T THE SOCIAL SCIENCE PAMPHLETS ESSENTIALS IN GRAPHY— HISTORY— CIVICS BY HAROLD RUGG EARLE RUGG EMMA SCHWEPPE OF THE LINCOLN SCHOOL OF TEACHERS COLLEGE THE CITY AND KEY INDUST/RIES IN MODERN NATIONS Cities: How and Why They Grc v Transportation and City Life Coal, a Crucial Industry Tic^ Between Farm and City ^■esources and Industries of America Interdependence of Nations V Industrial and Agricultural Countries Empires, Colonies, Ships, Resources AN EXPERIMETSTAL EDITION Of Pamphlet No. 2 of Volume I: The Seventh GmJe Series This edition is published by the authors fo^ cooperative experiment'ition in schools with which arrangements arc mftde. It is not fc: general commercial distribution Copyright, 1922, by Harold Rugg, Earle Rugg, and Emma Schweppe. The reproduction of these materials is expressly prohibited. THIS is one of The Social Science Pamphlets for the school grades Seven, Eight, and Nine. Although these Pamphlets are not a perfected curriculum, it is necessary that they be printed at this time in order to determine experimentally their reorganiza- tion. The content that they represent^ J[ias been taught in mimeo- graphed form in three grades of Th4 XmioC 9biJi'ool of Teachers College, 1920-1922. For two years and a half the authors have also carried on curriculum investigations seeking to validate the content of this social science course. The present status of these studies justifies the printing of a trial edition. The purpose of the trial edition is to determine by measured experimentation the grade placement and teaching arrangement of the material. As a result of their cooperative use in public schools, 1922-1923, The Social Science Pamphlets will be completely revised and issued in another experimental edition for use in cooperating schools, 1923-1924. A series of monographs will be published to accompany this curriculum which will report the research by which the materials have been selected and organized. The City and Key Industries in Modern Nations is Pamphlet No. 2 of Vol. I, the 7th Grade Series, in a complete Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grade curriculum in geography, history, and civics. Five pamphlets will be issued for each grade. They will deal with the following aspects of American life, pre- senting essential contemporary matters together with needed his- torical background and geographic conditions and explanations: I. Immigration and Americanization. II. Conserving Our Natural Resources. III. Industry, Business, and Transportation. IV. Schools, the Press, Public Opinion. V. The American City and Its Problems. VI. The Culture of America and of Other Lands. VII. Problems of Government in a Representative Democracy. VIII. Primitive Peoples, Past and Present. IX. America and World Affairs. The authors need cooperation and criticism from public schools. They will welcome inquiries and suggestions about this experi- mental work. Address all inquiries to: Harold RIjgg^ The Lincoln School, 25 West 123rd Street, New York, N. Y. THE Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. University of Illinois Library L161— O-1096 Industrial and Agricultural Countries Empires, Colonies, Ships, Resources AN EXPERIMENTAL EDITION Of Pamphlet No. 2 of Volume I: The Seventh Grade Series r This edition is published by the authors tor cooperative experimentation in schools with which arrangements are made. It is not for general commercial distribution J Copyright, 1922, by Harold Ruog, Earle Rugg, and Emma Schweppe. The reproduction of these materials is expressly prohibited. THIS is one of The Social Science Pamphlets for the school grades Seven, Eight, and Nine. Although these Pamphlets are not a perfected curriculum, it is necessary that they be printed at this time in order to determine experimentally their reorganiza- tion. The content that they represent; Jbas been taught in mimeo- graphed form in three grades of T\A tfnioC S^ool of Teachers College, 1920-1922. For two years and a half the authors have also carried on curriculum investigations seeking to validate the content of this social science course. The present status of these studies justifies the printing of a trial edition. The purpose of the trial edition is to determine by measured experimentation the grade placement and teaching arrangement of the material. As a result of their cooperative use in public schools, 1922-1923, The Social Science Pamphlets will be completely revised and issued in another experimental edition for use in cooperating schools, 1923-1924. A series of monographs will be published to accompany this curriculum which will report the research by which the materials have been selected and organized. The City and Key Industries in Modern Nations is Pamphlet No. 2 of Vol. I, the 7th Grade Series, in a complete Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grade curriculum in geography, history, and civics. Five pamphlets will be issued for each grade. They will deal with the following aspects of American life, pre- senting essential contemporary matters together with needed his- torical background and geographic conditions and explanations: I. Immigration and Americanization. II. Conserving Our Natural Resources. III. Industry, Business, and Transportation. IV. Schools, the Press, Public Opinion. V. The American City and Its Problems. VI. The Culture of America and of Other Lands. VII. Problems of Government in a Representative Democracy. VIII. Primitive Peoples, Past and Present. IX. America and World Affairs. The authors need cooperation and criticism from public schools. They will welcome inquiries and suggestions about this experi- mental work. Address all inquiries to : Harold R Ijgg^ The Lincoln School, 425 West 123rd Street, New York, N. Y. THE SOCIAL SCIENCE PAMPHLETS ESSENTIALS IN GEOGRAPHY— HISTORY— CIVICS BY HAROLD RUGG EARLE RUGG EMMA SCHWEPPE OF THE LINCOLN SCHOOL OF TEACHERS COLLEGE THE CITY AND KEY INDUSTRIES IN MODERN NATIONS Cities: How and Why They Grew Transportation and City Life Coal a Crucial Industry Ties Between Farm and City Resources and Industries of America Interdependence of Nations Industrial and Agricultural Countries Empires, Colonies, Ships, Resources AN EXPERIMENTAL EDITION Of Pamphlet No. 2 of Volume I: The Seventh Grade Series This edition is published by the authors tor cooperative experimentation in schools with which arrangements are made. It is not for general commercial distribution HOSE who are engaged in the making of these materials I of instruction believe that the future of representative democracy in America depends upon the intelligence of the com- mon man. They believe that the known facts of intelligence are worthy of the hypothesis that there is in the group mind sufficient capacity to express its will effectively through industrial, social, and political machinery. This means that potential capacity must be transformed into dynamic ability. They are equally con- fident that, although America has practised universal education on a scale never before attempted by a large nation, our instruction has fallen far short of preparing the rank and file for the intelligent operation of democratic government. After more than a century of democracy, there are signs of serious import that we are facing a near impasse in citizenship. The impasse, if such it is, is undoubtedly the natural outgrowth of our spectacular conquest of vast material wealth ; of our recep- tion into the country of thirty-three millions of people of diverse races, nationalities, practices, and beHefs, and of the massing of human beings in cities at a rate of which we had hitherto not dreamed. The present crisis has been brought about in large part by the mushroom growth of a fragile and highly specialized mechanism of industry, transportation, communication, and credit. With these stupendous material advances, resulting in the artificial inflation of our economic and social standards of liv- ing, there has not been a parallel aesthetic, spiritual, and cul- tural growth. To relieve this impasse, we must substitute critical judgment for impulsive response as the basis for deciding our social and political issues. The thoroughgoing reconstruction of the school curriculum is a necessary first step in the process, for the reason that the public school is our most potent agency for social regen- eration. Especially through the curriculum in the social sciences must we subject our youth to a daily regimen of deliberation and critical thought. Only those who have been trained through years of practise in the analysis of facts, in the making of de- cisions, the drawing of inferences and conclusions, will resort to intelligence instead of to predisposition as their guide for con- duct. PART I CITIES, TRANSPORTATION, AND INDUSTRY AMERICA The Social Science Pamphlets have been organized and written with the collaboration of Marie Gulbransen A Foreword to the Teacher will be found in Pamphlet No. 1 of the Seventh Grade Series, "America and Her Immigrants." This explains how the pamphlets have been made, and gives suggestions for the teacher's use of them. The Foreword has also been reprinted as a separate folder and a copy is being sent with each set of pamphlets ordered for class use. A Foreword to the Pupil will be found in Pamphlets No. 1 of the Seventh Eighth and Ninth Grade Series. A SUGGESTED SCHEDULE OF LESSONS will be found at the end of this pamphlet. We suggest that you use it as a guide in planning your assignments. 1. COMPLICATED LIFE OF TODAY Courtesy of Armour & Company, Chicago. Fig. 1 What Title Would You Suggest for This Picture? Why is the farm placed in the center ? What things appear to be conaing out of the farm ? Where are they going? What happens to them then? What comes back in exchange for them? When the .farmer sends sheep to the packers, what does he get in exchange? What comes to the farmer from the markets? What does he give in ex- (what?) , , . . , 1 change? Instead of sending out cattle and gettmg money m exchange, and then sending out the money again for farm wagons, or for coats and hats, why doesn't he just exchange the cattle for these things without handling 2 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES money at all? Does your reason hold good in the case of canned goods which are put up by packers? Why do farmers use money in exchanging cattle for canned goods? Have people always used money in making ex- changes? Did the English traders give the Indians money for their furs, or did they make even exchanges with them of trinkets for furs? What was this method of trading called ? What is the value of making exchanges with money? Do you suppose there is any place today where they trade as they did in the old barter days? The other day in Connecticut there was a man who wanted to trade a pair of cart wheels for two pigs, and the farmer was willing to make the exchange. Why do you suppose he didn't just sell his cart wheels, then go to the farmer and buy two pigs? Would his reasons for not doing so hold in general exchange between farmer and city manufacturer? What then would you say is the chief advantage in using money? Study the pictogram again. What does the farmer get from the world's markets with the money he receives from them in return for the farm products that he sent out? ( 1 ) Make a list of the absolute necessities that the pictogram shows he gets. (2) Make a list of the things that you think he might reasonably re- gard as "comforts of life" — things which he ought to have to make life comfortable and worth living. (3) Are there things pictured which are "luxuries" and which he could well get along without? Name them. What would you suggest now as a fitting title for the pictogram? Find one that will summarize the meaning of the whole picture. Illustrations of How the American People Have Changed Their Ways of Living Within a Few Generations As you read the next several sections, notice the sharp contrasts between the way people live now and the way they used to live, the conveniences they have now against the lack of them in earlier days, and the way life has been growing more and more complicated as time has gone on, and people have become more and more dependent upon each other for the needs of their daily lives. 1. From Log Cabin to Frame House and Apartment Do you know how people lived in frontier times, before our country was settled? Did they live in apartment buildings or brick or wooden frame- houses as they do today ? No, home meant a rude cabin in a clearing — a little log building, generally sixteen by twenty feet, heavy logs cut from the THE COMPLICATED LIFE OF TODAY 3 forest in making the "clearing," and laid on the ground for a floor. Did they have nails and spikes for fastening? No, indeed. Logs had to be notched together, and the larger ones laid as foundations. Cellars? None at all. Floors of well- planed and polished oak? No — puncheons instead, thick, rough slabs split from great logs were laid down over round cross logs and held in place by wooden pins, for the frontiersman lacked metal. Fig. 2. Doors? Generally one only, also constructed of heavy slabs, and swung on wooden hinges. Of course they had no glass, so what do you think was used for window panes? Paper! Greased paper. One couldn't see through it, but it did let in light. More frequently, in earliest pioneer days, no window-panes at all were used. The danger from attack was so great that doors were made stout and oftentimes they were swung in two sec- tions to guard against some unwelcome stranger. Pioneer furniture was like the rest of frontier life — home made, and always wooden. The table was a smooth slab on four posts, with chairs and three-legged stools to match. Beds? Sometimes merely animals' skins and blankets laid on the floor. Crude bedsteads were made by laying slabs across sticks raised from the ground by other notched sticks. Do you think they had soft mattresses to sleep on ? Far from it. For a long time, a bed tick made of plain straw was a great luxury. When the pioneer sat down at the welcome call of "supper" after a hard day's work, did he come to a table laid with linen cloth, shining silver, and dainty china? No, he was glad to be able to find time in long winter evenings to whittle out wooden plates, spoons, cups, bowls. The cold drink was most frequently taken from a gourd. To match the serving dishes went the cooking utensils. A few iron kettles and knives were an absolute necessity. You may well imagine that the forntiersman carried them with him from place to place on his western trails and treasured them 4 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES very carefully. For iron was hard to get. One couldn't just go to the hardware store and buy a new stool, as he can now, when an old one gave out or was lost. The loss of an iron tool was a calamity on the frontier. Does this read much like an account of the way people live on the farms or in the cities of America today? How wonderfully we have contrived to provide ourselves with comforts and even luxuries ! But we live so much in the midst of them that we are apt not to pay any attention to them. Make a list of home conveniences that were unheard of in frontier times. How many of the items were known even as late as 1880 when the frontier disappeared? Can you get stories about pioneer life from your parents or grandparents which you can tell the class ? What kinds of houses do the people of your town live in today? Any log cabins? If so, they must be few and far between. Frame houses? Brick houses? Apartment buildings or tenements? Two or three-family houses? Stucco dwellings? Stone buildings? Contrast these with the house shown in Fig. 2. Make a list on the blackboard of the different ways the homes of the pupils in the class are heated. One class that we know about made a list of seven different ways. How many can you find? Do they make you think much of the kind of life pictured in this next story? 2. 'Borrowing Fire' in 1850 "I can remember more than once," said a Civil War veteran, reminiscing before the evening fireplace, "when my father sent me across the fields from our Indiana farm to borrow fire from a neighbor. We didn't have matches in those days, and it was mighty serious business when the fire went out. My legs were nimble, father would say, and so off I'd trudge with an iron vessel to the nearest farm house to get a little fire. It always happened on the coldest days, seem'd like. The big fireplace at the end of the cabin was the only means of heating that we had. There were no iron coal stoves when I was a boy, just a great blazing log fire which would heat one side of you red while the other side froze. That was our furnace, our cook stove, and our reading lamp. Many the night that I lay on the rough floor reading by the firelight one of the few books we had in the place. We had candles which we made ourselves, but they were precious and we didn't use them much unless we had to. Yet it was comfy and cozy, that old wood fire, and 1 don't wonder that people who can afford to burn woodfires have them today in addition to their furnaces. Our home was the kind of place Abe Lincoln was brought up in. I was a boy just a little later than he was, and when I read stories about him it brings back memories of my boyhood." THE COMPLICATED LIFE OF TODAY 5 What kind of light do you use in your house? If you get up in the night, do you have to light a home-made candle with a stick of wood or a paper taper from the embers in the fireplace? That is the way your great grandfathers had to do. Or, do you just snap on the electric light, or touch a match to the gas jet? Did your great grandfather have matches? No, he didn't in his early life. You may have heard stories at home of the excitement aroused by the first kerosene lamp that was brought into your grandparents' neighborhood. A kerosene lamp was exciting sixty or seventy years ago! But nowadays, we think houses are not at all up to date if the people who live in them have to use such things. 3. In 1865— and in 1922 Study these charts carefully. They contrast life in 1865 with life in 1922 in another way. In 1865 American families lived simply, were inde- pendent, self-sufficient, resourceful. In 1922 they live a very complicated and dependent sort of life. AMERICANS IN 1865 Bought little more than hard- ware, tools, spices, coffee. Built their own homes. Made their own furniture. Raised their own food. Transportation and communi- cation poor; roads poor; rail- roads few ; oxen and horses for hauling; little mail. Made their own clothes. Homes located near: 1. Good water supply. 2. Timber for building and fuel. 3. Game and fish for food. 4. Good grazing land for cat- tle. Fig. 3 6 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES AMERICANS IN 1922 They work at one task. They are paid wages, and exchange these wages for their needed supplies in stores. Live in rented apartments. Buy manufactured furniture. Buy Food from grocery and meat stores. Fig. 4 Can you give other illustrations of the differences in ways of living than those brought out in these tw^o charts ? 4. "Department" Store vs. "General" Store Make a list of the different kinds of stores there are in your home town or city. Of course you have grocery stores, meat-markets, and drug stores. What others do you have? What is the largest store in your town? Does it sell just one kind of goods, such as groceries or meat? What different kinds of things can you, buy there? If you were on your way to a train to take a long trip and had just- half an hour or so to do several errands, what kind of stores would you go- to? Suppose you wanted to get some fruit and cookies for lunch, a neck- tie, a pair of shoes, a new purse, and a book of fiction to read on the train. Would it be necessary for you to go about the town from fruit store to clothing store, from shoe store to restaurant, from dry goods store to a leather store, and finally to a book store? If you live in a small community, perhaps you would need to take all these trips about town. But in the larger cities, places of 100,000 to 200,000 and above in population, you would go straight to a large "department" store and do all your shopping right under one roof. Clothing of all sorts you would find for men, women, and children; hardware, utensils, implements for house and farm disphiyed in tempting array and fine variety. "A paper of pins? A piano? Cer- tainly, right this way. Music department over at your right," the floor- walker would tell you. "Groceries on the fifth floor; china on the sixth,"" They are carried to and from work and get their supplies by means of excellent transporta- tion, such as railroads, street cars, elevated trains, subways, express, mail, automobiles. Won- derful communication system: telephone, telegraph, wireless, and radio. Buy clothes from stores. THE COMPLICATED LIFE OF TODAY 7 you would hear from the elevator boy. "The latest novel for this lady, please." "Yes, there is a writing room and library on the third floor." "The post office madam? you need not go out-of-doors to the General Post Office; we have one on the main floor, right." These questions you could hear answered at almost any hour of the day. We hear some one say, "But you can do that in the country villages." Yes, in a way you can and could even in pioneer days. The "country store" — the "general store" — that was the forerunner of the great depart- ment store of the large city. In the "general store" of the village they sell a good many kinds of things, and in the old days what you couldn't get there you went without. But there are great differences between the "general store" of the village and the department store of the city. We can think of at least five. How many can you think of ? Make a list of them in your notebook to be copied on the blackboard. These short contrasts are just an introduction to your study of the com- plicated life of our modern machine world. In your study of the pam- phlet you will find many more examples of it. The next section is a series of little stories written by people who lived during different stages that we have passed through from the early pioneer life on the farm and in the vil- lage to our present-day concentrated city life. Read them quickly — ^just to get a feeling of how life became more and more complicated and how people became more and more dependent upon each other. Before you begin the next section, make sure that you have discussed in class all the examples you can think of illustrating how Americans have changed their ways of living in recent years. Is there anyone in the class who can tell whether English people live much as we do now, and whether they too have changed similarly in the past two or three generations? What about the French? the Germans? Russians? Chinese? Japanese? The people of India? One of our tasks this year is to learn a great deal about all these people and their ways of living as well as about our own. II. REAL STORIES OF HOW PEOPLE'S WORK HAS GONE FROM THE HOME TO THE FACTORY To the Teacher: It is intended that these quotations be read through at one sitting. They have been selected merely to give a feeling for the changes that have come about in the way people live and work. We suggest that you elaborate the class discussions by other examples. "When President Nott of Union College, and his brother Samuel, the famous preacher, were boys on a stony farm in Connecticut, one of the brothers needed a new suit of clothes, and as the father was sick there was neither money nor wool in the house. The mother sheared some half-grown fleece from her sheep, and in less than a week the boy wore it as clothing. The shivering and generous sheep w^ere protected by wrappings of braided straw. During the Revolution, it is said that in a day and a night a mother and her daughters in Townsend, Massachusetts, sheared a black and white sheep, carded from the fleece a gray wool, spun, wove, cut and made a suit of clothes for a boy to wear off to fight for liberty." ^ Does that sound much like the preparation of uniforms for the World War ? If every mother had had to shear a sheep for her boy, what would folks who lived in the city have done ? A PICTURE OF LIFE IN THE MORE ESTABLISHED SETTLEMENTS OF 1800 Every family lived as much as possible within itself. Money was scarce, wages being about fifty cents a day, though these w^ere generally paid in meat, vegetables, and other articles of use — seldom in money. There was not a factory of any kind in the place. [I recollect, as an after-thought, one excep- tion. There was a hatter who supplied the town ; but he generally made hats to order, and usually in exchange for the skins of foxes, rabbits, muskrats and other chance peltry. I frequently purchased my powder and shot from the proceeds of skins which I sold him.] There was a butcher, but he only went from house to house to 'slaughter the cattle and swine of his neighbors. There was a tanner, but he only dressed other people's skins : there was a cloth- ier but he generally fulled and dressed other people's cloth. All this is typical of the mechanical operation of the place. Even dyeing blue a portion of the wool, so as to make linsey-woolsey for shortgowns, aprons, and blue-mixed stockings — vital necessities in those days — was a domestic operation. During 1 Karley Alice Morse: "Home Life in Colonial Days." The Maomillan Co.. New York. 1010.' Papes 202 and 203. FROM HOME TO FACTORY 9 the autumn, a dye-tub in the chimney corner — thus placed so as to be cher- ished by the genial heat— was as familiar in all thrifty houses, as the Bible or the back-log. It was covered with a board, and formed a cosy seat in the wide-mouthed fireplace, especially of a chill evening. . . . ''Every autumn, it was a matter of course that we had a fat ox or a fat cow, ready for slaughter. One full barrel was salted down ; the hams were cut out, sHghtly salted, and hung up in the chimney for a few days, and thus became "dried" or "hung beef," then as essential as the staff of life. Pork was managed in a similar way, though even on a larger scale, for two barrels were indispensable. A few pieces, as the spareribs, &c., were distributed to the neighbors, who paid in kind when they killed their swine. . . . "Our bread was of rye, tinged with Indian meal. Wheat bread was re- served for the sacrament and company ; a proof not of its superiority, but of its scarcity and consequent estimation. All the vegetables came from our garden and farm. The fuel was supplied by our own woods — sweet-scented hickory, snapping chestnut, odoriferous oak, and reeking, fizzling ash — the hot juice of the latter, by the way, being a sovereign antidote for the ear-ache. These were laid in huge piles, all alive with sap, on the tall, gaunt and- irons. . . . "Sugar was partially supplied by our maple-trees. These were tapped in March, the sap being collected, and boiled down in the woods. This was wholly a domestic operation, and one in which all the children rejoiced, each taking his privilege of an occasional sip or dip, from the period of the limpid sap, to the granulated condiment. Nevertheless, the chief supply of sugar was from the West Indies. . . . "There was, of course, no baker in Ridgefield ; each family not only made its own bread, cakes, and pies, but their own soap, candles, butter, cheese, and the like. The fabrication of cloth, Hnen, and woolen was no less a do- mestic operation. Cotton — that is, raw cotton — was then wholly unknown among us at the North, except as a mere curiosity, produced somewhere in the tropics; but whether it grew on a plant, or an animal, was not clearly settled in the public mind. "We raised our own flax, rotted it, hackled it, dressed it, and spun it. The little wheel, turned by the foot, had its place, and was as familiar as if it had been a member of the family. How often have I seen my mother, and my grandmother too, sit down to it — though this, as I remember, was for the purpose of spinning some finer kind of thread — the burden of the spin- ning being done by a neighbor of ours, Sally St. John. By the way, she was a good-hearted, cheerful old maid, who petted me beyond my deserts "The wool was also spun in the family, partly by my sisters, and partly by Molly Gregory, daughter of our neighbor, the town carpenter. I re- member her well as she sang and spun aloft in the attic. . . . / 10 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES "The knitting of stockings was performed by the female part of the family in the evening, and especially at tea parties. . . . "Mantuamakers [woman's cloak makers] and milliners came in their turn, to fit out the female members of the family. There was a similar pro- cess as to boots and shoes. We sent the hides of the cattle — sows and calves we had killed — to the tanner, and these came back in assorted leather. Oc- casionally, a little morocco, then wholly a foreign manufacture, was bought at the store, and made up for the ladies' best shoes. Amby Benedict, the cir- culating shoemaker, upon due notice, came with his bench, lapstone, and awls, and converted some little room into a shop, till the household was duly shod. He was a merry fellow, and threw in lots of singing gratis. He played all the popular airs upon his lapstone — as hurdygurdies and handorgans do now. "Carpets were then only known in a few families, and were confined to the keeping-room and parlor. They were all home-made: the warp con- sisting of woolen yarn, and the woof of lists and old woolen cloth, cut into strips, and sewed together at the ends. Coverlids generally consisted of quilts, made of pieces of waste calico, elaborately sewed together in octa- gons, and quilted in rectangles, giving the whole a gay and rich appearance. This process of quilting generally brought together the women of the neigh- borhood, married and single, and a great time they had of it — ^what with tea, talk, and stitching." ^ These were the days when each household was practically inde- pendent of every other household. People lived far apart. If a tailor or hatter spent a week at each house fitting out the family for a year, how many houses would he be able to visit? Lav^yers and preachers used to go around in much the same way as these tradesmen before people lived close enough to each other to have meeting-houses and court houses. "E^ ery farmer's daughter knew how to weave as well as to spin, yet it was not recognized as wholly woman's work as was spinning; for there was a trade of hand-weaving for men, to which they were apprenticed. Every town had professional weavers. They were a universally respected class, and became the ancestors of many of the wealthiest and most influential citizens today. They took in yarn and thread to weave on their looms at their own homes at so much a yard ; wove their own yarn into stuffs to sell ; had apprentices to their trade; and also went out working by the day at their neighbors' houses, sometimes carrying their looms many miles with them. 1 Goodrich. S. G. : "Recollections of a T.ifetime." Miller, Orton and Mulligan. Nf'w York. 1Hfl2. Vol I. pages 64-75. FROM HOME TO FACTORY U "Weavers were a universally popular element of the community. The traveUing w^eaver was, like all other itinerant tradesmen of the day, a wel- come newsmonger ; and the weaver who took in weaving was often a sta- tionary gossip, and gathered inquiring groups in his loom-room ; even children loved to go to his door to beg for bits of colored yarn — thrums — which they used in their play, and also tightly braided to wear as shoestrings, hair-laces, etc." ^ For a long time, you see, each household made everything it needed — all its food, every kind of clothing, put up all its own buildings; and that was about all it had. Gradually some people found that they liked to do one kind of thing so much better than another that they made a specialty of it and learned to do it well. As a result, there grew up a class of tradesmen called ''itinerants" that went from one house to another throughout the year, each plying his own trade, whether it was making shoes, hats, suits of clothes, or what-not. With some of their work done for them in this fashion, each family had more time to give to the doing of a few things. Frequently the household made more than it needed for its own use of certain articles, in which case there was some to sell to neighbors. In this way little businesses grew up within the household, for if a neighbor liked his purchase he wanted more and other neighbors wanted to buy. You can easily see how the master-worker would soon find that he could not supply all the de- mands. What did he do then ? See if you can tell from the next paragraph. "A great share of the light manufacture of America, is done by women in the farm-houses, especially in the New England states. For instance, straw bonnets. There are straw bonnet establishments in New York and Boston, which have their agents continually travelling among the farm- houses. This agent drives a sort of van or omnibus, and brings round bunches of straw plait, and models of bonnets of the newest fashion. These he leaves with the farmers' wives and daughters, all round the country, who work up into bonnets, according to the peculiar model, the plait so left. In due season the agent returns with some more plait, and distributes it to the straw-sewers as before, and receives up the bonnets, for the making of which he pays. All the females of an entire district, including the doctors' and ministers' wives, are engaged in this work. In another district, where boot and shoe-making is carried on upon a large scale, the upper parts of boots 1 Earle, Alice Morse: "Home Life in Colonial Days." The Macmillan Co., New York, 1919. Pages 212-213. 12 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES and shoes are sent in bound into the farm-houses, where they are closed, bound, and otherwise prepared by female labour, and sent back in the same box by the stage coach, the wagon, or the railway. In the getting up of clothing, shirts, stocks, hosiery, suspenders, carriage trimmings, buttons, and a hundred other light things, the cheap labour of the farm-house is brought to the aid of manufactures: every district has in it some peculiar branch which is there successfully cultivated. The readiness, too, with which fe- males enter into the factories, into the great bookbinding and tailoring estab- lishments—contributes to make industry the leading idea of every one— for the females of a nation form the nation " It wasn't long before the amount of business outgrew the home. When the master workman had accumulated enough to buy more machines— the machines were very expensive— he moved his work into a separate building. Of course he needed more workers in his "factory" as well as those in neighboring homes. He em- ployed apprentices at very low wages.. After an apprentice had worked a certain number of years— it was seven at first— he be- came a "journeyman." Peter Cooper was an apprentice. Read what he had to say back about 1810: "In my seventeenth year I entered as apprentice to the coachmaking business. I remained in this four years, till I was of age, and had thoroughly learned the business. During my apprenticeship I received twenty-five dol- lars a year for my services. To this sum I added something by working at night at coach carving, and such other work as I could get. My grand- mother gave me the use of a room, in one of her rear buildings on Broadway, where I spent much of my time in nightly work. During my apprentice- ship I made for my employer a machine for mortising the hubs of carriages, which proved very profitable to him, and was perhaps the first of its kind used in this country. When I was twenty-one years old, my employer of- fered to build me a shop and set me up in business; but, as I always had a horror of being burdened with debt, and having no capital of my own, I declined his kind offer." r nT^^.,^,r- ««Mir.A Vmts In AmeHca." 1850. Quotied by Commons, .Tohn U ;'r,?i';rm°SrWumenJ^^H^s"totrof An,erlca„lfndustHnl society'- The ArVli'ir H f-loak Company, Olevelanfl, Ohio, 1010. Vol. 7, pages V2-73. FROM HOME TO FACTORY 13 How Do These Advertisements of 1804 and 1824 Compare With the Ads. in Our Papers of Today? Advertisement from the Tennessee Gazette & Mero District Ad'vertiser (Nashville), October 24, 1804. "BLUE, RED, GREEN, BLACK and YELLOW DYING. I will color cotton and linnen thread, a deep blue, at four shillings and six pence per pound ; and a light blue, at two shillings and six pence per pound ; and the other colors mentioned I will dye upon woolen at 2 shillings per pound, ? -^A will warrant them to stand equal to any ever dyed in America, for I aye with the warm dye. I am also ready to accommodate the public with diaper carpets, double coverlids, and summer counterpanes; weaving at the house of Maj Buchanan, who owns a grist mill, on Mill creek, four miles from Nashville, on the road leading to Jefferson. Remember, when pre- paring your coverlid thread, if all cotton, to spin it ten cuts to the pound, double and twist it; one half must be dyed blue, and the other well bleached ; and if one half is woolen, be sure to spin the cotton one cut finer to the pound than the woolen yarn, and no more — eighteen pounds will make two cover- lids. . . I will take cotton thread, or woolen yarn, in payment, if spun as above, and I will give a generous price for the same. Those who wish to purchase coverlids, will be supplied on the most reasonable terms — and those who wish to be instructed in the above branches of business, will be accommo- dated by application as above. Adam McGuire." Advertisement from the Knoxville (Tenn.) Register, Dec. 3 1824. "Campbell's Station, I am receiving at my store in this place and at Kingston a new supply of goods, being in much want of money will sell them as low as they are sold for the same sort of pay in Knoxville ; will take in exchange for goods whiskey, when in new barrels and all of oak, country (1) inen, linsey, feathers, sewing-thread, shoe-thred, beef hides, oats, corn, lamb's wool, fur skins. Salt at both places for two dollars for fifty pounds. At Kingston by the barrel at one dollar and seventy five cents for fifty pounds. Wanted as many wagons as I can get to haul salt from King's work to this place, I will give five pounds of salt more than is given for bawl- ing to Knoxville. Samuel Martin. May 7, 1824." ^ Lucy Larcom was one of a large family of daughters. After her father's death, her mother had to find a way to provide for the children, so she sold her small estate and moved to the then new manufacturing town of Lowell, Mass. growing up along the banks of the Merrimack. She knew of no better way to make a living than to run a boarding-house for mill girls. In her autobiography, Lucy tells how they moved, describes the new house, and tells 1 "Old South Leaflets." Directors of the Old South Work, Boston. Vol. 6, No. 147. "Autobiography of Peter Cooper," pages 466. 14 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES about her life in the factory where she and her sister also became "mill girls" in order to help out on the family budget. Her account is a small picture of life in the factory of a hundred years ago. "The change involved a great deal of work. 