\ '-VYyvv ^y :VW' ass UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY Volume Book Class Mrl0-20M aAA/>^/^A A* A AA>^AA^|^|P| ^AaAaA/^ ^ ^ A A'A:. I I i THE NATION’S CAPITOL. AIT ILLUSTEATED HISTORY OF THE GREAT REPUBLIC; BEING A FULL AND COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN UNION, FROM ITS EARLIEST SETTLEMENT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME; COMPRISING ITS EARLY DISCOVERIES, WARS WITH THE FRENCH AND INDIANS, THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, HISTORY OF PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS, OUR ARMY AND NAVY, AND EACH BRANCH OE OUR GOVERNMENT SEPARATELY DEFINED. INCLUDING ALSO COMPLETE ACCURATE DESCRIPTIONS OF THE CLIMATE. SOIL, PRODUCTIONS, WEALTH, AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, MANU- FACTURES, LAWS, EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES, AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF EACH STATE AND TERRITORY. TOQETHER WITH AN INTERESTING HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE CITIES, TOWNS, AND VILLAGES; THEIR LOCATION, WEALTH, PROGRESS, ADVANTAGES, AND PROBABLE GROWTH. THE WHOLE FORMING A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF OUE, WHOLE COUNTRY. AUTHOR OF BY JAS. D. M’CABE, JR., “great fortunes,” “PLANTING THE WILDERNESS,” “PARIS BY SUN-UQHT AND GA8-UGHT,” ETa EMBELLISHED AND ILLUSTRATED BY OVER TWO HUNDRED ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS. TAKEN PROM NATURE, THEY PRESENT A COMPLETE PANORAMA OF OUR GREAT COUNTRY. TOLEDO, OHIO; O. A. BROWNING & CO., Globe Publishing Co., Jackson, Michigan ; AND Davenport, Iowa. 'u V ' '■■y; «/y T'lOTa ! a ■ f JIl AWT^^J , ■pi Entered according to Act of Congress, in th‘e year 1871, by WILLIAM B. EVANS, In the OfBce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/illustratedhisto00nncca_1 PREFACE. rJ i) a T hat which is most worthy of a man’s study and observation is his own country, yet but few of the great mass of Amer- icans are well informed as to the land of their birth. There is a vague idea in the minds of all that the Union is a great country” with regard to size as well as in other respects, but they have but a faint conception of the immenseness of the Republic. A few years ago, an English traveller, who had been impressed with the magnificent extent of our country by the fatigues of a stage coach journey across the Plains, wrote as follows concerning it, and his statement seemed to take even our own people by surprise. He said : ^^Yes, the Republic is a big country. In England we have no lines of sufficient length, no areas of sufficient width, to convey a just idea of its size. The State of Oregon is bigger than England; California is about the size of Spain; Texas would be larger than France, if France had won the frontier of the German Rhine. If the United States were parted into equal lots, they would make fifty-two kingdoms as large as England, fourteen empires as large as France. Even the grander figure of Europe fails us when we come to measure in its lines such amplitudes as those of the United States. To wit : from Eastport to Brownsville is farther than from London to Tuat, in the Great Sahara; from Wasliington to Astoria is farther than from Brussels to Kars; from New York to San Francisco is farther than from Paris to Bagdad. O Such measures seem to carry us away from the sphere of fact into the realms of magic and romance. 3 4 PREFACE. ‘^Again, take tlie length of rivers as a measurement of size. A steamboat ean go ninety miles up the Thames, two hundred miles up the Seine; live hundred and fifty miles up the Rhine. In America, the Thames would be a creek, the Seine a brook, the Rhine a local stream, soon lost in a mightier flood. The Mississippi is five times longer than the Rhine; the Missouri is three time& longer than the Danube; the Columbia is four times longer than the Scheldt. From the sea to Fort Snelling, the Missouri is plowed by steamers a distance of two thousand one hundred and thirty-one miles ; yet she is but the second river in the United States. Glancing at a map of America, we see to the north a group of lakes. Now our English notion of a lake is likely to have been derived from Coniston, Killarney, Lomond, Leman, and Garda. But these sheets of water give us no true hint of what Huron and Superior are like, scarcely indeed of what Erie and Ontario are like. Coniston, Killarney, Lomond, Leman, and Garda, put together would not cover a tenth part of the surface occupied by the smallest of the five Amer- ican lakes. All the waters lying in Swiss, Italian, English, Irish, Scotch, and German lakes might be poured into Michigan without making a perceptible addition to its flood. Yorkshire might be sunk out of sight in Erie ; Ontario drowns as much land as would make two duchies equal in area to Schleswig and Holstein. Denmark proper could be washed by the waves of Huron. Many of the minor lakes in i^merica would be counted as inland seas elsewhere ; to-wit : Salt Lake, in Utah, has a surface of two thousand square miles; while that of Geneva has only three hundred and thirty ; that of Como only ninety ; that of Killarney only eight. A kingdom like Saxony, a principality like Parma, a duchy like Coburg, if thrown in one heap into Lake Superior, might add an island to its beauty, but would be no more conspicuous in its vast expanse than one of those pretty green islets which adorn Loch Lomond. ^'Mountain masses are not considered by some as the strongest parts of American scenery ; yet you find masses in this country which defy all measurement by such puny chains as the Pyrenees, the Apennines, and the Savoy Alps. The Alleghanies, ranging in height between PREFACE. 5 Helvellyn and Pilatus, run through a district equal in extent to the country lying between Ostend and Jaroslaw. The W^hsatch chain, though the name is hardly known in Europe, has a larger bulk and grandeur than the Julian Alps. The Sierra Madre, commonly called the Rocky Mountains, ranging in stature from a little below Snowdon to a trifle above Mont Blanc, extend from Mexico, through the Republic, into British America, a distance almost equal to that dividing London from Delhi.^^ Such are the territorial dimensions of our country, as measured by a foreigner, and that they are in no way exaggerated will be found by all who study the subject. But the greatness and interest of the Republic do not consist in its vast size. We have within our limits nearly every variety of climate known to man, and a soil capable of producing almost every product of the earth, from the stunted herbage of the frozen regions to the luxuriant fruits of the tropics. The ground is rich in mineral deposits, from the useful, but homely veins of coal, to beds of the most brilliant and valuable jewels. The earth yields us not only our food, but the rarest medicines and drugs. It pours out in streams oil for burning, gas that may be used fresh from the natural springs, salt that requires but the heat of the sun for its perfection, and beds of pure soda that cover the earth like the dust in the highways. In short, all that is needed for the preservation and comfort of animal and human life exists in this favored land in the greatest profusion. So much has the Creator done for us. Man has not been slow to take advantage of these blessings. In the comparatively short space of three hundred years the American people have become a mighty nation, increasing with a rapidity that is almost marvellous. They have built up the country on a scale of magnificence of which they may justly be proud. They have covered it with splendid cities, connected by a network of railways binding all the scattered parts into one solid whole. They have made a commerce and a system of manufactures before which the fabled wealth of Tyre sinks into insignificance. They have built up a literature which commands the respect of the world. They have illustrated their history with deeds 6 PREFACE. of arms not less splendid than their more peaceful achievements, and have given to the world names in every walk of life that will never die. All this have they done, and yet the mass of them are ignorant, or but imperfectly informed, of the magnitude and value of their 'achieveiiK?nts. It is the object of this work to present to them at a glance the actual condition of the Republic at the present day. The Author is well aware that such a tremendous undertaking can be but imperfectly accomplished in a volume of this size ; yet he veijtures to express the hope that lie has made the statement herein presented sufficiently complete and comprehensive to be of service to the reader. The tables and other statistics in the body of the work are mainly from the latest State reports available. The Author would here express his obligations to General Francis A. Walker, the accom- jilished superintendent of the census of 1870, for assistance received from him in the collection of statistics. For more detailed information than is presented within these pages, the reader is referred to Lippincott’s Gazetteer,^^ and the New American Cyclopsedia,^’ to which works the Author is indebted for valuable assistance. It is hoped that the Illustrations will aid in bringing to the mind of the reader a vivid picture of the busy, restless, energetic Rejiublic of the West, and also to render him more familiar with some of the charms of American scenery. J. D. McC., Je. New York, November 2oth, 1871. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS VO. PAGE 1. The Capitol at Washington Frontispiece. 2. Coat of Arms of the Republic 3. Rapids of the St. Lawrence 4. A View on the Alleghany Mountains 5. A View on the Rocky Mountains 6. Ploughing a Western Prairie 7. A Western Homestead ; 8. View on the Hudson River, showing the Steamboat, Telegraph, and Railroad 9. Indians Viewing the Pacific Railroad 10. An Indian Village in Winter 11. Sioux Indians Burning a Prisoner 12. Ruins of Jamestown, 13. Plymouth Rock 14. First Settlement of New York City 15. First Settler^ of America Clearing Land 16. Burning of Deerfield, Mass 17. Ruins of Ticonderoga 18. Independence Hall in 19. Scene of the Battle of Lake Champlain 20. Plain of Chalmette: Scene of the Battle of New Orleans 21. Maine — State Coat of Arms 22. An American Forest 23. Lumbering in Maine 24. Lumberman's Camp in the Woods of Maine 25. City Hall and Court House at Portland 26. New Hampshire — State Coat of Arms 27. Scene on the White Mountains 28. The State House at Concord 29. Vermont — State Coat of Arms 30. A View of Montpelier, Vt 31. A View of Ptutland, Vt 32. Massachusetts — State Coat of Anns 33. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass 34. A View of Boston 35. State House, at Boston 36. Faneuil Hall, at Boston 37. Bunker Hill Monument, at Boston 38. Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass 39 A View from Greenfield, Mass 40. Rhode Island— State Coat of Arms 41. Coast Fishing 42. Narragansett Bay, Pt. I 43. A View of Newport, R. I 44. Connecticut — State Coat of Arms 45. A View from Mount Holyoke, Conn 46. Yale College, New Haven, Conn 47. A View of New Haven, Conn 48. New York — State Coat of Arms 49. A Scene in the Catskill Mountains 50. A View on the Hudson River 61. Scene on Lake George 52. The Falls of Niagara 53. New York City in 1664 31 51 69 61 62 76 83 84 103 104 107 109 111 113 117 128 131 146 148 165 166 169 172 184 189 191 200 205 213 216 222 229 238 239' 240 248 256 258 274 280 282 285 292 293 300 306 323 324 329 330 333 349 8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 54 55 50 57 58 59 (>0 Cl, 62 63 64 65 66 . 67, 6S, 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 88 . 81. 82. S3. 84. 85. 86 . 87. 88 . 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100 . 101 . 102 . 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110 . 11 ]. 112 . 113. 114. 115. 116 . 117. 118 . 119. 120 . J21. . A View of Albany, N. V . A View of Now \\)rk City . Scene on Broadway, New York City ':55s . Scone on Fifth Avenue, New York*City Sfin . in Central Bark, New York City! SR] . The Water Terrnee in Central Park, New York Citv . City Hall, New York Cit}’ ......V.*. ...' *305 Academy of Desicfn 3/7 Ili,^h Bridge, at Harlem S70 . Union Square, and Washington Monument III ” 373 . United States Navy Yard, Brooklyn, L. I 377 . View from West Point " 3S0 . Gene.see Falls, at llochester, N. Y 3^2 , A View of Oswego, N. Y .j^gg . New Jersey — State Coat of Arms 404 Gathering IVatermelons * . Princeton College, N. J 409 , Bergen Tunnel 411 Passaic Falls, at Paterson, N. J 421 A Scene at Atlantic City, N. J ^23 Pennsylvania — State Coat of Arms !.'!"! 429 A View on the Juni.ata River 43 ^ The Schuylkill, above Philadelphia 432 Mount Pisgah, and the Coal Region 433 Deep Cut on the Pennsylvania Railroad 441 The Susquehanna, above Harrisburg 443 A View of Philadelphia from Camden 444 Philadelphia, from Fairmount Park 445 The AVissahickon, at Chestnut Hill 445 Philadelphia Small Homes ’ ' 447 The Ledger Building, Philadelphia '.,!'.!!!! 448 Fairmount AATi,ter AA'^orks, Philadelphia 449 The AA’’issahickon, Philadelphia ” 45 O The Union League Building, Philadelphia 45 I The New Masonic Temple, Philadelphia 450 Hemlock Glen, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia...,. 453 New Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia 454 AVissahickon New Drive, Philadelphia 455 The Schuylkill River, at the Falls, Philadelphia 456 Chestnut Street Bridge, Philadelphia 457 A Public Fountain, Philadelphia 453 Independence Hall in 1872, Philadelphia 4 R 0 A A"iew of Pittsburgh, Pa 4 R 2 A A^iew of Scranton, Pa 472 A A"iew of Easton, Pa 475 Delaware — State Coat of Arms 49 I A Peach Farm in Delaware 493 Maryland — State Coat of Arms 503 Oyster Fisher}", Maryland 595 Battle ^Monument, at Baltimore 519 A Scene on Baltimore Street, 522 Scene on Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 525 •District of Columbia — Coat of Arms 529 Columbian Deaf and Dumb Institution 531 New Building of the Y. M. C. A., AAbashington 536 United States Treasury Building, AAbashingron 546 United States Patent Office, AAmshington 549 A'irginia — State Coat of Arms 555 Natural Tunnel, Virginia 561 Little Stony Falls, A^rginia 665 A A"iew of Richmond, A^irginia t 576 Alount A’’ernon 582 North Carolina — State Coat of Arms 595 A ATew on the Sea Coast of North Carolina 598 Capitol at Raleigh, N. C 6 O 7 South Carolina — State Coat of Arms 613 A Scene near Beaufort, S. C 614 Rice Fields 616 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 9 NO. 122. A View of Charleston, S. C 123. Georgia — State Coat of Anus 124. A View of Savannah, Georgia 125. Florida— State Coat of Arms 126. St. John’s River, Florida 127. St. Augustine, Florida 128. Alabama— State Coat of Arms 129. A Bluff on the Alabama River 130. Capitol at Montgomery, Alabama 131. The Landing at Mobile 132. Mississippi— State (^at of Arms 133. On the Shores of the Yazoo 134. Picking Cotton 135. Jackson, Miss 136. Natchez, Miss 137. A View of Vicksburg, Miss 138. Louisiana — State Coat of Arms 139. Gathering Sugar Cane 140. A Sugar House 141. Scene on St. Charles Street, New Orleans 142. Jackson Square, New Orleans 143. Lafayette Square, New Orleans 144. Texas — State Coat of Arms 145. On the Gulf. 146. Galveston, Texas 147. \The Alamo San Antonio, Texas 148. West Virginia — State Coat of Arms 149. A View of Harper’s Ferry, AVest Virginia 150. A View of Wheeling, West Virginia 151. Tennessee — State Coat of Arms 152. Nashville, Tenit 153. Memphis, Tenn N. 154. Kentucky — State Coat of Arms 155. Inside View, Mammoth Cave, Ky 156. Frankfort, Ky 157. Louisville, Ky 158. Ohio — State Coat of Anns 159. State Capitol at Columbus, 0 160. A View of Cincinnati, 0 161. Scene on Fourth Street, Cincinnati, 0 162. The Tyler Davidson Fountain, Cincinnati, 0 163. Scene on Superior Street, Cleveland, 0 161. Court House, at Dayton, 0 165. Indiana— State Coat of Arms 166. State House, at Indianapolis, Ind 167. Evansville, Ind 168. New Albanjq Ind 169. Lafayette, Ind 170. Illinois— State Coat of Arms 171. State House, at Springfield, 111 172. A View of Chicago, 111 173. The Tribune Building, Chicago, 111 174. Scene on Lake Street, Chicago, 111 175. Quincy, 111 176. Alton, 111 177. Chicago in Flames 178. Michigan — State Coat of Arms 179. A AVestern River Scene 180. Woodward Avenue, Detroit, Mich 181. AVisconsin — State Coat of Arms 182. A Copper Mine in Wisconsin 183. Madison, Wis 184. River View, in Milwaukee, AAGs 185. Minnesota — State Coat of Arras 186. Falls of St. Anthonjq Minn 187. St. Paul, Minn. 188. Iowa — State Coat of Arms.... iS9. A Rest on the Prairies PAGE 625 632 642 649 651 662 664 666 677 679 682 682 684 691 692 , 694 , 699 , 702 , 705 , 715 , 718 , 721 . 731 , 732 . 748 . 750 . 757 . 758 . 766 . 778 . 786 . 788 . 795 . 797 . 805 . 806 . 816 . 824 . 826 . 827 . 829 . 833 . 835 . 841 . 848 . 850 . 851 . 853 . 859 . 869 . 870 , . 873 . 877 . 883 . 888 890 . 898 . 899 . 909 . 918 . 920 . 927 . 929 . 934 . 935 . 943 . 945 946 10 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. KO. 190. Davenport, Iowa 191. Dubuque, Iowa 192. Burlington, Iowa 192. iMissouri — State Coat of Arms 194. Floating Island, on the Missouri liiver 195. A View of St. Louis, Mo 196. Court House, at St. Louis 197. St. Joseph, jMo 19S. Arkansas — State Coat of Arms 199. Little Hock, Ark 200. Helena, Ark 201. Kansas — State Coat of Arms 202. Indians Attacking U. S. Overland Mail Coach, 203. Leavenworth City, Kansas 204. Nebraska — State Coat of Arms 205. Crossing the Plains 206. Depot at Omaha 207. A View of Omaha, Nebraska... 208. Nevada, — State Coat of Arms 209. The Palisades, Humboldt River, Nevada 210. Silver Mining, Nevada 211. California — State Coat of Arms 212. Original Big Tree, California 213. HjMraulic Mining, California 214. A View of San Francisco 215. Cape Horn 216. Oregon — State Coat of Arms 217. An Oregon Valley 218. Alaska Territory 219. Mount St. Elias, Alaska 220. Sitka, Alaska 221. Arizona Territory 222. Aztec Mountains 223. Colorado — Coat of Arms 224. Buffalo Hunting 225. A Canon in Colorado 226. Dakota Territory 227. Idaho Territory 228. A Canon in the Rocky Mountains., 229. The Indian Territorj'’ 230. Indians Hunting Bison 231. Montana 232. A Frontier Cit}' 233. New Mexico 234. Santa Fe, New Mexico 235. Utah — Coat of Arms 236. The Tabernacle, Salt Lake City 237. Main Street, Salt Lake City 238. Washington Territory 239. A Street in Olympia 240. Wyoming Territory 241. A Prairie Dog City PAGE 954 955 956 963 964 970 972 977 982 987 988 989 994 999 1001 1002 1006 1007 1008 1009 1011 1016 1018 1024 1034 1045 1053 1056 1065 1068 1070 1071 1072 1075 1076 1079 1081 1086 1087 1090 1090 1092 1095 1097 1099 1101 1104 1106 1110 1114 1116 1117 CONTENTS. PART I. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Description of the American Continent — Its grand divisions — North Ame- rica — Dimensions and Divisions — The United States of North America — Description of tlie Great Republic — Its dimensions and political divi- sions— Its population, showing the increase since 1790 — The rivers of the United States — Description of the great water system of the Re- public — The Mississippi — Its wonderful history — Its wealth and peculiar- ities — The Missouri River — How the Mississippi Valley is drained — The other tributaries of the “Father of Waters ” — The Great Lakes of the North — Explanation of the mountain system of the United States — The wonders of the Rocky Mountains — Soil of the United States — State- ment of the various qualities of soil existing in the Republic, and of their capacity for adding to the national wealth — Description of the climate of the United States, showing the peculiar features of each section of the country — Relative healthfulness of the various States, showing which is the healthiest — Description of the mineral wealth of the Republic, showing where the different minerals are found and in Avhat quantities— The undeveloped riches of the country— Products of the soil — The animals of the United States — A brief sketch of the American natural history — Characteristics of the population — The dis- tinguishing marks of the inhabitants of the various States d able, showing the arrivals and destination of emigrants since 1820 — What emigration has done for the Union — The agricultural resources of the United States— List of the agricultural products, showing where each is grown, and the portion of the country to which it is best adapted Facts for producers and consumers — The manufacturing interests — Rapid growth and great extent of th^s portion of our wealth — I he com- merce of the United States — Its vast proportions — Our internal im- provements — History of the rise and growth of the canal, railroad, steamboat, and telegraph in this country — Our educational s^’stem — Explanation of the American system of free schools — rThe Press Its 11 12 CONTENTS importance and power— Number of newspapers and periodicals published — The postal system of the Kepublic — Kcligious denominations, show- ing the strength of each religious sect in the United States— Popula- tion of the leading cities of the Union — Explanation of the Government of the United States — A concise view of the Federal Constitution— The Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary, and tlieir duties— Relations of the States to the General Government — Powers and limitations of the General Government— The Army and Navy of the Republic— Their strength— Financial condition of the United States in 1870— History of the United States— General view of the Indians of North America— Who they were— Discovery of America by Columbus— Other discove- ries— Expedition of De Soto— Efforts of the French and Spaniards to settle the South — England alarmed— Raleigh’s colony on Roanoake Is- land — The settlement at Jamestown — Yoyages of Captain John Smith —First Legislative Assembly in America— Introduction of African Sla- very into Yirginia— The Plymouth Colony— Landing of the Pilgrims— Internal organization of the Colony, and its progress— Foundation of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay — Consolidation of the Massachusetts settlements— Settlement of Maine, Connecticut, and Rhode Island— Dis- covery of the Hudson River — The Dutch settle New York — History of the Colony— It is captured by the English— Settlement of New Jersey and Delaware — Settlement of Pennsylvania and Maryland — The Caro- linas and Georgia colonized by the English— Prosperity of the Colonies —Different characteristics— Establishment of common schools and col- leges— Troubles with the Indians — Aggressions of the French Their success in the Mississippi Valley— They aid the Indians in their attacks upon the English— King William’s, Queen Anne’s, and King George’s vrars — Capture of Louisbourg — Trouble with the French on the Ohio Washington’s journey— Military operations west of the Mountains— Braddock’s defeat— “ The Old French War” in the other Colonies— Failures of the English — A change of ministry — William Pitt — Capture of Louisburg and Fort Duquesne — Death of Lord Howe— Capture of Quebec— Expulsion of the French from Canada— The conspiracy of Pontiac — Services of the Colonists during the wars with the French Injustice of Great Britain towards the Colonies — Resistance of the Americans — The unjust taxes — Further aggressions — The call for a Continental Congress— Meeting and acts of the first Congress— Suicidal policy of the British Government— The “ Boston Massacre ’’—The tax on tea— Destruction of tea in Boston harbor— Closing of the Port of Boston — The Colonies make common cause with Massachusetts The second Colonial Congress — Its acts— The petition for redress — Stubborn- ness of the King — General Gage brings matters to a crisis — The conflicts at Lexington and Concord— The beginningof the Revolution— The Meck- lenburg declaration of Independence— Meeting of the Continental Con- gress — Measures of resistance — Washington appointed to the command of the American Army— Battle of Bunker Hill— Organization of the American Army— Siege of Boston— The invasion of Canada— The Brit- ish fleet repulsed at Charleston — Vigorous measures of Congress — The CONTENTS. 13 Declaration of Independence — Battle of Long Island — The British oc- cupy New York City — Gloomy state of affairs for the Colonies — Battle of Trenton— A gleam of hope — Defeat of the British at Princeton — The “Articles of Confederation” adopted — Events of the Campaign of 1777 — Capture of Philadelphia — Battles of Germantown and Bennington — Surrender of Burgoyne’s army — The treaty with France — Great Britain’s efforts at conciliation— Too late — The winter at the Valley Forge — Ar- rival of the French fleet — Battle of Monmouth — Capture of Savannah by the British — Naval affairs — I’he British take Charleston, S. C. — Par- tisan war in the South — Gates defeated at Camden — Battle of King’s Mountain — Greene sent to the Carolinas — Treason of Arnold — Battles of the Cowpens and Guilford Court House — Washington goes after Corn- wallis— Siege of Yorktown — Surrender of Cornwallis — The close of the war — Condition of the country — Organization of the Republic of the United States — Adoption of the Federal Constitution — Washington’s two Administrations — Admission of new States — Washington retires to private life — Administration of John Adams — War with France — The Administrations of Jefferson — Political disputes — Purchase of Louis- iana — The affair of the Chesapeake and the Leopard — British and French outrages upon American commerce — The Embargo — James Madison elected President— ^The second war with England — Its events by land and sea — The battle of New Orleans — The peace of 1815 — The Barbary States chastised — The Hartford Convention — Reelection of Mr. Madison — The Bank of the United States — Admission of Louisiana and Indiana — ^Mr. Monroe elected President — Admission of Mississippi, Illi- nois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri into the Union — The slavery excite- ment — The “ Missouri Compromise ” — The “ Monroe Doctrine ” — John Quincy Adams elected President — The Tariff question — Administration of Andrew Jackson — The National Bank question — the Nullification troubles — Firmness of the President — His opposition to the National Bank — He removes the public funds — The National Debt paid — Admis- sion of Arkansas and Michigan — Election of President Van Buren — The commercial crisis of 1837 — Election of President Harrison — Death of General Harrison — John Tyler becomes President — His Administra- tion — Admission of Texas — James K. Polk elected President — The war with Mexico — Results of the war — Settlement of the Oregon question — Admission of Wisconsin — General Taylor elected President — The “ Wilmot Proviso ’’—Discovery of gold in California — Admission of Cali- fornia into the Union — Political strife — The “ Compromise of 1850 ” — Death of General Taylor — Mr. Filmore’s Administration — The Japan ex- pedition — Election of President Pierce — The Kansas-Nebraska contro- versy — The Republican party — The anti-slavery agitation increases — Efforts to purchase Cuba — Filibustering expeditions — The Know-Noth- ing party — Election of President Buchanan — Admission of Minnesota — The Kansas war — The Mormon troubles — The John Brown affair — The Presidential contest of 1860 — Threatening condition of public affairs — Election of President Lincoln^Secession of the Southern States —The Civil War Pages 29 to 162 u CONTENTS. PART II. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. MAINE. Area in square miles— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— De- scription of the topography of the State— Its bays, islands, rivers, moun- tains, and lakes— The woods of Maine— Their beauty and resources— Description of the lumber region — The minerals of Maine— Agricultural resources of the State — Its commerce and manufactures — Internal im- provements Ihe railroads of Maine — The Common School system Explanation of its features— Statement of the schools and colleges of the State— Its newspapers and libraries— The penal and charitable in- stitutions— Religious denominations— Financial condition of the State- Explanation of the State Constitution and Government— History of Maine— The visit of Gosnold— First settlement of Maine— Its early history— Period of the Revolution— Admission into the Union as a State Inroads of the Rebels — Statement of troops furnished to the United States Army during the Civil War— The chief cities and towns— Description of Augusta— Portland— Bangor— The story of Arnold’s march to Quebec Pages 163 to 188 NEW HAMPSHIRE. Area— Population in 1870— Position*upon the globe — Description of the topography of the State— The White Mountains and their beauties— The lakes and rivers of the State— The Isle of Shoals— The agricultural products— Description of the soil of the State— Commerce and manu- factures— Internal improvements— The educational system— Description of the penal and charitable institutions and their present condition^ Re- ligious denominations— The State Government— Explanation of its va- rious features— History of New Hampshire— First settlements at Dover and Portsmouth — Trouble with the Indians — The Revolution Enters the Union— Troops furnished during the Civil War— Description of Concoid, Manchester, Portsmouth, and Dover — Story of the burning of Dover by the Indians 139 204 VERMONT. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Physical features of Vermont- The Green Mountains— Lake Champlain— Mineral wealth— Climate Description of the soil — Agricultural products in detail Commerce and manufactures— Internal improvements— The Free School system The charitable and penal institutions — Religious denominations Financial condition of the State — Its government and internal system— hlistory of Vermont— First settlement— Troubles with New York The Revolution — Capture of Ticonderoga — Ethan Allen and CONTENTS. 15 the Green Mountain boys — Yermont refuses the British offers — Admis- sion into the Union-War of 1812-15— The St. Albans affair— Troops fur- nished during the Civil War— Description of the principal cities— Montpelier — Burlington— Rutland— Bennington — The battle of Ben- nington — The taking of Ticonderoga Pages 205 to 221 MASSACHUSETTS. j^pea — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Description of the to- pographical features of the State— Its islands, bays, rivers, mountains and lakes— Beauty of the scenery of Massachusetts — Its mineral wealth —Climate— Description of the soil— Its agricultural wealth— Commerce —The vast manufacturing system of the State— Its internal improve- ments— The Free Schools of Massachusetts— A noble system of public education — Harvard University — Penal and charitable institutions — Re- ligious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government— History of Massachusetts— Discovery— Gos- nold’s Colony— Landing of the Pilgrims— Growth of the Plymouth Colony— Settlement of Massachusetts Bay — Troubles with the Indians— Internal troubles — Accession of William and Mary — Consolidation of the Colonies— The Salem Witchcraft— Wars with the French and In- dians — Resistance to the injustice of Great Britain — The Revolution — Massachusetts enters the Union — Shays’s Rebellion — War of I8I2-I5 — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of Boston — An inside view of the Metropolis of New England— Its public institutions — Its characteristics, sights, habits etc.— History of the city of Boston from its settlement to the present day — Roxbury and Dorchester — Story of the Boston Massacre — Destruction of tea in Boston harbor — Charles- town — Bunker Hill Monument — Battle of Bunker Hill — Cambridge — Harvard University — Lowell — An inside view of the factories of Lowell — Factory life — Lynn — The shoe trade — Lawrence — Its factories — Wor- cester — Springfield — The United States Armory — Taunton — Salem — Plymouth— Miscellanies — Arrival of the Pilgrims at Cape Cod — The first Sabbath in New England — The first crimes in New England — Story of the Salem Witchcraft — A wonderful relation— Primitive extravagance — A fearful snow storm — The Men of “Seventy-Six” Pages 222 to 273 • RHODE ISLAND. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — Minerals — Climate — Soil and agricultural products — Commerce — Importance of Rhode Island as a manufacturing State — Internal improvements — Educational system— Penal and charitable in- stitutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Rhode Island — Settlement by Roger AVilliams — Early years of the Colony — Death of King Philip — Colonial history — The Revolution — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of Providence — Newport — The most fashionable wa- tering place in America — :Early history of Newport — Seizure of General Prescott — Destruction of the Gasp6e Pages 274 to 291 16 CONTENTS. CONNECTICUT. Area— ropulalion in 1870— Position upon the globe- Topographical leaUires of tlie State— Mineral wealth of Connecticut— Climate— De- — scription of the soil and agricultural products of the State— Commerce —Manufactures— Interesting details of the factories of Connecticut- Internal improvements— The Common School system of the State-A noble school fund-Yale College-Penal and charitable institutions- The system of instruction for the deaf and dumb— Eeligious denomina- tions-Finances of the State-Its debt and annual expenses-Explana- tion of the State Government— History of Connecticut— Hutch settle- ments— The English in Connecticut— Founding of Hartford and New Haven-Wars with the Pequots-The affair of the Charter Oak-Colo- nial history— The Revolution— Troops furnished during the Civil War —Description of New Plaven— Yale College and its history— Capture of New Haven by the British— Hartford— Extracts from the old laws of the city— Norwich— Bridgeport— Waterbury— New London— Norwalk —Middletown— 'J’he Blue Laws of Connecticut— The Regicides— The penalty for kissing— The Dark Lay— American Independence— Election day m the olden time _ ^ . part hr THE MIDDLE STATES. NEW YORK. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe— Topographical sketch of the State— The Hudson— The Catskills-Lake George— Niagara Falls-Long Island-Mineral Wealth-Climate-Soil and productions ^ the State-Statement of the foreign and domestic commerce of New York— Manufactures- Magnificent system of internal improvements— Ihe Erie Canal- Educational system— The free schools— The colleges —Newspapers and periodicals-Penal and charitable institutions— A noble system— Eeligious denominations— Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government — History of New York —Discoveries of Champlain and Hudson— The Dutch at Manhattan Is- and arp Fort Orange— The Province passes into the hands of the Eng- lish-Early troubles— Injustice of the Crown— Wars with the Indians ^d the French— The Revolution— Controversy with Vermont settled— Uar of 1812-15— Internal improvements begun- Completion of the Erie Canal-Troops furnished during the Civil War-Description and history of Albany-The city of New York-Description of it-The Me- tropolis of the Union— Its palaces of trade and art— The Central Park Commercial importance of the city— The ferry system— Places of amusements-Public buildings-Schools-Scientific, literary and bene- 4 CONTENTS. n volent institutions— Prisons— Croton water— History of the city of New York— Brooklyn— The city of churches— The United States Navy Yard Prospect Park — Buffalo- Its commercial importance— Rochester — Troy— Syracuse— Salt works— Utica— Oswego— Ancient laws of New York— Old time customs of New York City— The Neg-ro Plot in New York — How Rochester was saved from the British Pages 321 to 403 NEW JERSEY. Area— Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography of the State— Mineral wealth — Climate— Soil and productions— Commerce and manufactures — Internal improvements — dUe school system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government— History of New Jersey— It passes into the hands of the English— The Revolution— Troops fur- nished during the Civil War — Description of Trenton — Newark — Its manufactures — Jersey City — Paterson — Elizabeth — Camden — Battle of Trenton — Murder of Rev. James Caldwell — A mutiny in the Continen- tal Army Papes 404 to 428 PENNSYLVANIA. Area— Population in 1870— Topographical features of the State— Mineral wealth of Pennsylvania — Its extent and importance — Climate — Soil and productions— Commerce— Manufactures of Pennsylvania— Internal im- provements — The Canal system — The free schools and Colleges — The Press Libraries — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denomi- nations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Gov- ernment-History of Pennsylvania — First settlement of the State — The grant to William Penn — Settlement by the Quakers — Philadelphia founded — Treaty with the Indians — Progress of the Colony — The Revo- lution — Philadelphia occupied by the British— The whiskey insurrection —Invasion of the State during the Civil War— Battle of Gettysburg— Description of Harrisburg— Philadelphia— Its location— Description of the city— Its dimensions— Fairmount Park— The public buildings— Markets— Schools and Colleges — Literary and scientific institutions — Prisons— Hospitals and Asylums— The Press— Importance of the ma- nufactures of the city— Commerce— United States Navy Yard— History of Philadelphia— Pittsburg— Sketch of its manufactures— The American Birmingham — Scranton — Reading — Lancaster — Erie — Easton — Old time customs in Philadelphia— Massacre of Wyoming— The sermon before the Brandywine— Battle of the Brandywine — Adam Poe’s fight with the Indians Pages 429 to 490 DELAWARE. Area— Population in ] 870— Position upon the globe— Topography— Mine- rals — Climate — Soil and productions— Manufactures — Internal improve- ments — Educational system — Religious denominations — Finances — Ex- planation of the State Government — History of Delaware — First settle- ment — Becomes a separate Colony — The Revolution — The Civil War — Description of Dover — Wilmington Pages 491 to 499 2 18 CONTENTS. PART IV. THE SOUTHERN STATES. MARYLAND. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topographical sketch —Chesapeake Bay— Duck shooting— Mineral wealth of the State— Climate— Soil and productions— Manufactures— Internal improvements —The new Free School system— Colleges— Newspapers and periodicals published in the State — Penal and charitable institutions Religious denominations— Financial condition of Maryland — Explanation of the State Government- History of Maryland— Settlement on Kent Island —Arrival of Lord Baltimore’s Colony— Trouble with Clayborn— Reli- gious freedom guaranteed— Civil War— Triumph of the Puritans— An- napolis made the capital — Baltimore settled — Wars with France The Revolution — Sufferings of the Bay counties during the war of 1812-15 —Battles of Bladensburg, Fort McHenry and North Point— The Civil War— Invasion of the State by General Lee— Battle of Antietam— De- scription of Annapolis — Baltimore City — Washington Monument Public institutions and buildings — History of Baltimore — Cumber- land— Frederick City— The Baltimore Riot— Anecdote of Charles Car- Pages 501 to 528 THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Area- Population in 1870— Dimensions— Explanation of the new Terri- torial Government— History of the District— Washington City— De- sciiption of it I he Public Buildings — The Capitol — Its magnificence without and within— The White House— The Treasury building— The Patent Office — The General Post Office — The Navy Yard — The Depart- ment of Agriculture— rhe Smithsonian Institution— The Washington Monument— Georgetown Pages 529 to 554 VIRGINIA. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Detailed description of the physical features of the State — Its various divisions, rivers, mountains, etc. — The Dismal Swamp — Mineral wealth of Virginia An opportunity for capitalists — The mineral springs— Agricultural pro- ducts — Commerce — Manufactures — Internal improvements — The educa- tional system — T’he University of Virginia — Penal and benevolent in- stitutions— Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Virginia — The settlement at Jamestown — Colonial history — Introduction of slavery into the colony — Virginia sides with the King — Treaty with the Commonwealth — Bacon’s Rebellion — Williamsburg made the capital — Troubles with the French on the Ohio — Washington’s CONTENTS. 19 mission— Resistance to the aggressions of the Crown— The Revolution —The war in Virginia— Surrender of Cornwallis— Formation of the Union— War of 1812-15— The Southampton Massacre— The John Brown afiair— The Civil War— Principal cities— Richmond— Descrip- tion of the city — Norfolk — Portsmouth — United States Navy Yard Petersburg Alexandria — Mount Vernon — The home and tomb of Washington— Lynchburg— The first Legislative Assembly in America —Treaty between Virginia and England— Introduction of tobacco into Europe— Anecdotes of Patrick Henry— Speech of Logan— Washington and the Widow Custis— Death of Washington Pages 555 to 594 NORTH CAROLINA. Area— Population in 1870— Topographical sketch of the State— Climate- Soil and productions— Natural growth of North Carolina— Mineral deposits— Manufactures— Commerce— Internal improvements— Educa- tional system— The free schools— University of North Carolina— Penal and charitable Institutions— Religious denominations— Financial condi- tion of the State— Explanation of the State Government— History of North Carolina— The Colony on Roanoke Island— 4’he grant of Charles II._Locke’s Constitution— Early troubles— War with the Indians— Separation of the Carolinas — The Revolution — The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence — Battles of King’s Mountain and Guilford Court House — Cession of Tennessee to the United States — Events of the Civil War— Description of the cities of Raleigh, Wilmington, Newberne, and Charlotte— The First English colony in America— The Greatest American 595 to 612 SOUTH CAROLINA. Area— Population in 1870— Position on the globe— Physical features of the State — The Sea Islands — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and produc- tions— Commerce— Manufactures— Internal improvements— The educa- tional system— The free schools— The Colleges— Penal and benevolent Institutions— Religious denominations— Financial condition of South Carolina— Explanation of the State Government--History of Soutli Carolina— Settlement at Port Royal by the French— The English occupy the country — Formation of the Province of South Carolina Troubles with the Indians and Spaniards — The Revolution Attack on Fort Moultrie repulsed — Enters the Union — The Civil War— Reconstruc- tion Description of Columbia — Charleston — Detailed description of it An incident in the life of Sergeant Jasper Pages 613 to 631 GEORGIA. Area— Population in 1870— Position on the globe— Topography of the State— Mineral wealth of Georgia— Climate— Soil and agricultural products— Commerce— Manufactures— Internal improvements— Educa- 20 CONTENTS. tional system— Penal and charitable Institutions— Peligious denomina- tions— Financial condition— Explanation of the State Government- History of Georgia— First settlement— Severe conditions — They are withdrawn — Wars with the Spaniards — Introduction of negro slavery Growth of the Colony— The Eevolution— Capture of Savannah— Re- moval of the Indian tribes — The Civil War — Description of Atlanta Savannah— The “ Forest City ” of tlie South— Augusta— Macon— Co- lumbus— The Empress of Georgia Pages 632 to 64B FLORIDA. Area Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical features of Florida— The Everglades— Climate— Description of the soil— Agri- cultural products— Commerce— Manufactures— Internal improvements — Educational system— Penal and charitable Institutions— Religious denominations— Financial condition— Explanation of the State Govern- ment-History of Florida— Early settlements— Florida under Spanish rule— French settlements— Troubles with the English— Florida ceded to Great Britain— It is restored to Spain— Purchased by the United States — AVar with the Seminoles— Florida admitted into the Union as a State — The Civil AVar — Reconstruction — Description of Tallahassee — Pensa- cola— St. Augustine— A peculiar city— Key West City .... Pa^es 649 to 663 ALABAMA. Area— Population in 1870— Position on the globe— Topography of tho State— The Alabama River— Soil— Climate — Agricultural products Minerals — Manufactures — Commerce — Internal improvements — Educa- tional system — The University of Alabama — Penal and benevolent In- stitutions— Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government— History of Alabama — De Soto’s expedition — Settlement of Mobile — Alabama under British rule — Indian wars — Admission of the State into the Union — The Civil War — Reconstruction — Description of Montgomery— Mobile— Battle of Horse-Shoe Bend Pages 664 to 681 MISSISSIPPI. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography — Climate — Soil — Agricultural products — Commerce and manufactures — Educa- tional s^’stem — Penal and charitable Institutions — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Mississippi — First ^settlements — Extermination of the Natchez Indians — Organization of Mississippi — Admission into the Union as a State — Events of the civil war — Reconstruction — Description of the cities of Jackson, Natchez, and Vicksburg — Full account of the extermination of the Natchez Indians — Mason the outlaw Pages 682 to 699 CONTENTS. 21 LOUISIANA. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography — Climave — Soil and agricultural productions — Manufactures and commerce — In- ternal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable In- stitutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Louisiana — Discoveries of La Salle — Efforts to settle the Province — Law’s scheme — Settlement of New Orleans — Growth of the Colony — New Orleans in Spanish hands — Louisiana restored to France — History of the purchase of Louisiana by the United States — Admission of the State into the Union — Events of the Civil War — Reconstruction — Detailed description of the City of New Orleans — Its mixed population — The public buildings and In- stitutions — The Levee — Commerce of New Orleans — Manufactures — The Carnival — History of New Orleans — Battle of New Orleans Pages 700 to 730 TEXAS. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and agricultural products — Commerce and Manu- factures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable Institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Texas — La Salle’s Expedition — His death — Settlement of Texas by the Spaniards — First struggle for Independence — The Texan Revolution — The Republic of Texas — Annexation to the United States — Admission of Texas as a State — Events of the Civil War — Reconstruction — Descrip- tion of the cities of Austin, Galveston, Houston, and San Antonio — I’he capture of the Alamo — Fannin’s Massacre Pages 7SI to 754 PART V. THE WESTERN STATES. WEST VIRGINIA. /Lrea — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography — Har- per’s Ferry — Climate — Mineral wealth — Soil and productions — Manufac- tures and commerce — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable Institutions — Explanation of the State Government — History of West Virginia — The Civil War — Separation of the West- ern counties from the State of Virginia — Description of Charleston — The Kanawha Salines — Wheeling — Its manufactures — Parkersburg — Border life, showing the trials and mode of life of the first settlers of the West Pages 755 to i < • 22 CONTENTS. TENNESSEE. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography — Mine- ■ ral wealth — Climate— Soil and productions— Commerce and manufac- tures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and chari- table institutions — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Gov- ernment — History of Tennessee — First settlements — Siege of Fort Loudon — The Revolution — North Carolina cedes Tennessee to the United States — Admitted into the Union as a State — Events of the Civil War — Description of the cities of Nashville, Memphis, and Knoxville — The boyhood of Andrew Jackson Pages 778 to 794 KENTUCKY. Area — Population in 1870— Position upon the globe — Topographical sketch of the State— Mineral wealth— Climate — Soil and productions— Com- merce and manufactures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable Institutions — Religious denominations— Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Kentucky — Early discoveries — First settlement of Kentucky — Wars with the In- dians — The settlers desire a separate Government — Virginia cedes Ken- tucky to the United States — Admission into the Union as a State — The war of 1812-15— The Civil War— Description of Frankfort— Louisville A beautiful city— The falls of the Ohio— Importance of the manufac- tures and commerce of the city — Covington — Newport — Lexington — Daniel Boone’s account of his adventures Pages 795 to 815 OHIO. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topography— Min- eral wealth — Climate — Soil and agricultural productions — Commerce and manufactures — Internal improvements — Educational system — The Ohio Free Schools — Penal and charitable Institutions — Religious denomina- tions — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Gov- ernment — History of Ohio — First settlements on the Ohio — Wars with the Indians— The Revolution— Cession of the North-West Territory- Emigration to Ohio— St. Clair’s defeat— Settlement of Cincinnati— Or- ganization of the Territory of Ohio — Admission of the State into the Union— The war of 1812-15— Rapid progress of the State— Troops fur- nished during the Civil War — Description of Columbus — The State buildings— Cincinnati— Description of the city— Its commercial impor- tance — The river trade — Manufactures — Pork packing — History of Cin- cinnati — Cleveland — The Lake trade — Dayton — Toledo — Sandusky — Memoirs of Simon Kenton— Cincinnati in 1794 Pages 816 to 840 INDIANA. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topography— Min- eral wealth— Climate— Soil and agricultural productions— Commerce and manufactures— Internal improvements — Educational system — P enal CONTENTS. 23 and charitable Institutions— Eeligious denominations— Libraries and newspapers — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government— History of Indiana— Settlements of the French Missionaries — Indiana under French and British rule — The Revolution —Campaign against the British by General Rogers Clarke— Wars with the Indians— Efforts to introduce slavery— Battle of ^J'ippecanoe— War of 1812-15 — Admission of Indiana into the Union — Rapid growth of the State — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of the cities of Indianapolis, Evansville, Fort Wayne, New Albany, Madison, Lafa- yette, and Terre Haute— Interview between General Harrison and Te- cumseh — Capture of Yincennes Pages 841 to 858 ILLINOIS. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topography— The prairies— Mineral wealth— Climate— Soil and productions— Commerce and manufactures— Internal Improvements— The railroad system— Edu- cational system— Penal and charitable Institutions— Religious denomi- nations — Libraries and newspapers — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Illinois— Early French discoveries— Settlements of the Missionaries— 1'he Revolution — Admission into the Union as a State — The war of 1812-15 — The Chi- cago Massacre— The Black Hawk War — The Mormon troubles— Troops furnished during the Civil War— Description of Springfield— Chicago— Description of the city — Situation on the Lake — Raising the grade of the city — Public buildings and institutions — Commerce of Chicago — The grain trade — An elevator examined — The pork trade — Inside view of a pork house — History of Chicago— Quincy — Peoria — Galena — The lead mines — Alton — The Massacre at Chicago — Peter Cartwright and Joe Smith Pages 859 to 897 MICHIGAN. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topography— The Northern and Southern Peninsulas — Mineral wealth — The Lake Supe- rior Mines — Climate — Soil and productions — Commerce and manufac- tures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and chari- table Institutions — Religious denominations — Finances — Explanation of the State Government — History of Michigan — Settlements of the French Missionaries — The French in the Province — Transfer to Great Britain — Conspiracy, of Pontiac — Michigan Territory organized — War of 1812-15 — Surrender of Detroit — Massacre at the River Raisin— Emi- gration to Michigan — Admission into the Union as a State — Troops fur- nished during the Civil War — Description of the cities of Lansing, De- troit, Grand Rapids and Adrian — Pontiac’s effort to capture Detroit — Massacre at the River Raisin Pages 898 to 917 24 CONTENTS. WISCONSIN. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topography- Mineral wealth — Soil and productions— Commerce and manul'actures Internal improvements— Educational system— Penal and charitable In- stitutions— Keligious denominations — Financial condition of the State -Explanation of the State Government— History of Wisconsin— Dis- coveries of the French— The Jesuit Missionaries— The Province passes into the hands of the English— Admission into the Union as a State- Troops furnished during the Civil War— Description of Madison— Milwaukee— 1’he “Cream City,”— Eacine— Fond du Lac— Oshkosh— The oldest man in the world g^g MINNESOTA. Area Population — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State Falls of St. Anthony — Mineral wealth — Climate — Resort for in- valids— Soil and productions— Manufactures and commerce— Internal improvements— Educational system— The free schools— Penal and be- nevolent Institutions — Libraries and newspapers — Religious denomina- tions— Financial condition of Minnesota— Explanation of the State Government— History of Minnesota— First settled by the Jesuit Missionaries— French settlements— A part of the Louisiana purchase— The Fur trade — St. Paul founded — Admission of the State into the Union— Troops furnished during the Civil War— St. Paul— Minnea- polis-Winona g 3 ^ 3 ^^ ^ IOWA. Area Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State— Mineral wealth— Climate— Soil and productions— Com- merce and manufactures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable Institutions — Religious denominations Finan- cial condition of the State— Explanation of the State Government— His- tory of Iowa — A part of the Louisiana purchase — Julien Dubuque The Lead Mines— The Black Hawk War— Settlement of Iowa— Ad- mission into the Union as a State — Des Moines — Davenport — Dubuque The Lead Mines — Burlington — Keokuk — Frontier justice. Pa^es 945 to 962 MISSOURI. Area Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Manu- factures and commerce — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable Institutions — Religious denominations — Li- braries and newspapers — Financial condition of Missouri — Explanation of the State Government — History of Missouri — First settled by the French— Under Spanish rule— Restored to France— Events of the CONTENTS. 25 Revolution— A part of the Louisiana purchase— Organization as a Territo rv-Slavery agitation-The “ Missouri Compromise -Admission Ito th Union as a State-The Civil War-Jefferson City-Description of St Louis-Rapid growth of the city-Its Public bui mgs and^Im Btitutions— Its commerce and manufactures "'y ' ^812-15 Kansas City-St. Joseph-Missouri during the -r^of 181^ lo ARKANSAS. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe— Topopaphy-MinerM wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Commcrce and Internal improvements-Ediicational system-1 Institutions-Eeligious denominations-Fmancial ^ % -Explanation of the State Government-History of covered by De Soto— A part of the Louisiana purchase— Admission ... c .,1 ,,, Little Rook and Helena ^ KANSAS. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographical sketch of the State-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Interna improvemeiits-Educational system-Tlie Kansas ami benevolent Institutions-Religious denommations-Fmancial condi- tion of the State-Explanation of the State Government— History o Kansas— A part of the Louisiana purchase— Made free soil by the Missouri Compromise-Organization of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska— Efforts to introduce slavery into Kansas— Struggle m Lon- ffress— The Border War— Foundation of free soil settlements- Ad- mission into the Union as a Free State-Troops furnished during the CivilWar— Topeka— Leavenworlh-Lawrence Pages 989 to 100. NEBRASKA. Area— Population in 1870— Position on the globe— Topography--Mineral3 —Climate— Soil and productions— Internal improvements— Educationa system-Finances-Explanation of the State GovernmenL-History ot Nebraska— A part of the Louisiana purchase— Admission Union as a State— Lincoln— The new capital— Omaha— Nebraska Ci y Pages 1001 to 1007 NEVADA. Area— Population in 1870-Position upon the globe— Topography— Min- eral wealth-The gold and silver mines of Nevada-C imate-Internal improvements-Educational system-Finances-Explanation of the Slate Government— History of Nevada— Discovery ° City-Virginia City - Pages W08 to lOlo 26 CONTENTS. CALIFORNIA. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topographical sketch of the S^tate— Mineral wealth of California— Climate— Soil and produc- tions— Commerce— Manufactures— Internal improvements— Education- al sjstem Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations Libraries and newspapers — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government-History of California— Discovered and settled by the Spaniards — The Missions— Becomes a part of Mexico— Efforts to throw off the Mexican yoke — The American settlers take up arms The war with Mexico— Aquisition of California— Discovery of gold— Enor- mous emigration- Admission into the Union as a State-Early disor- ders-The “Vigilance Committees ’’-Description of Sacramento-San Francisco-A peculiar city-The Sand Hills-Rapid growth of San Francisco— Prosperity of the city— Its public buildings and institutions —The Chinese Marter— Commerce of San Francisco— History of the city-San Jos6-San Francisco in 1848-9— The “Vigilance Committee ” Pages 1016 to 1052 OREGON. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topographical sketch of the State— Mineral wealth— Climate— Soil and productions— Commerce— Internal improvements— Educational system— Penal and benevolent Institutions— Religious denominations— Financial condition of the State— Explanation of the State Government— History of Oregon —Discovery of the Columbian River— Expedition of Lewis and Clark —Astoria— Boundary disputes with Great Britain— The United States abandon their claim— Admission of Oregon into the Union as a State— Description of Salem-Portland PART VI. THE TERRITORIES. ALASKA. General description of the Territory— Practical value of the purchase— History of Alaska— Description of Sitka Pages 1065 to 1070 ARIZONA. Topographical sketch of the Territory — Its mineral wealth — Capacity for agriculture History of Arizona — Description of Tucson. Pages 1071 to 1074 COLORADO. Description of the physical features of Colorado— The Rocky Mountains Climate Great mineral wealth of the Territory — History of Colorado -Description of Denver City pages 1075 to 1080 CONTENTS. 21 DAKOTA. Topographical sketch of the Territory-Its magnificent Oapacity for stock raising and agriculture- 1 he Pioneer ..c .. . tory of Dakota-Description of Yancton Pages 1081 to 108o IDAHO. Description of the topographical features of the Territory-Its great rain- „„un .itv for airriculture-History of Idaho-Descnption eral wealth— Capacity for agriculture- of Boise City, Pages 1086 to 1089 INDIAN TERRITORY. General description of the Territory-Description of the Indian inhabi- tants and the system of Government-Efforts to organize the Temtory Pages 1090 to 1091 MONTANA. Topographical sketch of Montana-A delightful climate-Capacity for ^ rni-«infr_Mineral wealth— History of Montana— agriculture and stock raising— Mineral wealth- Its rapid growth— Description of Virginia City • Pages 1092 to 1096 NEIV MEXICO. Topographical sketch of New Mexico-Capacity of the Territory for agri- culture— Stock raising-Dndeveloped mineral wea.lth-Hostility of the Indians— History of New Mexico— Description of Santa Fe. ^ Pages 109 1 to 1100 UTAH. Description of the physical features of the Territory-The mountain svstem-The Great Basin-The Great Salt Lake-Imgation necessary ti the production of crops-What has been done for agriculture-Mme- ral resources-History of the Territory-Salt Lake City -The Mormon capital. Pages 1101 to 1109 WASHINGTON. Topographical sketch of the Territory-The two great llgrlulture -Mineral resources-The lumber trade-ihe Columbia Eiver— History of the Territory— Description of Olympia. Pages iito lO iiio WYOMING. Description of the physical features of the Territory-Agriculture-Great mineral wealth— The Pacific Railway— History of ITyoramg— Descrip- tion of Cheyenne Pages 111 b to 1118 >.1 . . • '. ^'• . . } /;.A V . , -t ., -rt ,f . ;?*’. .*' ’V*'- • '‘f ' •->»' lo) vf.' ' - ;v >» 7*..;/. '.; ■‘ ^ * V / ' ' ' 1 /'.('ft ■' r !• ^^•^^^ -v'.w, )i>'i V; ^Vrj*iH .■4w;tf»|-,,i v):;«fj.;7.', ,f!( . ., S»,4 . ’ . two . / . __ _ ■ .V^cort'^fy'i vnav,t, ■ • , ; ■M''^ -f fjdVt.f) T' .*: 'll . A>7;'J /:• ji'/: , . . f'f(:ft*^j;,-/ MS3i 'iv..? '. *- ’ ■•^■ V -^■' ' ■ - ' . ' T>* 'I'-' . ' I / M >1 . *4^^ • - • ..■■ • .1. it’" ‘ft^l .,!T ..|!i.i:---.'f ..„•, i„ y,|„ ■/; ’"' V M " i i' '' - ; 'V'‘, ’’’* '■ •■?’•’■■' ' \nilf ' cA.r / ’ ■' J . -..rto. ,1 :,, ••••*’••/ f f it i \ t ^ ^ . f;-i i, ^ w ’ . C; tP /^„ 7/ Ml /■ ■c Ml . • ' *,'f . . ^v.:;iv.f -.<1! liikiMk fi.iid. T' * ‘iii'y^t^i^iK,..- i In'i - '{ fiitii, Intj,/ , ■■MM'JTSf' • i I • '1 i3 !T3<’ jriihif.', .(• i, ^ ’•.;«■ ■«j/i ! , T i:- ,..I ; ■ 75" J# ;; • f r • fl, j. ... [f.|- ‘ I ' t) 01 W<‘ f it PART I. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ‘^■y. ,.f' I -■ < 4 '■. ■ "TT^ I. • k . j:., ■ » ,, -^ V^v.v^ ' \J -c'"- if' ■', -■ '■ • ■ *‘' 'V V"P* •',.<■ >-v ' 0 , ' ».4 . '» )i f ti' .i / ^ ' -1 ' ■ ■< ? •.. ./ . •■ ’ ‘ • .. / : ul -4.i, ^■'. -{A' - -i-'-! 1 .A ^ • ■ '■■ THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE AMERICAN CONTINENT. The Continent of America, though not discovered until a very late period in the history of the world, is the second in size of the great natural divisions of the earth. It extends from Point Barrow (on the north), in latitude 71° 24' N., to Cape Froward, on the Straits of Magellan (on the south), in latitude 53° 53' 7" S.* It is known that the extreme northern lands of America extend beyond the seventy-eighth degree of North latitude, and the islands of Terra del Fuego prolong the land two or three degrees southward of the main land ; but as these form no practical portions of our great division of the globe, we shall pass them by without further discussion. The mainland, which is alone embraced in our estimate, is 10,500 English miles in length, and includes every variety of climate, soil, produc- # tion, race, and natural formation known, covering as it does an area of about 14,950,000 square miles. The Continent, taking this esti- mate as our guide, is four times larger than Europe, one-third larger than Africa, and one-half as large as Asia, including Australia and Polynesia. Its extreme breadth, north of the Equator, is between Cape Canso, in Nova Scotia, and Cape Lookout, in Oregon, a dis- tance of 3100 miles, and very near the forty-fifth parallel of North latitude. South of the Equator it attains its greatest breadth between * This calculation does not include the regions north of Point Barrow, or the Archipelago of Terra del Puego. 31 32 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Cape St. Roque, in Brazil, and Cape Purina, in Peru, a distanee of 3250 miles, and between the fourth and seventh parallel of South latitude. The physical features of this great Continent are among the most remarkable and interesting in the world. Constituting as it does about three-tenths of the dry land upon the surface of the globe, it is, in general, a region of great fertility. With the exception of about one-seventh, the entire Continent is susceptible of cultivation, and in its natural growths it is one of the most favored lands in the world. Its mineral resources are vast and inexhaustible, and embrace nearly every geological formation known to science. On the west side, the Continent is traversed by a vast range of mountains, ten thousand miles in length, stretching from Point Barrow on the north, to the Straits of Magellan on the south, and rearing their lofty summits far above the region of perpetual snow. The rivers, bays, and lakes of America are the most magnificent and extensive in the world, and afford commercial advantages of the highest order. The Continent consists of two great peninsulas, known as North America and South America, connected by an isthmus called Central America. The relative importance of its great divisions may be seen from the following table, in which North and Central America are counted as one division : English Square Miles. North America, 7,400,000 South America, 6,500,000 Islands, 150,000 Greenland, and the islands connected with it, . 900,000 Total, 14,950,000 As it is not our purpose to devote any portion of this work to the other divisions of the Continent, we pass at once to a brief considera- , tion of the division of NORTH AMERICA. Including Central America, this great division of the Continent lies between the sixth parallel of North latitude and the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and South America, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its length on the Atlantic side, from Hudson’s Straits to the Florida Channel, THE UNITED STATES. 33 following the indentations of the coast, is about 4800 miles, and from thence to Panama about 4500 more, making a total length of 9300 miles. On the Pacific side, the length, counting the coasts of the Gulf of California, is 10,500 miles. The north and northeast shores are reckoned at about 3000 miles, which gives a total coast line of about 22,800 miles. According to Professor De Bow, the Superintendent of the Seventh Census of the United States, North America comprises an area of 8,377,648 square miles, an estimate which exceeds that already given by us. It is subdivided by him as follows : Square Miles. British America, 3,050,398 United States 3,306,865 Mexico 1,038,834 Bussian America,* 394,000 Danish America (Greenland) 384,000 Central America, 203,551 8,377,648 The country lying north of the United States, and known as British America, extends from the States to the Arctic Ocean. It is settled thickly along its southern and eastern borders, but the re- mainder is a vast, untamed region, too cold for colonization by Europeans, and inhabited only by a hardy race of Indians, and by a few whites engaged in the fur trade. The country along the southern and eastern borders, however, is of the greatest importance. It pos- sesses a population of over three millions, and will compare favor- ably in its civilization and material prosperity with the States adjoining it. South of the United States is a vast region, nominally a Kepublic, but in reality a country afflicted with chronic anarchy, called Mexico. Its people number nearly eight millions, and consist of a mixture of Spanish and Indians. They are but little more than half civilized, and are utterly incapable of conducting the government or developing the resources of their country, naturally one of the richest and most productive in the world. * Now a part of the United States, and known as Alaska. 3 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Is the name given to the great and powerful Republic, occupying tlu central portion of North America, and lying between Mexico and Br’tish America. The Republic lies between latitude 24° 30' and 49° N., and between longitude 60° 50' and 124° 30' W. It is bounded on the north by British America, and is partly separated from that country by the River Saint Lawrence, and Lakes Superior, Huron, Saint Clair, Erie, and Ontario ; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the south by Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico ; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It has recently added to its territory that country formerly known as Russian America, now called Alaska, lying along the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, and between the fifty- eighth and seventy-second parallels of North latilude, and the one hundred and fortieth, and one hundred and seventieth degrees of W^est longitude. DIMENSIONS. This vast region covers an area, of 3,306,865 square miles, and comprises nearly one-half of North America. Its extreme length, from Cape Cod, on the Atlantic, to the Pacific Ocean, is about 2600 miles, and its greatest breadth, from Madawaska, in Maine, to Key West, in Florida, is about 1600 miles. Its northern frontier line measures 3303 miles, and its southern line 1456 miles. Following the indentations of the shore, its coast line on the Atlantic is 6861 miles, on the Pacific 2281 miles, and on the Gulf of Mexico 3467 miles, making a total coast line of 12,609 miles. The shores of the Pacific are bold and rocky, and are marked by comparatively few indentations. The principal are San Francisco Bay and the Straits of San Juan de Fuca. On the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the shore is generally low, and deeply indented by numerous inlets, the principal of which are Passamaquoddy, Fench- man’s, Penobscot, Casco, Massachusetts, Buzzard's, New York, Rari- tan, Delaware, and Chesapeake Bays, and Long Island, Pamlico, and Albemarle Sounds on the Atlantic ; and Tampa, Appalachee, Appa- 34 THE UNITED STATES. 35 lachicola, Pensacola, Mobile, Black, Barataria, Atcbafalaya, Ver- milion, Galveston, Matagorda, Aransas, and Corpus Christi Bays, on the Gulf of Mexico. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. The Republic consists of thirty-seven States and nine Territories. These are the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Ne- braska, Nevada, California, and Oregon ; and the Territories of Arizona, Dacotah, Idaho, Montana, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and Washington. Besides these are the Indian Territory and Alaska. For convenience, the States are usually subdivided as follows : The New England States : — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut. 6. The Middle States: — New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware. 4. The Southern States: — Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas. 10. The Western States: — Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, California, Oregon, Nevada, Nebraska, West Virginia. 17. POPULATION. The following table will show the relative size and importance of the States and Territories, together with their population, and the date of their admission into the Union : of West Virginia in 1S70, 442,014. Not Included In population of Virginia for that year. 36 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 1 liililiiiiiiiilliiiiiiii i About 900,000 isirigg Area in Sq. miles bi,7(iG 9,280 9,056 7,800 1,046 4,730 60,519 8,320 46.000 2.120 11,124 60 61.352 45.000 30.213 68.000 59,268 50,722 47,156 41,255 237,504 52,198 45,600 37,080 39,964 56,243 .33.809 innnnHnninniin! ri'sii siig'gs's'sii n I n i i n i i n i M n i ill ; : i I : I : ; : : I ! I i : i M I a; III THE UNITED STATES. 37 RIVERS. The topographical features of the United States are varied and in- teresting, consisting of immense chains of mountains, numerous rivers, bays, and lakes, and vast plains inhabited only by savages and wild beasts. The majority of the bays along its coasts are the outlets of the great rivers of the Republic. These rivers may be divided into four distinct classes, viz : I. The Mississippi and its tributaries. II. The rivers which rise in the Alleghany chain and flow into the Atlantic Ocean. III. The rivers rising in the Southern States, and flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. IV. The rivers which flow into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers of the first class are the Mississippi, Missouri, Wiscon- sin, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Yazoo, Minnesota, Des Moines, Arkansas, and Red. Those of the second class are the Penobscot, Kennebec, Connecti- cut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, James, Chowan, Roanoke, Pamlico or Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear, Great Pedee, Santee, Savannah, and Altamaha. Those of the third class are the Appalachicola, Mobile, Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, and Rio Grande. Those of the fourth class are the Columbia, San Joaquin, and the great Colorado of the West, the last of which flows into the Gulf of California. THE MISSISSIPPI PJVEPc Is the most important stream in the United States, and, together 'with its main branch, the Missouri, is the longest in the world. Its name is derived from an Indian word, signifying ‘^The Great Father of Waters.’’ The Mississippi proper is the smaller branch (the Mis- souri reaching farther back into the interior), and it is somewhat sin- gular that it should have given its name to the whole stream. It rises in Itasca Lake, in the State of Minnesota, in a region known as the Hauteurs de Terre, 1680 feet above tide level, in latitude 47° 10' N., and longitude 94° 55' W. From this point it flows in a generally southward direction, emptying into the Gulf of Mexico in latitude 29° N. Its total length, from its source to its mouth, is estimated at 2986 miles. 38' THE GREAT REPUBLIC, The main branch is called the Missouri River above the point of its junction with the smaller branch. The two rivers unite a short distance above the city of St. Louis. Under the present heading it is our purpose to treat of the Mississippi proper, reserving the Missouri for discussion farther on. The Mississippi constitutes the great centre of a gigantic system of rivers, all of which unite in one grand channel and empty their waters into the Gulf. The area drained by them comprises a very large por- tion of the interior of North America. The tributaries of the great river find their way to it through rich and populous States, and be- tween its source and its mouth it collects all the waters (with the single exception of those rivers flowing directly into the Gulf) of the immense region lying between the Alleghany and the Rocky Moun- tains. This region is usually known as the Mississippi Valley. Its southern boundary is the Gulf, and its northern limit the high hills in which rise the streams flowing into the Arctic Ocean and the lakes of British America. According to Charles Ellet, this region covers an area of 1,226,600 square miles, above the mouth of the Red River. The river, with its tributaries reaching far back into the neighbor- ing States and Territories, furnishes a system of inland navigation unequalled by any in the world. Steamers ascend the Mississippi itself from its mouth to the Falls of St. Anthony, in Minnesota, about 2200 miles, and above the falls the river is navigable for a consider- able distance. In 1858 a steamboat succeeded in ascending the stream to near the forty-ninth degree of north latitude. The Missouri is navigable to the foot of the Rocky Mountains ; the Ohio, to its head, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania ; and the Arkansas and the Red, each for more than 1000 miles. By means of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers, the mountains of East Tennessee have water trans- portation to the Gulf; and the Illinois River steamers penetrate to the country just back of Lake Michigan. These rivers are all more or less crowded with steamers and other craft, plying a trade in comparison with which the fabled wealth of Tyre sinks into insignificance. Numerous other branches of less extent empty into the main river, all of which are navigable to a greater or less degree. Below the mouth of the Red River, the main stream is divided into numerous branches, which are called bayous. Some of these, after pursuing an erratic course, find their way back to the Mississippi, while others THE UNITED STATES, 39 follow an independent course to the Gulf. The most important of these bayous is the Atchafalaya. The country lying between this stream (after its departure from the great river), the Mississippi, and the Gulf, is known as the Delta of the Mississippi. The Delta is about 200 miles in length, with an average width of 75 miles. It comprises an area of 15,000 square miles, and is com- posed entirely of alluvion, the depth of which is estimated at 1000 feet. The debris carried along with the flood is principally de- posited near the borders of the stream, the necessary result being that these portions have been raised to a much higher level than the ad- joining lands. In some places the slope is as much as eighteen feet in a distance of a few miles. The interior consists of vast swamps covered with trees, of which the tops only are visible during the floods. The river, for almost fifty miles from its mouth, runs nearly parallel with the Gulf of Mexico, from which it is separated at par- ticular places by an embankment only half a mile across.’’ The alluvion plain extends above the Delta to a formation called the Chains, 30 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, a distance esti- mated at a little over 500 miles. The average breadth of this plain, which has been formed by the river itself, is about fifty miles, and its total area, including the Delta, about 31,200 square miles. Its height, at its northern extremity, according to Prof. Charles Ellet, jT., is 275 feet above the level of tlie sea. It descends this plain to the Gulf at the rate of about eight inches per riiile. Its average de- j scent along its entire course is about six inches to the mile. The river is very tortuous, especially after passing the mouth of the Ohio. Its curves are immense, often traversing a distance of twenty- five or thirty miles, in a half circle, around a point of land only a mile, or half a mile in width. Sometimes, during the heavy freshets, the stream breaks through the narrow tongue of land, forming a cut- ofP,” which frequently becomes a new and permanent channel, leaving the old bed a lake,” as it is called by the boatmen. But for the height of the banks, and the great depth of the river, the formation of these cut-ofis ” would be quite frequent, and the stream would be constantly changing its course. Attempts to form cut-ofis ” by arti- ficial means have generally failed. The river is remarkable for the constancy with which it maintains its average breadth of about 3000 feet. It rarely exceeds or falls short of this breadth except in the curves, which frequently broaden to near a mile and a quarter. The current is sluggish, except at high water, its depth at ordinary stages 40 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. being 75 feet at the head of the plain we have described, and 120 feet at its foot, ^yerc the stream straighter, its current, which is now checked by the bends, would no doubt be too swift for navigation, and commerce would suffer. One of the most important facts in regard to the Mississippi is, that it flows from north to south. A river that runs east or west has no variety of climate or productions from its source to its mouth. The trapper and husbandman descending the ^Father of Waters,’ constantly meet with a change of climate; they take with them their furs and cereal grains, the products of the North, to exchange for the sugar and tiopical fruits that are gathered on the banks below. Again, the floods produced by winter snows and spring rains cannot be simultaneously discharged. The course of the stream being from north to south, spring advances in a reverse direction, and releases in succession the waters of the lower valley, then of the middle section, and finally the remote sources of the Mississippi and its tributaries. It is a remarkable fact that the waters from this last-named region do not reach the Delta until upwards of a month after the inundation there has been abating. The swell usually commences toward the end of February, and continues to rise by unequal diurnal accretions till the 1st of June, when it again begins to subside. No experience will enable a person to anticipate, with any approach to certainty, the elevation of the flood in any given year. In some seasons the waters do not rise above their channels ; in others, the entire lower valley of the Mississippi is submerged. Embankments, called levees, have been raised from five to ten feet high on both sides of the stream, extend- ing many miles above and below New Orleans. By this means the river is restrained within its proper limits, except at the greatest freshets, Avhen the waters sometimes break over, causing great destruc- tion of property, and even loss of life. The average height of the flood, from the Delta to the junction of the Missouri, is about 15 feet ; at the mouth of the latter river it is 25 feet ; below the entrance of the Ohio, the rise is often 50 feet; at Natchez, it seldom exceeds 30 feet; and at New Orleans is about 12 feet. This diminution is sup- posed to result from the drainage through the Atchafalaya, Bayou La Fourche, and other channels breaking from the lower part of the river to the Gulf of Mexico. The flood often carries away large masses of earth with trees, which frequently become embedded in the mud at one end, while the other floats near the surface, forming snags and sawyers.” * These snags are very dangerous to steamers navigating * Lippincott’s Gazetteer. THE UNITED STATES. 41 the river, and formerly caused many terrible accidents. Kecently they have been removed to a great extent by snag-boats and improved machinery. The Mississippi empties itself into the Gulf through several mouths, which are termed Passes. The navigation is here very seriously ob- structed by numerous bars, formed by the gradual deposit of the sedi- ment with which the water is heavily charged. These render it impossible for vessels of the largest class to reach New Orleans. Over these bars there is a depth of water, varying greatly at different times, and often measuring only fifteen feet. Steam tugs can force vessels drawing two or three feet more than the actual depth, through the soft mud of the river bed. Repeated efforts have been made to deepen the passes by dredging, but the channel has filled up again so rapidly as to make all such efforts futile. It was once attempted to deepen the South West Pass (the principal mouth) by driving piles along each side. It was thought that by thus confining the stream within a limited width, it would of itself excavate a deep channel. The effect, however, was to force the bulk of the flow through another mouth called Pass a FOutre, which for the time became a better channel than the South West Pass. The navigation of the Upper Mississippi is broken in several places by falls and rapids, of which the principal are the Falls of St. Anthony, above St. Paul, Minnesota.* The Mississippi River was discovered by Hernando de Soto, in June 1541. He reached it, it is , supposed, at a point not far below the present town of Helena in Arkansas. In 1673, Marquette and Jolliet descended the stream to within three days’ journey of its mouth ; and in 1682, Ua Salle passed through one of its mouths to the Gulf, and took possession of the country along its shores, in the name of the King of France. In 1699, Iberville built a fort on the river; in 1703, a settlement was made on the Yazoo, a tributary, and called St. Peter’s; and in 1718, the city of New Orleans was laid out. The levees of the lower Mississippi were begun in that year, and finished in front of New Orleans about 1728. The subject of the free navigation of the river occupied the earliest attention of the United States, and was the principal cause of the acquisition of Loui- siana, by purchase from France. The battle of New Orleans (as it is called) was fought on its banks on the 8th of January 1815. During * The prominent points along the river will be described in the chapters relating to the States. 42 the great republic. the kite war, the Confederates undertook to close the navigation of the river, and succeeded in doing so for more than two years, when the control of it was wrested from them by tlie Union forces. A number of severe engagements were fought on its banks, the principal of which were the battle of Belmont, in Missouri, and the conflicts at Island No. 10, Fort Pillow, New Madrid, Memphis, Vicksburg, Port Hudson, Grand Gulf, Baton Rouge, and Forts Jackson and St. Philip below New Orleans. The principal tributaries of the Mississippi are, on the east, the Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, and Yazoo ; on the west, the Minnesota, Des Moines, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers. ^ The total value of the steamboats engaged in trade on the Missis- sippi and its tributaries, is estimated at over $6,000,000. THE MISSOURI RIYER. ^ Though commonly regarded as the principal tributary of the Mis- sissippi, the Missouri is in reality the main stream, since it is longer and of greater volume than the other river. It derives its name from an Indian word signifying ^'Mud River.'' It rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the Territory of Montana, in latitude 45° N., longitude 110° 30' W. The springs in which it has its source are not more than a mile distant from the headwaters of the great Colum- bia River, which flows into the Pacific Ocean. The Missouri proper begins at the confluence of three small streams of about equal length— the Jefferson's, Madison’s, and Gallatin's— which run nearly parallel to each other. For the first 500 miles of its course, the Missouri flows nearly north, then turning slightly to the E. N. E., it continues in that direction until it is joined by the White Earth River, in latitude 48° 20' N. It then bends to the southeast, and continues in that general direction until it joins the Mississippi, near St. Louis. F our hundred and eleven miles from its source, the river passes through what is called The Gates of the Rocky Mountains." This pass is one of the most remarkable on the Continent. For nearly six miles the rocks rise perpendicularly from the water's edge to a height of 1200 feet. The river -is confined to a width of only one hundred and fifty yards, and for the first three miles there is only one point on which a man could obtain a foothold between the rocks and the water. One hundred and ten miles below the '‘Gates" are the "Great Falls of the Missouri," which, after those of the Niagara, are the mostmagnifi- / . THE UNITED STATES. 43 cent in America. These falls consist of four cataracts, respectively of 26, 47, 19, and 87 feet perpendicular descent, separated by rapids. They extend for a length of sixteen and a half miles, and the total descent in that distance is 357 feet. The falls are 2575 miles above the mouth of the river, which is navigable to them, though steamers do not usually ascend higher than the mouth of the Yellow Stone River. The Missouri is said to be 3096 miles long from its mouth to its source, though it is believed that this estimate is a little too large. Add to this the length of the lower Mississippi, 1253 miles, and the total distance from the Gulf to the source of the Missouri, is 4349 miles— making it the longest stream in the world. It is generally turbid and swift, and upon entering the Mississippi, pours a dense volume of mud into that until then clear stream, and forever changes its hue. At the confluence of the two rivers, the water of the Mis- sissippi refuses to mingle with that of its muddy rival, and the current of the Missouri may be easily distinguished for some distance below. There is no important obstacle to navigation below the Great Falls, except that during the long hot summers the water is apt to be too low for any but the smallest steamers, owing to the fact that in its upper course the river passes through an open, dry country, where it is subject to excessive evaporation. Below the Falls it is bordered by a narrow alluvial valley, very fertile, and capable of being highly cultivated. Back of this valley lie extensive prairies. The river is half a mile wide at its mouth, and is in some places much wider. It receives all the great rivers rising on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, with the single exception of the Arkansas River, and the majority of the streams between its own bed and the Mississippi. For the most part it flows through a savage or thinly settled region, and has but few important cities or towns on its banks. The princi- pal of these are Omaha City, in Nebraska, Atchison and Leavenworth, in Kansas, and St. Joseph, Kansas City, Lexington, Booneville, Jef- ferson City, and St. Charles, in Missouri. Its principal tributaries are the Yellow Stone, Little Missouri, Big Cheyenne, (greater) White Earth, Ni-obrarah, Platte or Nebraska, Kansas and Osage, on the right ; and the Milk, Dacotah, Big Sioux, Little Sioux, and Grand, on the left. These streams, with the Mis- souri, drain the entire country north of St. Louis, and between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains — an area of 519,400 square miles. 44 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE OHIO RIVER Is the first great tributary of the Mississippi, flowing into it below the mouth of the Missouri. It was called by the early French settlers La Belle Riviere (the beautiful river), and its Indian name is said to have a similar meaning. It is noted for the uniform smoothness of its current, and the beauty of the valley through which it flows. It is formed by the confluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. It flows in a generally W. S. W. direction, separating the States of West Virginia and Ken- tucky from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and empties into the Missis- sippi at Cairo, Illinois, 1216 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The total length of the Ohio is 950 miles. The length of the valley through which it flows is only 614 miles, the windings of the river making up the difference. Its average breadth is a little over 600 yards. Its elevation at Pittsburg is 680 feet above the level of the sea, at Cincinnati, 414 feet, and at Cairo, 324 feet, giving an average descent of about 5 inches to the mile. The current is placid and uni- form, having a medium force of about 3 miles an hour. Like all the western rivers, it is subject to great variations of depth. In the win- ter and spring it is very high, the spring rise being sometimes as great as 60 feet ; and in the summer it is so low that it may be forded in many places above Cincinnati. The writer, when a lad) has fre- quently waded from the Virginia to the Ohio shore. At high water, steamers of the first class ascend to Pittsburg, but at low water only the lightest draft vessels can navigate it, and even these do so at a constant risk of running on a sand bar, and being compelled to remain there until the late summer and fall rains swell the stream again to an extent sufficient to float them. At Louisville, Kentucky, the only falls of the river occur. The descent is here about 22J feet in two miles. The current is very swift, but in high water first-class steam- ers pass over the rapids. A canal has been cut around them to the river below, by means of which the obstruction they present to navi- gation has been partly overcome. Formerly the river trade was most important and extensive. Of late years, however, it has been very much reduced by the competition of the railroads, but is still im- mense. The Ohio, for the greater part of its course, flows through a narrow, but beautiful valley. The hills, from two hundred to three hundred feet high, are covered with an almost continuous forest of a. dark rich green hue, and come down so close to the water that at THE UNITED STATES. 45 times they seem to shut it in entirely. Though beautiful, the scenery is monotonous, and is rather tame. The river contains fully one hundred islands, some of which are exceedingly valuable and beautiful. There are also a number of Tow Heads,’' as they are called— small sandy islands, covered with willows, and utterly barren. Below Louisville the country becomes flatter, and by the time the Mississippi is reached, the hills have entirely disappeared. The valley of the Ohio is ex- ceedingly fertile, and is rich in various kinds of minerals. Its principal tributaries are the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, and Wabash, on the right, and the Great Kanawha, Big Sandy, Green, Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee, on the left. The most im- portant are the Wabash, Cumberland, and Tennessee, the last of which is the largest. The Tennessee and its tributaries reach far back into the mountains of that State and Virginia, and the headwaters of the Alleghany rise in the southern part of the State of Kew York and in Potter County, Pennsylvania. Between them and the waters which flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Chesapeake Bay, there is only a slight elevation, and a distance of but a few acres. The area drained by the Ohio and its tributaries is about 200,000 square miles. The country through which the Ohio flows is a prosperous agricul- tural region, and a number of large and thriving cities and towns are located on its banks. Its various prominent features will be noticed in other portions of this work. THE AEKANSAS EIYER Is the next important tributary of the Mississippi below the mouth of the Ohio. Next to the Missouri, it is the longest affluent of the great river. It rises in the Eocky Mountains near the centre of Colo- rado, and flows easterly for several hundred miles, after which it turns to the southeast and continues in that general direction until it reaches the Mississippi, in latitude 30° 54' N., longitude 91° 10' W. It enters Arkansas at Fort Smith, on the western frontier, and divides the State into two nearly equal portions. In the upper part of its course it flows through vast sterile plains, but after entering the State which bears its name, continues its way through a region of considerable fertility. It is 2000 miles long from its source to its mouth, and is not obstructed by rapids or falls. It varies in width from three furlongs to half a mile. Its current is turbid and sluggish. The difference in the height of the water in the 46 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. floods and the dry seasons is about 25 feet. For the greater part of the year it is navigable by- steamers for a distance of 800 miles from its mouth. The most important town on the river is Little Rock, the the capital of the State. The last important tributary of the Mississippi is THE RED RIYER. This stream is formed by the confluence of two principal branches, of which the southern and larger rises in New Mexico, a little beyond the western boundary of Texas, in latitude 34° 42' N., longitude 103° 7' 10" W.; the northern in Texas, in latitude 35° 35' 3" N., longi- tude 101° 55' W. These two branches unite in latitude 34° 30' N., longitude 100° W., in the State of Texas, and constitute the main river, which then flows nearly due east, forming the boundary between the Indian Territory and Texas. Upon reaching the Arkansas line, it passes into that State to Fulton, near the border, when it bends to the south and enters Louisiana. Then turning to the southeast, it flows across the last named State and empties into the Mississippi, 341 miles above the Gulf of Mexico. Its length, including the South Fork, is estimated by Colonel Marcy, U. S. A., by whom the river was explored, at 2100 miles — the main stream being 1200 miles long. According to this authority, the South, or main. Fork, rises in the fissures of an elevated and sterile plain, called the Llano Estacado, at an altitude of 2450 feet above the sea. For the first sixty miles the sides of the river rise from 500 to 800 feet so directly from the water that the exploring party were obliged to pass up through the channel of the stream. ^^After leaving the Llano Estacado,” says Colonel Marcy, the river flows through an arid prairie country, almost entirely destitute of trees, over a broad bed of light shifting sands, for a distance of some 500 miles, following its sinuosities. It then enters a country covered with gigantic forest trees, growing upon a soil of the most preeminent fertility; here the borders contract, and the water fora great portion of the year washes both banks, carrying the loose allu- vium from one side, and depositing it on the other, in such a manner as to produce constant changes in the channel, and to render naviga- tion difficult. This character continues throughout the remainder of its course to the Delta of the Mississippi ; and in this section it is subject to heavy inundations, which often flood the bottoms to such THE UNITED STATES. 47 a degree as to destroy the crops, and occasionally, on subsiding, leaving a deposit of white sand, rendering the soil barren and worthless.’^ Shortly after leaving its sources, the South Fork passes through a vast bed of gypsum for a distance of 100 miles, which gives to its waters an intensely bitter and unpleasant taste, causing them rather to auo-ment than diminish thirst. o The river is navigable during the greater part of the year to Shreveport, 500 miles from its mouth. Small steamers can ascend about 300 miles farther in high water. About 30 miles above Shreveport is an immense collection of rub- bish known as the Great Kaft,'’ which forms the principal obstacle to the navigation of the upper river. It consists of driftwood and trees, which have been brought down for hundreds of miles by the current, and lodged here. This raft obstructs the channel for a dis- tance of seventy miles, and for a considerable portion of the year causes the river to overflow the country along its banks. In 1834--35 it was removed by the Government of the United States at a cost of $300,000, but a new raft has formed since then. In very high water small steamers pass around it. The principal tributaries of the Red River are the Little Washita and Big Washita. The other rivers, which are national in character — by which we mean not lying entirely or for the greater part in one particular State or Territory of the Union — are the Rio Grande, the Great Colorado of the West, the Columbia, and the St. Lawrence, the first and last of which form a portion of the boundaries of the Republic. THE RIO GRANDE Rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the Territory of New Mexico, near latitude 38° N., and longitude 106° 30' W. Its course is at first southeast, then E. S. E., and finally nearly east. It forms the boundary between the State of Texas and the Republic of Mexico, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, near latitude 25° N., and longi- tude 97° W. It is 1800 miles long, and is for the most part very shallow. Sand bars are numerous and render the stream almost unfit for navigation. Small steamers have succeeded in reaching Kings- bury\s Rapids, about 450 miles from the Gulf. About 900 miles from its mouth the river is only three or four feet deep. This point is called the Grand Indian Crossing,” because the Comanche and 48 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Apaclice Indians ford the stream here in their incursions from Texas into Mexico. The j)rincipal town on the river is Brownsville, 40 miles from its mouth, and opposite the Mexican city of Mattamoras. THE COLORADO RIVER, Or, as it is sometimes called, the Great Colorado of the West, to dis- tinguish it from the Colorado River, of Texas, rises in latitude 44° N., in Idaho Territory, and, flowing through Utah Territory, and along the borders of Nevada, California, and Arizona, empties into the Gulf of California, near latitude 32° 30^ N. From its source to the 36th parallel of North latitude, where it is joined by the Grand and Little Colorado Rivers, it is known as the Green River. It has several small tributaries between its source and the Great South Pass. At this pass, it receives the Big Sandy Creek, at an elevation of 7489 feet above the sea. Just on the other side of the mountains are the Wind and Sweetwater Rivers, two of the principal tributaries of the Upper Missouri. From the South Pass, the Colorado flows in a generally southwest direction to its mouth. It is about 1200 miles long, and, with the exception of the Columbia, is the most important stream west of the Rocky Mountains, but, in spite of its great length, the volume of water which it discharges is comparatively small. About 490 miles above its mouth commences the great defile in the mountains called the Black Canon, 25 miles long, through which the river has forced its way. The banks in many places are very pre- cipitous, from 1000 to 1500 feet high, and for a long distance the river is unapproachable. A steamboat under the command of Lieut. Ives, U. S. Topographical Engineers, ascended the stream early in 1858, and passing a portion of the great cafion reached the head of navigation at the head of Virgen River. Few obstacles except shift- ing sand bars w'ere met on the voyage. The explorations of Lieut. Ives, who traversed the valley of the river from its mouth to latitude 36° N., and the greater part of the regions along latitude 35° and 36° as far east as the Rio Grande, and the previous reconnoissances con- nected with the surveys for a railway to the Pacific, have made known interesting facts connected with the region watered by the Colorado. In its valley is found a large extent of fertile bottom land, easily cul- tivated by artificial irrigation. This valley varies in width from three to eight miles. The greater part of it is covered with timber, chiefly cottonwood and raezquit. Other portions are cultivated by the nu- THE UNITED STATES. 49 merous tribes of Indians who live along its banks, affording them an abundance of wheat, maize, melons, beans, squashes, etc. Cotton is also cultivated by such of the Pueblo Indians as are acquainted with the art of weaving. Some portions of the country are uninhabitable ; others are rich in silver, copper, and lead, besides containing gold and mercury in small quantities. According to an estimate made by the U. S. officers who have explored the Colorado, there are about 700 square miles of arable land between the mouth of the Gila and the 35th parallel of North latitude. After receiving the Gila, the Colo- rado takes a sudden turn westward, forcing its way through a chain of rocky hills, 70 feet high, and about 350 yards in length. In this passage it is about 600 feet wide, but soon expands to 1200 feet, which it retains. After sweeping around 7 or 8 miles, it assumes a south direction, and with a very tortuous course of nearly 160 miles reaches the Gulf of California. The bottom lands are here from 4 to 5 miles wide, and covered with a thick forest. On a rocky emi- nence at the junction with the Gila stands Fort Yuma. Near the fort are the remains of the buildings of the old Spanish Mission established here in the early part of the last century, and in the valley are traces of irrigating canals, which show that it has once been cultivated.^’ * The average depth of ^vater between Fort Yuma and the Gulf of California is 8 feet. Spring tides rise 25 or 30 feet, and neap tides 10 feet. There is regular communication by means of small steamers between Fort Yuma and the mouth of the river. At low water there is a draught of 4 feet at the Fort, and in high water 13 feet. The channel at the mouth of the river is continually changing, and has been known to shift from one bank to another in the course of a single night. There is also a heavy tidal wave at its mouth, which renders it difficult and dangerous for any but the lightest draught steamers to enter the stream. When the freshets occur, the river overflows its banks, submerges a part of the California Desert, and fills up several basins, and what is known as New Hiver. This water is left in the basins and New River when the main stream returns to its proper channel, and continues in them for about two years, when it is absorbed by the soil, or dried up by the sun. The mouth of the Colorado was discovered in the year 1540, by Fernando Alarchon, who undertook a voyage to the Gulf of Cali- fornia, by order of the Viceroy of Spain. He described it as a very mighty river, which ran with so great a fury of stream that we could * Appleton’s Cyclopsedia, vol. v. p. 502. 50 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. hardly sail against h.” He sent an expedition, consisting of two boats, some distance up the river. In 1700, a Mission was estab- lished by Father Kino near the site of the j)resent Fort Yuma, at the moiitli of the Gila. The name of the Colorado signifies the Red River,’^ its waters being stained by the red earth along its course. Its principal tribu- taries are the Grand, San Juan, White, Little Colorado, Yirgen, Wil- liams, and Gila Rivers. The Mohave was formerly supposed to be a tributary, but is now known to empty into Soda Lake, in California. THE COLUMBIA RIYER Is the principal body of water flowing into the Pacific Ocean from the Continent of America. It rises in a small lake on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, about latitude 50° N., longitude 116° W. Its first course is towards the northwest, along the base of the Rocky Mountains, until it is joined by its most northern tributary, in about 53° 30' K. latitude, after w^hich it flows in a southerly direction to the 46th parallel. From this point to the Pacific it runs due west, forming the boundary between the State of Oregon and Washington Territory. It is extremely tortuous between the 46th and 48th parallels of North latitude. This is the case until Fort Wallawalla is reached. It is very rapid, and frequently passes through mountain gorges and over falls. The tide ascends to the foot of the Cascades, 140 miles from the sea. The Cascades are a series of rapids caused by the pas- sage of the river through the Cascade range of mountains. Between each of the rapids there is an unbroken stretch of the river for about 25 or 30 miles. Steamers ply on the lower river, on the clear waters between the Cascades, and for some distance above the last fall. Passengers and freights are carried around the falls by railroad. Vessels of 200 or 300 tons burthen navigate the stream to the foot of the Cascades. For 30 miles from its mouth, the Columbia forms a splendid bay from 3 to 7 miles in breadth, through which it dis- charges its waters into the Pacific. There is about 20 feet water on the bar at its mouth, but the depth of the channel is 24 feet. The principal tributaries of the Columbia are the Lewis and Clark Forks, which, uniting, form the main river, the McGillivray’s, or Flat Bow River, Okonagan, Fall River, Wallawalla, and Willa- mette. The Lewis Fork is sometimes called the Snake River, and the Clark Fork, the Flathead River. The total length of the Columbia, from its source to the sea, is about 1200 miles. THE UNITED STATES. 51 RAPIDS OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. THE SAINT LAWEENCE EIYEE Eorms a portion of the boundary between the United States and the Canadas, and though washing the shores of the Union for but a part of its course, cannot be passed over in this chapter. Some geogra- jdiers, in consequence of its forming the outlet of the chain of lakes upon the northern frontier of the Union, regard it as commencing at the source of the St. Louis, which rises in Minnesota and flows into Lake Superior. Viewed in this light, it flows through the great lakes, and its total length from the head of the St. Louis to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, would be 2200 miles. Its course to the head of Lake Erie would be in a generally southeast direction ; and from the head of Lake Erie to the sea, in a generally northeast direction. Viewing it in this light, we must regard the Ste. Marie, between Lakes Huron and Superior; the St. Clair and Detroit, between Lakes Huron and Erie; and the Niagara, between Lakes Erie and Ontario, as forming parts of the St. liawrenee. By the St. Lawrence River, however, is most commonly meant that portion of it lying between Lake Ontario and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This constitutes a large river 750 miles long, having an average breadth of half a mile, and 52 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. navigable for steamers to the Gulf. Ships of the line ascend to Que- bec, and vessels of 600 tons to Montreal, in Canada. Above Mon- treal the navigation is interrupted by numerous rapids, around which a canal has been cut. The river forms the boundary of the* United States from the foot of Lake Ontario to the extreme northwestern corner of the State of New York. Ogdeiivsburg and Cape Vincent are tlie principal American towns on its banks. LAKES. The principal lakes of the United States, are Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, lying along the northern frontier, and the Great Salt Lake, in Utah Territory. LAKE SUPERIOR Is the largest body of fresh water in the world, and the principal of the chain of great lakes extending along the northern boundary of the United States. It lies between latitude 46° 30' and 49° N., and longitude 84° 50' and 92° 10' W. It forms a species of crescent, with its convexity on the north, and its concavity on the south. Its greatest length, from east to west, measured through the curve, is 420 miles, and its greatest breadth, from north to south, 160 miles. The total length of its coast line is about 1750 miles. It covers an area estimated at 32,000 square miles. It is 630 feet above the level of the sea, and has an average depth of one thousand feet. Its shape is very irregular. It is very wide at its centre, but narrows slightly towards its eastern end, and very much towards its western end. The shore on the north side is bold and rocky, and consists of almost continuous ranges of cliffs, which rise to a height varying from 300 to 1500 feet. The south shore is flat and sandy, as a gene- ral rule, but near the eastern side is broken by limestone ridges, which rise to a height of near 300 feet, in strange and fantastic forms, worn into numerous caverns. These have been cut by the action of the great waves, especially during the season of the floating ice, and have been colored by the continual drippings of mineral substan- ces. From the earliest times they have been known as the ^‘ Pictured Rocks.’’ They lie to the east of Point Keweenaw, and form one of the most wonderful of the natural curiosities of the New World. Is- lands are very numerous towards the south and north shores, but the centre of the lake is free from them. The islands towards the south thp: united states. 53 are generally small, but those along the north shore are often of con- siderable size. The largest is Isle Royal, which is about 40 miles long, and 7 or 8 miles wide. Its hills rise to a height of 400 feet, with fip.e bold shores on the north, and several excellent ba\s on the south. Xear the western end of the lake is a rocky, forest-covered group, called the Apostles’ Islands. They are exceedingly pictur- esque in appearance, and form a prominent and interesting portion of the scenery of the lake. On the extreme southwestern end of the largest, is La Pointe, a famous fur trading post, and well known as the principal rendezvous for the hardy adventurers of the lake region. Lake Superior receives its waters from more than 200 streams, about 30 of which are of considerable size. These drain an area of 100,000 square miles, and furnish the lake with water remarkable for its clearness, and abounding in fish of various kinds, but especially in trout, white fish, and salmon. The rivers are almost all unfit for navio'ation, by reason of their tremendous currents, rapids, and rocks. The outlet of the lake is at the southeastern end, by means of St. Mary’s Strait, or as it is sometimes called, St. Mary’s River, which connects it with Lake Huron and the other great lakes. This strait is about 63 miles long, and enters Lake Huron by thi’ee channels. It is very beautiful and romantic in its scenery, at some places spread- ing out into small lakes, and at others rushing in foaming torrents over the rocks that seek to bar its way, or winding around beautiful islands. It is navigable for vessels drawing eight feet of water, from Lake Huron to within one mile of Lake Superior, at which point falls obstruct the navigation. This part of the strait is called the Sault Ste. Marie. A canal has been constructed by the General Gov- ernment around the rapids. It is 100 feet wide and 12 feet deep, and affords unbroken communication between Lakes Superior and Huron. The falls have a descent of 22 feet in three-fourths of a mile, and are exceedingly beautiful. The strait also separates the State of Michigan from Canada M est. The greatest obstacles to the navigation of the lake are the violent storms that sweep over it. Until very recently it was an almost unknown region, but now there is constant steamboat communication along its entire length, and it* is frequently visited by persons in search of pleasure or health. The principal export of the lake is copper, which is found in large quantities, and of a superior quality, along its shores. The total ship- ments of this metal, from the period of its discovery on the lake down to the close of the year 1861, amounted to over §18,600,000. 