have a beautiful 
 effect upon the scenery, and form a comfortable screen to 
 increase the warmth in such situations ; but the value of 
 the timber is much inferior to that of oak, and the bark, 
 though used for tanning leather, is much less powerful than 
 oak barkf . The mode of extracting tar from the birch, 
 particularly from its bark, which is found of such impor- 
 tance in Germany and Russia, has not yet been introduced 
 into this country. 
 
 The rules for the profitable management of woods in ge- 
 neral, are neither numerous, nor difficult to Execute. The 
 proprietor should fix on those sorts of trees, the most likely 
 to be in demand ; — he should have them examined at stated 
 periods, that he may know what trees are increasing in 
 value, what stationary, and what decreasing*, — he should 
 select such young trees as are best adapted to keep up a 
 regular succession, so as to produce the greatest quantity of 
 timber, on any given quantity of land, consistently with the 
 growth, and comparative value of the underwood : — he 
 should cut down such as are likely to obstruct the growth 
 of the trees intended to be preserved *, — and he should accu- 
 rately ascertain, what period of their growth, is the best suited, 
 for the markets to which they are to be sent, and the pur- 
 poses of the consumer^. By attention to these simple rules, 
 property in wood may be rendered much more valuable than 
 otherwise it would be. 
 
 3. Groves, 
 
 If profit is alone to be considered, trees, of every species, 
 ought to be cut down, when the annual increase in value 
 of the tree, by its growth, is less than the annual interest of 
 the money it would sell for§ ; and the annual value of the 
 land it grows on||. But such is the inadequate price of 
 large, and even middle sized timber, that it is still too much 
 for the interest of the owner, to cut down even the finest 
 oak, when it is worth 40 s, than to keep it till it is fit for the 
 
 * Bucks Report, p. 2 56 , note. f Inverness Report, p. 212. 
 
 + Buckinghamshire Report, p. 260. 
 
 § Bishop Watson’s Preliminary Observations to the Westmoreland Re* 
 port, p. 290. 
 
 f| Marshall’s Review of the Northern'Dcpartmcnt, p. 22 5, note. 
 
550 
 
 Of Woods . 
 
 Navy* * * § . Fortunately, however, for the naval strength of 
 the country, there is nothing more ornamental for the seats 
 of landed proprietors, than groves of thriving trees ; and on 
 that account, much timber is preserved, that would other- 
 wise have been cut down. 
 
 But trees, at a proper distance from a manor house, are 
 not only ornamental, but useful ; if too near, they obstruct 
 the free current of the air, and send forth great quantities 
 of moist exhalations, which render it constantly damp. 
 Thick woods, therefore, ought to be avoided, near a house, 
 more especially in a flat country. At a proper distance, 
 however, they are of service, from the shelter they afford 
 against cold winds, and from the shade they yield against the 
 heat of the solar rays. 
 
 The value of a grove likewise, is frequently very great. 
 Mr. Davis states, in the Report of Wilts, the result of an 
 accurate estimate of one acre of timber, in the grove at Long- 
 leat, (the seat of the Marquis of Bath), in April 1810. The 
 aggregate value at that time, was upwards of 1500L, and 
 there were several single acres of equal value f. 
 
 4. Forests. 
 
 In several parts of Scotland, more especially in the coun- 
 ties of Perth j, Aberdeen, Elgin, and Inverness §, there are 
 extensive tracts, which naturally produce the Scotch fir 
 (Pinus sylvestris). This tree thrives to the height of 1400 
 feet above the level of the sea, and it has been remarked, 
 that the timber which grows on the highest elevation, is of 
 the best quality, and superior to any foreign timber that is 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 330. 
 
 f Wilts Report, p. 91. — The acre, which was measured in the form of 16 
 perches by 10, was found to contain the following quantities of timber : 
 
 Feet. Tons. Feet. 
 Nine oaks, measuring - 2952 or, 73 32 
 
 Twenty chesnuts and abelcs - - - 3182 79 22 
 
 Twenty-two small trees of various kinds - 280 7 
 
 Total, - - 6414 or, 160 14 
 
 Being fully one ton of timber to a perch of land. 
 
 + In Perthshire, Col. Robertson of Struan, has a natural fir wood, that 
 covers 2566 acres. — Report , p. 235. 
 
 § The natural fir woods of Ross-shire, except one or two on the Balna- 
 gowan estate, are mostly exhausted. — Report , p. 204. 
 
Of Plantations. 
 
 551 
 
 imported. Owing to the distance of these fir woods from 
 good markets and water carriage, the profit they yield is in- 
 considerable. By a contract for cutting a pine and birch 
 forest in Glenmoriston, which is of great extent, the sum 
 to be paid to the proprietor, was only 800 1 . per annum, for 
 seven years. The great forest of Glenmore, belonging to 
 the Duke of Gordon, sold only for 10,000£.* Nor have the 
 forests of Rothiemurchus, nor of Bremar, though the latter 
 contains 100,000 fir-trees in full maturity, of superior qua- 
 lity f, and many of them computed on an average, at from 
 150 to 200 cubical feet each, produced the sums that were 
 expected. This is owing to their distance from the sea, and 
 the expence of bringing them to market. 
 
 2 . 
 
 Of Plantations . 
 
 On various accounts, plantations merit particular atten- 
 tion. Besides answering the purposes of natural wood, for 
 all the important objects for which that substance is appli- 
 cable, planting is perhaps the only improvement of which, 
 in many cases, extensive tracts are susceptible. Several 
 sorts of trees also, may thus be introduced, which, though not 
 indigenous, will, under proper management, thrive in a 
 country. In this way, likewise, the climate is improved, by 
 the shelter thus obtained ; and the beauty of the scenery is 
 heightened, by covering barren rocks, and bleak heaths, with 
 the verdure of woods. 
 
 It is certainly a fortunate circumstance, that, with the ex- 
 ception of very high mountains, there is scarcely any por- 
 tion of land, so poor, barren, rocky, or unproductive, as not 
 to admit of this species of improvement, provided trees, 
 suited to the quality of the soil, and the nature of the cli- 
 mate, are selected, and the proper modes of treating them 
 are practised. But though there are inducements to plant, 
 yet, unless in places where the demand is great, trees should 
 
 * Tt was the trees that exceeded a specific circumference of bole, which 
 were by this contract to be felled. Since that was done, the younger wood 
 has made a great advance . — Moray Report , p. 291 . 
 
 t* In the upper parts of Aberdeenshire, the fir timber is of slow growth. 
 It appears, in many cases, to be above 100 years old, and sometimes about 
 230 years, from the number of concentric circles near the root; and it is 
 considered far superior to any timber ever imported from Riga, Memel, or 
 any part in Prussia, or Norway . — Aberdeenshire Report , p. 372. 
 
552 
 
 Of Plantations. 
 
 not be reared in any quantity, upon land that may be made 
 subservient to agriculture or productive pasture. Crops of 
 ' grain, or herbage, will, in general, produce a much more 
 expeditious and more profitable return*. 
 
 Before a plantation is begun, the following points ought 
 to be considered : 1. The manner in which young plants 
 Gught to be raised ; — 2. The trees best* calculated for several 
 ‘ soils and situations ; — 3. The manner in which they ought 
 to be planted *, — 4*. The expence of planting ; — 5. The mode 
 of management ; — and, 6. The probable profit. 
 
 1. Some have maintained, that it is better to raise the 
 young plants in a nursery, than to sow the seed in the 
 ground where the trees are to be raised. The late Mr. Davis, 
 author of the Wiltshire Report, whose skill and experience 
 were doubtless considerable, contended, that where the oak 
 was well managed, it would be bigger and taller at seven 
 years old, when raised in the nursery, and its tap-root cut, 
 than one uncut would be at tenf. Strong objections, how- 
 ever, have been urged against the using of plants, raised in at 
 least public nurseries, and more especially against the cutting 
 of the tap-root. 
 
 Young trees should always be raised on good land, so as 
 to carry a stock of health and strength with them from the 
 nursery. They are thus furnished with abundance of roots, 
 by means of which they are enabled to find nourishment, 
 even in poor land, having more mouths to collect it. This 
 doctrine,, originally inculcated by Miller, the father of Eng- 
 lish gardening, is now almost universally admitted. 
 
 It is a material object, that the roots should have the 
 means of growing without obstruction. In stiff heavy clays, 
 -therefore, it is considered an advisable practice, to trench 
 the ground two spits deep the year before the ground is 
 planted, though at an expence of about 8 1. per acre. But 
 light land requires no digging^. 
 
 2. The great variety of trees to be found in nurseries, 
 puts it in the power of a planter, to procure a species calcu- 
 
 * Where the soil is thin and barren, trees should be sown, as the tap-root 
 finds more nourishment from the subsoil; but if the soil is wet, and pretty 
 deep, it is much better to plant them . — Shropshire Report , p. 21 2, 214. 
 
 + Wilts Report, p. 94. 
 
 + Wilts Report, p. 96. Young plants, digging holes, planting, and pro- 
 tection, may be stated at 10/. per acre, the interest of which is 10#. per an- 
 num. In 1 00 years, the timber and underwood, if the plantation succeeded, 
 might sell for 130/. That is not 26#. as is generally supposed; for one shilling 
 pei acre, per annum, would amount to 130/. at compound interest, in 100 
 years. 
 
Of Plantations . 
 
 553 ? 
 
 lated for his soil and climate, or for the situation in which 
 he may happen to be placed in regard to market. The 
 various sorts may be considered as adapted, 1. For elevated 
 grounds ; — 2. For steep lands unfit for cultivation ; — 3. For 
 low and moorish tracts ; — 4. For swampy grounds or bogs ; 
 — 5. For the sea-coast ; — and, 6. For lands of rather a su- 
 perior quality. 
 
 1. Plantations on Elevated Lands. — When judiciously 
 raised, plantations on elevated lands, are productive of the 
 most beneficial effects. By the warmth which the shelter 
 of trees occasion, heath is destroyed, and the growth of 
 better herbage is promoted. The grasses which are thus 
 brought forward, are sometimes three weeks earlier in spring, 
 are better in summer, and protracted for three weeks longer 
 in autumn*. 
 
 The trees that thrive best in an elevated situation, are, the 
 larch; — the Scotch pine or fir; — the mountain ash ; — and the 
 birch. — In a medium elevation, the beech may likewise be 
 cultivated. 
 
 The Larch ( Pinus larix , Linn.) f — The introduction of 
 this species of tree into the British Isles, is, perhaps, the 
 most important acquisition, in respect to timber, in modern 
 times. The larch adapts itself to a variety of soils and ex- 
 posures ; while the wood it furnishes is of the best quality, 
 even though raised in elevated situations, and on a soil not 
 very rich. It will thrive at the height of 1200 feet above the 
 level of the sea, and even higher. The wood is closer in its 
 pores, and has fewer large knots than the Scotch fir. It is a 
 more beautiful tree, vegetates more rapidly, and grows in 
 situations where the Scotch fir cannot be raised to any ad- 
 vantage. Its wood can resist the effects of being alternately 
 wet and dry, better than any other tree, except perhaps the 
 elm, hence it is well calculated for sub-aquatic purposes J; 
 it is peculiarly fitted, from its property of burning with dif- 
 ficulty, for various important uses in architecture ; its bark 
 possesses in a high degree, the tanning principle ; its growth 
 is so rapid, that if the ground be tolerable, it becomes in 
 
 * Lord De Vesci finds, if the grass cannot be cut for soiling, that it is the 
 best plan to tether the stock in woods and plantations. 
 
 f There are four sorts of larch, but the common white larch (Larix pyra- 
 midalis) is the best entitled to attention, where it will thrive: 
 
 X The larch is peculiarly calculated for gate-posts. They have been 
 found to remain, for at least eleven years in the ground, as sound and perfect 
 as when cut out of the tree. North, Riding Report, p. 18 ‘). — The Rev. Mr. 
 Hoblvn found them rather more durable than even the oak. 
 
554 
 
 Of Plantations . 
 
 thirty years, fit for various household and other purposes* * * § ; 
 it is well adapted to mill-work ; and in%hip-building, may 
 be used, as a substitute for oakf. It is said also, that the 
 larch, from the droppings of its leaves, will, in the space of 
 a few years, convert a barren heath, into grass land, worth 
 from five to ten shillings per acre. 
 
 In some instances, the larch is liable to a disease, and its 
 leaves are destroyed by insects, more especially in low and 
 damp situations. By some, this disorder is attributed to 
 want of circulation of air, from their being planted too close 
 together. Where they stand bold and single, they are not 
 liable to it. Others ascribe this circumstance to the present 
 practice of raising plants, from the seed of trees that had 
 not arrived at their full maturity, and sometimes even from 
 layers which strike root. It is not improbable that the 
 larch, originally introduced from the mountains of Carniola, 
 will at length degenerate with us, at least as to perfecting 
 healthy seed. Hence it would be advisable, to import an- 
 nually, at least a portion of the seed used in our nurseries, 
 from the Alpine regions. 
 
 The Scotch Pine, or Fir, (Pinus sylvestris , Linn.y — This 
 tree is well calculated for peculiar situations. It thrives on 
 the thinnest and driest soils ; on the poorest exposed moorish 
 ground, if not too wet, or overgrown with rein-deer moss ; 
 and may be planted successfully, wherever there is short 
 heather, growing above gravel or sand ; on sandy heaths near 
 the sea shore; and on mossy soil, less than two feet in depth, 
 but bottomed with gravel, and not clay. It must have a 
 subsoil permeable to water, and hence a clayey bottom is 
 fatal to it. It thrives to the height of from 1000 to 1200 
 feet above the level of the sea, and its timber improves with 
 the increased height of its elevation ; but high winds are 
 very destructive to this tree, and a fall of snow will destroy, 
 or greatly injure, in the course of one night, sometimes one- 
 third of a fir plantation^. 
 
 The timber of this tree is made use of, for several archi- 
 tectural and agricultural purposes. It produces a variety of 
 useful substances §, and though not so profitable as the 
 
 * Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 252. 
 
 f Observations on the Larch by the Duke of Atholl . — Communications to 
 the Board of Agriculture , vol. vii. p. 273. 
 
 \ Communications to the Board of Agriculture, from the Duke of Atholl, 
 vol. vii. p. 276. 
 
 § Lambert, in his description of the genus Pinus , enumerates ten distinct 
 substances, as turpentine, tar, pitch, lamp-black, &c. 
 
Of Plantations . 
 
 555 
 
 larch* * * § , yet it possesses several advantages : it grows fast, 
 and the wood is of sufficient use for farm-houses. The fir 
 cones, and decayed wood, furnish the poor with fuel. The 
 green boughs keep deer completely well in winter ; and they 
 save much hay, if given to sheep, in snows ; the boughs are 
 likewise of great use as firewood, in fences, &c.f To this 
 may be added, its utility in ship-building : a very fine frigate 
 of 800 tons, the Glenmore , being entirely built of Scotch fir, 
 except the masts. The late Mr. Davis of Longleat, was 
 partial to this tree. He observes, that firs not only grow 
 faster than forest trees, but that four firs will stand and 
 thrive on a space of ground, which one oak will require ; 
 and that it is greatly preferable, to see a barren heath, even 
 in the summer, covered with a grove of thriving Scotch firs, 
 than with a parcel of half-starved stunted trees of any other 
 description^. 
 
 One of the most important uses for which this tree is at 
 present employed, is as nurse or shelter to young planta- 
 tions, in which it is the object to rear more valuable timber. 
 In this case, it is necessary gradually to weed out the Scotch 
 fir, so as to furnish the trees, of which the plantation is 
 finally to consist, with the proper supply of air and sun. 
 
 The Mountain Asli ( Sorbus aucuparia y Linn.) — This tree 
 will grow at an elevation of about 2000 feet, and as it 
 thrives well in dry and rocky soils, it is well calculated for 
 exposed and elevated situations, and may be advantageously 
 employed for the purposes of shelter. It is much cultivated 
 of late in pleasure-grounds, on account of the beauty of its 
 foliage, its flowers, and its fruit. The wood is of use where 
 a hard and compact substance is required ; and its bark 
 possesses a considerable degree of the tanning principle, and 
 leaves the substance tanned, more soft and pliant than the 
 oak.§ 
 
 The Birch ( Betula alba , Linn.) — This tree is the natural 
 decoration of a northern clime. It has been found growing 
 naturally more than 1500 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 * The Duke of Atholl, sold a larch of 50 years old, for twelve guineas. A 
 fir of the same age, is only worth fifteen shillings . — Communications to the 
 Board of Agriculture^ vol. vii. p. 276. 
 
 f Lincolnshire Report, p. 245. 
 
 X Papers of the Bath and West of England Agricultural Society, vol. x. 
 p. 312. 
 
 § There is reason to believe, that all the finer branches of tanning, ought 
 to be done by the bark of the mountain ash, the birch, or the willow tribes, 
 in preference to the oak. Fishermen greatly prefer having their nets barked 
 first with these materials, and afterwards with oak bark. 
 
556 
 
 Of Plantations. 
 
 It will thrive almost any where, but succeeds best in a light 
 dry soil ; and bears better than any other tree, the severities 
 of a northern climate*. It is useful to the turner ; in va- 
 rious kinds of machinery *, for underprops in coal-pits ; and 
 in making sleepers for rail-ways. A species of excellent 
 vinous liquor has likewise been made from the birchf. But 
 its most important use has hitherto been too much neglected 
 in this country. It is the bark of the birch tree that pro- 
 duces that glutinous, odoriferous, and inflammable gum or 
 oil, which the Germans and Russians employ in tanning 
 leather, and which gives it that peculiar odour, so hostile 
 to insectsj. 
 
 The Beech ( Fagus sylvaticus, Linn.) — This is a hardy 
 tree, and will thrive in moderately elevated situations, par- 
 ticularly in calcareous soils, as chalk hills and downs, as well 
 as in deep and sandy loams. It will likewise grow among 
 limestone rocks, where soil is scarcely visible. The timber 
 is valuable for husbandry purposes, and for various kinds of 
 machinery. It is also peculiarly well fitted for water-works 
 of all descriptions ; and it is used for the keels of ships. It 
 is much employed in making chairs, bedsteads, and other 
 articles of furniture ; and lately, as piles and planks for the 
 foundation of Waterloo-bridge. It is remarked, that hardly 
 any species of herbage will grow under beech. 
 
 In regard to plantations on elevated lands, it is to be re- 
 marked, that it is of great importance to plant them younger 
 than is usually the case. 
 
 2. Plantations in Steep Banks. — The sides of hills, and 
 banks of rivers, so difficult to cultivate, cannot be more ad- 
 vantageously occupied, than by trees. On the sides of hills, 
 the ash and the sycamore, which have large resinous buds, 
 and make large unpliable shoots, not liable to hurt or molest 
 each other in the spring of the year, while they are tender, 
 are the most likely to prosper ; and more especially, if the 
 situation be exposed to the south-west wind. In many 
 parts of Gloucestershire and North Wiltshire, the profit 
 made by planting ash and willow for underwood, on the 
 
 * Mirbel’s Lecture, p. 45. 
 
 -f- Birch wine is made in Derbyshire, with the assistance of coarse sugar 
 and raisins. — Report , vol. ii. p. 216', where the process is described. The 
 most advantageous period for collecting the sap, is immediately before the 
 leaves have expanded. 
 
 $ This oil would be peculiarly calculated, mixed with butter or grease, 
 for smearing sheep, and a small quantity of it would be sufficient. 
 
Of Plantations . 
 
 55J 
 
 cold and boggy soS of the sides of hills, is almost beyond 
 credibility*. 
 
 3. Low and Moorish Tracts. — The birch, the alder, and 
 the willow, are well calculated for such soils : but there is 
 reason to believe, that the pitch-pine of America would 
 surpass every other tree in such situations. The largest 
 trees of that species in Scotland were all planted, by acci- 
 dent, in wet ground, or swampy spots, abounding with 
 springs. No tree is more profitable. It is by nature much 
 smoother in its texture, and freer of knots, than the Scotch 
 fir. The quantity of turpentine in the wood, prevents its 
 being injured by wet, and renders it well calculated for 
 decks of ships, dressers, weavers’ looms, and other imple- 
 ments. It also resists the dry rot in joists and rafters : as it 
 never splinters , it might be of great use in naval architecture. 
 
 The ash is also raised to advantage in damp situations, 
 and will grow healthy and luxuriant on almost any soil, even 
 upon low, moory, swampy spots, upon a level with the 
 water ; nay, will vie on osier-beds with the aquaticsf . That 
 the ash will thus thrive in such situations, is a circumstance 
 of considerable importance, and not so generally known as 
 it ought to be. 
 
 4>. Swampy Grounds , or Bogs . — Trees that spread their 
 roots on the surface, as Scotch fir and larch, also birch and 
 poplars, and, according to recent experiments, the ash, are 
 to be preferred on such grounds. Oaks, and other trees 
 with a tap-root, which strike deep into the ground, will not 
 answer, for the roots of no tr^e can live in the lower parts of 
 deep bogs, pwing to the moisture they retain. The anti- 
 septic quality, so universally to be met with in bogs, and 
 which is so hostile to vegetation, ought first to be destroyed, 
 by exposing the ground to the influence of the atmosphere, 
 and mixing with the soil, some lime, limestone gravel, and 
 other calcareous matters. Drainage, likewise, must not be 
 neglected^. 
 
 * Davis of Longleat’s Essay on Planting ; Papers of the Bath Society, 
 vol. x. p. 311. — Mr. Davis states, that eight pounds per acre, per annum, 
 have been actually made of plantations of this description in the neighbour- 
 hood of High worth, on land not intrinsically worth 10 j. per acre for any 
 other purpose. Such respectable authority cannot be questioned, however 
 astonishing the circumstance may appear. 
 
 •f- Marshall’s Norfolk, vol.ii. p. 71. See also Wilts Report, p. 98. — Every 
 farm should have as much ash, and other trees, as will supply it with hurdles. 
 — Bticks Report , p. 254. 
 
 X See Appendix to the Second Report of the Select Committee of the 
 H ouse of Commons, on the State of Disease, See. in Ireland, printed an. 1819, 
 
558 
 
 Of Plantations. 
 
 This description of soil, also, may be rendered highly 
 valuable, if planted with willows or osiers. A statute acre 
 will contain about 20,000 stock plants, at eighteen inches 
 distant from each other, and if six shoots grow on a stock, 
 the amount is 120,000, which, at 10$. a thousand, the 
 price given for them by the Commissioners of the Vic- 
 tualling-office at Deptford some years ago, would produce 
 60k per statute acre. It is stated in the Ayrshire Report, 
 that when the willow grows well, the shoots are ready for 
 the market in three years, and will frequently sell for 24k 
 per acre. In eight years, the clear profit of an acre of the 
 basket and coopers’ willows, after paying rent and other 
 charges, has amounted to 38 k # The profit from planting 
 willows on the islands in the River Thames, is great, but 
 the real amount cannot be ascertained! . 
 
 5. Plantations on the Sea Coast. — The difficulty of rais- 
 ing plantations on the sea coast, is well known. The land 
 on which trees may be grown, might perhaps be more pro- 
 fitably employed for other purposes ; but such is the advan- 
 tage of the shelter thus given to the neighbouring fields , that 
 it is of the greatest importance to remove the obstacles, 
 which have hitherto prevented the growth of trees in such 
 exposed situations. Experience has shewn, that there are 
 some species of trees better calculated than others, to resist 
 the blasts of the ocean. 
 
 The Pinaster , or pine-maritime , is considered as pecu- 
 liarly adapted for maritime situations; and the valuable pro- 
 perty it possesses, of resisting the gales of the Atlantic, was 
 fully ascertained by the late Earl of Galloway, who planted 
 some -of them almost on the sea beach, which have become 
 large and flourishing treesj. In Nova Scotia, the Wey- 
 mouth pine (Pinus strabusj , has been observed to with- 
 stand the rigour of the sea-blasts, better than any other tree. 
 The late Dr. Anderson ascertained, that the Laburnum will 
 stand the sea-blasts, and shelter other trees ; but it must be 
 protected from hares, which are fond of its bark§. 
 
 The Huntingdon willow, next to the pinaster, seems best 
 calculated to withstand the baleful influence of the westerly 
 winds on the sea-coast. It is cultivated at little expence, 
 and grows faster than any other tree. Its wood and bark 
 
 p. Ml and 148. The roots of the ash had not gone down, but had grown 
 quite on the surface, appeared uncovered on the sides, and were coated 
 with a strong bark. Ditto. 
 
 * Cornwall Report, p. 102. f Middlesex Report, p. 280. 
 
 X Galloway Report, p. 173. § Aberdeenshire Report, p. 377, 
 
Of Plantations . 
 
 559 
 
 are likewise of considerable value. In 28 years, this species 
 of willow has been known to rise to the height of 58 feet, 
 with a large trunk. A belt of this willow, opposed to the 
 south-west, would form a speedy and effectual screen* * * § . 
 
 There is a particular species of oak (an evergreen called 
 the Quercus virens , or live oak), which abounds chiefly in 
 the southern states of North America, which might thrive 
 on our coasts, as the sea-breeze is said to be favourable, if 
 not indispensable to its full growthf . 
 
 An isolated fact is mentioned, that a yew tree grew on a 
 sea cliff, in the stormy island of Bernera, one of the He- 
 brides, which, when cut into logs, filled a large boatj. The 
 seed was probably brought there by a bird. It would be a 
 most important discovery, if the fact were ascertained, that 
 yews would grow in such exposed situations, for under their 
 shelter, other trees might be raised. 
 
 The plane or sycamore, is likewise an excellent defence 
 against sea-storms. It is less affected by the blast than 
 almost any tree, and is upon that account, well fitted to 
 form a screen of defence against the sea-breeze. It has 
 been remarked, that both the ash and the common sycamore 
 have large resinous buds, and that their shoots, though large, 
 are not liable to injure, or to lock each other, in the spring of 
 the year, when they are tender j and thence are the best 
 adapted for exposed situations}. The ash thrives well near 
 the sea, on account of the lateness of its foliage. The ori- 
 ental and occidental planes, however, are extremely tender, 
 and a few years ago a number of them were blasted to the 
 west of London. 
 
 The Tamariska Gallica thrives rapidly in situations most 
 exposed to the blast of the sea. It makes an excellent 
 hedge, and, in seven years, has grown from ten to twelve 
 feet in height, and feathered to the very bottom. It thrives 
 well even about the Lizard in Cornwall, and there cannot 
 be a more exposed situation||. It does not however stand 
 frost well, and on that account, the Tamariska Germanica , 
 being a hardier shrub, ought to be preferred in the bleaker 
 situations. 
 
 But if every other plant were to fail, the flowering Eider 
 (Sambucas Nigra) would be found capable of resisting the 
 influence of the sea. It may be used as a nurse to protect 
 
 * Dr. Walker’s Hebrides, p, 261. 
 
 'j' Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, vol. ii. p. 378. 
 
 X General Report of Scotland (Appendix), vol. iv. p. 466. 
 
 § Wilts Report, p. 98. || Cornwall Report, p. 49. 
 
560 
 
 Of Plantation f. 
 
 other plants from the sea-spray and the storm. Cuttings of 
 it will thrive in the sand of the sea-shore, and will grow 
 rapidly, particularly if the bottom be moist. 
 
 The difficulties, however, attending the raising of forest 
 and even fruit trees on the sea-coast, have been surmounted 
 by a simple expedient. There is reason to believe, that the 
 neighbourhood of the sea is unfavourable to the growth of 
 timber, not so much owing to the spray, as to the violence 
 and frequency of the wind, more especially when the plants 
 are young ; for whenever shelter from the wind is afforded, 
 the trees grow equally well on the sea-coast, as in the more 
 inland districts* * * § . Impressed with these ideas, the Rev. 
 Mr. Formby of Lancashire, adopted the plan of sheltering 
 the young plants from the winds, by raising sods round 
 them, and guarding their tender shoots from the wintry 
 blasts, until they had taken firm root in the ground. By 
 this means, he has successfully planted some acres of land 
 with forest trees, which are flourishing and ornamental to 
 the country ; and has succeeded in raising plantation and 
 fruit trees so near the sea, that it was hardly thought prac- 
 ticable, till he had effected itf. 
 
 6. Plantations on Land of rather superior Quality .— On 
 soils entitled to that description, the oak, the ash, the Spa- 
 nish chesnutj, and the elm, deserve the preference. 
 
 The properties of the oak, in regard both to the bark and 
 timber, being so generally known, it would be superfluous 
 here to speak of them. The timber of the oak, is acknow- 
 ledged to be the most durable of any wood this country 
 produces ; for in many ancient buildings, it has remained 
 uninjured, after six or seven centuries have elapsed. Deep 
 clay, or loamy soils, therefore, where they are of too cold a 
 quality to be well adapted for arable culture, cannot be bet- 
 ter occupied than in the production of oak. 
 
 The ash seems to be entitled, in point of importance and 
 of use, to rank next to the oak§. In size, as well as in 
 
 * Walker’s Hebrides, p. 19(5, &c. 
 
 f Holt’s Lancashire, p. 84 and 85. 
 
 X This tree is the best substitute for the oak, and grows remarkably quick 
 in loamy and clayey soils: for ship-building, it is inferior to the oak, but for 
 most uses, it is equal to that tree, and in buildings and out-door work, it is 
 much superior. If it gets old, the timber is apt to get brittle. It should 
 therefore, be cut, when the tree is in a growing and healthy state — Kent's 
 Norfolk , p. 94 and 222. 
 
 § Mr. Saville of Bocking, in Essex, planted five acres of moory land, 14 
 years ago, with ash, and they have thriven so greatly, as to promise to be 
 the most profitable crop on his whole farm.—- Young's Essex ^ vol. ii. p. H8. 
 
Of Plantations . 
 
 561 
 
 beauty, a full grown ash is one of our finest trees. Its 
 foliage, though late in appearing, (which is favourable to 
 its success near the sea), and early in falling off, is pecu- 
 liarly elegant*. Unfortunately the ash is particularly inju- 
 rious, if planted in hedge-rows, to land when under cultiva- 
 tion. It is likewise unfavourable to the dairy, as its leaves 
 often get mixed with the pastures of cows in autumn, and 
 communicate an incurable bad taste to their milk, and the 
 butter made from it. Hence the propriety of raising the ash 
 in woods, instead of hedge-rowsf . 
 
 The elm is a valuable tree. It makes good shelter ; its 
 shades do little harm to hedges, and neither its leaves nor 
 its roots do any injury to grass, or to arable lands Its 
 timber answers various useful purposes, and by many it is 
 considered equally profitable as the oak; for though the 
 same quantities of timber from the oak and elm, are in value 
 only at the rate of from two to three, yet the growth of the 
 latter usually, is to the former, as three is to two ; conse- 
 quently they are, in point of value, on the same footing^. 
 
 There are also, some other trees, which, though of a 
 subordinate character, may be turned to a good account ; as 
 the Salix coerulea , or the French willow. The Populus mo - 
 nilfera , or the Canada poplar ; also, the wild cherry , which 
 ought to be extensively cultivated, as its timber, when of 
 forty or fifty years’ growth, is valuable for all building pur- 
 poses || . 
 
 3. There are various modes in which trees may be plant- 
 ed, each of Which has its advantages. 1. Where the cli- 
 mate is bleak, and shelter is required, they ought to be 
 planted in large masses ; for though the outskirts may be 
 stunted in their growth by wind-waving, yet the plantation 
 will secure the growth of the interior, and principal part of 
 it. 2. Belts of planting are likewise of great use. They 
 oppose and break the current of winds, forming eddies, 
 which are much softer and milder in their influence. By 
 the shelter which they afford, the soil is ameliorated, and 
 the produce is improved, even in districts naturally bleak 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 205. 
 
 + Wilts Report, vol. ii. It is said, that an acre of very bad soil, steril 
 red clay, and peat, in the space of 23 years produced ash trees, to the value 
 of 115/. 10$. being upwards of 51. per acre, per annum. — South TV i ales Report , 
 vol. ii. p. 58. 
 
 X wilts Report, p. 90. § General Report of Scotland, p. 90, 208. 
 
 j[ Dr. Rigby’s Report of Holkham, p. 27. The black Italian poplar, when 
 judiciously planted as a screen round barns, and farm-buildings, is said to be 
 the most profitable for planting, of all the poplars. 
 
 O O 
 
562 
 
 Of Plantations. 
 
 and unfertile. The too frequent error in the construction 
 of these belts is, that of making them too narrow. They 
 should never be of less breadth than from fifty to sixty yards, 
 except when the land is valuable, or the property circum- 
 scribed. When narrow, their effect in moderating the wind, 
 may be greatly aided, by tall hedges. 3. In some districts 
 small clumps are planted, which, if judiciously executed, are 
 ornamental, and afford much shelter to a country bare of 
 wood. 4. To plant the corners of enclosed fields, has of 
 late been much recommended. The inducements to this 
 plan are great. Two-thirds of the space are already en- 
 closed, the angle cannot be conveniently brought under the 
 plough, the soil is rich and in good order, and the beauty 
 of the country is promoted ; yet, if the corners are made very 
 small, the enclosure of such spots, and the keeping of them 
 in repair, is attended with considerable experiCe. 5. Plant- 
 ing the gardens of farmers and cottagers is practised on 
 some estates, and has a good effect in point of appearance ; 
 but it is detrimental to the productions of the garden, and 
 ought never to be attempted, where fruit-trees will grow. 
 6. Hedge-rows are highly ornamental ; they give shelter, and 
 in process of time, become timber; but unless properly 
 managed, by judicious and high pruning*, they ruin the 
 hedge, injure the adjacent grounds by their roots and 
 shade, and when planted on the sides of roads, do great in- 
 jury, by keeping them wet. (See Chapter III.) 7. Shade- 
 trees, when judiciously planted in fields, are useful in hot 
 weather, as a shade for cattle. The bird-cherry is the tree 
 that bears transplantation at a much larger size than most 
 others, and its wood is valuable. The beech, the sycamore, 
 and lime, are likewise well calculated for that purpose. 
 8. Pollards do not seem to contribute much to ornament, 
 and no other advantage is derived from them, except in 
 districts, where fuel is extremely scarcef. Nor is cutting 
 off the branches of trees in hedge-rows, making what is 
 called a besom-head, to be recommended. It lessens the 
 agitation produced by winds, and deprives the tree of what 
 may be deemed its salutary exercise, while the loss of the 
 branches, prevents it from receiving the nourishment it 
 would otherwise derive, through the medium of the leaves 
 they would produce^. 
 
 * This is attended to in the Netherlands. See also Derbyshire Report, 
 vol. ii. p. 2 59. 
 
 General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 277. 
 
 £ Somerset Report, p. 127. 
 
Of Plantations . 
 
 563 
 
 4. The expence of making a plantation, must vary ac- 
 cording to the size and figure of the field planted ; the kind 
 of fence with which it is enclosed, the extent of draining 
 which it may require, and the number, sort, and age of the 
 trees of which they are composed. In Galloway the ex- 
 pence of planting by contract is 5L per acre*. But on the 
 whole, the following estimate is not too high, where tho- 
 rough justice is done to the plantation, and where the trees 
 are of a valuable description. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 3 10 0 
 0 18 0 
 
 Draining, 
 
 Price of plants, 
 Putting in, 
 
 £5 3 0 
 
 The expence of enclosing, varies from 105. to Si. per acre, 
 according to the size and shape of the enclosure, and the 
 materials of which it is made. 
 
 Though plantations may be done, therefore, cheaper by 
 contract, yet being executed in a careless and imperfect 
 manner, and frequently unthriving seedlings used, it gene- 
 rally fails ; nor can any dependence be placed on the success 
 of a plantation, unless all the necessary steps are taken with 
 skill and attention. Draining, in particular, to which a 
 contractor in general pays little attention, is essential. There 
 are few species of trees that will thrive in a wet soil ; and a 
 large proportion of those cultivated in plantations, are in- 
 jured or destroyed by superabundant moisture. Drains 
 ought therefore to be made with peculiar care, and it is 
 highly injurious to neglect them afterwards, and to allow 
 them to fill up. If a plantation is worth the forming and 
 fencing, it is surely worth the extra expence of making, and 
 of keeping up drains, on which its future success principally 
 depends. 
 
 5. Plantations are often made in ground encumbered 
 with stones or rocks, where no preparation can be made, 
 
 * Galloway Report, p. 182. — On enclosing some commons near Poole, in 
 Dorsetshire, about the year 1805, several hundred acres of miserable sand, 
 covered with stunted heath, were sold freehold at five guineas per acre; and 
 contracted to be enclosed and planted with 2500 forest trees, as well as sup- 
 ply the places of dead plants with living ones, and protect the whole for 
 seven years, for another five guineas per acre . — Communication from John 
 Middleton , Esq. 
 
 o o 2 
 
564 
 
 Of Plantations . 
 
 but pitting the ground for the plants; it is of use to dig 
 the pits five or six months before the seedlings are inserted, 
 the mould and even the turf being thus better calculated to 
 nourish them. Where it is practicable, it is an expensive, 
 but useful preparation, to trench or plough the ground 
 before the trees are planted ; and by some, cultivating roots, 
 for two or three years afterwards, is recommended. The 
 quantity of plants varies from 2000 to 4000 per statute 
 acre, according to the bleakness of the situation, and the 
 richness of the ground. A new mode of planting furze- 
 fields has been tried in Sussex with success. After having 
 produced for many years, so exhausting a crop as furze, the 
 land is not fit for arable crops. The vacant places are, there- 
 fore, planted, principally with ash, and the furze cut out as 
 the trees increase. Being found of little value for lime-kilns, 
 the furze is spread out and burnt on land prepared for tur- 
 nips, and the result is highly satisfactory, yielding excellent 
 crops of turnips, without any other manure*. 
 
 Prejudices are entertained, against the mixture of different 
 kinds of trees in the same plantation ; but it certainly con- 
 tributes highly to ornament, affording an endless variety of 
 shade and colour ; and gives the protection and shelter of 
 the quicker growing, and hardier trees, to those which are 
 tenderer, and of slower growth. 
 
 In managing plantations, the object is, to give, at the 
 same time, a due proportion of shelter, and of air. In 
 many cases, plantations, which have been well attended to 
 in respect of enclosing , draining , and properly planting , 
 have thriven well for the first 12, or 15 years, yet in 15 
 years more, the forest-trees have been ruined, by allowing 
 the Scotch fir and larch, which had been judiciously planted 
 for shelter, to remain for 25, or 30 years. The oak and 
 the ash, have been partly destroyed, and what remains is, 
 for want of air, so drawn up , and left in such a debilitated 
 state, that though their oppressors be at length removed, 
 they cannot support themselves ; and the few that can stand, 
 from the sudden transition which they have undergone, 
 immediately stagnate, and become overgrown with mossf. 
 
 * Communication from Sir Charles M. Burrell, Bart- 
 
 f Too great a partiality for trees, often occasions an error, which defeats 
 the object of the planter and improver. It is as necessary to thin trees 
 judiciously, as to plant them with care and judgment ; and yet it too often 
 happens, that those who are extremely fond of planting, cannot reconcile it 
 to their taste or judgment, to cut away trees that absolutely injure their 
 
Of Plantations. 
 
 565 
 
 While the engrafting of fruit-trees has been found so ad- 
 vantageous, the same operation with forest-trees, has like- 
 wise been tried with success, and is certainly entitled to 
 more attention than hitherto has been paid to it*. 
 
 6. The profit of a plantation must, in a great measure, 
 depend, upon a number of local circumstances. The ex- 
 pence is immediate, and can be easily ascertained ; but the 
 returns are distant, and the planter is disposed to form too 
 sanguine expectations for the future. 
 
 In Somersetshire, land not worth 3 s. per acre, in a state 
 of pasturage, has been planted with Scotch fir, which at 30 
 years old, were worth 30/. per acref. Scotch firs planted 
 in Galloway, on land of the same value, have been estimated 
 worth from 24/. to 32/. per statute acrej. 
 
 In Clydesdale, Scotch fir, planted on poor land, in the 
 lower part of the county of Lanark, sells at from 20/. to 
 25/. per acre, at 25 years’ growth, and at upwards of 80/. 
 when it reaches 50 or 60 years §. But this is in the imme- 
 diate vicinity of Glasgow, of the Clyde iron-works, and of 
 many extensive manufactories. 
 
 Oak must always be valuable on account of the bark ; but 
 unless in the neighbourhood of large towns, of extensive 
 manufactures, or water-carriage, the estimates commonly 
 given, of the profit derivable from plantations, are in general 
 exaggerated. At the same time, there is no mode by which 
 poor soils can be more advantageously occupied ; and stony 
 or rocky land, cannot be so profitably employed, in any 
 other way. Indeed on land properly situated, and calculated 
 
 plantations, and ultimately defeat their progressive improvement. Surely 
 no person can dispute, that a grove, or plantation, consisting of trees well 
 furnished with branches and rich foliage, is not a more pleasing and beautiful 
 object, than if such trees presented an unsightly appearance, — of half dead 
 and naked stems. Nor is it to be supposed, that trees crowded together, 
 robbing each other of support, and of the invigorating powers of the sun 
 and air, can arrive at a profitable growth ? It is more absurd to be tenacious 
 of cutting away young trees when necessary , than it is reprehensible, not to 
 plant when it may be done with advantage. — Communication from Edward 
 Burroughs , Esq. 
 
 * A respectable Scotch Judge, (the late Lord Polkemmet), grafted the 
 English on the Scotch elm; and the service-tree on the mountain ash, and 
 found it to answer. TVest Lothian Report, p. 244. — Grafting foreign, on 
 English oak, has likewise been successfully tried in England. — Marshall on 
 Planting , vol. i. p. 311. 
 
 f Somerset Report, p. 232. — Ten shillings annually for 30 years, would 
 amount to 33/. 
 
 | Galloway Report, p. 182. § Clydesdale Report. 
 
566 
 
 Of Plantations . 
 
 for that purpose, no speculation can be more pleasing, and, 
 in some cases, more lucrative, than that of planting. The 
 only objection is, the length of time required to bring it to 
 perfection* * * § . But this ought not to have much weight, as 
 the benefit must accrue, either to the planter or his heirs ; 
 and where he has a numerous family, there is no means, by 
 which its younger branches, can be more easily provided 
 forf. If it be profitable, however, to plant new woods, it is 
 certainly much more so, to protect those that are already 
 planted ; and to restore them from a state of decayj. 
 
 On the subject of plantations, it is necessary to observe, 
 how important it is, to discriminate between the different 
 species of the same tree ; since it frequently happens, that 
 two or three distinct species, which require different situa- 
 tions, as to climate, have been occasionally confounded in 
 the same plantation. This discrimination is effected, with 
 much ability, in a work printed in the Memoirs of the 
 Caledonian Horticultural Society^, in so far as regards the 
 trees usually grown in Scotland. The advantages and de- 
 fects of each species, are there pointed out ; and hints fur- 
 nished, by the adoption of which, the intelligent and public- 
 spirited planter, may ensure the most essential benefits, to 
 himself, and to his country. 
 
 Concluding Observations to Chapter IV. 
 
 Such are the various modes of occupying the soil, in a 
 temperate climate, like that of Great Britain. It results 
 from the whole investigation, that in such a climate, there 
 is hardly a spot on the surface, except on the summits of 
 bleak mountains, that may not be employed, to some pur- 
 pose useful to man. Where the soil is capable of cultiva- 
 tion, valuable crops of grain, of artificial grasses, and other 
 articles, may be annually procured from it ; and even the 
 
 * On this account, it ought to be a favourite object with the apparent in- 
 heritors of estates, to turn their attention to the planting, pruning, thinning, 
 and other improvements, of the property they are likely to possess. — 
 
 Derbyshire Report . , vol. ii. p. 339. 
 
 + Somerset Report, p. 128. J Wilts Report, p. 87. 
 
 § Entitled, “Report of the Committee for Experiments on the Naturaliza- 
 tion of useful and ornamental Plants, under the Climate of Scotland,” &c. &c. 
 — Drawn tip by John Yule , M. D. F. R. S. 
 
Of Plantations . 567 
 
 most barren spots will produce, either profitable herbage, 
 or some useful species of timber*. 
 
 * An experienced planter, (the Right Honourable William Adam), strongly 
 recommends the spruce for a nurse, in preference to every other tree, for the 
 interior of plantations, more especially for moist soils, and elevated situa- 
 tions. The silver fir is better calculated for the outside , being little apt, in 
 that situation, either to wither, or to decay, and having a great capacity of 
 resistance. In regard to the interior, in numerous instances, oaks, and elms, 
 may be seen in his plantations, growing up, uninjured, in the bosom of 
 spruces. This circumstance is easily accounted for. The deciduous trees 
 above mentioned, send their roots downward, the oak in particular, which, 
 the longer it grows, derives more of its nourishment from a depth. The 
 spruce, on the other hand, spreading its roots along the surface, draws its 
 nourishment from a different source. The spruce also, being thick-leaved, 
 and its branches of a strong, and unpliable nature, gives much protection, 
 and does little injury to its neighbours. Rising in a regular and pointed 
 cone, it leaves full scope for the spreading top of the oak ; while, being much 
 feathered at the bottom, it protects that tree, or any other it is intended to 
 shelter, from being windwaved. General Report of Scotland , Appendix, 
 vol. ii. p. 476. — In soils and situations, where the spruce would grow but 
 slowly, the Scotch fir is to be preferred as a nurse, as it will grow freely even 
 in poor soils, is easier raised, and can be had at less expence. — Remarks by 
 Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
568 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 ON THE MEANS OF IMPROVING THE AGRICULTURAL 
 STATE OF A COUNTRY. 
 
 “ Agriculture is the great art, which every government ought to protect; — 
 every proprietor of land to practise; — and every inquirer into nature to 
 improve* ** .” 
 
 Introductory Observations on the Importance of Agriculture. 
 
 THE prosperity of a nation, possessing an extent of 
 territory, sufficient for maintaining its inhabitants, chiefly 
 depends; I. Upon the quantity of surplus produce derived 
 from the soil, after defraying the expences of cultivation ; 
 2. Upon that surplus produce, obtaining such a price at 
 market, as will encourage re-production ; and, 3. Upon the 
 cultivator having such a command of capital, as may enable 
 him to carry on his business with energy. 
 
 1. The surplus produce arises, from that inestimable 
 quality possessed by the soil, which enables it, in proportion 
 as it is skilfully managed, to furnish maintenance, for a 
 greater number of persons, than are required for its cultiva- 
 tion. Thence proceed, the profits of the farmers ; — the rents 
 of the landlord ; — the subsistence of the manufacturer, and 
 merchant and the greater proportion of the income of 
 the state. That surplus marketable produce, therefore, is 
 justly considered to be, the main spring, not only of political 
 power, but also of personal enjoyment. When that surplus 
 produce does not exist, (unless in circumstances of a very 
 peculiar nature )f, there can be no flourishing towns ; — no 
 
 * See “ Some Thoughts on Agriculture, both Ancient and Modern,” 
 printed in the works of Dr. Samuel Johnson, edit. 1806, by Murphy, vol. ii. 
 p. 440. A modern writer compares agriculture to speech: “Agriculture, 
 (he observes), “ is an art which can live without all others, but no other 
 “ without it. This art is like speech, without which the society of men 
 “ cannot be preserved ; the others, like figures and tropes of speech, which 
 
 ** serve only to adorn it.” Another modern author denominates the pro- 
 ductions of the soil, “ The fountains of national wealth and independence; 
 “ and the source of individual prosperity and riches.” — Curwen's Report , 
 P- L 
 
 •f- Holland is commonly adduced as an instance in opposition to this doc- 
 trine ; but even there, a considerable surplus of butter, cheese, anu other 
 
On the Means of Improving; a Country . 569 
 
 military or naval force ; — none of the superior arts ;— none 
 of the finer manufactures no learning ; — none of the con- 
 veniences and luxuries of foreign countries ; and none of 
 that cultivated and polished society at home, which not only 
 elevates and dignifies the individual, but also extends its 
 beneficial influence, throughout the whole mass of the com- 
 munity*. What exertions ought not then to be made, and 
 what encouragement ought not to be given, to preserve, or 
 to increase, so essential a resource, the foundation of our 
 national prosperity ! 
 
 In order to form some idea, of the amount of the surplus 
 marketable produce, on very different soils, under a judi- 
 cious system of cultivation, the following statements were 
 drawn up, by two intelligent farmers, respecting that amount, 
 in their respective occupations, the one possessing land prin- 
 cipally clay,- the other a light, friable and loamy soil, favour- 
 able to the growth of turnips. 
 
 Mr. Brown of Markle, in East-Lothian, occupies a farm 
 of 670 English acres, on which, in consequence of almost 
 all his servants being married, there is a population of 91 
 persons of all ages. Upon an average of, years, the produce 
 of 80 English acres is consumed on the farm, or given to 
 the servants as wages, as nearly the whole of them are paid 
 in grain, and have cows kept for their use, both summer and 
 winter. About 90 acres are required for raising corn, 
 clover, tares, and hay, for the working stock, and 45 acres 
 to furnish seed corn. One hundred acres are in an unpro- 
 ductive state, that is, in summer fallow, or grass for young 
 horses not employed in labour, and in fences, roads, stack- 
 yards, or devoted to purposes from which no direct produce 
 is returned. Four acres are given to the servants, for raising 
 flax, as a part of their wages; in all 319 acres; so there only 
 remain 351 acres for raising surplus produce. Of these, 
 
 agricultural productions, is exported to other countries ; and its power and 
 wealth, principally arose from its extensive fisheries, and from its situation 
 at the mouth of great estuaries, and large rivers, with a vast extent of con- 
 tinent behind it, which it supplied with goods. It was thus rendered par- 
 ticularly fit, both for the carrying on trade, and for general commerce. 
 
 * Malthus’s Enquiry into Rent, p. 10. — An American statesman, has ably 
 described the importance of agriculture in the following words : — “ The 
 faculty of cultivating the earth, and of rearing animals, by which food is 
 increased beyond the spontaneous supplies of nature, belongs to man alone . — 
 No other terrestial being, has received a higher gift than an instinct, like 
 that of the beaver, or the ant, which merely hoards for future use, the food 
 spontaneously furnished by nature.” — See Mr. Madison’s Address to the 
 Agricultural Society of Albemarle, May 12, 1819; printed in The Ame- 
 rican Farmer, August 20, 1819. 
 
570 On the Means of Improving a Country, 
 
 about 120 acres are in pasture grass for sheep and cattle, in 
 clover for soiling, or in turnips. This leaves 231 acres for 
 raising disposable grain, the produce of which may be stated 
 at nine hundred and fifty quarters, on an average of seasons. 
 On the whole, he calculates, the surplus marketable pro- 
 duce of his farm, at eleven bushels and a fourth of corn, 
 and twenty»four pounds and a half avoirdupois weight, 
 of butchers’ meat, for every English acre in his posses- 
 sion*. 
 
 Mr. Walker of Mellendean, in Roxburghshire, on the 
 extensive tract of arable land he cultivates, (2866 English 
 acres), with a population of 250 souls depending on its 
 cultivation for subsistence, sends, of surplus produce, to 
 market, 3551 quarters of grain, and 7000 stone of butchers’ 
 meat *, or, ten bushels of grain, and thirty-five pounds 
 averdupois weight of butchers’ meat, for every acre in his 
 possession f. 
 
 To these estimates of surplus produce, there are to be 
 added, the hides, the skins, the wool, the tallow, and a 
 variety of other articles, the basis of many important manu- 
 factures, the value of which, though it is impossible to give 
 its amount correctly, from its great uncertainty, and the 
 fluctuation of prices, must be very considerable. 
 
 If such are the beneficial effects resulting from cultivating 
 of the soil, (and the facts are established beyond contradic- 
 tion), what source, either of domestic industry, or of 
 foreign commerce, can in any respect be put in competition 
 with such a mine of wealth, when extended over a great 
 empire % ? 
 
 * The following is the value of the surplus produce per acre in this case : 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 11 bushels and a peck of grain of various sorts, at S.y. ... 4 10 O 
 
 Butchers’ meat 0 7 0 
 
 Total £ 4 17 O 
 
 f In this case, the value of the surplus produce per acre is : 
 
 £. &• d. 
 
 10 bushels of various sorts of grain, at 8-y 4 O O 
 
 Butchers’ meat 0 10 O 
 
 £4 10 0 
 
 t Montesquieu, observes, “ that agriculture, that greatest of all manu- 
 factures, ought to flourish, before what we commonly call manufactures, 
 take place as articles of trade and commerce ; and after cultivation is at its 
 height, those manufactures ought first to be encouraged, which work upon 
 materials of our own growth ; and, last of all, those which employ foreign 
 materials.” 
 
On the Means of Improving a Country. 57 1 
 
 2. But the prosperity of a nation, as already observed, 
 depends not only on having a great marketable surplus, but 
 also on its disposable produce, fetching such a price, as to 
 encourage re-production. This was the case during the last 
 war; and hence the nation was enabled, to persevere in it 
 for so many years, and finally to bring it to a successful 
 conclusion. By means of a great surplus of agricultural 
 productions, sold at a high price, the farmer, and his land- 
 lord, were placed in a condition, to pay very heavy taxes to 
 government ; — to engage in improvements of every descrip- 
 tion ; — to furnish employment to a numerous body of 
 labourers, to whom the price of bread was of little conse- 
 quence, while work was always to be had, at wages propor- 
 tioned to the price of corn ; — and to consume immense 
 quantities of merchandize, and articles of manufacture, by 
 means of which, those two branches of national industry 
 were supported, when they were in a great measure deprived 
 of foreign markets. History does not furnish an example 
 of a nation, which abroad , made such incredible exertions, 
 while at home , so many millions of people, enjoyed all the 
 necessaries, the comforts, and most of them the luxuries of 
 life ; the whole originating in prosperous agriculture, with- 
 out which, our manufacturing industry, our commercial re- 
 lations, or the necessary operations of our finances, could 
 not have been carried on. 
 
 3. Nor is it alone sufficient, that the farmer should have 
 a price adequate to promote re-production : he should like- 
 wise have such a command of capital, (and if it must be 
 borrowed, at a moderate rate of interest), as will enable him 
 to carry on his business with energy. Indeed, where capi- 
 tal or credit is joined to skill in agriculture, it lays the 
 foundation of general prosperity. It will not be disputed, 
 that a hundred persons may be put to the greatest incon- 
 venience, because one individual, at the head of a chain of 
 circulation , cannot pay one hundred pounds. Enable him 
 to pay that sum, and progressively, those connected with 
 him are relieved. “ But it is the farmer who is the first 
 link, in the great chain of national circulation.” When he 
 is supplied with money, he is enabled to pay his rent regu- 
 larly ; — his landlord is thus enabled, not only to employ a 
 number of labourers, but to purchase goods, from the Bri- 
 tish manufacturer, and the foreign merchant ; — the latter 
 finding thus a demand for foreign goods, is enabled, in re- 
 turn, to export British manufactures to foreign markets ; — 
 by means of an abundant circulation also, the revenue is 
 
572 On the Means of Improving a Country . 
 
 paid without difficulty, it is regularly remitted, and furnishes 
 the means of paying the dividends due to the stock-holders ; 
 the credit of the country is thus maintained, and every class 
 in the community prospers. The whole, it is evident, ori- 
 ginates with the farmer , the first link, in the great chain of 
 circulation, whose basis is the plough*. 
 
 The superior importance of agriculture, has been recently 
 proved, in a manner so convincing, and unanswerable, that 
 the question may now be considered as at rest. It is well 
 known, that all the resources of the country were put to 
 the test, by the strict manner, in which the tax on income 
 was ultimately exactedf . By analysing, therefore, the pro- 
 duce of that tax, under all its several branches, the real 
 foundations of our national wealth and prosperity, may be 
 ascertained, with a degree of correctness, previously unat- 
 tainable. The result of the inquiry is as follows : 
 
 1. Taxes on landed property X 4,257,247 
 
 2. Ditto, on the farmers, or occupiers, of land 2,176,228 
 
 Total agricultural classes X 6,433,475 
 
 3. Taxes on commercial property • • • • X 2,000,000 
 
 4. Ditto on professions 1,021,187 
 
 3,021,187 
 
 Difference in favour of the agricultural classes X 3,412,288 J 
 
 * The superior influence of the farmer, in promoting national circula- 
 tion, is as important a discovery in politics, as Sir Isaac Newton’s, who first 
 ascertained the principle on which the heavenly bodies circulated, was in 
 astronomy. It is founded on the system of country banking, which ought 
 to be encouraged, and placed on the securest possible footing. Those nations 
 can alone be eminently, and permanently prosperous, whose governments 
 will act upon that system. 
 
 f It is supposed by some, that the merchants and manufacturers, did not 
 pay so high a proportion of their profits, as was paid out of the incomes of 
 the landed interest. But this has always been denied by the parties them- 
 selves. 
 
 f It may be proper to state the amount of the income-tax, an. 1814, the 
 last year tnat the assessments were imposed, under all its several heads : 
 
 1. Agricultural classes a9 above 6,433,475 
 
 2. Commercial class 2, 000, OCX) 
 
 3. Professional classes 1,021,187 
 
 4. Tax on houses 1,625,939 
 
 5. Tax on the funds 3,004,861 
 
 6. Provincial offices X 188,932 
 
 7. Naval, military, and civil establishment ... 924,312 
 
 1,113,244 
 
 Total gross amount X 15,198,706 
 
 The net produce was, 14,545,279/., of which foreign commerce did not 
 probably pay half a million. 
 
On the Means of Improving a Country . 573 
 
 Hence it appears, that during that eventful period, when 
 the ignorant, and the prejudiced supposed, we existed solely 
 by trade, and that we ought to be considered merely as a 
 nation of shop-keepers , it was the wealth arising from the 
 productions of the soil, that chiefly enabled us to go on ; it 
 was successful agriculture, that furnished us with the means 
 of carrying on the contest, and of bringing it to a triumphant 
 conclusion. 
 
 Nor is this subject to be dwelt on solely as a question 
 of finance. Let it be considered, that it is the land which 
 furnishes the raw materials of the greater part of our manu- 
 factures ; that the proprietors and occupiers of land, are the 
 best customers of our manufacturers and merchants; and 
 that through them, the greater part of all other professions 
 gain their livelihood. The fund-holders, also ought to be 
 aware, that upon the prosperity of agriculture, the regular 
 payments of their dividends must principally depend. Fgt 
 it is to be observed , that as the property -tax was imposed on 
 all the classes of the community , in proportion to their sup- 
 posed wealth or income , hence , we may conclude , that the 
 taxes payable in every other way , by each class, and every in- 
 dividual in each class , who spent his income , were probably 
 paid , in nearly the same proportion , as the tax on property. 
 
 It cannot, at the same time be doubted, that the agricul- 
 tural classes, are much indebted to those employed in trade 
 and manufactures, for consuming the produce of the soil. 
 But still, it is the surplus productions of agriculture, raised 
 under the superintendance of the owners of the soil, and by 
 the skill and industry of those who occupy it, which con- 
 stitute the real basis of our national prosperity; and exported 
 manufactures, may be considered as nothing else, but so 
 much beef, mutton, wheat, barley, See. converted into 
 another, and more convenient shape. Where manufac- 
 turers, however, are fed by the productions of foreign indus- 
 try; and when the articles they manufacture, are produced 
 from foreign raw materials, as fine wool, Sec. Sec. instead of 
 being an advantage, they have the effect of depreciating the 
 value, checking the improvement of domestic agricultural 
 productions, and bringing foreign articles into competition 
 with them, by means of British capital. 
 
 It likewise appears, from the following statement, that 
 the occupiers of land, form a great, as well as valuable 
 body; and are much superior in number, as well as finan- 
 cial productiveness, to the other classes in the community. 
 
574 
 
 On the Means of Improving a Country. 
 
 No. of Persons. 
 
 1 . Occupiers of land, with incomes under 50l. } 
 
 per annum, who were thence exempted from > 114,778 
 
 the tax on property, 3 
 
 2. Occupiers from 50/. to 150/. per"J 
 
 annum, 
 
 3. Occupiers above 150/ 42,062* 
 
 432,534 
 
 474,590 
 
 Total, occupiers of land, independent of > 
 
 artificers, and others connected with > 589,374 
 
 agriculture, ) — 
 
 When it is considered, how usefully this numerous class 
 of respectable and industrious* individuals are employed; — 
 that by the last enumeration of the population of England, 
 Wales, and Scotland, the number of families connected with 
 agriculture, including artificers, amounts to 895,998 f;— 
 that owing to the number of servants employed by farmers, 
 each family cannot be estimated at less than six, or about 
 5,400,000 souls in all;— and that besides the numbers who 
 are directly dependent upon agriculture for their subsistence, 
 there are several millions indirectly connected with it;-— we 
 must be sensible, that too little encouragement has been 
 given to agricultural exertions, and that the attention of the 
 public at large, has hitherto been too seldom directed, to 
 the improvement of the soil, or to the interests of those who 
 occupy it. 
 
 The number of persons employed in trade and professions, 
 assessed to the property-tax, stood thus: 
 
 No. of Persons. 
 
 1. Persons in trade and professions under 50/. | 
 
 per annum, and thence exempt from the tax, j * 
 
 2. Above 50/. and under 150/ 117,306 
 
 3. From 150/. to 1000/ 31,928 
 
 4. From 1000/. and upwards, 3,692 
 
 152,926 
 
 Total, 253,686 
 
 * It is this respectable class of occupiers, who are most to be depended 
 upon, for the improvement of a country. Small farms, at a low rent, may 
 do without science, but great farms, with a high rent, cannot be carried on 
 successfully, without the advantages of theoretical knowledge, united to 
 practice. 
 
 f The 589,374 are those who occupy land; the 895,998 families, include 
 married servants, and labourers employed in husbandry ; also agricultural 
 mechanics, as plough-makers, &c. 
 
575 
 
 On the Means of Improving a Country. 
 
 Consequently, there were 474,596 actual contributors to 
 the property-tax, among the agricultural classes, and only 
 152,926 in trades, and all other professions, making the 
 number of actual contributors connected with agriculture, 
 more than all the other classes put together, 321,670. 
 
 These statements, must satisfy every impartial individual, 
 that the strength and resources of this country, principally 
 arise from the productions of the soil; — that the land , is the 
 basis of our national wealth *, and that on the amount, and 
 the value of its productions, our commerce and manufac- 
 tures, and the payment of the public creditors, in a great 
 measure depend. The revenues of the church; — by far the 
 largest proportion of the payments to the poor; — and va- 
 rious other public charges, are likewise payable from the 
 same source. Hence, nothing can be more impolitic, than 
 to neglect the adoption of any measure, by which the inte- 
 rests of agriculture may be promoted ; or more hazardous^ 
 than to take any step, by which its prosperity can be im- 
 paired, or those who live by it, reduced to poverty or ruin. 
 
 The means for promoting the agricultural prosperity of 
 the country, therefore, merit our peculiar attentionf. 
 
 It has long been considered as an incontrovertible propo- 
 sition, and approaching to the nature of an axiom, That 
 whoever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of 
 grass, to grow upon a spot, where only one had grown be- 
 fore, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential 
 service to his country, than the whole race of politicians put 
 together.” 
 
 This, however, cannot be admitted, for there are no 
 means, by which such immense benefits can be conferred 
 upon agriculture, as by a judicious system of civil polity. 
 In fact, the prosperity of agriculture, depends upon the poli- 
 
 * It is hardly to be credited, how little the superior importance of agri- 
 culture, was known to the ministers and statesmen of this country, before a 
 Board of Agriculture was established. Proofs of a circumstance of so ex- 
 traordinary a nature, will be found in the Appendix. 
 
 f Mr. Curwen justly observes, that our internal or domesticresources have 
 been greatly undervalued and neglected, while the benefits of foreign com- 
 merce have been nationally over-rated, and assiduously protected. This in 
 a great measure may be referred, to a want of knowledge of their substantial 
 interests, on the part of the landed representatives, when opposed, in the 
 legislative assembly, to the finished competence, and sagacious adroitness, 
 of commercial members, whenever or wherever their immediate or remote 
 interests are likely to become affected. There is no species of property in 
 this country, the intrinsic or relative value of which, is so little the study of 
 those to whom it belongs, or the apparent or latent interests of which, are so 
 little understood, or so much neglected, as the surface territory of Great 
 Britain . — Curwcrts Report , p. 8. 
 
576 On the Means of Improving a Country . 
 
 tician. The better and the more equitable the civil polity 
 of a country, the more perfect will its agriculture become. 
 Those politicians or statesmen, therefore, who, by removing 
 every obstacle, and furnishing every proper encouragement 
 to agriculture, promote its advancement, have a higher claim 
 to the gratitude of mankind, than those who have merely 
 performed a secondary or practical part, which part, they 
 never could have performed at all, but under the protection 
 of wise laws, regularly administered, and executed with im- 
 partiality and vigour. 
 
 This leads to the most important discussion, perhaps, in 
 the whole range of political inquiry, and respecting which 
 the most ill-founded prejudices are unfortunately entertained, 
 namely, “ What public attention and encouragement, for 
 the advancement of Agriculture, ought a wise government 
 to bestow?” 
 
 Many able men, reasoning solely from the abuses to 
 which the system of encouragement is liable , have thence 
 been induced to condemn this policy, and to recommend 
 that of giving to individuals, the entire freedom of exer- 
 cising their industry, in their own way, without any legis- 
 lative interference whatever. They dwell much, on the 
 reply once made by some of the principal merchants of 
 France, to the celebrated Colbert, who having asked, What 
 government could do for them f was answered, (i Laissez 
 nous faire,” (Let us alone) . On the other hand, they to- 
 tally reprobate the mercantile system , as they call it, (or a 
 series of laws which have been enacted in this country, for 
 promoting the prosperity of commerce), as in the highest 
 degree impolitic ; though, under that very system, the com- 
 merce of Great Britain has risen to a height, altogether un- 
 exampled in history. But as our legislature have wisely 
 deemed it expedient, to protect both manufactures and com- 
 merce, which, under such a system, have So eminently flou- 
 rished, no good reason can be assigned, why agriculture 
 ought not, in the like manner, to be encouraged in Great Bri- 
 tain, where it produces such a great revenue; — where, with 
 almost a thousand millions of national debt, we still have 
 above twenty millions of acres, lying in a state compara- 
 tively waste and unproductive; — where the population is 
 rapidly increasing and where it has been found necessary, 
 for some years past, to import no inconsiderable portion of 
 the means of our subsistence*. 
 
 * But if this is bad policy, as it relates to Great Britain, is it not still 
 
On the Means of Improving a Country . 577 
 
 It is certainly better to let agriculture alone, than to esta- 
 blish injudicious regulations respecting it. But if a govern- 
 ment will make such inquiries, as may enable it to judge of 
 what can be done with safety and advantage*, and will pro- 
 mote agricultural industry, not only by removing every ob- 
 stacle to improvement, hut by granting positive encourage- 
 rnent; agriculture will prosper with a rapidity, and will 
 be carried on to an extent, which is hardly to be credited; 
 and in a much superior degree, than by the “ let alone 
 system,” under the torpor of which, ages might pass away, 
 without accomplishing, what might be effected in the course 
 of a few years, under a judicious system of encouraging 
 regulations. 
 
 The principal encouragements, which a wise and liberal 
 government will be anxious to bestow upon agriculture, 
 may be classed under the following heads: 1. Removing 
 obstacles to improvement; 2. Relieving agriculture from 
 any burdens peculiarly affecting it ; 3. Promoting the col- 
 lection and diffusion of useful information ; 4. Giving a 
 preference to domestic productions in the home market; 
 5. Encouraging the exportation of any surplus produce that 
 may remain on hand, after the demands at home are sup- 
 plied; 6. Extending, by every prudent means, the cultiva- 
 tion of waste lands, in order that the productive territory of 
 the country may be constantly on the increase ; 7. Grant- 
 ing public aid to substantial improvements, such as roads, 
 bridges, canals, &c. on which the agricultural and general 
 prosperity of a country so essentially depend ; and, 8. Coun- 
 tenancing the establishment of corporations, to furnish the 
 means of carrying on such improvements, as are beyond the 
 power of individual wealth or enterprise. 
 
 worse with respect to Ireland, where agriculture is the chief source of wealth, 
 and revenue; and where its population is principally supported by the culti- 
 vation and produce of the soil. During the late wars, Ireland was a flourish- 
 ing country ; her fanners had encouragement to improve and cultivate, and 
 were well paid for their exertions ; and the landed proprietors, had the means 
 of contributing largely to the wants of the state, from the ample revenues 
 which they enjoyed. But in the present state of agricultural depression, 
 many branches of the community are either bankrupt, or reduced to dis- 
 tress; and it does not appear, that any part of it has been benefited. — J?e- 
 marks by Edward Burroughs , Esq. 
 
578 On removing Obstacles to Improvement, 
 
 Sect. I . — On removing Obstacles to Improvement, 
 
 There is no duty, more incumbent on the government of 
 a country, or from which more advantage might be de- 
 rived, than that of ascertaining, those obstacles to improve- 
 ment, which are occasioned by the defectiveness of the laws. 
 In England, property held in common, cannot be divided, 
 without the unanimous consent of those having an interest 
 in it ; and even the crown, corporate bodies, and the guar- 
 dians of minors, cannot consent, unless authorized by a spe- 
 cial act of the legislature. Nothing can be more impolitic, 
 than retaining such impediments to improvement. Such 
 legal disabilities to consent to enclosure, ought to be re- 
 moved by a general law, and a division to be authorized, 
 when agreed to by a majority in value of the parties inte- 
 rested, by whom commissioners for that purpose might be 
 appointed. Various attempts have been made, to procure 
 the sanction of Parliament to such regulations, but hitherto 
 unsuccessfully, owing to the influence of those, who feel an 
 interest in preserving the present system, and its abuses. 
 It is full time to give up legislating in detail , and to act 
 upon broad principles of general polity*. 
 
 Sect. II . — On relieving Agriculture from Burdens peculiarly 
 affecting it. 
 
 This is a subject that has been already discussed. (See 
 Chapter I. Sect. 9). The exaction of tithes in kind, and 
 heavy assessments for the maintenance of the poor, are felt 
 with peculiar severity by the farmers in England ; and if 
 continued on their present footing, must ultimately in a 
 great measure destroy the value of landed property in that 
 part of the kingdom, or at any rate prevent its improve- 
 ment. The interests of the church cannot be affected, if a 
 fair commutation be given for tithes, payable in corn, instead 
 
 * The only plausible objections, to a General Bill of Enclosures, that it 
 might have the effect, of drawing off capital and industry from land, which, 
 in the end, would yield the best returns, instead of being wasted, in hazard- 
 ous speculations, on barren soils. But on various accounts, this need not 
 be apprehended. The lands of moderate fertility, would be laid down in 
 grass, in which state, they would accumulate strength; and, the poor soils, 
 in the interim, would, under proper treatment, be yielding crops, consider- 
 able in respect of produce. 
 
579 
 
 On promoting Useful Knowledge . 
 
 of persevering in a system, accompanied with so much 
 private vexation and public injury. In regard to the poor- 
 rates, it is on all hands allowed, that some plan must be 
 devised, to alleviate that heavy and still increasing load, 
 which, in many cases, has already become more oppressive, 
 than all the other burdens upon land, united. 
 
 Sect. III. — On promoting the Collection and Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge . 
 
 It is a saying sanctioned by the authority of Bacon, that 
 (S knowledge is power.” Of all the various sorts of power, 
 enumerated by that great philosopher, this seems by far the 
 most important. What gives one man any real superiority 
 over another, but the knowledge he possesses? What enables 
 some individuals, to produce abundant harvests, — to carry 
 on a prosperous commerce, — to establish successful manu- 
 factures, — to excel in mechanism, or any other useful art ; 
 but the acquisition, and judicious application of that know- 
 ledge, in which others are deficient ? 
 
 That the power and prosperity of a country depend on 
 the diffusion of useful knowledge, can hardly be questioned ; 
 and there is, probably, no art, in which a variety of know- 
 ledge, is of more essential importance, than in that of agri- 
 culture. The extent of information necessary to bring it to 
 any thing like perfection, is far greater than is generally sup- 
 posed. To preserve the fertility of the soil -to free it from 
 superfluous moisture — to cultivate it to the greatest ad- 
 vantage ; — to raise its productions at the least expence ; — to 
 procure the best instruments of husbandry ; — to select the 
 stock likely to be the most profitable j — to feed them in the 
 most judicious manner, and to bring them to the most ad- 
 vantageous markets ; — to chuse the plants best adapted for 
 the soil and climate, and the most likely to become profit- 
 able ; — to secure the harvest, even in the most unpropitious 
 seasons ; — to separate the grain from the straw with economy 
 and success ; — and to perform all the other operations of 
 agriculture, in a judicious manner, require an extent, and 
 variety of knowledge, greater than may, at first view, be 
 judged requisite*. 
 