'Boarders' signified a large house, many beds, and an indefinite number of people. Such piles of sewing accumulated before us! A sewing-bee, volunteered by the neigh- bors, reduced the quantity a little, and our child-fingers had to take their part. But the seams of those sheets did look to me as if they were miles long! My sister Lida and I had our 'stint,' — so much to do every day. . . . "It was hardest for me to leave the garret and the garden. In the old houses the garret w^as the children's castle. The rough rafters, — it was always an unfinished room, otherwise not a true garret, — the music of the rain on the roof, the worn seachests with their miscellaneous treasures, the blue-roofed cradle that had sheltered ten blue-eyed babies, the tape-looms and reels and spinning-wheels, the herby smells, and the delightful dream corners, — these could not be taken with us to the new home. . . "Our house [in Lowell] was quickly filled with a large feminine family. . . . We helped a little about the housework, before and after school, making beds, trimming lamps, and washing dishes. The heaviest work was done by a strong Irish girl, my mother always attending to the cooking herself. She w-as, however, a better caterer than the circumstances required or permitted. She liked to make nice things for the table, and having been accustomed to an abundant supply, could never learn to economize. At a dollar and a quarter a w^eek for board (the price allowed for mill-girls by the corporations) great care in expenditure was necessary. It was not in mv mother's nature closely to calculate costs, and in this way there came to be a continually increasing leak in the family purse. . . . "Her difficulties were increasing, and I thought it would be a pleasure to feel that I was not a trouble or burden or expense to anybody. So I went to my first day's work in the mill with a light heart. The novelty of it made it seem easy, and it really was not hard, just to change the bobbins on the spinning-frames every three quarters of an hour or so, with half a dozen other little girls who were doing the same thing. . . . "And for a little while it was only a new amusement; I liked it better than going to school and 'making believe' I was learning when I was not. And there was a great deal of play mixed with it. We were not occu- pied more than half the time. The intervals were spent frolicking around among the spinning-frames, teasing and talking to the older girls, or en- tertaining ourselves with games and stories in a corner, or exploring, with the overseer's permission, the mysteries of the carding-room, the dressing- room, and the weaving-room. . . . 1 Commons, John II.: "A Documentary History of American Industrial Society." The Arthur H. Cloak Company, Cleveland, Ohio, 1910. Vol. 2. pages 328, 278. FROM HOME TO FACTORY 15 "The last window in the row behind me was filled with flourishing house-plants— fragrant-leaved geraniums, the overseer's pets. They -gave that corner a bowery look; the perfume and freshness tempted me there often. Standing before that window, I could look across the room and see girls moving backwards and forwards among the spinning-frames, some- times stooping, sometimes reaching up their arms, as their work required, with easy and not ungraceful movements. On the whole, it was far from being a disagreeable place to stay in. The girls were bright-looking and neat, and everything was kept clean and shining. The effect of the whole was rather attractive to strangers." ^ Contrast Lucy Larcom's happiness in the mill with this picture of factory life in the same town twenty-five years later. Do you think she would have been happy under these thirteen-hour day conditions ? From The Harbinger, Nov. 14, 1846, p. 366.^ "... We have lately visited the cities of Lowell and Manchester, and have had an opportunity of examining the factory system more closely than before. ... "In Lowell Hve between seven and eight thousand young women, who are generally daughters of farmers of the different States of New England; some of them are members of families that were rich the generation before. ... The operatives work thirteen hours a day in the summer time, and from daylight to dark in the winter. At half past four in the morning the factory bell rings, and at five the girls must be in the mills. A clerk, placed as a watch, observes those who are a few minutes behind the time, and effectual means are taken to stimulate to punctuality. ... At seven the girls are allowed thirty minutes for breakfast, and at noon thirty min- utes more for dinner, except during the first quarter of the year, when the time is extended to forty-five minutes. But within this time they must hurry to their boarding-houses and return to the factory, and that through the hot sun, or the rain and cold. A meal under such circumstances must be quite unfavorable to digestion and health, as any medical man will in- form us. At seven o'clock in the evening the factory bell sounds the close of the day's work. "Thus thirteen hours per day of close attention and monotonus labor are expected from the young women in these manufactories. ... So fatigued— we should say, exhausted and worn out, but we wish to speak of 1 Larcom, Lucy: "A New England Girlhood." Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, ■^'^^'^2 Commons, John R. (editor): op. cit., Vol. 7, pages 132-133. 16 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES the system in the simplest language — are numbers of the girls, that they go to bed soon after their evening meal, and endeavor by a comparatively long sleep to resuscitate their w^eakened frames for the toils of the coming day." How does mill life in Lowell in 1846 compare with that of another New England district in 1922?. Have you ever seen enough of factory conditions and neighborhoods to judge whether the following description is typical of factory life throughout our country? As you read it, try to decide whether it seems more modern than the preceding account you read, and if so, why? "On the main street which winds up the hill [in Natick, Pawtucket Valley, Rhode Island] the French families live, usually four families to a tenement, all exactly alike, distinguishable only by the little black num- bers over the doorways. The general appearance is one of orderliness and cleanliness in sharp contrast to steel towns or mining communities. For there is no smoke from the mill to dull the white of the houses, and the paling fences in front of them are kept in repair by the mill. Each en- trance has a green storm door to keep the winter out, and set in each of these is a diamond of glass through which a curtain shows often a bit of hand-work made by the women folk within. . . . "A woman comes through the gate and empties her pan of water into the open gutter of the main street. She is large-boned and stout and her face is sallow. More than thirty-five years ago her husband came from Belgium to work in the mills and she, his sweetheart, followed. She had come from a 'good' family — school teachers and not mill workers. But she could not speak English, so she, too, went to the mill. Now the hus- band is dead. A daughter and a son, both weavers who average $21 each for a full week's work, support the mother and a younger sister in school. For their five rooms they pay $1 a week rent taken out of the pay envelopes at the mill. In the kitchen, which is the main front room, the washing machine is busy and the dinner is boiling on the wood stove. Behind is the little parlor, seldom used. Silk patchwork quilts give it color and on the chair-backs and seats are covers of hand-made lace. The drawers of the common pine dresser are opened with pride to show old world handiwork laid away. Crocheted rugs cover the oilcloth on the kitchen floor. 'We need them,' the daughter explains, 'the floor is so damp.' The dirt cellar below is, indeed, constantly damp for the hill behind is of rock and drains off to the uncemented cellars below. "In the mother's bedroom behind the kitchen' where the carpet is up and the floor scrubbed white, the stuffing of a mattress lies on the floor FROM HOME TO FACTORY 17 exposed to the air and sunshine from the window. It is fluffy gray. The woman runs her hands through it. 'Nice, clean. C'est le mouton. Tell the lady.' It is indeed waste from the woolen mills of Belgium, which she brought with her thirty-five years before. And each spring it is opened up, aired and sewed tightly into its washed covers again. "The daughter is full of charm, bright, intelligent. What does she do in the evenings? There is the church, and there are the movies at Arctic. 'And we go to the city sometimes — when you want something real nice; and to the movies there when you want music with an orchestra; there's just a piano at Arctic' ... ''There is no sewerage system in any of the villages and the majority of the tenements are still without running water, lighting systems or any sanitary conveniences. Where there are no drains, waste water is emptied in the street or scattered over the grassless yards. Where there are drains the water is discharged into a cesspool in the rear which the company emp- ties once a week, though there are complaints, among the Portuguese for instance, that the cesspools sometimes overflow. . . - "The inside of the old tenements, the old ones being in the majority, are in most cases in disrepair. Plaster is falling, fresh paper is needed, roofs leak. This is especially true in the Portuguese and Italian sections. Where electric lights have been installed and drains and running water put in, rents have been raised to $1.75 a week. "These are the houses where the workers live. What of the mills where they spend fifty-four hours a week; the men, in some cases, fifty-six? . . . " 'It's too hot for any person to work in those mills fifty-four hours,' said a town physician who has always lived in the villages. 'It's not warm, it's hot. Many a time I've seen a girl come out of the mill from an atmosphere of 92, 96 or 98 degrees, her hair wet from the sprinklers, and then stand and wait in the cold outside for the car that runs only every half hour.' . . . "A former health officer of the Valley says that the mill floors in some cases are not washed more than once a year. The law is very lenient about heating, ventilation, lighting, fire requirements and dangerous machinery. "The Valley takes advantage of the fifty-four hours which the state allows women to work. I asked a Portuguese, out making his garden, who cooked the meals, for he had told me he had two children in school and that he and his wife both worked in the mill. 'Oh, he,' pointing to the wife who stood on the door step with the broom. 'He get up five o'clock. He get breakfast and go mill ten minute 'fore seven. He get home twenty minute 'fore six. He cook meal.' " 'And you help I suppose ?' " 'Me? No! Who want do somethin' after get out that [old] jail?' " ^ 1 The Survey, July 1, 1922. Pages 441-444. 18 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES SUMMARY Write in your notebook the main steps brought out in these readings by which industry went from the household to the factory and the mill. You should write about five sentences. In deciding what the steps are, don't expect to find a different one in each quotation. You may find in some cases that two or three quotations illustrate the same stage. The paragraphs between the quotations may give you clues. III. THE STARTLING GROWTH OF CITIES, 1800-1922 A. WHERE ARE THE PEOPLE OF AMERICA LIVING? Turn to Fig. 3, page 9 in Part II. What does this map tell you about where the people of the United States are living? Do they appear to be scattered equally over the whole country, or are they concentrated in particular sections? How does Fig. 5 help you to tell where our people are living? Is there any region in the United States where more than 400 people are 20 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES living to the square mile? What states? (There is an identification map on page 7 of Part II to help you identify the states and countries.) Is there any region in our country where less than 2 people are living to the square mile? What states? Have you any idea how it would seem to be living where there were less than 2 people to each square mile? Just think of living in a farm house where you would have to walk on the average more than a mile, probably a mile and a half or 2 miles to find another house. There would most likely be 6 or 8 people living in the house. (The average size of a family in America is nearly 5. Why should we expect to find 6 to 8 people in the next farm house?) On the other hand, thinic how crowded living must be where there are more than 400 people to the square mile as in (What State?) That must mean that many of the people are living in apartment buildings, or at least in houses that are very close together. Do you imagine that there are countries in the world where people are living as closely together as they are in our state of Massachusetts, to the square mile? Turn forward to Part II, the population map of Fig. 3, page 9. The bar graphs under the map give you the facts you need. Are there any whole countries where the people live so crowded This map shows the percentage of the population that is urban in the different states^ Fig. 6 together as in Massachusetts? As in New York State? As in Illinois. Ohio, Pennsylvania? Of the "eight leading countries" listed in the bar graph, where does the United States stand in density of population? 1 From Report on Population, Vol. I, 1920. IT. S. Census. THE GROWTH OF CITIES 21 '^he United States Bureau of the Census calls any community of less than 2500 people a ''rural" community; any community larger than that it calls ''urbar^'i' Fig. 6 shows the proportion of the people in each state that are living in communities of more than 2500 people. Where is the heaviest population in our country? Where is the pop- j ulation lightest? 2. SINCE 1800 THE POPULATION OF ALL INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES HAS TENDED TO CONCENTRATE IN CITIES More than half of our own 106 million people live in towns and cities, and this tendency for people to crowd together is true of all industrial countries. But dense populations are a comparatively recent thing. Be- fore 1800 the United Kingdom (especially England and Scotland) was the only country that had a large population of its people in cities. PERCENT OF POPULATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES IN CITIES OF MORE THAN 10,000 - 1801-1851-1891 1851 1891 Fig. 7 See Fig. 7. In what countries were more than 20 per cent of the people living in cities of 10,000 or more in 1801? In which were less than 5 per cent in such cities ? O'^^'^''- Now notice that in practically all these countries cities of over 10,000 population grew very rapidly after 1801. Of which ones is this not true? (in 1891, three fifths of the people of England were in cities of 10,000 people or more.^ A recent estimate reports that over nine-tenths of her people are in cities nov^ It doesn't seem possible. Travelling north and west from London, one passes through scores of towns and cities that are practically unbroken by agricultural land. "Only six per cent of all the English people are engaged in farmi^ng[.i 22 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES What does Fig. 7 tell you about the other countries? Does it shoW that a large percentage of their people live in cities? In which countries is the percentage largest? smallest? ^ . r , ^ , ^1 C. ALL POPULATION HAS INCREASED RAPIDLY SINCE 1800 We must not forget that all populations — not only city populations, but rural as well — have increased very much more rapidly since 1800 than before that time. The United States is a good illustration of this fact, 1790 1800 1810 I8Z0 1830 !840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 Population in the United States 1790 to 1920 Fig 8 although it has perhaps grown more rapidly than most other countries. Fig. 8 shows the course of its growth. How many times greater is the population in 1920 than it was in 1790 when the Census Bureau of the government first counted our people? How slowly our country grew dur- ing the first sixty or seventy years after we declared our independence 1020 ««I0 • 800 1800 1880 1870 I860I I860 1840 1830 1690 1810 IPOO i-rao IN PLACES WITH 8.000 OR MOBS POPCHJkTlOM OurSlOe SUCH PLACES Fig. 9 THE GROWTH OF CITIES 23 from England, but how rapidly after that! From what you already know, can you tell why population grew more rapidly in America after 1840? Now when did our people begin moving in large numbers toward the city? Was it immediately after we got our independence? No. Fig. 9 shows that the percentage of people in towns of 8000 or more in 1790, even in 1830, was very small. In those years the American people were settling the undeveloped land from the Appalachians to the Pacific. To the Teacher: In Pamphlet No. 1 of Vol. II, The Westivard Movement and the Groivth of Transportation, you will find a map showing where the American people had settled in 1790, 1810, 1830, 1850, and 1890. Let the class see this. It shows not only the pushing of the frontier westward, but also how the increasing concentration of population followed in the wake of the frontier. A century of hardship and strenuous labor at clearing the wilderness, settling farms, developing roads and means of transportation, was necessary before people could turn their attention much to manufacturing. Of course all through the ceentury industry had been making rapid strides, but as late as 1891 only 27.6 per cent of our people lived in towns of 10,000 or more. In 1920, more than 40 per cent lived in towns of such size. And if we in- clude as urban population the people who live in communities of between 2500 and 8000 people, the percentage goes up to over fifty. HAVE CITIES AND TOWNS OF ALL SIZES GROWN RAPIDLY SINCE 1890? Here is a way to tell which sizes of community have grown most rapidly in the last half century. Table I compares the urban and rural population of the United States by decades from 1850 to 1910. Table I. The Estimated Rural and Urban Population of the Untied States ^ (Exclusive of Outlying Possessions percentage of population Cities and Villages Census of year Agricul- Under 8,000 to Over tural 8,000 100,000 100,000 1850 40.6 46.9 6.5 6.0 1860 40.3 43.6 7.8 8.3 1870 40.0 39.1 10.7 10.2 1880 44.0 33.5 9.8 12.7 1890 39.2 31.8 13.6 15.4 1900 39.3 27.8 14.2 18.7 1910 34.6 26.5 16.8 22.1 iData from King: Wealth and Income of the United States. The Macmillan Company. 24 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Between 1850 and 1900 did the proportion of our people engaged in agri- • culture decrease? Between what years did the percentage of our people in cities increase most rapidly? Which size of communities was least able to hold our people? EXERCISE On a piece of cross-section paper make a line graph showing the following facts : 1. The per cent of our people who lived in cities of more than 100,000 population, 1850 to 1910. (Plot by decades.) 2. The per cent living in cities of 8,000 to 100,000. 3. The per cent living in cities under 8,000 population. 4. The per cent of our population that in 1910 was agricultural. E. WHERE ARE THE CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES? REVIEW MAP EXERCISE Without turning to your geography, can you locate the largest cities of the country? Which are the largest cities? See if you can locate them on a physical map of the country. Now Take a Blank Mimeographed Map of the United States. 1. Locate on it each of the following cities: New York, San Francisco, Seattle, New Orleans, Galveston, Baltimore, Kansas City (Missouri), Boston, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Minneapolis, Denver, Omaha, Indian- apolis, Detroit, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, Chicago, St. Paul, Portland (Oregon.) 2. Exchange papers with your neighbor. Correct his paper, writing the name of each city which was incorrectly located on the left margin of the map. Return the paper to its owner and receive your own. 3. Now learn the cities whose location you missed by the same method you used when you first studied them in the pamphlet on America and Her Immigrants. You should now be able to locate these large cities accurately. What general conclusion can you draw concerning the location of large cities? What is your answer to the question : What size of community is grow- ing most rapidly in America? A PROBLEM FOR YOU Can you answer the foregoing question from the data given in Table II? THE GROWTH OF CITIES 25 Table II. Number and Population of Places of Each Specified Size 1890-1920.1 This table gives facts concerning sizes of communities as the Bureau of Census presents them. class of places. Number of places of specified size : 25,000 or more 100,000 or more 250,000 or more 500,000 or more . 1,000,000 or more Percentage of total population living in places of specified size : 250,000 1890 1900 1910 1920 124 160 228 287 28 38 50 68 11 15 19 25 4 6 8 12 3 3 3 3 more _ 22.2 25.9 31.0 35.7 more- 15.4 18.7 22.1 25.9 more 11.0 14.4 16.8 19.8 more 7.1 10,6 12.5 15.5 more 5.8 8.5 9.2 9.6 — ^ / 0 I.O F. WHY DO CITIES GROW? I. In this pamphlet we have not time to tell the whole story of why cities have grown so rapidly since 1800. You will learn more about it from the Eighth Grade Pamphlets. At this time, however, we need to see a few of the more important reasons. Let's try first to answer a few questions from our general knowledge. First of all, what does your life in the city depend upon most? You must of course have food every day. Do people in the city raise the food they eat? No, they depend on the people in the country for most of it. How does the food get to the city ? Do the farmers drive into town as they used to with their produce? Yes, with some of the vegetables and fruits to the small and medium-sized cities, but not with the staple foods such as meats, bread, etc. And the farmers do not reach the large cities at all. For them the staple foods must be shipped from long distances, and railroads are nec- essary. Have railroads grown rapidly since 1800? At what date did the first railroad run ? How fast have they grown ? The time line of the Industrial Revolution, Fig. 10, and the line graph of Fig. 1 1 will tell you. Figs. 12 and 13 give you the same facts in another way. Have railroads grown fast in the period we are considering — from 1800 to the present time ? Is this one reason why cities have grown ? From Vol. I, Report on Population, 1920 census, U. S. Dept. of Commerce. 26 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES >z:o ex d|- Q t uJ i: h- 1879, Aniline dyes 1876, Threshing machine (s+eamj 1870, Self binding reapers 1866, Open hearth process m s+eel I860, Artificial means of refriger- ation 1856, Bessemer process in steel J850,Coke used in iron smelting 1844, Good^rear, vulcanization of rubber 1835 , Threshing machines (wind and water power) t833 , Anthraci+e coal in iron smelting 1 831, M^Cormick, reaper 1810. 6 'a, 1803, Beginning of beet sugar industry Reapers, American machinesg CO 5 1792, Whitney, cotton gin c 1786, Cartwright, loom D X "tr 177 9. Crompton, spinning mule 1769, 1760, ArUvvright, spinning machine Hargreave, spinning jenn_y Iron smelted with coal 1903 , Wnghi brothers successfully flew In an areoplane 189 1, Langley, areoplane 1888, New camera, tastman-Wodaks Electric railways since 1879 1879 , Edison, incandescent elec light 1878, Brush, arc-light 1877, Edison, phonograph 18 76, Bell, telephone 1871 , Soole and GHdden, typewriter 1866. Atlantic cable 1851, Archer, work m modern photography 1544, First teleigraph message. l840,Cunard steamship line begun 1837 .First telegraph instrument 1836 .Screw propeller ^ 1829 .Cooper, locomotive s: ■ - - Q, X o 1815 Davy, coal min.ng 5?'^ c safety lamp ' 1 8 14, Stephenson . locomotive 1807 , Pulton'5 steanrboat 17 98. Fitch's steamboat 769 , Wat-t invented steam engine 1748, Paul , carcdng cylinder THE GROWTH OF CITIES 27 II. What do people do for a living in cities if they do not raise food ? Does Fig. 12 tell you another reason why cities have grown recently? Study the time line of Fig. 10. What inventions can you find there that helped to cause the great growth in manufacturing? Now study Fig. 11 closely. What facts does it give about production that tell you more about this second great cause for the growth of cities? 260 220^ I80e (40^ looi o _c 20 0 -No. or miles of railroaoi^ in the U.S. 1830 to 1914- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -/- / ^m't of all domestic Manu- factures in the U.S. 1- 1860 to 1914--- / -h 1 Years 26 3000 ^22 250*0 ■ = 18 o in .1 '0 2000 2 1500 o 1000- 6 c 2 0 500 0 .1 1 LLU I JJ Wealth 'per p U.S. |-| 1850 erson' in' t -|9Z1| e - Value per person of exports of ur all c es in ample the L ted J.5. m I8f am 0- fa :t- Q- Years ^30 _co . l25 c c20 o |l5 x: +:; CO 5 O IT) Fig. 12 Fig. 13 28 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Sum up now what you think this second important cause for the growth of cities was. Perhaps there were two or three important ones bound up to- gether. See if you can discover them. As population increases, communities not only become more thickly set- tled, but their territories enlarge very considerably. The city starts with a small area, usually along a stream. As trade and manufacturing increase, and people settle more thickly, it spreads out and its confines gradually take in more territory. See from Fig. 14 what has hap- pened to London in 100 years. About how many times as great is the terri- tory included within the city limits now than 100 years ago? Do you notice how little suburban communities which originally were hamlets, perhaps only isolated farm houses or groups of them, have gradually been brought into the" city proper as the intervening regions filled up with houses, factories, stores banks, and consequently with people? They are all tied together by means of A^J--.---v^^^W>^ ^ ?)• This tying together is represented on Fig. 14 by J:LIc±.-.^__M^--^ (what ?). A CENTLRY. Tl,e black sLows the area of London a hundred years ago. .he shaded portion the growth since then Fig. 14 Fig 15 shows some of the things that went hand in hand with the growth of cities Notice how much faster city activities grew than the general popu- lation. What happened as far as the number of farm-workers was con- cerned? Did farm-workers increase or decrease as the number of city-work- ers increased? THE GROWTH OF CITIES 29 III. But the invention of industrial machines, the development of manufactures, the building of transportation lines, are not all the things that make possible the grow^th of large cities. How could people live, work, and conduct business in cities of such tre- mendous area without communication facilities? It is a great deal to have subways, rapid elevated trains, excellent taxicab service, but even with these STARTLING MULTIPLICATION OF FEATURES OF CITY AND INDUSTRIAL LIFE Growth of population - 1 ■ Note how much, more rapidly urban and industrial activities have (3rov\^n ihan population, lar^e as that is. No. of -times fas+er,+han populai-ion,each of followino| has cjrown No.wa^e earners No. miners No. ci+^y dwellers No. clerks, salesmen and typis+sl No. corporations No. banks No. transport workers Fig. 15 business could hardly be done on the scale that it is if every transaction had to be carried on by personal interview. How much business would a Chicago merchant or banker do if he had to go to his customers ten, twenty, or thirty miles away, though they were within the same city? Fig. 16 Fortunately, he doesn't need to go to them, for communication has kept pace with transportation and manufacturing and trade. He needs only to take down the telephone receiver in his office, wherever it is, and in a minute or two he can have his party in direct conversation and conduct his business almost as effectively as he could if he were sitting in his client's office. Does 30 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Fig. 16, showing how the number of telephones has speedily increased in the last twenty years, throw any light on how the factor of communication has made the growth of cities possible ? But cities began to grow long before the telephone was widespread in use. What have you to say to that comment ? What does the time line of Fig. 10 tell you about the date that the tele- phone was invented? About how many telephones are there in this country now? (The Bell system includes the vast majority of all telephones in the United States.) When did the wide use of telephones really begin? How does this fact correspond with what you know about the time when cities began to grow most rapidly ? IV. Does Fig. 22 explain in part why New York, San Francisco, Boston, and other cities have grown large ? Tell how. Mew York 330,549 C^nadiaa Border 1 13,406 Mexican Border 68,816 Other Small Ports 49,192 gj 5an Francisco ;2Z,698 | Boston 17,007 I Number of Immigrants Who Entered the United States Through Different Ports in 1920. Fig. 17 Make a summary in your notebook of all the reasons you can think of for the growth of cities. G. WHY HAVE CITIES GROWN WHERE THEY DID.'' MAP EXERCISE Make a list of the thirty largest cities of the world. (You will Hnd the population of cities given in the tables in the back of any school geography.) Now open your geography and locate each city on your list. Those that are ports mark P ; those that are on rivers mark R ; those on large inland lakes mark L. How many of each are there? THE GROWTH OF CITIES 31 How many of the thirty largest cities in the world are not on waterwaysf If there are any, study your map and see if you can find the reasons that they grew where they did. From what you know now, what would you say were the most important reasons that cities have grown where they did ? I. The Port City (a) SEATTLE We have already found out that most of our chief cities are on import- ant waterways. Those that are not, like Denver and Indianapolis, must be studied carefully to learn the cause of their growth. Let us study first why certain port cities have grown. Seattle is a good example. Point to it on the wall map. In thinking of Seattle's growth we must remember that people did not settle the Oregon and Washington coun- try in large numbers until after our Civil War was ended in 1865. True, a few pioneers went over the Oregon Trail in the 'forties at the time of the great rush to the California gold fields, but no transcontinental railroads con- nected even California until 1870, and the northwest coast was not con- nected until later. So trade of course could not develop rapidly in Seattle until after 1880. Here is a description of Seattle. (In reading it have in mind that it was written by a Seattle enthusiast. The facts in it are correct, however.) . ITHIN the writer's experience of less than 35 years, Seattle was a struggling frontier settlement of 4,000 people, without a rail- road, with one crude wharf, and no outside trade. "Today it is the chief American port on the Pacific, a virile, progressive city of 350,000 people, and for the year 1918 was second only to New York in volume of foreign trade. That it is to become one of the dominating world cities no one familiar with con- ditions questions. The census figures for 1920 are 315,652. The city boun- daries have not been enlarged for more than 10 years and upwards of 40,000 people reside outside of the present restricted city limits. "Seattle is the chief city of that portion of the United States that is richest in basic resources — a territory with millions of acres of farm lands that lead the nation in yield per acre; with the only coal fields in the Pacific states; with more than one-third of all the water power in the nation; with the largest area of standing timber on the continent, and with fishing re- sources that make Seattle the chief fisheries port of the world. Seattle is the entrepot and market place for Alaska; which has more gold than California, more copper than Michigan and Arizona combined, more coal than Pennsyl- vania, undeveloped oil fields, the only tin mine in the United States, exten- sive marble deposits, the richest fishing areas in the world, approximately 60,000 square miles of agricultural land and a total area equal to that of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and Finland, in the same latitude and capable of supporting an equal population of 27,000,000. "Seattle is several days' sailing nearer the Orient than are the Cali- fornia ports and is the Pacific Coast city with the shortest rail haul to the At- lantic seaboard. Natural location definitely fixes Seattle's position in the trade of the Pacific just as completely as it does her relation to Alaska. "In consequence. Oriental commerce largely centers in the Washington customs district, which leads the nation in importation of crude rubber, veg- etable oils, raw silk, tea, hemp, and all Oriental products. Commercial 32 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES developments of the future will unquestionably largely be with Siberia, China, and the countries of the Far East. Seattle's position in the trade of the Pacific is as unassailable as is her relation to Alaska." ^ Why Is Seattle Defeating Other Pacific Coast Cities in the Race for Asiatic Trade? Study the map of Fig. 18. Take your school globe, and with a piece of string measure the distances of Pacific coast cities from ports in the Orient? Now why do you think manufacturers are tending more and more to ship goods from Seattle than from, say, San Francisco? Why are travelers to the Orient leaving from Seattle in increasing numbers? The "Great Circle" Courtes3^ of Seattle Chamber of Commerce and Commercial Club, 1920 publication. Fig. 18 The route shown on the map of Fig. 18 is called the "Great Circle" route. Do you know what a "great circle" is? On the globe that repre- sents the earth find and trace the line called the equator. You have traced a great circle. Now trace exactly at right angles to the equator another great circle. What two important points on the earth did your pencil move through in tracing a great circle at right angles to the equator? Turn to a map (on Mercator's projection) in your geography which shows Seattle and Vladivostok. The shortest route between these two cities is on the line of another circle, and this happens to be the trade route that is being developed between Seattle and Asiatic ports. Do you see from the map of Fig. 18 how this works out? Now write in your notebook a statement of what a great circle is. If you wanted to travel by the very shortest route from any port city of America to another port in a distant part of the world, wliat route would you try to follow ? Why ? ~Fr^m~ii publication of the Seattle Chamber of Commerce and Commercial Club. THE GROWTH OF CITIES 33 Now write a summary in your notebook of the reasons why Seattle is be- coming a great city. (B) Other Great Port Cities of the United States We have learned how one city, which only a generation ago was an un- known little community, is fast becoming one of the great world ports. What are the other port cities of the United States? What is the most populated one? Locate it on the wall map. Name three other port cities on the Atlantic Coast. How do they rank in population with other cities of our country? What do you think is an important cause of their large population? There is a very important map to study in this connection — a map of the ocean trade of the world. Turn to it now on page 42 of Part II. Where is the heaviest shipping of the world? Between what other country and ours is the largest trade? What four cities of the United States are receiving the Atlantic trade? What other cities of our country have grown rapidly because they are ports? (C.) What Makes A Port ? What is it that makes a port, anyway? Is it just ships entering the harbor ? Why do ships go to certain places like New York, Seattle, Galves- ton, Baltimore, San Francisco, New Orleans, Boston, and Philadelphia? Why do not large numbers of them go to Charleston, S. C, or Norfolk, Va., or St. Augustine, Fla. ? Geographers tell us that a city on the ocean cannot become a great port unless several things are true of it. First, it must have a good harbor; second it must have a large "hinterland" to draw trade from; and third, it must be near Europe. 1. A PORT MUST HAVE A GOOD HARBOR Why a good harbor? Ships must have a place where they can tie up against a wharf and stay for days at a time at anchor in quiet water. In set- tling new country men always go along the coast until they find bays and inlets where the land runs out and protects the water behind it. That was one reason why the English settled at Boston (it has a harbor). That is a reason that New York and Long Island and the opposite Jersey shore were settled early by the Dutch (1609). San Francisco grew up where it did largely because of the Golden Gate and the Bay. The description you read of Seattle commented on the excellence of its harbor. Does it seem to you that geographers are right in emphasizing the im- portance of a protected harbor? A good harbor means more than quiet water; it means a deep channel running close to shore so that great ships can enter even at low tide. A channel 40 feet deep at low tide accounts for New York's supremacy as a harbor. Furthermore, the range of the tide is only 4 to 5 feet which is another reason for her harbor's superiority. 34 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Finally, the anchorage space of the New York harbor is among the largest in the world. An airplane map of the city shows its docks running more than 20 miles on both sides of the North River (Hudson River) and the East River, as well as on the Long Island side. Look in your geography for pictures of this harbor and of others.