54 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Fond du Lac, and Duluth, at the western end of the lake, are the principal settlements on its shores. h or many years the savage settlements along the lake were mere iishing villages, and even at the period of its discovery, tlie Indians had made but few lodgments here. Attention was first drawn to it by its valuable fur trade, and the early Jesuit missionaries reached it about the year 1641. They established their first mission at the head of the Bay of Pentanguishene (in Georgian Bay), and passed up in a canoe to tlie Sault Ste. Marie, where they found a village of 2000 Chippewa Indians, and heard from them of the great lake beyond, wliich was explored by the missionaries about 20 years later. In 1668, a permanent mission was established at the Sault Ste. Marie, and in 1671, the region was formally taken possession of in the name of the King of France. The mines were first worked in 1771 and 1772, by an Englishman named Alexander Henry, whose enterprise proved unprofitable. General Lewis Cass, by order of the Government of the United States, explored the region in 1820, and since then it has been growing in importance, and has yearly become better known to the people of the country at large. LAKE HURON Is the third in size of the great inland seas we are deseribing. It lies between latitude 43° and 46° 15' N., and longitude 80° and 84° W. It receives the waters of Lake Superior by the St. Mary's River, and of Lake Michigan by the Straits of Mackinaw, and empties into Lake Erie by the St. Clair River. It is bounded on the S. 8. W. by the State of Michigan, and on all other sides by Canada West. A long peninsula called Cabot’s Head, and the Manitouline chain of islands divide it into two unequal portions. Those portions lying to the north and east are generally called Manitou (the Great Spirit) Lake, or the North Channel, and Manitouline Lake, or Georgian Bay. The general outline of the rest of the lake is in the form of a crescent, pursuing a S. S. E. and N. N. W. course. Its extreme length, fol- lowing the curve, is about 280 miles. Its greatest breadth, exclusive of Georgian Bay, is 105 miles. Its average breadth is about 70 miles, and it covers an area of 20,400 square miles. The surface of the water is elevated 19 feet above Lake Erie, 352 feet above Onta- rio, and 600 feet above the level of the sea. Its average depth is over 1000 feet. Off Saginaw Bay, which indents the coast of Michi- gan, leads have been sunk 1800 feet without finding the bottom. THE UNITED STATES. 65 The waters of the lake are remarkably pure and sweet, and so ex- ceedingly transparent that objects can be distinctly seen 50 or 60 feet below the surface. The lake is said to contain upwards of 3000 is- lands. It is subject to frequent fearful storms, but its navigation is not considered dangerous. Steamers ply between its various ports, and pass through the Straits of Mackinaw into Lake Michigan. There are many fine harbors on the coast, and the local trade is im- portant. The scenery is romantic and beautiful, and is much admired by travellers. The outlet of Lake Huron is by the St. Clair Kiver, which leaves the lake on its southern extremity. It has an average breadth of half a mile. It pursues a southerly course for forty miles, forming a part of the boundary between the United States and Canada, and empties into Lake St. Clair. It is navigable for large vessels. Lake St. Clair lies between Canada and the State of Michigan, in latitude 42° 30' N., longitude 82° 3' W. It is 30 miles long, has a mean breadth of 12 miles, and is 20 feet deep. It is thickly inter- spersed with islands, and receives the waters of tne Thames, Clinton, and Great Bear Creeks, and other streams. At its southwestern ex- tremity it flows into the Detroit Kiver, which connects it with Lake Erie. This river is in reality a mere strait 25 miles long, and from half a mile to a mile wide. The entire passage between Lakes Huron and Erie is navigable for large vessels. LAKE MICHIGAN Lies Avholly within the limits of the United States, and is the largest lake included within the territory of the Kepublic. The greater por- tion of the lake lies between the State of Michigan, on the east, and Illinois and Wisconsin, on the west ; but the upper portion is entirely within the State of Michigan. The lake is situated between 41° 30' and 46° N. latitude, and between 85° 50' and 88° W. longitude. It bends slightly to the N. E. in the upper part, and its extreme length, following the curve, is about 350 miles ; its extreme width 90 miles. It has an average depth of about 900 feet, and covers an area of 20,000 square miles. As a general rule, the shores of the lake are low, and are formed of limestone rock, clay, and sand. The sand thrown on the east shore by the heavy seas which prevail during storms, soon becomes dry, and is carried inland by the winds, where it is piled up in hills to a height of from 10 to 150 feet. The form of these hills is constantly changing. The lake is said to be gradually 56 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. moving westward, or, in other words, to be leaving the shore of Michigan, and encroaching upon that of Wisconsin. Theie are very few islands in Lake Michigan, and these lie to- wards its northeastern extremity. It has but few bays on its shores, and still fewer good harbors. Little Traverse Bay, Grand Haven' and Green Bay are the principal. As the lake is subject to terrible storms throughout the year, it is not considered very safe for naviga- tion. Previous to the completion of the railroads, however, its com- merce was very great, and several lines of fine steamers ran between Chicago, Illinois, and Buffalo, New York, on Lake Erie. There are many steamers and other craft still on the lake, but the railroads have taken away nearly the entire passenger, and much of the freight business. Lake Michigan is connected with Huron and the other lakes by the Straits of Mackinaw, or Mackinac. The lake is usually free from ice by the last of March, but the Straits of Mackinaw are frozen over until late in April. Fish abound in the lake, are caught in great quantities near Mackinaw, and are sent to the various parts of the Union, packed in ice. The principal cities and towns on Lake Michigan, are Chicago, Racine, Milwaukee, and Sheboygan, on the west side, and Michigan City and Grand Haven, on the east side. There are 23 lighthouses and 4 beacons on the lake. LAKE ERIE Lies between Canada West, on the north, a part of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, on the south, Michigan on the west, and New York on the east. It is situated between 41° 25' and 42° 5o N. latitude, and between 78° 55' and 83° 34' W^. longitude. It is elliptical in form, is 240 miles long, has an average width of 38 miles, its greatest width being 57 miles, and has a total circumference or coast line of 658 miles. Its depth is less than that of any of the other great lakes, being only 270 feet in its deepest portion. Its average depth is estimated at 120 feet. It is 322 feet above the level of Lake Ontario, which distance is overcome at a single effort by the falls of the Niagara. The shallowness of Lake Erie offers a great obstacle to navigation, inasmuch as the shoal portions freeze over regularly every winter. There are scarcely any naturally good harbors on the lake. Those now in use require to be deepened and protected by artificial means. Not- THE UNITED STATES. 5t withstanding the fact that the railroads have drawn off an immense amount of trade, and in spite of the obstacles presented by the lake itself, its commerce is still very great. The trade of the port of Buffalo alone is estimated at over $85,000,000 annually. The total trade of the lake is over $220,000,000 annually. A large number of steamers and other vessels are engaged during the season of naviga- tion, which lasts from about the 1st of April to about the 1st of De- cember. The principal harbors on the American side, are those of Cleveland, Sandusky City, Toledo, Buffalo, Erie, and Dunkirk. Those on the Canadian side are Ports Dover, Burwell, and Stanley. The shores of the lake are in many places of a very unstable nature, and yield easily to the action of the water, causing frequent dangerous slides,’^ as they are called. Buffalo has suffered considerably from this cause. The waters abound in fish, the principal of which are the trout and white fish. Several species of pike, the sturgeon, sisquit, muskelonge, black bass, white bass, and Oswego bass are found. There are 26 lighthouses and beacons on the American, and 10 on the Canada shore. Communication is maintained between Lakes Erie and Ontario by means of the Welland Canal, which is cut through the Canadian peninsula. The Maumee, Sandusky, Grand, Huron, Baisin, and several other rivers flow into the lake. The most violent storms sweep over it, particularly in the months of November and December, causing many shipwrecks and considerable destruction to life and property. The outlet is by the Niagara Biver, which commences at Black Bock, about 4 miles north of Buffalo. It is 34 miles long, and has a general northward course. About 7 miles from Buffalo, the river divides and encloses a large island, called Grand Island, 12 miles long, and from 2 to 7 miles wide. Two or three miles below Grand Island are the famous Falls of Niagara, which will be 'described in the chapter relating to the State of New York. The river is navi- gable above the falls from a short distance above the rapids to Lake Erie — ^nearly 20 miles ; and from its mouth to Lewiston, 7 miles. It is spanned by two fine suspension bridges. On the 10th of September 1813, Commodore Oliver /N. Perry, in command of a small American squadron, defeated a British fleet of superior force near Put-in-bay, a harbor among the Bass Islands, near the western end of the lake. This victory completely destroyed the British power along the shores of Michigan. 58 ,TIIE GREAT REPUBLIC. LAKE ONTARIO Is the smallest and most easterly of the five great lakes of America, and is situated between latitude 43° 10' and 44° 10' N., and between longitude 7G° and 80° W. It runs nearly due east and west, and divides the State of New York on the south from Canada on the north. It is 190 miles long, and its greatest breadth is 55 miles. It covers an area of 5400 square miles, is about 230 feet above the tide water in the St. Lawrence, and has a depth of about 600 feet. It is navigable throughout its entire extent for ships of the line, and has several fine harbors, the principal of which are Oswego and Sacketfs Harbor, on the New York shore, and Kingston, Toronto, and Hamil- ton, in Canada. The lake is rarely closed with ice to any extent, ex- cept in the shoal water along the shore, and never freezes over. It receives the waters of the upper lakes through the Niagara, and those of the Genesee, Oswego, and Black Rivers, in the United States. It is connected with Lake Erie by the Welland Canal. It contains a number of islands, the largest of which, Amherst Island, is 10 miles long, and 6 miles broad. The waters of the lake are very clear and abound in a variety of fine salmon, trout, bass, and other fish. A number of steamers and other vessels are engaged in the lake trade, Avhich is important, amounting to between $35,000,000 and $40,000,000 per annum. During the war of 1812-15, the United States and Great Britain maintained powerful fleets on Lake Ontario, and in the course of the war several severe engagements occurred on the lake between the op- posing forces. Besides the five great lakes already described, there are a number of others which will be referred to in connection with the States in which they are situated. MOUNTAINS. The principal mountain ranges of the United States are the great Alleghany range on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the west. THE ALLEGHANY OR APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. This is the general term applied to the vast system of mountains in the southeastern part of North America, extending from Maine to the northern part of Alabama, pursuing in their course a general southwestward direction. As the range passes through different THE UNITED STATES. 59 ALLEGHANY MOUNTAINS. States, it is called by different names. The distance of this chain from the sea varies along its course. In New Hampshire, near its northern termination, it is less than 100 miles from the ocean, and at its southern end the distance from the sea is 300 miles. In New England and New York the chain is broken and irregular, some of its ranges running almost north and south, but in the States south of New York, the ranges are very continuous, and run for the most part parallel to the main ridge. In common usage, the term Alleghany Mountains applies almost exclusively to that portion of the range lying in and south of the State of Pennsylvania. The White Moun- tains of New Hampshire, and the Adirondacks of New York, are considered outliers of this great chain, as are also the Catskills, of the latter State. The entire length of the main range, not counting its lateral groups, is 1300 miles. Its extreme width, Avhich occurs in Pennsylvania and Maryland, about half way in its length, is 100 miles. The highest summits of the Appalachian chain are Mount Mitchell, in North Carolina, 6470 feet, Mount Washington, in New Hampshire, 6226 feet, and Mount Marcy, in New York, 5467 feet, above the level of the sea. The entire range is rich in the most interesting geological fo 'ic.- 60 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tions. Nearly all the minerals known to the Continent are found in these mountains. The scenery is grand, and the atmosphere pure and invigorating. Numerous railroads cross the range, or pierce it with their tunnels. The great western range is known as THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. These are a continuation northward of the Cordilleras of Central America and IMexico. They enter the United States at the southern extremity of New Mexico and Arizona Territories, near latitude 31° 30' N., and pass up the entire western side of the Republic, into British America. They are divided into several ranges, and cover an area 1000 miles wide from east to west. The most easterly range extends through New Mexico, Colorado, Myoming, and IMontana Territories, and forms the boundary between AVyoming and Idaho, and Idaho and Montana. It includes the Spa:n- ish Peaks, Pike’s Peak, and the AViud River Mountains, the last of which contain Fremont’s Peak, 13,570 feet high. West of this great range is a smaller one, called the AA'^ahsatch Mountains, lying south of the Great Salt Lake. These mountains, under other names, pass northward, to the east of Salt Lake. In Utah they cover a wide district, and their ridges spread out in various directions. The ridge known as the Uintah Mountains extends east and west. The western division of the Rocky Mountains enters the State of California from the Peninsula of Old California, and soon breaks into two ranges, the lowest of which, known as the Coast Range, runs parallel to the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of from 10 to 50 miles from the sea until the northern part of California is reached, when it rejoins the higher range, which is called the Sierra Nevada, which runs parallel to the Coast Range, at a distance of 160 miles from the sea. From the point of the reunion of its branches the range pursues its way northward into British America, the two ridges being again divided in Oregon and AYashington Territory, the lesser retaining its own name, and the Sierra Nevada being styled the Cascade Range. The summits of the Sierra Nevada are generally above the line of perpetual snow, while the Coast Range has an average height of from 2000 to 3000 feet. Several of its peaks, however, rise to more than double that altitude. Mount Ripley is 7500 feet, and Mount St. John 8000 feet high. Mount Linn is still higher, but its exact altitude has not yet been ascertained. Mount Shasta, at the point of the union of the two ranges in Northern California, is 14,440 feet high. THE UNITED STATES. 61 « r.OCKY MOUNTAINS. Between the highest ridge of the Bocky Mountains on the east, and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range on the west, is a vast region of table land, which in 'its widest part extends through fourteen de- grees of longitude ; that is about 700 miles from east to west. Humboldt, in his C4spects of Nature,^ observes that the Rocky Mountains, be- tween 37° and 43°, present lofty plains of an extent hardly met with in any other part of the globe ; having a breadth from east to west twice as great as the plateaus of Mexico. In the western part of the great central plateaus above described, lies the Great Basin, otherwise called Fremont^s Basin, from its having been first explored by Colonel Fremont. It is situated between the Sierra Nevada and Wahsatch Mountains, and is bounded on every side with high hills or moun- tains. It is about 500 miles in extent, from east to west, and 350 from north to south. It is known to contain a number of lakes and rivers, none of whose waters ever reach the ocean, being probably taken up by evaporation, or lost in the sand of the more arid districts. As far as known, the lakes of this basin are salt, except Utah Lake. The largest of these, the Great Salt Lake, is filled with a saturated solution of common salt; it has an elevation of 4200 feet above the sea.'' * Lippincott’s Gazetteer. 62 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Owing to the broad base and gentle rise of the Rocky Mountain Range, it is crossed with comparatively little difficulty. Its passes are among the finest on the globe, and will vie in grandeur of scenery with any of those of the old world. We have already spoken of the rivers which rise upon the slopes of this great range, and shall pass them by for the present, to return to them again in other portions of this work. SOIL. The soil of the United States presents almost every variety, from the dry sterile plains in the region of the Great Salt Lake, to the rich alluviums of the Mississippi Valley. It can most conveniently be described by following the seven great divisions indicated by the river system of the country, viz., the St. Lawrence basin, the Atlantic slope, the Mississippi Valley, the Texas slope, the Pacific slope, the inland basin of Utah, sometimes called the Great or Fremont Basin, and the basin of the Red River of the north. 1. The St. Lawrence basin embraces parts of Vermont, Vew York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indi- ana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and all of Michigan ; it is an elevated and fertile plain, generally well wooded. 2. The Atlantic slope includes all Yew England except a part of Vermont; all of Yew Jersey, Delaware, the District of Columbia, South Carolina, and Florida ; and portions of Yew York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Vir- ginia, Yortli Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It may be subdivided into two regions, a Y. E. section and a S. W. section, separated by the Hudson River. The former is hilly, and generally better adapted to grazing than tillage, though some parts of it are naturally fertile, and a large proportion is carefully cultivated. The S. W. section may be again divided into a coast belt from 30 to 150 miles in width, running from Long Island Sound to the mouth of the Mississippi, and including the whole peninsula of Florida; and an inland slope from the mountains towards this coast belt. The former, as far south as the Roanoke River, is sandy and not naturally fertile, though capable of being made highly productive ; from the Roanoke to the Mississippi it is generally swampy, with sandy tracts here and there, and a considerable portion of rich alluvial soil. The inland slope is one of the finest districts in the United States, the soil con- sisting for the most part of alluvium from the mountains and the de- composed primitive rocks which underlie the surface. 3. The Mis- sissippi Valley occupies more than two-fifths of the area of the PLOIUJHING A WESTERN RRATRTE. THE UNITED STATES. 63 Hepublic, and extends from the Alleghany to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to British North America, thus includ- ing parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and all of Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas, and the Territories north of Nebraska and east of the moun- tains. It is for the most part a prairie country, of fertility unsur- passed by any region on the globe, except perhaps the Valley of the Amazon. The ground in many places is covered with mould to the depth of several feet, in some instances to the depth of 25 feet. The northwest part of the valley, however, offers a strong contrast to the remainder. There is a desert plateau 200 to 400 miles wide, lying at the base of the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation 2000 to 5000 feet above the sea, part of it incapable of cultivation on account of the deficiency of rain and lack of means of irrigation, and part naturally sterile. 4. The Texas slope includes the southwestern country of the Mississippi Valley, drained by rivers which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and embracing nearly all of Texas, and portions of Louisiana and New Mexico. It may be divided into three regions : a coast belt from 30 to 60 miles wide, low, level, and very fertile, especially in the river bottoms ; a rich, rolling prairie, extending from the coast belt about 150 or 200 miles inland, and admirably suited for grazing; and a lofty table-land in the northwest, utterly destitute of trees, scantily supplied with grass, and during a part of the year parched with complete drought. Almost the only arable land in this section is found in the valleys of the Rio Grande and a few other streams. 5. The Pacific slope, embracing the greater part of California, Oregon, and Washington Territory, and parts of New Mexico and Utah,* is generally sterile. That part, however, between the Coast Range and the ocean, and the valleys between the Coast Range, and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, are very fertile, and the same may be said of a few valleys and slopes among the Wahsatch and Rocky Moun- tains, though these are better adapted to pasturage than to anything else. 6. The great inland basin of Utah, which includes besides Utah parts of New Mexico, California, Oregon, and Washington, is probably the most desolate portion of the United States. It abounds * To this add a part of Colorado, and all of Nevada and Idaho, formerly included in Oregon, and in Utah and Washington Territories. 64 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in salt lakes, and there are only a few valleys where the soil acquires by irrigation enough fertility to afford a support for man. 7. That portion of the basin of the Red River of the north which belongs to the United States is confined to the small tract in the northern part of Dacotah and Minnesota ; it contains some very productive lands, especially in the river bottoms.’’ * CLIMATE. The climate of the United States is varied. It could not possibly be uniform in a country presenting such a wide diversity of physical features in its various parts. In Florida, the thermometer does not vary over twelve degrees during the year, but in the remainder of the country the climate is exceedingly variable, and the changes are sudden and severe, often ranging over thirty degrees in the course of a few hours. Alternations from rain to drought are also as common and severe as those from heat to -cold and from cold to heat. The summers are ahvays hot. The thermometer frequently ranges as high as 110° F. In the North, however, the hot weather does not con- tinue in full vigor for more than a few days at a time,' and in the South, the heat is seldom so extreme, though it continues for a longer - time. California has a climate as mild as that of Italy, but the North-Eastern States are swept by the chill winds from the Atlantic and the ice fields of British America. The great lakes mitigate to a considerable extent the temperature of the country around them. A similar effect is produced upon the temperature of their surrounding regions by the elevated plains of New Mexico, Utah, and Oregon. Tlie following table shows the average temperature of each of the seasons of the year on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in the interior : Place of Observation. Latitude. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. Year. Fortre.ss Monroe (near Norfolk, Ya.) Fort Columbus (New York Harbor) Fort Sullivan ("Eastport, Maine) St. Louis, Missouri Chica°:o, Illinois Fort Ripley, Minnesota Monterey, Califirnia 37° 40° 42' 440 15 / 38° 40' 41° 52' 46° 19' 36° 36' 37'^ 48' 46° 11' 56-870 48-74° 40-15° 54-15° 44-90° 39-33° 53- 99° 54- 41° 51-16° 76-57° 72-10° 60- 50° 76-19° 67-33° 64-94° 58-64° 57-33° 61- 58° 61-68° 54- 55° 47- 52° 55- 44° 48- 85° 42-91° 57-29° 56- 83° 53-76° 40-45° 31- 38° 23-90° 32- 27° 25-90° 10 - 01 ° 51-22° 50-86° 42-43° 58-89° 51- 69° 43-02° 54- 51° 46-75° 39-30° 55- 29° 54-88° 52- 23° San Francisco, California t Astoria, Oregon * Appleton’s Cyclopaedia, vol. xv. p. 716. f Id. p. 717. THE UNITED STATES. 65 Hain is abundant in nearly all parts of the Union, and is distributed over the country in a very nearly equal degree throughout the year. In the Atlantic States south of Washington City, the fall is less regu- lar than in the States north of the Capital, but is more plentiful than in the latter, and occurs more frequently in summer than in winter. On the Pacific coast, the fall of rain is periodical, occurring chiefly in the winter and spring, and south of the fortieth parallel of North latitude, in the autumn also. Very little rain falls between the Cascade Range and the one-hundredth meridian of West longitude. When rain does visit this region, it comes in violent showers, which are especially severe in the mountains. The annual fall in the desert region through which the Colorado flows, is estimated at 3 inches; in the great plain south of the Columbia River, 10 inches; in the desert east of the Rocky Mountains, from 15 to 20 inches. Scarcely any of this falls in the summer.* , Snow falls in the Northern States to a considerable depth. In the Lake Superior country, more or less snow falls every day during the winter, and remains on the ground until the spring. It is compara- tively rare south of the James River, in Virginia, and does not remain on the ground very long. In the Gulf States, it is scarcely ever seen except in the extreme northern portion. The most dangerous local diseases, of the New England and Middle States, are pulmonary complaints; of the Southern States, bilious fevers, and yellow fever along the Gulf coast; of the Western States, intermittent and bilious fevers, and dysentery. The ^Uever and ague’’ prevails chiefly in new regions, and disappears as they become thickly settled. The following table, taken from the eighth census of. the United States, will show the ratio of mortality in each State, for the year end- ing June 1st, 1860 : * Appleton’s Cyclopsedia. CG THE GREAT KEPURLIC, States and Teukitokies. Alabiimii Arkuii8!»3 Ciilifornia Connecticut Delaware Florida Oeorsiia Illinois *. Indiana Kansas Kentucky Kouisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri New llatnpshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Khode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas A'erniont Virginia “Wisconsin Colorado Dacotah Nebraska Nevada New Mexico Utah “Washington District of Columbia. Total, United States Annuiil Deaths. Population to ouo death. Deaths. Per cent. 12,759 74 1-34 8,SS5 48 2-06 3,704 101 0-99 f),13S 74 1-35 1,24G 89 1-13 1,7(U 78 1-28 12,81() 31 1-23 10,299 87 1-14 15,325 87 1-15 7,259 92 1-09 . 1,443 73 1-.37 1G,4GG 69 1-45 12,234 57 1-7G 7,G14 81 1-23 7,370 92 1-09 21,303 57 1.76 7,390 100 1-CO 1,103 153 0-65 12,213 64 1-57 17,652 66 1-52 4,469 72 1-39 7,525 83 1-14 46,831 82 1-22 11,602 34 119 24,724 93 1-07 237 218 0-46 30,214 95 1-OG 2,479 69 1-44 9,745 71 1-41 15,153 72 1-39 9,377 63 1-58 3,355 92 1-08 22,472 70 1-43 7,141 107 0-93 'i 4 381 75 1-34 1,:')05 7’i '"l’42 374 106 0-94 50 228 0--14 1,285 58 1-72 392,321 79 1-27 From this table^ it will be seen that ^yasllington Territoiy is the first in point of healthfnlness, Oregon second, Minnesota third, Wis- consin fourth, Utah fifth, California sixth, Massachusetts twenty-ninth, and Arkansas thirtieth. AIIXERAL WEALTH. The mineral productions of the LTnited States are varied and ex- tensive. Coal exists in all the States except Maine, ATrmont, Kew Hampshire, Xew Jersey, Delaware, South Carolina, Mississij^pi, and AVisconsin. Three distinct qualities are found — anthracite, bitumi- nous and semi-bituminous. In 1860, the production amounted to — Of anthracite 9,393,332 tons. Of hitnminoiis 5,775,077 “ Total 15,173,409 “ There are valuable and extensive beds of marl in Alaine, New Jer- sey, Maryland, A'irginia, and several other States. Salt springs, some THE UNITED STATES. 67 of them of very great strength and value, are found in New York, Michigan, Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas. Nitrates of soda and potassa are found in the caves of Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas, while the plains of the great American desert and the eastern slopes of the Kocky Mountains furnish considerable quantities of nitrate and carbonate of soda. Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is found in Maine, Maryland, and Texas, and in portions of New Mexico and Arizona. Marble, of every variety required for building, exists in nearly all the States. In those bordering on the Mississippi, a fine, compact car- bonate of lime supplies its place. Iron exists in every State and Ter- ritory, and in every form known, from the bog ore, which contains about 20 per cent, of iron, to the pure metal. In the year 1860, the total product of iron ore taken from the mines was estimated at 2,514,282 tons. Of this amount, Pennsylvania produced 1,706,476 tons. There are small quantities of lead in a large number of the States ; but Missouri, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, alone, contain the great lead deposits of the country. An incomplete return for 1860, places the value of the lead production of the Union at §977,281. The great copper region of the Union lies along the shores of Lake Superior, but the metal has been found in considerable quan- tities in Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee. The ore found in the Lake Superior region, yields from 71 to 90 per cent, of pure copper. The total product for 1860 was 14,432 tons, valued at §3,316,516. Zinc is found in Pennsyl- vania and New Jersey — the yield in the former State, in 1860, being 11,800 tons, valued at §72,600. Tin is found in Mai^e, to some ex- tent, and also in California. Silver is found in connection with almost all the deposits of lead and copper ; and in Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico, extensive veins of a fine quality exist. These are being well worked, but at present there is no accurate return of the total products of the mines. Silver also exists in California, North Carolina and Colorado. Small C[uantities of gold exist in Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Alabama, and Tennessee. The gold veins are more im- portant in Virginia and Georgia, which formerly furnished the greater part of the gold found in the Lmited States. The mines of the At- lantic States, however, are comparatively neglected at present for those of the Pacific States. Immense deposits of gold exist in California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Dacotah. Platinum and mercury are also found in California — the former in small quantities, but the yield of the latter is so great as to 68 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. almost supply the demand for it for mining purposes. Osmium and iridium have been discovered in Oregon. They are used in manufiic* turing gold pens. Cobalt is found in North Carolina and Missouri. Pennsylvania, in 1860, yielded 2348 tons of nickel. Chromium ex- ists in Vermont, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Mary- land ; and Vermont, IMassacliusetts, Pennsylvania, and South Caro- lina supply considerable quantities of manganese. • PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. The native vegetation of the United States is too vast and varied to admit of a description here. We can only say that it covers a wide range of plants and trees, from the giant trees of California to the tiniest flower that blooms on the hill side. Nearly all the prin- cipal productions of the frigid, temperate and torrid zones are found within the limits of the Republic. None of the great staples of food are natives of the country, but have been brought from other lands. It must be admitted, however, that they have been greatly benefited by the change, and many of them are produced here in finer qualities than in their old homes. Cucumbers, melons, squashes, and all the edible Cucurhitacecc are importations. So are the most of the fruits, especially the apple, pear, plum, quince, and apricot. The edible berries, such as the strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, whortleberry, bilberry, cloudberry, etc., are natives of the soil. Cotton, flax, and hemp are naturalized plants. ANIMALS. The zoology of the United States includes all the animals found on the North American Continent. Of bats, there are three genera and eleven species. The largest of the Sarcophaga or Cay'nivora, is the cougar or catamount, which ranks next to the lion and Bengal tiger in ferocity and strength. This animal is sometimes called the Amer- ican panther, an erroneous appellation, as the panther is not a native of this country. The wild cat or bay lynx, and the Canadian lynx are found. The entire monkey tribe is lacking. There are seven species of the fox — the common red, the cross fox, the black or silver, the prairie, swift, gray, and short-tailed fox. The wolves are divided into two distinct species, the gray wolf of the woods, (divided into the reddish, black, and giant wolf,) a cowardly animal, and the fero- cious prairie wolf, which resembles the jackal of the East. The THE UNITED STATES. 69 . Digitigrada consist of the pine marten or American sable, the Ameri- ^ can fisher, the American ermine, the weasel, and two species of mink. The black, and the grisly bear, the badger, wolverene, skunk, and raccoon are found in various parts of the country. Several varieties of the seal family exist. The deer, the antelope, the Eocky Moun- tain or big horn sheep, also abound. The bison, which is usually but incorrectly called the buffalo, is found in the far West. Nearly all the birds, fish, reptiles, and insects of America are found in the vari- ous parts of the Union. The domestic animals of the United States have been, with one or two exceptions, introduced from Europe. The horse, though not native to this continent, became wild at an early period, and now roams in large herds in the plains of Texas, but is domesticated with- out great difficulty. There have been at different times stocks intro- duced from England, Erance, Spain, and some from Morocco and Arabia ; much attention has been paid to the breeding of these ani- mals, and some of them have not been surpassed in speed or other good points. The asses are mainly from Spain and Malta; the cattle from Great Britain ; the goats from the south of Europe, though some efforts have been made to introduce Asiatic species ; and the sheep from the Southdown, Saxon, and Spanish Merino breeds. The swine are of various stocks; one breed, common in Central and Western Virginia and other mountainous districts, is tall, long, and gaunt, and of ferocious nature and uncertain origin ; but the most common breeds are the Berkshire (English) and Chinese, and crosses upon these. Our domestic dogs and cats are, with few exceptions, of European origin. The brown or Norway rat was an importation from the country Avhose name it bears, but has now been nearly de- stroyed by a more powerful and ferocious black rat, said to be from the south of Europe. Efforts have been made, but with no very satisfactory result, to introduce the llama of South America into our mountainous districts. The attempt to acclimate the Bactrian camel in Texas and California, gives promise of greater success.’^ * CHAEACTERISTICS OF POPULATION. The people of the United States consist of representatives of every nation in Europe, and of many in Asia and Africa. For a long time after the Revolution the characteristics impressed upon certain parts * Appleton’s Cyclopaedia, vol. xv. p. 726. 70 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of the country by the original settlers remained in their full force with their descendants, but at present the rush of emigration has been so great from all parts of Euroj>e, that these have been either very much wealvened or entirely destroyed. The Xew England States were originally settled by the Puritans, and to the present day still retain many of the strongest of the pecu- liarities of their forefathers. The gradual but steady increase of their Irish population is working great changes, however, in these States. The city of Boston is being especially affected in this manner. New York was settled by emigrants from Holland, and though the eastern portion of tlie State has scarcely any traces of its origin left, the inte- rior possesses still many communities, which not only retain very many of the customs and characteristics of the old settlers, but in which, until a very recent period, the Dutch language was spoken to a considerable extent by those born on the soil. Maryland was settled by Catholics, who have not yet lost their controlling influence in the State. Delaware and New Jersey were settled by the Swedes. Pennsylvania was colonized by English Quakers, who were followed by many German families. The descendants of these classes still control the State — the Quakers, as of old, living in the eastern, and the Germans in the south'western, western, and central portions. Virginia was settled by the English, who were followed by many French Huguenots and Germans. These settled in three distinct parts of the State — the first settlers along the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, the French along the Upper James, above the falls, and the Germans in the rich valley of the Shenandoah. These dis- tinctions were strongly preserved as late as the period of the rebel- lion. North Carolina was settled by non-conformists from Virginia. South Carolina, by English Churchmen and French Huguenots, who had not lost the control of the State at the time of the rebellion. Georgia by English prisoners for debt, followed by other classes from the mother country. Louisiana was settled by the French, and was inhabited chiefly by them when purchased from the French crown. Texas and California were originally Spanish, and, to a great extent, are still so. The latter State has a strong Chinese element in it. Florida was originally Spanish, and still retains its original character- istics along the Gulf Coast. The other States and the Territories Avere settled by adventurers from the older portions of the country, and by emigrants from Europe, who still continue to flock to our shores in great numbers. The following tables will show the number THE UNITED STATES, n of arrivals of emigrants in this country for a period of fifty-one years, or from January 1st, 1820, to September 30th, 1870, their national- ities and destinations : Wholly or mainly of English Speech. England ^ 501,316 Ireland 1,406,030 Scotland 82,403 Wales 12,213 Other Great Britain 1,824,078 British America 271,185 Australia 246 Azores 6,636 Bermudas 61 St. Helena 33 Cape of Good Hope 88 New Zealand 17 Sandwich Islands 35 Malta 127 Jamaica 85 Total English speech ...4,104,553 Wholly or mainly of Germanic and Scandinavian Speech. Germany 2,250,822 Prussia 100,983 Austria 7,904 Sweden and Norway 151,104 Denmark 23,221 Holland 30,905 Belgium 16,850 Switzerland 61,269 Iceland 11 Total Germanic 2,643,069 Whofiy or mainly of Slavic Races. Russia 2,930 Poland 3,955 Hungary 488 Total Slavic 7,373 Wholly or mainly French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian. France 245,147 Spain 2.3,096 Portugal 4,416 Italy 23,387 Sardinia 2,103 Mexico 20,039 Central America 1,067 Guiana 53 Venezuela 40 Peru 36 Chili 28 Brazil 45 Buenos Ayres 7 Bolivia 3 New Granada 2 Paraguay 1 Other South America...... 7,407 Cuba 3,960 Hayti 81 Porto Rico 50 Other West Indies 45,458 Cape de Verdes * 71 Madeira 313 Canaries 290 Miquelon 3 Corsica H Sicily 675 Total French, etc 377,889 Wholly or mainly of Asiatic Races. China 108,610 Japan 215 India 178 Arabia 33 Asia (general) 24 East India Islands 79 Society Islands 7 Pacific Islands 5 Total Asiatic 109,160 Wholly or mainly of African Na- tions, with Turkey and Greece. Liberia 64 Kgypt 20 Abyssinia J> Africa (general) 471 Barbary States 11 Turkey 299 Greece 195 Total, Africa, etc 1,06^ From countries not speci- fied 205,807 Aggregate since 1820 7,448,925 NUMBER OF EMIGRANTS IN EACH TEAR. 1820 8,385 1821 9,130 18-22 6,911 1823 6,354 1824 7,912 1825 10,199 1826 10,837 1827 18,875 1828 27,382 1829 22,520 1830 23,322 1831 22,633 1832 60,482 1833 58,640 1834 65,365 1835 45,374 1836 76,242 1837 79,340 1838 38,914 1839 68,072 1840 84,006 1841 80,289 1842 104,565 1843 52,496 1844 78,615 1845 114,371 1846 154,416 1847 234,968 1848 226,527 1849 1850 369,963 1851 379,466 1852 371,603 1853 368,645 1854 427,833 1855 200,877 1856 1857 251,306 1858 123,126 1859 .... 121,282 1860 .... 153,640 1861 .... 91,920 1862 .... 91,987 1863 .... 176,-282 1864 ... 193,418 1865 .... 248,120 1866 ... 318,554 1867 .... 298,358 1868 ... 297,215 1869 .... 385,287 1870 (9 mos.) .... 285,422 Total ....7,448,925 AVOWED DESTINATION OF EMIGRANTS LANDED AT CASTLE GARDEN, FROM AUGUST!, 1855, TO JANUARY!, 1870, BEING 2,340,928 PASSENGERS. New York and undecided.. 972,267 Eastern Slates. Maine 4,013 New Hampshire 2,859 Vermont 4.405 Massachusetts 111.129 Rhode Island 21,430 Connecticut 39,169 Total Eastern States.... 183,005 Central States. New Jersey 63,109 Pennsylvania 224,880 Maryland 18,033 Delaware 2,011 District of Columbia 9,129 Total Central States 317,162 Northwestern States. Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas 120,428 52,205 29,576 213,315 121,660 29,360 44,286 44,309 5,052 Nebraska 4,198 Total Northwest. States. "^4,389 Pacific States, and Territm'ies. Nevada 80 California 22,823 Oregon 189 W-ashington Territory 6 Colorado 170 New Mexico 50 Idaho 32 ^ Dacotah 49 Montana 33 Utah 23,735 Wyoming 5 Total Pacific States 47,172 Southeastern States. Virginia 8,235 West Virginia 172 North Carolina 784 South Carolina 1,854 Georgia 1,623 Florida 199 Alabama 577 Total Southeast. States. 13,444 72 THE GREAT REPURLIC. AVOWED DESTINATION OF EMIGRANTS Southwestern States. Missouri 44,309 Other Places. Canada 50,828 Australia Bermuda rr 2 Keutuckv 11,057 New Brunswick 1,028 Sandwich Islands ” 1 Tennessee 4,171 New Dominion 816 Bussian America 1 Arkansas 302 60.3 South America 556 British Columbia 4CG Mississippi Cuba 349 Japan 1 Louisiana Texas 4,353 1,522 Mexico West Indie.s 210 141 China Unknown 6 22,035 Total Southwest. States. ~ Central America Vancouver’s Island.... 113 6 Total ~ 76,572 Previous to 1820, no exact account was kept of the arrivals of emi- grants from foreign countries; but as near as can be ascertained, the number was as follows : From 1790 to 1800 “ 1800 “ 1810 “ 1810 “ 1820 Total . . . . . . 50,000 . . . . 70,000 . . - . 114,000 . . . . 234,000 This added to the number of emigrants since 1820, gives a total number of 7,682,925 emigrants since the formation of the Federal Government. During the present year, 1871, the number of arrivals will be unusually large, if #he rate Avhich has marked the first portion of it is continued throughout t!ie year. AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the principal interest of the United States, and is growing m importance^ every year. A brief glance at each of the great staples in detail will be interesting and useful. Maize, or Indian Corn, Maize is the principal production of the United States, and is cultivated in every State and Territory of the Republic. It is best adapted to the soil and climate of the countrv, and furnishes the largest amount of nutritive food. It is generally‘'a sure crop where it is properly cultivated. The method of cultivation is substantially that of the Indians, from whom the white settlers learned it in 1608, in which year they first planted it in the vicinity of Jamestown. At present the yield varies from 20 to 135 bushels to the acre. In 1869, the total product of the country amounted to 874,120,005 bushels. The States which produced the greatest num- ber of bushels that year, stand as follows: Illinois, 121,500,000 bushels; Missouri, 80,500,000 bushels; Ohio, 68,250,000 bushels; Indiana, 73,500,000 bushels; Kentucky, 51,500,000 bushels; Ten- nessee, 47,500,000 bushels; and Iowa, 78,500,000 bushels. The THE UNITED STATES. 73 product of the other States ranged from 200,000 to 30,000,000 bushels. The first was the yield of Oregon, the smallest of all. Wheat. This grain ranks next to Indian Corn in importance, and when the climate and soil are adapted to its growth, is preferred by the American farmer to all others. Considerable care is exercised in its culture, and the greatest ingenuity has been displayed in the effort to improve the means of cultivation, and with best results. The wheat region of the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, is situated between the 30th and 60th parallels of North latitude. On the Pacific coast, however, it extends several degrees farther north. As a general rule the wheat of America, especially that of the great wheat producing States of the Atlantic coast, is superior to any other in the world. At the London Exhibition, wheat from Genesee County, New York, won the prize medal from the Royal Commissioneis. The total yield of wheat for 1869 amounted to 264,146,900 bushels. The product of the principal wheat producing States was as follows: Illinois, 29,200,000 bushels; Wisconsin, 24,000,000 bushels; Iowa, 25,050,000 bushels ; Indiana, 20,600,000 bushels ; Ohio, 20,400,000 bushels; California, 21,000,000 bushels; and Pennsylvania, 16,500,- 000 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Florida, 1300 bushels. Rye is raised in all the States, but principally in the Eastern and Middle States. Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey produce more than half the quantity raised in the whole country. There is a decided increase in the Western States, and in Maryland and Dela- ware. In the New England States it has decreased. The total pro- duct for 1869 was 22,227,000 bushels. Pennsylvania raised 6,250,000 bushels; New York, 4,748,000 bushels; New Jersey, 1,500,000 bushels; and AVisconsin, 1,150,000 bushels. Rarley is grown in the Atlantic States, between the 30th and 50th degrees of North latitude, and on the Pacific coast, between the 20th and 62nd degrees of North latitude. The two-rowed barley is principally cultivated because of the fubess of its grain, and its exemption from smut. It yields from 30 to 50 bushels to the acre, and will average about 50 pounds to the bushel. Very little of it is exported, as nearly the whole crop is used at home for the manufacture of beei, ale, etc. The demand for it is increasing. The crop of 1869 amounted to 28,650,200 bushels, or more than five times the amount produced in 1850. The States yielded as follows : California, 12,- 285,000 bushels; New York, 4,600,000 bushels; Ohio, 2,600,000 bushels; and AVisconsin, 1,500,000 bushels. The smallest yield was that of North Carolina, 3500 bushels. 7-t THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Buckwheat is rai.sctl i)riiicipally in tlie Now England and Middle States. The average yield is from 30 to 45 bushels to the acre, though in some good soils it has yielded as much as 60 bushels. The crop of 1869 amounted to 17,255,500 bushels. Pennsylvania pro- duced 6,500,000 bushels; New York, 5,690,000 bushels ; and Ohio 882.000 bushels. Oats. This grain constitutes one of the most important crops, of the country, and flourishes in sections where the heat or cold is too great for wheat or rye. It is grown principally in the Northern, Middle, and Western States. The crop of 1869 amounted to 298,- 284.000 bushels. New York produced 31,250,000 bushels; Penn- sylvania, 48,000,000 bushels; Ohio, 27,000,000 bushels; Illinois, 35.726.000 bushels; Wisconsin, 22,500,000 bushels; and Iowa, 19,- 000,000 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Florida, 23,000 bushels. Peas and Beans were largely cultivated by the Indians before the settlement of the country by the whites. At present they are grown as a field crop, principally in the Eastern, Middle, and Southern States. The yield averages from 25 to 40 bushels per acre, weighing about 64 pounds per bushel. The crop of 1869 amounted to 15,763,- 444 bushels. Mississippi produced 1,998,896 bushels; Georgia, 1,- 965,214 bushels; North Carolina, 1,932,204 bushels; South Caro- lina, 1,728,074 bushels; and New York, 1,909,339 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Ehode Islalid, 7698 bushels. Rice was first introduced into Virginia by Sir William Berkeley, in 1647; into the Carolinas in 1694; and into Louisiana in 1718. It is confined chiefly to a few of the extreme Southern States, where the climate is favorable to it, and the supply of water plentiful. The yield is usually from 20 to 60 bushels to the acre, weighing from 45 to 48 pounds to the bushel, when cleaned. The yield for 1860 was 187,140,173 pounds. South Carolina produced 119,100,528 pounds ; Georgia, 52,507,652 pounds; Louisiana, 6,455,017 pounds; North Carolina, 7,593,976 pounds; Mississippi, 657,293 pounds; and Ala- bama, 499,559 pounds. It has been grown in Illinois, California, Missouri, Kentucky, New York, and Virginia, though of an inferior quality. Potatoes. The Irish or White Potato ranks next to wheat and corn in the industry of the Bepublic. The yield depends upon the soil and climate, and the manner of cultivation, and varies from 50 to 400 bushels, the average being less than 200 bushels to the acre. It THE UHiTEH STATES. 15 suffers frequently from the “rot.” The crop of 1869 amounted to 133,886,000 bushels. .New York produced 28,600,000 bushels ; Pennsylvania, 15,400,000 bushels; Ohio, 9,600,000 bushels; and hlaine and Illinois, 7,600,000 bushels each; Indiana, 4,750,000 bushels; Massachusetts, 4,300,000 bushels; Michigan, 7,600,000 bushels; New Hampshire, 4,600,000 bushels ; New Jersey, 6,300,000 bushels ; Vermont and Wisconsin, 4,800,000 bushels. Sweet Potatoes. The sweet potato is a native of the East Indies, and was introduced into the Colonies soon after the settlement ofVii- ginia. It is now extensively cultivated in the Southern and Western States. The crop of 1860 amounted to 41,606,302 bushels. Georgia produced 6,608,641 bushels; North Carolina, 6,140,039 bushels; Alabama, 5,420,987 bushels; Mississippi, 4,348,491 bushels; and South Carolina, 4,115,698 bushels. Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, New Jersey, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia each produced over a million of bushels. Hay. The production of hay is confined principally to the Eas- tern, Middle, and Western States, comparatively little being raised in the Southern States. The product of 1869 amounted to 26,420,000 tons. New York produced 4,600,000 tons; Pennsylvania, 2,570,000 tons ; Illinois, 2,800,000 tons ; and Ohio, 2,000,000 tons. Hops.- The hop crop for 1860 amounted to 11,010,012 pounds, and of this the State of New York produced 9,666,642 pounds, or more than five-sevenths of the entire amount produced in the United States. ^ ' Tobacco is indigenous to Central America, and was cultivated in various parts of the Continent before the discovery by Europeans. Columbus, in 1492, was offered a cigar by an Indian Chief on the Island of Cuba. In 1585, Sir Eichard Greenville found it and saw it smoked in Virginia; and in 1616, it was extensively cultivated by the Colonists in that province. It is cultivated to a greater or less extent in nearly all the States. The crop of 1860 amounted to 429,- 390,771 pounds. Virginia produced 123,967,757 pounds ; Kentucky, 108,102,433 pounds; Tennessee, 38,931,277 pounds; Maryland, 38,- 410,965 pounds; North Carolina, 32,853,250 pounds; Ohio, 25,528,- 972 pounds; Missouri, 25,086,196 pounds; and Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania each produced more than 3,000,000 pounds. The rebellion almost destroyed the cultivation of tobacco in the Southern States, and it has tiot yet been fully resumed. 7C THK GRKAT RErUBLIC. A WESTERIT HOMESTEAD. Sugar and Molasses. The sugar-cane is said to have been intro- duced into Florida, Louisiana, and Texas at the period of their first settlement by the French and Spaniards. It does not thrive beyond the 33d degree of North latitude, or the 36th of South latitude. A very small quantity (283 hhds. in 1860) was raised in the warmest section of Wisconsin. The crop of 1860 amounted to 302,205 hogsheads of one thousand pounds each, of which Louisiana produced 297,816 hhds. In the same year the amount of cane molasses manufactured was 16,337,080 gallons. Louisiana produced 16,536,167 gallons. About the year 1858, a hardier species called the Sorghum, or Chi- nese sugar-cane, adapted to the climate of nearly all the States, was introduced. It has since been extensively cultivated, and is used ex- clusively for the manufacture of molasses, as it will not produce sugar. In 1860, while it was yet new to our people, the yield of Sorghum molasses was 7,235,025 gallons. Iowa produced 1,993,474 gallons. ^ In the same year, 38,863,884 pounds of maple sugar were produced m the United States, and 1,944,594 gallons of maple molasses. Of maple sugar, New York produced 10,816,458 pounds; Vermont, THE UNITED STATES. II 9,819,939 pounds; Ohio, 3,323,942 pounds; and Indiana, Massachu- setts, Michigan, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, each over a million. Of maple molasses, Ohio produced 392,932 gallons; Michigan, 384,521 gallons ; and Indiana, 203,028 gallons. Butter-and Cheese. ' The total product of butter for 1869 was 470,- 536,468 pounds. Of this amount. New York produced 103,097,280 pounds; Pennsylvania, 58,653,511 pounds; Ohio, 48,543,162 pounds; Illinois, 28,052,561 pounds; Indiana, 18,306,651 pounds; and Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, Tennessee, Ver- mont, Virginia, and Wisconsin, each produced more than 11,000,000 pounds. ^ The amount of cheese produced in the same year was 114,154,211 pounds. New York produced 48,648,289 pounds, and Ohio, 21,618,- 893 pounds. Wine. The culture of the vine has not yet attained the importance which the future holds out to it, and the returns of 1860 afford but an indifferent +-st of the wine producing capacity of the United States. The yield in ISGff was 1,860,008 gallons, a gain of 1,638,759 gallons over the vintage of 1850. Of this, the State of Ohio pro- duced 562,640 gallons; California, 494,516 gallons; Indiana, 88,275 gallons; New York, 61,404 gallons; North Carolina, 54,064 gallons; Illinois, 47,093 gallons; Connecticut, 46,783 gallons ; and Virginia, 40,508 gallons. The vine is cultivated in nearly all the States, but the great grape regions of the country are the Lower Ohio Valley, and the Valleys of the Pacific coast. Cotton. At the outbreak of the Kebellion, American Cotton con- trolled the markets of the world, as regards both the quantity and the quality furnished ; but the war, by stopping the production of cotton, by disorganizing the system of labor, and by injuring the plantations in various ways, struck a blow at this branch of our industry, which will damage it for many years to come. Cotton is grown principally in the extreme Southern States. In Virginia and North Carolina it is becoming less important every year. The yield for 1860 amounted .to 5,198,077 bales, of 400 pounds each. This amount was distributed as follows : Bales. Mississippi, Alabama, , Louisiana, Georgia, . Texas, . Arkansas, 1,195,699 997,978 722,218 701,840 405,100 367,485 T8 THE GREAT RErUBLIC. South Carolina, Tennessee, . . North Carolina, Florida, . . . Virginia, . . Kentucky, . . New Mexico, . Missouri, . . Illinois, . . . Bales. 353,413 227,450 145,514 03,322 12,7-27 4,092 1,133 100 6 Total, 5,198,077 The yield for the year ending September 1st, 1870, was 3,154,946 bales, including 90,000 bales manufactured in the South, and not counted in the following statement of the production of each State. Bales. Louisiana, 1,142,097 Alabama, 306,091 ' 22,874 Georgia, 488^204 Texas, 246,284 South Carolina, 246 500 North Carolina 59 0^2 ; ; 202,’898 Tennessee, Arkansas, etc., 359 410 Wool is grown in all the States to a greater or less extent. The j^ield for 1860 was 60,611,343. pounds, of whicli Ohio produced 10,648,161 pounds; New York, 9,454,473 pounds; Michigan and Pennsylvania, each over 4,000,000 pounds; California, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Vermont, and Virginia, each over 2^000,000 pounds ; and Maine, New Hampshire, Tennessee, Texas, and Wisconsin, each over 1,000,000 pounds. Flax and Hemp, Flax is a native of Great Britain, and hemp of India. The second was formerly cultivated in this country to a greater extent than at present, having been to some degree superseded by the Southern cotton. In 1860 the yield of flax was 3,783,079 pounds— not quite half the amount grown in 1850. New York produced the largest amount, 1,514,476 pounds. In the same year 611,927 bushels of flax-seed were produced, of which Ohio grew 250,768 bushels. Of hemp, 104,590 tons were grown in 1860. Kentucky produced 39,414 tons; New York, 35,821 tons; and Missouri 19,268 tons. Silh. Silk is said to be a native of Asia. Its production was introduced into the colony of Virginia in 1622, into Louisiana in 1718, into Georgia in 1732, and into Connecticut in 1760. The total THE UNITED STATES. 19 product of silk cocoons in 1860, was 6562 pounds, or 4281 pounds less than the yield of 1850. Ohio produced 2166 pounds, and Mich- igan 1043 pounds. Orchard Products. The value of the orchard crop of 1860 amounted to 819,759,361. It was distributed amongst the leading States as follows : New York, 83,726,380 ; Ohio, 81,858,673 ; Penn- sylvania, 81,479,9-38 ; Indiana, 81,212,142; Illinois, 81,14-5,936. ' MarJxt Garden Productions. These, in 1860, amounted to ST5,- 641,027, distributed among the principal States as follows : New York, 8-3,381,696; New Jersey, 81,542,155; Pennsylvania, 81,384,- 970; Massachu-setts, 81,397,62-3; California, 81,074,143. Clover and Grass Seed. The yield of clover seed for 1860 was 929,010 bushels, or double the crop of 1850. Pennsylvania produced 274,363 bushels; Ohio, 216,545 bushels ; and New York, 106,933 -bushels. . The yield of grass-seed for the same year was 900,386 bushels, of which Illinois produced 202,809 bushels ‘ and Missouri, 85,410 bushels. Beeswax and Honey. In 1860, 1,357,864 pounds of beeswax were produced in the United States. Ohio produced 170,495 pounds; and Alabama -153,018 pounds. In the same year, 25,028,991 pounds of honey were produced. New York yielded 2,369,751 pounds ; North Carolina 2,055,969 pounds ; and Alabama, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and A irginia, each over 1,000,000 pounds. Value of Home-3Iade Manufactures. The total value of home- made manufactures in the United States, in 1860, amounted to $24,- 358,222. Tennessee produced $3,166,195 of this, and Kentucky, $2,095,578. The Value of Slaughtered Animals, in 1860, was $212,871,653. NewAMrk returned $15,841,403 of this amount, and Illinois ’$15,- 159,343. Cash Value of Farms. In 1860, the cash value of farming lands in the United States amounted to $6,650,872,507. Of this amount. New York possessed $803,343,593 ; and Ohio $666,564,171. In the same year the farming implements and machiner)- in the Union were valued at $247,027,496. Those of New Aork were valued at $29,166,565, and those of Pennsylvania at $22,442, 842. so THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MANUFACTURES. The three great staple maiiiiflietures of the United States are cottons, M'oollens, and iron. These arc manufactured in twenty-five of tlic States, but principally in Massachusetts, New Ham|)shirc, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Connecticut and New York. The cotton manu- factures of the LTnited States rank next to those of Great Britain. The woollen manuflicturcs are of a more recent date than cither of the others, but are growing in importance. In 1860, there were 140,433 establishments in the Union engaged in manufactures, mining and the mechanic arts. The capital invested in them amounted to Jl,009 - 855,715. They consumed $1,031,605,092 worth of raw material, and employed 1,311,246 hands, of which 1,040,349 were males, and 270,897 females. The annual cost of the labor employed by them was $378,878,966, and the annual value of their products amounted to $1,885,861,679. The cotton manuflictures of the United States, in 1860, employed a capital of $99,551,465, in operating 915 establishments. They con- sumed $55,994,735 worth of raw material. They paid annually $23,360,168 for labor, employed H8,920 hands, of whom 45,315 were males, and 75,605 females. They received annually for their products the sum of $115,237,926. The woollen manufactures in the same year employed a capital of $35,520,527, in operating 1909 establishments. They employed 48,900 hands, of whom 28,780 were males, and 20,120 were females. They consumed $40,461,300 worth of raw material ; paid $10,937,877 for labor; and received $68,865,963 for their })roducts. The iron manufactures, including pig, cast, and wrought iron, em- ployed, in 1860, a capital of $74,579,667, and 68,108 hands. They consumed $50,218,648 worth of raw material in the manufacture of pig iron, castings, bar iron, forged iron, etc., and received for their ])roducts the sum of $96,450,744. The other more important manufactures amounted in value, during the year 1860, to the following sums : Leather $ 63,091,651 Sawed and Planed Lumber 93,651,000 Flour 220,952,000 Salt 2,265,000 Malt Liquors 17,976,000 Spirituous Liquors 23,535,000 81 THE UNITED STATES. In the year 1860, the product of fisheries was valued at $12,- 924 092. During the same year, 110 ships and harks, 36 brig.s, 372 schooners, 289 sloops and canal boats, and 264 steamers were built in the United States, making a total of 1071 vessels, with a total capacity of 212,- 892 tons. COMMERCE. From partial returns for the year ending June 30th, 1861, we find that the entrances and clearances at the ports of the United States were as follows: ENTRANCES. A31EEICAN VESSELS. FOREIGN VESSELS. No. Ton!?. ' No. Tons. ; No. Tons. 11,251 5,023,917 , ~~~\ 10,709 2.217,5.54 21,690 7,241,471 CLEARANCE.S. AMERICAN VESSELS. FOREIGN VESSELS. TOTAL. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. j Tons. 11,079 4,889,313 i 10, .58 6 ■ j 2,262,042 21,665 7,1.51,355 The total value of domestic products exported from the United States to foreign countries, in 1869, was §373,189,274. The value of foreign goods exported from the United States to foreign countries, in 1860° was $26,933,022. The total value of imports from foreign countries in the same year was $362,166,254. Total Imports in 1869 Total Exports “ “ $463,461,427 394,644,335 Excess of Imports over Exports . $68,817,092 IXTERXAL IMPROYEMEXTS. For many years after the States were well settled by the whites, the thoroughfares were, as is the case in all sparsely populated countries, in such a wretched condition that they could scarcely be called roads at all. It was not until some years after the clo.se of the war for in- dependence that a proper degree of attention was paid to them. Then 6 82 TIIK GREAT KErUBLIC. ox nUDSOX river — siiowixg the steaimboat, telegraph^ AXD RAILROAD. it was held to be the duty of the General Government to provide the great routes of travel leading to the remote parts of the country^ while the States themselv^es ought to look after their local highways. The first great public work constructed in America was the turn- pike from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, which was com- pleted near the close of the last century, and was for a long time the great highway across the Alleghany Mountains. This was followed by the ^s'ational Koad, from Washington city to St. Louis, constructed by the U. S. Engineer Corps, at the expense of the General Govern- ment, and by the road from Bangor to Hamilton, Maine, also built by the Government. The National Eoad, one of the best of its kind in the world, was carried successfully over the mountains, across the Ohio, via Wheeling and Cincinnati, and completed as far as the State of Illinois ; but the rapid growth of railroads has rendered it so comparatively useless that it will hardly be completed to St. Louis. Several other fine roads were constructed by the General Government i:i various parts of the country. THE UNITED STATES. 83 At the same time that these turnpikes were engaging the attention of the country, the States were urgently entreated to inaugurate a sys- tem of canals, which should provide cheaper and more abundant transportation between the distant parts of the Union. Washington exerted his influence to secure the speedy completion of canals from the’ head of tide water on the James and Potomac Eivers, to the Ohio. He appreciated the great advantages which would have been derived from the prompt completion of these works, and was eager to secure them for the State of Virginia. His plans are remarkable for their wis- dom and their deep insight into the future, and had they been carried out would, beyond all doubt, have made Norfolk, Virginia, the largest and most important city in America. Pennsylvania and Maryland also began at an early day to lay out extensive canal systems, but, thanks to the genius and energy of He Witt Clinton, the State of New York was the first to reach the West with her Erie and Hudson Canal, and thus secured for her great metropolis the immense advantages which have never forsaken it. This canal was opened in 1824. In the West, Ohio and Indiana were the first to construct such works. Since 1850, however, the railroads of the country have rendered the further con- struction of canals unnecessary. In 1860 there were about 5000 miles of canal navigation in the United States. The last, in point of date of construction, but the first in impor- tance, of the public works of the United States, were the railroads. The first railroad in this country was a mere tramway, for the trans- portation of granite, from the quarries at Quincy to the Neponsett Eiver, in Massachusetts, constructed in the year 1826. This was followed by the Mauch Chunk Railway, from the coal mines to the Lehigh River, in Pennsylvania, in 1827. These were mere local works, and of but little importance, except in so far as they helped to demonstrate to the public mind the possibility and usefulness of such enterprises upon a larger scale. Charters for roads of more importance were now obtained in Mas- sachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and South Carolina, whose example was rapidly followed by the other States. In 1828 work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- road, and in 1829 on the South Carolina Railroad — at present two of the finest works in the country. It was not until about the year 1850, however, that our railroad system began to attain anything like its present importance. The fol- lowing table will show the increase in this branch of our industry since 1838 : 84 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Number of u u il u C( u u u u u u u u u u u u u U C( u u miles in 1838 “ “ 1842 “ “ 1844 “ “ 1846 “ “ 1848 “ “ 1850 “ “ 1852 “ “ 1854 “ “ 1856 “ “ 1858 “ “ 1860 “ “ 1865 . 1,843 . 2,167 . 4,863 . 4,285 . 6,491 . 8,827 . 12,841 . 19,195 . 23,724 . 27,158 . 31,185 . 35,935 At present the number of miles in operation is about 40,000. There is a continuous railway connection from Bangor, Maine, to New Orleans, on the Gulf coast, and San Francisco on the Pacific coast. All the prominent cities and towns of the Union are connected by means of railways, and the most distant parts of the country are brought within a few days^ travel of each other. The electro-magnetic telegraph was invented by Professor Morse, about the year 1840, and in 1844 he erected between Washington and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles, the first line ever established in the United States or in the world. This line was extended north- ward, in 1845, through Philadelphia and New York, as far as Boston. The telegraph wires of the United States now form a network over the Republic, and would make a continuous line of more than 60,000 miles. This includes the overland line between the Missouri River and San Francisco, California, and Portland, Oregon. The American wires are also connected with those of Europe by means of the Atlan- tic cables, between New Foundland and Ireland, and France. It is proposed to construct another line from Portland, Oregon, along the west coast of North America to the northern part of Alaska, from which a cable is to be laid, via Kamtchatka, to the mouth of the Amoor River, in Asia,, to connect with a line through Asia to St. Petersburg, in Russia. EDUCATION. The first settlers of the States, with a wise foresight, were prompt to provide for the education of their descendants. Almost their first act was to found a system of common schools, upon which the estab- lishments of the present day are modelled. They also made provision for securing the means of instruction in the higher and nobler branches of learning. William and Mary College, in Virginia, Harvard Col- INDIANS VIEWING THE PACIFIC RAILROAD. ■I ’-Ten-’ 'i.'fr IfUrrV ‘ jm .hW .» 0 - .. • ' : : . .. ♦. > V ,u.,,v. /?' iiv f : ■ ■' •■’■ ' *-M ■» •!'> fUV ' ■ „^v.r.’ f MV -.1 ..li ■ ' • -X 1 .> .^>^,-|^-^« ^ . ■■■ . •,»s{?fyy»1 • : #. . » .X-« ■ ' '"i . 4 T ^ * '^'-f J f MV ' • -' -i.:' ' U'; --.’f^ '.' ;vi, ...» V .- rt'\||l'i ciV..'^v ’ ■ ,v; . -■ ■ •■.•■.N.l't • k' H..« J. ■-..-.C.. 1 - 't*' j a: \>-iv.; 1 >v«jVi |, ^ ' ■ CJ ' ■ 1 • v^' -v) *\r* > a;. .,.*• v>**rv ^ ; .. ■:"-;vrVrr ^-,. i » >-^ 1 A ^ ^rs biC" ^ ^V^«P ^ 4 - 4 ^ ■. -af"”*?.'.'. . . A' ■ /aqa .r . ■; > Mi 1 Ni; / >!?;• i /;V,2.V New London, Conn.. ; Portland, Oreg ) Virginia City, Nev.. , Topeka, Kan 20,500 20,233 28,235 20,080 20,045 20,042 20,031 19,646 19,282 19,256 18,629 18,547 18,404 17,849 17,718 1 7,365 17,225 17,014 16,986 16,653 16,484 16,083 15,863 15,458 15,387 15,357 15,059 14,273 13,818 13,595 13,570 13,446 12,521 12,380 12,241 12,035 . 10,82£ 10,545 10,14t . 9,57f 8,295 . 7,005 . 5,79( 17,603 11,267 10,401 14,620 15,376 13,395 7,429 14,048 13,785 10,904 12,647 7,307 13,401 10,508 ; 10,004 [ 10,065 ) ) lo;ii5 3 2,874 3 3 1850. 12,369 14,326 9,895 9,572 GOVERNMENT. The Government of the United States is a Confederation of the various States, each and all of which have delegated a certain share of their powers to a General Government for their mutual benefit and protection. This General Government is controlled by a written Constitution, which has been ratified by each State, and has thus been made the supreme law of the land. By the terms of this Constitu- tion, all powers not granted by it to the General Government are reserved to the several States and to the people thereof, but in the exercise of the powers delegated by the Constitution, the General Government is independent of and supreme over all the States. The Government of the Republic is divided into three coordinate branches— the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary, 92 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The Executive branch consists of a President and Vice-President, elected for four years by electors chosen by the popular vote in each State. The number of electors chosen in each State is equal to the number of Senators and Representatives from that State at the time of the election. Thus a State having four Representatives in the lower House of Congress, and two Senators in the upper House, is entitled to six electors in an election for President. It is usual for the electors to cast their votes in accordance with the will of the majority of the people of the State, as expressed by the popular vote, but it seems certain that it was the original design of the Constitution that the electors upon being chosen by the people should be free to elect a President of their own choice. A majority of the whole num- ber of electoral votes is necessary to a choice. If no person be chosen, then the names of the three persons receiving the highest number of votes shall be presented to the House of Representatives, which shall proceed to vote by States (each State having but one vote, and a majority of States being necessary to a choice) for President, or Vice- President, as the case may be. In the event of a failure, by both the electors and the House of Representatives, to elect a President before the 4th^ of March, next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President. In case the electors fail to choose a Vice-President, the Senate of the United States shall proceed to choose a Vice-Presi- dent from the two highest numbers on the list, a majority of the whole number being necessary to an election. The President of the United States is the Constitutional Com- mander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He has^ power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment; he makes treaties, with the concurrence of two-thirds of the Senate, nominates the mem- bers of his cabinet, foreign ministers, and other officers of the United States, which nomination must be confirmed by the Senate before the official can enter upon his office, and, by the terms of the Constitu- tion, may, at his pleasure, remove any officer of the Government sub- ject to his nomination. He may be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors, and be removed, if convicted. The articles of impeach- ment must be presented by the House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate, sitting as a high court and presided over by the Chief Justice of the United States. In the event of the death, resignation, or removal of the President, the Vice-President succeeds to his office, and the President pro tempore of the Senate becomes the acting Vice- THE UNITED STATES. 93 President of the United States. It is the duty of the President to execute, or cause to be executed, the laws of the United States as pre- scribed by Congress. The Vice-President is ex-officio President of the Senate, and in case of the death or disability of the President, as explained above, becomes President of the United States. Should he die, resign, or be removed from his office, the President 'pvo tempore of the Senate be- comes the President of the United States. In the event of the dis- ability of all three of the officials named above, the Speaker of the House of Eepresentatives becomes the President of the United States. The President pro tempore of the Senate is usually chosen near the close of each session with a view to the contingency we have men- tioned. The Speaker of the House of Eepresentatives is elected at the beginning of each Congress— that is, every two years. The Legislative branch consists of a Senate and House of Eepre- sentatives, which constitute the Congress of the United States. The Senate is composed of two members from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years, so that one-third of the whole number of Senators shall retire at the end of every second year. A Senator must be at least thirty years of age, and must have been nine years a citizen of the United States. The Senate has power to ratify or reject all treaties between the United States and Foreign Powers, and to confirm or reject nominations to office under the Government submitted to it by the President of the United States. The House of Eepresentatives is composed of Eepresentatives chosen by the people of the States once every two years. A Eepresentative must be at least 25 years of age, have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and a resident of the State from which he is chosen. . Eepresentatives are apportioned among the States according to the number of inhabi- tants, excluding idiots and Indians not taxed. The ratio is changed with the increase of population. The number of Eepresentatives is limited by law to 241, besides delegates from each Territory. Each State, whatever its population, must have at least one Eepresentative. Delegates from the Territories are allowed seats on the floor of the House, and are permitted to participate in the debates, but have no votes. All bills for raising revenue and for taxation must originate in the House of Eepresentatives. The Senate represents the States of the Union in their sovereign capacity (each State being made equal in that body by having two votes), and the House of Eepresentatives the people. 94 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Congress has power to levy and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States, but is required to make all such impositions uniform throughout the United States. It has power to borrow money on the credit of the United States, to make laws for the regulation of the foreign and inter-State trade of the Union, and to regulate the traffic with the Indian tribes; to make all laws respecting the subjects of naturalization and bankruptcies ; to regulate the coinage and value of money, to fix the value of foreign money, and to adjust the stand- ard of weights and measures ; to provide for the punishment of per- sons counterfeiting the money or securities of the United States; to establish post-offices and post-roads ; to regulate the granting of copy- rights and patents ; to regulate the courts of the United States, inferior to the Supreme Court ; to define and punish piracies and offences committed on the high seas ; to declare war, conclude peace, and regu- late all matters appertaining thereto ; to raise an army and navy, and provide for their support ; to call forth the militia when their services are needed, and provide laws for their government while in the ser- vice of the United States ; and to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over all forts, arsenals, and other property of the United States, and over the District of Columbia, in which the seat of government is located. A bill must receive a majority of the votes necessary to form a quorum in each house, and receive the signature of the President of the United States before it can become a law. Should the President object to a bill, or a part of its provisions, he must send it, with his objections in writing, to the house in which it originated, when that house must proceed to reconsider it, and if two-thirds of each house sustain the bill, in spite of his objections, it becomes a law without the approval of the President. If the President does not return a bill in ten days. Sabbaths excluded, it becomes a law without his ap- proval, provided Congress is still in session at the expiration of the ten days ; but if Congress shall adjourn before the ten days have ex- pired, the President may defeat the bill by keeping it over until after the adjournment. This is usually termed a pocket veto.’^ The Judiciary branch of the Government consists of one Supreme Court, 9 Circuit Courts, and 47 District Courts. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal in the Union, and consists of one Chief Justice and 8 Associate Justices, who are appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and re- tain their offices during good behavior. The Supreme Court holds THE UNITED STATES. 9^ one session annually, commencing the first Monday in December. A Circuit Court is held twice a year in each State by a judge of the Su- preme Court and the Distfict Judge of the State or district in which the court is held. The District Courts are held by special judges, usually one for each district. The United States or Federal Courts have jurisdiction in all cases of law and equity arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, and treaties made under their authority; in all cases concerning foreign ministers and agents; in all cases of marine jurisdiction ; in all cases in which the Unitei States is a party ; in all cases between States, or between a State and a citizen of another State, or between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under the grants of another State, and between a State and citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. Each District Court of the United States is provided with a prosecuting attorney and a marshal. The States are sovereign in themselves, and as regards their own affairs. The Government of each one is similar to that of the United States, consisting of an Executive or Governor, a Legislature, com- posed of two houses, all elected by the people, and a judiciary. Each State is Independent of all the others, and subject only to the Consti- tution of the United States. Each is required to accord full faith and credit to the transactions of the others, provided they are not contrary to the supreme law of the land. The States may not enter into any combinations with each other not provided for by the Con- stitution, nor keep troops in time of peace, nor make war nor conclude peace. A State may not impose any restrictions upon the trade be- tween the States, or levy or collect imposts of any kind upon any but its own citizens. The Territories are the common property of the United States, and are governed by Legislatures elected by their own inhabitants, and by Governors appointed by the President of the United States. A Territory having a number of inhabitants sufficient to entitle it to one representative in Congress, may be admitted into the Union as a State. It must first adopt a State Constitution, which must be rati- fied by the people of the Territory at the polls, and submitted to Congress for its approval. If approved by Congress, the President shall issue his proclamation declaring the Territory duly admitted as a State, and the new State shall ratify the Constitution of the United States. Titles of nobility, acts of attainder, and ex-post facto laws are for- 96 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. bidden by the Constitution of the United States, and by the States. No criminal can be sheltered by the authorities of a State or Territory in which he may take refuge, from the authorities of the State or Territory in which his offence was committed. Citizenship of a State confers all such privileges in the several States. Trial by jury is se- cured for all offences. No preference shall be shown to any religion by the Government, but equal rights and privileges are secured to all sects. The privacy of the house of a citizen is secured against unlaw- ful violation by search, seizure, or by quartering a soldier upon him in time of peace. Excessive bail or fines, and cruel and unusual pun- ishments are forbidden, and no one may be tried twice for a capital offence. THE ARMY. The military establishment of the United States, as reorganized by the Act of July 28th, 1866, consists of 10 regiments, or 120 com- panies, of cavalry, 5 regiments, or 60 companies, of artillery, and 45 regiments, or 450 companies, of infantry, making an effective force (should the maximum strength of all the regiments be attained) of 76,000 men, divided as follows: artillery 7000, cavalry 14,000, in- fantry 55,000. At present the effective strength of companies has been fixed as follows : for infantry, cavalry, and artillery (heavy), 64 privates, and for light artillery 122 privates^ making an aggregate strength of 54,302 men. Besides this force, the militia of the States, which in many of them is well organized and effective, may be called into service by the General Government in case of emergency. The prompkiess with which such appeals have always been responded to by the States, shows that the real available force of the Republic is more than 1,000,000 men, the majority of whom are at present veteran soldiers. The President of the United States is the Constitutional Com- mand er-in-Chief of the army, but it is usual for him to relinquish the active management of its affairs to the War Department and to the General of the Army, who is its immediate Commander-in-Chief, and has his headquarters in Washington City. The other ofQcers of the regular establishment are : One lieutenant-general; 5 major-generals; 10 brigadier-generals; 1 chief of staff to the general, brigadier-general ; 1 adjutant-gene- ral, brigadier-general; 1 judge-advocate-general, brigadier- gene- ral ; 1 quartermaster-general, brigadier-general ; 1 commissary- general, brigadier-general; 1 surgeon-general, brigadier-general ; THE UNITED STATES. 9T 1 paymaster-general, brigadier-general; 1 chief of engineers, briga- dier-general ; 1 chief of ordnance, brigadier-general ; 87 colonels ; 99 lieiiten ant-col on els ; 327 majors ; 835 captains ; 857 1st lieuten- ants ; 583 2d lieutenants ; 6 chaplains. A considerable force is required at all times on the western frontier to protect the settlers against the attacks of the Indians. The remain- der of the army is employed in garrisoning and protecting the forts, arsenals, and other public property of the Eepublic. THE NAVY. The naval establishment of the United States consists of 206 ves- sels, carrying 1743 guns. Of these, 35 are first-rates, carrying 662 guns. Each vessel is of at least 2400 tons ; the second-rates, of from 1200 to 2400 tons, are 37 in number, and carry 483 guns ; the third- rates, of from 600 to 1200 tons, number 76 vessels, and carry 414 guns; the fourth-rates, under 600 tons, are 38 in number, and carry 184 guns. Of the above iorce, 52 are iron-dads, carrying 129 guns; 95 are screw steamers, carrying 938 guns; 28 are paddle-wheel steamers, carrying 199 guns; and 31 are sailing vessels, carrying 477 guns. The active list of the service is as follows : One admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 10 rear-admirals, 25 commodores, 49 captains, 89 commanders, 139 lieutenant-commanders, 45 lieutenants, 30 masters, 52 ensigns, 157 midshipmen, 67 surgeons, 37 passed as- sistant-surgeons, 36 assistant-surgeons, 79 paymasters, 56 passed as- sistant-paymasters, 52 chief-engineers, 90 first assistant-engineers, 137 second assistant-engineers, 24 third assistant-engineers, 19 chaplains, 11 professors, 7 naval constructors, 5 assistant naval constructors, 52 boatswains, 57 gunners, 39 carpenters, 31 sailmakers. In the Naval Academy, there are 348 midshipmen undergoing instruction, 16 third assistant-engineers, and 1 cadet engineer. The retired list is as follows : Eighteen rear-admirals, 60 commodores, 31 captains, 17 comman- ders, 3 lieutenant-commanders, 6 masters, 1 midshipman, 24 surgeons, 3 passed assistant-surgeons, 3 assistant-surgeons, 14 paymasters, 14 assistant-engineers, 8 chaplains, 2 professors, 6 boatswains, 6 gunners, •6 carpenters, 5 sailmakers. On the 1st of January, 1867, there were 115 vessels, carrying 1029 guns, in commission. The following is a list of vessels comprising the squadrons on active duty ; 7 9S THE GREAT REPUBLIC, Vessels. Guns. European Squadron 113 Asiatic “ 78 North Atlantic “ . . . - . lo 135 South 75 Gulf “ 71 North Pacific “ 122 South “ “ 67 Total 661 FINANCES. The following is the statement of the Secretary of the Treasury of the public debt of the United States on the 1st of December, 1870 : DEBT BEARING INTEREST IN COIN. Authorizing Acts Character of Is-ue. Rate. Amount Outstanding. When Redeemable or Payable. Accrued Interest. June 14, ’58 June 22, ’60 Bonds 5 per ct. 5 per ct. 6 per ct. 6 per ct. $ 2O,U0U,O0l 4,410,000 18,415,000 945,000 PiiyMldw ir» yf'jus fitiin 1 TK Q $ 416,666 67 91,875 00 460,375 00 23,625 00 Bonds Pa.yahle 10 years from .Ta.n 1 1861 Feb. 8, ’61 Bonds, 1881 Payable after Dec. 31, 1880 March 2, ’61 Bds. (Oregon) ’81 Redeemable 20 years from July 1, 1861.. July 17 and Aug. 5, ’61 1 Bonds, 1881..., 6 per ct. 189,318,100 Payable at option of Government after 20 years from June 30, 1861 4,732,952 50 Feb. 25, ’62 Bonds, 5-20’s 6 per ct. 496,209,300 Redeemaltle after 5 and payable 20 years from May 1 1862 2,481,046 50 March 3, ’63 Bonds 1881 6 per ct. 5 per ct. 75,000,006 194,567,300 1 Payable after June 30, 1881 1,875,000 00 2,432,091 25 March 3, ’64 Bonds, 10-40’s,... Redeemable after 10 and payable 40 years from Marcli 1, 1864 March -3, ’64 Bonds, 5-20’s 6 per ct. 3,123,600 Redeemable after 5 and payable 20 years from Nov. 1, 1SG4 15,618 00 Juno 30, ’64 Bonds, 5-20’s 6 per ct. 105,141,750 Redeemable after 5 and payable 20 years from Nuv. 1, 1864 525,708 75 March 3, ’65 Bonds, 5-20’s 6 per ct. 186,799,450 Redeemable after 6 and payable 20 years from Nov. 1, 1865 — 933,997 25 March 3, ’65 Bonds, 5-20’s 6 per ct. 270,309,350 Redeemaltle after 5 and payable 20 years from July 1, 1865 6,757,733 75 March 3, ’65 Bonds, 5-20’s 6 per ct. 339,846,000 Redeemaltle after 5 and payable 20 years from July 1, 1867 8,496,150 00 March 3, ’65 Bonds, 5-20’s 6 per ct. 39,667,250 Redeemable after 5 and payable 20 years Aggregate of Debt bear’g Coin Int... $1,943,752,100 from July 1, 1868 991,6®! 25 $30,-’’34,520 92 Coupons due not presented for payment., lo,4in,''30 15 Total $10,654,451 07 DEBT BEARING NO INTEREST. Auihoriziog Acts July 17, 1R61, Feb. 12, 1862 . Feb. 25, 1862, July 11.1 1862, xMaich 3, 1863..... | July 17, 1862, Mnrch 3,1 1863, June 30, 1861 | March 3, 1863 Character of Issue. Demand Notes United States Legal Tender Nutes Fractional Currency.. Certif. Gold Deposit... No interest 1 -NT • . f New Issue. $2-'2,668,.5i)0 00 ; 1 Serie.s 69 ... 12.3,83i;.500 0 Fir.st Peiivs 4,44.5,329 87 .Second Serie.s 3,246,324 4 Third Series 7,915,600 .34 Fourth Series 23,.529,66l 44 No interest Amount Ou tstanding. $ 102,321 00 356,000,000 00 39,166,916 08 16,.5 ''2,620 00 Aggregate of Debt bearing no interest. $411,851,857 08 THE UNITED STATES. DEBT ON WHICH INTEREST HAS CEASED SINCE MATURITY^. 99 Authorizing Acts. Character of Issue. Ayril 15, ls-i2 ... Jan. 28,1847 March 31, 1848., Sept. 9, 1850 Prior to 1857 Dec. 23, 1857.. . March 2, 1861.., July 17, 1861...., March 3, 1863. March 3,1863... March 3,1863, and June 30, 1864 Bonds Bonds Bond.s Bonds, Te.xas Ind.. Treasury Notes Treasury Notes Treasury Notes..... Treasury Notes, 3 years Treasury Notes, 1 and 2 years Certificates of Tn- June 30, 1864... June 30, 1864, and March 3, 1865.. Rate. 6 per cent 6 per cent 6 per cent 5 per cent 1 m. to 6 per ct. 3 to per cent. 6 per cent Compound Inter est Notes Temporary Loan. Treasury Notes, years 7 3-10 per cent.. 5 per cent 6 per cent 6 per cent 4, 5, 6 per cent.. 7 3-10 per cent.. Aggreg. of debt on which interest has ceased. Total accrued interest Amount Outstanding. Matured. Accrued Interest. $ 6,000 00 Dec. 31, 1862 $ 360 00 2,150 00 Dec. 31,1867 741 00 24,900 00 July 1, ’68, 9 raos. int... 1,281 00 242,000 00 Dec. 31, 1864 12,100 00 89,625 35 At various dates 2,938 76 2,000 00 March 1, 1859 108 00 3,200 00 April and May, 1863... 195 00 23,350 00 Aug. 19 & Oct. 1, 1864.. 852 30 223,882 00 Jan. 7 to April 1, 1866... 12,266 28 5,000 00 At various dates in 1866 313 48 1,995,920 00 .June 10, 1867, and May 15, 1868 380,111 04 180,810 00 Oct. 15, 1866 7,444 24 542,250 on Aug. 15,1867, and June 15 and July 15,1868.. , $3,-341,087 35 19,792 14 $438,.503 24 DEBT BEARING INTEREST IN LAWFUL MONEY. Authorizing Acts. March 2, 1867 and July 25, 1868 July 23, 1868 Character of Issue. Certificates Navy Pension Fund. 3 per ct. 3 per ct. July 8, 1870 Cert, indebt ’70 4 per ct. Aggreg. of debt bearing currency interest Amount Outstanding. $45,050,000 00 14,000,000 00 678,000 00 $50,728,000 no When Redeemable or fayable. On demand (int. estimated).. Interest only applicable to payment of pensions September 1, 1875 Accrued interest $182,584 34 175,000 00 6,780 00 $364,364 34 RECAPITULATION. Character of Issue. Amt. Outstanding. Interest. ( I3oi*ds «it 5 per cent $21 8,977, 3.:0 00 Debt bear, coin interest^ Bonds at 6 per cent 1,724,774,800 00 45,050,000 00 14,0!)0,c00 00 678,000 00 $1,943,752,100 00 $40,654,451 07 Debt bearing interest in latvful money : CevlificJites sited, 16,582,620 00 411,851,857 08 Totfvl fiiiiount outstevnding $2,418,673,044 43 41,457,318 65 o it inrlnfHrwr infprpfst fin A find nnnaid $2,460,130,363 08 125,821,868 43 . 2,334,308,494 65 . 2,341,784,355 55 7,475,860 90 Amount in Treasury : Coin Currency Debt, less amount in the Treasury Debt, less anioun'- in the Treasury on the 1st ultimo...., ... $97,368,577 81 Decrease of debt since March 1, 1870 104,019,982 52 Decrease of Debt since March 1, 1869, 21 montb.s, as shown by the ■ monthly statements of the Secretary of the Tj-easury $191,154,765 36 100 ^ THE GREAT REPUBLIC. BONDS ISSUED TO THE PACIFIC' R. R.’s INT. PAYABLE IN LAWFUL MONEY. Authorizing Acts. Character of Issue. Rate of Int. Amount Outstandiug. When Redeemable or Payable. July 1, ’62, itiid July 2, ’64 July 1, ’62, ami July 2, ’64 Bonds Union Pacific Company Bonds Kansas Pacific, late Union Paicfic, 6 per ct. $27,236,512 00 30 years from date. July 1, ’62, and July 2, ’64 July 1, ’62, and Eastern Diyision Bonds Sioux City and Pacific 6 per ct. 6 per ct. 6,303,000 00 1,628,320 00 30 years from date. 30 years from date. July 2, ’64 July 1, ’62, and J uly 2, ’64 Bonds Central Pacific Bonds Central Branch U. P., assignees of 6 per ct. 25,881,000 00 30 years from date. July 1, ’62, and Acliisou and Pike’s Peak 6 per ct. 1,600,000 00 30 years from date. July 2, ’64 Total iss Bonds Western Pacific • 6 per ct. 1,970,000 00 $64,618,832 00 30 years from date. Authorizing Rate of Interest ac- Interest paid Interest re- Balance of Int. Acts. Interest Payable. Interest. crued and not yet paid. by United States. paid by trans. mails, etc. paid by United States. July 1, ’62, &\ July 2, ’64... j July 1, ’62, and Jan. 1 and July 1, ) Jan. 1 and July 1. J 6 per ct. $680,912 80 $3,713,371 05 $1,434,952 33 $2,278,418 72 July 2, ’64 July 1, ’62, and Jan. 1 and July 1 6 per ct. 157,575 00 1,212,993 09 724,823 67 488,169 42 J uly 2, ’64 Jul}"^ 1, ’62, and Jan. 1 and July 1 6 per ct. 40,708 00 194,207 89 396 08 193,811 81 July 2, ’64 Jan. 1 and July 1, July 1, ’62, and Jan. 1 and July 1... 6 per ct. 647,025 00 3,261,767 84 241,638 70 3,020,129 14 July 2, ’64 July 1, ’62, and July 2, ’64 Jan. 1 and July 1 6 per ct. 40,000 00 301,808 26 7,401 92 294,406 34 Jan. 1 and July 1 6 per ct. 49,250 00 131,197 36 8,281 25 122,916 11 Total issued. $1,615,470 80 $8,815,345 49 AT T 1 * j'iyo \jo JipDjoy/jOOi 04 The foregoing is a correct statement of the Public Debt, as appears from the books and Treasurer’s returns in the Department at the close of business on the last day of November, 1870. (Signed) GEORGE S. BOUTWELL, Secretary of the Treasury. The revenues for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1868, were $405,000,000, and the expenditures $377,000,000, leaving in the Treasury a balance of $28,000,000. Of the expenditures for the year given above, $79,000,000 were extraordinary. On the 1st of January, 1867, there were in the United States 1644 banks existing under the National Bank Act of the United States; and also 297 banks operating under the laws of their respective States; making a total of 1941 banks doing business in the Republic. They employed an aggregate capital of $486,258,464, divided amongst the two classes as follows: National Banks, $419,779,739, State Banks, $66,478,725. The following table, taken from the statements of the National Banking Association of the United States, will show the condition of the National Banks in January, 1867 : THE UNITED STATES. RESOURCES. 101 Loans and Discounts, Over Drafts, Real Estate, etc., Expense Account, Premiums, Cash Items, Due from National Banks, Due from other Banks, Bonds for Circrdation, Other United States Bonds, Bills of other Banks, Specie, LawTul Money, Stocks, Bonds, and Mortgages, . . . • Aggregate, $ 608 , 411,902 18 , 861,138 2 , 795,322 2 , 852,945 101 , 330,984 92 , 492,446 12 , 981,445 339 , 180,700 88 , 940,000 20 , 381,726 16 , 634,972 186 , 511,927 15 , 072,738 $ 1 , 506 , 448,245 •i LIABILITIES. Capital Stock paid in, Surplus Eimd, National Bank-notes, State Bank-notes, Individual Deposits, United States Deposits, To United States Dishursmg Officers, Dividends Unpaid, Due to National Banks, . . . . . Due to other Banks and Bankers, Profits, Other items, . . Aggregate, 8419 , 779,739 59 , 967,222 291 , 093,294 6 , 961,499 555 , 179,944 27 , 225,663 2 , 275,385 92 , 755,561 24 , 322,614 26 , 877,324 $ 1 , 506 , 448,245 HISTORY. There is reason to believe that the savages who were found in America by the first European settlers were not the original inhabi- tants of the Continent, but that they were preceded at a very remote period by another and a more powerful race, unknown and long ex- tinct, but which has left vague evidence of its existence in the curious mounds and earthworks which are to be seen in various parts of the Mississippi Valley. At the time of its discovery by the whites, how- ever, the red men were the sole human occupants of the Continent, ■which was covered with vast woods and plains abounding vith game of every description, the pursuit of which formed the principal occu- pation of the natives, and furnished them with food and clothing. 102 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ilie Indians were really one people in physical appearance, man- ners, customs, religion, and in the observances of their social and political systems, but were divided into numerous tribes, each of which had a dialect distinct from that of the others. The tribes were for the most part bitterly hostile to, and constantly engaged in war with each other. They are generally divided into eight nations, speaking eight radically distinct languages. These were : I. The Algonquins, who inhabited the territory now comprised in the six New England States, the eastern part of New York and Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina as fai south as Cape Fear, a large part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and nearly all of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. This nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Knistenaux, Ottawas, Chippewas, Sacs and Foxes, IMenomonees, Miamis, Piankeshaws, Potawatomies, Kickapoos, Illinois, Shawnees, Powhatans, Corees, Nanticokes, Lenni-Lenapes or Delawares, Mohe- gans, Narragansets, Pequots, and Abenakis. II. The Iroquois, who occupied almost all of that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes Ontarto, Erie, and Huron the greater part of New York, and the country lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, now included in the States of Ohio and Pennsyl- ' vania. This territory, it will be seen, was completely surrounded by the domains of their powerful and bitter enemies, the Algonquins. The nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Senecas Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mohawks. These five were after- wards called by the English the Five Nations. In 1722, they admitted the Tuscaroras into their confederation, and were afterwards called the Six Nations. The nation called itself collectively the Konoskioni or Cabin-builders.'' The Algonquins termed them Mingoes, the French, Iroquois, and the English, JMohawks, or Mingoes. III. The Catawbas, who dwelt along the banks of the Yadkin and Catawba Rivers, near the line which at present separates the States of North and South Carolina. IV. The Cherohees, whose lands were bounded on the east by the Broad River of the Carolinas, including all of Northern Georgia. V. The Uchees, who dwelt south of the Cherokees, along the Sa- vannah, the Oconee, and the headwaters of the Ogeechee and Chatta- hoochee. They spoke a harsh and singular language, and are believed to have been the remnant of a once powerful nation. VI. The Mohilian Nation, who inhabited all of Georgia and South INDIAN yroAGE IN WINTER. 103 104 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Carolina not mentioned in the above statements, a part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and all of Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Their territory was next in extent to that of the Algonquins, and extended along the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. The nation was divided into three great confederations the Creeks or Muscogees, the Choctaws, and the Chickasaws— and was subdivided into a number of smaller tribes, the principal of which were the Seminoles and Yemassees, who were members of the Creek Confederation. yil. The Natchez^ who dwelt in a small territory east of the Mis- sissippi, and along the banks of the Pearl River. They were sur- rounded on all sides by the tribes of the IVIobilian language, yet remained until their extinction a separate nation, speaking a distinct language peculiar to themselves, and worshipping the sun as their god. They are believed to have been the most civilized of all the savage tribes of North America. VIII. The Dacotahs or Sioux, whose territory was bounded on the north by Lake Winnipeg, on the south by the Arkansas River, on the east by the Mississippi, and on the west by the Rocky Mountains. The nation was divided into the following branches : the Winne-^ bagoes, living between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi; the Assiniboins, living in the extreme north ; the Southern Sioux, living between the Arkansas and the Platte; and the Minatarees, Mandans, and Crows, who lived west of the Assiniboins. The great plains, the Rocky Mountains, and the Pacific coast were held by the powerful tribes of the Pawnees, Comanches, Apachees, Utahs, Black Feet, Snakes, Nezperces, Flatheads, and California. Indians. These were the inhabitants and possessors of the country at the time of its first settlement. In the year 1492, Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, in Italy, sailing under the orders of the King and Queen of Spain, dis- covered the West Indies; and thus proved beyond all doubt the ex- istence of a new world. There is a Scandinavian tradition that a Nor^vegian named Leif, in the year 1002, on his voyage from Iceland to Greenland, was driven southward by storms, to a country which was unknown to Europeans, and which he called Vinland, because of the wild grapes with which he found it covered. It is also said that his discovery was followed by several Scandinavian settlements, none of which proved permanent. It is supposed by some writers ■>K^IN()SIMli,. <4r ' - I ' V • . -r.. 1 ' ■ , » . . / • , i i, <» -: ‘V. ‘1..M . . ■' •.^. y| i| y .‘-W^ / -A •• • '■: •.>;> •••‘U ir**-*h^ :• >iVS' - ■•■-' ■'»•»►•• u f- . . ■ . • i . ,• ‘ to- >fV;. .4 ■.* ’.- . -Wiii }’' ‘V- ■ o T.i/ . .| ••%) ' t I ♦ *4. f- >< .’ Vf*^. . .•< j"/* t.* ' ■• •■•:/.'.■ < '- ■ • • 4l • i • ■•..- (\-<5 kfi$ :. 1. .- • «iW.- "■ M*-; nf »< A *» -/i! .. ■ r^j^u:pwwr^ . *.fa -i :■ ■»5 < »i 1 I>d. «• ’ • .- , J. ‘ • ■■ , . ■ .- ■ . ■ . ( ,. V'!*' 'v/r * ■ ^ jt*v ■ ^ m^-, " ■■* 4..'s jiliritlib.-. '■'■■■■ - ■' M ;^J< V ' . li. ! . >' ;'j; ■ ■ ;4'- v ♦ V. :l^ j ■ ■ ■ ' ■ Z-y 'W'- - >■« ■ ■ — .:■-«&« -rf.,.. Wifltew H t;- THE UNITED STATES. 105 ‘ that the country alluded to as Finland, in this tradition, was the- State of Rhode Island ; but as the legend rests upon no solid founda- tion, the credit of having been the first to discover the New World must be accorded to Columbus. On the 24th of June, 1497, John Cabot, a Yenitian, commanding- a ship belonging to Henry VII. of England, discovered land, along which he sailed to the southward for over 1000 miles, making fre- quent landings, and taking possession of the country in the name of the English King. The next year his son, Sebastian Cabot, left Bristol, England, with two ships, to seek a northwest passage to< China. He was stopped by the ice, however, and turned about and sailed southward down the American coast as far as the capes of Vir- ginia — the entrance to Chesapeake Bay. In 1513, Ponce de Leon, acting under the authority of the King of Spain, discovered Florida, and took possession of the country near the present site of the town of St. Augustine. A short while after, he returned and attempted to establish a colony. He was attacked and killed, and his followers- driven away by the natives. In the latter part of the year 1523, John Verazzani, a native of Florence, was sent by Francis I., of France, to explore the New World. He was fifty days in crossing the ocean, being vexed by terrible storms all the way, and made land off the mouth of the Cape Fear River, near the present city of Wilming- ton, North Carolina. He sailed southward for 150 miles, in search of a convenient harbor, but, failing to find one, passed up the coast as far north as Nova Scotia. He visited New York and Newport har- bors, as they are now called, both of which are accurately described in the account of his voyage. In 1539, Hernando de Soto landed with several hundred men, in Tampa Bay, Florida, and marched across the continent, defeating the natives on his way, and discovered the Mississippi River, near the site of the present city of Helena, Arkansas. He passed through the region now comprising the States- of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and penetrated 200 miles west of the great river. Two years after his landing in Florida, he wandered back to the Mississippi, where he died, and was buried at midnight in the stream. His followers, disheartened by his death, descended the river in boats to its mouth, and, crossing the Gulf, sought refuge in the Spanish settlements in Mexico, where they told marvellous stories of the country they had seen. For several years there was no further effort made to colonize the New World. In 1562, a band of French Calvinists, or Huguenots,. 106 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. acting upon the advice of Admiral Coligni, endeavored to found a colony here, for the purpose of establishing a refuge for French Pro- testants, who should be driven out of their own country by the perse- cutions of the Roman Catholics. A charter was granted by Charles IX. of France, and an expedition sent out, under Jean Ribault, which made a settlement at Port Royal, in a country which was called Carolina, in honor of the French King. This settlement was soon abandoned, however, and another established on the banks of the St. John’s River, in Florida. In 1565, Spain renewed her efforts to colonize Florida. An expedition was sent out in that year, Avhich destroyed the French settlement on the St. John’s River, and mas- sacred the inhabitants. Having removed their rivals, the Spaniards then proceeded to found the town of St. Augustine, which is the oldest and first permanent European settlement in the present territory of the Union. The English paid little or no attention to the discoveries of the Cabots for nearly a century. Then, alarmed by the efforts which France and Spain were making to secure a footing in the Xew AYorld, England began the task of colonizing her distant lands upon a larger scale than had been attempted by either of her rivals, and was not slow to assert the claim which the discoveries of the Cabots had given her, and which, indeed, she had never relinquished. The first colony was sent out in 1585, in the reign of Elizabeth, under Sir Walter Raleigh, and was established on Roanoke Island, in the* present State of Xorth Carolina, a site which Raleigh had dis- covered during the previous year, and where he had been hospitably entertained by the natives. The whole country was called Virginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen of England. The colony did not pros- per, however, and in a few years it was utterly gone. In 1606, James I. divided the English possessions in America into two parts — Xorth Virginia, extending from the mouth of the Hudson River to Xewfoundland, and South Virginia, extending from the Potomac to Cape Fear. Two companies were formed in England for colonizing these regions, the London Company, which received from the king the grant of South Virginia, and the Plymouth Company, to which tlie king^ gave Xorth Virginia. These companies agreed to colonize their respective grants with due promptness, and to regard the terri- tory lying between the Potomac and the Hudson as neutral ground, upon which both companies were free to make settlements at pleasure. The London Company went to work at once, and sent over an expe- THE UNITED STATES. THE KUIKS OF JAMESTOWN : THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLE- MENT IN AMERICA. dition commanded by Captain Newport, which made a lodgement on the north shore of the James River, in the present State of Vir- ginia, on the 13th of May, 1607. They called their settlement Jamestown, and the river on which it was located, the James, m honor of their sovereign. The command of this expedition was vested in Captain Newport, but the life and soul of the whole undertaking was the celebrated Captain John Smith, to whom alone is due the credit of carrying the colony firmly through the dangers and trials which surrounded its infancy, and planting it upon a permanent basis. He explored the Chesapeake and its tributaries, of which he made maps and sketches which are noted to-day for their accuracy. These voyages of discovery were made in an open boat, the crew of which he could not always depend upon. They were full of romantic adventure. In one of them he was captured and condemned to death by the Indians, but was rescued by Pocahontas, the daughter of king Powhatan. Captain Smith made 108 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. several voyages between England and America, and in 1614 explored and made excellent drawings of the coast from Cape Cod to the Pen- obscot. To this part of the country he gave the name of New Eng- land, by which it has since been known. He won the friendship of the Indians for the whites in Virginia, and by his maps and descrip- tions did more in England than was done by any other man to arouse that enthusiasm which finally led to the successful planting of the whole Atlantic coast of America with English settlements. The government of the Colony of Virginia was at first vested in a council appointed by the king, but this arrangement was found to work so badly that a change was made, which was followed by seve- ral others, until at length a House of Burgesses, chosen by the people, was established. This Assembly, which was the first representative body that ever sat in America, met on the 19th of June, 1619. This event, so important in our history, was followed by two of equal moment, one in August, of the same year, when a Dutch man-of-war entered the James River and sold a cargo of 20 Africans to the planters of Virginia, thus introducing negro slavery into the Colonies; and another in 1621, when the cultivation of cotton was begun in Virginia. The Plymouth Company made extensive preparations on paper for the settlement of their immense territory. Their charter gave them absolute property in and authority over the vast region lying between the Atlantic and Pacific, and bounded by the 40th and 48th parallels of North latitude, and they prepared to make very^hard bargains with those who wished to buy lands of them. The first settlement in their domain, however, was made without their consent or authority, by a band of Puritans, under the leadership of John Carver, William Brewster, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, and Miles Standish. This colony sailed from England on the 6th of September, 1620, in a vessel of 180 tons burthen, called the Mayflower, and landed on the coast of Massachusetts Bay, on the 21st of December of the same year. They numbered 100 men, women, and children, and at once pro- ceeded to found a settlement, which they named Plymouth, in honor of the last English port from which they had sailed, and where they had been kindly treated. They had no charter from the king, or sanction from the Plymouth Company, but conducted their enterprise upon their own responsibility, looking to God for assistance and pro- tection. While still on their voyage, they arranged the form of their government. They organized it upon a basis of religion as well as THE UNITED STATES. 