 * Dr. Coventry observes, that the accumulated experience of ages are 
 requisite, to perfect one’s kuowledge in several departments of husbandry. 
 The difficult and extensive nature of the subject, the importance and the im- 
 P p 2 
 
580 On promoting Useful Knowledge . 
 
 But thougffagricultural knowledge may be diffused over 
 a country, experience teaches, that it cannot be usefully im- 
 proved, unless by comparing the various practices which 
 subsist in different parts of it. One district has been led to 
 pay a peculiar and successful attention to one branch of 
 husbandry, or, by a fortunate accident, some important dis- 
 covery has been made in it, while other districts ekcel in 
 other particulars of equal importance. Mutual benefit is 
 derived from the communication of such local practices. 
 Of this, the improved modes of draining by Elkington ; — 
 the warping of land on the banks of the Humber ; — the 
 drilling of turnips and potatoes in the northern part of the 
 island 5 — and the more general use of the threshing-mill, 
 and various other articles of agricultural machinery, may be 
 cited as examples. 
 
 The advantages that may be derived, from the result of 
 inquiries carried on by the Board of Agriculture, in so far as 
 regards the culture of arable land, may thus be briefly stated : 
 The means have been explained, by which, in fertile dis- 
 tricts, and in propitious seasons, the farmer 'may, on an 
 average, confidently expect to reap, from 32 to 40 bushels 
 of wheat ; from 42 to 50 bushels of barley ; from 52 to 64 
 bushels of oats*, and from 28 to 32 bushels of beans, Win- 
 chester measure, per statute acre. As to green crops, 30 
 tons of turnips, three tons of clover-hay, and from eight to 
 ten tons of potatoes, per statute acre, may be confidently 
 relied on. In favourable seasons, the crops may be still 
 more abundant 5 but even these average ones, spread over a 
 large proportion of the United Kingdom, are sufficient to 
 produce more solid wealth, than can be furnished by the 
 greatest extent of foreign commerce*. 
 
 The various means, by which useful information may be 
 collected and diffused, are, 1 . Forming institutions for that 
 purpose ; — 2 . Establishing experimental farms ; — 3. Insti- 
 
 mcnsc variety of the particulars relating to it, the vague, the doubtful, and 
 even the contradictory details of alledged facts in almost every branch of it; 
 the obscurity of the principles on which are grounded several operations in 
 agriculture, and other parts of rural business, and of those which influence, 
 explain, and tend to regulate, in certain cases, the general practice of hus- 
 bandry, augment the difficulties attending the acquisition of agricultural 
 knowledge. — Dr. Coventry s Discourses , p. 9. 
 
 * The advantages of an improved system of husbandry , can hardly be too 
 highly estimated. Where it is established, there is ample employment for 
 the industrious labourer; whereas, where the old system prevails, there is 
 but little demand for labour. See this exemplified in Dr. Rigby’s Report, 
 p. 96. 
 
581 
 
 On promoting Usejul Knowledge. 
 
 tuting agricultural professorships ; — and, 4. Improving ve- 
 terinary knowledge. 
 
 1. Institutions for collecting and diffusing Agricultural 
 Information. — The establishment of a Board of Agriculture 
 in Great Britain, scanty and limited as its means have always 
 been, has produced the happiest effects* ; and will probably 
 in future be considered, as an era in the history of the art. 
 Notwithstanding the limited powers of that institution, the 
 most distant parts of the country were soon made acquainted 
 with each other’s useful practices ; and the knowledge of 
 beneficial inventions, which, from the insulated state of 
 farmers, might for centuries have been confined to the place 
 of their origin, were at once rendered generally accessible. 
 The publication of the County Reports in particular, has 
 proved of peculiar importance, from the discussions which 
 they occasioned*, — the spirit of emulation which they excited; 
 — the knowledge which they were the means of circulating ; 
 — the truths which they established ; — and the errors which 
 they contributed to overturnf . Animated by the example 
 of that Board, a much greater number of agricultural socie- 
 ties were soon constituted, than had ever before existed in 
 this, or any other country ; there being hardly an extensive 
 district in the United Kingdom, in which one, and some- 
 times more of such associations, were not established^ . A 
 zeal for the improvement of husbandry, was thus cherished 
 and kept up; and in the course of friendly and familiar con* 
 
 * In the Appendix will be found, an interesting account of the Bills of ■ 
 Enclosure, past in the course of 40 years, preceding 1814, in two periods of 
 20 years each. During the space of the first 20 years, which was prior to 
 the establishment of a Board of Agriculture, the number of these bills, 
 amounted only to 749, or 37 on average. During the second period, of 
 20 years, posterior to the establishment of the Board, the number had in- 
 creased to 1883, and the average to 94. The difference in favour of the 
 latter period, consequently was 1134, and the average increase was 57. 
 The difficulty often experienced in the importation of foreign corn, and the 
 high price which it reached, joined to an increased circulation, must have 
 contributed to these improvements, but the basis was laid, by exciting a ge- 
 neral spirit of improvement, and establishing a Public Board, for the pro- 
 tection of Agriculture. 
 
 f In these late reports and publications, which excel very differently, 
 there is detailed, more useful and distinct information, on various branches 
 of agriculture, and on rural concerns in general, than was in print before 
 these were drawn up. — Coventry's Discourses, p. 187. 
 
 t There is a list of those in England and Wales, in the Derbyshire Re- 
 port, vol. iii. p.651 ; and of those in North Britain, in the General Report 
 of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 417. The meetings of such societies are of great 
 use, by the information which they are the means of circulating, and the 
 improvement which men derive from a combination of thought, and an in- 
 ducement to compare and to examine. 
 
582 On promoting Useful Knowledge . 
 
 versation, useful observations were made, new facts were 
 brought to light, and practical knowledge, derived from ex- 
 perience, generally diffused. Much good has already been 
 done by these societies ; but still more would have been 
 effected, had the Board of Agriculture been placed on such 
 a footing, that it might have acted as a common centre, to 
 all these numerous associations, and for that purpose, had 
 been invested with the privilege of correspondence postage 
 free. The Board would thus have been enabled, better than 
 at present, to perform those public services, which were in 
 the contemplation of those, by whose exertions it was origi- 
 nally established*. 
 
 2. Experimental Farms . — The art of agriculture can 
 never be brought to its highest degree of perfection, or 
 established on rational and unerring principles, unless by 
 means of experiments, accurately tried, properly persevered 
 in, and carefully registered. The ardent inquirer has been too 
 long compelled to rely on vague opinions, and assertions which 
 have not been warranted by sufficient authority *, it is full 
 time, therefore, by the establishment of experimental farms, 
 under the sanction, and at the expence of government, or by 
 enabling the Board of Agriculture, to grant adequate pre- 
 miums to deserving persons, for new discoveries, to bring the 
 art to as great perfection as possible, by ascertaining the prin- 
 ciples on which it can most profitably be conducted. 
 
 It is said, that there are many distinguished characters, 
 who carry on experiments for their own information and 
 amusement, by means of which, every important fact, will 
 in process of time be ascertainedf ; and it cannot be doubted, 
 that their example is of very great advantage to those, who 
 have the means of examining the progress that is made. 
 
 * On the Continent, particularly in France, correspondence respecting 
 agriculture, literature, and other useful objects, is carried on through the 
 medium of the Minister for Foreign Affairs. 
 
 The little prospect there is of having accurate experiments made, on 
 farms of that description, is very ably explained in a communication from 
 Mr. Blajkie, the manager of Mr. Coke’s great farm at Holkham, of which 
 the following is an extract : “ These experiments are satisfactory, so far as 
 they go ; — but certainly not conclusive, because the produce was in no one 
 instance, either weighed or measured. — This I much regret. But it appears 
 to be almost impossible to conduct such experiments, with a requisite degree 
 of accuracy, upon a farm establishment of such magnitude as that of Mr, 
 Coke at this place. For during the hurry and bustle incident to collecting 
 the harvest; — the farm manager has so many important concerns to attend 
 to, that he cannot devote any portion of his time to superintending experi- 
 mental objects, and were he to depute the management of such concerns to 
 the labourers, it is not to be expected, that they would pay the attention 
 requisite.” 
 
583 
 
 On promoting Useful Knowledge. 
 
 Their farms, however, are, more properly speaking, pattern 
 farms , for the advantage of the fanners in their immediate 
 neighbourhood , than experimental ones, in the strict sense 
 of the word ; and they are too often, rather the partial re- 
 cords of successful experiments, than the faithful journals 
 of success and of disappointment. In order to render ex- 
 perimental farms generally useful, they ought to be open to 
 the inspection of the public ; the account of each experi- 
 ment ought to be regularly published, and every new prac- 
 tice, likely to improve the cultivation of any considerable 
 part of the kingdom, ought to be examined with the utmost 
 precision, every trial repeated for confirmation, and, if pos- 
 sible, made by different persons, in different places, and on 
 different soils. 
 
 It cannot be expected, that persons of high rank, whose 
 attention is necessarily directed to other objects, should re- 
 nounce their ordinary pursuits, and devote themselves ex- 
 clusively to the conducting of agricultural experiments : but 
 if one or more experimental farms were established, under a 
 proper system, it would ere long be discovered, what prac- 
 tices ought to he avoided, as well as what ought to be 
 pursued. It is important, that the one should be made known 
 as well as the other ; yet errors in husbandry , are seldom 
 communicated to the public, or known beyond the sphere 
 of a confined neighbourhood, because a farmer is in general 
 ashamed of acknowledging his want of success. Unfor- 
 tunately also, when his experiments answer, they are some- 
 times concealed, least others should avail themselves of the 
 discovery. The object of an experimental farm, however, 
 should be, to ascertain facts, and to publish them; and as 
 much credit would be acquired, by an intelligent conductor 
 of an experimental farm, for his exertions in detecting errors, 
 as in establishing facts likely to be useful*. 
 
 It would surely be a highly beneficial measure, for a 
 country, possessing such an immense revenue, to lay out any 
 moderate sum that may be necessary, were it only 5000/. 
 per annum, for ten or twenty years, to ascertain points of 
 such essential importance, and which might be the means 
 of making very great additions to the national produce, 
 wealth, and revenue. 
 
 3. Agricultural Professorships. — It is not many years ago, 
 since, at the expence of a private individual (the late Sir 
 
 * There is an ingenious Essay on this subject, by Dr. W. Richardson, in 
 the Philosophical Magazine, vol. xlviii. p. 262 . 
 
584 On promoting Useful Knowledge. 
 
 William Pulfeney), a professorship was established at Edin- 
 burgh, for reading lectures on the art of agriculture. The 
 utility of such an institution is so evident, that it ought to 
 be extended to all the other universities. The attention of 
 young men, by such establishments, would be directed early 
 to this most useful of all the branches of knowledge, which 
 has now become the general subject of conversation, where- 
 ever they go. If they inherit landed property, agriculture 
 is the topic to which their views should be particularly 
 directed ; and as there is scarcely any profession, which will 
 preclude them from spending some part of their time in the 
 country ; and if, after having accumulated a fortune, they 
 become proprietors of land, their having early acquired such 
 knowledge, would be a source of much gratification, and 
 perhaps of advantage. For such establishments, no new 
 grant would be necessary, or required from Parliament, but 
 merely an act, suppressing those professorships, which are 
 at present sinecures, or of little real utility, and establishing 
 in their room, those of agriculture*. 
 
 4. Improvement of Veterinary Knowledge . — Some en- 
 couragement has been given, by an annual grant, to the 
 acquisition and diffusion of veterinary knowledge ; a defi- 
 ciency in which, had proved so fatal to the public interest. 
 It is not improbable, that for every pound of public money 
 that has been in this way laid out, a thousand has been saved 
 in our national expenditure, in the article of horses alone, 
 employed in the cavalry and artillery. It would be desirable, 
 indeed, that schools for veterinary knowledge, should be 
 established in all the principal towns in the kingdom ; and 
 that the preservation of every species of our valuable stock 
 of domestic animals, should no longer be left to ignorance 
 or quackery, but that the practice to be adopted in the 
 management of their disorders, should be grounded on 
 scientific principles. 
 
 * Public lectures on agriculture, if discreetly composed, and intelligibly 
 delivered, doubtly possess, among others, the following advantages : — They 
 are calculated to abridge the labours of the attentive inquirer, and to direct 
 the general course of his researches, so that it shall be more easy, and more 
 successful than otherwise; to solicit his attention, not only to what is con- 
 fessedly of importance, and generally studied, but likewise to many new 
 discoveries and improvements as they rise ; and to other particulars, which, 
 though they may have hitherto obtained little, if any regard, are neverthe- 
 less of material consequence, to enliven the mind, and afford some relief 
 from the tedious irksomeness of solitary study, and to fix more strongly in 
 his memory, both the principles of agriculture, or rather husbandry, as a 
 science, and its rules as a practical profession. — Coventry’s Discourses, p. 
 
On a Preference to Domestic Productions. 585 
 
 Sect. V . — To give a Preference to Domestic Agricultural 
 Productions in the Home Market . 
 
 This is peculiarly necessary, both to preserve the country 
 from famine, and to render it independent of other nations 
 for the necessaries of life. To permit the industry of any 
 foreign nation, to enter into competition with our own 
 domestic industry, or productions, is not allowed in the 
 manufactures of linen or cotton, and many other articles, 
 and ought still less to be suffered in that of corn. 
 
 If two nations, similarly circumstanced in regard to soil, 
 climate, labour, and circulation, were to give each other 
 reciprocal liberty of trading, the system, on the whole, might 
 not be materially injurious to either ; but to place in com- 
 petition the industry of one country, which has a great 
 national debt, and heavy taxes, and where the price of 
 labour must consequently be high, with that of an indefinite 
 number of other countries, which, with better climates and 
 more fertile soils, are not subject to the same burdens, would 
 be highly inexpedient. Besides, no country that has suffi- 
 cient extent of surface, and can by any exertion produce 
 food for itself, would act wisely, to allow itself to be depen- 
 dent on others for subsistence. 
 
 The equitable principle, therefore, is, to impose a pro- 
 tecting duty on all foreign agricultural productions, until 
 their price be aft: least as high as that at which they can be 
 raised in Britain, in seasons of moderate fertility, and gra- 
 dually to diminish that duty as prices rise, but still, giving a 
 decided preference, to the produce of the agriculture of the 
 United Kingdoms. 
 
 The exportation and importation of grain, and offier agri- 
 cultural productions, either duty free, or at low rates, in 
 justness and equity, can only take place between nations, 
 where the value of money is the same, where they are 
 subject to the same weight of taxation, are similarly situ- 
 ated in regard to soil and climate, and live in amity with 
 each other*. 
 
 * It may certainly appear at first sight extremely hard, that a large pro- 
 portion of the community should be obliged to pay a price for the first 
 necessary of life, so much above that at which it can be imported from other 
 countries. But we must take into consideration the ruinous consequences 
 which would result from a free trade in grain; for when individuals are left 
 at liberty to pursue a gainful commerce, the general interest of the commu- 
 nity operates little on their proceedings. Thousands would be deprived of 
 
586 Improvement of Waste or Unproductive Lands, 
 
 Sect. VI . — To Encourage the Exportation of any Surplus 
 Produce, 
 
 It is likewise highly expedient, to promote the exporta- 
 tion of domestic produce, if there be any redundancy, after 
 supplying the demand at home. It is not sufficient to per- 
 mit the exportation ; but it may be necessary, for the en- 
 couragement of domestic cultivation, and in order that the 
 articles grown at home, may be enabled to meet the pro- 
 ductions of other countries, in foreign markets, on equal 
 terms , to give what is called a bounty on exportation. 
 Nothing, however, can be more erroneous, than to consider 
 that encouragement a bounty , when it is in fact a drawback , 
 under another name. The farmers at home, are subjected 
 to a variety of taxes, which are not imposed on their foreign 
 competitors. To enable them to meet on equal terms, they 
 are entitled to receive an allowance, on every quarter of 
 grain exported, equal to what they had actually paid on its 
 account to the public, under various denominations. It is 
 but just, that the government should repay the taxes it had 
 received, on what is thus exported, to enable the farmers, 
 under its protection, to enter into a fair competition with 
 foreign cultivation ; more especially if the rates at which 
 importation is allowed, are so fixed for the benefit of the 
 manufacturers, that the corn growers can, at no period, 
 obtain great profits, the increased price being, in general, 
 only a bare compensation for deficiency of produce. 
 
 Sect. VII. — To promote the Improvement of Waste or 
 Unproductive Lands, 
 
 It is of peculiar importance to a country, increasing in 
 population, to be constantly adding to its productive terri- 
 tory. There are different ways by which that object may 
 be promoted : 1. By facilitating the division, drainage, em- 
 bankment, and improvement of commons, meadows, or 
 
 work, the distresses of our population would be fearfully augmented, and 
 whilst bread might be cheaper, the many, from want of labour and adequate 
 wages, would have it less in their power to become purchasers. To shut 
 out foreign grain, may be an evil, I mean not to question ; yet much as I 
 deplore the necessity for importation, I verily believe, that it is against the 
 general interests of the working classes, to suffer foreign corn to come into 
 the country, below the average price at which it can be raised in Britain. — 
 Curwcn'i Rtport , p. 7. 
 
Permanent and Substantial Improvements. 587 
 
 other intermixed lands; at least in all cases where two-thirds, 
 or three-fourths of the parties concerned, are in favour of 
 any such measure ; and this benefit might be made attain- 
 able, by an act of the legislature, authorizing an application 
 to the Quarter Sessions in England, or Sheriffs in Scotland, 
 to order an inspection, and a report of the expence, &c. 
 to be made, and after hearing parties, to decide on the pro- 
 priety of the application. If then approved of, the direc- 
 tion and execution of the improvement, should be referred 
 to commissioners ; — 2. By exempting from the payment of 
 tithes and poor-rates, for a term of years, according to the 
 expence of the improvement, waste lands brought into cul- 
 tivation ; — and, 3. By fixing the price at which foreign corn 
 should be permitted to be imported, free of duty, at such a 
 sum, as will enable a British farmer, to defray the expence 
 of reclaiming waste, or improving uncultivated land. For 
 unless this be done, it is impossible, that the produce of our 
 barren soils, cultivated at a great expence, can stand a com- 
 petition, with the produce of the fertile fields of ether coun- 
 tries, where the expence of cultivation must, comparatively 
 speaking, be inconsiderable. 
 
 Among our unproductive lands , a large proportion of 
 those subject to the process of fallow, ought to be included. 
 In Scotland, owing to the stubbornness of its clayey soils, 
 and the wetness of its climate, any material diminution can- 
 not at present take place ; nor until the soil is rendered 
 much more friable, which it will probably be, in the course 
 of such improved cultivation as these lands now experience. 
 But there are extensive tracts in England, where, instead of 
 a naked fallow, turnips, and other green crops, might now 
 be cultivated with advantage ; and by means of which, food 
 might be raised, more than we are now under the necessity 
 of importing from other countries. 
 
 Sect. VIII. — To encourage Permanent and Substantial 
 Improvements. 
 
 The wealth and agricultural prosperity of a country, ma- 
 terially depend, on such great and substantial improvements 
 being promoted, as, 1. Roads and bridges; — 2. Canals; — 
 3. Railways; — 4>. Harbours; — and, 5. Embankments ; and, 
 where the aid of government cannot be given to such un- 
 dertakings, the establishment of corporations, under the 
 
58B Permanent and Substantial Improvements . 
 
 sanction of public authority, might be found an advanta- 
 geous mode of carrying such improvements into effect. 
 
 1 . Roads and Bridges . — As the first means of introduc- 
 ing improvements into a country, roads, and bridges are 
 essential ; and where the population is thin, and the country 
 is poor, there is no possibility of having such communi- 
 cations made, without public assistance. Two plans for 
 that purpose have been adopted in making roads. By the 
 one, the military have been employed in such public works ; 
 by the other, under the authority of Commissioners ap- 
 pointed for that special purpose, the public has agreed, in 
 the more remote parts of the country, to advance one-half 
 of the expence of making roads and bridges, where the pro- 
 prietors come forward with the other. The communications 
 which have been opened, in consequence of this encourage- 
 ment, are numerous, and the public will soon be amply in- 
 demnified, for any sum it has thus expended, by the in- 
 creased revenue it will derive from districts, which have 
 hitherto been unproductive*. 
 
 In times of peace also, the military cannot be better em- 
 ployed, than in carrying on public works of so useful a de- 
 scription, as roads, canals, &c. Unless when engaged in 
 war, soldiers are the better for being thus actively em- 
 ployed : it strengthens their bodies, and occupies their minds. 
 The remains of those roads, which were constructed by the 
 Roman armies, fully prove, what that intelligent nation 
 considered to be the best means of preparing soldiers, in 
 time of peace, for the hardships, and achievements of war. 
 
 2. Canals . — The advantages of canals to agriculture, need 
 not be dwelt upon. They facilitate the mean's of convey- 
 ing the bulky productions of the soil to market, and also of 
 bringing, at a moderate expence, not only coal, but lime, 
 and other manures, to the farmer. Under a proper system 
 
 * In the 8th Report of the Commissioners for Highland Roads and Bridges, 
 ordered to be printed in March 1817, there is an abstract of the proceedings 
 of these Commissioners, since the year 1803, a period of about 14 years. 
 During all that time, they have only expended about 200,000/. of public 
 motiei/j the rest arising from private contributions, with which they have 
 made, about 950 miles of road, and 1100 bridges. That includes 42,175/. 
 for surveys, and expence of management. This is only at the rate of about 
 14,285/. per annum. How any one can question the policy of continuing 
 so trifling an expenditure, while required in any part of tne United King- 
 dom, can hardly be credited. Frederick the Great, from the moderate in- 
 come which Prussia afforded in his time, laid out no less a sum tjian 
 300,000/. per annum, in promoting such public improvements. What then 
 ought not to be done with such a revenue as Great Britain furnishes ? 
 
Permanent and Substantial improvements . 589 
 
 also, the surplus water might be usefully employed, for the 
 purposes of irrigation. On all these accounts, canals ought 
 to be encouraged by the government of the country. It is 
 not desirable, except in very particular cases, that they 
 should be executed at the public expence ; but it would 
 greatly promote such useful undertakings, if government 
 were to lend a certain sum to the proprietors of such canals, 
 at a moderate interest, to enable them to complete any 
 undertaking of that sort. This was done for the Forth and 
 Clyde navigation ; and the Company has since repaid the 
 loan. The same plan might be successfully adopted in 
 other instances ; and the principle is at last sanctioned 
 by parliament, in a recent act, the effects of which, under 
 judicious management, can hardly fail to prove highly 
 beneficial*. 
 
 3. Railways .—! This new mode of conveyance, is capable 
 of being rendered as extensively useful as canals, and is well 
 entitled to the encouragement of government, by loans of 
 money, at a moderate interest, to carry them on. The go- 
 vernment of this country, can always borrow money at a 
 cheaper rate than private individuals, from the speculation 
 that attends public loans ; and the easiness with which the 
 monied interest can re-invest their savings in the funds, in 
 preference to any other security. Railways would be par- 
 ticularly convenient, where canals are impracticable, and 
 where either may be undertaken, the former, affording com- 
 munications at all seasons, will often be preferred. They 
 ought to be promoted, because the more that communica- 
 tions can be opened between one part of the kingdom and 
 another, the more does a country prosper, and the more are 
 the people in it combined into one great community. 
 
 The extension of railways and canals, is to be considered 
 in another point of view, namely, as diminishing the number 
 of horses, the maintenance of which, is the great cause why 
 our agricultural productions, are not adequate to the sub- 
 sistence of our inhabitants. Let the unemployed poor, 
 therefore, be employed in the construction of these useful 
 public works, and we should soon be able, to feed ourselves, 
 
 * These suggestions have been fortunately adopted, an Act having been 
 passed, in June 1817, u To authorize the issue of Exchequer bills, and the 
 advance of money, to a limited amount (1,500,000/.), for carrying on Public 
 Works and Fisheries, in the United Kingdom,” &c. which, there is no doubt, 
 under proper management, will be attended with the most advantageous 
 consequences. 
 
590 Permanent and Substantial Improvements. 
 
 by the advantages resulting, through the medium of their 
 labour *, and the appropriation of land, now devoted to the 
 production of food for horses, to that of food for man. 
 
 4. Harbours . — Though harbours are more essential in a 
 commercial, than in an agricultural point of view, yet they 
 are still of material consequence to the husbandry of a 
 country, by facilitating the exportation of bulky articles of 
 produce, and the importation of coal and lime, those essen- 
 tial articles to the farmer. The same plan of public assist- 
 ance, either in whole, or in part, will be found as useful 
 in regard to harbours, as to railways or canals, and has an- 
 swered in practice. Certain sums of money, (arising from 
 the forfeited estates in Scotland), which were at the disposal 
 of Parliament, were granted for improving harbours on 
 the north-eastern coast of Scotland. The sums given were 
 trifling $ in general from two to four thousand pounds each ; 
 and excepting in one instance, where the sum was granted 
 to encourage a fishing establishment, erected by a public 
 spirited company (the Society for improving the Sea-coasts 
 of the Kingdom), the inhabitants of the towns or neighbour- 
 hood, where that assistance was bestowed, were bound to 
 furnish one-half of the total sum to be expended. The 
 effect of this system has been most beneficial*. It is not 
 so much indeed the sum actually given, as the spirit which 
 it excites , that is of service ; and when once such a spirit is 
 roused, it is not confined to one object, but extends itself to 
 others. Little causes thus produce great effects j and a 
 moderate public expenditure of a few thousand pounds, may 
 lay the foundation of an extensive fishery, or a great empo- 
 rium of commerce, and promote, at the same time, the agri- 
 cultural prosperity of an extensive district. 
 
 5. Embankments . — When the difficulty and hazard of 
 embanking a considerable tract of country, either against 
 the overflowings of a lake or river, or the inroads of the sea, 
 are considered, there is no undertaking, that seems better 
 entitled to the encouragement of a wise government. Ex- 
 tensive tracts of fertile territory, may thus be acquired, 
 greatly to the public advantage. The soil thus obtained, is 
 generally of a nature peculiarly productive, and well adapted 
 
 * The Harbour Commissioners have received in all, from the balances 
 arising from the forfeited estates in Scotland, 25,1SS/. With only 20,010/. 
 of that sum, they have already, either made or improved ten harbours, and 
 a canal, the remaining expence being paid by subscription. Is it possible to 
 lay out public money more advantageously : and why should not so useful 
 an expenditure be continued i 
 
Permanent and Substantial Improvements . 591 
 
 for agricultural purposes. To carry on such undertakings, 
 however, at the public expence, might be hazardous ; but 
 when their utility, and ultimate profit, are sufficiently 
 proved, by the evidence of intelligent engineers, to the con- 
 viction of Parliament, it may be advisable for the legislature, 
 in times of peace, to authorize the advancing one-third, or 
 any other proportion of the estimated expence, at a moderate 
 interest. 
 
 Where extensive drainages are necessary, the same en- 
 couragement ought to be given. 
 
 6. To establish Corporations for carrying on Beneficial 
 Improvements . — Many of these improvements might be 
 successfully promoted, by the establishment of corporations , 
 for carrying on particular objects, which cannot be effected 
 by individual wealth*. This is frequently done in the case 
 of canals, and ought to be extended to other useful objects. 
 The formation of such associations, is at present the more 
 expedient, that there is likely to be a large capital, requir- 
 ing profitable employment, much of which will be sent 
 abroad, unless it can be laid out at home with advantage. 
 Much good therefore might be effected, by erecting public 
 companies, for specific objects of improvement ; — for em- 
 ploying the poor in agriculture ; — or for lending money to 
 all such landed proprietors, as had any great improvement 
 to execute ; the sum advanced, never to be demandable, but 
 the stock of the company to be transferable, like other public 
 securities, which would answer equally well the purposes of 
 those stockholders, who might wish to receive again the 
 sums they had subscribed. Estates under the fetters of 
 strict entail, might thus be improved, which otherwise would 
 be neglected. The surplus capital of the country would 
 thus be employed at home, and embodied , it may be said, 
 with our own territory ; and the whole country would be 
 improved in a manner, and to an extent, that cannot other- 
 wise be attainable. 
 
 It was by promoting such measures as these, that the 
 most celebrated statesman of modern times, justly called 
 Frederick the Great (more from his attention to internal 
 improvement, than to foreign conquests), raised his domi- 
 nions, notwithstanding the disadvantages of situation, soil, 
 
 The Bedford Level Corporation, is an example of that sort in England. 
 
592 Permanent and Substantial Improvements. 
 
 and climate, to that height of prosperity and power, to 
 which they attained during his reign* * * § . His practice was, 
 to lay out about 300,000/. sterling per annum , in the en- 
 couragement of agricultural improvements, which he consi- 
 dered, “ as manure spread upon the ground,” to secure an 
 abundant harvest; and in fact, instead of being impoverish- 
 ed by such liberal grants, he thereby increased his revenues 
 so much, that he was enabled to leave a treasure behind 
 him, amounting to above 12,000,000/. sterling! . On the 
 other hand, this country, owing partly to unfavourable sea- 
 sons, partly to its increased population, and in no small de- 
 gree, to its agricultural interest not being sufficiently encou- 
 raged;):, has been under the fatal necessity, of transmitting 
 to other nations, above 57 millions sterling, in the space of 
 twenty years, and no less a sum than 12 millions, in one 
 year, to procure food for its inhabitants ! 
 
 The celebrated Watson, Bishop of Llandaff, has most 
 ably explained, the advantages to be derived by agriculture, 
 from such public encouragement, in the following words : 
 “ The agricultural improvements which have hitherto taken 
 place amongst us, have been, by the expenditure of private 
 wealth; but the country cannot be brought to that perfec- 
 tion of cultivation, of which it is capable, unless individual 
 efforts, are aided and accelerated, by public wisdom and 
 munificence. I boast not of any particular patriotism, but 
 I would willingly pay my share of twenty or thirty millions 
 of public money, to be appropriated by the legislature, to 
 the agricultural improvement of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 This appears to me, to be an object, of far nearer concern to 
 our independence as a nation §, than any extension of com- 
 
 * Cromwell followed the same system. To promote Agricultural im- 
 provement, he gave 100/. per annum, (a large sum in those days), to a 
 farmer of the name of Howe, in Hertfordshire, to encourage him to intro- 
 duce turnips and clover into that county . — Herts Report , p. 55. 
 
 f In the works of the celebrated Count de Hertzberg, a particular detail 
 is given of the measures taken by Frederick the Great, for promoting the 
 agricultural prosperity of his dominions, and the particulars of all the im- 
 mense sums bestowed by him for that purpose. They are detailed, in 
 “ Miscellaneous Essays,” by Sir John Sinclair, printed an. 1802, p. 260. 
 
 J Had agriculture been sufficiently encouraged, such a breadth of land, 
 would have been brought into cultivation, as wpuld have rendered importa- 
 tion unnecessary; and our own farmers, would have derived the whole be- 
 nefit of those high prices, which the deficiency of their crops required. 
 
 § Any government, whatever its form maybe, must always be in a pre- 
 carious state, when its agriculture ceases to furnish the means of subsisting 
 its inhabitants ; and it is acknowledged, that the fear of famine, has as often 
 dictated to potentates, the necessity for making peace, a9 either conquests or 
 defeats. — Cvrwen's Report^ p. 4. 
 
Permanent and Substantial Improvements . 593 
 
 merce, or any acquisition of distant territory ever can be- 
 If the time had fully come, when an unproductive acre 
 of land could not be found in either of these, our fortunate 
 islands , we shall then have food within ourselves, for the 
 annual sustenance, of at least thirty millions of people, and 
 with a population of thirty millions, what power in Europe, 
 or what combination of powers, will dare to attempt our 
 subjugation*.” 
 
 May these considerations be listened to by those, who take 
 an active part, in conducting the government of this great 
 empire; and may some effectual steps be taken, by encou- 
 raging cultivation and improvement, in the manner above 
 suggested, or by such other means as may be judged most 
 useful, not only to prevent, what is justly accounted the 
 greatest of all possible calamities, scarcity or famine, but 
 also to promote, the future permanent welfare and happiness 
 of the people. 
 
 JOHN SINCLAIR. 
 
 Ormly Lodge, Ham Common , 
 Surrey , 20 th June , 1817. 
 
 * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, (Essay on Waste Lands, 
 by the Bishop of Llandaff), vol. vi. p. 12. 
 

 
 ' 
 
 .. ■ 
 
 , t 
 
 ■ ■' ’ 
 i^VFl Ol .< 
 
 ’ *■ 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 No. I. — Of Leases . 
 
 The general nature of the connexion between a proprietor 
 and his tenant, has been already explained (See Chap I. Sect. 6). 
 It is here proposed to consider, I . The manner of settling the con- 
 tract between the parties; — 2. The terms of entry, and regula- 
 tions connected therewith; — 3. The duration of leases; — 4. The 
 covenants to be inserted in them ; — and, 5. The form of the lease. 
 
 1 . Manner of settling a Lease. — When a lease is to be granted, 
 the first rule which claims attention is, that the new lease should, 
 if possible, be arranged two or three years before the expiration 
 of the old one. Indeed, whether a new farmer is to be introduced, 
 or the old one continued, this plan is equally advisable. It is an- 
 other rule, that, on equal terms, the old tenant ought to be pre- 
 ferred, unless his conduct is particularly faulty. His management 
 goes on regularly, and he must be a gainer, whilst the landlord 
 profits, by warding off any attempt at exhausting crops, during 
 the three or four last years of the lease. If an agreement cannot 
 be entered into with him, the proper plan for a landlord to adopt 
 is, to have the farm valued near the end of the lease, not perhaps 
 by an entire stranger, but by the most intelligent and experienced 
 person in the neighbourhood ; nor ought a sum beyond the one 
 thus fixed upon, to be demanded. Let the farm be offered at that 
 rent, for twenty, or any other number of years, first to the tenant 
 in possession, and if he will not agree to the terms, let that offerer 
 be preferred, who will stipulate to make the greatest exertions for 
 the improvement of the estate , and who will leave it in the best 
 order at the end of his lease. In this way, the interest of the far- 
 mer, and of the proprietor and his family, and of the public, “are 
 all combined.” 
 
 2. Period of Entry , and Regulations connected therewith . — 
 These are points which require no small degree of consideration ; 
 and instead of the various, discordant, and Complicated practices 
 now in use*, which the County Reports have- for the first time so 
 
 * For instance, in Gloucestershire, leases commence at I.ady-day, and in 
 that case, in the Vale, the going off tenant holds a part of the grass-lands 
 till old May-day, and has likewise the going-off crop of wheat, with the 
 use of the barns till the Midsummer following. In this usage there is great 
 inconvenience, especially when the new tenant is at variance with the old 
 one, which is not uncommonly the case. Each has an opportunity of dis- 
 tressing and incommoding the other, in various ways. — Gloucestershire Re- 
 port , p. 35. 
 
 APPENDIX.] 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 Appendix . — Of Leases . 
 
 fully disclosed, it would be advisable, that some plan were fixed 
 upon, by which the time of entry was adapted to the different 
 kinds of farms, whether pasturing or tillage farms, and to the 
 situation of the district in regard to fuel*, and other circum- 
 stances. 
 
 It is for the interest of the landlord and of the public, that the 
 term should always be made favourable to the incoming tenant f; 
 otherwise he may be placed in a most disagreeable predicament for 
 the first twelve, or even eighteen months after his entry may 
 suffer materially in his interests, and may thence become dispirited, 
 and relax in his exertions. 
 
 The points to be considered, respecting this subject, are, when 
 the entry should be: ]. In hill-pasture farms; 2. In low-lying 
 grazing farms; 3. In arable farms ; and, 4. Under what general 
 regulations. 
 
 1 . In hill-pasture farms , the incoming tenant wishes to get 
 possession of the premises, at a time when he can purchase the 
 sheep or cattle he requires, on the most reasonable terms, namely, 
 immediately previous to the commencement of the grass season. 
 Hence, in the more northern counties of England and in Scotland, 
 about Whitsuntide is considered to be the most convenient term 
 for that purpose. 
 
 2. In the southern districts of England, the usual time for chang- 
 ing the tenant of a grazing farm, is on the 29th day of September, 
 at the close of the previous summer, or at the season when most 
 of the great stock fairs are holden ; and it is a time which is greatly 
 to be preferred for that purpose. It is just before the commence- 
 ment of the rainy season, and the only time which can prevent an 
 outgoing tenant doing considerable mischief to the land, by the 
 poaching of cattle. It is likewise the most convenient season for 
 the new tenant, not only to buy live stock, but to do various works, 
 
 * Where the fuel is peat, the entry is at Whitsunday, that the tenant may 
 provide himself with that essential article during the summer, the only 
 proper season for that purpose. Forfarshire Report p. 251. — It has been 
 suggested, that the entry might be made at Michaelmas, or Martinmas, even 
 where the fuel is peat, if it were incumbent on the old tenant to provide 
 the pear, and for the new one to pay the value of it. — Remark by Mr. Mid - 
 cUeton. 
 
 f Undoubtedly this ought to be the case; but in Bedfordshire, and various 
 other counties, neglect on the part of the landlords and their agents, and 
 over-reaching conduct on the part of the outgoing tenants, have long ago 
 introduced the contrary practice, in almost every instance; and tenants ex- 
 pecting and claiming to quit as they entered , there seems no other means of 
 introducing improvements in this essential particular, but for the landlords 
 specially to stipulate for a new mode of quitting, at the time of the next let- 
 ting; unless, by allowing a compensation, the tenants can be brought to 
 agree, during the present term, for a different quitting at the end of it, to 
 the entry that commenced it. If the rule be general, the outgoing tenant, 
 if he takes another farm, will be compensated, for the loss he may sustain iu 
 the former one. 
 
 X Aberdeenshire Report, p. 181. 
 
Appendix. — Of Leases, 
 
 3 
 
 preparatory to the following summer. Indeed a successful sum- 
 mer occupation cannot be expected, unless the same tenant pos- 
 sesses the land during the previous winter. The like reasoning 
 proves, that Michaelmas is the most suitable season for changing 
 the tenant of the hay-farms in Middlesex*. 
 
 3. In arable farms, Michaelmas in the southern districts, and 
 Martinmas in the more northern, are the most beneficial, to both 
 parties. — The outgoing tenant remains till his crop is reaped, and 
 secured from the risk of injury ; whilst the incoming tenant enters 
 when his presence and stock are necessary, to sow his wheat and 
 tares in the autumn, as well as to prepare the lands for the ensuing 
 spring crops; and when he can generally purchase every article he 
 wants, on moderate terms. Some inconvenience will arise, both 
 to the incoming and outgoing tenant, whatever be the term of 
 entry; but perhaps, on the whole, Michaelmas, or Martinmas, 
 for arable farms, is as little liable to objection, as any other that 
 can be suggested; provided the fallow, and the turnip land is 
 worked by the outgoing tenant, for which a fair compensation 
 ought to be made to him. 
 
 It were much to be wished, that the subject were thoroughly 
 investigated, and that some general rules were laid down, by the 
 most extensive proprietors in the several counties, for the com- 
 mencement and termination of leases, according to the climate, 
 mode of husbandry, and a variety of other circumstances of a 
 local nature. If this could be effected, it would soon be consi- 
 dered the custom of the country , and as such would be enforced by 
 law. This would ultimately prove highly advantageous both to 
 landlords and tenants. 
 
 4. As to the general regulations connected with the change of 
 tenants, one rule is, “ That the possession of the farm should be 
 entire, and not partial.” Great losses are sustained, where a con- 
 trary system is adopted ; for it leads to endless disputes between 
 the incoming and outgoing tenant, by which the interests of both 
 are most seriously affected. Whatever portion of the crop the 
 new tenant may want, should be valued, and paid for, at that 
 valuation, by the new possessor. The outgoing tenant should also 
 be paid for ploughings substantially done, as well as for such tur- 
 nips as may be growing in the land, in a clean state, at the end of 
 the lease; and for seeds left in the ground for a crop of clover, or 
 herbage, to be obtained in the ensuing year. But on no account 
 ought he to be permitted, to remove any straw, hay, or manure, 
 from the premises he has occupied, which, if a general regulation 
 would not be attended with inconvenience to any individual conti- 
 nuing a farmer. 
 
 * Communication from John Middleton, Esq. The late Duke of Bedford, 
 when letting his Bedfordshire estates, in 1 795, changed the term to New 
 Michaelmas , making compensations in all proper cases. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 Appendix . — Of Leases. 
 
 3. Duration of Leases. — This is a subject of great importance j 
 for unless a tenant has the certainty of enjoying the land he oc- 
 cupies for a determined period, he can have no inducement to 
 make any substantial improvement*. Tenants at will, from the 
 very nature of their tenure, are almost precluded from the possi- 
 bility of making improvements, whilst they have it in their power 
 to ruin the land they occupyh Such is the difference between a 
 precarious and a certain tenure, that the same land, which, at will , 
 is only worth 205. per acre, is considered to be worth 405. with a 
 lease of 21 years%. It has been justly observed, that it is of little 
 consequence whether a farmer is possessed of a capital, if from 
 want of security in his possession, he is afraid to lay it out ; and if 
 he has no capital, he cannot procure any assistance from others, to 
 invest in improvements, however profitable they might prove, with- 
 out this essential security §. 
 
 The periods for which leases are usually granted, are, — Short 
 leases for three, five, or seven years ; — Moderate leases for 14, 
 19, or 21 years ; — Long leases for 25, 31, or 57 years ; — Leases 
 for one life j — Leases for three lives ; — and. Leases upon the pay- 
 ment of a fine. 
 
 1. Short leases are better than none, provided they extend 
 to at least the number of years included in the course of cropping 
 that may be adopted j and they may be less exceptionable, where 
 a farm is in good condition and well cultivated ; but under such 
 leases, agriculture can never be carried to a high degree of perfec- 
 tion||. A tenant on a short lease, has no inducement to try expe- 
 riments; and, consequently, agriculture, on his farm, must re- 
 main for ever stationary. A man who has a considerable capital, 
 and wishes to employ it in extensive farming, has a right to look 
 for the comforts and conveniences of life, for himself and family, 
 with some degree of certainty and independence ; and if he obtain 
 no security for possessing them, in the line of agriculture, under 
 adequate leases, he will most assuredly renounce so unpromising a 
 profession, and employ himself and his capital in some other pur- 
 
 * In particular cases, tenants at will do place such implicit confidence in 
 the honour of a great family, distinguished by immense wealth, and heredi- 
 tary virtues (for instance on the Devonshire estate), as to layout to the 
 amount of some thousands of pounds on single farms. Derbyshire Report , 
 voL ii. p. 36. — But such cases are rare, and many have suffered in other dis- 
 tricts, from misplaced confidence. See Cornwall Report, p. 22. 
 
 f Middlesex Report, p. 83. 
 
 J Oxfordshire Report, p. 62. In Norfolk, the difference of having a 
 lease, is reckoned worth twenty per cent. — Kent's Norfolk , p. 124. 
 
 5 Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 36; a<nd vol. iii. p. 634. 
 
 (| Marshall recommends leases for six years certain, with a condition, that 
 if neither party gives notice to quit before the expiration of the first three 
 years, then the term to be prolonged for nine years, and so on from six years 
 to six years, until three years notice be given by either party. On Landed 
 Property y p. 365. — This is much better than no lease, but still it does not fur- 
 nish an adequate encouragement to expenditure and improvement. 
 
Appendix. — Of Leases. 
 
 5 
 
 suit. Leases of considerable duration, therefore, are most essen- 
 tial requisites, for promoting the interests of agriculture, in ail 
 cases. 
 
 2 . Leases for about 20 years*, are greatly preferable to shorter 
 terms, for all the parties concerned. Under the security of such 
 a term, the tenant can afford to give more rent for his land ; 
 he can spend money on improvements, with the confidence of 
 reaping the benefit of them 3 and by the consequent increase of 
 produce, his profits will be advanced in proportion to the sum 
 he has expended ; considerations, in which the interests of the 
 landlord, the tenant, and the public, are all involved f. In ge- 
 neral, unless where great improvements are necessary, a lease of 
 about 20 years, is perfectly sufficient for the security of the tenant j 
 and it is a great advantage, both to him and to the landlord, that 
 at the end of such a period, the state of the farm should be exa- 
 mined, the improvements that have been made in it ascertained, 
 and those that may still be executed, pointed out. Granting 
 leases, also, is greatly in favour of raising rents, and consequently 
 of promoting industry to pay them. When there is no lease, 
 there is little more reason for raising the rent at one period than 
 another. 
 
 3. If a farm is almost in a state of nature, and requires enclos- 
 ing, liming, draining, and other expensive improvements, a lease 
 of 25 years may be sufficient j but if a considerable sum for erect- 
 ing or repairing a house and offices, a lease of at least 30 years, may- 
 be necessary, to allow the improving farmer or his family, a fair 
 and adequate return for his expenditrue. Perhaps there is no spe- 
 cies of lease more advantageous to the agriculture of a country, 
 than a long one given on a farm that requires extensive improve- 
 ments. A spirited tenant, who improves such a farm, consider- 
 ing his risk, trouble, and expences, is well entitled to more than 
 mere remuneration or ordinary profit. In some cases, therefore, 
 leases, to the extent of even 30 or G’O years, have been granted, 
 and have produced great improvements in the cultivation of barren 
 land ; they are peculiarly beneficial both to the landlord and his 
 family, when there are periodical rises of rent every ten or twelve 
 years];. The security of a long lease, gives scope to a variety of 
 permanent improvements, and the rise of rent, in moderation, is 
 a spur to exertion §. 
 
 4. Leases for a single life, are far from being favourable to 
 improvement, though there is something benevolent in the idea, 
 that a farmer is not to be removed during his life. When the 
 exact length of a lease is fixed, the tenant makes his arrangements 
 
 • The exact number of years ought in some measure to depend upon the 
 course of crops ; for the tenant ought to have the advantage of at least three 
 complete rotations. 
 
 f Kent Report, p. 48. 
 
 t Aberdeenshire Report, p. 90. 
 
 % Husbandry of Scotland, vol.ii. p. 212. — This goes upon the supposition, 
 
<5 
 
 Appendix. — Of Leases. 
 
 accordingly, and he lays out his capital early, in the expectation 
 of having a greater return, before the termination of the lease, 
 than if he was more dilatory in his exertions j but when the period 
 depends upon his own life, he is apprehensive, that if he spends 
 a large sum of money, the benefit of it may be lost to himself and 
 family, from the uncertainty of human existence. He lays out 
 no part of his capital, therefore, but in the expectation of imme- 
 diate returns, and as age advances, he becomes the more negligent, 
 and less inclined to exertion*. Indeed if a lease-holder for life 
 become at any time an invalid, there is an end of all idea of im- 
 provement. He is necessarily tempted, seeing the precariousness 
 of his life, to extract out of the soil all he can, whilst he has it in 
 his power. 
 
 5. Leases for three lives, unless there be a rise of rent with 
 each life, are deservedly reprobated. The occupier, secure in 
 his possession, grows indolent, neglects the cultivation of his 
 farm, thereby injures the community, and impairs the interest 
 of his successor!-. It has been remarked, that neither the roads 
 are so well managed, nor the land in such good condition, on 
 farms leased on lives, as even where no lease whatever is granted^. 
 Leases on lives were formerly given, to induce tenants to take farms, 
 when little of the spirit of agricultural improvement existed^ 5 but 
 they are no longer necessary on that account. 
 
 6. Leases upon fines are likewise justly objected to. The 
 sum paid down by way of fine, drains the tenant of his capital, 
 and prevents him from improving his farm. Such leases also, 
 partake too much of the nature of a lottery, and the calculations 
 are too intricate for a common farmerj|. The frequent recur- 
 rence and magnitude of the fine, and the expences attending 
 it, are likewise extremely severe upon the tenant ; and requires a 
 greater degree of economy and foresight, than is always to be 
 met with, particularly in youth. If the fine were diminished, and 
 the reserved rent increased, the interests of both parties would be 
 consulted^]". On the whole, such leases are found to be so ex- 
 tremely injurious, that landlords see the necessity of permitting 
 such tenures to run out, and that mode of letting land, will soon 
 in a great measure disappear**. 
 
 It is said, that in grazing farms, a long tenure is not so ne- 
 cessary, and as they require less labour and expence than arable 
 farms, they may be occupied to advantage, even on a lease of 
 very moderate duration. But even in such cases, it would be 
 better to grant a term of 10 , 15, or 21 years, with a rise of rent 
 
 that the national currency will progressively depreciate; which is the case 
 in its natural state. 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 216. 
 
 ■f South Wales Report, vol. ii. p. 172. X Shropshire Report, p. 136. 
 
 § Stirlingshire Report, p. 101 ; Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 3 5. 
 
 1| South Wales Report, vol. i. p. 171. 
 
 ^ Berkshire Report, p. 54 ; Oxfordshire Report, p. 40. 
 
 ** Holt’s Lancashire, p. 26. 
 
Appendix . — Of Leases. 
 
 7 
 
 at certain periods, by which the tenant would not be compelled, 
 continually to shift from place to place, and perhaps change his 
 stock from time to time, by which his interests would be materially 
 affected* * * § . 
 
 In arable farms, which are already much improved, and in a 
 high state of cultivation, it is contended, that long leases are 
 unnecessary, because it requires less labour and expence to crop 
 them; and it is supposed, that in the course of ten or twelve 
 years, the tenant may have an adequate return, and an ample 
 profit on his capital expended. Yet as no lime, or other per- 
 manent manure, will be purchased, nor any expence laid out, 
 during the last three years, those short leases are very exception- 
 able. For it is clear that such a farm, by shifting its tenant every 
 ten or twelve years, in place of advancing in fertility, will be es- 
 sentially injured. A short lease, therefore, must be an obstacle to 
 the progressive improvement of even such a farm : and it will never 
 yield an adequate rent, nor reach the highest state of productive- 
 ness of which it is susceptible, while it continues to be held by 
 such a precarious tenuref . 
 
 On the whole, experience has fully demonstrated, that short 
 leases, and those whose duration is uncertain, are injurious to 
 improvement ; and that a period of about 20 years, is a fair 
 term, in an improved country, for all parties, securing to the 
 proprietor the progressive improvement of his land, and a perio- 
 dical addition to his income ; while it rouses the energy of the 
 industrious farmer, from the certainty of his reaping the profit 
 of his labour, skill, and capital, in consequence of his having 
 a certain interest in the soil he cultivates J. The successful 
 practice and experience of Mr. Coke of Norfolk, has put this 
 question beyond all doubt, whose rent-roll has been increased, 
 within the memory of man, chiefly by the system of granting 
 judicious leases, from 5000 /. to 40 , 000 /. per annum §, taking 
 into consideration at the same time, the rise in the value of 
 money for the last 20 years. A prejudice against the granting of 
 leases, therefore, if not removed by the good sense of the land- 
 lords, will injure, beyond all calculation, the agriculture of the 
 kingdom |1 . The difference between a lease and no lease, and 
 between a long and a short lease, affects almost every operation 
 that takes place on a farm. Where a regular system of leasing 
 does not exist, not only all improvements are neglected, but often 
 a gradual deterioration of the land is the consequence^. 
 
 It must not be imagined, however, that leases ought to be in- 
 
 * General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 378. 
 
 f Ibid. vol. iii. p. 379. 
 
 X Middlesex Report, p. 79. 
 
 § Kent’s Norfolk, p. 123. — When that Report was written., an. 1796, the 
 rent wa6 only 20,000/.; it is now said to be above 40,000/. and is likely to in- 
 crease. || Hertfordshire Report, p. 34. 
 
 Young’s Essex Report, vol. i. p. 28. 
 
8 
 
 Appendix. — Of Leases. 
 
 discriminately given. They certainly ought not to be granted 
 but where a farm is of a proper size ; is put into a shape fit for 
 profitable cultivation ; — and where tenants can be found, possessed 
 of skill, spirit, and capital, to carry on its cultivation. The im- 
 provement of an estate may be retarded, instead of being promoted, 
 if leases are given of ill-arranged occupations, and to ignorant, 
 slothful, and needy farmers, not entitled to the confidence of their 
 landlord. Nor ought they to be granted, without proper covenants 
 to protect that property from waste*. 
 
 4. Covenants . — When a lease is granted, it is essentially ne- 
 cessary for the interest of the landlord, who is properly a trustee 
 for his family and the public, that it should be under such co- 
 venants, as may prevent the property from being injured, during 
 the term agreed upon; more especially when the lease ap- 
 proaches to its termination, and the tenant has no peculiar in- 
 ducement to prosecute his improvements, or to preserve the fer- 
 tility of the soil. The necessity of such covenants, to prevent 
 waste, is proved by innumerable examples. The fields are other- 
 wise cropped till they can yield no more ; the farm is reduced 
 to half its value, and can only be recovered, through the means 
 of an enriching, but expensive system, either by the proprietor 
 taking the farm for some years into his own hand, or letting it for 
 less rent than what it would have produced under more careful 
 managementf. In general, however, the covenants in leases are 
 too numerous, and too complicated. Unnecessary restrictions are 
 a great impediment to improvements, by precluding that spirit 
 of enterprise, and of experiment, which has proved the principal 
 source of new discoveries, and of prosperous agriculture. At the 
 same time, where there are no stipulations for preserving the farm 
 in good order at the termination of the lease, more especially 
 in regard to the quantity of grass land; — the extent and culti- 
 vation of the land in fallow; — the manure to be left for the 
 incoming tenant ; — and the state of repair in which the houses 
 and fences ought to be given up; — the farm is left in poverty and 
 wretchedness, as has often happened to negligent landlords 
 The over-cropping of the land, towards the expiration of a lease, 
 is sometimes called, getting the Land in readiness for the land- 
 lord §. It has been well observed, that if the tenant deteriorates 
 the property entrusted to him, instead of paying a share of the 
 produce, he deprives the landlord and his family, of part of their 
 capital. Hence tenants, like kings, as Lord Karnes remarks, 
 ought to be fettered ; but not so fettered, as to bar improvement, 
 nor left at liberty to do mischiefy. 
 
 If men were uniformly distinguished by knowledge and inte- 
 grity, covenants would not be necessary. It is impossible, how 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 215. 
 
 f Middlesex Report, p. 40. J Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 215. 
 
 § Cheshire Report, p. 111. 1| Gentleman Farmer, p. 412. 
 
9 
 
 Afpbndix , — Of Leases. 
 
 txcr, for any prudent landlord, to place unbounded confidence 
 in a person, who has an interest to do him a most essential injury; 
 since, the more he exhausts the estate, the more he may ultimately 
 enrich himself. Such attempts at exhaustion will' be made, 
 though they have often proved as injurious to the tenant, as to 
 the landlord. Hence it is advisable for a landlord to insist on 
 security for the safety, and in some cases, for the improvement of 
 his property, though, in order to obtain that security, he must 
 be content to accept of less rent than otherwise he might receive. 
 Covenants are, in fact, a species of rent, and though they may, 
 for a time, diminish the annual income, yet, if judiciously formed, 
 and clearly expressed, they will prevent the deterioration of an 
 estate, and in that manner add to its permanent value. The 
 true nature of a lease, under proper covenants, is an agreement, 
 by which the proprietor accepts of a fair rent, and even rather less 
 than the land might pay ; but which furnishes the tenant with suffi- 
 cient inducement, to increase the value of the farm he occupies, 
 and thence he will be enabled to afford even a higher rent when 
 the lease terminates. Instead of a mercenary contract, therefore, a 
 connexion, for the mutual advantage of both parties, may thus be 
 formed; which, if the tenant fulfils the expectations that are en- 
 tertained of his exertions, is likely to be continued. In short, 
 that great object, both for the public, and for the proprietor and 
 his family, ff the progressive improvement of an estate," ought not 
 to be sacrificed, for the hazardous experiment of obtaining a tem- 
 porary advantage, at the risk of future injury. 
 
 5. Form of a Lease. — Leases are too often drawn up by men 
 ignorant of agriculture, and replete with obsolete covenants, which 
 both shackle the tenant unnecessarily, and injure the landlord, 
 and occasion incalculable losses to the community*. 
 
 The covenants in a lease must necessarily vary, according to 
 circumstances. It is desirable, however, to have a form laid 
 down, distinct and simple, instead of being both complicated and 
 confused. For that purpose, after the necessary preamble, stat- 
 ing, the parties contracting, — the situation of the property leased, 
 —•the duration of the lease, — and the time of entry ; it is then 
 proper to enumerate, I . The powers and privileges reserved to 
 the landlord 2. The obligations incumbent on the tenant ; — 
 and, 3. The stipulations obligatory upon both. Leases thus 
 drawn up, would not be liable to much uncertainty or dispute ; 
 and if any should occur, it is expedient, that a mutual obligation 
 for settling the same by arbiters, should be inserted in the lease 
 itself. Form of leases, on these principles, if approved of by the 
 parties, can be drawn up by any intelligent conveyancer. 
 
 * Middlesex Report, p. 84. — In the General Report of Scotland, vol. ir. 
 p. 324, the subject of covenants is more fully discussed. 
 
10 Appendix.— Of Farming Accounts. 
 
 No. II . — Of Farming Accounts. 
 
 The keeping of regular accounts, will be found fully as ad- 
 vantageous in farming, as in other business j and forms have been 
 drawn up, for recording agricultural, with as much accuracy, as 
 commercial transactions. Such minute attention, however, can- 
 not be expected from the generality of farmers. It is therefore 
 proposed to give a form of accounts, of a less complicated na- 
 ture, and which any person, at all competent to business, can 
 find no difficulty in filling up. To which will be added, forms 
 for the management of arable, pasture, and woodland, and for 
 keeping accounts of crops, the dairy, and the increase and de- 
 crease of stock. 
 
 1. Weekly Journal of Transactions, from to 
 
 | Monday. 
 
 State of Weather. 
 
 
 Barom. 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 V 
 
 H 
 
 Wind. 
 
 Rain. 
 
 Tuesday. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 Wednesday. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thursday. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Friday. I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saturday. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sunday. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
Weekly Stale of Labour, from 
 
 Appendix. — Of Farming Accounts, 1 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 -o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rate per 
 
 Day. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 Days. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saturday. 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Friday. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thursday. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | Wednesday. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To 
 
 3 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monday. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Names of Men and Horses. 
 
 •sjqeT X[njQ 
 
 •siu«AJ5s un«j 
 
 •MijqH 
 
 "Vo AV 
 
 •uatusspBJx 
 Xq ^joa\ 
 
Cash Account. 
 
 12 Appendix. — Of Farming Accounts . 
 
t. Management of Arable Land. 
 
 Appendix. — Of Farming Accounts . 13 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 qunouiy 
 
 -• 
 
 
 CO 
 
 =0 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 •aofij 
 
 
 
 
 •A^quun^ 
 
 
 
 
 •5J0§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 & 
 
 
 qunouiy 
 
 c i 
 
 
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 K 
 
 
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 <5 
 
 a* 
 
 w 
 
 
 •9DIJJ 
 
 
 
 
 \C}Uusn£) 
 
 
 
 
 *3 J0 S 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 tS 
 
 
 ~o 
 
 bj} 
 
 qunouiv 
 
 - 
 
 
 •5 
 
 i 
 
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 *§ 
 
 ‘tea 
 
 J9 J 4 V" 
 
 
 
 $0 
 
 .K 
 
 ■stea 
 
 
 
 IP 
 
 O 
 
 Dh 
 
 •uaj^i 
 jo *°N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •unSaq uaqM 
 
 
 •S3J0V 
 
 
 •doj o 5BMAV 
 
 
 •iK9A 
 
 
 •S4R9AJO -ON 
 
 
». Management of Pasture Land . 
 
 14 
 
 Appendix. — Of Farming Accounts, 
 
 
 *°H°J 
 
 01 pa^soj 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 •^unooty 
 
 
 
 
 1 How many 
 
 Loads, at 
 per Load . 
 
 
 
 
 •piud 
 
 limouiy 
 
 
 «o 
 
 
 •spunjj 
 jo -o^r 
 
 
 •un§aq 
 
 uai IAV 
 
 
 
 ~e 
 
 J 
 
 tel 
 
 | 
 
 g 
 
 rjunouiy 
 
 "t3 
 
 * 
 
 
 •paa H 
 
 jod iy 
 
 
 •smo;} | 
 
 •daoqs 
 
 
 1 
 
 •sasiOfj J 
 
 ■U9XQ | 
 
 
 •SJBd A J0*0 N J 
 
 
. Management of Woodland. 
 
 Appendix. — Of Farming Accounts. 15 
 
. Account of Crops. 
 
 16 Appendix.— O f Farming Accounts. 
 
Dairy Account of Milk , Butter , and Cheese. 
 
 Appendix. — Of Farming Accounts. 
 
 17 
 
 e 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 <5 
 
 TS 
 
 
 l 
 
 1 
 
 oS 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 Total Price. 
 
 *ts 
 
 
 
 •* 
 
 
 
 Saturday. 
 
 CL, 
 
 J3 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 Friday. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Thursday. 
 
 £ 
 
 i J2 
 
 r 
 
 
 Qts. 
 
 i 
 
 
 Wednesday. 
 
 £ 
 
 & 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 j Tuesday. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Monday. 
 
 Pts. 
 
 cn 
 
 -Q 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Sunday. 
 
 (£ 
 
 c/5 
 
 £ 
 
 
 & 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 Milked 
 
 Made into But- 7 
 ter & Cheese J 
 
 Consumed 
 
 Made 
 
 Sold 
 
 Consumed • • • • 
 
 Made j 
 
 Sold 
 
 Consumed • • • • 
 
 
 ,j iiuvr 
 
 
 
 APPENDIX.] 
 
 c 
 
9 . Stock Account, 
 
 Increase and Decrease of Live Stock. 1 What Part of the Farm occupied by the Cattle. 
 
 02 
 
 aj 
 
 2 .5 
 
 £ 
 
 •2 ^ 
 s ja 
 £ ~ 
 
 Q a 
 
 •fi.S 
 
 5? o 
 
 
 When taken 
 out. 
 
 
 
 Date when 
 
 sent in. 
 
 
 
 'rt 
 
 O 
 
 P-4 
 
 
 
 
 Decrease byj' 
 
 CA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Death. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Increase by | 
 
 Birth. I 
 
 N) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Purchase. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Description. 1 
 
 6 
 
 _ 
 
 Bulls 
 
 Cows - - - 
 
 Oxen 
 
 Heifers - 
 
 B. Calves - 
 
 C. Calves 
 
 Boars - 
 
 Sows - 
 
 Barrows 
 
 Pigs 
 
 Horses - 
 
 Mares 
 
 Colts - 
 
 Turkies 
 
 Poults 
 
 Fowls 
 
 Chickens 
 
 Geese 
 
 Goslings 
 
 Ducks - 
 
 Ducklings 
 
 Pigeons 
 
 Eggs 
 
 | Spaniards 
 
 Spaniards 
 | Ditto 
 
 Rams 
 
 Ewes 
 
 Wethers 
 
 R. Lambs 
 
 E. Lambs 
 
 •daoqg 
 
 
 •sSij 
 
 •S3SJ0H 
 
 •sS33 pur AJijnoj 
 
Appendix, — On the Making of Watering Ponds . 19 
 
 No. III . — On the Making of Watering Ponds , as practised 
 by Robert Gardener , of Kilham , in the East Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 
 
 Various modes of making ponds have been adopted, with a 
 view of simplifying the process, and lessening the expence ; but 
 the improved practice , invented by Robert Gardener, of which 
 the following is a description, will be found to answer in almost any 
 situation, in any couptry where the materials can be had. 
 
 Let a circle be marked on the ground sixty feet in diameter, 
 more or less, as the person chooses, or the size of the pasture may 
 require a supply of water, and if of that diameter, let it be hollowed 
 out into the shape of a bason or bowl, to the depth of seven feet 
 in the centre ; when the surface of this hollow has been raked 
 smooth, let it be well beaten over, so as to reduce it into as even, 
 uniform, and firm a surface as the nature of the ground will admit 
 of - y on this, well slacked and skreened lime, must be uniformly 
 spread, with a riddle, to the thickness of two or three inches j the 
 more porous or open the ground, the greater will be the quantity 
 of lime required : this lime must then be slightly watered, to make 
 it adhere firmly to its place, and great care must be taken, to spread 
 it equally, so that no place may remain uncovered, as on the lime, 
 depends more than any thing else, the success of the work. On 
 this lime must be laid a bed of clay, to the thickness of about six 
 inches, which being moistened sufficiently to render it ductile, is 
 to be beaten with mallets or beetles into a compact solid body, ca- 
 pable of being trod upon without impression or injury. Great care 
 is to be taken in laying on uniformly this mass of clay, and beating 
 it into a compact body 5 for which purpose, no more must be spread 
 at a time upon the lime, than cap undergo the beating, while it re- 
 tains a proper temper or consistence for the purpose : after the 
 whole is thus finished, it is gone over several times by the beaters, 
 and sprinkled each time with water, and care is taken, to prevent 
 any cracks being formed, which might entirely destroy the power 
 of retention. 
 
 Pure brick-clay is not required, but any tenacious earth, that by 
 beating will become a solid compact body, will answer the pur- 
 pose. As soon as this operation has been duly performed, the 
 whole surface of the clay is covered, to about the thickness of a 
 foot, with broken chalk, fine gravel, or the chippings of moulder- 
 ing stone, or limestone, to prevent any injury being done by the 
 treading of the cattle. It is necessary to observe, that coarse stones 
 must not be made use of, as they are liable to be displaced by the 
 treading of cattle. They are also liable to be pressed into, or 
 through the bed of clay, or to be rolled down to the bottom of the 
 pondj under all which circumstances, the beds of clay and lime 
 are liable to be broken, and the water consequently let opt of the 
 
 C 2 
 
20 Appendix. — On the Making of Watering Ponds. 
 
 pond. Sometimes the clay is covered with sods, the grass side 
 being laid downwards, as a support to the gravel, by which some 
 saving of covering may be made ; or several inches thick of com- 
 mon earth is laid upon them, or upon the clay without the sods, 
 by way of bed for the covering, where gravel, or such like mate- 
 rials may be scarce, by which something may be also saved. 
 
 After the clay has been well beaten, some workmen water the 
 surface of it, and fold sheep or pigs, for a considerable time upon 
 it ; the treading of which, is found to be serviceable in rendering it 
 more compact. 
 
 Some people, instead of using slaked lime, have good mortar, 
 made of lime and sand, well worked together, and cover the sur- 
 face of the ground with it, to the thickness of about an inch : this, 
 if carefully done, is thought to be the most effectual mode of ren- 
 dering the bottom retentive ; but the mortar is liable to crack be- 
 fore the clay gets bedded over it, which must be carefully guarded 
 against. Ponds have been made, where a coat of mortar has also 
 been spread over the surface of the clay, as well as under it, an 
 approach perhaps as near as possible to perfection : but where 
 lime bears an high price, the expence is thus considerably aug- 
 mented. 
 
 The best season for making these ponds, is thought to be in 
 autumn, as they are then likely to be filled the soonest, and the 
 least liable to crack before they are filled, Should the weather 
 prove dry at the time they are finished, it is well to cover their 
 surface with straw, or litter, to hinder them from cracking. 
 
 These ponds are usually made at the foot of some declivity, 
 where, after heavy rains,' a slight run of water may be conveyed 
 into them, from some road, or other firm surface ; but many are 
 placed without any such assistance for filling, or with very little, 
 it being found, that the rain that falls upon their surface is, in ge- 
 neral, sufficient for a supply, after they have been once filled. As 
 it is desirable to get them filled as soon as possible after they are 
 finished, snow is frequently collected and heaped upon them, if 
 possible in large quantities, the first winter after they are finished 
 for that purpose. 
 
 Ponds of this kind, are usually made by what may be called 
 professional people ; men who go about for the purpose, and are 
 chiefly or entirely engaged in it, and usually contract for the job. 
 One of the diameter of sixty feet, and depth of six feet, may in 
 most situations be executed for about 15/. 5 one of forty-five feet 
 by five feet, for 10 /, or 12 /. ; but some allowance must be made 
 for the different prices of lime, or the distance it may be necessary 
 to convey it, as well as the clay, or other materials for the 
 work. A pond of sixty feet diameter, by six feet deep, will con- 
 tain upwards of 70O hogsheads of water; one of forty-five feet 
 by five feet, near 400 hogsheads — a vast supply, when obtained 
 at so small an expence. 
 
 Experience now of many years, and the universal use of these 
 
Appendix. — Improved System of Summer Fallow . 21 
 
 ponds in this district, wherever wanted, have proved them, when 
 carefully made, so effectually to retain water, — to preserve it of so 
 good a quality, when p.ot dirtied by the treading of cattle, — and to 
 be applicable to so many cases, that they cannot be too strongly re- 
 commended in all high exposures, where water may be much 
 wanted, or in ail other situations, where the water may be of bad 
 quality : they are equally applicable to our dry wolds, downs, and 
 heaths, which are without water, as to every fenny tract which has 
 too much of it, but of a brackish or unwholesome quality . — North 
 Riding Report , p. 243. 
 
 No. IV . — On the Improved System of Summer Fallow , as 
 practised in the Lothians , and the Advantages oj the Grub- 
 ber; by Mr. Robert Hope , an experienced Farmer at 
 Fenton , in East- Lothian. 
 
 Notwithstanding the objections which have been urged to 
 the practice of occasionally summer fallowing land, yet its advan- 
 tages, on clay soils, are now so well understood, and so universally 
 admitted, by the most intelligent farmers in Scotland, as absolutely 
 necessary for the profitable occupation of strong wet soils, that it 
 becomes a matter of the greatest importance, to ascertain the most 
 economical, as well as the most effectual mode of conducting that 
 important operation: — important, in so far as it is well known, 
 that in proportion to the judgment and accuracy with which it is 
 performed, the success and value of all the various crops, through- 
 out the succeeding rotation, necessarily depend. 
 
 In those districts in Scotland, where summer fallowing is care- 
 fully executed, the ground intended for that process, is ploughed in 
 the winter, as early as may be convenient, when the ridges gene- 
 rally are, and ought always to be, gathered up; by which means, 
 the whole furrows are laid completely open, and the field, after the 
 cross furrows (grips, or gaw furrows), are cleared out with the 
 spade, is left drier during the winter, than what possibly can be 
 obtained by any other mode of ploughing. The next step is, to 
 give the ground a second ploughing, immediately after the spring 
 crops are sown (it being understood, that the ground is thoroughly 
 dry at the time), when the ridges ought to be cloven down. The 
 third ploughing, with a deep furrow, is to be given directly across 
 the ridges, by which the soil is so far broken, as to be susceptible 
 of being effectually operated upon by the harrows, which, with 
 the roller, are then vigorously applied, till the soil is so far reduced, 
 as to allow every root-weed upon the surface, to be picked off by 
 the hand. After this, that valuable implement the grubber, or 
 scarifier, is used with the greatest advantage, as an assistant to the 
 plough, in facilitating the thorough cleaning of the soil ; for by 
 
22 Appendix. — Improved System of Summer Fallow. 
 
 passing it once, twice, or even thrice, over the field, in proportion 
 as root-weeds are abundant, taking care, at the same time, to 
 give a slight harrowing, and attentively to pick up every root- weed 
 that appears, ever)’’ time that the grubber has gone over the field j 
 the soil, to the depth of from four to six inches, will be completely 
 cleared of every weed that was within reach of the coulters of the 
 implement. The land is then ploughed a fourth time, when the 
 ridges are once more gathered up, after which the harrows are ap- 
 plied, and the roller, if necessary, till the soil is again rendered fine 
 enough to part with the root-weeds. When these are carefully 
 picked off, the grubber is used as formerly, and the soil is soon 
 made perfectly clean of every weed that may have infested it. 
 Dung, lime, or compost, may then be applied with propriety, where 
 necessary. 
 
 In regard to the expence attending this operation, it must de- 
 pend upon various circumstances — as the nature of the soil, whe- 
 ther it be stiff, or tolerably free ; whether the ground be in medium 
 condition, or very much exhausted 5 or whether the weather be 
 Wet or very dry 5 all of which make a great difference in the charges 
 necessary. It is impossible therefore to give a statement which 
 will correspond exactly with every individual case or situation. 
 The following estimate is given, as applicable to a moderately stiff 
 soil, in tolerable condition, with nothing uncommon in the state of 
 the weather ; it being understood, that when these circumstances 
 are materially altered, the expences must likewise vary in propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Average Expence of Summer Fallowing an English Acre of strong 
 Clayey Soil. 
 