-^ 2. A PORT MUST HAVE A HINTERLAND A city does not grow up just because people settle on the shore of a quiet harbor. Cities represent people — people at work. For people to live close together there must be agriculture, manufacturing, and trade. So as we look back over a hundred years at the history of our cities we see how their growth went hand in hand with the development of manufacturing and trade. See how well Fig. 19 illustrates this. o a > r- ± a > ^ o q 1920 D5 O 1900 O D C n H C/5 2 > Z c > n H C m a o a: n > o o < > r- C m O O H 191$ 19181 1833! WO 1850 (8801 I860HH ■in «0 OD 5 9 » 5 I 3 g 5 "S s S Fig. 19 It is inconceivable that Chicago's population could have reached nearly 3 million without a great growth in manufacturing and trade. But while lAtwood'R "Geography." Book II. Ginn & Co.. has excellent airplane maps of many cities, and the requisites of ports are made clear. THE GROWTH OF CITIES 35 some people manufacture, others farm, so to be complete the hinterland — the "land behind" the port— must be agricultural land. Did the account of Seattle's growth mention its being in or near a great farming region? What about the hinterland of Chicago, our second greatest city? Turn to your geography and read the discussion of the section dealing with the middle western states. Perhaps you will find it under Central Plains, or "Great Plains." Turn through the pictures too. Do the stories of farms, ranches, tractors, wheat fields, dairies, corn fields, coal mines, help you to understand why Chicago grew and how it was possible for a great city to grow up at the South end of Lake Michigan? Wheat and flour, corn, canned goods, coal, swine, cattle, mules, oats, barley, fruit — ^^these are the words you will find written over the middle western states on economic maps. Find one in your geography. Turn to page 5 of Part II of this pamphlet for other examples. Now Chicago's hinterland is as far as her buyers can reach to bring in goods to be handled, manufactured, consumed, or shipped to other places. MAP EXERCISE Take a blank map of the United States and sketch on it what you think is Chicago's hinterland. What do railroad lines have to do with it? What do lake boats and river steamers have to do with it? Do you imagine that the hinterlands of American cities have enlarged any as our railroad web has grown thicker ? 32 of the 50 Cities over 100,000 in Population are in the Industrial Zone, which is shown as the blackened portion between the broken lines. Fig. 20 36 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Turn forward to the railroad map of page 69, Part 11. Do you notice any relationship between the lines of the railroads and the location of our cities? What have railroads, hinterland, and the growth of cities to do with each other then? NEW YORK'S HINTERLAND New York is probably the greatest trading city in the world. We have seen that one reason is its remarkable harbor. Another is that- it is the natural outlet to Europe for the manufactured products of the great indus- trial zone. The map of Fig. 20 shows this industrial zone. (Because so many, 82 per cent, of our immigrants live there, it is also called the "im- migration zone.") In this industrial zone are America's great coal fields and iron mines. About 90 per cent of the coal and iron produced in the United States comes from this region. In the states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, are also thousands of acres of our best agricultural lands. Compare the region with the concentration of population as shown on Figs. 5 and 6. Now study the relief map of Fig 21 and decide where transportation routes from the Middle West and this industrial zone could best break through. Does this suggest a reason why all port cities need not be near to Europe in order to be large ? We cannot take the space here to tell the story of how New York, Boston, Baltimore, and Philadelphia raced for more than half a century for the trade of the west beyond the Appalachian Mountains. That story is told fully in The W estward Movement and the Growth of Transportation} Here we must leave it to you to decide how it happened that New York beat the other cities and secured the lion's share of the trade. Use the re- lief map of Fig. 20 and the railroad and economic maps that are in your geography. Have in mind such points as these : (1) The importance of valleys and easy routes of transportation; (2) the possibility of digging canals; (3) the railroads actually built; (4) dis- tances from the west; (5) regions from which railroad trunk lines take products. J. NEAREST TO WHAT CONTINENT ARE THE PORTS THAT HAVE GROWN MOST RAPIDLY? Turn ahead to the map of the ocean trade of the world, page 42 of Part II. Do you agree with geographers who insist that those ports situated nearest to 1.. were sure to grow most rapidly? Why? (what continent) 1 Pamphlet No. 1 of the Eighth Grade Series of "The Social Science Pamphlets;" gectioiis XIII. XVIIT. and XIX. THE GROWTH OF CITIES 38 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES EXERCISES FOR PUPILS ON OTHER CITIES To the Teacher: With these illustrations in hand, we suggest that you assign to individual pupils the task of making a graph showing the increase in population of particular cities since their beginning, or since 1790 for some, and of reporting to the class the causes for the growth of these cities. Statistics of populations for par- ticular cities are to be found in Vol. I, Population, of the 1920 Census Report, Bureau of Census, Washington, D. C. Assign cities which represent different types of growth, . e. g., port cities showing a slow, steady growth; perhaps a rubber city like Akron, Ohio ; an automobile city like Detroit; an inland city like Denver; a boom (oil) city like Tulsa, Okla. cities that have "petered out"; etc. Bring out the causes that account for the growth and de- cline of cities. Your teacher will assign you cities on which to collect data and make > graphs. Follow the directions she gives you. Now prepare a summary for your notebook, in which you bring together the chief points that you have learned about cities. IV. TRANSPORTATION— CRUCIAL TO CITY AND COUNTRY. 1. WHAT HAPPENS TO CITIES WHEN RAILROADS BREAK DOWN? In Part II there is a vivid account of what happened to Russia's cities in 1918 to 1920, written by the famous English writer, Mr. H. G. Wells. It is a story, by an eye witness, which shows that great cities can, in the space of but three or four years, dwindle in size and go quite to pieces. Turn next to page 66 of Part II and read the account as far as page 71. So this is what happens to cities when the normal course of affairs in peace times is upset. Do you have any fear for the cities of America? Is it thinkable that what happened to the people of Petersburg in 1913 to 1921 could happen to the people of Chicago or San Francisco or New York? Does this picture bring home to you the intricacy of the machine upon which life depends if you live in the city?. Does it lead your mind to a picture of scores of railroad trains running through the night between small communities and cities carrying millions of gallons of milk to be used next day by the babies and the grown ups of thousands of communities scattered over America? Do you see fresh vegetables dumped into the great central markets of our cities and distributed in the early morning hours over the ^ different parts of the community by wholesalers and by the little corner grocery which serves you? Do you see tens of thousands of refrigerator cars drawing cold-storage meat (which had been grown in the far west and slaughtered in Kansas City or Chicago) into the wholesale markets of Boston, Baltimore, New Orleans, San Francisco, and Seattle? Do you see hundreds of thousands of freight cars heaped high with bituminous coal from Illinois, Indiana, and West Virginia, or anthracite from Pennsyl- vania dumped in the yards of thousands of great power plants, railroad terminals, or local coal dealers, ready to run the hundreds of thousands of factories, locomotives, and to heat several million homes of the United States? Do you see train despatchers, telegraph operators, division super- intendents, workmen, guarding carefully the road bed of the railroad, officials in their offices deciding cautiously important matters upon which hinges the security of handling your food and coal, and upon which, in turn, hinges the very safety of your life? What an incredibly complicated scheme we have built up in an indus- trial country like America to carry on the work of our great cities ! And how completely it all depends upon transportation ! 40 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Would what happened to Vienna and Petersburg happen to our cities if our railroads stopped running? If our coal supply was shut off? If food could not get to the city ? Discuss in your class what would take place in an American city if such things happened. 2. WHERE DOES THE FOOD ON YOUR DINNER TABLE COME FROM? To the Teacher: In preparing for this exercise, we suggest that you have pupils obtain copies of railway folders from several of the different railroad systems of the country: New York Central; Pennsylvania; New York, New Haven and Hartford; Chesapeake and Ohio; Northern Pacific; Union Pacific; Southern Pacific; Grand Trunk; Canadian Pacific; Oregon Short Line; and others. Each of these will give a map of a particular system and will be very helpful in showing pupils the scope of our railway systems and how dependent on them we are. To secure a clearer idea of the very complicated scheme our lives depend upon, work out the following exercise in class. Tell the teacher, so she can write a list on the blackboard, the foods you had on your dinner table yesterday. Did you have meat? What kind?" Where do you think it came from? Open your pamphlet to the map of the American railways, Part II, page 69; also open your geography to a map' showing railways, states, cities, and towns in the United States. Trace the probable route by which your meat came, and be able to show the route to the class on the wall map. Does Fig. 22 help you ? In the same way trace the route of the vegetables you had for dinner. Turn forward to Part II, page 5, and use Fig. 1 to help answer the next question. Did you have potatoes? Is this region you live in a good potato region? Perhaps farmers right near yodr town raise them and bring them into the local grocers. Can anyone tell the class? There's a "potato map" on page 13 of Part II. Does the United States produce many potatoes, as com- pared to other countries? Bread ? Of course. Hardly a dinner table in America is without bread. That is the world's great staple food. Was it "white" bread you had, made from wheat flour? Where did the wheat probably come from? (See page 5 Part II.) Trace the route on the wall map. Did you have any vegetables? Is it the right season for fresh vegetables? Do farmers near your home do "truck" gardening, raising tomatoes, sweet corn, peas, beans, and other vegetables? If so, how do they get them to- the markets of your city? By horse-drawn wagon? Are the roads good outside the city? Do the farmers use motor-trucks? Have the roads been macadamized in recent years? Do you see how this has anything to do> with marketing food stuffs and manufactured goods? transportation: a key industry 41 What about fruit? Grapefruit? Oranges? Bananas? Apples? Find out where they probably come from, and trace what seems to you to be the best route. Perhaps you will find, as some pupils did in New York State last year, that the apples they were eating came all the way from Oregon, when apples could have been obtained— very good ones, too— right within their own state! We will study later how such a queer thing could have happened. Where It Comes From One small dot represents 5,000 beef cattle on farms, only a portion of which become meat in the course of a year. Large dots show the location of principal slaughtering centers. 42 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Just now we are interested to learn that things on our dinner table may come from very far away. Yet we depend on their being on hand in the city each day. We take for granted they are at the store when we go to buy them or order them over the telephone. Was coffee served on your dinner or breakfast table yesterday? Where do you think it came from? Figs. 10 and 11 on page 17 of Part II will tell you. Do we raise any coffee? Where does it come from? Trace on the wall map the way you think it might have been shipped to us. Do this for any other food you had for yesterday's dinner. What part of the food in your dinner was raised right in your local community? What part just outside in nearby towns? What came by train from hundreds or even thousands of miles away? Do you see how dependent we in the towns and cities are, on our great transportation system? 3. NOTE TO REMIND YOU THAT THE USE OF COAL AND THE LOCATION OF OUR INDUSTRIES DEPENDS ON TRANSPORTATION ALSO You have now seen how the food that we eat in our towns and cities depends upon transportation. Of course other things that are very im- portant in our lives depend on transportation too. Coal to heat our homes, to supply motive-power for our locomotives and power plants in thousands of factories. This, to be useful, must be transported from the mine to the points all over the country. Iron ore must be taken from Minnesota and Wisconsin mines to Illinois, Indiana, and Pennsylvania steel mills. Lumber must be brought from our forest regions to other sections where factories and mills are waiting to make it up into finished products. Manufactured products of all sorts and kinds must be moved from factory to warehouse, to store and finally to consumer. And it all depends on transportation. The best place to discuss this matter is in connection with the consideration of coal and industries, so we will not take it up further at this time. 4. A picture story of a century of transportation In many ways our transportation system today — railroads, steamboats, canal boats, motor highways — is quite remarkable. We have grown up so much in the midst of it, however, that we fail to see how unusual it really is. If you could think back only 100 years to a time when there were no trains, no canals, no automobiles, no airplanes, no great steamboats, you would see more clearly what great changes have come in just three generations. We have assembled some pictures that will give you a rapid sketch of these changes. Perhaps you can find at home or in books or magazines in the library, pictures which will help your class to understand how trans- portation grew up in our country. The whole story is told quite fully in Pamphlet No. I of the Eight Grade Series, The JVestward Movement and the Growth of Transportation. transportation: a key industry 43 On the trail in the early days^ Fig 23. No. 1. Following the Revolutionary War the "Conestoga wagon" was one of the most used land "freighters". It carried the goods of west- ward-moving pioneers over the Appalachians 1790 to 1820; of the rest- less settlers of the Ohio Valley who moved into the Mississippi Valley states in the 1820's, 1830's, 1840's and 1850's; and of the "forty-niners" who went to the California and Oregon ciuntry in the ' 850's and 1860's Not until 1870 was there a transcontinental railroad tying Atlantic and Pacific coasts together. "I kept on swinging through the deserts . the Concord stage," ^ Fig. 24 in the 'boot' of No. 2. The Conestoga wagon carried the family's freight as well as the family itself; the Concord stage came only after roads had been blazed, poor as they were. The use of these coaches followed in the wake of the V^^estward Movement. The Pennsylvanians used them on the Lancaster Pike about 1800; they rolled in hundreds on the National (Cumberland) Road from 1820 to 1840, through Maryland, West Vir- ginia, and Ohio; similar vehicles were used in the Middle West a gen- eration later. They came before the railroad, held on while it was being perfected, but went out of use as it became a cheap, rapid, and com- fortable way to travel. 10 to 20 miles a day on the stage, 800 miles a day on the railroad ! 1 Reproduced with permission from "The White Indian Boy" by E N Wil*?oTi and Howard R. Driggs, page 1. Copyrighted by The World Book Company.' 2 Reprinted with permission from "The White Indian Boy," bv Wilson and Copyrighted by the World Book Company. ^ wiison and Driggs. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES A line of motor trucks waiting to move up to the doors of the Sacramento River warehouses at Princeton, California Fig. 25 No. 3. Finally soon after the passenger automobile became a reality in the early 1890's the motor trucks appeared as a cheap and rapid means of transporting freight. With them both came astonishing improvements in roads, exceeding the gains that had been made when the stage lines were laid out and the National road was built. Hundreds of millions of dollars are now being spent yearly for macadamized Joads. Merchan- dize of all sorts and kinds are shipped by truck on hauls as long as sev- eral hundred miles. Contrast the hundred-and-fifty mile-a-day haul of 1922 with the ten-mile-a-day haul of 1890! On which do you think freight would be least damaged? This is the "Tom Thumb," an engine built by Peter Cooper in 1829. It actually went ! Fig. 26 ' No. 4. After people had moved things cumbersomely for thousands of years, men finally invented an engine that would travel on rails. The "Tom I'luimb" is one of the first attempts. After succeeding in making the thing go, inventors very soon learned how to improve it. The next picture No. 5, shows how much progress was made in 10 years. 1 From "The AiuericjiH." Feb., 1!)21. National City Bank, New York City. transportation: a key industry 45 The locomotive in this train was used about 1838-40. It has a lamp head- light but no cab for the engineer. Notice that they burned wood in those days. What curious cars they had ! Fig. 27 i Fig. 28 2 No. 5. We have not space to give you pictures of the whole story, but here is one that tells how much men have learned in a century of rail- road building. Compare heavy steel rails of 1921 with the stone and iron rails of 1829; the 16 to 20 wheels of today's locomotive with the four fragile ones used in 1829. How the smoke stack has dwindled in size and 1 From Dunbar, Seymour: "A History of Travel in America," Vol. Ill, page 25. Bobbs- Merrill Company, Indianapolis. 2 From "The Americas," Feb., 1921. National City Bank, New York City. 46 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES the boiler has enlarged! One engine (1839) hauled a few lightly-loaded cars at a snail's pace; the other (1921), a string of fifty or more, each laden with tons of freight. Fig. 29 ' No. 6. On water as on land man has learned better ways how to transport things. In the days when people were using the Conestoga wagon, they depended for their dowm-river traffic on the sturdy fiatboat. Millions of pioneers floated down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers on varieties of arks — broad-horns, barges, packets — in the years between 1800 to 1850. Curious things they w-ere, "combinations of log-cabin, fort, floating barnyard and country grocery," housing men, women, children, horses, pigs, chickens, cow^s, dogs, kegs of powder, dishes, furniture, and what-not. Towing a canal boat on the western level stretches of the Erie Canal. Fig. 30 2 No. 7. About the time that Conestogas were rumbling into the Ohio Valley and Stages were whizzing along the National Road, easterners were digging Canals to bring the growing trade of the west to the eastern cities of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The Erie Canal, 1825, joining the Hudson River and Lake Erie, was America's only successful canal until the Panama Canal was built. But America has spent her time making railroads and her canals have amounted to little. We are way behind Europe in this respect 1 Reprinted with permission of Bobbs-Merrill Co. from Dunbar, op. cit., Vol. I, papre 2f)2. 2 From Dunbar, ibid. Vol. II. transportation: a key industry 47 A Mississippi steamer.; Fig. 311 No. 8. Later in the 1840's and 1850's and 1860's came the river steam- boat. Fitch did much to invent it and make it go way back in the 1790's in Pennsylvania; Fulton, Livingstone (1807), and Vanderbilt (1830 to 1870), made it a commercial success on the Hudson and other eastern rivers. About the time of the Civil War thousands of them plied up and down the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers carrying both freight and pas- sengers. They were slow and dangerous things to travel in. Automobiles Sent By River Highways to Relieve the Railway Congestion Michigan manufacturers have, it is stated, sent barge-loads of automo- biles, as shown in the photograph, from St. Louis to Cincinnati and other points, whence they will proceed to their destinations on their own power. The freight-car shortage is thus relieved. Fig. 32 ^ No. 9. As the latest word in river freight, this shows how far we have grown from the days of the flatboat. On the Great Lakes and larger rivers of America today thousands of small but powerful tug- 1 Reproduced with permission of Bobbs-Merrill Co. from "A History of Travel in America," by Seymour Dunbar, Vol. II, page 402. 2 Courtesy of the Outlook. 48 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES boats and steamers are "towing" millions of tons of freight. This shipment of manufactured goods such as automobiles by river boat is exceptional. Generally only heavy raw materials, like iron ore or coal are shipped this w'ay. The lighter things go by railroads; it is quicker but more expensive. Transportation by water has nearly always been much cheaper than by railroad. Fig. 33 No. 10. Finally in summary fashion here is 90 years of develop- ment m transatlantic shipping. From the little "clipper" sailing ship, "Dreadnaught" (we smile at the name) of 1835, we see the first successful attempt at a steam ocean travel in the sidewheel "Brittania" of 1839. Stages of improvement are shown in the iron screw ships "Borossia," 1857, and "Arizona" in 1887, the steel screw ship "Oceanic," 1900. The climax appears in the giant "Leviathan" 1914, formerly the German "Vaterland." 5. America's railroad system : vast, speedy, luxurious All Africa has - 29,000 miles of railroad. All Asia has 69,000 miles of railroad. All Europe has 217,000 miles of railroad. The United States alone has 270,000 miles of railroad.^ Is there any doubt in your mind as to which country has carried the con- struction of railroads furthest? Our foreign visitors may well marvel at the bigness of our railroad system, the speed of our trains, the convenience of the service, and the comforts of -travel. America's railroads in number of miles and rate of speed are greater than those of any other country in the world. A Country of Great Territory Must Have Ties to Bind Her People Together Railroads— l^lephones— Telegraph— Postal- Service— Good - Roads— Newspapers— Magazines— are some of these ties. • Turn forward to the map of page 69 in Part H. Here you have the vast network of the railroad system of the United States before your eyes. See how it reaches in all directions touching practically every community of any considerable size in the whole country. The railroad is one of the greatest ties for binding together a people milea^^e hwm' A nuM-U./r'''"" ^'"^^^^ ^^^^^^ three-fourths of the TRANSPORTATION I A KEY INDUSTRY 49 that are spread out over a large stretch of territory. And one of the most impjartant facts for you to remember is that the people of the United States — 106,000,000 in number — are spread out over an area that is almost as large as all of Europe put together. Turn to the population m.ap of Fig. 3 on page 9 in Part II. Compare carefully the area of the United States with that of Europe. You w^ill find the area of the United States in the second bar graph of Fig. 3, and the area of Europe and the other continents in Fig. 32A on page 82 of Part II. Which of the leading countries is spread out over the largest territory? Do you think it would be as easy and natural for the people of California, Maine, Florida, and Texas to feel as though they were one people — just Americans — as for the people of different parts of England to feel that they were all English? or for the people of the different parts of France to feel that they were all French? and the Germans? the people of Switzerland? of Denmark? of Holland ? of Belgium? Do you think the size of a country in number of square miles has anything to do with this feeling on the part of the inhabitants of being one people? What has it to do with it ? i What have railroads and telephones, telegraphs and automobiles, news- papers and magazines, to do with this feeling? To the Teacher: At this point there is an opportunity to have the class see the importance of this question. Point out to them how great distances in a country like the United States, Russia, China, make it difficult to develop a real spirit of unity. Also make it clear to them how the different ties, such as we have mentior\ed, have brought ' about an astonishing amount of unity in spite of the natural obstacles. For example, show how the government edu- cated our people in 1916-17 to want to enter the World War by a widespread campaign through newspapers, mo- tion pictures, and other ways. EXERCISE Where Are the Important Railroad Lines? In the exercise on "Where the food for your dinner table comes from," you studied the location of the more important railroad lines of the country. People in Atnerica should really know where these railroads are in order to understand things that are happening in other parts of the country. Table III gives a list of the larger trunk lines of the country, together with the ap- proximate number of miles of track in each system. 50 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Table III No. of Miles • 1. New York, New Haven & Hartford (with allied lines) 7,000 2. New York Central (with allied Vanderbilt lines) 23,000 3. Pennsylvania (with allied lines) 14,000 4. Southern Railway (with allied Morgan lines) 29,000 5. Northern Pacific ( ^^..^^ j^.jj 28,000 6. Great Northern \ 7. Union Pacific (with allied lines, formerly Harriman's) 34,000 8. Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul (with allied lines) 10,000 9. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (with allied lines) 11,000 10. Southern Pacific (with allied lines) • 10,000 166,000 'These ten railroad systems control about 65 per cent of all our railroad ^mileage. | MAP EXERCISE 1. On a blank mimeographed map of the United States draw approxi- mately the route covered by each of these systems. Trace these in so as to show the cities and regions that they connect and the general region they provide transportation for. 2. Exchange papers with a neighbor and correct his work. Write on the left margin of the paper the name of any railroad which is clearly placed in the wrong region. We are trying only to learn the approximate location of these systems. 3. Return your neighbor's paper and receive your own, Now^ learn the location of any route that you may have missed by studying the. maps in the railway folders or a large railroad map if you have one in your class room. To the Pupils Can anyone in the class obtain a large map of the United States which will show the principal railroad lines ? If so, it will be very helpful to have it hanging in the room all the time. Our lives probably depend more upon the railroads than on any other industry, so we should know the important facts about them. £XERCISE TO SHOW THE IMPORTANCE OF THE RAILROADS IN OUR LIVES These days the magazines (like The Outlook, The Literary Digest, The Independent, The Industrial Digest, and others) and the daily newspapers contain many articles about our railroads. Bring to class clippings from them which will show the importance of railroads in our daily lives. No doubt each of you knows things that have happened recently which pertain to railroads. Tell the class any anecdotes that you can gather at home or from other places. transportation: a key industry 51 When you have some leisure for reading about our railroads here are some interesting books on the subject : To the Teacher: We suggest that one or two class exer- cises be spent upon such topics as (1) Railroads and steamships as freight-carriers; (2) The provision of rail- roads for the safety of their passengers; (3) The work of various employees of transportation lines, such as the en- gineer, the conductor, and the train despatcher; the pilot and the captain on steamships; (4) How our railroads and inland waterways help our trade; (5) What trans- portation means to the farmer, the business man, and the city-dweller. The following books will be helpful for these exercises: 1. Allen, Nellie B. : United States. Ginn & Company. New York, 1910. Pages 43-53. 2. Carter, Charles F. : When Railroads Were Neiv. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910. 3. Chamberlain, James F. : Hoiv We Travel. The Mac- millan Company, New York, 1918. 4. Crump, Irving: The Boys' Book of Railroads. Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1921. 5. Fisher, Elizabeth F. : Resources and Industries of the United States. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1919. Pages 200-219. 6. Howdon, J. R. : The Boys Book of Railroads. Fred- erick A. Stokes Company, New York, 1909. 7. Hungerford, Edward: The Railroad Problem. Par- ticularly Chs. 3-6. A. C. McClurg, Chicago, 1917. 8. Mowry, W. A. and Mowry, A. M, ; American In- ventions and Investors. Silver, Burdett & Co., New York, 1900. Pages 187-244, 258-277, 286-297. 9. Rocheleau, W. F. : Great American Industries — Transportation. A. Flanagan Company, Chicago, 1914. 10. Tappan, Eva M. : Travelers and Traveling. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, 1916. 11. Washington, William D.: Progress and Prosperity, National Educational Publishing Company, New York 1911. 6. DOES AMERICA USE HER WATERWAYS? Have you ever talked to a foreigner who was visiting our country for the first time? What do foreigners say about our ways of transporting people and freight? First of all, they marvel at the thousands of miles of rail- roads extending from coast to coast ; then at the heavy locomotives and the long trains. They are amazed at our train schedules, the frequency of trains from place to place, the comforts and conveniences of travelling by night, our Pullmans and porter service. They are surprised at not finding first, second, and third class coaches with a different fare for each as in their own countries. And they can hardly believe that they can check their baggage when they buy their tickets, and that it will be transferred from place to place without any concern on their part and reach their destination when they do. In all countries of Europe the passenger must see that his baggage is put on the train he takes, and if he transfers to another train that his baggage goes with him ; there is no one to look out for it but himself. So we are very proud of our railroads before foreigners. U.OFaL.LtB. U, OF ILL LIB. 52 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES But while we boast of our railroads, they have something else to boast about which might put us to shame. They look at our lakes and rivers and ask why we are so wasteful of the cheapest method of transportation there is ? You have already seen examples of the fact that we do use our Great Lakes and many of our rivers, but Europeans say we do not begin to use them for transportation as much as we could, and they point out that the United States is abundantly supplied with waterways. While the American people have been occupied in building up a tremendous system of railways, the Europeans have been developing their waterways and they ask us why we have hot de- veloped ours. Why haven't we? Turn back to the relief map of Fig. 21 and study it with Fig. 34 which shows the navigable streams and canals of the United States. (For a stream to be navigable it must have a deep enough channel for freight and passenger vessels to pass through it.) Why do these rivers take the direction they do ? Trace on your wall map the direction in which the following rivers flow : (1) Mississippi, (2) Missouri, (3) Connecticut, (4) Hudson, (5) Monon- gahela, (6) Delaware, (7) Susquehanna, (8) Alleghany, (9) Illinois, (10) Red. If you were asked to tell in a sentence where the navigable waterways of the United States are, how would you tell it? Do you see any relation between where the waterways are and where the American people are ? Make a statement telling what the relation is. MAP EXERCISE 1. On a mimeographed map of the United States which traces the rivers, but does not name them, locate the following rivers, lakes and canals : Hud- son, Superior, Mississippi, Delaware, Huron, Missouri, Connecticut, Erie, Sacramento, Columbia, Ontario, Red, Michigan, Sault Ste. Marie, St. Lawrence, Potomac, Erie Canal. 2. Exchange papers with your neighbor. Correct his paper, writing in the left-hand margin the name of each river or lake incorrectly located. Re- turn his paper and receive your own. 3. Learn the location of each river, lake, or canal which you missed. To the Teacher : Following this exercise we suggest that you have a brief wall map exercise, reviewing the loca- tion of these rivers and lakes, and recalling the answers to questions asked through this section. Now locate each of these rivers, lakes, and canals on the wall map in your class room. 54 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES How Extensive Are Our Inland Waterways? The United States has about : 25,000 miles of navigable rivers 25,000 " " rivers that can be made navigable 2,120 " " canals 2,500 " " sounds, bays, etc. 1,100 " " canals can be added by connecting bays and sounds along the coast. Thus we have a total of 55,000 to 60,000 miles of inland waterways. Does your study of the relief map of Fig. 21 and of the map of navigable rivers, Fig. 34, tell you why we have so many miles of rivers in the Ohio and Mississippi Valley regions, and so few west of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana ? Tell the class what you think is the reason. We found that the greatest proportion of our people are concentrated in the northeastern part of the country? Why are there not more people in the Mississippi Valley regions since there are so many rivers there? What are the principal kinds of work done by the people who live in the Mississippi Valley? What are the chief occupations of the people in the northeastern zone ? Navigation of Rivers and the Location of Cities Study Fig. 34 again. Do you notice how sharply the rivers all along the Atlantic coastal plain break off at certain points? Trace each one beginning in the extreme south at Columbus, Mississippi, then Tuscaloosa and Mont- gomery, Ala., Macon, and Augusta, Georgia. Why is the river that Carters is on navigable so far from its mouth, while the river that Augusta is on is navigable for only such a short distance from its mouth ? Now find Columbia and Camden, S. C. ; Fayetteville, N. C. ; Richmond and Fredericksburg, Va. ; Washington, D. C. ; Philadelphia, Pa. ; and Tren- ton, N. J. On the map of Fig. 34 draw a line connecting each of these cities. Why Did These Cities Grow Up Where They Did ? And Why Are These Rivers Navigable Up to These Points? The geographers call the line such as you have just drawn THE FALL LINE. Does the name tell you what it means? The "Fall Line" is the line that connects the places on rivers w^here "water-falls" occur. It also connects the first city or town (on the way from the mouth to the source) of each river. Study the relief map. Fig. 21, again. Do you see about where the line you have drawn would appear on this relief map? When the first P^nglish colonists came to America in 1607 (landing at Jamestown, Va.), in 1620 (landing at Plymouth, Mass.). and usually in tlie decades following, they sailed into the bays and inlets along the coast and transportation: a key industry 55 up the rivers. When the Virginia colonists went inland to settle, they went by boat up the James River as far as the falls. Many of them stopped there and settled, although a few pioneers pushed on into the interior highlands — into what was known as the "back country." So at the "falls" in the James River a village, later the city of Richmond, grew up. Philadelphia was settled in the same way by those who attempted to go up the Schuylkill River and were stopped by falls there. Similarly Balti- more was located miles inland from the Chesapeake Bay. Trenton, New Jersey, grew up where it did largely because of the falls on the Delaware River. So, too, with Macon, Ga. and Montgomery, Ala. and Columbia, S.. C. ; the falls in the rivers were one of the chief causes for the location of all these cities. Comparison of Inland Waterways in America and Europe See if you can find a map in your geography which shows the navigable rivers and canals of Europe. Notice how the Germans, the French, the Eng- lish, and the Austrians have dug canals between their rivers. The Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, and the Weser are all connected by canals with the Rhine region. Locate each of these rivers on your wall map. Canals make it possible for the merchant of Prussia to ship goods across country to the Rhine River by water without disturbing the bulk of his freight traffic. (Over what route would the bulk of his traffic be shipped to Amsterdam if he lived, say in Hamburg?) Large sums of money have been spent in Europe on straightening rivers and deepening channels, with the most important result that goods can be shipped by direct routes, where the distance is shorter, instead of going by the roundabout route of the Baltic Sea. Isn't it interesting to see how business people are always trying to find ways to use the most direct routes to those sections of a country or a continent that are thickly settled ? The building of canals in the northern region of Europe is a good example of this. Turn to the population map on page 9 of Part IL Do you see how dense the population is in the neighborhood of Holland and Belgium and the north- western part of Germany? Notice how much thinner it is in the Vistula and Oder regions. Can you see any connection between the density of population and the building of canals in the northern part of Europe? Now turn forward to the relief map of the United States, Fig. 21. Which rivers would help to move the great quantities of manufactured goods, wheat, corn, etc., from the Middle West to the East where they are partly used by the large population and partly shipped across to Europe ? In which direction do these rivers flow ? Does their direction help in the matter of eastward shipping? Why is the direction of these rivers what it is? What does the "lay of the land" have to do with it? 56 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Can you see a reason now for our having spent billions on railroads con- necting the East with the Middle West when we have spent only millions on the improvement of our waterways? What a striking comparison is brought out by the next table! It gives you the number of miles of canals in the sev- eral countries. From the appendix of your geography fill in the area of the countries. How does the area of the United States compare with the area of the other countries? Table IV No. of Miles of Country Area Canals in 1920 t ranee 3052 German^^ ^ 500 England 1202 United States - 2120 What conclusion do you draw from the facts of Table IV? Have we improved our inland waterways as Europe has improved hers? What about the Great Lakes? Do they not form a fine east and west waterway? Yes, our Great Lakes freight traffic, especially in ore, coal, wheat, and other grains, is truly tremendous. Ships go by the thousand through the lakes and the locks and short canals that have been built around the "falls" at Sault Ste. Marie and Niagara. (Find these on the map.) The route appears to be open clear to the Atlantic Ocean, does it not? 1700 miles of broad, reasonably straight waterway. But there are serious drawbacks. First, the channel of the St. Lawrence River and the locks and canals are only deep enough to take boats that "draw" 14 feet of water. This means that the larger ocean freighters cannot go clear through, say to Chicago, and Duluth, Minn. Furthermore, the St. Lawrence and the Lakes are so far north that they freeze over for three months during the winter. Do you see a reason in this that would make people hesitate to spend money to improve a river like the St. Lawrence and to build locks and canals around rapids and falls? The worst obstacle has been the Niagara Falls. It is between what lakes ? You will read much about the way the Erie Canal was built a hun- dred years ago (1817-1825) and how people hoped that it would permit ships to go clear through from the west to the ocean and so over to Europe. But the ships grew in size more rapidly than the canal grew in depth. So even today ocean-going traffic through the Erie Canal has not developed to any great extent. Only one-fiftieth as many tons of freight were carried by the Erie Canal as were carried by the Sault Ste. Marie Canal at the eastern end of Lake Superior. The heaviest freighting through the "Soo" Canal, as the Superior Canal is called, is iron ore going from the mining region of Minnesota to the eastern steel mills, coal being carried on the return trips. transportation: a key industry 57 Do you see how much handHng of cargoes is necessary at Buffalo ? Do you see a reason why merchants prefer to ship by the railroads? What is it? EXERCISE 1. Give examples to show what happens to cities when railroads break down. 2. On a blank mimeographed map indicate approximately where the food on your dinner table comes from. 3. Give reasons to prove that each of the following things depends upon transportation. A. 1. Cities; 2. Factories; 3. The use of coal; 4. Farms. 