109 PLTMOrTH POCK. of civil justice. Their religious svstem is well described by Robert- son, who savs: “They united together in a religious socieys-, by a solemn covenant with God, and with one another, and in strict con- formity, as they imaginetl, to the rules of .Scripture. They elected a Pastor, an Eider, and a Teacher, whom they set apart by the imposi- tion of the liands of the brethren. All who were that day admitted members of the church, signified their assent to a confession of faith drawn up bv their Teacher, and gave an account of their own hopes as Christians; and it was declared that no person should hereafter be 1^0 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. received into communion until he gave satisfaction to the church with respect to his faith and sanctity. The form of public worship which tiiey instituted was without a liturgy, disencumbered of every super- fluous ceremony, and reduced to the lowest standard of Calvinistic simplicity.'' Their civil system was thoroughly republican. The governor was chosen by the people, and his acts were subject to the approval of a council consisting at first of 6 and afterwards of 7 as- sistants. In the beginning the legislative power was vested in*the whole people, but as the colony expanded a legislature elected by tho people was established. In 1629, the colony received a charter from Charles I. of England. It prospered from the first, and its success, brought over other arrivals from England. In 1628, a settlement was made by a band of Puritans from England, under John Endicott, at Salem, on Massachusetts Pay, which general name was given to the new colony. In 1630, a fleet with 840 new settlers, under John Winthrop, arrived from England, and in September of that year founded the city of Boston, which they named in honor of the village in England from which the Rev. John Cotton, their paslor, came.* New settlers now came over by scores, the number of inhabitants in- creased rapidly, and in 1690 the colonies of Plymouth and Massa- chusetts Bay were united under one government. In 1623, Sir Fernando Gorges and John Mason took out a patent for a territory called Taconia, lying between the Atlantic and the St. Lawrence, and the Merrimack and the Kennebec. In the same year they settled the cities of Portsmouth and Lover, in New” Hampshire. A French colony had been planted in Maine in 1613, but had been broken up by an expedition from Virginia, and the first permanent settlements in Maine were made by the English at Saco and on Monhegan Island, in 1622 or 1623. These settlements some years later became a part of the territory of Massachusetts, and were re- tained by her until the formation of the State of Maine in 1820. In 1635, a company of emigrants from Massachusetts, under tho p:ous Hooker, settled the region now^ comprised in the State of Con- necticut, by founding the towns of Hartford and Wethersfield. The Dutch had built a trading post and fort at Hartford in 1633, and a few huts at Wethersfield in 1634, and claimed the territory in con- sequence of this, but their claim was not regarded by the English. * It is not a little curious that the Puritan Fathers should have given their metropolis the name of a famous Roman Catholic Saint. THE UNITED STATES. Ill THE FIRST SETTLEMENT OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. In 1636, Koger Williams, who had been exiled from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions, founded the colony of Ehode Island, by settling the town of Providence, which is now the capital of the State. New York was settled by the Dutch, but the State was first entered by a French navigator named Samuel Champlain, who discovered the lake to which he has given his name, in July, 1609, and fought a battle on its shores with a band of Mohawks. He inflicted a severe - defeat upon them, and from that time the Six Nations were the bitter 112 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and lasting enemies of the French. On the 6th of September, 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, sailing under the orders of the Dutch East India Company, entered the Bay of New York, discovered the great river which bears his name, and ascended it to within a few miles of the present city of Albany. He took possession of the country for the Government of Holland, by which it was named New Netherlands. A few years later trading posts and forts were estab- lished on Manhattan Island (New York City), at the mouth of the Hudson, and at Fort Orange (Albany). In 1623, thirty families settled on Manhattan Island, and called their settlement New Amsterdam, and in the same year eighteen families came over to Fort Orange. From this time the Dutch settlements grew rapidly. They extended along the Hudson, as far eastward as Connecticut, and as far southward as the Delaware. The Swedes, who had settled the latter river, and had villages along both banks of the Delaware, almost as far up as the present city of Philadelphia, resisted the Dutch encroachments, but were iinally driven away in 1655 by a military expedition of the latter. The English, who claimed the whole country by right of Cabot’s discovery, finding that all diplomatic efforts to induce the Dutch to abandon their American settlements were vain, terminated the controversy by taking forcible possession of the province of New Netherlands in 1664. They - changed the names of the province and the principal settlement. New Amsterdam, to New York, and that of Fort Orange to Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany (afterwards James II., of England), to whom Charles II. had granted the territory. That portion of New Jersey lying along the Hudson was settled by the Dutch about the same time tliat the colony of New Amsterdam began to attract emigrants from Holland. The Swedes settled the southwest portion along the Delaware, in 1627. It fell into the hands of the English when New York was seized by them, and at the same time acquired the name which it bears at present. Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley purchased the territory from the Duke of York, and made it a distinct colony, naming it New Jersey, after the island of Jersey, of which Sir George had been governor. Delaware was settled by the Dutch in 1630. They established their settlement near Lewes. In 1633, it was entirely destroyed by the Indians. In 1637, a company of Swedes and Finns made a set- tlement on the island of Tinicum, a few miles below Philadelphia. Several other settlements were formed, and the country was called New Sweden. The Dutch, after protesting against this occupation of THE UNITED STATES lU THE FIRST SETTLERS OF A3IERICA CLEARING THE LAND. the territory by the Swedes, made war upon them, and in 1655 re- duced the Swedish forts, and sent back to Europe all the colonists who refused to swear allegiance to Holland. The Delaware settle- ments were held by the Dutch until the final conquest of New Netherlands by the English. The title to the Delaware lands was disputed by Lord Baltimore, but was held by the Duke of York', who sold it to William Penn. Penn’s rights were sustained by the EnMish authorities, and the three counties of Delaware remained a part of Pennsylvania until 1703, when they were allowed the liberty 8 114 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of forming a separate establishment. Until 1776, however, the same governor administered the aifairs of Pennsylvania and Delaware. In 1681, William Penn procured a grant of the lands west of the Delaware, and in 1682 he brought over a colony of Friends, or (iuakers, and founded the city of Philadelphia. His colony flourished Irom the beginning, and by treating the Indians with kindness and justice in his dealings with them, he secured their warm friendship, and a consequent immunity from the savage warfare to which the otiier colonies were subjected. There was peace between the Indians and the whites for nearly one hundred years. About the year 1710, there was a large emigration of Germans to Pennsylvania. They settled in the southern counties of the colony, which are to this day strongly marked by German characteristics. Maryland, so called in honor of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., was originally settled by a band of adventurers, under Captain AVilliam Clayborne, who went from Virginia, and established them- selves on Kent Island, near the head of Chesapeake Bay. The ])r()vince was granted by Charles I. to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, in 1632. The next lyear the first colony, consisting of 201 persons, mostly Roman Catholics, sailed for America in two vessels, called the Ark and the Dove. They landed on St. Clement’s Island, on the 25th of March, 1634, and on the 27th began the settlement of St. Mary’s, in what is now St. Mary’s County in that State. Their first legislative assembly met in 1639, and in 1649 passed the first law ever enacted in America granting religious freedom to all persons. This memorable Act will be found in the historical sketch of the State of Maryland farther on. In 1670, the settlement of South Carolina was begun by English colonists, who first located themselves at Port Royal, but soon re- moved to Charleston. The country south of Virginia was given the general name of Carolina, and was governed by the proprietors under an absurd constitution prepared by John Locke. In 1727, the King of England bought out the proprietors, and divided the territory into two provinces, called respectively North and South Carolina. Settle- ments in North Carolina were formed by emigrant^ from Virginia as early as 1653. From that time this part of the province continued to increase in population as rapidly as the southern part. A very large number of French Calvinists, about the year 1690, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in South Carolina. Some years later they were followed by a number of Swiss, Irish, and Germans. THE UNITED STATES. 115 Georgia, originally a part of Carolina, was settled in 1733, by a band of English emigrants, under General James Oglethorpe. The first settlement was made at Yamacraw Bluff, the site of the present city of Savannah. The province was named in honor of George II. of England. Georgia was the last settled of all the English colonies, having been founded 127 years after the landing at Jamestown. During the in- terval which elapsed between these two events, the French had firmly planted themselves in Canada, and had established settlements along some of the great lakes and the upper Ohio, and in portion^ of Indi- ana, Illinois, and Louisiana, and the Spanish had settled ^orida and New Mexico. The English, after the settlement of Georgia, pos- sessed thirteen vigorous and flourishing colonies in America, which were rapidly growing in importance, wealth, and power. They had an aggregate population of about 2,000,000, and were aotivi^ty en- gaged in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. The majority of the inhabitants w^ere from England, or of English parentage, but there was also a liberal admixture of Scotch, Irish, French, and Ger- man elements. The prevailing religious sentiment of the New England colonies was Calvinistic. Quakerism predominated in Pennsylvania, and Roman Catholicism in Maryland ; while the Church of England claimed as her children the majority of the people of New York and of the southern colonies. African slavery had be- come firmly established in the South, and the industry of that section had been based upon it. The institution of slavery, and the presence of considerable wealth in all the colonies of the South, had rendered it useless for the better classes of the people to labor for their own sup- port, and had engendered habits of aristocratic luxury, while the climate had cast over all ranks that fatal spell of indolence and lack of energy which has always been the bane of that section. In the Northern colonies ' labor was a necessity with all classes. They had been originally poorer in wealth than their Southern neighbors, and had also a less generous climate, and a soil which required to be worked with the utmost energy and fidelity. Nature did but little for them, and they were forced to make up the deficiency by their own efforts, a necessity which, though hard at first, eventually proved their greatest blessing. They were thus trained in habits of patient and intelligent industry, which they have left to their children. By the period of which we are writing (1732) they had made their bleak country to blossom as a rose, had established thriving cities and 116 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. towns, and, besides laying the sure foundations of an enormous system of manufactures and trade, had already acquired considerable wealth. Learning and the refining arts were common amongst them. Eng- land, it is true, did much to hamper and destroy the industry of all the colonies, hoping by this short-sighted policy to ensure their de- pendence upon her, but American energy flourished in spite of the mother country. Nor were the material interests of the country the only ones con- sulted. One of the very first cares of the settlers was to establish a system of common school education. This system was simple enough at first, but it steadily improved, as the colonies continued to prosper. Schools were established in Virginia in 1621, in the Plymouth Colony soon after, and in New Amsterdam shortly after its settle- ment. In 1637, Harvard College was founded in Massachusetts; in 1692, William and Mary College was established in Virginia; in 1701, Yale College was founded in Connecticut; in 1738, the College of New Jersey was established ; and in 1754, King’s (now Columbia) College was founded in New York. With the exception of William and Mary College, which was destroyed by fire during the late civil war, alPof these institutions are in operation to-day. It does not belong to this portion of our work to present a detailed statement of the difficulties which lay in the path of the colonies dur- ing the first century after the settlement of the country. A more minute account will be presented in the historical sketches of the States, and we must confine ourselves here to a mere general outline of the progress of events. The first settlers found the Indians very friendly, and for some time maintained kindly relations with them ; but as the number of the whites increased, decided encroachments were made upon the hunting grounds of the savages, and this, with various other causes of quarrel, brought about a series of long and bloody wars with the Indians, which continued with but slight intermission from the death of King Powhatan, the great Virginian chief and the friend of the whites, in 1622, until the red men were driven west of the Mississippi, after the close of the second war with England. They were expelled from the greater number of the Atlantic States, or forced to submit to the authority of the whites, by the close of the Revolution. Their power was broken in Virginia by the death of Opecancanough, in 1644; in New England by the death of King Philip, in 1676 ; and in the Carolinas by the destruction of the Yemassees, in 1715. West THE UNITED STATES. U1 BURNING OF DEERFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS, of the mountains and along the northern frontier they were trouble- some for many years later. The French, as we have said, had been as energetic as the English in colonizing America. They had made Canada a thriving province, had settled Acadie, and had established a line of posts between Mon- treal and New Orleans. There were sixty of these posts in all, some of which, as Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg), Detroit, Kaskaskia, Vin- cennes, and New Orleans, have since become important cities. They were located with an almost intuitive perception of their importance in securing the command of the country, and, as they completely hemmed in the settlements of the English, were not slow in exciting the alarm and jealousy of Great Britain, who claimed the entire 118 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Nor was the jealousy en- tirely upon the part of the English. The French, believing that they had securely established tlieniselves in Canada and the north- west, w^ere very anxious to dislodge their powerful neighbors from their growing possessions, and towards the close of the seventeenth century began to incite the Indians to commit depredations upon the English colonies, supplying them with arras and ammunition, and sometimes joining with them in such expeditions. New England and New York suffered severely from them, and several towns (Dover, N. H., Schenectady^ N. A"., and Deerfield and Haverhill, Mass.,) were destroyed by bands of Indians, or French and Indians, and their inhabitants massacred or carried into captivity. Open hos- tilities between the French and English in America broke out in 1690. This wai’ was really caused by the English Revolution of 1688, and is known in American history as King William’s War. It lasted seven years, and was terminated by the Treaty of Ryswick, September 20th, 1697. During its continuance the English colonies suffered greatly from the incursions of the French and Indians, and, in retaliation, made several attempts to conquer Canada, but were unsuccessful. Five years after the Peace of Ryswick, the War of the Spanish Succession, or, as it is known in America, Queen Anne’s War, began in Europe (in 1702). It soon spread to America, and embroiled the Eno;lish and French in this country. The English settlements on the western frontier of New England were almost annihilated by the Indians, while the French were unusually active. Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island made a combined attempt in 1707 to conquer Acadie, but without success. In 1710, an expedition from Boston drove the French out of Acadie, and annexed the province to the British Crown, with the name of Nova Scotia, which it still bears. In 1711, two vigorous efforts were made to conquer Canada, but both proved unsuccessful. On the 11th of April, 1713, the Peace of Utrecht closed the war, ^^and the land had rest for tliirty years.” King George’s War, or, as it is called in European history, the War of the Austrian Succession, began in Europe in March, 1744, and soon extended to America. It lasted a little over four years, and was brought to a close by the Treaty of Aix la Chapelle, October 18th, 1748. The principal event of this war was the capture of Louisburg, the strongest position of the French in America, by a vol- THE UNITED STATES. 119 unteer force from New England, led by William Pepperell, a wealthy merchant of Maine. This event did much to encourage the martial spirit of the colonists, and was hailed with delight in the mother country. At the conclusion of peace, however, Louisburg was re- stored to the French. ( In 1749, the Governor of Virginia received orders from England to grant to the ^^Ohio Company’^ half a million acres of land lying- on the Ohio Fiver, and between the Monongahela and the Kanawha. This region was claimed by France, and as soon as the English com- pany began to form settlements in it, they were resisted by the French commander at Fort Duquesne, to whom the authorities of the province of Virginia resolved to address a letter of remonstrance, before pre- paring to meet force with force. Their message was entrusted to George Washington, then a young man of less than twenty-two years of age, but with a reputation for bravery, prudence, and ability far beyond his years. He performed the long and dangerous journey between the Virginian frontier and Fort Duquesne, delivered the letter, and returned with the reply of the French commandant, who positively refused to comply with the demand of the English. Vir- ginia then prepared to maintain her claim by force of arms, and an expedition, in which Washington was assigned the second place, and of which he finally became the commander, was dispatched towards the Ohio, to occupy the country. On the 28th of May, 1754, it was attacked and cut to pieces by a French force under Jumonville, who was slain in the fight. This affair began the determined struggle which is known in our history as the Old French, or the French and Indian War, and in Europe as the Seven Years’ War. Hostilities, however, were not immediately declared in Europe. France and England did not come to blows in the Old World until about the year 1756. Each country professed to be at peace with the other, but both were busily engaged in sending aid to their colonies. The prin- cipal events of the campaign of 1755 in America were as follows; I. The unfortunate expedition of General Braddock against the French at Fort Duquesne, in which Washington first displayed those great qualities which won for him the leadership of our armies in the struggle for liberty. Braddock’s army was ambushed by the Indian allies of the French, about ten miles from Fort Duquesne, and cut to pieces, the general himself being mortally wounded. II. The expe- dition against Niagara and Frontenac, led by Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts. This attempt proved abortive. Shirley was delayed 120 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. by storms and sickness among his troops, and his Indian allies, who belonged to the tribes of the Six Nations, deserted him to such an extent that their aid amounted to nothing. Disheartened, he aban- doned his attempt and retraced his steps eastward. III. The expe- dition against the French posts on the Bay of Fundy, led by General ^yinslow, of New England. This was successful. The posts were captured and held by the English. Subsequently General Winslow received positive orders from his Government to remove the neutral French from Acadie to the English colonies, which duty he per- formed. There was no actual necessity for the removal of these people, and this harsh and cruel measure of the English Government caused great suffering to them. IV. The expedition against Crown I oint, led by Sir W^illiam Johnson. Johnson^s troops were princi- pally from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. He met the French, under Dieskau, at the head of Lake George, on the Gth of September, 1755, and was at first repulsed by them, but, thanks to General Lyman, the second in command, and an American, he succeeded in rallying his army and utterly routing the French, whose commander was fatally wounded and made a prisoner. He lost the fruits of his success, however, by lingering on the field of his victory until it was too late in the season to advance upon Crown Point. Dieskau was succeeded by the Marquis de Montcalm, to whom was assigned the command of all the French forces in America. He was an officer of experience, energy, and skill, and opened the campaign of l/'56 with a series of successes which continued for two years, and which taught the English that he was no insignificant foe. In 1756, he captured Oswego, with its immense military stores, which had been placed there by the English. In 1757, he compelled Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake George, to surrender, a disaster which was made the more appalling by the massacre of a part of the garri- son, after the capitulation, by the Indian allies of the French. Thus far fortune had smiled upon the French, but their enemies were not disheartened. The English people were convinced that the disasters which had befallen their arms were due to the incompetency of their Government, and demanded a change of the Ministry. The popular demand was unwillingly complied with, and William Pitt was placed by the king at the head of affairs. From the moment that his great mind began to direct the war, the prospects of the English improved. Pitt appreciated the efforts the Americans had made during the struggle, and called on them to volunteer for fresh THE UNITED STATES. 121 service under able generals who were sent out from England. His calls were well responded to, and when the campaign of 1758 opened, the English took the field with 50,000 men, commanded by officers of experience and skill. The principal events of this campaign were: the capture of Louisburg by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, after a siege of fifty days; the capture of Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario, by a force of Colonial troops, under Colonel Bradstreet; the capture of Fort Duquesne, in which the forces of the colony of Virginia were commanded by Washington ; and the defeat of Abercrombie at Ticon- deroga. The British in this engagement attacked Ticonderoga with a force four times as great as that with which Montcalm defended the position. Their army was commanded by General Abercrombie and Lord Howe, the latter of whom was an officer of great promise, and warmly loved by the army. Howe was killed at the head of his column, and Abercrombie proved himself so incompetent for the task before him, that Montcalm defeated him, and compelled him to re- treat with the loss of 2000 men. This event closed the campaign, and more than counterbalanced the successes of the English at the outset. ^ The English authorities at once removed Abercrombie, and put Amherst in his place, who opened the campaign of 1759 by advancing upon. Ticonderoga and Crown Point, from which the French retreated without risking an engagement. About the sapae time Sir William Johnson took Niagara, and routed a large French force which was marching to its relief. On the 13th of September, 1759, the great event of the war occurred. Quebec was taken by the British army, under General Wolfe, after a battle on the heights of Abraham, in which both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. The capture of Quebec is justly regarded as one of the most remarkable events in modern history, not only because it decided the war in America, but because it broke the power of France and confirmed that of England in the New World. ‘Mt gave to the English tongue and the institutions of the Germanic race,^^ says Bancroft, the unexplored and seemingly infinite west and north.’’ The war in America virtually ceased after the fall of Quebec, but continued on the ocean and in Europe for nearly four years longer. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763, by which Canada and its dependencies, including the posts along the lakes and the Ohio, were forever ceded to Great Britain. This very treaty, however, was the cause of another Avar. The French, by their friendly and conciliatory policy, had generally won the friendship of the Indians, but the English, by their arrogance and 12^2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. luirshnoss, had rarely failed to excite their hostility, and the transfer of Canada and the northwest made by the Treaty of Paris was bitterly resented by the Indians of that region. One of their chiefs, Pontiac, a leader of great courage and ability, persuaded his countrymen to join him in an attempt to d/ive out the English. He was successful, and the first blow was struck in June, 1763. In the two weeks which followed the outbreak, the savages captured all the forts w( st of Oswego, except Niagara, Detroit, and Pittsburg, and massacrcMl the garrisons. No English settler of either sex or any age who fell into the hands of the savages was spared. Siege was laid to Detroit, which was invested for six weeks. It was finally relieved, and the Indians were in their turn pressed with so much vigor that they were compelled to sue for peace. Pontiac, however, refused to yield to his conquerors, and set off towards the Mississippi, inciting the western tribes against the English, until he was murdered in 1769. The old French war was the only one of the struggles between France and England in which the Colonies bore a part, which origi- nated in America. These conflicts, though they at length resulted in removing the hostile French and Indians from the very doors of tlie Colonies, left them greatly exhausted in both men and money. They had shown the devotion of America to the mother country in a most conspicuous manner, and had certainly earned for the colonists at least the considerate forbearance of the Home Government. As for the Americans themselves, they had learned valuable lessons in modern warfare, had seen for themselves that British generals were not infallible, nor British troops invincible, and had gained a very decided confidence in their own prowess as shown by their achieve- ments. Great Britain, however, did not regard her Colonies with either motherly wisdom or kindness. Jealous of their growing commercial and manufacturing wealth, she sought in numerous ways to cripple their industry. Always a law-abiding people, the Americans bori' all the harsh measures of the mother country in silence, so long as they were kept within the limits sanctioned by the constitution of th<> realm. In 1761, however, the Home Government threw off its con- stitutional restraints. A law was enacted by Parliament, empowering sheriffs and customs officers to enter stores and private dwellings, upon the authority of writs of assistance,^^ or general search war- rants, and search for goods which it was suspected had not paid duty. The first attempt to use these writs was made in Massachusetts, THE UNITED STATES. 123 where obedience was refused to them by the indignant people, on the ground that they were issued in violation of the laws of England and of the Colony. The persons refusing obedience to them were brought to trial. James Otis, the eloquent attorney for the Crown, refused to sustain them, resigned his office, and in the trials which ensued pleaded the cause of the people with such force that, in the language of John Adams, every man of an immense crowded audience ap- peared to go a’way ready to take arms against the writs of assistance. The judges decided to avoid a decision, and the writs were never used, though they were granted in secret. It was now proposed by the British Government to levy a direct tax upon the Colonies, and at the same time to deny them any voice in the imposition of this tax. An Act for this purpose, generally called the Stamp Act, was passed by the Commons on the 22d of March, 1765, by a majority of nine-tenths of the members, and on the 1st of April by the House of Lords with scarcely a dissenting voice. The king at once signed the bill. This Act required that every written or printed paper used in trade, in order to be \alid, should have affixed to it a stamp of a denomination to be determined by the character of the paper, and that no stamp should be for a les,s sum than one shilling. The Colonies had earnestly protested against the measure while it was being discussed in Parliament, but the only notice which the Government took of these protests was to send ov er a body of troops for the purpose of enforcing obedience to the Stamp Act, and the Ministers were authorized by Parliament to compel the Colonies to find “quarters, fuel, cider or rum, candles and other necessaries for these troops. Such infamous measures produced great excitement in America. Patrick Henry introduced a series of resolutions into the General As- sembly of Mirginia, which were adopted by that body, declaring that the Colonists were bound to pay only such taxes as should be levied by their own legislatures. The Legislature of Massachusetts author- ized the courts of that province to proceed to transact their business without the use of stamps. In the other Colonies the opposition was strong, but not so vehement, and associations called “Sons of Liberty ’ were formed all over the country, consisting of men who pledged themselves t6 oppose the Stamp Act and defend the rights of the Colonies when assailed. The determination not to use the stamps was general, and when the 1st of November, 1765, the day on which the hated law was to go into operation, arrived, it was found that all 124 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tlic officials appointed to distribute the stamps had resigned their places. The bells in all the Colonies were tolled, and the flags lowered in mourning for the death of liberty in America. The merchants pledged themselves to import no more English goods, and the people agreed to use no more articles of English manufacture until the law was re[)ealed. Previous to this, in June, the Legislature of Massachusetts had is- sued a call for a general Congress of delegates from all the Colonies to meet in New York, on the first Tuesday in October, to consider the state of affairs. Nine of the Colonies were represented in this body, which met at the appointed time. The Congress drew up a declaration of rights for the Colonies, a memorial to Parliament, and a petition to the king, in which, after asserting their loyalty to the Crown and laws of England, they insisted upon their right to be taxed only by their own representatives. These documents were submitted to and approved by the provincial legislatures, and were laid before the British Government in the name of the United Colonies. These popular demonstrations brought up the subject in Parlia- ment, and the friends of America urgently demanded a repeal of the Act. Pitt and Burke advocated the repeal with powerful eloquence. The Commons examined a number of witnesses as to the temper and condition of the Colonies. One of these was Benjamin Franklin, who was sojourning in London. He told the House that his country- men were not possessed of a sufficient amount of gold and silver to buy the stamps, that they were already greatly burdened by debts contracted by them in support of the recent war, in which they had borne more than their just share of the expenses, that they were loyal and attached to the mother country, but that the harsh acts of the Government could only result in destroying their loyal friendship, that unless the Acts complained of were repealed, the Colonies would cease to trade with England, and that they would never consent to pay any taxes except those imposed upon them by their own legis- latures. Influenced by these representations, the Parliament resolved to retrace its steps, and on the 18th of March, 1766, the Stamp Act was repealed. The repeal was celebrated with great rejoicings in both America and England, the latter country having become alarmed by the decrease in its trade with the Colonies. The British Government, however, did not relinquish its determi- nation to tax America, and on the 29th of June, 1767, the king signed an Act of Parliament imposing duties on glass, tea, paper, and THE UNITED STATES. - 125 some other articles imported into the Colonies. The Americans met this new aggression with a revival of their societies for discontinuing the importation of English goods. Massachusetts led this opposition, and in Boston the custom house officers were mobbed for demanding duties on the cargo of a schooner owned by John Hancock. The officers sought refuge from the mob in the fort in the harbor, and m September,°1768, the Government ordered General Gage to occupy ^Hhe insolent town of Boston’’ with a strong military force. This measure but increased the disaffection of the Bostonians, and on the 5th of March, 1770, a collision occurred between the citizens and the troops, in which three of the former were killed and five wounded. This massacre,” as it was called, produced great excitement in all the Colonies. The soldiers who had fired on the crowd were tried for murder in Boston, and were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who were resolved that they should have impartial justice dealt out to them. The evidence showing that the troops did not fire until provoked to it by the people, the jury acquitted all the pris- oners but two, who were convicted of manslaughter. The feeling of the Colonies was so unmistakable that Parliament resolved to remove the obnoxious duties. The king, however, ex- pressly ordered that at least one nominal duty should be retained, as he did not mean to surrender his right to tax the Colonies. In ac- cordance with this command, a duty of three per cent, on tea was re- tained, and all the others removed. The Americans, however, objected to the principle of taxation without representation, and not to the amount of the tax, and resolved to discontinue the use of tea until the duty should be repealed. Meetings for this purpose were held in the principal seaports of the countr>\ When it was ascertained that several ships loaded with tea were on their way to Boston, a large meeting of citizens was called, at which it was resolved to send the vessels^^back to England. Three ships loaded with tea reached Bos- ton soon after, and their owners, in compliance with the public de- mand, consented to order them back to England, if the Governor would allow them to leave the port. Governor Hutchinson, how- ever, refused to allow the ships to go to sea, and on the night of the 18th of December, a band of citizens, disguised as Indians, seized the vessels, emptied the tea into the harbor, and then quietly dispersed without harming the vessels. This bold act greatly incensed the British Government, and Parliament adopted severe measures for the purpose of punishing the Colonies. The harbor of Boston was closed 126 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. to all commerce, and the Government of the Colony ordered to be removed to Salem, soldiers were to be quartered on all the Colonies at the expense of the citizens, and it was required that all officers who sliould be prosecuted for enforcing these measures should be sent to England for trial. The excitement in the Colonies over these acts was tremendous. Boston was everywhere regarded as the victim of British tyranny, and was in constant receipt of assurances of sympathy, and of money and provisions for the poor of the town, sent to her from all parts of the country. Salem refused to accept the transfer of the seat of Gov- ernment, and the authorities of Marblehead requested the merchants of Boston to use their port free of charge. Even in London X30,000 were subscribed for the relief of Boston. The excitement continued to increase throughout the country, and the breach between the Colo- nies and the mother country grew wider every day. On the 5th of September, 1774, a Congress of 55 delegates, repre- senting all the Colonies except Georgia, whose royalist governor prevented an election, met in Philadelphia. It was composed of the ablest men in America, among whom were Washington, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Edward Rutledge, John Rutledge, Christopher Gadsden, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Philip Livingston, William Livingston, John Jay, Dr. Witherspoon, Peyton Randolph, and Charles Thomson. This body, after consider- ing the grievances of the Colonies, adopted a declaration setting forth their rights as subjects of the British crown to a just share in the making of their own laws, and in imposing their own taxes, to the right of a speedy trial by jury in the community in which the offence should be committed, and to the right to hold public meetings and petition for redress of grievances. A protest against the unconstitu- tional Acts of the British Parliament was adoped, as well as a petition to the king, an appeal to the British people, and a memorial to the people of the Colonies. The Congress proposed, as a means of re- dress, the formation of an ^^American Association,’’ whose members should pledge themselves not to trade with Great Britain or the West Indies, or Vvlth any persons engaged in the slave trade, and to refrain from using British goods or tea. The papers drawn up by the Congress were transmitted to England. The Earl of Chatham (Wil- liam Pitt) was deeply impressed by them, and declared in Parliament tliat ^^all attempts to impose servitude upon such a mighty continental nation must be vain.” The ‘English people, as a general rule, w’ere THE UNITED STATES. 127 sincerely anxious that the demands of the Americans should be com- plied with, and even Lord ^^orth, the Prime Minister, who carried the measures in question through Parliament, was in his heart op- posed to them, and only continued in office to uphold them at the express command of the king, who was obstinately determined upon whipping his American subjects into submission. Few of the leaders of the Colonists now doubted that hostilities would soon begin, and with a view to prepare for the emergency, the Colonies began to take steps for raising and arming troops at a minute’s warning. These preparations were especially vigorous in Massachusetts, and alarmed General 'Gage, who fortified Boston neck, and commenced to seize all the arms and munitions of war he could find in the province. The Colonial authorities of Massachusetts had established small stores of arms and ammunition at Worcester and Concord, and General Gage resolved to secure them. On the night of the 18th of April, 1775, he sent a large detachment of troops to destroy the stores at Concord. It was his design that the movement should be secret, but he was so closely watched by the patriots that the march of his troops was instantly discovered, and the alarm spread through the country by messengers. The people at once flew to arms, and when the trOops reached Lexington, a village half way between Boston and Concord, on the morning of the 19th, Major PiL cairn, their commander, found his progress opposed by a considerable number of the country people. He ordered his men to fire upon them. The order was obeyed, and the citizens were driven off with a loss of eight killed and several wounded. The troops then pro- ceeded to Concord, where they destroyed some stores, but upon reach- ing the north bridge ov^er Concord River, they met with a de- termined resistance from the people, who had now assembled in con- siderable force, and were obliged to retreat to Boston. The Colonists followed them closely on their retreat, pouring in a galling fire from every conv'enient point. The total loss of the British on this occasion was 273 men killed and wounded. This battle, if a battle it can be called, put an end to the long dis- pute between America and Great Britain, and inaugurated the Revo- lution. Previous to this, no one ever heard, as Jefferson remarks, a whisper of a disposition to separate from Great Britain, but after the first surprise of the shock had worn off, the people of the Colonies commenced to take up arms for freedom. On the 22d of April, the authorities of Massachusetts ordered that a Xew England army of 128 THE GREAT REPUBLIC RUINS OF TICONDEROGA. 30,000 men should be put in the field, and that Massachusetts should furnish 13,000 of these. Troops were raised witli rapidity under this authority, and by the 1st of May, an army of 20,000 men was en- camped before Boston. In the other Colonies equally important measures were set on foot. The fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point were seized by vol- unteers from Connecticut and Vermont, led by Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen. The cannon and stores taken with them were of in- calculable service to the Americans, who were sadly in need of mili- tary supplies. In Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia, the people took up arms as soon as the news from the North was received, and in North Carolina a convention was held at Charlotte, in Mecklenburg county, which body, in May, 1775, proclaimed the independence of the people of North Carolina, and prepared to resist the authority of Great Britain by force of arms. THE UNITED STATES. 129 On the 10th of May, 1775, the second Colonial Congress met at Philadelphia. It was composed of the most eminent men of the country, among whom Avere Washington, Franklin, Hancock, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, Jay, George Clinton, Jefferson, and others. The proceedings of this body Avere eminently moderate. The first step taken Avas to elect John Hancock President of the Congress. A petition to the king Avas draAAm up, and forAvarded to him, denying any intention to separate from Great Britain, and asking only for redress of the Avrongs of which the Colonies complained. A federal Union of the Colonies was formed, and the Congress assumed and exercised the general gov- ernment of the country. Measures AA^ere taken to establish an army, to procure military supplies, and to fit out a navy. A loan of $2,000,000 AAms authorized, and the faith of the United Colonies pledged for its payment. The troops before Boston AA^re organized as a Continental army, and placed under the control of the Congress, and Washington AAms elected Commander-in-Chief. As soon as he received his commission, he set out for Boston, but did not arrive there until after the occurrence of the events iioav to be related. Alarmed by the presence of the American forces before Boston, the British commander in that toAAUi formed the plan of seizing and forti- fying Bunker Hill in Charlestown. His plan aa^s betrayed to the Americans, aaJio at once sent a force under Colonel William Prescott to fortify the hill. Prescott misunderstood his instructions, and pro- ceeded to fortify Breed’s Hill, which, though inferior in height to Bunker Hill, was nearer to Boston, and more perfectly commanded the harbor. He threw up a slight breastAAmrk during the night of the 16th of June, Avhich Avas discovered by the British on the morn- ing of the 17th. A force of 3000 regulars AA^as detailed to carry the hill, assisted by the fire of the royal ships in the harbor. The Ameri- can force A\ms scarcely more than half this number, and consisted of raw and undisciplined provincials. They repulsed two assaults, hoAvever, inflicting upon their enemies a loss of 1045 men killed and AAmunded ; but Avere at length, after their ammunition had given out, driven from the hill. They retreated across CharlestoAAm neck to Cambridge, Avhich Avas held by tlm Continental army, having lost 449 men killed, Avounded, and prisoners. Among the killed AA^as General Joseph Warren, of Boston, one of the most valuable of the American leaders. This battle, though an actual defeat for the Americans, was regarded by them as a victory, inasmuch as it demonstrated their 9 130 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. iibility to hold their ground against the regular troops of Great Britain, and inspired them with a confidence which attended them during the entire war. Washington reached the army before Boston several days after the battle of Bunker Hill, and immediately took command. He was re- ceived with enthusiasm by the troops and people. He was accom- panied by General Charles Lee, an officer who had seen service before. Congress had appointed a full complement of general officers for the army, all of whom were with their commands. The Major-Generals were : Charles Lee, of Virginia, Philip Schuyler, of New York, Arte- nias Ward, of Massachusetts, and Israel Putnam, of Connecticut. The Brigadiers were : Horatio Gates, Seth Pomeroy, Richard Mont- gomery, David \Yooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene. Of all these. Gates Avns the only man who possessed sufficient experience to be of much assistance to AYashington in the task of perfecting the organization of the army, which was in reality little better than a mere rabble in dis- cipline, clothing, and equipment. By extraordinary exertions, Wash- ington and Gates at length succeeded in bringing the force to a tolerably effective condition. Boston was at once regularly besieged, and closely invested until March 17th, 1776, when, Washington having secured a position from which his cannon could render the city untenable, the British forces evacuated the place, and sailed for Halifax. They were accompanied by a large body of loyalists, who feared to remain in the town after its occupation by the Americans. Meanwhile, during the progress of the siege of Boston, other opera- tions had been going on elsewhere. General Montgomery had been sent into Canada with a small, weak force, to conquer that province, which was believed to be disaffected towards England. His second in command was Benedict Arnold, who rendered brilliant service during the campaign. The principal event of the invasion was a joint attack upon Quebec by Montgomery and Arnold, which was unsuc- cessful, and in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. The expedition accomplished nothing of importance, and was com- pelled to return to the Colonies, after suffering great losses and con- siderable hardships. A British fleet attacked and burned Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) on the New England coast, and committed many outrages on the coast of Virginia. A powerful force, under Sir Peter Parker, attacked Fort Sullivan, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, THE EXITED STATES 131 ES^DEPHXDEXCE HALL IX 1176. and was repulsed with heavy loss. The Americans managed during the year to fit out several cruisers, which were fortunate enough to capture a number of prizes loaded with militarv stores for the British army, and which proved of infinite service to the Americans. Indeed, these captures seemed providential, for often when the stock of arms and munitions was running low, a cruiser would make its way into port with a prize laden with the supplies most •needed, which it had taken from the enemv. Congress took measures for the active prosecution of the war. Supplies were drawn from the W est Indies, and a regular svstem for that purpose inaugurated; powder mills and cannon founderies were provided for ; thirteen frigates were ordered to be built (a few of which eventually got to sea) ; a committee of war, one of finance, and a secret committee, to which was entrusted the negotiations of tlie Colonies with the individuals and authorities of foreign States, w^e appointed ; and an energetic, if defective, system of government for 132 THE GREAT HEPUBLIC. the United Colonies’^ was fairly established. Finally, on the 4th of Jnly, 1776, Congress adopted a declaration on behalf of the Colo- nies, declaring their independence of the English crown, and pro- claiming that henceforth the Colonies were free and independent States. This declaration changed the entire nature of the struggle. “The war,’’ says Bancroft, “was no longer a civil war; Britain was become to the United States a foreign country. Every former subject of the British king in the thirteen Colonies now owed primary allegi- ance to the dynasty of the people, and became citizens of the new republic ; except in this, everything remained as before ; every man retained his rights; the Colonies did not dissolve into a state of na- ture, nor did the new people undertake a social revolution. The affairs of internal police and government were carefully retained by each separate State, which could, each for itself, enter upon the career of domestic reforms. But the States which were henceforth indepen- dent of Britaan, were not independent of one another; the United States of America assumed powers over w^ar, peace, foreign alliances, and commerce.” As he supposed that Uew A^ork would be the next object of attack by the British, AYashington transferred his army to that place imme- diately after his occupation of Boston. He had not long to wait, for in June, Admiral Lord Howe entered New York bay with a formi- dable fleet and 30,000 troops, consisting principally of German mer- cenaries hired by the King of England. The troops were landed on Staten Island, and preparations made for attacking the city of New York. Lord Howe issued a proclamation to tlie people of America, offering a free pardon to all who would lay down their arms and ac- cept the king’s clemency; but the proclamation produced no effect whatever upon the patriots, who were convinced that they could ex- pect but a poor regard for their rights and liberties at the hands of King George. AVashington’s force was vastly inferior to that ef the enemy in every respect. He was compelled to divide it, and to place a portion of it on Long Island, in order to cover the approaches to the city of New York. The force on Long Island was attacked and defeated by the British on the 27th of August, 1776, ^and compelled to abandon the island. The enemy followed up their successes, and finally obliged AYashington to give up Alanhattan Island and the lower Hudson. Disasters now fell thickly upon the Americans, and by the close of the year AAYshington had been driven across the Delaware, THE HXITED STATES. 133 and had with him less than 4000 half-starved and miserably equipped troops. The British had by this time taken possession of the island of Rhode Island, and had made a descent upon Baskingridge, New Jersey, and had captured General Charles Lee. By December, 1776, the cause of the Colonies seemed so desperate that the people generally began to abandon the hope of liberty and apply themselves to the task of jnaking their peace, individually, with the royal authorities. In- fluenced by this state of affairs. Sir William Howe, the Britisli Coramander-in-Chief, refrained from making a vigorous effort to fol- low up his antagonist and crush him. At this hour, when everything was so gloomy, ashington was calm and hopeful. He had expected reverses, and they did not dis- may him. He did what lay in his power to cheer and encourage the little band of heroes who remained faithful to him, and watched the enemy with sleepless vigilance, and at length discovered an opportu- nity for striking a powerful blow in behalf of his country. Perceiving that the advanced wing of the English army occupied an exposed position at Trenton, New Jersey, he crossed the Delaware with his army, in open boats, in the midst of snow and ice, on the night of the 25th of December, and falling suddenly upon the enemy at daybreak the next morning, completely routed them, capturing 1000 prisoners, 1000 stand of arms, 6 brass field pieces, and 4 standards. On the night of the 26th, he recrossed the Delaware, and returned to his camp in Pennsylvania. On the 3d of January, 1777, he again de- feated a strong British detachment at Princeton, New Jersey, and in a short while had cleared that State almost entirely of the enemy. These victories, so brill^nt^nd so audacious, completely startled the British, who had' believed thp war virtually over in the North, and aroused, as if .by magic, the drooping spirits of the Americans. Congress, which had remained unmoved by the disasters of 1776, now inaugurated a series of more vigorous measures than had yet been de- termined upon. Washington was invested with almost dictatorial powers ; troops w'ere ordered to be enlisted for three years, instead of one year, which was the term of the first levies; a central government was established, and a constitution, known as the ^Wrtieles of Con- federation,’’ was adopted by the States (Maryland did not ratify these articles until the next year) ; and agents ^vere sent to foreign countries to procure the recognition of the independence of the United States. When the campaign of 1777 opened, the prospects of the country 134 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. IkuI so far improved tliat Washington found himself at the head of an army of 7000 men. Sir William Howe made repeated efforts to bring on a general engagement, but Washington skilfully avoided it, and the British General finally withdrew his army from New Jersey, and occupied Staten Island. Soon after this, he sailed with 16,000 Jiien for the Chesapeake, and, landing at Elk River, in Maryland, advanced through Delaware towards Philadelphia, which was the seat of the Federal Government. Washington endeavored to check the progress of the enemy on the Brandywine, September 11th, but was defeated with a loss of 1000 men. The British occupied Phila- delphia a few days later, and Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and then to York, Pennsylvania. On the 4th of October, Washington made a vigorous attack upon the British force at Germantown, 7 miles from Philadelphia, but was repulsed with severe loss. This event closed the campaign in the Middle States. In the North, the American forces had been more successful. General Burgoyne, with 7000 regular troops and a considerable force of Canadians and Indians, entered the United States from Canada during the summer of 1777, and advanced as far as Fort Edward, on the upper Hudson. From this point a strong detachment was sent to Bennington, in Vermont, to destroy the stores collected there by the Americans. This for(;e was routed with a loss of 800 men, by the militia of New Hampshire and Vermont, under General Stark. The battle occurred at Bennington, on the 16th of August, 1777. Burgoyne then advanced towards Saratoga, New York, making his way through the woods until he reached the vicinity of that place, when he was met by the American General Gates, to whom the command of the Northern department had been recently assigned. An indecisive battle was fought between the two armies on the 19th of September, and a second and more decisive engage- ment occurred on the 7th of October, on nearly the same ground. Burgoyne was considerably worsted, and endeavored to return to Canada, but finding his retreat cut oflP, surrendered his entire army to the American forces, upon favorable terms, on the 17th of October. This victory, the most important of the war, greatly elated the Americans and their friends in Europe, while it depressed the Tories or loyalists in America to an equal degree. It advanced the bills of the Continental Congress, and had the effect of inducing the French (government, which had secretly encouraged and aided the Colonies from the first, to recognize the independence of the States, and in THE UNITED STATES. 135 February, 1778, a treaty of friendship, commerce, and alliance was signed at Paris, by the French King and the American Commission- ers. Great Britain seemed to realize now, for the first time, that she was about to lose her Colonies, and endeavored to repair her mistakes. On the 11th of March, 1778, Parliament repealed the Acts which had proved so obnoxious to the Colonies, and subsequently sent three commissioners to negotiate a reconciliation with the Americans. As these commissioners had no authority to consent to the independence of the States, Congress refused to treat with them until the king should withdraw his forces from the country, and rejected the terms offered by the British Government, Washington's army went into winter quarters at the Valley Forge, 20 miles from Philadelphia, about the middle of Decenftber, 1777. The troops suffered terribly from exposure, hunger, and the dreadful privations to which they were subjected, but remained with their colors through it all. Their devotion "was rewarded in the spring by the news of the alliance with France, which reached them in May, 1778, and was greeted with demonstrations of the liveliest joy. The first result of the French alliance was the arrival in the Dela- ware of a fleet, under Count D’Estaing. D’Estaing had been ordered to blockade the British fleet in the Delaware, and arrived off the Capes in June, but before his arrival the enemy’s ships had taken refuge in Baritan Bay. The British army in Philadelphia was now commanded by Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded General Howe. On the 18th of June, Clinton withdrew his force from that city, and began his retreat through New Jersey to New York, Washington pursued him promptly, and came up with him, on the 28th of June, on the plains of Monmouth, near the town of Freehold, N. J., where a severe engagement took place. Although the result was indecisive, Clinton resumed his retreat to New York, and remained there for the rest of the summer, without making any effort to resume hostilities. In August, an attempt was made by the Americans, assisted by the French fleet, to drive the British from Rhode Island, but without success. D’Estaing withdrew from tile coast soon after this, and re- turned to the West Indies, having rendered little practical aid during his presence in American waters. The finances of the country were now in the greatest confusion, and nothing but the wisdom and unshrinking patriotism of Robert Morris saved the infant republic from utter bankruptcy and ruin. It^is worthy of remark that a grateful country suflered this man to die o 13G THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ji debtor’s prison. On the whole, liowever, the cause of the States was much improved. Besides the alliance with France, they had tlm secret encouragement and assistance of Spain. They had confined tlie British to the territory held by that array in 177G, and had a larger and better disciplined army than they had yet possessed. In 1779, the principal military operations were transferred to the South. Savannah had been already captured on the 29th of Decem- ber, 1778, by an expedition sent from New York by Sir Henry Clinton, and by the summer of 1779, the whole State of Georgia was in the hands of the British. In September, 1779, the French fleet and a land force of Americans under General Ijincoln attempted to recover Savannah, but were repulsed with a loss of 1000 men. On the 16th of June, 1779, Spain declared war against England, and, in the summer of that year, the French King, influenced by the appeals of Lafayette, who had visited France for that purpose, agreed to send another fleet and a strong body of troops to the assistance of the Americans. The cruisers of the United States were doing con- siderable damage to the British commerce -at sea and in British waters, and Paul Jones, on the 23d of September, fought and Avon one of the most desperate battles known to naval warfare, in plain sight of the English coast. Sir Henry Clinton, in obedience to instructions received from England, now withdrew his forces from Rhode Island', and concen- trated his entire command at New York, Early in 1780, he pro- ceeded Avith the main body of his troops to the South, leaving General Knyphausen in command at New York, and at once laid siege to Charleston, South Carolina, Avhich AAms held by General Lincoln with a force of 2500 men. The city Avas. surrendered >^yith its garrison, on the 17th of May, 1780, after a nominal defence. By the 1st of June, the British were in possession of the whole State of South Carolina, and Clinton Avas so AA^ell convinced of the completeness of its subju- gation that he went back to Ncav York on the 5th of June, leaving the command in the South to Lord Cornwallis. Small bands of partisan troops, under Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and other no less devoted though less famous leaders, noAV sprang up in various parts of the State, and maintained a vigorous guerilla Avar- fare, from Avhich the enemy suffered greatly. Congress soon after sent an army under General Gates into South Carolina to drive the enemy ffom the State. Gates’ success at Saratoga had made him the idol of the hour, and there Avere persons Avho seriously desired that he THE EXITED STATES. 1ST should even supersede AVashington himself; but his northern laurels soon wilted in the South. Cornwallis met him at Camden, louted him with a loss of 1000 men, and drove him into Xorth Carolina. Bv the close of the summer, the only American force in South Caro- lina was the little band under General ISiariou. Corn\^aLli::^, feeling p^ssured that his communications with Charleston were safe, followed Gates^ beaten army into— Xorth Carolina, towards the middle of Sep- tember. On the 7th of October, a strong detachment of his army was totally defeated, with a loss of 1200 men, by the militia of Xorth Carolina, at King’s Mountain. This was a severe blow to him, and checked his advance. At the same time Marion and Pickens renewed their warfare in South Carolina so actively, and rendered Cornwallis’ communications with the sea so uncertain, that he withdrew towards Charleston. In the Xorth, the British commander vainly endeavored to draw Washington into a general engagement, in which he felt confident that his vast preponderance of numbers would give him the victory. Washington warily avoided being caught in the trap ; and on the 23d of June, General Greene inflicted such a stinging defeat upon a British force at Springfield, X. J., that Clinton withdrew to Xew York, and remained there for the rest of the year. After the battle of Camden, General 'Greene was sent to the Carolinas, to take com- mand of Gates’ army. On the 10th of July, 1780, a French fleet and 6000 troops, all under the Count de Pochambeau, reached Xewport, Khode Island. In September, during the absence of Washington at Hartford, Conn., whither he had gone to arrange a plan of operations with the French officers, it was discovered that General Benedict Arnold, one of the most brilliant officers of the Continental army, had agreed to deliver into the hands of the British the important fortress of West Point, which he commanded at that time. The plot was promptly frus- trated, and the traitor escaped, but Major Andre, a British officer wlio had concluded the arrangement with him, and whose capture had revealed the plot, was hanged as a spy. Towards the close of the year, Great Britain having discovered that Holland and the United States were secretly negotiating a treaty of alliance, declared war against the Dutch. The ^Var against America, however, still continued unpopular with the English''p^ople. The campaign of 1781 opened with the brilliant vlctmiy at the Cowpens, in South Carolina, won over the ‘British uudeE- Colonel 138 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Tarletoii by General Morgan, on the 17th of January. On the 15th of March the battle of Guilford Court House was fought in North Carolina, and resulted in a partial victory for the British. In Sep- tember, 1781, the royal forces were terribly beaten in the bloody battle of Eutaw Springs, in South Carolina, and compelled to retire to the sea coast, to which they were confined until the close of the war. Meanwhile, Cornwallis, after the battle of Guilford Court House, had advanced into Virginia, driving before him the handful of forces under Lafayette, Wayne, and Steuben, which sought to oppose his march. He occupied himself chiefly while in Virginia in destroying private property, and at length, in August, 1781, in obedience to orders from Sir Henry Clinton, to occupy a strong defensive position in Virginia, intrenched himself at Yorktown, near the entrance of the York River into Chesapeake Bay. This movement led to an immediate change in the plan of operations which had been resolved upon by Washington, whose army had been reenforced on the Hudson by the French troops under Count de Rochambeau. It had been his intention to attack the British in New York with his combined force, aided by the French fleet, but Cornwallis’ situation offered such a tempting opportunity that he at once resolved to transfer his army to Virginia. Skilfully deceiving Sir Henry Clinton into the belief that New York was the threatened point, and thus preventing him from sending assistance to Cornwallis, Washington moved rapidly to Vir- ginia, and arrived before the British works at Yorktown, with an army 12,000 strong, on the 28th of September, 1781. The enemy’s position was at once invested by land, and the French fleet cut off all hope of. escape by water. The siege was prosecuted with vigor, and on the 19th of October, Cornwallis surrendered his whole army, which consisted of 7000 well equipped troops. This victory virtually closed the war. It produced the wildest joy in America, and compelled a change of Ministers in England. Lord North and his Cabinet retired from office on the 20th of March, 1782, and the new administration, perceiving the hopelessness of the struggle, resolved to discontinue the war. Orders were sent to the British commanders in America to desist from further hostilities, and on the 11th of Jiily,A782, Savannah was evacuated by the royal troops, which evenLwas followed by the evacuation of Charleston on the 14th of December. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris on the 30th of November, 1782, and a formal treaty on the 3d of September, 1783. By this formal treaty Great Britain acknow- f THE UNITED STATES. 139 ledged her former Colonies to be free, sovereign, and independent States, and withdrew her troops from New York on the 25th of No- vember, 1783. The great vv^ar w’as now over, and the new Hepublic took its place in the family of nations ; bat it was terribly weakened by its efforts. Its finances were in the most pitiful condition, and it had not the money to pay the troops it was about to disband, and who were really suffering for want of funds. Considerable trouble arose on this account, and it required all the great influence of Washington to allay the dis- content. The army was disbanded immediately after the close of the war, and on the 23rd of December, 1783, Washington resigned his commission into the hands of Congress, and retired to his home at Mount Vernon. It was found that the Articles of Confederation were inadequate to the necessities of the Eepublic, and a new Constitution was adopted by the States after much deliberation. It went into operation on the 4th of March, 1789. The city of New York was designated as the seat of Government. Washington was unanimously chosen the first President of the Eepublic, with John Adams as Vice-President, He w^ent into office on the 30th of April, 1789. The first measures of his administration greatly restored the confidence of the people in the Gov- ernment. Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, inaug- urated a series of financial reforms, which were eminently beneficial. The debts of the old Confederated Government and the debts of the States themselves, were all assumed by the United States ; a bank of the United States (which went into operation in February 1794) was incorporated, and -a national Mint was established at Philadelphia. An Indian war in the West was firmly and vigorously prosecuted to a successful termination, and the neutrality of the Eepublic with regard to the various parties of the great Eevolution in France, faithfully maintained. Washington and Adams were reelected in 1792. The principal events of the second term were the firmness with which the President met the efforts of the French Eepublic to embroil the United States in another war with England ; the demand for the recall of M. Genet, the French Minister, which was at length complied with ; the British Treaty of 1794 (commonly known as Jay’s Treaty), which was so warmly discussed by the Federalist and Eepublican parties in this country; the outrageous decrees by which the French Government sought to cripple American commerce in revenge for the supposed 140 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. partiality of our Governmcut for England ; the admission into tlie Union of the States of Yennont (1791), Kentucky (1792), and Ten- nessee (179G); and the Whiskey Insurreetion, in 1794, whieli was a formidable outbreak in Western Pennsylvania against an odious excise law. Washington promptly suppressed it. Washington was urgently importuned to be a candidate for another term, but declined, although it was sure that there would be no oppo- sition to him. Ill September, 1796, he issued a Farewell Address to his countrymen, warning them of the evils to which their new system was exposed, and urging them to adhere firmly to the principles of the Constitution as their only hope of liberty and happiness. The third Presidental election occurred in 1796, and was marked by a display of bitterness between the opposing parties never surpassed in the subseciuent history of the Republic. The Federalists presented John Adams as their candidate, while the Republicans advocated the claims of Thomas Jenerson. Adams received the highest number of votes, and Jefferson the next. By the terms of the Constitution as it then existed, Jefferson was declared the Vice-President. President Adams was opposed with considerable bitterness by his political enemies throughout his whole term. The administration of the Navy was removed from the War Department in 1798, and a Navy Depart- ment established. On the 15th of May, 1797, the President convened Congress in extra session to consider the relations of this countrv with France. The French Directory had been pursuing for some yeai's a systematic course of outrage towards the ships and citizens of the United States, and had carried this to such an extent as to leave little doubt that it was their deliberate intention to destroy American com- merce. Three envoys were sent to France by President Adams, with authority to adjust all differences between the two countries. The Directory refused to receive them, but they were given to understand that the payment of a large sum of money by their Government would greatly tend towards securing proper treatment for our vessels ; and it was plainly intimated that if the American Government refused to pay this bribe, it would have to go to war for its obstinacy. When this message was delivered to the Commissioners, one of their number, Charles C. Pinckney, returned this memorable and patriotic reply, in which his associates heartily joined : War be it then ; millions for defence, but not a cent for tribute.’^ The French Government then informed Air. Gerry, who was a Republican, that he could remain in France, but ordered Messrs. Pinekney and Alarshall to quit the country. THE UNITED STATES. 141 Great indignation prevailed throaghout the Union, when these in- sults to the American Commissioners became known. The Govern- ment at once took measures to raise an army and navy adequate to the struggle which seemed imminent. Washington was appointed Com- mander-hi-Chief, with the rank of Lieutenant-General, and hostilities actually began at sea, where the cruisers of the Hepublic won seveial brilliant successes over French ships of war. The energy and determination thus manifested by the United States had a happy effect in France, and the war was finally averted by the accession of Napoleon to the dignity of First Consul. The new ruler of France intimated his willingness to reopen the negotiations with America, and a treaty of peace and amity betv/een the two countries was definitely concluded, on the 30th of September, loOO. During the existence of hostilities with France, two laws were enacted by Congress, which are generally known as the 'When and Sedition Laws.’^ They empowered the President to send out of the country such aliens as should be found conspiring against the peace and safety of the Republic, and to restrict the liberty of speech and of the press. It was true beyond all doubt, as the Government claimed in defence of its course, that the country was overrun with English and French agents, who were here for the express purpose of embroil- ing the United States in the quarrels in progress in the Old World, and that the press, which was controlled mainly by European adven- turers, had become so corrupt and licentious as to be highly dangerous to the peace of the country. Nevertheless, these Acts aroused such a strong opposition throughout the States, that the Federalists were overwhelmingly defeated in the next Presidential election. During President Adams’ term, the seat of Government was removed to Wash- ington City. In the fourth contest for the Presidency, the votes of the Republican party were equally divided between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, Each received 73 electoral votes. This threw the election into the House of Representatives, where Jefferson was chosen President and Burr Vice-President. This circumstance also occasioned an amend- ment to the Constitution (adopted finally in 1804), requiring the elec- tors to vote separately, as at present, for President and Vice-President. Mr. Jefferson entered upon his office in March, 1801, and soon after beemn to remove the Federalist office-holders under the Government, appointed by his predecessor, and to fill their places with Republicans, or Democrats as they now began to call themselves. He justified Iffs 142 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. course by declaring that Mr. Adams had appointed none but Fede- ralists to office, and that it was not fair for one party to have all the offices, or even a majority of them. This was the beginning of the system of removals from office for political causes, which has been the bane of our Government; but it should be added, in justice to Mr. Jef- ferson, that he was not guilty of such wholesale political decapitation as has usually been practised by his successors. His removals were few in proportion to the whole number of officials. His first term was marked by wisdom and vigor. The domestic affairs of the nation prospered, and the finances were managed in a masterly manner by Albert Gallatin, the great Secretary of the Treasury. Louisiana was purchased from France, and the insolence and piracies of the Barbary States of Africa punished and stopped. In 1804, Mr. Jefferson was reelected, receiving all but 14 of the electoral votes. Burr was succeeded in the Vice-Presidency by George Clinton, and two years later was arrested and tried for a supposed attempt to separate the Western States from the Union. He was acquitted of the charge, and his innocence is now generally admitted. American commerce was much injured by the retaliatory decrees and orders in Council of the French and British Governments, under the sanction of which American ships were seized with impunity in gross violation of the laws of nations. Great Britain was not content with these outrages, but asserted a right to impress American seamen into her navy, and to stop and search American vessels for deserters from her ships of war. These searches were generally conducted in the most aggravating manner, and hundreds of American sailors, owing no allegiance to King George, were forced into the British service. In June, 1807, the American frigate Chesapeake, on her way to the Mediterranean, was stopped off the Chesapeake Bay, by the British frigate Leopard, whose commander produced an order requiring him to search the ship for deserters. The American vessel refused to submit to the search, and was fired into by the Leopard, and, being in a helpless condition, was forced to yield with a loss of twenty-one of her crew. Four men were taken from her and sent on board the Leopard. Three of these afterwards proved to be native- born Americans. This outrage aroused a feeling of the most intense indignation in America, and the Federal Government at once de- manded reparation at the hands of Great Britain, which was evaded for the time, but finally made in 1811. On the 11th of November, 1807, England issued an order in THE UNITED STATES. 143 Council, forbidding neutral vessels to enter the ports of France until they had first touched hi a British port and paid a duty ; and the next month Napoleon << 2 plied to this, by issuing a decree from Milan, ordering the confi?:;?/d:>^ of every vessel which should submit to search by or pay any duties to the British authorities. These two piratical decrees, each of which was enforced by a powerful navy, meant simply the destruction of all neutral commerce, and that of Americ-a in par- ticular. Mr. Jeiferson recommended to Congress, in December, to lay an embargo, detaining all vessels, American or foreign, in the ports of the United States, and to order the immediate return home of all American vessels. This measure, which was a most singular expedient, was adopted, and gave rise to such intense dissatisfaction in all parts of the country, that it was repealed in February, 1809. As Mr. Jefferson declined to be a candidate for a third term, the Democratic party supported James Madison, of A irginia, for the Presidenev, and George Clinton, of New \ ork, for the A ice-Presi- dency, and elected them in 1808. They were inaugurated in March, 1809. The measures of Mr. Jefferson’s second term, and especially the embargo, had given rise to considerable opposition to the Demo- craev, and this opposition was now directed against the new adminis- tration with no little bitterness, and followed it persistently until its withdrawal from power. Great Britain, instead of discontinuing her outrages upon American seamen and commerce, increased them every day, persistently refusing to be influenced by the protests and representations of the United States ; and our Government, having at length exhausted all peace- able means of redress, was compelled to defend its rights with arms. ^Var was declared against England on the 3d of June, 1812, and measures looking to the conquest of Canada were at once set on foot. The nation was poorly prepared for war. The embargo had almost entirely destroyed the revenue of the Government, and the finances were in a state of sad eonfusion ; the navy consisted of only eight frigates and seven other vessels ; and the army was a mere handful of ineffieient recruits. Still, America possessed this advantage. Great Britain was forced to make such tremendous exertions to carry on her war with France, that she did not have much strength left to expend upon this country. This is shown by the fact that England made no effort to blockade our coast until the 20th of March, 1813, when, having sent a strong fleet to our waters, she proclaimed the blockade of the entire American coast, except the shores of New England. 144 THE GllEAT REPUBLIC. Congress authorized the President to increase the regular army by 25,000 men, and to call for 50,000 volunteers. The calls were responded to promptly in some of the States, tardily in some, and almost ignored in others, for the country was far -from being united in support of the war. Hostilities began in the Northwest. Previous to the war, the Indians of that region, instigated by British emissaries, commenced to make war upon the American settlements, under the leadership of the famous Shawnee Chief Tecumseh. General Harrison (afterwards President), the Governor of the Territory of Indiana, as soon as he learned of this, organized a considerable force of Western militia, and marched against the savages, whom he defeated with terrible loss, in a sanguinary battle at Tippecanoe, on the banks of the Wabash River, on the 7th of November, 1811. Though defeated in this battle, Te- cumseh was not conquered. He passed the next six months in re- organizing his forces, and with the beginning of the summer of 1812, renewed hostilities. General Hull, then Governor of Michigan, was sent to meet him with a force of 2000 men. He had just begun his march when war was declared against England, and he was ordered to discontinue his expedition against the Indians, and invade Canada. His force was utterly inadequate to such an undertaking, but the War Department was too stupid to perceive this. He entered Canada from Detroit, was met by a superior force of British and Indians, under General Brock, and was driven back to Detroit with a loss of 1200 men. This reduced his army to 800 men, with which he could do absolutely nothing. On the 16th of August, he surrendered Detroit to the enemy, who had followed him from Canada. This placed the whole of Michigan in the hands of General Brock. An invasion of Canada from the Niagara frontier was also undertaken by our forces during the fall of 1812. It was a most disastrous failure. These defeats on land, however, were partly atoned for by our suc- cesses at sea. The navy had been utterly neglected by the Govern- ment at the outset of the war, and had been left to win by good service Avhatever encouragement it afterwards received. It achieved during the latter part of 1812 a series of brilliant victories, which placed it in the proud position it has since held. On the 19th of August, the frigate Constitution, Captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere ; on the 18th of October, the sloop of war Wasp, Captain Jones, captured the British brig Frolic; on the 25th of October, the frigate United States, Captain Decatur, captured the British frigate THE UNITED STATES. 145 Macedonian ; and on the 29th of December, the Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java. Privateers were sent to sea in great numbers, and, by the close of the year 1812, had cap- tured over 300 English merchant vessels. The Government renewed its efforts against Canada with the open- ing of the campaign of 1813. An army, under General Harrison, was collected near the head of Lake Erie, and styled the Army of the West ; an Army of the Gentre, under General Dearborn, was stationed along the Niagara frontier; and an Army of the North, under General Wade Hampton, was posted in northern New York, on the border of Lake Champlain. There were numerous engagements between these forces and the enemy, but nothing definite was accomplished during the first half year. In April, General Pike, with a force of 1700 Americans, captured York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, but was himself killed by the explosion of a mine fired by the enemy. The town was not held, however, and the success of the attack was fully balanced by the terrible disaster which had befallen the Western Army, in January, at River Raisin, in which a detach- ment of 800 men, under General Winchester, had been defeated and the greater portion of them massacred by the Indians, who were now the open allies of the English. In May, the British made an attack on Sackett’s Harbor, on Lake Ontario, but were repulsed. In the same month, an American force, under General Boyd and Colonel Miller, captured Fort George, in Canada, inflicting upon the British a loss of nearly 1000 men. Nothing definite was accomplished on the Niagara frontier, owing to the quarrels between Generals Wilkin- son and Hampton, and the grand invasion of Canada, from which so much had been expected, never took place. The great events of the year, however, were the destruction of the British fleet on Lake Erie, by the squadron of Captain Oliver H. Perry, on the 10th of September, which caused the enemy to abandon the lake and with it the shores of Michigan and Ohio ; and the battle of the Thames, in Canada, in which the Western Army, under General Harrison, on the 6th of October, utterly defeated a strong British column, under General Proctor, and a force of 2000 Indians, under Tecumseh, inflicting upon them a severe loss in killed and wounded — Tecumseh himself being among the former — and taking 600 prisoners, 6 pieces of cannon, and large quantities of stores. At sea, this year, the American brig Hornet, Captain Lawrence, captured the Peacock. On the 24th of February, Captain Lawrence 10 146 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. sc EXE OF THE BATTLE OF LAKE CHA^IPLAIX. was put in command of the frigate Chesapeake, which was captured by the British frigate Shannon, oflP Boston, on the 1st of June. Law- rence was mortally wounded in this engagement. On the 5th of September, the American brig Enterprise, Lieutenant Burrows, cap- tured the British brig Boxer, Lieutenant Blythe. Both commanders were killed in the fight. The campaign of 1814 was more important. The war in Europe having closed, large numbers of Wellington’s veteran troops were sent over to America. They reached this country during the latter part of the year. On the 5th of July, the American army, under General Brown, defeated the British at Chippewa. On the 25th of the same month, General Brown won a second victory over the enemy THE UNITED STATES. 147 at Lundy’s Jjane, or Bridgewater. General Winfield Scott held an important command in each of these engagement.s, and was wounded in the latter. Towards the close of the summer, Sir George Prevost, having been strongly reenforced from Wellington’s army, invaded the United States from Canada, at the head of 14,000 men. He was ac- companied by a powerful fleet, which moved up Lake Champlain. He was met at Plattsburg, New York, on the 3d of September, by the little army of General Macomb and a small fleet under Commo- dore Macdonough. Macdonough inflicted a terrible defeat on the British squadron, utterly routing it with heavy loss, and General Macomb at the same time repulsed every eflbrt on the part of the land forces of Sir George Prevost, who, dismayed at his disasters, retreated hastily into Canada, vnth a loss of 2500 men and the greater part of his fleet. In August, a British army, under General Boss, landed on the shore of the Patuxent Piver, in Maryland, and advanced upon the city of Washington, defeating the small American force which so ight to bar its way at Bladensburg. General Ross succeeded in occupying Washington, from which, after burning the public buildings, he re- tired to his fleet, which had ascended the Potomac to Alexandria, to meet him. He then passed up to Baltimore, landing at North Point, near that city, while his fleet made a sharp attack upon Fort Mc- Henry, which commanded the approach by water to the city. The fleet was repulsed by the fort, and Ross was killed in a skirmish near North Point. His successor at once reembarked the army, and abandoned the eflbrt against Baltimore. At sea, the American frigates Essex and President were taken by superior forces of the enemy, while the British sloops of war, Epervier, Avon, Reindeer, Cyane, Levant, and Penguin were captured by the American cruisers. During the remainder of the year, nothing of importance occurred on land, but in January, 1815, a British force of 12,000 of Welling- ton’s veteran troops made an attack upon the city of New Orleans, but were defeated with the loss of their commander and 2000 men, by 5000 American troops under General Jackson. This battle was fought after a treaty of peace had been signed in Europe between the United States and Great Britain, but before the news had reached America. The victory was most important to the Americans, for had the result been different, there can be little doubt that Ens:land would have disregarded the treaty and have clung to a conquest which would have given her the control of the mouth of the Mississippi. In this 148 THE GREAT REPUBLIC THE PLAIN OF CHALMETTE : SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. case, either the war would have been prolonged upon a more formid- able scale, or the destiny of the great West would have been marred forever. The restoration of peace in Europe upon the downfall of Napoleon removed many of the vexatious issues which had produced the war in this country, and disposed the British Government to be just in its dealings with America. Negotiations were begun in 1814, and a treaty of peace was finally signed at Ghent, on the 24th of December, 1814. By the terms of this treaty, the two Governments agreed to settle the vexed question of a boundary between the United States and Canada, and to mutually return all territory taken during the THE UNITED STATES. 149 war^ and arranged some minor details relating to their future inter- course, but nothing was said of the question of the impressment of American seamen, the chief cause of the war. Inasmuch, however, as Great Britain has never since then attempted such outrages, this question also may be regarded as settled by the war. During the war, the Barbary States resumed their old acts of piracy upon Ameri- can vessels, notwithstanding the pledges which they had given, and upon the return of peace with England, a strong naval force under Commodores Bainbridge and Decatur was sent to the Mediterranean. This expedition forced the Barbary Powers to make indemnity for their piracies, and to pledge themselves to cease to molest American vessels in the future. The Federalist party had always opposed the war with England, and during its continuance gave it no assistance beyond the aid which the laws of the land extorted from them. The strength of this party lay in the New England States, where the losses occasioned by tlie war fell heaviest. The Federalists denounced the war as unnecessary and unjust, and waged in reality for the benefit of France rather than of America, and complained that while they lost heavily by it, the Government did nothing for the protection of the Eastern States. To remedy the evils of which they complained, their leaders met in Convention at Hartford, Conn., near the close of the war. The Con- vention recommended certain measures to the Legislatures of the Eastern States limiting the power of the General Government over the militia of the States, and urged the adoption of several amend- ments to the Constitution. The news of the treaty of peace put a stop to all further proceedings of this body. The Convention resulted in nothing but the ultimate destruction of the Federalist party, which c*ame to be regarded by the people at large as having been untrue to the Bepublic in its hour of need. Mr. Madison was reelected President, and Elbridge Gerry chosen Vice-President, in 1812. Thus the former had the satisfaction of conducting the war, which had been begun during his administration, to a successful close. He declined to be a candidate for a third term, and James Monroe, of Virginia, was nominated by the Democratic party, and elected in 1816, with Daniel D. Tompkins, of Xew York, as Vice-President. Mr. Monroe had 'been Secretary of State during the greater part of Mr. Madison’s administration. The return of peace found tlie country burdened with a debt of ?80,000,000, and with almost a total absence of specie in its mercan- 150 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tile transactions, the majority of the banks having suspended payments of gold and silver. In 1817, Congress established a National Bank at Philadelphia, with a charter for twenty years and a capital of 835,000,000. The notes of this institution supplied to a great extent the demand for a circulating medium of uniform value throughout the country, and did much to relieve the financial distress of the period. Two States were added to the Union during Mr. Madison s admin- istration, Louisiana (in 1812) and Indiana (in 1816). Mr. Monroe had been exceedingly popular as Secretary of State, and the good will of the people followed him into the Presidential chair. His administration proved so acceptable to all parties that he was reelected in 1820 by every electoral vote but one. Five new States Avere admitted into the Union during his continuance in office, viz: Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818)^ Alabama (1819), Maine (1820), and Missouri (1821). For some years the opposition to African slavery in America had been spreading through the Northern States,, and had been steadily gathering strength. When the territory of Missouri presented its pe- tition to Congress for admission as a State with a Constitution sanc- tioning slavery within its limits, there was a very general determination expressed on the part of the Free-labor States to oppose the admission of another Slaveholding State. The Southern members of the Con- federacy, on the other hand, insisted upon the right of Missouri to choose its own institutions, and threatened to withdraw from the Union if this right was denied her by excluding her from the Union. A bitter contest with regard to the subject of slavery now developed itself between the two sections of the Republic, which ceased only with the late Rebellion. The country was agitated in every portion, and the best men of the land expressed grave fears that the Union would be torn to pieces by the violence of the contending parties. After much Avrangling, however, Henry Clay succeeded in procuring the passage of a series of measures known as the Missouri Com- promise.’’ By this arrangement, Missouri was admitted into the Union with her slaveholding Constitution, and slavery was forever prohibited in that portion of the Territory of the Republic lying north of 36° 30' N. latitude. This Compromise was regarded as a final settlement of the slavery question, and had the effect of securing about thirty years of quiet and repose for the country. During Mr. Monroe’s Presidency, the Spanish Republics of South America declared their independence of Spain, and successfully main- THE UNITED STATES. 151 tained it for several years. In 1822, they were recognized by the United States. In his annual message for the year 1823, Mr. Monroe gave utterance to the following principle, which has since been dis- tinctly recognized by successive administrations as the unwavering policy of the United States : That as a principle the American con- tinents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power. This declaration i.s commonly known as the Monroe Doctrine.^^ Mr. Monroe declined to be a candidate for reelection in the political campaign of 1824. A number of candidates were presented to the people, but the popular vote merely threw the election into the House of Representatives, when John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, was chosen President. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, had already been chosen Vice-President by the people. The principal event of this administration was the adoption for the first time of a high tarifi’ for the purpose of protecting American manufactures from the com- petition of foreign importations. This act was sustained by the Northern people, who were engaged in manufactures, and for whose benefit it was adopted, but was bitterly denounced by the South, which, being an agricultural country, naturally desired the liberty of buying her goods where they could be procured best and cheapest. The division of sentiment thus produced grew more distinct every day, and brought about considerable trouble in the end. There can be no doubt that it was one of the principal causes of the late civil war. In 1828, Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, was elected President over Mr. Adams, and John C. Calhoun chosen Vice-President a sec- ond time. The President, at the outset of his term, increased the number of his Constitutional advisers by inviting the Postmaster- General to a. seat in his Cabinet. The right of the Postmaster-General to such a place had never been conceded before, but has always been acknowledged since 1829. The new President began his career by advising Congress, in his annual message, not to extend the operations of the National Bank, whose directors sought a renewal of its charter. He declared that the existence of such an institution was not authorized by the Consti- tution. This inaugurated a long and bitter contest between the ad- ministration and the friends of the bank, which was sustained by almost the entire mercantile community. In 1832, Congress passed 152 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. a bill renewing the charter of the bank, which was vetoed by the President. An effort was made to pass the bill over the veto, but failed for want of the constitutional number of votes. The charter of the bank, therefore, expired by law in 1836. The tariff question assumed formidable proportions, during this administration. In 1832, Congress increased the rate of duties. South Carolina immediately declared her intention to resist the efforts of the General Government to collect duties in the port of Charleston, and prepared to maintain her position by force of arms. The great leader of this opposition to the Government was John C. Calhoun, who had a short time previous resigned the office of Vice-President, to become a United States Senator from South Carolina. His princi- pal coadjutors were Robert G. Hayne, Senator from South Carolina, and George McDuffie, the Governor of the State. The party of which these brilliant men were the leaders, boldly declared that a State might at pleasure nullify any law of Congress which it believed to be uncon- stitutional. The danger to the country was very great, and it seemed that open war would prevail between the General Government and South Carolina ; for President Jackson, who had been reelected in 1832, with Martin Van Buren of New York as Vice-President, declared his determination to enforce the law. He sent a ship of war to Charleston, ordered General Scott to proceed to that place with all the available troops under his command, issued a proclamation deny- ing the right of a State to nullify the laws of the Federal Government, and warning all persons engaged in sustaining the State of South Carolina in its unlawful course that the extreme penalty of the law against treason would be inflicted upon them. He also caused the leaders of the rebellion to be privately informed of his intention to seize and hang them as soon as they should commit the first overt act against the United States. The President’s firmness averted the troubles for the time. He was sustained by the great mass of the people throughout the country, and the vexed question was finally settled by the introduction of measures into Congress for the gradual reduction of the obnoxious duties. This compromise was proposed by Henry Clay, and accepted by the nullifiers, who were now con- vinced that Old Hickory ” was sincere in his threat to enforce the law. The bank question came up again, just as the nullification excite- ment died out. The public funds were required by law to be de- posited in the Bank of the United States, the charter of which was THE UNITED STATES. 153 about to expire by limitation. The President, in December, 1832, recommended the removal by 'Congress of these funds, but that body refused to take this step. The President then ordered the Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. McLane, to remove the funds and deposit them in specified State banks. Mr. McLane refused to do so, and^was transferred to the State Department, which was then vacant. Wil- liam J. Duane was then appointed to the Treasury, but he, too, re- fused to remove the funds, and was deprived of his office and suc- ceeded by Roger B. Taney, who promptly transferred the funds from the Bank of the United States to the State banks designated by the President. This step left no doubt on the part of the people of the intention of the President to destroy the National Bank, and produced a severe panic in business circles. The President lost many friends, and was severely denounced throughout the country. In the Senate, Clay, Calhoun and Webster, the leaders of the opposition, assailed him bitterly, and the Senate passed a resolution censuring his course, by a vote of 26 ayes to 20 noes. He was sustained by the House of Representatives, whose endorsement, considering the origin of that body, was more important than the censure of the Senate. In March, 1837, the Senate expunged its resolution of censure from its journal. During President Jackson^s administration, the national debt was paid, and the States of Arkansas (in 1836) and Michigan (1837) were admitted into the Union. France, Spain, Naples, and Portugal were forced to make good their depredations upon American commerce; important commercial treaties were negotiated with foreign countries ; and the war against the Seminole Indians in Florida was begun and prosecuted with vigor. This war lasted until 1842, and cost the country $40,000,000. In 1836, Martin Van Buren, of New York, the candidate of the Democratic party, was elected President. The contest for the Vice- Presidency was thrown into the Senate, and resulted in the choice of Richard M. Johnson. Mr. Van Buren began his administration at the outset of the great commercial crisis of 1837, and was seriously ham- pered during the whole of his term, b,y the troubles arising from that disaster. The principal measures of his administration were designed to remedy the financial evils from which the country was suffering. The most important was the establishment of the Sub-Treasury of the United States, which is still in operation. In 1840, William Henry Harrison of Indiana, and John Tyler of Virginia, the candidates of the Whig party, were elected President 154 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and Vice-President. General Harrison did not long survive his in- auguration. He died on the 4th of April, 1841, and was suceeeded by John Tyler, the Vice-President. The Whigs were in favor of a National Bank, and Congress passed several Acts chartering such an institution, all of which were vetoed by the President, whose views on the subject accorded with the principles of the Democratic party. In consequence of these Acts, he was abandoned by the party which had elected him, and was supported by the Democracy, with which he thenceforth identified himself. During Mr. Tyler’s term, the question of the northwestern boundary between the United States and British America was settled by a treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on the 20th of August, 1842. A more real service was rendered, how- ever, by the measures resulting in the annexation of the Republic of lexas to the United States, which were carried to a successful issue in spite of a determined opposition by the Whig party. The admis- sion of Texas as a State of the Union, occurred on the 1st of March, 1845. It was a most important step, as it not only increased the ter- ritory of the Republic, but forever prevented Great Britain from acquiring a foothold on the Gulf Coast of America. Mr. Tyler’s last official act was to approve the admission of the States of Florida and Iowa into the Union, on the 3d of March, 1845. In 1844, James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was elected President, with George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President. This was a Democratic triumph. When Mr. Polk came into office, the country was involved in a dispute with the Republic of Mexico respecting the boundary between^ the State of Texas and Mexico. This dispute re- sulted in hostilities between the two countries, which began on the Rio Grande, between the armies of Generals Taylor and Arista, in April, 1846. General Taylor defeated the Mexican army on the Rio Grande, at Palo Alto, May 8th, 1846, and at Resaca de la Palma, the next day. On being reenforced, he drove the Mexicans into the inte- rior, capturing their strong city of Monterey, and defeating their best army, under their President himself, at Buena Vista (Feb. 22, 1847). Taylor’s operations were now brought to a close in consequence of troops being taken from him to reenforce General Scott, who was col- lecting his forces for an expedition against the city of Vera Cruz. Scott landed before that city on the 9th of March, 1847, and captured it, after a vigorous siege, on the 29th. Moving into the interior, he defeated the enemy in a series of hard fought battles at Cherubusco, Cerro Gordo, Chapultepec, and Molino del Rey, and captured the THE UNITED STATES. 155 city of Mexico, which he entered in triumph on the 14th of Septem- ber, 1847, and held until the close of the war. In 1846, General Stephen Kearney conquered New Mexico, while Commodore Stockton and Colonel Fremont drove the enemy out of and occupied California. Kearney marched from New Mexico into California in January, 1847, and on the 8th of February assumed the office of Governor of the territory, and proclaimed its annexation to the United States. About the same time Colonel Doniphan, with 1000 Missouri volunteers, made a forced march across the Plains, and on the 28th of February defeated a force of 4000 Mexicans and cap- tured the city of Chihuahua. A treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, on the 2d of February, 1848. Mexico yielded the boundary of the Kio Grande, and ceded California and New Mexico to the United States, and the latter Power agreed to pay Mexico the sum of $15,000,000, and to assume the debts due by Mexico to American citizens, to the amount of $3,750,000. Great Britain had claimed the territory of Oregon as a part of British America, and our Government had insisted upon it as a part of the common property of the Kepublic, and had even declared its intention to go to war with England rather than be satisfied with anything less than the whole of Oregon. Nevertheless, as a measure of peace, the administration of Mr. Polk proposed to England the 49th parallel of North latitude for a boundary, our original claim having extended to the line of 54° 40'. As this compromise gave to Great Britain all of Vancouver's Island and the present colony of British Columbia, it was accepted. Becent events have proved that the territory was worth fighting for, and that our Government parted with it too readily. Free trade ideas prevailed during this adminis- tration to an extent sufficient to secure a modification of the high protective tariff of 1846. In May, 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union. Ill 1848, Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, was elected President, and Millard Fillmore, of New York, Vice-President, by the Whigs. In this campaign, the anti-slavery party presented Martin Van Buren as their candidate for the Presidency. This organization had grown by degrees into considerable prominence upon the principle of opposition to the extension of slavery, and its strength in 1848 is shown by the fact, that although Van Buren secured no electoral vote, he received a popular vote of 291,263. 156 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The slavery question now presented itself again, this time in a most aggravated form, for both the friends and enemies of that system of labor had become more powerful since the temporary settlement of 1820. A strong anti-slavery party had developed itself at the North, which was avowedly determined to oppose the further extension of slavery, and which was believed in the South to be working for the overthrow of that institution in the States in which it already existed. The contest was resumed in Congress, in 1846, while measures were on foot looking to peace with Mexico, by a proposition from a Northern member that in the territory which should be acquired by the war then going on, there should be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except for crime. This measure, known as the Wilmot Proviso,’^ passed the House of Representatives by a large majority, but the Senate adjourned before a vote could be had upon it. The next year the House readopted the Proviso,’^ which was rejected by the Senate. The House then abandoned it. The measure was bit- terly assailed by the South, which claimed that inasmuch as it had furnished the larger number of the troops by which the war was fought and the territory won, its institutions should receive the same encouragement and protection in the new Territory as those of the North. The dispute became very bitter, and made the Presidential election of 1848 one of the most memorable in our history. Fresh excitement was added to the quarrel by the events in California. Gold was discovered in that Territory in February, 1848, and it at once attracted a large emigration from the Eastern States and all parts of the world. In a few months the population of the Territory was over 100,000. Early in 1849, it was found that an organized gov- ernment was an absolute necessity, and that there were inhabitants enough to entitle the Territory to admission into the Union as a State; and in September, 1849, a Convention was held at Monterey, which adopted and submitted to Congress a Constitution prohibiting slavery. The Southern States took strong ground against the erection of California into a free State, and even went so far as to threaten to withdraw from the Union if slavery were interfered with any further by the Government. They held a Convention at Nashville, Tennes- see, in 1850, and pledged themselves to a united course of action. The tone assumed by them was belligerent and threatening in the ex- treme. They demanded in Congress not only the rejection of the free Constitution of California, but an amendment of the Constitution of the United States which should equalize the power of the Free and THE UNITED STATES. 151 Slave States in the General Government. New Mexico now asked admission into the Union, and Texas set up a claim to a western boundary which included a large part of New Mexico. These minor questions very greatly complicated the main issue. The excitement throughout the country Avas even greater than that of 1820, and for a Avhile it seemed that the Union Avould surely be destroyed. Finally a compromise, known as the “ Compromise of 1850,^^ was proposed in the Senate by Henry Clay, and carried through Congress by great exertions on the part of the moderate men of both sections. This Compromise admitted California as a free State; erected Utah and New Mexico into Territories, leaving the question of the exclusion of slavery to the people thereof Avhen they came to form State Con- stitutions ; arranged the Avestern boundary of Texas ; abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and substituted a ncAV laAV for the rendition of-fugitive slaves, in place of the old Act, AAdiich AA^as ineffective. This Compromise Avas bitterly opposed by the extreme men of both the North and the South. The former denounced the concessions to Texas in the boundary question, and fiercely assailed the refusal to forbid slavery in the Territories ; and the fugitive slaA^e law Avas not only denounced as unchristian and unconstitutional, but was opposed on the part of the Free States by a series of prohibitory acts Avhich the candid student of history is compelled to regard as as un- laAvful as the disunion measures of the pro-slavery party. The South, on the other hand, AA^as furious over the admission of California as a free State^ and the refusal of Congress to sanction and protect slavery in the Territories. Still, as it Avas plain that these measures embodied the only settlement possible at the time, the great body of the nation accepted them in good faith, and the Government honestly executed the fugitive sla\^e law in all cases in which its aid Avas invoked, put- ting down the resistance of mobs by force. In the midst of the struggle over the Compromise,^’ General Tay- lor died (on the 9th of July, 1850), and AA^as succeeded by Millard Fillmore, the Vice-President, who opened his administration with a change of Cabinet ministers. He gave his hearty support to the Compromise measures, and contributed greatly toAvards securing their passage. The principal events of his terra Avere, the invasion of Cuba by Lopez, in 1851, which Avas defeated by the Spaniards; the visit of Kossuth to the United States, in 1851 ; the disputes Avith England concerning the fisheries, in 1852, Avhich Avere satisfactorily settled; and the expedition of Commodore Perry to Japan, by means 158 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of which an important treaty was negotiated with the Japanese Gov- ernment, and the ports of the empire opened to the commerce of all nations. The slavery question entered largely into the Presidential campaign of 1852, and so greatly weakened the Whig party as to defeat it. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, and William R. King, of Ala- bama, the candidates of the Democracy, were elected President and Vice-President by handsome majorities. This administration is memorable for the violent political contests which prevailed during its term. It began by settling a dispute with Mexico, by purchasing from it the Territory of Arizona. In 1853, Jefferson Davis, the Secretary of War, inaugurated the surveys for a railway to the Pacific, by sending out an expedition of U. S. Engineers for that purpose. In December, 1853, Mr. Douglas, the Senator from Illinois, introduced a bill organizing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, lying west of the Missouri River, and north of the line of 36° 30' N. latitude, in which region the Act of 1820 had forever pro- hibited slavery. This new bill repealed the Missouri Compromise Act of 1820, and reopened the slavery question in that region. The ad- ministration and the leaders of the Democratic party supported the - measure, which was opposed by the great mass of the people of the free States without regard to party, and denounced by them as a violation of the plighted faith of the nation. It was hotly debated in Congress, but passed the Senate by a vote of 37 to 14, and the House by a vote of 113 to 100, and at length received the Executive approval on the 31st of May, 1854. The passage of this bill created the most intense excitement in the country. It greatly increased the strength of the anti- slavery party, which now began to be known as the Republican party, and alienated many Democrats from their party. The Act left the Ter- ritories free to decide between slavery and free labor, and thus opened the way for a long and bloody warfare within their limits ; the events of which will be related in another part of this work. An effort was made bv the administration to purchase Cuba fi’om Spain ; but that Power "declined to sell the island. An expedition of filibusters, under General William Walker, succeeded in conquering the Central Ameri- can State of Nicaragua. Walker at once sent an envoy to Washing- ton, who was formally recognized by the President. The anti-slavery, or Republican party now exhibited its strength by electing Mr. Ranks, of Massachusetts, Speaker of the Lower House of Congress, and in the Presidential contest of 1856, nominated John THE UNITED STATES. 159 C. Fremont as its candidate, and secured for him 114 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,341,264. A new element in this contest was the Know-Nothing, or American party, which.supported Mr. Fillmore for the Presidency. It was founded upon a principle of hostility to the influence of foreigners, and especially of Homan Catholics, in our Government. Mr. Fillmore received 8 electoral votes, and 874,534 popular votes. The election resulted in the choice of the candidates of the Democratic party ; James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was elected President, and John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, Vice- President. Mr. Buchanan’s administration was entirely Southern in its sym- pathies, and was marked by a constant struggle in Congress and throughout the country over the slavery question. The struggle in Kansas went on with great bitterness until the close of his term, the power of the Government being generally cast against the free settlers of that Territory, who were forced to take extraordinary measures for their defence. An effort was made to force a pro-slavery Constitution upon the Territory, and it split the Democratic party into two wings — the larger of which, led by Stephen A. Douglas, united with the He- publicans in opposing the Constitution ; while the smaller, led by the extreme Southern men in Congress, received the aid of the adminis- tration, and secured the adoption of the Constitution by Congress after a severe and protracted struggle. In 1858, Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a State, and was followed by Oregon in 1859. In 1857, the Mormon settlers of Utah Territory took up arms against the authority of the General Government. The rebellion continued for some time, and a militar}^ force was sent against the rebels ; but the trouble was at length quieted without bloodshed. In October, 1859, John Brown, with a small band of followers, seized the United States Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, and endeavored to incite the slaves of Virginia to revolt against their masters. He and his men were captured by the United States troops, a number of them being killed by the soldiers in the fight. The survivors were turned over to the authorities of the State of Virginia, by whom they were tried, convicted, and hanged. This attempt Avas regarded in the South as incontestable evidence of the determination of the North to destroy slavery, while at the North a formidable party denounced the execution of Brown as a murder, and by their unwise and unpatriotic course greatly strengthened the hands of the leaders of the disunion movement in the South. 160 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The Presidential election of 1860, turned mainly upon the question of slavery in the Territories. The Democratic party, already weak- ened by the Kansas question, now finally split into two fragments. The larger wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, as tlieir candidate. They held that Congress had no power either to sanction or forbid slavery in the Territories, but that the question could be decided only by the people thereof, who were most interested in it. The smaller wing chose John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, as their candidate, and declared it to be the express duty of Congress to sanc- tion and protect slavery in all the Territories of the Republic, main- taining that the Constitution of its own force carried slavery into them. The Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illi- nois, as its candidate. This party denied any intention to interfere with the domestic institutions of any of the States, but avowed its de- termination to prevent the introduction of slavery into the Territories by Congressional legislation, and denounced as false the doctrine that the Constitution established slavery in any part of the Union. It asserted the right of every community to manage its domestic affairs in its own way, and denounced the invasion of Virginia by John Brown as wicked and unjustifiable. A fourth party, known as the ^^Constitutional Union Party nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, for the Presidency, and adopted the following very vague and indefinite platform of principles: The Union, the Constitution, and the en- forcement of the laws.’’ The contest was bitter beyond all precedent. When the election took place, the result at the polls was as follows: Popular vote for Lincoln . 1,866,452 “ “ “ Douglas 1,375,157 “ “ “ Breckenridge 847,953 “ “ “ Bell ■. . 590,631 The electoral vote was divided as follows ; For Lincoln, 180 ; for Breckenridge, 72; for Bell, 39; for Douglas, 12. The election of Mr. Lincoln was seized upon by the extreme pro- slavery leaders as a pretext for the withdrawal of the Southern States from the Union. The Gulf States had, indeed, during the early part of the Presidential contest, declared their deliberate determination to secede, in case of the election of a Republican President. Their peo- ple honestly believed that such a result of the campaign would bo fatal to their institutions, inasmuch as they expected a Republican President to destroy the institution of slavery, forgetting in their alarm THE UNITED STATES. lei that that official could have no power to harm them. The disunion leaders took pains to deepen this vague fear. How well they suc- ceeded is shown by the result. As soon as the election of Mr. Lincoln was definitely ascertained, the Legislature of South Carolina summoned a Convention of the people of that State, which met on the 17th of December, 1860. This Convention adopted an ordinance of Secession, and withdrew the State from the Union, on the 20th of December. The cause of this action was declared to be as follows : We assert that fourteen of the States have deliberately refused for years to fulfil their Constitutional obli- gations, and we refer to their own statutes for proof. . . . . In many of these States the fugitive is discharged from the service of labor claimed, and in none of them has the State government com- plied with the stipulations made in the Constitution Thus the Constitutional compact has been deliberately broken and disregarded by the non-slaveholding States ; and the consequence fol- lows that South Carolina is released from her obligation.^* Another cause was declared to be, the election of a man to the high office of President of the United States whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery This declaration may be regarded as embodying the principal reasons assigned by the other States for their action. The secession of South Carolina was followed by that of Mississippi, Janu- ary 9th, 1861, Florida, January 10th, Alabama, January 11th, Georgia, January 19th, Louisiana, January 26th, and Texas, Febru- ary 1st. The forts, arsenals, and other public property of the United States in these States were seized by the State authorities, and held by their troops, except Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor, and Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Florida. Fort Sumter was occupied by Major Robert Anderson with 80 men. Major Anderson had origi- nally occupied Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan’s Island, but knowing the purpose of the State authorities to seize the public property at Charleston, he evacuated his post on the night of December 25th, 1860, and threw himself with his command into Fort Sumter. The General Government was at this time almost helpless. The army, but 16,000 strong, was posted on the remote frontier, and the available vessels of the navy were nearly all in foreign waters. Many of the most prominent officials, including several of the Cabinet Min- isters, were in open sympathy with the seceded States, and the Presi- dent seemed only anxious to delay any definite action in the matter until the inauguration of his successor. His recommendations to 11 162 THE GREAT REPUBLia Consress were not equal to the eoiergeucv. He was in favor of con- ceding everything but separate independence to the South, not seeing that the leaders of the secession movement would accept nothing but separation, and by his timidity lost the advantages which the Gov- ernment would have gained by a bold and firm course. Still, he refused to vield to the pressure which was brought upon him for the purpose of securing the surrender of Fort Sumter to the State of South Carolina. He also refused to sell the fort to the State, or to order Anderson back to Fort Moultrie, as he was urged to do. V arious plans were proposed in Congress and by the States for the senlement of the national troubles, but none were attended with suc- cess. A Border State Convention met in Washington on the 4th of February, 1861, for this purpose, but adjourned, after a session of three weeks, without having accomplished anything of a definite character. The quarrel waxed hotter every day. An attempt on the part of the Government to send reenforcements and supplies to Fort Sumter was resisted by the forces of South Caro- lina, and the vessel charged with that duty was fired on, and turned back. South Carolina, through her Legislature, declared that any future attempt to send aid to Fort Sumter would be regarded as an act of war. and would be resisted by force. On the other hand, the Legislatures of Xew York, Ohio, and Massachusetts pledged those States to assist the President with their whole military force in put- ting: down the rebellion.” On the 4th of March, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President of the LYited States. Here it is deemed best to bring this brief outline to a close. The history of the country since March, 1861, is well known to every reader of this book, and the numerous histories of the war which have appeared since its close, some of which are to be found in every house- hold, render the further extension of our narrative unnecessary.' PART II. THE SEW EiNGLAXD STATES. W‘ ' V'' ' >■' y' - . ■' • ' . -V /I r , ■> t-if* /’if i>* »'■ .■iAi aiL-iDl:. 'M'' <£qV^ ■■■■ \r'-\ . !> i A-i .■ \, i' -ly . .,^ ' -••*, •I Ik .n '.-i' . , f.j>i s-T/OifM: 'I lio 'Vfni« • V’ -}-«j. v-..;i?^ ,?n; 1: • •'■ ■'- •■ ■/ v-i.i - i ' ' ' .■’' f •■’^ !' ■ ;, ■ ' :■• IvT^'^ Nff' ;j' - '■ ' ■ - ;• tU'.«/i*'. ■' ■,J»^h sd^hrilis^ - ‘tn r'i Pi ! -:r.- ^ ■ ; _[ ‘-yfih/J *'i-r U v'3^ . -V ♦.!> /, ?f^ .' • /* . ;:,r;!C's H %» «■ t* '-ncl &i^V| I '.•7.1') I j'f fl / 71 uAB (5 I n/ f>n.n” ^'. .* .i f7 1:, r 7 ? :f jy3..,a rr ■a:'X77 oH^ih y* .jj< /rH s>r.-f--f 7-. ■••b ..t 7:1^ fu ;vjot3 ^.>/vfc ..';7''-‘? ;-.xr -Ki-v^t I 7 . ^b' ^ . V. «4’ ■a^'v />»,;<( »:-V. MAINE. Area, 31,766 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 628,279 Population in 1870, 626,915 Maine is the most easterly of the United States. It is situated between latitude 42° 57' and 47° 32' N., and longitude 66° 52' and 71° 06' W. Its extreme length, from north to south, is 303 miles, and its extreme width 212 miles. Its average length is about 200 miles, and its average width about 160 miles. It covers an area of 20,330,240 acres. It is bounded on the north and northwest by Canada, on the east by New Brunswick, on the south and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by New Hampshire. TOPOGRAPHY. Beginning on the west at Kittery Point, and following the general coast line to Quoddy Head, on the east, the shore of Maine measures about 278 miles ; but if we follow its indentations, and include the islands, the coast line will measure 2486 miles. The coast is deeply indented with numerous bays and inlets, many of which form excel- lent harbors. Many islands lie along the shore, some of them of con- siderable size. Mount Deserty the principal island, is situated in Frenchman's Bay, and forms a part of Hancock county. It comprises an area of 60,000 acres, and is 15 miles long, and 12 broad. It is traversed from west to north by a range of thirteen granite peaks, rising to a height of from 1500 to 2300 feet. Mount Adam, or Mount Green, is the high- est of these. Several beautiful lakes lie high up in these mountains. Some of these are quite large, and from nearly all of them flow clear, 165 166 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. cool streams, abounding in trout. The southeastern coast is formed of luige cliiFs, several hundred feet high. A narrow bay enters the island from the south side, and extends into the interior in a northerly direction for about seven miles. The scenery of the island is surpass- ingly grand and beautiful, and attracts many visitors and artists. Mount Desert is divided into 3 townships, Eden, Tremont, and Mount Desert. It contains 6 small villages, 9 post-offices, 8 churches, and over 50 schools. Its population is about 4000. Shipbuilding and mackerel fisheries are carried on, and there is regular steamboat communication with Portland and Bangor. The island was discovered and named by the French near the year 1600. In 1613, a small French settlement was formed here, which w*as broken up soon after by an expedition from Virginia. It was first permanently settled by Abraham Somes, in 1761. Twenty miles to the southward is Mount Desert Rock, with a fixed light, 50 feet above the sea. The other islands of the State which merit notice are Isle au Haut, at the entrance to Penobscot Bay, Deer, Long, and Fox islands, in that bay, and the Isle of Shoals, a group belonging in part to New Hampshire. The principal Bays are Passaraaquoddy, Machias, Pleasant, French- man’s, Penobscot, Muscongus, Casco, and Saco. Passamaquoddy Bay lies at the southeast extremity of Maine, and separates the State from the British province of New Brunswick. It extends inland about 15 miles, and is 10 miles wide. It is irregular in shape, contains a number of islands, affords numerous good harbors, and receives the waters of the St. Croix River. Frenchman's Bay extends inland about 30 miles. It contains Mount Desert and several other islands, and abounds in good harbors, which are never closed by ice. Casco Bay does not extend very far inland, but lies along the coast for a distance of 20 miles. It contains nearly 300 islands. Portland harbor opens upon it. The principal Rivers are the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Andro- scoggin, the Saco, the Woolastook, and the Aroostook. The Penobscot is the largest river in the State. It is formed by two branches, the East and the West, which rise iu northern Maine, and unite in the upper part of Penobscot county, near the centre of the State. The general course of the river is south -southwest, and it flows into the sea through Penobscot Bay. Its length from its mouth to the headwaters of its western and larger branch, is about 300 miles. MAINE. 161 but from the junction of the two branches to its mouth, the distance is only 135 miles. It meets the tide water at Bangor, 60 miles from the sea. At this point the tides rise to a height of 17 feet. The river is navigable to Bangor for vessels of all classes, and for small steamers above that place. It receives through the West branch the waters of Chesuncook and Pemadumcook lakes, and through the East branch those of the Seboois lakes. Its upper part affords valuable water power. There are a number of villages and towns on the river. Bangor is the only city on its banks. The Kennehee Hiver rises in Moosehead Lake, in Somerset county, Maine, and flows southward into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 150 miles, and as its total descent in this distance is over 1000 feet, it aflbrds most excellent water power. It is navigable for sloops to Hallowell, 40 miles, and for all vessels to Bath, 1 2 miles from the sea. It is closed by ice early in December, and remains frozen until early in April. Bath, Hallowell, Augusta, Waterville, and Norridge- wock are the principal towns on its shores. The Androscoggin is a tributary of the Kennebec. It rises in Coos county. New Hampshire, and empties into the Kennebec 20 miles from the sea. It is 140 miles long. The Baco River rises among the White Mountains, in Coos county. New Hampshire, and flowing southeasterly through Maine, empties into the Atlantic near the northeast corner of York county. It is broken in several places by considerable falls, which afibrd fine water power, and is subject to sudden and dangerous freshets. The last falls are only 4 miles from the sea. Saco, Biddeford, and Hollis are its principal towns. The Woolastooh and Aroostook drain the northern part of the State, and flow into the St. John, a river of New Brunswick. The State is well supplied with rivers and other streams, which not only afford fine water power, but furnish a means of floating vast quantities of lumber from the interior to the coast. A number of Lakes are scattered through Maine, some of which are very beautiful. The principal are Umbagog, Sebec, Chesuncook, Schoodic, Baskahegan, Long, Portage, Eagle, Madawaska, Millikonet, and Sebago. Moosehead Lake is the largest in the State. It is situated between Somerset and Piscataquis counties, and is very irregular in shape. It is about 35 miles long, and ten miles across at its widest point. The waters are very deep, and abound in trout. The scenery is wild and 168 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. beautiful. On the west side Mount Kineo overhangs the water at a height of 600 feet, and affords a view of great but wild beauty. An hotel has been erected about midway, for the accommodation of travellers. Numerous islands stud the lake, which is navigated by steamers engaged in towing lumber to the Kennebec River, which forms the outlet. The surface of the State is generally hilly and diversified. To- wards the coast it is level, but rises towards the interior. A chain of detached mountains, supposed to be an extension of the White Moun- tains of New Hampshire, crosses the State from west to northeast, terminating in Mars Hill on the border of New Brunswick. These peaks rise to a considerable elevation, and are very beautiful. Mount IvatoAdin, 5385 feet high, is the best known, as well as the most picturesque. It is situated in the eastern part of Piscataquis county, and is frequently visited by artists and the more daring tourists. The other peaks are the Saddleback, Bigelow, Abraham, North and South Russell, and the Haystack. The Forests of Maine furnish an immense amount of valuable lum- ber, and large numbers of hardy men are employed in cutting and floating the logs down the streams. The great forests lie in the upper part of the State, around the sources of the Kennebec, Penobscot, Aroostook, and W^oolastook riv^ers. Mr. Charles Lanman thus pleasantly describes them : '' Their extent can only be realized by fixing the mind upon "the whole northern half of the State, which they cover with their sombre green, and by remembering the fact that no less than four splendid rivers have their birth in this great wilderness— the St. Croix, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, and the Androscoggin. According to such figures as we have been able to collect, the number of saw-mills and Other lumbering machines in operation on the above rivers, just before the rebellion, w^as nearly 900, the number of men employed about 17,000, and of horses and oxen perhaps 10,000; while the towns which are, to a great extent, supported by the lumbering business are Calais, Bangor, Augusta, and Brunswick, as well as Portland. The predominating tree in the wilderness under consideration, as is the case in Minnesota and Wisconsin, is the white pine, but the hemlock, the fir, and the spruce are also abundant in all its borders. It is said that fifty years ago specimens of the pine were found in Maine which attained the height of more than 200 feet, but in these times it is but seldom that we find a tree exceeding 150 feet in length. The grand MAINE, 169 THE PINE FORESTS OF MAINE. old monarclis of the land would seem to have perished with grief on beholding the ravages of man. But there is an aristocracy existing in these woods at the present day, for it has been observed that there are different classes of trees — families of nobility clustering together in one place — while the more plebeian varieties congregate in com- munities by themselves. Were it not for the changing seasons and its living creatures, the monotony of this forest scenery would be well nigh unbearable; but summer fills every sunny nook with its bright flowers, and winter scatters everywhere the fantastic creations of the frost and snow. It is in these solitudes that the bold and hardy Pen- obscot Indian hunter tracks the moose and the deer, fights the bear in his den, decoys the gray wolf, and sets his traps for the wild cat 170 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and mink, the marten, the sable, and the beaver ; and if, in the most genial seasons, there should be found a scarcity of birds, you can never fail to hear the plaintive whistle of the Canada bird, or musci- capa of scientific dreamers. In the Valley of the Potomac this favorite bird of ours is the very first harbinger of spring, coining from the South even before the blue-bird ; and when heard there late in autumn, you may be sure that winter has asserted his empire on the Northern frontiers. We have heard it in the pine forests of Florida, among the mountains of Tennessee, along the glorious rivers of New Brunswick, Canada, and a part of Labrador, but never with more pleasure than in the forests of Maine. When away from home, it al- ways carries us back in fancy to the region where our lot is cast, and to our friends ; and when at home it reminds us of far-off places and other friends linked with happy recollections. Its whole life, it seems to us, is devoted to singing, in a kind of monotone, about the joys of the wilderness. Of permanent human inhabitants, the forests of Maine can boast of but a small supply; but for about nine months in the year the hardy lumbermen, consisting of explorers and choppers, of swampers, or road-cutters, and teamsters, make their dim, interminable aisles alive and cheery with their presence and manifold employments. In the autumn, small parties, equipped like trappers, go up the rivers in canoes and locate the lands which are to be grappled with in winter ; and when winter comes, the great majority, with their oxen and axes, their salt pork and flour, migrate to the selected grounds, and, after housing themselves and their cattle in cabins half covered with snow, they proceed to the work of extermination ; and when the spring ar- rives, down to the tributary streams do they drag their logs ; and when the first great thaw arrives, away they go down the larger rivers, driving the produce of their toil through lakes and lakelets, and over waterfalls, with many a wild and wayward shout, until they reach the booms where they would be ; and then for home and their happy families nearer the sea. All this for money? Most true. But where will you find better specimens of true manhood than among these lumbermen ? And as for poetry and romance, where can we find their equal among the laborers for hire in any land but ours? Fancy the heart-bursts of true patriotism, and the wild stories told by the side of their watch-fires, the hoot of the great white owl at mid- night in those dim solitudes, the white moonlight on the still whiter snow, the ringing cadences of the frost, the wolf prowling for food MAINE. in around the sleeping camps, the cave-like forest pictured against the cold blue sky, the terrible storms of sleet and hail, and then the thousand dreams of wives and children sleeping in their distant and peaceful homes. The continuousness of the Maine woods, taken in connection with their extent, is one of their most impressive features. Unless there were something to relieve their monotony, a sensitive man could never have journeyed from one extremity to another without becom- ing a personification of gloom ; but behold with what exquisite taste and skill nature interposes her relief! She plants old Moosehead near the centre of the great forest, and scatters a thousand smaller gems of purest water on every side ; bids a few mountain peaks rise up as watch-towers against the northern sky; sends the most beautiful rivers like flashes of light in every direction singing to the sea ; and in a few localities spreads out those wonderful fields which have been denominated ^oceans of moss,’ sometimes several feet in thickness, and in one instance covering a space of many miles. But more than this : around the lakes and along the water-courses are permitted to grow as great a variety of the more delicate and graceful trees as the climate will allow, with shrubs and vines, and flowers innumerable. All this is the workmanship of nature ; but it is man who marks the earth with ruin, and, not content with robbing the old forests of their giant treasures, he sometimes sets them on fire for his amusement, or by accident, and thus come into existence the desolate burnt districts to take the places of trees once valuable, and grand, and beautiful. '' The last object that the wide-awake tourist beholds on leaving the great wilderness of Maine, is Mount Katahdin ; and that reminds us of the mountain forests of the Northern and Southern States. The representative peaks of the North are Katahdin, Mount Washington, the Camel’s Hump, Tahawus, and High Peak ; and around all these are to be found the hemlock and spruce, the cedar and fir, the maple, the ash, the elm, and the birch, in such numbers, and variety, and beauty as to bewilder the mind. The declivities up which travellers climb oftentimes frown upon them as if to warn them of coming dan- ger, but the tough and rugged trees plant their roots in the rocky fissures and hold on with heroic fortitude ; nor do they cease their persevering eflbrts, while apparently changing their places at each zone, until, robbed of their luxuriance and reduced to mere bushes by the savage winds and by the cold, they peep out from their hiding places only to behold the stupendous fields of granite desolation, thou- 172 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. A LUMBERMAN’S CAMP IN THE WOODS OF MAINE. sands of feet above the sea, shrouded in fogs, or bounded by the sea. Inaccessible, for the most part, as are these Northern forests, the en- terprise of man has been such as to penetrate their hidden depths for his advantage, and plunder them of their wealth. In Maine, selfish man robs them of their stately leaders; in New Hampshire, he builds fairy-like palaces, and invites the world to come there and be happy; in Vermont, he gashes the maple trees and compels them to yield up, for his enjoyment, the sweetness of their lives ; and in New York he hammers out of their mountain sides, in their lonely retreats, the valued iron ore, and meanly strips the hemlock of its shaggy bark, and leaves it to perish ingloriously upon the hills.^^ MAINE. m MINERALS. The mineral resources of Maine are limited. Copper pyrites, lead, and manganese are found in small quantities, but iron, lime, and a fine granite are plentiful. The principal iron deposit occurs on the Aroostook River, about 50 miles from its mouth, and the country along the west branch of the Penobscot furnishes a limited quantity of an excellent marble. A fine quality of slate is found in the region between the sources of the Kennebec and St. John rivers. The granite of which the Treasury Extension in Washington City is built, was brought from the coast of Maine. CLIMATE. The climate of Maine is considered healthy, in spite of the extreme northeastern situation of the State, because it is less subject than that of the other New England States to sudden and violent changes. The winters are severe and long. The mercury sometimes falls to 20 or 30 degrees below zero, but for the greater part of the season there is a uniform temperature averaging about 18°. The summers, though short, are warm. The thermometer has been known to indicate a heat of 100°, but the average temperature is about 60°. The snow lies on the ground from 3 to 5 months, and the season of vegetation lasts scarcely 4 months. The spring and early summer are rendered unpleasant by the cold northeast winds, which sweep down from the ice-fields of the Atlantic. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is not uniform. Between the Kennebec and Penobscot, the lands are generally good and productive, and the same -may be said of the valley of the St. John and the country watered by some of the lesser rivers. The lands in the mountainous districts and along the coast are for the most part poor, and require laborious culture. In 1869, there were 2,704,133 acres of improved lands, and 2,996,622 acres of unimproved lands in the State. Its agricultural wealth in the same year may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms, - . . . $80,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery, $3,400,000 Number of horses, 71,110 “ asses and mules, 168 174 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Number of milch cows, . . “ other cattle, . . “ sheep, . . . . ‘‘ swine, . . . , Value of domestic animals. Bushels of wheat, .... “ rye, “ Indian corn, “ oats, . . . . “ peas and beans, . . “ Ii'ish potatoes, . . . “ barley, “ buckwheat, .... “ clover-seed, .... Pounds of wool, “ butter, “ cheese, ...... “ hops, “ flax, “ maple sugar, .... “ beeswax and honey, . Tons of hay, Value of orchard products, . . “ market garden products, “ home made manufactures, “ slaughtered animals, . . 190.110 230.110 501,210 65,340 $19,437,538 248.000 158.000 1.450.000 3.200.000 346,915 7.500.000 750.000 350.000 50,000 1,495,063 11,687,781 1,799,862 102,987 17,081 306,742 323,454 1.050.000 $501,767 $194,006 $490,787 $2,780,179 COMMERCE. The staple export of Maine is lumber. The coast offers the best in- ducements for commerce of any State in the Union.' It is so thickly- studded with bays and navigable rivers that vessels can find an ex- cellent harbor at any point along its whole length. Shipbuilding is carried on to a considerable extent. The commercial returns for the year 1860 were as follows : Value of lumber produced during the year, . . $6,784,981 Product of the fisheries, 1,050,755 Besides these, large quantities of marble, granite, lime, and ice are produced, of which we have no statistics. The tonnage owned in the State in 1863 was 774,040 tons. In 1863, the total foreign imports were $3,911,468, and the exports $7,016,342. In the same year, only 99 vessels were built in this State, which in 1853 built 351 of all classes. MAINE. 1T5 MANUFACTURES. According to the census of 1860, there were in that year 3582 es- tablishments in Maine devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed 39,710 hands, possessed a capital of $22,000,000, consumed raw material to the amount of $20,861,452 (including fuel), and produced goods worth $36,075,498. Of these establishments, 19 were cotton manufactories, employing 1908 male and 4342 female hands, oonsuming annually $3,000,000 worth of raw material, paying annually $1,244,928 for labor, and producing $6,636,623 worth of goods ; and 61 were woollen mills, with a capital of $989,400, employing 604 male and 499 female hands, consuming $1,047,496 worth of raw material, paying $277,440 for labor, and producing goods worth $1,674,800. There were $2,011,034 worth of leather ; 5300 tons of rolled iron, worth $332,000 ; $681,295 worth of steam engines and machinery; $339,180 worth of agricultural im- plements ; $1,400,000 worth of flour ; and $36,000 worth of malt and $142,000 worth of spirituous liquors produced during the same year. The manufacturing interest of Maine has greatly increased since 1860. In 1868, the capital invested in manufactures amounted to $40,- 000,000, and the annual value of fabrics produced to $81,287,695. The water-power of the State is immense, and holds out the best in- ducements to manufacturers. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State is making steady progress in internal improvements. In 1860, there were 14 railroads in Maine, having an aggregate length in the State of 472 miles, which had been constructed at a cost of $16,576,385. The Grand Trunk, which extends from Portland, through New Hampshire and Vermont to Quebec and Montreal in Canada, passes through Maine for but a short distance. It is a first- class road, in respect to the amount of business done by it. The Maine Central is 138 miles long, and extends from Portland to Ban- gor, passing through Auburn and Waterville. The Portland and Kennebec, extending from Portland to Skowhegan, through Rich- mond, Gardiner and Augusta, is 100 miles long. There are other thriving lines in the State, one of which (the Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth) connects Portland with Portsmouth, N. H. The only canal in the State is the Cumberland- Oxford, uniting 176 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Portland with Sebago, Brandy, and Long Ponds. It is 20 miles long, and has 26 locks. Together with the Songo River improve- ments, it forms a navigable line of 50 miles, constructed at a cost of $50,000. EDUCATION. Maine has a permanent school fund, drawn from the sale of lauds donated for that purpose by the State. Besides this, the banks are taxed one-half of one per cent, on their capital, and the towns are assessed at the rate of 40 cents per capita, for educational purposes. In 1860, Maine had 2 colleges and 337 students, 110 academies and other schools, with 8273 pupils, and 4376 public schools with 186,717 pupils. In the same year, the whole number of pupils, between the ages of 4 and 21 years, at all the schools in the State, was 244,920. In 1868, this number had been reduced to 225,290, a falling off due to the actual decrease of children in the State. In 1850, the propor- tion of minors in the State was 49 per cent, of the whole population, but in 1860 it was only 36 per cent. This, too, in spite of the fact that the population of Maine has steadily grown larger. It is doubt- less due to the fact that children are not now as much desired as in the better days of the community. * In 1868, the number of schools in the State was 3782. A writer in the Annual Cyclopsodia- for 1867, says: The perma- nent school fund amounts to $245,121.23, the income of which for the past year is $13,244.14. The receipts from the bank tax are rapidly falling off, being but $4475. The people are determined, how- ever, that the schools shall not suffer. They have raised, by direct taxation, the sum of $518,292.97, an average of $2.28 a scholar, and built seventy-nine new school-houses, at a cost of $323,581.13. Add to this the sum of $15,316.93, contributed to prolong public schools, with $40,614.33, paid for private schools and academies, and $6,428.25 paid out of the State for the same purposes, making an aggregate ex- penditure for schools of $935,131.75, and you have abundant proof that the burdens and discouragements of the times are not allowed to diminish the interest of the people in common school education. There are also two Normal Schools, both of which are in a flourishing condition, and are liberally sustained. The State has chartered a College of Agricultural and Mechanic * Appleton’s Cyclopsedia, 1868 . MAINE, m Arts, and commenced the erection of suitable buildings for its uses. . . . . The Reform School has entered upon a course of unusual pros- perity.’’ In 1860, there were 814 libraries, containing a total of 405,901 volumes. There were 283 public libraries, comprising 215,437 vols. In the same year, there were 70 newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State. These consisted of 7 daily, 4 tri-weekly, and 37 weekly political papers, 6 weekly religious papers, 4 weekly and 3 monthly literary journals, and 1 daily, 5 weekly, and 3 monthly jour- nals of a miscellaneous character. These had an aggregate annual cir- culation of 8,333,278 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of Maine, are the State Prison, at Thomas- ton, the Insane Asylum, at Augusta, and the State Reform School, at Cape Elizabeth. The State Prison was much enlarged and improved in 1867. It is not adequate to the necessities of the community, how- ever, and in 1867, was so overcrowded that its earnings fell $7000 short of its expenditures. The number of prisoners in 1866 was 135, against 78 in 1865. The number of inmates in the Insane Asylum in 1867 was 303 — 144 men and 159 women. The institution is well supported by the State, and has received several endowments. The State Reform School, in 1870, contained 254 ir^mates, of whom 71 we recommitted during the year. The children, upon being admitted to this school, are employed on the farm or in the work-shops. They are kindly treated, and, as a general rule, a great change takes place for the better in their morals a few months after their commitment. The actual cost of the school to the State for 1868, was about §13,945, the earnings of the boys making up the remainder of the expenses. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the value of church property in Maine was $2,886,905 ; and the number of churches, 1167. FINANCES. The public debt of the State on ^he 31st of December, 1870, was $7,067,000, and is due in 1871, 1883, and 1889. The amount paid off in 1870 was $33,000. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal 12 178 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. year were $4,924,164.12, and tlie expenses of the State $5,041,846.64. On January 1st, 1870, there was a cash balance in the Treasury of $235,930.63. On the 1st of October, 1868, there were 61 National banks doing business in the State, with an aggregate capital of $9,085,000. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of the State was adopted in 1820. Every adult male citizen of the United States, not a criminal, is entitled to a vote in the elections. The Government of the State consists of a Legislature, comprising a Senate and House of Representatives, and a Governor; all chosen by the people. The Governor is elected annually, and is assisted in his executive duties by a Council of seven members, elected on joint ballot by the houses of the Legislature. The Senate consists of 31 mem- bers, and the House of Representatives of 151 members, all chosen annually by the people, on the second Mpnday in September. The Legislature meets at Augusta, on the first Wednesday in January in each year. The chief executive officers are the Secretary of State and the State Treasurer, both chosen by the joint ballot of the Legislature. There is a probate court with a judge and register in each county, and municipal and police courts in the several cities. Cases originat- ing within the jurisdiction of these bodies are tried before them. The Supreme Judicial fJourt of the State consists of a Chief Justice and seven Associate Justices, an Attorney General, and a Reporter of De- cisions. Courts are held in three districts, for the purpose of hearing and determining cases brought before them. The Court for the Eas- tern district sits at Bangor, that for the Middle district at Augusta, and that for the Western district at Portland. The income of the State is derived chiefly from direct taxes, .sales of land, and a tax on the banks. The seat of Government is established at Augusta. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 16 counties. HISTORY. Maine was first visited in 1602 by Gosnold, who was followed in 1603 by Martin Pring. A French expedition, under Des Monts, pa.ssed the winter of 1604 at the present site of Calais, on the St. Croix. Des Monts took possession of the region of the Kennebec the next spring, and was granted a patent for it by the French King. The province was visited by Captain George Weymouth, in 1605, MAINE. 179 and in 1607 the first colony was established by the Plymouth Com- pany. This settlement was abandoned in one year. A French colony was sent out in 1613, by Madame de Guercheville, who had pur- chased the patent of Des Monts, and planted on Mount Desert Island for missionary purposes. This settlement was broken up by an expe- dition from Virginia. In 1614, the coast was thoroughly explored by Captain John Smith, who published an account of it on his return to England. The Plymouth Company obtained a renewal of their charter from James I., in 1620, and, as the region granted them in- cluded the present State of Massachusetts, bitterly opposed the forma- tion of settlements by the Pilgrims at Plymouth and Salem, but without effect. In 1621, William Alexander, who subsequently became Earl of Stirling, purchased from the Company the territory east of the St. Croix Kiver; which stream, until this day, forms the eastern boun- dary of Maine. The next year, Monhegan was settled by emigrants from Great Britain. Saco was settled in 1623. These settlements prospered even better than their founders had ventured to hope. In 1629, the Plymouth Company established the western boundary of Maine, by selling to John Mason the territory ^Gying between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers,’\to which they gave the name of New Hampshire. In 1635, the Company surrendered its charter to the king, and divided its territory among its members. The country between the Piscataquis and the Kennebec was assigned to Sir Fer- dinando Gorges, who, in 1639, was confirmed in his possession by a formal charter from Charles I., who called the territory the Province of Maine. Gorges was also appointed Governor-General of New England with almost despotic powers. In 1640, he sent his son Thomas to Maine as his deputy. Thomas Gorges took up his resi- dence at the settlement of Agamenticus, now the town of York, and in 1642 changed the name of the place to Gorgeana. Since the settlement of the colony, the French had claimed the re- gion between the St. Croix and the Penobscot, which they had settled under the name of Acadie, and after the death of the elder Gorges the province was still further divided among his heirs. These cut it up into four weak communities, whose helplessness laid them open to the encroachments of the French in Canada. Apprehensive of this result the colony of Massachusetts Bay, incited to such a course by the en- treaties of many of the inhabitants, set up a claim, in 1651, to the province of Maine, which it declared had been granted to the colony by the original charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners were sent 180 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. to admit the province into the jurisdiction of the Bay Colony, but the authorities of Maine resisted them, and appealed to the Government of Great Britain. The people of Maine were adherents of the king and the established Church, and England was now ruled by the Puri- tans. Consequently Massachusetts won her cause, and Maine was declared a part of that Colony. Massachusetts made a generous use of her authority, however, and allowed the towns of Maine very much the same privileges and government as they now enjoy, and in reli- gious matters was far more tolerant to them than to her own people. This forbearance, joined to the natural liberality of the province, en- tirely, exempted it from the religious persecutions which have stained the history of the other colonies. In 1653, Cromwell declared void the transfer of Acadie to the French, which had been made by Charles I. in 1632, and appointed a Governor of that territory, who held his office until the treaty of Breda, in 1669, by which Acadie was restored to France. Upon the restoration of Charles II., the heirs of Sir Fer- dinando Gorges succeeded in obtaining a royal order, restoring the province of Maine to them. Massachusetts resisted this order, but in 1670 settled the matter by purchasing the interests of the claimants for the sum of twelve hundred and fifty pounds sterling. In 1675, King Philipps war began in New England. Maine came in for her full share in these horrors; and from this time until 1760, nearly one hundred years, was never free from incursions by the savages. This constant danger greatly retarded her progress. Settlers were afraid to venture within her limits, and many of those who had already established themselves there removed to the other colonies. The Duke of York having received from Charles II. a grant of the Dutch territories in North America, set up a claim to the region be- tween the Kennebec and St. Croix rivers ; which claim was resisted by Massachusetts, who advanced her boundary to the west shore of Penobscot Bay. The duke sent Sir Edmund Andros to America, as Governor of New York and Maine; but his authority in the latter province was not recognized by Massachusetts. Upon the accession of the duke to the English throne as. James II., Andros was made Governor of all New England, where he was guilty of the most out- rageous extortion. The charter of Massachusetts having been declared forfeited, the Colony was powerless to protect the injured people, and Andros had his own way until the Revolution of 1688, which placed William and Mary on the English throne, overthrew him, and restored the former state of affairs. MAINE. 181 During the Revolution, Maine, which continued to form a part of the State of Massachusetts, was almost entirely exempted from the disasters of the war ; and the power of the savages being destroyed, commenced to increase rapidly in population and wealth. The war of 1812 exposed the province to great suffering at the hands of the English, who occupied and held the eastern portion of the State until the conclusion of peace. In 1820, Massachusetts, wishing to offset the growing power of the Southern States, signified her willingness to part with Maine. A State Constitution was accordingly adopted by the .people of the province, and on the 15th of March, 1820, Maine was admitted into the Union as a State. The Treaty of 1783 failed to establish the eastern boundary of Maine with accuracy ; and for more than half a century, the Govern- ments of the United States and Great Britain were involved in a con- troversy concerning it, which at length bade fair to embroil the two countries in another war. In 1842, the Treaty of Washington adjusted the dispute and settled the boundary as it exists at present. The United States and Maine agreed to cede to Great Britain a small part of the territory claimed by her, in return for the free navigation of the St. JohAs and for Rouse’s Point in New York. During the Rebellion, Maine was subjected to two incursions of the Southern forces. On the night of the 29th of June, 1863, the officers and crew of a Confederate privateer captured the U. S. revenue cutter Caleb Cushing, in the harbor of Portland, and carried her to sea. They were pursued by two steamers manned by armed volunteers, and overhauled a short distance from the city. Find- ing escape impossible, they blew up the cutter, and took to their boats, but were speedily overtaken and made prisoners. “At midday, on July 18th, 1864, a bold attempt was made to rob the Calais Bank, in that town, by a small party of rebel raiders from St. John, N. B., led by one Collins, a captain in a Mississippi regiment. But the town authorities having been previously put on. their guard by the American Consul at St. John, three of the party were arrested and committed, and the remainder prudently kept out of the way. This attempt, though frustrated, created an uneasy feeling along the eastern frontier ; and in Eastport, Calais, Belfast, and other border towns, volunteer organizations were formed for the purpose of patrol- ling the streets at night, and the regular police force was increased and armed.” 182 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, During the Rebellion, Maine furnished an aggregate force of 71,558 men to the army and navy of the United States. Of these, 8446 were killed in battle or died from wounds and sickness, and 6642 were mustered out for disabilities resulting from wounds or sickness while in active service. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities of Maine are Augusta, Bangor, Bath, Belfast, Biddeford, Calais, Gardiner, Hallowell, Portland, and Rockland. The principal towns are Camden, Eastport, Ellsworth, Frankfort, Kittery, Lewis- ton, Old Town, Saco, Thomaston, Waldoborough, W^aterville, and Wiscasset. AUGUSTA. The city of Augusta is situated in Kennebec county, on the Kenne- bec River, at the head of navigation, 43 miles from the sea. It is 60 miles north-northeast of Portland by railroad, and 175 miles from Boston. It lies on the right bank of the Kennebec, which is spanned by two fine bridges, one used by vehicles and pedestrians and the other by the railroad. The city is built partly upon the crest of a hill, and partly along the river at the foot of the hill. The former portion is occupied principally by private residences, while the latter is devoted to business. It is well built, and contains many handsome edifices, the principal of which is the State House, a splendid structure of white granite, located in the southern part of the city, and fronted by a large and tasteful park. A United States Arsenal, and the State Insane Asylum, lie on the opposite side of the river, and are attractive fea- tures of the landscape. Augusta is well supplied with water-power by means of a large dam constructed across the Kennebec, a short distance above the city. This dam also affords water enough for steamboat communication between Augusta and Waterville when the stream is not closed by ice. There are several large manufacturing establishments* in the city, 4 or 5 banks, an excellent female academy, 9 or 10 churches, and 8 or 9 hotels. It is connected with Portland and Bangor by railroad and steamboat. The greater part of the business portion of the city was destroyed by fire in 1865. The population in 1868 Was 10,000. The city was founded in 1754, Four weekly papers and one monthly are published in Augusta. MAINE. 183 POR'l’LAND, The principal city of the State, is handsomely situated on a penin- sula, occupying the ridge and side of a high point of land, in the south- west extremity of Casco Bay, and, on approaching it from the ocean, is seen to great advantage. The harbor is one of the best on the Atlantic coast, the anchorage being protected on every side by land, whilst the water is deep, and communication vvith the ocean direct and conve- nient. It is defended by Forts Preble, Scammell, and Gorges, and dotted over with lovely islands. These islands afford most delightful excursions, and are among the greatest attractions of the vicinity. On the highest point of the peninsula is an observatory, 70 feet in height, commanding a fine view of the city, harbor, and islands in the baj. ■p |^0 ixiisty forms of the M^hite Mountains, 60 miles distant, are dis- cernible in clear weather. The original name of Portland was 3Iuchi- gonne. It was first settled by the whites as an English colony in *1632, just two centuries before the charter of the present city was granted. On the night of the 4 th of July, 1866, a fire occurred which swept away nearly one-half of the entire business portion of the city. “ Portland is elegantly built, and the streets beautifully shaded and embellished with trees, and so profusely, that there are said to be no less than 3000 of these rural delights. Congress Street, previous to the fire the main highway, follows the ridge of the peninsula through its en- tire extent. Among the public buildings of Portland, the City Hall (rebuilding), the Court House, and some of the churches, are worthy of particular attention. The Society of Natural History, organized 1843, possesses a fine cabinet, containing specimens of the ornithology of the State, more than 4000 species of shells, and a rich collection of rnineralogical and geological specimens, and of fishes and reptiles. The Athenaeum, incorporated in 1826, has a library of 12,000 vol- umes; and the Mercantile Library possesses, also, many valuable books. The Marine Hospital, erected in 1855, at a cost of $80,000, is an imposing edifice. Brown & Co.’s extensive sugar refinery, wholly destroyed by the late fire, has been rebuilt, and will shortly be in operation. The city is being rebuilt as rapidly as possibl-e. Popula- tion, 31,414. The vicinity has several fine drives.” * Portland was formerly called Falmouth. It was incorporated as a town, in 1786. In 1676, the savages made a descent upon it, and captured or killed thirty of the inhabitants, and compelled the rest to * Hand-Book of American Travel. 184 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, CITY HALL AND COURT HOUSE, PORTLAND. SL-ek safety on a neighboring island. In 1689, the French and In- dians made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the town ; but the next year the Indians were more successful. They took the forts erected for the defence of the settlement, massacred the garrison and carried one hundred of the inhabitants into captivity. The settlement was resumed the next year. On the 19th of November, 1775, Falmouth was bombarded and destroyed by a British fleet. Ten newspapers and other journals are published in Portland. BANGOR, The second qity in the State, is situated in Penobscot county, on the right bank of the Penobscot River, 60 miles from the sea, and 126 miles northeast of Portland, with which it is connected by railroad and steamer. The city is located at the mouth of the Kenduskeag River, a branch of the Penobscot, and is built on both banks of the former stream, the two divisions of the city being connected by several bridges, eacli about 570 feet long. A fine bridge crosses the Penob- MAINE. 185 scot a short distance above the city, and unites fiangor with Brewer. This bridge marks the upper line of the harbor, which is about 1500 feet wide, with a depth of water sufficient for the largest vessels. Bangor is the principal lumber port in the Union. Immense quan- tities of lumber are brought down the Penobscot, and shipped from this place by sea. During the season of navigation, Avhich continues for about 8 months, over 2000 vessels leave this port laden with lumber. The city is also extensively engaged in the coast trade, in foreign commerce, and in shipbuilding. Bangor is located upon high ground, commanding an extensive view of the surrounding country. It is well built, and contains seve- ral fine structures, the principal of which is the Custom blouse. It contains 12 or 13 banks, 11 churches, 4 of which are among the handsomest in the State ; a theological seminary, and a number of flourishing schools. Two daily and 4 weekly newspapers are pub- lished in the city. The water-power is derived from a fall in the Kenduskeag, half a mile above its mouth, and is excellent. Several large factories, including founderies, machine shops, furniture manu- factories, and saw mills, are established here. There is railroad communication to Old Town, on the Penobscot, and this road will soon be extended to Calais, on the border of New Brunswick. The population is 20,500. MISCELLANY. ARNOLD’S MARCH TO QUEBEC. Hon. J. T. Headley, in his biography of the Rev. Samuel Spring, Chaplain of the expedition, thus describes this memorable march : At length provisions began to grow scarce, and every one had to be pul on short allowance. Mr. Spring tooli his three-quarters of a pound of pork per day cheerfully with the rest. After incredible hardships, and the loss of 150 men, by sickness and desertion, the army at last reached the great carrying place, 15 miles long, extending from the Kennebec, to- the Dead River. Only 3 small ponds occurred the whole dis- tance, on which the boats could be launched. The rest of the way they and the provisions, ammunitions, etc., had to be carried on men’s shoulders. This was a terrific strain on the army, and the dispiriting effect upon the soldiers was not re- lieved by the appearance of the Dead River, when they reached it, for it moved sluggish and dark like the waters of oblivion through the silent and motionless forest. Day after day they toiled up this sluggish stream, between the monoto- nous walls of forest that lined its banks, until it seemed as if there was no outlet or opening to the apparently interminable wilderness. At every bend, the eye strained forward to catch some indication of change, and when at last tliey came THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 1 S6 in sight of a snow-covered mountain in the distance, telling them there was an outer world after all, the men sent up a shout that woke tlie echoes far and wide. Near its base they encamped 3 days, and Spring spent most of the time in visiting the sick, and praying with them. The army had scarcely got under way again, when the heavens became overcast ; dark and angry clouds swept the heavens, and the heavy winds sobbed and moaned through the forest. Sooil the rain came down in torrents. Side by side with the drenched soldier the tall chaplain trudged uncomplainingly on, and lay down like him on the wet ground at night. It poured without cessation for 3 days, shedding still deeper gloom over the army. The river rose steadily the whole time, till the sluggish current at length swept down with such velocity and powder that the boats could with difficulty stem it. On the third night, just as the soldiers had lain down to rest, after having kindled a huge fire, Mr. Spring heard a roar in the forest above them like the sound of the surf beating upon the shore, and the next moment the glan- cing waters were seen sweeping through the trees on both sides of the stream. In an instant the camp was alive with shouts and cries rising above the turbulent fiood that deluged the ground on which they stood. The fires were extinguished, and in the tumult, and confusion, and darkness, no one knew wiiich w^ay to fiee for safety, or what to do. In this state of uncertainty and dread the night wore away. The daylight revealed to them a spectacle sad enough to fill the bravest heart with discouragement. Boats had drifted into the forest, and as far as the eye could reach the level ground w^as one broad lake, out of which arose the dark stems of the trees like an endless succession of columns. In nine hours the water rose 8 feet, totally obliterating the shores of Dead River. But the provisions were getting lower and lower, and Arnold could not wait for the river to subside. The army wms, therefore, pushed on, slowiy stemming the flood ; but seven boats, carrying provisions, were caught in the whirling, angry waters, and upset, and all their contents destroyed. The boldest now paused in dismay, for only 12 days’ provisions remained, while 30 miles across the mountain were to be traversed before they could reach the head waters of the Chaudiere, that flowed into the St. Lawn*ence. A council of w^ar was called to decide wdiat should be done in this crisis of affairs. They had now been a month away from civilization, the sick were increasing, wffiile famine was staring them in the face. It was determined at length to leave the sick there, and despatch orders to Colonels Green and Knox, in the rear, to has- ten up, and take them back to Cambridge. Here was an opportunity for the young chaplain to abandon the expedition, and yet apparently be in the path of duty. He had had enough, one would think, of toil, exposure, and suffering, not to wish to face still greater hardships, and perhaps death itself, by famine in the wilderness, he following its fortunes. But he believed the welfare of his country was deeply involved in its fate, and he de- termined, come what would, to share its vicissitudes, hazards, and destiny. Having, therefore, prayed with the sick, encouraged the desponding with the promise that relief would soon come, and pointed those whom he believed dying to the Saviour of men, and commended all to the care and mercy of God, he bade them farewell, and moved forward with the advancing column. The cold, autumnal rains had now turned into snow, wdiich, sifting down through the leafless tree-tops, covered the weary, wan, and straggling column with a winding-sheet, that seemed to be wrapping it for the tomb. After they left the sick in the wilderness, they passed 17 falls before they reached the head- MAINE. IS"! waters of Dead River. It was still 4 miles across to the Chaudiere, down which they were to float to the St. Lawrence. Here, on the summit of the hills on which the waters divide, one part flowing south and the other north, Arnold distributed the last provisions to the separate companies, and, taking only 13 men, pushed on for the Chaudiere. He told those left behind, in parting, that he would obtain provisions for them in advance, if human efforts could procure them ; but directed them to follow after as fast as they could, for, he added, their only safety lay in advancing. Spring remained behind with the army, to share its privations and its fate, whatever that might be. The gallant fellows gave their indomitable leader three parting cheers, and then began to heave their heavy boats from the water. Hoisting them upon their shoulders, while others were loaded down with baggage and ammunition, and others still dragged the few pieces of artillery along like cattle, they staggered on through the forest. The scanty provisions that were left them, though eked out with the greatest parsimony, grew rapidly less, and Anally failed entirely. Under the low rations and severe labor combined, the men had gradually grown weaker and weaker, and now, pale and emaciated, looked on each other in mute inquiry. A council of war was called, and it was determined to kill the dogs they had with them, and push on till this loathsome supply was exhausted. These faithful ani- mals, hitherto the companions of their toils, were slain and divided among the different companies. After the bodies were devoured, their legs and even claws were boiled for soup. It was a sad sight to see the groups of half-famished soldiers seated together around a Are, watching with eager looks the pot containing this refuse of the dogs, and' gazing with strange meaning into each other’s eyes. The chaplain fared like the rest, and famine and incessant toil and exposure were telling on him as well as on the soldiers. The tall frame grew less erect, and the wan face showed that starvation was eating away his life. Trusting, however, in God, whom he served, he endured all cheerfully, and bore that famished multitude on his heart to the throne of heavenly grace. The soldiers, in all their sufferings, thought of him with the deepest sympathy, and could not but feel encouraged when they saw his serene, though emaciated countenance, and listened to his ex- pressions of calm confidence in God, that he would yet deliver them. He often walked through the woods to look at the various groups, and see where he could be of most service. His heart bled at the destitution he witnessed on every side. One day he came upon a company gathered around a fire, boiling some dogs’ claws they had preserved to make soup with. As he paused to look at them, they rose, and, in true kindness of heart, urged him to share their meagre, dis- gusting broth. It was a novel, but touching evidence of the deep affection they bore their young chaplain, and told, in language stronger than words, what an example of patient endurance he had shown, and how kind and faithful had been his labors among them. At last the dogs gave out, and then the soldiers tore off their moose-skin moc- casins, and boiled them to extract a little nourishment. The feet could stand the November frosts better than their stomachs endure the gnawings of famine. They reached at length the banks of the Chaudiere, and launched their boats. The current, however, was swollen and rapid — now boiling amid the rocks, and now shooting like an arrow around a jutting precipice. On such a turbulent flood the boats soon became unmanageable, and one after another was stranded or shivered into fragments, till nearly all were destroyed. 188 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. They were still 30 miles from the French settlements, and now were compelled to shoulder their burdens, and advance on foot, in straggling parties, through the forest. During all these perils and sufferings, scarce a Sabbath passed in which Spring did not mount his pulpit of knapsacks, and preach to the troops, while every morning, before the march began, his earnest prayer arose to God for help. The last miserable substitute for food was at length exhausted, and with empty stomachs and bowed forms they slowly, despairingly toiled onward, while all along their track the snow was stained with blood. As they were now approach- ing the French settlements, severe discipline was enforced. They needed no fires to cook their food, for they had none to cook ; but none was allowed them to warm themselves by, and strict orders were given not to discharge a gun for any purpose. "While the weary column was thus staggering silently on, suddenly the report of a musket w^as heard far in advance, then another, and another, till twenty echoed through the forest. They ceased, and then a long shout rolled back through the solitude, producing the wildest excitement. Mr. Spring never forgot that thrilling scene, and long after, in speaking of it, said: “The army was starving, but moving on. The pioneers, who were ahead to clear the way, roused suddenly a noble moose. It was the first that had been seen. The temp- tation was too strong to be resisted. One man fired — he missed. Twenty guns were levelled at him. He fell — they forgot all discipline in their extremity, and Shouted. It was a noble moose, weighing not less than 1000 pounds. A halt was ordered — camp kettles taken out, fires kindled^ meat, bloody entrails, ' hoofs and horns chopped up, and soup made of all for the armyy Revived by this unexpected supply, the troops pushed on. The next day they met a company of men with provisions, sent back by Arnold to relieve them. A loud shout arose from the whole army, and a general feast was ordered. Several of the soldiers, unable to restrain their appetites, eat so voraciously that they sickened and died. They had braved the wilderness, and withstood the ravages of famine, to fall victims to unrestrained indulgence. It w'as with profound sad- ness the young chaplain performed the last religious rites over their rude graves in the northern wilderness. NEW HAMPSHIRE. ' . . . . 9,280 Square Miles. Population ill 1860, 326,073 Population in 1870, 318,300 The State of New Hampshire is bounded on the north by Canada East, on the east by Maine and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by the Connecticut River and Mei- mont. It is 90 miles ‘broad at its southern, and 45 miles broad at its northern extremity, and 185 miles long from north to south. It forms a species of irregular triangle, and is situated between latitude 42 ° 40' and 45° 25' N., and between longitude 70° 40' and 72° 35' AY. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is broken and mountainous. The country rises rapidly as it recedes from the coast until its greatest height is at- tained in Mount AYashington, one of the AYhite Alountains, in Coos county. The AYhite Alountains proper are only about 20 miles long, and lie almost entirely in Coos county, but broken and detached groups lie all over the State from the northern boundary down to and across the Massachusetts border. The only level land, exclusive of the mountain valleys, extends along the coast, and for about 30 miles into the interior. The principal Peaks in New Hampshire which are distinct from the AYhite Mountains, are as follows : the Blue Hills, 1151 feet above the ocean, situated in the southeast part of the State; Mount Chocura, in Carroll county, 3358 feet high; Carr’s Mountain, in Grafton county, 1381 feet high; Mount Kcar- sarge, in Hillsborough county, 3067 feet; Mount Monadnock, in Cheshire county, 3718 feet; Mount Andover, in Merrimack county, 2000 feet; and Moosehillock, in Grafton county, 4636 feet. 189 190 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The White Mountains lie in the southern part of Coos county, in the northeastern part of the State. The principal peaks of this range are Mount Washington, 6226 feet; Mount Jefferson, 5657 feet; Mount Adams, 5759 feet; Mount Madison, 5415 ; Mount Monroe, 5349; Mount Franklin, 4850 feet; and Mount Pleasant, 4712 feet. The prominent features of this region, which is styled, on account of its beauty, The Switzerland of America,^^ are thus sketched by a recent writer: The White Mountains, already referred to, ^tract more tourists than any other natural object in the United States, excepting only Niagara Falls. The traveller may journey for weeks through its wild scenery, with a constant succession of grand objects to" interest his mind. The fashionable route is to enter New Hampshire by the Boston and Montreal Railways to WiePs, on Lake Winnipiseogee ; then take the steamboat, and, having made the circuit of the lake, enter the stage for Conway, on the east side of the White Mountains, and from thence, by another stage^ through the celebrated Notch, to the Notch House, which stands in the very jaws of the pass. The return is by the Franconia Notch (about 26 miles southwest of the White Mountain Notch), and south down the valley of the Pemige- wasset, to Plymouth, or back to Lake Winnipiseogee, according as the tourist wishes to direct his steps thereafter. The White Mountain Notch is a pass of great celebrity. Coming from the north or west, you enter it by an opening only 23 feet in width, between two per- pendicular rocks, one 20, and the other 12 feet high. The infant Saco trickles its way through this nar ow opening, gradually expand- ing as it proceeds down the pass, and receiving other tributaries from the mountain-sides, which form the walls of the gorge, and which tower to the height of about 2000 feet above the bed of the Saco. In this pass occurred, in 1826, the landslide which destroyed the Willey family. The more wild and abrupt parts of the Notch extend for 2 or 3 miles from its entrance at the Notch House. Mount Washington is ascended on horseback from the Notch House, by a bridle-path, first climbing Mount Clinton — in immediate proximity to the hoteL — for 2|^ miles, and then coasting the east side of the peaks of Mount Pleasant, Mount Franklin, and Mount Monroe, for 4 miles further, occasionally ascending a rough, steep ridge, and again descending, now riding on the verge of a vast ravine of several hundred feet in depth, and now on the crest of a ridge commanding a view of both sides of the chain — we arrive at the foot of Mount Washington, 1500 NEW HAMPSHIRE, 191 SCENE IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. feet in perpendicular, and about one mile in inclined ascent, above the base of the cone or peak, and 6226 feet above the sea. This is the most difficult, though scarcely dangerous, part of the ascent, as 4t is little else than riding on horseback over a pile of rocks of every variety of size, cast together as if hurled there by the Titans, in war or at play. From the summit, if the day be clear, is afforded a view un- equalled, perhaps, on the eastern side of the North American conti- nent. Around you, in every direction, are confused masses of moun- tains, bearing the appearance of a sea of molten lava suddenly cooled, whilst its ponderous waves were yet in commotion. On the southeast horizon gleams a rim of silver light — it is the Atlantic Ocean, 65 miles distant — laving the shores of Maine. Lakes — of all sizes, from Lake Winnipiseogee to mere mountain ])onds — and ^ mountains be- neath, you gleam misty and wided Far off to the northeast is Mount Katahdin. In the western horizon are the Green Mountains of Ver- mont, and to the south and southwest are Mount Monadnock and Kearsarge, or Kiarsage, while the space between is filled up with 192 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. every variety of landscape, mountain, and hill, plain and valley, lake and river. / “Those to whom it is an object to reach Mount Washington with as little stage-riding as possible, may be landed at Gorham by the Portland and Montreal Railway cars, within 5 miles of the base of the mountain. The Franconia Notch is deemed by many quite as inter- esting as the AVhite Mountain Notch. Near it are many agreeable accessories not to be found in the latter; among which are Echo Lake, just at the northern entrance of the gorge, and the ^Old Man of the Mountain,^ a well-defined profile of a human face, 1000 feet above the level of the pass. The Basin, 4 miles south of the Notch, is a pool of beautifully transparent water. One mile below this, again, in the vicinity of the Flume House, is the celebrated Flume, a narrow gorge or opening in the rocks, only a few feet in width, and from 70 to 120 feet in height, through which flows a small tributary of the Pemigewasset ; below this is a cascade of 616 feet in length, which in the spring and fall freshets is an object of great interest. In the same neighborhood is the Pool (a basin formed by a small fall in the Pemigewasset), which is about 60 feet in diameter, and 40 feet deep, surrounded by mural precipices 150 feet in height. The Flume, the Basin, and the Pool, all within an agreeable walking distance of the Flume House, make this one of the most agreeable stopping-places among the mountains. Mount Lafayette — only 700 feet inferior in altitude to Mount Washington — is also ascended from the same house, which has the further advantage of being within a five-miles ride of the Franconia Notch. The other detached mountains scattered over New Hampshire would, in any other State, not overshadowed by Mount Washington and his court, merit conspicuous notice. Dixville Notch, about 46 miles north of Lancaster, is said to be but little in- ferior to the two great passes already described. New Hampshire shares with Vermont the beautiful river Connecticut, whose shores are often grand, and seldom tame. Bellows Falls, in this river, on the southwest border of the State, are formed by the contraction of the river bed to about 20 feet on the west side at low water, through which the stream rushes with great violence. At high water, it flows in the eastern as well as western channel. These beds are separated by a huge rock. The entire descent in half a mile is 42 feet. At Amoskeag, the Merrimac descends 50 feet in three successive pitches. In the White Mountain Notch is a cascade which winds down the face of the mountain, through a fall of 800 feet, giving, after copious NEW HAMPSHIRE. 193 rains, an additional, interest to the scene, as it glides or leaps over the different stages of its descent. There are two interesting falls in the Ammonoosuck, within a pleasant drive from the Notch Honse.’^ * Lake Winnipiseogee is the principal inland sheet of water. It is irregular in shape, its shores being deeply indented with a number of bays. It is 25 miles long, and varies in width from 1 to 10 miles. It is very deep, and the water, pure and clear as crystal, is alive with fine trout. It is thickly studded with islands, and abounds in the most picturesque scenery. Steamers ply between Alton Bay and Centre Harbor, stopping at the various points along the lake. Large numbers of visitors come here every summer. The Connecticut River, the largest and most beautiful in New England, rises in the extreme northern part of this State, in the hills lying along the border of Canada. Flowing across the State, it turns to the southwest at the northern line of Vermont, and pursuing a generally southwest course, forms the boundary between Vermont and New Hampshire, and passes into Massachusetts. The scenery along the river is very beautiful, and has made the ^^Connecticut Valley^’ famous throughout the country. Above the Massachusetts line it is chiefly mountainous. The Merrimac River is the next in importance, and lies almost entirely within the State. It is formed by the junction of the Pemige- wasset and Winnipiseogee rivers, in Belknap county. Flowing to the southward, it enters Massachusetts about 80 miles from its source. Then turning abruptly to the northeast, it flows into the Atlantic near Newburyport. It is about 110 miles long, and flows through a val- ley noted for its beauty. Haverhill, in Massachusetts, 15 miles from the sea, is the head of ship navigation, but canals have been cut around the falls, which enable boats to ascend to Concord, New Hampshire. The river turns by its excellent water-power more mills and factories than any other in the Union. The Salmon Falls, Pis- cataqua, Contoocook, Souhegan, and Nashua are the other prominent streams. The Isle of ShoaU is the name given to a group of 8 islands, 3 of which belong to New Hampshire, and the rest to Maine. They lie off the coast, 11 miles from Portsmouth. A steamer plies daily between that city and the principal island. The voyage is but an hour in length, and the scenery, as the boat passes down the river * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1306. 13 194 THP] GREAT REPUBLIC. through the Narrows, stemming bravely the rushing tide, or borne surfing upon it, is most delightful. Sliding by Fort Constitution and tlie Whalers Back Light House, the steamer is soon upon the wide Atlantic. Directly in front is the dim outline of the islands, while behind stretches the white line of the coast. In the distance rise the hills of New Hampshire and the blue sides of Agamenticus, the high mountain of York. As the boat approaches the Appledore Island, the hotel unfolds its size and proportions. Landing by row-boats, the traveller ascends, by an easy path, to the portico, where an expectant crowd is assembled. ^^The ^Appledore’ is conducted by Oscar and Cedric Laighton, whose father is well remembered as the former proprietor. His grave is now one of the interesting and noteworthy spots upon the rocky island. Here also are buried the unfortunate crew of a Spanish ves- sel driven upon the cliffs on a winter’s night. This incident has been made the subject of an effective poem by Longfellow. ^^The steamboat reaches the ^Appledore’ at 1 o’clock each day, and starts upon its homeward trip at 3 P. M. Visitors to the other islands of the group are carried across in small boats. The distance is short to Gosport, where is a‘ small village of some 30 houses, a - church, and a school-house. The population are hardy fishermen, among whom can still be traced the Portuguese features of the origi- nal colonizers from the fleet of John Smith, by whom these islands were discovered. A disaster fell upon them a year ago, in the shape of fire. Half their little settlement was consumed in a single night ; and this calamity, to so hard-working a people, excited much sym- pathy throughout New England. Assistance was given them, and they are now recovering from their losses. Near by is White Island, where a revolving light casts a crimson glow over a sea which sleeps through the summer months, but wliich rises in the winter storms with mighty strength. The other islands are known by the euphonious names of Smutty-Nose and Hog. They are visited only by sportsmen, and are a refuge for innumerable sea- fowl.” MINERALS. Iron is found in several counties, principally at Franconia, Pier- mont, and Bartlett. Bog-ore deposits are thickly scattered over the State. Copper, lead, zinc and plumbago are also found in several localities, and silver has been discovered near Pittsfield. Granite of NEW HAMPSHIRE. 195 a fine quality abounds. Gneiss, crystallized-quartz, talc, steatite, tour- malins, ochres, limestone, spars of various kinds, terra sienna, sulphur, magnesia, beryls, garnets, jasper, manganese, asbestus, and amethysts are found. CLIMATE. The climate of New Hampshire is severe, but uniform. Franconia is said to be the coldest place in the Union ; the thermometer some- times indicating 40 degrees below zero. The summers are short, but pleasant. The cold weather begins in October, and snow falls in No- vember and lasts until May, in the northern part of the State, and until April in the southern. In the mountains it frequently lies on the ground until July. The springs are damp and are rendered dis- agreeable by heavy fogs. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is not naturally fertile, but has been made so by patient and laborious tillage. The northern part is but little cultivated, and the best lands are in the valleys of the rivers, which occasionally en- rich them by overflows. Sheep and cattle raising form a prominent part of the industry of the State, the high lands and mountain sides aflbrding good pasturage. In 1869, there were 2,367,034 acres of improved land in New Hampshire, and 1,377,591 acres unimproved. The remainder of agricultural wealth of the State for the same year may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms, $69,869,761 Value of farming implements and machinery, . $2,682,412 Number of horses, 45,101 “ asses and mules, 40 “ milch cows, 99,540 “ other cattle, 203,800 “ sheep, 620,890 “ swine, 79,680 Value of domestic animals, $12,924,629 Bushels of wheat, 291,000 “ lye, 150,000 “ Indian com, 1,400,000 “ oats, 1.663,000 “ peas and beans, 89,454 “ Irish potatoes, 4.500,000 “ barley, 106,000 “ buckwheat 90,400 196 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Bushels of clover seed (estimated), 13,000 “ grass seed (estimated), 6,500 Pounds of wool (estimated), 2,000,000 “ butter, 6,956,’764 “ cheese, 2,323,092 “ bops, 150,000 ‘‘ maple sugar, 2,255,012 “ beeswax and honey, 130,078 Tons of hay, 700,000 Value of orchard products, $557,934 “ home-made manufactures, .... $251,013 “ slaughtered animals, $3,787,500 COMMERCE. New Hampshire has but one good harbor, that of Portsmouth ; and but one river navigable, and that for but a short distance from the sea. This, of course, limits the amount of her foreign trade. During the year ending June 30th, 1861, the commerce of the State was as follows : value of exports, $6112 ; value of imports, $20,887. . MANUFACTURES. The rivers of New Hampshire furnish an abundance of first class water-power, and the people are largely engaged in manufactures. According to the census of 1860, there were 2582 establishments in the State engaged in manufactures, mining and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $25,900,000, and 36,100 hands; con- sumed raw material worth $24,400,000 ; and yielded products worth $45,500,000. Of these, 44 were cotton factories, employing a capital of $13,878,000, and 6300 male and 13,859 female hands, consuming $9,758,921 worth of raw material, paying $4,574,520 annually for labor, and yielding an annual product of $16,661,531 ; and 71 were woollen factories, employing a capital of $1,519,550, and 1003 male and 1003 female hands, paying annually $499,764 for labor, consum- ing raw material worth $1,732,074, and yielding an annual product of $2,876,000. The other manufactures were as follows : value of leather produced, $1,933,949; rolled iron, $7000; steam engines and machinery, $898,560 ; agricultural implements, $134,935 ; sawed and planed lumber, $1,230,000; flour, $1,490,000 ; liquors, $86,000. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1868, there were 659 miles of railroad within the limits of the State. These, in many instances, merely crossed it, terminating at NEW HAMPSHIRE. 197 either Boston or Portland. Others had one terminus in New Hamp- shire, and another in some other State, and a few short routes lay wholly within the State. . The railroads have almost entirely sup- planted the canals built for the improvement of the Merrimac River. The total cost of these roads was $22,053,000. EDUCATION. In the year 1868, there were 2487 public schools in New Hamp- shire, attended by 77,138 pupils; the average attendance for the year being 52,476. These schools were conducted by 477 male, and 2465 female teachers. Besides these, there are about 50 private academies in the State, and one college, which is located at Dartmouth. This institution was founded in 1769, and is in a flourishing condition. The educational system is maintained by sales of public lands, taxes upon the capital of the banks, and a poll tax upon the inhabitants. It is controlled by a series of district committees, who are subordinate to the Board of Education of the State. The expenditures for schools, not including the private schools, for the year 1868, was $333,465. In 1860, there were 306 libraries in the State, containing 237,312 volumes. In the same year, upwards of 25 newspapers were published in this State. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The Insane Asylum^ at Concord, was incorporated in 1838, It is provided with excellent and commodious buildings, and has a farnl of 155 acres attached to it. The whole number of patients under treatment during the year 1870 was 367 — 190 males, 177 females. The Reform School is located near Manchester, and is surrounded by a farm of 100 acres, which is worked by the boys of the school. Children of both sexes are received here, and are subjected to a mild but firm course of discipline for their reformation. The school was founded, in 1856, and has been very successful in its operations. During the year 1869-70, its inmates numbered 155 — males 135, females 20. The State Prison is located at Concord. It is in a flourishing con- dition, and is conducted upon a system which aims to reform as well as punish. The Legislature of 1867 passed an Act, known as the Commutation law,^^ by which, says the Governor of the Common- wealth, every month of exemplary conduct on the part of a prisoner gains him a certain amount of time to be deducted from the term of 198 THE GREAT REPUBLIC.. bis sentence .Every convict who avails himself of the benefits of this provision is released in advance of the expiration of his original term of imprisonment, and thus retains the rights of citizenship.’' During the year 1870, the whole number of prisoners confined here’ was 118. RELIGIOUS DEiVOMINATIONS. In I860,, the value of church property was $1, 913, 692. The num- ber of churches was 681. FINANCES. The finances of the State are in a prosperous condition. In 1870, the total public debt was $2,817,869. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1870, including cash on hand, were $1,123,028, and the disbursements $1,086,350, leaving a bal- ance of $36,678. in the Treasury on the 1st of July, 1870. There are but few State banks left, nearly all of the old institutions having embraced the National Bank system. In May, 1868, there were a few remaining with an aggregate capital of $237,300, and these were preparing to reorganize under the new system. At the same time, there were 40 National Banks, with an aggregate capital of $4,785,000, besides a number of Savings institutions. GOVERNMENT. Every adult male inhabitant of the State, over twenty-one years of age, excepting paupers and persons not paying taxes, is entitled to vote in the place of his residence. The Government consists of a Governor assisted by a Council of five members, and a Legislature, divided into a Senate and House of Representatives, all chosen annually by the people on the second Tuesday of March. The Secretary of State and Treasurer are chosen on joint ballot by the Legislature at the beginning of every session of that body. The two houses of the Legislature are together styled The General Court of New Hampshire.’^ There is a Supreme Judicial Courts the highest State tribunal, com- prised of a Chief Justice, and five Associate Justices. They are ap- pointed by the Governor and Council, and hold office during good behavior. The State is divided, for convenience, into four Judicial Districts. There is also a Superior Court for each county, and a local tribunal for each city. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 199 Eor purposes of government, the State is divided into ten counties. The seat of Government is located at Concord. HISTORY. New Hampshire was first settled by the English, at Dover and Portsmouth, in 1623. It was originally a part of Massachusetts, but was organized as a separate province, with its present name, by a royal charter, in 1679. In 1689, it was annexed to Massachusetts, and was afterwards transferred to New York. It was erected into an independent province in 1741, however, and has since maintained a distinct existence. It was considerably annoyed in its early years by the Indians, who, in 1689, made a descent upon Dover, burned a part of the town, and killed a number of the inhabitants. In 17/6, the State declared its separate independence of Great Britain. During the Revolution, it made 'liberal contributions of men and money to the cause. Its troops won especial credit at Stillwater, Saratoga, Mon- mouth, and Bennington. It adopted the Constitution of the United States on the 21st of June, 1788. During the late war, it contributed 33,427 men to the army of the United States. Of these, 5518 fell in battle, and 11,039 were disabled by wounds and sickness. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns of New Hampshire are Concord, the capital of the State, Manchester, Nashua, Portsmouth, Dover, Somers- worth, Keene, Claremont, Rochester, Exeter, Gilford, Sanborn ton, and Great Falls. CONCORD, The capital of the State, is situated on the banks of the Merrimac River, 20 miles above Manchester, and 59 miles northwest from Boston. It extends along the river for about 2 miles, and has an average width of about half a mile. Main street, the principal thoroughfare, is 2 miles long, and 1 50 feet wide. It contains the hotels and nearly all the prominent buildings. The city is handsomely built; the streets are broad, and well shaded ; and the entire place wears an air of comfort and refinement characteristic of New England towns. The principal building is the State House, constructed of a fine quality of native granite, and surrounded by a beautiful park. Concord is the seat of extensive manufactures, the falls of the Mer- 200 TIII^] (Ull^JAT REPUBLIC. CONCORD STATE HOUSE. rimac furnishing excellent water-power. It contains 9 churches, sev- eral banks, and a number of line private buildings. The State Lunatic Asylum is also located here. Eailroads connect it with Boston and all parts of the Union, and with Canada. The population is 12,241. Four newspapers are published here. ^ * MANCHESTER, The largest city in the State, is situated in Hillsborough county, on the banks of the Merrimac River, 18 miles from Concord, and 59 miles from Boston. It is built along the river, on an elevated plateau about 90 feet above the water. Several railroads centre here, and afford^ rapid and direct communication with all parts of the country. The city is well laid out, having broad streets, intersecting each other at right angles, and several handsome public squares. The eastern section is built almost entirely of brick, but the western part is built of wood. It contains several fine buildings, the principal of which is the new town house, or city hall. The more elevated portion of the place is occupied by residences and churches, and the slope between NEW HAMPSHIRE. 201 the plateau and the river is devoted to the mills and the dwellings of the operatives. The city contains a good public library, about 12 churches, about 24 public schools, besides several private establish- ments, 3 or 4 banks, and 7 newspaper offices. Manchester owes its importance . to its extensive manufactures. Cotton, woollen, and other factories are numerous, the motive power being derived from a series of rapids in the Merrimac, called the Amoskeao* Falls. The river here makes a descent of 54 feet in a o mile, and dams and locks have been constructed at the head of the rapids, by which the water is conveyed to all the mills in the city. Cotton and woollen goods, wrought iron goods of various kinds, locomotives, railroad cars, and steam fire-engines constitute the prin- cipal manufactures, and give employment to between six and seven thousand hands. The population is 23,536. PORTSMOUTH, In Rockingham county, is the second city, and only seaport in the State. It is situated on the right bank of the Piscataqua River, 3 miles from the sea, and 54 miles northeast of Boston. Several rail- roads terminate here, and others pass through it, leading to all parts of the Union ahd Canada. The city is built upon a peninsula near the mouth of the river, and upon rising ground, which affords a fine view of the harbor. It is well laid off, and possesses a number of handsome buildings. It contains a public library of over 10,000 volumes, and several excellent literary institutions. It is extensively engaged in manufactures, is supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. It is the seat of an active foreign and coasting trade, which, though not so large as formerly, is still important. The fisheries are a source of considerable profit to it, as they lie but a short distance from it. The harbor of Portsmouth is one of the best in the world. It is completely land-locked, is never frozen, and is accessible to the largest ships. Its tides are high and rapid, and the bottom is a smooth bed of rock. The channel at low water is 40 feet in depth. It is de- fended by Fort Constitution, on Great Island; Fort McClary, oppo- site; Fort Sullivan, on Trepethen Island; and Fort Washington, on Pierce’s Island. .It is estimated that the harbor is sufficiently capa- cious to admit with ease as many as 2000 vessels. The city is connected by bridges with Newcastle, on Grand Island, and with Kittery, in Maine, on the opposite side of the Piscataqua^ 202 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The United States Navy Yard at Kittery, commonly known as the Portsmouth Navy Yard, is one of the principal establishments of the Government, and the greatest attraction of the place. It is pro- vided with a splendid dry dock, constructed at a cost of $800,000, with three large ship-houses, and all the appliances necessary to the construction of the largest vessels of war. Portsmouth was made a naval station during the Revolution, and the first ship of the line (the North America) ever constructed in the New World was laid down here during that struggle. The Kearsarge, which sunk the Alabama during the civil war, was built here. Portsmouth contains numerous public schools, and supports 4 newspapers, 2 of which are daily. The JVew Hampshire Gazette^ published here, was established in 1756, and claims to be the oldest American journal now in existence. The population is 11,000. DOVER, In Strafford county, is the oldest city in the State. It is situated at the lower falls of the Cocheco River, and on both sides of that stream. It is at the head of sloop navigation, and is connected with all parts of the country by railroad. It is 12 miles northwest of Portsmouth, and 68 miles north of Boston. It is well built, and regularly laid off. It contains several handsome buildings, the principal of which is the city hall, several banks, a number of excellent public schools, 10 churches, and 2 good hotels. The falls of the Cocheco are 32 feet high, and furnish an abundance of excellent water-power. The capital invested in manufactures amounts to several millions of dollars. Cotton and Avoollen goods, boots and shoes, and iron ware are the principal articles produced. Shipbuilding was formerly an important interest. The city is lighted with gas, and contains a population of over 10,000. Dover was settled by a company from England, in 1623, and its early years were marked by constant trouble with the savages. In 1688, it was almost entirely destroyed by them. Belknap, in his History of New Hampshire,’’ gives the following account of this tragedy : In that part of the town of Dover which lies about the first falls in the rivei Cocheco, were five garrisoned houses ; three on the north side, viz., Waldron’s, Otis’s and Heard’s ; and two on the south side, viz., Peter Coffin’s and his son’s. These houses were surrounded by timber walls, the gates of which, as well as the house doors, were secured with bolts and bars. The neighboring families retired NEW HAMPSHIRE. 203 to these houses night ; but, by an unaccountable negligence, no watch was kept. The Indians who were daily passing through the town, visiting and trad- ing with the inhabitants, as usual in time of peace, viewed their situation with an attentive eye. Some hints of a mischievous design had been given out by their squaws ; but in such dark and ambiguous terms that no one could compre- hend their meaning. Some of the people were uneasy ; but Waldron, who, from a long course of experience, was intimately acquainted with the Indians, and on other occasions had been ready enough to suspect them, was now so thoroughly secure that, when some of the people hinted their fears to him, he merrily bade them go and plant their pumpkins, saying that he would tell them when the In- dians would break out. The very evening before the mischief was done, being told by a young man that the town was full of Indians and the people were much concerned, he answered that he knew the Indians very well and there was no danger. The plan which the Indians had preconcerted was, that two squaws should go to each of the garrisoned houses in the evening, and ask leave to lodge by the fire ; that in the night, when the people were asleep, they should open the doors and gates, and give the signal by a whistle ; upon which the strange Indians, who were to be withip hearing, should rush in, and take their long-meditated revenge. This plan being ripe for execution, on the evening of Thursday, the 27th of June, two squaws applied to each of the garrisons for lodging, as they frequently did in time of peace. They were admitted into all but the younger Coffin’s, and the people, at their request, showed them how to open the doors, in case they should have occasion to go out in the night. Mesandowit, one of their chiefs, went to Waldron’s garrison, and was kindly entertained, as he had often been before. The squaws told the major that a number of Indians were coming to trade with him the next day, and Mesandowit while at supper, with his usual familiarity, said: “Brother Waldron, what would you do if the strange Indians should come?” The major carelessly answered, that he could assemble 100 men by lifting up his finger. In this unsuspecting confidence the family retired to rest. When all was quiet, the gates were opened and the signal given. The Indians entered, set a guard at the door, and rushed into the major’s apartment, which was an inner room. Awakened by the noise, he jumped out of bed, and though now advanced in life to the age of 80 years, he retained so much vigor as to drive them with his sword through two or three doors ; but, as he was returning for his other arms, they came behind him, stunned him with a hatchet, drew him into his hall, and, seating him in an elbow chair on a long table, insultingly asked him, “ Who shall judge Indians now ? ” They then obliged the people in the house to get them some victuals ; and when they had done eating, they cut the major across the breast and belly with knives, each one with a stroke, say- ing, “I cross out my account.” They then cut off his nose and ears, forcing them into his mouth ; and when spent with the loss of blood, he was falling down from the table, one of them held his own sword under him, which put an end to his misery. They also killed his son-in-law, Abraham Lee ; but took his daughter Lee with several others, and having pillaged the house, left it on fire. Otis’s garrison, which was next to the major’s, met with the same fate ; he was killed, with several others, and his wife and child were captivated. Heard’s was saved by the barking of a dog just as the Indians were entering: Elder Wentworth, who was awakened by the noise, pushed them out, and falling on his back set 204 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. his feet against the gate and held it till he had alarmed the people ; two balls were fired through it, but both missed him. Coffin’s house was surprised, but as the Indians had no particular enmity to him, they spared his life, and the lives of his family, and contented themselves with pillaging the house. Finding a bag of money, they made him throw it by handfuls on the floor, while they amused themselves in scrambling for it. They then went^ to the house of his son, who would not admit the squaws in the evening, and kimmoned him to surrender, promising him quarter. He declined their offer, and determined to defend his house, till they brought out his father and threatened to kill him before his eyes. Filial affection then overcame his resolution, and he surrendered. They put both families together into a deserted house, intending to reserve them for prisoners • but while the Indians were busy in plundering, they all escaped. Twenty-three people were killed in this suprisal, and 29 were captivated ; 5 or G houses, with the mills, were burned ; and so expeditious were the Indians in the execution of their plot, that before the people could be collected from the other parts of the town to oppose them, they fled with their prisoners and booty. As they passed by Heard’s garrison in their retreat, they fired upon it ; but the people being prepared and resolved to defend it, and the enemy being in haste, it was preserved. The preservation of its owner was more remarkable. Elizabeth Heard, with her three sons and a daughter, and some others, were returning in the night from Portsmouth. They passed up the river in their boat unperceived by the Indians, who were then in possession of the houses ; but sus- pecting danger by the noise which they heard, after they had landed, th^' betook themsep es to \Yaldron’s garrison, where they saw lights, which they imagined were set up for direction to those who might be seeking a refuge. They knocked and begged earnestly for admission ; but no answer being given, a young man of the company climbed up the wall, and saw, to his inexpressible surprise, an Indian standing in the door of the house, wit^ his gun. The woman was so overcome with the fright that she was unable to fly, but begged her children to shift for themselves ; and they with heavy hearts left her. When she had a little recovered, she crawled into some bushes, and lay there till daylight. She then perceived an Indian coming toward her with a pistol in his hand ; he looked at her and went aw'ay : returning, he looked at her again ; and she asked him wffiat he wrould have ; he made no answer, but ran yelling to the house, and she saw^ him no more. She kept her place till the house was burned, and the Indians were gone ; and then returning home, found her owm house safe. Her preserva- tion in these dangerous circumstances was more remarkable, if (as it is supposed) it w’as an instance of justice and gratitude in the Indians. For at the time wdien the four or five hundred w^ere seized, in 1676, a young Indian escaped and took refuge in her house, wdiere she concealed him ; in return for wdiich kindness he promised her that he would never kill her, nor any of her family, in any future w^ar, and that he would use his influence with the other Indians to the same pur- pose. This Indian was one of the party wdio surprised the place, and she was well knowm to the most of them. VERMONT. Area, 10,212 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 315,098 Population in 1870, 330,552 The State of Vermont lies between latitude 42° 44' and 45° N., and longitude 71° 33' and 73° 25' W., and is bounded on the north by Canada East, on the east by Vew Hampshire, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by Lake Champlain and the State of New York. It is 150 miles long from north to south, 85 miles wide from east to west in its northern part, and 35 miles wide from east to west at its southern boundary. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is greatly diversified by hill and valley. The Green Mountains extend in a direction almost from north to south, throughout its entire length, dividing it into two unequal por^ tions. Just below Montpelier, the capital, this ridge divides into two portions, one of which, the higher, extends in a northern direction to the Canada line. The other, although lower, is continuous, and fol- lows the line of the Connecticut River, though at a considerable dis- tance from it, to the northeast corner of the State. The eastern ridge is broken in several places by the passage of the Onion, Lamoille, and Missisque rivers. South of this division, the range is not broken by any stream. The Green Mountains are among the most picturesque and beautiful in the Union, and offer many attractions to the tourist. The highest peaks are Mount Mansfield, 4360 feet above the sea. Camel's Rump, 4188 feet, Killington's, 3675 feet, and Ascutney Moun- tain, near the Connecticut River, 3320 feet. The southern part of the ran^e divides the tributaries of the Hudson from those of the Con- 205 206 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. % necticut. The mountains are covered with a thick growth of the evergreen fir, spruce, and hemlock, which give them always a rich hue of dark green, from which their name is derived. Lake ChampldiTij the largest over which the State has any jurisdic- tion, lies between Vermont and New York, and belongs principally to the latter State ; but, for convenience, will be described here. It extends from Whitehall, in New York, northward, a few miles be- yond the Canada line. It is 130 miles long, varies in width from half a mile to 10 miles, and is from 50 to 280 feet deep. A line, run from Vermont to New York across the principal island of the lake, would measure 15 miles. It receives the waters of Lakes George and Wood, and of the Saranac, Chazy, Au Sable, Missisquoi, and Wi- ^ nooski rivers, and discharges itself through the Richelieu River into the St. Lawrence. On the New York side the shores are rocky, mountainous and sterile; but the Vermont shore is very productive, and is highly cultivated. The scenery of the lake is wild and beau- tiful, the view ranging, in fair weather, as far back as the Green Moun- tains in Vermont, and the Adirondacks in New York. The waters are clear and abound in fish. Steamers ply daily between the Upper and lower ends of the lake. By means of canals there is uninter- rupted navigation, except during the season of ice, between Lake Champlain and the Atlantic, Lake Ontario, and the Hudson River, The commerce of the lake is estimated at over $30,000,000 annually. About 200,000 tons of shipping and 12,000 men are employed in this trade. Navigation is usually closed between the last of No- vember and the first of April. There’ are a number of islands in the lake, the principal of which are Grand Isle, South Hero, and North Hero, all belonging to Ver- mont. The principal towns belonging to Vermont are S wanton, Burlington, Charlotte, and Ferrisburg. Lake Champlain was discovered by Samuel Champlain, a French naval officer, in 1609. Important events occurred on its waters dur- ing the Revolution, and in the war of 1812-15, a British army and fleet were routed at Plattsburg, on the New York shore. Lake Memphramagog^ which lies almost entirely in Canada, indents a portion of northern Vermont. The other' lakes are Dunmore, Aus- tin, Bombazine, and Long Pond. The Connecticut River separates the State from New Hampshire. The other streams are the Otter Creek, Onion, Lamoille, and Mis- sisque. They are insignificant in length, but furnish good water-power. VERMONT. 201 MINERALS. Iron is found in considerable quantities in the Green Mountains, and there are deposits of bog-ore in various parts of the State. A brownish coal is found in Brandon. Sulphuret of iron is found near Stratford, and is used in making copperas, of which large quantities are produced. Granite and marble, the latter of a most excellent quality, abound. Slate quarries are numerous, and manganese is found in considerable quantities near Rutland. The other minerals are tita- nium, oxide of manganese, lead, magnetic iron ore, plumbago, copper and zinc. Traces of gold are very decided in the towns of Stowe and Bridgewater. CLIMATE. Being sheltered from the breezes which sweep over the other New England States from the ice fields of the Atlantic, Vermont has an even temperature, which renders it one of the healthiest States in the Union. The thermometer ranges from 17° below zero to 92° above. The winters begin about December, and continue until near the mid- dle of April. They are severe, as well as long. The summers are brief, but pleasant. Frost begins to appear in September, snow about the last of November. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The valleys of Vermont are fertile, the lands along the river bot- toms being excellent. The mountain slopes are used extensively for pasture, and large quantities of maple sugar are produced every year in the uplands. In 1869, there were 2,823,157 acres of improved land in the State, and 1,337,682 of unimproved land. The remainder of the agricultural wealth of Vermont, at the present time, may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms, . . • $91,511,673 Value of farming implements and machinery, . $3,554,728 Number of horses, 71,840 “ asses and mules, 120 “ milch cows, 190,420 “ other cattle, 230,300 “ sheep, 997,890 “ swine, * . . . . 81,450 Value of domestic animals, $19,241,989 208 THE GREAT RERUBLIC. Bushels of wheat, . . . rye, . . . “ Indian corn, . “ oats, . , . “ Irisli potatoes, “ barley, . . . “ buckwheat, . “ grass seed, . Pounds of wool, . . . butter, . . . “ cheese, . . . “ maple sugar (estimated), . . . “ beeswax and honey (estimated), . Tons of hay (estimated), . " Value of orchard products (estimated), . , “ market garden products (estimated), “ home-made manufactures, “ 766.000 155.000 1 . 475.000 5 . 050.000 5 . 750.000 102.000 231,000 12,000 3 , 000,000 15 , 900,359 8 , 215,030 10,000,000 212,905 1 . 100.000 $ 198,427 $ 24,792 $ 63,295 COMMERCE. Being an inland State wntliout navigable rivers, Vermont conducts its commerce connected with navigation exclusively by way of Lake Champlain. During the year 1862, the foreign exports amounted to $736,663, and the imports to $2,567,892. The entrances for the same year reached 22,012 tons, and the clearances to 23,281. Of this amount, 6067 tons were owned in the State. MAXUFACTURES. ermont has the best water-power of any Xew England State, but is not as extensiyely engaged in manufactures as the others, the prin- cipal pursuit of her people being agriculture. According to the census of 1860, there were 1501 establishments in AVrrnont deyoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. These emj^loyed a capital of $9,500,000, and 10,800 hands, consumed raw material worth $8,110,000, and returned an annual product of $16,000,000. The cotton manufactures were valued at $357,400; woollen manu- factures at $1,820,769; leatlier manufactures at $2,550,000; pig iron at $92,910; rolled iron at $63,250; steam engines and machinery at $493,836; agricultural implements at $157,647; sawed and planed lumber at $1,060,000 ; flour at $1,660,000. IXTERXAL IMPROVEMENTS. ^ ermont is crossed by several lines of railway, connecting the prin- cipal towns with the cities of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New YERMONT. 