 The three first ploughings, 10s. each 
 
 Two double harro wings 
 
 Rolling 
 
 Two double harrowings 
 Hand-picking weeds 
 Grubbing 
 
 One double harrowing 
 Hand-picking weeds 
 Fourth ploughing 
 One double harrowing 
 Rolling 
 
 One double harrowing 
 Hand-picking weeds 
 Grubbing 
 
 One double harrowing 
 Hand-picking weeds 
 Fifth and last ploughing 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 10 0 
 0 3 4 
 0 2 0 
 0 2 6 
 0 1 6 
 0 3 6 
 0 13 
 0 1 0 
 0 8 0 
 0 1 3 
 O 1 8 
 0 13 
 0 0 9 
 0 3 0 
 0 1 3 
 0 0 9 
 0 8 0 
 
 Total expence 
 
 £'0 11 0 
 
Appendix. — Improved System of Summer Fallow, 23 
 
 It thus appears, that summer fallowing an acre of land, on an 
 average, occasions an expence of 3/. 115.; and had the grubber not 
 been used, one or two additional ploughings would have been ne- 
 cessary, which, though they would hardly have rendered the soil so 
 clean, yet would have added at least gs. 6d. to the expence, the 
 whole then amounting to 4 1. Os. 6d. per acre ; yet considerable as 
 that difference is, it is not the whole benefit which is derived from 
 the use of that implement in the fallowing process; for it is well 
 known, that expedition is of the utmost importance in the conduct- 
 ing of rural operations ; and as one man, with four horses in the 
 grubber, will go over the same ground in a day, as six men and 
 twelve horses can do with the plough ; hence in this point of view 
 alone, the value of that implement is of the highest importance. 
 In cases where there is but a small quantity of root-weeds, such 
 as knot-grass, the saving of labour is still more considerable, as the 
 grubber, going but once over the ground, is frequently found as 
 effectual, in bringing these to the surface, as one additional 
 ploughing. 
 
 The grubber is likewise of use in other farming operations. In 
 the preparation of the ground for turnips, that implement is in ge- 
 neral found equally efficacious ; the only exception being, where 
 the soil is uncommonly soft (as in some instances is the case upon 
 the sea-coast), and at the same time remarkably full of root-weeds; 
 under such circumstances, the grubber is very liable to choke up ; 
 but in by far the greater number of situations where turnips are 
 cultivated, that objection will not occur. 
 
 Where lime or compost has been applied, the value of the 
 grubber, in working these valuable substances into the soil, is also 
 of very great importance, for by passing it once along, and then 
 across the ridges, the lime or compost is thoroughly mixed, with- 
 out being thrown too deep into the ground, as frequently happens, 
 when the plough is used for that purpose. After the grubber, 
 however, has been used, the field ought to be ploughed, so that 
 the ridges may be brought into such a form, as to facilitate the de- 
 scent of rain-water into the furrows. 
 
 Another most important use of the grubber is, that it may be 
 employed with great advantage, on all lands ploughed in autumn, 
 or early in winter, to be sown in spring, fpr by passing it once 
 over the field, the soil is effectually stirred and loosened to the 
 depth of five or six inches, without burying the fine mellowed 
 surface, or bringing up fresh soil, to run into hard and stubborn 
 clods, which almost constantly happens, when the plough is used 
 in such cases, in wet or clayey soils. Oats or barley may be thus 
 sown, with much less expence, and consequently with more profit. 
 
 Grubbers, on an improved principle, are now made in the Lo- 
 thians, entirely of cast iron, and at a moderate expence. It is an 
 implement that cannot be too strongly recommended. 
 
 The great objects of a fallow, cleaning the land of weeds, and 
 pulverising the soil, may likewise be greatly facilitated, by the 
 
24 Appendix. — Improved System of Summer Fallow. 
 
 use of an instrument called the Binot in Flanders, an engraving of 
 which is annexed. 
 
 In some respects it resembles a plough, with a double share, and 
 two mould-boards j but, on the Continent, it has no coulter. It 
 is not a dear instrument, for the one purchased in the Netherlands, 
 to send to England, for the inspection of the Board of Agriculture, 
 cost only 60 francs, or 2/. 13 s. 4d. sterling, but then it is very 
 coarsely made. Some farmers have three binots to eight ploughs 
 of different sorts ; some two binots to five ploughs/and some two 
 binots to four ploughs. Only one ploughman and two horses are 
 employed. It can be made to plough to different depths, but in 
 general, the furrow is from five to six inches. Such is the impor- 
 tance of this instrument, that several most intelligent farmers in 
 Brabant, have declared, it was not in their power to cultivate their 
 land without it, to the same degree of perfection. 
 
 In the Walloon country, in almost every case, the land is broken 
 up, either in autumn, winter, or spring, by the binot. If the soil 
 be foul, they employ it two or three times, for the purpose of 
 cleaning it thoroughly. By using this instrument, the land is not 
 turned over, as by the plough, and the weeds buried ; but the soil 
 is elevated into small ridges, by means of which the couch, and 
 other root-weeds, are not only cut, but they are exposed to the frost 
 in winter, and to the drought of spring ; and when the land be- 
 comes dry, which it does quickly when thus elevated, these weeds 
 are collected by the harrow, by a trident (or large pitch-fork), by 
 a rake, or by the hand ; for weeding is an operation on which no 
 expence is spared in the Netherlands. Root-weeds, when thus 
 collected in th« dry period of the spring, are either burnt, or mixed 
 in a compost with hot lime. After the binot, the land is always 
 ploughed for the seed furrow. 
 
 In addition to this important advantage, even the heaviest land 
 is rendered tender and friable by these operations, and loses that 
 hardness, which clayey soils are apt to acquire, after having been 
 long cropped, without being occasionally completely pulverised. 
 
 Another advantage attending the binot is, that it is less expen- 
 sive in its operations. Using it once, iapnot only equal to two 
 ploughing?, but the binot goes over a greater extent of land in the 
 same space of time, and with the same strength of cattle. The 
 saving of even one ploughing is of great importance 3 but in many 
 cases, by the use of the binot once, two ploughings might be saved. 
 
 The binot has also been found of great use, in the first breaking 
 up of waste-land, not incommoded with stones, and in raising a crop 
 of potatoes. 
 
 The above account of the advantages of the binot, was trans- 
 mitted in French, to some intelligent farmers in the Walloon coun- 
 try, who entirely concurred in it. Its shape has been greatly im- 
 proved by an ingenious artist in this country*, and there can be 
 
 * 7’hc improved binot, and other useful instruments, may Lc had at the 
 
Appendix. — Superiority of cultivating Winter Tares. 25 
 
 no doubt of its becoming a most valuable addition to our instru- 
 ments of husbandry. 
 
 No. V . — Calculations to prove the Superiority of cultivat- 
 ing Whiter Tares, instead of a Summer Fallow, even on 
 strong Lands. By John Middleton, Esq . 
 
 In order to prove the superiority of a crop of tares, above the 
 system of summer fallow, the following account has been drawn 
 up, of the expence attending that operation, on tough, gluey clay, 
 particularly in chalky districts, with, or without a mixture of 
 stones. 
 
 The first ploughing should take place in autumn, as soon after 
 harvest as the other works can admit of it. The clay assumed, 
 is met with upon the chalk hills; and early in autumn they are 
 known to require from four, to five or six horses, a man and a dri- 
 ver to each plough. On some occasions, six horses, two men, and 
 a youth of sixteen or eighteen years old, have all labour enough on- 
 the first ploughing of a corn stubble, on such soils. 
 
 Charge each of the horses, including harness and imple- } 
 ments, 3s. 6cl. and the men at 2s. per day, by which > 
 ploughing one acre will cost at least - 3 
 
 In the course of next summer there will be two other ) 
 ploughings, which may be done at 20s. per acre, $ 
 And two other ploughings with three horses, may be done ) 
 at 13s. 6 d. per acre, or - - - $ 
 
 Working the grubber, and the harrows, and rollers, as-\ 
 well as raking and picking the couch, and burning it f 
 in heaps. These ought to be continued till the land be t 
 rendered quite free from root-weeds, 3 
 
 Opening water-furrows and grips, - 
 Fences, gates, stiles, and destroying vermin, 
 
 Manure, including lime, cartage, and spreading it, an ave- } 
 rage of - \ 
 
 Seed wheat, three bushels, liming it, carrying it to the land, ) 
 and sowing it, - - - \ 
 
 Boys, with powder and shot, to keep the birds ofl, 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 16 0 
 
 2 0 0 
 
 17 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 0 110 
 
 17 0 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 The cxpence of the crop when fit for reaping, is per acre, £8 0 0 
 
 This estimate is for land of the most clayey kind, or for 
 clay and flints; therefore the labour is great, and the 
 expences are high. But a strong loam would be fal- 
 lowed equally clean for less money by 'll. or for 7/. 
 
 Carried over £ 8 0 0 
 
 Agricultural Repository, Winsley-street, opposite to the Pantheon, London; 
 and at Weir’s manufactory, 66, Wells-street, Oxford-street. The price of 
 the binot is five guineas. 
 
26 Appendix. — Superiority of cultivating Wipter Tares . 
 
 Brought forward 0 0 
 
 The like after a crop of potatoes, tares or clover, as is 3 o O 
 shewn under wheat, - - ] 
 
 Remains the difference of expence from 4/. to £ 5 0 0 
 And a crop of tares may be previously obtained, which, in 
 the support of cattle, upon any farm considerably dis- 
 tant from market, pay every expence attending them, 
 and yield a profit per acre, of more than 
 
 £ 7 0 0 
 
 Thus it appears, that the real money difference, which tares have 
 over a summer fallow, is from 61. to yl. per acre 5 and tares have 
 an additional advantage of importance over fallows, in manuring 
 the land plentifully, through the medium of cattle and sheep j which 
 is worth from 3/. to 5l. per acre. 
 
 In order to discover the real expence of a crop of wheat, it should 
 be considered that the cultivation varies with the soil, and including 
 seed, it costs as aforesaid, from yl. to 8/. 
 
 £ *• d. 
 
 To which add for tithes, per annum, - - 0 3 0 
 
 Rent supposed to be per annum, - - 0 10 O 
 
 Repairs, taxes, assessments, losses, insurance, &c. &c. as ^ q 0 
 much as the rent, - $ 
 
 Profit, including interest, ditto*, - - - 0 10 0 
 
 Together, £ 1 13 0 
 
 One year at 1 1 . 135. is 3 l. 6 s. for the two years, on land at 105. per 
 acre. Add this 3 /. 6 s. to what has just been mentioned as the 
 expence of cultivation, namely, 8 l.- } and we have 1 1 /. 6 s. as the 
 whole cost of obtaining a crop of wheat by summer fallowing, on 
 a strong clay* soil, without any purchased manure. This sum ex- 
 ceeds the price of 22 bushels of wheat, and that is more than would 
 be grown on such bad and exposed land. To the expence of 
 11/. 65. add the value of manuring the soil, by feeding a crop of 
 tares upon it, which may be stated at from 3 /. to 4/. and even 5 l. 
 per acre, and there results from 14/. 6s. to 1 61 . 65. per acre, as the 
 superiority which a crop of tares has over a summer or naked 
 fallow. 
 
 * If it should be objected to this article being part of the estimate, it may 
 be said in support of it, that the farmer is certain to subsist on the produce 
 of his farm. This is a daily cxpence which cannot be avoided, and he will 
 obtain it whether he may be able to pay other things or not, therefore it 
 might be the first item in the estimate. The second would be repairs, losses, 
 taxes, & c. Thirdly, tithes in kind, or not. Lastly, rent. Many of the 
 other articles are irresistible, and all of them more urgent than rent. Every 
 deficiency stems to fall upon rent. 
 
Appendix. — Superiority of cultivating Winter Tares . 27 
 
 As the question of summer fallows, has been a subject of much 
 debate, it is thought advisable to introduce in this place one more 
 estimate, and that is selected for land, which may be worth a rent 
 of 205. per acre. 
 
 £ 5 . d. 
 
 Tithes both great and small, per annum, - - 0 6 0 
 
 Rent per annum, - - - - 10 0 
 
 Repairs, taxes, assessments, losses, insurance, and many } | . 
 
 other things to as large an amount as the rent, - 5 
 
 Profit, including interest, ditto*, - - 10 0 
 
 £3 6 0 
 
 One year at 3l. 6s. is 61. 125. for the two years which a summer 
 fallow, and a crop of wheat, occupy the ground. Add this 61. 125. 
 to what it would cost in tillage and seed, Jl. 105. (as this soil may 
 be supposed less stubborn than in the former case, which required 
 an expenditure of 8/., we will state this at 7/. 105.) and we have 
 14/. 25. as the cost of the crop. That is the value of about 28 or 
 30 bushels of wheat, which would not be grown on such land. To 
 these expences, which amount to 14/. 2s. per acre, add the value of 
 manuring the soil as aforesaid, from 3 /. to 5l. and the result is, from 
 17/. 25. to 19/. 25. as the superior value which tares have over a 
 naked supamer fallow, on this kind of soil. 
 
 Mr. Middleton has estimates of this kind for land of every qua- 
 lity ; but these are considered to be sufficient to shew, what they 
 all demonstrate, that a summer fallow, in all cases, is attended with 
 more expence than can be repaid by a succeeding crop of wheat. 
 It is well known, indeed, to that intelligent class of husbandmen 
 and surveyors, who are much employed in the valuation of farmers* 
 crops, that a summer fallow costs as much or more than the suc- 
 ceeding crop of wheat is worth. A summer fallow, therefore, ren- 
 ders two years, in every rotation, wholly unprofitable to the farmers, 
 and very frequently it is a considerable loss to them. 
 
 The raising clean, smothering, green crops, and feeding stock 
 with them upon the land, is not only much more profitable, as far 
 as relates to the value of the crop substituted in lieu of a fallow, 
 but is also a more effectual method of procuring large crops of 
 wheat, or any other corn which may succeed the green crop. 
 
 By fallowing, not only one year’s rent, taxes, assessments, and 
 labour, are expended, but likewise the remains of manure, contain- 
 ed in the soil, are rendered less fit to promote the growth of subse- 
 quent crops. Fallowing, therefore, should be practised but spar- 
 ingly : its only use is in occasionally destroying root-v/eeds, and 
 insects. These objects being attained, recourse should never be 
 had to the same operation, until root- weeds, or insects, have gained 
 such possession of the land, as to make fallowing necessary for their 
 
 * See Note in preceding page. 
 
28 Appendix. — Superiority of cultivating Winter Tares. 
 
 destruction. These cases, which are supposed to render fallowing 
 necessary, never happen to a good farmer. A new tenant fre- 
 quently finds, at the commencement of his term, his arable land 
 infested with weeds, occasioned by his predecessor’s neglect, and 
 in such a case, if the land be nearly a pure clay, it may be advisa- 
 ble to cleanse it by a summer fallow ; but all the lighter soils may 
 be cleared of both root and seed weeds, by the cultivation of tares, 
 turnips, and potatoes. Land of every description, which has been 
 made thoroughly clean, may be so continued in perpetuity, with- 
 out ever resorting to fallow a second time, as the same is proved by 
 the constant practice of all the kitchen gardeners*, the farming 
 gardeners (those who till their land by the plough), the potatoe 
 growers, and the cow-keepers, who rent arable land, for the pur- 
 pose of growing tares, turnips, and cabbages. 
 
 The smothering and hoeing crops of tares, turnips, potatoes, 
 cabbages, savoys, cole, hemp, and other plants which cover the 
 ground, and cause a stagnation of air, preserve the moisture of the 
 soil, and promote the putrefaction and decomposition of such animal 
 and vegetable matter, as may be contained in the soil, are more 
 likely to prove economical and beneficial than any system of fal- 
 lowing!. 
 
 In general, the farmers of both England and Scotland, who in- 
 clude a naked fallow in their rotation, obtain less profit than the 
 same men on the same land would do if they were to raise winter 
 tares, or cole, or savoys, and then cleanse the soil as well as the 
 soil and the season may permit, as will be demonstrated in the 
 paper on the comparative value of several rotations. 
 
 * Good gardeners are not satisfied with any degree of cleanliness, short of 
 the entire destruction and removal of every morsel of couch grass. This is 
 an useful lesson to the farmers, and they ought to act fully up to it, otherwise 
 they are at a continual expence to repress the root-weeds, instead of one 
 considerable exertion, which would destroy them for ever. 
 
 f In Sussex, they substitute a double crop of tares, first the winter, and 
 next the spring sort, instead of a fallow for wheat, even on strong soils, with 
 great success, feeding, by that means, a great number of stock, and obtain- 
 ing much manure, that would not otherwise have been got . — Sussex JRcport , 
 p. 105. 
 
Appendix. — Supply and Consumption of Grain. 29 
 
 No. VI. — Proofs of the unfavourable Idea entertained by 
 British Statesmen, of the ability of this Country, to raise a 
 sufficiency of Grain for its own Consumption, and of the 
 little idea they entertained, of the importance of Agricul- 
 ture, previous to the Establishment of a National Institu- 
 ' tion for promoting its Improvement . 
 
 In the year 1790 , the Committee of Privy Council appointed to 
 inquire into all matters relating to trade, took into its consideration 
 the laws regarding the exportation and importation of grain, and 
 presented a Report to His Majesty upon the subject, which is drawn 
 up with much ability, although with such little idea of the qgn- 
 cultural resources of the country, that we are told, we must depend 
 for a part of our consumption, not on an increased cultivation at 
 home, not even on the produce of Europe, but on the harvests of 
 America. Yet in the year 1808, as appears from the Custom- 
 house accounts, we exported corn to the value of 470,431/. and 
 imported only to the amount of 330,400/. consequently Great 
 Britain became again an exporting country, and for that year at 
 least, with the assistance of Ireland, was independent of foreign 
 nations for com. 
 
 In the year 1791-2, Mr* Pitt explained, in a speech on the state 
 of the nation, what appeared to him the causes of the general in- 
 crease of the national prosperity which had taken place at that time. 
 That speech has been very ably commented upon by Mr. Arthur 
 Young, in his Annals of Agriculture*. Mr. Young was shocked 
 to find, in that speech, the greatest, dearest, and most important 
 interests of the kingdom, totally and contemptuously overlooked, 
 as of no sort of consequence in the great scale of national prosperity. 
 A financier, he observes, in giving a general view of the national 
 resources, and dwelling with pride on the public revenue, does not 
 think that agriculture, which, even then paid twelve millions ster- 
 ling per annum , in public burdens, worthy even of being named 
 amongst the sources of prosperity ! 
 
 Mr. Young also remarked, “ that the agricultural interests of 
 this kingdom, perhaps never found themselves placed in so con- 
 temptible a position, as in this speech of the Minister, who, wishing 
 to make the utmost parade of every circumstance that would count 
 in a catalogue of national advantages, totally overlooked everything 
 connected with land.” Mr. Young little expected, in the course 
 of a few months, to be Secretary to a Board of Agriculture, estab- 
 lished with the concurrence of the very Minister, by whom that 
 speech had been delivered. 
 
 Vol. xvii. p. 369. 
 
30 Appendix.— Supply and Consumption of Grain. 
 
 As late as the year 1 796, another British statesman, distinguished 
 for political information (Lord Auckland), delivered a speech in 
 the House of Lords, which was afterwards published, and of which 
 the following is an extract : 
 
 “ To what, under the protection and favour of Divine Provi- 
 dence, shall such prosperity be ascribed ? — to our naval superiority 
 and successes 3 to our conquests in the East and West Indies 3 to 
 the acquisition of new markets 3 to the enterprising spirit of our 
 merchants 5 to the improvements of our manufacturers 3 to the 
 energy of our countrymen in arts and in arms 3 to the union of 
 liberty with law 3 to the national character, cherished by, and che- 
 rishing the principles of our inestimable constitution 3 that consti- 
 tution, which it has been the object of our enemies to destroy, by 
 means and effects utterly destructive to themselves ; that consti- 
 tution, which it is the great purpose of our struggles, in this just 
 and necessary war, to preserve and to maintain*.” 
 
 Not one word of agriculture in this whole paragraph, intended to 
 enumerate the causes to which our prosperity was to be ascribed. 
 We have hitherto indeed been too much considered as a mere com- 
 mercial nation 3 whereas every country possessed of an extensive 
 and fertile territory, ought to account the cultivation of its soil, as 
 the surest foundation of its prosperity, and the best entitled, of all 
 the sources of that prosperity, to the peculiar attention of an en- 
 lightened government. Such a government will be ready, at all 
 times, to remove every obstacle to improvement 5 if not to pro- 
 mote, by public encouragement, those unceasing exertions, by 
 which alone, the whole territory of a great country, can be ren- 
 dered, what it ought to be — one uninterrupted scene of industry 
 and cultivation. 
 
 * See the substance of Lord Auckland’s Speech in the House of Lords, 
 the 2d day of May, 1796. London: printed for J. Walter, Charing-cross. 
 
Appendix. — On Hay-making. 
 
 31 
 
 No. VII. — An Account of the Bills of Enclosure passed in 
 the course of 40 years, in tvjo periods of 20 years each, 
 namely , from 1774 to 1793, prior, and from 1794 to 
 1813 inclusive , posterior to the establishment of the Board 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 1774 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 59 
 
 1794 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 73 
 
 1775 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 38 
 
 1795 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 76 
 
 1776 
 
 . 
 
 . - 
 
 - 
 
 55 
 
 1796 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 70 
 
 1777 
 
 - 
 
 . . 
 
 - 
 
 88 
 
 1797 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 86 
 
 1778 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 61 
 
 1798 
 
 - 
 
 . . 
 
 - 52 
 
 1779 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 66 
 
 1799 
 
 - 
 
 . - 
 
 - 65 
 
 1780 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 35 
 
 1800 
 
 - 
 
 - . 
 
 - 82 
 
 1781 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 22 
 
 1801 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 49 
 
 1782 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 . 
 
 17 
 
 1802 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 158 
 
 1783 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 13 
 
 1803 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 92 
 
 1784 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 12 
 
 1804 
 
 - 
 
 - . 
 
 - 52 
 
 1785 
 
 . 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 22 
 
 1805 
 
 - 
 
 - . 
 
 - 68 
 
 1786 
 
 . 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 25 
 
 1806 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 76 
 
 1787 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 . 
 
 21 
 
 1807 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 91 
 
 1788 
 
 . 
 
 - . 
 
 . 
 
 34 
 
 1808 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 92 
 
 1789 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 31 
 
 1809 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 122 
 
 1790 
 
 - 
 
 . - 
 
 _ 
 
 23 
 
 1810 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 107 
 
 1791 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 34 
 
 1811 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 133 
 
 1792 
 
 - 
 
 - ^ 
 
 _ 
 
 35 
 
 1812 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 156 
 
 1793 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 * 
 
 58 
 
 1813 
 
 - 
 
 - - 
 
 - 183 
 
 
 
 
 
 749 
 
 
 
 
 1,883 
 
 Average 
 
 
 - 
 
 37 
 
 Average - 
 
 94 
 
 There cannot be stronger evidence, of the advantages derived 
 from the establishment of a Board of Agriculture; nor a better 
 proof of a general spirit of improvement, having been thereby ex- 
 cited, than what this table furnishes. The extra Bills of Enclosure 
 amounted to 1134; and as each bill, on an average, would pro- 
 mote the improvement of at least 2000 acres, hence 2,268,000 
 acres in all, must have been thus improved, in England alone, in 
 these 20 years. 
 
 No. VIII . — Description of the Mode of Hay-making in 
 Middlesex , of Natural Grass. By John Middleton , Esq. 
 
 This branch of the rural art has, by the farmers of Middlesex, 
 been brought to a degree of perfection, altogether unequalled by 
 any other part of the kingdom. The neat husbandry, and superior 
 
32 
 
 Appendix. — On Hay -making. 
 
 skill and management, that are so much, and justly, admired in the 
 arable farmers of the best cultivated districts, may, with equal 
 justice and propriety, be said to belong, in a very eminent degree, 
 to the hay farmers of Middlesex ; for by them, may very fairly be 
 claimed the merit, of having reduced the art of making good hay to 
 a regular system ; which, after having stood die test of long prac- 
 tice and experience, is found to be attended with the most desirable 
 success. Even in the most unfavourable weather, the hay made 
 according to the Middlesex manner, is superior to that made by 
 any other method, under similar circumstances. It is to be re- 
 gretted, that this very excellent practice has not yet, except in a 
 very few instances, travelled beyond the borders of the county. 
 But as it most justly deserves the attention and imitation of farmers 
 in other districts, I shall, for their information, endeavour minutely 
 to describe the method in which the Middlesex farmers make their 
 hay. 
 
 In order that the subject may be more clearly understood, I shall 
 relate the particular operations of each day, during the whole pro- 
 cess, from the moment in which the mower first applies his scythe, 
 to that in which the hay is secured either in the barn or in the 
 stack. Before I enter more immediately on this task, I would just 
 premise a few observations, viz. when the grass is nearly fit for 
 mowing, the Middlesex farmer endeavours to select the best mow- 
 ers, in number proportioned to the quantity of his grass, and the 
 length of time it would be advisable to have it in hand ; which 
 having done, he lets it out, either as piece-work, or to be mown 
 by the acre *. 
 
 About the same time he provides five hay-makers (men and 
 women f), to each mower. These last are paid by the day, the 
 men attending from six till six ; but the women only frohi eight 
 till six. For an extra hour or two in the evening, when the business 
 requires dispatch, they receive a proportionate allowance. 
 
 The mowers usually begin their work at three, four, or five 
 o’clock in the morning, and continue to labour till seven or eight at 
 night : resting an hour or two in the middle of the day. 
 
 Every hay-maker is expected to come provided with a fork and 
 a rake of his own ; nevertheless, when the grass is ready, and la- 
 bourers scarce, the farmer is frequently obliged to provide both f 
 but for the most part, only the rake. 
 
 Every part of the operation is carried on with forks, except clear- 
 ing the ground, which is done with rakes ; and loading the carts, 
 which is done by hand. 
 
 Having premised so much, I now come to the description of the 
 business of the 
 
 * Each man mows from one acre and a half to an acre and three quarters 
 per day; some there are, who do two acres per day, during the whole sea- 
 son. — M. 
 
 f Including loaders, pitchers, stackers, and all others. — J. M. 
 
A ppendix. — On Hay -making. 
 
 33 
 
 First Day . — All the grass mown before nine o’clock in the morn- 
 ing, is tedded, in which great care is taken, thoroughly to loosen 
 every lump, and to strew it evenly over all the ground*. Soon 
 afterwards it is turned, with the same degree of care and attention ; 
 and if, from the number of hands, they are able to turn the whole 
 again, they do so, or at least as much of it as they can, till twelve 
 or one o’clock, at which time they dine. The first thing to be 
 done after dinner, is to rake it into what are called single wind- 
 rows f ; and the last operation of this day is to put it into grass- 
 cocks. 
 
 Second Day . — The business of this day commences with ted- 
 ding all the grass that was mown the first day after nine o’clock, 
 and all that was mown this day before nine o’clock. Next, the 
 grass-cocks are to be well shaken out into staddles (or separate 
 plats) of five or six yards diameter. If the crop should be so thin 
 and light, as to leave the spaces between these staddles rather large, 
 such spaces must be immediately raked clean, and the makings 
 mixed with the other hay, in order to its all drying of an uniform 
 colour. The next business is to turn the staddles, and after that, 
 to turn the grass that was tedded in the first part of the morning, 
 once or twice, in the manner described for the first day. This 
 should all be done before twelve or one o’clock, so that the whole 
 may lie to dry while the work-people are at dinner. After dinner, 
 the first thing to be done is, to rake the staddles into double wind- 
 rows X ; next, to rake the grass into single windrows j then the 
 double windrows are put into bastard-cocks j and lastly, the single 
 windrows are put into grass-cocks. This completes the work of 
 the second day. 
 
 Third Day . — The grass mown and not spread on the second 
 day, and also that mown in the early part of this day, is first to be 
 tedded in the morning j and then the grass-cocks are to be spread 
 into staddles, as before, and the bastard-cocks into staddles of less 
 extent. These lesser staddles, though last spread, are first turned, 
 
 * The following observations on the Middlesex method of hay-making, 
 were obligingly communicated by Thomas Skip Dyot Bucknall, Esq. M. P. 
 
 “ By this regular method of tedding grass for hay, the hay will be of a 
 more valuable quality, heats more equally in the stack, consequently not so 
 liable to damage, or fire ; will be of greater quantity, when cut into trusses, 
 and will sell at a better price; for when the grass is suffered to lay a day or 
 two before it is tedded out of the swath, the upper surface is so dried by the 
 sun and winds, and the interior part is not dried, but withered, so that the 
 herbs lose much, both as to quality and quantity, which are very material 
 circumstances, at the price hay now fetches at market. An instance in point : 
 the physic gardeners who attend to their business, are very careful, in the 
 proper and equally drying their herbs, and they find their account in it.” 
 
 j- That is, they all rake in such a manner, as that each person makes a 
 row, which rows are three or four feet apart. — J.M. 
 
 J In doing which, every two persons rake the hay in opposite directions, 
 or towards each other, and by that means form a row between them of 
 double the size of a single windrow. — Each of these double windrows is 
 about six or eight feet distant from each other. — J. M. 
 
 APPENDIX.] D 
 
34 Appendix. — On Hay -making. 
 
 then those which were in grass-cocks ; and next the grass is turned 
 once or twice before twelve or one o’clock, when the people go to 
 dinner as usual. If the weather has proved sunny and fine, the 
 hay which was last night in bastard-cocks, will this afternoon be in 
 a proper state to be carried* ; but if the weather should, on the 
 contrary, have been cool and cloudy, no part of it probably will 
 be fit to carry. In that case, the first thing set about after dinner, 
 is to rake that which was in grass-cocks last night into double wind- 
 rows ; then the grass which was this morning spread from the 
 swaths, into single windrows. After this, the hay which was last 
 night in bastard-cocks, is made up into full-sized cocks, and care 
 taken to rake the hay up clean, and also to put the rakings upon the 
 top of each cock. Next, the double windrows are put into bastard- 
 cocks, and the single windrows into grass-cocks, as on the pre- 
 ceding days. 
 
 Fourth Day . — On this day the great cocks, just mentioned, are 
 usually carried before dinner. The other operations of the day are 
 such, and in the same order, as before described, and are conti- 
 nued daily, until the hay harvest is completed. 
 
 In the course of hay-making, the grass should, as much as pos- 
 sible, be protected both day and night, against rain and dew, by 
 cocking. Care should also be taken to proportion the number of 
 hay-makers to that of the mowers, so that there may not be more 
 grass in hand at any one time, than can be managed according to 
 the foregoing process. This proportion is abdut twenty hay-makers 
 (of which number twelve may be women), to four mowers : the 
 latter are sometimes taken half a day to assist the former. But in 
 hot, windy, or very drying weather, a greater proportion of hay- 
 makers will be required than when the weather is cloudy and cool. 
 
 It is particularly necessary to guard against spreading more hay, 
 than the number of hands can get into cock the same day, or be- 
 fore rain. In showery and uncertain weather, the grass may some- 
 times be suffered to lie three, four, or even five days, in swath. 
 But before it has lain long enough for the under side of the swath 
 to become yellow (which, if suffered to lie long, would be the case), 
 particular care should be taken, to turn the swaths with the heads 
 of the rakes. In this state, it will cure so much in about two days, 
 as only to require being tedded a few hours, when the weather is 
 fine, previous to its being put together and carried. In this man- 
 ner, hay may be made and put into the stack at a small expence, 
 and of a moderately good colour ; but the tops and bottoms of the 
 grass are insufficiently separated by it. 
 
 There are no hay-stacks more neatly formed, nor better secured, 
 than those made in Middlesex. At every vacant time, while the 
 stack is carrying up, the men are employed in pulling it, with their 
 hands, into a proper shape : and, about a week after it is finished, 
 
 • It seldom happens in dry weather, but that it may be carried on the 
 third day. — J. M. 
 
35 
 
 Appendix. — On Hay-making . 
 
 the whole roof is properly thatched, and then secured from receiving 
 any damage from the wind, by means of a straw rope, extended 
 along the eaves, up the ends, and on each side of the ridge. The 
 ends of the thatch are afterwards cut evenly below the eaves of 
 the stack, just of sufficient length for the rain-water to drip quite 
 clear of the hay. When the stack happens to be placed in a situa- 
 tion which may be suspected of being too damp in the winter, a 
 trench, of about six or eight inches deep, is dug round, and nearly 
 close to it, which serves to convey all the water from the spot, and 
 renders it perfectly dry and secure. 
 
 It is of great advantage to the farmer, to give constant personal 
 attendance on every party, directing each operation during the 
 whole hay-harvest. The man who would cure his hay in the best 
 manner, and at a moderate expence, must not only urge the persons 
 who make the hay, the men who load the waggons, and those who 
 make the stack, but he should be on the alert, to contrive and point 
 out the manner in which every person may do his labour to the 
 most advantage. Unless he does this, one moiety of the people 
 in his hay-field will be no material use to him ; and if he should be 
 absent for an hour or more, during that time, little or nothing will 
 be done. The farmers of Middlesex engage many hay-makers : 
 some of them have been known to employ two or three hundred : 
 such men find it necessary to be on horseback, and the work- 
 people find them sufficient employment. A man of energy will 
 make the most of every hour, and secure his hay while the sun 
 shines : one of an opposite description lounges his time away, and 
 suffers his hay to be caught in the rain, by which it is frequently 
 half spoiled. Or if the latter should have the good fortune of a 
 continuance of dry weather, his hay will be a week longer in the 
 field than his neighbour’s, and the sap of it dried up by the sun. 
 
 It is supposed that 400lb. of grass, on being dried into hay, 
 wastes to lOOlb. by the time it is laid on the stack ; it is then fur- 
 ther reduced, by heat and evaporation, in about a month, to per- 
 haps 95 ; and between that and 90, I apprehend it continues 
 through the winter. From the middle of March till September, 
 the operations of trussing and marketing, expose it so much to the 
 sun and wind, as to render it considerably lighter, probably SO : 
 that is, hay which would weigh 90 the instant it is separated from 
 the stack, would waste to 80 (in trussing, exposure on the road, 
 and at market for about 24 hours), by the time it is usually de- 
 livered to a purchaser. During the. following winter, the waste 
 will be little or nothing : it is nearly obvious, that the same hay 
 will weigh on delivery 80 in summer, and 90 in winter. From 
 this circumstance, and others which relate to price, a farmer may 
 determine what season of the year is the most advisable for him to 
 sell his hay. I have known a gentleman have the hay of five years 
 by him at one time $ the price then rose, and he sold it to much 
 D 2 
 
36 
 
 Appendix. — On Hay-mci king . 
 
 advantage ; and I now know there are several farmers in this 
 county, who have from one to two thousand tons of hay. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Harrow, Hendon, and Finchley, there 
 are many hay-barns capable of holding from 30 to 50, and some 
 even 100 loads of hay. They are found to be extremely useful 
 and convenient during a catching and unsettled hay-harvest, as a 
 safe receptacle for the hay as fast as it becomes dry. In the very 
 common case of approaching rain, when the hay is fit for carrying, 
 every nerve is, or ought to be, exerted, to secure it as much as pos- 
 sible j and that is most effectually done, by getting all the carts 
 and waggons loaded with it, and drawn into the barns : the rest of 
 the hay must take its chance in large cocks. These barns are also 
 of considerable utility for the reception of loaded carriages daily, a 
 short time before night, where they are secure, and afford certain 
 employment for the men the next morning, before breakfast, in 
 unloading. Even in dull or damp mornings, the hay can be safely 
 unloaded under the cover of these buildings, when it could not be 
 done on to a stack in an exposed yard. I remember a morning of 
 this kind which threatened rain, in which my neighbours durst not 
 uncover their stacks, when, under the security of a hay-barn, I 
 unloaded twelve carts and waggons before the men went to break- 
 fast : the day turned out fine, and my people were all ready for 
 the hay-field, where they re- loaded the carriages into the same 
 barn before night. 
 
 In winter, and in all wet and windy weather, the barns afford 
 safety to the broken cuts, and an opportunity of cutting, weighing, 
 and binding hay ; none of which operations could, at such a time, 
 be performed out of doors. The farmers whom I have consulted 
 on this subject, agree, that hay may be put together earlier, even by 
 a day, in a barn, than it would be safe to do in a stack. 
 
 The expence of a hay-barn, which costs 100/., generally saves, 
 in straw and thatching, and its other advantages, the whole of its 
 cost in three years. Indeed, I built one on oak posts, in the most 
 complete manner, which holds 100 loads of hay, and am certain its 
 savings equalled its cost in two years •, but in this it was aided by 
 the then high price of straw. 
 
 In the driest seasons, barns are a saving of 6s. or more per acre ; 
 and in wet seasons, the ready assistance which they afford in 
 speedily securing the hay, has been known to make a difference in 
 price of 20$. per load, on a small number of lands. 
 
 Close barns exclude the current of external airv which is, proba- 
 bly, the immediate cause of the ignition of the hot vapour, at the 
 instant of its escape from the hay-stack. In the barn, this hot 
 vapour, or steam, is confined in the empty space between the hay 
 and the roof, until it has parted with so much heat, as to be inca- 
 pable of taking fire, when it comes in contact with the external air, 
 in its escape from the barn. 
 
Appendix.— -O n the Uses of Salt in Agriculture, 37 
 
 No. IX. — On the Uses of Salt for Agricultural Purposes, 
 By the Right Hon. Sir John Sinclair 9 Bart. 
 
 As Parliament has resolved, that a reduction in the duties on 
 Salt shall take place, for the purpose of ascertaining, by decisive 
 experiments, its utility for agricultural purposes, it is proposed 
 here, briefly to point out, in what respects in has already been 
 found of advantage. The farmer will thus have some clue to di- 
 rect his proceedings 5 and if the result of such experiments, as he 
 may thence be induced to try, prove highly satisfactory , and the 
 importance of Salt to Agriculture is confirmed, beyond the pos- 
 sibility of doubt, it may be the means of inducing Parliament, to 
 lower the duties still farther, or to commute them entirely, that 
 so great a source of national prosperity may not be impeded or 
 curtailed. 
 
 It is the more necessary, thoroughly to investigate this subject, 
 as there is no substance that could, in so many different respects, 
 be rendered so useful to Agriculture, as Salt: — 1. It operates as 
 a manure to arable land ; — 2. It may be of use in promoting the 
 fertility of waste land ; — 3. It is an effectual remedy against the 
 smut 3 — 4 . It preserves the seed, when sown, from vermin j — 
 5 . It promotes the vegetation of oily seeds ; — 6 . It increases the 
 produce of pasture land, and meadows j — 7* It improves the qua- 
 lity of hay ; — 8. It renders coarse food more nourishing, and moist 
 food less injurious ' to cattle, and horses j — 9. It preserves stock 
 from disease, and improves their condition ; — and, 10. It has a 
 tendency to prevent the rust or blight in wheat. 
 
 1. On Salt as a Manure to Arabic Land.— Though salt, if em- 
 ployed in large quantities, in its natural state, is hostile to vegeta- 
 tion, yet it operates advantageously, in various ways, when judi- 
 ciously applied to arable land. In large quantities, it has a ten- 
 dency, like every other excessive stimulus, to disorganize and de- 
 stroy the vegetable substances with which it comes in contact ; but 
 in moderate quantities , it promotes the growth of vegetables, by 
 enabling them to take up more nutriment, in a given space of time, 
 and to perform their circulations and secretions with greater 
 energy*. 
 
 The following are modes, in which it has been successfully 
 made use of for the improvement of arable land. 
 
 I . In preparing the soil, under the fallow process, it is recom- 
 mended, to sow from thirty to forty bushels of salt per statute acre, 
 for the purpose of destroying the roots and insects in the soil, and 
 breaking all the tough and adhesive clods which are found to be so 
 
 * Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 336'; Cheshire Report, p. 240. 
 
38 Appendix. — On the Uses of Salt in Agriculture. 
 
 troublesome in working the ground. This should be done in 
 autumn, some tim 6 before the land is ploughed. The salt being 
 thoroughly incorporated with the soil, during the spring and sum- 
 mer following, the strength of the salt would be so much reduced, 
 when the seed is sown, that instead of injuring, it will promote 
 vegetation 5 and the lands, it is said, will be found to produce a 
 crop, superior to those under any other mode of cultivation 5 the 
 advantage of which will be experienced for several succeeding 
 years* * * § . 
 
 It would be extremely important, to compare the produce and 
 expence of a fallow, treated in this manner, or manured with lime. 
 
 2 . Salt has likewise been advantageously applied to crops. R. 
 Legrand; Esq. tried it twice on a barley tilth, sowing the salt at 
 the rate of sixteen bushels per acre, immediately after the crop 
 was covered by the harrow. The verdure, in spring, exceeded 
 any thing he had ever seen, and the ripened appearance was 
 whiter, by many shades, than he had ever beheldf . Mr. Hol- 
 linshead also recommends sowing sixteen bushels of salt per acre, 
 on a crop of potatoes, as soon as they are covered with earth ; and 
 he maintains, that by the adoption of that system, alternate crops 
 of wheat and potatoes, might be permanently produced on the 
 same soil j. These are modes of application, however, the utility 
 of which ought to be tried by repeated experiments, before they 
 can be confidently relied on. 
 
 3. It has been proved by Pringle, and Macbride, that though 
 salt will, in large quantities, prevent putrefaction, owing to its 
 antiseptic properties, yet that it has an evident tendency to promote 
 the process, when used in small quantities. Hence the advan- 
 tage of mixing it in moderate quantities with farm-yard dung§, 
 and other animal and vegetable substances. 
 
 An experiment was tried in Cheshire, of mixing grass roots, and 
 other rubbish harrowed off the land, with foul salt it was then 
 incorporated with other manures, and the effects of this compost, 
 on a crop of barley and grass seeds, is said greatly to have exceeded 
 the most sanguine expectations that had been formed of it|f . 
 
 4. Salt, when applied in composts, is said to have been found a 
 more beneficial manure even than lime. A farmer mixed up a 
 quantity of refuse salt, with the earth taken out of water furrows, 
 and another portion of the same earth with lime. Of the two, the 
 vegetation of that part of the field, which had the salt compost laid 
 upon it, was by far the healthiest and most vigorous^. 
 
 * Hollinshead, on the Importance of Salt as a Manure, second edition, 
 
 p. 17. It is said that Mr. Hollinshead devoted above twenty years of his 
 life, to a scientific and practical enquiry into the uses of Salt as a Manure. — 
 Sir Thomas Bernard’s Tract on Salt, p. 279. 
 
 f Hollinshead, 2d edit. p. 12. J Ditto, p. 19. 
 
 § It may be advantageously strewed over farm-yard dung, when carried 
 to the field. 
 
 || Cheshire Report, p, 237. H Ditto, p. 237. 
 
Appendix. — On the Uses of Salt in Agriculture . 39 
 
 5. In those parts of Cornwall, where the pilchard fisheries pre- 
 vail, considerable quantities of old or condemned salt*, are used 
 as a manure, mixed in compost, with earth, scrapings of roads, 
 broken fish, sea sand, and stable dung. The quantity of salt 
 allotted to an acre, thus mixed in compost, is about a ton, which 
 may cost about ten shillings. The broken fish is considered to be 
 the most valuable article, and the salt is accounted friendly to ve- 
 getation, in cases where it is thus used in a mild and modified 
 state. 
 
 6. The most extraordinary circumstance, connected with the 
 effects of salt on vegetation, takes place in the southern provinces 
 of France. The surface of the ground on the sea-coast of those 
 provinces, contains a number of saline particles. When the sea- 
 son arrives for cultivating that species of soil, the farmers find 
 it necessary to sow, not only wheat, but a plant called salicor , or 
 kali , which produces barilla. If a great quantity of rain falls 
 from the month of April to that of June, the wheat prospers, the 
 salt being washed down below the roots of the plants, leaving the 
 saline particles remaining near the surface of the soil, in that 
 state of equilibrium which is favourable to the vegetation of grain. 
 On the other hand, if the weather is dry, and the salt remains 
 near the surface, the salicor prospers, for it demands a great quan- 
 tity of salt for its vegetation. Thus, when the grain prospers, the 
 salicor perishes, and when it succeeds, the grain is destroyed! . 
 
 2. Of Salt , as promoting the Fertility of Waste Land.-- •Hav- 
 ing, at the desire of the Board of Agriculture, written to an in- 
 telligent Correspondent in the Netherlands (M. Gillet of Brussels), 
 to know whether the farmers there, had derived any agricultural 
 advantages from the use of salt, I received in return, the following 
 information, which explains how salt, when judiciously applied 
 in compost, may promote the improvement of waste lands. 
 
 The Abbey of St. Pierre, at Ghent, before the Revolution, 
 broke up about 150 English acres (fifty Flemish bonniers), of 
 moor-land, near Oudenarde, and in order to procure manure, they 
 adopted the plan of collecting all the heath-clods, or lumps the 
 soil produced, into piles, and intermixed them with strata of salt. 
 These piles were turned over once a year, for three years succes- 
 sively, and were then spread upon the land, which, by means of 
 that manure, produced good crops for two years. Being let to 
 farmers, the plan of using salt was given up, and the soil becom- 
 ing unproductive, was planted with brushwood or coppice. It 
 
 * Sir Humphry Davy (Lectures, 4to edit. p. 295), states, that refuse 
 Salt, which, however, likewise contains some of the oil and exuvise of fish, 
 has long been known, as an admirable manure , in Cornwall. 
 
 * “ Si le bid d bien vegetd^ le salicor perit ; et il prospere , lorsque le bid est 
 detruit .” — Traite sur la Culture des Grains, tome premier, p. 268. 
 
 It would be important to know if the crop of wheat, when it does succeed, 
 is ever affected by the rust, in a soil so mfich impregnated with saline par- 
 ticles. 
 
40 Appendix. — On the Uses of Salt in Agriculture . 
 
 was then however ascertained, that salt, thus applied, dissolved 
 the coarse heathy substances to be found in such, and converted 
 them into manure. 
 
 The effect of salt, applied in the same way to peat, in alternate 
 strata, is a most important subject of experiment, which, if suc- 
 cessful, would greatly promote the improvement of waste lands. 
 It would probably act more rapidly on peat than on heath, and 
 would thence furnish an immediate manure for a crop of turnips, 
 so well calculated for bringing such soils into a state of fertility. 
 
 3. It is an effectual Remedy against Smut. — It is well known 
 that seed wheat, if immersed in water, so impregnated with saline 
 particles, that an egg will float in it, and frequently stirred, so 
 that all the unsound grains will rise to the top, which are then 
 skimmed off, will be exempted from smut, provided, after the 
 wheat is separated from the pickle, it is spread upon the floor, 
 and a sufficient quantity of new slacked lime, to dry the whole, is 
 sifted upon it*. 
 
 4. It preserves the Seed when sown, from Vermin. — In some 
 parts of Scotland, where the oat crops were frequently destroyed 
 by grubs, &c. it has long been a practice, to mix salt with the 
 seed, in the proportion of one to thirty-two, but sometimes one in 
 sixteen. Every means has been taken to ascertain the utility of 
 the practice, and with uniform success. Salt destroys vermin' in 
 the ground, by making them void the contents of their bodies, 
 such evacuations being too powerful for them to withstand. It 
 has this additional advantage, that the vermin thus become food for 
 those very plants, which otherwise they would have destroyed! . 
 
 5. It promotes the Vegetation of Oily Seeds. — This was first 
 discovered in America, in the culture of flax, and it has since been 
 ascertained in this country, by the experiments of Mr. Lee, of Old 
 Ford, near Bow, in Middlesex. The quantity of salt should be 
 the same as that of the seed sown, namely, about three bushels 
 per English acre. It is strewed on the surface after the seed has 
 been sown. It improves greatly the quantity and quality of the 
 flax, and in particular the quantity of the seed from the new crop. 
 Though the experiments have hitherto been confined to flax, it 
 would probably answer equally well with other seeds of an oily 
 quality. It is supposed, indeed, that salt is most useful, when it 
 is mixed with substances containing oil, the union of the two, 
 being converted into a species of saponaceous matter, which is 
 favourable to vegetation f. 
 
 * East Lothian Report, p. 111. 
 
 y Lord Dundonald on the Connection of Agriculture with Chemistry, 
 p. 138. 
 
 I Equal quantities of salt, and of turnip seed, were tried on a small plot 
 of a garden, by the Author of this paper ; and the produce was more abun- 
 dant, than from the same quantity of turnip seed, sown without salt. The 
 efficacy of salt, as a destroyer of the turnip fly, or beetle, ought to be as- 
 certained. 
 
Appendix. — On the Uses oj Salt in Agriculture . 41 
 
 6. It increases the Produce of the Pasture Land and Meadows.— 
 it has been proved by experiment, in Cheshire, that after drain- 
 ing sour rushy land, if salt be spread upon the surface, in the 
 month of October, its effects on the crop of next year, will be in 
 the highest degree satisfactory. In one spot, where eight bushels 
 were spread, a most flourishing crop of rich grass appeared in the 
 month of May, but a still stronger crop in the month of July, 
 where sixteen bushels had been applied* * * § . 
 
 It is stated, on most respectable authority, that salt, sown 
 thinly by the hand, will destroy the moss with which meadows, 
 and pasture lauds, are so apt to be infestedf. 
 
 In the Netherlands, Dutch turf ashes, which are strongly im- 
 pregnated with saline particles, are applied to the second, as well 
 as to the first crop of clover, with great success ; and Mr. Hol- 
 linshead strongly recommends, sowing six bhshels per acre, on 
 meadows, after the hay is got in, particularly in dry and hot sum- 
 mers, and upon limestone and sandy soils. The moisture which 
 the salt attracts and retains, powerfully assists vegetation, and pro- 
 duces a crop greatly superior in quality to that obtained by the ap- 
 plication of dungf. 
 
 For meadows, it is found to be an advantageous practice, to 
 mix sixteen bushels of salt, with twenty loads of earth, per acre, 
 turning the heap over two or three times, that the substances in it 
 may be thoroughly incorporated, and spreading it on the surface, 
 either in summer orspring§. 
 
 7. It improves the Quality of Hay.— The practice of salting 
 hay, at the time of stacking it, has been practised in Derbyshire||, 
 and in the North Riding of Yorkshire^. The salt, particularly 
 when applied to the second crop of clover, or when the crop has 
 received much rain, checks the fermentation, and prevents mould- 
 ing. If straw be mixed with hay, the heating of the stack is still 
 further prevented, by the straw imbibing the moisture. Cattle 
 will eat, not only such salted hay, but even the straw mixed with 
 it, more eagerly, than better hay not salted, and will thrive 
 better upon it. 
 
 Lord Somerville was of opinion, that salt could not be conveyed 
 into an animal, in a more effectual manner, than by sprinkling it 
 through a sieve, at the rate of twenty-five pounds weight of salt, 
 to a ton of hay, when in the act of putting it together, for every 
 particle is imbibed in the fermentation, without a possibility of 
 waste. This salted hay is of great use to sheep, when put on tur- 
 nips early in the season, for the tops being then rank and strong, 
 
 * Cheshire Report, p. 236. 
 
 f Sir Thomas Bernard’s Treatise, p. 103. See Col. Scobell’s Evidence, 
 ditto, p. 270, note, as to its efficacy in removing moss on old leys, 
 
 f Hollinshead on Salt as a Manure, p. 26. 
 
 § Hollinshead on Salt as a Manure, p. 25. 
 
 [j Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 182. 
 
 *1 North Riding Report, p. 177. 
 
42 Appendix. — On the Uses of Salt in Agriculture . 
 
 many of the sheep die suddenly from pent-up wind, occasioned by 
 excess of fermentation in the stomach. Salt, or salted hay, is 
 then devoured by them with greediness, which denotes their salu- 
 tary effect. By the use of salted hay, Lord Somerville did not lose 
 one sheep on turnips in the autumn 1801., though the season was 
 rainy and unfavourable*. 
 
 Doctor Paris, likewise contends strongly for improving bad hay, 
 by salt, applying it in the proportion of about one cwt. of foul 
 fishery salt to three tons of hay. But of pure salt, a third of that 
 quantity may be sufficient ; — It should be sprinkled between the 
 layers 5 — It prevents mildew, and renders the hay more grateful, 
 and more beneficial to cattlef . 
 
 8. It renders coarse Food more nourishing , and moist Food less 
 injurious to Cattle and Horses. — The Ancients were accustomed 
 to prepare their straw for feeding stock, by keeping it for a con- 
 siderable time, sprinkled luith brine; — it was then dried, rolled 
 up in bundles, and given to oxen instead of hay J. 
 
 Mr. Curwen finds, that if salt be given to cows, with steamed 
 chaff, and other inferior food, it makes them eat it up completely j 
 and that, in a certain degree, it corrects the taste of milk when 
 cows are fed on turnips, and increases the quantity they produce. 
 In Cheshire, they give their cows a little salt when they are falling 
 off in their milk§. 
 
 In Flanders, it has been found, that a small quantity of pounded 
 salt, is very beneficial for horses, when new oats are given to 
 them, if the oats are at all moist and there can be no doubt, that 
 moist food in general, might be rendered less injurious, by the 
 same means $ for instance, when raw potatoes are first given to 
 horses. 
 
 Mr. Curwen is convinced by experience, that chaff and straw, 
 might be rendered available to a much greater extent than at pre- 
 sent, by the use of salt. 
 
 g. It preserves Stock from Disease , and improves their Condi - 
 tion. — In several* countries, as in America, the East Indies, 
 Flanders, Sweden, and Spain, it has been found that salt given 
 to domestic animals, is advantageous to them in various respects. 
 It may be proper, however, to consider the best mode of applying 
 it to the different sorts of stock, under distinct heads. 
 
 Horses.'*- -Mr. Birkbeck, in his notes on a journey in America, 
 recently published, mentions, that the horses he saw in the in- 
 terior of that country, were of an excellent description, and are in 
 high condition, even when travelling at the rate of forty -Jive miles 
 per day on long journeys. They are fed weil, getting from four 
 to five gallons of oats per day, besides hay, with a good handful 
 of salt about twice a week. 
 
 * Sir Thomas Bernard’s Tract on the Salt Duties, p. 262. 
 
 f Ditto, p. 276. 
 
 j Dickson’s Husbandry of the Ancients, vol. ii. p. 409. 
 
 § Sir Thomas Bernard’s Tract, p. 96. This makes them drink more 
 abundantly, which increases the quantity of their milk. 
 
Appendix. — On the Uses of Salt in Agriculture . 43 
 
 It appears from an experiment tried at Mr. Alderman Farley’s 
 salt-works at Droitwich, that salt is of great use to horses. The 
 quantity given was about four ounces, three days in the week, al- 
 ternately mixed with chaff. The whole four ounces, should not 
 be given at once, but at several times in the day, about a table- 
 spoonful each time. It makes the animals eat their food, and do 
 their work better.* 
 
 Mr. Curwen gives his horses employed at the farm, the col- 
 liery, &c. at the rate of four ounces per day, with their steamed 
 potatoes, twice a day. It makes them clean out their cribs, and 
 is a great benefit to their health and condition. 
 
 Salt given to horses, cures the lotts ; and it is said, might be 
 given with great advantage to race horses, and would prevent the 
 necessity of applying those severe purges, to which they are at 
 present subjected. 
 
 Cattle .— The uses of salt to cattle are various. Besides increas- 
 ing the quantity, and improving the quality of their milk, as al- 
 ready stated, it prevents their hoving, when fed on clover, or on 
 turnips ; the tops of which have the same effects as clover, both 
 on cattle and sheep, when eaten in any quantity. 
 
 Mr. Curwen’s experiments on this head, are most important. 
 From the 19 th of November 181 7> to the 3rd of February 1818 , 
 he gave salt to his cattle in the following proportions : 
 
 Sort. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Quantity per Uay 7 
 in Ounces. 
 
 Cows and breeding heifers, • • • • 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 Young and fat cattle, 
 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 W orking oxen, 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 Heifers and young oxen, 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 Young calves, 
 
 20 
 
 142 
 
 1 
 
 The cattle are said to have been in the highest state of health 
 ever since the use of salt was commenced 5 no obstructions, or in- 
 carnations as formerly, and not a single animal out of order. 
 
 In some parts of America, they give salt to their cows, at the 
 rate of about two bushels per annum. 
 
 In the East Indies they give salt to their bullocks, in general 
 daily, to the amount of two or three ounces, mixed with their feed 
 of pulse 5 a due proportion of salt they consider to be essential for 
 their health, and almost as necessary as food. 
 
 Sheep . — The advantages of salt to sheep are very great. It im- 
 proves their wool considerably, as is experienced, both in Spain, 
 and in the Shetland Islands, where the pastures are so much im- 
 pregnated with sea spray. It likewise prevents the rot, and de- 
 stroys the different sorts of worms which are found in tire bodies of 
 
 * Sir Thomas Bernard’s Tract, p. 264. 
 
44 Appendix. — On the Uses of Salt in Agriculture. 
 
 sheep, in particular, liver worms, ( fascio hcopaticce *) . It is 
 said to protect them likewise from the scab. 
 
 In Spain, they give I28lb. of salt to 1000 sheep in five months 5 
 but, in a wetter climate, like that of Great Britain, Lord Somer- 
 ville thought, that a ton of salt, for every 1000 sheep, would be re- 
 quisite. It should be given them in the morning, to counteract 
 the bad effects of the dew. In dry weather, a small handful may 
 be put on a flat stone, or slate, and 10 or 15 of these slates or 
 stones set a few yards apart, are enough for 100 sheep. If the 
 sheep are brought to the place where the salt is put, they will lick 
 it up quickly, if they find a craving for it ; but if they do not want 
 it, the salt may be taken up, and reserved for future use. This 
 may be done twice a week, but in particular cases it may be offered 
 thricef. 
 
 Mr. Curwen finds, that salt prevents what is called the sick- 
 ness in the northern parts of England, or the braxy in Scotland, 
 by which so many thousand young sheep are annually lost ; a dis- 
 covery of the greatest importance in those parts of the kingdom. 
 
 Hogs . — The use of salt for pigs, has, latterly, been much prac- 
 tised in Ireland, and is found, not only to keep them sound, and 
 in good health, but to expedite their feeding. The salt should be 
 mixed with their food, (potatoes, &c.) at the rate of a large table 
 spoonful in the twenty-four hours, or even more, should they eat 
 it greedily, and that it does not act too much as a medicine. Some 
 of the fattest pigs ever reared in Ireland, were fed in this manner, 
 and nearly in half the time it usually takes to fatten them, when no 
 salt is used:};. 
 
 Poultry . — Salt also, may advantageously be given to poultry, 
 and may prevent some of those disorders to which they are liable. 
 The avidity with which pigeons consume salt, is well known. 
 
 On the general Uses of Salt to Stock . — This article is found ser- 
 viceable, in restoring the tone of the stomach, when impaired by 
 any excess, either of food, or of labour. — It improves the quality 
 of their dung, and renders the sprinkling of it with salt unneces- 
 sary. — It renders stock tamer. Mr. Curwen finds that the sheep 
 gather round the shepherd, and will hardly suffer the salt to be 
 deposited on the stones. It overcomes all their natural fear and 
 timidity of disposition : and as to other cattle, it brings the wildest 
 of them to feed out of the hand. In America, milch cows are so 
 fond of salt, after being a little accustomed to it, (hat if tempted 
 to wander in the woods, they are sure to return, in order to pro- 
 cure their usual allowance j — but above all, it preserves their 
 health. Mr. Mosselman, an intelligent farmer in the Netherlands, 
 who keeps about 100 milch cows, oxen and calves, 23 working 
 
 * Baron Scultz’s Observations on Sheep. Communications to the Board 
 of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 318. 
 
 t Sir Thomas Bernard's Tract, p. 261. 
 
 I Communication from Edward Burroughs, Esq. 
 
Appendix. — On the Uses of Salt in Agriculture . 45 
 
 horses, and 250 sheep, has used salt for five years, during which 
 time his whole stock have been perfectly free from disorders. 
 
 On the Modes of giving Salt to Stock. — Some give it in a 
 powdered state on slates, stones, or coarse cloths. Others put large 
 lumps of rock-salt, in the cribs or mangers of their stables and cow- 
 houses, or hang it up so as to be accessible to cattle or sheep, who 
 obtain, by licking, what they require. In Sweden, they imagine 
 that the good effects, of salt may be greatly promoted, by what 
 are called licklings (slekorj. They consist of salt, pulverized 
 wormwood, and juniper-berries, and are given, either in a coarse 
 powder, or made with tar into a thick broth, or electuary, put 
 into a hollow fir-trough, placed in the middle of the sheep-house, 
 over which branches of fir are nailed across, to prevent the sheep 
 from soiling themselves with the broth. Others mix brimstone 
 with this pottage, and make balls of it, which may be particularly 
 suitable for such sheep as are subject to eruptions. Some persons 
 also, mix with it tansy (tanacetum vulgarej, bay-berries, and 
 garlick, as being good for the worms and the dropsy. 
 
 10. It has a tendency to prevent Rust or Blight in Wheat. — In 
 the course of a most extensive enquiry into the causes of the rust, 
 or blight in wheat, and the means of its prevention ; it appeared, 
 that Mr. Sickler, a farmer in Cornwall, was accustomed to manure 
 his turnip land with the refuse salt from the pilchard fishery ; and 
 that any ground thus treated, was never liable to the rust or blight , 
 though it infested all the neighbourhood*. 
 
 This important circumstance is confirmed iti a recent communi- 
 cation (dated 1 5th May 1818) to the author, from the Reverend 
 Robert Hoblyn, whose wheaten tillage, on a farm in Cornwall, 
 was increased from 20 to 40 and 50 acres per annum. He used 
 one ton of old salt, with one ton of fresh fish, mixed with earth, 
 and from 20 to 30 ton of sea sand, and his crops, he states, were 
 always good, ** and never infested with rust." 
 
 It is probable that the salt, is the only article in this compost, 
 that could be of material service in preventing the rust, by its 
 checking putrefaction, the result of too frequent a repetition of 
 corrupted manures ; and if the fact were ascertained by decisive 
 experiments, a still farther reduction of the duties on salt might 
 be confidently looked for, to secure our crops of wheat from the 
 greatest of all its scourges. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 There is every reason to hope, from this enumeration, that im- 
 portant benefits to agriculture, will result, from reduction of the 
 duties on salt. But the anxious endeavours of Parliament, to 
 promote the interests of the farmer, will be in vain, unless he re- 
 solves to avail himself of the boon that has been thus conferred upon 
 him. For that purpose, his attention to the various particulars 
 above stated, is earnestly requested. 
 
 * Husbandry of Scotland, vol. ii. App. p. 150, note. 
 
46 Appendix. — Mr . Hunter’s System of Farming. 
 
 No. X . — Account of Mr. Hunter of Tynefield’s System of 
 Farming . 
 
 The system of farming adopted in the more improved districts 
 of Scotland, being much celebrated, it may be proper to give the 
 following account of the plan pursued by Mr. Hunter of Tynefield, 
 near Dunbar, who is justly accounted one of the most intelligent 
 farmers in East Lothian. It goes upon the principle, of convert- 
 ing nearly all the straw of a farm into dung. 
 
 Mr. Hunter’s farm consists of 350 Scotch, or 437 English acres. 
 The horses kept for labour are sixteen, or about one horse to 27 
 acres. The other stock varies according to the quantity of green 
 food produced in the course of the season. It is only necessary to 
 observe, that about ten sheep, weighing from twelve to fourteen 
 pound per quarter, require from thirty to thirty-two tons of turnips 
 (rather more than the average produce of an English acre), to fat- 
 ten them for market *. Mr. Hunter also keeps some cattle for 
 winter soiling \ (if that expression can be made use of), which are 
 bought in October and November, and sold in March. The sheep 
 are fattened sometimes sooner, but the above weight of turnip will 
 keep them till that time. The cattle are sold as soon as fattened, 
 if the market offers, and are sooner or later ready, in proportion to 
 the condition they might be in when put up to feedj. 
 
 Mr. Hunter raises from four to five acres of turnips, for one of 
 ruta baga : the latter, however, requires one- third move manure, to 
 produce a full crop. 
 
 The crops Mr. Hunter raises of turnips and of ruta baga, are as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Turnips. 
 
 To?is per Tons per 
 Scotch Acre. English Acre. 
 
 Greatest crops, turnips 38 tons, tops 6 tons, 44 35 
 
 Smallest crops, 32 25 
 
 Average about 38 30 
 
 * At this rate, an acre of turnips fattens from 450 to 500 lbs. of mutton, 
 and nearly as much of beef, which is in the ratio of from 1G to 17 lb. of 
 meat, for every ton of turnips. 
 
 f Soiling is commonly understood to mean, giving succulent herbage to live 
 stock; but if it properly means making dung , it may also be applied to the 
 giving of roots, for the purpose of feeding animals, and providing manure. 
 
 X It is calculated, that an acre of good turnips, would feed two and a 
 half cattle of 30 stone Amsterdam, each, 17£ oz. to the pound, and 1G lbs. 
 to the stone; but say, that only two cattle arc fed on the produce of an 
 acre of turnips; in that case, ifc is contended, that 440 lbs. Amsterdam 
 weight, or more of beef than mutton, would be produced, from equal weights \ 
 of turnips, provided that the turnips be consumed at the stall by the cattle. 
 
Appendix. — Mr. Hunter’s System of Farming. 47 
 
 2. Ruta Baga. 
 
 
 Tons per 
 
 Tons pep 
 
 
 Scotch Acre. 
 
 English Acre . 
 
 Greatest crops, 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 Smalle$t crops, 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 
 Average about 27§ 
 
 20 
 
 Mr. Hunter was accustomed to make the intervals of the rows, 
 from twenty-seven to thirty inches. He found, at that time, the 
 crops to average about three or four ton less per acre than he 
 now does, when he makes the intervals from twenty-four to twen- 
 ty-six inches*. 
 
 Mr. Hunter begins to sow winter wheat after turnips, whenever 
 the weather will permit in January, and continues sowing, when 
 the weather is dry, till about the twelfth of March. He afterwards 
 sows the whole of his turnip break or shift, with summer wheat, 
 of that sort recommended by Sir Joseph Banks. He had it from 
 Lincolnshire several years ago $ and has sown it at all times, during 
 the spring months, but he has now ascertained, that the proper time 
 of sowing it, in the climate of his neighbourhood, is the two last 
 weeks of April. 
 
 The weight of hay, from clover and rye-grass, may average 150 
 stones of twenty-two pound each, per English acre. But this is 
 the weight in spring. If weighed from the field, it would weigh 
 a good deal more, though produced on a soil, not much calculated 
 for a crop of hay, namely, a light soil, incumbent on gravel. Where 
 the soil is of abetter quality, 200 stones have been produced. 
 
 Mr. Hunter sows wheat after clover, about the middle of Janu- 
 ary, if the season will allow, if not, as soon after as possible. He 
 ploughs his clover stubble early in December, so that the snails, or 
 other vermin, bred among the clover, may be turned up and de- 
 stroyed. Formerly, he used to plough and sow in November, but 
 these vermin, not being then in a torpid state, crept into the ground 
 again, and coming out in spring, thinned the wheat materially. 
 Ploughing in December, and sowing in January, or February, ha* 
 answered his purpose of destroying them effectually. 
 
 The produce of wheat after clover, is eight bolls per Scotch acre, 
 or twenty-seven bushels per English acre j that of oats is ten and a 
 half bolls per Scotch acre, or fifty-two bushels per English acre. 
 
 Mr. Hunter pastures very little with cattle or horses ; indeed he 
 proposes giving it up altogether, unless in barren soils, where the 
 plough cannot be introduced , and he means to convert any clover 
 
 * This can only be attempted, however, where the land is in very good 
 condition. Intervals of from twenty-eight to thirty inches are to be pre- 
 ferred, with land not in good condition, or where abundance of manure 
 cannot be given. 
 
48 Appendix. — Mr. Hunter's System of Farming. 
 
 that may be left from soiling, into hay, for his horses in winter and 
 spring. — By giving fourteen pound of oats per day to a horse, with 
 ruta baga, he has been able to save a third part of the allowanc of 
 oats given to his horses, when no hay or ruta baga were used. On 
 the above allowance, Mr. Hunter’s horses are worked nine hours 
 every day, when the weather will permit. 
 
 The manure hitherto given to turnips by Mr. Hunter, has not 
 been so great as he wished 3 but as the quantity on the farm in- 
 creases, a greater quantity has been applied. Mr. Hunter is quite 
 clear, that the land can never be over-manured for turnips. 
 
 The depth of the first furrow, for the turnip fallow, is from nine 
 to twelve inches, where there is a depth of soil 5 the after plough- 
 ing, about six or eight 5 after the turnips have been eaten off, the 
 ploughing ought only to be about three inches for wheat, to prevent 
 the seeds of annual weeds being brought up ; after the clover, four 
 or five inches is a proper depth for oats or wheat. 
 
 The stock kept upon turnips or clover, have the refusal of water 
 at all times when soiling ; cattle in summer must have it. 
 
 When turnips are taken up to the extent of a half, four rows are 
 left, and four taken up alternately 3 if a third part is to be taken, 
 six are left, and three taken alternately. As soon as the turnips or 
 ruta baga begin to run or shoot in spring, they are taken off the 
 field, when the tops and roots are cut off 3 they are then piled up 
 in some place, sheltered from the sun or too much air 5 and being 
 covered with a little straw, and kept moist, they may be preserved 
 as long as they can be wanted 3 the ruta baga will be perfectly 
 good to the first of June. 
 
 Mr. Hunter sows no more barley, than is required for paying 
 his farm-servants their wages in kind, which are partly paid in 
 barley 3 having from experience found, that wheat after clover, 
 sown with barley, often fails on his soil, which he was not 
 aware of, when he first began farming*. 
 
 When circumstances permit, Mr. Hunter limes once in fourteen 
 years, at the rate of 60 barley bolls per English acre. Lime ought 
 to be applied to all lands, under a rotation of four crops, where 
 white and green crops are sown alternately. 
 
 The weight of potatoes per English acre, under good culture, 
 and a proper soil, is from eight to ten ton. Mr. Hunter was ac- 
 customed, before he found that horses throve on ruta baga. to give 
 them potatoes occasionally, though they did not thrive so well on 
 them, even when steamed, as he could have wished. He has now 
 laid potatoes entirely aside, unless those raised for swine, finding 
 ruta baga greatly superior for horses. 
 
 It is proper to explain the system adopted by Mr. Hunter, for 
 cultivating light land. The basis of that system is, 1. Alternate 
 
 * It is an old Scotch maxim, “ He that saws wheat after bear, had need of 
 meikle gear;” or, he should be a rich man, who sows wheat after barley. 
 But it is probable, that on rich land, this rule need not be enforced. 
 
Appendix. — Mr. Hunter's System of Farming . 49 
 
 white and green crops ; 2. Converting nearly the whole of the 
 straw produced on his farm into dung ; 3. Ploughing deep at par- 
 ticular periods ; and 4. Soiling both summer and winter. 
 
 1. The rotation he follows is, 1. Turnips ; 2. Wheat; 3. Clo- 
 ver ; 4. Wheat or oats ; half of the clover being pastured with 
 sheep, whilst the other half is used in soiling work-horses. The 
 clover stubble is broken up for wheat or oats, generally in the pro- 
 portion of two-thirds for wheat. Under the above rotation, the 
 crops, on an average, have increased in produce considerably. 
 
 2. Mr. Hunter’s object is, invariably to convert almost the whole 
 oj his straw into manure ; for by giving plenty of green food, very 
 little of the straw is eaten by cattle or sheep, either in summer or 
 winter. Horses, indeed, require at all times some straw, along 
 with ruta baga, more especially in November, and the first months 
 of winter, when rutabaga has not reached its full growth, a few 
 of these roots are given, and a greater proportion of straw or hay 
 is wanted. If any considerable quantity of clover can be con- 
 verted into hay, the straw will be perfectly unnecessary, unless for 
 litter. 
 
 3. Soon after Mr. blunter began this system, he thought that the 
 turnip, and other crops, were rather falling off, but fortunately he 
 discovered a remedy, which was, to plough very deep the first fur- 
 row given to the turnip fallow. This he did, whatever was the 
 depth of the soil, sometimes using three or four horses in the plough. 
 Since he adopted that practice, all the crops are more certain, sel- 
 dom if ever failing, unless owing to the inclemency of the season, 
 and never from being often repeated. 
 
 4. Mr. Hunter makes it a rule, to soil both summer and winter, 
 preserving as much straw from the winter soiling-fold, as will be 
 sufficient for littering horses, young cattle, and swine, during the 
 summer ; giving always plenty of green food, chiefly clover. Soil- 
 ing in an open fold, with cut clover, in summer, does not require 
 so much straw, as winter soiling with turnip. He has not ascer- 
 tained the proportions exactly, but thinks, that one-half will suffice 
 in summer, than what is required in winter. 
 