4. What conclusions do you draw from reading A Picture Story of a Century of Transportation? 5. Make a httle summary which will answer the question: Does America use Her Waterways W ellf 6. What facts that you have read indicate that America's railroad system is vast, speedy and luxurious? 7. Make a list of ways in which people and goods are transported. How would you predict that people and goods will be carried 10 years hence? 25 years hence? 8. What do you think should be done to improve our transportation system ? 9. Complete these sentences : a. Transportation is to both city and _ b. The use of and the location of de- pends upon transportation. c. America's railroads in of miles and in i ! of J greater , , . speed are than those of any other country in the world. (Which?) d. A country of i,, territory must have to bind her people together. consolidated e. The railroads of America today are scattered . . independent (^^w many?) ., , ■ , / (Which) railroads control about per cent of all our railroad mileage. 58 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES f. Most of our mileage is concentrated in the — A^S^h)^. section of the United States. g. While Americans have developed most their ..->_Lr:„^.5:^l , the Europeans have developed most of their r_.l-L^-_._- h. The navigable rivers are chiefly in the .C^-Q^dko_\._ section of the United States. i. Most of our important cities are located on — ; many cities on the Atlantic Coast are located on v^^hat is called the "ickkisL,. " ■ V j. Water transportation in America is handicapped by — _ --3 10. Prepare a summary for your notebook about: Transportation — Crucial to City and Country. V. COAL: AMERICA'S MOST IMPORTANT NATURAL RESOURCE INDUSTRIES AND CITIES DEPEND UPON COAL BUT WE ARE NOT ON STRIKE!" — Kirby in the New York World. From "Literary Digest, Sept. 9, 1922. Fig. 35 What is the most important conclusion that you draw from .a study of this cartoon ? 60 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 70,000 WORKERS TO LOSE JOBS- FORD ANNOUNCES SHUT-DOWN- CLAIMS COAL SHORTAGE AS CAUSE Detroit, Sept. 10, 1922.— The Ford Motor Car Company posted notices today to the effect that its shops will shut down Sept. 12th for an indefinite period, unless a suffi- cient supply of coal can be secured. . . How does the clipping illustrate the importance of coal in our lives? Can you think of any natural resource or any industry that has a more important relation than coal has to our daily living? Can you find other newspaper or magazine clippings that show the im- portance of coal ? Read them to the class. Post them on the Bulletin Board in your class room. Make notes of such things in your notebook. A survey of twenty New York State municipalities shows only one-tenth of the winter's coal needs on hand and a hundred schools in New York City are said to be without coal. In the fall of 1919 the coal miners threatened to strike. Presid,ent Wilson appealed to the men not to do this on the ground that : "It is recognized that the strike would practically shut ofE the country's supply of its principal fuel at a time when inter- ference with that supply is calculated to .create a disastrous fuel famine. All interests would be affected alike by a strike of this character, and its victims would be not the rich only, but the poor and the needy as well — those least able to provide in advance a fuel supply for domestic uses. "It would involve the shutting down of countless industries and the throwing out of employment of a large part of the workers of the country. It would involve stopping the oper- ation of railroads, electric light and gas plants, street railway lines, and other public utilities, and the shipping to and from this country. . . ." ^ How does this quotation show our dependence on coal? 1 Based on the facts of the closing of the Ford factories in Sept. 1922 2 "Plans to Meet the Coming Coal Famine." Literary Digest, Sept. 9, ^^^^^Quoied from a statement given out by President Wilson Oct. 25, l^lf. th^e Chicago Daily New.s Almanac and Yearbook, for 1920. page 754, Chicago, Illinois, 1919. coal: another key industry 61 "Henderson deliver any coal today, Mary?" inquired William Baker when he reached his home in Elizabeth, New Jersey, after a long cold ride one evening in early February. "No," rephed his wife, "He says the ice on the river has held up the coal barges. They can't get up to the wharves, so the railroads can't deliver. There should be plenty of coal but its held up by this awful weather we've had the last three weeks." "Well, I don't know w^hat we're going to do. Not enough in the bin to last more than today." HOW EACH 1000 TONS OF COAL IS USED Fig. 36' What does Fig. 36 tell you about the way in which the lives of people in cities depend on coal ? What proportion of our coal supply goes to heating our homes? What to running our factories and mills? What percent to keeping our railroads going? Notice that 13 per cent goes to making coke. One of the largest uses of coke is in smelting iron ore. What do you think would happen to the iron and steel business if our coal supply gave out? What proportion of the coal mined is used up in the very mining of the coal itself? What proportion do we ship out to other countries ? ^ Courtesy of Tndu.strial Digest, August 19, 1922. 62 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES THE COAL SHORTAGE OF 1922 The Nation's Swiftly Diminishing Coal Pile Courtesy of "Industrial Digest," July 8, 1922 On April 1 the total coal reserves of the country were 63,000,000 tons. The normal rate of consumption is now 10,000,000 tons a month in excess of production from non-union mines. The minimum reserve for safety is 20,000,000 tons; the lower graph shows a condition that might result the second week in August if meanwhile steps are not taken to end the coal dead-_ lock. If, after this turning point early in August, reserves continue to be depleted, industrial production will have to be curtailed. ^ Fig. 37 Do you remember in the coal famine of 1918-1919. how factories closed and children were kept out of school? how we could not go to theatres in the evening and how Sunday services in the churches were not held for weeks? From April 1922, when the miners' strike was declared, the country was rushing nearer to danger month by month. Fig. 37 shows how the coal pile rapidly dwindled. The figure was printed in July to show what would happen if the strike continued until October. It actually ended, however, in September, but by that time what had happened to our reserve of mine coal? If the strike had not been settled when it was, what would have happened to our factories and railroads? Which would have stopped running first? Why was the "coal pile" growing smaller during the hot summer months? Have you still the idea that most of our coal is used for heating buildings, so that the winter is the time to worry about a coal shortage? Our national government, our state governments, our city officials, and private associations like the United States Chamber of Commerce, the Ameri- can Railway Association, and the National Association of the Manufactur- ers, held meetings during the months of the strike to decide what should be -done. The State of New York appointed a Fuel Administrator. His first act was to order coal dealers "to deliver to no customer more than a two weeks' supply of the domestic size of anthracite." Why did he issue such an order as this? COAL : ANOTHER KEY INDUSTRY 63 Where iron and steel manufacturing is done in America. Fig. 38 Where Are Our Coal Fields? HOW DOES their LOCATION AFFECT WHERE PEOPLE LIVE? Be ready to point out on the wall map the region in America where people live most closely together. Turn back to Figs. 5 and 6 if you cannot remem- ber. Fig. 20 will give you a still better idea. Remember that the zone marked out on Fig. 20 is called the Industrial Zone as well as the Immigra- tion Zone. Here 32 of the 50 largest cities in the United States are found. Courtesy of Industrial Digest, August 5, 1922 Where the coal of America is deposited in the earth Fig. 39 64 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Now one of the industries most closely connected to the coal industry is that of iron and steel manufacturing. The iron ore as it is taken out of the earth has to be "smelted" — that is, heated to a very great heat — so as to re- move the impurities from the iron. Soft coal and coke (made from coal) are of course the fuels commonly used in this work of smelting the iron ore. They are used in such huge quantities that people have learned it is econ- omical to build their steel mills near the coal deposits. That is true not only in America but in Europe, too. You will find, when you study in Part II about the great steel industries of France and Germany that although France has the greater iron deposits much of the smelting is done in Germany be- cause of her greater coal deposits. So France ships much of her iron to Germany to be smelted. Having Fig. 38 in mind then, where w^ould you expect to find the great soft coaP deposits of our country? In Florida? In California? Texas? Nebraska ? New York ? the New England States ? How^ does Fig. 39 help you to answer this question ? Where are the chief soft coal beds? Where are hard coal (anthracite) beds? Point them out on the wall map. Do you see a very good reason w^hy the iron and steel in- dustries are centered in the northeastern region ? Why great steel plants are concentrated about Pittsburgh, and scattered through Pennsylvania, Ohio, Northern Indiana, and Illinois? MAP EXERCISE 1. On a blank map of the United States shade in the coal deposit regions of the country. 2. Exchange papers with your neighbor. Correct his map by compar- ing it with Fig. 39. Draw a line from each misplaced region out to the margin placing a cross at the end of it. Then return his paper and receive your own. 3. Study Fig. 39 very carefully and learn the locations of the regions which you may have missed. Where do you think the great steel mills about Chicago draw their coal from? Where do those about Pittsburgh draw from? The bar graphs Fig. 40 will give you further facts about where our soft coal comes from. Which state produced the most in 1920? What other states produced large quantities? Do the states which produce most coal nowadays have the largest amount left in the ground? The circle graphs of Fig. 40 will give you the facts for answering this question. Are you surprised to find such large soft coal de- posits in Colorado? in the Dakota region? > Soft coal is called "bituminous." See page 72 for discussion of this. COAL : ANOTHER KEY INDUSTRY 65 When you were studying why particular cities grew, did you take Denver as an example? Do you see now one reason for an inland city growing up where Denver did, even though there are no important waterways? What chance do you think Denver has of growing rapidly in the future? IITUMINOUS COIL •4 )44re4oog PRODUCTION BITUMIHOttS COAL 1920 c*(.c*o*ii rc*« 0 so 100 ISO 200 MILLIOU M ■^■■HHHBHBHIHi idoooooo JOOSOOOO trjooooo Courtesy of Industrial Digest, 1922 Fig. 40 WHO PRODUCES AND USES THE WORLD^S COAL? The figures and maps showing our coal production give one the feeling that the United States must produce enough to supply a large part of the world. If you will turn forward to page 33 of Part II, you can find out how much of the world's supply the United States does produce. What three countries, according to Fig. 16, produce more than four-fifths of the world's coal supply? Where does the United States stand in the list? Are the countries which produce the coal also the ones who use that coal ? Which countries do you think must export coal ? Why do you think that ? From what you know about the countries of the world, would it be true to say that the leading countries are the greatest coal producers? Are there any exceptions to this ? • 66 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES EXERCISE See if you can fill in the blanks correctly : A nation needs coal What does she need coal for ? 1. When she gains colo- nies. 2. When she exports large quantities of products. 3. When she imports large quantities of products. 4. If she is chiefly a farm- ing country. 5. If she is chiefly a manu- facturing country. 5. If she depends upon effi- cient transportation. " 7. When her people live chiefly in cities. Do you see how important coal is to a nation, and how every nation must have a large supply of it ? HOW LONG HAVE MEN BEEN ABLE TO USE COAL? Is it your thought that people have always burned coal to heat their homes? to run trains and mills? to make power by which streets could be lighted ? No, though the world may be millions of years old, man has learned how to burn coal and to run machines by steam power only within the past 150 years. Have you any idea how old the earth is ? We really do not know. For a long time scientists have been trying to find out and to discover when life began upon the earth. Some people have thought that perhaps the earth is as old as 1 billion, 600 million years; others — Lord Kelvin, the English scientist, for example — have thought that it might be as young as 25 million years. Think of the difference in their estimates, 1,600 million and 25 million. Yet think what a long time even the smallest estimate is — 25 million years! Tlie great English scientist Huxley estimated that the earth was about 400 million years old. COAL : ANOTHER KEY INDUSTRY 67 Of course we cannot be at all sure about the length of time the earth as we know it now, has been in forming, but we do know that it has taken a very great number of years— surely scores of millions, perhaps hundreds of millions of years. We want you to get a feeling for this great stretch of time from Fig. 41. This Time Line compares the very great age of the earth (estimated by scientists) with the great stretch which it took for coal to form. On it is shown the very short time that people have used coal. Today .]^P .,^,9 60 40 20 I Coal has been wide- Tiillion million million million million ly used only in the ^'A^/.L ^^^""^ ^^^^^ y^^^'s years last 100 years, and CoalwaVpVobablyfo^mTngan through ihisp^H^d. . 1' J?.n!HW It has been millions of years in the making. ung rapiaiy. Fig. 41 How long will our coal supply last, and what will we do when it is used up? (See page 68 and pages 73 and 74.) We will not take time here to discuss how the earth came to be formed. What we are interested in here is to see what a very small fraction of all these millions of years men have been known to be living on the earth ; and then we want to see how very very short in comparison has been the time that coal has been used to produce steam power. It is difficult to realize that only 50 years ago people depended altogether upon wood for their heat ; that they had little or no iron ; that even in the few cities we had along the Atlantic Coast m 1755 to 1800 factories were almost unknown and manufacturing was done almost entirely by hand. What brought about the change? More than anything else, man's dis- covery that coal could be burned in boilers, that steam could be made from hot water, and that the pressure of steam could be used to move things. In other words, it was the steam engine that brought about the change, and that happened before 1700. Turn back to the Time Line of the Industrial Revolution, Fig. 10, and study carefully the way in which steam engines developed. Make a list of all the machines and industrial processes listed on this Time Line that demanded the use of coal. Where was iron first smelted with coal? How surprising it is that the first crude engine was made as recently as 1695 when the earth was millions of years old and men had been living on it at least many thousands of years! In 1695 Newcomer, an English mechanic, perfected a pump to raise water out of the coal mines. Of course, there were few mines at that time, although coal had been known for several hundred years, and Englishmen had learned that underneath their soil was a good deal of this rock substance that would burn and make great heat. But, as the mines they had were deepened, water accumulated in them and pre- vented the miners from going down and taking out the coal. So Newcom- 68 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES er's pump was an answer to a great need for some way of taking the water out of the mines. It could raise water through a distance of many feet and was reasonably successful in helping to carry on the work of the English mines. This pump was really the first steam engine. Time went on, however, throughout the 1700's and it was more than half a century before Englishmen learned that the same ideas which New- comer had used to make his pump could be employed in making an engine which would move things. Of course, during the years from 1695 to the middle of the 1700's, a great many men were experimenting, to invent an engine that would make things go. Finally in 1765, James Watt succeeded in perfecting one which would run by the pressure of steam. And then men were quick to see that what they needed next was fuel to heat the water in the boilers to run the engines. A great quantity of coal was just below their feet waiting to serve their purposes. Then what an astonishing thing happened ! Almost at the same time that Watt and Stephenson and the other English engineers were busy im- proving the steam engine and learning how to make it draw loads over tracks, other Englishmen were inventing machines which would do the work that men had been doing with their hands. Turn back to the Time Line again, Fig. 10. What were the first inven- tions to follow those of Watt and Stephenson ? Do you notice the series of inventions in the textile industry, in the steel and iron industry, and in transportation ? How would these inventions help to explain the increasing use of coal as shown in Table V ? Table V. THE AMOUNT OF COAL USED IN THE UNITED STATES, 1850-1919 ^ TONS 1850 7,000,000 1860 14,000,000 1870 33,000,000 1880 91,000,000 1890 1 157,000,000 1900 269,000,000 1910 404,000,000 1919 (last figures available) 605,000,000 From this table, make a graph in your notebook showing how the use of • coal in our country increased from 1850 to 1919. The rapid rate of increase in our use of coal is causing many people to fear that our supply will soon be used up. Experts say that it will not last more than about 150 years more. Do you think we waste coal? See if you can find out and report to the class the ways that we waste it if we do. 1 The figures for 1850-1900 are based upon a chart in "The Conservation of Natural Resources," bv Van Hise, C. R., page 24. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1921. The figures for 1910 and 1919 are taken from The Statistical Abstract of the United States for 1919, page 54 9. Government Printing Office, Washington, O. C, 1920. COAL : ANOTHER KEY INDUSTRY 69 Jo the Teacher: We suggest that you assign the task of hndmg out about our wastage of coal to a few pupils for class reports. Books on the Conservation of Natural Re- sources contain many illustrations of waste. See biblio- graphy at the end of this unit. One invention led to another, and as engines were perfeected manufac- turing processes were improved. The whole Industrial Revolution really hinged upon the discovery of the way to make things go by steam power. The steam power that could make machines go was more and more taking the place of human energy, and industrial efficiency increased with the in- crease in the use of machines. But the thing that made steam power possible was coal. Fortunate were the nations who had large supplies of coal. Turn to page 33 of Part II and see if you can tell from Fig. 16 whether there is any correspondence between the nations that lead industrially and those that have the greatest coal resources. What is your conclusion ? Write it in your notebook. With the use of coal naturally came the great use of iron and steel. Cities grew up in great numbers, and with their growth came the building of hundreds of thousands of miles of railroads, the tying together of man- ufacturing communities, the construction of steel ocean-going ships, the - lacing together of all parts of the world with cables and telephones and' tele- graph wires and wireless communication. For the first time in the history of the world there came an opportunity for people to replace hours and hours of hand-labor by the use of machines. For the first time in all the thou- sands of years through which man lived upon the earth, people had found a way to get their work done in short spaces of time. At last there could be leisure hours to enjoy life, to improve home conditions, and to discover the better and richer things that life held out to them. What actually hap- pened as a result of these discoveries? Was life improved and enriched for the ''slaves" of toil? How do people that work with machines spend their days? Amid happy, healthy surroundings? And do they have long restful evenings to enjoy good books, hear good music, and go to good plays? Have you ever visited a machine shop and seen men at their work> If not, can't you arrange to do so? If you do not think all people profited by the mtroduction of machinery, do you think some did ? Write down in summary form the ideas that you got from reading the last three paragraphs. As you study on through this pamphlet, watch for examples of the way in which living upon the earth has improved as the coal, iron, and steel era has developed. 70 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES HOW COAL WAS MADE. You have the good fortune — if it is good fortune — to live in a country which has under its surface the finest and largest supply of coal that is known to exist any place on the earth. How did this coal happen to be where it is? Why should we, rather than the Arabs of the desert, or the natives of Java and Tahiti, — why should we have inherited this great natural resource ? How was coal made ? How long will it last ? Will there be something to take its place? How long will that last? — These are questions which Americans and Englishmen and Germans and Frenchmen and people of every modern nation are beginning to ask themselves very seriously. First, how was coal made? Well, the story is shrouded in a great deal of mystery and uncertainty, but gradually as scientific knowledge has de- veloped during the past century or two, students of the matter have been able to piece together a story which seems quite believable. Oi course it may be that, like so many of the beliefs of men in earlier times, some as- pects of the present theories about the formation of coal will have to be changed, but the account we will sketch is what scientists of today think probably happened. Turn back to the relief map of Fig. 21. Notice how the Appalachian Mountain system runs along the eastern part of the United States. Notice the stretches of mountain land through New England — the G^een Moun- tains, the White Mountains, the Berkshires, and then look across to the tremendous ranges of the Rockies and the Sierra Nevadas all through the western part of the country. Between the eastern and western highlands lie the broad central plains of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys. Find in your geography a physical map which shows the *'lay of the land" on the other continents. Notice the Pyrenees of Spain, the Alps across northern Italy and southern Austria, the highlands of the Balkan Peninsula and the Caucasus. Do you know how these mountain ranges w^ere formed ? It is believed that during the millions of years while the world's conti- nents were gradually forming, the mountain systems came about through a shrinking of the crust of the earth. While this process was going on, there were no animals in the sea or plants on the land, no life of any kind even a million or two years ago. Meanwhile an intense heat was being stored up in the earth, and as the crust cooled off the heat burst through at certain places, causing great upheavals on the earth's surface. When this matter cooled again, there were long ridges and deep depressions, and where such explosions were very violent, the heated gases and molten materials were thrust so high that great peaks were left on the earth's surface. There are still a number of these active volcanoes, as they are called, in diflFcrent parts of the earth. One of the best known, of course, is that of Mt. Vesuvius in coal: another key industry 71 Italy. Look it up on your map. Can you find others in your geography? So this is the way we came to have highlands and lowlands on the various continents of the earth's surface. Scientists believe that millions of years ago there was very heavy vegeta- tion in the regions where our coal fields are now. They have found evidence for the fact that there were great swampy forests and that every now and then large amounts of earthy materials were washed down on them and adjacent lands. The forests were submerged under rock upheavals or killed by the rushing in of great quantities of water from the oceans or buried under heavy layers of soil. Then tree trunks, leaves, branches, massed together making a hard layer of vegetation. But each time the forests were killed, others grew up after a period of time, and it is believed that this cycle of pro- cesses was repeated at least several times. It is in these regions where layers of vegetation formed one on another that our coal is found. It may have been 70 million years ago, scientists think, that a rapid change started in the rocks on the earth's surface. It is believed that the surface gave way under the ever-increasing load that was put upon it, and that a great gouge was made running upward to the Atlantic Ocean in what is now northeastern America. The edges of the upland pressed in against each other with the force of great heat pressure and crushed the depressions together until the result was all sorts of irregular peaks and ridges. When the mass was finally shaken down mto form, it separated into two big highland ranges with an immense valley between. This we call the Great Valley today. Find the Great Valley on your map. So the coal that formed in these regions is accounted for by the decay of layer upon layer of matted vegetation which was heated very hot and thrown up near the surface of the earth again. About 50 million years later than this— that is, 20 million, years ago— another great convulsion raised up the Rocky Mountains of North America and the Andes of South America and the Alps and other European moun- tams. These mountains that were made so much more recently than the Old Appalachians, for instance, are spoken of as young mountains. In your geography book compare the pictures of scenes in the Appal- achians with scenes in the Rockies. Do you see how rounded and smooth the Appalachians are in sharp contrast with the rugged rocky peaks of the western mountains? The Appalachian slopes are more gradual because during their longer life they have been slowly worn away by the weather. Rainfall drop- ping upon them century after century throughout the millions of years has slowly ground of¥ the rugged peaks and sharp ridges. Do you notice, too, that the Appalachians have more forests ? So you see how long it has taken to make coal, the fuel our very lives de- pend upon. Let us not forget that it has been a process of millions of years— probably between 20 and 70 million. The layers that were transformed into 72 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES coal vary in thickness all the way from a few inches in some seams to sixty feet in others. In some places the coal was even thrown out to the very sur- face of the earth. As men have prospected about for it, they have found places where it could be scooped right oif the side of the mountain. In other places it is lodged 1000 feet below the surface. It has been so much needed in this industrial age of ours that people have dug great coal shafts way down into the earth, and then out from the openings they have dug channels to fol- low the coal seams wherever they ran. Kinds of Coal SOFT OR BITUMINOUS HARD OR ANTHRACITE The coal maps you have looked at refer to two kinds of coal— soft or bituminous and hard or anthracite. Do you know what kind is burned in the furnace that heats your house, or in the one that heats your school build- ing? If you live near the eastern part of the United States you probably burn anthracite or hard coal. The map of Fig. 39 shows where th^ different kinds of coal are located in the United States. Notice that the anthracite is pretty largely in the eastern part of the country, especially in Pennsylvania. The surface of eastern Pennsylvania around Scranton and Wilkes-Barre is almost honeycombed with anthracite coal mines ; in fact, the city of Wilkes- Barre has been almost completely undermined. Hundreds of miners work below the principal streets of that thriving city every day. The bituminous coal of the United States is found chiefly in the Appalachian highlands and in Illinois and Indiana. If you live in the Mississippi Valley, you are probably using some kind of bituminous coal. How do you think it came about that these coals are so different? The bituminous is soft and very dirty, makes a great smoke, while the anthracite is slow to burn, lasts longer, and gives out great heat. The scientists tell us that the difference is due to the amount of heat and pressure to which the layers of vegetation were subjected in the "geographical revolutions" that convulsed our earth millions of years ago. The bituminous coal has a great deal of material in it which burns easily, such as oil, gas, tar. In the up- heavals of the earth millions of years ago it was subjected to relatively little heat; the layers of rocks above it were practically the only pressure. The anthracite coal, on the other hand, is almost pure carbon. If you try to start a fire with the two kinds of coal in different ovens, you will notice how much more difficult it is to get the anthracite to burn, but you will also notice that once it catches fire it burns steadily and gives out much more heat than the bituminous does. Scientists say the anthracite was crushed down under the load of great mountains and at the same time was heated to white heat and literally roasted by the flames of terrific volcanoes. An anthracite coal fire can be kept going in a heater all day with just one or two pokings, whereas a soft coal fire needs constant attention. coal: another key industry 73 It is interesting to note that there is another kind of vegetable material which has been hardened and roasted throughout the ages. We use it com- mercially today, but it cannot be burned at all. Did you ever use graphite on your bicycles? Graphite came from the layers of material that were sub- jected to heat and pressure incalculably greater than that to which anthra- cite was subjected. The heat and pressure were so great, in fact, that the carbon— the material which would burn— was all burned away. This, then, in brief is the story of coal. What was the most interesting thmg to you in the story ? What surprised you most ? How Long Will Our Coal Reserves Last? CAN WE REPLACE THEM ? Didn't it take an amazingly long time for the coal to be formed? Will your mind "take in" 20 millions of years? Think how long a time the life of a person is— 60 to 70 years, let us say. Then think back, say one hundred times as long as that. If you can imagine such a stretch of time. That stretch is just the short space for which we know what man was doing on the earth. And that is so short, 7000 years, as compared with the length of time it took to make coal that we were not able even to represent it on our time line. (See Fig. 41.) Now one of the most important questions that people face today is. How long will the present store of coal in the growid last at the rate we are using it? Many engineers have studied the matter. The reports they give us are very disquieting. They say that our coal supply cannot last more than a hundred years. Millions of years were required to make coal, but we have used it so rapidly that at the end of a hundred and fifty years we are forced to face the fact that probably only another century's supply is left ! . . . "Twenty m.illion years ago all the coal we have or shall have was packed away in the ribs of the earth in seams varying from sixty feet to the thickness of a blade of grass. It is estimated that we still have in the world more than seven thousand billion tons distributed as follows : North America 5,073,431,000,000 Asia 1,279,586,000,000 Europe 784,190,000,000 Australasia 170,410,000,000 c u 57,839,000,000 South America 32,097,000,000 Total 7,397,553,000,000."! Does this seem like a huge amount of coal? 7000 billions? To write it infigures requires 13 decimal places. We are not accustomed to using more 1922' '"^^^ Coming of Coal." Association Press, New York. 1 74 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES than millions or billions, even in these modern days of gigantic things. But we are using such an enormous number of tonh of coal for our thousands of locomotives and factories, for houses and public buildings, and to do the countless other things of everyday tw^entieth-century life that our huge coal pile is dwindling very fast. "Mr. D. B. Rushmore, chief engineer in the power and mining depart- ment of the General Electric Company, calculates that if our coal consump- tion were to continue to increase at the apparently normal rate of seven per cent each year, the life of our known reserves would be as follows : Eastern District, which includes the most accessible and best quality of our fuel 59 years Eastern, Central, and Southern Districts 65 years Entire U. S. and Alaska, two-thirds of this being low-grade coals and lignites 84 years "These figures are based upon the appraisals of the U. S. Geological Sur- vey. They include coal in veins as shallow as fourteen inches, all coal whose ash content does not exceed thirty per cent, and all known deposits within six thousand feet of the surface. They are based on the optimistic assump- tion that two-thirds of the coal in the mines will be brought to the surface, a considerably higher recovery than has hitherto been achieved. Mr. Rush- more concludes that the evidence points unmistabably to an approaching scarcity of high-grade coal and increasingly higher prices." ^ Does it look as though our great grandchildren would have coal with which to heat their houses? Will they ride in trains driven by coal-burning locomotives? Will their factories be run by the steam from thousands of coal-burning boilers? If we are using up our coal at such a terrific rate, can we replace it? Have men learned how to make coal? No, not as yet. Wonderful things are be- ing done in our day, but so far no one has discovered how to duplicate na- ture's work of millions of years and make coal. Since it has taken such an enormous length of time to produce, we are faced with the fact that once we use our present supply coal is gone from man forever. SUBSTITUTES FOR COAL Are there substitutes for coal? How do the people who do not use coal heat their houses today ? By burning oil ? Yes, some people do. By burning wood? A few who five under rural conditions do. By electricity? Very few. Electricity is very expensive and so not available to many. Then, of course, even electricity has to be generated from something that makes heat, and coal is still the best fuel for that. ^Bruere, Robert W.: Op. cit., pages 79-80. coal: another key industry 75 What about natural gas? Yes, but the supply of that is fast giving out, and has already given out completely in many places. So it cannot be counted on long. These fuels— oil, natural gas, and w^ood— together with another source of power, water power, are the only possible substitutes for the rapidly de- creasing supply of coal. In another pamphlet we will learn about their use, but at this time we can be sure of this : the supplies of oil, gas, and wood are also being very rapidly exhausted. The engineers tell us definitely that these fuels cannot last even as long as coal, and many tell us that petroleum will not last even thirty years ! Courtesy of Scientific American, October, 1922 How a coal mine is operated Fig. 42 EXERCISE Look up in the encyclopedia or some other book in your library, the answers to these questions: 1. What are the present reserve supplies of petroleum, natural gas, r timber. 76 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 2. How rapidly are we using up these supplies? 3. How long will our supply of each probably last? 4. How much water power can be developed in the United States? How much is developed now? Do engineers think enough can be generated to take the place of coal ? 5. Find accounts of the attempts to make motors that can be run by the heat of the sun's rays — sun-motors. (See such magazines as The Scientific A?nerica7i, or Popular Science Monthly.) Have such attempts been suc- cessful ? 6. See if you can find accounts of attempts to use the waves of the ocean to run motors. Have these been successful ? SUMMARY You have studied about the importance of transportation in the life of the American city. How much do the lives of city people depend on transporta- tion? Be ready to give examples of this. You have also studied about the importance of coal in the lives of the people. ' To what extent do the lives of city people depend upon a continuous and adequate supply of coal ? Give examples of this. To the Teacher: We suggest as a class activity that the pupils be assigned special reports on the coal-mining in- dustry, using such topics as these: (1) A day's work in a coal mine; (2) How coal is mined; (3) Dangers and safeguards in coal-mining; (4) Waste in coal-mining.