209 York, Connecticut, and Canada. In 1868, there were 594 miles of railway completed in the State. The cost of construction was $24,893,000. Rutland is the great railroad centre. EDUCATION. The State makes a liberal provision for the education of the young. In 1870, there were 2750 public or district schools in operation, at- tended by 72,950 pupils, the average attendance being about 47,000. The number of teachers was 4239, and the amount spent for educa- tional purposes was about $425,000. There are also three Normal schools in the State, one in each Congressional district, subject to the control of the State Board of Education. Two courses of study are taught in these schools. Those who graduate in the first course receive a certificate, which is, by a law of the State, a licence to teach any- where in Vermont for five years. Graduates from the second course receive certificates licensing them to teach in the State for fifteen years. Besides the public schools, there were, in the year 1867, 348 private schools, attended by 9264 pupils, and 58 academies. The colleges are 3 in number, the University of A^ermont, at Burlington, founded in 1791, Middlebury College, at Middlebury, founded in 1800, and Norwich University (partly military in its or- ganization), founded in 1834. There were, in 1860, 31 newspapers published in the State, 2 daily, 28 weekly, and one monthly. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of Vermont are the Insane Asylum, the Reform School, and the State Prison. The Insane Asylum is located at Brattleboro’. It is surrounded by a large farm, and has ample buildings, which were burned in 1862, but are now being replaced. It is under the supervision of the Com- missioner of the Insane, who is appointed by the Legislature annually for the purpose of inspecting and reporting upon the affairs of the asylum. In 1867, there were 646 inmates of the asylum. The in- stitution is in a large measure sustained by the labor of its inmates. The Reform School, established in 1865, is located at Waterbury. It has a farm of 133 acres attached to it, and is provided with excel- lent workshops. It is in a flourishing condition. In September, 1868, there were 57 inmates remaining. 14 210 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The State Prison was cstahlishetl in 1807, and is located at Wind- sor. It is governed by a Board consisting of a Superintendent and three Directors, chosen annually by the Legislature. It is almost self-supporting. The labor of the convicts is let, by agreement, at 42 cents per head, per day, for a term of five years. The commutation system has been introduced with great success. In September, 1870, there were 94 convicts still in prison. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the value of church property in Vermont was $1,800,600. The number of churches was 697. FINANCES. The funded debt of the State is $1,045,500. The unadjusted bal- ance still due the State by the General Government on account of the war is $207,222. The receipts of the treasury for the fiscal year, ending in September, 1868, were $709,548.96, and the expenditures were $682,993.95. In September, 1868, there were 40 National banks in Vermont, with an aggregate capital of $6,560,012. _ GOVERNMENT. Every male adult, either a native born or naturalized citizen of the United States, who has resided in the State one year, and can take thejOB^ prescribed by the Constitution of Vermont, is entitled to vote in the State elections. The Government consists of a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, who is the President of the Senate, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate and House of Ref^sentatives, chosen annually by the people. The Senate consists of 30 and the House of 241 members. There is also a Secretary of State, a State Treasurer, and an Auditor of Accounts. The judiciary department of the Government consists of a Supreme Court, a Court of Chancery, a County Court in each county, a Probate Court in each probate district, and one or more justices of the peace in each town. ‘‘The Supreme Court has no original jurisdiction, except for divorce; but is a court of errors for the trial of questions at law, and a court of appeal in chancery suits. Each judge of the Supreme Court is a Chancellor, and holds his court at the same time as the County Court, VERMONT. 211 which is held in each county by one of the Supreme Judges and two Assistant Judges. The County Courts have original jurisdiction in all civil actions for over $200, or in relation to real estate, except trespass, where the damages claimed exceed $20 ; also in actions for replevin for amounts over $20. All actions out of the original juris- diction of the County and Chancery Courts, except for divorce, must be brought before a j ustice of the peace.^^ The Supreme Court consists of one Chief Judge and five Assistant J udges. For the purposes of government, the State is divided into 14 counties. The seat of Government is established at Montpelier. HISTORY. Vermont was first discovered and partly explored by Samuel Cham- plain, a French officer, in 1609. It was first settled by the English, who founded Fort Hummer, on the present site of Brattleboro^, in 1724. The territory was then believed to be a part of Massachusetts. By the year 1768, 138 townships had been settled. These settlements were made under the authority of the Governor of New Hampshire^ who claimed the territory as a part of his province by virtue of the original charter of New Hampshire. In 1763, a controversy arose between New York and New Hampshire, the former laying claim to the territory. An appeal was made to the king, in 1764, who granted to New York jurisdiction to the Connecticut River. New Hampshire acquiesced in this decision, and the authorities of New York at- tempted to eject and dispossess the settlers from their lands, and through venal judges decided every case against them. This roused the spirit of the settlers to such a degree, that they commenced, under the leadership of Ethan Allen, Seth Warner, and other bold and fear- less men, an armed resistance to the oppression of the New York Government ; every officer who undertook to enforce a process of ejection was stripped, tied to a tree, and whipped with beechen rods without mercy. This application of the ^ beech seal,’ as it was called, was so effectual that no officers could be procured to serve writs.” The contest went on for ten years. Finally the Governor of New York issued a proclamation offering a reward for the capture of the Vermont leaders, who retorted by offering a reward for the capture of the Attorney General of New York. The Revolution began at this juncture, and suspended the controversy. The Vermont leaders did good service in the cause of the Colonies. Allen, with his own 212 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. company of 83 men, surprised and captured the important post of Ticonderoga, in May, 1775. In the invasion of Canada, he behaved gallantly and was made prisoner, while the Vermont regiment, under Seth Warner, covered the retreat from Quebec, and compelled the surrender of the enemy^s garrison at St. John’s. The Green Mountain Boys” made a brilliant name during the war, especially in the battles on Lake Champlain, in which nothing but their heroic resistance saved the American force from total annihilation. Their victory at Bennington decided the fate of Burgoyne’s army. In 1776, Vermont petitioned the Continental Congress for admis- sion into the Confederacy of the States, but her petition was rejected at the instance of New York. The next year, Vermont declared her independence, and in July made a second effort to secure admission into the Confederacy. Congress evaded a direct reply. The British now made strong overtures to Vermont to renew her allegiance to the Crown, but the Green Mountain leaders put the royal agents off with a vague reply, which was meant to encourage them to an extent suffi- cient to save the province from invasion by them till the answer of Congress should be known. In 1781, Congress offered to admit Vermont if she would consent to a curtailment of her territory, but she refused the offer. For eight years, she continued to occupy her anomalous position. In 1790, New York, wishing to settle the old dispute with her, revived her claim to the territory, but offered to compromise it on payment of $30,000. The offer was finally accepted, and the long difficulty set- tled. On the 4th of March, 1791, Vermont was admitted into the Union as a State — making the fourteenth member of the Confederacy, and the first admitted under the Constitution. In 1814, the State contributed a portion of the army which won the battle of Plattsburg. In 1837, during the Canadian Rebellion, considerable sympathy was shown for the rebels by the people of Vermont, and some 600 men went into Canada, to take part in the struggle. Upon the ap- proach of a British force sent against them, they withdrew into their own State and surrendered their arms to the United States authorities. During the late "war, on the 19th of October, 1863, a descent was made upon the town of St. Albans by a party of Confederates from Canada, who seized the funds in the bank, amounting to $211,150, and committed some depredations upon the town. They were pur- sued by the citizens, and the whole party finally captured by the pursuers or by the Canadian authoritias. VERMONT. 213 MONTPELIER. The State contributed to the army of the Union, during the war, a force amounting to 34,655 men. Of these 5128 were killed, a similar number were discharged, and others were permanently disabled. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal towns and cities of the State are Montpelier, the capital, Burlington, Brattleboro’, Rutland, St. Albans, and Ben- nington. MONTPELIER, The capital of Vermont, is delightfully situated on the banks of the Onion River, near the centre of the State, abqut 200 miles northwest of Boston. It is a pretty little city, well built, and conducts an active and valuable trade with the surrounding country. It is on the main line of travel between Boston and Montreal, in Canada, and is thus immediately connected with the great railroad system of the country. 214 THE GREAT REPUBLIC It became the capital of the State in 1805,, and now contains a popu- lation of over 3000. The State House fronts on State street,, and is a splendid edifice of native granite. It is in the form of a cross, has a fine portico sup- ported by massive columns, and is surmounted by a dome the apex of which is 100 feet from the ground. Montpelier contains several flourishing schools, 2 banks, and 5 churches. Six newspapers are published here. BURLINGTON, In Chittenden county, is the largest city in the State. It is situated on the east shore of Lake Champlain, 40 miles northwest of Mont- pelier, and about midway down the lake. The surrounding country abounds in magnificent scenery. Splendor of landscape,^^ says Dr. Dwight, is the peculiar boast of Burlington. Lake Champlain, here 16 miles wide, extends 50 miles northward, and 40 southward, before it reaches Crown Point, and throughout a great part of this magnificent expansion is visible at Burlington. In its bosom are encircled many beautiful islands ; 3 of them. North and South Hero, and La Motte, sufficiently large to contain, the first and last, 1 township each, the other 2 ; forming, together with the township of Al burgh, on the point between the bay of Misciscoui and the river St. John, the county of Grand Isle. A numerous train of these islands is here in full view. In the interior, among the other interesting objects, the range of the Green Mountains, with its train of lofty summits, commences in the south with the ut- most stretch of the eye ; and limiting, on the east, one-third of the horizon, declines far northward, until it becomes apparently blended with the surface. On the west, beyond the immense field of glass, formed by the waters of the lake, extends the opposite shore from its first appearance at the south, until it vanishes from the eye in the northwest, at the distance of 40 miles. Twelve or 15 miles from this shore ascends the first range of western mountains; about 15 or 20 miles further, the second range ; and at about the same distance the third. The two former commence a few miles south of the head of Lake George; one on the eastern, and the other on the western side of this water. Where the third commences, I am ignorant. The termination of all these ranges is not far from the latitude of Platts- burg. The prospefct of these mountains is superlatively noble. The rise of the first range from the lake, the ascent of the second far above VERMONT. 215 it, and the still loftier elevation of the third, diffuse a magnificence over the whole, which mocks description. Three of the summits, hitherto without a name, are peculiarly distinguished for their sub- limity. Among those of the Green Mountains there are two, in the fullest view from this spot, superior even to these. One of them, named the CameFs Rump, the CameFs Back, and the Camel ; the other the Mountain of Mansfield. The latter of these was by the fol- lowing expedient proved, not long since, to be higher than the former. A hunter, Avho had ascended to its highest point, put into his piece a small ball ; and pointing it to the apex of the Camel, the ball rolled out. Both of them are, however, very lofty; higher, as I believe, than Killington Peak, notwithstanding the deference with which I regard the estimates of Doctor Williams. The peculiar form of the CameFs Back invests this mountain with a sublimity entirely superior to any other in the State.^’ The city is built on rising ground, which becomes more elevated as it recedes from the lake, being quite low immediately at the Avater. The harbor has been deepened and enlarged by the General Govern- ment, and a breakwater constructed for its protection. Two railroads centre here, and afford direct communication with Montreal, Boston, New York City, and Albany. An important trade is carried on upon the lake. About 7000 tons of shipping and several steamers are owned here. The city is regularly laid off, and handsomely built. The streets intersect each other at right angles, extend back from the lake for more than a mile, and are well shaded. A handsome public square occupies the centre of the city, and upon this front the court house, the principal hotels, and the most prominent stores. Nearly all the houses have tasteful yards attached to them. Many have extensive grounds, planted with handsome shrubbery. The city contains 4 banks, a number of churches, and 3 newspaper offices. The popula- tion is about 14387. The University of Vermont occupies a commanding eminence at the eastern end of the city. It was founded in 1791, and is liberally en- dowed. It occupies four spacious and handsome buildings, and from the dome of the central edifice a view of unsurpassed beauty may be obtained. RUTLAND, In Rutland county, in the southwest part of the State, is the second city in Vermont. It is situated on Otter Creekj 55 miles southwest 216 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. RUTLAND. of Montpelier, and 67 miles southeast of Burlington. It is an im- portant railroad centre, four lines converging here, and leading to all parts of the country. It is beautifully situated in the midst of a pic- turesque region, Killington Peak forming the leading feature of the landscape. The city is well laid out, and neatly built. It contains several churches, a number of schools, public and private, 2 banks, and 3 newspaper offices. It possesses an important trade with the surrounding country, and contains several manufacturing establish- ments. The population is over 8000. Rutland is growing with marked rapidity, and will soon be one of the most important cities in Hew England. BENNINGTON, In the county of the same name, in the extreme southwest part of the State, is a thriving town of 4500 inhabitants. It is famous as being the scene of the battle of Bennington, fought August 16th, 1777, when a detachment of Burgoyne's army, under YERMO.NT. 217 Colonel Baume, was terribly beaten by the Green Mountain Boys/’ led by General Stark. The following account of the engagement is taken from a popular publication : John Stark, the hero of Bennington, was a native of Xew Hampshire. At an early age he enlisted in a company of rangers, participated in several conflicts with the savages, and at last fell into their hands, a prisoner of war. Redeemed by his friends for $103, he joined Rogers’ rangers, and served with distinction through the French and Indian difficulty. When the news came to his quiet home, that American blood had been spilt upon the green at Lexington, he rallied his countrymen, and hurried on to Boston with 800 brave mountaineers. He presented himself before the American commander on the eve of the battle of Bunker Hill, and receiving a colonel’s commission, instantly hurried to the in- trench ments. Throughout the battle of Bunker Hill, Stark and his Xew Hampshire men nobly sustained the honor of tlie patriot cause, and no troops exceeded in bravery the militia regiment of Colonel John Stark. In the spring of 1776, he went to Canada, and at the battle of Trenton he commanded the right wing of Washing- ton’s army. He was at Princeton, Bennington, and several other severe battles, always sustaining his reputation, as a brave, honorable, sterling patriot, and an able general. He was a great favorite of General Washington, and very popular in the army. On the 8th of May, 1822, aged 93 years, he “was gathered to his fathers,” and his remains repose upon the banks of the beautiful Merrlmac, beneath a monument of granite, which bears the inscription — “ Ma.jor-Gexeral Stark.” Having given a very brief sketch of the celebrated officer who led our patriot militia upon the field of Bennington, we will proceed with the account of that battle. The magnificent army of General Burgoyne, which invaded the States in 1777, having become straitened for provisions and stores, the royal commander ordered a halt, and sent Colonel Baume, a Hessian officer, to scour the country for supplies. Baume took a strong force of British infantry, two pieces of artil- lery, and a squadron of heavy German dragoons. A great body of Indians, hired and armed by the British, followed his force, or acted as scouts and flanking parties. Stark, on the intelligence of Burgoyne’ s invasion, was oflTered the command of one of two regiments of troops which were raised in New Hampshire, through the exertions, chiefly, of John Langdon, Speaker of the General Assembly. Stark had served for a long period as General, but at that time was at home, a private citizen. But at the call of his countrymen he again took the field. The two regiments were soon raised, and with them, -as senior officer. Stark hastened to oppose the British army. At that time the Vermont militia were enrolled into an organization, called the “Berkshire Regiment,” under Colonel Warner. On arriving near Bennington, Stark sent forward Colonel Gregg, with a small force to reconnoitre, but that officer soon returned with the information that a strong force of British, Hessians and Indians was rapidly approaching. Upon this intelligence. Stark resolved to stand his ground and give battle. Messengers were sent at once to the Berkshire militia to hurry on, and the patriots were directed to see that their weapons were in good order. This was on the 14th of August, 1777. During the day, Baume and his army appeared, and learning that the militia were collecting in front of his route, the commander ordered his 218 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. army to halt, and throw up intrenchmeuts. An express was also sent to General Burgoyne for reinforcements. The 15th was dull and rainy. Both armies continued their i^reparations, while waiting for reinforcements. Skirmishing was kept up all day and night, between the militia and the Indians, and the latter sulfered so severely, that a great por- tion of the savage force left the field, saying that “the woods were full of Yan- kees.” About 12 o’clock on the night of the 15th, a party of Berkshire militia came into the American camp. At the head of one company, was the Reverend Mr. Allen, of Pittsfield, and that worthy gentleman appeared full of zeal to meet the enemy. Sometime before daylight, he called on General Stark, and said : General, the people of Berkshire county have often been called out, without being allowed to fight, and if you don’t give them a chance, they have resolved never to turn out again.” “Very well,” replied Stark, “ do you want to go at it now, while it is dark and rainy ?” “No, not just at this moment,” said the "warlike minister. “Then,” said the General, “if the Lord shall once more give us sunshine, and I do not give you fighting enough. I’ll never ask you to come out again !” This satisfied the preacher, and he went out to cheer up his fiock with the good news. Day dawned, bright and warm, on the 16th. All nature, invigorated by the mild August rain, glared with beauty and freshness. Before sunrise, the Ameri- cans were in motion, while from the British intrenchmeuts, the sound of bugles and the roll of drums, told that Baume’s forces were ready for action. Stark early arranged his plan of attack. Colonel Nichols, with 300 men, was sent out to attack the British rear ; Colonel Herrick, with 300 men, marched against the right flank, but was ordered to join Nichols before making his assault general. "With about 300 men. Colonels Hubbard and Stickney were sent against the entrenched front, while Stark, with a small reserve, waited to operate whenever occasion offered. It must be remembered that the American forces were militia, while Baume’s army was made up of well-disciplined, well-armed, and experi- enced soldiers. Many of the patriots were armed with fowling-pieces, and there were whole companies without a bayonet. They had no artillery. ^ General Stark waited impatiently until the roar of musketry proclaimed that the different detachments had commenced their attack, and then forming his small battalion,, he made his memorable speech: Boys ! there^s the enemy, and we must heat them, or Molly Stark sleeps a widow to-night— His sol- diers, with enthusiastic shouts, rushed forward upon the Hessian defences, and the battle became general. The Hessian dragoons, dismounted, met the Ameri- cans with stern bravery. The two cannons, loaded with grape and canister, swept the hill-side with dreadful effect. Stark’s white horse fell in less than ten minutes after his gallant rider came under fire, but on foot, with his hat in one hand, and his sabre in the other, he kept at the head of his men, who, without flinching a single foot, urged their way up the little hill. ^ Brave Parson Allen, with a clubbed musket, was seen amid the smoke, fighting in the front platoon of his company. The whole field was a vol- cano of fire. Stark, in his official report, says that the two forces were within a few yards of each other, and “the roaring of their guns was like a continuous clap of thunder ! ” The Hessian and British regulars, accustomed to hard-fought fields, held their ground stubbornly and bravely. For more than two hours the battle hung in even scale. At length, Baume ordered a charge ; at that instant he fell, mortally wounded, and his men charging forward, broke their ranks in YERMONT. 219 such a manner, that the Americans succeeded, after a fierce hand to hand fight, in entering the intrenchments. Stark shouted to his men, “Forward, boys, charge them home!” and his troops, maddened by the conflict, swept the hill with irresistible valor. They pushed forward without discipline or order, seized the artillery, and gave chase to the flying enemy. The field being won, plunder became the object of the militia. The guns, sabres, stores and equipments of the defeated foe were being gath- ered up, when Colonel Breyman, with 500 men, suddenly appeared upon the field. He had been sent by Burgoyne to reinforce Baume, but the heavy rain had prevented his men from marching at a rapid rate. The flying troops instantly rallied and joined the new array, which speedily assumed an order of battle, and began to press the scattered forces of the patriots. This was a critical period. Stark put forth every effort to rally his men, but they were exhausted, scattered, and nearly out of ammunition. It seemed as if the fortune of the day was in the royal hands, when from the edge of a strip of forest, half a mile off, came a loud and genuine American cheer. Stark turned, and beheld emerging from the wood, the Berkshire regiment, under Colonel Warner. This body of men, also delayed by the rain, after a forced march, had just reached the battle field, panting for a share in the affray. General Stark hastened to the captain of the foremost com- pany, and ordered him to lead his men to the charge at once. But the captain coolly asked, “Where’s the colonel? I want to see Colonel Warner before I move.” The colonel was sent for, and the redoubtable captain, drawing himself up, said, v^^ith a nasal twang peculiar to the puritans of old, “Naow, Kernal, what d’ye want me tu dew?” “Drive those red-coats from the hill yonder,” was the answer. “Wall, it shall be done,” said the captain, and issuing the necessary orders, he led his men to the charge without a moment’s hesitation. Said an eye-witness, afterwards, “The last we saw of Warner’s regiment for half an hour, was when they entered the smoke and fire about half way up the hill.” Stark with a portion of his rallied troops supported the Berkshire men, and the royal forces were defeated after a close contest. A portion of them escaped, but 700 men and officers were taken prisoners, among the latter Colonel Baume, who soon died of his wound. The British lost 207 men killed, and a large number wounded. Of the Ameri- cans, about 100 were killed and the same number wounded. The spoils consisted of four pieces of cannon, several hundred stand of excellent muskets, 250 dragoon swords, 8 brass drums, and 4 wagons laden with stores, clothing and ammunition. This victory severely crippled Burgoyne, and discouraged his army, while it enlivened the Americans from one extent of the country to the other. It taught the British troops to respect the American militia, and it was a brilliant precursor to the victories of Saratoga and Bemis’ Heights. Congress voted thanks to General Stark and his brave troops for their great victory, and took measures to push on the war with renewed energy and hope. MISCELLANY. THE TAKING OF TICONDEROGA. Inasmuch as the capture of the fortress of Ticonderoga was the work of the Green Mountain Boys/^ it seems but just to append the 220 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. account of their exploits to the description we have given of their State. The following narrative is taken from Williams^ History of Vermont The first steps for this object seem to have been taken by some gentlemen in Connecticut; and Messrs, Deane, Wooster, Parsons, and others engaged in the affair. The success depended on the secrecy with which the affair could be man- aged. Their first object was to obtain a sum of money to bear the necessary ex- penses. They procured this to the amount of about $1800, from the general assembly of Connecticut, by way of loan. Several of the militia captains pushed forward to Salisbury, the northwestern town in that colony ; and after a little consultation concluded not to spend any time in raising men, but to procure a quantity of powder and ball, and set off’ immediately for Bennington, and engage Ethan Allen in the business. With his usual spirit of activity and enterprise, Allen undertook the management of the scheme ; and set off to the northward, to raise and collect all the men that he could find. The Connecticut gentlemen hav- ing procured a small quantity of provisions, went on to Castleton ; and were there joined by Allen, with the men that he had raised from the new settlements. The whole number that were assembled amounted to 270, of which 230 were raised on the New Hampshire grants, distinguished at that time by the name of Green Mountain Boys ; so called from the Green Mountains, among which they resided. Sentries were immediately placed on all the roads, and the necessary measures taken to procure intelligence of the state of the works and garrison at Ticon- deroga. While Allen and his associates were collecting at Castleton, Colonel Arnold arrived, attended only by a servant. This officer belonged to New Haven, in Connecticut. As soon as the news arrived at that place that hostilities had com- menced at Lexington, Arnold, then a captain, set out at the head of a volunteer company, and marched with the greatest expedition to Cambridge. The day after his arrival, he attended the Massachusetts committee of safety, and reported to them that the fort at Ticonderoga was in a ruinous condition ; that it was gar- risoned by about 40 men, and contained a large quantity of artillery and military stores ; and might easily be captured. The committee wished to avail themselves of his information and activity ; and on the 3d of May appointed him a colonel, and gave him directions to enlist 400 men, and march for the reduction of Ticon- deroga. Under these orders, and with tins design, he joined the men that were assembling at Castleton ; but was unknown to any of them but a Mr. Blagden, one of the Connecticut officers. His commission being examined, it was agreed in a council that he should be admitted to join and act with them ; but that Allen should also have the commission of a colonel, and have the command ; and that Arnold should be considered as his assistant. To procure intelligence. Captain Noah Phelps, one of the gentlemen from Con- necticut, disguised himself in the habit of one of the poor settlers, and went into the fort, pretending he wanted to be shaved, and inquired for a barber. Affect- ing an awkward appearance, and asking many simple questions, he passed un- suspected, and had an opportunity to observe the state of everything within the walls. Returning to his party, he gave them the necessary information, and the same night they began their march to the fort. With so much expedition and secrecy had the enterprise been conducted, that Colonel Allen arrived at Orwell, opposite to Ticonderoga, on the 9th of May, at VERMONT. 221 night, with his 230 Green Mountain Boys, without any intelligence or apprehen- sion on the part of the garrison. It was with difficulty that boats cfjuld be pro- cured to pass the lake ; a few, however, being collected, Allen and Arnold passed over, with 83 men, and landed near the works. Arnold now wished to assume the command, to lead on tlie men, and swore that he would go in himself the first. Allen swore that he should not, but that he himself w'ould be the first man that should enter. The dispute beginning to run higli, some of the gentlemen that were present interposed, and it was agreed that both should go in togethei, Allen on the right hand and Arnold on the left. On the 10th of May, in the gray of the morning, they both entered the port leading to the fort, followed by their men. The sentry snapped his fusee at Allen, and retreated through the covered way. The Americans followed the sentry, and immediately drew up on the parade. Captain De la Place commanded, but he wms so little apprehensive of any danger or hostility, that he was surprised in his bed. As soon as he ap- peared, he was ordered to surrender the fort. “Upon what authority do you require it ?” said De la Place. “ I demand it,” said Allen, “ in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress.” Surrounded by the Americans, who were already in possession of the wmrks, it w^as not in the power of the British captain to make any opposition, and he surrendered his garrison prison- ers of war, without knowing by wdiat authority Allen was acting, or that hostili- ties had commenced between Britain and the Colonies. After Allen had landed with his party, the boats w^ere sent back for Colonel Seth Warner wdth the re- mainder of the men, who had been left under his command. Warner did not arrive till after the place had surrendered, but he took the command of a party who set off for Crown Point. At that place there were only a sergeant and 12 men to perform garrison duty. They surrendered upon the first summons, and Warner took possession of Crown Point on the same day that Ticrmderoga was given up. Another party surprised Skeensborough, made a prisoner of Major Skeen, the son, took possession of a strong stone house which he had built, se- cured his dependents and domestics, and made themselves masters of that im- portant harbor. By these enterprises the Americans had captured a British captain, lieutenant, and 44 privates. In the forts they found above 200 pieces of cannon, some mor- tars, howitzers, and large quantities of ammunition and military stores ; and a M'arehouse full of materials for carrying on the business of building boats. Hav- ing succeeded in their attempts against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, it was still necessary, in order to secure the command of Lake Champlain, to get pos- session of an armed sloop which lay at St. John’s, at the north end of the lake. To effect this purpose, it was determined to man and arm a schooner, which lay at South Bay. Arnold had the command of the schooner, and Allen took the command of a number of batteaux, and both sailed for St. John’s. The wind being fresh at the south, Arnold soon passed the lake, surprised and captured the armed sloop in the harbor of St. .John’s : in about an hour after he had taken her, the wind suddenly shifted to the north, and Arnold marie sail with his prize, and met Allen with his batteaux at some distance from St. John’s. MASSACHUSETTS. Area, 7800 Square Miles. Population in I860, 1,231,066 Population in 1870, 1,457,351 The State of Massachusetts is situated (including its islands) be- tween 41° 10' and 42° 53' latitude, and between 69° 50' and 73° 30' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by New Hampshire and Yermont, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic, and the States of Rhode Island and Connecticut, and on the west by New York. It is very irregular in shape, its southeastern - extremity extending far out into the ocean, and curving so as to almost enclose Cape Cod Bay. Its greatest length from east to west is about H5 miles. The eastern side is about 90 miles wide from north to south, and its western end about 48 miles broad. TOPOGRAPHY. The State has a considerable extent of sea coast, and possesses a number of excellent harbors. Massachusetts Bay and Cape Cod Bay are really one and the same sheet of water, and comprise a large gulf, which indents the eastern coast of the State for about 25 miles in a southwest and 65 miles in a southeast direction. The upper, or northern part of this gulf is called Massachusetts Bay, and the lower part Cape Cod Bay. The latter is famous as having been the harbor in which the Mayflower cast anchor after her long and weary voyage from England, in 1620. The extreme eastern part of the State extends around Cape Cod Bay, enclosing it in a kind of semicircle. Plymouth is situated on the northwest side of this bay. Bostorf lies on the west side of Massa- chusetts Bay. 222 * MASSACHUSETTS. 223 Buzzard! s Bay, in the southeastern part of the State, extends inland in a northward direction for about 30 miles, and is about 7 miles wide. The harbors of New Bedford, Fair Haven, and Rochester lie along this bay, which is separated from Vineyard Sound by the Elizabeth Islands. Martha^ s Vineyard and the Elizabeth Islands lie in the Atlantic to the south of Barnstable county, and together form Duke’s county. Martha^ s Vineyard is separated from Barnstable county, on the main- land, by Vineyard Sound, a sheet of water from 3 to 7 miles wide. The island is 21 miles long, and from 3 to 9 miles wide. Edgarton is the chief town. The Elizabeth Islands, 16 in number, lie between Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound. Only 2 or 3 are inhabited. The people of Duke’s county are engaged principally in fishing and navigation. Nantucket is the name given to a large island in the Atlantic, about 30 miles south of Barnstable county. It is about 15 miles long, and from 3 to 4 miles wide. Several small islands lie immediately on its northern coast, and with it form the county of Nantucket. The chief town is Nantucket, on the northern part of the main island. This town was founded in 1659, and is one of the most thriving in the State. It is compactly and neatly built, has a library of several thousand volumes, 8 or 9 churches, a bank with a capital of $200,000, and several handsome buildings. The inhabitants are actively engaged in the fisheries, and, until the discovery of petroleum rendered this traffic of comparatively little importance, Nantucket was one of the principal depots of the whale trade. In 1863, 4407 tons of shipping were owned on the island. Steam communication is maintained with the mainland. In 1860, the population of the town was 5000, of the county 6064. In 1870, it w^as 4134. During the Revolution and the war of 1812-15, Nantucket sent out numerous privateers against the British commerce, and a Nantucket ship was the first to show the Stars and Stripes ” in the river Thames, after the recognition of our independence by Great Britain. The surface of Massachusetts is gene*’ally uneven, and in the west- ern part is broken into mountain ranges of a moderate elevation. The southeastern part is level and sandy, and the eastern and middle parts are broken and rugged. The Green Mountains pass across the western part of the State, from Vermont, and extend into Connecticut. They are about 20 or 30 miles west of the Connecticut River, and pursue a course parallel with it. Besides this range, there are several 224 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. isolated peaks in the State, the principal of which are Wachusetts Mountain, 2018 feet; in the north-central part of the State, Mount Tom, 1200 feet; and Mount Holyoke, 910 feet, near Northampton. These are considered outliers of the White Mountain range, of New Hampshire. The Green Mountains are divided into two ridges in Massachusetts. The eastern is the lowest, and is called the Hoosic Ridge ; and the western is the most elevated, and is called the Tang- le Raiij^e. Its highest jieak is Mount Washington, 2264 feet, in the southwest corner of the State. The Connecticut is the principal river of the State, flowing across it from north to south, and into the State of Connecticut. It is rendered navigable by means of canals, and furnishes excellent water-power. The MerrimaCy which has already been described in the chapter on New Hampshire, turns the mills of Lowell and Lawrence. The tribu- taries of the former stream in this State are Miller's, the Chicoopee, Deerfield, and Westfield rivers; those of the latter, the Nashua and Concord. Taunton River furnishes excellent water-power, and sup- plies the factories of the cities of Taunton and Fall River. Charles River rises in the interior, and flows into Massachusetts Bay. Massachusetts abounds in picturesque scenery. This observation is especially true of the western part of the State, and the view of the Connecticut River and Valley from Mount Holyoke has long been celebrated. Though rather less than 1000 feet in height, the views it commands, and its easy ascent, being traversed to its summit by a good carriage road, have invited hither many tourists in the season for travelling. The spectator has below him the beautiful meander- ing Connecticut wending its way through the meadows and among the villages, while to the southwest, and at no great distance, is Mount Tom ; and still farther in the same direction. Bald or Washington Mount, and in the northwest Saddle Mountain, the highest ground in the State; and turning to the east and northeast he has the }:>eaks of Wachusetts in Massachusetts, and Monadnock in New Hampshire; the intermediate parts of the scene being filled up with a great variety of landscape, villages, hills, rivulets, and low mountains. There is a good hotel on the top of Mount Holyoke, and in the vicinity the beautiful village of Northampton, at which the tourist may take up his quarters and make his excursion from thence over the mountain. A yet more extensive view is obtained from Saddle Mountain, but it has hitherto lain more out of the line of travel, and been less visited, though of thrice the elevation of Mount Tom. It commands a view of the MASSACHUSETTS. 225 surrounding country for 40 or 50 miles, extending to the Catskills on the west, overlooking the Green Mountains on the north, south, and east, and on the northeast reaching to Monadnock Mountain, in New Hampshire. This mountain is fertile to the summit, near which is a small lake or pond. Goodrich describes a phenomenon as having oc- curred here in 1784, called by the inhabitants the bursting of a cloud. About dawn of a certain morning, the tenants of a house on the banks of the Hoosic, on the western slope, were aroused by the roaring of the torrent, and had barely time to escape before their dwelling was swept away by the flood. The torrent wore a gully in the mountain 20 feet deep, and swept away the timber entirely from about 10 acres of land. Berkshire county abounds in sublime and picturesque scenery, and has become a favorite resort not only for tourists, but for citizens seeking pleasant summer residences. Hawthorne, Miss Sedg- wick, Fanny Kemble, James, and others, have rendered their tribute to the charms of Berkshire scenery, by taking up their abode there for considerable periods. The Ice Hole, a narrow and deep ravine of great wildness, in Stockbridge, where the ice remains the year round ; a fall of about 70 feet descent, amid wild scenery, in the Housatonic, in Dalton ; the Natural Bridge, on Hudson’s Brook, in Adams, where a fissure of from 30 to 60 feet deep, and about 500 feet long, has been worn through the limestone rock, forming a bridge 50 feet above the water; a rock of 30 or 40 tons, in New Marlboro’, so nicely balanced that a finger can move it; and Hanging Mountain, on the Farmington Kiver, in Sandisfield, rising in a perpendicular wall above the river to the height of more than 300 feet ; are, after the mountains already named, the most remarkable natural objects in Berkshire. Blue Hill, 11 miles southwest of Boston, which com- mands a fine view of Boston Harbor and the ocean, is 635 feet high, being the most elevated land in Eastern Massachusetts. On the side of Mount Toby, a hill of sandstone, elevated about 1000 feet above the Connecticut, is a cavern about 150 feet in length and 60 in depth. Nahant, a rocky promontory on the north shore of Boston Bay, ex- tending 4 miles into the sea, is the most noted watering-place in Mas- sachusetts. It is about 9 miles northeast of Boston, and commands a fine view of the ocean, and of the shipping entering and departing from the harbor. In addition to its good beach, Nahant has the charm of wildness given to it by the rugged rocks which form the promontory, and into the caves and recesses of which the sea surges at times with great violence. The mineral springs of this State have 15 226 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. not acquired any great celebrity beyond her own limits; the principal are, one in the town of Hopkinton, impregnated with carbonic acid, and carbonates of lime and iron ; one in Shutesbury, containing mu- riate of lime; and a chalybeate sulphur spring in Winchenden. The Quincy granite quarries, 6 or 8 miles south of Boston, in a range of hills 200 feet high, are worthy of a visit/’ * MINERALS. Granite abounds, and is shipped to all parts of the Union for build- ing })Lirposes. The gray granite of the Quincy Hills is famous. Mar- ble is found in Berkshire county. The new wings of the Capitol at Washington, and Girard College at Philadelphia are constructed of marble from this county. Small deposits of anthracite coal are found in Hampshire county. Iron is found in great abundance west of the Connecticut River, and in limited quantities in Plymouth and Bristol counties, while lead mines have been worked in Hampshire county (at Northampton), since 1765. The other minerals are gneiss, quartz, mica, limestone, hornblende, serpentine, asbestus, and slate. CLIMATE. The climate of Massachusetts is very severe in the winteL The writer has seen the thermometer indicate 28° below zero at 8 o’clock A. M. in Boston. The summers are short, and would be pleasant on the coast were it not for the sudden changes from extreme heat to cold by which they are marked. The spring is rendered disagreeable by severe northeast winds, which are a fruitful source of pulmonary complaints. In the western part of the State, the climate is steadier. The winter sets in early in all sections, and lasts long, but the spring, though late, is rapid. The early fruit trees are in full bloom by the middle of April. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of Massachusetts is not naturally fertile, but has been ren- dered productive by the industry of its people. The best lands are in the central and western counties, especially in the valleys of the Connecticut, Housatonic, and other streams. The farmers of Massa- (diusetts compare favorably with those of any other part of the Union * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1156, MASSACHUSETTS. 227 in intelligence, and there is perhaps no State which devotes more sci- entific skill to the production of its crops. The population is the densest in the Union, and the amount of grain produced is not ade- quate to the demands of the community. In 1869 there were 2,155,512 acres of improved land in Massa- chusetts, and 1,183,212 acres of unimproved land. The following statement shows the remainder of the agricultural \vealth of the State at the present time : Cash value of farms, - . . . $123,255,948 Value of farming implements and machinery, $3,894,998 l^umber of horses, . . . ' 49,450 “ asses and mules, 189 “ milch cows, 160,220 “ other cattle, 140,340 “ sheep, ..... *..... 119,560 “ swine, 98,540 Value of domestic animals, $9,737,744 Bushels of wheat, ... 167,000 “ ■ rye, 462,000 “ Indian corn, ........ 1,950,000 “ oats, 1,525,000 “ Irish potatoes, 4,300,000 “ barley, . 144,000 “ buckwheat, 85,000 Pomids of wool, 377,267 “ butter, 8,297,936 “ cheese, 5,294,090 “ hops, 111,301 “ maple sugar, . 1,006,078 “ beeswax and honey, 62,414 Tons of hay, 850,000 Value of orchard products, $925,519 “ market garden products, $1,397,623 “ . home-made manufactures, .... $245,886 “ slaughtered animals, $2,915,045 COMMERCE. In the extent and value of her commerce, Massachusetts stands next to New York. Tlie total tonnage of the State in 1859 was 829,034, of which 154,048 were engaged in the whale fisheries. In 1855, the total value of the product of the whale fisheries was $6,766,996. In the same year the product of the cod and mackerel fisheries was $2,902,796. In 1861, the total exports of Massachusetts were $16,532,736, and the total imports, $45,399,844. 228 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MANUFACTURES. Massachusetts is the third State in the Union in manufactures, and the first as regards her cotton and woollen manufactures. By the census of 1860, there were 8176 establishments in the State, devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing a capital of $133,000,000, and 216,300 hands, and yielding an annual product of $266,000,000. There were' 200 cotton mills, employing 12,635 male, and 22,353 female hands, and a capital of $33,300,000. They consumed raw material worth $14,778,334; paid $7,221,166 for la- bor ; and yielded an annual product of $36,745,864. There v/ere 131 woollen mills, employing 6645 male, and 4608 female hands, and a capital of $10,179,500. They consumed raw material worth $11,- 613,174, paid $2,645,868 for labor, and returned an annual product of $18,930,000. The value of leather produced was $10,354,056 ; of boots and shoes, $46,440,209; of pig iron, $403,000; of rolled iron, $1,291,200; of steam engines and machinery, $5,131,238; of agricul- tural implements, $1,740,943; of sawed and planed lumber, $4,200,- 000; of malt liquors, $659,000; of spirituous liquors, $1,266,000 ; of furniture, $3,665,415. In 1865, the value of paper manufactured - was $9,008,521. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In proportion to its size and population, Massachusetts is the most important State in the Union as regards its railroads. In 1865, there were 1975 miles of single track in the State. These were constructed and equipped at a cost of $72,175,091, and during the year 1865, their net earnings amounted to $6,173,157. Boston is the great rail- road centre. Three continuous lines extend from that city into New York, two of them passing through the principal towns of Rhode Island and Connecticut. Two lines extend from Boston to Portland, passing through the intervening towns. Lines extend from the former city to all parts of the State, into New Hampshire, Vermont, and Canada, and by mbans of the Boston and Troy (N. Y.) Railroad, there is now unbroken railroad communication between Boston and all parts of the west and the Pacific Ocean. EDUCATION. The State provides liberally for the cause of education. ^^The Board of Education, which consists of the Governor, Lieutenant- massachusi;tts. 229 hahvard university, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Governor, and eight members appointed by the Governor and Coun- cil, has the general oversight of the Normal Schools, Public Schools, and of Educational Statistics. The officers, trustees, or persons in charge of every institution of learning, whether literary, scientific, or professional, public or private, and of all reform schools or alms- houses, are required by law to report to the Board on or before the 1st day of June in each year, giving such statistics as the Board shall prescribe. The Board appoints a Secretary, who is its chief executive officer, and who gives his whole time to the supervision and improve- ment of common schools. Each town elects a School Committee of three persons, or a number which is a multiple of three, who examine teachers, visit schools, and have a general oversight of the schools of the town. In the cities and some of the larger towns, the School Committee appoints a superintendent, who has the immediate charge of the schools. The number of school districts is annually diminish- ing, there being 323 less in 1867 than in 1866, and 672 less, than in 1861. Where the districts are abolished, the schools are managed entirely by the towns. Each town having 500 or more families is by law required to maintain a public high school. 230 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Provision for the special education of teachers is made in four State Normal Schools, two of which are for both sexes, and two for female teachers only. A Girls^ High and Normal School, and an ef- ficient Training School, are also maintained by the city of Boston, for preparing teachers for primary schools. Teachers^ Institutes are held annually under the direction of the Secretary of the Board of Edu- cation.’’ The public schools are supported by direct taxes. In 1870, the amount expended for these schools, exclusive of the cost of erecting and repairing buildings, was $3,125,053. In 1867 there were in the State 4838 public schools, presided over by 7759 teachers. The attend- ance was as follows ; in summer 235,241, in winter 237,364; average attendance — in summer 189,149, in winter 190,954. Harvard University, at Cambridge, is the oldest college in the Union, and ranks among the first in standing and usefulness. Besides the regular collegiate course, it has schools of divinity, medicine, law, science, and philosophy. Its museum of Scientific Zoology is the best in the country. Its faculty has included some of the most eminent men of the land, and many of our greatest statesmen, jurists, and men of science are numbered amongst its alumni. Williams College, at Williamstown, Amherst, at Amherst, Holy Cross, at Worcester, and Tufts, at Medford, are the other colleges of the State. All are well attended^ and are prosperous. In 1867, there were 55 incorporated academies, with an average attendance of 3696 pupils; and 553 private schools of all grades, the estimated average attendance of which was 14,417. In 1860, there were in the State 1852 libraries, containing 1,997,151 volumes. Of these, 853 were public. In Massachusetts, as well as in the other New England States, there is a public library in nearly every town. In 1860^ there were 222 periodicals published in the State — 112 political, 31 religious, 51 literary, and 28 miscellaneous. Of these, 17 were daily, 3 tri-weekly, 14 semi- weekly, 145 weekly, 36 monthly, 6 quarterly, and 1 annual. Their aggregate annual circulation was 102,000,760 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Charlestown. It was founded in 1800. The commutation system is in successful operation. Prison- ers are confined in separate cells, and are required to perform their MASSACHUSETTS. 231 work in silence. On the 30th of September, 1869, there were 593 prisoners confined in this establishment. The profits of the labor performed by the convicts amounted, during the year 1868-69, to $26,781 over the expenses of conducting the establishment. In the old graveyard adjoining the prison is the monument to John Harvard, erected to his memory in 1828, by the students of Harvard University. There are in Massachusetts 20 jails, 16 houses of correction, and 1 House of Industry. The Board of State Charities has charge of all the charitable insti- tutions of the State. These are the lunatic asylums, the almshouses, and reform schools. There are three State Lunatic Hospitals, located respectively at Worcester, Taunton, and Nortliampton. All these receive State, town, and private patients. The State patients at the Northampton Hospital consist of incurables transferred from the other institutions. The State Almshouses are three in number, and are located respec- tively at Tewksbury, Monson, and Bridgewater. The Tewksbury Almshouse is a receptacle for aged, helpless, harmless, and insane paupers ; that at Monson is provided with a primary school, and is devoted to children old enough to receive education ; while the Bridgewater Almshouse is a place of confinement for persons sen- tenced to a workhouse. There are three Reform Schools, — the State Industrial School for girls, at Lancaster, where a most excellent influence is exerted for the purpose of reclaiming young girls from vicious lives ; the State Reform School for boys, at Westborough, where a-similar course of treatment is pursued for boys ; and the Massachusetts Nautical School, estab- lished on two ships, at Boston and New Bedford, in which boys of bad character are placed for reformation. In this school the boys are trained for the U. S. Navy and the whaling service. These institutions are all in a flourishing condition. The State also supports wholly, or in part, the School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth, at South Boston; the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind ; the Massachusetts General Hospital; the Eye and Ear Infirmary; the Washingtonian Home; the Discharged Soldiers’ Home; the Temporary Asylum for Dis- charged Female Prisoners ; the Home for the Friendless ; the New England Moral Reform Society; and the Agency for Discharged Convicts. Pupils are maintained at the expense of the State in the \ 232 TUE GREAT REPUBLIC. ‘UVsyhmi for the Deaf and Diimb/^ at Hartford, Conn., and at the Clarke Institution for Deaf Mutes, at Northampton, Mass. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the value of church property in Massachusetts was $%o,393,607. In the same year there were 1636 churches in the State. FINANCES. On the 1st of January, 1869, the total State debt was $27,736,870. In 1868, the receipts of the Treasury were $16,031,267, and the ex- penditures $1 7,233,220, leaving a deficit of $1,201,963, to be provided for by taxation. On the 1st of October, 1868, there were 207 National Banks in the •State, with an aggregate paid-in capital of $80,032,000. GOVERNMENT. The right of suffrage in this State is denied to paupers and persons under guardianship, but is extended to each male adult, able to read the Constitution of the State in the English language and to write his name, who has been a resident of the State for one year, and of his election district for six months. The State Government is vested in a Governor, assisted by an Ex- ecutive Council of 8 members (one from each Council district of the State), a Lieutenant-Governor, a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 40 members) and a House of Representatives (of 240 members), together styled '' The General Court of the Commonwealth of Massa- chusetts,^^ a Secretary of State, a Treasurer, an Auditor, and an At- torney General, all chosen annually by the people, on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. They enter upon their duties on the first Wednesday in January. The Judiciary comprises a Supreme Judicial Court, a Superior Court, a Probate Court in each county, and municipal and police courts in the cities and towns. The Supreme Judicial Court consists of a Chief Justice, and five Associate Justices. It has exclusive cognizance of all capital crimes, and exclusive chancery jurisdiction so far as chancery powers are conferred by statute, and concurrent original jurisdiction of all civil cases where the amount in dispute exceeds $4000 in Suffolk county and $1000 in all other counties.” MASSACHUSETTS. 233 The Superior Court consists of a Chief Justice, and nine Associate Justices. It has jurisdiction in all criminal cases, except capital cases, and in all civil cases where the amount in dispute is over $20. The Governor of the State, by and with the advice and consent of his Council, appoints the Judges of both Courts, who hold office dur- ing good behavior. The seat of Government is established at Boston. For the purposes of government, the State is divided into 14 counties. HISTORY. According to the icelandic legend, Massachusetts was first discov- ered by Bidrn, in the year 906 ; but, as we have elsewhere intimated, this legend is vague and devoid of substantial proof, and the credit of the first discovery must be given to John Cabot, who visited the coast in 1497, under the orders of Henry VII. of England, and five years after the first voyage of Columbus. He failed to discover any inhabi- tants,ffiut at a later period, his son, Sebastian, while endeavoring to dis- cover a northwest passage to China, visited the waters of Yew England, found that the country was inhabited, and took three of the natives with him to England. The Spaniards subsequently made some landings on the coast, and carried off a number of the natives, whom they sold in Europe as slaves. Yo attempt at settlement was made until 1602, when Bartholomew Gosnold, with a colony of 32 persons, made a lodgement on one of the Elizabeth Islands. The settlement was abandoned in a few weeks, however, in consequence of internal dis- sensions, and the expedition returned to England. This attempt had the effect of bringing the new country into prominent notice in Eng- land, and the Plymouth Company was organized, several years later, under the leadership of Sir John Popham and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, the first the Chief Justice of the King’s Bench, and the other the Governor of Plymouth. This company was given almost sovereign powers over the territory assigned it. In 1614, Captain John Smith published a map of Yew England, together with a description of the country along the coast, which greatly increased the interest felt in the matter. The company sent out one or two trading expeditions, which were successful ; but the first permanent settlement was made in 1620^ at Plymouth, by a band of English Puritans, who were flee- ing from religious persecution in their own country, and whose at- tempt was made without the sanction or authority of the Plymouth Company. They held a patent from the Virginia Company, whose THE GREAT REPUBLIC. )1U torritoiy lay south of the Hudson, and the king would do no more than promise not to molest them. J^ioon alter landing at Plymouth, this colony made a treaty of friend- ship with the Indians, which was not broken for a long period. The settlers endured many privations and hardships, but bore them all bravely until thov had placed their settlement bevond all dansxer of lailure, and were joined by other emigrants from England. Other lodgements were made along the coast during the next twenty years, at Salem, Boston, Charlestown, Roxbury, ^Vatertown, Dorchester, Mystic and Saugus (Lynn), and other places. In 1629, Charles I. granted the Plymouth Colony a charter, and the government of the province was divided between the colonies of Plvmouth and Massa- chusetts Bay, which were united under one administration in 1692. The Bay colony was much annoyed by the interference of the home Government, which became jealous of its rapid growth and prosperity, and after an aggravating contest, which at one time bade fair to result in blows, the matter was settled. The king refused to yield what he claimed as his right to interfere in the domestic affairs of the colony, whose officials, however, adroitly managed to prevent the exercise of such authority on his part. In 1637, the war against the Pequots broke out, and the settlements towards Connecticut, upon which colony fell the principal shock of the war, suffered considerably. In 1675, King Philip's war began. I his struggle was a bloody one, and lasted for more than a year. During its continuance, 12 or 13 towns were destroyed, more than 600 men were killed, and about 600 houses burned by the savages. The war cost the colony half a million of dollars, and rendered one- twentieth of the number of families homeless. Massachusetts at this time claimed jurisdiction over New Hamp- shire and Maine, but was deprived of it by the home Government in 1684. This act was followed by the appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of Xew England. Andros and his Council were guilty of the most infamous tyranny. They made laws and levied taxes in the most outrageous manner, and rendered themselves so odious to the colony, that as soon as news was received of the landing of William and Mary in England, the people of Boston rose in arms, imprisoned Andros and his companions, reinstated the former magis- trates, and declared for the new king and queen. They were sus- tained in this action by the rest of the province. In 1690, in the war with France, Massachusetts sent out an expe- MASSACHUSETTS. 235 dition under Sir William Phipps, which took and plundered Port Royal. When the fleet returned, the Province was not able to pay the men engaged in the expedition, and treasury notes were issued for that purpose. This was the first paper money seen in the colony. In 1692, the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were united by the Crown under one Government. Massachusetts at this time was divided into the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, and Hampshire. It contained 55 towns, and had a total population of about 40,000. Plymouth was divided into the counties of Plymouth, Bristol, and Barnstable. It contained 17 towns, and had a population of 7000. Sir William Phipps was appointed the first Governor under the new charter. In 1692, a remarkable delusion broke out in the colony on the sub- ject of witchcraft, beginning at and centering in Salem. In 1703, great suffering prevailed along the western border in consequence of the outrages of the French and Indians. During this war, Deerfield was burned a second time, having been first destroyed during King Philip’s war. The struggle lasted several years, but the colony con- tinued to grow and prosper in spite of it. In 1722, war was resumed with the Indians, and continued for three years. It was prosecuted with such vigor on the part of the province, that the power of the savages was broken forever, and the long contest with them which had lasted for forty years was finally and triumphantly closed. In 1744, war again broke out with France, and the forces of the province distinguished themselves in the capture of Louisburg. Peace was restored in 1748, but did not long continue. The colony bore a fair share in all the struggles against the power of France in America, and responded liberally to every call for men and money. The les- sons learned in these contests were of infinite value in the great strug- gle for freedom which followed them. At the commencement of the troubles with the mother country, the province was well settled in all its parts, and had a total population of about 250,000 souls. In spite of the efforts of Great Britain to prevent it, it had built up a flourishing commerce, was largely engaged in the fisheries, and was to some extent interested in manufactures. Its enterprise and energy, and above all, the native independence of its people, made it the chief mark of the aggressions of the Crown, which were met by it with spirit and firmness. Massachusetts was the first to inaugurate an organized effort to secure justice from the Crown, which example was followed by her sister provinces. The 23G THE GREAT REPUBLIC. events which preceded the Revolution having been narrated in another chapter, it is not necessary to return to them here. Massachusetts, being the principal object of British injustice, was forced into the most prominent position, which she maintained with dignity and credit. The other colonies made common cause with her, and the war began in the encounter between the Royal troops and the people at Lexington. The conflict at Concord followed, and the people of the province flew to arms with a rapidity which proved how thor- oughly and carefully they had prepared themselves for the main- tenance of their rights. During the war which ensued, Massachusetts sustained her reputation for patriotism, bravery, and self-sacrifice. In 1780 a State Constitution was adopted, and John Hancock was elected Governor of the Commonwealth. In 1786, the people of the western counties, feeling themselves too poor to pay the heavy taxes levied for the purpose of defraying the State debt, took up arms against the authorities of the Commonwealth. The insurrection was settled after a sharp conflict with the insurgents, who were forced to submit. The outbreak is known as Slmys’s Rebellion,^' in con- sequence of the insurgents having been led by one Daniel Shays. The Constitution of the United States was ratified by Massachu- setts in 1788. Although the State opposed the second war with England, the seamen of Massachusetts were true to the country, and formed a considerable part of the crews of those famous vessels which won the glorious naval victories of the war. The people of the State, as a whole, however, sustained their authorities in opposing the war, in which they had a deeper interest than they were willing to admit, and throughout the struggle hampered the Federal Government by a most unwise and unpatriotic opposition. The State bore a prominent part in the Hartford Convention, in 1814. In 1820 the Constitution of the Commonwealth was amended, and again in 1857. In 1820 the State consented to the separation of the province of Maine, which was in the same year erected into an inde- pendent establishment, and admitted into the Union as a State. During the late Rebellion, Massachusetts furnished 159,165 men to the army and navy of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are: Cambridge, Lowell, Lynn, Lawrence, Charlestown, Salem, New Bedford, Newburyport, Nan- tucket, Gloucester, Marblehead, Plymouth, Provincetown, Worcester, MASSACHUSETTS. 23t Springfield, Fall River, Chelsea, Taunton, Chicopee, Danvers, Ando- ver, and Haverhill. BOSTON, The capital of the State, and the largest city in New England, is situated on Massachusetts Bay, 464 miles northeast of Washington, and 236 miles northeast of New York. Latitude 42° 21' 22" N. ; longitude 71° 4' 9" W. It is decidedly one of the most interesting cities in the Union, apart from its being the metropolis of New Eng- land and the second commercial city of the Republic. It is divided into 3 sections, Boston proper. East, and South Bos- ton. Boston proper, or the old city, is built upon a peninsula origi- nally covering about 700 acres, but now much enlarged by the addition of made land." The surface of this peninsula is broken by 3 hills, which caused the first settlers to call the place Tremont, or Trimountain. The city was originally very narrow at its southern end, but the Back Bay," as the shoal water surrounding it is called, is now being filled up with gravel brought from Needham, to an ave- rage height of 18 feet above the surface of the water. This made land" will eventually double the size of the old city. It is graded as it is formed, and is laid off regularly with broad streets and hand- some parks. It is already well built up, and constitutes the hand- somest part of Boston. It will ultimately be one of the most splendid cities in America. The old city was originally joined to the main land by a strip of land called The Neck," so narrow and low that it afforded scarcely room for a single vehicle to pass on firm ground. Now it has been raised and widened, and 4 fine avenues traverse it and connect Boston and Roxbury. South Boston formed a part of Dorchester until 1 804, when it was added to Boston. It extends along the south side of the harbor for 2 miles, between Fort Independence and the city proper. It is de- voted principally to the residences of the middle classes. This part of the city contains the famous '' Dorchester Heights," the occupation of which by Washington, during the Revolution, compelled the British commander to evacuate Boston. East Boston occupies an island in the harbor, formerly known as Noddle's Island. It is about 650 yards distant from the city proper, with which it is connected by a steam ferry. It contains a number of residences of the middle classes, and is the seat of an important manufacturing interest. Shipbuilding is carried on, and the Grand Junction Railroad terminates here. 238 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Boston proper may be divided into the old and the new city. The old city still preserves its ancient characteristics. The houses are mostly in the style of a century ago; the streets are narrow and crooked, and have a prim, formal air. Wandering through them, one can scarcely help watching to see some old-time Puritan step out from the quaint doorways. The new city is regularly laid out. The streets are broad and straight ; they cross each other at right angles, and are lined with magnificent edifices. Everything is modern. Near the southern end of the old city is one of the finest parks in America, known as Boston Common.’’ It covers an area of about 60 acres, and is beautifully ornamented. Adjoining it is a handsome enclosure of 25 acres, used as a botanic garden, and known as the Public Garden.” Both the Garden” and Common ’’are sur- rounded by tasteful iron fences. The fence enclosing the Common” is nearly a mile and an eighth in length. The centre of the grounds is occupied by a pretty little pond, from which a fountain sends a fine jet of water into the air. Not far from the pond is an old elm, sup- ported by metallic bands and enclosed with an iron railing. It is the oldest tree in America, having attained its full growth in 1722. From the pond the grounds rise abruptly to the State House, which is situated on Beacon hill, just outside the enclosure. From this point they slope gently to Charles River, which washes the western shore of the city. Several small but handsome parks lie in various parts of the city. The residences of Boston exhibit considerable taste, and much wealth, but are marked by a sameness peculiar to American cities, and the stores and public buildings are among the finest in the country. The State House, on Beacon street and Beacon hill, is a handsome, old-style structure, surmounted by a fine dome. It occupies the high- est ground in the city, and is the most prominent feature of any view of Boston. Its foundation is 110 feet above the level of the sea. It was commenced in 1795, and completed in 1798, at a cost of $133,330. In 1855 it was enlarged, $243,204 being expended upon it for that purpose. From the dome, a magnificent view of the city, the harbor, and the surrounding country may be had. More than a dozen cities and towns can be seen from it, and in fair weather, the White Moun- tains of New Hampshire may be dimly discerned. The State Library is located in this building, and contains more than 25,000 volumes. In the rotunda is a collection of flags taken from the Southern forces MASSACHUSETTS, 239 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON. during the late war, and two cannon captured from the British during the war of 1812-15. In the Doric Hall, on the entrance floor, is Chantrey^s statue of Washington. Statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann ornament the steps facing the “ Common.” The Chambers of the Senate and House of Delegates are handsome apart- ments. The Old State House, at the head of State street, is a venerable and interesting building. The General Court sat here until the comple- tion of the new State House, and in the square just below it occurred the famous “ Boston Massacre.” The Court House, on Court street, the Merchants’ Exchange and Post Office, on State street, and the Custom House, at the foot of State street, are fine granite buildings, and among the principal ornaments of the city. The City Hall, on School street, is a magnificent edifice, of light New Hampshire granite. It contains the offices of the City Government, but is badly located, and is almost hidden by the sur- rounding houses. Just opposite it stands a fine white marble hotel, called the Parker House.” The Horticultural Hall and the Masonic 240 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Temple, on Tremont street, opposite the Common, are amono;st the handsomest buildings in the city. They are exhibited to strangers by the Bostonians with a pardonable pride. The former is built of white marble, and the latter of a fine granite. Faneuil Hall, in Faneuil Hall Square, is decidedly the most inter- esting building in Boston. It is a large old-fashioned building. The lower part is used as a market, and the upper part as a public hall. It is 129 years old, and was built in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, who presented it to the city for a town hall. It was destroyed by fire ill 1761, rebuilt in 1763, and enlarged to its present dimensions in 1805. It is often called ‘^The Cradle of Liberty,” since the public meetings of the patriots were held here in the exciting days which preceded the Revolution. To the east of the Hall is a fine granite building called the Quincy Market. The upper part comprises one of the largest halls in the Union. The Music Hall, fronting on Winter street and Bumstead place, is one of the best halls in the country, and contains the great organ, one MASSACHUSETTS. 241 of the most powerful and excellent instruments ever constructed. It was built at Liidwigslust, in Germany. It contains about 6000 pipes and 89 stops. It is 60 feet high, 48 feet broad, and 24 feet deep. It cost $60,000. The literary and scientific institutions of Boston are amongst the best in the country. The Athenwum, situated on Beacon street, is one of the wealthiest organizations in the world. It occupies a splendid freestone building, and possesses a library of 90,000 volumes, besides pamphlets and manuscripts, and fine galleries of paintings and statuary. The Puhlie Library occupies a handsome brick building on Boyls- ton street, erected at a cost of $250,000. It is one of the noblest in- stitutions in the world. Its collection is free to all tax-payers upon certain liberal conditions. It contains nearly 200,000 volumes. The Mercantile IJbrary, on Summer street, contains over 20,000 volumes. The Massachusetts Historical Society possesses one of the best American libraries in the world. It numbers about 13,000 vol- umes, besides many valuable maps, charts, papers, manuscripts, and other documents. The Young MeYs Christian Association has also a good library. That of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences numbers over 20,000 volumes. The others are the State Library, Social Law Library, and General Theological Lnhrary. Besides these, the city will compare favorably with any in the country, with respect to its private libraries. The other institutions of a literary and scientific character are, the Lowell Institute, the Institute of Technology, the Natural History So- ciety, the American Statistical Society, the Musical, Educational, and Handel and Haydn Societies, and the Boston Academy of Music. The public schools of Boston are amongst the best in the world. There are 254 primary, 20 grammar, and 3 high schools in the city. The school houses alone have cost the city about $2,980,000, and the annual sum expended for their support is about $800,000. Besides these, there are a large number of private schools in the city. The benevolent institutions are numerous and well endowed. The Massachusetts General Hospital, on Charles River, just opposite Charlestown, and the new Free City Hospital, at the South End,^’ are fine institutions. The buildings of the latter constitute one of the principal ornaments of the city. The McLean Asylum for the Insane, a branch of the General Hospital, is located at Somerville, two miles northwest of Boston. The Boston Lunatic Asylum is situated in 16 242 THE GREAT RETUBLIC. South Boston, and the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind is in the same part of the city. The Alms HousCy the House of Industry and Reformation^ and the Quarantine Hospital are on Deer Island. There are over 60 benevolent institutions in the city. We have not the space to name each one, and have given only the most important. About 125 newspapers and periodicals are issued in Boston, 6 of which are daily. Several of the leading literary and scientific jour- nals of the country are published here. There are more than 115 churches in the city, the largest number belonging to the Unitarians. Christ Church (Episcopal) in Salem street, was erected in 1722, Trinity Church (Episcopal) in 1734, and King’s Chapel in 1 636. The graveyard attached to the last named church contains the remains of many of the Puritan settlers, and is one of the most interesting spots in the city. The Old South Churchy on Washington street, was erected in 1730. The original edifice was of wood, and was built in 1670. It was one of the famous meeting places of the leaders of the Revolution, and during the occupation of the city by the British, was used as a riding-school. In the front of the tower of the Brattle Street Church, finished in 1773, may be seen a round shot fired from the American batteries at Cambridge during the evacuation of Boston by the British. The church edifices of Bos- ton, as a general rule, are not so handsome as those of the other large cities of the Union. The Cemeteries are Mount Auhurny Forest Hilly and Woodlawn, They are very beautiful, Mount Auburn being one of the loveliest in the world. The city is well supplied with theatres and places of amusement. The Boston Theatre is one of the largest and handsomest halls in the world. Boston is connected with the surrounding cities of Cambridge, Charlestown, and Chelsea, and with South Boston by seven fine bridges. Nearly all are free, and all will eventually become so. A massive causeway unites it with Brookline, now a part of the city. Telegraph lines enter the city from all parts of the Union, and there is also a municipal fire alarm and police telegraph connecting the various sections of the corj)orate limits. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with excellent water from Cochit uate Lake, 20 miles distant. Lines of horse cars connect all parts of Boston with a common centre at the foot of Tremont street, and with the surrounding towns and villages. MASSACHUSETTS. 243 Seven lines of railroad terminate here, extending directly to the Eastern, Middle, Southern, and Western States, and into Canada. The principal hotels are the Parker, Tremont, and K-evere Houses, and the American, St. James, and United States Hotels. The wharves are the finest in the United States, and among the best in the world. They would measure an aggregate length of 5 miles, and are lined with splendid Avarehouses, many of which are built of a rough granite, and are very handsome. The harbor opens to the sea between Point Alderton, on Nantasket, and Point Shirley, in Chelsea. The distance across from point to point is about 4 miles. There are three entrances formed by several islands which lie in the lower part. The main channel lies between Castle and Governor’s Islands, and is so narrow that two ships can scarcely sail abreast through it. It is defended by Fort Independence and Fort Winthrop. Fort Winthrop also protects the passage north of Governor’s Island, and Fort Warren, on George’s Island, guards the lower entrance. The harbor covers an area estimated at 75 square miles. It is free from sand-bars, is rarely closed by ice, is sheltered from the sea, and is easy of access. About one-half of it affords a sure anchorage for vessels of the largest class. It receives the Avaters of the Charles, Mystic, Neponset, and Manatiquot rivers. Boston is the second commercial city in the Union. In 1864, its total imports AA^ere valued at $30,751,595, and its exports at $21,142,834. There are about 45 banks in the city, with a capital of about $30,000,000. The population (including Hoxbury and Dorchester) is 250,526. Roxbury Avas, until a few years since, a distinct city of Norfolk county, but is now a part of the corporation of Boston. At the be- ginning of the present century it was situated 3 or 4 miles south of Boston, but the intervening distance has since been built up, and the ,two cities, for some time before their union, joined each other so closely that a stranger could not tell Avhere one began or the other ended. It contains a number of manufactures of its own, but is oc- cupied principally by the residences of persons doing business in Boston. The city abounds in picturesque views, and many of its lo- calities are very beautiful. It contained a population of about 30,000 previous to its annexation to Boston. Dorchester y in Norfolk county, has been recently annexed to Boston. Like Roxbury, this city Avas chiefly occupied with residences. It contains a population of about 15,000. 244 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Boston, as we have said, was originally called Tremont. Its first white inhabitant was the Rev. John Blackstone, who lived here alone until the arrival of Governor Winthrop, in 1630, when a settlement was established here. By the year 1635, quite a thriving village had sprung up, and the Rev. Mr. Blackstone sold his claim to the penin- sula for <£30. The first church was erected in 1632, and the first wharf in 1673. In 1677, the first postmaster was appointed, and in 1704, the first newspaper, called The Boston News Letter j was issued. Boston was one of the first communities to resist the aggressions of the mother country, and was the scene of many of the most interesting of the events which preceded the Revolution. On the 5th of March, 1770, the ‘^Boston Massacre occurred; on the 31st* of March, 1774, the harbor of Boston was closed; on the 17th of June, 1775, the bat- tle of Bunker Hill was fought; and in March, 1776, the town was evacuated by the British. Boston was incorporated as a city on the 23d of February, 1822. The following incidents in the early history of Boston will be found interesting by the reader : THE BOSTON MASSACRE. On the 2d of March, 1770, a fray took place in Boston, near Mr. Gray’s rope- walk, between a private soldier of the 29th Regiment and an inhabitant. The former was supported by his comrades, the latter by the rope-makers, till several on both sides were involved in the consequences. On the 5th a more dreadful scene was presented. The soldiers when under arms were pressed upon, insulted, and pelted by a mob armed with clubs, sticks, and snow balls covering stones. They were also dared to fire. In this situation, one of the soldiers, who had received a blow, in resentment fired at the supposed aggressor. This was followed by a single discharge from six others. Three of the inhabitants were killed, and five were dangerously wounded. The town was immediately in commotion. Such was the temper, force, and number of the inhabitants, that nothing but an engagement to remove the troops out of the town, together wdth the advice of moderate men prevented the townsmen from falling on the soldiers. The killed w'ere buried in one vault, and in a most respectful manner, in order to express the indignation of the inhabitants at the slaughter of their brethren, by soldiers quartered among them, in violation of their civil liberties. Captain Preston, who commanded the party which fired on the inhabitants, was committed to jail, and afterwards tried. The captain, and six of the men, were acquitted. Two were brought in guilty of manshaughter. It appeared, on the trial, that the soldiers were abused, insulted, threatened and pelted, before they fired. It was also proved, that only seven guns were fired by the eight prisoners. These circum- stances induced the jury to make a favorable verdict. The result of the trial reflected great honor on John Adams (the late President of the United States) and Josiah Quincy, Esqrs. the counsel for the prisoners ; and also on the integrity of the jury, who ventured to give an upright verdict, in defiance of popular opinions. MASSACHUSETTS. 245 The people, not dismayed by the blood of their neighbors thus wantonly shed, determined no longer to submit to the insolence of military power. Col. Dal- rymple, who commanded in Boston, was informed the day after the riot in King street, “that he must withdraw his troops from the town within a limited term, or hazard the consequences.” The inhabitants of the town assembled in Faneuil Hall, where the subject was discussed with becoming spirit, and the people unanimously resolved that no armed force should be suffered longer to reside in the capital ; that if the king’s troops were not immediately withdrawn by their own officers, the Governor should be requested to give orders for their removal, and thereby prevent the necessity of more rigorous steps. A committee from the body was deputed to wait on the Governor, and request him to exert that authority which the exigencies of the times required from the supreme magistrate. Mr. Samuel Adams, the chairman of the committee, with a pathos and address peculiar to himself, exposed the illegality of quartering troops in the town in the midst of peace ; he urged the apprehensions of the people, and the fatal consequences that might ensue if their removal was delayed. But no arguments could prevail on Mr. Hutchinson ; who either from timidity, or some more censurable cause, evaded acting at all in the business, and grounded his refusal on a pretended want of authority. After which, Col. Dalrymple, wishing to compromise the matter, consented that the 29th Regiment, more culpable than any other in the late tumult, should be sent to Castle Island. This concession was by no means satisfactory ; the people, inflexible in their demands, insi^ed that not one British soldier should be left within the town,; their requisi- tion was reluctantly complied with, and within four days the whole army decamped. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TEA IN BOSTON HARBOR. As we have stated in another part of this work, the cargoes of three of the tea ships sent over to Boston in 1773 were destroyed by the citizens, in consequence of the refusal of the Governor to permit the vessels to return to England. The following narrative of the occurence is by one of the actors in it — Mr. Hewes : The tea destroyed was contained in three ships, lying near eachcther, at what was called at that time Griffin’s wharf, and were surrounded by armed ships of war; the commanders of wdiich had publicly declared, that if the rebels, as they were pleased to style the Bostonians, should not withdraw their opposition to the landing of the tea before a certain day, the 17th day of December, 1773, they should on that day force It on shore, under the cover of their cannon’s mouth. On the day preceding the 17th, there was a meeting of the citizens of the county of Suffolk, convened at one of the churches in Boston, for the purpose of consult- ing on what measures might be considered expedient to prevent the landing of the tea, or secure the people from the collection of the duty. At that meeting a committee was appointed to wait on Governor Hutchinson, and request him to inform them wTiether he would take any measures to satisfy the people on the object of the meeting. To the first application of this committeg, the Governor told them he would give them a definite answer by five o’clock in the afternoon. At the hour appointed, the committee again repaired to the Governor’s house, and on inquiry found he had gone to his country seat at Milton, a distance of about 246 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. six miles. When the committee returned' and informed the meeting of the absence of the Governor, there was a confused murmur among the members, and the meeting was immediately dissolved, many of them crying out. Let every man do his duty, and be true to his country ; and there was a general huzza for Griffin’s wharf. It was now evening, and I immediately dressed myself in the costume of an Indian, equipped with a small hatchet, which I and my associates denomi- nated the tomahawk, with which, and a club, after having painted my face and liands with coal dust in the shop of a blacksmith, I repaired to Griffin’s wharf, where the ships lay that contained the tea. When I first appeared in the street, after being thus disguised, I fell in with many who were dressed, equipped and painted as I was, and who fell in with me, and marched in order to the place of our destination. When we arrived at the wharf, there were three of our number who assumed an authority to direct our operations, to which we readily submitted. They divided us into three parties, for the purpose of boarding the three ships which contained the tea at the same time. The name of him who commanded the division to which I was assigned, was Leonard Pitt. The names of the other commanders I never knew. We were immediately ordered by the respective commanders to board all the ships at the same time, which we promptly obeyed. The commander of the division to which I belonged, as soon as we were onboard the ship, appointed me boatswain, and ordered me to go to the captain, and demand of him the keys to the hatches and a dozen candles. I made the demand accordingly, and the captain promptly replied, and delivered the articles ; but requested me at the same time to do no damage to the ship or rigging. We then were ordered l>y our commander to open the hatches, and take out all the chests of tea and throw them overboard, and we immediately proceeded to execute his orders ; first cutting and splitting the chests with our tomahawks, so as thoroughly to expose them to the effects of the water. In about three hours from the time we went on board, we had thus broken and throv/n overboard every tea-chest to be found in the ship, while those in the other ships were disposing of the tea in the same way, at the same time. We 'were surrounded by British armed ships, but no attempt was made to resist us. We then quietly retired to our several places of residence, without having any conversation with each other, or taking any measures to discover who were our associates ; nor do I recollect of our having had the knowledge of the name of a single individual concerned in that affair, except that of Leonard Pitt, the commander of my division, who I have mentioned. There appeared to be an understanding that each individual should volunteer his services, keep his own secret, and risk the consequences for himself. No disorder took place during that transaction, and it was observed at that time, that the stillest night ensued that Boston had enjoyed for many months. During the time we '^'ere throwing the tea overboard, there were several attempts made by some of the citizens of Boston and its vicinity, to carry off small quantities of it for their family use. To effect that object, they would watch their opportunity to snatch up a handful from the deck, where it became plentifully scattered, and put it into their pockets. One Captain O’Conner, whom I well knew, came on board for that purpose, and when he supposed ho was not noticed, filled his pockets, and also the lining of his coat. But I had detected him, ^id gave information to, the captain of what he was doing. We were ordered to take him into custody, and just as he was stepping from the vessel, I seized him by the skirt of his coat, and in attempting to pull him back, I tore it off ; but springing forward, by a rapid effort he made his escape. He had MASSACHUSETTS. 247 however to run a gauntlet through the crowd upon the wharf ; each one, as he passed, giving him a kick or a stroke. The next day we nailed the skirt of his coat, which I had pulled off, to the whipping post in Charlestown, the place of his residence, with a label upon it, commemorative of the occasion which had thus subjected the proprietor to the popular indignation. Another attempt was made to save a little tea from the ruins of the cargo, by a tall aged man, who wore a large cocked hat and white wig, which was fashionable at that time. He had slightly slipped a little into his pocket, but being detected, they seized him, and taking his hat and wig from his head, threw them, together with the tea, of which they had emptied his pockets, into the water. In considera- tion of his advanced age, he was permitted to escape, with now and then a slight kick. The next morning, after we had cleared the ships of the tea, it was discovered that very considerable quantities of it was floating upon the surface of the Avater ; and to prevent the possibility of any of it being saved for use, a number of small boats were manned by sailors and citizens, who rowed them into those parts of the harbor wherever the tea was visible, and by beating it with oars and paddles, so thoroughly drenched it, as to render its entire destruction inevitable. CHARLESTOWN, In Middlesex county, is situated on a peninsula immediately north of Boston, is separated from it by the Charles Kiver, and is connected with it by several bridges. It is regularly laid off, and handsomely built. It contains a number of churches, several banks, a large hotel, and the State Prison. It is supplied with water from Mystic Lake, is lighted with gas, and traversed by several street railways. It is extensively engaged in manufactures, but is, after all, merely a suburb of Boston, the majority of its inhabitants pursuing their avo- cations in that city. It contains an important Navy Yard of the United States, which covers an area of 70 or 80 acres. This is, perhaps, the most complete establishment owned by the Government. The population of Charlestown is 28,323. In the centre of the city stands Breed’s Hill, or, as it is more com- monly called. Bunker Hill, the scene of the battle of the 17th of June, 1775. The site of the old American redoubt is enclosed with a hand- some iron railing, and marked by a magnificent shaft of granite 220 feet high, 31 feet square at the base, and 15 at the top. It is ascended by means of an inner winding stairway, Avhich leads to a chamber immediately at the top. In this chamber are two old cannon, which, with two others, constituted all the artillery owned by the Americans at the beginning of the Kevolution. The corner stone of this monu- ment was laid by Lafayette, on the 17th of June, 1825, in presence of an immense concourse of citizens. 248 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. The following is a description of the struggle which the shaft com- memorates : After the affair of Lexington and Concord, on the 19th of April, 1775, the people, animated by one common impulse, flew to arms in every direction. The husbandman changed his ploughshare for a musket ; and about 15,000 men, 10,000 from Massachusetts, and the remainder from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, assembled under General Ward in the environs of Boston, then oc- cupied by 10,000 highly disciplined and well equipped British troops, under the command of Generals Gage, Howe, Clinton, Burgoyne, Pigot and others. Fearing an intention, on the part of the British, to occupy the important heights at Charlestown and Dorchester, which would enable them to command the surrounding country. Colonel Prescott was detached, by his own desire, from the American camp at Cambridge, on the evening of the ICtli of June, 1775, with about 1000 militia, mostly of Massachusetts, including 120 men of Putnam’s regi- ment from Connecticut, and one artillery company, to Bunker Hill, with a view to occupy and fovtif}’- that post. At this hill the detachment made a short halt, but concluded to advance still nearer the British, and accordingly took possession of Breed’s Hill, a position which commanded the whole inner harbor of Boston. Here, about midnight, they commenced throvt^ing up a redoubt, which they com- pleted, notwithstanding every possible effort from the British ships and batteries to prevent them, about noon the next day. MASSACHUSETTS. 249 So silently had the operations been conducted through the night, that the British had not the most distant notice of the design of the Americans, until day- break presented to their view the half-formed battery and daring stand made against them. A dreadful cannonade, accompanied with shells, was immediately commenced from the British battery at Copps’ Hill, and the ships of war and floating batteries stationed in Charles River. The break of day, on the 17tli of June, 1775, presented a scene, which, for daring and firmness, could never be surpassed ; 1000 unexperienced militia, in the attire of their various avocations, without discipline, almost without artillery and bayonets, scantily supplied with ammunition, and wholly destitute of provis- ions, defying the power of the formidable British fleet and army, determined to maintain the liberty of their soil, or moisten that soil with their blood. Without aid, however, from the main body of the army, it seemed impossible to maintain their position ; the men having been without sleep, toiling through the night, and destitute of the necessary food required by nature, had become nearly exhausted. Representations were repeatedly made, through the morning, to headquarters, of the necessity of reenforcements and supplies. Major Brooks, the late revered Governor of Massachusetts, who commanded a battalion of min- ute-men at Concord, set out for Cambridge about 9 o’clock on foot (it being im- possible to procure a horse), soliciting succor ; but as there were two other points exposed to the British, Roxbury and Cambridge, then the headquarters, at which place all the little stores of the army were collected, and the loss of which would be incalculable at that moment, great fears were entertained lest they should march over the neck to Roxbury, and attack the camp there, or pass over the bay in boats (there being at that time no artificial avenue to connect Boston with the adjacent country), attack the headquarters, and destroy the stores : it was there- fore deemed impossible to afford any reenforccment to Charlestown Heights, till the movements of the British rendered evidence of their intention certain. The fire fj'oin the Glasgow frigate and two floating batteries in Charles River, were wholly directed with a view to prevent any communication across the isth- mus that connects Charlestown with the mainland, which kept up a continued shower of missiles, and rendered the communication truly dangerous to those who should attempt it. When the intention of the British to attack the heights of Charlestown became apparent, the remainder of Putnam’s regiment. Colonel Gar- diner’s regiment (both of which, as to numbers, were very imperfect), and some New Hampshire militia, marched, notwithstanding the heavy Are, across the neck, for Charlestown Heights, where they arrived, much fatigued, just after the British had moved to the flrst attack. The British commenced crossing the troops from Boston about 12 o’clock, and landed at Morton’s Point, southeast from Breed’s Hill. At 2 o’clock, from the best accounts that can be obtained, they landed between 3000 and 4000 men, un- der the immediate command of General Howe, and formed, in apparently invin- cible order, at the base of the hill. The position of the Americans, at this time, was a redoubt on the summit of the height, of about 8 rods square, and a breastwork extending, on the left of it, about 70 feet down the eastern declivity of the hill. This redoubt and breastwork was commanded by Prescott in person, who had superintended its construction, and who occupied it with the Massachusetts militia of his detachment, and a part of Little’s regiment, which had arrived about 1 o’clock. They were dreadfully deficient in equipments and ammunition, had been toiling incessantly for many 250 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. hours, and, it is said by some accounts, even then were destitute of provisions. A little to the eastward of the redoubt, and northerly to the rear of it, was a rail fence, extending almost to Mystic River ; to this fence another had been added during the night and forenoon, and some newly mown grass thrown against them, to afford something like a cover to the troops. At this fence the 120 Con- necticut militia were posted. The movements of the British made it evident their intention was to march a strong column along the margin of the Mystic, and turn the redoubt on the north, while another column attacked it in front ; accordingly, to prevent this design, a large force became necessary at the breastwork and rail fence. The whole of the reenforcements that arrived, amounting in all to 800 or 1000 men, were ordered to this point by General Putnam, who had been extremely active throughout the night and morning, and had accompanied the expedition. At this moment thousands of persons of both sexes had collected on the church steeples. Beacon Hill, house tops, and every place in Boston and its neighbor- hood, where a view of the battle ground could be obtained, viewing, with painful anxiety, the movements of the combatants ; wondering, yet admiring the bold stand of the Americans, and trembling at the thoughts of the formidable army marshalled in array against them. Before 3 o’clock the British formed, in two columns, for the attack ; one column, as had been anticipated, moved along the Mystic River, with the intention of taking the redoubt in the rear, while the other advanced up the ascent directly in front of the redoubt, where Prescott was ready to receive them. General War- ren, President of the Provincial Congress and of the Committee of Safety, who had been appointed but a few days before a major-general of the Massachusetts troops, had volunteered on the occasion as a private soldier, and was in the re- doubt with a musket, animating the men by his influence and example to the most daring determination. Orders were given to the Americans to reserve their fire till the enemy ad- vanced sufficiently near to make their aim certain. Several volleys were fired by the British with but little success ; and so long a time had elapsed, and the British allowed to advance so near the Americans without their fire being returned, that a doubt arose whether or not the latter intended to give battle ; but the fatal mo- ment soon arrived : when the British had advanced to within about 8 rods, a sheet of fire was poured upon them, and continued a short time with such deadly effect that hundreds of the assailants lay weltering in their blood, and the remain- der retreated in dismay to the point where they had first landed. From daylight to the time of the British advancing on the works, an incessant fire had been kept up on the Americans from the ships and batteries — this fire was now renewed with increased vigor. After a short time, the British officers had succeeded in rallying their men, and again advanced, in the same order as before, to the attack. Thinking to divert the attention of the Americans, the town of Charlestown, consisting of 500 wooden buildings, was now set on fire by the British ; the roar of the flames, the crashing of falling timber, the awful appearance of desolation presented, the dreadful shrieks of the dying and m ounded in the last attack, added to the know- ledge of the formidable force advancing against them, combined to form a scene apparently too much for men bred in the quiet retirement of domestic life to sus- tain. But the stillness of death reigned within the American works, and nought could be seen but the deadly presented weapon, ready to hurl fresh destruction MASSACHUSETTS. 251 on the assailants. The lire of the Americans was again reserved till the British came still nearer than before, when the same unerring aim was taken, and the British shrunk, terrified, from before its fatal effects, flying, completely routed a second time, to the banks of the river, and leaving, as before, the field strewed with their wounded and their dead. Again the ships and batteries renewed their fire, and kept a continual shower of balls on the works. Notwithstanding every exertion, the British officers found it impossible to rally the men for a third attack ; one-third of their comrades had fallen ; and finally it was not till a reenforcement of more than 1000 fresh troops, with a strong park of artillery, had joined them from Boston, that they could be induced to form anew. In the mean time every effort was made on the part of the Americans to resist a third attack ; General Putnam rode, notwithstanding the heavy fire of the ships and batteries, several times across the neck, to induce the militia to advance ; but it was only a few of the resolute and brave who would encounter the storm. The British receiving reenforcements from their formidable main body— the town of Charlestown presenting one wide scene of destruction — the probability the Americans must shortly retreat — the shower of balls pouring over the neck — presented obstacles too appalling for raw troops to sustain, and embodied too much danger to allow them to encounter. Yet, notwithstanding all this, the Americans on the heights were elated with their success, and waited with cool- ness and determination the now formidable advance^ of the enemy. Once more the British, aided by their reenforceinents, advanced to the attack, but with great skill and caution ; their artillery was planted on the eastern de- clivity of the hill, between the rail fence and the breastwork, where it was directed along the line of the Americans, stationed at the latter place, and against the gateway on the northeastern corner of the redoubt; at the same time they at- tacked the redoubt on the southeastern and southwestern sides, and entered it with fixed bayonets. The slaughter on their advancing was great ; but the Americans, not having bayonets to meet them on equal terms, and their powder being exhausted, now slowly retreated, opposing and extricating themselves from the British with the butts of their pieces. The column that advanced against the rail fence was received in the most dauntless manner. The Americans fought with spirit and heroism that could not be surpassed, and, had their ammunition held out, would have secured to them- selves a third time the palm of victory ; as it was, they effectually prevented the enemy from accomplishing his purpose, which was to turn their flank, and cut the whole of the Americans off ; but having become perfectly exhausted, this body of the Americans also slowly retired, retreating in much better order than could possibly have been expected from undisciplined troops, and those in the redoubt having extricated’ themselves from the host of bayonets by which they had been surrounded. The British followed the Americans to Bunker Hill, but some frssh militia at this moment coming up to the aid of the latter, covered their retreat. The Americans crossed Charlestown neck about 7 o’clock, having in the last twenty hours performed deeds which seemed almost impossible. Some of them pro- ceeded to Cambridge, and others posted themselves quietly on Winter and Pros- pect hills. From the mo'st accurate statements that can be found, it appears the British must have had nearly 5000 soldiers in the battle ; between 3000 and 4000 having 252 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. first landed, and the reenforcement amounting to over 1000. The Americans, throughout the whole day, did not have 2000 men on the field. The slaughter on the side of the British was immense, having had nearly 1500 . killed and wounded, 1200 of whom were either killed or mortally wounded ; the Americans about 400. Had the commanders at Charlestown Heights become terrified on being cut off from the main body and supplies, and surrendered their army, or even retreated before they did, from the terrific force that opposed them, where would now have been that ornament and example to the world, the Independence of the United States ? When it was found that no reenforcements were to be allowed them, the most sanguine man on that field could not have even indulged a hope of success, but all determined to deserve it; and although they did not obtain a victory, their example was the cause of a great many. The first attempt on the commence- ment of a war is held up, by one party or the other, as an example to those that succeed it, and a victory or defeat, though not, perhaps, of any great magnitude in itself, is most powerful and important in its effects. Had such conduct as was here exhibited been in any degree imitated by the immediate commander in the first military onset in the last war, how truly different a result would have been effected, from the fatal one that terminated that unfortunate expedition. From the immense superiority of the British, at this stage of the war, having a large army of highly disciplined and well equipped troops, and the Americans possessing but few other munitions or weapons of war, and but little more disci- pline, than Tvhat each man possessed when he threw aside his plough and took the gun that he had kept for pastime or for profit, but now to be employed for a different purpose, from off the hooks that held it, — perhaps it would have been in their power, by pursuing the Americans to Cambridge, and destroying the few stores that had been collected there, to inflict a blow which could never have been recovered from ; but they were completely terrified. The awful lesson they had just received filled them with horror ; and the blood of 1500 of their compan- ions, who fell on that day, presented to them a warning which they could never forget. From the battle of Bunker Hill sprung the protection and the vigor that nurtured the tree of liberty, and to it, in all probability, may be ascribed our in- dependence and glory. The name of the first martyr that gave his life for the good of his country on that day, in the importance of the moment, was lost ; else a monument, in con- nection with the gallant Warren, should be raised to his memory. The manner of his death was thus related by Colonel Prescott : “ The first man who fell in the battle of Bunker Hill was killed by a cannon ball which struck his head. He was so near me that my clothes were besmeared with his blood and brains, which I wiped off, in some degree, with a handful of fresh earth. The sight was so shocking to many of the men, that they left their posts and ran to view him. I ordered them back, but in vain. I then ordered him to be buried instantly. A subaltern officer expressed surprise that I should allow liim to be buried without having prayers said ; I replied, this is the first man that has been killed, and the only one that will be buried to-day. I put him out of sight that the men may be kept in their places. God only knows who, or how many of us, will fall before it is over. To your post, my good fellow, and let each man do his duty.” The name of the patriot who thus fell is supposed to have been Pollard, a young man belonging to Billerica. He was struck by a cannon ball, thrown from the line-of-battle ship Somerset. MASSACHUSETTS. * 253 CAMBRIDGE, In Middlesex county, lies west-northwest of Boston, and is connected with it by two bridges. It is a beautiful city. The streets are broad, and are shaded with lofty elms, and the houses are mostly of wood, and stand back amidst a profusion of tasteful shrubbery. The cor- porate limits contain 24 churches, several banks, and an excellent hotel. There are a number of manufacturing establishments in the city, but it is principally occupied with private residences. The popu- lation is 39,634. Cambridge is the seat of Harvard University, one of the oldest and most important institutions of learning in the country. It is about three miles from Boston, and was founded in 1638, by the Hev. John Harvard. The University embraces, besides its collegiate depart- ment, schools of law, medicine, and theology. The buildings are 15 in number, and are all located in Cambridge, except the Medical Scliool, which is in Boston. They are very handsome edifices, and are surrounded by tasteful grounds. LOWELL, In Middlesex county, is the second city in the State, and one of the most important manufacturing places in America. It is situated at the confluence of the Merriraac and Concord rivers, about 8 miles south of the New Hampshire line, and 25 miles northwest of Boston. The site is hilly, but the city is regularly laid out, and the streets are broad, are lighted with gas, and are traversed by a horse railway. Some of the buildings are handsome. The Court House is the princi- pal edifice. The city contains 7 banks, 4 savings institutions, 22 churches, and 5 newspaper establishments. The population is 40,928. As a manufacturing city, Lowell has no rival. Early in the present century some Newburvport merchants built a canal at this place as a means of floating lumber around Pawtucket Falls in the Merrimac River. In 1821, a party of Boston merchants bought up this canal and the adjoining lands, for the purpose of utilizing the immense water-power furnished by the falls. They enlarged the canal to a width of 60 feet and a depth of 8 feet, and constructed mill races and feeders. They then laid out the town, and offered mill sites and town lots for sale. Their venture met with such success, that in 1846 it be- came necessary to construct an additional canal, 100 feet wide, 16 feet deep, and with sides of mason work. 254 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. To-day, the town projected by them has no superior in its speciality. In 1864, there were 13 manufacturing corporations in Lowell, with an aggregate capital of $13,850,000, engaged in operating 54 mills and factories. Previous to the war there were 1 2,384 operatives employed in these mills, divided as follows : males 3979, females 8405. Cotton and woollen goods, paper, cotton and paper machinery, locomotives, and machinists^ tools are the principal products. In 1862, the celebrated English writer, Anthony Trollope, visited Lowell and its mills. He gives the following as the result of his observations : That which most surprises an English visitor, on going through the mills at Lowell, is the personal appearance of the men and women who work at them. As there are twice as many women as there are men, it is to them that the atten- tion is chiefly called. They are not onl}’- better dressed, cleaner, and better mounted in every respect than the girls employed at manufactories in England, but they are so infinitely superior as to make a stranger immediately perceive that some very strong cause must have created the difference. We all know the class of young women whom we generally see serving behind counters in the shops of our larger cities. They are neat, well dressed, careful, especially about their hair, composed in their manner, and sometimes a little supercilious in the propriety of their dem.eanor. It is exactly the same class of young women that one sees in the factories at Lowell. They are not sallow, nor dirty, nor ragged, nor rough. They have about them no signs of want, or of low culture. Many ~ of us also know the appearance of those girls who work in the factories in Eng- land ; and I think it will be allowed that a second glance at them is not wanting to show that they are in every respect inferior to the young women who attend our shops. The matter, indeed, requires no argument. Any young woman at a shop would be insulted by being asked whether she had worked at a factory. The difference with regard to the men at Lowell is quite as strong, though not so striking. Workingmen do not show their status in the world by their outward appearance as readily as women ; and, as I have said, before, the number of the women greatly exceeded that of the men. One would of course be disposed to say that the superior condition of the workers must have been occasioned by superior wages ; and this, to a certain extent, has been the cause. But the higher payment is not the chief cause. Women’s wages, including all that they receive at the Lowell factories, average about 14s. a week, which is, I take it, fully a third more than women can earn in Manchester, or did earn before the loss of the American cotton began to tell upon them. But if wages at Manchester were raised to the Lowell standard, the Man- chester women would not be clothed, fed, cared for, and educated like the Lowell women. The fact is, that the workmen and the workwomen at Lowell are not exposed to the chances of an open labor market. They are taken in, as it were, to a philanthropical manufacturing college, and then looked after and regulated more as girls and lads at a great seminary, than as hands by whose industry profit is to be made out of capital. This is all very nice and pretty at Lowell, but I am afraid it could not be done at Manchester MASSACHUSETTS. 