 The stock are fed in the following manner : They have always 
 abundance of green food or roots. One-half, or sometimes one- 
 third of all the turnips produced upon the farm, are carted to the 
 fold or straw-yard, to sheep, young cattle, and swine. The swine 
 have at all times clover in summer, and turnips or ruta baga in win- 
 ter, together with potatoes, for those meant to be fattened. The 
 working horses have also half a bushel each of ruta baga during 
 winter and spring, so that all the stock are soiled, the milch cows 
 excepted, who get the whole chaff, and other refuse from the 
 threshing- mill, and the sheep, when they are pastured on clover, 
 to consolidate the ground. Within these few last years, instead of 
 feeding his pigs with raw or boiled potatoes, Mr. Hunter gives them 
 one-halt Swedish turnip. He has a boiler filled with the turnips, 
 sliced, to which a board is fitted, to prevent the steam from going 
 appendix.] E 
 
50 Appendix. — Produce , Expence, and Surplus of Farms . 
 
 off; a tin pipe is let into it of sufficient length to reach the steamer, 
 into which the potatoes are put ; by which means, both potatoes 
 and turnips are done at once. They are both then put into a tub, 
 and mixed together with the water in which the turnips were boiled, 
 forming a mess, which far exceeds giving either by itself. The 
 animals eat it greedily, and thrive apace. The water in which the 
 Swedish turnips are boiled is found to be extremely nuorishing. 
 
 Mr. Hunter is decidedly of opinion, that any soil adapted for 
 turnips, and which will produce seven bolls of wheat per Scotch 
 acre ( or say 24 bushels per English acre), or nine bolls of oats 
 per Scotch (or 44 bushels per English acre), cannot be put under 
 a more profitable system, or rendered more productive, than in the 
 way he has adopted. By the frequent ploughings given to the tur- 
 nip break or shift, the land is made perfectly clean. Turnip is the 
 only crop, for which, according to Mr. Hunter’s experience, land 
 cannot be over -ploughed. So much ploughing for turnip, would, 
 in his opinion, be hurtful to the after crops, were it not, that one- 
 half or more of his turnips, are eaten on the ground with sheep, 
 which brings it to a proper consistence for the succeeding crops of 
 wheat, &c. Where land has been over-cropped, or it may be 
 rather said, over-ploughed, farmers will find two or three years’ pas- 
 ture necessary, to consolidate the soil ; but he is so partial to soil- 
 ing, that he thinks two years’ soiling, preferable to two years’ pas- 
 turing, even though the second year’s crop should be greatly defi- 
 cient ; as he is certain, from his whole practice, of constantly 
 having oats after cut clover, as well as the other crops, fully equal 
 to those after pasture, and that the produce will be equally great, 
 during the whole after crops in the rotation. 
 
 This idea of soiling two years in succession, instead of pasturing 
 the second year, is justified by the opinion, that one acre soiled, 
 is equal to two pastured *. 
 
 No. XI . — A Communication on the Produce, Expence, and 
 Surplus of Farms ; including the Comparative Value of 
 several Rotations of Crops . By John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 The produce, expence, and surplus of farms, depend on so many 
 circumstances of an uncertain nature, that the following statements 
 ought to be considered only as approximations towards truth. The 
 intelligence of farmers, and their constitutional energies, are as dif- 
 ferent as their persons ; the effects of these are not subjects of esti- 
 mate, and yet, they have important consequences on the produce, ex- 
 pence, and profits of farms. Neither must it be expected of these 
 statements, to apply accurately to the case of any particular per- 
 son ; but rather as applicable to the general run of husbandmen. 
 
 * This is a most excellent paper ; few whole volumes contain so much va- 
 luable information. For the south of England, l should try winter tares 
 before turnips. — J. M. 
 
Appendix. — Produce , Expence, and Surplus of Farms . 51 
 
 And even to do this, will require a rotation of crops to be assumed ; 
 for it is certain, that as much depends on the rotation of crops as 
 on any other part of the farmer’s profession. 
 
 It is intended to submit to the consideration of the reader, four 
 or five of the rotations now in use ; and in that manner, render it 
 obvious, that one or other of them may be applied to the case of 
 very many cultivators of arable land. 
 
 These estimates are purposely selected from many others, as 
 being suitable to to the cases of such farms as are 20 or more miles 
 from London, or any such very valuable market j but within five 
 or six miles of a tolerably good market town. 
 
 A specification of the labour to be performed, and the expence 
 of it , the quantity and value of the produce as well as that of 
 the surplus of each crop, may be looked for under the several 
 heads of fallow, tares, turnips, barley, clover, and wheat. To 
 avoid repetition, the amount only in money of each crop, will be 
 inserted in this place. 
 
 Table A. 
 
 Value of Expence Surplus. 
 
 Produce. of it. 
 
 1 . Fallow, costs about 7/., but in this place 
 only 4 l. will be inserted, as the other 3l. 
 are included in the barley, or other suc- 
 ceeding corn crops, 
 
 2. Tares, 5 3 2 
 
 3. Turnips, 5 3 2 
 
 4. Barley, 8 3 5 
 
 5. Clover, 7 3 4 
 
 5. Wheat, 12 3 9 
 
 Near any great town, where hay, straw, and green crops are 
 saleable, these several sums would be very much increased. 
 
 The first estimate is for a rotation of fallow, barley, clover, and 
 wheat in four years ; or, it would do equally well for a rotation of 
 fallow, wheat, clover, and oats. The account of this rotation, col- 
 lected from Table A, shews the produce of four years to be 2 Jl. 
 which is annually 61. 15s. The expences are 1 3 /., or annually 3l. 5s. 
 which deducted from 61. 15s., leaves 3l. 10s. as the annual surplus 
 per acre. The last sum is applicable to the following charges : 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 One third part thereof to the subsistence of the far - 1 
 
 mer’s family, in the character of profit and in- > 13 4 
 
 terest, per acre, ) 
 
 Rent, another third of the surplus, 1 3 4 
 
 Tithes, taxes, and assessments of all sorts payable 
 by the farmers, amount to about 53 per cent, on 
 
 Carried forward, 
 E 2 
 
 £2 0 8 
 
52 Apendix. — Produce , Expence, and Surplus of Farms. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Brought over, 2 6 8 
 
 their rents. And the tenant’s repairs, thefts of 
 cattle, crops, furniture, and implements, dete- 
 rioration of all sorts, bad debts, and other losses 
 of several kinds, as well as insurance from loss by 
 fire ; together with the taxes thereon, are supposed 
 to be worth 47 per cent, on the rent. 
 
 In this manner, it is endeavoured to be shown, 
 
 that tithe, taxes, assessments, repairs, losses, in- f 134 
 surance, and other charges just enumerated, are £ 
 equivalent to the rent, 3 
 
 The whole surplus per acre £ 3 10 0 
 
 The farmer’s profits of 1 1. 35 . Ad. per acre, on a farm, suppose 
 of 200 acres, will amount annually to 233/. 4?. ; and as the fallow 
 system admits few cattle, 7 /. per acre, or 1400/. would be a suffi- 
 cient capital, and on that sum the profits is 16 /. 135. per cent. 
 
 The second Estimate, is for a rotation of either tares or turnips, 
 barley, clover, and wheat in four years. 
 
 This rotation is rather deservedly a favourite with many agricul- 
 turists ; and the comparative value of it, collected from Table A, 
 shews the produce of the four years to be 32/., or annually 8 /. The 
 expences are 3 /., which deducted from 8 /., leaves 5l. as the average 
 annual surplus per acre. The last sum is a fund for the following 
 charges : 
 
 Tithes, taxes, assessments, repairs, losses, insurance, 1 £ s. d. 
 
 and such charges as are more fully specified in the > 113 4 
 
 first estimate, one- third of 5/. is per acre . . . . J 
 
 Profits and interest, 1 13 4 
 
 Rent, 1 13 4 
 
 £5 0 0 
 
 The profits of 1 /. 135. Ad. per acre, on a farm, suppose of 200 
 acres, would amount annually to 333 /. 65 . 8 d. and as the farm in 
 this rotation would support more live stock than in the former case, 
 a capital of 1 600/. may be necessary, and that would yield a profit 
 of 20/. 165. per cent. 
 
 The third Estimate , is for a rotation of tares and turnips in succes- 
 sion the first year ; second year barley ; third year clover ; and the 
 fourth year wheat; or the second year may be wheat ; the third 
 clover ; and the fourth oats. This rotation is of the first rate ex- 
 cellence: and it may be collected from Table A, that the produce 
 of the five crops in four succeeding years, are worth 37/., or they 
 average annually gl. 5s. The expences are 15/., or, annually. 
 
Appendix. — Produce, Expence , and Surplus of Farms. 53 
 3 1. 155., which deducted from Ql. 5s., leaves 5/. 105. as the surplus. 
 
 applicable to the following charges : 
 
 Tithes, taxes, assessments, repairs, losses, insurance, ^ £ s. d. 
 
 and other charges specified in the first estimate, > 116 8 
 
 one-third of the 5l. 105. or J 
 
 Profits and interest, per annum I 1 6 8 
 
 Rent, per annum 1 l£) 8 
 
 £5 10 0 
 
 The profits of 1 1. lfrs. 8 d. per annum, on a farm of, suppose 200 
 acres, would amount to 366/. 135. Ad. j and as the farm would, in 
 this case, support considerably more live stock, a capital of 1 800/. 
 may be necessary : and even that would yield a profit of 20/. 7s. 6d. 
 per cent. 
 
 The fourth Estimate. — Suppose a farmer, at many miles distance 
 from London, or any very good market, and where he is confined to 
 consume all his crops upon the farm, should adopt the rotation of 
 tares, turnips, and wheat, and obtain these three crops every two 
 years, what would be the result ? It may be collected from Table A, 
 that the produce of these three crops are 22/., or, annually, 11/. per 
 acre. Theexpences of them are 9/., or, annually, 4/. 105., which 
 deducted from 11/., leaves 61. 105. as the average annual surplus, 
 applicable to the following charges : 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 One-third thereof for tithes, taxes, &c. as in the") « . 
 
 former cases, would be, per acre, J 
 
 One-third thereof for profit and interest, 2 3 4 
 
 One- third thereof for rent, 2 3 4 
 
 Together £6 10 O 
 
 The profits of 2/. 35. Ad. per acre on a farm of, suppose 200 acres, 
 would amount to 433/. 6s. 8 d. j and as the farm would, in this in- 
 stance, require and support much more live stock than in the 
 former cases, a capital of 10/. per acre, or 2000/. may be neces- 
 sary : and even that would yield a profit of 21/. 135. Ad. per cent. 
 
 The relative merits of the foregoing four or five rotations of 
 crops, are rendered more obvious by the following summary obser- 
 vations : — The crops are supposed to be equally productive in each 
 of the rotations ; and the money is in all cases extracted from 
 Table A. This was done in order to shew the highest degree of 
 fairness in making out the comparative estimates. It shall now be 
 shewn, that 
 
 No. I. A farm of 200 acres, in a rotation of naked 1 
 
 fallow, and 3 crops in 4 years, may yield > £ 466 
 annually, in profits and rent, 233/. each, or ) 
 
54 
 
 Appendix. — Produce arid Expence . 
 
 No. II. The same farm, with one crop of either 
 winter tares, or turnips, and the like 3 other 
 crops, in 4 years, would yield annually, in 
 
 profits and rent, 333/. each, or 
 
 No. III. The same farm, with the two crops of winter } 
 tares and turnips in succession, and the like f 
 3 other crops, in 4 years, would yield an- T ' 
 nually, in profits and rent, 366/. each, or j 
 No. IV. The same farm, cropped with winter tares, T 
 
 turnips, and wheat, every two years, would f qqq 
 yield annually, in profits and rent, 433/. f 
 each, or J 
 
 This statement proves, that even in country places, the most 
 distant from market, the very short rotation of, 1. Tares, and 
 turnips ; and, 2. Wheat, is greatly the most profitable to the 
 farmers, and advantageous to the landlords} as well as vastly 
 superior, in the valuable properties of cleansing the soil, and enrich- 
 ing it, to any other rotation which has been compared with it. 
 And much as green crops are superior to the fallow system, in these 
 cases of distance from market, they have a still greater advantage, 
 where their situation is contiguous to a large town*. 
 
 No. XII. — On General Statements of Produce and Expellee. 
 
 It being essential for every farmer, to prepare an annual 
 statement of the produce, expences, and profit derived from the 
 land he occupies j as a model for such statements, the following 
 account is given, of a farm in East Lothian, consisting of 553 
 Scotch, or 691 English acres, as drawn up by that intelligent 
 gentleman-farmer, George Rennie, Esq. of Thantassie. 
 
 Before detailing the particulars, it is proper to state, that as the 
 farm contains different soils, a part of it is managed according to 
 the four-course shift, and the remainder according to a six-course 
 shift : 
 
 The first part, which consists of about 252 Scotch acres, is 
 managed in the following manner: 1. Fallow} — 2. Wheat } — 
 
 3. Clover and rye-grass, either soiled, or converted into hay } — 
 
 4. Oats} — 5. Beans, drilled and horse-hoed, and taresf } — 6. Wheat. 
 The second part consists of about 248 Scotch acres, and is cropped 
 
 in the following manner : 1. Turnips} — 2. Thirty-one acres win- 
 ter wheat, sown in spring, and 31 acres of barley} — 3. Clover and 
 rye-grass, generally pastured }— 4. Oats. 
 
 * These observations, however, are best adapted for the southern dis- 
 tricts of England, and, in particular, for the neighbourhood of the metro- 
 polis. 
 
 t Five acres are annually sown with tares, in the field destined for beans. 
 
55 
 
 Appendix.-— Produce and Expence, 
 
 Besides the above, there are about 53 acres kept in perennial 
 pasture, which is broken up when occasion requires. The above 
 is the general system of management adopted upon this farm- 
 though at particular times, it may be partially departed from, ac- 
 cording to seasons and circumstances. 
 
 An extensive distillery being carried on upon Mr. Rennie’s pro- 
 perty, a considerable quantity of dung is thereby furnished. The 
 benefit derived from this source is no doubt of great importance, 
 therefore a charge in the account of expences is made against the 
 farm, for the increased quantity of manure obtained by means of 
 distillery materials. 
 
 I. Table of Produce. 
 
 1st, On Clay Soils, arranged according to the Six Courses. 
 
 1. 42 Acres fallow. £ 
 
 2. 42 acres of wheat after fallow, at 1 0 bolls, is 420 \ . n 
 
 bolls, at 40.9. per boll, - - J 
 
 3. 42 acres of clover and rye-grass made into hay, 1 
 
 200 stones per acre, is 8400 stones, at 10cf. / 
 
 4. 42 acres of oats, 10 bolls, is 420 bolls, at 2 5s. 
 
 5. 42 acres beans, 8 bolls, is 336 bolls, at 24?. (in-1 
 
 eluding 5 acres tares*), - J 
 
 6. 42 acres wheat, 8 bolls per acre, is 336 bolls, at 405. 672 
 
 350 
 
 525 
 
 403 
 
 d. 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 252 
 
 £ 27 go 4 0 
 
 2dly, On Light Soils, managed according to the Four-course 
 Shift . 
 
 1. 62 acres turnips, at 10/. - - £620 
 
 3 1 acres winter wheat, sown’ in spring, at 8 1 ~ 
 
 . bolls, is 248 bolls, at 405. - J ^ 
 
 1 31 acres barley, at 10 bolls, is 310 bolls, at 305 . 465 
 
 3. 62 acres of clover and rye grass pastured, at 7I. 43 4 
 
 4. 62 acres oats, at 10 bolls, is 620 bolls, at 25s. 775 
 
 
 248 
 
 Value of 53 acres kept in perennial pasture, at 4/. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 at 41. | 
 
 £2790 o 0 
 
 212 0 0 
 
 * Though the tares arc soiled, it was thought best to state their value the 
 same as the beans. 
 
56 
 
 Appendix. — Produce and Expence, 
 
 Abstract . 
 
 Value of produce raised on the clay soils. 
 
 Ditto of ditto raised on the light soils. 
 
 Ditto of perennial pasture. 
 
 Total value of produce, £ 5/92 4 
 
 From which deduct the amount of rent and ex- 1 514 g jg 
 
 pences, as per the second table, - / 
 
 Net projit, - £645 7 2 
 
 £2790 4 O 
 
 2790 O O 
 
 212 O O 
 O 
 10 
 
 The net profit appears to be 1 /. 4$, 2 \d. per Scotch acre, (or 
 195. 4\f per English acre), which is a trifle more than eleven per 
 cent, upon the capital stock, (besides the legal interest), supposing 
 the amount of that stock to be 6000/. 
 
 II. Table of Rent and Expenc.es . 
 
 Seed for Six-course Shift. 
 
 Wheat for 42 Scotch acres, at 3 firlots; 31} } £63 0 0 
 
 bolls, at 405. 
 
 42 
 
 ► 45 18 
 
 Value of seed, 
 
 2. Clover and rye*grass for 42 acres, at 205. 
 
 3. Oats for 42 acres, at 14 pecks per acre, is 36} 1 
 
 bolls, at 255. - - - } 
 
 4. Beans for 42 acres, at 19 pecks per acre, is49l 
 
 bolls 14 pecks, at 245., including the price of >59 1 7 0 
 
 seed for five acres of tares*, - j 
 
 5. Wheat for 42 acres, at one boll, is 42 bolls, at 405. 34 O 0 
 
 Seed for Four-course Shift. 
 
 1. For turnips, 62 acres, at 2 lb. * - 6 4 0 
 
 ( Wheat, 3 1 acres, at 1 boll, is 3 1 bolls, at 405. 62 0 O 
 
 2. < Barley, 31 acres, at 9 pecks, is 17 bolls 7 pecks, 1 ^ 
 
 l at 30 5. j 
 
 3. Clover and rye-grass seed, 62 acres, at 205. 62 0 
 
 4. Oats, 62 acres, at 14 pecks, is 54} bolls, at 255. 67 16 
 
 4 2 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 £519 O 2 
 
 Value of Hay and Corn consumed by Horses. 
 
 1. Hay, 2000 Scots stones, at 10 d. - £ 83 6 
 
 2. Corn, 350 bolls, at 255. - - 437 10 
 
 3. Clover and rye-grass used in soiling 10 acres, 4 g0 Q 
 
 at 8/. - - - - J 
 
 4. Tares, 5 acres, at 8/. - - 40 0 
 
 £640 16 8 
 
 * The seed tares for an acre, are charged at the same price as beans, it 
 being well known that a much smaller quantity of tares is required lor 
 seeding the ground, than of beans. 
 
Appendix. — Management of Extensive Property . 57 
 
 Expences of Labour. 
 
 1. Overseer, - 
 
 2. 15 men servants, at 35/. per annum, 
 
 3. 2 labourers and a boy, - 
 
 4. Cleaning turnips, - 
 
 5. Harvest-work, besides what is furnished by ser- 
 
 vants on the farm, 
 
 6. Threshing, cleaning, and marketing, - SO 0 0 
 
 7. Smith, carpenter, and saddler, - - 100 0 O 
 
 8. Incidents, - - - - 30 0 O 
 
 £1125 0 0 
 
 £50 O O 
 525 O 0 
 70 0 O 
 
 50 O O 
 
 General Articles . 
 
 .1 Rent 553 acres, at 4/. per Scotch, or 3/. 4s. \ j, „ 
 per English acre, - - J ot 
 
 2. Assessed taxes, and statute labour, - 50 O O 
 
 3. Dung from distillery, - 200 0 0 
 
 N. B. The original materials furnished by the farm 
 
 is supposed to be increased in value to the above 
 amount, by being manufactured at the distillery. 
 
 4. Interest on capital stock, say on 6000 l. 300 0 O 
 
 5. Tear and wear of perishable stock, - 100 O O 
 
 £ 2862 0 O 
 
 Abstract of the ivhole . 
 
 Value of seed, 
 
 — of horse corn, &c. 
 
 of servants’ labour. 
 
 General articles, such as rent, &c. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 519 O 2 
 640 16 8 
 
 1125 0 O 
 
 2862 0 0 
 
 £5146 16 10 
 
 No. XIII. — On the Management of an Extensive Property . 
 
 Whatever may be the case in regard to small properties, or 
 those of a moderate size, it is evident that a great estate, spread over 
 different counties, and perhaps situated in various parts of the Unit- 
 ed Kingdom, is the most likely to be advantageously managed, 
 when the proprietor calls in the assistance of two or three intelli- 
 gent friends, to aid him in conducting so complicated a concern. 
 No individual can be equal to such a task, unless he is in the prime 
 of life, dedicates his whole time to the business, and gives up every 
 other occupation whereas, in this country, it is expected, that 
 
58 Appendix. — Management of Extensive Property . 
 
 great landholders, should direct their attention to public, as well 
 as private matters, being generally Members of either of the two 
 Houses of Parliament. 
 
 Wherever an estate is of great extent, indeed, it has in general 
 been found expedient by the proprietor, to nominate two or three 
 commissioners, to assist him in its management. It is necessary 
 that such commissioners, should be men of prudence, possessed of 
 comprehensive minds, and particularly distinguished by their know- 
 ledge of agriculture and rural concerns ; they ought to make them- 
 selves thoroughly acquainted with all the affairs of the estate, by 
 means of proper documents, such as reports on the boundaries ; — 
 state of the farms ; — nature of the leases, and covenants in them ; 
 —number of farmers, cottagers, and live-stock ; — the state of cul- 
 ture ; — rotations adopted, &c. ; — with such plans of improvement, 
 as the alteration in the size of farms, and the boundaries of each, 
 may render practicable. 
 
 They ought likewise to have correct reports regarding the titles 
 to the estate; — the political and other privileges to which it is en- 
 titled; also, detailed information, in proper documents, regard- 
 ing the state of the woods, fishings, mines, drainages, roads, 
 bridges, &c. 
 
 These reports, properly arranged, and inserted in books, accom- 
 panied by sufficient references, would give a view of a great 
 estate, capable of bringing every important particular under the 
 eye of the proprietor, or of his commissioners, at a single glance ; 
 whilst, at the same time, a curious and interesting account, of a 
 great portion of a country, might thus be preserved, for future in- 
 formation. 
 
 In conducting the business of such a property, every legal ques- 
 tion, and every demand of a tenant, or of a neighbour; every 
 question about roads, bridges, churches, tithes, stipends, &c. will 
 thus be brought under the consideration of intelligent men, capable 
 of deciding, and judging impartially, on the points that come before 
 them. 
 
 Under the superintendence of such commissioners, the affairs of 
 a great property, would be as well conducted, as on the best ma- 
 naged small, or moderate-sized estates ; while the duties of the pro- 
 prietor, would principally be, to carry those exercises of true bene- 
 volence into effect, which would consist, — in softening those stricter 
 decisions, which such a commission might conceive itself bound to 
 give;— or in granting those marks of approbation and reward, 
 which, when bestowed by the proprietor himself, are the most 
 likely to produce beneficial consequences. 
 
Appendix. — Importance of Distillery to Agriculture. 59 
 
 No. XIV . — Estimate of the Quantity of Land required to 
 produce the Wheat necessary to supply the Market oj Lon- 
 don with Flour , — and on the different Sorts of Wheat sold 
 at Mark-Lane, London . 
 
 The weekly consumption of flour in London, is, on an 1 
 
 average, in sacks, } 
 
 The number of quarters of wheat required to produce') 
 
 that quantity of flour, is J 
 
 The total quantity of wheat required, in quarters, perl 
 
 annum, J 
 
 The total number of acres, at twenty bushels per acre, 1 
 statute measure, j 
 
 15.000 
 
 14.000 
 728,000 
 242,666 
 
 On the different Sorts of Wheat sold in Mark-Lane. 
 
 Weight of the Cape of Good Hope wheat, 64 lb. per bushel. 
 
 Average weight of Dantzic wheat, from 561b. to 57 lb. 
 
 Weight of English wheat, of crop 1817, 5plb. 
 
 But owing to the greater lightness of the skin, or hull of the 
 Dantzic wheat, it produces more flour than the heaviest English. 
 
 In Poland, the wheat is covered with snow in the winter season, 
 and when the summer does commence, the weather is regular, 
 which greatly tends to promote and improve the quality of the 
 grain. 
 
 No. XV. — On the Importance of the Distillery to British 
 Agriculture. 
 
 (Extract from Burke’s Works, 4to. Edition, Vol. IV. p.284. — “On the 
 Stoppage of the Distillery.”) 
 
 “Another cause, and that not of inconsiderable operation, 
 tended to produce a scarcity in flesh provisions. It is one that, on 
 many accounts, cannot be too much regretted ; and the rather, as it 
 was the sole cause of scarcity in that article, which arose from the 
 proceedings of men themselves — I mean the stop put to the dis- 
 tillery. 
 
 “The hogs, (and that would be sufficient), which were fed with 
 the waste wash of that produce, did not demand the fourth part of 
 the corn used by farmers in fattening them. The spirit was nearly 
 so much clear gain to the nation. It is an odd way of making 
 flesh cheap, to stop or check the distillery. 
 
 “ The distillery in itself produces an immense article of trade, 
 almost all over the world : to Africa, to North America, and to 
 
GO Appendix. — Importance of Distillery to Agriculture . 
 
 various parts of Europe. It is of great use, next to food itself, to 
 our fisheries, and to our whole navigation. A great part, of the 
 distillery was carried on by damaged corn, unfit for bread, and by 
 barley and malt of the lowest quality. These things could not be 
 more unexception ably employed. The domestic consumption of 
 spirits produced, without complaints, a very great revenue, appli- 
 cable, if we pleased, in bounties, to the bringing corn from other 
 places, far beyond the value of that consumed in making it, or to 
 the encouragement of its increased production at home. 
 
 " As to what is said, in a physical and moral view, against the 
 home consumption of spirits, experience has long since taught me, 
 very little to respect the declamations on that subject. Whether 
 the thunders of the laws, or the thunder of eloquence, t( is hurled 
 on gin" always, I am thunder proof. The alembick, in my mind, 
 has furnished to the world a far greater benefit and blessings, than 
 if the opus maximum had been really found by chemistry, and, like 
 Midas, we could turn every thing into gold. 
 
 “ Undoubtedly there may be a dangerous abuse in the excess of 
 spirits ; and at one time, I am ready to believe the abuse was great. 
 When spirits are cheap, the business of drunkenness is achieved 
 with little time or labour $ but that evil I consider to be wholly 
 done away. Observations for the last forty years, and very par- 
 ticularly for the last thirty, have furnished me with ten instances of 
 drunkenness from other causes, for one from this. Ardent spirit is 
 a great medicine often to remove distempers, much more frequently 
 to prevent them, or to chase them away in their beginnings. It 
 is not nutritive in any great degree. But if not food, it greatly 
 alleviates the want of it. It invigorates the stomach, for the di- 
 gestion of poor meagre diet, not easily alliable to the human consti- 
 tution. Wine, the poor cannot touch. Beer, as applied to many 
 occasions, (as among seamen and fishermen, for instance), will by 
 no means do the business. Let me, add, what wits inspired with 
 champaign and claret will turn into ridicule, it is a medicine for 
 the mind. Under the pressure of the cares and sorrows of our 
 mortal condition, men have at all times, and in all countries, called 
 in some physical aid to their moral consolations — wine, beer, 
 opium, brandy, or tobacco. 
 
 “ I consider, therefore, the stopping of the distillery, economi- 
 cally, commercially, medicinally, and in some degree morally too, 
 as a measure rather well meant, than well considered. It is too 
 precious a sacrifice to prejudice.” 
 
 Experiments with Sugar Wash. 
 
 Mr. Warren, of Knightsbridge, finding that his employers, 
 Messrs. Smith and Harrington, of Brentford, were likely to suffer 
 much from the sudden stoppage of the distillery, in the year 1796, 
 after they had laid in a great store of cattle, which they had intend- 
 
Appendix. — Importance of Distillery to Agriculture . 61 
 
 ed to feed with the refuse of their distillery j he resolved to try 
 whether the spent wash of the sugar distillery, with the assistance 
 of hay instead of grains, would not answer. The experiment was 
 tried on a great scale, for he fed that year, on that plan, about 250 
 bullocks. He kept them for about four months, and the average 
 increased price was about 8/. per head. But the hay was then 
 only from 4l. to 4/. 10$. per load, and from 30 to 40 quarters of 
 brewers’ grain, were given them per day, and though the distillers 
 only charged 20$. for the wash given to each bullock, yet he lost 
 money by the attempt ; at the present price of hay, therefore, 
 namely, 61. per load, it is his opinion, that it would be better to 
 throw the wash into the Thames, than to attempt to fatten cattle 
 with hay, and the spent wash of the sugar distillery, even with the 
 assistance of brewers’ grains. 
 
 On the Value of the Refuse of the Distillery. 
 
 Messrs. Smith and Harrington, of Brentford, on the refuse of 
 25,750 quarters of barley, fattened 810 oxen, which averaged 110 
 stone each. They were in tolerable condition when taken in to 
 fatten. In 20 weeks, they received an addition of flesh, at the rate 
 of 35 stone each ox, but as they ate some hay, 5 stone are de- 
 ducted on that account, leaving 30 stone per head, as the produce 
 of the distillery. 810 beasts, at 30 stone, give 24,300 stone of 
 beef, from 25,750 quarters of barley, which, at a rough estimate, 
 might be called a stone of beef from a quarter of corn. 
 
 If the total consumption of barley in the distilleries of England, 
 be taken at 300,000 quarters, it implies a production of beef to the 
 amount of 283,000 stone, or 2,264,000 pounds weight, — which 
 would be no inconsiderable counterbalance for the loss of the 
 300,000 quarters of barley, and would furnish much more accep- 
 table food to the people of this country. 
 
 A Statement of the Taxes paid on Barley, per Quarter , when 
 used in the Distillery. 
 
 Per Quarter. 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1. Malt, duty at 10/. 8$. on six quarters of malt, 
 
 and 8 of raw grain, 
 
 2. Spirits, duty at 7s. 3d. per gallon, for 18 gallons 
 
 per quarter, the proportion of 252 gallons for 14 
 quarters, 
 
 0 14 10£ 
 6 10 6 
 
 Total per quarter. 
 
 £7 5 41 
 
62 
 
 Appendix. — On Drilling in Scotland. 
 
 A State of the Tax, per Acre, on Land growing Barley 
 consumed in the Distillery. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 d. 
 5 
 
 9i 
 
 14 
 
 H 
 
 For 4 quarters (a moderate crop), the income deriv- 1 
 
 ed by the Treasury, is J ^ 
 
 For 5 quarters, 36 
 
 For 6 quarters, 43 
 
 For 7 quarters (which Mr. Eyles, of Hants, calls an “ 
 average crop in that county, see Report, p. 138) 
 
 :} 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 50 17 
 
 This is besides the land-tax, the property tax, the tax on horses 
 employed in husbandry, and various other indirect sources of re- 
 venue. 
 
 The Result . — A quarter of barley, after being used in the distil- 
 lery, produces near a stone of beef; 300,000 quarters, would 
 therefore produce 2S3,000 stone, or 2,264,000 pounds of beef. 
 Every quarter of barley pays of duty Jl. 5s. 4|d.; a crop of 4 quar- 
 ters would produce 29/. I*. 5d . ; and of 7 quarters, no less a sum 
 than 50/. 17*. 5\d. per acre, of revenue to the public. 
 
 No. XVI . — On Drilling in Scotland. — By a Scotch Fanner. 
 
 The general question is, whether broad-cast sowing, by which 
 all the surface is more or less regularly occupied with plants j or 
 sowing in rows, with intervals between them, of a greater or 
 smaller size, for the admission of atmospheric influence, and for 
 hoeing, be the preferable practice. 
 
 In regard to the argument, that drilling is the preferable prac- 
 tice, because the seed is better covered, and deposited at a more 
 equal depth ; it is to be observed, that by the use of properly con- 
 structed harrows, lighter or heavier, and longer or shorter, accord- 
 ing to the nature of the soil, seed will be covered sufficiently; and 
 in regard to the seed being deposited at a given depth , some lati- 
 tude may be allowed in this respect, as the superincumbent soil 
 is not always of the same density or gravity, nor in the same state 
 of pulverization. 
 
 Drilling is not applicable to a tough old sward, or to a lay or 
 layer of three years or more, without much preparation, and much 
 previous labour and expence, such as paring and burning, trench- 
 ing, or repeated ploughings. 
 
 Drilling is not applicable to soil incumbered with stones, nor 
 where the land is very steep. 
 
 Drilling is not well calculated for strong clays ; nor where the 
 wetness of the soil, requires the ridges to be much raised, so as 
 
Appendix. — On Drilling in Scotland . 63 
 
 to describe the segment of a circle ; at least this is the opinion of 
 the most intelligent farmers in Scotland, whatever may be effected 
 in the superior climate of England. — To reduce a strong clay soil to 
 the requisite degree of fineness, would require much additional la- 
 bour, — is impracticable in an unfavourable season, — and while this 
 labour is going forward, or perhaps nearly completed, and the soil 
 ready for the seed, the fall of a few hours’ heavy rain, would, by 
 again rendering the surface soil adhesive and lumpy, make all this 
 labour useless. — Add to this, that our seasons in Scotland are too 
 precarious to allow of the slow process of drilling, in the best man- 
 ner, for wheat, large tracts in October and November, which had 
 been previously cropped with beans. At this season, it is not a 
 matter of choice, but of necessity, to put in the wheat, with the 
 least possible delay. 
 
 There is every reason therefore to believe, that more wheat will 
 not be obtained by drilling the well-dressed fallows of East-Lothian 
 and Berwickshire, than under the present system of broad-casting ; 
 at least, not as much more, as would pay for the additional labour 
 it would require, and the greater risk from the seasons. 
 
 Drilling also, is of little or no advantage after turnips, properly 
 dressed, and eaten on the ground by sheep ; and the reason is, that 
 broad- casting is cheaper, and not less productive, when, if the soil 
 is not ploughed deeper than before, which on this occasion ought 
 never to be the case, no annual weeds will rise, to render hoeing 
 necessary. — Nor are annual weeds common after a lay or layer that 
 has been pastured for some years, nor after a heavy crop of clover 
 cut for hay. But drilling seems to be advisable in the following 
 cases. 
 
 1 . When wheat is sown after turnips, in autumn or winter , and 
 grass-seeds are to be sown among it in spring. The opportunity 
 given by drilling, to hoe in the spring, even though there be little 
 danger of weeds, is desirable, for the sake of covering the grass- 
 seeds, which do not always succeed well on winter-sown wheat, 
 when harrowed, and even harrowing is sometimes inexpedient. 
 
 2. When corn succeeds beans, (if the soil be not too strong a 
 clay, nor too wet), potatoes, turnips carried off, pease, a deficient 
 crop of clover, and generally, whenever the soil is infested either 
 with annual or with root-weeds, drilling may be adopted with 
 advantage j for though it will not afford an opportunity for destroy- 
 ing the latter, yet the hoeing will keep them down, and lessen the 
 njury the crop would otherwise sustain from them. 
 
 3. When dung is applied to a spring sown crop of corn, unless 
 the dung be completely rotted. Such dung is never quite free from 
 seeds. 
 
 Lastly, Even where land is so stiff, as to require occasionally a 
 summer fallow, drilling might be adopted on the fallow with ad- 
 vantage, when the season will permit, especially when (as is com- 
 monly the case) dung is applied, and grass-seeds are to be sown in 
 the spring. If the dung be not well rotted, the reason is the same 
 
64 Appendix. — On Drilling in Scotland . 
 
 in this case, as in the former 5— by hoeing in the spring, the seed 
 plants, and some of the roots which the soil may contain, will be 
 got rid of. As to the grass-seeds, that they will thrive better after 
 the soil has been loosened and pulverized by the hoe, is incon- 
 trovertible. 
 
 The chief advantages of drilling, therefore, consist, in the op- 
 portunity it affords, for the destruction of weeds ; and for pulveriz- 
 ing the soil, after being battered by the rains of winter, and crusted 
 by the winds of spring. — But these are very great advantages. — 
 Under skilful and assiduous management, they may protract the 
 recurrence of plain fallow, even on pretty strong clays, and they 
 may supersede fallow altogether, on much land, that now under- 
 goes that expensive process, every four or six years. — Besides, 
 there cannot be a doubt, that crops of grain, more especially after 
 potatoes, and often also after pease, would be very greatly im- 
 proved by being drilled. — Such land is never in so clean a state as it 
 should be — witness the crops after potatoes near Edinburgh. — Street 
 dung, or stable dung, in a fresh state, is commonly used for that 
 crop, and the succeeding crop of corn, unless drilled and hoed, is 
 uniformly annoyed by weeds of different kinds, which the hoe 
 would either destroy or keep in check. 
 
 As to the other advantages ascribed to drilling, doubts may be en- 
 tertained whether corn or culmiferous crops require to be drilled, 
 in order to admit the influence of the atmosphere, so useful to 
 turnips and potatoes, and to beans and pease, which cariy their seeds 
 from the bottom of the stalk to its top. The ears of corn, on the other 
 hand, are so placed, as to be always accessible to the air, while 
 they are standing. — The stalks are nourished from the soil, and not 
 like green crops from the atmosphere. Some doubts are likewise 
 entertained, whether crowding their roots together in rows, instead 
 of letting them spread equably through the whole surface-soil, as in 
 the case of broad-casting, is not a disadvantage. 
 
 It seems also very doubtful, whether drilled crops are less apt 
 to be lodged than broad-cast ; and it is pretty well ascertained, that 
 while the crops are standing, the broad-cast will suffer less from 
 wind ; the rows operating upon one another like skutchers. 
 
 The great objects to be attained by the row-culture, are, to pre- 
 serve the soil clean , and, zuith a view to grass-seeds, fine . — That 
 drilling and hoeing will promote these two objects, cannot be 
 doubted, and it should therefore be adopted, wherever it is practi- 
 cable, without incurring a heavy expence. On all friable soils, when- 
 ever there is the least danger of weeds rising, and even on clay 
 soils, to be sown with grass-seeds, among winter-sown wheat, 
 the row-culture in some of its forms, should be tried. But it will 
 not do, to hold out the practice of Mr. Coke, or of any other gen- 
 tleman, however eminent for his skill in farming, as a rule for uni- 
 versal imitation and to censure those, whose soils and climates 
 are of a very different description, because they refuse implicitly to 
 adopt his system. 
 
Appendix. — Ploughing -in Green Crops for Manure . 65 
 
 No. XVII . — On Ploughing-in Green Crops for Manure.— 
 By Edward Burroughs , Esq. of Watercastle , in Ireland. 
 
 I have tried many experiments on ploughing-in green crops, as a 
 manure, and I have uniformly found, that they added much to the 
 fertilizing properties of the soil. Vetches, and red clover, are 
 particularly suited to this purpose, as they are very succulent, and 
 grow freely on moist strong soils, although not in good heart, and 
 by their overshadowing the land, and the decay of their inner 
 leaves, produce much vegetable matter on its surface. On an 
 experiment which I made on ploughing-in red clover, as a manure 
 for wheat, I allowed the second growth to get up about seven or 
 eight inches, before it was ploughed-in, in the principal part of the 
 field ; the clover on the other part was eaten low, and then ploughed, 
 and sown in the same manner as the other part. The crop of 
 wheat on that part of the field where the clover was in its luxuri- 
 ance when ploughed-in, was very superior to the other part, both in 
 quality and quantity. On a field of four acres, I sowed two acres 
 with spring vetches, and left two acres in fallow. The vetches 
 were consumed by soiling, and the land ploughed in the month of 
 August for wheat, and sown in October. — The fallow adjoining 
 was sown at the same time. The wheat, on the former part, 
 proved uniformly better in every respect. 
 
 I laid out a field of six acres, (soil, strong clay), preparatory for 
 wheat, in the following manner, viz. On two acres I planted pota- 
 toes ; two acres were fallowed, and two acres were under winter 
 vetches, (sown on wheaten stubble the preceding October). The 
 potatoe crop was well manured, and the fallow well cultivated ; 
 the first crop of the vetches was cut for soiling, and the second 
 crop ploughed-in when in blossom. The entire fidd W^ssown with 
 red Lammas wheat in October, and produced as follows : viz. pC&Koe " 
 ground, best ; vetch ground, very near equal in quality and pro- 
 duce ; fallow, inferior. 
 
 I have often laid down land with vetches and grass-seeds, and 
 I have observed, that they retain their fertility much longer than 
 when sown with oats or barley for the purpose. In some instances, 
 
 I have known grass-seeds to have failed when sown with oats, 
 when under similar treatment they have succeeded when sown with 
 vetches. From these and other experiments, I am satisfied, that 
 the ploughing-in of appropriate green crops, is a cheap, effectual, 
 and profitable mode of improving exhausted or light soils. With 
 respect to the theory, which some farmers have advanced, “ that 
 by ploughing-in a green crop, you only return to the land the same 
 proportion of vegetable matter, which was necessary for its pro- 
 duction,” it is as inconsistent as it is unfounded. It is well known 
 that plants, especially of the leguminous class, are fed more by the 
 atmosphere than by the soil; and it has been experienced, that 
 lands have been in a higher state of fertility after producing a luxu- 
 
66 Appendix. — Raising Crops of Grain . 
 
 riant crop of potatoes, than had they remained fallow. Rape is an 
 excellent crop to plough-in for manure, as it is easily raised even on 
 inferior soil, and from its oily nature, and the succulency of its 
 tap-roots, it produces a gre^t body of manure. The following cu- 
 rious and valuable experiment was tried by an intelligent farmer 
 in the county of Kilkenny. He ploughed a ley field for oats, in 
 the month of March, at the same time having a field of turnips 
 immediately adjoining; he had the tops cut off, preparatory to 
 their being pitted, and spread on the sward, before it was ploughed, 
 to the extent of about twenty perches. The oats were sown at the 
 same time on the entire of the field ; but the crop produced from 
 ploughing-in the green tops was materially better than on any other 
 part of the field. 
 
 No. XVIII . — Account of an Improved Mode of raising Crops 
 of Grain y by means of a Drill- Barrow. 
 
 The most general modes of depositing the seed in the ground, 
 at present, are, 1. Sowing it broad-cast on the surface ; 2. Plough- 
 ing-in ; and, 3. Sowing by a drill-machine. The advantages and 
 disadvantages of both those modes, have been already explained 
 (see Chap. IV. Sect. 1 1 ) . It is here proposed, to give a short ac- 
 count of a new mode of sowing, by a drill-barrow, an engraving 
 of which is annexed. For a number of years, it has been the 
 practice in East- Lothian, to sow heaps .by such a machine ; and se- 
 veral experiments were successfully tried, of sowing wheat, barley, 
 and oats, by the bean-barrow, with a smaller cylinder, so that the 
 seed might be properjy sown. But an ingenious artist, Mr. Alex- 
 ander Small j on L, e ith Walk, (son of the celebrated inventor of 
 ilz improved Scotch swing-plough), has lately prepared some bar- 
 rows for sowing grain, on so excellent a construction, that every 
 objection to their use, is in a great measure removed. 
 
 The first idea was, to attach a box to the plough, so that the 
 seed should be sown in the furrow, as the plough moved along. 
 The plan of attaching the box to the plough, has certainly been at- 
 tended with success, and in some cases may still be adopted 5 but 
 upon fully considering the subject, it has, on the whole, been 
 thought most advisable, to separate the box from the plough, for 
 the following reasons : 1. By this means, when the box must be 
 replenished with seed, a boy is only stopped, whereas when a plough 
 is used, a man and two horses are hindered from working. 
 2. When the wheel is to one side, the plough is not so easily held; 
 and, 3. The addition of the box, makes it more difficult to preserve 
 the proper depth of the seed furrow. 
 
 The plan altered on these principles, may be thus described : 
 
 1 . As soon as the plough enters, a boy with a box or barrow 
 follows immediately, and deposits the seed in the furrow, which of 
 
Appendix.— Raining Crops of Grain. 67 
 
 course is completely covered by the next furrow-slice. This is 
 easily effected, even in windy weather, when sowing broad-cast is 
 attended with difficulty. 
 
 2. The furrow-slice ought to be from two to three inches 
 deep, in strong land, and from three to four in light ; and, 
 
 3. The crop should be hand- hoed when a drill hoeing machine 
 is not made use of. 
 
 The rows may be made either at ten or fourteen inches distance, 
 but ten inches is considered sufficient by the generality of farmers, 
 more especially where hand-hoeing is adopted. It is easy with a 
 plough to make a furrow about ten inches wide ; but where it is 
 proposed to have a furrow of fourteen inches, it is necessary to have 
 two ploughs, with narrow bottoms, to follow one another, each 
 making a furrow of seven inches broad. Mr. Dickson of Bangholm, 
 near Leith, has tried various breadths between the drills, as nine, 
 ten, twelve, and fourteen inches, but on the whole, he prefers ten 
 inches on light soils, because the wheat does not tiller, and the same 
 breadth for oats and barley, though he thinks fourteen inches de- 
 sirable, when wheat is sown on strong land, where it is likely to 
 tiller much. The crops of grain and straw produced under this 
 system, are fully as great, as under any hitherto tried. Mr. Hume 
 of East Barns, had about forty-eight bushels per English acre; and 
 Mr. Dickson, in a field of thirty-two English acres, sown by a box 
 attached to the plough, had no less than fifty-one Winchester 
 bushels per English acre, which was harvested, and carefully 
 threshed on the 8th day of September, 1815. 
 
 If this system answers, according to the expectations that are 
 formed of it, the cultivation of grain may be brought to a degree of 
 perfection, which it has not hitherto reached. The whole plan is 
 so simple in its operations, that there can be no difficulty in its 
 execution. No expensive or complicated machinery is necessary ; 
 on the contrary, the same simple barrow, by raising or lowering 
 the brush, or by an alteration in the size of the flute or hollow 
 part of the roller used, will answer all kinds of crops ; and besides 
 the other advantages already stated, the crop, from being sown in 
 rows, gets more air, is easier cut down by the sickle, and produces 
 more straw, than when sown in a scattered manner; and being 
 completely cleared of weeds, it can be harvested to much more 
 advantage . 
 
 It is only necessary to add, that when a respectable farmer, to 
 whom the country owes so much for the introduction of drilled 
 turnips (the late William Dawson, Esq. of Graden), had the plan 
 of sowing grain by the drill-barrow explained to him, he highly 
 approved of it, and declared his full conviction, “ that it would be 
 the means of bringing the culture of grain to perfection, as the 
 seed would have a level bed, and would receive an equal nourish- 
 ment to bring it to maturity.” 
 
 In a communication from Mr. Dickson (dated l6fh August, 
 1817), he states, that in the unfortunate season of 1816, his 
 F2 
 
68 Appendix. — Hints as to Drilling , and Ribbing. 
 
 drilled crops were not so much sprouted as the broad-cast, and 
 that the heads were larger, and better filled. His neighbour, 
 Mr. Oliver of Lochend, finds drilling with a barrow equally advan- 
 tageous. 
 
 But the great object is, that by means of this system, even poor 
 soils , with a moderate quantity of manure, may be made to pro- 
 duce abundant crops. For that purpose, the following plan should 
 be adopted. As soon as the ground is prepared for the seed furrow, 
 let it be covered with moist and rotten dung, and then, either the 
 seed may be sown in the furrow made, and the dung raked over it, 
 or the dung may be first raked into the furrow, and the seed sown 
 upon the dung, and then covered with the furrow-slice. It would 
 evidently be a great advantage, to have the seed sown with moist 
 dung, particularly for barley in dry springs ; for it would always 
 secure the crop of barley in the driest soils and seasons, wherever 
 the plan of ploughing-in, is practised. 
 
 It would also be a superior mode of sowing turnips in rows, with- 
 out ridges, for it is ascertained, that if the seed is sown on moist 
 and rotten dung, it vegetates so rapidly, as to escape the fly. 
 
 No. XIX . — Additional Hints as to Drilling , and Ribbing , 
 
 Since the section on drilling culmiferous crops was drawn up, 
 some additional hints, on that interesting subject, have been re- 
 ceived. 
 
 Mr. Wilkie of Wimpole, states, that there is no difficulty in 
 drilling stony land, provided a proper drill machine, called “a 
 lever drill," is made use of. The levers can be €< weighted ” at 
 pleasure, and thus will answer in almost any soil, however stony, 
 because that sort of soil is generally loose below, and better to 
 drill on, than even heavy cloddy land, and the seed will stand a 
 better chance of being covered. 
 
 Mr. Wilkie likewise observes, that the plants of wheat in 
 drills, protect and nourish each other, through the winter, in 
 consequence of which, a field in drills, will be more forward in 
 spring, and also at harvest, than a field sown broad-cast. 
 
 Among the advantages of drilling, it ought to have been men- 
 tioned, that the crop being free from weeds, it can ^e harvested 
 to more advantage, and sooner conveyed to the barn, or tjie corn- 
 yard, than if it had been produced under the broad- cast system, 
 in which less attention is paid to the destruction of weeds. 
 
 All farmers are agreed, that wheat thrives best on ajirni and 
 compact bottom, which prevents the roots from being long and 
 straggling. Hence the advantage of having the roots rather mat- 
 ted together, provided there is substance enough in the soil to 
 nourish the plants. 
 
Appendix. — Hints to prevent the Fly in Turnips, 69 
 
 Mr. Checkett, an eminent farmer of Belgrave-hall, near Lei- 
 cester, states, that he has raised fifty bushels per acre, by the 
 drill ; but never more than forty bushels by sowing broad-cast. 
 He adds, “ The advantages of the drill over the broad-cast sys- 
 tem, are numerous, and decisive: — 1. It enables the farmer to 
 grow corn without weeds j — 2. The crop is sooner ready for 
 stacking after the scythe, or sickle;— 3. It produces a cleaner, 
 and more regular sample for the market ; which consequently ob- 
 tains a better price j— 4. It leaves the land in a better state for a 
 succeeding crop and 5. It materially increases the quantity of 
 food for human consumption*.” 
 
 Ribbing is much practised in Northumberland. It answers all 
 kinds of crops, but not all soils. Strong clayey soils cannot be 
 pulverized sufficiently for that purpose ; nor can it be effected in a 
 clover-lay, unless it be twice ploughed, and well harrowed. In 
 Northumberland, ribbing is esteemed to be preferable to drilling, 
 as there is the same opportunity of keeping the land clean ; and 
 the grain does not fall so close together, as by drillingf. But the 
 more compact the roots, the less can they become loose or strag- 
 gling, the better chance there is, that the crop will escape the rust 
 or mildew. 
 
 No. XX . — Hints as to Turnips , and on the best Means of 
 preventing the Ravages of the Fly. — By Sir John Sinclair . 
 
 There is perhaps, no vegetable, from the introduction of 
 which, the agriculture of these kingdoms, has derived such essen- 
 tial benefits, as from that of turnips. They are not only of use as 
 a fallow, for cleansing the soil from annual, and checking the 
 growth of root-weeds ; but they yield, at the same time, a 
 weighty and profitable crop, peculiarly calculated for the mainte- 
 nance and the fattening of live stock. It is a circumstance also, 
 much in favour of the turnip plant, that in the later stages of its 
 growth, it is, in a great degree, nourished by the atmosphere, as 
 well as by the soil, and consequently, less exhausts its fertility, 
 than cuhniferous or grain crops. The close and deep shade which 
 the leaves of turnips produce, has a most advantageous effect in 
 rotting all below them ; while the quantity of putrescent manure, 
 in a solid or in a liquid form, which they are the means of furnish - 
 ing, is greater than what is obtained from any other article what- 
 ever. Under the improved system of turnip-husbandry, a more 
 correct style of management is introduced, by which our fields are 
 cultivated like our gardens ; and various crops, in judicious rota- 
 tions, are successively rendered highly productive, without any 
 additional manure, (when sheep are fed upon them in the field), 
 
 * See The Farmer’s Magazine, vol. xv. p. 50. 
 f Farmer's Magazine, vol. xv. p. 52. 
 
/O Appendix. — Hints to prevent the Fly in Turnips . 
 
 except what the turnips had received. There is no crop, on the 
 whole, the culture of which has been brought to a higher degree 
 of perfection, or which contributes more, to increase the value of 
 the land, or the amount of its produce ; yet in many districts, 
 possessed of light, and loamy soils, and thence admirably calcu- 
 lated for the production of turnips, the farmers are«often but little 
 acquainted with the superior advantages of that plant* * * § . 
 
 It is much to be regretted, that this most valuable article, is 
 liable to be injured, and in many cases to be totally destroyed, by 
 a small fly, or beetle, that attacks the young turnip, when just 
 appearing above ground ; at which tender period of their growth, 
 the least puncture, in dry seasons, effectually kills the plant. 
 
 To prevent the ravages of this insect, various modes have been 
 recommended, which may be arranged under the following heads : 
 1. Destruction of the fly ; — 2. Rendering the turnip less attrac- 
 tive 3. Quickening its growth ; — and, 4. Improving its culturef . 
 
 1. To destroy the fly, it has been recommended, to roll the 
 land at midnight, while the dew is on the ground, by means of 
 which these insects may be crushed against the moist earth. Boards 
 have been smeared with tar, and drawn across the land, for the 
 fly to skip on them, and be caught j — a trap has been invented, 
 by which considerable numbers have been taken ; — train-oil, and 
 sulphur, have been used with the seedj. Quick-lime, has been 
 often suggested 5 and lime, saturated with ammonia in the prepa- 
 ration of gas, has been accurately tried ; but all in vain. 
 
 2. To render the turnip less attractive, quick-lime has been 
 used, sown when the dew was strong on the plants. The ground 
 has been brushed with the leaves of the elder tree§. Turnips 
 
 * The proprietors and farmers of those districts of England, or Ireland 
 where this plant is either little known, or imperfectly cultivated, who would 
 wish to introduce the turnip culture, in its greatest perfection, in their re- 
 spective neighbourhoods, might easily effect that object, by procuring some 
 farm labourers from Scotland, by whom, in all its well-cultivated districts, 
 it is almost universally understood. 
 
 •f* See a letter written by the intelligent and public spirited clergyman, the 
 Rev. J. A. Rhodes, of Horsforth-hall, near Leeds : his letter is dated 29th 
 July, 1820, and was printed soon afterwards in the Farmer’s Journal. 
 
 J In America they afterwards mix the turnip-seed with ashes, or pounded 
 gypsum, which promotes a rapid vegetation ; and it is asserted in that 
 country, that it never fails of success. For three seasons, steeping turnip- 
 seed in train-oil, prevented the attack of the fly at Lord Orford’s, in Nor- 
 folk ; but after being steept in train-oil, the seed, was kept in salt pickle dur- 
 ing the night. Seven gallons of oil, was found sufficient to prepare seed for 
 200 acres of turnips. Annals of Agriculture, vol. xiv. p. 168. — Perhaps neg- 
 lecting these “ minutia steeping the seed in saline pickle, or mixing the 
 seed with pounded gypsum, occasioned the disappointment. Trials, with 
 the addition of both these articles, ought to be made, by some public-spirited 
 farmers. 
 
 § To insure the success of this application, the leaves of the elder should 
 be a little bruised, and fumigated with the smoke of burnt tobacco, mixed 
 with a small quantity of assafeetida. Transactions of the Hath Society , vol. i. 
 p. 92, and 93. — In this case also, minutia? have been neglected. The dwarf 
 elder, has also a more pungent smell, than the larger sort. 
 
Appendix. — Hints to prevent the Fly in Turnips . 71 
 
 have been sown in the furrow, as well as on the ridge j and radish- 
 seed, has been used in small quantities, the turnip-fly being parti- 
 cularly fond of the radish plant. 
 
 3. The growth of the plant is quickened, by the application of 
 a proper quantity of suitable manure*, and placing it immediately 
 under the plant. And, 
 
 4. The culture of the plant is improved, by sowing a great 
 quantity of seed, (about three pounds per acre) ; also, by care- 
 fully weeding the crop, and frequently stirring the soil. 
 
 It is well known, where attention has been paid to the means of 
 quickening the growth, and improving the culture of the plant, 
 that the fly is not much to be apprehended. The plan of cultivat- 
 ing turnips in ridges , as originally practised by Mr. Dawson of 
 Frogden, in Roxburghshire, and now established with so much 
 success at Holkham, will certainly, in a great measure, prevent 
 the ravages of that destructive insect ; — but it is quite a mistake to 
 suppose, that the plan is only calculated for such a soil and climate 
 as that of Holkham, for it had long been previously adopted, not 
 only in Roxburghshire, but in Berwickshire! , the Lothians, Nor- 
 thumberland, and other districts in Scotland and England. — Still, 
 however, there are ungenial soils , as Mr. Rhodes very properly 
 observes, where it would be desirable to cultivate turnips, and 
 where very strong measures, for the destruction of the fly, would 
 be of the greatest utility. It is, doubtless, a fair field, on which 
 chemistry may exercise its powers j at the same time, if security 
 can be obtained, by simpler means, it would be more desirable. 
 
 In looking over my notes on this subject, I find that other me- 
 thods have been resorted to, for protecting the turnip crop, besides 
 those enumerated by Mr. Rhodes. 
 
 Some have recommended taking the seed of the same year, and 
 of a former year, and mixing them together. Then to steep one 
 half of the seed, thus mixed, in water, for twenty-four hours, 
 and then to mix the whole together. By this previous management, 
 the turnips will rise at four different periods ; and though the fly 
 may destroy some of the plants, there will yet remain a sufficient 
 quantity for a cropj, more especially if the quantity of seed used, 
 is at the rate of about three bushels per acre. 
 
 * Where it is practicable, more especially in dry soils and seasons, it 
 would be desirable to have the manure rather in a moist state, than quite 
 dry. 
 
 f The Reporter of the Husbandry of Berwickshire, states, that during 
 fifteen years’ experience, he had neither seen nor heard of any misfortune 
 from the fly, except in a few instances. — See Report of Scotland vol. i. 
 p. 558. 
 
 f Donaldson’s Modern Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 313. As the latest and 
 freshest seed, will always spring up first, and the different portions of 
 the mixtures will rise up at different times, the fly will naturally fasten on 
 that which first appears; but when the second growth comes up, it will 
 quit the first, and attack the second ; the same preference will be given to 
 the third, and the fourth, when they respectively appear, the youngest be- 
 ing always the sWeetest, and the most palatable. Before the last is finished, 
 
70 Appendix. — Hints to prevent the Fly in Turnips. 
 
 Mr. Wigfull, senior, of Sheffield, recommends, that twenty- 
 four bushels of the refuse of kiln dried oats, (called shiides in York- 
 shire), or the same quantity of very dry saw-dust, or any other 
 substance that will absorb a large quantity of moisture, as fine 
 earth in a dried state) , shall be steeped for some days in putrid 
 urine, and then mixed with eight bushels of soot, or of wood- 
 ashes, and spread on the young turnips, as soon as they appear 
 above ground ; which, he is convinced, will prove an effectual 
 means, of preserving them from the ravages of the fly. 
 
 An intelligent farmer in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, 
 (Mr. Johnstone of Hill- house), always thins or pricks out his 
 turnips, as soon as they appear above ground, as they are certain 
 of being in the rough-leaf next morning, and consequently out of 
 danger*. 
 
 A very great improvement in the cultivation of turnips, in dry 
 soils, without any mixture of clay in them, is, by applying a 
 heavy roller to the turnip drills, instead of the light ones com- 
 monly used. The reasons are obvious. The soil being thus 
 compressed, moisture is retained in it, and the gaseous effluvia, 
 arising from the decomposing putrescent mass below, which nou- 
 rishes the plants when young, not being suffered to escape too 
 rapidly, which is often the case, their growth is promoted, and 
 quickened. The soil also, being rendered perfectly smooth, the 
 little vermin have no hiding places, in which they can shelter 
 themselves. 
 
 Mr. Church, of Hitchill, an eminent farmer in Dumfries-shire, 
 has ascertained, that it is the best mode of securing an early and 
 regular vegetation, to sow the seed of the turnips, on moist dung, 
 as soon as it is spread in the drills, and afterwards to cover the 
 dung by the plough, but not quite so deep as usual. This prac- 
 tice is highly useful in dry soils and seasons, and should never be 
 neglected, (as the expence of the seed is so trifling), where there 
 is any risk of losing the crop for want of moisture. In a dry season, 
 when the globe, and the Swedish turnips, did not vegetate, till a 
 month after sowing, and the crops, after all, turned out but mo- 
 derate, the turnips produced by this plan, attained a great size, 
 (from 15 to 28 lbs. tops included), and many of them could 
 not get larger for want of room in the drillst. 
 
 what remain of the former growths, will he so far advanced, and will have 
 so harsh and bitter a taste, that the fly will not return to them again. Thus 
 a sufficient quantity of plants may escape for a full crop. — General Report of 
 Scotland , vol. i. p. 560. 
 
 * Forfarshire Report, p. 36 3. — This proves that stirring the ground is of 
 use. 
 
 + Husbandry of Scotland, 1st edition, p. ‘266. — This idea of sowing on 
 the moist dung, is peculiarly calculated for the row culture of turnips, not 
 sown in ru ised ridges. Let the surface be covered with rotten dung. When 
 a furrow is made, rake as much dung as is necessary into the hollow, — 
 sow, by a drill-barrow, the turnip seed, on the dung, and cover it slightly 
 with the next furrow-slice. — The crop is not then likely to suffer, cither from 
 drought, or from the fly. 
 
Appendix. — Hints to prevent the Fly in Turnips. 73 
 
 But the following is the most effectual method, that has hitherto 
 ben discovered, to insure the destruction of the fly. 
 
 As soon as the ground is completely prepared for sowing the 
 seed, let a quantity of stubble, straw, furze, dried weeds, heath, 
 wood shavings*, or any other sort of cheap inflammable matter, 
 be spread upon the surface, and burnt upon the ground, moving 
 the flame forward, from time to time, and managing it, if possi- 
 ble, so that the smoke shall spread over the field. This is easily 
 done in those dry seasons, when alone the fly is to be dreaded. 
 As soon as that operation is completed, the seed should be instantly 
 sown.-— The flame and smoke, either kill the insects, or compel 
 them to take shelter, if any crevice can be found, in the soil, 
 where they remain, until the young turnips are out of danger. — 
 The heat also, thus applied, and the ashes thus produced, are of 
 some use to the crop. Nor does it require a great quantity of 
 combustibles to go over the field, merely for the purpose of de- 
 stroying the vermin, by the heat, the flame, and the smoke. It 
 is probable, (though the quantity has not yet been ascertained), 
 that from one to two tons of stubble or straw, would be suffi- 
 cient. The security of a crop of turnips would surely be cheaply 
 purchased, by such a sacrifice ; and if stubble is used, the object 
 can be obtained, almost without expence. 
 
 The practice of burning straw, and gorse, on the surface of the 
 soil, as a means of manuring it for turnips, has long been prac- 
 tised in the Wolds of Lincolnshiref . In Dorsetshire, however, 
 it has been employed, for the express purpose of destroying the Jly , 
 and with the greatest success. The articles employed, are burnt 
 in the manner above described ; and an intelligent friend of mine, 
 who farms in that county, has assured me, that it has succeeded 
 on alternate ridges ; and that the fly was destroyed, where the 
 burning was applied j but that where the burning had been pur- 
 posely omitted, for the sake of an experiment, the crop was 
 ruined. 
 
 It is earnestly hoped, that the diligent farmer will avail himself 
 of these hints, and will derive from them that benefit, to which 
 his industry so justly entitles him. 
 
 133, George-street , Edhiburgh, { J. S. 
 
 25 th December , 1820. S 
 
 * Mr. Wigfull, senior, in his remarks upon this plan, recommends, that 
 deal, and other wood shavings, should be collected from builders, joiners, 
 carpenters, &c. in the nearest towns and villages, and conveyed in bags 
 where wanted. 
 
 + See Young’s Report of Lincolnshire, p. 267. — The quantity of straw 
 used, when employed as a manure for turnips , was from four to five tons 
 per acre; but much less would do, where spreading flame and smoke, over 
 the surface of the field, is the sole object. It will only be necessary to use 
 straw, for trying some experiments with burning, in the course of the year 
 1821. Industrious farmers, can afterwards find no difficulty, in collecting 
 as muck stubble as may be necessary, and stacking it in the field where the 
 turnips are to be sown, so as to prevent the necessity of distant carriage at 
 a critical period. By collecting weeds also, from the land, and even the sea, 
 much good may be effected at a trifling expence. 
 
74 Appendix. — Comparison between Horses and Oxen. 
 
 No. XXI . — Comparison between Horses and Oxen, as Beasts 
 of Draught. — By Sir John Sinclair. 
 
 There is no point that has been more keenly controverted, 
 among, both practical and speculative agriculturists, than whether 
 horses, or oxen, are best calculated for the operations of hus- 
 bandry. Bold averments have been made, and much acuteness 
 displayed, on both sides of the question, without its merits being 
 as yet finally decided upon. We shall endeavour to state the ar- 
 guments on both sides, and the results which may be drawn from 
 the information we have collected. 
 
 Those who approve of employing oxen in the draught, argue, 
 that they are purchased at from a half to a third part of the price 
 usually paid for horses 5 — that they are subject to fewer diseases ; 
 —that while horses are liable to a number of accidents, and sud- 
 den disorders, by which great numbers are annually lost, oxen 
 rarely suffer, so as to prevent their being fattened, and disposed 
 of to advantage ; — that oxen increase in value about 3 /. per an- 
 num, during the time they are wrought ; while horses, after they 
 are above seven, or eight years of age, usually fall off in price, 
 to much the same amount ; — that as they are a more steady and 
 regular draught than horses, they are peculiarly calculated, for 
 ploughing strong, stony, or rough swarded old grass land* * * § j— 
 that though it is better, to require only about two- thirds labour 
 from them, yet, when properly fed, that they can execute 
 nearly as much work, in the same space of time, as horsesf ; — 
 that while horses require corn in proportion as they are worked, 
 oxen need only a moderate quantity of turnips and oat straw j— 
 that in a maritime country, it is essential, that seamen should be 
 provided with beef of a superior quality , which can best be pro- 
 cured from oxen, who have gradually , under the working sys- 
 tem, reached their maturity}: j — and that while the horse is at last 
 thrown into a ditch, and nothing recovered but his skin ; the ox, 
 after having laboured three or four seasons, will sell at from five 
 to ten pounds higher, according to his size and condition, than 
 when first subjected to the yoke§. 
 
 * Oxen move at a steady and persevering pace. In ploughing up old turf 
 land, their motion in the plough being more steady than that of horses, the 
 flag is less broken in turning over, which is a great advantage in the process 
 of dibbling. Oxen, also, being steady, and not easily alarmed, are greatly 
 preferable for cultivating reclaimed bogs, in which horses would fret, and 
 plunge, or 6tick fast altogether, whereas oxen would bo 6tcady, and un- 
 alarmed. 
 
 •f- It is not fair, however, to expect, the same quantity of work from 
 oxen fed on straw and turnips, as from horses fed on corn and hay. 
 
 J The flesh of young, or half grown cattle, never takes salt well. 
 
 § All these arguments in favour of oxen, as applicable to turnip-land 
 farms, Mr. Walker of Mellendean, in Roxburghshire, approves of, after an 
 experience of thirty-flvjo years. 
 
Appendix. — Comparison between Horses and Oxen. 
 
 The objections to the use of oxen, shall next be separately con- 
 sidered. 
 
 1 . It is argued by those who are hostile to the use of oxen, 
 that they are difficult to train, and on the whole less tractable 
 than horses. This, however, is flatly contradicted by the advo- 
 cates for the use of oxen, who maintain, that there is no more 
 difficulty [in training oxen than horses — that, when properly 
 managed, they generally become sufficiently tractable, to be driven 
 by a ploughman, without any other attendant, in the space of a 
 few days j — that in all countries where the ox is the ordinary 
 draught animal, his docility is proverbial ; — that the want of suc- 
 cess, in preparing oxen for the draught, is owing to inexperience, 
 or has been occasioned by the obstinacy of servants, who will not 
 take the trouble of training them ; — and that any intractability, 
 where it does exist, has arisen, from the animals having been only 
 used occasionally with long and irregular intervals ; during which 
 the habit of discipline being broken, a new one is to be formedf. 
 
 2. It is objected to the working of oxen, “ that they do not 
 bear heat so well.” To this it is answered, that the objection is 
 unfounded in fact. The constitution of the ox, accommodates 
 itself, as readily as that of the horse, to different climates. Not 
 only in ancient Greece and Italy, but throughout Asia, as pre- 
 sented to us in ancient history, the ox and the plough are asso- 
 ciated. At this day, in the warm districts of India and China, 
 the ox, not the horse, is in the draught service. In every part of 
 India in particular, the ox always appears, even in the train of her 
 armies ; and in the hottest parts of the West Indies, the ox is 
 employed in hauling the weightiest produce to the sea-ports. 
 
 3. The next objection is, that oxen are slower in their move- 
 ments, and cannot do so much work in a day as horses. This 
 must, in general, be admitted \ but in a lesser degree than is gene- 
 rally supposed. Where oxen are well chosen for their form — are 
 not worked after they have reached their eighth year, (at which 
 age they are best fitted to be fattened), — and are suitably matched, 
 they may be brought to nearly as quick a step as the generality of 
 horses, and to as quick a step as that of many horses, if aged, or 
 ill fed. 
 
 Horses, in England, plough about a statute acre of stubble in the 
 course of the day 5 — oxen about three-fourths of that quantity. 
 After various trials, these have been found about the average per- 
 
 * Mr. Walker of Mellendean asserts, that where the method is under- 
 stood, oxen are as easily trained as horses. 
 
 f See, an able paper on horses, and Oxen, by Mr. Madison, formerly 
 President of the United States of America, printed in “ The American Far- 
 mer? published September 3, 1819, from which several hints are here 
 adopted. In that periodical publication, there is likewise some valuable in- 
 formation, from George W. Erving, and Timothy Pickering, Esqrs. In- 
 deed the subject seems to have strongly attracted the attention of the agricul- 
 turists of America. 
 
76 Appendix. — Comparison between Horses and Oxen . 
 
 formances of each*. But, in many cases, oxen have done more 5 
 and to accustom them to a greater quickness of movement, they 
 should be trained upon light land, that they may acquire both a 
 full, and quick step. 
 
 4. It is farther objected, that oxen, being weaker in the back 
 than horses, are not so able to carry heavy burdens. But it is an- 
 swered, that what they want in strength of back, is compensated, 
 by the superior powers they possess in their neck. Hence their 
 harness ought to be made, so that the draught should not be 
 placed so much on their backs as that of horses, but chiefly 
 on their necks, where their great strength lies. 
 
 5. It is next said, that oxen cannot bear extra work. This is a 
 material objection, as the profit of a farmer, more especially in 
 bad seasons, often depends on the getting his work done within a 
 given time. In any unforeseen emergency, when a great pressure 
 of work occurs, a horse may be fed up almost to any labour, 
 however severe. But if an ox is pushed beyond his usual rate, 
 he often sinks under his work, and is rendered useless for some 
 time afterwardsf . 
 
 Lord Somerville, however, maintained, that oxen are capable, 
 not only of constant work, but of extra labour j and should a rest 
 occur for a week or ten days, there is a profit attending their 
 growth : this general profit, on an average, may be stated at twenty 
 per cent, on their value ; a circumstance much in favour of oxenj. 
 
 The next objection is, that oxen are not calculated for the whole 
 work of a farm. But here a distinction must be made between 
 large and small occupations. Farmers who cultivate a great extent 
 of ground, who pay full rents, and who live by their business, are 
 almost universally of opinion, that the use of oxen alone would 
 never answer, and indeed the total dismission of horses has been 
 rarely thought of or attempted §. For long journies, and distant 
 carriages, oxen are considered quite unfit, for they must have 
 time to ruminate || ; nor can they well be employed, unless they 
 
 * Curwen’s Report, p. 78. 
 
 + General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 203. But Mr. Walker asserts, 
 that by feeding oxen with hashed oats , he has made them do as much extra 
 work as horses. 
 
 J Farmer’s Magazine, vol. vi. p. 5. 
 
 § His late Majesty, George the Third, devoted much attention to the 
 cultivation of a considerable tract of land near Windsor. He used horses 
 long enough to ascertain the heavy expence they work at, and he changed 
 them all for oxen. It appears, that it required one hundred and seven oxen, 
 to do the labour of the farm. They were fed on hay and straw, for twenty- 
 six weeks in the year, and on grass during the remainder. The saving, by 
 oxen, was at the rate of 513/. per annum, besides the value of the oxen dis- 
 abled by accident, difference in attendance, and fewer casualties. — Annals 
 of Agriculture , vol. xxxii. p. 158, where the details will be found. — The 
 only doubt is, whether the horses were fed economically, and properly 
 worked. 
 
 || Some maintain, that if oatmeal were given to oxen, it would enable 
 them to undergo much longer journies, and in that respect, to approach 
 nearer to horses. But still some rumination would be necessary. 
 
Appendix.— Comparison between Horses and Oxen . 7 7 
 
 are shod, either in frosty weather, nor on rough and stony 
 roads* * * § . 
 
 On the other hand, in regard to small farms, large horses are 
 expensive to purchase, and to maintain ; and though it may be 
 desirable, to have a horse to go to market, yet for the labour of 
 the farm, in general, oxen cannot be too much recommendedf . 
 
 Another objection is, the loss of labour, on the part of the ser- 
 vant, where oxen are employed, which an eminent farmer calcu- 
 lates at from one- third to one-fourth of his wages 
 
 The last objection to the use of oxen, is, the great quantity of 
 good land that would be required for their rearing and mainte- 
 nance j whereas it is desirable, to prefer that species of stock, 
 that would furnish the greatest quantity of labour, from the small- 
 est quantity of fertile soil, beginning with the animal at his birth. 
 