^ In the following list of books there are excellent descriptions and pictures of the coal industry. Those marked with an asterisk are suitable for the pupils' use. *Allen, Nellie B.: United States. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1910. Pages 138-165. Bruere, Robert W. : The Coming of Coal. Associ- ation Press, New York, 1922. * Carpenter, Frank G. : North America. American Book Company, New York, 1898. Pages 211-218. *Chase, A. and Clow, E.: Stories of Industry. Educa- tional Publishing Company, New York, 1915. Pages 1-22. *Fisher, Elizabeth F. : Resources and Industries of the United States. Ginn & Co., 1919. Pages 142-154. *McMurry, Charles A.: Type Studies From the Geo- graphy of the United States. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1917. Pages 63-80. Martin, Edward A.: The Story of a Piece of Coal. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1908. Pages 84-101. *Rocheleau, W. F. : Great American Industries. First Book. Minerals. A. Flanagan Co., Chicago, 1902. Pages 7-44. Smith, J. Russell : Commerce and Industry. Henrv Holt & Co., New York, 1916. Pages 153-167. *'l'appan, Eva M. : Diggers in the Earth. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, 1916." Pages 1-10. Van Hise, Charles R. : The Conser-vation of Natural Resources. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1921. Pages 17-35. Any school geography also contains pictures, maps, and descriptions of coal mining. VI. IRON IN INDUSTRIAL LIFE IRON Iron vessels cross the ocean, Iron engines give them motion ; Iron needles northward veering, Iron tillers vessels steering; Iron pipe our gas delivers, Iron bridges span our rivers; Iron pens are used for writing, Iron ink our thoughts inditing ; Iron stoves for cooking victuals, Iron ovens, pots, and kettles; Iron horses draw our loads, Iron rails compose our roads; Iron anchors hold in sands. Iron bolts, and rods, and bands; Iron houses, iron walls. Iron cannon, iron balls; Iron axes, knives and chains. Iron augers, saws and planes; Iron globules in our blood, Iron particles in food ; Iron lightning-rods on spires, Iron telegraphic wires; Iron hammers, nails and screws — Iron everything we use. ^ Iron! How commonplace it is! We are surrounded by it on every hand. We who have grown up in the iron and machine age feel toward iron much as we feel toward the lakes and clouds. It is just there. Iron? Why, of course, we must have it to live by ; we couldn't possibly get along without it. EXERCISE Imagine yourself with several others starting out on a trip through great unexplored forests and wild prairie lands Hke those of South America and some parts of Africa and Asia. The trip is going to last several months and you may stay so long that you will need a log cabin ; very likely you will need to plant crops in order to raise food for yourself for months and perhaps for 1 Used by permission of Educational Publishing Company, Boston, New York, and Chicago Publishers. / 78 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES several years even. What are some of the things you would take with you ? Make a list of all the tools, farming implements, utensils, and weapons you think you would need. In doing so, think of the things that would be nec- essary in order to build a house. Think what a calamity would befall your party if you should have failed to bring (See if you can fill in the blanks.) with which to, fell the from which the : is j.Ai or if you should lose one of these tools after you got there. In building your cabin, how would you hold your logs together? In making furniture, how would the legs of the chairs hold together? the table top? the couch? the swinging door ? the windows? Will you have plenty of nails of different sizes to fasten all these things together? What about the needs of the members of the party who will cook the meals? What utensils must they have? List the household utensils you think they would absolutely have to have to prepare meals for you. How carefully they would treasure the big _^^±___L and m which the stews and roasts would be cooked over the blazing fire! Now what material are these tools and implements and utensils you have listed made of? Wood? Tin? Copper? Iron? Stone? Coal? Dirt? In the list you made, write opposite each item the material it is made of. Is it any wonder that your great, great grandfather prized so much the little metal he was able to get and take with him on his pioneering trips into the wilderness of the frontier? A little piece of iron was of immense value to him. Yet you pay as little attention to a saw, or a telephone wire, or a steel beam, as to the lumber products from which your house was made. On the other hand, your great, great grandfather regarded wood much as you regard iron, just taking for granted there was any amount of it. And when the boys and girls of your generation become men and women, you will feel about wood much as he felt about iron, for the forests are going fast and not enough care is being taken to replace them. Wood is getting scarcer and scarcer, while iron seems as plentiful as ever. Is iron as plentiful as it seems? 1. WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF THE IRON MINES OF AMERICA COULD NOT BE WORKED? lo what extent does your life today depend upon iron? Make a list of the things that you do every day that depend upon iron. Let us give a few examples first. The water which runs in your house comes through iror pipes under the streets of the city. Hie street car that you ride on hi wheels made of iron ; the brakes and frame work, the controllers and springs are of iron. It runs upon rails made from iron. The furnace that heats your house in winter is iron in many of its parts. The trains that bring your IRON IN INDUSTRIAL LIFE 79 food to town, the wagons, the automobiles, the delivery trucks and freight wagons which form such an important part of our transportation system to- day, could not be in existence if it were not for steel and iron. The public buildings in our cities are all of them held together by a strong skeleton of iron beams and columns. Probably cities as we know them today could not exist without iron. In your school you have an audit- orium. Is it wide or long? When you are in it some time look up at the ceihng and notice how necessary it is that great beams of iron or steel be used to hold iip the roof above it. No other materials that we have now could be used for this purpose. The elevators that you ride up and down on in your schools or public buildings are made of iron. So, too, are the great bridges over wide rivers; the Brooklyn Bridge, for example, which connects Brooklyn and New York, is hundreds of feet long and all made of iron. There are bridges across the Mississippi, across the Missouri, the Ohio, the Illinois, the Hudson, made of iron. It it were not for iron, one would have to cross rivers by slow and time-wasting ferry boats. Add other things that are made of iron to your list. Is there any doubt in your mind about the immense importance of iron in our contemporary civilization ? 2. HOW DOES LIFE IN THE CITY DEPEND UPON IRON? We found that cities such as we have in America could not exist without an adequate transportation system and a continuous supply of coal. We found, too, that transportation depended on coal. This means that if the supply of coal stops our whole mechanical civilization is upset. Now would this be true of iron? If our iron mines should stop run- ning today, how soon would our daily lives be affected ? Tomorrow? (Would ' transportation stop at once?) Next week? Next month? Or in three or four months, as with coal ? No, not for a year, or perhaps several years, would we as a whole people feel it. But very soon the railroad repair shops would be affected, for trains are continually wearing out and in need of constant repair, as are all • machines and mechanical things. What about the thousands of machine shops of the country ? Could they run long without a continuous supply of iron and steel ? No, for such plants keep only a very limited supply on hand ; the steel mills are shipping to them all the time. Of course the steel mills with their hundreds of thousands of workers would themselves soon close down. How about cities ? Could new bridges be built ? Could new skyscrapers be put up? Could old ones be replaced? Could tunnels be dug, subways, elevated trains, or street railways be constructed? Could automobiles be provided for business or pleasure ? Prepare a list of the different ways in which your own personal life would be affected if our iron supply should give out. 80 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES How Iron is Mined and Steel is Manufactured Fig. 43 ^ The making of the steel in your bridges, buildings, locomotives and machines begins here. These are steam shovels scooping up iron ore (Did you think it was dirt? — Valuable dirt!) in the Lake Superior iron mining region. (Find this iron region on an economic map in your geo- graphy.) For a few cents a ton the shovels load it on to the cars. Men do not handle it, lifting is done by machinery. The ore is carried to the wharves at Duluth, Minnesota (Find Duluth on the map) and: Fig. 44 2 dumped into great ore boats like these. These take it down the Great Lakes to the terminals near the steel mills at South Chicago, Gary, Indiana, Cleveland or Pittsburg. The lakes freeze in winter so in seven warm months the boats must ship the year's supply. So the lake docks - are generally piled high with surplus ore. 1 From Cotter. A.: "The United State.s Steel Corporation." Courtesy of Double- day Page & Company. 2 Cotter, A: Ibid. Doubleday Page & Co. IRON IN INDUSTRIAL LIFE Fig. 45 i At the terminals it is taken from the boat, loaded into freight cars by more giant machinery, more saving in lifting impossibly heavy materials. Man does not handle the ore directly from the time it is scooped up at the mines until it is dumped into the blast furnace at the steel mill. Unloading by these machines costs less per ton than it costs you to mail a letter. The ore is brought to steel mills like these, the blazing flames from which you can see for miles at night. The ore is taken above the blast furnace on cars, the bottoms of which open, letting the ore drop into bins. These too open at the bottom into little boxes which measure the right amount of ore and from these it is dropped into the mouth of the great furnace. Here the ore is heated to an intense heat, and the impurities 2, Cotter, A.: Ibid RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Fig. 47 i are drawn off leaving molten "pig" iron to be poured into httle moulds like these in which it travels on endless chains to vats where it is cooled in water. There it is lifted by machinery and carried away to the mill where the crude "pig" iron is made into steel products. The chief dif- ference between cast iron, wrought iron and steel is in the hardness and toughness caused by the amount of carbon mixed with the iron. Fig. 48 - The crude iron, 20 tons at a time, is turned into steel in great "Bessemer" converters like that at the left where a terrific blast of air is driven through the molten iron by the force of an engine. The converters are swung as easily by electric "cranes" (moving machines) as you swing a rope. They pour the purified molten steel into moulds standing in a little train; this conveys it to the hydraulic machine which draws the mold from the red hot "ingot" of steel. 2, Cotter. A. : Ibid IRON IN INDUSTRIAL LIFE Fig. 49 i The ingot, perhaps 7000 pounds, is shown travelling by machinery to the rolling mill where it is to be run between sets of rollers, still hot. There it will be shaped under great machine pressure into rails for your trains to ride over, a beam for the floor of a great city building or a new highway bridge, or perhaps even into wire fence or small steel manu- factured goods. Fig. 50 2 Here is one example of the last stage of the various ones from iron ore to manufactured goods, the making of a steel tube. Notice how every- thing is done by machinery, and how everything is massive. We speak always of tons, rarely of pounds, in the steel business. 2, Cotter, A. : Ibid 84 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Readings: How Iron is Mined And Steel Manufactured exercise Look up at least one of the topics in the following list and report on it to the class. They all have to do with steel-making. 1. The blast furnace 6. Iron ore — where it comes from 2. The process of puddling 7. How iron ore is transported to 3. The Bessemer process the mills 4. The by-products oven 8. Steel — how it is made by 5. Coke — what it is and how it machin^ is made Here is a list of books that contain information on these topics. If they are not in your school library, you may find the ones you want in the public library of your town. Allen, Nellie B.: United States. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1910. Pages 166-183. Carpenter, Frank G. Hoiv the World is Housed. Ameri- can Book Company, New York, 1915. Pages 142-172. Chase, A. and Clow, E. : Stories of Industry. Educational Publishing Co., New York, 1915. Vol. I, pages 63-98. Rocheleau, W. F. : Great American Industries. First Book — Minerals. A. Flanagan Co., Chicago, 1902. Pages 75-112. Smith, J. Russell : The Story of Iron and Steel, D. Ap- pleton & Co., New York, 1920. Tappan, Eva M. : Diggers in the Earth. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, 1916. Pages 57-64. Look through your geography also for pictures of iron and steel manu- facturing. To the Teachers We suggest that you spend one or two class hours on reports on these topics. If it is possible to take an excursion through an iron mine or steel works, it would be highly desirable to do so. 3. WHERE IS THE IRON OF THE WORLD PRODUCED? If iron is so important in this industrial age of ours, two questions ought to be answered : ( 1 ) Which are the peoples who are fortunate enough to have it? (2) Which of the nations using it to a large extent are industrial nations ? What do you learn from a study of Fig. 51 ? From it make a list of the countries in which you would expect to fuid the great mechanical industries of the world. Now turn to page 91 in Part II. From Fig. 33 make a list of the coun- tries which produce the largest share of the world's iron. Which ones use the largest share ? IRON IN INDUSTRIAL LIFE 85 A >Vorld Map of Iron Ore Resources — Percentages Are Based on Ah Esti- mated "Actual Re- serve" of 32.555.- 300,000 Tons, with f'otential Reserve Much Larger — the Circles Represent Only Reserves in Excess of aOO.oOO,- 000 Tons \ INDIAN OCEAN Fig. 51 What are the differences in the two lists you have made, the one from Fig. 51 and the other from Fig. 33 of Part 11. Why should there be any differences ? What do both lists show you about the rank of the United States in the production and use of iron and steel ? Is your country one of the great "in- dustrial" countries of the world ? Are there countries which at present do not use much iron but may do so in the future ? Which ones especially ? Can you account for this ? 4. WHERE ARE THE IRON DEPOSITS OF THE UNITED STATES? Turn to the economic maps of the United States in your geography. In what states do you find the deposits of iron ? Fig. 38, page 63, shows where the iron and steel factories are located. How do the iron deposit states compare with the iron and steel factory states? What decided differences are there in the locations? Which states are both deposit and factory states ? 5. WHY ARE THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES SO FAR FROM THE BEST IRON MINES? The best iron mines in the United States are in the Lake Superior region. This is about miles from the steel plants near How many? A — and about Where are the nearest ones? How many? miles from the great steel mills in the 1 : region. (Fill in the grreatest steel manufac- turing center.) 86 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Why should this be? Why shouldn't the mills be located right at the mines, or at least near-by ? A. WHAT HAS THE LOCATION OF THE MARKET FOR STEEL GOODS TO DO WITH THE LOCATION OF STEEL MILLS? There are two reasons why the steel markets and the steel mills are not in the same places. One has to do with the ease of shipping the finished steel rails, beams, and other manufactured products. Turn back to Fig. 20 which shows where the industrial zone is. In what section of the country are the largest number of people who would be buying and using iron and steel goods concentrated? Where are the factories, machine shops, textile mills, and manufacturing plants of various sorts located ? Are they in Min- nesota near the iron "range"? Or are they scattered from Chicago to New England along through Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts? Do you see one important reason now why the iron and steel industries are located where they are? B. WHAT HAS THE LOCATION OF COAL MINES TO DO WITH THE LOCATION OF STEEL INDUSTRIES? Point on the wall map to the location of our coal mines. Now point to the location of the iron and steel factories. Do you see a second reason why the iron and steel industries are located where they are ? There may be other reasons why the steel industry grew up where it did. See how many you can list on the blackboard. Make a summary in your notebook of all the reasons you can think of. VII. HOW THE CITY GETS ITS WATER 1. Our Dependence Upon Pure Water and Plenty of it "We had been six hours on the road from New York to the heart of the Catskills. The younger members of the party had been clamoring for food every mile since leaving Kingston. We stopped by the side of one of the crystal mountain streams and the lunch was spread on a shaded mossy mound. ''In the midst of our meal one of the Catskill 'yellow fellows' who guard the water system came along, and, on urgent invitation, joined us. He told us tl>at he had been up to the reservoir to see some campers who didn't under- stand [about the regulations]. 'It's a busy job ; but there's satisfaction in it,' he said. 'Take these people I've just been to see. They're New Yorkers when they're home. This very water which -they were polluting and poisining with banana skins, chicken bones, and lunch boxes is the water which they expect to have delivered in their homes pure and clean. Why, they even pay us fellows for seeing to it and actually protecting them against their own acts; ... and they never thought of that until I reasoned it out with them. ... we fellows have been working at this twelve years, you know. The longer we stay the easier it is, because we make it a point to turn every thoughtless trespasser into an agent to help us keep things in shape. "It was lonesome the first years, but now I can't go back. I know every shaft, every stream, and every pleasant Camping place in my territory, and my job is here. It's some job, too, 'isn't it? It scares me when I think of the millions of folks down there who would be sick if things were not right up at this end. "Well, so long. Going through or going back tonight? Maybe I'll see you on the return trip. Tell the fellow at Lexington you saw me south of the v^Ut. "As his tannish-colored figure went swinging down the road I heard one juvemle New Yorker say to the other, "What d'ye know about that? A reg- ular city cop away up here in the mountains! Come on, let's pick up." and I said to m^yself, "What a teacher and what results!" ^ , "Mother, the water is terribly dirty. We can't drink this water," claimed Helen Watson as she filled the water pitcher for supper. "Let it run awhile and see if it doesn't clear up," replied her mother. ex- ^"The Outlook," vol. 123, page 182, Oct. 1, 191! 88 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES The Watsons lived in Urbana, Illinois where the water came from wells owned by a private water company. . „ "No, it is still a dirty brown and I have let it run fully three mmutes said Helen after a time, "What the matter with it ? "That's easy to answer," broke in brother Tom who had enured the house in time to hear his sister's question. That's easy to answer There s a bad fire down town. Lewis's store is burned to the ground, it s burning yet and they need so much water down there that they can't stop to run it through the filter. You know, mother, the firemen are about helpless in this town. The wells aren't big enough nor the pumps strong enough to handle a hre such as this one. Jack Donnelly, one of the firemen, told me that they would have put the fire out easily if they could have gotten any pressure on the water main That stream after 30 minutes was about the size and force of our garden hose. With a good wind the whole town would go up in smoke. Why don't they do something to protect us against fire?" TYPHOID FEVER EPIDEMIC BREAKS OUT, FIFTY CASES REPORTED YESTERDAY IMPURE WATER THOUGHT TO BE THE CAUSE Sterling, Conn., October 17, 1922— Sterl- ing faces a serious epidemic of typhoid fever Fiftv cases have been reported to the Board 'of Health in the last three days. Most of the cases appear to be in West Sterling. Investigations of Agent Houghton show that the water supply of West Sterling residents is the Asburnharn Reservoir. Experts in water analysis from the State Board of Health have been \Z%o::i\rnl.\r-ZZ L. hr e .enrt;; a^d are now examining the water •.'lt.''°^i,°L^h: .Ls at,Deartobein of this reservoir for traces of typhoid germs. PIONEERS SETTLED NEAR WATER SUPPLY The earlv colonists in New England, New York, and Virginia always located their settlements near an abundant water supply. For exainple, when the Pilgrims reached America Captain Miles Standish was made head of an exploring partv to locate a suitable place on which to build a town. According to journals of the Plymouth Colony, Captain Standish and his party after several days of explorations "marched into ye land and found divers cornfields and little running brooks, a place fit for situation. "The Dutch found Manhattan a well-watered island, traversed by many brooks abounding in (ish ; « ith a large fresh-uater pond, known as the Co\- lect,' fed by numerous springs. The lower part of the island was underlaid witli sand uhich readilv yielded fresh water a few feet above sea level. . . . HOW THE CITY GETS ITS WATER 89 ''The population of the island by 1664 was but 1500, and water was obtained from private wells, although by 1658 a public well was dug near Bowling Green. . . . Very soon, however, as the town grew, the wells be- came contaminated and the supply of water insufficient. Those who could afford it sent for water from distant wells. One well in particular, known as the 'Tea-water Pump,' was particularly noted ; so that its neighborhood be- came so congested with water-carts that the spout of the pump was raised and lengthened to permit pedestrians to pass under it." ^ Where did the western pioneer clear his tract of land and build his home ; What determined his location; Neariiess to water— Av'mking water for him- self and family, and for his cattle. If he planned carefully he located his home below his spring or well. Why? To prevent that water from being contammated. At first he had to carry the water to the house from the sprmg or brook. Later when the work of building a home and of getting the land cleared and planted was done, he had time to devise means of getting . his water to his cabin more easily. A rude pipe, hollowed logs perhaps, was used to bring the water to his door, even into the cabin. In later years a well , was driven deep into the ground, and the water was pumped up into a tank by a wmdmill, from which it was piped into the house. Do you live in the city? Do you know where the water that vou drink and use in your house comes from? Several times a day no doubt you go to the faucet in the kitchen or in the bathroom to get a nice drink of cool water. Have you any idea of the complicated arrangements that lie behind that easy turning on of the faucet in your home? Even the poorest of our people in American cities today have water at their ready command. This is probably one of the greatest achievements of this remarkable industrial world of ours. Without water systems as efficient as those of today are, could cities like ours exist ? Let us study the matter. How dependent on water are human beings? Do you know how long a person can go without water? How long can cattle ? Horses? Other ani- mals? Can 'they go as long without water as without food? Have you ever been on a long hike lasting most of a day in which you have had to go without a drink? If so, do you remember how parched and dry your mouth and throat became after three or four hours, and what great relief came when you were able to get that first cool drink? Imagine what it would be if you had to go all day and then all that night without water! Before the first day had passed you would feel real distress. During the next 4ay you would^rch and search for water, doubtless becoming more and more tired & ^o^!'iii:^^lT^ovC^^^^^^^ 7^^'"' ^"^^^^ ^'^y'' John Wiley 90 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES and more and more thirsty. Imagine what it would be to be lost in the woods as so many frontier people were! Or on a great plain, or sandy desert, and be unable to find water! After the second day you would probably be so tired you couldn't walk. And then, unless someone with watej chanced along, your strength would continue to give out until finally you would die. 2. DO PEOPLE LIVE IN REGIONS OF LITTLE WATER? Turn to Fig. 3, page 9 of Part II, which shows where people are living in the different regions of the world. Do you find the white areas on the map where the Sahara Desert and the Arabian Desert are? Notice how that whole region is nearly as large as the United States. Yet there are almost no people there and we have 106,000,000 ! In the Southern part of Arabia there are more than 300,000 square miles of absolute desert which people have never known much about and which is probably entirely uninhabited. This area as large as Germany and Italy combined has almost no people. Germany and Italy today have a population of about 100,000,000. The great Sahara Desert to which we referred probably has fewer people than the Arabian Desert. Another great desert, the one that has the smallest number of inhabitants of any of the dry deserts, is in Australia. In our own countrv Nevada is a desert state. Here there is an average of less than one person to a square mile. But in occasional fertile places people are gathered close together. We call those scattered places in deserts where there is water and a little vegetation oases. Contrast the population in Nevada with that of one of the New England states like Massachusetts, which has more than 450 persons to the square mile. Seventy-five per cent of the inhabitants of a state like Massachusetts live in cities. Of course, one of the reasons for this is adequate rainfall, which not only makes it pos- sible for people to live, but also makes it possible for them to work in fac- tories and great manufacturing plants. The deserts to which we have referred have been hot and dry ones. Per- hap? you will be even more interested to find that there are :'cold" deserts that have as few people living on them as the hot ones. The northern provinces of Canada are good illustrations. Locate them on the population map P'lge 9 of Part II. These northern provinces, not including the Labrador Coast and the Yukon mining region in the northwest, have an area of 2 million square miles. How many people do you think live there? Only 20,000. Compare the area of these northern Canadian provinces with that of Europe. If we exclude Russia, Europe is no larger than the Canadian provinces, yet Jt has 16,500 inhabitants to every one inhabitant m the provinces.^ HOW THE CITY GETS ITS WATER 91 Another illustration is the Antarctic region. So far as we know, it has not a single inhabitant. Now turn to a rainfall map in your geography. The rainfall of a region is measured by the number of inches (deep) of water that falls in that region in a year. Point out the areas on the wall map that have less than 10 inches of rainfall a year. How do these regions agree with the regions vour popu- lation map shows to have few people? Now point out on the wall map the regions that have a moderate amount of rainfall, say 40 to 80 inches? Com- pare these with the regions where population has become dense. Is there any relation between amount of rainfall and density of population ? What is the relation? Is it just in the places of least rainfall that there are few people living? What about regions where the rainfall is more, than 80 inches each year? Are there people in these regions? As a result of your study, see if you can make a statement in which you tell what seems to be the most desirable am.ount of rainfall for the comfort of people in general. 3. HOW MUCH WATER IS USED IN CITIES? Have you any idea how much water you use in different ways each day? You probably will not want to believe it when we tell you that if you live m a city, especially a large city, you as an average citizen probably use from 50 to 75 gallons of water a day. If you live in a small town, very likely you use only from 15 to 30 gallons a day, and if you live in a little village, which has no public water supply, you probably use only a few gallons a day! How can this enormous use of water in a city be possible, vou ask ? What is it used for? Well, of course it is not all used for drinking^ for even if you drink a great deal of water, you probably do not consume each day more than two or three quarts. So the large use of water is not accounted for in that way. It can not be just for washing either, for that would not take on the average more than several gallons per day per person. No, the large uses, aside from the huge waste which is quite common in our city water supplies, is for purposes like manufacturing, watering the streets and lawns in the summer time, and defending the city against fires. Now, the Ameri- can cities are very wasteful indeed of their water. In the first place we waste a great deal in our houses, perhaps because it comes to us so easily. If we had to carry all the water we use in buckets from a spring or well, we would be more careful. What ever comes easily tends to go easily. Then, too, in the big water mains of our city systems and in the , pipes in the houses there is a good deal of waste by leakage. Probably the greatest use of water comes in the large manufacturing plants of our towns and cities. Did you ever notice how the factories of a community are generally spread out along the banks of a stream? They are located in this fashion in order to have 92 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES water supply close at hand. That is one reason of course why in New Eng- land and the hilly eastern part of the United States there are so many more factories than in the Middle West. 4. WHERE DO CITIES GET THEIR WATER? (a) Most of Our Rainfall Comes From the Oceans. The water upon which our lives depend from day to day comes, of course, from rainfall. But where does the rainfall come from? It comes, doesn't it, from clouds of tiny drops which have been formed from the cooling water- vapors in the air. Does the vapor come from our rivers and lakes? Stu- dents of this matter tell us that it does not. They tell us that the rainfall that waters the broad wheat fields of Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, the Dakotas, Illinois, and Indiana is blown there in clouds from the oceans 1000 to 2000 miles away. They tell us that if you put all the rivers and lakes in the United States together the area would be only one or two hundredths as great as the area of the oceans. This area is two and a half times as great as that of all the lands. "If all the lakes in the world should be evaporated, they would supply only one-fifteenth of the rain that falls each year on the lands." So you see, we get our rainfall largely from the oceans. If our crops depended only on the moisture which was evaporated from the land and the lakes and the rivers, we would starve. Crops would fail because the rainfall would soon cease, and all of the continents would dry up and become deserts. That would mean of course that human beings and animals and vegetation would disappear from the face of the earth. (b) Cities in Hilly Regions Get Their Water From Storage Reservoirs High Up in The Hills If you have ever had drives or hikes outside of the cities in hilly country like New England or in the Appalachian region, you have no doubt come upon reservoirs of water built with great embankments or dams? Have you ever noticed that these reservoirs are always up in the hills and that every time there is a town or city near-by ? Did you ever encounter such a reservoir on the plains of Illinois, or Iowa, or Kansas with streams of clear water running down from it over white, sandy channels, as is so frequently true in Massa- chusetts and New York? No, instead of that, near each little town or city you find great iron standpipes. These standpipes or tanks, standing 50 to 100 feet in the air, are frequently the first sign to a traveller on the plains that a community is near-by. They hold the water supply, at least the em- ergency supply, of the town. But people who live in hilly regions conserve the rainfall in reservoirs. They use the natural little lakes that form in the hollows of the hills. They connect these with channels or with large steel pipes or "flumes." The water HOW THE CITY GETS ITS WATER 93 flows down gradually into distributing reservoirs, from where it is sent out over the town or city through large underground pipes. Do you know why these reservoirs are always placed higher up than the cities? They are so placed because of a most important principle which men have learned how to use: namely, the principle that water in a pipe tries to rise as high as the source it started from. For this reason people try to build their reservoirs at points higher than the tallest building in the town or city which the reservoir is to supply with water. Of course as the water flows through the big iron mains under the streets, and from these small pipes into the little pipes an inch in diameter, which lead the water to the faucets, the force of the water becomes very much decreased. So, in order to guard against danger from fire, most towns and cities provide for more water pressure than would come from just having the reservoir high up in the hills. Sometimes they have pumping stations which, when a fire breaks out, pumps water from reservoirs or tanks into the mains of the city. This enables the firemen to play a stream of water on the tops of the highest buildings. And in addition they sometimes have water tanks located on the tops of the highest buildings themselves as a further protection against fire. Have you ever seen these? If you watch the newspapers, you will frequently come upon accounts of very bad fires which the Fire Department has been unable to control because the water pressure was not high enough, (c) Cities on the Plains Pump Their Water from Rivers, Lakes or Deep Wells. Look at the relief map of Fig. 21 again. Where do you think the people on the great western plains get their water? There are almost no moun- tains or even high hills from Ohio clear through to Nebraska and Kansas. When the rain falls on the soil and gradually runs off these level plains into the more shallow rivers, what do people do for their water supply? Of course it is difficult, if not impossible, to build reservoirs, and even if they were built, the water would not be high enough above the towns and vil- lages so that the force of gravity would bring it up into the houses where the people want to use it. What can be done in a case like this? In the first place, the towns are forced to use water from the rivers and lakes. One of the most important duties of the government of a town or city is to provide carefully for an adequate water supply. So in level regions it has been necessary for the officials to find some way to take the water from near-by lakes, ponds, and rivers. Since the water is not higher than the city, it must be pumped into pipes with sufficient force, or pressure, so that it can be drawn even to the tallest buildings. When you turn on the water, do you notice with how much force it generally comes out? Some- times, when the pressure is low, it just barely flows perhaps. That means either that the pumps are not working well or that some other part of the town is using an unusually large supply of water. A great fire will, of course, reduce the pressure because of the huge streams of water running out of the hydrants at the same time. 94 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES So in level regions, city governments have to collect taxes from the property-owners to build w^ater tanks, pumping stations, to buy boilers, engines, and pumps, and to lay the pipes through the city. In hilly country the community raises the money for dams and reservoirs, for cleaning the site and keeping the water clean, for building channels and great pipes v^^ith w^hich to take the w^ater dovv^n to the community. But there are many communities in America which cannot depend upon streams and lakes for their water supply. What can they do? They have to resort to digging wells just as farmers do now out in the country. Does it surprise you to hear that a city may get its water from wells ? Do you think this means that each house and apartment building has its own well ? No, the water comes to the buildings through large mains under the streets, just as in the case of the other communities we have studied about. But instead of coming from streams it comes from wells drilled hundreds of feet below the surface of the ground. This is done by driving down large steel pipes until water is struck. Then if there is pressure behind the water, as there frequently is, the water comes up the pipe and is stored in tanks from where it is pumped through the pipes of the city. When there is no pres- sure to force up the water, however, it has to be pumped out of the pipes. 