255 Thus Lo-well is the realization of a commercial Utopia. Of all the statements made in the little book which I have quoted, I cannot point out one which is ex- aggerated, much less false. I should not call the place elegant ; in other respects I°am disposed to stand by the book. Before I had made any inquiry into the cause of the apparent comfort, it struck me at once that some great effort at ex- cellence was being made. I went into one of the discreet matrons’ residences ; and, perhaps, may give but an indifferent idea of her discretion, when I say that she allowed me to go into the bed-rooms. If you want to ascertain the inner ways or habits of life of any man, woman, or child, see, if it be practicable to do so, his or her bed-room. You will learn more by a minute’s glance round that holy of holies, than by any conversation. Looking-glasses and such like, sus- pended dresses, and toilet-belongings, if taken without notice, cannot lie or even exaggerate. The discreet matron at first showed me rooms only prepared for use, for at the period of my visit Lowell was by no means full ; but she soon became more intimate with me, and I went through the upper part of the house. My report must be altogether in her favor and in that of Lowell. Everything was cleanly, well ordered, and feminine. There was not a bed on wdiich any woman need have hesitated to lay herself if occasion required it. I fear that this cannot be said of the lodgings of the manufacturing classes at Manchester. The boarders all take their meals together. As a rule, they have meat twice a day. Hot meat for dinner is with them as much a matter of course, or probably more 80 , than with any Englishman or woman who may read this book. For in the States of America regulations on this matter are much more rigid than with us. Cold meat is rarely seen, and to live a day without meat would be as great a pri- vation as to pass a night without bed. The rules for the guidance of these boarding-houses are very rigid. The houses themselves belong to the corporations, or different manufacturing establishments, and the tenants are altogether in the power of the managers. None but opera- tives are to be taken in. The tenants are answerable for improper conduct. The doors are to be closed at ten o’clock. Any boarders who do not attend divine worship are to be reported to the managers. The yards and walks are to be kept clean, and snow removed at once ; and the inmates must be vaccinated, etc., etc. It is expressly stated by the Hamilton Company — and I believe by all the com- panies— that no one shall be employed who is habitually absent from public worship on Sunday, or who is known to be guilty of immorality. It is stated that the average Avages of the women are two dollars, or eight shillings, a week, besides their board. I found Avhen I was there that from three dollars to three and a half a week were paid to the women, of Avhich they paid one dollar and twenty -five cents for their board. As this would not fully cover the expense of their keep, twenty-five cents a week for each was also paid to the boarding- house keepers by the mill agents. This substantially came to the same thing, as it left the tAvo dollars a week, or eight shillings, with the girls over and aboA^e their cost of living. The board included washing, lights, food, bed, and attend- ance — leaving a surplus of eight shillings a week for clothes and saving. Noav let me ask any one acquainted with Manchester and its operatives, Avhether that is not Utopia realized. Factory girls, for whom every comfort of life is secured, with 2H. a year over for saving and dress ! One sees the failing, hoAvever, at a moment. It is Utopia. Any Lady Bountiful can tutor three or four peasants and make them luxuriously comfortable. But no Lady Bountiful can give luxu- rious comfort to half a dozen parishes. Lowell is noAV nearly 40 years old, and 256 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. contains but 40,000 inhabitants. From the very nature of its eorporalions it can- not spread itself. Chicago, 'which has grown out of nothing in a much shorter period, and which has no factories, has now 120,000 inhabitants. Lowell is a very wonderful place and shows what philanthropy can do ; but I fear it also shows what philanthropy cannot do. . . One cannot but be greatly struck by the spirit of philanthropy in which the system of Lowell was at first instituted. It may be presumed that men who put their money into such an undertaking did so with the object of commercial profit to themselves ; but in this case that was not their first object. I think it may be taken for granted that when Messrs. Jackson and Lowell went about their task, their grand idea was to place factory work upon a respectable footing— to give employment in mills which should not be unhealthy, degrading, demoralizing, or hard in its circumstances. Throughout the Northern States of America the same feeling is to be seen. Good and thoughtful men have been active to spread education, to maintain health, to make work compatible -with comfort and per- sonal dignity, and to divest the ordinary lot of man of the sting of that curse which was supposed to be uttered when our first father was ordered to eat his bread in the sweat of liis brow. One is driven to contrast this feeling, of which on all sides one sees such ample testimony, with that sharp desire for profit, that anxiety to do a stroke of trade at every turn, that acknowledged necessity of being smart, which we, must own is quite as general as the nobler propensity. I believe that both phases of commercial activity may be attributed to the same characteristic. Men in trade in America are not more covetous than tradesmen in England, nor probably are they more generous or philanthropical. But that which they do, they are more anxious to do thoroughly and quickly. They desire that every turn taken shall be a great turn — or at any rate that it shall be as great as possible. They go ahead either for bad or good with all the energy they have. In the institutions at Lowell I think we may ailow that the good has very much prevailed. I went over two of the mills, those of the Merrimac corporation and of the Massachusetts. At the former the printing establishment only was at work ; the cotton mills were closed. I hardly know whether it will interest any one to learn that something under half a million yards of calico are here printed annu- ally. At the Lowell Bleachery fifteen million yards are dyed annually. The Merrimac Cotton Mills were stopped, and so had the other mills at Lowell been stopped, till some short time before my visit. Trade had been bad, and there had of course been a lack of cotton. I was assured that no severe suffering had been created by this stoppage. The greater number of hands had returned into the country — to the farms from -wdience they had come ; and though a discontinu- ance of work and wages had of course produced hardship, there had been no actual privation — no hunger and want. Those of the Avork-people who had no homes out of Lowell to which to betake themselves, and no means at Lowell of living, had received relief 1)efore real suffering had begun. I was assured, with something of a smile of contempt at the question, that there had been nothing like hunger. But, as I said before, visitors always see a great deal of rose color, and should endeavor to allay the brilliancy of the tint with the proper amount of human shading. But do not let any^isitor mix in the browns with too heavy a hand I MASSACHUSETTS. 25T LYNN, In Essex county, 11 miles north of Boston, is charmingly situated on the northeast shore of Massachusetts Bay. It is regularly laid off, but does not compare with the generality of New England cities in appearance. It contains about 50 public schools, 2 newspaper offices, 21 churches, several banks, and a free library. The population is about 28,233. Lynn is the principal seat of the manufacture of boots and shoes in this country. It contains 175 establishments, employing 17,200 per- sons, more than one-half being females. About 10,000,000 pairs of ladies and misses’ shoes are made here annually. They are valued at about $14,000,000. Besides these, a number of other manufactures are produced here. LAWRENCE, In Essex county, 26 miles north of Boston, and 12 miles from Lowell, is an important manufacturing city. It is built along both sides of the Merrimac River, which is made to fall over an artificial dam 28 feet high. The water is conducted from the head of this dam to the mills by a canal. The city is well laid off, and contains several fine buildings, the City Hall being the handsomest. The centre is occu- pied by a Common” covering an area of 17J^ acres. There are 13 churches, a number of excellent free schools, 2 newspaper offices, several libraries, and 2 banks in Lawrence. The population is 28,921. The city contains over 30 manufacturing establishments, with a capital of about $8,000,000. Cottons, woollens, machinery, wrought- iron goods, and paper, are the leading manufactures. Lawrence is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water which may be used in case of fire; but for ordinary purposes, cisterns and wells are used. WORCESTER, In Worcester county, 45 miles west-southwest of Boston, is the third city in the State. Six railway lines centre here, making it within easy reach of all parts of the Union. It is situated in the midst of a beautiful country, and is regularly laid out and handsomely built. The streets are broad, are planted with trees, and adorned with a number of handsome edifices. Main street, the principal thorough- 258 THE GKE>T REPUBLIC. A VIEW FROM GREENFIELD, MASS fare, is nearly 2 miles long, and is one of the finest streets in the State. It contains the principal stores, hotels, churches, and public buildings. The city is lighted with gas, and is traversed by a street railway. It contains 18 churches, 7 banks, 4 savings banks, 4 news- paper offices, several libraries containing an aggregate of 60,000 vol- umes, and a number of private and public schools. The State has a Lunatic Asylum here, which is provided with handsome buildings and grounds. Worcester is extensively engaged in manufactures. The leading articles are cotton and woollen goods, steel and iron wire, mechanics' tools, agricultural implements, machinery of all kinds, railroad iron, castings, fire-arms, and boots and shoes. The population is 41,105. MASSACHUSETTS. 259 SPRINGFIELD, In Hampden county, on the banks of the Connecticut River, 98 miles southwest of Boston, and 26 miles north of Hartford, Conn,, is the largest city in Western Massachusetts. It is handsomely built, and is one of the most attractive cities in New England. The principal thoroughfare. Main street, is nearly 3 miles long. The city contains many fine buildings, 12 or 13 churches, 8 or 9 banks, several good hotels, and 5 newspaper establishments. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with water. The Connecticut is navigable to this place during the season of navigation. Four lines of railway centre here, and have added very much to the prosperity of the city. The United States Arsenal is one of the principal features of the place, and the most important establishment belonging to the Govern- ment. About 2800 hands are employed in the various departments of the Arsenal. The buildings are principally of brick, and are ar- ranged around a square of 20 acres. They are very handsome, and being situated on rising ground, command a fine view of the city and surrounding country. Springfield is actively engaged in manufiictures. Paper, iron goods, locomotives, railroad cars, machinery, pistols, and woollen goods, are the principal articles. The population is 26,703. - Taunton, in Bristol county, contains 18,629 inhabitants. Fall River, in the same county, contains 26,786 inhabitants. Both are important manufacturing cities. Salem, in Essex county, has a fine harbor, and is a city of some commercial importance. It has a population of 24,117, and is noted as the scene of the famous witchcraft delusion. Plymouth, in the county of the same name, is extensively engaged in manufactures and the fisheries. It is the oldest town in New Ens:land, and is the place where the Pilgrim Fathers first landed after their voyage from England. MISCELLANIES. ARRIVAL OF THE PILGRIMS AT CAPE COD. On the lOtli of November, 1620, the Mayflower, with her precious freight of emigrants, reached the harbor of Cape Cod. The charter which they had brought with them from England, gave them permission to settle within the do- minions of the South Virginia Company, and was worthless in the region in which they had arrived. In this situation they determined to take the matter into their own hands. A government was organized, a covenant drawn up and signed by all on board, and John Carver was elected Governor. 260 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Government having been thus regularly established, on a truly republican principle, sixteen armed men were sent on shore, as soon as the weather would permit, to fetch wood and make discoveries. They returned at night with a boat load of juniper wood, and made report “ that they found the land to be a narrow neck, having the harbor on one side, and the ocean on the other ; that the ground consisted of sandhills, like the Downs in Holland ; that in some places the soil was black earth ‘ a spit’s depth that the trees were oak, pine, sassafras, juniper, birch, holly, ash, and walnut ; that the forest was open and without underwood ; that no inhabitants, houses, nor fresh water were to be seen.” This account was as much as could be collected in one Saturday’s afternoon. The next day they rested. While they lay in this harbor, during the space of five weeks, they saw great flocks of seafowl and whales every day playing about them. The master and mate, who had been acquainted with the fisheries in the northern seas of Europe, supposed that they might in that time have made oil to the value of £3000 or £4000. It was too late in the season for cod ; and, indeed, they caught none but small fish near the shore, and shellfish. The margin of the sea was so shallow, that they were obliged to wade ashore, and the weather being severe, many of them took colds and coughs, which in the course of the winter proved mortal. On Monday, the 13th of November, the women went ashore under guard to wash their clothes, and the men were impatient for a farther discovery. The shallop, which had been cut down and stowed between decks, needed repairing, in which 17 days were employed. While this was doing, they proposed that ex- cursions might be made on foot. Much caution was necessary in an enterprise of this kind, in a new and savage country. After consultation and preparation, 16 men were equipped with musket and ammunition, sword and corslet, under the command of Captain Miles Standish, who had William Bradford, Stephen Hop- kins, and Edward Tilly for his council of war. After many instructions given, they were rather permitted than ordered to go, and the time of their absence was limited to two days. When they had travelled one mile by the shore, they discovered five or six of the natives, who, on sight of them, fled. They attempted to pursue, and, lighting on their tracks, followed them till night ; but the thickets through which they had to pass, the weight of their armor, and the debility after a long voyage, made them an unequal match, in point of travelling, to these nimble sons of nature. They rested at length by a spring, which alforded them the first refreshing draught of American water. The discoveries made in this inarch were few, but novel and amusing. In one place they found a deer trap, made by the bending of a young tree to the earth, with a noose under ground covered with acorns. Mr. Bradford’s foot was caught in the trap, from which his companions disengaged him, and they were all enter- tained with the ingenuity of the device. In another place they came to an In- dian burying-ground, and in one of the graves they found a mortar, an earthen pot, a bow and arrows, and other implements, all which they very carefully replaced, because they would not be guilty of violating the repositories of the dead. But when they found a cellar, carefully lined with bark and covered with a heap of sand, in which about four bushels of seed-corn in ears were well secured, after reasoning on the morality of the action, they took as much of the corn as they could carry, intending, when they should find the owners, to pay them to their satisfaction. On the third day they arrived, weary and welcome, where the ship MASSACHUSETTS. 261 lay, and delivered their corn into the common store. The company resolved to keep it for seed, and to pay the natives the full value when they should have an opportunity. When the shallop was repaired and rigged, 24 of the company ventured on a second excursion to the same place, to make a farther discovery, having Captain Jones for their commander, with 10 of his seamen and the ship’s long-boat. The wind being high and the sea rough, the shallop came to anchor under the land, while part of the company waded on shore from the long-boat, and travelled, as they supposed, six or seven miles, having directed the shallop to follow them the next morning. The weather was very cold, with snow, and the people, hav- ing no shelter, took such colds as afterwards proved fatal to many. THE FIRST SABBATH IN NEW ENGLAND. The 10th of December, 1620, was the first Christian Sabbath in New England. The “Mayflower,” a name now immortal, had crossed the ocean. It had borne its hundred passengers over the vast deep, and after a perilous voyage, it had reached the bleak shores of New England in the beginning of winter. The spot which was to furnish a home and a burial-place, was now to be selected. The shallop was unshipped, but needed repairs, and 16 weary days elapsed before it was ready for service. Amidst ice and snow, it was then sent out, with some half a dozen Pilgrims, to find a suitable place where to land. The spray of the sea, says the historian, froze on them, and made their clothes like coats of iron. Five days they wandered about, searching in vain for a suitable landing-place. A storm came on, the snow and rain fell ; the sea swelled; the rudder broke ; the mast and the sail fell overboard. In this storm and cold, 'without a tent, a house, or the shelter of a rock, the Christian Sabbath approached — the day which they regarded as holy unto God — a day on which they were not to “do any work. ” What should be done ? As the evening before the Sabbath drew on, they pushed over the surf, entered a fair sound, sheltered themselves under the lee of a rise of land, kindled a fire, and on that island they spent the day in the solemn wor- ship of their Maker. On the next day their feet touched the rock now sacred as the place of the landing of the Pilgrims. Nothing more strikingly marks the character of this people, than this act. The wdiole scene— the cold winter — the raging sea — the driving storm — the houseless, homeless island — the families of wives and children in the distance, weary with their voyage and impatient to land— and yet, the sacred observance of a day which they kept from principle, and not from mere feeling, or because it was a form of religion, shows how deeply imbedded true religion is in the soul, and how little it is affected by sur- rounding difficulties. THE FIRST CRIMES IN NEW ENGLAND. The first offence punished in the colony was that of John Billington, who was charged with contempt of the captain’s lawful commands, while on board the May- flower. He was tried by the whole company, and was sentenced to have his neck and heels tied together; but on humbling himself, and craving pardon, he was released. This same Billington, however, in 1630, waylaid and murdered one John Newcomen, for some affront, and was tried and executed in October of that year. Governor Bradford says : “We took all due means about his trial ; he was 262 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. found guilty, both by grand and petit jury; and we took advice of Mr. Win- tbrop and others, the ablest gentlemen in the Massachusetts Bay, who all con- curred with us, that he ought to die, and the land be purged from blood.” The first duel and second offence that took place in the colony was between two servants of Stephen Hopkins. They fought with sword and dagger, and were both slightly wounded. They were arraigned for the offence, on the 18th June, 1621, before the Governor and company for trial, and were sentenced to have their heads and feet tied together, and to remain in that position for 24 hours. After an hour’s endurance of this novel punishment, these men of valor begged for a release, and the Governor set them at liberty. THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT. \^From Governor Hutchinson'^ s History of Massachusetts.'] The great noise which the New England witchcrafts made throughout the English dominions, proceeded more from the general panic with which all sorts of persons were seized, and an expectation that the contagion would spread to all parts of the country, than from the number of persons who were executed, more having been put to death in a single county in England, in a short space of time, than have suffered in all New England from the first settlement until the present time. Fifteen j’-ears had passed, before we find any mention of witchcraft among the English colonists. The Indians were supposed tp be worshippers of the Devil, and their powows to be wizards. The first suspicion of witchcraft, among the English, was about the year 1645 ; at Springfield, upon Connecticut River, sev- eral persons were supposed to be under an evil hand, and among the rest two of the minister’s children. ' Great pains were taken to prove the facts upon several persons charged with the crime, but either the nature of the evidence was not satisfactory, or the fraud was suspected, and so no person was convicted until the year 1650, when a poor wretch, Mary Oliver, probably weary of her life from the general reputation of being a witch, after long examination was brought to con- fession of her guilt, but I do not find that she was executed. Whilst this inquiry was making, Margaret Jones was executed at Charlestowm ; and Mr. Hale men- tions a woman at Dorchester, and another at Cambridge about the same time, who all at their death asserted their innocence. Soon after, Hugh Parsons was tried at Springfield and escaped death. In 1655, Mrs. Hibbins, the assistant’s widow, was hanged at Boston. In 1662, at Hartford in Connecticut (about 30 miles from Springfield, upon the same river), one Ann Cole, a 3 ’oung woman who lived next door to a Dutch family, and, no doubt, had learned something of the language, was supposed to be possessed with demons, who sometimes spake Dutch and sometimes English, and sometimes a language wdiich nobody understood, and who held a conference with one another. Several ministers, who were present, took down the conference in writing, and the names of several persons, mentioned in the course of the conference, as actors or bearing parts in it ; particularly a wo- man, then in prison upon suspicion of witchcraft, one Greensmith, who upon ex- amination confessed and appeared to be surprised at the discovery. She owned that she and the others named had been familiar with a demon, who had carnal knowledge of her, and although she had not made a formal covenant, yet she had l)romised to be ready at his call, and was to have had a high frolic at Christmas, when the agreement was to have been signed. Upon this confession she was MASSACHUSETTS. 263 execated, and two more of the company were condemned at the same time. In 1689, Susanna Martin, of Salisbury, was bound over to the court, upon suspicion of witchcriift, but escaped at that time. In 1671, Elizabeth Knap, another veniriloqua, alarmed the people of Groton in much the same manner as Ann Cole had done those of Hartford ; but her de- mon was not so cunning, for instead of confining himself to old women, he railed at the good minister of the town and other persons of good character, and the people could not then be prevailed on to believe him, but believed the girl, when she confessed she had been deluded, and that the devil had tormented her in the shape of good persons ; so she escaped the punishment due to her fraud and im- posture. ^ 1 n In 1673, Eunice Cole of Hampton was tried, and the jury found her not legally guilty, but that there were strong grounds to suspect her of familiarity with the devil. In 1679, William Morse’s house, at Newbury, was troubled with the throwing of bricks, stones, etc., and a boy, of the family, was supposed to be bewitched, who accused one of the neighbors ; and in 1682, the house of George Walton, a qnaker, at Portsmouth, and another house at Salmon-falls (both in New Hamp- shire), were attacked after the same manner. In 1683, the demons removed to Connecticut Kiver again, where one Desbo- rough’s house was molested by an invisible hand, and a fire kindled, nobody knew' how, which burnt up great part of his estate ; and in 1684, Philip Smith, a judge of the court, a military oflicer and a representative of the town of Hadley, upon the same river (a hypochondriac person), fancied himself under an evil hand, and suspected a woman, one of his neighbors, and languished and pined aw ay , and was generally supposed to be bewdtched to death. While he lay ill, a num- ber of brisk lads tried an experiment upon the old woman. Having dragged her out of her house, they hung her up until she was near dead, let her down, rolled her some time in the snow, and at last buried her in it and there left her, but it happened that she survived, and the melancholy man died. Notwithstanding these frequent instances of supposed w'itchcrafts, none had suffered for near 30 years, in the Massachusetts colony. The execution of the assistant or councillor’s widow in 1655, was disapproved of by many prindpal persons, and it is not unlikely that her death saved the lives of many other infe- rior persons. But in 1685, a very circumstantial account of all or most of the cases I have mentioned, w^as published, and many arguments were brought to convince the country that they were no delusions or impostures, but the effects of a familiarity between the devil and such as he found fit for his instruments ; and in 1687 or 1688, began a more alarming instance than any which had pre- ceded it. Four of the children of John Goodwin, a grave man and a good liver, at the north part of Boston, were generally believed to be bewitched. I have often heard persons, who were in the neighborhood, speak of the great conster- nation it occasioned. The children were all remarkable for ingenuity of temper, had been religiously educated and were thought to be without guile. The eldest was a girl of 13 or 14 years. She had charged a laundress wdth taking away some of the family linen. The mother of the laundress was one of the wild Irish, of bad character, and gave the girl harsh language ; soon after which she fell into fits, which were said to have something diabolical in them. One of her sisters and two brothers followed her example, and it is said, were tormented in the same part of their bodies at the same time, although kept in separate apartments, 264 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and ignorant of one another’s complaints. One or two things were said to Ite very remarkable ; all their complaints were in the day time, and they slept com- fortably all night ; they were struck dead at the sight of the Assembly’s Catechism, Cotton’s Milk for Babes, and some other good books, but .could read in Oxford jests, popish and quaker books, and the common prayer, without any difficulty. Is it possible the mind of man should be capable of such strong prejudices as that a suspicion of fraud should not immediately arise ? But attachments to modes and forms in religion had such force, that some of these circumstances seem rather to have confirmed the credit of the children. Sometimes they would be deaf, then dumb, then blind | and sometimes all these disorders together would come upon them. Their tongues would be drawn dov/n their throats, then pulled out upon their chins. Their jaws, necks, shoulders, elbows and all their joints would appear to be dislocated, and they would make most piteous outcries of burnings, of being cut with knives, beat, etc., and the marks of wounds were afterwards to be seen. The ministers of Boston and Charlestown kept a day of fasting and prayer at the troubled house ; after wdiich, the youngest child made no more complaints. The others persevered, and the magistrates then interposed, and the old woman was apprehended, but upon examination would neither confess nor deny, and appeared to be disordered in her senses. Upon the report of physicians that she was compos mentis^ she was executed, declaring at her death the children should not be relieved. The eldest, after this, was taken into a minister’s family, where, at first, she behaved orderly, but, after some time, sud- denly fell into her fits. The account of her affliction is in print ; some things are mentioned as extraordinary, which tumblers are every day taught to perform ; others seem more than natural, but it was a time of great credulity. The children returned to their ordinary behavior, lived to adult age, made profession of reli- gion, and the affliction they had been under they publicly declared to be one motive to it. One of them I knew many years after. She had the character of a very sober virtuous woman, and never made any acknowledgment of fraud in this transaction. The printed account was published with a’preface by Mr. Bax- ter, who says, '‘Hhe evidence is so convincing^ that he must he a very obdurate Sad- ducee who will not believe.'^' It obtained credit sufiicient together with other pre- paratives, to dispose the whole country to be easily imposed upon by the more extensive and more tragical scene, which was presently after acted at Salem and other parts of the county of Essex. Not many years before, Glanvil published his witch stories in England ; Perkins and other nonconformists were earlier; but the great authority was that of Sir Matthew Hale, revered in New England, not only for his knowledge in the law, but for his gravity and piety. The trial of the witches in Suffolk was published in 1684. All these books were in New England, and the conformity between the behavior of Goodwin’s children and most of the supposed bewitched at Salem, and the behavior of those in England, is so exact, as to leave no room to doubt the stories had been read by the New England per- sons themselves, or had been told to them by others who had read them. Indeed, this conformity, instead of giving suspicion, was urged in confirmation of the truth of both ; the Old England demons and the New being so much alike. The court justified themselves from books of law, and the authorities of Keble, Dalton and other lawyers, then of the first character, W'ho lay down rules of conviction, as absurd and dangerous as any which w^ere practised in New England. The trial of Richard Hatheway, the impostor, before Lord Chief Justice Holt, was 10 or 12 years after. This was a great discouragement to prosecutions in England MASSACHUSETTS. 265 for witchcraft, but an effectual stop was not put to them, until the Act of Parlia- ment in the reign of his late Majesty. Even this has not wholly cured the com- mon people, and we hear of old women ducked and cruelly murdered within these last twenty years. Reproach, then, for hanging witches, although it has been often cast upon the people of New England, by those of Old, yet it must have been done with an ill grace. The people of New England were of a grave cast, and had long been disposed to give a serious solemn construction even to common events in providence ; but in Old England, the reign of Charles II. was as remarkable for gaiety as any whatsoever, and for scepticism and infidelity, as any which preceded it. Sir William Phips, the governor, upon his arrival, fell in with the opinion pre- vailing. Mr. Stoughton, the lieutenant-governor, upon whose judgment great stress was laid, had taken up this notion, that although the devil might appear in the shape of a guilty person, yet he would never be permitted to assume the shape of an innocent person. This opinion, at first, was generally received. Some of the most religious women who were accused, when they saw the appear- ance of distress and torture in their accusers, and heard their solemn declarations, that they saw the shapes or spectres of the accused afflicting them, persuaded themselves they were witches, and that the devil, some how or other, although they could not remember how or when, had taken possession of their evil hearts and obtained some sort of assent to his afflicting in their shapes ; and thereupon they thought they might be justified in confessing themselves guilty. It seems, at this day, with some people, perhaps but few, to be the question whether the accused or the afflicted were under a preternatural or diabolical pos- session, rather than whether the afflicted were under bodily distempers, or alto- gether guilty of fraud and imposture. As many of the original examinations have fallen into my hands, it may be of service to represent this afiair in a more full and impartial light than it has yet appeared to the world. In February, 1691-2, a daughter and a niece of Mr. Parris, the minister of Salem village, girls of ten or eleven years of age, and two other girls in the neighborhood, made the same sort of complaints as Goodwin’s children had made, two or three years before. The physicians, having no other way of ac- counting for the disorder, pronounced them bewitched. An Indian woman, who was brought into the country from New Spain, and then living with Mr. Parris, tried some experiments which she pretended to be used in her own country, in order to find out the witch. This coming to the children’s knowledge, they cried out upon the poor Indian as appearing to them, pinching, pricking, and tormenting them ; and fell into fits. Tituba, the Indian, acknowledged that she had learned how to find out a witch, but denied that she was one herself. Several private fasts were kept at the minister’s house, and several, more public, by the whole village, and then a general fast through the colony, to seek to God to re- buke Satan, etc. So much notice taken of the children, together with the pity and compassion expressed by those who visited them, not only tended to confirm them in their design, but to draw others into the like. Accordingly, the number of the complainants soon increased, and among them there were two or three women, and some girls old enough for witnesses. These had their fits too, and, when in them, cried out, not only against Tituba, but against Sarah Osburn, a melancholy distracted old woman, and Sarah Good, another old woman who was bedrid. Tituba, at length, confessed herself a witch, and that the two old women 266 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. were her confederates ; and they were all committed to prison ; and Tituba, upon search, was found to have scars upon her back wdiich were called the devil’s mark, but might as well have been supposed those of her Spanish master. This commitment was on the 1st of March. About three weeks after, two other wo- men, of good characters and church members, Corey and Nurse, were complained of and brought upon their examination ; when these children fell into fits, and the mother of one of them, and wife of Thomas Putnam, joined with the children and complained of Nurse as tormenting her ; and made most terrible shrieks, to the amazement of all the neighborhood. The old women denied everything ; but were sent to prison ; and such was the infatuation, that a child of Sarah Good, about four or five years old, was committed also, being charged with biting some of the afflicted, who showed the print of small teeth on their arms. On April 3d Mr. Parris took for his text, ^'‘Have not I chosen you twelve^ and one of you is a devil." Sarah Cloyse, supposing it to be occasioned by Nurse’s case, who was her sister, went out of the meeting. She was, presently after, complained of for a witch, examined, and committed. Elizabeth Procter was charged about the same time : her husband, as every good husband would have done, accompanied her to her examination, *but it cost the poor man his life. Some of the afflicted cried out upon him also, and they were both committed to prison. Instead of suspecting and sifting the witnesses, and suffering them to be cross- examined, the authority, to say no more, were imprudent in making use of lead- ing questions, and thereby putting words into tlreir mouths or suffering others to do it. Mr. Parris was over-officious ; most of the examinations, although in the presence of one or more of the magistrates, were taken by him. Governor Hutchinson, in the second volume of his History, introduces an ex- amination of several of the accused, which is certified by John Hawthorne and John Corwin, Assistants., but owing to prescribed limits they are here omitted : No wonder the whole country w^as in a consternation, vrhen persons of sober lives and unblemished characters were committed to prison upon such sort of evidence. The most effectual way to prevent an accusation, was to become an accuser ; and accordingly the number of the afflicted increased every day, and the number of the accused in proportion, who in general persisted in their inno- cency ; but, being strongly urged to give glory to God by their confession, and intimation being given that this was the only w^ay to save their lives, and their friends urging them to it, some were brought to own their guilt. The first con- fession upon the files is of Deliverance Hobbs, May 11th, 1692, being in prison. She owned everything she was required to do. The confessions multiplied the witches ; new companions were always mentioned, who were immediately sent for and examined. Thus more than a hundred women, many of them of fair characters and of the most reputable families, in the towns of Salem, Beverly, Andover, Billerica, etc., were apprehended, examined, and generally committed to prison. The confessions being much of the same tenor, one or two may serve for specimens : “The examination and confession (8 Sept. 92,) of Mary Osgood, wife of Captain Osgood of Andover, taken before John Hawthorne and other their Majesties justices. “She confesses, that about 11 years ago, wfflen she was in a melancholy state and condition, she used to walk abroad in her orchard j and upon a certain time MASSACHUSETTS. 267 she saw the appearance of a cat, at the end of the house, which yet she thought was a real cat. However, at that time, it diverted her from praying to God, and instead thereof she prayed to the devil ; about which time she made a covenant with the devil, who, as a black man, came to her and presented her a book, upon which she laid her finger and that left a red spot : and that upon her signing, the devil told her he was her God, and that she should serve and worship him, and, she believes, she consented to it. She says further, that about two years agone, she was carried through the air, in company with deacon Frye’s wife, Ebenezer Baker’s wife, and Goody Tyler, to five-mile pond, where she was baptized by the devil, who dipped her face in the water and made her renounce her former baptism, and told her she must be his, soul and body, forever, and that she must serve him, which she promised to do. She says, the renouncing her first baptism was after her first dipping, and that she was transported back again through the air, in company with the forenamed persons, in the same manner as she went, and believes they were carried upon a pole. Q. How many persons were upon the pole? A. As I said before (viz., four persons and no more but whom she had named above). She confesses she has afflicted three persons, John Sawdy, Martha Sprague, and Rose Foster, and that she did it by pinching her bed clothes, and giving consent the devil should do it in her shape, and that the devil could not do it without her consent. She confesses the afflicting persons in the court, by the glance of her eye. She says, as she was coming down to Salem to be examined, she and the rest of the company with her stopped at Mr. Phiilips’ to refresh themselves, and the afflicted persons, being behind them upon the road, came up just as she was mounting again, and were then afflicted, and cried out upon her, so that she was forced to stay until they were all past, and said she only looked that way towards them. Q. Do you know the devil can take the shape of an innocent person and afflict? A. I believe he cannot. Q. Who taught you this way of witchcraft ? A. Satan (and that he promised her abun- dance of satisfaction and quietness in her future state, but never performed any- thing ; and that she has lived more miserably and more discontented since, than ever before). She confesses further, that she herself, in company with Goody Parker, Goody Tyler, and Goody Dean, had a meeting at Moses Tyler’s house, last Monday night, to afflict, and that she and Goody Dean carried the shape of Mr. Dean, the minister, between them, to make persons believe that Mr. Dean afflicted. Q. What hindered you from accomplishing what you intended ? A. The Lord would not suffer it so to be, that the devil should afflict in an innocent person’s shape. Q. Have you been at any other witch meetings ? A. I know nothing thereof, as I shall answer in the presence of God and his people ; (but said, that the black man stood before her, and told her that what she had con- fessed was a lie ; notwithstanding, she said that what she ha(^confessed was true, and thereto put her hand). Her husband being present, was asked if he judged his wife to be any way discomposed. He answered, that having lived with her so long, he doth not judge her to be any ways discomposed, but has cause to be- lieve what she has said is true. . . . When Mistress Osgood was first called, she afflicted Martha Sprague and Rose Foster, by the glance of her eyes, and re- covered them out of their fits by the touch of her hand. Mary Lacey, Betty Johnson, and Hannah Post saw Mistress Osgood afflicting Sprague and Foster. . . . The said Hannah Post, and Mary Lacey, and Betty Johnson, jun., and Rose Foster and Mary Richardson were afflicted by Mistress Osgood, in the time of their examination, and recovered by her touching of their hands. 268 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. “ I underwritten, being appointed by authority, to take this examination, do testify upon oath, taken in court, that this is a true copy of the substance of it to the best of my knowledge, 5 Jan., 1692-3. The within Mary Osgood was ex- amined before their Majesties justices of the peace in Salem. “Attest, John Higginson, Just. Peace.” A miserable negro woman, charged by some of the girls with afflicting them, confessed, but was cunning enough to bring the greatest share of the guilt upon her mistress : “Salem, Monday, July 4, 1692. The examination of Candy, a negro woman, before Bartholomew Gedney and John Hawthorne, Esqrs. Mr. Nicholas Noyes also present : Candy, are you a witch? A. Candy no witch in her country. Candy’s mother no witch. Candy no witch, Barbados. This country, mistress give Candy witch. Q. Did your mistress make you a witch in this country ? A. Yes, in this country mistress give Candy witch. Q. What did your mistress do to make you a witch ? A. Mistress bring book and pen and ink, make Candy write in it. Q. What did you write in it ? A. She took a pen and ink, and upon a book or paper made a mark. Q. How did you afflict or hurt these folks, where are the puppets you did it with ? She asked to go out of the room and she would show or tell ; upon which she had liberty, one going with her, and she presently brought in two clouts, one with two kpots tied in it, the other one ; which being seen by Mary Warren, Deliverance Hobbs, and Abigail Hobbs, they were greatly affrighted and fell into violent fits, and all of them said that the black man and Mrs. Hawkes, and the negro stood by^\he puppets or rags and pinched them, and then they were afflicted, and when the knots were untied yet they continued as aforesaid. A bit of one of the rags being set on fire, the afflicted all said they were burned, and cried out dreadfully. The rags being put into water, two of the forenamed persons were in dreadful fits, almost choked, and the other was violently running down to the river, but was stopped. “Attest, John Hawthorne, Just. Peace.” Mrs. Hawkes, the mistress, had no other way to save her life but to confess also. The recantation of several persons in Andover will show in what manner they were brought to their confessions ; “ We, whose names are underwritten, inhabitants of Andover; when as that horrible and tremendous judgment beginning at Salem village in the year 1692, by some called witchcraft, first breaking forth at Mr. Parris’s house, several young persons, being seemingly afflicted, did accuse several persons for afflicting them, and many there believing it so to be, we being informed that if a person was sick, the afflicted person could tell what or who was the cause of that sick- ness : Joseph Ballard, of Andover, his wife being sick at the same time, he, either from himself or by the advice of others, fetched two of the persons called the af- flicted persons, from Salem village to Andover, which was the beginning of that dreadful calamity that befell us in Andover, believing the said accusations to be true, sent for the said persons to come together to the meeting house in Andover, the afflicted persons being there. After Mr. Barnard had been at prayer, we were blindfolded, and our hands were laid upon the afflicted persons, they being in their fits and falling into their fits at our coming into their presence, as they MASSACHUSETTS. 269 said • and some led us and laid our hands upon them, and then they said they were’ well, and that we were guilty of afflicting them : whereupon we were all seized as prisoners, by a warrant from the justice of the peace, and forthwith carried to Salem. And, by reason of that sudden surprisal, we knowing our- selves altogether innocent of that crime, we were all exceedingly astonished and amazed, and consternated and affrighted even out of our reason ; and our nearest and dearest relations, seeing us in that dreadful condition, and knowing our great danger, apprehended there was no other way to save our lives, as the case was then circumstanced, but by our confessing ourselves to be such and such persons as the afflicted represented us to be, they, out ot tenderness and pity, persuaded us to confess what we did confess. And indeed that confession, that it is said we made, was no other than what was suggested to us by some gentle- men, they telling us that we were witches, and they knew it, and we knew it, which made us think it was so ; and our understandings^ our reason, our faculties, almost gone, we were not capable of judging of our condition ; as also the hard measures they used with us rendered us incapable of making our defence, but said anything and everything which they desired, and rnost of what we said was but, in effect, a consenting to what they said. Some time after, when we were better composed, they telling us what we had confessed, we did profess that we were innocent and ignorant of such things ; and we hearing that Samuel Ward- well had renounced his confession, and quickly after condemned and executed, some of us were told we were going after Ward well. Maby Osgood, Deliyekance Dane, Sabah Wilson, Maby Tileb, Abigail Babkeb, Hannah Tileb.” The testimonials to these persons’ characters, by the principal inhabitants of Andover, will outweigh the credulity of the justices who committed them, or of the grand jury which found bills against them. Although the number of prisoners had been increasing, from February until the beginning of June, yet there had been no trials. The charter was expected from day to day, and the new constitution of government to take place. Soon after its arrival, commissioners of oyer and terminer were appointed for the trial of witchcrafts. By the charter, the general assembly are to constitute courts of justice, and the governor with the advice of the council is to nominate and ap- point judges, commissioners of oyer and terminer, etc., but whether the gover- nor, with advice of council, can constitute a court of oyer and terminer, without authority for that purpose derived from the general assembly, has been made a question ; however, this, the most important court to the life of the subject wrhich ever was held in the province, was constituted in no other manner. It was opened at Salem, the first week in June. Only one ot the accused, Bridget Bishop, alias Oliver, was then brought to trial. She had been charged with witchcraft twenty years before. The accuser, upon his death-bed, contessed his own guilt in the aecusation ; but an old woman, once charged wdth being a witch, is never afterwards wholly free from the accusation, and she being, besides, of a fractious temper, all the losses the neighbors met with in their cattle and poultry,' and accidents in oversetting their carts, etc., were attributed to her spite against them, and now suffered to be testified against her. This evidence, together with the testimony of the afflicted, and of the confessors, what they had heard from the spectres and seen of her spectre, and an excrescence, called a teat, found upon her body, were deemed by court and jury plenary proof, and she was con- 270 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. victed, find on the lOtli of June executed. The further trials were put off to the adjournment, the 30th of June. At the first trial, there was no colony or provincial law against witchcraft in force. The statute of James the First must therefore have been considered as in force ill the province, witchcraft not being an offence at common law. Before the adjournment, tlie old colony law, which makes witchcraft a capital offence, was revived, with the other local laws, as they were called, and made a law of the province. At the adjournment, June 30, five women were brought upon trial, Sarah Good, Rebekah Nurse, Susannah Martin, Elizabeth How, and Sarah Wilder. There was no difficulty with any but Nurse. She was a member of the church and of a good character, and, as to her, the jury brought in their verdict not guilty ; upon which the accusers made a great clamor,^ and the court expressed their dissatisfaction with^the verdict, which caused some of the jury to desire to go out again ; and then they brought her in guilty. This was a hard case, and can scarcely be said to be tTi6 execution of the Iww undi justice in mevey. In a capital case, the court often refuses a verdict of guilty, but rarel}^, if ever, sends a jury out again upon one of not guilty. It does not indeed appear that in this case the jury was ordered out again ; but the dissatisfaction expressed by the court seems to have been in such a manner as to have the same effect. At the next adjournment, August 5th, George Burroughs, John Procter, and Elizabeth his wife, John Willard, George Jacobs, and /Martha Carrier were all brought upon trial and condemned, and all executed upon the 19th of August, except Elizabeth Procter, wTio escaped by pleading pregnancy. Burroughs had been a preacher, Several years before this, at Salem village, where there had been some misunderstanding between him and the people. Af- terwards he became a preacher at Wells, in the province of Maine. We will be a little more particular in our account of his trial. The indictment was as follows : “Anno Regis et Reginae, etc., quarto. ^^Essex The Jurors for our sovereign Lord and Lady the King and Queen, present, that George Burroughs, late of Falmouth, in the province of Massachu- setts bay, clerk, the ninth day of May, in the fourth year of the reign of our sovereign Lord and Lady William and Mary, by the grace of God of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, King and Queen, defenders of the faith, etc., and divers other days and times, as well before as after, certain detestable arts called witchcrafts and sorceries ; wickedly and feloniously hath used, practised, and exercised, at and within the town of Salem, in the county of Essex aforesaid, in, upon, and against one Mary Walcot of Salem village, in the county of Essex, single woman ; by which said wicked arts, the said Mary Walcot, the ninth day of May, in the fourth year above said, and divers other days and times, as well before as after, Tvas and is tortured, afflicted, pined, consumed, wasted, and tor- mented, against the peace of our sovereign Lord and Lady the King and Queen, and against the form of the statute in that case made and provided. Endorsed Billa vera.” Three other bills were found against him for witchcrafts upon other persons, to all which he pleaded not guilty, and put himself upon trial, etc, September the 9th, Martha Gory, Mary Esiy, Alice Parker, Ann Pudeater, Dorcas Hoar, and Mary Bradbury were tried, and September 17th, Margaret Scott, Wilmot Bead, Samuel Wardwell, Mary Parker, Abigail Falkner, Rebekah MASSACHUSETTS. 271 Eames, Mary Lacey, Ann Foster, and Abigail Hobbs, and all received sentence of death. Those in italics were executed the 22d following. Mary Esty, who was sister to Nurse, gave in to the court a petition ; in which she says she does not ask her own life, although she is conscious of her inno- cence ; but prays them, before they condemm any more, to examine the confessing witches more strictly ; for she is sure they have belied themselves and others, which will appear in the world to which she is going, if it should not in this world. Those who were condemned and not executed, I suppose, all confessed their guilt. I have seen the confessions of several of them. Wardwell also confessed, but he recanted and suffered. His own wife, as well as his daughter,* accused him and saved themselves. There are many instances, among the examinations, of children accusing their parents, and some of parents accusing their children. This is the only instance of a wife or husband accusing one the other, and surely this instance ought not to have been suffered. I shudder while 1 am relating it. Besides this irregularity, there were others in the course of these trials. The facts laid in the indictments were, witchcrafts upon particular persons, there was no evidence of these facts, but what was called spectral evidence, which, in the opinion of the ministers, was insufficient ; some of the other evidence was of facts ten or twenty years before, which had no relation to those with which they were charged ; and some of them no relation to the crime of witchcraft. Evidence is not admitted, even against the general character of persons upon trial, unless to encounter other evidence brought in favor of it ; much less ought their whole lives to be arraigned, without giving time sufficient for defence. Giles Cory was the only person, besides those already named, who suffered. He, seeing the fate of all who had put themselves upon trial, refused to plead ; but the judges, who had not been careful enough in observing the law in favor of the prisoners, determined to do it against this unhappy man, and he had judg- ment of peine fort et dure for standing mute, and was pressed to death ; the only instance which ever vras, either before this time or since, in New England. In all ages of the world superstitious credulity has produced greater cruelty than, is practised among the Hottentots, or other nations, whose belief of a deity is called in question. This court of oyer and terminer, happy for the country, sat no more. Nine- teen persons had been executed, all asserting their innocence ; but this was not enough to open the eyes of the people in general. The jail at Salem was filled with prisoners, and many had been removed to other jails : some were admitted to bail, all reserved for trial, a law having passed constituting a supreme standing court, with jurisdiction in capital, as well as all other criminal cases. The gen- eral court also showed their zeal against witchcraft, by a law passed in the words of the statute of James I., but this law was disallowed by the king. The time, by law, for holding the court at Salem, was not until January. This gave opportunity for consideration ; and this alone might have been sufficient for a change of opinions and measures, but another reason has been given for it. Ordi- narily, persons of the lowest rank in life have had the misfortune to be charged with witchcrafts ; and although many such had suffered, yet there remained in prison a number of women, of as reputable families as any in the towms where they lived, ♦ The daughter upon a second enquiry denied that she knew her father and mother to be witches; the wife was not asked a second time. 272 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and several persons, of still superior rank, were hinted at by the pretended be- witched, or by the confessing- witches. Some had been publicly named. Dudley Bradstreet, a justice of the peace, who had been appointed one of president Dud- ley’s council, and who was son to the worthy old Governor, then living, found it necessary to abscond. Having been remiss in prosecuting, he had been charged by some of the afflicted as a confederate. His brother, John Bradstreet, was forced to fly also. Calef says it was intimated that Sir William Phips’s lady was among the accused. It is certain, that one who pretended to be bewitched at Boston, where the infection was beginning to spread, charged the secretary of the colony of Connecticut. At the court in January, the grand jury found bills against about 50 for witch- craft, one or two men, the rest women ; but upon trial, they were all acquitted, except three of the worst characters, and those the Governor reprieved for the king’s mercy. All that were not brought upon trial he ordered to be discharged. Such a jail delivery was made in this court as has never been known at any other time in New England. PRIMITIVE EXTRAVAGANCE. Mr. Dudley was in favor of making Newtown, now Cambridge, the metropolis of the colony ; and after consultation, Governor Winthrop, and the assistants, agreed to settle there, and streets and squares, and market places, were duly sur- veyed and laid out. In the spring of 1631, Mr. Dudley and others commenced building. Governor Winthrop had set up the frame of a house, but soon after changed his mind, and removed it to Boston. Mr. Dudley finished his house, and moved into it with his family. The first houses were rude structures, the roofs covered with thatch, the fire-places generally made of rough stones, and the chimneys of boards, plastered with clay. The settlers were publicly enjoined to avoid all superfluous expense, in order that their money might be reserved for any unforeseen necessities. Mr. Dudley having finished his house with a little more regard to domestic comfort, exposed himself to public censure. At a meet- ing of the Governor and assistants, he was told, that “he did not well to bestow such cost about wainscoting and adorning his house, in the beginning of a planta- tion, both in regard to the expense, and the example.” Dudley’s answer was, that it was for the warmth of his house, and the charge was little, hut clapboards nailed to the wall in the form of wainscot. ’ ’ THE MEN OF “SEVENTY-SIX.” In Stockbridge, Berkshire county. Mass., Deacon Cleveland and another lead- ing member of the church had been selected, for their positions in the centre of the valley and of the village, to spread the note of alarm. The son of the deacon, a young man only 17 years of age at the time, gave to a friend of the writer a description of the reception of the news in that little village. One quiet Sabbath morning, when all was still, as it ever was in that peaceful valley on that holy day, he was suddenly startled by the report of a musket. On going out to ascertain what it meant, he saw his father in the back yard with the discharged piece in his hand. Before he had time to express his wonder, another report broke the stillness of the Sabbath morning, and as the smoke curled up in the damp atmosphere, he saw in the neighboring yard one of the chief pillars of the church, standing with his musket in his hand. He paused astounded, not know- MASSACHUSETTS. 273 in volumes. In the same year there were CONNECTICUT. 301 55 periodicals published in the State— 45 political, 3 religious, 5 literary, and 2 miscellaneous. Of these, 14 were daily, 1 semi- weekly, 37 weekly, 1 monthly, and 2 quarterly. Their aggregate annual circulation was 9,555,672 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Wethersfield. The inmates work in silence during the day, and are confined in separate cells at night. Their labor is let out to contractors, and in 1868 the earnings of the institution were slightly in excess of its expenses. The commutation system is carried out here with great success, and concerts and other healthful entertainments are occasionally given in the prison by benevolent citizens. In March, 1870, there were 219 convicts con- fined here. The American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hartford, is the oldest as well as one of the best institutions of its kind in America. It was incorporated in 1816, and opened the next year. In 1819 it received from Congress an endowment of 23,000 acres of land, and the Legislatures of several of the States made liberal provisions for it, upon the condition that they should each have the privilege of placing a certain number of pupils under its care. This arrangement is still in operation. In the earlier periods of instruction much use was made of the system of methodical signs, so carefully elaborated by Dr. L’Epee and Sicard, in which each word had a definite and fixed sign, and could be given in the proper order in the sentence. These signs were greatly simplified and improved by Mr. Gallaudet and his early as- sociates. His successors continued to introduce such modifications and improvements as the experience of intelligent teachers suggested. The methods now pursued have the same general ends in view as at first, that is, to enable the pupils to hold communication with society by means of written language, but they secure this result earlier and more satisfactorily by leading the pupil sooner to use forms of con- nected language. Special attention has been given from the first to the religious and moral culture of the pupils.” The average annual attendance at this institution is about 250, Nearly 1500 pupils have attended it since its establishment. The Retreat for the Insane, at Hartford, is supported in part by the State, and was incorporated in 1822. A General Hospital for the Insane has been established by the Slate at Middletown, on the 302 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. banks of the Connecticut River, and is now in operation. In 1868 the number of patients at the Hartford Retreat was 413. Patients arc maintained here by some of the other Eastern States. The State Eeforni School^ at West Meriden, was opened in 1854. Boys between ten and sixteen years of age, convicted of offences, other than those for which the penalty is imprisonment for life, may be sent to this school, and parents and guardians may indenture unruly youths to the school by paying a sum of $3 a week while they continue their connection with it. The boys are required to be in the school-room four hours each day, where they are thoroughly taught in the various branches of a plain, practical education, and for several hours are en- gaged in the workshop and on the farm. The receipts of their labor in 1870 were as follows: from the farm, $1087; from the workshop, $20,887. In March, 1870, there were 267 boys in the school. The State supports in part a School for Imbeciles, at Lakeville, and three Homes for Soldiers’ Orphans, located at Darien, Cromwell, and Mansfield, and makes an annual appropriation for the support of patients at the Perkins Institution for the Blind, at Boston. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the total value of church property in Connecticut, was $6,354,205. The number of churches was 802. FINANCES. In 1870, the public debt, over and above the assets of the State, was $6,808,925. Not deducting the assets (sinking fund, bank stock, and cash on hand), the amount was $9,705,400. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending March 31st, 1870, were $1,738,766, and the expenditures $1,227,797. In 1868, there were 88 banks in the State (6 of which were State banks), with an aggregate capital of $25,994,220. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of Connecticut was adopted in 1818. Every male white citizen 21 years old and able to read any article of the Constitu- tion, who shall have resided in the State one year and in the town six months, may vote, upon taking the oath required by law. The Government of the State is conducted by a Governor, Lieu- tenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Comptroller, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of not less than 18 nor more CONNECTICUT. 303 than 24 members), and a House of Eepresentatives (of 237 members), all chosen annually by the people, on the first Monday in April. They enter upon their offices on the first Wednesday in May. The Legislature holds annual sessions, and meets alternately in Hartford and New Haven, the two capitals of the State. There is a Supreme Court of Errors, composed of one Chief J udge and three Associate Judges. Appeals from the lower courts are heard and decided in this body. Its judgment is final and conclusive. The Superior Court consists of six judges, exclusive of those who are judges of the Supreme Court, and has cognizance of all cases, civil or criminal. In criminal cases, where death is the penalty ot the crime for which the prisoner is on trial, the court is required by law to be composed of two judges, one of whom must be a judge of the Supreme Court. The judges of these courts are elected on joint ballot by the Legis- lature, and hold office for a period of eight years. Upon reaching the age of 70 years, they are disqualified by the Constitution from holding office. Hartford and New Haven are the capitals of Connecticut. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 8 counties. FIISTORY. In 1633, the Dutch built a trading house at Hartford, and defended it by a fort. As early as 1631, however, Seguin, the chief of the In- dians who owned the lands along the Connecticut River, had sent messengers to Governor Winthrop, at Boston, and Governor Winslow, at Plymouth, inviting them to come and settle his country. Plis in- vitation was accepted, and the present town of Windsor, above Hart- ford, was founded in 1633, by a company from Plymouth, who built a trading house there. This is regarded as the first permanent settle- ment of the State, although the Dutch trading post was in existence at the time. The first town which was built, however, was Wethers- field, which was established by a company of emigrants from Massa- chusetts, in 1634. By 1633, three towns, Wethersfield, Windsor, and Plartford, were established, with an aggregate population of 750 in- habitants. In 1638, New Haven was settled by emigrants from England, and continued to form an establishment distinct from that of Hartford until 1662, when Charles II. united the two colonies under one gov- ernment. 304 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. In 1637, the settlers of the Hartford or Connecticut colony were greatly harassed by the Pequot Indians. The authorities resolved to put an effectual stop to their depredations, and a levy of 90 men, half the number of able-bodied males in the colony, was ordered. This force was well armed, and placed under the orders of Captain John Mason, who at once made a descent upon the main stronghold of the Pequots, and inflicted upon them a blow that completely de- stroyed them as a tribe. The locality where this encounter took place is known as Mystic. The effect of this decisive action was most happy as regarded the other tribes. In 1639, the colony of Connecticut adopted its first Constitution ; and in 1662, Governor John Winthrop obtained from Charles II. a charter uniting the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven under one govern- ment, the name of the former being given to the whole province. New Haven at first opposed the measure, but at length consented to it in 1 665, when the union was finally accomplished. The charter granted the colony jurisdiction over the lands within its limits; provided for the election of a governor, deputy-governor, and 12 assistants, and 2 deputies from each town — substantially the same as provided for under the previous Constitution ; allowed the free transportation of colonists and merchandize from England to the colony ; guaranteed to the colonists the rights of English citizens ; provided for the mak- ing of laws and organization of courts by the general assembly, and the appointment of all necessary officers for the public good ; the or- ganization of a soldiery, providing for the public defence, etc. This charter was of so general a character, and conferred so large powers, that no change was necessary when Connecticut took her stand as one of the independent States of the Union, on the declaration of inde- pendence in 1776; but it was continued, without alteration, as the Constitution of the State until 1818, when the present Constitution was formed. Until 1670, at the general election, all the freemen assembled at Hartford, and personally voted for the State officers and assistants. Thereafter theyj voted by proxy, or sent up their votes. In July, 1685, a writ of quo warranto was issued by the King’s Bench, and served on the governor and company, with the design of taking away the charter and uniting the New England colonies in one gov- ernment under a royal governor. Sir Edmund Andros arrived in Boston, December 19th, 1686, with his commission as governor. In October, 1687, he came to Hartford, while the assembly was sitting, and demanded the charter. It was produced and laid upon the table. CONNECTICUT. 305 The discussion was protracted into the evening. Suddenly the lights were extinguished, and Captain Joseph Wadsworth seized and carried away the charter and hid it in the famous charter-oak. Andros seized the government, which he administered, or rather it was administered under him, in a very oppressive manner. On the dethronement of James II., and the consequent deposition of Andros, the government, on May 9th, 1689, resumed its functions, as if the period since the usurpation of Andros to that time, were annihilated ; and as the char- ter had not in the King’s Court been declared forfeit, it was, after a struggle, allowed to continue in force, the freest Constitution ever granted by royal favor.” During the wars with the French and Indians, the colony bore a liberal share of the burdens, and warmly supported the cause of American independence during the Devolution, in which struggle the shores of Long Island Sound suffered severely from the depredations of the British. New Haven w'as captured, and its inhabitants bar- barously treated, and New London and Groton were taken and burned by a force under Benedict Arnold. In 1814, the famous New England Convention met at Hartford, and during this and the preceding year New London was closely blockaded by the British fleet. During the recent Eebellion, Connecticut contributed 54,468 men to the military service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. The important cities and towns are. New London, Norwich, Mid- dletown, Bridgeport, Waterbury, Stonington, Guilford, Danbury, Greenwich, Sharon, Meriden, Windsor Locks, Bristol, Falls Village, New Hartford, Norfolk, Greenville, Deep Kiver, and New Milford. NEW HAVEN, One of the capitals of Connecticut, and the largest city in the State, is situated on a harbor of considerable size, 4 miles distant from Long Island Sound. It is in New Haven county, and is 76 miles northeast of New York, and 160 miles southwest of Boston. It is on the line of direct communication between those two cities, and from it railways diverge to all parts of New England. The country round New Haven is very picturesque. Behind the town, at a distance of about two miles, is an amphitheatre of rugged hills, not unlike some of our Scottish scenery; in front is an inlet from 20 SOG THE GREAT REPUBLIC. I I NEW HAVEN. Long Island Sounds affording a safe and commodious harbor ; to the right and left, a richly cultivated country, relieved by patches of forest ; and, in wide expanse before dt, the blue waves of the sea rolling in magnificence. Two large precipices, called East and West Rock, 400 feet high, and about two miles apart, form part of the semicircular range. They are prominent features in the landscape ; and events in the annals of our native country, with which they are associated, impart to them that traditional charm which is so often wanting in American scenery. In the fastnesses of these rocks, some of the regicides of Charles I. found shelter from their pursuers, when the agents of his profligate son hunted them for their lives.’^ * Seve- ral small streams flow into New Haven Bay, as the harbor is called. Several bridges span them, and connect the city with the opposite shores. New Haven extends back about 2 miles from the harbor, and is about 3 miles broad from east to west. It is regularly laid out, and is one of the handsomest cities in America. The streets are unusually broad, and are shaded with the most magnificent elms in the New World. Temple street, and some other thoroughfares, are so thickly shaded that the rays of the sun rarely penetrate the thick foliage overhead. The abundance of these trees * Dimcan’s Travels. CONNECTICUT. 307 has gained for New Haven the sobriquet of The City of Elms.^^ There are several fine public squares within the corporate limits, and also one or two very beautiful cemeteries. The residences are sur- rounded by large grounds handsomely ornamented and planted with a luxuriant shrubbery. The principal public buildings are the State House, a stuccoed edi- fice, modelled after the Parthenon ; and the City Hall, facing the green, a handsome Gothic edifice of Portland and Nova Scotia stone. The tower, 84 feet high, is surmounted by a spire 66 feet high, which contains an observatory and an alarm bell. The churches, 32 in number, are very handsome, and form conspicuous and attractive features in the general appearance of the city. New Haven contains several excellent institutions of learninor. be- sides Yale College, and has one of the best free school systems in the world. It has a good public library, 5 or 6 banks, and is lighted with gas, supplied with water, and traversed by street railways. Nine newspapers and three magazines are published here. The population is 50,840. The city carries on an active trade with all parts of the country by means of its railroads. It has steamboat communication with New York and the towns on the Connecticut River. The harbor, though extensive and admirably sheltered, is too shallow to admit vessels of a large size. It is rapidly filling up. The General Government has made several attempts to deepen it, but it is feared that nothing can resist the course of nature, which seems to be rendering the harbor too shallow to be fit for use. A wharf, 3493 feet — the longest in the United States — has been built out into the bay to accommodate ves- sels, but the water surrounding it is becoming very shallow. In spite of these disadvantages, however, the city possesses some foreign commerce, and an active coasting trade. New Haven is extensively engaged in manufactures, and it is esti- mated that fully one-fourth of the entire population is so employed. The principal wares produced are carriages, india-i;ubber goods, iron ware of various kinds, boots and shoes, and clocks. The chief ornament and attraction of New Haven remains to be noticed, — its college, the rival of Harvard University in literary respectability, and honorably distinguished from it by the orthodoxy of its religious character. The buildings of Yale College make a con- spicuous appearance, w^hen entering the town eastward ; and the effect is considerably heightened by three churches, which stand at a little 308 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. distance in front, in a parallel line. The ground between the college and the churches is neatly divided and enclosed, and ornamented with trees. Including passage-ways, the principal edifices present a front of upwards of 800 feet. The buildings are chiefly constructed of brick, and consist of five spacious edifices, each four stories high, 104 feet by 40, containing 32 studies ; a chapel for religious worship and ordinary public exhibitions; a Lyceum, containing the library and recitation rooms; an Athenmum ; a Chemical Laboratory; an extensive stone Dining Hall, containing also in the upper story, apart- ments for the mineralogical cabinet ; a separate Dining Hall for The- ological Students ; a dwelling house for the President ; a large stone building occupied by the medical department ; and the Trumbull Gal- lery ^ a neat and appropriate building erected as a repository for the valuable historical and other paintings of Col. Trumbull. Yale College was originally established at Saybrook, in the year 1700, and was incorporated by the colonial legislature in the follow- ing year. The project of establishing a college in Connecticut ap-, pears to have been seriously entertained fifty years before ; but it was checked. Dr. Dwight informs us, by well founded circumstances, by the people of Massachusetts, who justly urged that the whole popula- tion of Yew England was scarcely sufficient to support one institution of this nature, and that the establishment of a second would endanger the prosperity of both ; these objections put a stop to the design for the time; it was not, however, lost sight of. In 1718, the infant Institu- tion was removed by the Trustees to Yew Haven. It was originally intended simply for the education of young men for the ministry : but, as it gathered strength from individual liberality and public patron- age, the range of its plan of study was gradually extended, until it now embraces the more essential parts of a complete literary, scientific, and medical education. The college received its name, in commemoration of the benefi- cence of the Honorable Elihu Yale, a son of one of the first settlers, who went to England in early life, and thence to India, where he be- came governor to Madras ; and on his return to England, he was elected governor of the East India Company. From this gentleman the college received donations at various times, between 1714 and 1718, to the amount of £500 sterling; and a short time before his death, he directed another benefaction to the same amount to be trans- mitted, but it was never received. Another of its early benefactors was the celebrated Dean Berkeley, afterwards Bishop of Cloyne, who CONNECTICUT 309 came to America in 1 732, for the purpose of establishing a college in the island of Bermuda; a project to which he nobly sacrificed con- siderable property, as well as time and labor. His efforts being frus- trated by the failure of the promised support from Government, he presented to this Institution a farm which he had purchased in Bhode Island, and afterwards transmitted to it from England a very valua- ble collection of books — ^ the finest that ever came together at one time into America.^ Sir Isaac Newton, and many other distinguished men, presented their works to the library. Although founded under the sanction of the colonial legislature, and partly endowed by it, the college was for a long time indebted for its support chiefly to individual patronage : the whole amount be- stowed by the colonial legislature, during the first 90 years of its ex- istence, did not much exceed X4500 sterling. But when the Federal Government was consolidated, a grant was made, in 1792, to Yale College, out of a fund created by uncollected arrears of war taxes, by which ultimately $60,000 were realized. The library of the college has recently been much enlarged by the addition of many valuable volumes, selected by Professor Kingsley, who visited Europe with reference to that selection. The libraries of the different societies receive frequent additions. At present the libraries belonging to the institution form an aggregate of from 30,000 to ^,000 volumes. The college possesses the richest mineralogical cabinet on the continent.’’ * The pity was founded as a separate colony, in 1638, by a company of emigrants from London. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. During the Revolution, it was captured by the British. This occurrence took place on the 5th of July, 1779, and is thus described in the Connecticut Journal, of July 7th — two days later: About two o’clock on the morning of the 5th instant, a fleet consisting of the Camilla and Scorpion men-of-war, with tenders, transports, etc., to the number of 48, commanded by Commodore Sir George Collier, anchored off West Haven. They had on board about 3000 land forces, commanded by Major-General Tryon ; about 1500 of whom, under Brigadier-General Garth, landed about sunrise on West Haven point. The town being alarmed, all the preparation which the con- fusion and distress of the inhabitants, and a necessary care of their families would permit, was made for resistance. The West Bridge on Milford road was taken up, and several fleldpieces were carried thither, and some slight works thrown up for the defence of that pass. The division under General Garth being landed, immediately began their march toward the town. The first opposition was made * The Land We Live In, pp. 153-154. 310 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. by about 25 of the inhabitants, to an advanced party of the enemy of two com- panies of light infantry. These, though advancing on the height of Milford hill, were attacked with great spirit by the handful of our people, and driven back almost to West Haven, and one of them was taken prisoner. The enemy then advanced in their main body, with strong flanking parties, and two fieldpieces ; and finding a smart fire kept up from our fieldpieces at the bridge aforesaid, chose not to force an entrance to the town by that, the usual road, but to make a cir- cuitous march of nine miles, in order to enter by the Derby road. In this march our small party on IMilford hill, now increased to perhaps 150, promiscuously col- lected from several companies of the militia, had a small cncounterwith the enemy’s flank near the ^lilford road, in which was killed their adjutant, Campbell, the loss of whom they lamented witli much apparent sensibility. Our people on the hill, being obliged by superior numbers, to give way, kept up a continual fire on the enemy, and galled them much, through all their march to Thomson’s bridge on the Derby road. In the mean time, those who were posted at the West bridge, perceiving the movements of the enemy, and also that another large body of them liad landed at the South End, on the east side of the harbor, quitted the bridge and marched thence to oppose the enemy at Thomson’s bridge. But by the time they had reached the bank of the river, the enemy Avere in possession of the bridge, and the places at Avhich the river is here fordable : 3 ^et having received a small accession of strength by the coming in of the militia, they gave the enemy a smart fire from two fieldpieces and small arms, which continued Avith little abate- ment, till the enemy were in possession of the toAvn, or through the town across the Neck bridge. The enemy entered the town between 12 and 1 o’clock. In the mean time, the division of the enemy, before-mentioned to haA'e landed at the South End, Avhich Avas under the immediate command of General Tryon, Avas bravel}’' resisted by a small party of men, AA’itli one fieldpiece, Avho, besides other execution, killed an officer of the enemy, in one of the boats at their lan;j:ling. This division marched up by land, and attaclvcd the fort at Black Rock ; m the same time, their shipping dreAV up, and attacked it from the harbor. The fort had only 19 men, and three pieces of artileiw, yet was defended as long as reason or valor dictated, and then the men made good their retreat. The town being now in full possession of the cnemjq it AA^as delivered up, ex- cept a fcAV instances of protection, to promiscuous plunder ; in which, besides robbing the inhabitants of their watches, money, plate, buckles, clothing, bed- ding, and provisions, the}" broke and destroyed their household furniture to a very great amount. Some families lost every thing their houses contained : many have noAV neither food, nor clothes to shift. A body of militia sufficient to penetrate the town, could not be collected that evening: Ave Avere obliged therefore to content ourselves Avith giving the enemy every annoyance in our power, Avhich was done with great spirit for most of the afternoon at and about the Ditch corner. Early on Tuesday morning, the enemy unexpectedly and Avith the utmost still- ness and despatch, called in their guards, and retreated to their boats, carrying Avith them a number of the inhabitants captive, most, if not all of whom, were taken without arms, and a fcAV who chose to accompany them. Part of them Avent on board their fleet, and part crossed over to General Tryon at East Haven. On Tuesday afternoon, the militia collected in such numbers, and crowded so close upon General Tryon, that he thought best to retreat on board his fleet, and set sail to the westAvard. CONNECTICUT. 311 The loss of the enemy is unknown ; but for many reasons it is supposed to be considerable, and includes some officers whom they lament, besides Adjutant Campbell. Ours, by the best information we can obtain, is 27 killed, and 19 wounded. As many of our dead upon examination appeared to have been woun- ded with shot, but not mortally, and afterwards to have been killed with bayo- nets, this demonstrated the true reason why the number of the dead exceeded that of the wounded to be, that being wounded and falling into the enemy’s hands, they were afterwards killed. A further confirmation of this charge is, that we have full and direct testimony, which affirms that General Garth declared to one of our militia, who Avas w-ounded and taken, that “he was sorry his men had not killed him, instead of taking him ; and that he would not have his men give quarter to one militia man, taken in arms.” Although in this expedition, it must be confessed to the credit of the Britons that they have not done all the mischief in their poAver, yet, the brutal ravishment of women, the Avanton and malicious destruction of property, the burning of the stores upon the wharf, and eight houses in East Haven ; the beating, stabbing, and insulting of the Rev. Dr. Daggett, after he was made a prisoner, the mortally AAmunding of Mr. Beers, senior, in his own door, and otherways abusing him ; the murdering of the very aged and helpless Mr. English in his own house, and the beating and finally cutting out the tongue of and then killing a distracted man^ are sufficient proofs that they were really Britons. HARTFORD, The other capital, and the second city in the State, is situated on the right bank of the Connecticut River, 36 miles northeast of New Haven, 124 miles southwest of Boston, and 112 miles northeast of New York. On the opposite side of the river lies East Hartford, with which it is connected by a long covered bridge 1000 feet long. The city is abolit 2 miles long by 1 J miles broad, and extends length- Avise along the banks of the river. It is laid off regularly in some places, and irregularly in others. Main street, the principal thorougli- fare, is broad and well built up, and contains the majority of the prominent buildings. The houses are mostly of brick or freestone, ► and render the general appearance of the place very handsome. The city contains about 25 churches, several fine libraries, 12 or 13 banks, and is supplied with water from the Connecticut River, and is lighted with gas. A street railway connects its various points. The public schools are numerous and are of a high character. There are also several fine institutions of learning in the city, the principal of which is Trinity College, founded in 1823. It has three handsome edifices of freestone, a fine library, apparatus, and cabinet, and ranks high amongst the educational institutions of the land. The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, the Retreat for the Insane, and the Hartford Hospital are noble institutions, and are amongst the most prominent 312 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. oriKimGiits of the city. The old Chai'ter Oak was until 1856, when it was blown down by a storm, one of the attractions of the city. There are 12 banks in Hartford, which is also the central point of a number of insurance companies, possessing a capital of between fifteen and twenty millions of dollars. A number of large book publishing liouses are located here. In 1868 the gross amount employed in this business amounted to several millions of dollars. The principal public buildings are the City Hall and the State House. The former is a handsome building, the lower part of which is used as a market-house. The State House is the finest building in the State. It is surmounted with a cupola, and is 50 feet in width, 50 in height, and 130 in length. Hartford has railroad communication with all parts of the Union, and, except in the severe season of winter, when it is closed by ice, the Connecticut is navigable for steamers. The city is extensively engaged in manufactures. The capital employed in them is over $10,000,000. Fire-arms and hardware of various kinds, constitute the principal articles produced. The celebrated manufactory of the late Colonel Colt, the inventor of the Colt Revolver,^^ is located here. There are 12 newspapers published in the city. The popula- tion is 37,180, and is increasing. Hartford was permanently settled by the English in 1635. The following is an abstract from some of the first laws of the town : 1035 , — xt is ordered^ that there shall he a guard of . . . men, to attend with their arms fixed, and two shot of powder and shot, at least, . . . every public meeting for religious use, with two sergeants to oversee the same, and to keep out one of them sentinel .... and the said guard to be freed from boarding, and to have seats provided near the meeting house door, and the ser- geants repair to the magistrates for a warrant for the due execution thereof. It is ordered, that every inhabitant which hath not freedom from the whole to be absent, shall make his personal appearance at every general meeting of the whole town, having sufficient warning ; and whosoever fails to appear at the time* and place appointed, shall pay sixpence for every such default ; but if he shall have lawful excuse, it shall be repaid him again ; or whosoever departs away from the meeting before it be ended, without liberty from the whole, shall pay the likewise. It is ordered, that whosoever borrows the town chain, shall pay two pence a day, for every day they keep the same, and pay for mending, if it be broken in their use. It is ordered, that there shall be a set meeting of all the townsmen together the first Thursday of every month, by nine o’clock in the forenoon, so that if any in- habitant have any business with them, he may repair unto them ; and whosoever of them do not meet at the time and place set, to forfeit two shillings and sixpence for every default. CONNECTICUT. 313 The 17th September, 1640.— w ordered, that .... Woodward shall spend his time about killing of wolves, and for his encouragement he shall have four shillings and sixpence for his board, in case he kill not a wolf, or a deer in the week ; but if he kill a wolf or a deer, he is to pay for his board himself; and if he kill ' .... to have it for two pence a pound. This order is made for a month before he begins. It is further ordered, that if any person hath lost any thing that he desireth should be cried in a public meeting, he shall pay for crying of it two pence to Thomas Woodford, to be paid before it be cried ; and the crier shall have a book of the things that he crieth. At a general Town Meeting in April, 1643—1!! loas ordered, that Mr. Andrews should teach the children in the school one year next ensuing, from the 2otli of March, 1643, and that he shall have for his pains £16 ; and therefore the towns- men shall go and inquire who will engage themselves to send their children ; and all that do so shall pay for one quarter at the least, and for more if they do send them, after the proportion of twenty shillings the year ; and if they go any weeks more than an even quarter, they shall pay sixpence a week ; and if any would send their children, and are not able to pay for their teaching, they shall give notice of it to the townsmen, and they shall pay it at the town’s charge ; and Mr. Andrews shall keep the account between the children’s schooling and himself, and send notice of the times of payment and demand it ; and if his wages doth not come in so, then the townsmen must collect and pay it ; or if the engage- ments come not to sixteen pounds, then they shall pay what is wanting, at the town’s charges. At a general Town Meeting, October 30th, 1643—1!! was^ ordered, that if any boy shall be taken playing, or misbehaving himself, in the time of public services, whether in the meeting house or about the walls .... by two witnesses, for the first time shall be examined and punished at the present, publicly, before the assembly depart ; and if any shall be the second time taken faulty, on witness, shall be accounted .... Further, it is ordered, if the parents or master shall desire to correct his boy, he shall have liberty the first time to do the same. It was further ordered, in the same general meeting, that there should be a bell rung by the watch every morning, an hour before daybreak, and that they are appointed by the constables for that purpose ; shall begin at the bridge, and so ring the bell all the way forth and back from Master Moody’s (Wyllys hill; to John Pratt’s .... and that they shall be in every house, one up, and .... ^some lights within one quarter of an hour after the end of the bell ringing .... if they can .... the bell is rung before the time ap- pointed, then to be up with lights as before mentioned, half an hour before day- break, and for default herein is to forfeit one shilling and sixpence, to be to him that finds him faulty, and sixpence to the town. The other cities of the State are as follows : Norwich, at the head of navigation, on the Thames Kiver. It has a population of 16,663, is connected with all parts of the country by railroad, and is the ter- minus of a line of steamers from New York. It is actively engaged in commerce and manufactures. Bridgeport, on Long Island Sound, has 19,876 inhabitants, and is connected with New York by steam- boat, and is on the line of the New York and New Haven Kailway. 814 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. It is largely engaged in maniiflictiircs. Waterhury, on the Kaugatuck Railway^ 20 miles from New Ilaveiij is an important place for the manufacture of brass, German silver, buttons, and other small articles, It contains a population of 10,876. New London^ on the Thames River, has 9756 inhabitants. It is a thriving manufacturing place, and is actively engaged in commerce, both foreign and domestic, having the best harbor in the State. Norwalk, on Long Island Sound, on the line of the New York and New Haven Railway, has a popu- lation of about 15,000, and is extensively engaged in maufactures. Middletown, on the Connecticut River (35 miles from its mouth), and West Meriden, on the Hartford and New Haven Railway (16 miles from New Haven), each has a population of 10,000; they are grow- ling manufacturing cities. MISCELLANIES. THE BLUE LAWS OP CONNECTICUT. The following is a transcript of the principal part of the celebrated judicial code, known as the Blue Laws, by which it is said the first colonists of Connecti- cut were governed for a considerable time. Some writers have questioned the genuineness of the laws, and it seems certain that, if genuine, the code was never written, but was declared and interpreted by the select men, the judges, and the pastors of the different congregations : The Governor and magistrates, convened in general assembly, are the supreme power, under God, of this independent dominion. From the determination of the assembly no appeal shall be made. The Governor is amenable to the voice of the people. The Governor shall have only a single vote in determining any question, ex- cept a casting vote when the assembly may be equally divided. The assembly of the people shall not be dismissed by the Governor, but shall dismiss itself. Conspiracy against this dominion shall be punished with death. Whoever attempts to change or overturn this dominion, shall suffer death. The judges shall determine controversies without a jury. No one shall be a freeman, or give a vote, unless he be converted, or a member in free communion in one of the churches in this dominion. No food or lodging shall be afforded to a Quaker, Adamite, or other heretic. No one shall cross a river without an authorized ferryman. No one shall run of a Sabbath day, or walk in his garden, or elsewhere, except reverently to and from the church. No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep houses, cut hair, or shave, on the Sabbath day. No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day. A person accused of trespass in the night, shall be judged guilty, unless he clear himself by his oath. No one shall buy or sell lands without permission of the select men. CONNECTICUT. 315 Whoever publishes a lie to the prejudice of his neighbor, shall sit in the stocks, or be whipped fifteen stripes. Whoever wears clothes trimmed with silver, or bone lace, above two shillings a yard, shall be presented by the grand jurors, and the select men shall tax the offender at the rate of 300Z. estate. Whoever brings cards or dice into this dominion shall pay a fine of 5Z. No one shall read Common Prayer, keep Christmas or Saint’s day, make minced pies, dance, play cards, or play on any instrument of music, except the drum, the trumpet, and jews-harp. When parents refuse their children suitable marriages, the magistrates shall determine the point. The select men, on finding children ignorant, may take them away from their parents and put them into better hands, at the expense of the parents. A man that strikes his wife shall pay a fine of lOZ. ; a woman that strikes licr husband shall be punished as the court directs. Married persons must live together, or be imprisoned. Every male shall have his hair cut round according to a cap. THE EEGICIDES. Soon after the restoration of monarchy in England, many of the judges who had condemned King Charles I. to death, were apprehended. Thirty were con- demned, and ten were executed as traitors ; two of them. Colonels Goffe and Whalley, made their escape to New England, and arrived at Boston, July, 1660. They were gentlemen of worth, and were much esteemed by the colonists for their unfeigned piety. Their manners and appearance were dignified, command- ing universal respect. ^Vhalley had been a Lieutenant-General, and Goffe a Major-General in Cromwell’s army. An order for their apprehension, from Charles II., reached New England soon after their arrival. The king’s commis- sioners, eager to execute this order, compelled the judges to resort to the woods and caves, and other hiding places ; and they would undoubtedly have leen taken, had not the colonists secretly aided and assisted them in their concealments. Sometimes they found a refuge in a cave on a mountain near New Haven, and at others, in cellars of the houses of their friends, and once they were seci-eted un- der the Neck bridge, in New Haven, while their pursuers crossed the bridge on horseback. While in New Haven, they owed their lives to the intrepidity of Mr. Daven- port, the minister of the place, who, when the pursuers arrived, preached to the people from this text: ^^Take council, execute judgment, make thy shadow as the night in the midst of the noonday, hide the outcasts, bewray not him that wandereth. Let my outcasts dwell with thee. 3Ioab, be thou a corert to them from the face of the spoiler.'' Large rewards were offered for their apprehension, or for any in- formation which might lead to it. Mr. Davenport was threatened, for it was known that he had harbored them. Upon hearing that he w’^as in danger, they offered to deliver themselves up, and actually gave notice to the deputy governor of the place of their concealment ; but Davenport had not preached in vain, and the magistrate took no other notice than to advise them not to betray themselves. After lurking about for two or three years in and near New Haven, they found it necessary to remove to Hadley, where they were received by Mr. Bussell, with whom they were concealed fifteen or sixteen years. After many hairbreadth es- 816 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. capes, the pursuit ivas given over, and they were finally suffered to die a natural death in their exile. The following interesting incident is related in connection with the sojourn of the Regicides in Connecticut : In the course of Philip’s w^ar, which involved almost all the Indian tribes in New England, and, among others, those in the neighborhood of this town, the inhabitants thought it proper to observe the 1st of September, 1675, as a day of fasting and prayer. While they were in the church, and employed in their wor- sliip, they were surprised by a band of savages. The people instantly betook themselves to their arms, which, according to the custom of the times, they had car- ried with them to the church ; and, rushing out, attacked the invaders. The panic under which they began the conflict was, however, so great, and their number was so disproportioned to that of their enemies, that they fought doubtfully at first, and in a short time began evidently to give way. At this moment, an ancient man, with hoary locks, of a most venerable and dignified aspect, and in address widely differing from that of the inhabitants, appeared suddenly at their head, and with a firm voice and an example of undaunted resolution, reanimated their courage, led them again to the conflict, and totally routed the savages. When the battle was ended, the stranger disappeared, and no one knew wiience he had come, or whither he had gone. The relief was so timely, so sudden, so unexpected, so providential ; the appearance and retreat of him,' wiio had fur- nished it, were so unaccountable ; his person w'as so dignified and commanding, his resolution so superior, and his interference so decisive, that the inhabitants, without any uncommon exercise of credulity, readily believed him to be an angel sent from heaven for their preservation. Nor was this opinion seriously contro-" verted, until it was discovered, years afterwards, that Goffe and Whalley had been lodged in the house of Mr. Russell, Then it w^as known that their deliverer was Goffe ; Whalley having become superannuated some time before the event took place. There is an obscure and very doubtful tradition, that Goffe also was buried here. PENALTY FOR KISSING. In 1654, a trial took place in Connecticut, under the section of the “Blue Laws” prohibiting kissing. The culprits were Sarah Tuttle and Jacob Newton. It seems that Sarah dropped her gloves, and Jacob found them. When Sarah asked for them, Jacob demanded a kiss for his pay, and Sarah, not thinking the charge extortionate, paid it in full. Complaint was made by some sour-tempered individual, and the guilty parties were arraigned before the magistrate. The facts were clearly proved, and the parties were each fined twenty shillings. THE DARK DAY. The 19th of May, 1680, was remarkable for the intense darkness which pre- vailed throughout the New England colonies. At this time the Legislature of Connecticut wms in session in Hartford. A very general opinion prevailed, that the day of judgment was at hand. The House of Representatives, being unable to transact their business, adjourned. A proposal to adjourn tlie council was under consideration. When the opinion of Colonel Davenport was asked, he answered, “I am against an adjournment. The day of judgment is either ap- I CONNECTICUT. 31t proacliing, or it is not. If it is not, tliere is no cause for an adjouininent ; if it is, I choose to be found doing my duty. I wish therefore that candles may be brought. ’ ’ AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. The people of Connecticut resolved to maintain their independence of the Duke of York, as their charter was of prior date to that of the Duke. Detachments of militia were therefore ordered to New London and Say brook, the tioops at Say- brook being placed under the command of Captain Thomas Bull, of Hartford. Early in July, 1675, the people of Saybrook were surprised by the appearance of Major Andros, with an armed force, in the Sound, making directly for the fort. They had received no intelligence of the hostile expedition of Andros, and having no instructions from the Governor, w^ere undecided what course to take, when, at a critical juncture. Captain Bull with his company arrived, and preparations were at once made for the defence of the fort and town. The assembly met at Hartford on the 9th of July, and immediately drew up a protest against the pro- ceedings of Andros, which they sent by express to Saybrook, with instructions to Captain Bull to propose to Andros a reference of the dispute to commissioners. On the 11th, Major Andros, with several armed sloops, drew up before the fort, hoisted the king’s flag on board, and demanded a surrender of the fortress and town. Captain Bull immediately raised His Majesty’s colors in the fort, and arranged his men in the best manner possible. The major did not like to fire on the king’s colors, and perceiving that, should he attempt to reduce the town by force, it would in all likelihood be a bloody affair, he judged it expedient not to fire upon the troops. Early in the morning of the 12th of July, Andros desired that he might have permission to land on the shore, for the purpose of an interview with the minis- ters and chief officers of the town. He probably flattered himself that if he could obtain a foothold upon the soil, and then read the Duke’s patent, and his own commission, to the people, it would make a serious impression upon them, and that he would be able to gain by artifice that which he could never accomplish by force of arms. He was allowed to come on shore with his suite. Captain Bull and his officers, with the officers and gentlemen of the town, met him at his landing, and informed him that they had, at that instant, received instructions to tender him a treaty, and to refer the whole matter in controversy to commis- sioners, capable of determining it according to law and justice. Major Andros rejected the proposal at once, and forthwith commanded, in His Majesty’s name, that the Duke’s patent, and the commission which he had received from His Royal Highness, should be read. Captain Bull, comprehending at once the arti- fice of Andros, commanded him, in His Majesty’s name, to forbear the reading. And when his clerk attempted to persist in reading. Captain Bull repeated his command, with such energy of voice and manner as convinced the major that it might not be altogether safe for him to proceed.. The Yankee captain, having succeeded in silencing the valiant representative of the Duke, next informed him that he had a communication to deliver from the assembly, and he then read the protest. Governor Andros, affecting to be well pleased with the bold and soldier-like appearance of his opponent, asked, “ What is your name ? ” He replied, ‘‘ My name is Bull, sir.”