 Minute calculations have been made to ascertain this point, 
 which, on the whole, are in favour of horses, as they will work 
 out, in all, three successive pairs of axen§. 
 
 Independently of the same work bding done by a much smaller 
 number of horses, they have, in several other respects, advan- 
 tages over oxen. 1 , They are better fitted for harrowing, a quick 
 step being requisite to accelerate the pulverization of the soil: 
 2. During the harvest season, when expedition is so indispensably 
 necessary, horses are greatly to be preferred: 3. Oxen do not 
 continue for any space of time in the possession of the farmer, 
 seldom above three or four years from the time when they begin 
 to be employed in the draught. They must of consequence, be 
 frequently bought and sold, which is attended with much trouble 
 and expence j whereas horses will continue to work with the same 
 farmer for several years, perhaps ten or twelve years from the time 
 that they are first employed, and when they become unfit for 
 severe labour, they are not thrown away, but can always be sold 
 to higlers, petty carriers and others, to whom cheap horses are 
 an object - } — 4. The use of horses in agriculture serves as a nur- 
 sery for those wanted for the road, for pleasure, luxury, and 
 amusement j and many farmers get their harrowing done cheaply 
 by training up young horses, and giving them but slight work, until 
 they are fit for the market ||. 
 
 * Lord Somerville asserted, that oxen could execute road-work, even of 
 the severest nature ; — but he afterwards admitted, that they were liable to 
 slight strains and lameness, arising from travelling on such roads. 
 
 •f* Farmer’s Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 42. 
 
 X If the wages of a farm-servant, every thing included, is 2s. per day, it 
 is maintained, that from 6d. to 8 d. per day is lost, if he is employed in work- 
 ing oxen, instead of horses. 
 
 § General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 198, where this point is mi- 
 nutely examined. 
 
 |i Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 364. 
 
78 Appendix. — Comparison between Horses and Oxen . 
 
 Conclusion . 
 
 We shall now proceed to state the results of the inquiry. 
 
 The great object of a farmer ought to be, to obtain that species 
 of working stock, which is best calculated to perform, all that rou- 
 tine of labour, which the soil, situation, and other circumstances 
 of the land he occupies, may require* * * § . 
 
 In former times, oxen were almost exclusively employed in the 
 labours of agriculture, but they have long been gradually getting 
 into disuse ; and the custom not being re-established in this coun- 
 try, notwithstanding a heavy tax on horsesf, from which oxen are 
 exempted $ it would be absurd to suppose, that the preference given 
 to horses is not founded upon solid grounds^. 
 
 It does not appear, that horses are superior to oxen in docility, 
 or ability for work of various kinds 5 nor are they, in any respect, 
 more hardy ; but they are possessed of more general applicability 
 to labour, from their conformation, agility, and better feet§. 
 Hence, in all improved countries, since the labours of agriculture 
 have become, not, as formerly, irregular and desultory, but uni- 
 form and constant, more especially on high rented farms, where 
 the operations of husbandry are carried on, with unceasing atten- 
 tion and industry, horses are preferred, as the best and principal 
 resource on which the farmer can rely. 
 
 There are certain situations, however, where a considerable 
 profit may be gained, by employing a proportion of oxen , instead of 
 horses, in agricultural labour. This profit principally arises from 
 three causes — 1 . an increase of manure j — 2 . a saving of food j — 
 and, 3. their improving in value, from the time when they begin 
 to work, to the time of their being sold. They are likewise less 
 subject than horses, to sudden death, accidental injuries, and occa- 
 sional maladies || . 
 
 The next points to be discussed, are, 1 . In what description of 
 farms a proportion of oxen can be used to advantage? and, 2 . What 
 the number of oxen ought to be, where they are admissible ? 
 
 1 . Farms calculated for a Proportion of Oxen. 
 
 Where oxen must be maintained, with corn or hay, the feeding 
 is so very expensive, that it cannot be advantageous to employ them 
 to any extent. 
 
 * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 275. 
 
 f The tax on horses employed in agriculture, ought certainly not to be 
 extended to breeding mares. Even that exception would be thankfully re* 
 ceived by the farmer. 
 
 X The late Lord Somerville, was the great advocate for oxen. He calcu- 
 lated, there were 600,000 plough and cart horses in England, one half of 
 them superfluous, while the land that would be required to feed a horse, 
 he said, would support seven or eight human beings. 
 
 § Coventry’s Discourses, p. 171. 
 
 || Farmer’s Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 439. 
 
Appendix.— Comparison between Horses and Oxen, 79 
 
 In the neighbourhood of towns also, where straw, and every spe- 
 cies of green food, as turnips, grass, &c. are higher in price than 
 at a distance from them, the employment of draught oxen must 
 proportionably be less profitable or advantageous*. On the other 
 hand, there are few situations better calculated for oxen, than 
 farms distant from market-towns, where putrescent manures can- 
 not be purchased, but where turnips can be raised in considerable 
 quantities, because that description of food is not only cheap, but 
 it is peculiarly conducive to their health and improvement. On 
 turnip-land farms, they may likewise be employed, not only in 
 ploughing, but in hoeing the turnips, in carting cut grass for soil- 
 ing, and for other agricultural purposes about the farm. 
 
 But the best description of farm, for the use of oxen, is, where 
 there is abundance of coarse and bulky herbage, favourable to the 
 breeding of cattle j and where the land in occupation is so large, 
 that there is a regular succession of ploughing, (unless in frosty 
 weather), during the whole yearf . On such a farm, oxen may be 
 both reared, and employed as working stock. 
 
 2. Proportion of Oxen on a Farm, 
 
 In regard to this point, practical farmers, who approve of a 
 partial use of oxen, do not materially differ. On one farm, where 
 twenty horses would be required, for the whole labour, the pro- 
 portion adopted is, sixteen horses and eight oxen. On a larger 
 farm, the occupier keeps twenty-two ploughs drawn by horses, 
 and eight by oxen , and it is stated, that the proportion of oxen 
 would be greater, were it not for the necessity of long journies, 
 or carriage of grain to market. But the most important examples 
 on very large farms, are those of Mr. Walker of Wooden, and Mr. 
 Walker of Mellendean, both strong advocates for the partial use of 
 oxen. These gentlemen keep on their farms fifty work horses and 
 twenty-eight working oxen ; and they calculate that the expence 
 saved on each plough worked by oxen, is at the rate of 22/. 1 5s, 
 per annum, besides the annual increased value of the oxen J. 
 
 On all farms also, where the climate is precarious, and where, 
 on that account, it is desirable to have some “ extra stock ” at 
 command, oxen, being more cheaply maintained than horses, are 
 entitled to a preference $ and certainly may be advantageously 
 employed in ploughing, in rolling, in carting dung, or turnips, 
 in threshing mills, and for short carriages in general. 
 
 * Farmer’s Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 434. 
 
 f General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p . 203. — This observation, how- 
 ever, is not applicable to the fen lands of England, where keeping and 
 working brood mares, for breeding dray and waggon horses, pays better 
 than rearing and working oxen. Besides, on low fen land, (peaty), oxen cannot 
 be reared in a healthy state, owing to the scour to which they are subject. 
 
 I Husbandry of Scotland, first edit. p. 113 and 114. 
 
 Sir Thomas Carmichael of Skirling, estimates that a pair of oxen is les3 
 expensive than a pair of horses, to the amount of 27/. 11*. per annum. — 
 Farmer's Magazine , vol. xiv. p. 43. 
 
80 Appendix.— Comparison between Horses and Oxen. 
 
 It may be proper to add a few general observations on the use 
 of oxen. 
 
 1. It is advisable, to begin working oxen, as early as two or three 
 years old, but in such light work, and so moderately, as not to 
 prevent their growth. — It will then be easier, to correct their faults 
 and bad habits, which some are apt to get into. 
 
 2. They should always be worked with the collars reversed, that 
 is, the broadest part uppermost. 
 
 3. Where a proportion of oxen are kept, those of a small size, or 
 with light frames, ought to be avoided, for they cannot be fully 
 master of their work, or made to move expeditiously in the 
 plough. Nor should they be selected for their great size, for iir 
 that case, they are soon exhausted by their own exertions. Those 
 of a moderate size, whose form denotes superior agility and vigour, 
 ought to be preferred. Oxen with short legs, have likewise been 
 found the best labourers*. 
 
 4. In the management of oxen, it is particularly desirable, (ex- 
 cept during the depth of winter), that they should be worked in 
 two journies, or yokings, in a day, that they may have sufficient 
 time to ruminate in the interval. — For that purpose, they should 
 begin to work very early in the morning. 
 
 5. It is an excellent plan to keep three oxen for each plough, and 
 to work only two of these at a time, alternately. Thus each ox is 
 only four days in the yoke every week. 
 
 6. A much greater proportion of labour on a farm might be done 
 by oxen, if they were shod. When oxen are worked on hard stony 
 roads, or obliged to go over rough frozen ground, they suffer so 
 much from the want of shoes, that true economy requires, they 
 should have that accommodation as well as horsesf. As yet, no 
 shoe has been made in Europe, that will enable oxen to walk with 
 ease and safety on hard dry roads, or on frozen ground. The 
 great difficulty in forming such a shoe is, that the iron must be di- 
 vided, otherwise sand may get between the iron and the hoof, and 
 create wounds and sores J . 
 
 * Mr. Knight observes, that the more deep and capacious the chest, and 
 the shorter and the lower any animal is, relative to its weight, the better 
 adapted it will be to live and fatten upon little food, and more labour it will 
 go through. Mr. Marshall also, in his Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, 
 says, that the best labouring ox he ever saw, had the shortest legs. 
 
 f It is said that they have discovered an improved mode of shoeing oxen 
 in New England , an account of which would be desirable. Mr. Pickering 
 has suggested to “ The Massachusetts Society for promoting Agriculture ,” the 
 propriety of communicating to the author, a drawing and description of the 
 simple frame and apparatus, invented in New England ; for the information 
 of British Agriculturists ; to whom, (as Mr. Pickering with much libe- 
 rality observes), “ the farmers in America are so much indebted for instruc- 
 tion and examples, in the most approved practices of husbandry.” (See 
 “ The American Farmer ,” vol. ii. p. 139). — It is to be hoped, tnat such 
 friendly feelings of reciprocal good will, will not only exist between the 
 farmers , but will be felt by all the other classes in the two countries. 
 
 J When fat and heavy oxen get lame on the roads, going to market, they 
 
Appendix. — Remedy for preventing the Smut in Wheat. 81 
 
 7. One great reason why oxen are not much employed, is the 
 difficulty of getting them purchased ready trained. If they could 
 be bought fit for use at market, as horses are, they would be much 
 more in demand. It would certainly, therefore, be an object in 
 districts, possessed of a good breed of cattle, and partly culti- 
 vated ) instead of rearing cattle for the grazier, to supply the ara- 
 ble farmer with such a number of young oxen, ready trained, as he 
 might require. — Such a plan, would be equally advantageous to 
 both parties* . * 
 
 Such are the results of a very extensive, and minute inquiry, into 
 this much controverted subject. Where the reader is not satisfied 
 with the opinion given, he is furnished with the materials, of form- 
 ing another, better entitled to his adoptionf. 
 
 133, George-streit, Edinburgh , ) 
 lsf February , 1821. \ 
 
 No. XXI. — On Blue Vitriol, or the Sulphate of Copper, as an 
 infallible Remedy for preventing the Smut in Wheat , and 
 so strengthening the Plant, that it is less subject to other 
 Disorders. 
 
 Together with some additional Hints, as to the Rust, or 
 Mildew , by Sir John Sinclair. 
 
 In the course of some extensive inquiries, made for the pur- 
 pose of discovering, whether any practices prevailed on the Con- 
 tinent of Europe, that would be of use to this country ; I was par- 
 ticularly anxious to ascertain, what means were adopted, for pre- 
 venting the disorders of wheat. It seemed to me in particular, a 
 circumstance that ought to be thoroughly investigated, that though 
 Flanders and England are so near each other, and do not ma- 
 terially differ in soil or climate j yet that there should be so great a 
 
 are 6hod. They are cast with a hopple, and two plates of iron are nailed 
 on each foot. But little pains are taken to pare the hoof, but the nails are 
 driven a good deal aslant. 
 
 * In Scotland, the counties of Angus and Aberdeen are districts, which 
 seem to be peculiarly calculated for such a traffic. If a demand for trained 
 oxen were to arise in England, it might be supplied from those two counties 
 in great numbers, by cattle-dealers who at present solely purchase cattle 
 for feeding. 
 
 •f* The mule seems, in point of economy, to be between the ox and the 
 horse, preferable to the latter, inferior to the former, but so well adapted 
 to particular services, that he may find a proper place on many farms. He 
 is liable to the objection which weighs most against the ox. He is less 
 fitted than the horse for , road service. — See Mr. Madison’s paper, already 
 quoted. 
 
 G 
 
82 Appendix. — Remedy for preventing the Smut in Wheat . 
 
 difference between the prices of the two countries, at the same 
 periods of time, as appears from the following table : 
 
 Difference between the 
 Prices of Wheat per Prices of Wheat per prices in Flanders and in 
 
 Year. quarter in Flanders, quarter in England. England, per quarter. 
 
 1805 <£3 17 7 £4 7 1 £0 9 6 
 
 1811 3 17 11 4 12 . 5 O 14 6 
 
 1812 3 5 7 6 2 8 2 17 1 
 
 It is hardly possible, that such a circumstance could have taken 
 place, unless, by some means or other, wheat was not liable to 
 the same destructive maladies in Flanders as in England. 
 
 In the course of my inquiries, I was fortunate enough to obtain, 
 not only the preparation made use of in the Pays de Waes, (the 
 best cultivated district in Flanders), but also another mode of using 
 copper, discovered by a celebrated chemist and naturalist, M. Bene- 
 dict Prevost of Geneva, which is reckoned on the Continent, not 
 only efficacious, but, when properly used, infallible. 
 
 Having frequently recommended this preventive against the smut, 
 after my return from the Continent, I flattered myself that its effi- 
 cacy would soon be tried by a number of zealous and experienced 
 farmers. — But it is a true saying, in regard to agriculture, as well as 
 in many other arts, “ What is every body's business , is nobody's .” — 
 Each individual wishes to throw the load off his own shoulders, in 
 hopes that his neighbour will undertake the trouble and risk of the 
 experiment. — Hence, this important suggestion might have re- 
 mained unnoticed, had it not fortunately attracted the attention of 
 some public-spirited agriculturists in the town, and neighbourhood 
 of Birmingham. — To them, the use of the sulphate of copper , 
 (from their being more accustomed, than the generality of farmers, 
 to articles connected with manufactures and chemistry), was not 
 an object of apprehension. 
 
 Mr. Richard Hipkys, of Paradise-street, Birmingham, was the 
 first person, at least in that neighbourhood, who was prevailed 
 upon to try the powers of the proposed application. Fie states, 
 that in the autumn of the year 1817* he met with a small work, 
 written by the President of the Board of Agriculture, in which the 
 sulphate of copper was recommended as a remedy against the smut. 
 — That he had no faith in steeps, from the previous want of suc- 
 cess in the use of them, notwithstanding the application of the 
 usual remedies; having had considerable breadths of wheat, ren- 
 dered absolutely unsaleable, for the four preceding years , by the 
 ravages of that destructive disease. Yet to gratify the wishes of an 
 esteemed friend, he was induced to make a trial that year. That 
 in the course of his experiments, he found his crops were free from 
 disease, exactly in proportion to the quantity of sulphate used. — 
 That having ascertained there was no hazard in the operation, iie 
 caused the whole of his seed wheat, used in autumn 1818, and also 
 some Talavera wheat that was sown in the spring of 181 9, to be 
 prepared in the manner to be afterwards described. The result 
 
Appendix, — Remedy for preventing the Smut in Wheat. 83 
 
 was, that by the use of blue vitriol, he had a beautiful crop of 
 wheat, entirely free from smut, and every other disease. 
 
 In the autumn of I8I9, he sowed thirty-three acres of wheat, 
 and in the spring 1820, nine acres of Talavera and Cape wheat, 
 prepared in the same manner. The result at harvest, was again, 
 crops of grain entirely free from disease. 
 
 In the seed time of I8I9, Mr. Hipkys induced a particular 
 friend, whose soil and situation were perfectly different, to make 
 a trial of the sulphate, which he did with the most satisfactory and 
 decisive results. The particulars have been detailed by Mr. Hip- 
 kys, in the Farmer’s Journal, at that gentleman’s particular desire. 
 Letters subscribed by him, have been transmitted to me, and 
 though he declines having his name mentioned, there can be no 
 doubt, that the facts he states, may be confidently relied on. 
 
 The success of this plan of preparing wheat, being thus placed 
 beyond the possibility of doubt, it is proper to state : 1 . The nature 
 of smut 3 — 2. The improved mode of preventing itj — and, 3. 
 The advantages attending the practice. 
 
 1. The nature of smut, is now well known. It is a small and 
 delicate microscopic plant, which would soon be destroyed by the 
 variations of the atmosphere, if wheat did not offer an asylum, 
 where it could propagate itself. While it is only attached exter- 
 nally to the grain, and before its seeds, or germs, have penetrated 
 into the plant, its germination may be effectually prevented, by 
 any operation that will clear the grain of the smutty powder, or 
 that destroys it by acrid, corrosive, or poisonous applications. If 
 nothing effectual is done for that purpose, the smut penetrates into 
 the plant of the wheat, while it is still very young. There it 
 produces globules, which increase with the ear, and become per- 
 fect seeds, when the wheat approaches to maturity. If, however, 
 the seed is fortified by a solution of copper, it not only destroys the 
 germination of any smutty powder attached to the grain, but it 
 likewise prevents its being attacked, through the root, by any other 
 parasitical plant that may be fcruud in the soil, and thus may escape 
 other accidents, or disorders to which wheat is liable*. 
 
 2. The mode of using the blue vitriol, adopted by the gentleman 
 whose name is not disclosed, is as follows : Into eight quarts of 
 boiling water, he puts one pound of blue vitriol ; and while it is 
 quite hot, he mixes three bushels of wheat with five quarts of the 
 liquid, and at the end of three hours, adds the other three quarts ; 
 
 * Mr. Hipkys states, that he had a superior crop of wheat, which had 
 been sulphated, and escaped being lodged, while the field of a neighbour, of 
 equal quality, was beat down, and mildewed. This he attributes to the 
 superior strength of the straw. He is not of opinion, that the sulphate will 
 prevent the mildew ; all that can be expected from steeps, is, that through 
 their instrumentality, the plant may be thereby freed from a general apti - 
 tude to disease, and by being thus invigorated, it may be the better enabled 
 to withstand those attacks, to which, in a less healthy state, it would be 
 liable. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 Appendix. — Remedy for preventing the Smut in Wheat . 
 
 and the three bushels of wheat are suffered to remain three 
 hours longer, or six hours in all, in the liquid. The whole should 
 be stirred three or four times, during the six hours, and the light 
 grains may be taken off. Then add a sufficient quantity of slaked 
 lime, to make the wheat perfectly dry. It may remain in a heap 
 for six hours ; it rnay then be spread open, and used the next day , 
 but not sooner. Though it is recommended to be spread six hours 
 after it has been limed, and put in a heap, yet there is no risk of 
 its heating, and it may be kept longer than a day, without any risk 
 of injury. 
 
 Mr. Hipkys’s mode of preparation is different. After dissolving 
 five pounds of the sulphate in hot water, he then adds as much 
 cold water as may be sufficient to cover three bushels of wheat; 
 which is gradually passed through a riddle, in order that all the 
 light grains may swim on the surface, and be skimmed off. 
 After being repeatedly stirred, and cleared of the light grains, the 
 wheat is suffered to remain in the liquid for five or six hours ; 
 but it has remained, in one or two instances, from twelve to 
 twenty -four hours, without experiencing any bad effect. It is 
 then taken out, and thrown upon the floor. If it is to be sown 
 broad-cast, it should be crusted with lime in the usual way; but for 
 drilling, it is stirred about until it becomes dry, which it generally 
 is, in dry weather, in five or six hours. When the atmosphere, 
 however, is moist, it will require double that space of time*. It 
 may then be drilled, with as much facility as grain that had not 
 undergone any operation. 
 
 After the first two or three bags, of three bushels each, have 
 passed through this liquid, one pound of the sulphate should be 
 added, for each succeeding bag, until from ten to twelve bags have 
 been thus used ; when a fresh quantity of the preparation should 
 be made ready, in case the liquid should become foul or turbid. 
 
 Either of these modes may be adopted with a certainty of suc- 
 cess. 
 
 3. This plan is surely superior, in point of cleanliness at least, to 
 some of the disgusting processes that are frequently recommended 
 for the same purpose ; and is likewise attended by the following ad- 
 vantages : — 1. The expence is trifling, as the price of the vitriol is 
 not, in general, above from sixpence, to eight pence, or nine pence 
 per pound ; and after being used, in the manner above described, 
 the water may be evaporated, and the remains of the sulphate will 
 again crystalise. — 2. It is a great advantage, that, with this prepa- 
 ration, liming is not necessary ; as lime, more especially recently 
 slaked, cannot always be had, and as the use of lime is so injurious to 
 the drill machines, where brushes are used. — 3. It is well known, 
 that after wheat has been steeped in other modes, it has been lost 
 by keeping ; whereas, when prepared by the sulphate, it may re- 
 
 * Passing it through a pair of fanners, would soon dry it. 
 
Appendix. — Remedy for preventing the Smut in Wheat, 85 
 
 main unsown for any space of time without injury* ; — and, 4. The 
 plant is thereby so strengthened, that it is less liable to be lodged, 
 or to suffer from other disorders ; and though it does not prevent the 
 rust or mildew, yet for the smut, when properly applied, it is an 
 infallihle antidote. 
 
 In order to do justice to the application, the grain should be 
 perfectly dry, when the solution of copper is applied. The ger- 
 mination of the smut plant will then be effectually prevented, 
 without injuring the vegetative powers of the wheat. 
 
 It may be proper to add, that M. Prevost’s discovery was, in a 
 great measure, accidental ; that the utility of preparations from 
 copper, has long been tried in Flanders. It has also been success- 
 fully employed by Mr. Joseph Butler of Killatnarsh in Derby- 
 shiref. Mr. Brownrigg, in the county of Wicklow in Ireland, 
 likewise uses vitriol J. 
 
 Additional Hints on the Rust , or Mildew, 
 
 It was formerly supposed, that thick sowing in drills, was au 
 injudicious practice, on the idea, that the roots being matted to - 
 get her, were consequently less likely to be productive, as when 
 the seed was scattered more evenly over the surface, and each had 
 a separate field for nourishment ; but the following experiments 
 prove that the idea was erroneous : 
 
 1. Fifteen holes were made, one foot separate, with the com- 
 mon dibble, in land well manured, into the first of which, one 
 grain was put, and the number of seeds was progressively increased 
 in each succeeding hole, till they amounted to fifteen. From hole 
 one, to hole eight, inclusive, the plants, on an average, produced 
 each from seven to eight stems , the ears were perfect, and scarcely 
 any light or imperfect grains were to be met with ; but from hole 
 nine, to fifteen, inclusive, there was a progressive falling off ; the 
 last, or number fifteen, produced the worst return. 
 
 2. Another experiment of a similar description was tried, with 
 land not manured, when the average, from hole one to three, was 
 three stems each, of perfect ears. The produce, from hole three 
 to fifteen inclusive, was gradually less, some disordered, and some 
 even smutted. 
 
 The result of these experiments is, that thick sowing, if not 
 carried to an extreme, is not inconsistent with great produce. In- 
 
 * It would be a good plan, for seedsmen to prepare the seed-wheat before 
 they send it to their customers. Sulphated seed has been kept, uninjured, in 
 small quantities, from the 2d of November, to the 24th of December. 
 
 + See Derbyshire Report, vol. ii. p. 116. He mixed two pound of blue 
 vitriol, in as much chamber-lye, as would wet twelve bushels of wheat, 
 and after soaking, dries the wheat in quick-lime. 
 
 + Report of the Countv of Wicklow, by the Rev. Thomas Radcliff, 
 p. 256. Mr. Brownrigg dissolved only a quarter of a pound of Roman vitriol, 
 in warm water, and mixed it with one barrel of sca-watcr, strengthened 
 with a stone of salt. 
 
86 Appendix. — Remedy jor preventing the Smut in, Wheat. 
 
 deed the stems, though close at the root, yet diverge considerably 
 as they ascend, and hence have abundance of room for bringing 
 their ears to perfection. 
 
 The next point is, to explain on what principles thick sowing 
 prevents mildew. 
 
 It is well known that loose and open soils, such as turnip lands, 
 are the most liable to that disease, and the reason is, that the roots 
 in them are the largest, the longest, and often, in search of mois- 
 ture, run the deepest into the soil. The stems are thence luxu- 
 riant, large, and porous. The roots being long and straggling, 
 often get into a noxious stratum below, or into one not productive 
 of nourishment. When that is the case, the plant, formerly luxu- 
 riant, meets with a sudden check, (for it is only from the extreme 
 point of the roots, that the plant derives its food by absorption), 
 and this sudden check, predisposes it to disease. If then the month 
 of July is accompanied by warmth and moisture, the plants of 
 wheat, in their weakened state, will be attacked by those fungi, 
 to the propagation of which that description of weather is so favour- 
 able, more especially in places where a free circulation of air is 
 wanting. 
 
 In proof of these doctrines it may be observed, that in loose and 
 open soils, treading the land thoroughly , after it is sown, is an 
 effectual preventive of the mildew. The roots are thus prevented 
 from becoming long and straggling, or getting into poor or noxious 
 strata, whence no nourishment can be derived. The more effec- 
 tually the soil is trodden the better, as it destroys vermin in the 
 ground, as well as prevents mildew. Some farmers employ a 
 flock of sheep for that purpose ; others, pigs ; and some have em- 
 ployed even cattle and horses, with much advantage*. 
 
 The reader will at once perceive, from the preceding observa- 
 tions, the advantages of thick sowing. The roots, instead of being 
 long and straggling, are short and numerous. They are retained 
 in the soil that has been prepared for their reception, instead of 
 wandering into strata either poor or noxious. From the number 
 of these roots and stems, that richness, that would be injurious to a 
 few plants, only does justice to a number ; for the same quantity 
 of dung that might give twenty stems a disposition to disease, 
 would only yield a proper quantity of food, when it had fifty to 
 nourish. By thick sowing, all the advantages of treading, in so 
 far as respects mildew, will be obtained. 
 
 On these grounds, I am much inclined to think, that the thick 
 sowing of drilled crops may be found an effectual means of pre- 
 venting mildew ; and I hope that a number of active and intelli- 
 gent farmers, will try, in the course of this season, such a number 
 of experiments, as will put the question at rest. This may be 
 effected by sowing, both in drills, and broad-cast, various quanti- 
 ties of seed, from one to four, or even in some cases to try the 
 
 See Code of Agriculture, Second Edition, p. 31'J and 367. 
 
Appendix. — Remedy for preventing the Smut in Wheat . 87 
 
 effect, of five or six bushels per acre, and recording, in the Far- 
 mer’s Journal, the result, in regard both to disease and produce $ 
 with a particular description of the roots of the different crops, 
 whether sown thick or thin, and whether they are diseased or 
 otherwise. 
 
 I have no doubt, if the investigation of this subject is pursued, 
 by the intelligent farmers of the United Kingdom, with that 
 energy which its importance so justly merits, that some means will 
 be discovered, which would prevent this disease from being, not 
 only injurious to the individual, but the source of much national 
 calamity. 
 
 N. B. It is supposed that salt is of use in preventing mildew. If 
 any farmer can give any information upon that head, it would 
 be highly acceptable. 
 
 133, George-Street , Edinburgh , } 
 
 3d February, 1821. \ 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Absorbing soils, draining of, 199. 
 
 Accidents to which grain is liable, 
 406. 
 
 Account of an improved mode of 
 raising crops of grain by means of 
 a drill-barrow, App. 66. 
 
 Accounts, plan of farming, App. 10. 
 
 regular, why not common 
 
 among farmers, 75 ; advantages to 
 be derived from, ib . ; how to fa- 
 cilitate the keeping of, 76. 
 
 of a farmer not confined 
 
 to a record of pecuniary transac- 
 tions, 76; annual, of live stock, 
 necessary, ib . ; of hay unconsumed, 
 and of grain in store, ib. 
 
 Acre, difference between the Scotch 
 and English, 522. 
 
 Activity and diligence, on training 
 labourers to, 93. 
 
 unceasing, recommended dur- 
 ing harvest, 400. 
 
 Adstriction to mills, severe burden 
 of to farmers, 68. 
 
 After-grass, or rouen, 482 ; how fed 
 off in Middlesex, ib. 
 
 Agricultural buildings, principles on 
 which they should be constructed, 
 139. 
 
 - - classes, number of ac- 
 
 tual contributors to the property- 
 tax among the, 575. 
 
 domestic productions, 
 
 should be preferred in the home 
 markets, 586. 
 
 depression, present state 
 
 of, 577. 
 
 ■ labour and domestic 
 
 management, 77. 
 
 machines how formerly 
 
 made; improvements in, 136. 
 
 professorships, who esta- 
 blished by, 583 ; when first esta- 
 blished, 585 ; to what their views 
 should be directed, ib. 
 
 productions, a prefe- 
 rence to be given to domestic, 
 585. 
 
 prosperity, on what de- 
 pends, 138. 
 
 Agricultural state of the country, 
 means of improving, 568. 
 
 Agriculture, science of, how pro- 
 moted, 13. 
 
 preliminary points to the 
 
 practice of, 41. 
 
 farms small in the in- 
 fancy of, 48; first operations of, 51. 
 
 progress of, 51, 52; pro- 
 fuse, what, 52. 
 
 a liberal art, 52 ; orna- 
 mental, ib. 
 
 the four principal ope- 
 rations of, 353. 
 
 minutiae of, attended to 
 
 in Flanders, 386. 
 
 neglected by the Irish 
 
 farmer, 387. 
 
 introductory observa- 
 tions on the importance of, 568 ; 
 compared to speech, 494, 568 ; 
 importance of, 568. 
 
 . ■ observation of Montes- 
 
 quieu on, 570; prosperous during 
 the late war, 571. 
 
 importance of, but little 
 
 understood before the establish- 
 ment of the Board of, 575. 
 
 what encouragement a 
 
 wise government ought to bestow 
 on, 575, 577. 
 
 how far the prosperity of, 
 
 depends upon the politician, 575 ; 
 how far should be let alone, 576* 
 
 the chief source of 
 
 wealth in Ireland, 577 ; burdens 
 particularly affecting, should be 
 relieved, 578. 
 
 advantages that may be 
 
 derived from the result of the 
 enquiries of the Board of, briefly 
 stated, 580. 
 
 public lectures on, re- 
 commended, 584. 
 
 advantages of, explained 
 
 by the Bishop of LlandafF, 592. 
 
 on the importance of 
 
 the distillery to British, App. 59. 
 
 Agriculturist, grand object of the 
 skilful, 269. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Agriculturists, the maxim of “ Let 
 us alone,” not applicable to, 576. 
 
 Air, the circulation of, prevented by 
 too many enclosures, 152. 
 
 Alder, use of, 545. 
 
 calculated for low tracts, 557. 
 
 Alluvial soils, various, described, 27. 
 
 Alternate, or convertible husbandry, 
 advantages of, 500. 
 
 American bug, remedy for the, 534. 
 
 white oak, use of, 548. 
 
 Andrew, Mr. James, plan of, for 
 draining, 209. 
 
 Animal, on what the strength of a, 
 depends, 98. 
 
 remains decomposed, favour- 
 able to fertility, 31, 226. 
 
 and vegetable food, quantity 
 
 of, produced per acre, 501. 
 
 Animals, on the introduction of exo- 
 tic, 71. 
 
 ■— ■■ — arguments in favour of large 
 or small-sized, 94, 95. 
 
 opinion of Mr. Henry Cline 
 
 on the form of, 98 ; early matu- 
 rity of, 99 ; hardiness of constitu- 
 tion, 100; quality of, ib . : hardy 
 breeds exempted from various 
 diseases, and their quality of flesh, 
 *5.; disposition to fatten, ib.; hand- 
 ling well, 101 ; lightness of offal, 
 103 ; great perfection of, ascertain- 
 ed from the dead weight, ib . ; in- 
 tended for the butcher, how should 
 be kept, 1 12. 
 
 different sorts of, designed 
 
 for different purposes, 113; num- 
 bers of, perished by thirst in York- 
 shire, 147. 
 
 excrements of domesticated, 
 
 an article of manure, 214 ; quali- 
 ties of the dung of various, ib. 
 
 dead, how converted into 
 
 manure, 225. 
 
 Ant-hills, how to be mixed with 
 lime ; should be burnt, 168. 
 
 Annual and biennial weeds, means 
 of destroying, 279. 
 
 Apples, what the best manure for, 
 511. 
 
 why superior to cherries ; 
 
 their importance as food, 528, 529. 
 
 Apprentices, act of Elizabeth con- 
 cerning, not generally enforced, 84. 
 
 Apprenticeships, plan of, adopted in 
 Scotland for educating farmers, 
 85; exemplified by Mr. Walker, 
 ib. 
 
 Arable farm, what capital required 
 to stock a, 73. 
 
 89 
 
 Arable farms, what capital required 
 in, 72. 
 
 and grass farming, the most 
 profitable, 73. 
 
 fields, conclusive argument 
 
 in favour of large, 153. 
 
 - land too much consumed by 
 hedges, rows of trees and ditches, 
 153. 
 
 woodland, how to be con- 
 verted into, 166. 
 
 » land, advantages of draining, 
 
 196. 
 
 a large proportion of, 
 
 originally covered with furze and 
 broom, 167. 
 
 advantages of enclosures 
 
 to, 182. 
 
 the most effectual way 
 
 of cleansing old, from root-weeds, 
 273. 
 
 how cleared from weeds, 
 
 283. 
 
 • mode of forming, in the 
 
 Pays de 7P~aes y 340. 
 
 ■- advantages of rolling, 
 
 355. 
 
 — objection to the conver- 
 sion of old turf into, 474. 
 
 how planted with turf, 
 
 484. 
 
 — — on laying down into 
 
 grass, plans for concerting into 
 pasture, 498. 
 
 ^ error committed in lay- 
 ing down into grass, 499. 
 
 ■ various plans for con- 
 
 verting, 499. 
 
 what ridges proper for, 
 
 when laid down into grass, 500 ; 
 a new mode of laying down into 
 grass, discovered, ib. 
 
 how may be cleared of 
 
 weeds, 280, 281. 
 
 operations, what necessary 
 
 previous to the commencement of, 
 325. 
 
 Arbuthnot, Mr. James, successful 
 experiments in burning clay by, 
 241. 
 
 Arch drains, 206. 
 
 Arish, or wind-mow, what, 397. 
 
 Arrangement, proper ; what the 
 foundation of, 77 ; rules connected 
 with, 78. 
 
 Arsenic, bad effects of using, to pre- 
 vent smut, 414. 
 
 Articles, miscellaneous, concerning 
 grass lands, 496. 
 
 Artificial ponds, how formed, 149 
 
90 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Artificial rills, great use and small 
 expence of, 150. 
 
 Ash, the, a formidable enemy to 
 corn, 192. 
 
 the, why frequent in Scotland, 
 
 520. 
 
 the mountain, why much cul- 
 tivated of late, 555. 
 
 ■ the, where raised to advantage, 
 
 556. 
 
 — — calculated for damp situations, 
 557 ; ranks next the oak, 560. 
 
 poles, use of, 545. 
 
 Ashes, advantages of spreading on 
 the ground, 165. 
 
 of peat, a common manure, 246. 
 
 of straw, how used, 247. 
 
 nature of, by burning, and the 
 
 substances mixed with them, 262. 
 
 mode of mauaging, 263. 
 
 — • — two rules connected with this 
 
 branch of the subject of, 263 ; 
 what the requisite quality of the 
 first crop to which applied, ib. 
 Asparagus, merits the peculiar at- 
 tention of market-gardeners, 513 ; 
 value of its produce, ib. 
 
 expence of laying down 
 
 an acre of, 513. 
 
 Aspect, importance of, to the farmer, 
 in hilly or mountainous districts, 
 38 ; difference between a northern 
 and a southern, 89. 
 
 Assessments for the maintenance of 
 the poor, dangerous tendency of, 
 65. 
 
 Atmosphere, how chilled, 2; weight 
 of the, how ascertained, 12. 
 Atmospherical and natural pheno- 
 mena, 10. 
 
 Auckland, Lord, speech of, in the 
 House of Lords, App. 30. 
 
 Aurora borealis, the, 10. 
 
 Autumnal fallows in Kent, 273. 
 
 frosts, effect of, 10. 
 
 Axiom, a generally received, con- 
 troverted, 575. 
 
 Back-water, a frequent cause of wet- 
 ness, 200. 
 
 Bagging, a practice principally con- 
 fined to Middlesex and Surrey, 
 395. 
 
 how performed, 395 ; little 
 
 difference between the expencc 
 of, and common sickle reaping, ib. 
 Bagot, Lord, situation of the woods 
 of, 337. 
 
 Bailiff, disadvantages of employing 
 a, 52. 
 
 Bakewell, Mr., a strong-minded man, 
 and a superior judge of stock, 111. 
 Baking potatoes, Mr. Pierrepont’s 
 mode of, 135. 
 
 Banking, country, why ought to be 
 encouraged, 572. 
 
 Banks, Sir Joseph, rents of woods be- 
 longing to, 539. 
 
 Banks, the simplest mode of em- 
 banking, 320. 
 
 Barberry, effects of, in producing 
 rust, 425. 
 
 Barclay, extraordinary improvement 
 in ploughing, by Mr., 172. 
 
 Bark, where an object, 544; profit 
 derived from, 545. 
 
 Barley, quantity of fermentable sub- 
 stance in English, superior to 
 Scotch, 4. 
 
 how sown in Ireland, 362. 
 
 quantity of seed for a crop 
 
 of, 362. 
 
 how steeped for sowing, 365. 
 
 four-rowed and six-rowed, 
 
 366. 
 
 answers after turnips, 453. 
 
 when to be sown, 457. 
 
 favourable to the vegetation 
 
 of grass-seeds, 469. 
 
 statement of the taxes paid 
 
 on, per quarter, used in the dis- 
 tillery, App. 61. 
 
 — of the tax, per acre, on land 
 
 growing barley, consumed in the 
 distillery, 62. 
 
 how much beef produced by 
 
 a quarter of, after being used in 
 the distillery, and the general re- 
 sult, 62. 
 
 straw, excellent when well 
 
 harvested, 433. 
 
 Barn, small implements for the, 135. 
 Barns, objections to great, how ren- 
 dered unnecessary, 143. 
 Barometer, usefulness of the, 12. 
 Barren slopes improved by the 
 catch-work system, 301. 
 
 Bean drill, uses of the, 123. 
 
 straw nutritious food for work- 
 ing horses, 434. 
 
 produces colic pains ; these 
 
 how to be cured, 434. 
 
 Beans, quantity of seed for a crop 
 of, 362. 
 
 why steeped, 365. 
 
 where should be drilled, 371. 
 
 circumstance of great import- 
 ance respecting the management of 
 the, subject of much discussion, 390. 
 tops of, cut oir to accelerate 
 
INDEX. 
 
 their podding, an account of ex- 
 periments tried to ascertain that 
 fact, 390. 
 
 Beans, advantage of cultivating early, 
 391. 
 
 improvements in the harvest- 
 ing of, 399. 
 
 • and clover, the sowing of, how 
 
 to be regulated, 458. 
 
 Bear, or big, where to sow, 11, 366. 
 
 Bed-work, expence of, 302. 
 
 Beech, where the most abundant, 
 wood, 548; woodsof,howmanaged, 
 ib . ; value and uses of the, ib. 
 
 the, used as piles and planks 
 
 for Waterloo-b ridge, and various 
 other purposes, 556. 
 
 Beef, nutritive quality of fat boiled, 
 
 102 . 
 
 Beeke, Dr., opinion of, concerning 
 plantations, 176. 
 
 Bees, when kept to advantage, 521. 
 
 Birch, use of, 473. 
 
 beauty of, inferior to oak, 549; 
 
 tar not extracted from the, in Eng- 
 land, ib. 
 
 its situation and uses, 555. 
 
 Birds and vermin, damage by, to 
 crops, 410. 
 
 Bills of Enclosure, interesting account 
 of the number passed in the course 
 of 40 years preceding 1814, App. 
 31. 
 
 account of, passed 
 
 from 1774 to 1813, App. 31. 
 
 Binot, form and use of the, App. 24; 
 where to be bought, and price of 
 the, App. 24* 
 
 Black moss, how capable of meliora- 
 tion, what convertible to, 163. 
 
 Blights, various causes of, 409. 
 
 caused by the richness of the 
 
 earth, 452. 
 
 Blue vitriol, how used, to prevent 
 smut, 414. 
 
 - modes of using, App. 83, 
 
 84; where successfully employed, 
 85. 
 
 Board of Agriculture, advantages 
 derived from the establishment of 
 a, 580. 
 
 Bog meadows, nature of the herbage 
 of, 482. 
 
 — — hay, how to be made 
 
 on, 482. 
 
 Bog-stuff, what so called in Ireland, 
 240. 
 
 Bogs, best rotations for, 162. 
 
 of Ireland, hints for improving, 
 
 162. 
 
 91 
 
 Bogs and peat-mosses, sorts and ex- 
 tent of, 162. 
 
 — — how to begin to cultivate, 176. 
 
 successful mode of draining, 
 
 210 . 
 
 or morasses, land-locked, how 
 
 drained, 211. 
 
 what trees calculated for, 557. 
 
 Boiling water and lime, how pre- 
 pared to cure smut, 412. 
 
 Bones, large and Jine> doctrine of 
 carried too far, 98. 
 
 — — advantage of small, 99. 
 
 how made into a manure, 225, 
 
 226. 
 
 — — either broken in pieces or 
 whole, the refuse of horn manufac- 
 turers, used for manure, 226. 
 
 Book of hints, &c., why every 
 farmer should possess a, 80. 
 
 Borer or auger used in draining, 208. 
 
 Bosses for stacking corn, how made 
 in Scotland, 398. 
 
 — . a great ob- 
 
 ject in a wet climate, 399. 
 
 Botts, or colic pains in horses, re- 
 medy for, 434. 
 
 Bounty, necessity to be given on ex- 
 portation, 586. 
 
 Brake-barrow, for weeds, 286. 
 
 Brake-harrows, use of, on rough 
 lands, 351. 
 
 Brakes, how to extirpate, 167. 
 
 Bread should be well baked, 404. 
 
 Breast, draining-spade, the, 208. 
 
 Breast-plough, or paring-shovel, de- 
 scribed, 258. 
 
 Breeder, objects of the judicious, 1 14. 
 
 Breeding, principles of improved, 
 104 ; Sir John S. Sebright’s essay on 
 the art of, ib.; from the same 
 family, or breeding-in, 105. 
 
 Breeding in-and-in, experiments in, 
 106. 
 
 preferable system of, 107. 
 
 crossing in, how should 
 
 be attempted, 107; when avoided, 
 ib.; upon what its improvement 
 depends, 108; proper period of 
 commencing, 109. 
 
 period of commencing, 
 
 109; consequences of any defect 
 in, 110. 
 
 a rule in, particularly ne- 
 cessary to be attended to, 110; 
 other rules in, ib.; Bakewell, the 
 father of the improved system of, 
 111 . 
 
 Bridges and roads necessary to the 
 improvement of a country, 588. 
 
92 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bridgewater, improvement effected 
 by the Duke of, 173. 
 
 Brining, to prevent smut, how dis- 
 covered, 411. 
 
 British statesmen, unfavourable idea 
 entertained by, of the ability of 
 this country to raise grain for its 
 consumption, App. 29. 
 
 Broad-cast, or sowing on the surface, 
 mode of, 368. 
 
 system, admission in favour 
 
 of the, 368. 
 
 machines for sowing, 369. 
 
 Broom, what soil prefers, 167. 
 
 Brown, Mr., his farm in East Lo- 
 thian, its population of 91 persons, 
 and how managed, 56 9. 
 
 Bruising beans, pease, or oats, recom- 
 m Aided for feeding horses, 136. 
 
 Brush-wood, where employed to ad- 
 vantage, 545. 
 
 Building, the most advantageous form 
 of farm, 139. 
 
 Buildings, imprudence’ of erecting 
 expensive, on farms, 143. 
 
 Bull, when a, may first be used, 109; 
 his offspring when impaired, ib. 
 
 Bullock, how often will drink in a 
 day, 151. 
 
 Burdens, necessity of knowing the 
 real amount of, 64. 
 
 — parochial, what, 64 ; an as- 
 
 sessment for the maintenance of the 
 poor, 65. 
 
 — national, 67: 
 
 ■ — miscellaneous, 67 ; public by 
 
 whom to be paid, ib . ; vexations 
 arising from uncertain, 68. 
 
 ■ peculiarly affecting agricul- 
 ture, 578. 
 
 Burning should not be carried too 
 far, 262. 
 
 Bush draining, 205. 
 
 Essex method of, 205. 
 
 Cabbages, how may be dunged, 216. 
 
 - ■ — where best succeed, 447. 
 
 and cauliflowers, how use- 
 ful as food, 503. 
 
 curious mode of preserving 
 
 from the caterpillar, 523. 
 
 Calcareous manure, when necessary, 
 179. 
 
 manures, what compre- 
 hended under this term, 227. 
 
 CaledonianHorticultural Society, ob- 
 jects of the, 523. 
 
 Calms, effects of, 409. 
 
 Calves, experiments on different 
 breeds, 99. 
 
 Canals, various advantages of to agri- 
 culture, 588; ought to be encou- 
 raged by government, 589; this 
 principle at last sanctioned by par- 
 liament, ib. 
 
 Capital in the hands of the tenantry, 
 its consequence, 58. 
 
 — what necessary in farming, 
 
 70 ; farmers require a greater than 
 manufacturers or merchants, 71 ; 
 in grazing farms, 72. 
 
 a grazing farmer’s, what pro- 
 portion should bear to his rent, 72; 
 what required for stocking farms, 
 73; divided into two parts, ib . ; 
 statement most satisfactory of the 
 profit derived from, in arable farm- 
 ing, ib.] importance of the farmer, 
 74; best means of securing, ib . ; 
 should afford ten per cent., ib . ; 
 danger of exhausting, 145. 
 
 considerable required, for the 
 
 convertible system of husbandry, 
 501. 
 
 Carlile codlin, the, cultivated with 
 advantage by cottagers, 520. 
 
 Carse , land, how converted into ; 
 
 meaning of the word, 175. 
 
 Carse of Gowrie, mode of draining 
 in, 201. 
 
 Carrot husbandry in the Sandlings, 
 one of the most interesting objects 
 in British agriculture, 17. 
 
 Carrots, uses of, 1 7. 
 
 dung how applied to, 220. 
 
 Cars, Irish, what their advantages, 
 and why recommended by Bake- 
 well, 132. 
 
 Cartage of manure ; expence of saved, 
 219. 
 
 Carts, why the cheapest and best 
 kind of carriage for the farmer, 130. 
 arguments for and against sin- 
 gle horse, 130; double horse when 
 most advantageous, 131 ; three ox- 
 four hoi-ses put into, when repre- 
 hensible, 131. 
 
 Cast-iron pillars, the use of in a 
 stack, 126. 
 
 Catch- work system, expence of, 302. 
 advantage of to mea- 
 dows, 304. 
 
 Caterpillars prevented, by sowing 
 hemp, 523. 
 
 Cattle, large and small Sized, com- 
 pared, 94, 95. 
 
 — form of, 97. 
 
 prolific quality of, 99. 
 
 — early maturity of, and a tame 
 breed of, 99, 100. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 93 
 
 Cattle, whence the crooked appear- 
 ance pf bad, 100; advantages and 
 disadvantages of fattening, 102; 
 skin of should be soft, 103. 
 
 — nor sheep good, unless first- 
 rate handlers, 103. 
 
 influence of male and female 
 
 upon their young, 109. 
 
 Herefordshireapproach near- 
 est to perfection, 114. 
 
 how to be supplied with 
 
 water, 148. 
 
 straw when to be given to, as 
 
 an economical way of feeding, 435. 
 
 comfortable situation of when 
 
 soiled, 438. 
 
 soiling of, how advantageous, 
 
 487. 
 
 - how to prevent being hovcn 
 
 when soiled, 489. 
 
 Caustic-lime, no dung should be 
 mixed with, 234. 
 
 Celery, an inter-crop, qualities of, 51 3. 
 Chalk, how used in covering soil, 173. 
 
 why improperly condemned 
 
 as exhausting, 234. 
 
 where an useful manure, and 
 
 how applied, 236. 
 
 soils process with, 467. 
 
 Chalky-downs, or ewe-leases in Dor- 
 setshire, how improved, 26. 
 
 — experiments by Mr. 
 
 Boys of Kent, 256 ; advantageous 
 system to, ib. 
 
 Chalky soil, why not good for 
 grasses, 26, 27 ; how to be culti- 
 vated, 26, 27. 
 
 soils, what consist of, 25 ; 
 
 means of ameliorating the texture 
 of, 26 ; generally more fit for til- 
 lage than grazing, ib . ; ashes of 
 peat of a red colour, beneficial to, 
 ib . ; in the West of England, how 
 cultivated, and successfully, by 
 Mr. Boys, 27. 
 
 Charcoal, consumption of, reduced, 
 539, 545 ; value of, ib. 
 
 Chat-moss, improved by the Duke of 
 Bridgewater, 173. 
 
 improvement of by Mr. 
 
 Roscoe, 178. 
 
 expence of improving and 
 
 cropping an acre of, 178. 
 
 Cheese, Cheshire, compared with the 
 productions of other countries, 1 1. 
 Cheese shapes and presses, what the 
 best, 135. 
 
 Chemist and naturalist, infallible 
 mode of using copper, by a cele- 
 brated, App. 82. 
 
 Cherry, the wild, should be exten- 
 sively cultivated, 561 ; value of 
 the wood of the bird, 562. 
 
 Chicory, what recommended for, 495. 
 China, information to be obtained 
 from, regarding fruit-trees and 
 gardening, 524. 
 
 Church, how to preserve the inte- 
 rests of the, in a fair commutation 
 for tithes, 576. 
 
 Churches, erection and repair of in 
 Scotland, parochial burdens, 67. 
 Churns, a variety of, now in use, 1 34. 
 Cider, expence and profit of making, 
 produce of an acre in, 525. 
 
 — — — greater advantage in selling the 
 fruit than in making, 525. 
 
 has a tendency to introduce dis- 
 solute manners ; is not so whole- 
 some as malt liquor, 525. 
 Circumstance, distressing, relative 
 to an entailed estate, 69. 
 
 Cisterns in the fold-yard useful, how 
 to be made, 151 ; how made in 
 Derbyshire, ib .; freezing of, how 
 to prevent, ib. 
 
 Clark, mode recommended by Mr., 
 to prevent rust, 424. 
 
 Clay, incumbent on chalk, utility of, 
 27. 
 
 and marl, method of covering, 
 
 the surface with, 173. 
 
 coarse, or till, calculated to 
 
 cover the surface, 174. 
 
 lands, admit a six years’ rota- 
 tion, and how, 453. 
 
 soils, distinguished for tenacity, 
 
 21; superior management of in the 
 Lothians, 22; value of, on what 
 depending, ib.; how improved, 
 ib. 23; what best calculated for 
 growing, 22; ploughing, when of 
 great use, 23 ; fallowing, how far 
 necessary, ib. 
 
 useful to sandy soils, 240. 
 
 burning of, an old practice, 241. 
 
 burnt, one of the most valuable 
 
 manures, 241. 
 
 soils, what calculated for, 22. 
 
 wet, how improved, 538. 
 
 breadths of ridges in, 208. 
 
 Clayey soil, turnips and potatoes, 
 raised on, by Mr. Curwen, 22. 
 
 - — - soils, on what the value of de- 
 pends, 22. 
 
 the process of conversion 
 
 in, 466 ; mellow loamy, 467. 
 subsoil, when advantageous, 
 
 33. 
 
 Clays, when become good meadow 
 
94 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 lands, 22 ; ploughing when of use 
 to, 23 ; fallowing when unneces- 
 sary, ib. 
 
 Clays, modes of draining, 208. 
 Clergy, on the laws for the support 
 of the, 64. 
 
 should be amply provided 
 
 for, according to the opulence of 
 the country, 64. 
 
 Climate, attention to, how necessary, 
 
 1. 
 
 not always attended to, by 
 
 farmers, 1; its general character, 2. 
 
 • causes of an unfavourable, 2. 
 
 some not to be remedied by 
 
 human art, 2. 
 
 ■ points of peculiar importance 
 
 in considering, 2. 
 
 — effect of woods on, 2, 3. 
 
 ■ — how improved by drainage, 
 
 3. 
 
 softened by planting, 3. 
 
 improved by cutting down 
 
 large forests, 3. 
 
 — a genial, how substituted for 
 
 one scarcely habitable, 4; uniform 
 of the Continent, 5. 
 
 light essential to a good, 5. 
 
 character of a, how deter- 
 mined, 6. 
 
 - ■ — disadvantages of a wet, 7. 
 
 ■ effect of winds on, 8. 
 
 an equal temperature in the, 
 
 how occasioned by position, 8. 
 
 good effects of inconstant, on 
 
 the air, 9. 
 
 — of a country, how variously 
 
 effected, 9. 
 
 effects of, on productions, 9, 
 
 10 . 
 
 real excellence of, on what 
 
 depending, 10. 
 
 effect of atmospherical phe- 
 nomena on, 10. 
 
 effect of, on the expence 
 
 of cultivation, 11. 
 
 nature of the articles raised 
 
 depends on the, 11. 
 
 on the means of ascertaining 
 
 the nature of, 12. 
 
 great attention to the nature 
 
 of the, why necessary, 12. 
 
 to be considered in determin- 
 ing the size of fields, 155. 
 
 amelioration of by draining, 
 
 198. 
 
 of Great Britain, universal 
 
 capability of, 566. 
 
 Climates, use of enclosures, in cold, 
 181. 
 
 Cline, Mr.,doctrinc'of, much misun- 
 derstood, 108. 
 
 Clogs or pattens, when necessary for 
 horses, 175. 
 
 Clover, advantage of a summer fal- 
 low to, 270. 
 
 and rye-gras9, not to be sow- 
 ed at the same time ; quantity of 
 seed for an acre, 363. 
 
 how steeped in Switzerland, 
 
 363. 
 
 — should be cultivated only 
 once in six years, 460. 
 
 quantity of food produced 
 
 by an acre of, 465. 
 
 profit of red, 485* 
 
 what quantity of 6eed sown, 
 
 486. 
 
 process of, making into hay, 
 
 490. 
 
 — when ought to be mown, 
 
 490. 
 
 — produce, and price of a crop 
 
 of, 490. 
 
 - ■ - ■■ feeding on, 491 ; remaining 
 in pasture, 494 ; Dutch ashes ap- 
 plied to, ib. 
 
 Clover-crops often fail from defec- 
 tive cultivation, 499. 
 Clover-stubble when to be ploughed, 
 
 458. 
 
 Clover-stubbles, farm-yard dung ap- 
 plied to, 220. 
 
 Club or bodge, soapers’ waste used to 
 destroy the, 510. 
 
 Clydesdale breed of horses, origin 
 of, 108. 
 
 Coal preferable to every species of 
 fuel, 40. 
 
 Coal-tar, or oil, how used in Dum- 
 fries-shire, 144. 
 
 Cobbing hoe, or ecobuc , a French 
 tool, its use, 258. 
 
 Cock’s-foot, compared to rye grass, 
 
 496. 
 
 cultivated with success 
 
 at Holkham, 497. 
 
 — Mr. George Sinclair’s 
 
 experiments on, 497. 
 
 Cockspur, or Newcastle thorn, 188. 
 Colbert, reply to the celebrated, 
 considered, 576. 
 
 Colic pains or botts, how cured, 
 434. 
 
 Colmata, what so called in Italy, 317. 
 Colt’s-foot, roots of, when, and how 
 to be taken up, 282. 
 
 Commissioners qualified for the ma- 
 nagement of a great property, 
 App.58. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 9 5 
 
 Common plough, the, when the best 
 instrument for paring, 258. 
 
 Common, right of, but of small use 
 to cottagers, 87. 
 
 Commoners, advantage of, making 
 compensation to, 543. 
 
 Commons near Pool, instance of en- 
 closing, 563. 
 
 Communication, internal advantages 
 of, to the soil, 39. 
 
 Competition, effects of, 61. 
 
 Compost, rich, at small expence, 
 216. 
 
 Composts, utility of, 251 ; quick 
 lime and earth of different sorts, 
 the substances commonly used for 
 making, 252; frequently made of 
 various materials, ib . ; mode of 
 making, suggested by the late 
 Lord Meadowbank, ib. 
 
 for what peculiarly well 
 
 calculated, 253 ; effects of, highly 
 satisfactory, 253. 
 
 lime, when will operate 
 
 in, 253. 
 
 Constitution of cattle, hardiness of, 
 
 100 . 
 
 Contract work, or by the great , 
 where daily gaining ground, 89. 
 
 Contributors, number of actual, to 
 the property-tax among the agri- 
 cultural classes, 575. 
 
 Conveyance, advantages of promot- 
 ing the convenience of, 39. 
 
 implements of, 130. 
 
 Convertible system of husbandry, 
 the, recommended, 500. 
 
 Copper transmuted into gold by 
 warping, 316. 
 
 mode of using, to preserve 
 
 wheat, on the Continent, App. 82. 
 
 Coppice-land, where grubbed up, 
 156. 
 
 Coppice, many acres of natural, 
 cleared in Stirlingshire, 166. 
 
 converted into orchards 
 
 on the banks of the Clyde and 
 Avon, 166. 
 
 or natural wood, growth 
 
 of, in Somersetshire, 539. 
 
 Coppices, points to be attended to 
 in the management of, 542. 
 
 fencing of, 542 ; when a 
 
 rule to cut down the whole, 543. 
 
 draining of, 543; injuries 
 
 done to, by cattle, sheep, &c. 
 543. 
 
 shelter necessary for, 544 ; 
 
 season for cutting, ib , ; application 
 and uses of, 545. 
 
 Copse fences on gravelly soils, 185. 
 Corn, the greatest height at which 
 it will grow in Scotland, 36, 37 ; 
 implements for sowing, 122; reap- 
 ing 124; harvesting, 126; thresh- 
 ing and cleaning, ib. 
 
 best mode of harvesting, 126. 
 
 — — ■ when liable to heat, 143. 
 
 raised in the East Indies by 
 
 irrigation, 296. 
 
 — — how carried away at Wester 
 Fintray, 321 ; cutting of, when 
 wet, to be avoided, 393. 
 
 in bad harvests, sheaves of, 
 
 ought to be gaited, 393. 
 
 sheaves of, ought to be of a mo- 
 derate size, 394. 
 
 variations in the expence of 
 
 cutting and binding, 394, 395. 
 
 mowing of, by the scythe, 394 ; 
 
 comparison between the expence 
 of the scythe and sickle, 395. ' 
 
 the old practice of stacking on 
 
 the ground, why exceptionable, 
 398 ; how preserved in the open 
 air, ib. ; stacking of, how brought 
 to great perfection in Scotland, 
 ib. ; bosses for this use, how form- 
 ed, 399; best preserved in the 
 straw, 404. 
 
 and flour, how to preserve, 404, 
 
 405. 
 
 proposition concerning, contro- 
 verted, 575. 
 
 value of, consumed by horses, 
 
 App. 56. 
 
 Corn-crops, danger of using unfer- 
 mented dung to, 220. 
 
 — — on drilling, 373. 
 
 Corn-farms, inconveniences of small 
 enclosures to, 152. 
 
 Corn-fields, list of weeds in, 278. 
 Corn-marygold rooted up by law in 
 Denmark, 291. 
 
 the most difficult to 
 
 extirpate of all weeds in South 
 Wales, 291 ; ancient regulation for 
 destroying, in Scotland, 291. 
 Corn-stacks, whypreferable to barns, 
 126; oblong, why objected to, 
 399. 
 
 Corn- stands, various described, 399. 
 Corn-rent, objection to a, removed, 
 
 63. 
 
 Corn-stubbles, when to apply, 333 ; 
 
 where sown with tares, 332. 
 Corporations for carrying on bene- 
 ficial improvements recommended, 
 591 ; instanced in the Bediord 
 Level Corporations, 591. 
 
96 INDEX. 
 
 Cotswold Hills, consequences of the 
 want of wood in, 34] . 
 Cottage-gardens, forest trees should 
 not be planted in, 520. 
 ash trees, why fre- 
 quently found in, in Scotland, 
 520. 
 
 Cottagers, situation of, in various 
 parts of England, 87 ; how may, 
 be placed in the most comfortable 
 state, 88. 
 
 what potatoes should be 
 
 cultivated by, 519. 
 
 Cottages, Act of Elizabeth, concern- 
 ing, 87. 
 
 of day-labourers in Scot- 
 land, 144. 
 
 Coulter-plough, Duckett’s, 466. 
 Country Banking, why ought to be 
 encouraged, 572. 
 
 County Reports, importance of their 
 publication, 581. 
 
 Covenants, necessity of, App. 8. 
 
 • in leases generally too nu- 
 
 merous and complicated, App. 8. 
 Cow, when should produce a calf, 
 109. 
 
 profit of the, 498. 
 
 Cows, the keeping of, how advanta- 
 geous to the cottagers, 88 ; who 
 has the finest dairy in Holland, 
 109. 
 
 — — ■ the greatest number of, how 
 kept, 491. 
 
 advantage of an increase of, 
 
 498. 
 
 annual expence and profit of, 
 
 498. 
 
 Cow-dung, how and when good ma- 
 nure, 511. 
 
 Cradle-churn, the American, 135. 
 Cromwell, a promoter of Agricul- 
 ture, 592. 
 
 Cropping, circumstances consider- 
 ably influencing any particular 
 system of, 446 ; the most produc- 
 tive source of, 449. 
 
 Crop, more productive, produced 
 by a drill, than a broad-cast sow- 
 ing, 375. 
 
 the only that cannot be over- 
 ploughed, App. 50. 
 
 Crops of grain, how far impoverish 
 the soil, 6. 
 
 double in the sandy soils of 
 
 Flanders, 18. 
 
 particulars to be considered in 
 
 raising, 36. 
 
 arrangement of, when to be 
 
 made, 77. 
 
 Crops, various modes for cutting 
 down, 124. 
 
 a judicious rotation to be al- 
 ways had in view, 77; rotations 
 of, 264 ; the first on peaty soils in 
 Scotland, 265. 
 
 operations of husbandry in the 
 
 production of, 325. 
 
 heavy, produced under the 
 
 drill system, 376. 
 
 the transplanting of, considered 
 
 as a great advantage over the 
 drill husbandry, 382. 
 
 comparative effect of mildew 
 
 on thick or thin, 421. 
 
 rotations of, best adapted for 
 
 different soils, 445. 
 
 list of the, raised on different 
 
 soils, 447. 
 
 — — course of, recommended by a 
 Huntingdonshire farmer, 451. 
 three in one year, how pro- 
 duced, 456. 
 
 preparatory, in Flanders, esti- 
 mated in English money, 456. 
 
 climate of England favourable 
 
 to double, 457. 
 
 those to be commenced with, 
 
 that produce most manure, 459 ; 
 exhausting never to be attempted 
 in succession, ib . ; all forcings and re- 
 petitions of the same to be avoided, 
 460 ; those to be raised best calcu- 
 lated to extirpate weeds, 460. 
 
 rotations of, to be adopted 
 
 when grass lands are broken up, 466. 
 the comparative value of se- 
 veral rotations of, 447. 
 
 rotation of, in orchards, 529. 
 
 improved mode of raising, by 
 
 a drill barrow, App. 66, 67. 
 Crossing in breeding, how should be 
 attempted, 107 ; when avoided, ib . ; 
 an eminent surgeon’s opinion on, 
 108; instances of, 109. 
 Cross-harrowing, use of, 352. 
 
 Cross and trench-ploughing, 388. 
 Culley, the celebrated, his principle 
 of hiring his rams, 107. 
 
 Cultivator, the British, poorly com- 
 pensated, 61. 
 
 Culture, while growing, 386. 
 Curriers’ shavings, their uses, 226. 
 
 Cut meat, slovenly practice of giving, 
 433. 
 
 Cutting or feeding land, when most 
 beneficial, 478. 
 
 Cylindrical wheels considered as the 
 greatest improvement in agricul- 
 tural machinery, 158. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 97 
 
 Dairy-farm, proper size of a, 43. 
 
 Dairy -implements, 134. 
 
 Darkness and light, their opposite 
 effects upon vegetables, 5. 
 
 Darnel, mischievous effects of the 
 white in wheat, 283. 
 
 Day-labourers, bad practice of hir- 
 ing, 82. 
 
 Day or piece-labourers, diversity of 
 opinions concerning, 88, 89. 
 
 Deep ploughing, 172, 328. 
 
 — experiments, prov- 
 
 ing the advantages of, 330. 
 
 — sentiments of an in- 
 
 telligent farmer upon, 331. 
 
 Denshiring, what, 257. 
 
 Depth of turf or sod pared, 259. 
 
 Devonshire plan of planting trees in 
 orchards, 533. 
 
 Dew, quantity of, falling in one 
 year, 8. 
 
 Dew-drops, how shaken from the 
 wheat, 406. 
 
 Dews, effects upon plants, 7. 
 
 grain and plants supposed to 
 
 be injured by, 406. 
 
 Dibble, the self-sowing, 124; when 
 has an injurious effect, 125. 
 
 Dibbling, practice of, has still many 
 admirers, 124. 
 
 its recommendations for the 
 
 even distribution of seed, 381 ; its 
 other advantages, ib. 
 
 Discovery, a modern, of great mo- 
 ment, 25. 
 
 Diseases of stock, how to be warded 
 off, 113. 
 
 Disposable produce, rent must be 
 paid out of, 59. 
 
 Distillery, the, importance of, to 
 British agriculture, App. 59. 
 
 an immense article of trade, 
 
 App. 59, 60 ; value of the refuse of 
 the, 61. 
 
 taxes paid on barley, when 
 
 used in the, App. 61. 
 
 Distressing circumstance relative to 
 an entailed estate, 69. 
 
 Ditches, uses of, in enclosing, 181. 
 
 Docks and thistles, how to extermi- 
 nate, 281, 284. 
 
 Docking-hoe for weeding, described, 
 288. 
 
 Domestic management, arrangement 
 of, 80. 
 
 productions, a preference 
 
 should be given to, 585. 
 
 Double-furrow plough, 118. 
 
 Drainage, how practised in the Carse 
 of Gowrie, 201. 
 
 Drainage, when necessary in or- 
 chards, 532; in woodlands, 543. 
 Drain, a, how dug, 205. 
 
 Draining, effect of, on climate, 3. 
 and chalking, capital re- 
 quired for, 72. 
 
 Draining land, implements for, 133; 
 
 mould-plough serviceable in, ib. 
 
 - — - — an important part of hus- 
 
 bandry, 195; advantages of, 196. 
 
 - — mode of, discovered by 
 
 accident, 196. 
 
 grass land, woods and 
 
 plantations, 197; miscellaneous ad- 
 vantages derived from, 1 98. 
 
 instruments employed in, 
 
 207. 
 
 modes of, what applicable 
 
 to different soils, 208. 
 
 concluding observations 
 
 on, 211. 
 
 divided by the landlord 
 
 and tenant, 212. 
 
 Drains, small, advantage of covering, 
 184. 
 
 ■ ■ ■■ ■■ — how worked in the border 
 counties, 204. 
 
 . ■ open, 201 ; of what shape, 
 203; covered, when preferable, 
 ib . ; covered, 206. 
 
 . — materials for filling, 205. 
 
 the sorts commonly used, 201. 
 
 duration and expence of, 206, 
 
 arched, 206 ; vertical or pit, 
 
 ib. 
 
 Dredge corn, what provincially 
 called, 421. 
 
 Dressing grain, old and imperfect 
 modes of, 401; winnowing ma- 
 chine for, where originated, 402. 
 
 thorough, and making it to 
 
 correspond with the sample, most 
 important objects, 402; drill and 
 broad-cast systems compared, ob- 
 servations arising from, 371. 
 Drill-barrow, advantages of the, for 
 sowing, 123, 379, 380. 
 
 improved mode of 
 
 raising crops of grain by means of, 
 App. 66; produce of grain and 
 straw under this system, how great, 
 its simplicity and advantages, ano- 
 ther process recommended, ib.\ 
 great object of the, 68. 
 Drill-harrows, a great improvement, 
 120 . 
 
 Drill-machine, a new, exhibited at 
 Holkham, 123. 
 
 the simple, for sowing 
 
 turnips, 123. 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Drill-roller, use of the, 134. 
 
 Drill-system, introduction of, by 
 whom considered as the most im- 
 portant of modern improvements, 
 374; upon what grounds defended, 
 ib. 
 
 ..... advantages of the, over 
 
 the broad-cast system, App. 69. 
 
 Drilling, remarks on in Scotland by 
 a Scotch farmer, App. 62 ; chief 
 advantages of, 64 ; hints on, App. 
 68 . 
 
 Drilling-system, the, 123. 
 
 by machines, no new disco- 
 very, 370. 
 
 — necessary distinctions on the 
 
 subject of, 371. 
 
 — . leguminous crops, 371. 
 
 - ■ for turnips, greatly to be pre- 
 
 ferred, 371. 
 
 — ■ of carrots, pease and tares, 
 
 372 ; culmiferous crops, or the 
 
 row culture for crops of grain, 373. 
 
 arguments against, 373. 
 
 a peculiar advantage in, 374. 
 
 why frequently given up on 
 
 rich 6oils, 376 ; observations on, 
 501. 
 
 carried to perfection at Holk- 
 
 ham, 377. 
 
 — what the greatest improve- 
 
 ment in, 377. 
 
 a recent improvement in, 
 
 378. 
 
 additional reason for recom- 
 mending, 380. 
 
 — — resolutions on the subject of, 
 at Holkham, 381 ; much practised 
 in China, ib, ; of pease and beans 
 in Norfolk, 382. 
 
 ■ equi-distant, when superior 
 
 to broad-cast, 38 5. 
 
 Drillists, the, supported by respect- 
 able authority, 376. 
 
 Drills, experiments on sowing in, 
 375. 
 
 Dry-stapled lands, paring and burn- 
 ing of, carried to excess, 258. 
 
 Duckett’s skim-coulter plough, 466. 
 
 Duncombe, Cha. Esq. experiments on 
 the estate of, 178. 
 
 Dung should never be brought from 
 good land to bad, 177. 
 
 — - — how to ferment, for common 
 purposes, 211. 
 
 of quadrupeds, value of, 214. 
 
 ■ of the farm-yard, its parts, and 
 
 qualities, 214; which to be pre- 
 ferred, 215; quality of, on what 
 depends, ib. 
 
 Dung from stables and cows, why pre- 
 ferred, 215. 
 
 of various animals, propriety of 
 
 mixing, 215. 
 
 how to collect from the farm- 
 yard, use of dependent on the cli- 
 mate, 216. 
 
 advantage of using fresh, 217. 
 
 when to be used, 216; fresh, 
 
 217; proper for potatoes, ib. 
 
 utility of fermenting, 217. 
 
 when to be moved, early or 
 
 late in the season, 218; old prac- 
 tice of stirring laid aside, 219; im- 
 proved method of preserving, ib. 
 
 uses of, rotten, 219 ; how used 
 
 by Mr. Walker of Mellendean, ib. 
 
 danger of using unfermented, 
 
 with corn crops, 220. 
 
 receptacles for, in the Nether- 
 lands, why paved, and lined with 
 brick, 220. 
 
 mode of applying, 220 ; singu- 
 lar in Switzerland, 221. 
 
 quantity of, to be applied, 221. 
 
 how spread and divided, 221 ; 
 
 an important question, respecting, 
 222 ; at what depth ought to be 
 placed, ib . ; how collected on the 
 sides of roads, ib. 
 
 of the farm-yard and stable, or 
 
 the farmer’s sheet-anchor , its im- 
 portance, 222. 
 
 of sheep, 222 ; of rabbits, ib. 
 
 of birds, 222 ; of domestic fowls, 
 
 223 ; of sea-birds, most valuable, 
 ib . ; various sorts, ib. 
 
 what let for at Aberdeen and 
 
 Edinburgh, 224.. 
 
 the advantage of using fer- ' 
 
 mented, 287. 
 
 advantages of applying to a 
 
 smothering crop, 424. 
 
 bad practice of carting on 
 
 grass-lands, during frosts, 476. 
 
 value of, made in summer, 488. 
 