5. THE GROWTH OF A CITY DEPENDS ON WATER SUPPLY You have learned that a city cannot grow very large without having good ways of transporting its people and their goods, and of communicating easily. But, it is clear to you, isn't it, that even more essential than trans- portation and communication is a water supply that is both plentiful and cheap. Now our water engineers have learned how to construct water systems for small towns and cities so that it is an easy matter. But when a city tends to grow larger and larger, the difficulties of getting good water increase and the problem becomes a very serious one. Think of how such cities as Chicago, New York, Boston, and Los Angeles get their water! Chicago takes hers out of Lake Michigan by digging a great tunnel, many feet in diameter, under the lake and pumping the water through the pipes of the city from a pumping station three miles out from the shore. Chicago's trouble lay not in getting eriough water, but in getting pure water. Formerly the sewage of the city was emptied into Lake Michigan. That has been corrected now, however, by a drainage canal, which connects the Lake with the Illinois River, and the sewage is carried off by the water in the canal. But even so, Chicago takes its water from a distance of three miles in the lake. To be sure it is fit for drinking it is run through a filtration process. New York's Water System. Chicago, then, get's its water riglit at the border of the city. New York, on tlie otlicr hand, is forced to go 70 miles up into the Catskill Moun- HOW THE CITY GETS ITS WATER 95 tains, to build tremendous storage reservoirs and huge aqueducts, and to bring its water all that distance to the city. Study the relief map in your geography which shows the lay of the land around New York. Do you see how many cities surround New York City, each of which has to have its supply ? Once the territory which New York could draw on for its water was hemmed in by these surrounding communities, the great city had to go farther and farther out into the open country, and pipe its water from a long distance. Otherwise it could not continue to grow, for without sufficient water people cannot live. During most of the 1'700's the people of New York City depended on their private wells, but in 1799 a private water company — The Manhattan Waterworks Company — was formed, and they soon piped water directly to the houses of the people. Would you believe that they actually used wooden pipes! You see that was before people had learned to make iron pipes cheaply, as we make them now. In the early 1800's this company furnished water to 2000 families and owned over 2500 miles of wooden pipe. But the city grew and grew so that when, by 1840, it had 400,000 peo- ple there was not enough water. This time the engineers went way out 40 miles to Croton and piped the water from the reservoir there to a smaller reservoir in Central Park. From there it was piped to another smaller one — the Murray Hill Reservoir. This was located in the square where the New York Public Library now stands, at 42w^ street and Fifth Avenue, the heart of the great city. The water is brought to the city by an enormous aqueduct with tunnels that are about a dozen feet in diameter, and it is then carried across the Harlem River on a great bridge called High Bridge. But by 1900 the population of the city had reached 3,500,000; and again there was a shortage of water. This time the city government went still farther away to the Catskill Mountains and built additional reservoirs. These new reservoirs were constructed on even a greater scale than the Croton Reservoir. The difficulties in building them were very great indeed. All of the large rivers and lakes in the region were cleaned up and a huge dam, the Ashokan Dam, was built. The territory covers an area 12 miles long and 3 miles wide, and the reservoir itself stretches over 10,000 acres. The greatest difficulty they had in getting water from the Ashokan Reser- voir to New York was in getting it across the Hudson River. This was accomplished by boring a tunnel 1100 feet under the river. Now, the water is forced through this tunnel and carried to the Croton reservoir ; thence to the city. The Ashokan Dam is nearly 600 feet above sea level, so that there is no expense for pumping the water ; it flows by its own force down to the city. 96 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Boston's Water System. In a similar way Boston reached out farther and farther for water. First, Cochituate Lake near the city was made into a reservoir. Then res- ervoirs to store the waters of the Mystic River and the Sudbury Rivers were built. By about 1900 it became apparent that these reservoirs would be insufficient; so the city of Boston went out 35 miles, into the valley of the Nashua River near Clinton, Mass., and bought thousands of acres of land. Then occurred an interesting engineering feat, which is important as an illustration of what great cities have to do to get water for their people. They moved a whole town! On the land that Boston desired for its new reservoir there was a prosperous farming community, called West Boylston. The city's commission had the farms of this community condemned by an ancient rule of law, which says that any propert^^ can be taken for public use provided the owners are paid its value. So Boston bought these farms and buildings from the people who made up West Boylston. Even a rail- road had to be moved, — The Massachusetts Central Railroad, which fol- lowed the river up through the valley. Then began the work of building an enormous reservoir. A great dam, a quarter of a mile long, two hundred feet thick, and over one hun- dred feet high was built across the valley. The railroad company then pro- ceeded to bore a tunnel twelve hundred feet long through one of the hills; and built a bridge just below the dam so that now trains go straight across the valley where once they wound around it to Worcester. In the course of a few years the river backed up for several miles behind the dam, and the great Wachusett Reservoir — for that w^as the name they gave it — was ready to supply Boston with water. It is thirty-nine miles in circumference. Even then, however, tunnels and channels of pure white sand had to be built from Clinton to Boston — thirty-five miles. The first three miles of this tunnel went through great hills; part of the way they had to bore through solid rock. This is a good illustration of the expense and labor that human beings are willing to go to in order to continue to live in cities. TAKE AN EXCURSION TO THE WATER WORKS OF YOUR TOWN You will understand best how a community provides itself with water if you will take an excursion to the water plant of your own city. Before going, you should have clearly in mind what it is you are going to study. Re- member that you want to find out the answers to such questions as these : 1. Where does our water come from, deep wells? the river? lakes, ponds nearby? or storage reservoirs in the hills? 2. If it has to be pumped, how do the engines and pumps work? HOW THE CITY GETS ITS WATER 97 3. Where is the water stored ? Is it pumped directly into the mains of the city or does it go into small reservoirs ? What are they made of ? How long will the supply that they hold last ? 4. How is the water made pure for drinking ? Do they let it run over white sand ? How does the sand clean it ? Do they put any chemicals in the water, like alum ? What for ? The day following your excursion the teacher will let you discuss what you saw. Be ready to tell how your community gets its water and how it makes sure that it is pure enough to drink. To the Teacher: The Outlook, vol. 123, page 182 has an excellent article on the New York City water supply. See also Judd, C. H. and Marshall, L. C. Lessons in Com- munity and National Life, Series C., "The Water Supply of a Town or City," page 25. VIII. HOW THE CITY GETS ITS FOOD EXERCISE A. WHERE IS WHEAT RAISED AND FLOUR MILLED? 1. On a blank map of the United States fill in with diagonal lines the regions of the country where Avheat is raised. You will be able to get the information you need for this purpose either from maps in your geography of from facts given in the reading matter. Fig. 1, page 5 of Part II, will also help you. 2. After you have done this, locate the flour-milling industries on the same map by filling the regions in with solid black. 3. Now write a few sentences in your notebook, perhaps five or six, telling where wheat is raised, where flour is milled, and how nearly the regions in which these two regions are located correspond. Are they the same regions ? Are they all different ? Or are they the same in some cases ? Tell also, as you did in the section on iron, the reasons that they are located where they are. B. WHERE ARE CATTLE RAISED AND MEAT PACKED t 1. Following the directions for wheat and flour industries, make a similar map showing where in the United States cattle are raised and where meat is packed. 2. Compare the two regions and w^ite five sentences in your notebook answering the questions for cattle and meat-packing than you answered about wheat-raising and flour-milling. C. THE STORY OF WHEAT. 1. Collect all the pictures you can on the wheat-raising and flour- you can piece out the whole story of wheat from the time it is planted in the milling industries from geographies, magazines, picture books, advertise- ments, etc. Bring them to the class, and with your class-mates see if together ground until it is made into flour and purchased at the grocery store. 2. Make a list of all the machines, including farm machines and trans- portation vehicles, and all the kinds of workers that are brought into this long process. HOW THE CITY GETS ITS FOOD 99 D. THE STORY OF CATTLE. 1/ In the same way that you made a picture story of wheat, make one for cattle and meat-packing. 2. Make a list of all the machines and all the kinds of workers that enter into the process of the cattle industry from the time that cattle leave the farm until they get to the meat market for retail selling. To the Teacher: We suggest next a list of books suitable for the reading of junior high school pupils. From these additional readings on Ho^ The City Gets Its Food can be assigned as supplementary readings. Allen, Nellie B.: United States. Ginn and Co., New York 1910. Chapters 7, 8, and 9. Bengston, N. A. and Griffith, Done: The Wheat In- dustry. The MacMillan Company, New York, 1915. Chapter 3-10. Carpenter, Frank G.: //oit' the World Is Fed. Ameri- can Book Company, New York, 1907. Chapter 2-5, 9-11, 24-26, 29, 35, 36, 40, 41, 45, and 46. Chamberlain, James F. : Ho^u We Are Fed. The Mac- Millan Company, New York, 1917. Pages 7-40, 77-87, 104- 113, 146-165. Chase, A. and Clow, E. : Stories of Industry. Educational Publishing Company, Boston, 1916. Vol. II., pages 115-149. 199-223. Crissey, Forest: The Story of Foods. Rand, McNally and Company, Chicago, 1917. Entire book, particularly chapters 1, 2, 3, 31, and 32. Fisher, Elizabeth F. : Resources and Industries of the United States. Ginn and Company, New York, 1919. Chapter 3. Lane, M. A. L. : Industries of Today. Ginn and Com- pany, New York, 1904, pages 119-127. Mowry, W. A. and Mowry, A. M. : American Inven- tions and Investors. Silver, Burdett and Company, New York, 1900, pages 99-142. Smith, J. Russell : The World's Food Resources. Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1919. Chapters 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, and 25. IX. A PICTURE STORY OF COTTON. You have studied now the important facts about the resources and industries upon which our daily lives depend most closely. There is still another industry that occupies the time of many people in America— one however that does not touch our lives as immediately and vitally as coal and transportation. Even if the cloth mills should shut down we would change our ways of living not at all, at least for many months. Not for a considerable time would we really feel the pinch of lack of cotton. The cotton industry is most interesting to study. We have chosen it as another one with which to give you a picture story. Your teacher wants to find out how much you can learn about the whole process of cloth making from a series of pictures. Study the next pictures and read the story as told blew them straight through. Then see if you can tell the class how the cotton blossom becomes the cotton cloth from which your dress or shirt is made. Fig. 521 No. 1. This is the first step in making your cotton skirt or dress, picking the cotton blossom from the plant. Each plant contains several blossoms or "balls," and until very recently they have had to be picked by hand. A very skillful picker can pick only about 150 pounds a day. Most pickers pick about 70 pounds a day. This work of picking has been one of the few things in industry that could not be done by machinery. It has retarded cotton production a great deal. i^From "Fabrics of Civilization," courtesy of the Guaranty Trust Co., New York City. A PICTURE STORY OF COTTON 101 Courtesy of the Industrial Digest, March 18, 1922. Fig. 53. No. 2. After a hundred years of inventing a mechanical picker has been made. The picture shows an electrical device which permits a person to gather from 400 to 700 pounds of cotton a day, as compared with 70 to 150 pounds, by hand. By so doing it promises to solve the greatest problem of the cotton grower, that of being able to harvest all his cotton in the fall before the rains and frosts damage the plants. The cotton thus picked is declared to be cleaner and fluffier, and worth $15 more a bale than the hand picked. This one machine increases cotton production at least 5 times. Fig. 54\ No. 3. When the cotton is picked is it ready for spinning? No, far from it. One of the most important things that has to be done to it is the cleaning out of the seeds. Until 1792 that had to be done by hand and was very slow and expensive work. In 1792 Eli Whitney, a young New England school teacher, invented the machine shown above, called a "cotton gin." With this little hand machine a man cleaned several times as much cotton per day as by hand. In the century since Whitney's day many improvements in ginning have come. Nowadays the cotton is driven from the field to a large gin house. The raw seed cotton is sucked from the wagons by air pressure and blown through cleaning frames which removes the seed. These are blown into wagons and hauled away. The clean lint is blown into baling presses. 1 Guaranty Trust Co. : Ibid. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY Fig. 551 No. 4. It comes out of the gin house baled loosely as the large bale at the left shows. It goes under great hydraulic presses and is compressed to a size as shown in the bale at the right— smaller m size but weighing the same, 500 lbs. , , , r ,u Pictures No. 1 to 4 complete the story of the handling of the raw cotton. Once it is baled it is ready to be shipped to cotton mills where it is spun into yarn and woven into cloth. A PICTURE STORY OF COTTON No. 5. The map shows where our textile mills (cotton, woolen and silk) are. Some are right near the southern cotton fields, in Georgia, and North and South Carolina, The oldest and largest are in New Eng- land — Massachusetts especially. For a hundred years cotton manufactur- ing has been a special industry of New England; only in the last twenty years has much cotton manufacturing been done in the south. Do you see how close the new Georgia and Carolina mills are to the cotton district? Compare this map with Fig. 14, Part II, page 31. Isn't it astonishing that they did not build mills there long ago? The reason is that they could not obtain enough skilled laborers. Fig. 571 No. 6. In the mill the raw cotton goes through five different processes : 1. Preparatory processes: Opening, carding, combing, and draw- ing. 2. Spinning. 3. Spooling, warping, sizing, slashing, entering or drawing-in. 4. Weaving. 5. Converting and finishing, including bleaching, mercerizing, dying, and finishing. This machine (No. 6) is an opener picker. It cleans the cotton of dirt and rolls it with a fairly regular lap. Notice the rolls on the platform at the back of the machine. Over these the irregular downy mass of cotton as it comes in the bale is smoothed and drawn out into a flat lap. The carding machine (not shown here) draws out the cotton still more, lays the fibres parallel and discards the short immature fibres. As the flat lap leaves the carding machine it is compressed by funnels into rope-like "slivers." 1 Guaranty Trust Co. : Ibid. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY Fig. 581 No. 7. This shows "slivers" of cotton (they look like ropes now don't they?) running out of cans onto drawing machines. The slivers are as thick as a man's thumb as they start through the frames but grad- ually they lengthen out and get finer and finer as the drawing frames twist them onto spindles. Do you see the spindles on top of the frames. Spinning yarn (or thread) is a process of twisting and compressing and lengthening the cotton fibres. It is the twisting that reduces the fluffy roving to tougher, stronger and finer thread. Fig. 59- No 8 This shows the spindles on larger frames receiving more twisting and drawing out. Do you notice in all this work how most of it is done by machinery? How few persons are required to tend the machines. This is one of the marvellous developments of the last hun- dred years— in all branches of industry more and more of the worlds heavy labor is done by machine power. 1, «, Guaranty Trust Co.: Ibid. A PICTURE STORY OF COTTON Fig. 60^ No. 9. Once the cotton has been twisted to fine thread it has to be made ready to be put into a loom to be woven into cloth. First the yarn on the thin spindles has to be wound onto larger spools as shown here. These are then set in a tall frame called a creel. Fig. 612 No. 10. From the creel, shown at the back of this picture, the threads are drawn onto a large roller and laid in exact order side by side, a yard or more in width. The number of threads depends on the width that the store people want their cloth to be. Some cotton cloth sells in yard width, some 27 inches wide, others at other widths. If you can get a magnifying glass study how a piece of cotton cloth is com- posed. It consists of threads woven over and under each other and at right angles to each other. One set of threads consists of the warp, which is the set shown in the machine in this picture. No. 9. 1, 2, Guarantj^ Trust Co.: Ibid. 106 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY Fig. 621 No 11 The last step in making threads into cloth is the weaving. It is done on a loom like this one. The large roller (the beam) on which the threads are shown in No. 10, is put underneath and the threads run through five wires which separate them regularly. These threads are raised and lowered alternately so that a shuttle can be driven between them by the power that runs the loom. Before 1738, when Kay invented the "flying-shuttle," the shuttle containing the bobbin of thread had to be thrown through by hand. This was very wasteful. During the past two centuries many inventions have been made so that now one weaver can operate 16 looms at once. Once the cloth is woven it has to be "finished," and made ready for selling. This means that it has to be washed and bleeched, pressed to a fine surface, sometimes mercerized, dyed, printed etc. EXERCISE We have given you a picture story of one of the important American in- dustries, the cotton industry. See if you can find out the chief facts about this industry, answering such questions as these : 1. Where are the textile factories of America? 2. Why are they where they are ? ' 3. How many people are there engaged in the textile industry? 4. Do we export raw cotton, wool and silk? 5. Do we export cotton, woolen, and silk cloth? To whom? How much ? 6. How important an industry is the textile industry in the lives of our people? If it should break down would it be as serious as if the rail- roads should break down? How serious would it be? Guaranty Trust Co.: Ibid. X. FROM A STUDY OF TOWNS AND CITIES TO A STUDY OF NATIONS So far in this pamphlet you have been studying about life in our towns and cities. Do you see how comphcated it has become, how industries depend upon other industries, and workers depend upon other workers, and cities depend upon farms and farms upon cities ? Is it clear to you that the trans- portation industry has become so important that almost everything we do, our school, our work, and our play has something about it that transporta- tion had something to do with ? In the food you eat, the clothes you wear, the theatres you go to, your playgrounds, in almost everything you can think of, transportation has had some part. It has brought fruit from Florida, or cotton from Georgia, or wood from the forests, or films from California, to you wherever you are. If you live in the city, the wheat that goes into your bread, and the cattle that makes your meat, have come by train from the farm; if you live in the country, the cloth for your clothes, your shoes, your hats, your gloves have come by train from the city. Transportation in turn depends upon coal and iron, and you have learned how important coal and iron are to other industries as well. We make our machines of iron and run them by steam-power from coal. All our factories depend upon a continuous supply of iron and coal. You know where the iron and coal mines are and where the steel mills are, and you have seen that our supply of coal is decreasing so rapidly that a hundred years from now engines and boilers and furnaces will have to rely on some other kind of fuel which we don't know about as yet. You have found out how a plentiful supply of pure water, above all things, is absolutely essential to our daily life, and how millions of dollars and years of labor have been spent to make our water supply the best possible. Now, is it clear to you how our life and happiness and comfort is all tied up with huge industries which we have always taken for granted. Probably none of you realized before how terrible it would be if transpor- tation all over the country should suddenly stop, or if all at once there was no more coal or iron in the mines. Think of it! What would we do with- out any one of these things. And yet people didn't used to be so dependent on them. When our country was first settled, and even as late as 1800 there were no railroads, no trolley cars, no telephones, no huge reservoirs; people didn't use iron much in those days. If you were asked to, could you trace by a few steps how all this complication came about ? Could you tell how people at first made everything they used in their homes, and how from that self-sufficiency, they have come to make almost nothing in their homes ? i 108 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY EXERCISE Go back to Section II, From Home to Factory, pages 8-18, and for each story write a sentence in your notebook giving the main idea that you got from it. Follow each one with one or two other sentences that you can now write on the subject after studying the rest of the pamphlet or from your general knowledge. For each story, then, there should be either two or three sentences. Write this summary so that if a stranger were to read it he would see clearly how the change came about in going from a simple to a complicated life. Now from a study of cities we are going to a study of nations. See if you do not agree that a nation is just a very large community, and that as a whole it depends upon much the same things that a city or town or still smaller community depends upon. Remember that the parts of a nation or of most nations, are tied together by railroads, by telephones, by telegraphs, by lakes and rivers. If they are separated from each other, by oceans, in the same way cities are separated from each other by rivers or lakes; never- theless such cities depend upon each other. Should nations depend upon each other, or should they try to live separately. Decide this if you can as you study Part II. PART II. CAN A NATION LIVE BY ITSELF? I. WHAT WOULD HAPPEN TO AMERICA IF SHE COULD NOT TRADE WITH OTHER COUNTRIES? What do you think would happen if the people of the United States should wake up some morning and find such newspaper headlines as these staring them in the face? England, France, Germany and Japan Refuse to Trade With the United States NO PRODUCTS OF OTHER COUNTRIES COMING TO AMERICAN PORTS History has repeated itself. What hap- pened to the American people in 1807 has happened again — no foreign goods are coming to American ports. For the first time in one hundred years we are cut off from other countries. Neither our ships nor those sailing under foreign flags will bring us the products of other lands. The United States must depend upon herself, at least for a while, — no one can predict for how long. The President has called special meetings of his Cabinet. Business and labor leaders are hurrying to Washington to take stock of the resources of the nation and to find out the best way of handling them. Can the American people exist with- out supplies from other nations? That is the question now facing the United States. Can we raise enough wheat, corn, and cattle to meet our needs? Can flour be made to feed 100 million people? Can meat be packed and distributed to all parts of the country? Have we enough fuel in our mines and forests to keep our railroads going and our mills running? Can our iron mines and steel mills con- tinue to operate, or must they cut down to part time? Will building slow up, and cotton and woollen manufacturing plants close their doors? Will millions of our men and women workers be thrown out of employment? These are questions that the American people are now forced to answer. CAN NATIONS EXIST INDEPENDENTLY OF EACH OTHER .^^ CAN THE UNITED STATES? Of course the newspaper clipping is imaginary, and to us in America it does not seem possible that other nations would ever combine against us and refuse to trade with our country. But suppose that they did. They have refused to trade with Russia ever since 1918. If they refuse to trade with one country, is it not possible that they might refuse to trade with another? What if they combined against England? What would she do if no ships could reach her ports? Could the little Island produce enough wheat and corn and cattle and sheep for the needs of her people? Could 2 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES she get enough coal from her mines for fuel? Could she raise enough cotton to keep her factories going if no ships were bringing supplies from other nations? What has life in Russia been like since 1918? Have her people had all they needed to eat and to wear and to keep them warm since other countries stopped trading with her? No, Russia is starving, and thousands of her people are dying from lack of food and insufficient clothing. Let us think about what would happen to us if the United States had to depend upon herself alone for all that she needed. Would we starve? Would we, Hke the Russians, die in thousands? Would our children drop onto their cots in hunger and weakness, and lie there until they died as the Russian children are doing? Every few years we read of great famines in other countries, in India and China, and of hundreds of thousands of people dying of starvation. Could a refusal of other nations to trade with us bring about such a situation in the United States? With our vast stretch of territory, our temperate climate, and our great transportation facilities, could there be a famine that would result in the death of such multitudes? (What would transportation facilities have to do with it?) No, that is unthinkable for our country. But if , without a famine, all the other countries refused to trade with us, could we live on what we could produce? Or, would New York and Chicago and Detroit find themselves in the condition that Vienna, the capital of Austria, is in now? Here is what an American visitor wrote back from there not long ago : "In Vienna soap is more precious than gold, and as for food there is so little that children die daily of starvation and of tuberculosis . . . Now there is no gaiety, and the women, who were brought up to avoid work, must struggle to make both ends meet." The American visitor took a Viennese woman out to lunch, and this is what she said of her and her family. "She ate ravenously. I took her to the best hotel. There for enormous prices one could get a real meal. When she had finished she looked at my plate : 'May I take what is left ?' she said. "She took out the daintiest of pocket-handkerchiefs. She brushed the remnants into it ; then she put it into the silk-lined bag. Without a quiver, quite simply, she said : 1 no longer have any pride. We are starving. My family will envy me because I have had meat. It is long since we have had any. . . . "Miss von Pott's uncle had been an Austrian Ambassador. The family still wore beautiful clothes; they still lived with quaint formality. But their only food was the regulation ration. It was not enough and they could buy no more. The pension allowed diplomats was that paid under the old regime. With the [drop in the value of money] this pittance was not enough even for rent. They were slowly being squeezed to death. CAN THE UNITED STATES LIVE BY ITSELF 3 "There was a diplomats' kitchen for destitute diplomats. Here the starving aristocracy could eat. They sat next to their former servants and consumed cabbage soup. The von Pott family ate at the kitchen. But cab- bage soup is not very nourishing. Miss von Pott's mother was dying. She had lost forty pounds. I had a few cans of sardines and a little sweet choco- late brought from Switzerland. These I gave Miss Pott for her mother. She was very grateful. When she found I wanted to study starvation in Austria, she said, 'Let me take you about.' "Each day we lunched together. Each day she took the scraps left back home." ^ Could a trade embargo bring the United States to such a pass? Let us think about what our daily lives absolutely depend upon, and see whether it is possible for us to produce these necessary things in large enough quantities within our own boundaries to supply all our people. Make a list in your notebook of the kinds of food you must have regu- larly every day in order to live. Make sure that you do not include things that are not absolutely necessary. In another column list the materials that would be needed to make clothing that you would have to have. Ask yourself whether each of these items is something you couldn't get along without. Make a third list of the materials you can think of that are necessary for building houses. To the Teacher: At this point develop from the sug- gestions of the pupils, first, a complete blackboard list of food, clothing, and shelter items that are necessities ; second, make a list of food, clothing, and shelter items that would be regarded not as necessities, but as articles of comfort; and third, make a list of the items that are luxuries which the masses of our people do not enjoy and which we could get along without. The purpose of this exercise is to have the pupils separate in their minds the necessities of life from articles of comfort and luxuries. Now make three more lists of food, clothing, and shelter items that would not be necessary in order that you could live, but that are necessary to a comfortable living. After you have done that, make three lists of lux- uries that are neither necessary to comfort nor enjoyed by the masses of our people. WHAT KINDS OF WORK DO PEOPLE DO IN CITIES? From where does all this food come that one hundred million Americans must have in order to live? Does each family raise corn and wheat and potatoes in its own garden patch ? Does each family keep a cow from which 1 From Literary Digest, 1922. 4 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES it gets its fresh milk every day, and are the vegetables for the table grown in the back-yard of each home? Does each household fatten hogs, raise cattle, and prepare its own meat ? No, not in 1922, for half of the people of our country live in cities and don't even have back-yards or front-yards, or any place at all for gardens or for animals. Many thousands of our people live in apartments, tenements, or small frame houses built on small plots of ground 25 to 40 feet wide and 50 to 100 feet deep, fronting close to narrow paved streets. At least half of the children of America never saw a plow, or a reaper, or a young pig; they never saw a cow milked. Their milk comes to them in sanitary bottles purchased at a corner grocery store, or delivered by a dairy wagon ; they get their bacon all nicely sliced and packed in labeled cardboard boxes, or it is sliced at the neighborhood butcher's while they wait. Bread— Ward's Schultz's, Cushman's, or whose not— comes nicely wrapped, of a certain weight, and guaranteed as to quality and cleanness ; fruit from a thousand or two thousand miles away is sold from a vendor's wagon or at the corner fruit store. Coffee from half way round the world can be purchased from the A. & P. man, and he will grind it at a moment's notice. So it goes. In such ways as these we in America today can get all our foods. Each person does not need to raise them or prepare them for himself ; he can buy them from somebody else. But was this always possible? No, not at all in pioneer days. In Western Massachusetts in 1700 there were no milk deliveries or corner groceries; in western New York and Pennsylvania in 1775 there was no bacon to be bought in neat boxes or bread to be purchased at five cents a loaf, nor were these things known in the Mississippi Valley states in 1830- 1850. Even as late as 1850-1870 the people who were settling the western lands of the Rockies and Oregon and California did not have things done for them in such ways. They had to do everything for themselves; they were pioneers dependent upon the land for their living. Each man with his sons plowed his own ground with hand-plows and horses and oxen ; they sowed and harvested their own wheat and corn (mostly corn) ; and the boys milked the cows and tended the pigs and horses. The wife and daughters prepared corn cakes, mush, and hominy, which appeared on the table with monot- onous regularity. You see they couldn't begin to have the variety in food that we have in these days. Beef was a great luxury then— it still is today in a few scattered places in our wide land. Instead of being able to step to the phone and ask the neighborhood butcher to deliver two pounds of steak, each farmer— the people were all farmers then— had to kill his own cow and do all the tilings that are now done by our meat-packers, to get it ready for cooking. And he didn't have any fruit until he raised it in his own orchard. If things are so different today and people depend upon someone else for their food, what would liappcn if other countries refused to trade with us? CAN THE UNITED STATES LIVE BY ITSELF 6 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES Does "someone else" mean other countries? Or, does it mean that even though we Americans live differently than our pioneer forefathers did, we divide labor and do things for each other so that all our Wants can be supplied from the products of our own country? In other words, do we mean by "someone else" the person or persons who have a large shoe factory which makes thousands of pairs of shoes to be sold to any who want to buy. while another person perhaps has a meat-packing industry where animals are butchered and packed, and bacon put up in small boxes for sale? Do we mean by "someone else" the person who has a large farm on which he raises immense quantities of wheat, corn, oats, while "someone else" has a big mill where the wheat is made into flour, and so on? If this is what we mean when we say that all these various things which our forefathers had to do for themselves are done for us, we need to find out whether there are enough people and enough goods raised and manufactured in our own country so that we are not dependent upon "someone else" outside America. If there are enough people and enough goods, then if our newspaper headlines told us that the other nations had refused to trade with us, we would not need to be alarmed. Study the map of Fig. 1. It will help you to answer the question, Could the people of the United States live without supplies from other nations. Look back at the first list you made in your notebook. Did you have cattle, hogs, wheat, corn, oats, barley, potatoes, sugar, fruit? If so, study Fig. 1 and see if we raise these things. The fact that we raise them, does not mean, of course, that we raise enough. How would one find out about the quantities we raise of the different products? Are there books or atlases that one can go to for such information? Yes, if you should go to the librarian in your school or town library and ask her to help you find out whether in this country we raised enough of the different products to supply the needs of our people, she would send you to books like the following : 1. The World Almanac and Encyclopedia for 1922, published by the New York World Press Publishing Co., New York City. These Almanacs, one published for each year, contain figures on many things that you will want to look up in your studies at school and oftentimes at home. 2. The Daily News Ahnanac, published by the Chicago Daily News, Chicago, Illinois. This gives the same kind of information. 3. Geography of the JVorld's Agriculture. By V. C. Finch and O. E. Baker, 1917. This can be secured from the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. It gives hundreds of maps showing where things are raised and manufactured in the United States. 8 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 4. The New World. By Isaiah Bowman. World Book Company, Yonkers, N. Y., 1921. This is an authorita- tive book and contains a most valuable collection of facts about the resources of foreign countries. Here is a series of maps that w^ill show you where the food of the world is raised. We shall study them more carefully than now at later times during the year, but we wish to use them at this point to help answer our question whether America could get along without trading with other countries. WHERE THE PEOPLE OF THE WORLD LIVE The first map. Fig. 2, is given merely to help you identify the countries in the different parts of the world, and for Canada and the United States it shows the provinces and states also. You will notice that on the maps of the o^er figures the names of the countries are not given, so whenever you have any difficulty in telling what countries produce certain foods you must turn back to your identification map, Fig. 2, and find out their names. The population map, Fig. 3, shows where the people of the world are living. What does it mean when there are a great many dots close to- gether? What do a few dots mean? The bar graphs below the map give you a kind of summary of population facts; they tell you about how many people are living in the eight countries of the world which have the largest population. What other important facts do you get from the bar graphs of Fig. 3 ? Are you surprised to find that China and India have so many people? Together they have about. .J^:. . . (fill in) million people. When the map was made in 1917 there were about . .• '. . , . ? l^A PT?^ people in the entire world. The people of China and Japan together comprise about. 