— “ Bull ! ” exclaimed the governor. “It is a pity that your horns are not tipped with silver.” Finding that he could make no impression upon the officers or people, and that the Legis- I 318 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. lature of the colony were determined to defend themselves in the possession of their chartered rights, Andros prudently gave up his design of seizing the fort. The militia of the town courteously guarded him to his boat, and, going on board, he soon sailed for New York, and Connecticut was no more troubled by his pres- ence or interference until after the accession of James the Second. ELECTION DAY IN THE OLDEN TIME. Previous to the adoption of the Constitution of 1819, the freemen of the State met annually at Hartford on the first Wednesday in May, to choose State officers. The following description of the counting of the votes, and the inauguration of the Governor, is taken form “Kendall’s Travels,” published in 1808 : I reached Hartford at noon, on Wednesday, the 19th of May, 1807. The city is on the west bank of the Connecticut, 50 miles above its mouth. The governor, whose family residence is on the east side of the river, at some distance from Hartford, was expected to arrive in the evening. Tliis gentleman, whose name is Jonathan Trumbull, is the son of the late Governor Jonathan Trumbull ; and though the election is annual, he has himself been three or four years in office, and will almost certainly so continue during the remainder of his life. It was known that the votes at this time were in his favor. The governor has volunteer companies of guards, both horse and'foot. In the afternoon the horse were drawn up on the bank of the river to receive him, and escort him to his lodgings. He came before sunset, and the fineness of the even- ing, the beauty of the river, the respectable appearance of the governor, and of the troop, the dignity of the occasion, and the decorum observed, united to ' gratify the spectators. The color of the clothes of the troops was blue. The governor, though on horseback, was dressed in black, but he wore a cockade in a hat, which I did not like the less, because it was in the form rather of the old school than of the new. In the morning the foot guards were paraded in front of the State House, where they afterwards remained under arms, while the troop of horse occupied the street which is on the south side of the building. The clothing of the foot was scarlet, with white waistcoats and pantaloons ; and their appearance and demeanor were military. The day was fine, and the apartments and galleries of the State House afforded an agreeable place of meeting, in which the members of the Assembly and others awaited the coming of the governor. At about 11 o’clock his excellency entered the State House, and shortly after took his place at the head of a procession, which was made to a meeting-house or church, at something less than half a mile distant. The procession was on foot, and was composed of the person of the governor, together with the lieutenant-governor, assistants, high sheriffs, mem- bers of the lower house of the assembly, and, unless with accidental exceptions, all the clergy of the State. It was preceded by the foot guards, and followed by the horse ; and attended by gazers, that, considering the size and population of the city, may be said to have been numerous. The church, which from its situ- ation is called the South Meeting House, is a small one, and was resorted to on this occasion only because that more ordinarily used was at this time rebuilding. The edifice is of wood, alike unornamented within and without ; and when filled, there was still presented to the eye nothing but what had the plainest appearance. CONNECTICUT. 319 The military remained in the street, with the exception of a few officers, to •whom no place of honor or distinction was assigned ; neither the governor nor other magistrates were accompanied with any insignia of office ; the clergy had no canonical costume, and there were no females in the church, except a few (rather more than twenty in number), who were stationed by themselves in a gallery opposite the pulpit, in quality of singers. A decent order was the highest characteristic that presented itself. The pulpit, or, as it is, here called, the desk, was filled by three, if not four, clergymen ; a number by its form and dimensions it was able to accommodate. Of these, one opened the service with a prayer, another delivered a sermon, a third made a concluding prayer, and a fourth pronounced a benediction. Seve- ral hymns were sung ; and among others an occasional one. The total number of singers was between forty and fifty. The sermon, as will be supposed, touched upon matters of government. When all was finished, the procession returned to the State House. The clergy who walked were about a hundred in number. It was in the two bodies of guards alone that any suitable approach to magni- ficence discovered itself. The governor was full dressed, in a suit of black ; but the lieutenant-governor wore riding boots. All, however, was consistently plain, and in unison with itself, except the dress swords, which were worn by high sheriffs, along with their village habilaments, and of which the fashion and the materials were marvellously diversified. Arrived in front of the State House, the military formed on each side of the street ; and, as the governor passed them, presented arms. The several parts of the procession now separated, each to a dinner prepared for itself at an adjoining inn ; the governor, lieutenant-governor, and assistants to their table, the clergy to a second, and the representatives to a third. The time of day was about two in the afternoon. Only a short time elapsed before business was resumed, or rather at length commenced. The General Assembly met in the council room, and the written votes being examined and counted, the names of the public officers elected were formally declared. They were in every instance the same as those which had been successful the preceding year. This done, the lieutenant-governor administered the oath to the governor elect, who, being sworn, proceeded to administer their respective oaths to the lieuten- ant-governor and the rest ; and here terminated the aflairs of the election day. Soon after 6 o’clock, the military fired three /ew dejoies^ and were then dismissed. On the evening following that of election day, there is an annual ball at Hart- ford, called the election ball ; and on the succeding Monday, a second, which is more select. The election day is a holiday throughout the State ; and even the whole remainder of the week is regarded in a similar light. Servants and others are now indemnified for the loss of the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Whit- suntide, which the principles of their church deny them. Families exchange visits, and treat their guests with slices of election cake ; and thus preserve some portion of the luxuries of the forgotten feast of the Epiphany. _B i- >^^r> -, iftvf ’ J i : m - '^ J-.V,’.- Cy ^'I'fh-tr,. - ?fc|? '.' ' -V^';.”' (••> . . ,J' .■i.ToV^^'i:; ,VU-.l T(\.- :m < •' hu/r ,•/•»'; >'/> • i'!.?. • . '^'rtl ■t9.:|«A’ ”-0 '.-}>.»» ,. f ht> ^ r. . ,' , '^F'..- .S:', : •;,i,r ; ■■**’( J s^ili - . .•-fsttv .‘,4“ ;}^F; • i ■•'-/‘-I ■ > «'^rvv^ ' '(r Ur.^'n t / . /' .; .C’-r -'.-UiitVji ■f!i^''>«^'>3!:. 'H \ •>? , i' . - , ';'„"'"'l ,-ii ;•■ /^. .i swt*«/' •: ••••;;■■ ty;- .• '-KH ^i''if'.r.: •'.. -. vn- ,: WiV- » ivK'vjitw •- 1 :;-; .< i Fit,, .-ritrit'/iij/;', 'f ■-''*;***'.''''^-^J-FM^ ..T-r'F' /’v.e .;: ->;-'iYS- F’ fes-V-^ > ■■ ■ >(V- ' ■'■ • :'7*FY 40^4 < . : -,\,{^?f’'''- ‘,'V ., . . ' \..f-kfrfJBi^^', ' '^ ^^ •Y--'^|}| ‘•’ .' ; :' ^ :r^ I- -‘h.h- '?■" .'''>- •^- •,7 , li-r-ft:- n- ■''■■ ■ • ■'' ■ ’ViVi^F;^^'/"* '■ i -.■■■: i^'- ' V^.Tr:w.-.:4 V PART III. THE MIDDLE STATES. 21 f -1 ■ ! »* ■'1 ./ ■ ■ ■ . . '^.v j ■ ^^S': ^ M‘ " : li — : / :nli ^ ;■ i. . . . •' ^ ■>.■-■ . .i l.'lt-f" '! ,r •_> . . ; ■ ^ -M.. liifh J ■ ; /^ .i' ■' ! ■ rtVMt I jH' '. i *- .■;f r»iijr t|sifi»'* ^ ■'•..u-r v.- r y):>-- i'. f-u- .„. - ... h'ln’ /' >»’V}^ ft T»j " />T;inJ 5 * ^ ' ' ' Ir T • ‘'U: ■ 1 NEW YORK. ^i-ea 47,000 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 3,880,735 Population in 1870, 4,374,499 In population, wealth, and variety of resources. New York is the first State in the Union. It is situated between 40° 29' 40" and 45° 0' 42" N. latitude, and between 71° 51' and 79° 47' 25" W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Canada and Lake Onta- rio; on the east by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut; on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania ; and on the west by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and Canada. TOPOGRAPHY. The following admirable sketch of the topographical features of the State is taken from French’s Gazetteer of the State of New York Surface . — This State lies upon that portion of the Appalachian Mountain system where the mountains generally assume the character of hills, and finally sink to a level of the low-lands that surround the great depression filled by Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. Three distinct mountain masses or ranges enter the State from the south and extend across it in a generally northeast direction. The first or most easterly of these ranges — a continuation of the Blue Ridge of Virginia — enters the State from New Jersey, and extends northeast through Rockland and Orange counties to the Hudson, ap- pears on the east side of that river, and forms the highlands of Put- nam and Dutchess counties. A northerly extension of the same moun- tains passes into the Green Mountains of western Massachusetts and Vermont. This range culminates in the highlands upon the Hud- 323 324 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. SCENE IN THE CATSKILL MOUNTAINS. SOD. The highest peaks are 1000 to 1700 feet above tide. . . . The deep gorge formed by the Hudson in passing through this range pre- sents some of the finest scenery in America, and has often been com- pared to the celebrated valley of the Rhine. The second series of mountains enters the State from Pennsylva- nia, and extends northeast through Sullivan, Ulster, and Greene counties, terminating and culminating in the Catskill Mountains upon the Hudson. The highest peaks are 3000 to 3800 feet above tide ; the Shawangunk Mountains, a high and continuous ridge ex- tending between Sullivan and Orange counties and into the south part of Ulster, is the extreme east range of this series. The Helder- berg and Hellibark Mountains are spurs extending north from the main range into Albany and Schoharie counties. . . . The declivities are steep and rocky ; and a large share of the surface is too rough for cultivation. The highest peaks overlook the Hudson, and from their summits are obtained some of the finest views in eastern New York. “ The third series of mountains enters the State from Pennsylvania and extends northeast through Broome, Delaware, Otsego, Schoharie, NEW YORK. 325 Montgomery, and Herkimer counties to the Mohawk, and appears upon the north side of that river, and extends northeast, forming the whole series of highlands that occupy the northeast part of the State and generally known as the Adirondack Mountain region. South of the Mohawk, this mountain system assumes the form of broad, irregu- lar hills, occupying a wide space of country. It is broken by the deep ravines of the streams, and in many places the hills are steep and nearly precipitous. The valley of the Mohawk breaks the con- tinuity of the range, though the connection is easily traced at Little Falls, the Noses, and other places. North of the Mohawk, the high- lands extend northeast in several distinct ranges, all terminating upon Lake Champlain. The culminating point of the whole system, and the highest mountain in the State, is Mount Marcy, 5467 feet above the tide. The mountains are usually wild, rugged, and rocky. A large share of the surface is entirely unfit for cultivation ; but the region is rich in minerals, and especially in an excellent variety of iron ore. West of these ranges, series of hills forming spurs of the Alleghanies enter the State from Pennsylvania, and occupy the entire south half of the western part of the State. An irregular line extend- ing through the southerly counties, forms the watershed that sepa- rates the northern and southern drainage; and from it the surface gradually declines northward until it finally terminates in the level of Lake Ontario. The portion of the State lying south of this water- shed, and occupying the greater part of the two southerly tiers of counties, is entirely occupied by these hills. Along the Pennsylvania line they are usually abrupt and are separated by narrow ravines, but toward the north their summits become broader and less broken. A considerable portion of the highland region is too steep for profita- ble cultivation, and is best adapted to grazing. The highest summits in Allegany and Cattaraugus counties are 2000 to 3000 feet above tide. From the summits of the watershed the highlands usually descend toward Lake Ontario in series of terraces, the edges of which are the outcrops of the different rocks which underlie the surface. These ter- races are usually smooth, and, although inclined toward the north, the inclination is generally so slight that they appear to be level. Between the hills of the south and the level land of the north is a beautiful rolling region, the ridges gradually declining Reward the north. In that part of the State south of the most eastern mountain range the surface is generally level or broken by low hills. In New York and Westchester counties, these hills are principally composed 326 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of primitive rocks. The surface of Long Island is generally level or gently undulating. A ridge 150 to 200 feet high, composed of sand, gravel, and clay, extends east and west across the island north of the centre. Rivers and Lakes . — The river system of the State has two general divisions, — the first comprising the streams tributary to the great lakes and the St. Lawrence, and the second those which flow in a generally southerly direction. The watershed which separates these two systems extends in an irregular line eastward from Lake Erie throuo'h the southern tier of counties to near the northeast corner of Chemuns: : thence it turns northeast to the Adirondack Mountains in Essex county, thence southeast to the eastern extremity of Lake George, and thence nearly due east to the eastern line of the State. The northerly division has five general subdivisions. The most westerly of these comprises all the streams flowing into Lake Erie and Niagara River and those flowing into Lake Ontario west of Genesee River. In Chautauqua county the streams are short and rapid, as the watershed approaches within a few miles of Lake Erie. Catta- raugus, Buffalo, Tonawanda, and Oak Orchard creeks are the most important streams in this division. Buffalo Creek is chiefly noted - for forming Buffalo Harbor at its mouth ; and the Tonawanda for 12 miles from its mouth is used for canal navigation. Oak Orchard and other creeks flowing into Lake Ontario descend from the interior in a series of rapids, affording a large amount of water-power. The second subdivision comprises the Genesee River and its tribu- taries. The Genesee rises in the north part of Pennsylvania and flows in a generally northerly direction to Lake Ontario. Its upper course is through a narrow valley bordered by steep, rocky hills. Upon the line of Wyoming and Livingston counties it breaks through a moun- tain barrier in a deep gorge and forms the Portage Falls, — one of the finest waterfalls in the State. Below this point the course of the river is through a beautiful valley, one to two miles wide and bordered by banks 50 to 150 feet high. At Rochester it flows over the precipitous edges of the Niagara limestone, forming the Upper Genesee Falls ; and three miles below, it flows over the edge of the Medina sandstone, forming the Lower Genesee Falls. The principal tributaries of this stream are Canaseraga, Honeoye, and Conesus creeks from the east, and Oatka and Black creeks from the west. Honeoye, Canadice, Hemlock, and Conesus lakes lie within the Genesee Basin. The third subdivision includes the Oswego River and its tribu- NEW YORK. 32t taries, and the small streams flowing into Lake Ontario between Gene- see and Oswego rivers. The basin of the Oswego includes most of the inland lakes which form a peculiar feature of the landscape in the interior of the State. The principal of these lakes are Cayuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, Skaneateles, Crooked, and Owasco,— all occupying long, narrow valleys, and extending from the level land in the centre far into the highland region of the south. The valleys which they occupy appear like immense ravines formed by some tremendous force, which has torn the solid rocks from their original beds, from the general level of the surrounding summits, down to the present bottoms of the lakes. Oneida and Onondaga lakes occupy basins upon the level land in the northeast part of the Oswego Basin. Mud Creek, the most westerly branch of Oswego River, takes its rise in Ontario county, flows northeast into Wayne, where it unites with Canandaigua Outlet and takes the name of Clyde River ; thence it flows east to the west line of Cayuga county, where it empties into Seneca River. This latter stream, made up of the outlets of Seneca and Cayuga lakes, from this point flows in a northeast course, and receives successively the outlets of Owasco, Skaneateles, Onondaga, and Oneida lakes. From the mouth of the last-named stream it takes the name Oswego River, and its course is nearly due north to Lake Ontario. " The fourth subdivision includes the streams flowing into Lake On- tario and the St. Lawrence, east of the mouth of the Oswego. The principal of these are Salmon, Black, Oswegatchie, Grasse, and Racket rivers. These streams mostly take their rise upon the plateau of the great northern wilderness, and in their course to the lowlands are fre- quently interrupted by falls, furnishing an abundance of water-power. The water is usually very dark, being colored with iron and the vege- tation of swamps. The fifth subdivision includes all the streams flowing into lakes George and Champlain. They are mostly mountain torrents, fre- quently interrupted by cascades. The principal streams are the Chazy, Saranac, and Au Sable rivers, and Wood Creek. Deep strata of tertiary clay extend along the shores of Lake Champlain and Wood Creek. The water of most of the streams in this region is colored by the iron over which it flows. The second general division of the river-system of the State in- cludes the basins of the Allegany, Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hud- son. The Allegany Basin embraces the southerly half of Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties and the southwest corner of Allegany. The 328 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Allegany River enters the State from the south in the southeast corner of Cattaraugus county, flows in nearly a semicircle, with its outward curve toward the north, and flows out of tlie State in the southwest part of the same county. It receives several tributaries from the north and east. These streams mostly flow in deep ravines, bordered by steep, rocky hillsides. The watershed between this basin and Lake Erie approaches within a few miles of the lal^e, and is elevated 800 or 1000 feet above it. ^^The Susquehanna Basin occupies about one-third of the south border of the State. The river takes its rise in Otsego Lake, and, flowing southwest to the Pennsylvania line, receives Charlotte River from the south and the Unadilla from the north. After a course of a few miles in Pennsylvania, it again enters the State, and flows in a general westerly direction to near the west border of Tioga county, whence it turns south and again enters Pennsylvania. Its principal tributary from the north is Chenango River. Tioga River enters the State from Pennsylvania near the east border of Steuben county, flows north, receives the Canisteo from the west and the Conhocton from the north. From the mouth of the latter the stream takes the name Chemung River, and flows in a southeast direction, into the Susque- lianna in Pennsylvania, a few miles south of the State line. The upper course of these streams is generally through deep ravines bor- dered by steep hillsides ; but below they are bordered by wide and beautiful intervales. The Delaware Basin occupies Delaware and Sullivan and portions of several of the adjacent counties. The north or principal branch of the river rises in the northeast part of Delaware county and flows southwest to near the Pennsylvania line; thence it turns southeast and forms the boundary of the State to the line of New Jersey. Its principal branches are the Pepacton and Neversink rivers. These streams all flow in deep, narrow ravines, bordered by steep, rocky hills. ‘‘The Basin of the Hudson occupies about two-thirds of the east bor- der of the State, and a large territory extending into the interior. The remote sources of the Hudson are among the highest peaks of the Adirondacks, more than 4000 feet above tide. Several of the little lakes which form reservoirs of the upper Hudson are 2500 to 3000 feet above tide. The stream rapidly descends through the narrow defiles into Warren county, where it receives from the east the outlet of Schroon Lake, and Sacondaga River from the west. Below the mouth of the latter the river turns eastward, and breaks through the NEW YORK. 329 VIEW OX THE HUDSON RIVER. barrier of the Luzerne Mountains in a series of rapids and falls. At Fort Edward it again turns ^outh and flows with a rapid current, fre- quently interrupted by falls, to Troy, 160 miles from the ocean. At this place the river falls into an estuary, where its current is affected by the tide ; and from this place to its mouth it is a broad, deep, sluggish stream. About 60 miles from its mouth, the Hudson breaks through the rocky barrier of the Highlands, forming the most easterly of the Appalachian Mountain Ranges ; and along its lower course it is bordered on the west by a nearly perpendicular wall of basaltic rock 300 to 500 feet high, known as ^ The Palisades.’ Above Troy the Hudson receives the Hoosick River from the east and the Mo- hawk from the west. The former stream rises in western Massachu- setts and Vermont, and the latter near the centre of the State. At Little Falls and the ^ Noses,’ the Mohawk breaks through the moun- tain barriers in a deep, rocky ravine ; and at Cohoes, about one mile from its mouth, it flows down a perpendicular precipice of 70 feet, forming an excellent water-power. Below Troy the tributaries of the Hudson are all comparatively small streams. South of the Highlands 330 THE CHEAT REPUBLIC. LAKE GEORGE. the river spreads out into a wide expanse known as ^ Tappan Bay.' A few small streams upon the extreme east border of the State flow eastward into the Housatonic; and several small branches of the Pasaic River rise in the south part of Rockland county. Lake Erie forms a portion of the west boundary of the State. . . . The harbors upon the lake are Buffalo, Silver Creek, Dunkirk, and Barcelona Niagara River, forming the outlet of Lake Erie, is 34 miles long, and, on an average, more than a mile wide. . . . Lake Ontario forms a part of the north boundary to the west half of the State." Between Warren and Washington counties, lies Lake George, sometimes called by its Indian name, Horicon, the most beautiful body of water in the State. It is 36 miles long, with a breadth vary- ing from three-quarters of a mile to 4 miles. “ The water is remark- ably transparent, and in some parts is more than 400 feet deep. To a passenger traversing this lake, scarcely anything can be imagined NEW YORK. 331 more beautiful or picturesque than the scenery along its banks. The romantic effect of the prospect is greatly enhanced by a multitude of delightful islands of various forms and sizes, which meet the gaze of the beholder on every side. Of these, if we include many little islets and rocks, there are more than 300: a popular notion prevails that their number corresponds to that of the days of the year. Twelve miles from the southwestern extremity of the lake, there is an island of about 20 acres, called, from its position. Twelve Mile Island. A mile farther north there is a high point, or tongue of land, called Tongue Mountain, west of which projects a small arm of the lake, named Northwest Bay. Here the Narrows, that is, the narrowest part of the lake, commence and continue 7 or 8 miles. Near the west end of the Narrows, on the eastern side of the lake, is Black Mountain, the summit of which is regarded as the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the lake, having an elevation of 2200 feet above its surface. About 12 miles beyond Black Mountain there is a rock about 200 feet high, rising almost perpendicularly from the surface of the water. During the French War, Major Rogers, being closely pursued by the Indians, slid down this steep declivity, and landed safely on the ice, leaving his pursuers petrified with astonishment at the dangerous exploit which they had witnessed. From tins circumstance, the rock has been named Rogers’ Slide. Two or three miles beyond the place just mentioned, is Lord Howe’s Point, where the division of the English army under Lord Howe landed previous to their attack on Ticonderoga.” The greatest of all the natural wonders of the State, however, are the famous Falls of the Niagara, which lie partly within the limits of New York, and partly in Canada. The Niagara River, as has been stated, forms the outlet of the 4 great upper lakes, and discharges their waters which it receives through Lake Erie, into Lake Ontario. At the point where it leaves Lake Erie, the Niagara is very wide, but it narrows as it recedes from the lake, and about 16 miles from Lake Erie, it begins to contract suddenly, and the current increases in velocity. This is the beginning of the rapids, which are a mile in length. The fall of the river in this distance is 52 feet, and down this descent the immense volume of water rushes in great swells, until the Falls are reached. As it approaches the precipice, the river makes a curve from west to north, and spreads out to an extreme width of about 4750 feet. Goat Island, which extends down to the brink of the cataract, occupies about one-fourth of this space, leaving the river on the American side about 1100 feet wide, and on the Canadian side about double this 332 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. width. The line along the verge of the Canadian fall, is much longer than the breadth of this portion of the river, by reason of its horseshoe form, the curve extending up the central part of the current. In pasRsin^ down the rapids the waters acquire a force which dashes them over the precipice in a grand, resistless torrent, and they fall in a magnificent curve, as they leap clear of the rocky wall into the boiling pool at its base. The fall is 164 feet on the American side, and 150 on the Canadian. The greater volume of water passes over the Canadian, or Horseshoe Fall.’’ The space between the cataract and the wall of rock over which it dashes, widens near the bottom, the strata being there of a loose, shaly character, and consequently hollowed out by the continual action of the spray. A cave is thus formed behind the fall, into Avhich, on the Canadian side, persons can enter, and pass by a rough and slippery path toward Goat Island. Below the falls, the current, contracted to less than 1000 feet in width, is tossed tumultu- ously about, and forms great eddies and whirlpools as it sweeps down its rapidly descending bed. Small boats can pass the river in safety liere, and a little steamer used to convey passengers almost to the foot of the falls. The river is crossed by two suspension bridges. One immediately below the falls, is used by vehicles and pedestrians, the other, a mile below, is used partly by these, and partly by the railway line entering Canada. Fourteen miles below, the river enters Lake Ontario. The Falls of Niagara are unsurpassed in grandeur and magnificence by any in the world. When the state of the atmosphere is favorable, the roar of the cataract may be heard for miles. It sometimes rolls over the land to Lake Ontario, and across its waters to Toronto in Canada, 46 miles distant. Anthony Trollope has written of them as follows : The falls, as I have said, are made by a sudden breach in the level of the river. All cataracts are, I presume, made by such breaches ; but generally the waters do not fall precipitously as they do at Niagara, and never elsewhere, as far as the world yet knows, has a breach so sudden been made in a river carrying in its channel such or any approach to such a body of water. Up above the falls for more than a mile the waters leap and burst over rapids, as though conscious of the destiny that awaits them. Here the river is very broad and com- paratively shallow ; but from shore to shore it frets itself into little torrents, and begins to assume the majesty of its power. Looking at it even here, in the expanse which forms itself over the greater fall, one NEW YORK. 338 FALLS OF THE NIAGARA. feels sure that no strongest swimmer could have a chance of saving himself if fate had cast him in even among those petty whirlpools. The waters, though so broken in their descent, are deliciously green. This color, as seen early in the morning or just as the sun has set, is so bright, as to give to the place one of its chiefest charms. This will be best seen from the farther end of the island — Goat Island as it is called — which, as the reader will understand, divides 334 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the river immediately above the falls. Indeed, the island is a part of tliat precipitously-broken, ledge over which the river tumbles, and no doubt in process of time will be worn away and covered with water. The time, however, will be very long. In the meanwhile, it is perhaps a mile round, and is covered thickly with timber. At the upper end of the island the waters are divided, and, coming down in twocoui^ges each over its own rapids, form two separate falls. The bridge by which the island is entered, is a hundred yards or more above the smaller fall. The waters here have been turned by the island, and make their leap into the body of the river below at a right angle with it — about 200 yards below the greater fall. Taken alone, this smaller cataract wmuld, I imagine, be the heaviest fall of water known ; but taken in conjunction with the other, it is terribly shorn of its majesty. The waters here are not green as they are at the larger cataract ; and, though the ledge has been hollowed and bowed by them so as to form a curve, that curve does not deepen itself into a vast abyss as it does at the horseshoe up above. This smaller fall is again divided ; and the visitor, passing down a flight of steps and over a frail wooden bridge, finds himself on a smaller island in the midst of it. “ But we will go at once on to the glory, and the thunder, and the majesty, and the wrath of that upper hell of waters. We are still, let. the reader remember, on Goat Island — still in the States — and on what is called the American side of the main body of the river. Advancing beyond the path leading down to the lesser fall, we come to that point of the island at which the waters of the main river begin to descend. From hence across to the Canadian side the cataract continues itself in one unabated line. But the line is very far from being direct or straight. After stretching for some little way from the shore to a point in the river which is reached by a wooden bridge at the end of which stands a tower upon the rock, — after stretching to this, the line of the ledge bends inward against the flood — in, and in, and in — till one is led to think that the depth of that horseshoe is immeasurable. It has been cut with no stinting hand. A monstrous cantle has been worn back out of the centre of the rock, so that the fury of the waters converges ; and the spectator, as he gazes into the hollow with wishful eyes, fancies that he can hardly trace out the centre of the abyss. Go down to the end of that wooden bridge, seat yourself on the rail, and there sit till all the outer world is lost to you. There is no grander spot about Niagara than this. The waters are absolutely around you. If you have that power of eye-contrio which is so neces- NEW YORK. 335 sary to the full enjoyment of scenery, you will see nothing but the water. You will certainly hear nothing else ; and the sound, I beg you to remember, is not an ear-cracking, agonizing crash and clang of noises, but is melodious and soft withal, though loud as thunder. It fills your ears, and, as it were, envelops them, but at the same time vou can speak to your neighbor without an effort. But at this plaee, and in these moments, the less of speaking, I should say, the better. There is no grander spot than this. Here, seated on the rail of the bridge, you will not see the whole depth of the fall. In looking at the grandest w'orks of nature, and of art too, I fancy it is never well to see all. There should be something left to the imagination, and much should be half concealed in mystery. The greatest charm of a mountain range is the wild feeling that there must be strange, unknown, desolate worlds in those far-off valleys beyond. And so here, at Niagara, that converging rush of waters may fall down, down at once into a hell of rivers, for what the eye can see. It is glorious to watch them in their first curve over the rocks. They come green as a bank of emeralds, but with a fitful flying color, as though conscious that in one moment more they would be dashed into spray and rise into air, pale as driven snow. The vapor rises high into the air, and is gath- ered there, visible always as a permanent white cloud over the cataract ; but the bulk of the spray whieh fills the low^er hollow of that horseshoe is like a tumult of snow. This you will not fully see from your seat on the rail. The head of it rises ever and anon out of that caldron below, but the caldron itself will be invisible. It is ever so far down — far as your own imagination can sink it. But your eyes will rest full upon the curve of the waters. The shape you will be looking at is that of a horseshoe, but of a horseshoe miraculously deep from toe to heel ; and this depth becomes greater as you sit there. That whieh at first was only great and beautiful becomes gigantic and sublime, till the mind is at a loss to find an epithet for its own use. To realize Niagara, you must sit there till you see nothing else than that which you have come to see. You will hear nothing else, and think of nothing else. At length you will be at one with the tumbling river before you. You will find yourself among the waters as though you belonged to them. The cool, liquid green will run through your veins, and the voiee of the cataract will be the expression of your own heart. You will fall as the bright waters fall, rushing down into your new world with no hesitation and with no dismay ; and you will rise again as the spray rises, bright, beautiful and pure. Then you will flow away in your course to the uncompassed, distant, and eternal ocean. 336 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. “ When this state lias been reached and has passed away, you may get olf your rail and mount the tower. It is not very high, and there is a balcony at the top on which some half-dozen persons may stand at ease. Here the mystery is lost, but the whole fall is seen. It is not even at this spot brought so fully before your eye, made to show itself in so complete and entire a shape, as it will do when you come to stand near it on the Canadian shore. But I think that it shows itself more beautifully. And the form of the cataract is such, that here on Goat Island, on the American shore, no spray will reach you, though you are absolutely over the waters. But on the Canadian side, the road as it approaches the fall is wet and rotten with spray, and you, as you stand close upon the edge, will be wet also. The rainbows as they are seen through the rising cloud — for the sun’s rays, as seen through these waters, show themselves in a bow, as they do when seen through rain — are pretty enough, and are greatly loved. And now we will cross the water, and with this object will return by the bridge out of Goat Island, on the mainland of the American side. But as we do so, let me say that one of the great charms of Niagara consists in this : that over and above that one great object of wonder and beauty, there is so much little loveliness — loveliness espe- _ cially of water I mean. .There are little rivulets running here and there over little falls, with pendent boughs above them, and stones shining under their shallow depths. As the visitor stands and looks through the trees, the rapids glitter before him, and then hide them- selves behind islands. They glitter and- sparkle in far distances under the bright foliage, till the remembrance is lost, and one knows not which way they run “ Having mounted the hill on the Canada side, you will walk on toward the falls. As I have said before, you will from this side look directly into the full circle of the upper cataract, while you will have before you, at your left hand, the whole expanse of the lesser fall. For those who desire to see all at a glance, who wish to comprise the whole with their eyes, and to leave nothing to be guessed, nothing to be sur- mised, this no doubt is the best point of view Here, on this side, you walk on to the very edge of the cataract, and, if your tread be steady and your legs firm, you dip your foot into the water exactly at the spot where the thin outside margin of the ' current reaches the rocky edge and jumps to join the mass of the fall. The bed of white foam beneath is certainly seen better here than else- where, and the green curve of the water is as bright here as when seen NEW YORK. 33T from the wooden rail across. But nevertheless I say again that that wooden rail is the one point from whence Niagara may be best seen aright. Close to the cataract, exactly at the spot from whence in former days the Table Rock used to project from the land over the boiling caldron below, there is now a shaft, down which you will descend to the level of the river, and pass between the rock and the torrent. This Table Rock broke away from the cliff and fell, as up the whole course of the river the seceding rocks have split and fallen from time to time through countless years, and will continue to do till the bed of the upper lake is reached In the spot to which I allude the visitor stands on a broad safe path, made of shingles, between the rock over which the water rashes and the rushing water. He will go in so far that the spray, rising back from the bed of the torrent, does not incommode him. AYith this exception, the farther he can go in the better; but circumstances will clearly show him the spot to which he should advance. Unless the water be driven in by a very strong wind, five yards make the difference between a comparatively dry coat and an absolutely wet one. And then let him stand with his back to the entrance, thus liiding the last glimmer of the expiring day. So standing, he will look up among the falling waters, or down into the deep, misty pit, from which they reascend in almost as palpable a bulk. The rock will be at his right hand, high and hard, and dark and straight, like the wall of some huge cavern, such as children enter in their dreams. For the first five minutes he will be looking but at the waters of a cataract — at the waters, indeed, of such a cataract as we know no other, and at their interior curves which elsewhere we cannot see. But by and by all this will change. He will no longer be on a shingly path beneath a waterfall ; but that feeling of a cavern wall will grow upon him, of a cavern deep, below’ roaring seas, in wdiich the wav’es are there, though they do not enter in upon him ; or rather, not the w’aves, but the very bowels of the ocean. He will feel as though the floods surrounded him, coming and going with their wild sounds, and he wall hardly recognize that though among them he is not in them. And they, as they fall with a continual roar, not hurting the ear, but musical withal, will seem to move as the vast ocean w^aters may per- haps move in their internal currents. He will lose the sense of one continued descent, and think that they are passing round him in their appointed courses. The broken spray that rises from the depths below, 22 338 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. rises so strongly, so palpably, so rapidly, that the motion in every direction will seem equal. And, as he looks on, strange colors will show themselves through the mist; the shades of gray will become green or blue, with ever and anon a flash of white ; and then, when some gust of wind blows in with greater violence, the sea-girt cavern will become all dark and black. Oh, my friend, let there be no one tliere to speak to thee then ; no, not even a brother. As you stand there speak only to the waters.^’ The principal rivers are navigable for a greater or less distance, and canals connect the various parts of the State, and afford water transportation along the unnavigable parts of the rivers. The principal islands are Long Island and Staten Island. Long Island extends eastward from the mainland, and lies south of Connecticut. Its northern shore is washed by Long Island Sound, and its eastern and southern shores by the Atlantic Ocean, while the East River, a narrow strait, separates it from Manhattan Island. It is about 115 miles long, and about 20 miles broad. Its surface is generally level, rising only in slight elevations. The coast is broken into numerous bays and harbors, some of which are excellent. Gar- diner’s and Great Peconic bays, at the eastern extremity of the island, extend into the land for about 30 miles. The majority of these bays form the harbors of flourishing towns. The coast is well lighted, and several fine summer resorts are situated along it. The soil is fertile and highly cultivated. Several important towns are located on the Island, and railroads furnish sure and rapid communication between them. Brooklyn, the second city in the State, is located on the ex- treme western end of Long Island. Stolen Island lies in the lower part of New York Bay. It is about 14 miles long, 4 miles wide, and is built up with a number of busy little villages. Its . shores and heights are lined with handsome country seats, and a railroad extends throughout its entire length. MINERALS. The State is very rich in mineral deposits. Iron abounds. Ex- tensive beds of hematite ores are found in Columbia and Dutchess counties, magnetic ores in Putnam, Orange, and Westchester counties, and the region lying between Lakes Champlain and Ontario is espe- cially rich in specular and magnetic ores. The western counties also contain large deposits of this mineral. Coal is found in Steuben county, and lead in St. Lawrence, Ulster, Sullivan, Columbia, Wash- NEW YORK. 339 ington, Dutchess, Reasselaer, and Westchester counties. Zinc, copper, titanium, manganese, arsenic, silver, cobalt, and bismuth are found to a limited extent. Marble, gneiss, and sandstone abound. Sulphuret of iron is found in St. Lawrence county, and carburet in E.ssex, Clinton, and Dutchess counties. Mineral springs are numerous. There are fine salt springs in Onondaga (which yield in this county large quantities of table salt), Erie, Genesee, and Orleans counties. Natural issues of carbureted hydrogen exist in several counties in the State. In Chautauqua county, the village of Fredonia is lighted by means of this gas, as is also Barcelona lighthouse in the same county. CLIMATE. In the northern and western parts of the State, the summer is short and hot, the winter long and severe, and the spring cold and damp, and rendered unpleasant by chilly winds. In the eastern section the sea breezes temper the severity of the cold, and lessen the heat of the summer. The climate of New York City is the most delightful in the country, taking it the year round.’’ SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. In the valleys of the principal rivers of the State the soil is gene- rally of an excellent quality, and very fertile. In the mountainous regions it is poor. The average soil, however, is good, and the State as a whole is fertile. Agriculture is carried on to a very great extent, much care being given to scientific farming. The State is noted for its market gardens, as well as for its dairy and grazing farms. In 1869, there were 14,355,403 acres of improved land, and 6,616,553 acres of unimproved land in the State, whose agricultural wealth for the same year may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms (estimated) $1,000,000,000 Value of farming implements and machiner>^ (estimated), $38,000,000 Number of horses, 703,120 “ asses and mules, 1,960 “ milch cows, 1,980,300 “ young cattle, 2,450,600 “ sheep, 3,750,960 “ swine, 4,960,300 Value of domestic animals, $108,856,290 Bushels of wheat, 9,750,000 “ rye, 4.748,000 “ Indian com, 19,100,000 “ oats, 31,2.50,000 340 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Bushels of peas and beans, 1,909,339 “ Irish potatoes, 28,500,000 “ barley, 4,600,000 ‘‘ buckwheat, . 278,109 Pounds of wool, 9,500,000 “ butter, . . . .* 103,097,280 “ cheese, 48,548,289 “ hops, 9,600,000 Tons of hay, 4,600,000 Maple sugar, 10,816,458 Gallons of wine, 62,000 Value of orchard products (estimated), . . . $4,000,000 ‘ ‘ market garden products (estimated) , $3,800,000 “ home-made manufactures, “ $825,000 “ slaughtered animals, . . “ $16,000,000 COMMERCE. The commerce of l^ew York is the most important of any of the States. In 1863 the total tonnage owned in the State was 1,889,190 tons, of which 848,328 was registered, and 321,714 was steam tonnage. In addition to this, however, a very large proportion of the vessels owned in other States are engaged in trading with the ports of New York. This State possesses the principal harbox of the Republic, and is more extensively engaged in the foreign and coast trade than any other. A very large share of the exports, and nearly all the imports, of the country pass through the port of New York. The share of the State in the lake trade is immense. Buffalo is the great centre of this trade. The enrolled and licensed tonnage of the port in 1863 was 112,893 tons, of which 50,964 was steam tonnage. In the same year, 7647 American and foreign vessels were entered, and 7729 were cleared at Buffalo. The value of imports from the west by lake and railroad, in the same year, was estimated at $125,000,000. Of this sum, $2,957,021 were on account of imports from Canada. The total value of imports from all sections was $256,214,614. Immense quantities of grain are received annually from all parts of the west, and shipped eastward by the Erie Canal. In 1863, the value of canal exports was $56,644,792. In 1869, the tonnage of merchandise car- ried through them amounted to 1,000,000 tons, the capacity of all the vessels entered at the ports of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and San Francisco. In the same year the tolls amounted to $1,278,507.52. These tolls are pledged by the Constitution for the support and repair of the canals, the repayment of the State indebtedness on their accountj the reimbursement of the NEW YORK. 341 treasury for taxation upon the people, and for the support of the State Government. MANUFACTURES. The State is largely engaged in manufactures, almost every species of industry being represented in this branch of its wealth. In 1860, there were in the State 23,236 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 221,481 hands and a capital of $175,449,206, consuming raw material worth $209,899,890, and yielding an annual product of $379,623,560. There were 70 cotton mills, with a capital of $5,427,079, employing 3043 male, and 4288 female hands, consuming raw material worth $2,988,270, paying $1,271,592 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $3,250,770. There were 235 woollen mills, with a capital of $4,598,233, employing 3786 male, and 4255 female hands, con- suming raw material worth $4,979,631, paying $1,591,248 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $9,090,316. The other manufactures w^ere as follows: Value of leather produced, , $20,758,017 “ pig iron produced, 1,385,208 “ rolled iron produced, 2,215,250 “ steam engines and machinery produced, 10,484,863 “ agricultural implements produced, . 3,429,037 “ sawed and planed lumber produced, 10,310,000 “ flour produced, 33,100,000 “ salt produced, 1,289,000 “ malt and spirituous liquors produced, 12,694,000 “ boots and shoes produced, .... 10,878,797 “ furniture produced, 4,996,092 “ musical instruments produced, . . 3,392,577 “ jewelry, silver ware, etc., produced, 5,466,463 “ soap and candles produced, .... 3,836,503 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State of New York was the first member of the Union to en- gage in internal improvements upon a large scale. In 1817, the great Erie and Hudson Canal was commenced. It was completed in 1825 at a cost of $7,000,000. This magnificent work, connecting the waters of the Atlantic with those of the Great Lakes, is due to the genius and determination of De Witt Clinton, who more than any other man contributed to its successful accomplishment. The Erie Canal has several branches diverging from it, viz : one from Utica to Binghampton, one from Syracuse to Osw^ego, one from Geneva to 342 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, Montezuma, and one from Rochester to Danville, The next import- ant main line is the Champlain Canal, from Albany to Lake Cham- plain, which is not far behind the '' Erie'" in the extent and value of its trade. The other canals are the Delaware and Hudson, connecting the Hudson River with the coal mines in northeastern Pennsylvania ; the Chemung, connecting Senaca Lake and Elmira; the Crooked Lake, between Penn Yan and Dresden ; and the Black River and Genesee Valley Canal, which is not yet completed. There are about 873 miles of canal navigation completed in the State. The various routes are all in successful operation, each commanding a large and profitable trade. They have all been constructed by the State. The milroads of New York are among the most important in the country. In 1870 there were 4773 miles of completed roads in the State. The total cost of these was about $225,000,000. The State is traversed in every direction by roads of this class, which connect its principal towns and cities, and extend into the States lying around it. Close connections are made with the most important roads of the Union, and by a judicious system, inaugurated within the last few years, travellers are conveyed from New York City to the principal cities of the Union without change of cars in the majority of instances, and with but one or two changes in the others. Freights are brought from the far South and the remote West to the metropolis in the cars in which they were originally placed. The New York Central Rail- way, extending from Albany to Lakes Erie and Ontario, at Buffalo and Oswego ; the Erie Railway, from Jersey City, opposite New York City (and lying for a short distance in New Jersey), to Lakes Erie and Ontario, at Buffalo, Dunkirk, and Rochester ; the Albany and Susquehanna, from Albany to Binghampton ; and the Hudson River and Harlem Railways, the last two from New York City to Albany, are the principal roads in the State. EDUCATION. ^^The institutions of higher education in this State are mostly under the general supervision of a board styled ‘ The Regents of the University of the State of New York." The Board consists of the Governor, the Lieutenant-Governor, the Secretary of State, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction, as ex-offioio members, and of nineteen other persons chosen by the Legislature in the same manner as Senators in Congress. The officers of the Regents are a Chancellor, a Vice-Chancellor, a Treasurer, a Secretary and an Assistant Secretary, NEW YORK. 343 who are appointed by the Board, and who hold their offices at its pleasure. The leading duties with which the Regents are charged, are the incorporation of colleges, academies and other institutions of learning, under such general rules and regulations as they may from time to time establish, and the visitation and general supervision of all colleges and academies. The Regents are the Trustees of the State Library, the Trustees of the State Cabinet of Natural History, and the Historical and Antiquarian Collection connected therewith. They annually apportion among the academies the sum of ^40,000 from the income of the Literature Fund; also the sum of $18,000, or thereabouts, to acade- mies appointed to instruct classes in the science of common school teaching; and $3000 to academies which shall have raised an equal amount, for the purchase of books and philosophical and chemical apparatus. ‘^An organization consisting of the officers of colleges and academies, subject to the visitation of the Board, and called ^ The University Convocation of the State of New York,^ holds an annual session at Albany, commencing on the first Tuesday in August. There are in the State 23 colleges, the oldest, Columbia College, having been incorporated by the colonial government in 1754. This college has, in addition to its academical department, a Law Depart- ment, and a School of Mines. The University of the City of New York has schools of Art; of Civil Engineering and Architecture; of Analytical and Practical Chemistry; and of Law. Cornell University, at Ithaca, incorporated in 1865, and opened to students in 1868, has been liberally endowed by Mr. Ezra Cornell. It has also received the donation of land scrip made to this State by the General Government to found an agricultural college. In its plan and object, it combines the advantages of a university with the prac- tical benefits of a school of science and art. Rutger’s Female College, in New York City, provides a thorough collegiate course of instruction, surpassing even many colleges for young men. “ Vassar College, at Poughkeepsie ; The Packer Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn ; and other institutions for young ladies, offer every facility desired for complete education. The Superintendent of Public Instruction has the general super- vision of Public Schools in the State. School Commissioners in the different counties, city and town superintendents in the principal 344 THE GlUiAT REPUBLIC. cities and towns, and trustees in the school districts, exercise a local supervision over the schools in their respective localities. Great im- provements have been made in the public schools of the State. The schools were made free in 1867. There are four State Normal Schools in successful operation, and four others have been authorized by law. The State Normal and Training School at Oswego has been distin- guished for its influence in introducing special methods of primary instruction, known as Object Teaching. During the year 1867-68, 81 academies instructed 'teachers’ classes in the science of common school teaching and government, under the supervision of the Regents of the University. Teachers’ Institutes are held in nearly all the counties, principally under the direction of the County Commis- sioners.” * In the year 1870, there were 11,705 public schools in the State, conducted by 5283 male and 21,230 female teachers. The number of children at school during some portion of the year was 1,029,955. The amount expended on these schools in the same year was $9,929,462. In 1867 the number of private schools was 1433. In 1860 there were 8360 libraries in the State, containing 2,436,576 volumes. Of these 774 Avere public. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals was as follows: daily 74, semi-Aveekly 1 0, tri-weekly 7, Aveekly 366, monthly 69, quarterly 10, annual 6 — total 542. Of these 365 were political, 56 religious, 63 literary, and 58 miscellaneous. Their total annual circulation was 320,930,884 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The charitable institutions of this State are, perhaps, the most complete and the best managed of any in America. They are under the general supervision of a Board of Public State Charities, appointed by the Governor. The New Yorh Institution for the Deaf -and Dumhy located at New York City, Avas founded in 1818. It is one of the largest and most complete in the world, and is famous for the excellence and success of its system of treatment. On the 1st of January, 1868, it contained 439 pupils. The hew Yorh Asylum for Idiots^ at Syracuse, to which place it * American Year Book, vol. i. pp. 415-416. NEW YORK. 345 was removed from Albany in 1855, is in a flourishing condition. The number of inmates is 140. The State Lunatic Asylum is at Utica. It was opened in 1843, and is always full of patients. On the 1st of January, 1867, the number was 401. Besides this establishment the State maintains the Willard Asylum, at Ovid, and the Hudson River Asylum, at Poughkeepsie. The City and County of New York maintain a large Insane Asylum on Blackwell’s Island ; King’s county has one at Flatbush, and the Commissioners of Emigration have one on Ward’s Island. There are also several private, and a number of county asylums. The Inebriate Asylum is at Blnghampton. Persons addicted to tlie use of strong^ drink are reclaimed here. There were 40 inmates in the asylum on the 1st of January, 1868. The Western House of Refuge, at Rochester, is tor the confinement and reformation of juvenile delinquents. It was opened in 1849. On the 1st of January, 1868, there were 448 boys confined here. There are three State Prisons — one at Sing Sing, one at Clinton, and one at Auburn. They are each managed by a warden, and are under the supervision of a Board of five persons appointed by the Governor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They hold office ten years. The prisoners are required to labor during the day, and are confined in separate cells at night. The number of inmates in the Sing Sing prison on the 1st of September, 1867, was 1409 ; the number in the Auburn prison, 927 ; in the Clinton prison, 507. All the principal cities of the State are provided with excellent penal establishments of their own, and make liberal provision for the support of such charitable institutions as are needed. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860 the total value of church property was $35,125,257. The number of churches was 5287. FINANCES. On the 30th of September, 1870, the total funded debt of the State was $38,641,606.40, classified as follows: General fund, $4,040,026.40 Contingent, . • 68,000.00 Canal, 11,966,580.00 Bounty, 22,567,000.00 Total $38,641,606.40 346 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The following statement shows the amount of the State debt on September 30th, 1870, after deducting the unapplied balances of the sinking funds at that date ; General fund, $4,040,026.40 Contingent, 68,000.00 Canal, 11,966,580.00 Bounty, 22,567,000.00 $38,641,606.40 The State debt, on September 30th, 1869, after deducting the unapplied balances of the sinking funds, amounted to $34,848 035 73 On September 30th, 1870, to ..... . 32’409’l44'26 Showing a reduction of $2,438 891.47 The receipts of the State Treasury, on account of all funds except the Canal and Free School funds for the fiscal year, amounted to $13,846,258.39, and the expenditures to $14,787,804.98. The gross valuation of taxable property in the State for the year 1870 was $1,967,001,180. The total State tax amounted to $14,285,976, being a little more than seven mills on the dollar. On the^ 1st of October, 1870, there were 292 National Banks in operation in the State of New York, with an aggregate paid-in capital of $13,497,741, and an aggregate circulation of $67,077,668. At the same time there were 61 banks doing business under the State laws, whose outstanding circulation was $2,253,937.50. There were, at the same time, 133 Savings Banks, with assets estimated at $220,000,000. GOVERNMENT. The original Constitution of New York was adopted in 1777. It has been amended and changed since then. The last Convention for this purpose met in June, 1867, and continued its sessions for several weeks into the year 1868. The Government of the State is placed in the bands of a Gov- ernor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, Attorney General, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 32 members) and an Assembly (of 128 members). The Executive officers named above and the Senators are elected once every two years, and the members of the Assembly annually. The election for Governor and Lieutenant-Governor and that for the other officers are held on alternate years. The Canal Commissioners and Inspectors of State Balances. $1,008,975.74 17,992.21 2,149,884.61 3,055,609.58 $6,232,462.14 As j)rovided for. $3,031,050.66 50,007.79 9,816,695.39 19,511,390.42 $32,409,144.26 NEW YORK. 347 Prisons are elected for three years, one each year. The Canal Ap- praisers, the Superintendent of the Banking Department, and the Auditor of the Canal Department are appointed for three years by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Adjutant-General and other officers of the military staff are appointed by the Governor. The Court for the Trial of Impeachments is composed of the President of the Senate (who is president of the court, and when absent the chief judge of the Court of Appeals presides), the Senators, or the major part of them, and the judges of the Court of Appeals, or the greater part of them. It is a court of record, and, when sum- moned, meets at Albany, and has for its clerk and officers the clerk and officers of the Senate. “ The Court of Appeals has full power to correct and , reverse all proceedings and decisions of the Supreme Court. It is composed of eight judges, of whom four are elected (one every second year) by the people at large, for eight years, and four selected each year from the Justices of the Supreme Court having the shortest time to serve. These selections are made alternately from the First, Third, Fifth, and Seventh, and from the Second, Fourth, Sixth, and Eighth Judicial Districts. The judge (of the four chosen at large) whose term first expires, presides as Chief Judge. Six judges constitute a quorum. Every cause must be decided within the year in which it is argued, and, unless reargued, before the close of the term after the argument. The Supreme Court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, and power to review judgments of the County Courts, and of the old Courts of Common Pleas. For the election of the Justices, the State is divided into eight judicial districts, the first of which elects five, and all the others four, to serve eight years. In each district one justice goes out of office every two years. The justice in each district whose term first expires, and who is not a judge of the Court of Appeals, is a Presiding Justice of the court, and the clerks of the several counties serve as clerks. The County Courts are always open for the transaction of any business for which no notice is required to be given to an opposing party. At least two terms in each county for the trial of issues of law or fact, and as many more as the County Judge shall appoint, shall be held in each year. “County Judges are elected for four years; they are vested with the powers of justices of the Supreme Court at Chambers, are mem- 348 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. bors of Courts of Oyer and Terminer, and, with two Justices of the Peace, constitute Courts of Sessions. The Criminal Courts are the Courts of Oyer and Terminer and the Courts of Sessions. The Courts of Oyer and Terminer in each county, except in the city and county of New York, are composed of a justice of the Supreme Court, who presides, the County Judge, and the two Justices of the Peace chosen members of the Court of Ses- sions. The Presiding Justice and any two of the others form a quorum. In the city and county of New York they are held by a justice of the Supreme Court alone. These courts are all held at the same time and place at which the Circuit Courts are held. Courts of Sessions, except in the city of New York, are composed of the County Judge and the two Justices of the Peace designated as members of the Court of Sessions, and are held at the same time and place as the County Courts.^’ * The seat of Government is established at Albany. For purposes of government the State is divided into 60 counties. HISTORY. The first white man who trod the soil of New* York, was Samuel Champlain, a French navigator, who entered the lake to which he has given his name, on the 4th of July, 1609. On the 12th of the same month, Hendrik Hudson, an Englishman, commanding a ship in the service of the Hutch East India Company, entered the bay of New York, having discovered the entrance to it three days previous. He explored the river which is called after him, as far as Albany ; and during the next ten years, frequent voyages for trade were made to this region by the Hutch, and small trading posts were established by them at Manhattan Island (New York City) and Fort Orange (Albany). In 1623, Fort Orange and Manhattan Jsland were permanently set- tled, 18 families locating themselves at the former place, and 30 at the latter, which was called New Amsterdam. The English claimed the territory by right of prior possession; and in March, 1664, Charles II. granted it to his brother, the Huke of York. In August of the same year, the English took forcible possession of the province, which had been called New' Netherlands by the Hutch, and changed its name to New York, which also became the name of the town of New Amsterdam. * American Year Book, vol. ii. p. 412. NEW YORK. 349 NEW YOEK IN 1664. Under tlie rule of James II., the colony was governed with an iron hand. Large grants of land and odious privileges were awarded to unworthy favorites, but the people at large were oppressed with heavy taxes, and their industry hampered by burdensome restric- tions upon manufactures and trade. Frequent conflicts between the authorities and the people were the result of these narrow measures. It was hoped that the accession of William and Mary to the throne would bring with it a change in the policy of the Government towards the province, but this expectation was doomed to disappointment. The new king \vas quite as fond of high taxes as the old one had been. Nicholson, the Governor appointed by King James, oppressed the people so grievously, that they rose against him in 1689, seized the government, and made their leader, Jacob Leisler, a merchant of New York, Governor in the names of William and Mary. Leisler held his place for two years, although the home Government never formally recognized him. In 1691, the king sent Governor Sloughter over to supersede him. Leisler and his son-in-law, Milborne, made some slight resistance to the new ruler, and were arested, tried for treason, and executed. The Indians gave great trouble to the first settlers, and the early history of New York is little more than a record of a continuous war- lare with the various tribes of the Five Nations. In 1689, Schenec- 350 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tady was taken and burnt by the savages, and many of its inhabitants killed. During the wars with the French in America, many incur- sions were made into the province by the French and Indians, and con- siderable suffering was experienced by the settlers. The province bore a prominent part in these struggles, furnishing many men and much money, and providing some of the best officers connected with them. The country along Lakes George and Champlain was made historical by the events of these wars. The victory over Dieskau was won at the head of the former lake, which beautiful sheet of water was ajrain made memorable by the fearful massacre of the garrison of Fort Wil- liam Henry, in 1757. The fort had been surrendered to the French, but their Indian allies refused to respect the capitulation. The next year, Abercrombie’s army of 16,000 men, the largest and best equipped force that had ever been seen in America, was defeated before Ticon- deroga. Besides these important events of the last French war, there were many other enterprises connected with these struggles, in which the colony won considerable renown. New York contained, perhaps, more royalist partisans than any of the colonies ; but in spite of this, the people, as a whole, were warm in their resistance to the oppressions of England, and gave a hearty support to the measures adopted by the United Colonies for their common protection. In October, 1775, they forced Try on, the last loyalist Governor, to take refuge on a British man-of-war. Some of the principal events of the Revolution occurred in this State, which, besides furnishing its fair share of men and means, gave to the cause many of the brightest names which adorn it. The fortresses of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which were situated within the limits of New York, were seized by the Green Mountain Boys,” of Vermont, in May, 1775. The other events of the war occurring in this State, were the advance and retreat of the army of Montgomery and Schuyler, which was expected to conquer Canada, in July, 1775, the battle of Long Island, and the occupation of New York, in February, 1776; the invasion of the State by Burgoyne, in the summer of 1777, and his subsequent surrender at Saratoga, after the battles of Stillwater and Saratoga, in October of the same year; the contests with the Six Nations, who had espoused the English cause, and the destruc- tion of their villages by General Sullivan, in 1779; and the evacua- tion of the city of New York by the British, on the 25th of Novem- ber, 1783. Immediately after the close of the war, the State was involved in NEW YORK. Sul the renewal of an old controversy respecting the territory now known as the State of Vermont. * For some time it seemed that the quarrel would result in open hostilities between New York and Vermont; but it was at length compromised in 1790, as has been shown in another chapter. The original Constitution of New York was adopted in March, 1777. It was revised in 1801, 1821, and 1846. A fourth revision was made in 1868. Slavery existed in New Y'ork until 1817, when it was finally abolished. Indeed, at the time of the seizure of the province by the English, in 1664, it contained, in proportion to its population, more slaves than Virginia. New York was the eleventh State to ratify the Constitution of the United States, which was done on the 26th of July, 1788. The western part of the State was rapidly settled after the close of the Revolution, but suffered considerably from the attacks of the British during the war of 1812-15. The State bore a conspicuous part in this struggle. The principal naval depot of the Americans on the lakes was at Sacket’s Harbor, on Lake Ontario, and was the object of an unsuccessful attack by the British. The battle of Platts-' burg and the great naval fight on Lake Champlain both occurred within the limits of the State, which was also well represented in the gallant little navy which made such a glorious name on the high seas. In 1796, the ^Western Navigation Company^ was incorporated. This company built locks around the Rapids' upon the Mohawk, and dug a canal across^ the portage at Rome, so that laden boats could pass from the ocean to Oneida Lake, and theiice by the outlet of that sheet of water to Lake Ontario. Various plans were brought before the public from time to time for improving this channel of navigation and for building locks around Niagara Falls, so as to unite the waters of Ontario and Erie. In 1800, Governeur Morris conceived the bold plan of bringing the waters of Lake Erie to the Hudson by means of a canal directly through the centre of the State. In 1808, James Geddes made a partial survey of tlie proposed route, and gave a re- port highly favorable to the enterprise. He Witt Clinton soon after investigated the matter, and from that time forward gave to the pro- ject the whole weight of his influence. The war of 1812 caused a suspension of the work, but upon the return of peace in 1815, the dis- * See Chapter on Vermont. 352 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. cussion was vigorously resumed ; and in 1816, a law was passed authorizing the construction of the canal. The work was actually commenced in 1817, and the canal was finished in 1825. It speedily became the great channel of trade and emigration, and poured into I^ew York City the rich streams of traffic which have made it the commercial metropolis of the western continent. The State has been covered with a network of railways, rendering communication between distant points easy and rapid. The early attention paid to internal improvements, and the consequent development of internal resources, gave to New York the impetus which has placed it first in commer- cial importance, and given to it the name of ^ The Empire State.^ ’’ * During the recent war, the State was amongst the first and most active in its support of the Government. It contributed to the ser- vice of the Union a force of 473,443 men, of which number the city of New York furnished 267,551. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities and towns of importance are New York, Brooklyn, Buf- falo, Rochester, Troy, Syracuse, Utica, Watervleit, Oswego, Newtown, Poughkeepsie, Auburn, Newburgh, Elmira, Morrisania, Cohoes, Flushing, Hempstead, Johnson, Lockport, Binghampton, Fishkill, Rome, Schenectady, Kingston, Cortland t, Yonkers, Oyster Bay, Og- densburgh, Brookhaven, Huntington, Ithaca, Rondout, Saugerties, and Green burg. ALBANY, The capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Albany county, on the right bank of the Hudson, at the head of tide-water and sloop navigation, in 42° 39' 3" N. latitude, 73° 32' W. longitude; 145 miles north of New York, 164 west of Boston, and 370 northeast from Washington. It is finely located, the ground rising to the westward, from the river shore to an elevation of about 220 feet. These heights are divided into three distinct hills by ravines through which con- siderable streams of water flow, viz., the Foxen Kill, Rutten Kill, and the Beaver Kill. The ravines have been almost entirely filled up, and the creeks reach the river by means of huge sewers far below the surface. The view from the most elevated points in Al- bany is very fine. To the north may be seen the city of Troy and adjacent vilages, and in the distance loom up the Green Mountains * New American Cyclopaedia, vol. xii. p. 269. NEW YORK. 353 ALBANY. of Vermont. To the east we behold a beautiful extent of country stretching beyond the Hudson as far as the eye can reach ; and to the south, the Helderbergs and the Catskill Mountains, with the river flowing at their base.’^ Being situated at the head of sloop navigation, Albany has a large commerce with all parts of the State. The Hudson affords water communication with the sea, the Erie Canal connects it with the great lakes, and the Champlain Canal binds it to Lake Champlain and the lower St. Lawrence. Seven railways connect it with all parts of the Union. The Erie Canal enters the city at its northern limits. The boats are thence conveyed to a large basin covering 32 acres, which has been formed by constructing a pier, more than a mile in length, which cuts off* and encloses a bend in the river. A safe and fine anchorage is thus secured for vessels and steamers during the season of ice, and the sides of the basin afford excellent wharfage. The trade brought to the city by the canals is immense, and has been the chief cause of its rapid growth and prosperity. The lumber trade is esti- mated at about $7 ,000,000. About 2,000,000 barrels of flour, over 23 354 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 3,000,000 bushels of corn, nearly 2,000,000 bushels of barley, and about 5,000,000 pounds of wool, pass through Albany yearly. The city is also largely interested in manufactures. Iron, hollow- ware, and malt are the principal articles. Large numbers of stoves and large quantities of beer are produced annually. Pianofortes, hats, caps, bonnets, sleighs, coaches, leather, are also produced in large quantities. The city is well built as a rule, and^contains a number of handsome edifices. The streets are more crooked and irregular than those of any American city, save Boston, but, with this exception, Albany re- tains few traces of its origin. State street, extending from the river, westward to the Capitol, is the principal thoroughfare. The city con- tains a number of public squares, some of which are handsome. The public buildings are handsome, though not in keeping with the wealth and importance of the Empire State. The Capitol was erected in 1807, at a cost of $173,000. It is a plain building of brown stone, from the quarries on the Hudson River, with a Doric portico of white marble. It is 115 by 90 feet, and is 50 feet high. It is surmounted by a dome ornamented with a statue of Justice. In this building are the halls of the two Houses of the Legislature, the offices of the Governor, and Adjutant-General, and the chambers of the Court of Appeals and Supreme Court. Immediately in the rear of the Capitol stands the new State Library, a handsome modern fire-proof edifice, containing more than 60,000 volumes, among which are some of the rarest and most valuable works in print. The State Hall, a large edifice of white marble, stands opposite the Capitol, with a handsome park between them. It contains the offices of the Secretary of State and other State officials. It was built in 1843, at a cost of $350,000. A new and imposing Capitol is now in course of erection. Near the State Hall, and on the same side of the square, is the City Hall, also built of white marble, at an expense of $120,000. It is occupied by the officers of the city government, and by the city and county courts. The educational and scientific institutions of Albany are of a high character. They possess many of the handsomest buildings in the city. In addition to the free common schools, the Albany Academy^ the Albany Female Academy^ the State Normal School, for the educa- tion of teachers in common schools, and the Albany University are the principal. The University embraces departments of law, medi- cine, and science in its various branches, and connected with it is the NEW YORK. 355 Dudley Observatory, founded by Mrs. Blandina Dudley. The Mer- chants^ Exchange, Post Office, and Exchange Bank are handsome edifices. The charitable and benevolent institutions are numerous, and are liberally supported. The city contains upwards of 50 churches and 6 missions. The most imposing church edifice is the Roman Catholic cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, one of the largest churches in the Union. It will seat 4000 persons. There are several fine libraries in the city, and the newspapers pub- lished here are influential and possessed of a large circulation. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water, which is distributed in pipes from a large reservoir built at an expense of $1,000,000. For purposes of government the city is divided into ten wards, each of which elects two aldermen, who, together with the Mayor and Recorder, form the Common Council, or city government. The population, according to the census of 1870, is 69,422. With the exception of Jamestown, in Virginia, Albany is the oldest settlement within the limits of the original thirteen States. Before the arrival of the whites, the Indians gave to the place the name of Scho-negh-ta-da, over the plains,’’ which name the Dutch settlers afterwards gave to an Indian settlement which marked the present site of Schenectady, as over the plains ” from Albany. In Septem- ber, 1609, Hendrik Hudson, having discovered the river which bears his name, ascended it to a point now marked by the city of Hudson, where he anchored, having spent nearly two weeks in the voyage from the mouth of the river. From this point the mate and a boat’s crew ascended to the head of tide water, the present site of Albany, 27 miles higher up the stream. In 1614, a fort and a trading post were established by the Dutch on Boyd’s Island, near the southern limits of the present city. In 1617, the fort was carried away by a flood, and a year or two later, a new one was built near the present site of Fort Orange Hotel, on Broadway, and called Fort Orange in honor of the Prince of Orange. In 1630, Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, a dealer in pearls, of Amsterdam, bought from the Indians a large tract of land, including Fort Orange, on the west bank of the Hudson, and sent out a considerable colony of Dutch mechanics and farmers to oc- cupy his new estate. Seven years afterwards he purchased from the Indians another tract lying immediately across the Hudson, and thus became proprietor of a district extending for 24 miles along the river, and 48 miles from east to west. Over this region, to which he gave the name of Rensselaerswyck, he exercised sovereign authority, as its 356 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. patroon, committing the administration of matters of justice and fi- nance to a commissary-general. In 1664, the province passed into the hands of the English. Van Rensselaer was secured in his pos- session of the soil by a new patent from the king, but the sovereignty passed to the crown. The Van Rensselaer family still retain a large portion of the orininal estate, and a part of the Van Rensselaer man- sion, built in 1765, is still standing in Albany. After passing into the hands of the English, the settlement, which had been known as Fort Orange, Beaverwyck, Williamstadt, and the Fuyck, was called Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II., of England. Albany received a city charter in 1686, with Peter Schuyler as its first mayor. The selection of the mayor was fortunate, as both he and his family possessed the confi- dence and friendship of the Indians to such an ‘extent that the savages never attacked Albany, though they made the neighboring settlements feel severely the terrors of their hostility. During the Revolution, Albany gave an active support to the patriot cause, and contributed many troops to the American army. The defeat of Burgoyne at Sara- toga saved it from capture, as that general was marching directly upon it. Sir Henry Clinton also made two attempts to reach it, both of which resulted in failure. In 1807, Albany became the capital of the State, but it was a comparatively insignificant town until the in- troduction of steam navigation and the opening of the Erie Canal placed it in the path to its present prosperity. NEW YORK, The largest and most important city of the State and the United States, is situated in New York county, on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River, 18 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, latitude (of the City Hall) 40° 42' 43" N., longitude 74° 0' 3" W. The city limits comprise the entire county of New York, embracing Manhattan Island, Randall's, Ward's, and Blackwell's islands, in the East River, and Governor's, Bedloe's, and Ellis’ islands in the bay, the last 3 of which are occupied by the military posts of the Federal Government. Manhattan Island is bounded on the north by Harlem River and Spuyten Duy vel Creek, on the east by the East River, on the west by the Hudson River, and on the South by New York Bay. It is 9 miles long on the east side, 13J miles long on the west side, and miles wide at its greatest breadth. It is but a few feet in width at its southern extremity, but spreads out like a fan NEW YORK. 357 as it stretches to the northward. The southern point is but a few inches above the level of the bay, but the island rises rapidly to the northward, its extreme northern portion being occupied by a series of bold, finely wooded heights, which terminate at the junction of the Hudson River and Spuyten Duyvel creek, in a bold promontory 130 feet high. These heights, known as Washington Heights, are 2 or 3 miles in length. The southern portion of the island is principally a sand bed, but the remainder is rocky. The island covers an area of 22 square miles, or 14,000 acres. It is built up compactly for about 6 miles, and irregularly along the east side to Harlem, 3 miles farther. Along the west side it is built up compactly to the Central Park, 59th street, and Irregularly to Manhattanville, 125th street, from which point, to Spuyten Duyvel creek, it is covered with country seats, gardens, etc. Three wagon and 2 railroad bridges over the Harlem River connect the island with the mainland, and 26 lines of ferries connect it with Long and Staten islands and New Jersey. The city is finely built, and presents an aspect of industry and liveliness unsurpassed .by any city in the world. Lying in full sight of the ocean, with its magnificent bay to the southward, and the East and Hudson rivers washing its shores, the city of New York possesses a climate which renders it the most delightful residence in America. In the winter the proximity of the sea moderates the severity of the cold, and in the summer the heat is tempered by the delightful sea breezes which sweep over the island. Snow seldom lies in the streets for more than a few hours, and the intense heated terms ” of the summer are of very brief duration. As a natural consequence, the city is healthy, and the death-rate, in proportion to the population, is small. The southern portion is densely built up, and between the City Hall and 23d street, it is more thickly populated than any city in America. It is in this section that the tenement houses,” or build- ings containing from 10 to 20 families, are to be found. In this region there are many single blocks of dwellings containing twice the number of families residing on 5th avenue, on both sides of that street, from Washington Square to the Central Park, or than a continuous row of dwellings, similar to those of 5th avenue, 3 or 4 miles in length. There is a multitude of these squares, any one of which con- tains a larger population than the whole city of Hartford, Connecticut, which covers an area of 7 square miles. * The greatest mortality is * Annual Cyclopaedia, 1861 . Hartford at that time contained a popula- tion of about 28 , 000 . 358 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. SCENE IN BROADWAY. in these overcrowded districts, which the severest police measures cannot keep clean and free from filth. It must not be supposed, however, that poverty alone induces persons to live in such houses. Many of the most crowded districts are occupied by people, especially foreigners, who wish to avoid the expense and trouble of more com- modious residences. The southern portion of the city is devoted almost exclusively to trade, comparatively few persons residing below the City Hall. Be- low Canal street the streets are narrow, crooked, and irregular, but above this point they are broad and straight, and are laid out at regu- lar intervals. Above Houston street the streets extending across the island are numbered. The avenues begin in the vicinity of 3d street, and extend, or will extend, to the northern limits of the island, run- ning parallel with the Hudson River. They are generally 100 feet wide, and are compactly built up. The numbered cross streets are usually 60 feet wide, but a few have a width of 100 feet. First street is about a mile and three quarters above the southern end of the island, which is known as the Battery. The main thoroughfare is Broadway, which extends throughout the entire length of Manhattan Island. It NEW YORK. 359 is built up compactly for about 5 miles. There are over 420 miles of streets in the patrol districts, and 11 miles of piers along the water. The sewerage is good in the main, but is defective in some places. Upwards of 300 miles of water pipes have been laid. The streets are lighted by over 15,000 gas lamps, the footways are generally made of broad stone flags, and the streets are laid in some cases with the wooden pavement, and in others with the Belgian, or stone block pavement. Cobble stones are rapidly disappearing. For so large a city, New York is remarkably clean, except in those portions lying close to the river, or given up to paupers. The city is substantially built. Frame houses are very rare. Many of the old quarters are built of brick, but this material is now used to a limited extent only. Broadway and the principal business streets are lined with buildings of marble, iron, brown and Portland stone, palatial in their appearance ; and the sections devoted to the residences of the better classes are built up mainly with brown stone or Portland stone, and in some instances with marble. Thus the city presents an appearance of grandeur and solidity most pleasing to the eye. The public buildings will compare favorably with any in the world, and there is no city on the globe that can boast so many palatial warehouses and stores. Broadway is one of the most magni- ficent thoroughfares in the world. The stores which line it are gene- rally from five to six stories high above the ground, with two cellars below the level of the pavement, and vaults extending to near the middle of the street. The adjacent streets in many cases rival Broad- way in their splendor. The stores of the city are famous for their elegance and convenience, and for the magnificence of the goods dis- played in them. The streets occupied by private residences are broad, clean, well paved, and are lined with dwellings inferior to none in the world in convenience and elegance. Fifth, Madison, Park, and Lexington avenues, and the numbered streets crossing them, are lined with magnificent residences of brown or light-colored stone and marble. The amount of wealth and taste concentrated in the dwellings of the better classes of the citizens of New York is very great. The city is well provided with public parks and promenades. The principal parks, commencing at the lower end of the island, are the Battery, containing 10 acres, and facing the Bay ; the Bowling Green ; the City Hall Park, comprising an area of 10 acres, and containing the City Hall, the new Post Office, Court House, etc. ; Washington Square, about 9 acres; Union Park; Grammercy Park, belonging to 360 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, SCENE IN FIFTH AVENUE. tlie owners of the residences facing it ; Stuyvesant Square, about 3 acres, divided in the centre by the passage of 2nd avenue; Tomp- kins Square, about 11 acres; Madison Square, 6 acres; and Hamil- ton Square, 15 acres. These are handsomely laid olf, with the excep- tion of Tompkins Square, which is used as a drill ground, and are ornamented with fountains, statues, etc., and are kept in good order by the city. The chief pleasure ground is the Central Park, situated on the eastern slope of an elevated ridge extending along the western side of the island, in the upper part of the city, from 69th street, on the south, to 110th street, on the north, and from 5th avenue, on the east, to 8th avenue, on the west. It is two miles and a half in length, by half a mile in width, and embraces an area of 843 acres. It is laid out with great taste and skill, and compri- ses a variety of landscape, which renders it one of the most beauti- NEW YORK. 361 VIEW IK CENTRAL PARK. ful and attractive parks in the world. Up to the present day the outlay upon it has exceeded ten millions of dollars. It is divided into the Lower Park, extending from 59th to 79th streets, and com- prising an area of 336 acres ; and the Upper Park, extending from 79th to noth streets. Between the Upper and Lower Parks lie the vast reservoirs of the Croton water works, which cover an area of 137 acres, and have a capacity of 1,150,000,000 gallons. The Lower Park is generally level, and is laid off in lawns, terraces, walks, and drives, with two beautiful lakes, which cover an area of 40 acres ; and is ornamented with statuary, flowers, and tasteful buildings. The Upper Park is more rugged, and is naturally the more beautiful. It is a succession of charming hills and dales, whose beauties have been increased and heightened by the best landscape gardeners and engi- neers. A museum of natural history, and the beginning of a zoolo- gical garden are located in the Lower Park, near the principal en- trance on 5th avenue; and a museum of statuary has been opened in one of the buildings at Mount St. Vincent, in the Upper Park. The management of the Park is entrusted to a Commission, appointed by 3G2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE WATEU TEKRACE IN THE CENTRAL PARK. the Governor of the State. Naturally, the Park is an object of great pride to the citizens, and is one of the principal attractions to stran- gers visiting the city. It is usually full of pleasure seekers, of all ages, sexes, and conditions, and it is pleasant to record that no crime, of the most trifling character, has ever been committed within its limits. In 1870, the total number of persons visiting it, including the drivers and occupants of carriages, was 8,421,427. Pleasure boats ply on the principal lake, and may be engaged for a small sum ; and ^^park omnibuses,’^ or open carriages of a peculiar construction, under the control of the Commissioners, convey visitors through the ' grounds for the sum of 25 cents each. The streets enclosing the Park are being rapidly built up with elegant mansions, and afford one of the most delightful quarters for residence on the island. New York is the commercial metropolis of the United States. The local trade of the city is necessarily very great, but its trade with the rest of the Union is enormous, and it conducts a large foreign com- merce. Only three lines of railway enter the city limits, but 14 lines, terminating on the shores of Long Island and New Jersey, connect it with all parts of the Union. At least 100 steamboats, large and small, ply between the city and the towns on the Bay, the Hudson River, and Long Island Sound, while fully as many steamships con- nect New York with the more distant ports of the Union. Besides these, the number of sailing craft engaged in the coasting trade is very large. About 120 first class steamers ply between New York and the ports of Europe, and about 20 sail to South American, Mexican, and West Indian ports. Being entirely surrounded by water. New NEW YORK. 363 Y^ork is admirably adapted to commerce. The largest ships can lie alongside of its piers, of which there are eleven miles, constantly crowded with shipping, on the North and East River fronts.- During the year 1870, the foreign imports of New York were valued at $315,200,022, and the exports to foreign countries at $195,945,733, exclusive of $58,191,475 in specie and bullion. About two-thirds of all the imports, and about forty per cent, of all the exports of the United States pass through the port of New York. In the year 1868, the arrivals at New York from foreign ports were as follows : Vessels. Steamers, 694 Ships, 690 Barks, 1,055 Brigs, 1,499 Schooners, 1,223 Total, 4,861 The domestic trade of New York is immense. During the year 1864, some of the receipts of the port were as follows ; Barrels of wheat flour, 3,967,717 Bushels of wheat, 13,453,135 “ oats, 12,952,238 “ corn, ■ 7,164,895 Bales of cotton, 190,911 Packages of pork, 332,454 “ beef, 209,664 “ cut meats, 268,417 “ butter, 551,153 “ cheese, . . 756,872 Tierces and barrels of lard, 186,000 Kegs of lard, 16,104 Barrels of whiskey, 289,481 “ petroleum, 775,587 In June, 1863, the tonnage belonging to the port of New York was officially stated as follows : Registered — permanent, 609,025 ; temporary, 237,420. Enrolled — permanent, 745,330 ; temporary, 17,334. Total, 1,624,000. There w'as besides, 97,485 steam ton- nage. This does not include the vessels owned in other cities and States, or foreign vessels trading with New York. The city is amply provided with means of communication between its principal points. Lines of omnibuses and street railways traverse the island in every direction, the principal car lines continuiug their trips through the night. The fares vary from five to ten cents. More 364 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. than 400 street cars and 200 omnibuses are engaged in transporting persons through the city. A steam railway, connecting the upper and lower portions of the island, is now in construction. Communication with the shores of Long Island, Staten Island, and New Jersey is maintained by 26 lines of ferries, employing over 100 steam ferry boats, and transporting, it is estimated, upwards of 80,- 000,000 of passengers, and more than 3,000,000 of vehicles annually. The railway lines leading to the city run over 400 trains to and from points 5 miles and upwards distant from the city. Fourteen rail- ways lead directly to the city. Three of these terminate within the city limits, six on the New Jersey shore, four in Brooklyn, and one on Staten Island. The hotels of New York are the best in the world. They are built upon extensive plans, and are among th,e finest specimens of architecture in the city. They are fitted up luxuriously, and afford their guests every comfort and convenience. The principal are the Astor House, the St. Nicholas, the Metropolitan, the Grand Central, the Fifth Avenue, the St. James, and the Grand Hotels; and the Everett, the Clarendon, the Albemarle, the Hoffman, the Coleman, the Sturtevant, and the Gilsay Houses. The Astor is built of gray granite, and presents a massive appearance ; the St. Nicholas, the Grand Central, the Fifth Avenue, the Hofiinan, the Albemarle, the St. James, and the Grand are of pure white marble; and the Gilsay House, a magnificent modern structure, is of iron. These Houses are amongst the most elegant buildings in the city, and each is capa- ble of accommodating several hundred guests. The theatres are numerous, and will compare favorably in splendor and convenience with any in the world. They are more comfortably arranged than those of other American cities, and are much hand- somer. The performances are good, as a rule. There are about 30 first-class places of amusement in the city, including theatres, concert halls, lecture rooms, music halls, circuses, summer gardens, etc., be- sides a number of inferior places. It is estimated that during the fall and winter season about 30,000 persons nightly attend the per- formances at these places. The principal telegraph lines of the country begin or terminate in New York. There is also a line connecting the principal points of the city, and used for local business. The public buildings are numerous and imposing, and the city is surpassed by only a few of the capitals of Europe in this respect. NEW YORK. 365 CITY HALL. The City Hall is a fine edifice of white marble, 216 feet in length, situated in the City Hall Park. The foundation was laid in 1803, and the building was opened for the use of the municipal Govern- ment in 1812. It is handsomely furnished and decorated with paint- ings and statuary. The County Court House, in the rear of the City Hall, is a splendid building of white marble in the Italian style of architecture, 250 feet long, 150 feet wide, and 3 stories high, the whole being surmounted by a fine dome, the summit of which will be 210 feet above the street. The Custom House, on Nassau street, corner of William, is a splendid building of Quincy granite, erected for a Merchants’ Exchange, at a cost of over $1,800,000, including the ground. It is entirely fire proof, and covers the whole block, being 200 feet long, by 171 to 144 feet wide, and 124 feet to the top of the dome. The front is ornamented with a portico, resting on 18 massive Ionic columns. The Sub-Treasury of tlie United States, on Wall and Nassau streets, is built of white marble, in the Doric style. It cost, including the ground, $1,195,000. The Hall of Justice, or the Tombs’^ on Centre street, between Leonard and Franklin, includes 3C6 THE GREAT REPUBLIC the halls of the Court of Sessions, and the police courts, and the city prison. The prison contains 150 cells. The building is in the Egyp- tian style of architecture, is constructed of light granite, and is 253 feet long, by 200 wide.^ The Literary and Scientific institutions are numerous. There are about 260 free schools in the city, 89 of which are primary, and 15 for colored children. The buildings used are mostly of brick, are large, and are provided with every convenience. The annual atten- dance is about 200,000. They are liberally supported by the city. Besides these, a number of private institutions are supported in part by the city. The University of New Yo7'k occupies a gothic building of white marble, on University place, opposite Washington Square. It was founded in 1831. It has about 25 professors and tutors, and about 336 students. Its library contains over 5000 volumes. The New York Free College, Lexington avenue and 23d street, is a handsome building, erected in 1848. The students, whose number is limited to 1000, are chosen from the pupils of the public schools only, and here receive a thoroughly collegiate education free of charge. The Cooper Institute, on Astor place, is an imposing building of brown stone, - erected at a cost of $600,000, and presented to the city of New York by Peter Cooper, Esq. It contains a free reading-room and library, and affords a free education for the poorer classes in the practical arts and sciences. One of its departments is a school of design for wmmen. The basement is occupied by an immense lecture-room. The General Theological Seminary, West 20th street, between 9th and 10th ave- nues, is the principal school of the Protestant Episcopal Church. The other institutions of importance are Columbia College, 49th street, be- i tween Madison and 4th avenues ; the Lyceum of Natural History, the Union Theological Seminary, the New York Historical Society, the American Geographical and Statistical Society, the New York Law Institute, the College of St. Francis Xavier, the College of Physicians and Surgeons, the College of Pharmacy, and Rutgers^ Female College. The Libraries are excellent. The principal is the Astor Library, founded by John Jacob Astor, and enlarged by his son William B. Astor. The collection numbers over 150,000 volumes. It is free to the public, and is open daily (Sundays and holidays excepted), from 9 to 5 o’clock. . The books cannot be taken from the reading-room. The Mercantile Library, in Clinton Hall, Astor place, contains about 90,000 volumes. Its privileges are extended only to members, who ^EW YORK. 367 ACADEMY OF DESIGN. pay a small subscription annually. The Society Library, 67 Univer- sity place, contains over 55,000 volumes, and consists of one of the most valuable collections of books in the city. Its privileges are limited to members and such friends as they may introduce. The JVew York Historical Libro,ry, 2d avenue and 11th street, contains over 30,000 volumes, and a valuable collection of coins and antiqui- ties. The others are the Apprentices^ Library, 18,000 volumes; American Institute Library, 10,000 volumes; City Library, 5000 volumes; Law Institute Library ; Young Mevis Christian Associa- tion Library , ohoxxi 15,000 volumes; General Theological Seminary Library, 18,000 volumes; and the Library of the Union Theological Seminary, 26,000 volumes. The Art Galleries are, the National Academy of Design, whose elegant hall, at the corner of 4th avenue and 23d street, forms one of the chief ornaments of the city ; and the Artists’ Fund Society. The monuments, fountains, etc., are few in number, and insignifi- cant in appearance. The principal are the Worth Monument, at the intersection of Broadway and 5th avenue; and the Martyrs’ Monu- ment, in Trinity Church-yard. The churches are numerous and represent every denomination of Christians. Many are magnificent structures, erected at great ex- 368 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. pciise and in the highest style of art. The principal is Trinity Church, Protestant Episcopal, on Broadway, opposite Wall street. It was founded in 1696, and the present is the third edifice which has marked the site, the others having been destroyed by fire. Tlie present church Avas begun in 1839, and completed in 1846. It is 192 feet by 80 feet, and 60 feet high. The steeple is 284 feet high, and from it the best view of the city and suburbs, the bay, etc., is to be obtained. The church is of brown stone, and is beautifully orna- mented with carvings, sculptures, stained-glass windows, etc. The spire contains a clock and a fine chime of bells. ‘ The church is situ- ated in the midst of an old grave-yard, which is one of the most inter- esting spots in the city. Trinity Church is the richest church in the Union, its property being estimated at over $60,000,000. Grace Church, Protestant Episcopal, Broadway and 10th street, is a beautiful structure of . light-colored stone, built in 1845. The interior is very fine. The others, conspicuous for their elegance and splendor, are St. Patrick’s Cathedral (Roman Catholic), now building, on 5th ave- nue and 50th street, St. George’s, Trinity Chapel, St. Paul’s (Metho- dist), St. Stephen’s (Roman Catholic), and the Temple Emmanuel (Jewish). The Bible House, occupying the square bounded by 3d and 4th avenues, and 8th and 9th streets, is a massive brick struc- ture, and is the property, and the scene of the operations, of the American Bible Society. Upwards of 500 operatives are employed here. The Qhari table and Benevolent Institutions are numerous, and of high and useful character. The New York Hospital, on West 59th near the Park, the Institution for the Blind, the Deaf and Dumb Asy- lum, the Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, the New York Orphan Asylum (besides which nearly all the religious denominations have similar institutions of their own), the Bellevue Hospital, St. Luhds Hospital, the Five Points Mission, the Home of Industry, the New York Juvenile Asylum, the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, the American Female Guardian Society, the Eye and Ear Infirmary, the City Dispensaries (of Avhich there are 8), and the Dying-in Hospitals, are the principal. Large sums are annually expended for charitable and benevolent purposes, by the city and the citizens. The prisons of the city, Avith the exception of the Tombs, are located on Blackwell’s Island. The city also provides a refuge for juvenile delinquents on Randall’s Island, and a hospital for emigrants on Ward’s Island. All of these are provided Avith splendid and spacious buildings. NEW POST-OFFICE, BROADWAY, NEW YORK. ^ ’ , , t » -: .L^ ■ V . «»<•> ■ v' : H I.-... -I •, ■ ■ i^;ips^;j/I V*’' oi' •; .-•Bj ■: -. "’w ." : .‘'V' ku i :-:i j .a . ’ii> j>r^ ,:vv>T , :. , ,/ '... ■•«. 'r ^ ■, - •=' . :,' , .: •,> ■;:; ’V,fe v ;■. ■ -'■■.■-> ■ ■: .■ '-K ,.«.;;-v » ■; - ■ "■■' I y ^ i-, ',, ..-» •■ 4r*!^*- ' r;, ’ ■■' •:.. -w ;,■>/; ; • 'i'.<£ ;»<■ , < -^-1 : ^ ■■.•ii.ui' W-' --.r-'K' ^ ‘ , ..; ■ H s.iL- ~:, -■. -. y;' ^ jU^ik yaiy- .. ; .- vv. -. V ■ : . • k ■ ■ ' : - '■•• • ^ -iniu ’ ■ i ' .. r ... ■ 'V . .. - ■■ . ;,, ,- .- , ,, ■ .'. ’-•- '•?■■■ > -iHiu ■ ■ ■ ■»-.•? •V-K«J« !^!lk! ; • ’' -‘’ '■■■ ' • ’ ■ V ’:’ ' ' ’ '''.'*i. y:. '.-•'■k- -. - 15 ^ /yWaWf' B ■• '.“k : • '■ V -■’ '- .: . it -^i*- ■■ •■ i 'p U. V.: ■’ : i"- ■‘■>" i'' ' ^ , ■ ■'" - •-> 1 :Jv,.. ;: . .< „ I,.- - .; ’jk. . - > - '■ c.ira, ■. ki- -jJ * ’V- ' »■*! . B V- * ^ .K. - ^ “i k • ■ . . ’, .;>■ .y :■ '^<;i -i'-t iv-vr: ' ,;^v. ...' ia . c.k , , f V-"' :■;: ‘„. ..a- > ^ ^'‘ ^ ... -rrvH.:-..-. '•..'•^! •. V.:ii' ■ a---. .-Jky-iili! •^7' ''B • t -V -r i " • '.^1 ■■■^’' -!'■ i'i-xijs !■ - yy. ■-. i - 4 ^.. . y*. t KEW YORK. 369 The cemeteries lie out of the city limits, with the exception of that l)elonging to Trinity Parish, which is located on the Hudson, near Washington Heights. The others number 12, and are situated on Long Island and in Westchester county. The principal are Green- wood and Calvary on Long Island, and Woodlawn in Westchester county. The journals of ~New York stand at the head of the American press. The principal dailies are the Herald, Tribune, Times, World, Sun, Standard, Evening Post, Express, and Evening Mail, There are 140 newspapers and periodicals published in the city, claiming a circula- tion of over 5000 copies. New York is also the principal place in the Union for the publication of books. The office of the New York Herald is one of the handsomest buildings in the city. The city is supplied with pure water by means of the Croton Aque- duct, from the Croton River, a small stream in Westchester county. The total length of the Aqueduct, to the reservoirs in the Central Park, is about 38 miles. It was begun' in 1837, and completed in 1842, at an expense of $10,375,000. It is the largest and most mag- nificent of all modern constructions of its class, and supplies the city with an abundance of pure and delightful drinking water. The water IS conducted by the Aqueduct from the Croton River to the reservoirs at the High Bridge (on which bridge it crosses the Harlem River) and those in the Central Park, from which it is distributed ov^er the city in large iron pipes, there being a small distributing reservoir on 5th avenue, at the corner of 42d street. The buildings, both public and private, of the city are thoroughly supplied with water. Up- wards of 300 miles of water pipes have been laid through the streets, and every portion of the city is well supplied in this respeet. The capacity of all the reservoirs is nearly 2,000,000,000 of gallons. The city is lighted with gas, which is supplied by several private companies. There are upwards of 15,000 gas lamps in the streets, which burn from dlisk until dawn. The city is divided into 22 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Common Council, elected by the people. The Mayor is chosen once in two years. The council is divided into a Board of Aldermen, 17 in number, elected for two years, and a Board of Councilmen, 25 in number, chosen annually. The police force consists of a Board of Commissioners, to whom the direct control of the force is entrusted a Marshal, and about 2100 offi *ers and men. They are dressed in a neat uuiform of dark blue cloth, are armed with clubs and rev^olvers 24 * 370 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. high bhidge, hakle^i. ami are drilled reg.darly in military tactics. There are 3d precincte, including the detective squad. The force is charged wit^ the duty of guarding about 300 day and 400 night posts, about 425 miles of streets, and 14 miles of piers. There are 25 station houses fitted up with lodging rooms for the men, and having rooms also for the ac- commodation of wandering or destitute persons, large numbers of whom thus receive temporary shelter. „ , ^ The Fire Department is under the control of a Board of Commis- sioners. It consists of a Chief Engineer, an Assistant Engineer, District Engineers, and over 500 men and 46 horses. There are steam fire engines, 4 hand engines, and 12 hook and ladder companies in the department. The men are regularly enlisted, and are paid by the city. There is a fire alarm telegraph, with about 800 stations, c-vtcnding through the city, and it is so arranged that the most inex- perienced person can at once telegraph the exact location of a fire to ill the engine houses in the city. It requires but 15 seconds in the day, and one minute at night, to get the engines ready for acOon and start them on the way to a fire. A system of fire patrols is main- tained by the city and by the insurance companies. Tliere are also a number of lofty look-out towers, from which a constant watch is ’ ' Aicordiiig to the United States census of 1870, the population of New York is 942,337. There can be no doubt, however, that the NEW YORK. 371 actual population is over 1,000,000. The rate at which the city has grown is shown by the following table : Year. 1656 , 1756 , 1800 , 1820 , 1830 , 1840 , 1850 , 1860 , Population. . 1,000 . 10,381 . 60,489 . 