 Dung-heap, when to be covered with 
 a coat of earth or peat, 218. 
 Dung-hill, chief material of the, 215. 
 
 water, used for steeping, 
 
 365. 
 
 Dutch-ashes, use of, to prevent rust, 
 424. 
 
 — use of, in Flanders, 494. 
 
 Dutch turf-ashes, effect of, when ap- 
 plied to clover, App. 41. 
 
 Earth, covering the surface with, 
 172. 
 
 Earthy manures, how classed, 240. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 99 
 
 Early maturity of cattle, importance 
 of, 98. 
 
 Eccleston, Mr., instrument for drain- 
 ing, invented by, 207. 
 
 Economy should be introduced into 
 the management of a farm, 76. 
 Edinburgh, extent of kitchen-gardens 
 near, 504. 
 
 Elkington, Mr., mode of draining, 
 discovered by accident, by, 196. 
 Elm, the, a most valuable tree, 561. 
 Elevation, effects of, on the value of 
 a farm, 35. 
 
 injurious effects of, in the 
 
 culture of grain, and herbage, 35 ; 
 sixty yards of, equal to a degree of 
 latitude, or a degree more north, 36. 
 
 of a farm above the sea, to 
 
 be considered, 36 ; the highest at 
 which wheat can be cultivated, 37. 
 Embanking, good effects of, 164,317. 
 
 a mode of acquiring 
 
 land, well entitled to general atten- 
 tion, 322. 
 
 Embankments, necessary for reclaim- 
 ing marshes, 1 64. 
 
 recommended to the 
 
 Legislature, 321, 590. 
 
 — — - their nature, and ad- 
 
 vantages, 317 ; protect lands from 
 inundation, and prevent the en- 
 croachments of the sea, ib. ; are 
 protections against lakes and rivers, 
 various modes of, 319. 
 
 Enclosure, account of the number of 
 Bills of, passed in the course of 40 
 years preceding 1814, App. 31; 
 passed from 1774 to 1794, ib. 
 Enclosures, benefit of small, 3 ; when 
 to be enlarged, ib. 
 
 — — disadvantages of small 
 
 and irregular, 152. 
 
 — large, how to be divided, 
 
 156. 
 
 — on the nature and advan- 
 
 tages of, 181. 
 
 — — benefits of, in cold cli- 
 
 mates, 181 ; advantages of, in pas- 
 turage, 182; improve the rent, 
 
 183. 
 
 — — by ditches, how advan- 
 tageous, 183. 
 
 — sorts of, adapted for dif- 
 ferent situations, 183, 184. 
 
 — disadvantages of, 183. 
 
 in the vicinity of towns, 
 
 184. 
 
 in low and rich soils, 184. 
 
 — ■■■■■ in low arable soils, 184. 
 
 — — — — — - in upland farms, 185. 
 
 Enclosures on mountain sheep farms, 
 185. 
 
 — on new farms, 185, 
 
 the only plausible objec- 
 tions to a general bill of, 578. 
 Encouragements public, what a wise 
 government ought to bestow for the 
 advancement of agriculture, 576. 
 
 the principal which a 
 
 wise government ought to bestow 
 upon agriculture, classed under 
 heads, 577. 
 
 Engrafting forest trees, experiments 
 in, 563. 
 
 Entailed estate, circumstance, dis- 
 tressing, relative to an, 69. 
 
 Entailed estates, where a great ob- 
 struction to improvements, 321. 
 Esquisetum , the plants so called, 
 where found, 206. 
 
 Estimates, various, on the produce, 
 expence, and surplus of farms, 
 App. 51, 52. 
 
 Exportation, how promoted, 183. 
 Every years land , in Gloucestershire, 
 why so called, 388. 
 
 Euxine, the, frozen in summer, 4. 
 Exchequer bills, an act to authorize 
 the issue of, 589. 
 
 Exotic fruits, extent of glass, employ- 
 ed for, in Scotland, 506. 
 
 Exotic plants and animals, effect of 
 the introduction of, 11, 12. 
 Experiment in drilling, by J. Brodie, 
 Esq., 377. 
 
 in ploughing-in red clo- 
 ver, App. 65. 
 
 a curious and valuable, 
 
 App. 66. 
 
 Experimental farm, what its object 
 should be, 582. 
 
 farms, genuine recom- 
 mended, 582. 
 
 ■ or rather pattern farms y 
 
 remarks upon, 583; by Mr. Blaikie, 
 
 ib. 
 
 Experiments, useful, by whom lauda- 
 ble, 53, 54. 
 
 accurate, little prospect 
 
 of deriving from farms, as at pre- 
 sent conducted, 582. 
 
 at Great Ponton, on ma- 
 nuring, 214. 
 
 with sugar wash, App. 
 
 60. 
 
 to prevent rust or mil- 
 dew, App. 85. 
 
 Fallowing, contributes to the destruc- 
 tion of vermin, 270. 
 
 H 2 
 
100 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fallowing, detailed account of the 
 expence of, on the improved sys- 
 tem of the Lothians, 27 3 ; in Kent, 
 Essex, &c. 273. 
 
 — — for wheat, practised by the 
 
 best farmers, 274. 
 
 — why most decidedly. disap- 
 
 proved by Mr. Middleton, the 
 Reporter of Middlesex, 275. 
 
 •— system of, for wheat, in 
 
 Ireland, 276. 
 
 not properly conducted in 
 
 England, 369. 
 
 Fallowists, and Anti-fallowists, two 
 agricultural sects, their origin, 268. 
 
 Fallow, advantages of a complete, 
 270; trenching instead of a, sug- 
 gested ; its expence, 271 ; objec- 
 tions against a summer, 272. 
 
 Fallow-crops, substituted for a naked 
 fallow, 276. 
 
 Fallow-lands, why become foul, in 
 Ireland, 282. 
 
 Fallow-process, what effected by a, 
 well conducted, 270. 
 
 the, by an eminent 
 
 farmer, called the main-spring of 
 Scottish husbandry, 277. 
 
 Fallows, a great reduction in the fre- 
 quency of, already taken place, 272. 
 
 — — occasional, thought necessary 
 in England, 273. 
 
 — autumnal in Kent, 273. 
 
 Fanners, superior utility of to former 
 
 modes of winnowing, 129; much 
 improved and now in general use, 
 ib. ; are said to have originated in 
 China, when and by whom intro- 
 duced into Scotland, 129, 402. 
 
 Farm, on what the value of a, de- 
 pends, 35. 
 
 — — height of above the sea, to be 
 considered, 36. 
 
 system of farming dependent 
 
 on the situation of a, 38; vi- 
 cinity of a, to towns advantageous, 
 43. 
 
 circumstances which render a, 
 
 less valuable, 64. 
 
 the most essential means of 
 
 carrying on the improvements of 
 a, 70 ; considerations necessary 
 previous to the cultivation of a,t'6.,- 
 the most essential means for im- 
 proving a, 7 1 ; advantages of sub- 
 letting a, 74 ; necessity of having 
 a plan of a, 77; succession of 
 labour on a, ib.; rules for the 
 successful management of a, 78; 
 necessity of good servants in a, ib. ; 
 
 should be regularly inspected, 
 78; a considerable, should have 
 servants specially appropriated to 
 each department, 78 ; size of fields 
 to depend on the extent of a, 153 ; 
 a, should be divided according to 
 the course of crops, 154. 
 
 Farm, essential means for the success- 
 ful improvement and cultivation 
 of a, 159. 
 
 disadvantage of dividing into 
 
 half grass, half tillage, 472. 
 
 advantage of keeping one half 
 
 of a, under artificial grasses, 501. 
 Farm buildings, to prevent the spread 
 of fire in, 139. 
 
 and cottages, general 
 
 rules for the construction of, 139 ; 
 how should be planned, ib . ; posi- 
 tion of, ib. 140; by whom ought 
 to be erected, 144, 145. 
 
 superfluous, to be 
 
 avoided, 143, 145. 
 
 insurance of, 146. 
 
 Farmer, preliminary points to be 
 considered by a, 1 . 
 
 nature of soil and subsoil to 
 
 be attended to by a, 35. 
 
 advantage of an intelligent, 
 
 over a proprietor, 50. 
 
 a judicious, what able to ac- 
 complish, 54, 61 ; a fair criterion 
 for a, respecting rent, ib. 
 
 various burdens on the, 64, 
 
 69. 
 
 payments made by a, paying 
 
 5001. annual rent, 68. 
 
 superior advantage of a, with 
 
 a large capital over others, 71. 
 a prudent, considerations pre- 
 viously necessary to undertaking 
 the cultivation of a farm, 70, 7 1 ; 
 what ought to gain, 74. 
 
 a, why should rise early, 75, 
 
 78. 
 
 — why every should have a book 
 
 to insert hints, 76, 81. 
 
 every should have an in- 
 ventory of his implements, &c. 
 137. 
 
 how gets the character of a 
 
 bad husbandman, 145. 
 
 entitled to comfortable build- 
 ings, 145. 
 
 advantages of good private 
 
 roads to the, 159; a good how dis- 
 tinguished from a bad, ib. 
 
 — — — the, why the first link in the 
 great chain of the national circula- 
 tion, 572. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 101 
 
 Farmer, superior influence of the, 
 upon what founded, 571. 
 
 the necessity of command of 
 
 capital to a, 571. 
 
 remarks on drilling, by a 
 
 Scotch, App. 62, 63. 
 
 Farmers, common error of, 14. 
 
 when like retail shopkeepers, 
 
 43. 
 
 large, enabled to try experi- 
 ments, 46. 
 
 — large, can afford to pay a 
 
 higher rent than the small, 47. 
 
 why a most important link 
 
 in the chain of society, 47. 
 
 small, why not liabte to pay 
 
 the income tax, 47. 
 
 advantages of noblemen be- 
 coming, 53. 
 
 leases, the most beneficial 
 
 species of encouragement to, 55. 
 
 difference between arable 
 
 and grazing, 62. 
 
 the most successful, 63. 
 
 — vexations to, in England, 68. 
 
 how sufferers by the indolence 
 
 of their workmen, 93. 
 
 sheet-anchor, what, 222. 
 
 — asuccessionof shallowplough- 
 
 ing, how beggared, 331. 
 
 practice of in Kent, 332. 
 
 calendar, by Mr. Young re- 
 commended, 78. 
 
 — garden, utility of a, 516 ; 
 
 management of, ib.\ refuse of to be . 
 given to pigs, ib . ; size of, ib. 
 
 the most valuable ac 
 
 quisition, 516. 
 
 — time of working in, 
 
 516. 
 
 — articles raised in, 517. 
 
 necessity of enclosing 
 
 substantially, 517 ; brick why pre- 
 ferable to stone for enclosing, 517. 
 
 fruit trees how to be 
 
 raised in, 517. 
 
 gooseberry, raspberry, 
 
 and currant bushes should be 
 reared in, 517. 
 
 Farm-house, what its proper position, 
 construction, and arrangement of 
 offices, 140, 1 41 ; why should front 
 the south, ib. 
 
 how a should exhibit an 
 
 idea of comfort and happiness, 142; 
 arden of the why between the 
 ouse and yard, ib . ; arrangement 
 and construction of the offices, ib. 
 Farm-houses and offices, by whom 
 to be kept in repair, 145. 
 
 Farm-houses, repairs of, who done by 
 in Scotland, 146. 
 
 neglect of in Ireland, 
 
 146. 
 
 Farming, experimental, 54. 
 
 moderate profits of, 61. 
 
 — Mr. Turner of Tynefield’s 
 
 system of, App. 46. 
 
 Farming-accounts, necessity of keep- 
 ing regular, 74 ; a weekly journal 
 of, 76 ; App. 10. 
 
 Farming-gardeners, method of 
 ploughingby, 331 ; process of, 456. 
 
 acres cultivated 
 
 by, 456. 
 
 the crops of, 515 ; 
 
 rent of, ib. 
 
 the most pro- 
 fitable plan of, 516. 
 
 Farm-roads, 157. 
 
 Farm -servants, of what description, 
 81 ; proper houses where built for, 
 82 ; married ; why most to be de- 
 pended on, ib. ; in Scotland their 
 habits of sobriety and economy to 
 what attributed, 83; pernicious 
 practice of putting them on board 
 wages, 85; what accommodations 
 necessary for, 143. 
 
 Farm-yard, water of the, how to be 
 disposed of, *216. 
 
 Farm-yard dung, best application of, 
 
 220 . 
 
 — of what consists, 
 
 214. 
 
 Farm-yard manure, how to be treat- 
 ed, 214. 
 
 Farm-yards and fields, how best sup- 
 plied with water, 150. 
 
 Farms, size of, 41 ; great diversity of 
 opinion relative to, may be divided 
 into three sorts, ib. 
 
 size of, how to be classed, 41. 
 
 small, why not now advan- 
 tageous. 41 ; arguments in favour 
 of small, 42. 
 
 moderate sized, calculated for 
 
 the dairy system ; in the neigh- 
 bourhood of large towns how ren- 
 dered advantageous, 43. 
 
 — when they ought to be large, 
 
 44; arguments adduced in support 
 of large, ib. ; considerable saving 
 in the cultivation of, 45 ; stock on 
 large of a superior quality, ib . ; 
 when a species of magazines or re- 
 positories, 47 ; necessary diversity 
 in the size of, ib. ; circumstances 
 strongly tending to diminish the 
 size of, 47, 48 ; depend on the cir- 
 
102 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 cumstances of a country, 47; when 
 necessarily small, 48 ; enlarged as 
 population advances, ib . ; circum- 
 stances tending again to diminish 
 the size of, ib. 
 
 Farms, partially improved, benefits 
 of to proprietors, 54. 
 
 grazing, why let on princi- 
 
 . pies different from arable, 60. 
 
 advantages of grazing, 62. 
 
 capital required on cultivat- 
 ed, 73. 
 
 inconveniences of erecting 
 
 on low grounds, 141. 
 
 enclosures on new, 185. 
 
 on the produce, expence, and 
 
 surplus of, App. 50, 51. 
 
 calculated for a proportion 
 
 of oxen, App. 78, 79. 
 
 Fat, an accumulation of, how to pro- 
 duce, 113. 
 
 Fat beef, boiled, three ounces for 
 nourishment equal to a pound of 
 lean, 102. 
 
 Fat meat, unfit for general consump- 
 tion, 102. 
 
 Fatten, advantages of cattle possessing 
 a disposition to, 101. 
 
 Fattening cattle and sheep, advan- 
 tages and disadvantages attending, 
 102 . 
 
 indication of, or handling 
 
 well, 103. 
 
 Fatness of cattle, what depends on, 99. 
 Feathers, advantage of old as manure, 
 226. 
 
 Female labourers, distinguished for 
 their industry and healthy ap- 
 pearance, 91. 
 
 Fences various, 156; advantage of 
 having in straight lines, ib. 
 
 the nature of, 181. 
 
 preserved by soiling, 487. 
 
 Fen-land, how converted into a per- 
 petual hay meadow, 25. 
 
 method of covering the 
 
 surface of, 173. 
 
 Fens, the, how cultivated, 25. 
 
 necessity of paring and burning, 
 
 255. 
 
 consequences of flooding, 310. 
 
 Fermentation of dung, how to be 
 prevented, 218. 
 
 Fern, a very troublesome weed, how 
 and when to be destroyed, 167 ; 
 lime effective in destroying, ib.; an 
 effectual but tedious process for 
 destroying, 168. 
 
 Fertile soils, must not be pared or 
 burned, 257. 
 
 Feudal system, abolition of the, 55. 
 Field-gates, best materials for, 194. 
 width of, 1 94 ; construc- 
 tion of, ib. 
 
 Field-gardens, cultivated by the 
 plough, 515. 
 
 Fields, precautions necessary in con- 
 ducting water through, 151 ; size 
 and shape of, 152 ; conveniences 
 of small for grazing, ib.; circum- 
 stances on which the size of ought 
 to depend, 153; disadvantages of 
 having of too great extent, 154; 
 size of must depend on the in- 
 clination of the ground, 155. 
 
 advantages of having small, 
 
 near the farm, 155. 
 
 large, how, may be subdivided, 
 
 156. 
 
 shape of, 1 56 ; advantages of 
 
 having them square or oblong, 157. 
 Filberts, impoverishers of ground, 
 527. 
 
 Filtered water, how to be preserved, 
 148. 
 
 Fiorin, useful on bogs, 496. 
 
 Fiorin grass, recommended on 
 marshes, 164. 
 
 Fir, use of the boughs of, for feeding 
 sheep and deer, 535. 
 
 Fir timber, where of slow growth, 
 551. 
 
 — woods, natural, 550. 
 
 — tree, what height, reaches, 550 ; 
 what sum produced by a, 551. 
 
 Fire, to prevent the spread of, in 
 farm-buildings, 139. 
 
 Fish, where useful as a manure, 226 ; 
 varieties of, so used, enumerated, 
 ib. 
 
 Fish-oil, a remedy for the blight, 534. 
 Flail, few men dexterous at handling 
 a, 401 ; use of, now objected to by 
 labourers in general, ib. 
 
 Flanders, farms moderate-sized in, 43. 
 
 double cropping in, 436. 
 
 estimate of the crops in, 456. 
 
 Fleece, improvement of, on what it 
 depends, 109; rivalling the Spa- 
 nish, how to be obtained, ib. 
 Flemish agriculture, sketch of the, 18. 
 
 and Dutch dairies, useful 
 
 hints furnished by the, 43. 
 
 — mosses, how improve waste 
 
 lands, 176. 
 
 farmers, great attention paid 
 
 by the, to weeding, 282. 
 
 mode of cutting grain, 396. 
 
 Floating, remarkable instance of, 
 174. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 103 
 
 Floating off the surface of peat-bogs, 
 174. 
 
 upwards, the obsolete prac- 
 tice of, described, 309. 
 
 Flooding, how differs completely 
 from irrigation, 308; its advan- 
 tages, 309. 
 
 manner of, and mode in 
 
 which it operates, 311; waters 
 calculated for, ib . ; seasons fittest 
 for the operation, ib . ; advantages 
 and disadvantages of the process, 
 ib. 
 
 • — — the most striking instance 
 
 known in Great Britain, that of 
 Loch Ken, in Scotland, 309. 
 
 Floods from rivers, lakes, or the sea, 
 
 201 . 
 
 Florists, peaceableness of the, at Pais- 
 ley, 521. 
 
 Florist Society, the, at Paisley, 521 . 
 
 Flour, when may be improved by 
 soda, 404 ; or advantageously made 
 into cakes or biscuit, ib . ; or what 
 are called flour scones in Scotland, 
 ib. 
 
 when properly packed, easily 
 
 preserved, 405. 
 
 weekly consumption of, in 
 
 London, App. 59. 
 
 Flow t fluid or spongy mosses, when 
 convertible into arable land, or 
 meadow, 163. 
 
 Flow-mosses, draining of, recom- 
 mended, 163. 
 
 Flues, for hot-houses, best mode of 
 constructing, 506; heating walls 
 by, 507. 
 
 Fly-trap, a, App. 70. 
 
 Fly, hints to prevent the, in turnips, 
 App. 70; how to destroy most 
 effectually, 73. 
 
 Fogging grass lands, 483. 
 
 Fogs, or mists, the cause of diseases 
 in grain, 406. 
 
 Folding, arguments for and against, 
 222, 223. 
 
 Food, comparative quantity of, pro- 
 duced under grazing or tillage, 
 473,501. 
 
 saved by soiling, 487. 
 
 Ford, plan devised by Mr., for water- 
 ing an upland tract, 150. 
 
 Forest and fruit trees raised on the 
 sea- coast by a simple experiment, 
 560. 
 
 Forests, 550 ; the Great, of Glenmore, 
 551. 
 
 value of several, compared, 
 
 551. 
 
 Forest trees, on what the successful 
 growth of depends, 537. 
 
 engrafting of, 563. 
 
 Form of cattle, 97; particulars in, 
 agreed to by the most experienced 
 breeders, 98 ; the substance of the 
 doctrines of H. Cline, Esq. on 
 the, ib. 
 
 Fox-earth , and Fox-bench , what, 328. 
 
 French willow, the, 561. 
 
 Frederick the Great, why the most 
 celebrated statesman of modern 
 times, 591 ; his practice for encou- 
 raging agricultural improvements, 
 592. 
 
 sums issued by, 
 
 for promoting the agricultural 
 prosperity of his dominions, where 
 detailed, 592. 
 
 Fresh-water marshes, how drained 
 and improved, 1 64. 
 
 Frosts, grain injured by, 407. 
 
 Fruit-gardens, private, 505 ; division 
 of, 506 ; best soil for, ib. 
 
 Fruit-shops in London, where sup- 
 plied from, 506. 
 
 Fruits, the first substance used as 
 aliment, 502. 
 
 Fruit trees not profitable in hedges, 
 193. 
 
 advantages of pruning, 507. 
 
 mode of protecting the 
 
 blossoms of, 507 ; use of peeling 
 the outer bark from, 508. 
 
 experiment on, near Edin- 
 burgh, 508. 
 
 where may be reared, 517. 
 
 and gardening, informa- 
 tion to be gained from China re- 
 specting, 529. 
 
 Fuel, price of, in the Hebrides, 40; 
 coal, why preferable to wood for 
 every species of, ib. 
 
 Fuller’s-earth of Surrey, Kent, &c. 
 how to correct, 1 5. 
 
 Furriers’ clippings, use of, as a ma- 
 nure, 226. 
 
 Furrow-slice, form of the, 327 ; man- 
 ner of laying the, 332. 
 
 in England, common 
 
 breadth of the, 33 6. 
 
 Furze, what land prefers, 167. 
 
 Galloway dyke, superiority of the, 
 and how made, 185. 
 
 — — what stone used for 
 
 187. 
 
 ■- expence of the, 187. 
 
 Garden, advantages of a, to a cot- 
 tager, 86. 
 
104 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Garden, attachment of the Irish pea- 
 sant to his little, 87. 
 
 a portion of, should be em- 
 ployed in raising pulse, 503. 
 
 culture, preparing the soil 
 
 and trenching, not sufficiently at- 
 tended to in, 510. 
 
 cultivated by a carpenter at 
 
 Steyning, 521. 
 
 propriety of enclosing sub- 
 stantially, 517. 
 
 ground, calculation of the ex- 
 pence of cultivating ten acres, 512. 
 
 families subsist by 
 
 the cultivation of, 515. 
 
 — — rent of, 522. 
 
 produce, expence, 
 
 and profit of, 505. 
 
 — — comparative con- 
 sumption of, in England and Scot- 
 land, 505. 
 
 Gardening, the most advantageous 
 mode of occupying the soil, 502. 
 productive and advanta- 
 geous, 502; societies for improv- 
 ing, 523. 
 
 means of improving the 
 
 art of, 523. 
 
 — on the Continent, should 
 be examined, 523. 
 
 a branch of agriculture, 
 
 324. 
 
 Gardens, produce of, 502. 
 
 advantages of, in general, 
 
 504. 
 
 • useful employment fur- 
 
 nished by, 504. 
 
 — - ■ acres employed in, for the 
 
 supply of the metropolis, 504; ex- 
 tent of, near Edinburgh, ib. 
 
 ■ when, feed more people 
 
 than the fields, 504. 
 
 reasons why the profit of 
 
 Scotch, are less than English, 505. 
 
 — — produce of, more valuable 
 
 than arable or pasture land, 505 ; 
 the different sorts of, 506. 
 
 when most advantageously 
 
 cultivated by the plough, 515. 
 
 rent of, 521 ; value of land 
 
 increased by, ib. ; rent of, near 
 London, 522 ; near Edinburgh, ib. 
 
 the advantages of using 
 
 fermented dung in, 287. 
 
 what weeds liable to, 287. 
 
 Gate, plan of a new, to straw-yards, 
 194. 
 
 post6, larch best calculated for, 
 
 553. , 
 
 Gates, necessity of having wide, 194. 
 
 Gates, how fixed, 1 94. 
 
 importance of having, to shut 
 
 and open readily, 194. 
 
 — — the best materials for, 194. 
 
 a source of vexation to the 
 
 farmer, 195. 
 
 Gazel wine, what so called, 517.. 
 General statements of produce and 
 expence, App. 54. 
 
 ■ ■■■ — articles of produce and ex- 
 
 pence, App. 57. 
 
 Gentlemen cultivators, failures of, 
 53; how their farming should be 
 managed, ib. 
 
 German greens, how and when 
 sown, 5 14. 
 
 German Ocean, copious evaporation 
 of the, 8. 
 
 comparative degrees 
 
 of the cold and heat of the, and 
 the Atlantic, 8. 
 
 Germination, simultaneous, how se- 
 cured, 35. 
 
 promoted by steeping, 
 
 365. 
 
 Glass, expence of, in artificial gar- 
 dening, 513. 
 
 Gleaning, origin of, 444; ancient 
 mode of, ib . ; abuses of, ib.; de- 
 cided against in the Courts, ib. 
 Glenmoriston, price paid for cutting 
 pine and birch in, 551. 
 
 Good weather, the continuance of 
 in harvest, not to be trusted, 408. 
 Gorse, where burnt, as a manure for 
 turnips, App. 78. 
 
 Goul Courts in Scotland, when held 
 for enforcing the extirpation of 
 weeds, 291. 
 
 Grafting, observations on, 565. 
 Grain, crops of, how far impoverish 
 the soil, 6. 
 
 circumstances affecting the 
 
 price of, 63. 
 
 practice of giving to labour- 
 ers, 92. 
 
 drilling of, how facilitated, 
 
 122 . 
 
 when should be rolled, 354. 
 
 on the practice of transplant- 
 ing, 367. 
 
 period of sowing different, 366. 
 
 various modes of placing in 
 
 rows, 370. 
 
 mode of preserving, 392. 
 
 Flemish mode of cutting, how 
 
 performed, 396. 
 
 threshing of, 400. 
 
 old and imperfect modes of 
 
 dressing, 401. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 105 
 
 Grain, thorough dressing of, why an 
 important object to a farmer, 402. 
 
 why the whole stock of, should 
 
 correspond with the sample pro- 
 duced at market, 402. 
 
 and flour, means for improving 
 
 the quality of, 403. 
 
 musty, how to recover, 403. 
 
 — — infected by smut, how to be 
 cleaned, 404. 
 
 barrels and vessels for, 405. 
 
 accidents to which liable, 406. 
 
 ■ plan of high cutting deserves 
 
 reprobation, and why, 442. 
 
 duty on the exportation and 
 
 importation of, 585. 
 
 ■ ■ opinion of British Statesmen, of 
 
 the inability of this country to 
 raise, for its consumption, App. 
 29. 
 
 — — cultivation of, may be brought 
 to a degree of unprecedented per- 
 fection, App. 67. 
 
 Granaries, use of good, scattered over 
 the country, 405. 
 
 Granary, cheap and effectual mode 
 of constructing a, 404. 
 
 a ventilating, 405. 
 
 Grass, advantages of retaining wastes 
 in, 177. 
 
 advantages of, to land, 462. 
 
 different particulars respecting, 
 
 462. 
 
 the failure of new crops of, to 
 
 what owing, 462. 
 
 of orchards, what calculated 
 
 for, 484. 
 
 ■ — dried into hay, how much re- 
 duced by heat and evaporation, 
 App. 35, 36. 
 
 Grasses, the variety of, advantageous 
 to man, 462. 
 
 — advantages derived from 
 
 cultivated, 485. 
 
 -- ■ ■ cultivated, pay best in soil- 
 
 ing, 487. 
 
 — great object having a variety 
 
 of, 494. 
 
 — a mixture of, how to be 
 
 preserved, 494. 
 
 — number of, capable of be- 
 
 ing cultivated in Great Britain, 
 497. 
 
 Duke of Bedford’s experi- 
 ments on, 497. 
 
 Grass lands, on draining, 197. 
 
 detriment of weeds to, 
 
 283. 
 
 * number of weeds that 
 
 Grass lands, how to be cleared of 
 weeds, 283, 476. 
 
 advantages of irrigating, 
 
 295. 
 
 of a medium quality, 
 
 464. 
 
 requisition from the 
 
 House of Lords concerning, 464. 
 
 ■ — in Lincolnshire the rich- 
 
 est, 471. 
 
 . . when most productive 
 
 as such, 472. 
 
 when should be broken 
 
 up, 473. 
 
 - — sorts of manure for, and 
 
 seasons for applying, 475. 
 
 how to' keep in good 
 
 condition, 475. 
 
 composts generally pre- 
 ferred to dung, for, 476. 
 
 weeding of, necessary, 
 
 476. 
 
 ant-hills and mole-hills, 
 
 how to be cleared of, 476. 
 
 rolling of, formerly con- 
 sidered as indispensable ; scarify- 
 ing, when to be preferred, 476. 
 
 fogging of, 483. 
 
 ... opinions of Dr. Coven- 
 
 try on, 501. 
 
 — ■ — erroneous predilection 
 
 for, 501. 
 
 inferior, benefited by 
 
 being planted with fruit trees, 525. 
 
 Grass-seeds, how to be sowed, 468 ; 
 should never be sown on a windy 
 day, 469 ; should be well harrow- 
 ed, ib.; should be sown without 
 corn, ib . ; best mode of sowing, in 
 Ireland, ib. 
 
 Gravel lately used with success, as 
 manure, 236. 
 
 Gravelly soils, difference between 
 and sandy, 1 9, 20 ; how improved, 
 20, 21 ; apt to burn, 21 ; where 
 communicate warmth to the cli- 
 mate, ib . ; use of, in a wet climate, 
 ib . ; poor, for what calculated, ib.\ 
 early produce of, ib. 
 
 Graves, excellent, for turnips, 225. 
 
 Grazier, advantages of the, 62. 
 
 Grazing farms, let on principles dif- 
 ferent from the arable, 60 ; what 
 the amount of capital required in, 
 72. 
 
 Grazing land, on the management of 
 rich, 475; stock maintained on, 
 471. 
 
 Green crops, the proportions of too 
 small, 451. 
 
 infest, 284. 
 
106 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Green crops, on ploughing-in for 
 manure, by Edward Burroughs, 
 Esq. App* 65. 
 
 Green savoys, how and when sown, 
 514. 
 
 Greenhill, course adopted by Mr., 
 448. 
 
 Grisenthwaite, Mr., employed on 
 specific manures, 254. 
 
 Ground, a table of the quantity 
 ploughed, according to the diffe- 
 rent breadths of the furrow-slices, 
 and the rates of horses* walking, 
 335. 
 
 Ground onions, advantages of culti- 
 vating, 521. 
 
 Groves, value of, 549. 
 
 Grubber, or scarifier, useful in lim- 
 ing, 231; its use and formation 
 described, 121 ; established in the 
 Lothians, 349 ; advantages of the, 
 App. 21 ; expence of using the, 
 App. 22. 
 
 Grubs and slugs, mode of destroying, 
 410. 
 
 Gypsum, component parts and pro- 
 per application of, 239; how to 
 be applied as manure, ib . ; why 
 tried with indifferent success in 
 Derbyshire, ib.; an artificial, how 
 made, 240; unburnt, tried with 
 prodigious effect at Holkham, ib. 
 
 Haars, or thick mists, rise of, '8. 
 
 Hail, mischief of, 408. 
 
 Hand-dressing, 129. 
 
 Hand-fanners, why necessary to give 
 the final dressing to the grain, 402; 
 utility of these machines and rid- 
 dles, 402. 
 
 Hand-glasses and frames, expence, 
 512; garden-ground, expence of 
 cultivating ten acres of, when co- 
 vered with glasses, 293. 
 
 Hand-hoe, the, for what necessary, 
 293. 
 
 Hand-hoeing of wheat, when be- 
 neficial, 387 ; where conducted 
 with great pains and attention, 
 387 ; where deservedly celebrated, 
 388. 
 
 Handling and first rate handlers, 103. 
 
 Hand -sowing, machines for, and 
 what assistance necessary, 122, 
 123. 
 
 Harbour Commissioners in Scotland, 
 590. 
 
 Harbours of material consequence to 
 a country, 590; what sums grant- 
 ed for improving, ib. 
 
 Harnessing stock, implements for, 
 132. 
 
 Harrowing for weeds, 279. 
 
 for a barley crop, trials 
 
 of, 351 ; cross, where preferred, 
 
 352. 
 
 ■ in different directions, 
 
 352. 
 
 advantages of narrow 
 
 ridges in, 353. 
 
 — — its essential use in arable 
 
 lands, and modes of, 351. 
 
 in the seed, 368. 
 
 Harrows, principal rules regarding 
 the formation of, 119, 120 ; of va- 
 rious dimensions, 351 ; two modes 
 of driving, 351. 
 
 greatest number under the 
 
 same yoke, 352. 
 
 Harvest, pleasures of the, 400. 
 
 the mode of prosecuting 
 
 the business of, the best criterion 
 of the skill and spirit of any par- 
 ticular district, 4C0. 
 
 the continuance of good 
 
 weather not to be trusted in, 400. 
 Harvest-top, a, occasionally fixed 
 upon carts, 130. 
 
 Harvesting corn, best mode of, 126. 
 
 how assisted in wet weather, ib. 
 how best perform- 
 ed, 397. 
 
 mode of, in Cornwall, 397. 
 
 of beans, improvements 
 
 made in the, fully described, 388. 
 Hat-barley , why so called, 378. 
 Haum of white pease, when proper 
 for sheep, 434. 
 
 Hawthorn preferable for fences, 188. 
 Hay, how stacked by a sweep, 129. 
 
 machines for cutting, 135. 
 
 on water-meadow, 306. 
 
 stacking of, how performed, 
 
 481 ; salting of, useful, ib. 
 
 a new mode of making, 490. 
 
 mode of making in Middlesex, 
 
 App. 31. 
 
 quantities of, in the possession 
 
 of several farmers, App. 35, 36. 
 
 weight of, from clover and rye 
 
 grass, App. 47. 
 
 value of, consumed by horses, 
 
 App. 56. 
 
 Hay-barns, when necessary, 482. 
 
 considerable utility of, 
 
 App. 36. 
 
 — — . expence of, and saving 
 
 made by, App. 36. 
 
 Hay-crops, management of fen or 
 peaty land for, 25. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 107 
 
 Hay-harvest, the necessity of a far- 
 mer’s personal attendance upon, 
 App. 35. 
 
 Hay-making, attention to the pro- 
 cess of, why desirable, 491. 
 
 a specification of four 
 
 days, App. 38. 
 
 • description of the mode 
 
 of, in Middlesex, App. 38. 
 
 Hay -meadow, a perpetual, how 
 formed, 25. 
 
 three descriptions of 
 
 natural, 479. 
 
 Hay -seeds, what proportion of to be 
 sowed, 474. 
 
 Hay-6tacks, in Middlesex most neatly 
 and best secured, App. 34, 35. 
 
 Hazel, the, properties of, 29. 
 
 - ■ -- use of, 545. 
 
 Heat, importance of, as a stimulus 
 for vegetation, 4; importance of 
 its duration, 5; its effects upon the 
 climates of the Continent, ib . ; re- 
 markable effect on the operation 
 of paring and burning, and effects 
 ofongrain, 408. 
 
 Heath, uses of, long grass howto be 
 substituted for, 168. 
 
 Heath-land, surface of, how covered, 
 173. 
 
 Heaps of sod, large, for burning, re- 
 commended, 260. 
 
 Heavens, the appearance of, how to 
 be studied, 1 2. 
 
 Heavy rains, damage from, to wheat, 
 406. 
 
 Hebrides, want of wood in the, 541. 
 
 Hedge-plants how to be raised, 188; 
 cutting of, an important operation, 
 190. 
 
 Hedge-rows, 192, 562; trees for, ib. 
 
 Hedges, inconveniences of many, 
 152; of thorn, preferable to a 
 fence, 188; how ought to be cut, 
 ib. ; plants from America might 
 be procured for, ib. ; when should 
 be cut and planted, 189; soil how 
 should be planted, ib . ; what plants 
 may be ysed for, 191. 
 
 • necessity of destroying weeds 
 
 in, 286. 
 
 should be cut when wheat is 
 
 sown, 425. 
 
 Height, the greatest at which corn 
 will grow in Scotland, 37. 
 
 Hemp, curious fact concerning, as a 
 preservative from caterpillars, 523. 
 
 Herbage, coarse, often necessary to 
 be burned, 168. 
 
 Highland roads and bridges, 8th Re- 
 
 port of the Commissioners for, 
 highly favourable to improve- 
 ment, 588. 
 
 High wages, effects of, 92. 
 
 Hilly countries, their disadvantages, 
 36. 
 
 Hills, how best cultivated, 16. 
 
 Hinds, or ploughmen in Scotland, 
 how maintained, 82 ; their conspi- 
 cuous habits of sobriety and eco- 
 nomy, 83. 
 
 Hints, additional, on the rust or 
 mildew, App. 85. 
 
 Hipkys, Mr. Richard, successful ex- 
 periments made by, App. 82, 83. 
 
 Hiring servants, best mode of, 84. 
 
 Hoblyn, system of Mr., to prevent 
 rust, App. 45. 
 
 Hodding spade, the, or hod, 208. 
 
 Hoe, the inverted, where attempted, 
 123, 378. 
 
 Hoeing, on, 384 ; more beneficial 
 than common tillage, ib. 
 
 hazardous when carried to 
 
 an extreme, 385. 
 
 Hog-dung, the strongest and richest 
 manure, 214. 
 
 Hogmane, hedges should be cut into, 
 
 190. 
 
 Hogs, English, how improved, 108. 
 
 Holdich, interesting experiment by 
 Mr., 420. 
 
 Holkham school, a maxim of the, 373. 
 
 Hollow-draining, spades used in, 208. 
 
 in Suffolk and Es- 
 sex, 343. 
 
 Hollow-drains, enemies to, 206. 
 
 Holly, a good hedge, how to plant, 
 
 191. 
 
 Honey-dew, what, 407. 
 
 Honesty, what tends most materially 
 to teach the poor, 88. 
 
 Hopper or basket, a useful imple- 
 ment, 122. 
 
 Hops may be planted in orchards, 
 530. 
 
 Horse-hoe, the inverted, 123. 
 
 Horse-hoes, for what calculated, 120, 
 288. 
 
 Dutch, provincially called 
 
 scrapers, how and where used, 
 288. 
 
 Horses, expence of keeping a fine 
 team of, 96. 
 
 objections to heavy heeled, 
 
 96. 
 
 how fed by the Wiltshire 
 
 carters, 96. 
 
 the best form agreed on by 
 
 the most experienced breeders, 97. 
 
108 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Horses, opinion of Mr. Henry Cline 
 on, 98. 
 
 English, breed of, how im- 
 proved, 108. 
 
 origin of the Clydesdale breed 
 
 of in Scotland, 108. 
 
 what work capable of, with 
 
 carts properly constructed, 130. 
 
 dung of, when used sepa- 
 rately, 314. 
 
 when and how to be fed with 
 
 straw, 435. 
 
 do not injure woods like cat- 
 tle,. 543. 
 
 ■ ■ and oxen, comparison be- 
 tween, App. 74. 
 
 changed for oxen, by his late 
 
 Majesty George III., App. 76. 
 
 advantages of, over oxen, 77. 
 
 results of the inquiry into 
 
 and oxen, 78. 
 
 Horticultural Societies, benefits of 
 establishing, 523. 
 
 Horticulture, what wanting to com- 
 plete the science of, 523. 
 
 Hospital park, necessity of a, 1 85. 
 Hot-houses, recent improvements in 
 the construction of, 506. 
 
 — cast-iron, a substitute for 
 
 wood in, 507. 
 
 Housekeeping, the safest plan relative 
 to, 80 ; why the whole should be 
 considerably within the receipts, 
 ib. 
 
 Houses, the square shape of, why the 
 most economical, 139. 
 
 Horn shavings, their uses, 206. 
 Humber, matter for warping lands, 
 not exhausted in the, 316. 
 Humidity, different degrees of, how 
 to be ascertained, 12. 
 
 Hunter, Mr., ofTynefield, his sys- 
 tem of farming, App. 46, 47,49; 
 for cultivating light land, 48; his 
 object to convert his straw into 
 manure, 49 ; rule of, in soiling his 
 stock, how fed, ib . ; his opinion 
 on soils adapted for turnips, 50. 
 Hurdles, use of moveable, 156. 
 
 price of cast iron, 156. 
 
 Hurdling off, plan of, where may be 
 adopted, 493; its advantages, 494; 
 how practised by Mr. Stone of 
 Basildon, ib. 
 
 Husbandmen and landlords, wherein 
 a kind of partnership, 60. 
 the superiority of Bri- 
 tish, 114. 
 
 Husbandry, various classes of la- 
 bourers in, 86, 87. 
 
 Husbandry, implements of, 114. 
 
 an enlightened system 
 
 now gaining ground in the West 
 of England, 258. 
 
 various operations of, 
 
 325. 
 
 advantages of the con- 
 vertible system of, 461, 500. 
 
 common system of, in 
 
 the Weald of Sussex, 540. 
 Hygrometer, the office of the, 12; 
 how made, ib 
 
 Implement, the most effectual for the 
 extirpation of root-weeds, 289. 
 Implements of husbandry, 114; the 
 British husbandman excels most 
 in, 114, 115; economy in using, 
 necessary to be studied, ib . ; rules 
 to be observed in purchasing, ib . ; 
 diversity of, a source of vexation 
 and disappointment, ib.; subject of, 
 considered under general heads, 
 ib . ; of tillage, 116. 
 
 for sowing corn, 121, 122. 
 
 for reaping corn, 1 24. 
 
 — - 1 for harvesting corn, 1 26. 
 
 for threshing and cleaning 
 
 corn, 126. 
 
 for making hay, 129. 
 
 * of conveyance, 130. 
 
 — — for harnessing stock, 132. 
 
 for draining land, 133. 
 
 for the dairy, 134. 
 
 variety of small, for the 
 
 barn, 135. 
 
 points to be considered on 
 
 the subject of, 1 36. 
 
 all should be frequently 
 
 inspected byaprudent farmer, 137. 
 
 how to be laid up, 137. 
 
 difficulty of introducing 
 
 new, 137. 
 
 invention or improvement 
 
 of, ought to be rewarded, 138. 
 
 importance of proper, 138. 
 
 advantages of the general 
 
 adoption of the improved, 138. 
 Improvement, by ploughing, most 
 extraordinary, 172. 
 
 obtacles to, how to re- 
 move, 578. 
 
 of waste and unproduc- 
 tive land, 586. 
 
 Improvements, expensive, the pro- 
 vince of the landlord, 54. 
 substantial and per- 
 manent, in what consist, 587. 
 Income-tax, on the strict manner in 
 which the was exacted, 572. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 109 
 
 Income-tax, produce of, analysed, 
 572. 
 
 Indigenous plants, advantages of ob- 
 serving the flowering of, 13. 
 Information, various means by which 
 useful may be collected and dif- 
 fused, 579. 
 
 Inland position, importance of the 
 nature of the, 9. 
 
 Inquiry, necessity of accurate, 522. 
 Inoculating land for grass, 500. 
 Insects, treading most effectual in 
 destroying the larva of, 386. 
 
 ■■ ■■ — injuries occasioned by, 410; 
 
 how destroyed, ib. 
 
 Institutions for collecting and diffus- 
 ing agricultural information, 581. 
 Instruments for draining, 207. 
 
 — — ■ for paring, 258. 
 
 made use of in weeding, 
 
 287. 
 
 Insurance of farm buildings, 146. 
 Interfurrows, Lord Karnes’ opinion 
 of, 340. 
 
 Ireland, landed proprietors in, be- 
 come agriculturists, 53; nobility 
 in, become farmers, ib. 
 
 Irish cars, advantages of, 132. 
 
 — — peasantry, situation of the, 520. 
 Iron, why preferable to wood for 
 making into implements, 137. 
 
 waters impregnated with, fit 
 
 for irrigation, 300. 
 
 hurdles, use of, 156. 
 
 Irrigating, for corn, where has suc- 
 ceeded, 296. 
 
 young plantations, 297. 
 
 Irrigation, what, 294; its objects, and 
 the particulars it embraces, 295. 
 
 — preliminary considerations 
 
 previous to its being undertaken, 
 
 294. 
 
 — must always be accompa- 
 
 nied by drainage and enclosure, 
 
 295, 296. 
 
 what water best calculated 
 
 for, 299. 
 
 — ought to be most promoted 
 
 by the owners of qanals, 299. 
 
 ought not to be restricted 
 
 to any particular description of 
 soil, 301. 
 
 produces more beneficial 
 
 effects in warm, than in cold cli- 
 mates, 302. 
 
 expence of, varies accord- 
 ing to the nature of the work, 302. 
 
 profit resulting from a 
 
 given statement of, 303. 
 
 • — Smith’s Observations on, 
 
 303. 
 
 Irrigation, objections against, 304, 
 306 ; advantages of, 307 ; improve- 
 ments suggested in the practice of, 
 ib. 
 
 ■ — to be promoted by ma- 
 
 chinery, 308. 
 
 Islands, why more temperate than 
 continents, 8. 
 
 Italy, river warping in, 316. 
 
 Ivy, being injurious to the growth of 
 timber, should be cleared away, 
 287. 
 
 Juncus arenaceus, where to be plant- 
 ed, 165. 
 
 Karnes, Lord, singular scheme of, 
 174. 
 
 Kelp, or the ashes of sea-weeds, where 
 tried, 247. 
 
 Kensington-gardens, experiments at, 
 on trees, 508. 
 
 Kindly tenants, claims of, 55. 
 Kitchen-garden, number of articles 
 raised in the, in Scotland, 511. 
 Kitchen-gardens, acres employed in, 
 504. 
 
 private, 509; par- 
 ticulars to be attended to in, ib. 
 
 — manure, for what 
 
 must depend on, 510; too much 
 fetid manure, not well for, ib . ; 
 articles cultivated in the, 511 ; ro- 
 tation of crops recommended in, 
 ib. 
 
 Knowledge, useful, on the means of 
 collecting and diffusing, 579. 
 
 ■■■■ how justly defined by 
 
 Bacon to be power, 579. 
 
 — useful, its importance to 
 
 the country at large, 579. 
 
 a variety of, probably 
 
 more essential in the art of agri- 
 culture than any other, 579, 580. 
 
 Labour to be diminished, or its power 
 increased, by every means possible, 
 79. 
 
 arrangement of agricultural, 
 
 79, 80. 
 
 increased, rate of, in Scot- 
 land, 91. 
 
 Labour, expences of, App. 57. 
 Labourers in husbandry, various 
 classes of, 86. 
 
 a sufficient number of, al- 
 ways useful, 86. 
 
 particulars included in the 
 
 subject of, 86; classes of, accord- 
 ing to their possessions, ib. 
 
 — — ■ — — none in a comfortable state 
 
110 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 in the country without a garden, 
 87, 518 ; advantages attending their 
 possession of property, 87. 
 Labourers, good effects, how pro- 
 duced on, in Ireland, 87. 
 
 diversity of opinion, con- 
 cerning day or piece, 88. 
 
 female, when and where 
 
 employed, 81. 
 
 — ■ hours of working, 91 ; rate 
 
 of wages, 92. 
 
 — the practice of giving grain 
 
 at a cheap rate to, where adopt- 
 ed, 92 ; should be trained to acti- 
 vity and diligence, 93. 
 
 — gardens of, why better 
 
 cultivated than those of farmers, 
 519. 
 
 — hire of, in Ireland, 520. 
 
 Laburnum, the, will grow on the 
 sea coast, 558. 
 
 Lachleagh, what soil so called in 
 Ireland, 33. 
 
 Lakes and rivers, lands on the banks 
 of, how to be improved, 165. 
 
 objects of draining, 211. 
 
 protection against, 319. 
 
 Land, instances of, being cultivated 
 on high situations, 37. 
 
 — — large farms favourable to the 
 improvement of, 46. 
 
 advantages and disadvantages 
 
 of proprietors occupying their 
 own, 49, 54. 
 
 — — implements for draining, 133, 
 134. 
 
 — — numbers supported by, when 
 cultivated, compared to those fed 
 when left in a natural state, 160. 
 on the various modes of im- 
 proving, 160. 
 
 — — difficulty of improving that 
 
 covered by neap and spring tides, 
 164. 
 
 in high or bleak situations, 
 
 retained in grass, 177. 
 
 advantages derived to, from 
 
 draining, 198. 
 
 on the causes of wetness in, 
 
 299. 
 
 reclaimed from the sea, or near 
 
 large rivers, 321. 
 
 first object to be considered in, 
 
 322. 
 
 various modes of occupying, 
 
 324. 
 
 on the cultivation of arable, 324. 
 
 — — may be too rich for corn, the 
 cc lsequences, 417. 
 
 long in pasture, what requires 
 
 when broken up, 465. 
 
 Land, laid down to grass, should be 
 made as clean and fertile as possi- 
 ble, and how, 468. 
 
 when not to be pastured by 
 
 cattle, 477. 
 
 saving of, by soiling, 487. 
 
 produce, value of, increased by 
 
 soiling, 488. 
 
 what proportion of, will keep 
 
 a cow, 498. 
 
 — — converted from tillage to grass, 
 must be dry, 499. 
 
 — — ■ the worth of in orchards, 525. 
 coldness and sourness depre- 
 ciates the value, 538. 
 
 general rule respecting the cul- 
 ture of, 538. 
 
 the, how the basis of our na- 
 tional wealth, 575. 
 
 getting the , in readiness for the 
 
 landlord , meaning of this phrase, 
 App. 8. 
 
 made clean, how to be con- 
 tinued so in perpetuity, App. 28. 
 animal substances used as ma- 
 nure, 225. 
 
 overploughed or overcropped, 
 
 how to be treated, App. 50. 
 
 on the produce, expence, and 
 
 surplus of, App. 54. 
 
 estimate of the quantity of ne- 
 cessary to supply London with 
 flour, App. 59. 
 
 . ■ tax, per acre on growing barley 
 used in the distillery, App. 62. 
 Landed property, value of augment- 
 ed, by the increase of gardens, 
 521. 
 
 proprietors of Ireland be- 
 come agriculturists, 53. 
 Land-locked bogs or morasses, pro- 
 per mode of draining, 211. 
 Landlord, repairs chiefly done at the 
 cost of the, 145. 
 
 — the, not adequately pro- 
 tected against bad tenants, 474. 
 
 necessity of protecting the 
 
 property of the, 501. 
 
 Landlords and tenants, what their 
 present connection, 55. 
 
 gain, advanced rents from 
 
 well enclosed farms, 183. 
 
 — apprehensions of, 474. 
 
 thieves, what called, 192. 
 
 Lands, what, can bear little sun, 34. 
 — — steep, and inaccessible to the 
 plough, for what calculated, 161. 
 
 wet, how to be enclosed, 
 
 181. 
 
 best adapted for permanent 
 
 pasture, 470. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Lands, barren, how planted in Swe- 
 den, 536. 
 
 the improvement of unpro- 
 ductive, 586. 
 
 what to be included among, 
 
 587. 
 
 Land-springs, what, 199. 
 
 Land-tax per acre, on growing bar- 
 ley used in the distillery, 590. 
 
 Larch, benefit of introducing the, in- 
 to England, 553 ; what number of, 
 and which best, 553. 
 
 what disease liable to, how to 
 
 prevent, 554. 
 
 properties and uses of, 553. 
 
 Large farms, arguments in favour 
 of, 44, 47. 
 
 Laws, why ought to change with the 
 circumstances of a country, 212, 
 215. 
 
 Lectures, public, on agriculture, re- 
 commended, 584. 
 
 Lease, properly a contract, 56 ; man- 
 ner of settling a, 56 ; plan of a, 
 App. 1, 9. 
 
 Leases, the most beneficial species 
 of, encouragements to farmers, 55. ' 
 
 period of entry, and regula- 
 tions connected, App. 1 ; should 
 be adapted to the different kind of 
 farms, App. 2, 3. 
 
 general rules should be laid 
 
 * down for the commencement and 
 termination of, according to the 
 climate, App. 3. 
 
 regulations of, connected 
 
 with the changes of tenants, App. 
 3; duration of, App. 4; short, 
 better than none, ib. ; for about 
 20 years, why greatly preferable 
 to snorter terms, and when of 25 
 years sufficient, App. 5. 
 
 for a single life, why not fa- 
 vourable to improvement, App. 
 6 ; for three lives, when deserved- 
 ly reprobated, ib . ; upon fines, 
 justly objected to, ib. 
 
 long, in what farms unne- 
 cessary, App. 6. 
 
 the successful practice and 
 
 experience of Mr. Coke of Nor- 
 folk, relative to decisive, App. 7 ; 
 not to be indiscriminately given; 
 ib . ; to be granted under covenants, 
 App. 8 ; forms of, App. 9 ; cove- 
 nants in, must necessarily vary, ib.\ 
 preamble to, ib . ; reservations in, 
 in favour of the landlord, ib.\ ob- 
 ligations in, incumbent on the te- 
 nant, ib . ; stipulations in binding, 
 
 on both parties, ib . ; Michaelmas 
 the best quarter for the termina- 
 tion of, App. 3. 
 
 Leaves, use of, dried for feeding, 535. 
 Let us alone , the maxim used by the 
 French merchants to Colbert, not 
 applicable to agriculturists, 576. 
 Light, how essential for the proper 
 colour and flavour of plants, 5. 
 Lightning, buildings how to be pre- 
 served from, 147. 
 
 Lime, when to be applied in a pow- 
 dered state, 169. 
 
 the superior importance of, in 
 
 cultivating wastes, 175. 
 
 advantages of, to peaty soils, 179. 
 
 — — principles on which it operates 
 as a manure, 227 ; various lands 
 astonishingly improved by, 228. 
 disadvantages of, as a manure, 
 
 229. 
 
 the proper season for applying, 
 
 230. 
 
 calcined, how much used by 
 
 Mr. Barclay, 231. 
 
 — — what quantity to be applied, 
 
 231. 
 
 expence of applying, 231, 232. 
 
 effects of, 232; rules for the 
 
 management of, 233. 
 
 difference between caustic and 
 
 mild, 233. 
 
 when may be applied with ad- 
 vantage, 234 ; made of chalk, when 
 found beneficial, ib . ; mild or effete 
 where used, ib . ; curious circum-* 
 stance relative to, 235; how to 
 render caustic, perfectly mild,i6.; 
 an excellent compost, 253. 
 
 and water how used to pre- 
 vent smut, 412. 
 
 - ■ — phosphate of, found in wheat, 
 254. 
 
 or marl, applied after deep 
 
 ploughing, 329. 
 
 Liming, table of the expence of, 232. 
 Limestone burnt, or calcined, 227. 
 
 various sorts of, 229. 
 
 mode of preparing for 
 
 use, 230. 
 
 gravel, an excellent ma- 
 nure, 236. 
 
 colour of magnesian, 230. 
 
 how to be applied, 230. 
 
 Limestones, magnesian, where found, 
 
 229. 
 
 mode of preparing for use, 
 
 230. 
 
 pounded, how far diffe- 
 rent from calcined lime, 235. 
 
112 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Liquid, a, for destroying white 
 blight, 534. 
 
 Lisbon onion, experiment on the, 
 505. 
 
 Littering, advantages resulting from, 
 what articles besides straw may be 
 employed for, 439. 
 
 Litter, the use of straw fpr, 438. 
 
 all sorts of straw answer the 
 
 purposes of, 438. 
 
 straw, how drawn in the 
 
 London markets, 438. 
 
 Lire stock, extensive territory de- 
 voted to, 93 ; what, comprehend- 
 ed under the term, 94; the most 
 desirable properties of, 94. 
 
 size of, considered, 94. 
 
 — general remarks on, 94. 
 
 size of, 94 ; useful observa- 
 tions on, by Mr. Davis of Longleat, 
 96. 
 
 — — — — a diversity of kind should 
 be kept up, 114. 
 
 Llandaff, Bishop of, on the advan- 
 tages of agriculture, 592. 
 
 Loam, a sandy, and a sandy soil, how 
 distinguished, 28 ; course of crops 
 applicable to, after grass, 467. 
 
 Loams, the most desirable of all 
 soils, 28; of various sorts, 29; 
 gravelly, when useful, »5.; clayey 
 or stiff, how managed, ib. 
 
 — produce of, 30; plan of 
 
 rotation for, 453. 
 
 — ■ advantages of hollow-drain- 
 ing to, 209. 
 
 Loamy clay land, how to be broken 
 up, 467. 
 
 Local practices, benefit of communi- 
 cating, 580. 
 
 Loch Ken, striking instance of the 
 advantage of flooding at, 309. 
 
 Long teams, the prohibition of, a real 
 improvement that would increase 
 the rent-roll, 388. 
 
 Loose soiled hills, how best occu- 
 pied y 16. 
 
 Lucern, soil required for, 495 ; how 
 best sowed, ib. ; seed required for, 
 ib. ; use of, for soiling cows, 496 ; 
 cultivated in the East Indies, ib . ; 
 and with success in Jersey, ib.- 
 must be kept clean, ib. ; allowance 
 of per head for cattle, 497. 
 
 Machine, a new, exhibited at Holk- 
 ham, 123. 
 
 for dressing or taking off 
 
 the ears of barley, why sometimes 
 attached to threshing-mills, 128. 
 
 Machine for tedding grass, 129. 
 
 a weighing, of much use to 
 
 farmers, 136 ; a portable for weigh- 
 ing oxen, ib. 
 
 for raising wind, 402. 
 
 the, invented by Plenty , 
 
 379. 
 
 Machines, various, for sowing corn, 
 
 122 . 
 
 — — for drilling, 122 ; for reap- 
 
 ing, 124 ; three sorts of for thresh- 
 ing and cleaning corn, 126. 
 
 four, of great importance, 
 
 135. 
 
 for cutting straw or hay, 
 
 135. 
 
 ■ ■ — for slicing turnips and po- 
 
 tatoes, 135 ; agricultural, how con- 
 structed at present, 136; a variety 
 of where found, ib. ; invented for 
 removing stones, 170 ; when to be 
 new pointed, 137. 
 
 • ■ — for pounding limestones* 
 
 23 5. 
 
 — ■ ■ — for sowing broad-cast, 369. 
 
 for sowing grass-seeds, 469. 
 
 Maclean, Mr., practice of trenching 
 
 recommended by, 172. 
 
 — one of the greatest 
 
 improvers of waste lands, his me- 
 thod, 179. 
 
 Magnesian limestone, care required 
 of as a manure, 230 ; effectual on 
 peaty soils, ib. 
 
 Male and female cattle, influence of 
 upon their offspring, 109. 
 
 Malt dust, used for feeding cows or 
 pigs, 244. 
 
 Management, the perfection of good, 
 427. 
 
 of an extensive pro- 
 perty, App. 57. 
 
 Manure, greatest quantity of, how 
 obtained in Flanders, 18. 
 
 substances included in the 
 
 term, 213. 
 
 miscellaneous articles of, 
 
 248. 
 
 why goes further in com- 
 posts than in any other way, 252. 
 
 crops to be commenced 
 
 with, that produce most, 459. 
 
 how laid on meadows in 
 
 Middlesex, 480. 
 
 quantity and quality of, 
 
 improved by soiling, 488. 
 
 proper for gardens, on 
 
 what must depend, 510. 
 
 — . — given in turnips, by Mr. 
 
 Hunter, App. 48. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 113 
 
 Manures classified under general 
 heads, 213; putrescent, ib .; ma- 
 terials of, how to prepare for use, 
 214; from land, animal sub- 
 stances, 225 ; much of these how 
 lost and obtained, ib ., 226; cal- 
 careous, 227 ; limestone calcined 
 or burnt, used for, ib .; earthy, 
 mould, or loam, 240 ; peat earth, 
 clay, or sand, burnt, 241; clay, sea 
 ooze or warp, canal, pond, or river 
 mud, road scrapings, 242. 
 vegetable, sea-weeds, fresh- 
 water weeds, common weeds, malt- 
 dust, rape-cake, tanners’ bark, ve- 
 getables ploughed in, vegetables 
 that have passed through fire, and 
 water in which vegetables have 
 been immersed, 243. 
 
 Maritime or inland positions, effects 
 of, 8, 9. 
 
 Market-gardens, cultivated by the 
 spade, 511; near London, entitled 
 to peculiar attention, 512; estimate 
 of the produce of those near Lon- 
 don; whence this produce arises, 
 ib.; produce of the, at the Neat 
 Houses, Chelsea, ib. ; produce of 
 the, near Blue-Anchor Lane, Ber- 
 mondsey, ib. 
 
 cauliflowers and cu- 
 cumbers raised under glasses in, to 
 great profit, 513 ; inter-crops be- 
 tween the glasses in, ib. 
 
 ■ average produce of 
 
 513; many of an inferior quality 
 near London, 514. 
 
 — — rotations of crops in, 
 
 as practised near Edinburgh, 514. 
 
 where peculiarly 
 
 useful, 523. 
 
 Market-gardeners, remarkable crops 
 produced by, 512; rotation of their 
 crops, as practised near Edinburgh, 
 by, 514. 
 
 Markets, distant, conduct required 
 for, 39. 
 
 Marl, four sorts distinguished, 237. 
 
 or cow-grass, entitled to the 
 
 attention of the farmer, 496. 
 
 pits, how worked, and distri- 
 buted, 237. 
 
 Marshes, fresh water, how to be im- 
 proved, 164. 
 
 how, may be drained, 164. 
 
 salt-water, only to be im- 
 proved by embankments, 164. 
 use of the pasture pro- 
 duced by, 164. 
 
 Materials for partially filling drains, 
 205. 
 
 Maxim of a real statesman, 21 3. 
 
 an old Scotch, on the late 
 
 sowing of wheat, App. 48. 
 
 Maxims respecting the proper depth 
 of ploughing, 328. 
 
 Meadowbank, Lord, the first indivi- 
 dual that investigated the proper- 
 ties of composts, 252 ; other expe- 
 riments made by, with animal mat- 
 ter, whale blubber, &c. ib. 
 Meadow, value of a, 10. 
 
 profit from the formation 
 
 of an irrigated, 303. 
 
 Meadow-land, injured by water, how 
 to protect, 209. 
 
 for cows, how to ma- 
 nage, 488. 
 
 M eadows, flowing, 298. 
 
 higher rented than vine- 
 yards in France, 11. 
 
 catch-work, a mode of ir- 
 rigation for sloping grounds, 298. 
 
 • and mill-ponds, how ren- 
 
 dered dry, and cropped with oats. 
 309,310. 
 
 a cause that prevents the 
 
 improvement of many, 321. 
 
 and pastures, how to be 
 
 broken up with profit, 473. 
 on the management of flat, 
 
 479. 
 
 of upland, 480. 
 
 how often mowed for cows, 
 
 480. 
 
 mowing, on, in general, 
 
 how often should be performed, 
 
 481. 
 
 value of, in the vicinity of 
 
 London, 481. 
 
 Means of improving a country, 568. 
 Mecrs or cattle-ponds, how made in 
 Derbyshire, 149. 
 
 Merino sheep farm in Ireland, two 
 hundred acres, how improved at, 
 463. 
 
 Meslin or blend corn, rarely afFected 
 with rust, 425. 
 
 Metropolis, advantage to a farmer to 
 be near the, 452. 
 
 Michaelmas, the best quarter For the 
 termination of leases, App. 3. 
 
 Milch cattle, profit derivable from, 
 498. 
 
 cows, when and why to be 
 
 soiled, 488. 
 
 Mildew. See Rust. 
 
 Military, reasons why the, in time 
 
114 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 of peace, might be employed upon 
 the public works, as roads, canals, 
 588. 
 
 Milk, articles for holding, none equal 
 to cast-iron, 135. 
 
 the greatest product of, 488. 
 
 benefit of, as saving grain, 
 
 498. 
 
 Mill, the small threshing, invented 
 by Mr. W. Johnstone, of Lang- 
 holme, 401. 
 
 Miner, the, an instrument, by whom 
 invented, 207. 
 
 Mines and quarries, improved by 
 drainage, 211. 
 
 Miscellaneous burdens, affecting the 
 farmer, 67. 
 
 Mixed woods, on the management of, 
 473. 
 
 Moisture, importance of to vegeta- 
 tion, 6, 7. 
 
 Mole-plough, for draining soils, 133. 
 
 account of the first ex- 
 periments made with the, 907. 
 
 Monteath, Mr., mode of trenching 
 recommended by, 172. 
 
 Moor-lands, when- can be reclaimed 
 and highly improved, 162. 
 
 descriptions and situa- 
 tions of, 162. 
 
 which, not worth the 
 
 expence of cultivation, 162. 
 
 Moss, a roller for, 1 75. 
 
 calcareous manure necessary 
 
 for, 179. 
 
 Mosses, various, 162, 163. 
 
 difficulty in preventing the 
 
 growth of, 477; how to be eradi- 
 cated, 478. 
 
 Mould, use of, slowness of its ac- 
 cumulation, 30. 
 
 or loam, how obtained for 
 
 making compost, 240. 
 
 Mould-plough, used for making 
 drains, 207. 
 
 Mound, use of, in protecting hedges, 
 189. 
 
 Mountain a9h, the, 555. 
 
 Mountains, what composed of, and 
 mostly covered with, 161. 
 
 — when best calculated for 
 
 sheep, 161. 
 
 when, can be profitably 
 
 used for pasture, 161. ' 
 
 Mowing grass, by piece-work, why 
 to be preferred, 89. 
 
 corn by the scythe, 394 ; 
 
 when admissible, ib . ; compared 
 with mowing by the sickle, 395. 
 
 Mowing rich pastures, 477, 478 ; and 
 feeding alternately, ib. 
 
 Mud, as manure, on what its quality 
 depends, 242 ; used in the Nether- 
 lands, ib. 
 
 Nation, the exertions of this, unex- 
 ampled in history, 571 ; the pros- 
 perity of, upon what depends, ib. 
 
 of shopkeepers, an unjust 
 
 sarcasm, 573. 
 
 National burdens on farmers, 67. 
 
 Natural grass, description of the 
 mode of hay-making of, in Mid- 
 dlesex, App. 31. 
 
 — — — hay meadows, 479. 
 
 - — — obstacles to the cultivation 
 of wastes, 165. 
 
 — — — woodlands, 542. 
 
 Netherlands, hints on the agricultu- 
 ral system of the, 18. 
 
 Night-soil, the richest of all manures, 
 224; disagreeable smell of, how 
 destroyed, ib. 
 
 Noblemen, change of opinion among, 
 concerning agricultural pursuits, 
 53. 
 
 Norfolk farmers, opinion of the best, 
 concerning using straw as litter, 
 440. 
 
 system, the, 449. 
 
 Nurseries for hedge-plants, use of, 
 188. 
 
 Oak, use of, 545 ; new way of using 
 'the small wood of, ib . ; the best 
 English, where produced, 546; 
 expence and value of, 547. 
 
 Oaks, when necessary to cut down, 
 544; time of cutting, and value of, 
 545. 
 
 Oak timber, value of that growing 
 in hedge-rows, 193. 
 
 where flourishes best, 
 
 543. 
 
 how sufficiency of, 
 
 might with ease be produced, 548. 
 
 Oak twigs and buds, how collected 
 and used, 545, 546. 
 
 Oat, the wild, the most troublesome 
 weed, 281; a successful mode of 
 destroying, 282. 
 
 thepotatoc, and red, 451. 
 
 Oatmeal, price of, 91 ; nourishing 
 quality of, ib. 
 
 Oat-straw, how should be used, 433. 
 
 Oats, why, should be sown early, 6. 
 
 autumnal sowing of, 7. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 115 
 
 Oats, where, the most profitable spe- 
 cies of corn, 11. 
 
 • - - the most preferable method of 
 sowing, 348. 
 
 which, best adapted to diffe- 
 rent soils, 451. 
 
 superiority of, after clover, 479. 
 
 when should be rolled, 354. 
 
 quantity of seed for a crop of, 
 
 362. 
 
 Oblong fields, advantages of, 157. 
 
 Obstacles, natural, to the cultivation 
 of wastes, 165. 
 
 to improvement in agri- 
 culture, a duty most incumbent on 
 Government to remove, 578. 
 
 Offal, lightness of, of much import- 
 ance in an animal, 103. 
 
 every species of, useful for 
 
 manures, 226. 
 
 Offices, construction of farm, 142. 
 
 Oil used for steeping various seeds, 
 364, 365. 
 
 Old trees, process recommended on, 
 508. 
 
 Olive oil, destructive to insects, 534. 
 
 Onion, the under-ground, instance 
 of the culture of, 521 ; advantages 
 derived from, ib. 
 
 Onions, the most profitable article 
 near Aberdeen, 505; experiment 
 on the produce of, ib. 
 
 quantity of, produced from 
 
 applying sea- weed as manure, 510; 
 should be transplanted, ib. 
 
 Open drains, or ditches, 201. 
 
 Open-field tillage, continuance of, 
 lamented, 140. 
 
 Operations of husbandry, various, 
 enquired into, 325. 
 
 Orchards, whether the occupying 
 land as, is advantageous, 524; 
 how, should be managed, ib . ; of, 
 on large farms ; what, depends on, 
 ib .; stratum fitted for the pur- 
 poses, ib. 
 
 profit of, to the tenant, 525. 
 
 objection to, on large 
 
 farms, 525. 
 
 advantages stated to be 
 
 derived from, 526. 
 
 why necessary to be at- 
 tended to, 526 ; sorts of trees to be 
 raised in, with the value of their 
 produce, ib. ; distance and mode 
 of planting in, 527 ; rent and 
 produce of, ib . ; whether pears or 
 apples ought to be preferred in, 
 528; apples superior to cherries 
 in, ib. 
 
 Orchards, under-crops in, 529 ; bet- 
 ter cultivated by the spade than 
 the plough, ib . ; while young, 
 should be stirred, ib. 
 
 in Gloucestershire, are 
 
 kept in grass; consequences of, 
 529. 
 
 upper and under crops 
 
 in, near London, 530 ; spaces be- 
 tween the trees, how occupied, 
 ib . ; hops recommended in, ib.; 
 stock, how to be fed in, ib . ; sheep 
 injurious to, 531; the chief, in 
 Scotland, how situated and ma- 
 naged, ib . ; a sound bottom neces- 
 sary to, 532. 
 
 how to guard the stems of 
 
 trees in, 533. 
 
 soil of, how to improve 
 
 the, 532. 
 
 trees, how to be planted 
 
 in, on wet soils, 533 ; maxim of 
 the management of, in Scotland, 
 ib. 
 
 the Devonshire plan of 
 
 planting in, how to be adopted, 
 533 ; decay of trees in, how to 
 obviate, 534 ; remedy for the white 
 blight in, ib . ; standard trees, how 
 to be trained in, ib.; young 
 plants in, not to bear too soon, ib. 
 
 Ornamental agriculture, whence 
 arose, 52. 
 
 Oudenarde, in Flanders, experiment 
 tried near, 25. 
 
 Out-buildings, 143. 
 
 Over-ploughed, or over-cropped, 
 how to be treated, App. 50. 
 
 Ox, Columella’s description of a, 
 103 ; statement of the live and 
 dead weight of a Devonshire, 103, 
 104. 
 
 Oxen, the best animal power, 127. 
 
 when used, should be yoked in 
 
 pairs, 132; drag-cart for two, de- 
 scribed by Lord Somerville, ib. 
 
 a machine for weighing, 136. 
 
 comparison between and horses, 
 
 App. 74. 
 
 arguments in favour of, App. 
 
 74. 
 
 objections to the use of, App. 
 
 75. 
 
 proportion of, on a farm, 
 
 79. 
 
 when to begin working, App. 
 
 80. 
 
 how to manage, App. 80. 
 
 why not much employed, App. 
 
 81. 
 
 I 2 
 
11 6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Oxen, ready trained, where would be 
 objects of value to the farmer, App. 
 81. 
 
 Oysters, the pounded shells lately 
 applied as a manure with much 
 success, 2 35. 
 
 Oyster-shells, how broken to pieces 
 at Holkham, 235. 
 
 Paring, depth of, 259 ; expence of, 
 260; season for, 261. 
 
 the instruments for, 258. 
 
 the common plough, when 
 
 the best instrument for, 258. 
 
 ■ ■■ ' . the season most favourable 
 for, 261. 
 
 — - ■ — i plough, the, 119; used for 
 wheat and other stubbles, 143. 
 
 • shovel, the, 258. 
 
 Paring and burning, when to be 
 preferred, 170; less expensive than 
 tillage, 171. 
 
 ■■ ■ -■ — advantageously 
 
 used to peat, 255; preliminary 
 considerations necessary for dis- 
 cussing the merits of, ib.; are in 
 general recommended for the im- 
 provement of peat-mosses and un- 
 reclaimed lands, 256 ; particularly 
 applicable to chalky downs, and a 
 detailed account of experiments 
 upon, ib. ; acres, by Mr. Boys of 
 Kent, ib. ; necessary for old sain- 
 foin layers, 257 ; for old pastures, 
 ib.; prejudicial to sandy soils, ib. ; 
 not proper for fertile soils, turf, 
 &c. ib. 
 