1 . per cent of the whole world's population. The United States ranks. . . aJ^^V-V . . in per cent of population. Its population of about 100 million is. . . . .per cent of the whole number of people in the w^orld. In what parts of the world are people living together most closely? Have you any idea why there are almost no people in north central Africa, in central and southern South America, all through the northern part of North America, in central Australia, and throughout northern Europe and Asia? We will not take the time now to find out all the reasons why, for we are coming back to this very important subject later. But can you tell the class one reason for the lack of popuhition in these parts, before we go on? To the Teacher: One of our principles of arrange- ment of this material is to introduce an important matter rather casually before taking it up fully. This is an ex- ample of it. Do not spend much time at this point on the last question. We will give more facts and questions on it later. 10 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES If you were a farmer wanting to invest in land where there would be the least possible competition in selling your products, what country would you choose? Tell exactly why. The bar graphs below the population map, Fig. 3, will help you to answer the following questions : 1. Which of the eight countries listed have the most people per square mile? • UA^^>-^^ lQC.^^v^-^Y-^Mrw>^ rQ...^-^ 2. Which countries get the largest crops from their land? Where does the United States stand in this respect ? 3. Is this sentence true: The United States has more acres in crops in proportion to its population than any other country, 'j' WHERE IS THE FOOD OF THE WORLD RAISED Have you begun to decide whether our country is self-sufficient — that is, whether it could exist without help from any other country? Have you enough information yet to answer your question ? Even 'though we have a large territory, and sow millions of acres in foodstuffs, are we able to provide the different kinds of food our people need to live on ? Do you know what kinds of food are used most by people scat- tered over the earth? Breadstuffs are used most generally by civilized people, and breadstuffs are made from different kinds of grain — ^wheat, corn, rye, barley, rice. Look back at Fig. 1 and see how many of these are raised in this country. Even if they all are, what other information do you need ? Notice whether some of these same products are not raised in Russia and Austria where the people are now starving. Let's see where the wheat of the world is raised. Study Fig. 4, the wheat map, for wheat is the civilized world's most important grain. How can you tell from the bar graph that it is the most important ? About what per cent of all their cropped land is given over by the various countries to wheat ? ' This fact about our country is changed from pioneer days, for corn was then the most important grain; corn is much more easily prepared for eating when you do not have machines and appliances, than wheat. 1. What are the eight wheat-producing countries today? 2. Which one has the most acres in wheat? Which one raises the largest total amount ? Compare the two lists of countries given in Fig. 4 very carefully. Is there a single country that appears in both lists? Can you tell why. Are the countries in the first small or large? Are the countries in the second list small or large. Now study Fig. 5 which shows the amount of wheat produced and used by eighteen different countries. Give all the facts that it tells you CAN THE UNITED STATES LIVE BY ITSELF 11 12 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES about the linked States. Do these facts help you to answer your big ques- tion? In what way? Put a sentence in your notebook showing whether as far as wheat is concerned we are dependent upon other countries. Canada leads all countries *in both production and consumption per capita of wheat, with Argentina ranking second, and Australia third in pro- duction, while France stands third in consumption. The United States ranks seventh in production per capita and tenth in consumption. What about com ? What is the great corn-producing country of the world ? Do you think the United States would have to buy much corn from other countries See Fig. 6. Without taking into account our large acreage, do we raise corn as well as other people do? WHEAT COUNTRiES CANA&A AROENTINa AUSTRALIA ROUMANU BULOARtA FRANCE UNITED STATES NEW ZEALAiTO SPAIN URUGUAY ALGERIA ITALY CHILE AUSTRIA - HUNGARY RUSSIAN EMPIRE SEHVIA TUNIS UNITED KINGDOM PRODUCTION mamm coNsuMPTiON y/w/z/'n BUSHELS PER CAPITA Fig. 51 Considering our large population, do we raise as much corn to an acre of our land as other countries? Now write a sentence in your notebook telling whether we would be dependent on other nations as far as corn is concerned. Fig. 7 shows where the potatoes of the world are raised. Which are the two greatest potato-raising countries? Which ones get the best yields per acre? Does it look to you as though the United States would have to get potatoes from other countries? Put another sentence in your notebook — about potatoes. 1 Finch & Hakcr: ( Jooiiiapliy of the World's Agriculture. T. S. Dept. of Agriculture. CAN THE UNITED STATES LIVE BY ITSELF 13 Fig. 61 RECENTLY WE HAVE SHIPPED MUCH FOOD TO OTHER PEOPLE What do you think— would our people go hungry for bread if we could not trade wit'h other nations? Would they have to make bread out of pota- toes as the Germans did in 1917 and 1918 when so many millions of their men went to war and the Allies formed a blockade all around Germany? Bread in America is usually made from wheat, but in times when wheat is scarce and hard to get bakers and housewives have to fall back on other cereals. Then they use corn and rye to tnake bread, and even bran and rice Fig. 71 1 Finch & Baker: Geography of the World's Agriculture, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 14 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES and potatoes. In 1917 and 1918 America was called upon to help feed England, France, and Italy, and to aid in winning the war against Ger- many. With so many of their men taken from the fields to fight in the war, our Allies found it impossible to raise enough breadstuffs to feed their people, so we had to help them. That we did help them is shown by Table I, which gives the value of foodstufis we shipped to other countries in each year from 1904 to 1921. Table I. Value of Foodstuffs Exported by the Year United States 1904 $444 millions 1905 401 1906 525 1907 513 1908 522 (( 1909 438 1910 369 <( 1911 385 1912 419 1913 503 (( 1914 431 (( 1915 961 (( 1916 881 (( 1917 1269 (f 1918 1529 (I 1919 2503 1920 2141 (( 1921 1795 (I See how the number of millions go up in 1918, 1919, and 1920. Even though the war was over in November 1918, the soldiers of the difterent countries of course didn't get back to work at once. It took months for them to be discharged from service and to get back to plowing their fields, to sow- ing — and months later — harvesting their crops, to the factories where they were working when war called them away. Once they got their crops in, their own supplies were on the way, but they had to wait months for harvest time when the grain could be gathered and shipped to the mills to be made into flour for bread and other foods. In the meantime, of course, they had to live, so during 1919 someone had to feed the people of England and Europe. Who was there to do it but the United States ? Who else had great food resources? No other country had as great supplies. Do you see how Table I tells what happened? So great was Europe's need even in 1920 that our people continued their immense shipments of raw materials and manufactured foodstuffs throughout the year. And in 1921 we still continued to help feed Europe, and even yet the amount of foodstuffs we send over there has not dropped back to the totals of tliree to five hundred milHon dollars which were normal in the years 1910-1913 just before the war. CAN THE UNITED STATES LIVE BY ITSELF 15 Does this bring you nearer to your answer to the question whether America could raise enough food to feed her people should other nations refuse to trade with her ? Of course you can not yet answer the question fully because you do not know just what foodstuffs were included in our ship- ments to Europe. Perhaps she got some necessities from other countries, and perhaps we had to get goods from other countries in order to send her what we did. What about sugar? Can you remember how in 1917 and 1918, after we ourselves had entered the World War, that we had great difficulty in getting sugar? Your mother would send you to the grocer for sugar and the most he would give you was a pound — or, if your mother would use it for preserving fruits, perhaps five pounds, for that would help economize on other sweet things? If you went to the restaurant, you would be given one Fig. 81 lump with your coffee, or a single spoonful, or a tiny envelope half full. A bowl of sugar on a hotel or restaurant table was a very unusual sight, and we felt the pinch a great deal. We didn't feel it so much on wheat and corn though, did we? True, we ate more brown bread and corn bread than we ordinarily do and less fine white bread ; but no one in America went really hungry for bread on account of breadstuffs being shipped to Europe. Why did we notice the difference in the sugar supply so much more than in the flour? One important reason you can get from the sugar map. Fig. 8. Who raises the sugar of the world ? What arle the great sugar-pro- ducing countries? Do you notice how about half of the world's sugar comes from beets and half of it from cane? The map shows interestingly how 1 Finch & Baker: Geography of the World's Agriculture, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 16 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES beet sugar and cane sugar are not raised in the same places. There are two rather clearly marked zones — the northern one for beet sugar and the south- ern one for cane sugar. About what per cent of the world's crop of sugar does the United States raise?-- 'where in the United States is sugar raised? Can you see now the reason why we had to use sugar sparely, especially in 1917 and 1918 ? What is the reason ? Study Fig. 1 again. Of the foodstuffs we have studied so far, which one would we have to raise more of or get along without? A S -^^^ Ski WORLD TOTAL «2-«3O.00O HEAD ^^^^ \ ^'^-^ WORLD CATTLE NUMBER EACH DOT REPRESENTS lOC.OTO %r Fig. 91 What is a very important food that we haven't yet talked about, of which we sent a lot to Europe during the war ? How about meat — especially beef and pork? Fig. 9 shows you where the world's cattle are raised. What are the four great cattle-raising sections? How important a country is the United States for cattle-raising? For swine-raising? If trade with other nations were cut off, do you think we would have enough beef and pork to supply our needs? Do we raise as many cattle in proportion to our population as do the smaller countries? Why do you think it is that of both grain and meat the smaller coun- * tries succeed in raising a larger amount per acre and per square mile of their territory than we do ? Is it because they have more people to feed per square mile? Is it that they are better farmers and know how to make their land produce more, or why is it? Write a sentence in your notebook showing whether we are independ- ent of the rest of the world as to sugar and meat. 1 Finch & Kuker: GeoKiarhy of the World's ARruulture, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. CAN THE UNITED STATES LIVE BY ITSELF 17 Now for coffee. The American people drink millions of gallons of coffee every day. There is hardly a household but serves it for breakfast; and in thousands it is served at lunch or dinner as well. ''Coffee, sir?" is the query that comes from the waiters at every hotel and restaurant at practically every meal they serve every day in the year. The Americans are a great coffee-drinking people. How much coffee do we raise ourselves ? Figs. 10 and Fig. 101 11 will tell you. What would happen if our foreign trade were stopped? Would we have coffee ? No, we would go without, for we raise none. We use over twice as much as any other country in the world, and yet we raise not a pound. But is coffee a necessity? Many physicians and scientists would be glad if we couldn't get coffee, for they tell us that it is injurious to good health. Whether that be true or not, the American people have the coffee habit and yet must depend on other coun- tries for their supply. Make a statement in your notebook as to whether we would be self-sufficient and independent of other nations for our food since we raise no coffee ourselves. What is the great coffee region of the world ? The leading coffee-producing country is . (fill in) which raises .*(>3. .Cper cent of the world's product. Where does the fruit we use come from ? List the states that yau hear mentioned in connection with apples, oranges, grapefruit, pears, peaches, pine- 1921 Imports of Coffee io the U.S. 1 Finch & Baker: Geography of the World's Agriculture, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 18 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES apples, grapes. Why would we have to raise most of the fruit that we use? Without a map other than Fig. 1, you can make a pretty fair guess, can't you, as to whether we are independent of other nations so far as fruit is concerned? Now have we taken up the basic foods of the American people? Yes. There are other foods that we consume in large quantities, but the ones we have discussed are the most important ones, and the ones which would determine whether we were a self-sufficient nation. WHAT WE BUY AND SELL FROM OTHER COUNTRIES*. "eXPORTS" AND '^IMPORTS.^' You have come to your conclusions about whether our people could live if other nations refused to trade with us by learning where the world's foods are raised. There is another way of finding out whether the United PQ < ■O ?0 tH '-C O tH 03 20 T-l TfH "O H 00 fo_io 05 ^"^"-i, 05 lO 00 f0t~^O C0 CO o CO 00 CO 05 t- ® t~ COOO : CO -H 00 CO 05 tH t- 05 t- 05 I;- t;- 00 CO CD ^ g TtH (M :^Q0C0iCi05H'*05t-C0 00 05 00 C000 ^OO^05g COOO ;o5»oocococoo5coo05Mcooo5>oi-_o^i?^_<^ico>n m5 ioO^HMOCOt-COOOC^N^COSSS^^S^S^MS^ Tl"co'o"o"«o"eo'o'rH 'if IC O £2 i§ ^3 S CO-^ H (M t- CO t- (M iH CO i-l H CO CO O tH -"l* lO 2 "-I CO r-l H r-l t-I H OSr-IOS'^COOSCOr-IOiMOOt-eOH^CJrHg 05Tl<.Tj<(M(MCO(?^oiOr-ICOOCOCO'ooc^■^e^OT)^^oc»ooor^o5T^co(^^^c^o J2C0iOO5C05l-^ OC0e0HO»^3»Or-l00l- "3 O Oo'o'os'O (N 00 CO br-£o"^''3"o coo H CO CO 0 00 CO O O W ; 05 W O |0*Mt-l-^ t-^-*lO • CO i O CDrHr)r|Coi> i 00 t-^ • 05rH iH05 OiM iH H COrtl05iM ; (MWlThTj^Hr-^ t- CO O O O^-* C0 1C05 CO O IM IC N rtTo-Os" H H CO ^ 00 O C3 CO H S o CO 05 t- r-l 05 05 (N H O CO 05 lO 1^ O lO O 00 O CO CO CD ■ X UO rH IN lO ~. r-i r- TO R lO H H o CO i> < O05ci< CO H 05 < 00 o 05 CO t- 05 • O IN 1 IN O 00 < IN CO I CO o ■ 00 00) H H 1 CO . 00 H CO ,-,w,^^r-l05•Ot^TH05 05 0 OOOCOOOlNCOt-Or^Ol>•Ot^TH05 05 0 r-lt-rH005>OiNiNCOl005CDira**»Og'* CO CO N rH Tji O rH CAN THE UNITED STATES LIVE BY ITSELF 19 States can live on the food she produces. That is by comparing the amount she sells to other countries — her exports — ^with the amount she buys from other countries — her imports. Table II gives a list of the exports and imports of the United States for the year ending June 30, 1921. ''Exports" means articles that any of the people of the United States sell to other countries. ''Imports" means articles bought by any of our people from the people of other countries. So anything that we raise or manufacture, such as flour, hides or shoes, cotton or cloth, iron or steel rails, and we ship to other countries, is called an "export". Anything that we take in to the United States from any other country is called an "import". From Table II you can compare the amount of each important article that we sold to other people with the amount that we bought from them. Answer the following questions from it: 1. To what extent do we depend upon other countries for our rail- road cars? our automobile? 2. If trade with other nations were cut off, would our cotton mills continue to run? Explain your answer. Table III. Manufactures ready for Consumption Year E!xports Imports 1904 $349 $253 1905 402 252 1906 460 308 1907 481 364 1908 489 332 1909 440 299 1910 499 368 1911 598 361 1912 672 360 1913 776 408 1914 725 449 1915 807 336 1916 1,998 312 1917 2,943 377 1918 2,185 403 1919 2,384 393 1920 2,834 745 1921 2,643 744 3. Would our steel mills and railroads have to stop operating be- cause of lack of coal? Because of shortage of railroad cars and machine parts ? 4. If the trade embargo were prolonged two or three years, do you think those who wear fur coats or use animal skins in one way or another would have to do without? Why? 20 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 5. Would we be inconvenienced by lack of fish? 6. Would our fibre manufacturers keep right on doing business just the same? Table III shows our exports and imports of manufactures ready for consumption from 1904 through 1921, in millions of dollars. What do you notice about the export and import columns in this table? Do the figures of the import column increase to correspond with the increase in the export column from 1916 on? Write in your note- book a few sentences telling the facts that this difference suggests. Does Table III indicate that we have been depending on other countries for the manufactured articles we use? Have you enough information now to answer the question, Can the United States exist independently of other nations? What is your answer? II. ENGLAND, A LITTLE ISLAND, MASTER OF ONE FOURTH OF THE WORLD "I tell you, England wouldn't last a month if we stopped shipping goods to her. That little island! Why, look at the size of her — not as large as this state of Kansas; and look at the way she's fixed — depends on other countries for nearly everything she uses." The proprietor of the Paola House in Paola, Kansas, settled back complacently in his arm chair after these few remarks with an air of hav- ing completely demolished his opponents' arguments about England. Four typical Yankee travelling salesmen, marooned over a hot week-end in this small town hotel, were sitting alongside of the proprietor with their feet over the shining rail before the large plate-glass window fronting on the square. Presently a distinctly foreign voice broke the silence, its owner pull- ing a chair up and adding his two feet to the row on the shining rail. "Do you know, sir, that little' England is the greatest trading nation in the world, that she exports more coal than even the United States? Do you know that for three hundred years she has been the greatest manufacturer of woollen goods in the world ? That she has more than thirty million sheep right now ? Did you ever get a glimpse of one of those maps where the number of sheep are shown by dots — one dot for every 200,000? Well, England looks like someone had spilt a bottle of ink on her — it takes that many dots to show the number of sheep she has! [Do you see how Fig. 12 shows this?] Did you know that since the War she has picked up on her iron and steel trade until now she exports more than the United States — and this in spite of the fact that the War nearly knocked us completely out?" "Yes, that's all right," came from one of the salesmen, "England's got lots of cloth and steel mills, but" — triumphantly — "you can't eat wool and steel. What about wheat and corn and meat? Why I understand that -England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales together don't raise one fourth of the wheat they need to keep their people aHve!" (Was he right? Can you tell from Fig. 5?) "That's true enough, our United Kingdom depends on other parts of the world for food. If we should be completely blockaded, we'd be starving in a month. We probably haven't got a month's food supply in England right now. And right there, men, is one of the reasons why we're not giving Ireland her independence. If an attempt should be made to 22 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES blockade us, it's a fine position we'd be in with submarines running in and out of Ireland's hundreds of bays and inlets! But let me tell you, it's pretty difficult to carry through a blockade. You'd never do it, and you know why — England's navy. The greatest navy in the world !" "You're right there," broke in one of the salesmen, "England's been Mistress of the Seas for three hundred years — ever since she licked the Spanish Armada. I knew enough history for that." "Sure," the proprietor, still unconvinced, came back, "sure. But we're not talking about war— about absolute blockades. We're talking about not trading with England, and I say she couldn't live a month without Why do you think England raises so many more sheep than other countries? Who are her rivals? Fig. 121 the trade of other nations. Suppose Argentina should decide not to ship wheat to you, and to buy our coal instead of yours — we could sell her what she needs, you know. Suppose she should — what would you do? Suppose that Russia — the Ukraine — should not send you any wheat either. What would you do? And, to clinch the argument, you know perfectly well that England doesn't raise a pound of cotton, don't you, for all the mil- lions of yards of cloth that she manufactures, uses, and sends abroad each year. "Yes," the Englishman agreed with a smile, "yes, not a pound. We bring it all in from the outside." "Well, then, how can you think England would outlast a trade boy- cott — an embargo? We wouldn't have to blockade her; we could simply stop trading witli her. You know tlie people who favor tlie League of 1 Finch & Baker: CJeoKtapliy of the World's Agriculture, V. S. Dept. of Agriculture. THE BRITISH EMPIRE: COLONIES AND SHIPS 23 Nations say that's the best way to make a country come to time — just stop trading with her and soon she'll have to do as the other countries think she ought to." "That theory wouldn't work in the case of England, my dear fellow. You'd have to defeat her navy first. You know England's got colonies and ships. She doesn't need to trade with other countries — that is, foreign ones. Every foreign ship in the world could refuse to sail into a British port, and we could still secure the food and cotton and other things we need to keep going. Are you surprised? You needn't be. Don't for- get our great merchant marine. Do you realize that Great Britian has more tons of ships and cargo sailing under her own flag than any other country in the world? Yes, we are Mistress of the Seas because we have both a great navy and the greatest merchant marine." "But," insisted the proprietor, "if a trade embargo was declared against you, your ships couldn't get into the ports of other countries to get the goods." Again the quiet smile came over the confident Englishman's counte- nance. "Oh, ho! by 'other countries' you mean foreign countries; their ports of course would be closed to us. But you forget that we control ports in nearly every quarter of the earth. We can get cotton from India and cotton from Egypt — both our colonies — by millions of bales; wheat from Bombay and Calcutta — also England's own — millions of bushels, — not as good wheat as Argentina's or Russia's or yours in Kansas and the Dakotas, but good enough to get along on in a pinch. We could get wheat and cattle from Australia, too, and spices, tea, rubber for our great rubber factories from China. Why, men, London is the most important trading city in the entire world for the rubber, tea, spices, jute, and such oriental goods that come from certain ports in China. And did you realize that the great port of Hong Kong, among others, is under Eng- land's control although China is way on the opposite side of the earth — 12,000 miles away ! A chorus of objections met his astonishing statements. Unperturbed he went on: "You are astonished? You do not think it possible? But it is true, every bit. It wasn't true a hundred years ago, but since then a great change has come about in "proprietorship" in the different parts of the earth. Today England is master and controls one fourth of the territory of the whole world. And more than 400 million people — one fourth of the entire population of the earth — are governed under the British flag." The argument that followed these remarks was, you may be sure, a heated one. To the Yankee salesmen such statements were preposterous. 24 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES They simply couldn't be true. "That little island with less than 34 million people master of a quarter of the earth's surface!" "Absurd" they were saying. Are you thinking so, too, by this time? Do you know enough about England — about the United Kingdom — to decide whether the English- man spoke truly? Is there a British empire? Does it extend round the earth ? Does it take in 440 million people ? These are certainly important things to know if they are true. Furthermore, it is important to know why and how such a thing ever came about. If all the nations of the earth should combine against the United States, she could provide the necessary foods and materials for clothing and shelter which her population demands. This you have just learned from read- ing and map studies. Is this true of the other great nations of the world? Do you know what the great "powers" are? In the World War which ended in 1918, the great nations opposing each other were.^^/. . i^^ J .uV...:..^ JC^..r..>fVorld Man of Iron Ore Resources — Percentages Are Based on an Esti- mated "Actual Re- serve" of 32,555.- OO Tons, with f'otential Reserve iMuch Larger — the Circles Represent Only Reserves in lixcess of lOo.UOO,- 000 Tons INDIAN OCE^N Fig. 34 1 The fact is that the bar graph of Fig. 33 tells the true story for 1913, while the map gives the estimated reserves of iron for 1921. And in the meantime, between 1913 and 1921, the great World War had been fought, and Germany defeated. With what result ? She had been forced to give up to France Alsace-Lorraine with its tremendous resources of iron. And so today, because boundry lines have changed recently, France holds one sixth of the world's iron supply! COAL THE KEY THAT UNLOCKS IRON. Did you ever stop to think that we could not have had this great industrial revolution without coal. Machines cannot be run without some kind of motive power. The steam engine was invented and gave us our chief power. But to get steam in an engine required fuel to heat the water in the boilers. For a long time wood was burned but this was not economical and the supply began to give out rapidly. And then — along about 1800 ' Iiidusl rial I )i,tj;(>:;( . 1!)'22. FRANCE AND GERMANY 93 men learned how to burn coal more economically. And it probably is not too much to say that the countries with coal supplies were sure to become the great industrial countries. Study the coal bar graphs of Fig. 16. Does this statement seem to be true? But it is not enough for a country to have large quantities of iron ore in the rock of her territory. In order for it to be of any use to make things out of, the impurities must be taken out by heating the ore to a great heat. This is called "smelting" the ore. To do this, of course, demands a good fuel; coal is the one fuel upon which men have relied all these many years. Which countries are the great coal producing countries? Are France and Germany in the list ? Is the United States ? ARE IRON-PRODUCING COUNTRIES COAL-PRODUCERS? It is very important to see if the great iron producing countries are also the great coal producing countries. Are the first four in each of the bar graphs (Figs. 33 and 16) the same? What does this tell you about the amount of coal that Germany, Great Britain and the United States would have to import in order to produce the large amount of iron that they do? More important still, what about France in the two bar graphs ? She is one of the great iron producers — is she well supplied with coal? No. She produces less than 4 per cent of the world's supply against 5 times as much by the United States. Yet she produces 12 per cent of the iron of the world. What must France have done to accomplish this? Turn back to Fig. 17 which shows where the ocean-borne coal trade of the world goes. Does France import coal? How is that shown on the map ? From what country does she get it by sea ? Prior to the war she got coal in large quantities from Germany. See if you can find Westphalia on the economic map of Europe in your geography. This is the greatest coal producing area of Germany. There is another one in western Europe which is of importance: the Saar River basin. Find that on the map, just at the northern edge of Alsace-Lorraine. It is a very small region — only 730 square miles. Do you know that for its size there is no more disputed region in the world right now than this same little Saar River Basin. Why? Because in 1918, it was taken away from Germany by the makers of the Treaty of Versailles and given to France. Why ? To offset the losses of coal that the French stood when the Germans destroyed some of their most valuable coal mines, chiefly those at Lens and Valenciennes at the beginning of the war. You see when Germany rushed westward on that first mad march in 1914 she headed straight for the two most valuable mineral sections of 94 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES France and the border country : the iron basin of Briey and the coal fields of Flanders in northern France. They knew only too well that the World War was to be principally a war of iron and coal. Can you tell why? Find Lens and Valenciennes on an economic map of Europe in your geography. Trace the industrial section of France. Do you notice how it is scattered along the northern and western borders — near where the coal and iron deposits are? As you go along in your study of the social sciences, you will see more and more clearly how sought-after have been those spots on the globe where coal and iron and oil have been deposited. Compare the population map of the world, Fig. 3 with the coal bar graph. What relation can you see between the distribution of people over the face of the earth and the places where coal is deposited in the earth? Now compare the iron map of the world (Fig. 34) with the population map Fig. 3. Is there any connection between the numbers of people who live at different places and the way in which iron happens to be deposited in the earth? We must not forget that geologists and engineers who are travelling about the world in these modern times of ours looking over unexplored regions very carefully, trying to find new deposits of iron, tell us that there are probably untold quantities of iron in Central Asia and Africa. Are there many people living in Central Asia? In Africa? How does this affect your answer to the question about the relation be- tween where people live and where coal and iron are found ? COULD EITHER FRANCE OR GERMANY LIVE BY HERSELF? Can industrial nations like France and Germany exist alone? For a number of lessons now we have been answering the question for United States, England, Russia and China. Could these countries exist by them- selves if all other countries of the world should refuse to trade with them ? Would you say that the countries we have been learning about were large or small ones? The United States? The empire of Great Britain? Russia? China? Turn back to Fig. 3 which shows the way in which people are living in different places on the earth. Locate France and Germany on the map. Does it seem to you that as many people are living in that area as in the other countries about which we have been studying? Where are the blackest spots on the map of Europe ? Do you find Holland and Belgium? That region together with the south of England seems to be perfectly black. Apparently more people are living there per square mile tlian in any other place in Europe. Wliat does the map show you about France and (Germany? About how many people are living in Germany according to the bar graph of this figure? Docs France appear in the list of leading countries in population? FRANCE AND GERMANY 95 Because of the fact that it is not one of the eight most populated countries France is not included. Whereas in 1910 China had 18% of the population of the world, and India hkewise had 18%, and Russia had 8%, Httle France had only 2%, less than 40 millions. On the other hand, the German Empire included about 4% of the entire population of the world, totaling approximately 60 million people. The area of the German Empire, however, is not much greater than that of France. There is one very great difference, however, between France and Ger- many that you must remember when you come to the study of international relations toward the close of this year, and that is that France is now and has been for a long time a closely unified country. Germany, on the other hand, has from its very beginning been a federation of states. Throughout the hundreds of years— the 12th, 13th, 14th and l5th centuries, yes, even through the 19th century, one ruling house after another has tried to hold together the hundreds of little states, provinces, duchies, kingdoms, and even free cities. As you study the history of Europe of the past few hundred years, this contrast between France and Germany will be brought out in a very im- portant way. Notice on the map of Europe what a convenient settling place France was for the hordes of barbarians who came down from the north and over from the east. The British Islands were cut off, of course, for it was hard to get across the sea. The huge peninsula, which is now Spain and Portugal, is away around the corner, so to speak, and from the opposite side on the Mediterranean the northern coast of Africa extends. Curiously enough, although France has been for a long time a very uni- fied people— less than 1% of the population of France was foreign born— the French people today are made up from original stock that came from more different people than any other country in Europe. What a strategic position she has been in all these centuries! "She commanded western Europe; she held the Channel against England; she had a great Atlantic seaboard; she spread out on the Mediterranean; she touched southeastern Europe by the passages of the Alps ; she held the only routes east and west of the Pyrennes and Spain. Geographically France is the most favored country in Europe." Now into this favored location came all sorts and kinds of Teutonic and Latin peoples, and throughout the centuries of development out of these many kinds of people have been made one unified and centralized nation. No matter what part of France a Frenchman comes from, no matter what work he does, how well educated he is, what church affiha- tions he has, what political party he belongs to, he is almost sure to be ''for France". Loyalties are not easily divided there. 96 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES IS FRANCE SELF SUFFICIENT? Turn back to the table which gave the percentages of the people in dif- ferent countries engaged in agriculture. Do you recall that in Jugo- slavia 88% of all the people v^^ere farmers, and that 77% of the Russians tilled the soil? On the other hand, only 6% of the people of England were farmers, showing us to what extent that island country had become an industrial nation. Now, France stands between the two extremes and makes us think very much of the United States. 