 .. of dry stapled 
 
 lands in Devon and Cornwall, car- 
 ried to an extreme, 258. 
 
 ■ .... where called den- 
 
 shiring, 257. 
 
 remarkable effects 
 
 of heat on the operation of, 260 ; 
 account of a new mode tried in 
 Derbyshire, ib. ; benefits resulting 
 from, numerous and important, 
 ib. 
 
 » " when to be applied 
 
 to old pastures, 465. 
 
 disadvantages of, 
 
 266; objections to the practice of, 
 answered, 267 ; result of the pro- 
 cess of, ib. ; why not successful in 
 Scotland, 268. 
 
 Parish payments destroy the spirit 
 of independence, 65, 66. 
 
 Parochial burdens on farmers, 64. 
 
 Pasturage, size of fields proper for, 
 *55. 
 
 Pasturage, importance of enclosures 
 in, 182. 
 
 Pasture, care should be taken not to 
 overstbck, 112. 
 
 — too much to be avoided in a 
 
 populous country, 501. 
 
 Pasture-land, difficulty in the ma- 
 nagement of old, 477 ; when too 
 much, should be avoided, 494. 
 
 Pastures, upland, how drained, 210. 
 
 use of paring and burning 
 
 to old, 257. 
 
 rules practised by judicious 
 
 farmers in regard to upland, 463. 
 
 - whether rich, permanent, 
 
 should ever be broken up, 470, 
 471 ; advantages of keeping rich 
 in grass, 471 ; their real value how 
 ascertained, ib.; stock maintained 
 on, ib. 
 
 rich, should never be mown, 
 
 477 ; mowing and feeding on, al- 
 ternately, very injurious, 478 ; cut- 
 ting or feeding rich, when to be 
 adopted, ib. 
 
 Pattern farms, what, 593. 
 
 Payments made by a farmer, 64. 
 
 Pays de lFaes y sand, how cultivated 
 in the, 18. 
 
 mode of preventing 
 
 smut in the, 424. 
 
 Pea, culture of the garden, 503. 
 
 Pear, advantages of the, for general 
 culture, 528. 
 
 Pear-trees, use of cutting rings in, 509. 
 
 Pease, quantity of seed for a crop of, 
 
 3 63. 
 
 will not succeed but once in ten 
 
 years, 455. 
 
 early, when sown, 514, 515. 
 
 Pease-straw, how may be made a 
 fodder of superior quality, 434 ; 
 great value of, ib. ; various animals 
 fond of, 436. 
 
 Peat, difference between, and vege- 
 table mould, 23 ; classification of, 
 24; nature of, successfully ex- 
 plained, ib. ; how converted into 
 earth, ib. ; and sediment, the sub- 
 soil of meadows in Leicestershire, 
 the fens of Cambridgeshire and 
 Lincolnshire, 25 ; produced in Bed- 
 fordshire and Berkshire, described, 
 26 ; in some of its varieties, con- 
 verted into loams, 29 ; how made 
 productive, ib. 
 
 lime when required for, 163 ; 
 
 what capable of being changed into 
 good soil, and how, ib. ; how ren- 
 dered useful in agriculture, ib. 
 
INDEX. 117 
 
 Peat, where to be found in its great- 
 est perfection, 246 ; two kinds in 
 Holland, ib. 
 
 Peat-ashes, an excellent manure for 
 turnips, 247 ; qualities of, ib. 
 
 Peat bogs, crops best for reclaiming 
 24; reclaimed, what crops best 
 calculated for, 25; improved by 
 draining, ib. 
 
 — covered with chalk, 174; 
 
 floating off the surface of, when 
 applicable, ib . ; singular instance 
 of, at Blair Drummond, ib. 
 
 and moss-lands, the only 
 
 effectual mode of improving, 179; 
 when to be ploughed or delved, 
 176. 
 
 water of great benefit to a, 
 
 301. 
 
 Peat-earth, when a manure for pota- 
 toes, 240. 
 
 Peat-moss, what manure essential to, 
 
 178. 
 
 Peat-mosses, two sorts of, 162. 
 
 rules for improving, 176. 
 
 — expence and profit of, 
 
 179. 
 
 necessity of paring and 
 
 burning to, 2 55. 
 
 — - — Mr. Smith’s improvement 
 
 of, 467. 
 
 Peat soil, what necessary on, 467. 
 
 Peaty soil, how improved, 33. 
 
 Peeling, advantages of, to fruit-trees, 
 508. 
 
 Perennial weeds, means to destroy, 
 280. 
 
 Permanent pasture, general disadvan- 
 tage of to landlord and tenant, 475; 
 when essential, ib. 
 
 Perry, produce of, equal in value to 
 that derived from vineyards,’ 526. 
 
 Pickering moors, error in the mode 
 of improving, 178. 
 
 Piece-work, arguments for and 
 against, 88. 
 
 Pies, dung preserved in, 218. 
 
 Pigeon’s dung, fertilizing power of, 
 223. 
 
 Pigs, experiments in breeding, 106. 
 
 how may be soiled, 488. 
 
 Pine, the Scotch or fir, 554; timber 
 of, for what purposes used, ib. 
 
 the maritime, or pinaster, 558. 
 
 Pitch pine, the, of America, 557. 
 
 Pitt, singular speech of the Right 
 Hon. William, on the state of the 
 nation, in 1791-1792, App.29. 
 
 Plan, a good for seedsmen to prepare 
 the seed wheat, App. 85. 
 
 Plantations rooted out in Perthshire, 
 166. 
 
 singular mode of irrigat- 
 ing in Aberdeenshire, 297. 
 
 profit of, on the borders of 
 
 fields, 541. 
 
 why merit particular at- 
 tention, 551 ; no land so poor as 
 not to admit of, ib. ; points to be 
 considered before these are begun, 
 552; young plants for, how best 
 raised, 553 ; on elevated situations, 
 ib. ; in steep banks how most ad- 
 vantageously occupied by trees, 
 556 ; on the sea-coasts, 558 ; on 
 land of superior quality, 560 ; ex- 
 pence of making, 563. 
 
 Planting, advantages of, on low 
 wastes, 176. 
 
 Planters of thorn hedges, rules re- 
 commended to, 189. 
 
 Plants, affinity of to light, 5 ; what 
 growing in mines, ib. ; found in 
 cast-iron pipes, ib. ; in the northern 
 regions, ib. 
 
 on the introduction of ex- 
 otic, 11. 
 
 aquatic, where may be pro- 
 pagated, 164. 
 
 that favour the growth of 
 
 fungi, or rust, 424. 
 
 Plough, the wheel, 116, 117, 118, 
 119; the trench, 118; the double 
 furrow, ib. ; the paring, 119, 258 ; 
 operations of the double furrowed, 
 118; the Rotherham or Yorkshire, 
 119; curved mould-boards, when 
 introduced in the, ib. ; Vetche’s im- 
 proved, ib. 
 
 rapid improvements in, to 
 
 what owing, 136 ; uses of the mole, 
 133. 
 
 use of the common in mak- 
 ing drains, 207. 
 
 the common, how used for 
 
 paring, 258. 
 
 — — - — Duckett’s coulter, 465 ; ad- 
 vantages of the, over the spade, 
 515; and spade culture, differ- 
 ence of the expence between, 517. 
 
 Plough-ear, or mould - board of 
 swing ploughs, an improvement 
 in, 119. 
 
 Ploughed-ground, quality of, ac- 
 cording to the different breadth 
 of the furrow slices and rates of 
 horses walking, exhibited in tables, 
 
 335. 
 
 Ploughing, why more expensive in 
 Scotland than in England, 7. 
 
118 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ploughing, arranged according to the 
 soils, why an important object, 
 79. 
 
 horizontal, when to be 
 
 preferred, 155. 
 
 advantages of deep, 172, 
 
 326 ; method of, ib . ; most extra- 
 ordinary improvement by, ib. 
 
 to destroy weeds, 279. 
 
 preliminary observations 
 
 on, 326 ; mode of, 327, 330. 
 deep, when proper or im- 
 proper, 328, 329. 
 
 table of, 328 ; maxims re- 
 specting the proper depth of, ib . ; 
 when improper, 329. 
 
 ■ when to be carried on in 
 
 damp weather, 331 ; depth of, 
 preferred by Mr. Parker of Mun- 
 den, ib . ; how practised by the 
 farming gardeners near London, 
 ib . ; sentiments of an intelligent 
 farmer, on deep, ib. 
 
 preparation for deep, 332 ; 
 
 manner of laying the furrow- 
 slice, ib. 
 
 proper season for, and 
 
 hours of working, 333 ; when, 
 greatly dependent upon the soil, 
 ib. 
 
 extent of, done in a day, 
 
 334 ; how much performed by a 
 pair of horses, of a medium soil, 
 tb.\ what a common day’s work, 
 ib. 
 
 where the cheapest, 336. 
 
 how done by hire, 337 ; 
 
 expence of, ib.\ with two horses, 
 and two journeys a day, why re- 
 commended, ib.i cross and trench, 
 338. 
 
 — - the essence of good, 344. 
 
 spring sowing, where 
 
 adopted without, 349. 
 
 *. necessity of correcting a, 
 
 too extensive, 451. 
 
 with one furrow when to 
 
 be performed, 466. 
 
 in green crops for manure, 
 
 App. 65. 
 
 in the crop, where prefer- 
 red, ib. 
 
 Ploughing-in system, description of, 
 370. 
 
 Ploughing matches in Ireland encou- 
 raged by the Farming Society, 
 339; why recommended, ib. 
 Ploughs, various, 116. 
 
 wheel, 117; where best 
 
 made, 119; number of, to be at- 
 
 tended to in dividing of farms, 
 154. 
 
 Pluviometer , the, or rain gauge, use 
 of the, 12. 
 
 Poa aquatica, recommended for low 
 lands, 164. 
 
 Points preliminary to the practice of 
 agriculture, 1, 2, 41. 
 
 Polders, produce of winter barley 
 on the, 366. 
 
 Political enquiry, what the most im- 
 portant discussion in, 576. 
 
 Pollard trees, under ground, what 
 so called, 543. 
 
 Pollards, use of, 562. 
 
 Porous subsoil, uniform advantage 
 of, 34. 
 
 Portable threshing machines, 127. 
 
 Poor, assessments for, annually in- 
 creasing, and ought to be checked, 
 65, 66. 
 
 ill tffects of payments to the, 
 
 66 : laws, too often hold out sup- 
 port to the vicious and idle, ib. ; 
 the, when necessary, should be 
 assisted, ib . ; excellent mode of 
 providing for, in Scotland, ib . ; 
 judicious plan for relieving in Ire- 
 land, ib. 
 
 the, how materially to be taught 
 
 honesty, 88. 
 
 the largest proportion of the 
 
 payment of, what arises from, 575 . 
 
 Poor-rates, daily augmentation of, 
 65, 66. 
 
 paid by tenants, how jus- 
 tified, 66. 
 
 absolute necessity of alle- 
 viating, 579. 
 
 Ponds, artificial, how formed, 149 ; 
 more eligible than wells, 150. 
 
 for watering, mode of making, 
 
 App. 19. 
 
 Positions, maritime, or inland, effects 
 of, 8, 9. 
 
 Potatoe oats, a profitable first, but a 
 very scourging crop in Scotland, 
 264. 
 
 Potatoes, injurious raw, Mr. Pier- 
 repont’s mode of baking, 135; 
 when to be steamed, boiled, or 
 baked for cattle, ib . ; when pro- 
 ductive, 178. 
 
 dung proper for raising, 
 
 217; how manured in Switzer- 
 land, 221 . 
 
 r an experiment to prove 
 
 whether they are an exhausting 
 crop, 450 ; the best crops of wheat 
 produced after, 451. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 119 
 
 Potatoes, produce of, per acre, 501. 
 
 early, when planted, 514; 
 
 how raised with profit to the cot- 
 tager and farmer, 518; what kinds 
 of should be cultivated by the cot- 
 tager, 519. 
 
 Pot-herbs, what meant by in Scot- 
 land and England, 502. 
 
 Poudrets, manure so called, where 
 sold in London, 224. 
 
 Prices, high for corn and meat, ne- 
 cessary to the existence of rent, 58. 
 
 Private, roads, advantages of good, 
 the making of, by the tenant, how 
 to be encouraged, 157 ; advantages 
 of broad cylindrical wheels, on, 
 158. 
 
 Produce, proportion of, payable as 
 rent, a question, abstruse, myste- 
 rious, and difficult, 59. 
 
 — disposable, of a nation, a 
 
 principal source of its prosperity, 
 571. 
 
 expence and surplus of farms, 
 
 App. 50. 
 
 Produce and expence, general state- 
 ments of, App. 54. 
 
 Production of crops, operations of 
 husbandry in, S25. 
 
 Professions, distinct, viz. the dairy, 
 the breeding, and fattening of 
 stock, highly beneficial to th§ 
 country at large, 39 ; divisions of, 
 an important link in the progress 
 of agricultural prosperity, ib. 
 
 Professorships, agricultural, by 
 whom established, 583. 
 
 Profit derived from arable farming, 
 73. 
 
 Profuse agriculture , a species of 
 farming, origin and consequences 
 of, 52. 
 
 Prognostics of the weather, why ne- 
 cessary to every farmer, 12. 
 
 Prong spade, make and use of the, 
 258. 
 
 Property, on the management of an 
 extensive, App. 57. 
 
 Property-tax, the number of contri- 
 butors to, among the agricultural 
 classes, how much superior to 
 those among trades, 574. 
 
 Proposition, a, approaching to the 
 nature of an axiom, relative to 
 corn and grass, controverted, 575. 
 
 Proprietors, disadvantage to small, 
 50, 52 ; reasons why small fre- 
 quently let or sell their estates, 50 ; 
 of considerable estates, what ob- 
 jects have in view, when they cul- 
 
 tivate them, 51 ; small seldom 
 possessed of property sufficient to 
 improve their lands, 51; anecdote 
 of one who re-purchased his own 
 farm, ib . ; useful experiments tried 
 by, 55 ; improvements carried on 
 by, 54. 
 
 Prosperity, on what agricultural 
 depends, 138. 
 
 the, of a nation princi- 
 pally depends upon the surplus 
 derived from the soil, 568. 
 
 of agriculture, how far 
 
 depends on the politician, 575. 
 
 Protecting duty on foreign agricultu- 
 ral productions, necessity of, 585. 
 
 Protracted rotations, danger of, 454, 
 455. 
 
 Pulse, the consumption of, circum- 
 scribed, 503. 
 
 Putrescent manure, 213; attention 
 paid to in the Netherlands, 220. 
 
 Pyrolignous acid, use of, 545. 
 
 Quaker, experiment by a, in top- 
 dressing wheat, 251. 
 
 Quano, dung of sea-birds so called, 
 
 223. 
 
 Qucrcus Virens, or lace oak, pro- 
 perties of the, 559. 
 
 Quick-lime in powder injurious to 
 plants, 229. 
 
 Rabbits, where kept to advantage, 16. 
 
 where the most profitable 
 
 stock, 165. 
 
 Rabbit-warrens, when pay best, 16. 
 
 Rags, various, used as manure, 226. 
 
 Rag-weed, infests too many pastures, 
 285. 
 
 ■ — mode of destroying, 285. 
 
 Rain, annual fall of, quantity of how 
 estimated, 6 ; how this determines 
 the character of a climate, 12; 
 daily quantity of, where registered, 
 ib. 
 
 Rains, damage from heavy to wheat, 
 406. 
 
 Rape, advantages of, on boggy soils, 
 163. 
 
 when an excellent crop, 457. 
 
 Rape-cake, in what proportion used 
 by Mr. Coke of Holkham, 245 ; 
 powdered, use of in destroying in- 
 sects, ib . ; quantity of used in the 
 Netherlands, ib. 
 
 Rats, most effectual recipe for de- 
 stroying, 410. 
 
 Reapers, how much corn seven will 
 cut in a given time, 394. 
 
120 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Reaping, a new method introduced 
 from Flanders, 125. 
 
 — — - machines recently construct- 
 ed, 125; general price of, ib. 
 
 implements for, 125. 
 
 ■ a machine for, invented by 
 
 Mr. Smith near Dumblane, 125. 
 
 — when ought to commence, 
 
 392. 
 
 — nature of the instruments 
 
 used for, 393 ; by the sickle or 
 reaping hook, ib.; and by the 
 means of bagging, 395. 
 
 ■ — as done by Welsh labourers 
 in Hereford and Salop the most 
 perfect, 396 ; how performed by 
 the Cardigan hook, and expence 
 of, ib. 
 
 Rectangular fields, advantages of, 1 56. 
 Red clover, the most profitable va- 
 riety of grass, 485 ; benefit of a 
 crop of to land, ib. ; cultivation of, 
 
 486. 
 
 Refuse of manufactures, use of as a 
 manure, 249 ; of coal-mines, ib. ; 
 of lime-kilns, 250 ; how increased 
 by Mr. Monteath in Dumfries- 
 shire, ib. 
 
 of the distillery, value of the, 
 
 App. 61. 
 
 Red marl, the best apple orchards 
 situated on a stratum of, 524. 
 Rent, the payment of, a spur to in- 
 dustry, and a stimulus to the sup- 
 ply of the markets, 50. 
 
 defined, 57 ; why ought to be 
 
 restricted to money payments, ib . ; 
 amount of depends on many cir- 
 cumstances, ib. 
 
 high prices for corn and meat, 
 
 necessary to the existence of, 58. 
 what considered a fair propor- 
 tion of, in Scotland, 59, 60. 
 
 must be paid out of disposable 
 
 produce, 59. 
 
 table of r on arable farms, 59, 60. 
 
 periods of payment, 63. 
 
 allowance made from, for the 
 
 construction of farm buildings, 
 145. 
 
 of gardens, 521,522. 
 
 Rentable value of a farm, deductions 
 from the, 64. 
 
 Rent-roll, increased by prohibiting 
 long teams, 338. 
 
 Rents, the necessity that every farm 
 should produce three, 59 ; the ne- 
 cessity of a fourth, ib. 
 
 mode of paying, 62, 63. 
 
 Repairs, average expence of, 115 ; 
 
 who done by in Scotland, 146 ; 
 usual mode of, ib. 
 
 Reservoir for manure, 216. 
 
 Robert Gardener’s mode 
 
 of making, 149. 
 
 Retail shopkeepers, farmers when 
 compared to, 43. 
 
 Ribbing, process of, 332. 
 
 a mode of cultivating wheat 
 
 in rows, 379.' 
 
 Ribbing, hints on, App. 68. 
 
 Ribbing- wheat, first trial of, 379. 
 
 Ridges, proper length of, 341 ; 
 breadth of, ib. 
 
 — — arguments in favour of vary- 
 ing, 342 ; state of, in Suffolk and 
 Essex, 343. 
 
 mode of having covered 
 
 drains in the furrows of broad, 
 where useful, 343; sketch of, 344. 
 
 breadth of, on what must de- 
 pend, 344. 
 
 straightness of, 344; height 
 
 of, 345; the high of the Vales of 
 Evesham and Gloucester describ- 
 ed, ib , ; line of their direction, 
 346, 347 ; ploughing of, 348. 
 
 bad effect of short, exempli- 
 fied in a table, 336. 
 
 broad and high, recommended 
 
 for arable land laid down into 
 grass, 500. 
 
 "Ridging, where practicable, 340. 
 
 Rills, artificial, 150. 
 
 River- warping in Italy, 316 ; neces- 
 sity, its parent, 317 ; originated 
 from accident on the banks of the 
 Humber, ib. 
 
 Rivers, protection against, 319. 
 
 ■ . - ■ reclaiming land at the en- 
 
 trance of large, 321. 
 
 Rivulet, water, how to be conveyed 
 from a, to fields, 150. 
 
 Road, necessity of a good piece of, 
 at every irate, 158. 
 
 Road-scrapings used with advantage 
 as compost, 242, 243. 
 
 Roads, the formation and improve- 
 ment of, 158. 
 
 good, how easily to be made, 
 
 and kept up, 158. 
 
 and bridges, among the first 
 
 means of introducing improve- 
 ments into a country, 588. 
 
 Rocks, amazing worth of, in France 
 and Dumbartonshire, 10. 
 mode of eradicating, 170. 
 
 Rodwell, Mr., in Suffolk, how dis- 
 tinguished, by covering the sur- 
 face of heath land, 173. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 121 
 
 Roller, for moss, how ought to be 
 constructed, 175. 
 
 a wooden, recommended by 
 
 Lord Karnes, 353; the drill pre- 
 ferred by others, ib . ; the double 
 spike , recommended by Mr. Blai- 
 kie at Holkham, ib. 
 
 a heavy, why preferable to a 
 
 light, 354, 355. 
 
 Rollers, various, their uses, 1 33. 
 
 Rolling, improvement of peaty or 
 moory soils by, 175. 
 
 why deemed the fourth prin- 
 cipal operation in agriculture, 353; 
 its advantages, ib . ; when essential, 
 354. 
 
 how executed to the most 
 
 advantage, 355. 
 
 Roofs of buildings, water how to be 
 obtained from, 148. 
 
 Roots of trees, how to procure the 
 decay 9f, 166. 
 
 how inferior to grain, 502; 
 
 number of, produced in England, 
 503. 
 
 Root-weeds, couch and charlock, 
 destruction of, how to be effected, 
 280. 
 
 Roscoe, Mr., method of improving 
 Chat-moss by, 178 ; result of expe- ; 
 riments by, ib. 
 
 Rot, the, whence frequently pro*, 
 ceeds, 210. 
 
 Rotation, the, adopted to be consi- 
 dered in dividing a farm, 154. 
 
 a three years’, 448 ; four 
 
 years’, 449; five years’, 451 ; six 
 years’, 452 ; seven years’, 454 ; 
 eight years’, ib. 
 
 protracted, condemned by 
 
 Mr. Middleton, and why, 454. 
 
 — severe result of, tried, 450. 
 
 the most productive on a 
 
 general system, 460; a judicious, 
 essential in high situations, ib. 
 
 the, followed by Mr. Hun- 
 ter, App. 49. 
 
 Rotation of crops, 445; various sorts 
 of, 448. 
 
 after paring and 
 
 burning, on what, must 'depend, 
 264, 
 
 . adopted by the 
 
 market-gardeners, near Edinburgh, 
 513. 
 
 Rotations, various, 445. 
 
 questions connected with, 
 
 judicious, 457. 
 
 general deductions respect- 
 ing, 459. 
 
 Rotation proper for various lands 
 under the convertible system of 
 husbandry, 500. 
 
 Rotations, four or five now in use, 
 App. 51. 
 
 Rotherham, or Yorkshire plough, 
 the, 119. 
 
 Rowen, practice of, what, 483; when, 
 a valuable resource, ib . ; worth of, 
 in the spring, ib. 
 
 Row-culture, implements for, 123. 
 
 by drilling, 370. 
 
 Russell-grass, a new variety of the 
 rye-grass, 498. 
 
 Ruta-baga, hoW planted by Mr. 
 Hunter, App. 47. 
 
 and turnips, crops of, 
 
 raised by Mr. Hunter, App. 47. 
 
 Rust attributed to frosts, 408. 
 
 nature of the, 415 ; caused by 
 
 fungus, 416; how conveyed from 
 one crop to another, ib . ; causes 
 of, 417; remedies against, 419. 
 
 prevented, by treading the 
 
 ground after sowing, 423 ; advan- 
 tages in using saline manures as 
 remedies against, ib . ; rare, near 
 the sea, ib . ; little known in Flan- 
 ders, ib.; plants most favourable 
 to the growth of, 424; curious 
 circumstance connected with the, 
 425 ; communicated solely by the 
 roots, 426; crops, when affected 
 with, should be immediately cut 
 down, ib. 
 
 or mildew, additional hints on, 
 
 App. 85. 
 
 Rye-grass, propriety of sowing with 
 clover, 486. 
 
 — - utility of, 496. 
 
 — — objections to, how re- 
 
 moved, 496. 
 
 Sailor, English, his observations 
 made to a Spaniard, 1 1 . 
 
 Sainfoin, excellence of, on poor sandy 
 soils, 17. 
 
 one of the most valuable of 
 
 blessings, 26. 
 
 chalky soils, how to be cul- 
 tivated for, 27. 
 
 improvement from the cul- 
 ture of, 495 ; what soils will thrive 
 on, ib . ; may be mixed with white 
 clover, ib, 
 
 layers, paring and burning 
 
 necessary to old, 257. 
 
 Saline manures, advantage of using, 
 423. 
 
 Salt, utility of, as a manure, 248. 
 
122 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Salt, benefits of, to vegetables, as a 
 preventive to rust, 423. 
 
 on the uses of, for agricultural 
 
 purposes, App. 36, 37 ; reduction 
 of the duties on, 37; import- 
 ance of, to agriculture, ib. ; a ma- 
 nure to arable land, ib. ; promotes 
 the growth of vegetables, ib . ; 
 modes in which it has been suc- 
 cessfully made use of, 37, S8. 
 
 experiment with foul, in Che- 
 shire, and use of, in composts, 
 App. 37, 38; old, or condemned, 
 how used in Cornwall, 38. 
 
 applied to composts, a more 
 
 beneficial manure than lime, App. 
 38 ; experiment made with, by the 
 Abbey of St. Pierre, App. 39. 
 
 destroys roots and insects in 
 
 the soil, App. 37 ; proved by Prin- 
 gle and Macbride, 38. 
 
 ■ how used in Flanders, App. 39; 
 promotes the fertility of waste 
 land, ib. ; an effectual remedy 
 against smut, 39,40. 
 
 preserves the seed from ver- 
 min, App. 39; promotes the ve- 
 getation of oily seeds, 40, 41 ; 
 increases the produce of pasture 
 land, 41 ; improves the quality of 
 hay, ib. 
 
 ——increases the produceof pastures 
 and meadow land, App. 41; how 
 to be conveyed into an animal, 
 41,45 ; modes of giving to stock in 
 Sweden, 45 ; renders coarse food 
 more nourishing, 42 ; when to be 
 given to cows, ib.; very benefi- 
 cial for horses, 42, 43 ; preserves 
 stock from disease, 42 ; cures the 
 botts in horses, 43 ; Mr. Curwen’s 
 experiments on, ib. ; proportions 
 of, given to cattle, ib.; advan- 
 tages of, to sheep, ib.; quantities 
 of, given in Spain and Great Bri- 
 tain, 44; prevents the sickness 
 called the braxy, in Scotland, ib. ; 
 use of, for pigs, in Ireland, ib. 
 
 — — advantageously given to poul- 
 try, App. 44 ; general uses of, to 
 stock, 41, 42, 44, 45; modes of 
 giving to stock, 45 ; prevents rust, 
 or blight, in wheat, ib. ; how used 
 by the Rev. Robert Hoblyn, ib. ; 
 benefits to agriculture, on the re- 
 duction of the duties on, ib. 
 
 supposed useful in preventing 
 
 mildew, 87. 
 
 Salt-marshes in England, what com- 
 posed of, 28. 
 
 Salt spray, injuries to crops from, 9. 
 
 Salt-water marshes, how to be im- 
 proved, 164. 
 
 how applied, to prevent 
 
 smut, 413. 
 
 Salted hay, of great use to sheep, 
 App. 41. 
 
 Salting hay, how practised in Der- 
 byshire, &c. 481. 
 
 Sana, how cultivated in Flanders, 18. 
 
 what to be raised on, 468. 
 
 floods, or sand drifts, how to 
 
 prevent, 15, 165; particular atten- 
 tion paid to prevent, on the Con- 
 tinent, 165. 
 
 Sandlings of Suffolk, carrot husban- 
 dry in, an interesting object, 17. 
 
 Sandy, in Bedfordshire, rents of 
 garden-ground near, 5 22. 
 
 Sandy downs, most valuable in their 
 natural state, 164; what plants 
 best cultivated on them, ib. ; near 
 the sea, when should be planted, 
 ib. 
 
 land, managed according to 
 
 Duckett’s system, why strongly 
 recommended, 17. 
 
 soils, how farmed with consi- 
 derable advantage, 16; rich, are 
 invaluable, ib . ; in Norfolk and 
 Suffolk, how rendered valuable, 
 1 7 ; three rules necessary in the 
 management of, 19; fertility of, 
 how far in proportion to the fall 
 of rain, ib.; inland, when to be 
 planted with fir, 165. 
 
 lands, a rotation of six may be 
 
 adopted in, 453. 
 
 soils, small value of, 15; best 
 
 means of improving the texture of, 
 ib.; calculated for sheep, 16 ; what 
 crops raised on, 16, 17; must not 
 be pared and burned, 257. 
 
 Scarifier, the, or grubber, utility and 
 formation of, 121; account of 
 one introduced into Scotland, ib. 
 
 • the most effectual implement 
 
 ever invented for extirpating root- 
 weeds, 289. 
 
 established in the Lothians, 
 
 349. 
 
 Scarifying and putting-in crops with- 
 out ploughing, 348 ; doctrine re- 
 lative to, worth the attention of 
 the practical farmer, ib. ; an expe- 
 riment on the effects of, compared 
 with spring-ploughing when tried, 
 350 ; practice of, where become 
 predominant, ib. ; tried successfully 
 in autumn, 351. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 123 
 
 Scarifying the turf, when preferable 
 to rolling, 416. 
 
 Science of agriculture, how pro- 
 moted, 13. 
 
 Scotland, system for providing a 
 schoolmaster in every parish, a 
 wise regulation in, 66. 
 
 Scotch fir, barren lands planted with, 
 536. 
 
 Scotch pine or fir, what uses calcu- 
 lated for, 554, 555. 
 
 ' 1 maxim, an old, App. 48. 
 
 Scottish agriculture, premium to, 68. 
 '■ ■ husbandry, what the main 
 
 spring of, 277. 
 
 Scraper, expence of using on an acre, 
 289. 
 
 Scuffler, the, described, 120. 
 
 Scuffling, where preferred to harrow- 
 ing, 351. 
 
 Scythe, mowing grain by the, 394. 
 
 Sea, why the, communicates warmth 
 in winter, 8 ; influence of a proxi- 
 mity to the, 9. 
 
 protection against the, 318. 
 
 reclaiming land from the, 321. 
 
 Sea-ooze, or warp, where abounds, 
 used by the late Duke of Bridge- 
 water, 242; prevent rust, ib. 
 
 Sea-sand, where particularly useful, 
 238. 
 
 Sea-shells, an abundant manure, 238. 
 
 Sea- water, employed in irrigation, 
 300. 
 
 Sea- ware, advantages of, above other 
 manures, 244. 
 
 Sea-weed, value of, near a farm, 40. 
 
 an excellent compost with 
 
 lime, 243. 
 
 — — an excellent manure for 
 
 garden crops, 510. 
 
 a source of fertility, 243. 
 
 Season, effects of a rainy on the pro- 
 duce of the soil, 7 ; moderately 
 dry, how productive of grain, ib. 
 
 the unfortunate of 18 1 6, App. 
 
 67. 
 
 Seasons, regularity and variation of 
 the, 9. 
 
 — how to discover the revolu- 
 tions of good and bad, 1 2. 
 
 Seed, on the choice of, 355, 356 ; 
 blunders of cultivators in the choice 
 of, 355 ; practice of importing from 
 England, attended with the best 
 effects in Ireland, 356; experi- 
 ments to distinguish good, ib . ; the 
 advantage of changing, 357, 358 ; 
 experiment in changing, 358 ; 
 quantity of, a branch of inquiry 
 
 too little attended to, or under- 
 stood in several districts, 359; 
 quantities of sown, where enor- 
 mous, ib . ; general rules relative 
 to, ib . ; quantity of, how to be re- 
 gulated, ib .; season when to be 
 sown, 360; quality and size of, 
 361 ; proportions of for different 
 crops, ib . ; ought not to be distri- 
 buted with too rigid economy, 363; 
 steeping of, how performed, 364. 
 
 — ■■ mostly deposited in lines, 370. 
 
 — — not saved by drilling, 376. 
 
 a liberal allowance of, neces- 
 sary for land laid down in grass, 
 499. 
 
 for four and six course shifts, 
 
 App. 56 ; tares for an acre of, how 
 charged for, ib. 
 
 Seed-corn, application of dunghill 
 water to, 365. 
 
 Seed-wheat, a good plan to prepare, 
 App. 85. 
 
 Seeds of weeds, how destroyed, 279. 
 
 each sort should be sowed se- 
 parately, and why, 363, 469. 
 
 how to separate imperfect from 
 
 sound, 364. 
 
 Selwood Forest, acres contained in, 
 537 ; produce of, 538. 
 
 Sembrador, a Spanish drill-machine, 
 371. 
 
 Semination, various modes of, 364. 
 
 Servants, the best system that can be 
 adopted for paying and providing 
 for, 61, 82; practice of hiring at 
 public statutes, justly reprobated, 
 84 ; should be deprived of injuri- 
 ous perquisites, ib . ; female how to 
 be employed, 85, 86. 
 
 Shallow ploughing farmers, a suc- 
 cession of, how beggared, 331. 
 
 Sheaf bands, used in the Isle of 
 Thanet, described, 396. 
 
 Sheep, advantages of folding on sandy 
 soils, 17. 
 
 number of, increased by breed- 
 ing small, 94. 
 
 small sized, references relative 
 
 to, 24. 
 
 qualities for which distin- 
 guished, 99. 
 
 advantages and disadvantages 
 
 of fattening, 102; dead weight of, 
 104; Bakewell’s celebrated stock 
 of, 105 ; what to be attended to in 
 breeding, 109, 1 10 ; heavy Leices- 
 tershire, 114. 
 
 bred in hilly countries easily 
 
 fatten, 121. 
 
124 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sheep, an effectual fence against, 156. 
 
 advantages of to weak soils, 
 
 177. 
 
 the wildest, how rendered do- 
 cile, 223. 
 
 an hospital park necessary for, 
 
 185. 
 
 variously employed during the 
 
 process of vegetation, 389 ; tread- 
 ing wheat, when beneficial, ib. 
 
 fond of pease-straw, 436. 
 
 why injurious in orchards, 531. 
 
 how kept in Sweden, 535. 
 
 Sheep dung, use of, 214 ; how col- 
 lected, 222. 
 
 Sheep-fanner, how may escape fatal 
 distempers, 185. 
 
 Sheep-farms, instances of, having 
 been drained to advantage in Scot- 
 land, 197. 
 
 Sheep-folding, a point much contro- 
 verted, 223 ; a most useful plan of, 
 lately adopted, ib. 
 
 Sheep’s trotters, calves’ feet, hogs’ 
 hair, feathers, &c. why ploughed 
 into the soil, 226. 
 
 Sheffield, Lord, price of wood sold 
 by, 547. 
 
 Shell-marl, of what consists, and to 
 what may be applied, 238. 
 
 Ship, quantity of timber necessary 
 for a 74 gun, 548. 
 
 Shrubs, land covered with, well 
 adapted for cultivation, 167. 
 
 Sickles, jagged on the edge prefer- 
 red, 124; reaping by, how per- 
 formed, 124, 393. 
 
 Silt, not confined to the Humber, 
 311. 
 
 Silver fir, the, calculated for the out- 
 side of plantations, 567. 
 
 Simpson, Mr., waste lands in a course 
 of improvement by, 175; error in 
 improving wastes, pointed out by, 
 ib. 
 
 Situation, the system of farming, and 
 its expence how far connected 
 with, 38 ; in respect to markets, 
 39; conveyance, ib.\ manures, 40; 
 fuel, ib. 
 
 Size of stock, useful observations 
 on the, by the late Mr. Davis, 96. 
 
 Shimming , practice of in Kent, 444. 
 
 Skin of animals should be soft, other 
 necessary qualities of the, 103. 
 
 Slugs and snails, how to be destroy- 
 ed, 354, 511. 
 
 Small farms, why formerly more ad- 
 vantageous, 4 1 ; arguments for and 
 against, 42. 
 
 Smith, Mr., one of the greatest im- 
 provers of waste lands, 179. 
 
 Smut, grain how cleaned from, 404. 
 
 — — what the, 411 ; how to be pre- 
 vented, 412. 
 
 miscellaneous particulars re- 
 specting, 415. 
 
 steeping 24 hours necessary to 
 
 prevent, 413. 
 
 in wheat, nature of described, 
 
 App. 83 ; infallible remedy for pre- 
 venting, 84. 
 
 Snow, effects of, 10; favourable to 
 the young plant, 408. 
 
 Soap-ashes, an excellent manure for 
 peat earth, 24. 
 
 Soap boilers’ leys, used to prevent 
 smut, 413. 
 
 Soap-suds, use of to fruit-trees, 509. 
 
 Soapers’ waste, properties of, and 
 what lands best calculated for, 
 239 ; where tried, and failed, ib. 
 
 excellent manure for 
 
 gardens, 510; useful to cabbages 
 and turnips, 510, 511. 
 
 Sod burning, use of ashes produced 
 by, 256. 
 
 Sod, advantages of burning in large 
 or small heaps, 259, 260 ; heaps of 
 large, recommended for burning, 
 
 260. 
 
 Sod knife, the, 208. 
 
 Sods, mode of burning the, 259 ; pro- 
 cess how facilitated by the use of 
 portable furnaces, ib . ; expence 
 of, 260. 
 
 Soil, what most productive in a wet 
 climate, 7. 
 
 surface, or outward coating of 
 
 land, what, 13; importance of a 
 favourable, its value, 14; a Nor- 
 folk farmer’s observation upon a 
 wet or clayey, 14; best means of 
 improving a sandy, 15, 16. 
 
 miscellaneous particulars re • 
 
 specting, 30. 
 
 peaty, how improved, 33; value 
 
 of, on what depends. *6.; what for- 
 merly called rye land , 34; and 
 subsoil, intimate connection be- 
 tween, 35; calcareous, in Glou- 
 cestershire and the Yorkshire 
 Wolds, its comparative perfection, 
 39. 
 
 light and strong how to be 
 
 blended, 154. 
 
 and subsoil to be attended to, 
 
 in dividing farms, 153. 
 
 first object to be attended to in 
 
 cultivating the, 160. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 125 
 
 Soil, benefit of large trees to, 165. 
 
 where covered with chajk, 173. 
 
 what, suited to orchards, 524. 
 
 Soiling, what meant by the term, 486; 
 App. 46. 
 
 articles used for, 186; a sav- 
 ing of land and food, 487 ; other 
 advantages of, ib. ; number of cat- 
 tle, on 17-§ acres, ib. 
 
 ■ two years in succession justi- 
 
 fied, App. 50. 
 
 Soiling process, rules recommended 
 in the, 489. 
 
 Soiling system, advantages of, 486, 
 489^ attended with great labour, 
 how amply compensated, ib. 
 
 Soils considered under general heads, 
 15, 16. 
 
 — * — rules necessary in the manage- 
 ment of sandy, 19; of Turin, ib . ; 
 difference between gravelly and 
 sandy, ib. ; the stone brash, or corn- 
 brash of Gloucestershire and the 
 Midland Counties, described, 20; 
 gravelly, how improved, ib. ; su- 
 perior management of clayey, in 
 the Lothians, 22. 
 
 various alluvial, described, 28; 
 
 the means of ascertaining their 
 composition, 29 ; a plan suggested 
 for that purpose, 30 ; mould an es- 
 sential ingredient in, ib. ; principal 
 colours of, 31 ; what kinds heated 
 with difficulty, or otherwise, ib. ; 
 red colour in, to what owing, ib . ; 
 which the most favourable, ib . ; 
 various modes of improving, 32-; 
 labour and expence of improving, 
 how repaid, ib. 
 
 — — power of unproductive, how to 
 be renewed, 161. 
 
 sheep only to be depended on 
 
 for improving weak, 177. 
 
 absorbing, 199. 
 
 strong, how manured, 220; 
 
 light farm-yard dung, how applied 
 to, ib. 
 
 calculated for paring, 255. 
 
 what, not to be pared and 
 
 burned, 257. 
 
 mistake respecting deepening, 
 
 329. 
 
 qualities of deep and shallow, 
 
 331. 
 
 plan for improving light, 484. 
 
 method of increasing the fer- 
 tility of weak, 459. 
 
 Sooty an excellent manure, 249. 
 Southern districts of England, obser- 
 vations adapted for the, App. 54. 
 
 South-down breed, merits of, who 
 discovered by, 209. 
 
 Sowing upon the winter furrow, 
 first adopted in Scotland, 348. 
 
 oats, the most preferable 
 
 method of, 348. 
 
 general rules for, 359. 
 
 — : preparing the seed for, 364. 
 
 ■ ■ - late and early, 366. 
 
 a comparison between the 
 
 various modes of, and the practice 
 of transplanting grain, 367. 
 
 broad-cast, 368 ; ploughing- 
 
 in, 369 ; drill machines, ib .; mode 
 of, by drilling, by whom intro- 
 duced into this country, 371. 
 
 advantages of early, 420. 
 
 advantages of thick, 421. 
 
 turnips, a superior mode of, 
 
 App. 68. 
 
 Spade, a top-draining, and a breast- 
 draining, 208 ; the hodding, ib. 
 Spades used in hollow-draining, 208. 
 Spanish chesnuts planted in Kent, 
 527. 
 
 Specific manures, theory of, 254. 
 Spike roller, the, what calculated 
 for, 134. 
 
 Spirits, apology for the use of ardent, 
 App. 60. 
 
 how far a medicine for the 
 
 mind, 60. 
 
 Split oak, its advantages, 194. 
 
 Spouts or springs, when rendered 
 useful, 207. 
 
 Sprats, where a manure for hop-gar- 
 dens, 227. 
 
 Spray, or vapour from the sea, effects 
 of the sea, on grain and leaves, 9. 
 Spring of St. Winifred in Flintshire, 
 148 ; springs, natural, ib. 
 
 land, 199; from subjacent 
 
 water, 200; a knowledge of the 
 causes and nature of, connected 
 with the principles of draining, ib. 
 Spring-culture necessary for potatoes 
 and turnips, 349. 
 
 Spring-ploughing thought necessary 
 by the farmers in the Carse of 
 Gowrie, 349 ; oat crops, when ear- 
 lier without, ib. 
 
 Spring- wheat, where not liable to 
 rust, 419. 
 
 Spruce, the, recommended for a 
 nurse in preference to every other 
 tree, by an experienced planter, 
 567. 
 
 Square fields, advantages of, 156. 
 Stable -yard manure, arguments 
 against stirring, 217, 219. 
 
126 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Stables, mode of washing in Flanders, 
 216. 
 
 Stacks, how constructed, 126 ; with 
 bosses, ib. 
 
 Stacking hay, 481. 
 
 Standing flues, advantages of, 506. 
 Statesman, the maxim a real should 
 always keep in view, 213. 
 Statesmen, British, when first ap- 
 prized of the important interests 
 of agriculture, App. 29. 
 
 Steep lands, still in a state of waste, 
 what calculated for, 161. 
 
 Steeping, effects of, 35. 
 
 what used for by the Ro- 
 mans, 364. 
 
 how to be performed to 
 
 prevent smut, 413. 
 
 Stiles and wickets, 195. 
 
 Stock, where reared cheapest, 39 ; 
 advantages of the purchaser of 
 lean, ib. 
 
 — • — general remarks on live, 93. 
 pride of, in the Wiltshire far- 
 mers, lamented, 97. 
 
 a hardy constitution a valua- 
 ble property in, 100. 
 
 improvements in, not so readily 
 
 spread as in cultivation, 111. 
 
 general rules for the manage- 
 ment of, 112; what pasture should 
 be allotted to, ib . ; diseases of, 
 113; food of, ib. 
 
 — - — implements for harnessing, 132. 
 
 maintained per acre on the 
 
 best grazing lands, 471. 
 
 advantages of soiling, 487. 
 
 what may be grazed in or- 
 chards, 531. 
 
 Stock and corn husbandry, advan- 
 tage of a conjunction of, 501. 
 Stone turnips, soil adapted for, 456. 
 Stone-walls, advantages and disad- 
 vantages of, 184, 186. 
 
 Stones, use of, on sandy soils, 19. 
 
 loose, when and how useful, 
 
 169; large and fixed, when and 
 how to be removed, ib . ; advan- 
 tages of clearing the ground from, 
 ib . ; various modes of getting rid 
 of, 170; machines for raising, ib. 
 Store-stock, when do well on straw, 
 437. 
 
 Strata of England, Mr. William 
 Smith’s map of and memoir, par- 
 ticularly valuable, 14; of Derby- 
 shire, Mr. John Farcy’s local ob- 
 servations on the value of, ib. 
 Straw, machines for cutting, 135. 
 
 — of dry wheat, experiment with, 
 
 215; weight of, how much in- 
 creased by moisture> ib. ; the chief 
 material of the dunghill, ib.; value 
 of, ib. ; experiment on, by Mr. 
 Brown of Markle, ib. ; attention 
 necessary in collecting, ib. ; value 
 of, how estimated, ib. 
 
 — — fermented, a manageable sub- 
 stance, 217. 
 
 will propagate the smut, 417. 
 
 weight of produced by different 
 
 crops, 428; Mr. Middleton’s cal- 
 culation of the average produce of 
 per acre, 429; Mr. Brown of 
 Markle’s estimate of the produce 
 of, from different crops, ib. ; value 
 of the different kinds of, and total 
 amount of, ib.; value of the top 
 joint of, near Dunstable, 430; price 
 of at different places and periods, 
 430 ; value of, for feeding stock, 
 430. 
 
 produce of, in manure, 431. 
 
 total value of in the kingdom, 
 
 432 ; the various purposes to which 
 applicable, ib. ; feeding stock, the 
 great object to which formerly ap- 
 plied, ib.; a moderate quantity 
 should be given to cattle, ib. ; the 
 consumption of, enforced by the 
 price of hay, ib. 
 
 properties of the different kind* 
 
 of, 433. 
 
 rules respecting the consump- 
 tion of, in feeding, 435 ; a whole- 
 some variety in horses’ food, ib. 
 
 keeps best unthreshed, 436; 
 
 should be given to stock soon after 
 being threshed, ib. 
 
 advantages of mixing with the 
 
 aftermath of grass, 437 ; the most 
 prudent method of giving, ib. 
 
 some has a pith, 438 ; autumnal 
 
 not so valuable as spring, ib.; when 
 weaker or stronger, ib. ; how pre- 
 pared for feeding by the ancients, 
 ib. ; use of for litter, ib. 
 
 threshed in mills less saleable, 
 
 439; the ancients accustomed to 
 break on stones, ib. 
 
 quantity of dung produced by 
 
 a ton of, 440. 
 
 substitutes for, in thatching, 
 
 44 1 ; miscellaneous uses of, ib. ; 
 mixed with clay used for thatches 
 and walls, ib. 
 
 nearly all the, of a farm pro- 
 posed to be converted into dung, 
 App. 46. 
 
 where burnt as a manure for 
 
INDEX. 127 
 
 turnips, with the best effect, App. 
 78. 
 
 Stubble turnips, 366, 456. 
 
 Stubbles, various uses to which ap- 
 plied, 442; left on the ground, for 
 what purposes used, ib. 
 
 sometimes burnt on the 
 
 ground, 443. 
 
 should be carefully mown, 
 
 442, 443. 
 
 when should be shimmed, 
 
 453. 
 
 St. Winifred’s Well, extraordinary 
 supply from, 132. 
 
 Subsoil or strata defined, 13, 33. 
 
 information to be obtained 
 
 from the, 33 ; disorders occasioned 
 by a wet, ib . ; retentive and clayey, 
 ib . ; advantage of a porous, 34. 
 
 Subsoils, how of use to the soil, 33; 
 various qualities of, ib. 
 
 comparative advantages of 
 
 various, 33, 34; how rendered 
 dry, ib . ; porous when of great ad- 
 vantage. ib . ; open when desirable, 
 ib.; favourable, why produce good 
 crops on a thin soil ; ib .; investi- 
 gations relative to, why of the 
 greatest importance, and worthy 
 of enquiry, aided by the public, 35. 
 
 Sucrion or winter barley, 366. 
 
 Sugar wash, experiments with, App. 
 60. 
 
 Sulphate of copper, efficacy of in pre- 
 serving wheat from smut, App. 82. 
 
 Summer fallow, reasons why a, can- 
 not be dispensed with in Scotland, 
 269; attempts, various, made to 
 omit a, 272; objections against a, 
 ib . ; arguments for and against, 
 briefly stated, 274 ; tares recom- 
 mended instead of, 276. 
 
 on the improved sys- 
 tem of, App. 21, 22 ; average ex- 
 pence of, 21 ; calculations to prove 
 the superiority of cultivating win- 
 ter tares, instead of a, 25. 
 
 Summer fallowing, when and why 
 diminished by some, and totally 
 given up by others, 268 ; how 
 often requisite, 269; advantages 
 of, as explained by Mr. William 
 Pitt, 274. 
 
 Summer-ploughings, advantages of 
 deep, 274. 
 
 Surface, the covering of, with earth, 
 a considerable improvement, 172; 
 improvement effected in this man- 
 ner by the Duke of Bridgewater, 
 173 ; of heath land, how covered, 
 
 ib.; of peat-bogs, floating off the, 
 174. 
 
 Surface-draining, what lands useful 
 to, 238. 
 
 Surface-sowing, 368,369. 
 
 Surface-water, effects of, on clay soil9, 
 199. 
 
 Surplus produce of a nation, from 
 what arises, 568 ; amount of the, 
 or marketable produce, 569; should 
 be encouraged, 596. 
 
 Swampy grounds or bogs, how to 
 render valuable by planting, 5J&. 
 
 Sward, how a good may be given to 
 arable land in two years, 501. 
 
 Swift’s doctrine of two blades of 
 grass, an instance of sophistry, 
 575. 
 
 Swing-gate, the, 194. 
 
 Swing-ploughs, 116; improvement 
 in the plough-ear or mould-board 
 of, recommended, 119. 
 
 advantages from com- 
 pelling the use of, 339. 
 
 Switzerland, singular mode of apply- 
 ing dung in, 221. 
 
 Sycamore or the plane tree, 559. 
 
 System of farming, Mr. Hunter’s, 
 App. 46. 
 
 Table of ploughing, 328. 
 
 Tables shewing the quantity of 
 round ploughed according to the 
 ifferent breadth of the furrow- 
 slices, and the rates of the horses 
 walking, 335 ; the bad effect of 
 short ridges in ploughing, 336. 
 
 on the produce of clay soils, 
 App. 55. 
 
 on light soils, managed ac- 
 cording to the four-course shift, 
 App. 55, 56. 
 
 of rent and expence, App. 56. 
 
 Tamariska Gallica, where thrives, 
 559. 
 
 Tanners’ bark, how prepared as a 
 manure, 245. 
 
 Tanning, the finer branches of, how 
 performed, 555 ; with the gum of 
 the birch tree, 556. 
 
 Tare haum or hay, produce of, 434. 
 
 Tares recommended as a substitute 
 for a naked fallow, 276. 
 
 effects of, as a preventive of 
 
 rust, 426. 
 
 on loams after wheat, 435. 
 
 the real money difference of, 
 
 I over a summer fallow, App. 26. 
 Teams and horses of parade and 
 show, 132. 
 
128 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Teams, reasons for prohibiting long, 
 338. 
 
 Tedding grass, how performed by a 
 machine, 129. 
 
 for hay, regular me- 
 thod of, its advantages, App. 33. 
 
 Temperature, different degrees of 
 the air, how known from trees and 
 plants, 12. 
 
 Tempests, the necessity of guarding 
 against, 141. 
 
 Tenant, advantages of the, a3 a cul- 
 tivator, over the proprietor, 50. 
 
 repairs when done by the, 
 
 146. 
 
 Tenants and landlords, nature of 
 their present connection, 55. 
 
 unjust prejudices against rich, 
 
 exposed, 58. 
 
 why like kings, ought to be 
 
 fettered, App. 8. 
 
 Tenantry, consequences of capital in 
 the hands of the, 59. 
 
 Tenure, advantages and disadvan- 
 tages of, in property or on lease, 
 49, 50. 
 
 Terres Bombs , fields called, 340. 
 
 Tethering stock in Scotland and in 
 Ireland, 491 ; plan of in Ireland, 
 492 ; an assistant to the soiling 
 system, 493. 
 
 Tethers most proper and effectual, 
 how made, 491. 
 
 Thatching, danger and disadvantages 
 of, 441 ; fortunate decline of, 441. 
 
 Thermometer, utility of the, 12. 
 
 Thick sowing, not inconsistent with 
 great produce, App. 85. 
 
 how prevents mildew, 
 
 App. 86. 
 
 — advantages of, 86. 
 
 Thistles, the plough necessary to 
 eradicate, 121. 
 
 how prepared for horses’ food 
 
 in Germany, 281; too frequently 
 left in possession of the grass land, 
 ib.; how to be destroyed, ib.\ in- 
 struments used in extirpating, 287 ; 
 completely eradicated by Mr.W est- 
 car, 288. 
 
 Thorney, course adopted in the fens 
 of, 467. 
 
 Thorn-hedges, rules recommended 
 by the planters of, 189. 
 
 Thorns, how may be raised, 188. 
 
 should be planted in natural 
 
 soils, 189. 
 
 Threshing, by the flail, objections to 
 the old practice of, 401. 
 
 advantages of the new 
 
 mode of, 401 ; high prices when 
 paid for in Kent, Essex, and Sur- 
 rey, 401. 
 
 Threshing machine, the, the most va- 
 luable implement of modern times, 
 126; owing to the ingenuity of a 
 Scotch mechanic, how rewarded, 
 127. 
 
 Threshing-mill of Mr. Johnstone, re- 
 commended, 401. 
 
 Threshing-mills, driven by various 
 powers, 127 ; specific advantages 
 arising from this invention, ib . ; 
 estimate by Mr. Brown of Markle, 
 of the profit that might be derived 
 by the public from the general use 
 of, 128. 
 
 generally supplied with 
 
 a set of fanners, 402 ; sometimes 
 with a second pair, ib. 
 
 Till , a Scotch expression, its import, 
 
 33. 
 
 Tillage, implements of, 116. 
 
 benefitsarisingfrom good, 326. 
 
 Tilly subsoil, injurious nature of, S3. 
 
 Timber, value of, extremely distant, 
 540. 
 
 how may be raised advanta- 
 geously, 541 ; distressing want of, 
 in the Hebrides, ib. 
 
 at what season should be 
 
 felled, 545. 
 
 — pains should be taken to get 
 
 the value for, 446; a larger price 
 should be paid for, ib. 
 
 for the navy, improved by 
 
 harking the tree, 548. 
 
 value of an acre of, at Long- 
 
 leat, 550. 
 
 Timothy grass, cultivated in America , 
 496. 
 
 Tithe laws prevent wood being 
 raised, 540. 
 
 Tithes, no good reasons why they 
 should not be commuted, 64 ; bur- 
 den of, may be still more severely 
 felt, 65 ; commutation of, how 
 would be of the greatest benefit to 
 agriculture, 65, 578. 
 
 their continuance detrimental 
 
 to landed property, 578. 
 
 Top-draining spade, 208. 
 
 Top-dressing, mode of application of 
 manure by, 250 ; wheat, experiment 
 in by a quaker, 251. 
 
 the growing crop, an 
 
 useful practice, in various parts of 
 England, 389. 
 
 practice of, general in 
 
 Ireland, 473. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 12 9 
 
 Topping, may be extended to pease, 
 390. 
 
 practice of, when com- 
 menced, 390. 
 
 peculiarly calculated for 
 
 the drill system, S91 ; directions 
 for the performance of this opera- 
 tion, ib. 
 
 Town-dung, an important article, 
 223. 
 
 Towns, enclosures in the vicinity of, 
 184. 
 
 Traces, trappings, yoking, and furni- 
 ture of animals, articles of great 
 utility, 132; of more importance 
 than generally supposed to be, 133. 
 Train oil, use of for steeping, 364. 
 Transplanted Swedes, when to pro- 
 duce a forward crop, 455. 
 Transplanting, the most effectual 
 means of saving seed corn, 383. 
 
 the Swedish turnip, an 
 
 excellent practice, 383. 
 
 wheat, a successful ex- 
 periment, when tried in Essex, 383. 
 system, the, its advan- 
 tages stated by Dr. Darwin, &c. 
 382, f&3; effects of its operations, 
 from an experiment recorded in the 
 Philosophical Transactions, 383. 
 
 ■ — turf, a new practice, 483. 
 
 Trap, a* for destroying the fly, App. 
 70. 
 
 Treading, a practice strongly recom- 
 mended, 385; how performed in 
 different places, ib . ; by human 
 feet in Flanders, ib . ; by sheep or 
 other stock effectual for destroying 
 slugs or wire-worm, 386; pigs, 
 why preferred for, ib, 
 
 its advantages, particularly 
 
 on light dry soils, 388. 
 
 land, instances of, prevent- 
 ing rust, 419. 
 
 the land thoroughly pre- 
 vents mildew, App. 87. 
 
 Trees, use of lofty, in warm climates, 
 181. 
 
 a variety of, planted in hedges, 
 
 192; pernicious in hedges, ib. 
 
 advantages and disadvantages 
 
 of the growth of large, 165. 
 
 • sorts of, calculated for orchards, 
 
 526 ; how planted in orchards, 527. 
 — - — for orchards, cautions necessary 
 in planting, 532 ; stems of, how 
 guarded, 533. 
 
 — — how planted in quincunx , 533. 
 
 various and important uses of, 
 
 535. 
 
 Trees, use of, in feeding stock, 535. 
 
 general rule for cutting down, 
 
 544 ; when ornamental and useful, 
 549. 
 
 various purposes to which 
 
 young, are applied, 545. 
 
 when to be sown, and when 
 
 planted, 552; young, how should 
 be raised, ib . ; benefits of the great 
 varieties found in nurseries, 552. 
 
 calculated for low moorish 
 
 tracts, 557. 
 
 various modes of planting, 562. 
 
 Trefoil, or yellow clover, when a 
 useful plant, 496. 
 
 Trenching, when advisable, 171^ 
 
 land, added to cultivation 
 
 in Aberdeenshire, 171. 
 
 expence of, 172, 271. 
 
 the difficulties attending, 
 
 271. 
 
 expences of, hr Flanders, 
 
 271. 
 
 and double ploughing, how 
 
 effected, 466. 
 
 Trench-plough, the, 118. 
 
 Trench ploughing, method of, S38 ; 
 expence of, ib . ; how executed in 
 Flanders, 339. 
 
 cost of, for garden 
 
 farming, 516. 
 
 Tumbrils, of three wheels, uses of, 
 132. 
 
 Tup-park, use of a, 185. 
 
 Turf, when ought not to be pared 
 and burned, 257. 
 
 or sod, depth of pared, 259. 
 
 objection against converting old, 
 
 into arable land, 474 ; answered by 
 an example, ib. 
 
 — - — one acre of, how will plant 
 nine acres of arable land, 484. 
 
 Turf -draining, a particular detail of, 
 205. N 
 
 Turnip, transplanting of Swedish, 
 383. 
 
 rapid vegetation of the, how 
 
 promoted in America, App. 70. 
 
 experiments on the seed of 
 
 the, at Lord Orford’s, App. 70. 
 
 growth of, how quickened, 
 
 and culture of the plant improved, 
 App. 71. 
 
 cultivation of, in ridges, bene- 
 fit of, 71- 
 
 crop, methods for protecting 
 
 the, App. 71,72. 
 
 best mode of securing an 
 
 early and regular vegetation in, 
 App. 72. ' 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Turnip-seed, benefits of steeping in 
 oil, 3 65. 
 
 Turnip-soils, rotation on, 449. 
 Turnips, what soil best for, 22. 
 
 machines for sowing, 123 ; 
 
 for slicing, 135. 
 
 rotten dug essential for, 219. 
 
 dung, how applied to, 220. 
 
 »■ — ■ ■ — expence of weeding, 289. 
 
 when should be^ rolled, 354. 
 
 sheep, when to be folded 
 
 on, 416. 
 
 an infallible remedy for the 
 
 fly in, 443. 
 
 the best articles for rotting 
 
 dung, 440. 
 
 when to be drawn, and when 
 
 eaten on the ground, 468. 
 
 when to be sown, 515. 
 
 — what number of cattle an 
 
 acre of, would feed, App. 46. 
 
 an acre fattens from 450 to 
 
 500 lbs. of mutton, App. 46. 
 
 what cattle fed by an acre 
 
 of good, ib. 
 
 — — — hints as to, and the best 
 means of preventing the ravages of 
 the fly on, App. 69. 
 
 Under-crops in orchards, 529. 
 Under-ground onion, profit of cul- 
 tivating the, 521. 
 
 Underwood, season for cutting, 544. 
 Upland country, plan of watering, 
 150. 
 
 — pastures, draining of, 210. 
 
 pastures, how improved, 
 
 462, 463; rules practised by ju- 
 dicious farmers in the manage- 
 ment of, ib .; how most effectu- 
 ally improved, 464. 
 
 Urine, what contains, as a manure, 
 224 ; of cows or horses, what 
 
 worth, 225. 
 
 every sort, contains the essen- 
 tial elements of vegetables, 224 ; 
 value of that of cows and horses, 
 225. 
 
 — — how much improved, and when 
 particularly useful, 225. 
 
 — — pickle, how used to prevent 
 smut, 413. 
 
 Vaggs, Mr., mode of destroying 
 
 slugs by, 354. 
 
 Vandergoes, Mr., near the Hague, 
 has the finest dairy cows in Hol- 
 land, 109. 
 
 Vane, the, or weathercock, utility of, 
 
 12 . 
 
 Vegetables, how affected by dark- 
 ness and light, 5 ; general view of 
 the nature of, 6. 
 
 propriety of ploughing- 
 
 in, 245; how naturalized, 12; 
 burnt, various sorts, 246. 
 
 burning the roots of, to 
 
 black ashes, opinion of R. Hoblyn 
 concerning, 267., 
 
 importance of, 50S ; 
 
 consumption of, in summer and 
 autumn, 504. 
 
 what soil and manure 
 
 best adapted for the production of, 
 510; the sweetest, how grown, ib. 
 
 soil at Sandy, favourable 
 
 to, 522. 
 
 Vegetable manures, what compre- 
 hend, 243. 
 
 - — substances, use of dry, 
 
 248. 
 
 Vegetation, whose the best lecture 
 on, 6 ; importance of moisture to, 
 ib . ; irregularity of climate favour- 
 able to, 9 ; how promoted in gra- 
 velly soils, 21. 
 
 Veitch’s improved plough, a favour- 
 able report of, 119. 
 
 Ventilation of corn, when proper, 
 404. 
 
 Vermin destroyed by irrigation, 307. 
 Vernation , or foliation , of indigenous 
 plants, how necessary to register, 
 13. 
 
 Vertical or pit drains, 206. 
 
 Vesci, Lord De, good beef, how pro- 
 duced by, 492. 
 
 Veterinary knowledge, improvement 
 of, demonstrated, 584. 
 
 Village gardens, 520 ; benefits result- 
 ing from the culture of, 521. 
 Vines, peeling the bark from, 508. 
 Virginia thorn, an excellent fence, 
 188. 
 
 Vitriol, a solution of blue, preven- 
 tive of smut, 414; App. 81. 
 
 Wages, rate of, 91 ; the effects of 
 high, 92 ; those of hinds, or mar- 
 ried ploughmen in Scotland, how 
 increased, ib. 
 
 Waggons, heavy, very objectionable, 
 132. 
 
 loss, from employing heavy, 
 
 139. 
 
 Walker, Mr., of Mellendean, land 
 cultivated by, 570 ; 250 souls de- 
 pending on, ib . ; what surplus 
 produce he sends to market, ib. 
 Walls, cxpence of stone, 186. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 131 
 
 Walls, heating of, by flues, 507. 
 
 Walnut trees, where met with, 527 ; 
 value of the wood of, ib. 
 
 Warp, or silt, not confined to the 
 Humber, 316. 
 
 Warping land, why a most valuable 
 species of improvement, 312. 
 
 — origin of the practice, 
 
 312; nature of this improvement, 
 313 ; mode of carrying into effect, 
 extremely simple, ib . ; the season 
 for the, 314; expence and profit, 
 ib . ; mode of cultivation and pro- 
 duce, 315; practice of, whether 
 can be extended, 316 ; a great na- 
 tional object that deserves encou- 
 ragement, ib. 
 
 Wash, a, for trees, 5S4. 
 
 Waste, Mr. Smith and Mr. Maclean, 
 the two greatest improvers of, 179. 
 
 land, mode of reclaiming, by 
 
 flooding, 310. 
 
 lands, various descriptions of, 
 
 161. 
 
 rules to be observed in 
 
 the improvement of, 176; private 
 advantages of cultivating, not so 
 great as has been stated, 177; ex- 
 periments in the cultivation of, 
 178. 
 
 expediency of destroy- 
 ing weeds in, 287. 
 
 Waste or unproductive lands, im- 
 provement of, should be promoted, 
 586 ; different ways by which this 
 object may be attained, 587. 
 
 Wastes, on cultivating and improv- 
 ing, 160. 
 
 on the banks of lakes and 
 
 rivers, when to embank, 165; 
 natural obstacles to the cultiva- 
 tion of, how reclaimed, ib .; the 
 branches of trees, how to be dis- 
 posed of in reclaiming, ib. 
 
 six modes of reclaiming, 170. 
 
 mode of improving, by esta- 
 blishing colonies of labourers, re- 
 commended, 180 ; public advan- 
 tages from the culture of, ib . ; 
 advantages of enclosures to, 181. 
 
 improvements of, by draining, 
 
 197. 
 
 Water, below heat, its properties of 
 expansion, 4; its progress down 
 to congelation, what, ib. 
 
 command of good, 147 ; state 
 
 of, in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and 
 Hampshire, ib . ; various modes of 
 obtaining a supply of, ib . ; how to 
 be purified, 148 ; economical mode 
 
 of making reservoirs, 149; how 
 to be conveyed from a rivulet to 
 the fields, 150; in farm-yards, 
 151 ; how conducted through 
 fields, ib . ; how to prevent injury 
 from, 152. 
 
 in which vegetables have been 
 
 immersed, effect of, as a manure, 
 247. 
 
 — — from Swedish turnips, very 
 nourishing, App. 50. 
 
 Water cuts, or furrows, necessity of 
 making, 202. 
 
 dock infests water-meadows, 
 
 307. 
 
 fed lands, two descriptions of, 
 
 308. 
 
 furrowing, advantages of, 202. 
 
 meadow hay, how made, 306. 
 
 i t8 properties as 
 
 food, ib. 
 
 Water-meadows, on the utility of, 
 298. 
 
 two sorts, flowing for a flat 
 
 country, and catch-work for slop- 
 ing grounds, 298 ; grasses best 
 adapted for, 304, 305 ; stock, to 
 be fed on, 305; sheep not rotted 
 by feeding on, ib . ; half an acre 
 of the, when it will support 1000 
 sheep per day, ib . ; directions for 
 the formation and management 
 of, contained in several works, 
 308. 
 
 Water-ponds, on the making of, App. 
 19; pure brick clay not required, 
 t'6.; what used as mortar for, 20; 
 where made, and how deep, ib. 
 
 Watering meadows, process and re- 
 sults of, 298. 
 
 Waters, various, applicable for irri- 
 gation, 300; ferruginous, friendly 
 to vegetation, ib. 
 
 Weather, the continuance of good, 
 in harvest, not to be relied on, 
 400 ; effects of variable, on grain, 
 409. 
 
 Webb’s, Mr.Edward, ingenious mode 
 of draining by, 209. 
 
 Weed, a, provincially called Mid- 
 summer, described, 293. 
 
 Weeding, too much neglected, 277, 
 278. 
 
 valuable section on, by 
 
 George Rennie, Esq. 280. 
 
 land, great attention paid 
 
 to by Flemish farmers, 282. 
 
 Weeding, instruments used in, 287. 
 
 expence of the process of, 
 
 289. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Weeding, the importance such as 
 ought to be enforced by a law, 
 
 291. 
 
 — — neglected, 291, 292. 
 
 * probable benefits that 
 
 might result from the measure pro- 
 posed relative to, 292. 
 
 carefully, not so general 
 
 as it ought to be, 387. 
 
 Weeds, the importance of destroy- 
 ing, 6. 
 
 * necessity of a summer fallow 
 
 to extirpate in Scotland, 269. 
 
 * an excellent compost prepared 
 
 from common, 244. 
 
 * fresh water, manure for bar- 
 
 ley or turnips, 244. 
 
 — ■ commonly divided into three 
 classes; antipathy to in Japan, how 
 far carried, 277 ; fifty-five kinds 
 infest our corn fields, 279; means 
 of destroying annual and biennial, 
 279 ; means of destroying peren- 
 nial, 2S0 ; permitted to shed their 
 seeds in Ireland; bad consequences, 
 282; how to extirpate from arable 
 lands, 283 ; various kinds of infest 
 grass lands, ib. ; the extirpation of 
 why a matter of general concern, 
 286 ; in hedges, ill effects of, ib.; 
 some kinds hurtful to stock in 
 waste lands, ib.; means for de- 
 stroying in woods, plantations, and 
 gardens, 287. 
 
 ■ — ■■ in Flanders collected by 
 
 hand, 290 ; when boiled for milch 
 cows, ib. 
 
 means of preventing the in- 
 crease of, 290 ; regulations for the 
 destruction of, 291 ; which, the 
 most difficult to extirpate in South 
 Wales, ib. 
 
 the necessity of some legis- 
 lative provision for enforcing the 
 destruction of, 291. 
 
 on the side of roads, should 
 
 be destroyed at the parish expence, 
 
 292. 
 
 advantages derived from the 
 
 destruction of, ascertained by va- 
 rious experiments, 292. 
 
 Weighing machine, consequence of 
 to a farmer, 136. 
 
 Weight, what, sufficient for a single 
 horse, 131. 
 
 Wells in Middlesex, Surrey, Essex, 
 and Hampshire, 148, 149. 
 
 Wetness in land, causes of the, 209. 
 
 Whale-blubber offal, useful as a ma- 
 nure, 227. 
 
 Wheat, where cannot be grown to 
 advantage, and why, 11. 
 
 — advantages of raising on 
 
 sandy soils, 17. 
 
 greatest height above the sea 
 
 at which it can be cultivated, 36, 
 37. 
 
 successful experiment in top- 
 dressing, 251. 
 
 — — — what quantity of seed re-, 
 quired per acre of, 361. 
 
 when should be rolled, 354. 
 
 how raised on light lands, 
 
 370. 
 
 process of hand-hoeing, 387. 
 
 luxuriance of, how to check, 
 
 389. 
 
 — ■ — experiment upon, tried in 
 autumn, 389. 
 
 how preserved when injured 
 
 during harvest, 403 ; process for 
 curing musty, ib. 
 
 — diseases of, 411. 
 
 what parts not affected by 
 
 rust ; effects of cutting when affect- 
 ed, 417 ; land being too rich oc- 
 casions rust in, ib. 
 
 produced on the 9ite of a 
 
 dung-heap, always rusted ; and 
 why, 418. 
 
 — — — — sowing early, recommended 
 as a preventive from rust, 420. 
 
 advantages of sowing red 
 
 and white together, 421. 
 
 importing, for seed, 
 
 419, 422; and of treading the 
 ground after sowing, 421,422. 
 an exotic plant, therefore re- 
 quires a change of seed, 422. 
 
 much benefited by salt, 423. 
 
 sometimes rusted after pota- 
 toes, 423. 
 
 - — — after cole-seed not liable to 
 rust, 424. 
 
 — the principal field crop in 
 
 England, 446. 
 
 may be safely sown as late as 
 
 March, 449. 
 
 the best crops of, produced^ 
 
 where potatoes were most luxu-' 
 riant, 451. 
 
 argument against land being 
 
 too rich for, 485. 
 
 — — — — quantity of produced per 
 acre, 501. 
 
 estimate of the quantity of 
 
 land necessary to supply London 
 with, App. 59 ; and of tnc different 
 sorts of, sold at Mark-lane, ib. 
 
 — ■ where thrives best, App. 68. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 133 
 
 Wheat, infallible remedy for the smut 
 in, and for strengthening the plant, 
 App. 81. 
 
 difference of the price of in 
 
 Flanders and England, App. 82. 
 
 ■ preserved from smut, and a 
 
 beautiful crop produced by blue 
 vitriol, App. 83. 
 
 hovels in Lincolnshire, 398. 
 
 Wheat • straw, nature and use of, 428 
 433. 
 
 Wheats, experiments with a variety 
 of, respecting mildew, 420. 
 
 — ■ experiments with various as 
 to their liability to mildew, 420. 
 
 • winter, when Bowed in Nor- 
 
 thumberland and theLothians,453. 
 
 Wheel, the celebrated, invented by 
 Mr. Mickle, 308. 
 
 plough, 117. 
 
 Wheels, advantages of using broad 
 cylindrical, 158. 
 
 White blight, or American bug, re- 
 medy for, 534. 
 