40% of the French people are tillers of the soil. In agriculture is France a self-sufficient nation? See the wheat chart, Fig. 5. In spite of her apparent small acreage of wheat does she produce enough to feed herself? Every inch of ground is made to give its utmost contribution to the food of France. Americans can hardly appreciate the intense care that a Frenchman takes of his little plot of ground. We are very wasteful of our land in this country. The French make us think of the Chinese in this respect. Why ? Furthermore the French peasants drift away from the farms to the cities less than do those of other countries. France "still breeds peasants enough to stock her soil and of the same old rooted breed." Remember, of course, that there are few landlords in France. Dur- ing the French Revolution in 1793, when the Republic took the place of the Kingdom, and during the years that followed, the great estates of France were divided up and given to the farmers. Since that time great estates have been relatively unknown there. Of course scattered among the peasants who are tilling their own fields are remnants of the old ''feudal nobility." Little groups of "squires," are still to be found scattered throughout France. But they are relatively few. Study the other food maps of Figs. 4 to 10. Does France raise corn? Does she use much corn? How about cattle? Now potatoes? Sugar? Be ready now to sum up your answer to the question : Could France pro- vide for herself if other countries refused to trade with her? For what food stuffs would she be in want ? For what other things ? HOW SELF-SUFFICIENT IS GERMANY? Between 1914 and 1918 Germany and Austria-Hungary and Turkey were completely cut off from the world. For four years ocean going ships could not reach these countries. Armies of millions of men hemmed them in on the west, on the east, and on the south. When the World War be- gan on the Roumanian and Servian borders they were also opposed in those quarters. By 1917 stories began to appear regularly in the newspapers and mag- azines of the United States, England and France that the Germans were FRANCE AND GERMANY 97 finding it very hard to get enough food to keep their armies and their civ- ilian people going. They needed grain for bread stuffs; they needed cattle for meat. Was Germany raising enough wheat or corn prior to the World War to supply her own needs? What does Fig. 4, the wheat chart, show you about that? Does Germany appear at all in that list of the eighteen leading countries? No, Germany raises so little wheat that she does not appear in the list. Germany was not primarily a user of wheat, nor of corn either. Compare the wheat map. Fig. 4, with the corn map. Fig. 6. Apparently Germany used almost no corn at all. That is also true of France and England, and all of the north, central and northern European countries. Evidently the United States, together with the southeastern European countries, are the great corn raising and using countries of the world. Germany does use some wheat, but not nearly as much as France. Study the bar graphs under Fig. 4, the world wheat map. The second graph shows, however, that for the amount of wheat which Germany raised she farmed very carefully indeed. Do you recall the point that we made some lessons ago, namely, that the small countries of the world, had little acreage and yet farmed very carefully? We pointed out that the countries that appear in the second table under the wheat map do not in any case appear in the first table. It is very interesting that France, al- though smaller than Germany, raises much more wheat but does not begin to raise as much per acre, this too in spite of the care with which the French till their soil. How can this be? What is the mystic food word in Germany then, if neither wheat nor corn is? Rye! Rye maps of the world leave little room for doubt that the leading country in the production of rye, considering the number of acres to the population prior to the World War at least, was the German Empire. Central and northeastern Russia likewise raises a great deal of rye, in fact, five times as much as the German Empire. But, per capita, Germany raised seven bushels against European Russia's 6^. It is worth remembering that those parts of Europe which do not raise any corn, and only a little wheat, do go in heavily for rye and other food stuffs. Do you remember that during the World War, we heard a great deal about ''potato" bread being used in the German and Austrian Em- pires? Yes, since they could not get enough bread stuffs from the little wheat that they raised, and their rye, they turned to using potatoes to make bread from. What a huge supply they had is shown by the potato map. Fig. 7. Notice that the German Empire raised more potatoes than any other country, including even the great Russian Empire. They farmed so well that they raised more bushels per acre than any other country ex- cept the United Kingdom. Furthermore, they raised far more bushels per inhabitant and had a much larger percentage of their cropped land in 98 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES potatoes than any other country of the world. How does the United States compare with Germany in this respect? Study the bar graphs very care- fully. The German Empire and Russia together in 1913 raised more than one-half of the world's potato crop. Do you wonder that they made "potato-bread" in 1916-18? There is a third food that Germany went in for heavily, that is sugar. Germany wns the leading beet sugar country of the world in 1913. She raised nearly 2^ million tons of sugar. Study the sugar map, Fig. 8. Do you recall what we said about the two kinds of sugar that were raised in the world, beet sugar and cane sugar, and that they seemed to be very clearly marked off in zones throughout the world? The United States, India, Cuba and Java, raise cane sugar. It happens that the United States also raises some beet sugar. Germany and Russia are the really great beet sugar countries of the world. It is rather interesting to find that north- eastern France raises some of its own sugar. What shall we say about the raising of cattle in these two countries? Study the cattle map of the world. Fig. 9. Do you think Germany must have had a hard time to get meat during those terrible years of the War? Was she one of the leading countries in the raising of cattle ? Where does she stand in the number of millions raised in 1913? What countries raised more? Where does France appear in this list? In proportion to the pop- ulation, how does France compare with Germany in the raising of cattle? What does the cattle map teach you are the most important cattle produc- ing regions of France? Is there any area in Germany like that portion of France? Look at the third of bar graphs under the cattle map of the world. For her area, do you think Germany raised cattle well? How did she compare with England? When you were studying about England you learned of her great su- premacy in sheep raising. What manufacturing industry caused her to be especially interested in raising sheep? Do you recall how well she compared with Russia and Turkey and the other sheep raising countries? Study the sheep map of Fig. 12. Which country, France or Germany, raised the most sheep in 1918? Should it astonish us, therefore, that Germany was able to hold out as well as she did during the World War? Although shut off from other countries, except her allies, she was able to stand the pressure of four years of complete blockade. Of course, we must remember that she helped her- self as far as wheat and corn were concerned by her successful drive into Roumania, Servia and Greece. One of the greatest wheat regions of Europe is found in Roumania. What is your answer now to the (jucstions : Could France provide for her own needs if all the other nations refused to trade with her? Could Germany? For how long, do you think? FRANCE AND GERMANY 99 WE SHALL STUDY LATER THE IMPERIAL HISTORY OF FRANCE AND GERMANY. When we studied about Great Britain we paid a good deal attention to the fact that she was originally a small island and had expanded to be- come a great world empire. We did this chiefly because that is the most important thing about England. Now, during the 1800's other western European countries have become very imperialistic. Practically all, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Portugal, Holland, Belgium have secured land in regions far away from the home country. That is what we mean when we say countries are "imperialistic." They control other peoples besides their own. Are you astonished to find that your own country has become im- perialistic? The United States controls lands and people thousands of miles away from the main land— the Philippines, Porto Rico, Hawaii, Guam and San Domingo. (Can you find these places on the wall map?) Now, there is no more important matter to learn about than the way Europe has dominated Asia, and Africa since 1800. France played a large part in this, Germany a minor one. We cannot take the time now to do so however. In the pamphlet on international relations we will study it very thoroughly. \ VL THE SMALLER NATIONS— MANY HANDICAPPED BY CLIMATE, SOIL, MOUNTAINS, OR LACK OF RAINFALL Table IX. Area Sq. Miles Population Climate Soil Arable Ijand Essential Rainfall Resources Andean Mountain States Bolivia Chile Colombia Ecuador Balkan Countries Bulgaria Greece Roumania Serbia (Jugo- slavia) Central America Costa Rica Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama North Medeter- ranean Countries Italy Portugal Spain Turkey Switzerland Scandivania Denmark Norway Sweden The Lonv Countries Belgium Holland 514,000 290,000 441,000 116.000 42,000 56,000 122,300 117,000 23,000 48,300 44,300 49,200 32,400 110,600 35,500 194,800 100,000 16,000 17,000 125,000 173,000 11,800 13,200 2,890,000 3,946,000 5,420,000 2,000,000 4,500,000 5,500,000 17,393,000 14,789,0001 459,000 2,004,000 606,000 746,000 337,000 36,120,000 5,958,000 20,720,000 5,000,000 3,937,000 3,171,000 2,632,000 5,814,000 7,762,000 6,769,000 To the Teaclier: Assign for special study one of these countries in Table I to each pupil in the class. Have the pupil summarize the country assigned to him by answering the questions below. THE SMALLER NATIONS 101 Answer these questions about these groups of small nations. Use geographies and reference books and maps showing world resources. Geographies such as the McMurray and Parkins, Atwood, Brigham and McFarland, etc. contain maps of this character. Also find out if your school library has these books. (1) Finch, V. C. and Baker, O. E., Geography of the World's Agricul- ture. Write to the Supt. of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price $1.00. (2) World Atlas of Commercial Geology, Part I. Write to the Di- rector of the United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Price $2.00. (3) Statesman's Yearbook, The Macmillan Company, New York. Price $7.50. 1. To what extent do these small nations produce the products in Table II? In the proper columns write your answer thus: much, little, not at all. Table X Wheat Corn Cattle Wool Cotton Coal Iron Timber Potatoes Andean Mountain Countries Balkan Countries Central America North Med- iterranean Countries Switzerland Scandivania The Low Countries 1 ■ 1 i 1 1 i i-- 1 1 — 1-— 1 ' 1 1 1 2. In general what is the climate of the country assigned to you for special study? Check the correct statement below: a. The climate is favorable to self-sufficiency. b. The climate is unfavorable to self-sufficiency. 3. Soil: a. Most of the land is productive. b. Little of the land is productive. 4. Rainfall. a. The country has sufficient rainfall. b. The country has insufficient rainfall. 102 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY 5. The country (assigned to you) produces a sufficient supply of: wheat, corn, cattle, coal, lumber. Underline for the country you are as- signed to study the products of which it does produce a sufficient supply. 6. Notice in Table I that most of these nations have a small population. Be ready to explain why. 7. What are the chief points of strength and weakness in these small nations ? 8. Find pictures, maps, and charts which will help prove that these nations are self-sufficient. 9. Find out distinctive resources or products of these small nations upon which the rest of the world depends. Table I lists the chief small countries of the world. They are handicapped by one or more of the fol- lowing geographical factors : climate, soil, limited natural resources, moun- tains or lack of rainfall. We have filled out the first two columns of this table. See if you can complete Table I. by filling in the blank spaces under the small countries mentioned. Use the identification map Fig. 2 to locate the smaller nations. Close your book and on a mimeographed map of the world write in the locations of : , (a). Andean Mountain States. . (c) . Central American States, j ' ^ (d) . North Mediterranean Countries. ^ (e) . Switzerland. (f) . Scandinavian Peninsula Countries. (g) . The Low Countries. 10. Study the relief maps of America and Europe. Use any geography you have. Which of these statements is the best general conclusion to be drawn from a study of the geographical features of these small countries ? 1. The climate is a severe handicap. 2. The soil is fertile. 3. The scenery is beautiful. 4. The resources of these states are limited. ,X 5. These states support a sparse but hardy people. 6. Mountains hinder the self-sufficiency of these countries. REVIEW COUNTRIES WITH FAVORABLE GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS VERSUS SMALL NATIONS HANDICAPPED BY CLIMATE, FEW RESOURCES, SOIL, MOUNTAINS AND LACK OF RAINFALL. Below are several short paragraphs descriptive of the larger nations that you have studied. Read these paragraphs and then write the name of the countries to which each description applies at the top of that paragraph. THE SMALLER NATIONS ^ ^ » 1. This country is largely self-sufficient, supports a large pop- ulation and boasts of a very old civilization. It is interesting to study an economic map and discover that this nation is rich in coal and iron (largely undeveloped). Her land, even though it supports a tre- mendous population, is still highly productive because these people practice intensive agriculture, conserve their water supply, enjoy a heavy rainfall and use fertilizer wisely. If you study Fig. 3 a popu- lation map where dots illustrate density of population (one dot to several hundred thousand of people) you will find that the half (which half?) of this great country looks as though a bottle of ink had been spilled upon the map. It is said of this country that its area and population, its tremendous resources and rich soil make it a country upon which the world will more and more depend. 2. This country's striking characteristic is its rapid rise to a position of a world power because of its favorable geographical position. Its location made possible the development of manu- facturing and trade throughout the world. The essential re- sources for an industrial nation are coal, iron, raw products and facilities for carrying its products to markets. Study Figs. 16 and 33 (world resources of coal and iron) and the rise to world leadership of this nation is more easily explained. Isolated from constant war- fare of rival nations and yet so situated as to profit by the commerce of its neighbors, is it any wonder that this nation developed into a great maritime power ? It may be dependent upon other parts of the world but it so happens that it controls enough of the world and maintains the ships by which to assure for itself its needed food. 3. This country is a curious mixture of self-sufficiency and in- terdependence. Its chief drawbacks are an unfavorable climate, and poor transportation, — serious handicaps to any large nation. It is principally an agricultural nation. A study of Figures 6 and 9 (corn and cattle) shows these to be important crops here. Notice though that a large part of this country is unproductive. Why? But resources (land, forest and minerals) though favorable are not the only factors in making a nation. This empire had as its chief weakness a type of government that hindered progress. An old feudal system with a few nobles owning most of the land made \ RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY agricultural progress next to impossible. Coal, iron and lumber are also found in But even with all these factors that should have made this country a great industrial nation, never- theless she did not rise to this position. Transportation is hin- dered by many obstacles, chief of w^hich are climate and lack of industrial progress. 4. Here is a country which for centuries has been able to provide food enough to support a hardy, thrifty people. It too has its share of essential resources as a study of Figs. 4, 9, 16 and 33 show (wheat, cattle, coal, and iron). It is said that these geo- graphical factors are favorable to the self-sufficiency of the people. Extensive lowlands and a variable climate (temperature and rain- fall) generally lead to a country of land-owners. This not only assures wise care of the land but also secures a happy and con- tented people. But favorable location is the chief thing that de- termines possible industrial development. Here is a country in the midst of one of the two or three most densely populated re- gions in the world. Thus it is well situated for industrial progress. Possible markets are within short distances, for some six or seven countries border this country. It also faces two important water highways so that its products are easily distributed throughout th'* world. - • ^ 5. This country is one of the few that could continue to exist if the rest of the world stopped exporting products to it. Here is a country with varied climate, rainfall and resources. Study world maps which show that wheat, cattle, wool, cotton, coal and iron are produced and what do you note about this country? You find that these products are distributed abundantly and somewhat evenly over this country. But this country is not primarily agricultural nor is it chiefly industrial. Remember that these two things depend upon each other. Fortunately it possesses excellent transportation — its rail- roads are of the world's best, its harbors, lakes, and rivers, make possible the exchange and distribution of its goods. This varied civilization makes possible a happy, contented, and prosperous people, living in a way that hardly any other country in the world enjoys. 6. Here are a number of statements descriptive of another important country. After reading them would you say this was an agricultural nation? THE SMALLER NATIONS 105' 1. The soil is not very fertile; 2. much of the land is mountainous and a considerable part of it is very sandy; 3. the "lay of the land" sloping as it does to the northward deprives it of the hot summer weather essential to so many crops; 4. there is little rainfall, in fact, hardly enough for raising these crops. But these people have achieved a success worthy of mention. They have handled their land wisely and experimented until they found crops most suitable for it. They have greatly increased the yield of these crops per acre by intensive farming. Now such a country as this, with a dense population (over 300 per square mile), and raising insufficient food to feed itself, must find some way to pay for the food that it has to import. Study Figs. 16 and 33 (coal and iron.) Does this country possess these essentials for manufacturing? Yes, the raw materials are close at hand. Manufacturing started fifty years ago and her people be- came great salesmen of their products; her merchant marine car- ried goods the world over and her industrial strength rapidly in- creased. Her people have a favorable location for continued in- dustrial development — nearness to raw materials, a cheap labor sup- ply and easy means of marketing their products. Write in line of two why each of these nations became great. Table XL China France Germany Area (Square miles) 4,277,100 327,910,000 212,700 41,476,000 171,900 59,000,000 Population 106 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY British Empire 13,700,000 475,000,000 Russia 8,417,118 182,000,000 United States 3,743,529 1 17,859,000 <|^S^\M4^li:^^ Make a list of the nations of the world whose progress can be ex- plained by these factors: ^3 ^ , ■-^ \ 1. Essential 2. Favorable 3. Favorable 4. Features natural physical locations promoting resources. conditions for marketing a happy climate, soil, their products. contented etc. people. U / THE SMALLER NATIONS 107 After each of these nations write three things which they have to im- port from other countries. (See school geographies and The Statesman's Yearbook.) United States England France Germany Russia China :ri^V^^^^^^-%- Now write after each of these countries three ways in which they are largely self-sufficient. United States ^^^-^.i^-.d..^^ England ^ Frswice Germany Russia China j-p . ^0 What is the chief conclusion to be drawn from this study of the resources of the world. Is it ( 1 ) that the variety of resources in each nation deter- mines its self-sufficiency; (2) that geographical conditions determine the size, prosperity and progress of a nation ; (3) that the great nations are able to live by themselves; (4) that the types of government that nations devise explain their success; (5) that nations today are independent. Underline the statement that you think is correct. See Fig. 19 (of world trade). Ex- plain your answer. Now write a half page summary of this part of the pamphlet, pages 100 to 105 in which you tell the main conclusion of this survey of world re- sources. Tell why you think that is the most important conclusion to be drawn from the study so far. VII. ARE MODERN INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES REALLY SELF-SUFFICIENT? SHOULD THEY BE SELF-SUFFICIENT? We have now studied the ability of most of the leading countries to live by themselves. What is the outstanding conclusion from the work so far? If the greater powers of the world should refuse to trade with any one of them, could that country live by itself ? Yes, undoubtedly it could. England in spite of her limited area, her only moderately good land, and her crowded population, could live by herself because of her imperial possessions in other lands. Russia, too, undoubtedly could do so, once she gathered herself to- gether and learned how to use modern methods in developing her resources and in building an adequate transportation system. China has plodded along by herself for thousands of years, largely because she has unusually rich soil, a large and thrifty labor supply, and a very favorable climate for agri- culture. She has merely plodded, however, much as Russia plodded before 1914, with simple farm tools and primitive ways of working. The standard of living in both of these countries was much lower than that of western industrial nations like the United States and England. We shall learn more as we go on about the added material comforts that people acquire^ as they become more and more industrial and increase trade and intercourse with other nations. We found, too, that France and Germany were to all appearances self- sufficient. But was this self-sufficiency real or just seemingly so? Germany was a very modern and up-to-date country with great industrial efficiency; she knew how to make and did make the best possible use of all her resources. Yet by the end of the War Germany was on her knees begging for bread. And since the armistice the true state of affairs has been revealed ; there was a limit to her self-sufficiency. She was able to hold together for over four years, with absolutely no help from other nations, but in conditions of war she was not able to hold on longer. Without war, merely a trade blockade, it is not possible to tell how much longer her own resources would have car- ried her. But if she were forced to make herself permanently independent, the changes she would have to make within her industries would take a very long time. And there is no question that a trade blockade would be a pretty serious thing for cither France or Germany. Besides, is there not a very important difference between the self-suffi- ciency of an agricultural country like China or Russia and an industrial one like Germany? An agricultural country may have fewer of the so-called comforts of modern civilization — pianos, automobiles, variety in food and SHOULD COUNTRIES BE SELF-SUFFICIENT f 109 clothing, fine houses, beautiful cities— but it rarely lacks food. Therefore, the sudden shutting of it off from the world would not affect it so seriously. You could not imagine, for instance, changing China's conditions a great deal by blockading her ; Russia would be affected more, but not nearly so much as the more modern nations. In an industrial country, such as Germany, England, the United States, the majority of the people are not engaged in raising foods; a very large per- centage of them are doing other things, which means that half, or less than half, are raising enough food for all. In England only six per cent of the people are on farms. Do you see the dangers for such nations in case of an emergency? Do you see how they would have to face a different problem from that of China or Russia? Of course when a national calamity comes as it did to Germany and Austria, these "factory" and "city" workers either starve or go back to the land — as they are doing around Vienna. Now we have studied in this pamphlet the interdependent life within a modern industrial nation like our own. In fact throughout the pamphlets we will be studying many kinds of self-sufficiency — that of the pioneer, the frontiersman, the colonist, who must depend on himself for his food, his clothing and the roof over his head. But even he puts up with these conditions no longer than he has to. The history of all modern nations shows that gradually, sometimes very rapidly as in America, the pioneer develops community life in which he comes to depend on some one else who makes a different thing. One part of the country comes to depend on another part. One person in a factory depends on what someone else is doing in that factory or on others a long distance away. The independence of the land-worker in pioneer times has thus given way to the interdependence of the modern worker. In the modern machine world the people of a country are almost completely interdependent. Now there is another kind of self-sufficiency we must study a great deal — the apparent self-sufficiency of modern nations. The lesson of Germany and Austria makes us feel now that probably the very foundation of this independence is unreal and that in truth most modern nations can maintain their self-sufficiency only by forcibly conquering lands and resources and people in other more favored parts of the earth. In our study of international relations we shall carry this point further. It is of tremendous importance. How could England exist in an emergency without her imperial possessions, India, Egypt, Australia? Why did Japan want Manchuria, and why has it arranged matters so as to control one of China's richest provinces, Shangtung, if not for the need for more land and more natural resources? Why did England, France, and Russia practically dominate the entire continent of Asia during the ISOOs? Why do the Eur- opean countries quarrel over Mesopotamia and portions of Africa? Is it just the desire for conquering people? Or is it that their people want the valuable resources of these favored spots on the earth ? Iron on the borderland 1.10 RESOURCES AND INDUSTRY of France and Germany is a deep-rooted cause of war. Iron, coal, oil in China, Africa, Mexico — great temptations for modern nations which depend for their existence on supplies that they can get from abroad. Fortunately the United States is unusually well provided with large resources of nearly all kinds. So, as we go forward in our study of these matters we should question whether modern nations really are self -sufficient, and if they are, why? We should be very insistent on finding out whether they ought to continue to be independent and self-sufficient. Is it the ideal that every nation should be independent of every other nation? How often do you think there would be wars if every nation was independent? How many nations do you think there would soon be in the world ? Do you think it would be a good thing to have just a few nations— which would happen if the big nations swallowed up the little ones. Would it ever be possible to discipline any one nation say, by a trade blockade, if they were all independent ? What would be the only course in such a case ? Russia just now is in a state of chaos, but it is to be hoped that out of it all will develop an enlightened civilization and a scientific knowledge of how to make use of her great resources. What is the most desirable thing for her ? What is the best end for her to work toward ? Shall she strive to make herself independent of the rest of the world by laying the foundation for conquests and developing her resources to the fullest? Shall she raise and manufacture the kinds of things she can in her own country and then forcibly take the other things she needs whatever they happen to be? Or, shall her people do what they are naturally and best fitted for and exchange what they can do best with other nations for what they can do best? Which do you think should be the hope of Russia ? Suppose that every nation were entirely independent of every other one. Do you think there would be any wars? Do you think it would be possible to build up our nation, for instance, so that we were entirely independent of every other nation? That would mean, of course, that we wouldn't trade at all with any other nation. We wouldn't get books or magazines from England, or novels, or poetry from Russia or India or any other country; there would be no works of art, nor any copies of the great old masterpieces of statuary that stand in the great art galleries in the older countries. Suppose that each continent was a world unto itself — do you think that would be a good thing? If you don't think we should live in such a way that we could not ex- change anything with any other country, do you suppose some countries should be independent and some not? What if every country were dependent for some of tlie things that go to make up its daily life on other countries — on all the other countries. That is the situation now to some degree. That is, you can think of things that you use every day that either come from other countries or are copied from r \ SHOULD COUNTRIES BE SELF-SUFFICIENT f 111 their products. Many of you use imported china or wear Russian-leather shoes, use dyes and German silver from Germany, have Japanese kimonas or Japanese waste-baskets or fans, have Indian sewing baskets, wear French flowers in your hats, use Irish linen on the table, India rubber and spices from the Orient. Do you think we ought to be more or less independent than we are ? Or, do you think we ought to remain as we are now and let wars continue ? Suppose that we were dependent not only for certain luxuries and a very few necessities upon other countries, but for real every-day necessities that we couldn't do without. Do you think that would be a good plan? Why ? Couldn't nations make each other behave if that were the case ? Would nations be so ready to make war ? What do you think of this next argument? Some countries by reason of the nature of their soil, the temperament of their people, their peculiar tastes and habits and customs, can make things that other peoples can't possibly make, and should therefore follow their natural inclinations and exchange what they have for what they want that other nations have. Of course in the field of books and art and literature you will readily agree that all nations should exchange freely. What about other things that we call the essentials of Hfe? Suppose that Russia, say, could raise cotton, but the United States could raise better cotton, enough for herself and Russia and the other coun- tries that wanted to buy; and suppose that the United States could raise wheat, but Russia could raise better wheat. Do you think for the sake of be- ing independent both should raise cotton and both raise wheat? Or is it better to exchange, just as a milliner might exchange her work on a hat for a dressmaker's work on a dress? What do you think? Suppose that a city wanted to be self-sufficient. What are some of the things that would happen ? List ten that you can think of right away. We would think it was foolish, wouldn't we ? Suppose that every farmer wanted to be independent. Think of the things he would have to do— become truly a jack of all trades as his pioneer ancestor did. And back he would be to the early primitive times which we are all trying so hard to advance from. Isn't the case of nations similar to that of the smaller communities, such as cities, and towns, and villages? What is your judgment? Write a check in the space at the end of the statement that you believe in : 1. Every nation should be self-sufficient. 2. Nations should depend on each other for luxuries but not for essen- tials. 3. Nations should be dependent on each other for essentials. ^'^^ < As you study Part II of this pamphlet, see if you can see how the relation of nations is similar to the relation of cities and of industries and of individuals everywhere. Have the three statements in mind also and see if you want to change your decision after reviewing this pamphlet. ^yni WE MUST BEGIN NOW THE STUDY OF ANOTHER TOPIC THAN CITIES AND KEY INDUSTRIES IN MODERN NATIONS. We have come to the end of our account of the interdependence of the machine world. We have studied the chief countries of the world, trying to discover whether they can exist alone. We have learned much about how our own people live in cities, how their living depends on machines and railroads, how one person, one industry and one part of the country depends upon another. We have seen how sharply the complicated life within countries is contrasted with the self-sufficient life of imperial nations. In that connection we have raised serious questions about the wisdom of per- mitting the imperialistic practices of these self-sufficient countries to con- tinue. So we have merely laid the foundation for an understanding of how European countries came to develop into world empires, encroaching on each other and quarreling with each other for territory in far-off lands. We need now to come to the study of the kind of government our country has made to care for us in this complicated machine world. We need to study how our cities work and what the municipal and national government does for the people, in the country as well. Later in another pamphlet we shall consider what we American people enjoy, how we spend our leisure time, whether we like fine things— music, pictures, good books and how we compare with other people in this respect. As we go along we ask ourselves whether we are giving too much attention to manufacturing things and to making money and not enough time to enjoying the fine and beautiful things of life. YOUR NEED FOR A SUMMARY OF THE WHOLE PAMPHLET Now before going on to the next pamphlet you should try to bring to- gether in a short summary all the threads of the story. Look over the lessons again, select the chief questions and see if you can answer them. If you can you will know that you have learned some important things about our country and its relations with the other countries of the world. A FINAL NOTE 113 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO TALK ABOUT To the Teacher: These questions are brought together here as a summary of the important points taken up in the entire pamphlet. It is not intended that you will take the time to have them all answered in class. 1. What are the chief differences in the way the pioneer made things and the way we do today ? ^ 2. What are steps by which the making of things by hand gave way to making things by machines. What are the chief causes for the growth of citiqs,, 1800-192^^5 (p - -v - V 4. Why do cities grow up where they do? 5. Make a little summary which will answer the question : Does Amer- ica Use Her Waterways Well? ' M, ^ ^ \6. Show how dependent modern life is on coal. / f^jf t Ci ry.i. 7. Tell how coal was made. How long will the present supply ^It ? '^Ip"^ ' Can it be replaced ? rj}^ ^y^^^ 8. To what extent does water determine where people live on the earth ? 9. "It is probable that the United States could exist alone longer than any other country in the world." Could you convince some one of this? 10. If England is a self-sufficient country, it is chiefly because of her -X^«r^£^4r^rr:v<>ce book which covers the essential statistics and nets on industry, population, commerce, etc., of every country in the world. 1 I?s l^H.k a.ul 77///rV .'Umanac should be available for reference m (•v^ should subscribe to this magazine. C. We suggest that you make use of other current periodicals such as The Liter- ary Digest, The Outlook, The Review of Revievjs, The Current Opinion, The World's Work, The National Geographic and The Scientific American. D. Some of the most valuable and interesting supplementary material may be obtained by writing to various corporations. Each of the companies below will mail free helpful pamphlets which describe their work. Tie pictures and charts in some of them are excellent. It would be well to state in your letter requesting material that you desire it for school use. BIBLIOGRAPHY 119 These Industries Publish Helpful Descriptive Material 1. The Automobile Industry: Write to the Ford Motor Company, Detroit, Michi- gan. 2. The Banking Industry: Write to (1) The National City Bank of New York, 55 Wall St.. New York, N. Y. (2) Guaranty Trust Company of New York, 140 Broadway, New York, N. Y. 3. Chain stores: Write to The F. W. Woolworth Company, Woolworth Build- ing, New York, N. Y. 4. Conditions in Cities: Address the Secretary of the Chamber of Commerce in each of the larger cities of the United States. 5. Coal: Write to the Consolidation Coal Company, Munson Building, New York, N. Y. 6. Electricity: Write to the General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y. 7. Farm Machinery: Write to the International Harvester Company, Chicago, Illinois. 8. Grain: Write to the Washburn-Crosby Flour Mills, Minneapolis, Minn., or the Pillsbury Company, Minneapolis, Minn. 9. Mail order houses: Write to Sears, Roebuck and Company, Chicago, Illinois, or Montgomery Ward, Chicago, 111. 10 Meat packing: Write to (1) Armour and Company, Union Stock Yards, Chi- cago, Illinois. (2) Swift and Company, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, Ilhnois. 11. Steel: Write to the United States Steel Corporation, 71 Broadway, New York, N. Y. 12. Shoe Machinery: Write to the United Shoe Machinery Company, Beverly, Massachusetts. 13. Textiles: Write to (1) The American Woolen Company, Boston, Mass., (2) to the Parkhill Manufacturing Company, Fitchburg, Mass. 14. Transportation: Write to the General Passenger Agent of the leading rail- road systems. These railroads issue pamphlets typical of this supplementary material (1) The Pennsylvania Railroad Company, New York City, (2) The Southern Pacific Railroad, San Francisco, California, (3) The Chicago Mil- waukee and St. Paul Railroad, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Steamship lines like the Cunard Line, 25 Broadway, New York, N. Y. publish similar des- criptive pamphlets. 15. Telephone: Write to the American Telephone and Telegraphy Company, 195 Broadway, New York, N. Y. 16. Watch Industry: Write to the (1) Waltham Watch Company, Waltham, Massachusetts, or (2) Elgin Watch Company, Elgin, Illinois. 3 0112 044104344 A SUGGESTED SCHEDULE OF LESSONS TO the Teacher: VERY IMPORTANT. The study of this pamphlet should not take more than 75 to 80 school ex- ercises if the remaining topics are to be distributed equitably over the remainder of the year. The following schedule is the one that we shall try to follow. Feel free to adapt it as you like. You may wish to save time by omitting some sec- tions. If more readings are needed for some pupils use the ninth grade pamphlet on this topic. On any one of these assignments have the pupils read straight through first, not ansivering the questions. Fol- loiving that have them go back and work out the ansivers to the questions. If any questions appear to you to- be distinctly too difficult and time-consuming after a reasonable attempt with them pass on to the next work. Please make your criti- cism of such things clear in your " criticism pamphlet " which you will return to us. You Should Begin this Pamphlet Not Later Than November 1, and Finish the Latter Part of February Turn through the major topics of the entire pamphlet in order to see what it describes. Read and comment on the list of questions at the very end of the pamphlet: Important Questions You Should Be Able to Talk About, PART I. Read and discuss topic I: Complicated Life Today, pages 1-7. Read and discuss topic II: Real Stories of How People's Work Has Gone From the Home to the Factory, pages 8-18. Spend two class periods on this chapter. Nine lessons are suggested for topic III: The Startling Growth of Cities, 1800-1922. For lesson 5 read and discuss pages 19-24 and work the exercise on page 24. Do the review map exercise on page 24 and answer questions on page 24 for lesson 6. Read pages 25-30 on Why Cities Grow and study figs. 10-17 for lesson 7. About six lessons will be necessary in order to cover the exercises, pages 30-38 on Why Cities Have Grown Where They Did. (Spend lesson 8 on the map exercise, pages 30-31, lesson 9 discussing pages 31-34 and lesson 10 on pages 34-37. Give two class periods, lessons 11 and 12, to the exercise on page 38. Lesson 13 should be devoted to preparing the summary of topic III, pages 19-38.) Spend eleven lessons on topic IV: Transportation — Crucial to City and Country. Read and discuss the first section, pages 39 and 40, in- cluding pages 66-71 of Part II referred to for lesson 14. Spend lessons 15 and 16 on pages 40-42,on Where Does the Food on Your Dinner Table Come From? Read and discuss pages 42-48: A Picture Story of a Cen- tury of TrdHsporlalion for lesson i7. Spend two lessons — 18 and 19 — reading and Avorking the exercises on pages 49-51. We suggest that you devote one lesson — 20 — to the special reports listed on page 51. Two lessons will be necessary for the exercises on section 6: Does America Use Her li' atcrwaysf , pages 51-57. Spend lessons 23 and 24 work- ing the review (juestions, pages 57 and 58, and preparing the summary of topic IV.: Transportation — Crucial to City and Country. Lesson No. 2. 3. 4. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. 14, 15, 16 17, 18, 19 20, 21, 22 23, 24.