 ■ clover, where recommended, 
 
 494. 
 
 Willow, use of the, 545. 
 
 where profitably planted for 
 
 underwood, 556. 
 
 Wiltshire carters, how feed their 
 horses, 96; farmers not remune- 
 rated for the maintenance of their 
 fine horses, ib. 
 
 Wind, use of, to plants, 409. 
 
 pump, a, near Deal, 308. 
 
 Winds, effect of violent, 8. 
 
 the influence on the character 
 
 of a climate, 8. 
 
 Wine, how made from currants, 525. 
 
 Winnowing machine, originated in 
 China, 402 ; brought into Holland, 
 and introduced into Scotland, ib . ; 
 by whom constructed on a larger 
 scale, ib. 
 
 Winter barley, great advantage 
 gained from by the Flemish, 366 ; 
 sown by Mr. Ellman, 367. 
 
 or sucrion, 366. 
 
 Winter-frosts, favourable to vegeta- 
 tion, 10. 
 
 tares, crop of, why recom- 
 mended in lieu of summer fallow- 
 ing, 276. 
 
 — ■ ■ ■ — apt to be destroyed by 
 
 hares and rabbits, 276. 
 
 calculations to prove 
 
 the superiority of cultivating, in- 
 stead of a summer fallow, App. 25. 
 
 Winter-wheats, sown in spring after 
 turnips, 449. 
 
 Wire-worm, corn when subject to 
 the, 34. 
 
 ■ the, and slugs, effectual 
 
 mode of destroying, 386. 
 
 — ■■■ mischievous effects of 
 
 the, 407. 
 
 Wood, disadvantages of using, in- 
 stead of coal, 40. 
 
 ■ the sale of, when most pro- 
 
 fitable, 537. 
 
 — consequences of the want 
 
 of, 541 ; necessity for various ma- 
 nufactures, ib. ; injury done to by 
 the bite of cattle, 543. 
 
 - in what state should be cut 
 for bending, 545. 
 
 Wood-ashes, a valuable manure, 246. 
 
 Woodholders, practice of in Scotland, 
 546. 
 
 Woodland, the most eligible mode of 
 converting into arable, 166; value 
 of in Wilts, 538 ; value of Colonel 
 Beaumont’s, 539 ; general worth 
 of, 540; rent of, after deducting 
 interest, &c. ib. 
 
 natural, divided into four 
 
 sorts, 542; not usually entirely 
 copse, ib. 
 
 attention to draining be- 
 neficial to, 543. 
 
 Woods, prejudicial nature of thick, 
 3. 
 
 a great impediment to culti- 
 vation, 165. 
 
 successfully grubbed up in 
 
 Scotland, 166 ; how to be grubbed 
 up for pasture, ib. 
 
 importance of draining to, 
 
 197. 
 
 briars and brambles, should 
 
 be grubbed from, 287. 
 
 and plantations, 535; parti- 
 culars respecting, 586; the soil 
 when advantageously employed, 
 ib. ; soils calculated for, 537 ; when 
 to be preferred to cultivation, ib.\ 
 Lord Bagot’s in Staffordshire, ib. ; 
 Selwood in Somersetshire, ib .; in 
 Wiltshire, 538 ; of Sir Joseph 
 Banks in Lincolnshire, 539; in 
 Derbyshire, 540 ; in Sussex, ib. 
 
 profits derivable from, 538. 
 
 where not to be encouraged, 
 
 541. 
 
 — . great injury, how d ne to 
 
 thriving, 543 ; how valued at the 
 Conquest, 542 ; on the manage- 
 ment of mixed, 546. 
 
 what principally necessary in 
 
 mixed, 546; trees principallygrown 
 
134 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 in, ib . ; value of on the Petworth 
 estate, 547 ; rules for the profitable 
 management of, 549. 
 
 Woollen rags chopped, their use in 
 agriculture, 226. 
 
 Working horses or oxen, advantages 
 of soiling to, 90. 
 
 Worms, methods by which the mis- 
 chief effected by, may be obviated, 
 458. 
 
 Yew tree, a singular growth of, 559. 
 
 — — grows on the sea coast, 
 
 559. 
 
 Young, opinion of Mr., concerning 
 feeding on straw, 439, 440. 
 
 Zinc pipes, use of, 151. 
 
AUTHORITIES 
 
 REFERRED TO IN THE PRECEDING WORK. 
 
 Aberdeenshire Report, 38, 40, 65, 
 181, 281, 282, 297, 492, 493, 
 505, 551, 558; App. 2, 5. 
 Academy of Brussels, Memoirs of 
 the, 548. 
 
 Academy of Dijon, Publications 
 by the, 414. 
 
 Adam, Paper by the Right Hon. 
 
 William, 535, 567. 
 
 Agricultural Report of Aberdeen- 
 shire, 493. 
 
 Aiken’s History of the Environs of 
 London, 149. 
 
 Aiton’s Survey of Ayrshire, 55. 
 American Farmer, 188, 486, 569; 
 App. 75. 
 
 Amos on Drill Husbandry, 372. 
 Anderson, Observation by Dr. Jas., 
 492, 558. 
 
 Anderson’s Recreations, 115, 130, 
 133. 
 
 Andrew, Mr., of Tillilumb, 460. 
 Annals of Agriculture, 39, 58, 130, 
 131, 166, 252, 364, 408, 412, 
 426,495, 510, 517, 535; App. 
 
 29, 70, 76. 
 
 Anstruther, Remark of Sir John, 
 on Drill Husbandry, 250, 388. 
 Argyleshire Report, 28, 43, 51. 
 Atholl, Observations on Larch, by 
 the Duke of, 544, 555. 
 Attersoll, J. Esq. 247. 
 
 Auckland, Speech of Lord, App. 
 
 30. 
 
 Ayrshire Report, 28, 43, 51, 310. 
 
 Bailey, Mr., of Chillingham, 111, 
 450. 
 
 Bailey’s Essay on the Construction 
 of the Plough, 332. 
 
 Bannister, Communication from 
 Mr., ofSteyning, 521. 
 
 Banks, Account of the cause of 
 the Mildew in Corn, bySir J oseph, 
 416. 
 
 Barclay, Mr.,ofUry, 231. 
 
 Barclay, Mr. Robert, 422. 
 
 Bath Society, Papers of the, 118, 
 216, 365, ‘ 382, 414, 555, 582 ; 
 App. 70. 
 
 Beatson’s Essay on Embankments, 
 318, 322. 
 
 Beck, Mr., 303. 
 
 Bedfordshire Report, 61, 76, 81, 
 82, 92, 97, 136, 139, 148, 353, 
 386. 389, 408, 415, 420, 425, 
 509, 517, 519, 522, 533. 
 
 Beeke, Dr., 176. 
 
 Berkshire Report, 21, 61, 87, 
 176, 306, 321, 420, 515, 516, 
 519, 524, 528, 529, 543 ; App. 6. 
 
 Bernard’s, Sir Thomas, Tract on 
 Salt, App. 38, 41, 42, 43, 44. 
 
 Berwickshire Report,61, 415, 472 ; 
 App. 42. 
 
 Birk beck’s Notes on America, App. 
 42. 
 
 Blaikie, Mr. Francis, 76. 
 
 Blaikie, Communication from Mr. 
 at Holkham, 337,373, 375, 377, 
 412, 475, 497. 
 
 on Arable Land, 484. 
 
 on Farm-yard Ma- 
 nure, 158, 215, 218, 219. 
 
 on Hedges, 190, 193. 
 
 Bloomfield, Mr. John, 483. 
 
 Board of Agriculture, Communi- 
 cations to the, 21, 26, 27, 30, 31, 
 49, 87, 88, 98, 105, 106, 108, 
 109, 113, 114, 118, 132, 135, 
 
136 
 
 AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO. 
 
 141, 142, 148, 158, 165, 166, 
 167, 168, 169, 173, 175, 176, 
 177, 179, 186, 189, 191, 206, 
 220, 231, 248, 279, 285, 292, 
 293, 303, 305, 318, 322, 339, 
 353, 371, 398, 416, 420, 465, 
 466, 468, 470, 471, 474, 487, 
 494, 498, 499, 500, 501, 535, 
 554, 555, 593; App. 44, 77. 
 
 Bogle’s Essay, 382. 
 
 Boswell, Mr., 308. 
 
 Boulton, Communication by Mr., 
 299, 302, 308. 
 
 Boys, Mr., ofBetshanger, Essay by, 
 227. 
 
 • Treatise on Paring and 
 
 Burning, by, 256, 258, 259, 
 260. 
 
 Bridge, Essay by Mr., of Winford, 
 465. 
 
 Brodie, John, 377. 
 
 Brown, Mr., of Markle, 215, 268, 
 313, 397, 449, 453, 458, 470, 
 473, 479. 
 
 Brown’s Treatise on Rural Affairs, 
 16, 17, 20, 21, 23, 29, 33,44, 
 65, 68, 119, 122, 187, 190, 
 
 191, 207, 210, 215, 221, 332, 
 352, 355, 361, 362, 363, 392, 
 401, 402, 454, 455, 486, 501. 
 
 Brownrigg, Mr., of Wicklow, App. 
 85. 
 
 Bruce, Mr., 251. 
 
 Buckinghamshire Report, 61, 88, 
 133, 288, 306, 408, 412, 509, 
 548, 557. 
 
 Bucknall, Communication by Tho- 
 mas Skip Dyot, Esq. M. P., 530, 
 App. S3. 
 
 Burke’s Works, App. 59. 
 
 Burrell, Communication from Sir 
 Charles M., Bart. M. P., 530, 
 532, 534, 564. 
 
 Burrell, Mr., 391. 
 
 Burroughs, Communication from, 
 Edward, Esq., 16, 19, 30, 246, 
 451, 457, 478, 493, 520, 565; 
 App. 44. 
 
 Burroughs, Essays by Ed ward, Esq. 
 494. 
 
 Burroughs, remarks by Edw. Esq., 
 33, 34, 45, 53, 61, 64, 66, 87, 89, 
 90,131,132,134, 136, 116,163, 
 167, 229, 236, 241, 253, 258, 
 276, 282, 286,. 292, 330, 349, 
 
 354, 357, 361, 362, 367, 374, 
 375, 387, 395, 413, 435, 436, 
 443, 467, 469, 473, 491, 525, 
 577. 
 
 Burroughs, Edward, Esq., on 
 ploughing-in Green Crops, App. 
 65. 
 
 Butler, Mr., of Killamarsh, App. 
 85. 
 
 Caithness Report, 61, 181. 
 
 Caledonian Horticultural Society, 
 Memoirs of the, 559, 
 
 Cambridgeshire Report, 72, 425, 
 
 Carmichael, Sir Thos., App. 79. 
 
 Cartwright, the Rev. Dr., 50, 469, 
 474. 
 
 Chateauvieux, M. De, 427. 
 
 Checkett, Mr., App. 69. 
 
 Cheshire, Report, 22, 62, 87, 195, 
 241, 284, 425, 545; App. 8, 37, 
 38, 41. 
 
 Church, Communication from Mr., 
 ofHitchill, 458; App. 72. 
 
 Cicero, 52. 
 
 Clack, Communication by the Rev. 
 Thomas, 416, 425. 
 
 Cline, Paper by Henry, Esq., 98, 
 105, 108. 
 
 Clough, Rev. Mr., 303. 
 
 Clydesdale Report, 13, 27, 31, 33, 
 35, 66, 68, 174, 565. 
 
 Code of Health, Fourth Edition, 
 423. 
 
 Code of Agriculture, Second Edi- 
 tion, App. 86. 
 
 Coke, Mr., of Holkham, 114, 392. 
 
 Colling, Letter from Mr. Robert, 
 to Sir John Sinclair, 109. 
 
 Communication from the Right 
 Hon. W. Adam, 535, 567— 
 Mr. Andrew of Tillilumb, 460 
 — J. Attersoll, Esq. 247 — G. 
 Baker, Esq. 226 — Mr. Bannister 
 of Steyning, 521 — Mr. Blaikie 
 at Holkham, 337, 373, 375, 
 377, 412, 475, 497— To the 
 Board of Agriculture. See Board 
 — From Mr. Boulton, 299, 302, 
 S38 — Mr. Bucknall, M. P., 530, 
 App. S3 — Edward Burroughs, 
 Esq. See Burroughs — Sir C. M. 
 Burrell, Bt. M. P., 530, 532, 
 534, 564 — The Rev. 'I'. Clock, 
 4 16, 425 — Mr. Church of Hit- 
 
AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO. 
 
 137 
 
 drill, 458 — Mr. R. Colling, 103 , 
 109 — J. C. Curwen, Esq., 375 
 — Dr. Coventry, 417 — Mr. 
 Dawson, 464; App. 67 — Mr. 
 Dickson, App. 67 — J.F.Erskine, 
 Esq. 334 — J. Farey, Esq. 5, 524 
 — Mr. Gascoigne, 332 — T. Greg, 
 Esq. 370 — Rev. R. Hoblyn. 
 See Hoblyn — Mr. John Holdich. 
 See Holdich — Mr. R. Hope, 
 121 — W. Hume, Esq. 450 — 
 Mr. Hume of East Bams, 479 — 
 Dr. Keith, 426, 430— Mr. Ma- 
 son, 103, 485 — C. Mason, Esq. 
 104 — J. Middleton, Esq. See 
 Middleton — J . Naisinith, Esq. 
 262, 285— T Radcliff, Esq. 367, 
 463 — Mr. G. Robertson, 352, 
 372 — Salisbury, Mr., 519 — 
 From Mr. J. Shirreffj 313, 372, 
 392 — Mr. George Sinclair, 497, 
 — Sir J. T. Stanley, 87 — Mr. 
 Arthur Young, the late, 343, 
 350, 385 — William Young, Esq., 
 385. 
 
 Cornwall Report, 9, 20, 21, 54, 
 69, 85, 92, 227, 293, 294, 397, 
 412, 540, 558, 559; App. 4. 
 Coventry’s, Dr., Discourses on Agri- 
 culture, 1, 13, 15, 23, 52, 53, 
 76, 94, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 
 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 137, 
 145, 163, 164, 165, 213, 326, 
 356, 363, 364, 384, 400, 445, 
 461, 464, 471, 472, 501, 580, 
 581, 584; App. 78. 
 
 Coventry, Dr., Estimates on the 
 Produce and Rent of Arable 
 Lands, 60. 
 
 Coventry, Observation of Dr., 579. 
 Cours Coniplet (T Agriculture, par 
 Rozier , 436. 
 
 Culley on Live Stock, 100, 101. 
 Culley, Mr., 111. 
 
 Cunningham, W. Esq., Communi- 
 cation from, 158. 
 
 Curwen, Communication from J. 
 
 C. Esq. M. P., 22, 32, 375. 
 Curwen, Estimate of Mr., 498. 
 
 * Observation of Mr., 218, 
 
 250 ; App. 42. 
 
 • Report of Mr. to the 
 
 Workington Society, 1, 16, 32, 
 66, 82, 138, 143, 219,225, 229, 
 231, 245, 275, 277, 32G, 392, 
 
 398, 400, 451, 481, 488, 489, 
 491, 497, 568. 575, 586, 592 
 App. 76. 
 
 Darwin’s Phytologia, 372, 382, 
 383, 407, 540; App. 37. 
 
 Davy’s, Sir Humphry, Elements, 
 358. 
 
 Davy, Sir Humphry, Essay by, 30. 
 
 — , Sir Humphry, Lectures 
 
 by, 6, 7, 13, 14, 16, 20, 24, 
 31, 32, 34, 223,224, 225, 229, 
 230, 239, 245, 257, 268, 497; 
 App. 39. 
 
 Davis, Mr. of Longleat, 97, 555. 
 
 — . Essay on 
 
 Planting by, 27, 500, 551. 
 
 Dawson, Communication from Mr. 
 of Graden, 464; App. 67. 
 
 Day, Johil, 241. 
 
 Day, Mr., of Doncaster, 312. 
 
 Denny, Mr., 368. 
 
 Derbyshire Report, 3, 10, 11, 12, 
 13, 22, 24, 27, 31, 40, 61, 
 62, 64, 65, 66, 68, 76, 121, 
 132, 134, 135, 148, 149, 151, 
 150, 176, 178, 184, 186, 188, 
 194, 198, 206, 208, 209, 211, 
 212, 216, 228, 238, 240, 242, 
 243, 256, 263, 266, 274, 281, 
 284, 286, 291, 295, 296, 297, 
 298, 301, 305, 328, 351, 354, 
 382, 390, 393, 398, 407, 413, 
 415, 419, 439, 441, 443, 445, 
 448, 449, 453, 464, 474, 476, 
 477, 479, 480, 481, 483, 509, 
 510, 520, 523, 527, 538, 540, 
 542, 541, 545, 546, 547, 548, 
 550, 554, 556, 562, 566, 581; 
 App. 4, 6, 41, 85. 
 
 Dcsmuzieres, Paper by M., 416. 
 
 Devon Report, 85, 92, 261, 395, 
 401, 416, 424, 527, 528. 
 
 Dickson, the Rev. Adam, 376. 
 
 Dickson’s Husbandry of the An- 
 cients, 366, 374, 376, 378, 379, 
 438, 439; App. 42. 
 
 Donaldson’s Modern Agriculture, 
 89, 345; App. 71. 
 
 Dorset Report, 13, 92, 406, 412, 
 415, 417, 419, 420, 423. 
 
 Dudgeon, Mr. ofProra’s,Statement, 
 89, 151, 215, 449. 
 
 Duke of Bedford, Practice of the, 
 
 110 . 
 
138 
 
 AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO. 
 
 Dumbartonshire Report, 10, 21, 
 25, 51, 57, 61, 64. 
 
 Dumfries-shire Report, 33, 38, 
 144, 316, 424. 
 
 Dundonald Lord, on the Connec- 
 tion of Agriculture with Che- 
 mistry, App. 40. 
 
 Durham Report, 99, 104, 122, 
 332. 
 
 Dutton, Mr., 230, 242. 
 
 East-Lothian Report, 413; App. 
 40. 
 
 East Riding Report, 9, 37, 147, 
 149, 238, 426. 
 
 Edinburgh Review, 316. 
 
 Ellison, Mr., 263. 
 
 Ellis’s Chiltern and Vale Farming, 
 452. 
 
 Erskine, Communication from J. 
 F. Esq. of Mar, 464. 
 
 Erving, G. W. Esq., App. 75. 
 
 Essay on Rolling, 353. 
 
 Essay on Waste Lands, by the Bi- 
 shop of Llandaff, 593. 
 
 Essex Report, 40, 61 64 116, 
 119, 184, 204, 206, 288, 289, 
 351, 383, 387, 401, 423, 443, 
 521, 531. 
 
 Eyres, Mr., 303. 
 
 Fane, Mr., of Oxfordshire, 195, 
 
 222 . 
 
 Farey, Communication from Mr. 
 John, 5, 14, 240, 243, 441, 524. 
 
 Farmer, a Scotch, App. 62. 
 
 Farmer’s Calendar. See Young. 
 
 Fanner’s Journal, 230, 241, 242, 
 251, 368, 417, 421, 456. 
 
 Farmer’s Magazine, 103, 109, 129, 
 194, 464; App. 69, 76, 77, 78, 
 79. 
 
 Fellenberg, Mr., 121. 
 
 Fenwick, Essays by Dr., 233, 476. 
 
 Fifeshire Report, 10, 15. 
 
 Finch, Mr. John, 415. 
 
 Findlater, Earl of, 54. 
 
 Fordyce, Dr., 254. 
 
 Forfarshire Report, 8, 14, 38, 198, 
 244; App. 2, 72. 
 
 Fullarton, Col., Report ofAyrsbire, 
 310. 
 
 Galloway Report, 180, 558, 563, 
 565. 
 
 Gendre Le, Curate of Hunonville , 
 508. 
 
 Gentleman Farmer. See Karnes. 
 
 Gentleman’s Magazine, 396. 
 
 George III., His late Majesty, App. 
 76. 
 
 Gloucestershire Report, 47, 53, 
 124, 210, 266, 288, 300, 302, 
 307, 320, 388, 389, 516, 519, 
 520, 525; App. 1. 
 
 Gordon, John, Esq., Essay on 
 Whin Hedges, by, 191. 
 
 Goring, Essay by Charles, Esq., 
 478. 
 
 Graham, Dr., 12, 13. 
 
 Greenall’s Observations on Com- 
 posts, 476. 
 
 Greenhill, Mr., 452. 
 
 Griffiths, Mr. jun., 162. 
 
 Grove, Mr., 368. 
 
 Hailes, Lord, Annals by, 291. 
 
 Hampshire Report, 147, 149, 166, 
 304. 
 
 Harrington, Mr., App. 61. 
 
 Hebrides, Survey of the, 523. 
 
 Harte’s Essay on Husbandry, 192, 
 
 Hatchett, Letter from Charles, 
 Esq., to Sir Joseph Banks, 403. 
 
 Herefordshire Report, 66, 75, 76, 
 90, 188, 228, 245, 396, 526, 
 528, 530. 
 
 Hertfordshire Report, 21, 39, 117, 
 122, 171, 331, 389, 527, 531, 
 
 532, 537, 592; App. 7. 
 
 Ilertzberg, Count de, 592. 
 
 Hill, Mr. Money, 342. 
 
 Hipkys, Mr., 419 ; App. 82, 83. 
 
 Hints regarding Cattle, 102. 
 
 Hints on the Agricultural State of 
 the Netherlands, 18, 19, 25, 31, 
 72, 176, 209, 221, 225, 245, 
 
 247, 283, 414, 416, 456. 
 
 Hitt’s Treatise, 508. 
 
 Hoblyn, Prize Essay by Mr., 414, 
 415, 427. 
 
 Remarks by the Rev. 
 
 Robert, 124, 164, 168, 169, 
 
 239, 248, 254, 258, 267, 300, 
 
 467, 505, 515, 529, 553. 
 
 Holdicb, Mr., 240, 256. 
 
 remarks by Mr , 418, 
 
 420, 431, 467, 478*, 490, 498. 
 
 Hollinshead, on Salt as a Manure, 
 App. 38, 41. 
 
AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO. 
 
 139 
 
 Holt’s Lancashire, 88, 89, 181, 
 207. 
 
 Home, Dr., on Vegetation, 38. 
 
 Hope, Communication from Mr. 
 John, 396. 
 
 Hope, Communication from Mr. 
 Robert, 127. 
 
 Horace, 4. 
 
 Horse-hoeing Husbandry, 338, 411. 
 
 Howlan, Messrs., 463. 
 
 Hume, Communication from Wil- 
 liam, Esq., 450. 
 
 , Mr., of East Barns, 479; 
 
 App. 67. 
 
 Hunter, Mr., of Tynefield, 223, 
 450, 458, 560 ; App. 6, 48. 
 
 Huntingdonshire Report, 119, 173, 
 443, 452. 
 
 Husbandry of the Ancients, 376. 
 
 Husbandry of Scotland, 11,23, 39, 
 40, 42, 44, 47, 49, 51, 53, 59, 
 61, 62, 73, 74, 75, 83, 84, 85, 
 99, 101, 103, 106, 107, 109, 
 110, 114, 127, 128, 134, 137, 
 141, 146, 151, 153, 158, 184, 
 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 194, 
 202, 209, 219, 228, 229, 233, 
 334, 358, 376, 378, 399, 404, 
 458, 473, 479, 491; App. 5 „6, 
 8, 45, 72, 79. 
 
 Instructions sur les moyens de tirer 
 le meilleur parti possible des 
 grains cereal es, 404. 
 
 Inverness-shire Report, 14, 28, 
 482, 549. 
 
 Isaiah, 443. 
 
 Jameson, Professor, 147. 
 
 Johnson, Some Thoughts on Agri- 
 culture, both Ancient and Mo- 
 dern, by Dr. Samuel, 568. 
 
 Johnstone on Embankments, 318, 
 322. 
 
 Johnstone, Mr., 196; App. 72. 
 
 Karnes’ Gentleman Farmer, 28, 
 137, 170, 186, 188, 191, 246, 
 340, 346, 348, 353, 357, 358, 
 394, 460 ; App. 8. 
 
 Karnes, Lord, 221. 
 
 Keith, Dr. Skene, 65, 135, 172, 
 182, 282, 429, 430, 492, 493. 
 
 Kent Report, 20, 21, 53, 61, 65, 
 88, 89, 127, 256, 257, 258, 259, 
 261, 262, 263, 264, 267, 274, 
 
 285, 340, 372, 401, 536, 537 ; 
 App. 5. 
 
 Kent’s Report of Norfolk, 115, 
 132, 141, 145, 146, 268, 334, 
 535, 560 ; App. 4, 7. 
 
 Ker, Mr., of Peebles, 5. 
 
 Kincardineshire Report, 20, 28, 
 38, 172. 
 
 Kirwan, Elements of Mineralogy, 
 by, 28, 30. 
 
 on Manures, 28, 267. 
 
 Knight, T. A. Esq., 101, 102, 105, 
 106, 109, 110, 113, 114, 285, 
 508 
 
 Treatise on the Culture of 
 
 the Apple and Pear, by T. A. 
 Esq , 526. 
 
 Knight, Mr., App. 89. 
 
 Lambert’s Description of the genus 
 Pinus, 554. 
 
 Travels through Lower 
 
 Canada, 135. 
 
 Lancashire Report, 9, 509. 
 
 Leatham’s Survey, 78, 80, 194, 
 203, 208. 
 
 Leeds, Robert, Esq., 25, 72, 
 84. 
 
 Leicestershire Report, 334. 
 
 Limbourg, le jeune, Essay by M. 
 de, 548. 
 
 Lincolnshire Report, 61, 93, 147, 
 149, 168, 226, 246, 257, 262, 
 263, 312, 313, 314, 471, 477, 
 535, 539, 555; App. 73. 
 
 London Philosophical Transac- 
 tions, 371. 
 
 Lyon, Mr. P., 508. 
 
 Lysous’ Environs of London, 504. 
 
 Maclean, Mr., of Mark, 172. 
 
 Maddison’s Address, 40,569; App. 
 75, 81. 
 
 Maison Rustique, 291. 
 
 Malthus’s Enquiry into the Na- 
 ture and Causes of Rent, 63, 
 569. 
 
 Manning’s History of Surrey, 149. 
 
 Marshall’s Eastern Department, 
 313, 314, 316, 331, 539. 
 
 Gloucestershire, 273, 
 
 275, 279, 326, 344, 345, 361, 
 388, 500, 526, 527, 528, 529, 
 530, 531; App. 89. 
 
 Kent, 23. 
 
140 
 
 AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO. 
 
 Marshall’s Norfolk, 16, 334, 337, 
 359, 36S, 413, 557. 
 
 Midland Counties, 205, 
 
 309. 
 
 • Review of the Northern 
 
 Department, 189, 238, 538, 
 549. 
 
 • Review of the Southern 
 
 Counties, 273, 357, 386, 397. 
 
 ■ Review of the Western 
 
 Department, 188. 
 
 - Rural Economy of the 
 
 West of England, 1. 
 
 • Southern Districts, 444, 
 
 517, 527, 530, 531, 533. 
 
 — — View of the Agriculture 
 
 of the Central Highlands of 
 Scotland, 38. 
 
 West of England, 258, 
 
 362, 524, 525, 530. 
 
 Yorkshire, 166, 290, 
 
 359, 362. 
 
 Marshall on Landed Property, 54, 
 71, 77, 78, 80, 87, 88,' 173, 
 206, 216, 297; App. 4. 
 
 on Planting and Rural 
 
 Ornament, 535, 548, 565. 
 
 Mason, Mr., Letter from, to Sir 
 John Sinclair, 103. 
 
 Mason, C., Esq. of Clifton, Ob- 
 servations by, 104, 110, 485. 
 
 Massachusetts Society for promot- 
 ing Agriculture, Communica- 
 tion to the, App. 89. 
 
 Maxwell, Mr., ofFletton, 452. 
 
 Meadowbank, Lord, 252. 
 
 Memoirs of the Caledonian Hor- 
 ticultural Society, 559. 
 
 Memoir e sur les besoins, et les res- 
 sources de V Agriculture Fran- 
 $aise, 40. 
 
 Middleton, Communication from 
 John, Esq., 4, 26, 27, 58, 60, 
 68, 90, 161, 164, 216, 225, 
 227, 236, 257, 265, 331, 333, 
 372, 418, 428, 434, 435, 449, 
 477, 506, 507, 522, 563; App. 3. 
 
 Middleton, remark by Mr. 22, 
 28, 144, 148, 166, 167, 168, 
 193, 219, 338, 350, 448, 454, 
 473, 485, 524, 539, 540 ; App. 
 2, 32, 33, 34, 50. 
 
 Middleton, Mr., on the Surplus of 
 Farms, and Rotations of Crops, 
 App. 50. 
 
 Middlesex Report, 23, 28, 39, 89, 
 90, 100, 112, 117, 118, 120, 
 121, 132, 144, 149, 181, 182, 
 183, 184, 186, 195, 198, 205, 
 207, 215, 217, 224, 256, 257, 
 260, 266, 267, 308, 337, 382, 
 388, 389, 395, 401, 407, 412, 
 428, 480, 435, 438, 439, 452, 
 455, 456, 460, 469, 479, 480, 
 481, 504, 512, 530, 551; 
 
 App. 4, 7, 8, 9. 
 
 Mid-Lothian Report, 36, 38, 181. 
 
 Mirbell’s General Views of Vege- 
 table Nature, 6, 277. 
 
 Lecture, 556. 
 
 Miscellaneous Essays, by Sir John 
 Sinclair, 592. 
 
 Money Hill, Mr., 342. 
 
 Monmouthshire Report, 82, 144. 
 
 Monteath, Mr., of Closeburn, 
 172, 179. 
 
 Monthly Review, 382. 
 
 Montesquieu, 570. 
 
 Moray Report, 551. 
 
 Morley, Essay on Rolling, by Mi. 
 Christopher, 353. 
 
 Moseley’s, Mr., Letter to Sir John 
 Sinclair, 351. 
 
 M'Phail’s Gardener’s Remembran- 
 cer, 508. 
 
 Naismith, John, Esq., Communi- 
 cation from, 285. 
 
 Neill, Mr., 524. 
 
 Neil on Gardens, 505, 511. 
 
 Nemo, 415. 
 
 Nicol, Mr., 519. 
 
 Norfolk Report, 149. 
 
 Northamptonshire Report, 27, 34, 
 36, 412, 415, 420. 
 
 North Riding Report, 37, 7 1, 
 75, 150, 176, 178, 238, 256, 
 257, 292, 412, 481, 519, 553 ; 
 App. 41. 
 
 Northumberland Report, 111, 
 210, 228, 257, 265, 267, 452, 
 486, 540. 
 
 North Wales Report, 148, 234, 
 358, 415. 
 
 Notes on the soil of Cornwall, 19, 
 35. 
 
 Nottingham Report, 293. 
 
 Obadiah, 443. 
 
 Oliver, Mr., of Lochend, App. 68. 
 
AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO. 
 
 141 
 
 Ovid/ 4. 
 
 Oxfordshire Report, 166, 167, 
 168, 198, 222, 420, 430, 527, 
 548; App. 4, 6. 
 
 Papers of the Bath and West of 
 England Society, 365, 555. 
 
 Paris, A., Notes on the soil of 
 Cornwall, 19, 35. 
 
 Paris, Dr., App. 42. 
 
 Evidence of, 423. 
 
 Parker, Mr., of Munden, 331. 
 
 Farmentier, 417. 
 
 Parry, Dr., Essay by, on Merino 
 Sheep, 94, 109. 
 
 Paul, Letter from Sir George O., 
 91, 188. 
 
 Pearson, Dr., Essay by, 26. 
 
 Peebles-shire Report, 166, 182, 
 235, 550. 
 
 Perthshire Report, 166, 182. 
 
 Philosophical Magazine, 589. 
 
 Philosophical Transactions, 358, 
 371. 
 
 Phytologia, 372, 382, 383, 407, 
 540 ; App. S7. 
 
 Pickering, T. Esq. App. 75, 89. 
 
 Pitt, Mr. W., on the Extirpation 
 of Weeds, 279, 283, 286, 290, 
 291, 294. 
 
 Pliny, 76, 408. 
 
 Polkemmet, Lord, 565. 
 
 Polybius, 4. 
 
 Practical Economy, 102. 
 
 Prefect, the, of the Tarn and 
 Garonne, in France, 414. 
 
 Prevost, opinion of Mr. Bene- 
 dict, 419; App. 82. 
 
 Purdy, Mr., 303. 
 
 Purt, Letter of Mr., 421. 
 
 Quarterly Journal of Science and 
 the Arts, 277. 
 
 Quayle, Thomas, Esq., 8. 
 
 Quincy, the Hon. Josiah, 486. 
 
 Radcliff, Communication from the 
 Rev. Thomas, 23, 33, 37, 81, 
 88, 339,, 349, 357, 369, 463; 
 App. 85 
 
 RadclifFs Report of the Agricul- 
 ture of Flanders, 19, 366, 371, 
 490. 
 
 Renfrewshire Report, 249. 
 
 Rennie, Mr., of Phantassie, 280, 
 282, 313, 449, 473; App. 54. 
 
 Rennie, Dr., 255. 
 
 Essays by, 24. 
 
 Treatise on Paring and 
 
 Burning by, 261, 310. 
 
 Report of the Committee for Ex- 
 periments on Plants, 566. 
 
 Report from the Commissioners 
 of Highland Roads and Bridges, 
 588. 
 
 Report of the Norman Islands, 
 496, 530. 
 
 Report of the County of Wicklow, 
 
 App. 85. 
 
 Report (second) on the state of 
 Diseases in Ireland, 162, 175, 
 240, 557, 558. 
 
 Rhodes, the Rev. J. A., App. 67. 
 
 Richardson, Dr. W., 583. 
 
 Rigb/s, Dr., Report, 41, 42, 46 
 98, 123, 377, 392, 561, 580., 
 
 Rivington’s Annual Register, 508 
 
 Roberts, Mr., 217. 
 
 Robertson's History of the Atmos-, 
 phere, 4. 
 
 Robertson, Communication from 
 Mr. George, 352. 
 
 Roscoe, Mr., 178. 
 
 Ross-shire Report, 5, 8, 34, 550 
 
 Roxburghshire Report, 401 , 402 
 
 De Re Rtistica f 405. 
 
 Rudge’s Gloucestershire, 21, 208, 
 345. 
 
 Rutland Report, 306. 
 
 Salisbury, Mr., Communication 
 from, 519. 
 
 Salmon, Mr., of Woburn, 136 ; 
 App. 41. 
 
 Scobell, Col. Evidence of, App. 41. 
 
 Scotland, General Report of, 6, 
 8, 10, 13, 20, 22, 24, 34, 35, 
 37, 40, 42, 49, 50, 51, 53, 
 54, 56, 57, 73, 83, 86, 89, 
 90, 91, 92, 94, 99, 107, 1 10, 
 113, 114, 129, 136, 137, 139, 
 144, 168, 170, 172, 175, 179, 
 180, 182, 187, 190, 195, 202, 
 203, 204, 207, 208, 210, 211, 
 220, 221, 223, 233, 242, 243, 
 244, 249, 253, 254, 263, 264, 
 280, 282, 286, 295, 303, 306, 
 308, 310, 322, 327, 351, 352, 
 
142 
 
 AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO. 
 
 353, 354, 357, 361, 362, 363, 
 372, 391, 394, 395, 402, 419, 
 424, 455, 461, 481, 505, 506, 
 507, 510, 514, 516, 518, 519, 
 520, 521, 522, 524, 527, 528, 
 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 535, 
 537, 544, 559, 561, 562, 567, 
 581; App. 7, 9, 71, 72, 76, 77, 
 79. 
 
 Scottish Farmer’s Magazine, 317. 
 
 Scott, Letter from Mr. William, 
 417. 
 
 Scultz, Baron, Observations on 
 Sheep, App. 44. 
 
 Sebright, Letter from Sir John, 
 to Sir Joseph Banks, 97. 
 
 Essay by Sir John, 104, 
 
 105, 166. 
 
 On Improving the Breeds 
 
 of Domestic Animals, 107. 
 
 Select Transactions of the Society 
 of Improvers in Scotland, 1 19, 
 241. 
 
 Seymour, Lord Robert, 131. 
 
 Shirreff, Mr. John, 313, 372, 392. 
 
 Shropshire Report, 63, 148, 195, 
 552; App. 6. 
 
 Sickler, Mr. Henry, 423. 
 
 Simpson, Mr., Experiments by, 
 256. 
 
 Simpson, Mr., upon the Pickering 
 Moors, 175, 178. 
 
 Sinclair, Communication from 
 Mr., 497. 
 
 Memoir, by Mr. George, 
 
 497. 
 
 Singer, Dr., 306. 
 
 Treatise on Irrigation, by, 
 
 295. 
 
 Skene’s Regium Majestatem, 291. 
 
 Small, Mr. Alexander,*App. 66. 
 
 Smith, Mr., App. 61. 
 
 Smith’s Map and Memoir of the 
 Strata of England, 14, 21, 33, 
 524. 
 
 Smith, Observations on Water 
 Meadows, by William, 297, 
 299, 300, 301, 303, 305, 307, 
 308. 
 
 Smith’s Travels on the Continent, 
 15. 
 
 Somersetshire Report, 43, 66, 228, 
 297, 401, 441, 526, 527, 538, 
 539, 54 i, 562, 565, 566. 
 
 Somerville, Lord, 118; App. 76, 
 77, 78. 
 
 Somerville, Paper on Enclosures, 
 by the late Robert, Esq., 186. 
 
 South Wales Report, 53, 75, 173, 
 291, 419, 444, 483,561; App. 6. 
 
 Staffordshire Report, 23, 24, 38, 
 51, 82, 89, 91, 192, 274, 536, 
 537. 
 
 Stanley, Reports by Sir John, 
 Bart. 87. 
 
 Stark, Dr., Practical Economy 
 by, 102. 
 
 Statistical Account of Scotland, 6, 
 9, 11, 20, 42, 168, 170, 176, 
 236, 239, 291, 296, 297, 309, 
 320, 348, 356, 357, 408, 481. 
 
 Stirlingshire Report, 10, 11, 13, 
 30, 51, 166, 189,320; App. 6. 
 
 Storch’s Cours d’ Economic Poli- 
 tique, 381. 
 
 Stone, Mr., of Basildon, 391. 
 
 Strickland’s Observations on the 
 United States of America, 49. 
 
 Stringer’s, Dr., Treatise, 301. 
 
 Suffolk Report, 17, 40, 89, 122, 
 146, 255, 263, 265, 275, 351, 
 453, 454, 483. 
 
 Surrey Report, 39, 75, 82, 83, 
 117, 118, 122, 132, 139, 149, 
 395, 412, 534. 
 
 Survey of the Norman Isles, 8, 
 458. 
 
 Sussex Report, 9, 55, 61, 411, 
 536, 540, 543, 546, 547, 548 ; 
 App. 28. 
 
 Syme, Mr. G., of Redkirk, 458. 
 
 Symonds’s Account of the Agri- 
 culture of Italy, 252. 
 
 Communication on the 
 
 Husbandry of Italy, 408. 
 
 Symonds, Professor, 535. 
 
 Tenant, John, Esq., 449. 
 
 Tuurbilly, Marquis of, 266. 
 
 Truitt des Maladies des Grains , 
 416. 
 
 Truitt sur le Culture des Grains , 
 427 ; App. 39. 
 
 Transactions of the American 
 Philosophical Society, 4. 
 
 of the IrishAcademy, 
 
 28, 267. 
 
 of the Highland So- 
 ciety, 119, 121, 191. 
 
AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO. 
 
 143 
 
 Transactions of the Society of Arts, 
 130, 170, 306. 
 
 Tuke, Mr., Letter from, 426. 
 Tull’s Horse-hoeinghusbandry, 338, 
 
 411. 
 
 Turner’s Report of Gloucester- 
 shire, 541. 
 
 Vancouver’s North-East Essex, 
 544. 
 
 Vanderstraeten’s Improved Hus- 
 bandry, 16, 19, 357, 446, 456, 
 457, 511, 524. 
 
 Improved Agri- 
 culture, 541. 
 
 Vesci, Lord De, 553. 
 
 Virgil’s Georgies, 443. 
 
 Useful Projects, 508. 
 
 Wakefield’s Account of Ireland, 4. 
 Walker, Dr., Economical History 
 of the Hebrides, by, 541, 559, 
 560. 
 
 Walker, Mr., of Mellendean, 219; 
 
 App. 74, 75, 76. 
 
 Walker, Mr. of Wooden, App. 
 76. 
 
 Wallis, Paper by the Rev. Mr., 
 176. 
 
 Warren, Mr., of Knightsbridge, 
 App. 60. 
 
 Warwickshire Report, 7, 75, 122, 
 334. 
 
 Watson, Dr., Bishop of Llandaff, 
 180, 549. 
 
 Webb, Mr. John, 479. 
 
 Westcar, Mr., 288. 
 
 West-Lothian Report, 565. 
 Westmoreland Report, 180, 228, 
 253, 545, 549. 
 
 West-Riding Report, 83, 84, 89, 
 268, 312^ 314, 471, 536, 540. 
 Weston on Practical Agriculture, 
 192. 
 
 White’s Canada, 508. 
 
 Wigful, Mr. Joshua, 251. 
 
 Wigful, sen. Mr., of. Sheffield, App. 
 72, 73. 
 
 Wilkes, Mr., 217. 
 
 Wilkes’s Essay, 471. 
 
 Wilkie, Mr., of Wimpole, App. 68. 
 
 Wilkinson, Mr., 303. 
 
 Williams, Mr., on the Climate of 
 Great Britain, 9, 35. 
 
 Willich’s Lectures, 102. 
 
 Willis, Rev. Mr., 176. 
 
 W iltshire Report, 66, 7 1, 93, 96, 97, 
 
 118, 150, 298, 305, 306, 307, 
 339, 515, 539, 542, 543, 545, 
 550, 551, 557, 561, 566. 
 
 Winchilsea, Letter from the Earl 
 of, 87. 
 
 Wing, John, Esq., Essay on the 
 Management of Fen Land, by, 
 25. 
 
 Withering, 291. 
 
 Woodward’s Essays, 10. 
 
 Worcestershire Report, 36, 61, 65, 
 148, 203, 288. 
 
 Worlidge’s Sy sterna Agricultura, 
 420. 
 
 Wray, Sir Cecil, 535. 
 
 Wright, Observation by Mr. John, 
 of Ranby, 293, 308, 499. 
 
 Young’s Annals of Agriculture. 
 See Annals of Agriculture. 
 
 Young, Arthur, Esq., the late, Com- 
 munication from, 350, 378,385. 
 
 Young’s Calendar, 16, 17, 29, 32, 
 67, 72, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 
 110, 202, 204, 208, 252, 258, 
 262, 267, 308, 329, 348, 392, 
 445, 475, 476, 479, 483, 488, 
 491, 495, 496, 544, 548. 
 
 Essays on Manures, 216, 
 
 217, 224, 231, 240, 241, 242, 
 245, 246, 257, 2G0, 263, 466, 
 467, 470, 473. 
 
 Essex, 274, 380, 382, 
 
 436, 560 ; App. 7. 
 
 Lecture, 18, 103, 105, 
 
 119, 209. 
 
 Norfolk, 19, 82, 133, 
 
 173, 274, 352, 378, 442. 
 
 Report of Lincolnshire, 
 
 App. 73. 
 
 Travels in France, 10, 
 
 537. 
 
 Yule, John, M. D., Report of the 
 Committee for Naturalizing 
 Useful Plants, &c., drawn up 
 by, 566. 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Plan of Farms and Farm-Buildings . 
 
 This plate is intended to give an idea, of the most advantageous 
 arrangement of a Farm, and its buildings, hitherto suggested, and the 
 most eligible rotations of crops, whether in a strong or in a turnip 
 soil. 
 
 No. 1. Is the plan of a strong loamy, or clay-land farm, of 1300 acres, 
 divided into six fields, of 50 acres each; under the most productive 
 rotation for such soils, namely; 1. Fallow, or fallow crops ; 2. Wheat 
 or Barley; 3. Clover; 4. Oats; 5. Beans; 6. Wheat. 
 
 No. 2. Is the plan of a turnip-land farm, of 400 acres, divided into 
 eight fields of 40 acres each, and four fields of 20 acres, under a rota- 
 tion of four crops, 1. Turnips, or other green crops; 2. Wheat or 
 Barley; 3. Clover; and, 4. Oats: but it is in general advisable, to have 
 one or two years’ pasture, after the clover, to insure an abundant crop 
 of oats; hence this is likewise a rotation of six crops. 
 
 The house and offices are supposed to be situated in the centre of 
 the farm, the advantages of which are very great. The farm-house to 
 be placed either in the front of, or behind the garden, according to 
 circumstances. The corners to be all rounded, to prevent accidents to 
 carts. The threshing-barn and mill, with its horse course, to be adjoin- 
 ing to the corn-yard. The yard to be so intersected by roads, that 
 every stack may be accessible at any time, to be easily conveyed to the 
 barn. The ponds and well, to be conveniently situated. The houses 
 and gardens for the farm-servants, to be at a moderate distance from the 
 house. The corners of the fields only to be planted, and the hedges to 
 be kept low, for the admission of air, and to prevent vermin. An in- 
 dustrious farmer, could well afford to pay from one-fourth to one-third 
 more rent, for a farming establishment constructed on these principles, 
 compared to the confused and inconvenient manner in which farms are 
 usually laid out. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 Descriptions of the Improved Swing-Plough ; the Grubber ; 
 and Mill for making Pot-Barlej/. 
 
 No. 1. This represents the left hand, or land-side of the improved 
 swing-plough, when completed. A B, the beam ; B C, the left-hand 
 stilt, or larger handle; D E, the coulter; D F G, the sock or share ; 
 
Ti&siot and WMm wamumm * 
 
 | Thin of a ^TIROI^GX J Oi^'I,oKA€l^^-I^AmiD)FA WM.of30oAcr&? 
 
 eATZ 
 
 'Plan ^/’ATrSOT JLA 3 TJD Fairtml of 480 Acres. 
 
 The. above are the meet profitable Sin-terns cr rotation, either in Strviif Land.erin Tundp Land 
 
 XTio Sties a/ui Tend 
 2 Poultry ] louse ajidYard 
 
 TheJTouse maty Ire situated, iry/ront of. 
 or behind the Garden, aaxrrdzno to eirentnstances. 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 URSANA 
 
Nctlc Cc " 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 URBAiNA 
 
145 
 
 Explanations oj the Plates. 
 
 IKGH, are cast-iron plates, naiied on the land-side of the plough, to 
 prevent the wood from wearing; K.H the back-end of the mould-board ; 
 S, the sheath ; M N, the muzzle or bridle, placed upon a bolt that passes 
 through a hole in its arms, and fore-end of the beam at A, on which 
 bolt it has liberty to turn, to give the plough a greater or lesser hold 
 of the ground. NO, a cross, fixed on the back part of the bridle, 
 having different holes, to receive a bolt that pasess through any of them, 
 and a hole in the beam ; by this bolt the bridle is kept steady, when 
 placed in the proper position for causing the plough to penetrate to the 
 intended depth in the ground. P R, the swing or cross trees, and 
 chain of draught, attached at M to the beam. 
 
 No. 2. This is a plan, or bird’s-eye view of the same plough. A B, 
 represent the beam; B C, the larger handle ; and D, the lesser handle 
 fastened to the larger one by the rods L M, which hold them at a pro- 
 per distance from one another. G D, the lower edge, and I H, the 
 upper edge of the mould-board; F G, the sock and feather; N P, the 
 bridle, placed upon a bolt which passes through a hole in its arms, and 
 the fore-part of the beam at O, by which it is attached to the beam; 
 RS, the larger cross, or swing-tree, fixed by a chain to the fore-part 
 of the bridle N, having several holes, into any one of which the draught 
 may be fixed, according as the furrow-slice is required broad or narrow. 
 T U V, the lesser swing-trees, attached at R S, by iron chains, to the 
 larger one, and to them, the cattle are yoked when ploughing. 
 
 No. 3. Shews the angle at which the furrow-slice is placed, when 
 this sort of plough is made use of. 
 
 No. 4. Plan, or bird’s-eye view, of a grubber, with eleven shares, 
 A B C D, represent a strong wooden frame, into which the arms of 
 the shares, or claws are inserted, and secured on its upper side by screw 
 nuts, so tliat they may easily be taken out when requiring repair, and 
 to increase a or diminish their number at any time, if found necessaty 
 E G, represents five, and H six, of the shares placed so as to move 
 at equal distances from each other ; by which they cut up the wee ’s in 
 their progress, and loosen the soil a few inches deep. 1 K, and L M, 
 the shafts, or timbers, by which the machine is drawn. N O, and P R, 
 are two wheels, that revolve upon the iron arms 2 and 3, which arms 
 are fixed by screw-bolts on the wooden axle, at the ends K and M. 
 The regulating beam U V, is fastened upon this frame, at Q and V, 
 with screw-bolts, and attached to the axle at U, by an iron-bridle. 
 K W, and M Y, are two chains, fastened to the shafts at K and M, 
 their other ends passing through holes in the side rail of the frame at 
 VV and Y, in which they are secured by screw-nuts. These chains 
 yield, and allow the shares to rise up or down, according to the inequa- 
 lity of the land. S and T, are two cylinders, the pivots of which turn 
 in the lower part of iron arms, which can easily be shifted either up or 
 down, in order to regulate the depth that the shares are intended to 
 penetrate the soil. 
 
 No. 5. Profile of the same instrument. A B, represent a wooden 
 frame, into which the iron arms C D, are inserted, and secured above 
 by screw-nuts ; upon the lower end of these arms are welded the shares 
 E and F, which penetrate the land to a small depth, and cut up the 
 weeds as they pass along. G L, represent the shafts or limbers, fast- 
 ened on the axle by iron bolts, fl, is a piece of wood fixed upon the 
 wooden axle; and into this piece of wood, are fastened iron bolts, hav- 
 ing eyes to take in the iron rod P K ; which rod passes through a hole 
 in the beam O B, at H. By this means, the beam has freedom to 
 
146 Explanations of the Plates . 
 
 move up or down on the rod, and can be fixed to any part of it, in 
 order to make the foremost shaies go either deeper or shallower in the 
 ground. M S, represent one of the wheels, which revolve on the axle, 
 that carries the hindermost end of the shafts. N, represents one of the 
 cylinders, the pivots of which turn in the iron arms T. These cylin- 
 ders hold the back end of the wooden frame A B, at an equal distance 
 from the surface of the land, and of course regulate the depth to which 
 the shares are to penetrate the soil. B P, one of the handles by which 
 the machine is directed, when at work. 
 
 No. 6. Section of an improved machine for making pot or pearl 
 barley. A BCD, represent a strong wooden frame, which carries the 
 machinery; EF, an axle, upon which is fixed the toothed wheel, No. 1. 
 which may be turned by any machine having sufficient power ; or a 
 water-wheel may be placed on the same axle, for that purpose. No. 2. 
 represents another wheel, fastened upon the axle E F, to drive the 
 wheel No. 3, which is placed on the iron spindle O P; and upon this 
 axle the mill-stone is also fixed. (See I K, in fig. 3.) G H, represent 
 the curb or case, that encloses the mill-stone and barley, when mak- 
 ing. No. 4. a wheel fixed upon the case G II, turned by a wheel 
 and a pinion. R S, are bearers, in which the case, G H, revolves 
 when the machine is at work. K, a hopper, to contain the rough 
 barley. M, a spout, or pipe, which conveys the barley into the case 
 at P : in the circumference of the case G H, is an opening, having a 
 valve, or shutter, which allows the barley to issue out into the spout 
 H N, that conveys it down to the trough, or mill floor. 
 
 No. 7. Profile of the same machine. O P R S, represent a per- 
 pendicular frame, in which the wheel and mill-stone revolve. No. 1. 
 represents a toothed wheel, fixed upon the axle R, and may be at- 
 tached, or turned, by any machine driven by water, by wind, or by 
 cattle. No. 2. a wheel, also fastened upon the axle R, having teeth 
 in the circumference to turn the wheel No. 3. which is fixed on the 
 iron spindle, or axle, that carries the mill-stone; and case T U, which 
 encloses the stone, and contains the barley. The circumference, and 
 both sides of the case T U, are covered with sheet, or plate iron, in 
 which are small holes, that allow the dust, or small refuse to pass 
 through ; at the same time retaining the barley, till sufficiently clear of 
 the husk. The frame of this case, is made to separate in the middle 
 at T U, and is fixed together by screw-bolts, so that it can easily be 
 placed on the mill-stone, or taken off at any time if necessary. 
 
 The machine above described, perforins the operation in a safe and 
 proper manner, without either breaking or cutting the grain. The ad- 
 vantages of this process are very great. Pot-barley is a most whole- 
 some food, and is well entitled to the name of “ European rice .” It 
 may be consumed in the same manner as rice, either boiled yvith milk, 
 or ground into meal, and made into puddings. It makes excellent 
 cakes, and mixed with wheat, in a proportion of one-third, or one- 
 fourth, it makes bread of a quality scarcely to be distinguished from 
 bread made entirely of wheat. It is supposed, that the flour of barley 
 is the wholsomest of any, it makes the purest blood, and is particu- 
 larly calculated for bilious people. The refuse is an excellent food for 
 horses. 
 
. -n&m. 
 
 
 
 UNIVEHSIIY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 URSANA 
 
| ff'O/115 V 
 ’ > » 
 
 UNJVERSJ i y OF ILLINOIS 
 
L 
 
 
Explanations of the Plates. 
 
 147 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 Description of the Corn-Stacks , with Cast-iron Pillars. 
 
 In the stack-yard at Shaw-park, in Clackmannanshire, there are 28 
 stacks placed on cast-metal pillars, three feet high. Each of these 
 stacks contain 1584 sheaves, which, in all, would produce 728 Scotch 
 bolls, or 539 English quarters of barley or oats; but that number of 
 stacks, would contain a greater quantity of grain, if necessary. 
 
 The weight of each pillar should not exceed one half cwt., which at 
 16$. 4 d. per cwt., is 8s. 2 d. for each pillar; but they can be made 
 lighter, and may easily be afforded at 7s. per pillar: hence. 
 
 Seven pillars, at 7s. each, £2 9 0 
 
 Wood and workmanship, about 2 11 0 
 
 Total expence, £ 5 0 0 
 
 In the first year, by an accurate experiment, comparing the same 
 quantity of wheat, built on the ground, or on cast-iron pillars, the sav- 
 ing was 2/. 12s. 6d. per stack, and the whole expence would be repaid 
 the second year. 
 
 If the pillars were higher, say 3| or 4 feet high, the grain might be 
 harvested sooner; but at the present height, wheat has been stacked in 
 five days, beans in eight, and barley and oats in ten days, and some- 
 times earlier. No vermin can find their way into these stacks to con* 
 surae the grain, and the straw is better preserved. The boss , or trian- 
 gle, keeps up a circulation of air, and prevents heating, or other da- 
 mage. — See General Report of Scotland, vol. iv. Appendix, p.379. 
 
 In regard to the boss or triangle, a few spars of fir, or any other 
 common wood, ought to be nailed across it, to prevent the sheaves 
 from falling in; but if these cannot be got, a straw ropie will answer 
 the purpose. 
 
 PLATE IV, 
 
 Engraving of the Cradle Churn. 
 
 No. 1. Is a frame of wood, grooved inside of the edge. 
 
 No. 2. Is a perspective of the churn. 
 
 No. 3. Is a section of it. 
 
 No. 4. The lid. v 
 
 No. 5. A grate in the centre, or two grates, ten inches apart, to 
 slide in a groove. 
 
 No. 6. A post for the handle. 
 
 The churn should be not more than half full, and put on a wooden 
 frame, rocked very regularly, and not faster than the pendulum of a 
 clock. 
 
 L2 
 
14S 
 
 Explanations of the Plates. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Description of a Wheel for raising Water. 
 
 In an account given of a mode of improving peat-bogs, by floating 
 of the surface (See p. 174), it is stated, that much ingenuity was dis- 
 played, in constructing the machinery for that purpose. The whole 
 depends upon a water wheel, the joint invention of Mr. George Meikle, 
 and of his father, the celebrated inventor of the threshing-mill. The 
 machine they constructed is so exceedingly simple, and acts in a man- 
 ner so easy, natural, and uniform, that a common observer would be 
 apt to under-value it; but persons skilled in mechanics, view machinery 
 with a very different eye, for to them, simplicity is the first recommen- 
 dation a machine can possess. 
 
 The better to explain the nature of this machine, two sketches are 
 annexed, to the first of which, the following letters refer. 
 
 The explanation of the second will be found upon the sketch itself. 
 
 fl, Sluice through which is admitted the water that moves the wheel. 
 
 b, b, Two sluices through which is admitted the water raised by the 
 wheel. 
 
 c, c, A part of one of two wooden troughs, and an aperture in the 
 wall, through which the above water is conveyed into the buckets. (The 
 other trough is hid by two stone-walls that support the wheel). 
 
 d, d, d, Buckets, of which 80 are arranged on each side of the arms 
 of the wheel = 160. 
 
 e, e, e, A cistern, into which the water, raised by the buckets, is dis- 
 charged. 
 
 fff Wooden barrel-pipes, through which the water descends from 
 the cistern under ground, to avoid the high road from Stirling, and the 
 private approach to the house. 
 
 Sketch second, contains a plan of the cistern, and exhibits the man- 
 ner in which the water is filled into the buckets. 
 
 The diameter of the wheel, to the extremities of the floating-boards, 
 is 28 feet ; t he length of the float-boards, 10 feet. The wheel makes 
 nearly four revolutions per minute; in which time, it discharges into 
 the cistern, 40 hogsheads of water. But this is not all the wheel is 
 capable of performing, for by several accurate trials, by Messrs. Whit- 
 worth and Meikle, in the result of which, though made separately, 
 they perfectly agreed, it was found that the wheel was able to lift no 
 less a quantity than 60 hogsheads per minute; but that the diameter of 
 the pipes, through which the water descends from the cistern, would 
 not admit a greater quantity than what they already receive. 
 
 To a person at all conversant in hydraulics, the resemblance of this 
 to the Persian wheel must be obvious; and indeed it is probable, that 
 from the Persian wheel, the first idea of this machine was derived. 
 But admitting this, still the superiority of the present wheel is, in 
 most respects, so conspicuous, as to entitle it to little less praise 
 than the first invention. For, Is/, in the Persian wheel, the buckets 
 being all moveable, must be constantly going out of order; in this 
 wheel they are all immoveable, consequently never can be out of order. 
 Sdly, Instead of lifting the water from the bottom of the fall, as in the 
 Persian wheel, this wheel lifts it from the top of the fall, being from 
 four to five feet higher; by which means some additional power is 
 
M O 8 S 'WATER-WHEEL o 
 
 Used atJUleiTJ'Jb’ummcTul. Plate 6. 
 
 JWaaner w whidi die Water isAZZed 
 from* the Trtnujhs mZvtheJhie&vts. 
 
UBMHY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 U:i- • 
 
149 
 
 Explanations of the Plates. 
 
 gained. 3t%, By means of the three sluices, (a and 6, fig. 1), in 
 whatever situation the river may be, the quantity of the water to be 
 raised, is so nicely adjusted to that of the moving power, as constantly 
 to preserve the wheel in a steady and equable motion. In short, as a 
 regulator to a watch, so are these sluices to this wheel, whose move- 
 ments would otherwise be so various, as sometimes to carry the water 
 clean over the cistern, sometimes to drop it entirely behind, but sel- 
 dom so, as fully to discharge the whole contents of the buckets into 
 the cistern. 
 
 It is, however, but candid to remark, that this machine labours under 
 a small defect, which did not escape the observation of Mr. Whitworth; 
 namely, that by raising the water about 3| feet higher than the cistern, 
 where it is ultimately delivered, a small degree of power is lost. To 
 this indeed, he proposed a remedy ; but candidly confessed, that, as 
 it would render the machine somewhat more complex, and would also 
 increase the friction, he thought it more advisable to keep it in its 
 present state. At the same time, he justly observed, that as the stream 
 by which the wheel is moved, is at all times copious and powerful, the 
 small loss of power, occasioned by the above circumstances, was of 
 little or no avail. 
 
 This stream is detached from the river Teith, at the place where it 
 approaches nearest to the moss. The surface of the latter, is about 
 15 feet higher than that of the former; the cistern is therefore placed 
 17 feet above the surface of the stream, so as to leave a declivity suffi- 
 cient to deliver the water upon the surface of the moss, consequently by 
 this machinery, the water is raised 17 feet. 
 
 The pipes through which the water descends from the cistern, are 
 composed of wooden barrels, hooped with iron, four feet long, and 
 within, 18 inches in diameter. 
 
 In these pipes, having been conveyed underground for 354 yards 
 from the cistern, the water at once emerges into an open aqueduct. 
 This aqueduct, which was formed according to a plan by Mr. Whit- 
 worth, is constructed wholly of earth or clay; and in order to keep the 
 water on a level with the surface of the moss, it is, for nearly two- 
 thirds of its course, elevated from eight to ten feet above the level of 
 the adjacent grounds; the base, being 40 feet broad, the summit 18 
 feet, and the water-course 10 feet broad. It commences at the ter- 
 mination of the pipes; from whence extending above 1400 yards, it 
 discharges the water into a canal formed for its reception on the surface 
 of the moss. 
 
 For raising the water to this height, there were two reasons, lsf, 
 That not only where it was delivered on the moss, but even after being 
 conveyed to the most distant corners, it might still retain sufficient 
 power to transport the moss to the river Forth. 2 dly> That reservoirs 
 of a sufficient height, might be formed in the moss, to retain the water 
 delivered during night. 
 
 In consequence of Mr. Whitworth’s advice, a contract was entered 
 into with Mr. Meikle, in spring 1787; and by the end of October in 
 that year, the wheel, pipes, and aqueduct, were all completely finished, 
 and what, in so complex and extensive an undertaking, is by no means 
 common, the different branches of the work, were so completely exe- 
 cuted, and so happily adjusted to each other, that, upon trial, the 
 effect answered the most sanguine expectations. The total expence, 
 only a little exceeded one thousand pounds . — Statistical Account of 
 Scotland , vol, ii. Appendix, p. 166. 
 
150 
 
 Explanations of the Plates . 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 Description of the Culture of Drilled Turnips in Scotland. 
 
 The advantages to be derived from drilling turnips, as practised in 
 Scotland, and in the northern counties of England, have been already 
 explained; (See p. 371). But as this is perhaps the completest opera- 
 tion that agriculture boasts of, it may be proper to give a more parti- 
 cular description of it, accompanied by an engraving, from an inspec- 
 tion of which, it will be more clearly understood*. 
 
 Fig. 1. Is a section of the drills, as first formed, and having the muck 
 or dung spread out in the hollow drills, with a line, pointing out where 
 the ridglets are afterwards split. 
 
 Fig. 2. Represents these drills, as split open, to cover the muck ; 
 what was formerly the hollow drills, is converted, by this operation, 
 into the ridglets, and vice versa. 
 
 Fig. 3. Gives an idea of the figure of the drills or ridglets, after hav- 
 ing been rolled by the drill-machine, at the time of sowing the seed. 
 The seed cannot be sown too soon after the land is thus prepared for 
 its reception. 
 
 Fig. 4. Is a representation of the appearance of the field, after the 
 earth has been gathered into the intervals between the turnip drills, as 
 formerly practised, but which has now given way to the use of the 
 horse-hoe. 
 
 Fig. 5. Shews the situation of the drills, on finishing off the field, 
 according to the old system, by splitting open the gathered ridglets in 
 fig. 4, but which practice is not now generally followed. 
 
 Fig. 6. Gives an idea of the situation of a field of drilled turnips, as 
 now generally finished off; the furrows, or hollow drills, not being opened 
 out, the shave, or tops of the plants, being removed for the use of the 
 young stock, previously to the feeding flock being laid on. 
 
 Fig. 7. Gives a plan upon a smaller seale than the preceding sections^ 
 of a turnip field in regular drills, in which the drills are laid off 
 obliquely to the usual direction of the ridges, to facilitate the more 
 equal distribution of the muck, which had been covered up in the drills, 
 when afterwards ploughed for a crop of grain. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 Engravings of an Improved Granary. 
 
 A particular description of this granary, is given in the Communica- 
 tions to the Board of Agriculture, vol.i. p. 53, and 54, of which the 
 following is the substance. 
 
 Fig. 1. Is the front elevation. A , door into the lower part. JB, door 
 
 * In they ear 1797, Mr. Alexander Low, an eminent land-surveyor, drew 
 up, with great clearness and ability, a short account of the Berwickshire 
 mode of turnip culture, for the late Duke of Bedford, which was the fust 
 complete description given of this superior practice. 
 
•1 
 
 UBHARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 URBAXA 
 
 
 
 
TA OT/K EX3?]LAFATOTRXafthe SroTCIRt M03ME <>±* <T F 3LTIVAT3 N CV TFJSK.WSiiiJDMIiLJLS 
 
 Unte 6. 
 
 Scale cr'tiie Upper Fii/uns \ ? o •' ■' l * h’.-.t 
 
 J’ * g‘- 7- 'J 'he Satie one [hnirter ol 't/ie / r pper /' ’ant ft i»\ 
 

 % 
 
 IffiMRY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ill WQ1S 
 
 I : n n ■ . 
 
 gAWil -' 1 
 
151 
 
 Explanations of the Plates . 
 
 into the loft, to ascend to which, a ladder is necessary. C, a crane for 
 hoisting sacks from below. D, d d d, air-holes. 
 
 Fig. 2. Is a section or view of the inside : a a a a a, are wooden 
 spouts, which reach from the air-holes on one side of the granary, to 
 those on the opposite side. These spouts are made of inch-deal, about 
 six inches broad, and formed with an angle similar to those spouts that 
 are sometimes used to carry off the rain water that drops from the 
 easings of the houses. They are laid across the granary, with the 
 angle uppermost, as shown in figure 3. B b b, are the ends of similar 
 spouts, which cross the other ones, and reach also, between the air- 
 holes, on the other two sides of the granary, as shewn in figure 4. 
 C c c c, &c. are half spouts, extending in the same manner to air-holes 
 on each side. The air-holes must have a declivity outwards, to prevent 
 rain or snow beating in ; and should likewise be secured with wire- 
 cloth, to keep out insects and other vermin. D d, is the granary, 
 which is three yards square, and divided each way into three hoppers. 
 E e e, of one square yard each, making in all nine hoppers, as repre- 
 sented by figure 5. F, is a large hopper, which encompasses all the 
 rest, and has a slider at G, for opening occasionally, when any grain 
 is to be taken out. 
 
 There is also another small hopper J, suspended to the large one, 
 by four iron hasps K k, and which may be easily unfastened, if required, 
 from the square deal box 0 o, fixed to the large hopper. Through the 
 side of this box, the handle H of the slider, must extend. This hopper 
 is chiefly useful, for the convenience of taking out a small quantity, but 
 is removed, when a large quantity is to be taken out of the granary*. 
 
 M f is a small loft, where the sacks of corn are hoisted up, and 
 emptied over the sides or rails N n, from which it falls down, passes 
 through the hopper E e, till F’is filled (the slider being closed); and 
 as the corn is continued to be emptied from the loft, so the granary 
 continues to fill, till up to the top, if required. 
 
 The spouts being all inverted, as already mentioned, and open below, 
 it is clear that, although the granary is filled to the top, the corn will 
 not, like a fluid, rise within the spouts, above the level of their lower 
 edges; and thus there will be a vacuum left within every spout, through 
 which the air will freely pass. These spouts are placed, three feet distant 
 from each other horizontally, from angle to angle, and eighteen inches 
 vertically; that is, from those in one tier, to those of the next tier 
 which crosses it. 
 
 The holes in the bottoms of the hoppers, E e e } &c. should be so 
 proportioned, that one may not give vent to the grain faster than the 
 other, for which reason, the aperture of the middle one, see A, fig. 5, 
 should be the smallest, because there, the least obstruction will be 
 found. The apertures B b b b, should be somewhat larger, as the grain 
 will meet there, with some little obstruction, by the sides of the large 
 hopper; and the apertures C ccc, should be the largest, as the obstruc- 
 tion in the angles, will be greater than in any other part. 
 
 On considering the plan of this granary, it is evident, than if filled 
 with corn, and the slider G is opened, the whole mass will be moved, 
 as the cornfalls out, consequently that a new surface will successively 
 be exposed to the air that passes through the air-holes, and wooden 
 spouts: and thus, by taking out a few bushels, perhaps at G, the whole 
 
 * This small hopper, seems rather unnecessary, and destroys the simpli- 
 city of the plan. 
 
152 
 
 Explanations of the Plates . 
 
 grain above, will be stirred, without any further trouble. The half 
 spouts at the sides are very useful, for admitting air there also, and 
 moving the grain, which might otherwise remain always close to the 
 wall, which must be lined with deal or plank closely jointed. 
 
 Care must be taken, that the lower edges of the spouts, should be at 
 least an inch lower than the bottom of the air-holes, that there may he 
 no probability of their being interrupted. 
 
 It might perhaps be an improvement, to have a ventilator on the top 
 of this granary, to make the current of air incline upwards, as well as 
 through the spouts. It might also be another improvement, to have 
 the spouts circular, and fixed to the air-holes, with small holes in them 
 sufficient to circulate the air, but not to admit the grain. There might 
 likewise be a screen for dressing the grain (if necessary), at the slider 
 G. A conductor, or spout, might convey the grain, when dressed, into 
 a sack, which might be wheeled to the outside of the granary, and 
 hoisted up by the crane, to the loft M. 
 
 The principle of this granary, may be applied on any scale, from the 
 corn chest in the stable, to the most extensive granary. 
 
 This plan is probably the most effectual, and the least expensive, of 
 any hitherto suggested. 
 
 See Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 53, 
 54, 55. 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 Description of the Flemish Binot. 
 
 In the Appendix, p. 24, an account is given of an instrument, called 
 in the Netherlands, the “ Binot,” which is found of the greatest utility 
 in that country. It is also much approved of in the department of the 
 North, and in the neighbourhood of Lisle, more especially for fallows, 
 as it is found that the land elevated by the Binot, is more accessible 
 to the beneficial effects of frost*. The form has been much improved 
 since its introduction into this country, where such an implement 
 will be found of great utility, in the cultivation and improvement of 
 strong soils. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 Description of the Barrow for Sowing Grain in Drills. 
 
 Fig. 1. Plan, or bird’s-eye view of a drill-barrow. 
 
 2. Profile of the same implement. 
 
 3. End view of the same. 
 
 4. No. 1. an edge view of the seed-wheel. No. 2. Profile of the 
 
 same wheel with flutes, or channels to receive the beans, 
 and also a brush made of stiff' bristles, placed above the 
 wheel, to cause the seed to drop regularly into the bot- 
 tom of the furrow. 
 
 * See Statistiquc du Dcpartement du Nord, par M. Dieudonnde, prefet. 
 Printed at I)ouai, an. 180-1, vol. i. p. 
 

 library 
 
 UWiVFRSITV OF ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
I&BJXL BAMLOW = 
 
 BR1IL1L HAjRB-OW 
 
f • ^ i . V 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 j.-.:.-,:.: 
 
 
Explanations of the Plates, 153 
 
 Fig. 5. No. 1. and 2. Seed wheel for sowing oats, barley, wheat, and 
 pease. Either of these wheels may be easily placed upon 
 the axle, or taken off at pleasure, according to the sort of 
 grain to be sown. 
 
 v 
 
 Description of the Drill-Harrow. 
 
 Fig. 6. Plan of a harrow for cutting weeds and pulverising the soil 
 betwixt the drills. 
 
 7. Profile of the same machine. 
 
 8. No. 1. and 2. Plan and profile of the front share. 
 
 9. No. 1. and 2. Plan and profile of one of the hindmost shares, 
 which shares may be easily shifted and fixed at a greater 
 or lesser distance from each other, according to the dis- 
 tance between the drills, which is shown by the figure. 
 
 
 M 
 
 1*. M'Millan, Puiuter, 
 Bow-Street, Covent-Gardcu. 
 
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER, 
 
 FOR PLACING THE PLATES. 
 
 Note . — The Folios referred to are those of the Appendix. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Plan of Farms and Farm Buildings, 144 
 
 2. Description of the Improved Swing Plough, the 
 
 Grubber, and Mill for making Pot Barley, 144 
 
 3. Description of the Corn Stacks with Cast-iron Pillars, 147 
 
 4. Engraving of the Cradle Churn, 147 
 
 5. Description of a Wheel for raising Water, 148 
 
 6. Description of the Culture of Drilled Turnips in 
 
 Scotland, 150 
 
 7. Engravings of an Improved Granary, 150 
 
 8. Description of the Flemish Binot, 152 
 
 9. Description of the Barrow for Sowing Grain in Drills, 152 
 

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