123,706 312,852 515,547 814,287 On the 12th of September, 1609, Henry Hudson, an English navi- gator in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered Manhattan Island. The Dutch made a temporary settlement on the island in 1612, and established a permanent colony in 1623, when a fort was built, and the settlement named Xew Amsterdam. The first white child, Sarah Rapelje, was born in the same year, and in 1626, Peter Minuits, the Dutch Governor, arrived. In 1633, a new fort was begun on the present site of the Battery. Previous to 1638 to- bacco was cultivated and slavery was introduced. In 1656, there were 1000 inhabitants and 1 20 houses in the town ; in 1658, wharfs were constructed, and in 1662 a windmill was built. In August, 1664, an English fleet arrived in the bay, and took possession of the town in the name of the King of England. Ko resistance was offered, and the name of the town was changed to Kew York, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II., to whom Charles II. had granted the entire province. In July, 1673, the Dutch fleet recaptured the town, drove out the English, and named it Kew Orange. The peace between Great Britain and the Dutch, which closed the war, restored the town to the English, November 10th 1674, and the name of Yew York was resumed. The Dutch Gov- ernment was replaced by the English system under a liberal charter, and during the remainder of the seventeenth century the town grew rapidly in population and size. In 1700, Yew York contained 4500 white, and 750 black inhabitants, and about 750 dwellings. In 1689, there was a brief disturbance, known as Leisler’s Rebellion. In 1702, a terrible fever was brought from St. Thomas', and carried off 600 persons, one-tenth of the whole population. In 1696, the first Trinity Church was built, and in 1719, the first Presbyterian Church was built. In 1711, a slave market was established; in 1725, the Yew York Gazette^ the fifth of the Colonial newspapers, was estab- 372 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. lished • in 1732, stages ran to Boston, the journey occupying 14 days; and in 1735, the people made their first manifestation of hostility to Great Britain, which wiw drawn forth by the infamous prosecution by the officers of the Crown of Rip Van Dam, who had been the acting Governor of the town. In 1741, a severe fire occurred in the lower part of the city, destroying the old Dutch fort and the Dutch church, and in the same year the yellow fever raged with great violence. The principal event of the year, however, was the so-called negro plot lor the destruction of the town. Though the reality of the plot was never proved, the greatest alarm prevailed ; the fire in the fort was declared to be the work of the negroes, numbers of whom were arrested ; and upon the sole evidence of a single servant girl a number of the pwr wretches were hanged. Several whites were also charged with being accomplices of the negroes. One of these,Mohn Ury, a Roman Catho- lic priest, and, as is now believed, an innocent man, was hanged in August. In the space of six months 154 negroes and 20 whites were arrested ; 20 negroes were hanged, 13 were burned at the stake, and 78 were transported. The rest were discharged. In 1750 a theatre was established, and in 1755 St. Paul’s Church was built. New York took a prominent part in the resistance of the Colonies to the ao-o-ressions of the mother country, and, in spite of the presence of a barge number of Tories, responded cordially to the call of the Colonies for men and money during the war. On the 26th of August, 1776, the battle of Long Island having been lost by the Americans, the city was occupied by the British, who held it until the close of the war. It suffered very much at their hands Nearly all the churches, except the Episcopal, were occupied by them as prisons, riding-schools, and .stables; and the schools and colle<.es were closed. On the 21st of September, 1776, a firedestroyed 493 houses, all the west side of Broadway from Whitehall to Barclay street, or about one-eighth of the city ; and on the 7th of August, 1778, about 300 buildings on East River were burned. On the 2oth ot November, 1783, the British .evacuated the city, which was at once occupied by the American army. ^ ^ xt n i • u In 1785 the first Federal Congress met in the City Hall, which stood at the corner of Wall and Nassau streets, and on the 30th of April 1789, George Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States on the same spot. By 1791 the city had spread to the lower end of the present City Hall Park, and was extending along the Boston Road (Bowery) and Broadway. In 1799, the Manhattan NEW YORK. 373 XJXIOX SQUARE. STATUE OF WASHINGTOFT. / Company, for supplying the city , with fresh water, was chartered. On the 20th of September, 1803, the corner-stone of the City Hall was laid. Free schools were established in 1805. In the same year the yellow fever raged with violence, and had the effect of spreading the population by driving them up the island, where many located them- selves permanently. In 1807, Robert Fulton navigated the first steamboat from New York to Albany. The War of 1812—15 for a while stopped the growth of the city, but after the return of peace, its onward progress was resumed. In August, 1812, experimental gas lamps were placed in the Park, though the use of gas for purposes of lighting was not begun until 1825. In 1822, the yellow fever again drove the population higher up the island, and caused’ a rapid growth of the city above Canal street. In 1825, the Erie Canal was completed. This great work, by placing the trade of the West in the hands of New York, gave a pov/erful impetus to the growth of the city, which was now increasing at the rate of from 1000 to 1500 houses per year. In 1832 and 1834, the cholera raged severely, carrying off upwards of 4484 persons in the two years. In 1835, the great fire^^ occurred. This terrible conflagra- tion (December 16th) laid 648 houses, almost the entire business portion of the city, south of Wall street, and east of Broadway, in zu THE GUEAT IIEI'UBLIC. ashes, and inflicted a loss of more than $18,000,000 upon the city. New York rose from tliis disaster with wonderful energy and rapidity, but only to meet, in 1837, the most terrible commercial crisis that had over been known in the country. Even this did not check the growth of the city, the population increasing 110,100 between 1830 and 1840. In 1842, the Croton water was introduced. In 1849 and 1854, the cholera again appeared, killing over 5400 persons. In 1852, the first street railway was built. In 1858, the Central Park was begun. ^ Since then the city has grown rapidly in extent and population, and is fast becoming one of the most beautiful and brilliant in the world. It possesses every advantage for rapid improvement, and is moving on surely to the accomplishment of a glorious destiny, BROOKLYN, The second city in the State, and the third city in the United States, is situated in Kings county, on the western end of Long Island, v immediately opposite the city of New York, from which it is separated by the East River. The city extends from Newtown Creek, including Green Point, to the boundary below Greenwood, a direct distance of 71 miles, and nearly 10 miles following the low-water line. From the river’ it stretches back inland for about 4 miles. The city proper is divided into the Western District (W. D.), Williamsburg, Greenpoint, the Eastern District (E. D.), and South Brooklyn. The ground on which the city is located is for the most part flat and low, and was formerly marshy, but a portion of the city is built upon a line of bold heights overlooking the bay, and commanding a flue view of New York ancf the harbor. The general appearance of the city is handsome and attractive. It is well built, and some portions of it will compai'e favorably with New York. The streets are broad, straight, and well- paved, and many of them are delightfully shaded with noble trees. Brooklyn covers nearly as much ground as New York, but its popula- tion is only about one-third as great, and is not so much crowded. Small houses are the rule in this city, large residences bmng rare, except in the wealthier quarters. Many of the streets are lined with tasteful cottage residences, in front of which are yards of considerable size, ornamented with flowers, shrubbery, etc. The site of Brooklyn was originally very irregular, but the constant improvements which have been carried on during the growth of h > city have very much changed the primitive appearance of the land. Immediately opposite the lower end of New York, is a ridge 70 feet NEW YORK. 3t5 above the level of the East River, known as The Heights.^’ This is the wealthiest and most fashionable quarter of Brooklyn, though it is now rapidly giving way to business edifices. The principal tho- roughfare is Fulton street, stretching from the Fulton Ferry to the City Hall, from which point it turns abruptly to the eastward, and extends to the city limits, under the name of Fulton avenue. It is enclosed as far as the City Hall, about one mile, with large and hand- some stores and offices. From the City Hall eastward, it is less sub- stantially built. The proximity of Brooklyn to New York and its facilities for economical living have been the chief causes of its rapid growth. Thousands of persons living in Brooklyn conduct their business in New York, and pass and repass between the cities daily. The trade of Brooklyn is mostly local. The city is largely engaged in manu- factures, but its productions are sold chiefly through New York. Large quantities of tobacco are manufactured here, and the city has a large trade in flour, sugar and whiskey. The public buildings are among the handsomest in the country. The City Hally at the southern end of Fulton street, is an imposing edifice of white marble, 162 by 102 feet, and 75 feet high, surmounted by a dome, the top of which is 153 feet from the ground. It was erected at a cost of $200,000. Just in the rear of the City Hall, and fronting on Joralemon street, is the County Court House, 140 feet wide, and 315 feet deep, built of white marble, in the Corinthian style of architecture. It cost $543,000. The Academy of Music, and the Mercantile Library, on Montague street, are built in the modern Gothic style, of a fine quality of brick ornamented with stone, and are among the handsomest buildings in the city. There are nearly 200 churches in Brooklyn, in consequence of which the place is frequently called The City of Churches.^^ Some of these are magnificent edifices, but the majority are simple and modest in their appearance. They are all in prosperous condition, and there are, perhaps, few cities in the land whose church finances make so favorable a showing as those of Brooklyn. The city is well supplied with public schools of eveny grade, and contains a number of thriving private schools and academies. The average attendance is over 50,000. There are also schools for colored children. During the year ending February 1st, 1864, the amount expended by the city for purposes of education was $229,845.61. The Literary Institutions are of a high character. The Mercantile THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 37 G Librarif coiitiiiiis about 35,000 volumes, and is sup[)orted by the sub- scriptions of its members. The Long Island Historical Society pos- sesses a fine collection of 15,000 volumes, besides numerous manu- scripts and historical relics. The United States Lyceum is located in the Xavy Yard, and possesses a large and valuable collection of curi- osities, geological and mineralogical specimens. Tlie Lyceum, in Washington street, possesses a splendid granite building and a fine lecture hall. The Association holds two exhibitions in each year. Besi des these, are the Philharmonic Society, and several other societies devoted to literary, scientific, and musical ends. The Charitable Institutions are the Long Island College Hospital ; the City Hospital, In Raymond street, with beds for 170 patients; the Graham Institution, for the relief of respectable aged, indigent females; the Orphan Asylum of the City of Brooklyn, which shelters about 150 children; the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, a noble charity, which has in a single year rendered substantial aid to 8000 persons; the Marine Hospital, belonging to the United States; the Church Charity Foundation, for the relief of indigent and desti- tute persons ; and the Brooklyn and Homeopathic Dispensaries, Be- sides these, are a number of religious and private charities, which are well sustained. There are several small squares and parks in the city, the principal of which is Washington Park (Fort Greene), occupying an elevated plateau northeast of the City Hall. During the Revolutionary war, the site of this park was occupied by extensive fortifications designed to cover the Long Island approaches to the city of New York. The ruins of Fort Greene, the principal work, still remain. The park is tastefully laid out, and commands a good view of the city. During the last few years, a large park, known as Prospect Park, has been laid out in the southwestern portion of the city. It contains 550 acres, and promises to be one of the handsomest parks in the Union. The United States Navy Yard is situated within the city limits, on the south side of Wallabout Bay, which lies in the northeast part of Brooklyn. It occupies about 40 acres of ground, enclosed by a stone wall, and contains a large dry-dock, constructed at a cost of $1,000,000, several extensive shops for the construction of vessels, machinery, arms, etc. It is one of the principal naval stations of the Republic. To the north of the Navy Yard, stands the Marine Hospital, in the midst of extensive grounds. During the war of the Revolution, the NEW YORK. sn U-lSITED states navy yard, bkooklyn. British prison ships were anchored in Wallabout Bay. Large num- bers of American prisoners of war were confined in these hulks, and it is said that 11,500 of them perished from ill usage and impure air. They were hastily buried on the shore of the bay. By 1808, their bones were entirely exposed, the tide having washed out their graves. In that year, their bones were collected and deposited in 13 coffins, inscribed with the names of the 13 original States, and deposited in a vault in Hudson avenue, near the present Navy Yard. The Govern- ment property at the Navy Yard, not counting the shipping, is esti- mated at $25,000,000. The Atlantic Bock, in South Brooklyn, opposite Governor’s Island, is a very extensive work. It embraces within the piers an area of nearly 41 acres, and can accommodate ships of the largest size. It was built by a company incorporated in 1840, with a capital of $1,- 000,000. The outer pier extends for 3000 feet along Buttermilk Channel, and is covered with large granite warehouses. It is the centre of one of the largest grain trades in the world. The cemeteries of Brooklyn are used by that city in common with 378 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. New York. The principal is Grreenwoodj in the extreme southern part of Brooklyn, about 3 miles from Fulton Ferry. The street cars run to the gates. It is beautifully laid out, contains 242 acres of ground, and is one of the most beautiful cemeteries in the world. Many of its monuments are noted as works of art. It commands ex- tensive views of the ocean and of the bay and city of New York. The cemeteries of the Evergi'eens and Cypress Hills lie about 4 miles to the eastward of Greenwood. Brooklyn is connected with New York by numerous ferries. It is lighted throughout with gas, and is abundantly supplied ‘with pure water from the Ridgewood water-works. There is also a steam fire department, and an efficient police force. The city is divided into 20 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Common Council. The population in 1870 was 396,300. Brooklyn was first settled in 1625, by a band of Walloons, sent out as agriculturists by the Dutch West India Company. These settled on the shores of the bay now used by the Navy Yard, and gave to their settlement the name of Waalboght, or*WallooiPs Bay, which has since been corrupted into Wallabout Bay. From this beginning sprang a straggling town, to which the Dutch gave the name of Breuckelen, from a village in Holland. The first white man who actually settled within the limits of the present city of Brooklyn, was George Jansen de Rapelje. The Dutch Government bought the title to the land from the Canarsee Indians, a large tribe which dwelt in the southern part of what is now Kings county. In 1641, the Dutch allowed the English to settle on Long Island, on the condition of their taking the oath of allegiance to the States General. In 1654, the erection of the first church was begun by order of Governor Stuy- vesant. It was located at Flatbush. Previous to this, the settlers on Long Island attended worship in New Amsterdam. The history of Brooklyn until the period of the Revolution is un- eventful. During that struggle, it was the scene of several important events. On the 26th of August, 1776, the battle of Long Island was fought, the battlefield being within the present city limits in the direc- tion of Flatbush. The American army was defeated and compelled to abandon Long Island. The occupation of New York by the British forces was the result. Brooklyn grew very slowly after its settlement. In 1698, it contained 509 persons ; in 1800, 3298 ; in 1820, 7175. In 1834, it was incor- porated as a city. In 1855, it was consolidated with the city of NEW YORK. 379 Williamsburg and the town of Bushwick, including the village of Greenpoint, under the general name of Brooklyn. BUFFALO, The third city in the State, is situated in Erie county, at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, in latitude 42° 53^ N., longitude /8° 55^ It is 352 miles by the Erie Canal, and 300 miles by the New Y^ork Central Railway, west of Albany, and 460 miles northwest of New York by railway. It is connected with Albany and the Hudson River by the Erie Canal, and has railway connections with all parts of the Union. The water front of the city is 5 miles long, half of it lying along Lake Erie, and the rest along the Niagara River. Buffalo Creek extends through the southern portion of the city, and forms a part of the harbor. The harbor of Buffalo is now one of the best in the great chain of lakes. The present harbor is formed by Buffalo Creek, the Blackwell Canal, the Erie and Ohio Basins, and North Buffalo Harbor. Buffalo Creek is navi^ble for more than 2 miles from its entrance into the lake for vessels drawing 12 feet of water. Nearly parallel to, and from 200 to 800 feet from it, is the Blackwell Ship- Canal, one mile and a quarter long, and connected with it by 4 ship- canal slips. About 1 mile from the mouth of the creek, and connected with it by a ship-canal slip, is the Ohio Basin, containing 10 acres. A pier or breakwater on the south side of the creek, and a sea wall next the lake, give ample protection from storms. On the end of this pier, extending about 1500 feet into the lake, is a mole on which is the Government light-house. On the north side of the creek is another pier, extending into the lake about 500 feet. At nearly right angles to the south pier, and distant from it and the north pier 600 feet, com- mences the Erie Basin Pier, extending towards North Buffalo Harbor 5000 feet, and about 1000 feet distant from the shore line of the lake. The intermediate space between this pier and the shore line, 1000 by 5000 feet, is called the Erie Basin Harbor, which has sufficient depth of water for vessels drawing 10 feet. At the lower end of the Erie Basin sea-wall is a mole, and vessels can enter it at this point, or from the entrance through Buffalo Creek. About three-quarters of a mile from the mole of the Erie Basin Pier is the Black Rock Pier, enclosing a portion of the Niagara River, about 2 miles long and from 200 to 600 feet Avide, forming Avhat is called ‘ Black Rock Harbor.’ The Avater in this harbor is shoal, and only vessels of light draught can enter it. 380 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. VIEW FROM WEST POINT. It forms for more than a mile the Erie Canal, and boats drawing 6 feet of water can pass through it. Buffalo Creek, the Blackwell Canal and slips, the Ohio and Erie Basin harbors, give abundance of sea-room to accommodate a fleet of 300 sail and steam vessels. The Erie Canal from Buffalo to Tonawanda, a distance of 12 miles, is nearly parallel with the Niagara River, and for a very considerable portion of the distance is only separated from it by an embankment of from 100 to 400 feet in width. The Niagara River from North Buffalo to Tona- wanda, a distance of 8 miles, has from 16 to 25 feet of water, with good bottom for anchorage and wide river for a harbor. The rapid growth of the West and the large augmentation in the receipt of cereals have given rise to immense grain warehouses, called elevators, which were introduced to facilitate and cheapen the transhipment of this kind of produce. There are now built and in successful operation 27 of these grain warehouses, besides 2 floating elevators. They have a storage capacity for 5,830,000 bushels, and have a transfer capacity equal to 2,808,000 bushels in each 24 hours. They were first intro- duced in 1842. There are 6 ship-yards in the city, 4 of which have NEW YORK. 381 dry-docks. They will admit the largest vessels navigating the lakes. There is a marine railway and a very powerful derrick for handling boilers and heavy machinery.’’ The position of Buffalo has placed in its hands the immense commerce of the Great Lakes and the Erie Canal, and its trade has been greatly increased by the great lines of railways which connect it with all parts of the United States and Canada. Its grain trade is enormous, and is growing rapidly. In 1863, the total number of vessels entering and clearing at the port of Buffalo was 15,376. These had a total tonnage of 6,757,903. In the same year the trade of Buffalo by lake, rail, and canJl amounted to $256,214,614. In the same year there were received at this port grain and flour estimated as wheat to the amount of 64,735,510 bushels. It is not an unusual sight during the season of navigation to see a fleet of 150 sailing vessels and steamers enter Buffalo harbor from the west during a period of 24 hours. The manufacturing interests are increasing rapidly. Iron, leather, agricultural implements, and oil refining are the most important. It is believed that Buffalo will soon rank next to Pittsburg in its iron manufactures. Its proximity to the iron and coal regions of New York, Pennsylvania aild Ohio afford it great facilities for the econo- mical working of this metal. The city is well built. The streets are broad and well paved, and as a rule intersect each other at right angles. The stores and business houses are substantial, and in many cases handsome. The business portion of the city lies near the water. Farther back are the streets devoted to private residences. These are generally well shaded, and are lined with tasteful and sometimes with elegant dwellings. There are six public squares, viz : Niagara, Lafayette Place, Washington, Franklin, Delaware Place, and Terrace Parks. The public buildings include the City Hall, 2 Court-Houses, the City PenitentiaTy, the City Jail, the Custom House, the State Arsenal, and the building of the Young Men's Christian Association. Among the Literary and Benevolent Institutions are the Buffalo University and Medical School; the Young Alen's Association, with a library of over 13,000 volumes ; the Buffalo Female Acad- &my; the 0% and Marine Hospitals ; St. Vincent’s Orphan Asylum ; and the Hospital of the Sisters of Charity. All of these are provided with handsome and commodious buildings. There are upwards of 70 churches in the city, several of which are noted for their beauty and grandeur. 3S2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water, and its thorouglifarcs are traversed by street railways. The city is divided into 13 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council chosen by the people. There are over 30 public schools, besides a Central High School, and a number of private institutions in the city. There are 18 publications issued here, 6 of which are daily, 8 weekly, and 3 semi-weekly newspapers. The population in 1870 was 117,115. Buffalo was laid out in 1801 by the Holland Company, and in 1812 it became a military post, at which time it contained about 200 houses. In December, 1813, it was captured and burned by the British and Indians, and only 2 houses left standing. Congress made a donation of $80,000 to the settlers to assist them in rebuilding the place. In 1832, it was incorporated as a city, and in 1852, the charter was amended so as to include Black Rock. Since 1814, the growth of the city has been very rapid. It contained only 2095 inhabitants in 1820, its wonderful growth being confined almost entirely to half a century. ROCHESTER, In Monroe county, is the fifth city in importance in the State. It is situated on both sides of the Genesee River, 7 miles from its entrance into Lake Ontario, 230 miles west by north of Albany, and 68 miles east-northeast of Buffalo. Latitude 43° 8' N., longitude 77° 51' W. The ground uj)on which the city stands is generally flat, and the cor- porate limits cover an area of 8 square miles, nearly all ofi which is closely built up. The streets are broad and straight, and are well paved. In the business sections are many handsome buildings, and the private residences are generally tasteful and often elegant. The Genesee River is navigable to the city limits, but the docks are situated at the mouth of the river, 7 miles distant. These are con- nected with the city by railway, and by lines of steamers. Rochester controls ^ large trade on Lake Ontario. The Erie Canal passes through the city, crossing the river on a fine stone aqueduct. The Genesee Valley Canal connects with it here, and extends southward from Rochester to the Alleghany River. The Erie and I7ew York Central railways and their branches have added much to the wealth and imj)ortance of the city. The unlimited water-power afforded by the Genesee, has been one of the chief sources of the prosperity of Rochester. Within a distance of 3 miles, the river has a descent of 226 feet, which it accomplishes in 3 perpendicular falls of 95, 20 and 75 feet. The upper falls lie within the city limits and are noted for their beauty. NEW YORK. 383 In consequence of the possession of this water-power, Rochester is now one of the principal manufacturing cities in the Union. The flour mills are the most extensive in the country. Shoes, iron ware, wooden ware, clothing, etc., are extensively manufactured. There is also an extensive trade in produce, which is collected here for shipment to other markets. The. nurseries of Rochester are famous, and are unsurpassed. The pivblic buildings of the city are handsome. The principal arc the City Hall, and the Arcade, the latter containing the Post Office and other Federal offices. The Educational and literary Institutions are the University of Rochester, with a fine edifice of brown stone, and an endowment of $200,000 ; the Rochester Theological Seminary, under the control of the Baptists; the Athenceum ; the FMic Library; and the Free Aca- demy, There over 20 public schools, in excellent condition, and a number of private schools. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions are St. Marfs Hospi- tal, the City Hospital, the Industrial School, the Home for the Friend.- less, an Insane Asylum, two Orphan Asylums, and the Western House of Refuge, for boys, belonging to the State. There are over 45 churches in the city, many of them elegant structures. The city is well supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. Street railways aflbrd communication between its various parts. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 62,315. Rochester was settled in 1812, and was named in honor of Colonel Nathaniel Rochester, one of the pioneers of the city. It was incor- porated as a city in 1834. TROY, The sixth city in the State, lies on both sides of the Hudson River, at the mouth of Poestenkill Creek, at the head of steamboat naviga- tion, 6 miles northeast of Albany, and 151 miles north of New York. The principal portion of the city lies immediately along the river, for about 3 miles, communication between the two banks being main- tained by means of a bridge and ferry boats. The city lies in a plain. At the southern end of the east side rises a bold hill, called Mount Ida, from which an extensive view may be gained of Troy, the river, and the surrounding country. In the northern part of the city is a rugged mass of rock, 200 feet high, called Mount Olympus. 384 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The city is regularly laid out. The streets, 60 feet in width, cross each other at right angles, except the principal business thoroughfare, River street, which follows the course of the Hudson, and is lined with large warehouses and hotels. The streets are well paved, as a rule, are handsomely shaded, and are lighted with gas. The city is well built, and those portions occupied with private residences are very beautiful. There are several handsome parks or public squares in the city limits. Troy is favorably situated for commerce, and has a large trade along the river, and with the interior. It has railway communication with all parts of the country ; the Hudson gives it water transporta- tion to ^^ew York and the ocean ; the Erie Canal connects it with the Great Lakes, and the Champlain Canal with the lower St. Law- rence. Troy is extensively engaged in manufactures. Flour, paper, cotton and woollen goods, leather, nails and iron ware, including rail- road iron, carpets, brushes, and stone ware are made in large quanti- ties. The public buildings are handsome. The most imposing is the Court House, a fine marble edifice in the Doric style. The Educational and Literary Institutions are, the Troy Academy ; the affording a thorough education in the exact sciences ; the Troy Female Seminary, established by Mrs. Emma Wil- lard in 1821 ; the Lyceum, and the Young 3IeFs Association. There are two public schools to each ward, besides a number of night schools. There are also several flourishing private schools. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions are well supported. The principal are the Troy Hospital, the Marshal Infirmary, the Troy Orphan Asylum, and St. Mary's Orphan Asylum. There are a number of churches in Troy, some of which are amongst the handsomest in the Union. The city is supplied with pure water from a neighboring stream. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is provided with street railways, an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. The population in 1870 was 45,481. In 1720, Derick Vanderheyden acquired from Van Rensselaer the title to 400 acres of land, now included in Troy, at an annual rent of 3f bushels of wheat and 4 fat fowls. The tract was converted into a farm, and so used until 1786, when a company of New Englanders induced its owners to lay it out as a town. It was surveyed between 1786 and 1790, and was variously known a.s ^M^erry Hook^^^ Van- NEW YORK. 385 derheyden’s Ferry/’ and Ashley’s Ferry.” In 1789, it contained about a dozen dwellings, and 5 small stores. A meeting of the free- holders was held on the 5th of January, 1789, and the place was named Troy. Until the completion of the Erie Canal it was a mere village. It owes its prosperity in a large measure to that great work. It was incorporated as a city in 1816. West Troy, on the west bank of the Hudson, in Albany county, and Green Island village, on an island of that name, above West Troy, are but suburbs of the city of Troy. SYRACUSE, The seventh city in the State, is situated in Onondaga county, at the southern end of Onondaga Lake, and on a creek bearing the same name. It is 148 miles west by north of Albany. The site is nearly level. The city is regularly laid out in squares, and the streets are broad and well paved. The business streets are lined with warehouses of brick and stone, and the private streets are delightfully shaded, and are occupied with tasteful cottages, and in some cases with more pretentious dwellings. The city is connected with all parts of the country by railway ; with the Hudson and Lake Erie by the Erie Canal ; and the Oswego Canal connects it with Lake Ontario. It is the centre of a large and thriving trade. Its principal industry is the manufacture of salt, of which it is the principal seat in this country. The land in which the saline springs are found, is owned by the State, and is leased free of charge for the manufacture of salt alone. The wells are sunk, and the water pumped from them at the expense of the State, the manu- facturer paying a tax of 1 cent per bushel for this service. A few of the wells are 400 feet deep. In 1861, the total amount of salt pro- duced here was 9,053,874 bushels. The salt is fully equal in quality to the famous Turk’s Island salt. Syracuse is also largely engaged in the manufacture of machinery, steam engines, agricultural imple- ments, stoves, woollen goods, leather, and flour. The City Hall is the principal public building. Besides this the city contains 2 immense halls used for public meetings. The public schools are well conducted, and generally attended. There are several fine private schools in the city. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions consist of the Onondaga County Orphan Asylum, the Syracuse Home Association for the Relief of the Poor, and the New York State A&ylumfor Idiots, 25 386 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The churches are numerous and well supported, and are among the principal ornaments of the city. Syracuse is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is provided with street railways, is supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. The population in 1870 was 43,058. Syracuse was first settled by an Indian trader, named Ephraim Webster, who located near the mouth of Onondaga Creek in 1786. In 1788 or 1789, John Danforth located at ^^Salt Point,'' and began the manufacture of salt. The salt springs soon drew other settlers, and a town was speedily formed, which took the name of Satina, and became the most important place in the county. Syracuse, Webster's village, did not thrive as rapidly as Salina at first, but in 1829, the popu- lation of the two towns, which lay side by side, was about the same. The completion of the Erie Canal gave a great impetus to both, but Syracuse became from that date the more prominent place. In 1847, the city of Syracuse was incorporated, including in its limits the towns of Salina and Lodi. UTICA, The eighth city in the State, is situated on the south bank of the Mohawk River, in Oneida county, 95 miles west-northwest of Albany. The site is nearly level, the ground rising slightly toward the north. It is one of the handsomest ^nd best-built cities in the State or the Union. The streets are wide, well-paved, shaded with fine trees ; and the stores and residences, which are mostly of brick and stone, are substantial and showy. The public buildings are attractive, and are situated chiefly on Genesee street. The public schools are well conducted, and include all the depart- ments from the primary to a thorough academic course. Besides these the city contains several fine private schools. The State Lunatic Asylum, on the western verge of the city, is a noble institution, and is provided with handsome. edifices. There are about 26 churches, the most of which are well built and tastefully decorated. Utica is connected with the East and West by the New York Cen- tral Railway, which passes through the town. It is the ^southern terminus of the Utica and Black River Railway. The Erie Canal connects it with the Hudson and the Great Lakes, and the Chenango Canal extends from Utica to Binghampton, 97 miles. The city lies NEW YORK. 387 in the midst of a populous and fertile country, and possesses a con- siderable trade. It is also, to a limited extent, engaged in manufac- turing enterprises. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water. The population in 1870 was 28,804. Utica is built upon the site of Fort Schuyler, one of the most im- portant forts of the Revolution. The settlement of the village began soon after the close of the war; but it grew slowly. In 1813, it had but 1700 inhabitants. The completion of the Erie Canal gave it the impetus which has carried it to its present prosperity. OSWEGO, The ninth city in the State, is situated, in Oswego county, on the southeast shore of Lake Ontario, at the mouth of and on both sides of the Oswego River^ 183 miles west-northwest of Albany. Although the ninth in population, Oswego is one of the most important cities in the State. It is the largest American town on Lake Ontario. It is handsomely built. The streets are 100 feet wide, and intersect each other at right angles. The city is divided by the river into two parts, nearly equal in size, connected by bridges placed above the limits of ship navigation. The public buildings are handsome, and consist of a City Hall, Market House, Court House, Custom House, and Prison. There are 12 churches in the city. The public schools are organized under a special act of the Legis- lature, and are among the best in the State. Besides schools for each ward, there is a high school, in which the languages and higher branches of education are taught. There are several benevolent institutions in the city, the principal of which is the Orphan Asylum. The harbor of Oswego is one of the best on Lake Ontario. The mouth of the river admits vessels of the largest class navigating the lakes, and the erection of piers and a lighthouse by the United States Government, has made it one of the safest and most accessible harbors on the frontier. It combines all the advantages of canal and railway transportation with that of being the nearest lake port to tide-water. A hydraulic canal, extending along both sides of the river, is thickly lined with mills, grain elevators and warehouses, and manufacturing establishments. The Oswego River receives the waters of Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Onondaga, and several other lakes, besides numerous THE GHEA'r REPUBLIC. ;i88 OSWEGO. tributary streams. These lakes form natural reservoirs, which pre- vent floods or undue exhaustion, the extreme elevation and depression of the river not exceeding 3 feet, so that destructive freshets, so com- mon to great water-power rivers, never occur. The river falls 34 feet within the limits of the city, and thus furnishes immense water- power, but a small portion of which has been utilized. The situation of Oswego being nearer to the St. Lawrence and to New York than any other lake port, gives it peculiar advantages. It is connected with all parts of the country by rail, and with the Erie Canal and Hudson River by the Oswego Canal, which joins the Erie at Syracuse. It is the greatest wheat market in the State, and controls nearly one-half of the entire commerce of the United States with Canada. In 1862, its receipts of grain were as follows : Flour, 235,382 barrels; Wheat, 10,982,132 bushels; Corn, 4,- 528,962 bushels; Oats, 187,284 bushels; Rye, 130,175 bushels; Barley, 1,0-50,364 bushels. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water. In 1870, the population was 20,910. Oswego was originally settled by the French, who established a NEW YORK. 389 trading post there, and erected a fort, soon after the settlement of Quebec. In 1700, the English explored the country of the Five Na- tions; and in 1722, built a fort at the mouth of the river. At the outbreak* of the ^^Old French War,’^ 1753, Fort Ontario was built on the eastern bank of the river; and in 1755, another fort was built on the west bank. In the summer of 1756, the French, under Mont- calm, crossed the lake from Fort Frontenac (Kingston), captured the forts, after a three days^ siege, burned them, and withdrew. In 1758, Colonel Bradstreet, with 3350 men, crossed to Fort Frontenac, and destroyed it, and returning to Oswego, rebuilt the forts there. Fort Ontario was enlarged, and was reconstructed in the most substantial manner. In 1760, Lord Amhersfs strong army embarked from Os- wego in the expedition against Quebec. During the Revolution it remained in the hands of the British, who kept a strong garrison in it. From this point they sent out many of the marauding parties that carried the torch and sword along the frontier. They held it until 1796, when it was surrendered in accordance with the provisions of Jay^s Treaty. They destroyed the fortifications, and left it as new as though it were virgin to the white man\s tread. In 1797, Neil McMullin, a merchant of Kingston, settled on the spot, bringing with him a frame house made in Kingston. By the beginning of the second war with England, a thriving settlement had been formed there. This war greatly retarded the growth of the town, which, in May, 1814, was bombarded and captured by the British fleet under Sir James Yeo. After the return of peace, Oswego increased in size and population, but was a place of but little impor- tance until after the construction of the Welland and Oswego canals. In 1816, steam navigation was introduced on Lake Ontario, and this has contributed considerably to the growth of Oswego. The principal pursuit of its inhabitants previous to the opening of the Os- wego Canal, in 1828, was ship building. It was incorporated as a city in 1848. The other important cities and towns of the State are, Poughkeep- sie, 20,080 inhabitants; Newtown, 20,274; Auburn, 17,225; New- burg, 17,014; Elmira, 15,863; Cohoes, 15,357; Flushing, 14,600; Hempstead, 13,999; Johnson, 12,273; Lockport, 12,426; Fishkill, 11,752; Kingston, 11,820; Yonkers, 11,997. 390 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MISCELLANIES. ANCIENT LAWS .OF THE PROVINCE OF NEW YORK. The following laws are extracted from those established by the Duke of York for the government of New York, in the year 1664. This code (called the “Duke’s Laws”) was compiled under the direction of Nicolls, the first English Governor. It continued in force till the period of the Revolution in England, and ceased to have effect in 1691, when the General Assembly of the Province began to exercise a new legislative power under the sovereignty of King William : Capital Laws.—\. If any person within this Government shall by direct ex- prest, impious or presumptuous ways, deny the true God and his Attributes, he shall be put to death. 2. If any person shall Commit any wilful and premeditated Murder, he shall be put to Death. 3. If any person Slayeth another with Sword or Dagger who hath no weapon to defend himself ; he shall be put to Death. 4. If any person forcibly Stealeth or carrieth aw^ay any mankind ; He shall be put to death. 5. If any person shall bear false witness maliciously and on purpose to take away a man’s life, He shall be put to Death. 6. If any man shall Traitorously deny his Majestyes right and titles to his Crownes and Dominions, or shall raise armies to resist his Authority, He shall be put to Death. 7. If any man shall treacherously conspire or Publiquely attempt to invade or Surprise any Towm or Towns, Fort or Forts, within this Government, He shall be put to Death. 8. If any Child or Children, above sixteen years of age, and of Sufficient under- standing, shall smite their natural Father or Mother, unless thereunto provoked and forct for their selfe preservation from Death or Mayming, at the Complaint of the said Father and Mother, and not otherwise, they being Sufficient witnesses thereof, that Child or those Children so offending shall be put to Death. Bond Slavery .— Christian shall be kept in Bondslavery villenage or Cap- tivity, Except Such who shall be Judged thereunto by Authority, or such as wil- lingly have sould, or shall sell themselves. In which Case a Record of such Servitude shall be entered in the Court of Sessions held for that Jurisdiction where Such Matters shall Inhabit, provided that nothing in the Law Contained shall be to the prejudice of Master or Dame who have or shall by any Indenture or Covenant take Apprentices for Terme of Y ears, or other Servants for Term of years or Life. (77mrc7i.— Whereas the publique Worship of God is much discredited for want of painful and able Ministers to Instruct the people in the true Religion and for want of Convenient places Capable to receive any Number or Assembly of people in a decent manner for Celebrating Gods holy Ordinances. These ensueing Lawes are to be observed in every parish (Viz.) 1. That in each Parish within this Government a church be built in the most Convenient part thereof. Capable to receive and accommodate two Hundred Persons. 2. To prevent Scandalous and Ignorant pretenders to the Ministry from in- NEW YORK. 391 trading themselves as Teachers ; No Minister shall be Admitted to Officiate, within the Government but such as shall produce Testimonials to the Governour, that he hath Received Ordination either from some Protestant Bishop, or Minis- ter within some part of his Majesties Dominions or the Dominions of any foreign Prince of the Reformed Religion, upon which Testimony the Governour shall induce the said Minister into the parish that shall make presentation of him, as duely Elected by the Major part of the Inhabitants householders. 3. That the Minister of every Parish shall Preach constantly every Sunday, and shall also pray for the Kinge, Queene, Duke of Yorke, and the Royall fam- ily. And every person affronting or disturbing any Congregation.on the Lords Day and on such publique days of fast and Thanksgiving as are appointed to be observed. After the presentments thereof by the Churchwardens to the Sessions and due Conviction thereof he shall be punished by fine or Imprisonment accord- ing to the merit and Nature of the offence. And every Minister shall also Pub- liquely Administer the Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper once every Y^ear at the least in his Parish Church not denying the private benefit thereof to Persons that for want of health shall require the same in their houses, under the penalty of Loss of preferment unless the Minister be restrained in point of Conscience. Fasting Days and Days of Thanks gimn To be obsermd . — Whereas by an Act of Parliament the fifth Day of November is annually to be observed for the Great deliverance from the Gunpowder Treason, And whereas by one other Act of Parliament The thirtyeth Day of January is annually to be observed with Fast- ing and Prayer in all his Majesties Dominions to shew a hearty and Serious Re- pentance and Detestation of that Barbarous Murther Commited upon the Person of our late King Charles the first, thereby to divert Gods heavy Judgment from falling upon the whole Nation, as also by another Act of Parliament we are en- jojmed thankfully to acknowledge the providence of God upon the Nine and Twentyeth Day of May for his Majesties Birth and Restoration to the Throne of his Royall Ancestors whereby Peace and unity is Established in all his Majesties Domains, Every Minister within his Severall Parish is enjoyned to pray and Preach on these days and all other Persons are also enjoyned to abstain from their Ordinary Laboure and Calling According to the true intent of both the said Acts. Every Person Licenced to keep an Ordinary shall always be provided of strong and wdiolesome Beer, of four bushels of malt, at the least to a Iloggshead which he shall not Sell at above two pence the quart under the penalty of twenty Shil- lings, for the first Offence, forty shillings for the Second, and loss of his Licence, It is permitted to any to Sell Beer out of Doores at a peny the Ale quart or under. No Licenced Person shall suffer any to Drink excessively or at unseasonable hours after Nine of the Clock at night in or about any their houses upon penalty of two shillings six pence for every Offence if Complaint and proofe be made thereof. All Injur 3 ms done to the Indians of what nature whatsoever ; shall upon their Complaint and proofe thereof in any Court have speedy redress gratis, against any Christian in as full and Ample manner, (with reasonable allowance for dam- age) as if the Case had been betwixt Christian and Christian. No Indian whatsoever shall at any time be Suffered to Powaw or performe out- ward worship to the Devil in any Towne within this Government. Lying and False Every Person of age of discretion which shall be re- 392 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. jnited of fourteen years or upwards, who shall wittingly and willingly forge or Publish fals newes whereof no Certain Auther nor Autlientique Letter out of any part of Europe can be produced, whereby the minds of People are frequently dis- quieted or exasperated in relation to publique Affairs, or particular Persons in- juried in their good names and Credits by such Common deceites and abuses Upon due proofe made by Sufficient witnesses before the Governour or any Court of Sessions the Person so Offending in ordinary Cases shall for the first of- fence be fined ten shillings, for the second offence twenty shillings and for the third offence forty Shillings and if the party be unable to pay the same he shall be Sett in the Stocks so longe, or publiquely whipt with so many stripes as the Governor or any Court of Sessions shall think fitt not exceeding forty stripes : or four houres Sitting in the Stocks, and for the fourth offence he shall be bound to his good behaviour, paying Cost or Service to the Informer and witnesses, such as shall be judged reasonable sattisfaction, But in Cases of high nature and publique Concernes, the fine or punishment shall be increast according to the dis- cretion of the Governor and Council onely. If any Masters or Dames shall Tyrannically and Cruelly abuse their Servants, upon Complaint made by the Servant to the Constable and Overseers, they shall -take Speedy redress therein, by Admonishing the Master or Dame not to provoke their Servants, And upon the Servants Second Complaint, of the like usage It shall be Lawful for the Constable and Overseers to protect and Sustaine such Ser- vants in their Houses till due Order be taken for their Reliefe in the ensuing Sessions Provided that due Notice thereof be Speedily given to Such Masters or Dames, and the Cause why such Servants are Protected and Sustained, and in Case any Master or Dame by such Tyranny and Cruelty, and not casually, shall smite out the Eye or Tooth of any such man or maid Servant, or shall otherwise Maim or disfigure them such Servants after due proof made shall be sett free from their Service, And have a further allowance and recompence as the Court of Ses- sions shall judge meet. But in Case any Servant or Servants shall causelessly Complain against their Master or Dame If they cannot make proofe of a just occation for such Com- plaints such Servants shall by the Justices of the Court of Sessions be enjoyned to serve three Months time extraordinary (Gratis) for every such vndue Com- plaint. All Servants who have served Diligently ; and faithfully to the benifit of their Masters or Dames five or Seaven yeares, shall not be Sent empty away, and if any have proved unfaithful or negligent in their Service, notwithstanding the good usage of their Masters, They shall not be dismist, till they have made satis- faction according to the Judgment of the Constable and Overseers of the parish where they dwell. No man Elected into any Military OflQce, shall refuse to accept thereof, or dis- charge his trust therein under the penalty of five pounds whereof one half to be paid to the Governour and the other halfe to him that is chosen in his place, and accepts thereof. No man shall be Compeld to bear Armes or wage war by sea or Land, without the bounds and limits of this Government, But from Defensive warrs noe man shall be exempted. At a sessions held at the City of New York, Oct. 6, 1694, in the 6th year of 'William and Mary, present the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen, and assistants of the Common Council. NEW YORK. 393 For tlie better preservation of the Lords day, no servile work to be done, or any goods bought or sold on the Lords day, under the penalty of ten shillings for the first ofience, and double for every subsequent offence. The Doors of Publick Houses, to be kept shut, no company to be entertained in them, or any sort of Liquor sold in time of Divine service ; Strangers, Travel- lers, or such as lodge in such Houses excepted ; also no person to drink exces- sively, or be drunk, the penalty 10s. for every offence. No Negro or Indian servants to meet together, above the number of four, on the Lords Day, or any other day, within the City liberties ; nor any slave to go around with Gun, Sword, Club, or any weapon, under penalty of ten lashes at the publick whipping post, or to be redeemed by his master or owner, at six shil- lings per head. One of the Constables in the five wards on the south side the fresh Water, by turns to walk the streets of the city, in time of Divine Service, to see these laws observed, and to have power to enter into all publick Houses to put the same in execution. The Constable to make enquiry after all strangers, and give in their names to the Mayor, or in his absence to the eldest Alderman, no keeper of publick house &c, to entertain or lodge any suspected person, or men or women of evil fame, > both these heads under penalty of IO5. for each offencA No person to keep shop or sell any goods by retail or exercise any handy-craft trade, but such as are Freemen of the City, under penalty of 5s. every offence. All Jesuits, Seminary Priests, Missionaries, or other Ecclesiastical person, made or ordained by any power or Jurisdiction derived or pretended from the Pope, or see of Rome, residing or being within the Province, to depart the same, on or before the first of Nov. 1700. If any such continue, remain, or come into the Province, after the said first of November, he shall be deemed an Incendiary, a disturber of tl^e publick peace, an Enemy to the true Christian Religion, and shall suffer perpetual imprison- ment. If any such person, being actually committed, shall break Prison and escape, he shall be guilty of Felony, and if retaken shall die as a Felon. Persons receiving, harbouring, succouring, or concealing any such person, and knowing him to be such, shall forfeit the sum of 200 pounds, half to the King, for and towards the support of the Government, and the other half to the prose- cutor, shall be set in the Pillory three days, and find sureties for their behaviour, at the discretion of the court. Any Justice of peace may cause any'«person suspected to be of the Romish Clergy to be apprehended, and if he find cause, may commit him or them, in order to a trial. Any person, without warrant, may seize, apprehend, and bring before a Magis- trate, any person suspected of the crimes above, and the Governor, with the Council, may suitably reward such person as they think fit. OLD TIME CUSTOMS OF NEW YORK CITY. The Dutch kept five great festivals of peculiar notoriety, in the year : Kersiydt (Christmas) ; Nieuwjar (New Year) ; a great day of cake, Paas (the Passover) ; Pinxter (i. e. Whitsuntide) ; and San Claas (i. e. Saint Nicholas, or Christ-Kinkle day). The negroes on Long Island on some of those days came in great crowds to Brooklyn, and heldaheir field frolics. 394 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. It was the general practice of families in middle life to spin, and make much of their domestic wear at home. Short gowns and petticoats were the general in-door dresses. Young women who dressed gay to go abroad to visit, or to church, never failed to take off that dress and put on their homemade, as soon as they got home ; even on Sunday evenings, when they expected company, or even their beaux, it was their best recommendation to seem thus frugal and ready for any domestic avocation. The boys and young men of a family always changed their dress for a common dress in the same way. There was no custom of offering drink to their guests ; when punch was offered, it was in great bowls.. Dutch dances were very common ; the supper on such occasions was hot chocolate and bread. The negroes used to dance in the markets, using tom-toms, horns, etc., for music. None of the stores or tradesmen’s shops then aimed at any rivalry as now. There were no glaring allurements at windows, no over-reaching signg, no big bulk windows ; they were content to sell things at honest profits, and to trust to an earned reputation for their share of business. Many aged persons have spoken to me of the former delightful practice of families sitting out on their “stoops” in the shades of the evening, and their saluting the passing friends, or talking across the narrow streets with neighbors. It was one of the grand links of union in the Knickerbocker social compact. It endeared, and made social neighbors : made intercourse on easy terms ; it was only to say. Come, sit down. It helped the young to easy introductions, and - made courtships of readier attainment. I give some facts to illustrate the above remarks, deduced from the family B. with which I am personally acquainted. It shows primitive Dutch manners. His grandfather died at the age of sixty-three, in 1782, holding the office of aider- man eleven years, and once chosen mayor and declined. Such a man, in easy circumstances in life, following the true Dutch ton, had all his family to break- fast, all the year round, at daylight. Before the breakfast he universally smoked his pipe. His family always dined at twelve exactly, at that time the kettle was invariably set on the fire for tea, of Bohea, which was always as punctually fur- nished at three o’clock. Then the old people went abroad on purpose to visit relatives, changing the families each night in succession, over and over again all the year round. The regale at every such house was expected as matter of course to be chocolate supper, and soft waffles. Afterwards, when green tea came in as a new luxury, loaf sugar also came with it ; this was broken in large lumps and laid severally by each cup, and was nibbled or bitten as needed ! The family before referred to actually continued the practice till as late as sev- enteen years ago, with a steady determination in the patriarch to resist the modern innovation of dissolved sugar wdiile he lived. While they occupied the stoops in the evening, you could see every here and there an old Knickerbocker with his long pipe, fuming away his cares, and ready on any occasion to offer another for the use of any passing friend who would sit down and join him. The ideal picture has every lineament of contented comfort and cheerful repose. Something much more composed and happy than the bustling anxiety of “ over business” in the moderns. The cleanliness of Dutch housewifery was always extreme ; everything had to NEW YORK. 395 Bubmit to scrubbing and scouring ; dirt in no form could be endured by them : and dear as water was in the city, where it was generally sold, still it was in per- petual requisition. It was their houest pride to see a well-furnished dresser, showing copper and pewter in shining splendor, as if for ornament, rather than for use. It was common in families then to cleanse their own chimneys without the aid of hired sweeps ; and all tradesmen, etc., were accustomed to saw their own fuel. No man in middle circumstances of life ever scrupled to carry home his one cwt. of meal from the market ; it would have been his shame to have avoided it. Men wore three-square or cocked hats, and wigs ; coats with large cuffs, big skirts lined and stiffened with buckram. None ever saw a crown higher than the head. The coat of a beau had three or four large plaits in the skirts, wadding almost like a coverlet to keep them smooth ; cuffs very large, up to the elbows, open below and inclined down, with lead therein ; the capes were thin and low, so as readily to expose the close plaited neck-stock of fine linen cambric, and the large silver stock-buckle on the back of the neck ; shirts with hand rufiies, sleeves finely plaited, breeches close fitted, with silver, stone, or paste gem buckles ; shoes or pumps with silver buckles of various sizes and patterns ; thread, worsted, and silk stockings ; the poorer class wore sheep and buckskin breeches close set to the limbs. Gold and silver sleeve buttons, set with stones or paste of various colors and kinds, adorned the wrists of the shirts of all classes. The very boys often wore wigs ; and their dresses in general were similar to those of the men. The women wore caps (a bare head was never seen), stiff stays, hoops from six inches to two feet on each side ; high heeled shoes of black stuff, with white silk or thread stockings ; and in the miry times of the winter they wore clogs, gala shoes, or pattens. As soon as wigs were abandoned, and the natural hair was cherished, it became the mode to dress it by plaiting it, by queuing and clubbing, or by wearing it in a black silk sack or bag, adorned with a large black rose. In time, the powder with which wigs and the natural hair had been severally adorned, was run into disrepute (about 38 or 30 years ago) by the then strange innovation of “Brutus heads;” not only then discarding the long-cherished powder and perfume, and tortured frizzle-work, but also literally becoming “round heads ” by cropping off all the pendent graces of ties, bobs, clubs, queus, etc. The hardy beaux who first encountered public opinion by appearing abroad unpowdered and cropt, had many starers. The old men, for a time, obstinately persisted in adherence to the old regime ; but death thinned their ranks, and use and prevalence of numbers at length gave countenance to modern usage. From various reminiscents, we glean that laced ruffles, depending over the hand, was a mark of indispensable gentility. The coat and breeches were gene- rally desirable of the same material— of “broadcloth” for winter, and of silk camlet for summer. No kind of cotton fabrics were then in use, or known. Hose were, therefore, of thread or silk in summer, and fine worsted in winter* shoes were square-toed, and were often “double channelled.” To these suc- ceeded sharp-toes, as piked as possible. When wigs were universally worn, grey wigs were powdered ; and for that purpose sent in a wooden box frequently to the barber to be dressed on his block-head. But “brown wigs,” so-called were exempted from the white disguise. Coats of red cloth, even by boys, were con- siderably worn ; and plush breeches, and plush vests of various colors, shining and smooth, were in common use. Everlasting, made of worsted, was a fabric 396 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of great use for breeches, and sometimes for vests. The vest had great depend- ing pocket flaps, and the breeches were short above the stride, because the art, since devised, of suspending them by suspenders, was then unknown. It was then the test and even the pride of a well formed man, that he could by his natu- ral form readily keep his breeches above his hips, and his stockings, without gar- tering, above the calf of his leg. With the queues belonged frizzled side-locks and tout pies, formed of the natural hair, or, in defect of a long tie, a splice was added to it. Such was the general passion for the longest possible whip of hair, that sailors and boatmen, to make it grow most, used to tie theirs in eel skins. Nothing like surtouts were known ; but they had coating or cloth great-coats, or blue cloth and brown camlet cloaks, with green baize lining to the latter. In the time of the American war, many of the American officers introduced the use of Dutch blankets for great-coats. The sailors used to wear hats of glazed leather, or woollen thrums, called chapeaus ; and their “small clothes,” as we now call them, TV ere immensely wide “petticoat-breeches.” The workingmen in the country wore the same form, having no falling-flaps, but slits in front ; and they were so full in girth, that they ordinarily changed the rear to the front, when the seat became prematurely worn out. At the same time numerous workingmen and boys, and all tradesmen, wore leather breeches and leather aprons. Some of the peculiarities of the female dress were these, to wit : Ancient ladies are still alive, who often had their hair tortured for hours at a sitting, in getting up for a dress occasion, the proper crisped curls of a hair curler. This formidable outfit of head-work was next succeeded by “rollers,” over which the hair was combed above the forehead. These were again superseded by “ cushions” and artificial curled work, which could be sent to the barber’s block, like a wig, “to be dressed,” leaving the lady at home to pursue other objects. When the ladies first began to lay off their cumbrous hoops, they supplied their place with successive substitutes, such as these, to Tvit : first came “ bishops,” a thing stuffed or padded with horsehair ; then succeeded a smaller affair, imder the name of Cue de Paris, also padded with horsehair. Among other articles of female wear, we may name the following, to wit : Once they wore a “skimmer-hat,” made of a fabric which shone like silver tin- sel ; it Tvas of a very small flat crown and big brim, not unlike the present Leg- horn flats. Another hat, not unlike it in shape, was made of woven horsehair, wove in flowers, and called “horsehair bonnets,” an article which might be again usefully introduced for children’s wear, as an enduring hat for long service. I have seen what was called a bath-honnet, made of black satin, and so con- structed to lay in folds that .it could be set upon, like a chapeau bras ; a good article now for travelling ladies. The “ muskmelon-bonnet,” used before the Revolution, had numerous whalebone stiffeners in the crown, set an inch apart, in parallel lines, and presenting ridges to the eye between the bones. The next bonnet was the “whalebone-bonnet,’’ having only the bones in the front as stiffeners. A “calash-bonnet” was always formed of green silk; it was worn abroad, covering the head, but when in rooms it could fall back in folds like the springs of a calash or gig-top ; to keep it over the head, it was drawn up by a cord always held in the hand of the wearer. The “wagon-bonnet,” always of black silk, was an article exclusively in use among the Friends, and was deemed to look, on the head, not unlike the top of the “Jersey wagons,” and having a pendent piece of like silk hanging from the bonnet and covering the shoulders. The only straw wear was that called the “ straw Cheshire bonnet,” worn gene- rally by old people. NEW YORK. 397 The ladies once wore “hollow-breasted stays,” which were exploded as inju- rious to the health. Then came the use of straight stays. Even little girls wore such stays. At one time the gowns worn had no fronts ; the design was to dis- play a finely quilted Marseilles, silk, or satin petticoat, and a worked stomacher on the waist. In other dresses, a white apron was the mode ; all wore large pockets under their gowns. Among the caps was the “queen’s nightcap,” the same always worn by Lady Washington. The “cushion head-dress” was of gauze, stiffened out in cylindrical form, with white spiral wire. The border of the cap was called the balcony. Formerly there were no sideboards, and when they were first introduced after the Revolution, they were much smaller and less expensive thaiv^now. Formerly they had couches of worsted damask, and only in very affluent families, in lieu of what we call sofas, or lounges. Plain people used settees and settles,— the latter had a bed concealed in the seat, and by folding the top of it outwards to the front, it exposed the bed, and widened the place for the bed to be spread upon it. In those days, there were no Windsor chairs : and fancy chairs are still more modern. Their chairs of the genteelest kind were of mahogany or red walnut (once a great substitute for mahogany in all kinds of furniture, tables, etc.;, or else they were of rush bottom, and made of maple posts and slats, with high backs and perpendicular. Instead of japanned waiters as now, they had mahog- any tea boards, and round tea tables, which, being turned on an axle underneath the centre, stood upright, like an expanded fan or palm-leaf, in the corner. An- other corner was occupied by a beaufet, which was a corner closet with a glass door, in which all the china of the family was intended to be displayed, for orna- ment as well as use. A conspicuous article in the collection was always a great china punchbowl, which furnished a frequent and grateful beverage,— for wine drinking was then much less in vogue. China teacups and saucers were then about half their present size ; and china teapots and coffeepots, with silver nozzles, was a mark of superior finery. The sham of plated ware was not then known, and all who showed a silver surface had the massive metal too. This occurred in the wealthy families, in little coffee and teapots ; and a silver tank- ard, for good sugared toddy, was above vulgar entertainment. Where we now use earthenware, they then used delfware, imported from England ; and instead of queensware (then unknown), pewter platters and porringers, made to shine along a “dresser,” were universal. Some, and especially the country people, ate their meals from wooden trenchers. Gilded looking-glasses and picture frames of golden glare were unknown ; and both, much smaller than now, were used. Small pictures painted on glass, with black mouldings for frames, with a scanty touch of gold leaf in the corners, was the adornment of a parlor. The looking-glasses in two plates, if large, had either glass frames figured with flowers engraved thereon, or were of scalloped mahogany— painted white or black, with here and there some touches of gold. Every householder in that day deemed it essential to his convenience and comfort to have an ample chest of drawers, in his parlor or sitting-room, in which the linen and clothes of the family were always of ready access. It was no sin to rummage them before company. These drawers were sometimes nearly as high as the ceiling. At other times they had a writing desk about the centre, with a falling lid to write upon when let down. A great high clock case, reaching to the ceiling, occupied another corner; and a fourth corner was appropriated to the chimney place. 398 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. They then had no carpets on their floors, and no paper on their walls. The silver sand on the floor was drawn into a variety of fanciful figures and twirls of the sweeping-brush, and mucli skill and even pride was displayed therein in the de- vices and arrangement. They had then no argand or other lamps in parlors, but dipt candles, in brass or copper candlesticks, was usually good enough for com- mon use ; and those who occasionally used mould candles, made them at home in little tin frames, casting four to six candles in each. A glass lantern with square sides furnished the entry lights in the houses of the affluent. Bedsteads then were made, if fine, of carved mahogany, of slender dimensions ; but, for common purposes, or for the families of good tradesmen, they were of poplar, and always painted green. It was a matter of universal concern to have them low enough to answer the purpose of repose for sick or dying persons — a pro- vision so necessary for such possible events, now so little regarded by the modern practice of ascending to a bed by steps, like clambering up to a haymow. A lady, giving me the reminiscences of her early life, thus speaks of things as they were before the war of Independence : Marble mantels and folding doors were not then known ; and well enough we enjoyed ourselves without sofas, car- pets, or girandoles. A white floor sprinkled with clean white sand, large tables and heavy high-back chairs of walnut or mahogany, decorated a parlor genteelly enough for anybody. Sometimes a carpet, not, however, covering the whole floor, was seen upon the dining room. This was a show parlor up stairs, not used but upon gala occasions, and then not to dine in. Pewter plates and dishes were in general use. China on dinner tables was a great rarity, Plate, more or less, was seen in most families of easy circumstances, not indeed in all the vari- ous shapes that have since been invented, but in massive silver waiters, bowls, tankards, cans, etc. Glass tumblers were scarcely seen. Punch, the most com- mon beverage, was drunk by the company from one large bowl of silver or china; and beer from a tankard of silver. The use of stoves was not known in primitive times,, neither in families nor churches. Their fireplaces were as large again as the present, with much plainer mantel pieces. In lieu of marble plates around the sides and top of the fireplaces, it was adorned with china Dutch tile, pictured with sundry Scripture pieces. Dr. Franklin first invented the “open stove,” called also the “Franklin stove,” after which, as fuel became scarce, the better economy of the “ten plate stove” was adopted. The most splendid looking carriage ever exhibited among us was that used, as befitting the character of that chief of men. General Washington, while acting as President of the United States. It was very large, so as to make four horses, at least, an almost necessary appendage. It was occasionally drawn by six horses, Virginia bays. It was cream colored, globular in its shape, ornamented with Cupids, supporting festoons, and wreaths of fiowers, emblematically arranged along the panel work ; — the wdiole neatly covered with best watch glass. It was of English construction. Some twenty or thirty years before the period of the Devolution, the steeds most prized for the saddle were pacers^ since so odious deemed. To this end the breed was propagated with much care. The Narraganset pacers of Rhode Island were in such repute that they were sent for, at much trouble and expense, by some few who were choice in their selections. It may amuse the present generation to peruse the history of one such horse, spoken of in the letter of Rip Van Dam t)f Xew York, in the year 1711, which I have seen. It states the fact of the NEW YORK. 399 trouble he had taken to procure him such a horse. He was shipped from Rhode Island in a sloop, from which he jumped overboard, when under sail, and swam ashore to his former home. He arrived at New York in 14 days’ passage, much reduced in flesh and spirit. He cost £32, and his freight 50 shillings. This writer. Rip Van Dam, was a great personage, he having been President of the Council in 1731 ; and on the death of Governor Montgomery, that year, he was Governor, ex-officio, of New York. His mural monument is now to be seen in St. Paul’s Church.* THE NEGRO PLOT IN NEW YORK. A robbery, which had been committed at tne house of Robert Hogg, a merchant in New York, on the 28th of February, 1740-1, seemed to have led to the dis- covery of a plot, which was afterwards called the negro plot. One Mary Burton, an indentured servant to John Hughson (a man of infamous cTiaracter, and to whose house slaves were in the practice of resoiting to drink and gamble, and of secreting the goods they had stolen), was the instrument, in the hands of the magistrates, for the detection and punishment of the oifenders. On the 18th of March, after the robbery, a fire broke out in the roof of His Majesty’s house at Fort George, near, the chapel, consuming the house, the chapel, and some other buildings adjacent. Most of the public records in the secretary’s office, over the fort gate, were fortunately rescued from the flames. A week after, another fire broke out at the house belonging to a Captain Warren, near the long bridge, at the southwest end of the city. Both these fires were, at first, supposed to be ac- cidental. But about a week after the last fire, another broke out at the store house of a Mr. Van Zandt, towards the east end of the town. Three days after, a fourth alarm was given, and it was found that some hay was on fire in a cow- stable near the house of a Mr. Quick, or a Mr. Vergereau. The fire was soon sup- pressed. The people, in returning from that fire, were alarmed by a fifth cry, at the house of one Ben Thompson, next door west of a Captain Sarly’s house. It appeared that fire had been placed between two beds, in the. loft of a kitchen, where a negro usually slept. The next morning coals were discovered under a haystack, near the coach house and stables of Joseph Murray, Esq., in Broadway. All these circumstances having occurred in quick succession, the people w^ere in- duced to believe that some designing persons intended to destroy the city by fire. What strengthened this belief was, a seventh alarm of fire the next day, at the house of a Sergeant Burns, opposite the fort garden, an eighth alarm, occasioned by a fire breaking out the same day, in the roof of a Mr. Hilton’s house, near the fly market ; and again, the same afternoon, and within a few hours after, a ninth fire occurring at Colonel Philipse’s store house. This strange coincidence of events leaves indeed little room for doubt that some one or more of the fires oc- curred through design. It was soon rumored that the negroes were the perpe- trators. One Quacko, a negro belonging to a Mr. Walter, was said to have made use of some mysterious language and threats, indicating his knowledge of a plot. A proclamation was issued, offering rewards for the discovery of the otfenders. Quacko and several other negroes were apprehended and closely interrogated, but without effect. The Supreme Court, at its April term, strictly enjoined the grand jury to make diligent enquiries as to the late robberies and fires within the * Watson’s Historic Tales of Olden Time. 400 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. city. Mary Burton, who had been apprehended as a witness, relative to the rob- bery at Mr. Hogg’s, gave the grand jury reason to believe that she was also privy to the design to set fire to the city. After some difficulty, she made a disclosure, which, in all probability, ,was greatly exaggerated, though some of its parts might have been true. She stated that meetings of negroes were held at her master’s (Ilughson). That their plan was to burn the fort and city. That one Cffisar (a black) was to be Governor, and Hughson, her master, king! That they were to destroy the whites. That she had known seven or eight guns, and some sioords, in her master’s house. That the meetings at her master’s house consisted of twenty or thirty negroes at a time. Upon this evidence, warrants were issued, and many negroes committed to prison. One Arthur Price, a ser- vant, charged with stealing goods belonging to the Lieutenant-Governor, like- wise became informer. Being in prison himself, and having access to the negroes there committed, he received, or pretended to have received, much information from them. He was afterwards employed by the magistrates, to hold private conferences with the negroes in prison, and to use persuasion and other means to gain confessions from them. In this business he was peculiarly expert, and received the most unqualified approbation of the magistrates. Yet many of his stories are of such a chivalrous and romantic description as to excite suspicion of their truth. But everything he related was implicitly believed. The more extravagant the tale, the more readily was it received and credited. A white wo- man, who was a common prostitute, and familiar even with negroes, of the name of Margaret or Peggy Salinburgh, alias Kerry, alias Sorubiero, likewise declared she could make great discoveries. The magistrates eagerly hastened to take her ex- amination, and the consequence was, that fresh warrants were issued for the ap- prehension of many other negroes, not before implicated. Informers were now rapidly increasing. Arthur Price, while in prison, was making great discoveries. Operating on the fears and hopes of the negroes, many declared themselves ac- complices. The magistrates were unceasingly engaged. The grand jury were daily presenting bills of indictment against the parties accused. To be inculpated by Mary Burton, Arthur Price, or Peggy Salinburgh, was sufficient to authorize the indictment and conviction of any person. It is to be regretted that on proof of such suspicious characters so many lives were placed in the hands of the exe- cutioner. Not that we dispute the fact that some of the fires were designedly set, but that we mean to be understood as doubting the extent and nature of the plot ascribed to the negroes. It is evident that Mary Burton was wholly un- worthy of credit. Independent of the absurdity and improbability of many of her stories, she had, on the 22d April, in her first examination and disclosure under oath, declared, “that she never saw any wdiite person in company when they talked of burning the town, but her master, her mistress, and Peggy ; ” yet, on the 25th of June following, she deposed that one John Ury, a Catholic priest (a white person), w^as often at her master’s, and “that when he came to Hugh- son’s, he (Ury) always went up stairs in the company of Hughson, his wife and daughter, and Peggy, with whom the negroes used to be, at the same time, con- sulting about the plot ; ” and that “ the negroes talked in the presence of the said Ury about setting fire to the houses and killing the white people.” She after- wards, on the 14th July following, declared, on oath, that one Corry, a dancing master (also a white person), used to come to Hughson’s and talk wdth the negroes about the plot. Yet, on evidence of this kind, Ury, who had previously been committed, under the act against Jesuits and Popish priests, was indicted, KEW YORK. 401 tried conyicted, and executed. At the place of execution, he solemnly denied d the public prejudice was so strong that it required very little more to ensure 113 condemnation. Had not Ury been obnoxious, on account of his religion, the accusation against him would perhaps never have been made, or, if made, would have been little regarded. Mary Burton received the hundred pounds which had been promised as a reward for discovering tiie persons concerned in settimr fire to the city. We shall now dismiss this article, after giving the number who t«re accused tried and suffered on this occasion, with some remarks, which grow out of tins subject. One hundred and fifty-four negroes were committed to prison, of whom 14 were burnt at the stake, 18 hanged, 71 transported, and the rest pardoned, or ischarged for want of proof. Twenty white persons were committed, of whom 2 only .John Hughson and John Ury, were executed. At this time the city of New York contained a population of about 13,000 souls, of whom one-sixtli were of u?' w of city and the massacre of Its inhabitants ; and if tliat plot was conducted by Ury, it certainly betrayed greater imbecility of intellect, and want of caution and arrangement, together with less union of action, than could have been expected from one who was evi- dently, If we bdieve his own account, a man of classical education, and profound erudition. It is worthy of remark, that Corry, the dancing master, acLsed by Mary Burton, was discharged for want of proof. It seems that Mary’s testi mony began, at length, to be doubted. Indeed, it well might ; for had the prose- cutions continued much longer, she would, more than probable, have accused a f)aniei*'H*°° ” Citizens of New Y"ork, as being concerned in this plot. Djiel Horsmanden, Esq., published, at the time, a history of this conspiracy, host- I f T f. But it is evident that thL host ity to Catnohcism, which the British Government so industriouslyincul- rtruth^rto t^'Tif ’ unfriendly to the fair development of truth, or to the full and impartial examination of facts and circumstances The negroes were without defence. All the counsel in the city were arrayed against them, and volunteered their services on behalf of the crown, on the trial of those unfortunate slaves. The want of education, and utter ignorance of those nfatuated wretches, easily made them the victims of craft and imposition. The opes of lift, and the promise of pardon, influenced some of them to make con- essions. Yet falsehood was so ingeniously and artfully blended with truth, that t was not an easy task to separate the one from the other. It must, however be admit ed that many circumstances aided the opinion that the plot, in fact, exl m ll’t 1 ‘ rT'’ 'Mistaken in this, it was an error into which they mi,ht namrally fall at the moment of confusion and distress, and under the aft r,® ^ aanksgiving for the deliverance of His - J tj 3 subjects from the alleged conspiracy, was appointed by the Lieutenant- inhabitants.- HOW EOCHE.STER WA.S SAVED FROM THE BRITISH. In the spring of 1814-the war between the United States and Great Britain moufh o"f Yeo, with a fleet of 1.3 vessels, appeared off the mouth of the Genesee, threatening the destruction of the rude improvements in 402 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and around Rochester. Messengers were despatched to arouse the people in the surrounding country, for defence against the threatened attack. At this time there were but thirty-ihree people in Rochester capable ot be^ing arms This little band threw up a breastwork called Fort Bender, near the Deep Hollow, beside the Lower Falls, and hurried down to the junction of the Genesee and I.ake Ontario, 5 miles north of the present city limits, where the enemy thrcalenccl to land ; leaving behind them two old men, with ^ to remove the women and chiidren into the woods, m case the B.it.sh should at- tempt to land lor the capture of tlie provisions, and destruction of the budge RocLstcr, etc. Francis Brown and Elisha Ely acted as captains, and W- Stone as major, of tlie Rochester forces, wliich were strengthened by tie a tiorthat could be made from this thinly settled region. Though the equipments and discipline of these troops would not form a brilliant picture for a warlike eye, 111 "eiy a!vkwardness in those points, coupled as it was with tbeir sagaedy and courage, accomplished more, perhaps, than could have been effected y lare-er forc°e of regular troops, bedizzened with the trappings of mill ary pomp. Tlie militia thus liastily collected were marched and counterraarclied, disapp < - I i lie woods at one point, and suddenly emerging elsewhere, so as to imp ess the enemy with the belief that the force collected for defence was far greater than it actually was. (Tlie circumstances here related are substantially as to the wilr by one who was then and is now a resident of Rochester.) An offi- cer tdla flag of truce was sent from the British fleet. A m.l.t.a officer marched down witli ten of the most soldierlike men to receive him on These militia men carried their guns upriglit, as might be consistent w ith thmn Plan of bein- ready for action by keeping hold of the triggers. The British offl- c r was as offished^ he “looked unutterable things.” “ Sir,” said he, “ do yon He a fla. of truce under arms, with cocked triggers Excuse me excuse me sir : we backwoodsmen are not well versed in military tactics, leplmd American officer, who promptly sought to rectify Ins ^ men to “ srround arms.” The Briton was still more astonished , and, after de lerin.. a brief message, immediately departed for the fleet, indicating by his coi n ““nance a suspicion that the ignorance of tactics, which he had witnessed wTs lu fined for the occasion, so as to deceive the British Commodore into a snare Sliortly afterwards, on the same day, another officer came ashore with a fla . 'I . . . »• i. K li- I^V . ■ i ^‘.4 V-- ■* .*t“H'.,* ' V ^',l|•■‘• ■ *' 'ffi- If ■^1^' v^->' -f:^/ 'V/ ;.»?■; _'.j-'ii''” ■/ ’''i r^: -m: i« ■ : W:'\iU “ff-^-;- .•*;-''-i4'-''i'“'-' .- *•: ■ ’< V. ^ , > i'‘’‘^*^’ 3 *.j|,i.? ■' ■••■ ’ 5 »?i' , #'^'' ^ ■ ■■ fK ^ r . ' " ji -vt ) -vM,* :iiv3^4^4'^ •tnr ' •J.V-- ,'• f «^' ■>;■ ;'\ •, < '. , . f . * i'- ■ ■• «■ 3 t iJ ■^.' < 3 » , f ■ »■ •^'W' ..^n"" *■•'■'' 3* ■ ♦ H- 't ■M ^ 3 - ' 3 > 3 .n •yVi ^ •-. ^iiftnf' ■ : :,'«: 7 ^_ • K»'.- &k :, ., . .. • "tifi . .,' NEW JERSEY. 411 Value of cotton goods, $3,250,770 “ woollen goods, 1,527 209 “ leather, l’297’e27 “ pig-iron, 574,820 “ rolled iron, . . . . T 1,370,725 “ steam engines and machinery, .... 3,215,673 “ agricultural implements, 198,211 “ sawed and planed lumber, 1,600,000 “ flour, 6,400,000 “ malt and spirituous liquors, .... 1,357,000 “ boots and shoes, 1,850,137 “ jewelry, silverware, etc., 2,281,344 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. This State is amply provided with railroad communication. Four great lines, the New Jersey, Erie, Central New Jersey, and Morris and Essex, afford direct and unbroken trans- portation to all parts of the "West, and the Camden and Amboy extends across the State, from New York to Philadelphia. Five main THE BERGEN TUNNEL, routes Centre in Jersey City, opposite New York, and four in Camden, opposite Phila- delphia. In 1868, there were 904 miles of completed railroads in the State, constructed at a cost of §55,995,000. Two canals, having an aggregate length of 147 miles, extend across the State, one from Bordentown (through Trenton) to New Bruns- wick, affording steam transportation between the Delaware and Rari- tan rivers, and the other extending from Jersey City and Newark to Easton, Pennsylvania. EDUCATION. The educational system of New Jersey is controlled by a State Superintendent and Board of Education, the latter consisting of 17 persons, who are appointed for two years. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, who has immediate charge of its schools. There is a Normal School at Trenton, and a Normal Preparatory School at Beverly, both in flourishing condition. There is a perma- nent School Fund amounting to §557,115. In 1867, the State expended the sum of §896,530 on its schools. The number of children in the State, between the ages of five and eighteen years, in 1870, was 258,- 412 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 227. Of these, 161,683 attended the public schools, and 32,447 at- tended private schools, making a total of 194,130 children receiving instruction. A number of private schools, and several academies are in successful operation in the SHte. The College of New Jersey, at Princeton, is the oldest in the State, having been established in 1 746. It is in a flourishing condition, and is justly regarded as one of the principal educational establishments of the Union. Rutger’s College, at New Brunswick, is also a flourish- ing institution. Connected with it is the State Agricultural College, which is in prosperous operation. The instruction is by the example of the college farm, and the lectures of the Professor of Agriculture, delivered in all the counties of the State. There are several other colleges and theological seminaries in the State. In 1860, there were 725 libraries in New Jersey, containing 433,- 321 volumes. Of these 402, containing 250,485 volumes, are public. In the same year, there were published in the State 15 daily, 1 semi-weekly, 70 weekly and 3 monthly newspapers and magazines. Of these, 79 were political, 2 religious, 7 literary, and 1 miscellane- ous, making a total of 89, with an aggregate annual circulation of 12,801,412 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison, at Trenton, is overcrowded, and is in great need of more extensive buildings. The labor of the convicts is let out to contractors. The separate and silent systems are not in force in this institution, to the injury of its discipline. A library is provided for the prisoners. On the 1st of January, 1868, there were about 550 convicts confined here, or nearly 200 more than the prison was de- signed to accommodate. The State Lunatic Asylum, at Trenton, is a flourishing institution, with 450 patients on the 1st of November, 1867. The State also maintains a flourishing Reform School, at Jarnesburg, a Home for Dis- abled Soldiers, at Newark, and a Home for Soldiers’ Children, at Tren- ton, and makes a liberal provision for its deaf, dumb, and blind, in the establishments of Philadelphia and Hartford. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the total value of church property in the State was $7,- 762,705. The number of churches was 1123. NEW JERSEY. 413 FINANCES. The State debt is due entirely on account of the late war, and amounts to $2,996,200. Deducting assets it is $1,880,594. The receipts of the Treasury for eleven months of 1870 were $631,303.66, and the expen- ditures, $562,123.71, leaving a balance on hand of $69,179.95. In 1868, there were 54 national banks, with an aggregate paid in capital of $11,583,450. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of this State was adopted in 1844. By its terms, every white male citizen of the United States, 21 years old, having resided in the State one year and in the county five months, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is confided to a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptroller, Attorney- General, and a Legislature, consist- ing of a Senate (of 21 members), and a House of Representatives (of 60 members). The Governor is elected by the people for the term of three years. The Senators are elected for three years, one-third every year; and the Representatives annually for one year. The Secretary of State holds office for five years, is appointed by the Gov- ernor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The State Treasurer is elected by the Legislature, on joint ballot, and holds office for one year. The Court of Chancery is held by the Chancellor. The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and six Asso- ciate Justices. The members of this court and the Chancellor are appointed by the Governor, confirmed by the Senate, and hold office for seven years. The Court of Errors and Appeals consists of the Chancellor, the Judges of the Supreme Court, and six other judges (appointed and confirmed in the manner stated above, for a period of six years, one judge going out of office each year). The State is divided into seven districts, A Judge of the Supreme Court is assigned to each one of these, and holds in his district courts of Oyer and Terminer three times a year in each county. He is also ex-officio judge of the court of Common Pleas, Orphans Court, and Court of Quarter Sessions in his district. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 21 counties. The seat of Government is located at Trenton. 414 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. HISTORY. New Jersey was settled by the Dutch, soon after their arrival in New Amsterdam. They established a colony at Bergen, between the years 1617 and 1620. In 1630, they built a small fort on the Dela- ware, below the present city of Philadelphia. In 1634, a company of English settlers, under the authority of a patent from their king, settled on the shores of the lower Delaware; and in 1638, the same region was colonized by a party of Swedes and Finns. The Dutch and Swedes drove out the English settlers, and in 1655, the Swedes, themselves, were driven out by the Dutch, and nearly all sent back to Europe. When the province of New York was seized by- the English, New Jersey went with it. Soon after this, Elizabethtown, Newark, Middletown, and Shrewsbury were founded. A little later, and the district was purchased from the Duke of York, by Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley, and erected into a separate province with its present name. The seat of government was established at Eliza- beth, and some little difficulty was experienced in inducing the in- habitants to submit to the new authorities. The province suffered considerably from the despotic rule of Sir Edmund Andros. For some time, the government of the province was a condition of semi-anarchy, owing to the refusal of the home Government to recog- nize the claims of the proprietors. This dispute was complicated by the claim of Pennsylvania to the southern part of the State. It was settled in 1702, by the proprietors surrendering the right of govern- ment to the Crown. The provinces of New York and New Jersey were allowed separate Assemblies, but were both placed by Queen Anne under one Governor. In 1708, New Jersey protested against this arrangement, and was given a separate Governor, in the person of Lewis Morris. The colony suffered very little from the Indians, but bore its share in the wars with the French. It gave a hearty support, and played a conspicuous part in the great Revolution. During this war, the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth, were fought in this State, whose territory was more or less occupied by the two armies during the greater part of the war. The first State Constitution was adopted in 1776. On the 18th of December, 1787, the Constitution of the United States was ratified by New Jersey; and in 1790, the seat of government for the State was established at Trenton. NEW JERSEY. 415 During the late war, New Jersey contributed a force of 79,348 men to the service of the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are, Trenton, the capital of the State, Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Elizabeth, Camden, New Brunswick, Orange, Morristown, Rahway, Burlington, Hackensack, Bridgeton, Bloomfield, Middletown, and Bordentown. TRENTON, The capital, and fourth city of the State, is situated on the left bank of the Delaware River, in Mercer county, at the head of steamboat navigation. It is 30 miles northeast of Philadelphia, and 57 miles southwest of New York. The city is divided into two parts by the Assunpink Creek — Trenton proper and South Trenton. It is regu- larly laid out, and has many fine stores and handsome dwellings. It is built on a tolerably uneven surface. State street, which runs par- allel with the river, contains many elegant residences. Main street, which intersects it at right angles, is the principal business thorough- fare. The situation of the city on the Delaware is very beautiful, and commands extensive views of the river and the vicinity. A fine, covered bridge crosses the Delaware at the lower part of the town, connecting Trenton with the Pennsylvania shore of the river. It is used by the railway and by vehicles and pedestrians. Another bridge, also covered, spans the river about a mile above. The Dela- ware and Raritan Canal passes through the city, connecting it with New York and Philadelphia. There is railway communication be- tween Trenton and all parts of the State and country. There is excellent water-power at Trenton, and the city is to a con- siderable extent engaged in the manufacture of iron and iron-ware, flour, paper, locomotives, cars, etc. The public buildings are, the City Hall; the State Capitol, a hand- some edifice of stone, 100 by 60 feet, situated on State street, and overlooking the river ; the County Court House, built in the Grecian style; i\iQ State Lunatic Asylum; and the State Penitentiary. The State Library is also located at Trenton. The city possesses a system of public schools equal to any in the State in usefulness ; it contains over 20 churches ; and is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 22,874. 416 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Trenton was first settled by Phineas Pemberton and others, about 1680. In 1720 the settlement was called Trenton, in honor of Colonel William Trent, speaker of the Assembly. In 1790 it became the seat of Government for the State of New Jersey, and in 1792 was incor- porated as a city. The most important event in its history is the battle of Trenton, which was fought within the present limits of the city, on the 26th of December, 1776. The Americans had lost the battle of Long Island, and had been forced to evacuate the City of New York, which was promptly occupied by the British under Sir Henry Clinton. A series of disasters ensued, and at the end of the year 1776 Washington had been driven across the Delaware, and the only troops that remained faithful to their colors consisted of less than 4000 half-starved men, destitute of blankets and tents. The people of the country were rapidly coming to the conclusion that the Colonial cause was hopeless, and were beginning to make their peace with the Royal authorities. Washington alone was hopeful, and he alone was resolved to put an end to the gloom of the situation. Learning that a large force of Hessians had been thrown forward to Trenton, where they held an exposed position, he suddenly faced about, crossed the Delaware in open boats, despite the snow* and ice, on the night of December 25th, 1776, and at daybreak the next morning made a sharp attack on the Hessian force, surprising them and routing them completely. He took about 1000 prisoners, 6 brass field pieces, 1000 stand of arms, and 4 standards, and lost but 4 of his own men. On the night of the 26th he recrossed the Delaware to his own camp in Pennsylvania. This victory was highly important, as it marks the close of the long series of reverses we have referred to, and the begin- ning; of the successful resistance of the nation. From this time for- ward the despondent took fresh courage from the example set them by their great commander, and with stout hearts and strong arms fresh attacks were made upon the enemy, resulting finally in the nation’s independence. Twelve years later, as Washington was returning from New York to Mount Vernon, he was accorded a most enthusi- astic and touching welcome by the citizens at Trenton Bridge. NEWARK, The largest and most important city in the State, is situated in Essex county, on the right bank of the Passaic River, 4 miles from its entrance into Newark Bay, 9 miles west of New York. The site of the city is chiefly a large plain, bounded on the west by a range of NEW JERSEY. 41T moderate heights which extend from the northern to the southern limits of the town. The city is regularly laid off, and the streets are broad, straight, and shaded with fine trees. Broad street is the prin- cipal thoroughfare, and is one of the handsomest streets in the country. It is 120 feet wide, and is lined with noble elms. At intervals along its course, are tastefully laid off parks, famous for their beautiful trees. These parks are surrounded by elegant residences, and constitute the fashionable quarters of the city. Market street intersects Broad street, about the centre of the city, and communicates with the principal railway depot. The private streets are generally attractive. The more pretentious residences are of brown stone, freestone, or brick, but the city is, as a rule, built up with tasteful frame cottages located often in the midst of large grounds. Large numbers of persons doing business in New York have their residences in Newark. Upwards of 200 passenger trains go and come between the two cities every day. The public buildings are generally handsome. The principal are, the City Hally the Custom House and Post Offieey the Court Housey and the Librai'y Puildlng. They are all elegant and costly edifices. In addition to these, there are several buildings used by banks, insurance companies, and merchants, which are worthy of special notice. The Literary and Edu(?ational Institutions are of a high character. Those most deserving notice are the New Jersey Historical Society, with a fine library of over 2000 volumes ; the Library Association, with an elegant building and a collection of over 14,000 volumes; the Newark Academy, beautifully located in the most elevated part of the city ; and the public schools, of which there are 12, and a high school. There are more than 75 churches in the city, some of which are very handsome. The city is well supplied with street railways; it is lighted with gas, is supplied with pure water, has an excellent system of sewers, and has a police and fire alarm telegraph, a steam fire engine depart- ment, paid by the city, and an efficient police force. The Passaic River, which is navigable for steamers to the upper portion of the city, furnishes good water communication with New York and the ocean. The Morris Canal, extending from Easton, Pa., to Jersey City, passes through Newark. At its entrance into the western portion of the city is a steep inclined plain, over which loaded boats are passed on trucks, the motive power being furnished by the water of the canal. There is daily steamboat communication with New York, with which city Newark is connected by 3 lines of rail- 418 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. way. Railways diverge from Newark to the principal towns of the State. Tlie city has grown with great rapidity during the last 25 years, and owes its prosperity chiefly to its manufacturing interests. These are scattered through a number of generally small establishments, but foot up an enormous aggregate. There are over 550 establishments in the city, the annual product of which is estimated at over $25,000,000. It is the principal point in the Union for the manu- facture of jewelry. India rubber goods, carriages, omnibuses, machinery, castings, leather, boots, shoes, saddles, harness, trunks, and clothing are manufactured in large quantities. The India Rubber Works are very extensive, as are those for the manufacture of car- riages, omnibuses, machinery, castings, etc. Newark is a port of entry, but its commerce is almost entirely confined to the coasting trade. Its proximity to New York renders it insignificant as a port. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 105,059. The foreign population is very large, and the city is the see of a Roman Catholic Bishop. In 1830 the population was 10,950; in 1840, 17,290; in 1850, 38,983; in 1860, 71,914. Newark was settled in May, 1666, by a company of 30 families from New Haven, led by Captain Robert Treat, and the next year they were joined by an equal number of settlers from Guilford and Branford, Conn., led by their minister, the Rev. Abraham Pierson. Mr. Pierson had come originally from Newark, in England, and the new settlement was called after his old home. Their object seems to have been to establish a Puritan community, to be administered under the laws of God, by members of the church, on strictly demo- cratic principles. They left Connecticut because the colony of New Haven, to which they belonged, had been united to the Connecticut colony of Hartford, a union which interfered with their independence. The proprietors of New Jersey had just issued their liberal proposals to settlers, known as ^ the grants and concessions ; ’ and Treat and Pierson, and their associates, having obtained from Philip Carteret, the proprietary governor, a licence to purchase land, paid to the Indians for the tract which now constitutes Newark, Clinton, Orange, Bloomfield and Belleville, <£310 New England currency, 12 Indian blankets, and 12 Indian guns. The settlers laid out the town plat of Newark, with its spacious streets and parks as they now exist. A homestead lot of 6 acres was assigned to each settler or head of family, NEW JERSEY. 419 with out-lands and meadow for agricultural purposes, farming having for several generations constituted the main pursuit of the inhabitants. They passed a law that none should become freemen or free burgesses of the town, or \ote at its elections, or be chosen to the magistracy, or to any chief military trust or office, but such planters as were members of the congregational churches ; though all others admitted to be planters should have right to their inheritances, and all other civil rights and privileges. Their first care was to build a meeting-house, and in 1676 a school-house was established.’' The settlement pros- pered, and in 1683 contained 100 families. The troubles of the Revolution struck a severe blow at it, and scattered the population. After the close of the war its prosperity returned. The stone quar- ries in the vicinity were extensively worked, and the manufacture of shoes, carriages, and cider made it a place of importance. In 1794 bridges were built over the Passaic and Hackensack, which had until then been passed by means of ferry boats, and the intercourse of New- ark with New York was thus greatly facilitated. In 1832 the Morris Canal, connecting the city with Easton, Pa., was completed; in 1834 the railway to Jersey City was opened; and in 1836 Newark was incorporated as a city. JERSEY CITY, The second city in the State, is situated in Hudson county, on the right bank of the Hudson River, at its entrance into New York Bay, and immediately opposite the city of New York. The city limits at present include Jersey City, Hoboken, Hudson City, and* the other towns in Hudson county. The site of Jersey City proper is low and flat, as is that of Hoboken, but Hudson City and the other towns now included within the corporate limits lie on a range of bold heights, extending back from the Hudson, which command fine views of New York and the surrounding country on both sides of the Hudson. From the highest point on these heights, New York, Brooklyn, the neighboring towns in Westchester county. New York, Jersey City, Newark, Paterson, Orange, and Elizabeth, the Hudson, East Hack- ensack, and Passaic rivers. New York and New^ark Bays, Long Island Sound, and the Atlantic Ocean, may all be seen. ^ The streets are generally wide and straight, crossing each other at right angles. The appearance of the city is not prepossessing, though there are some handsome localities. There are no public buildings worthy of mention, though the city promises to improve in this re- 420 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. spect. Jersey City is, in fact, but a mere suburb of New York, hav- ing very little importance of its own. Its public schools are good; it has a number of churches; is well supplied with street railways; is lighted with gas, and furnished with pure water from the Passaic River, 7 or 8 miles distant. It is, to a limited extent, engaged in manufactures. Being included Avithin the limits of the port of New York, it has no commerce of its own. It is the terminus of the Morris Canal, connecting it with Easton, Pa., by means of which it carries on a large coal trade. It is also the terminus of the New Jersey Central, the New York and Newark, the New Jersey, the Northern New Jersey, the Erie, and the Morris and Essex railways. The Cunard Mail Steamers, sailing to Liverpool, and the steamers to Bremen and Hamburg, have their docks in Jersey City. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the popu- lation was 82,547. The peninsula upon which Jersey City proper stands was granted to Sir William Kieft, Director-General of the Dutch West India Company, in 1638, but it Avas used almost exclusively for farming purposes until the beginning of the present century. It AA^as known as Paulus Hook. In 1802, there AA^ere but 13 persons living on the peninsula, and but one house and its outbuildings on the site of the present city. In 1804, the place Avas laid out in blocks. In 1820, the city of Jersey’^ aaus incorporated, with a board of select-men ; and in 1838, the place Avas reincorporated as Jersey City. In 1870, its limits Avere extended so as to include Hoboken, Hudson City, and the neighboring towns. PATERSON, The third city in the State, is situated in Passaic county, Ncav Jer- sey, on the right bank of the Passaic River, immediately beloAV the falls of that stream, 13 miles north of Newark, and 17 miles north- Avest of NeAV York. Although the third city in population, it is the second in importance, in consequence of its manufactures. The city is Avell laid out, and is handsome in appearance. The streets are straight, Avell paved, and lighted Avith gas. There are many elegant dwellings in the private portions, the city being a favorite place of residence Avith persons doing business in New York. The scenery in the vicinity of the falls is very beautiful, and attracts many visi- tors. NEW JERSEY. 421 FALLS OF PASSAIC AT PATERSON. The Morris Canal furnishes water transportation to the ocean, and the Erie and other railways afford communication with all parts of the Union. The Passaic has here a total descent of 72 feet, and a perpendicular fall of 50 feet. This affords an immense water-power, which has been improved by a dam and canals. The power thus supplied by the falls turns many factories, several of which occupy extensive buildings of stone. There are over 20 establishments in the city, including the largest silk works in the United States. Silks, cotton goods, machinery, locomotives, guns, paper, carriages, steam engines, etc., are extensively produced here. The city contains a number of excellent public schools, about 16 churches, and is supplied with water from the Passaic. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870 the popu- lation was 35,582. Paterson was laid out in 1791, by an incorporated company, pos- sessing a capital of $1,000,000. Their object was to use the falls for the manufacture of cotton cloth, but this being found premature was abandoned. In 1860 the population was 19,586. 422 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ELIZABE'PH, The fifth city in the State, is situated in Union county, 15 miles west- southwest of New York, and 5 miles south by west of Newark. It is pleasantly located on elevated ground, and is one of the handsomest cities in the State. It is mainly taken up with frame cottages and villas, but brown stone and brick are now coming into general use. Street railways connect its various parts, and the New Jersey and New Jersey Central Railways intersect each other here, and connect it with New York and the various parts of the country. It contains several large manufactories, a number of handsome buildings devoted to business, and over 20 churches, some of which are very handsome. Large numbers of persons doing business in New York reside here. Its public schools are noted for their excellence. It is lighted with gas; is supplied with water; and is provided with an efficient police force, and a steam tire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870 the population was 20,838. Elizabeth was settled in 1655, and was for a long time the capital and chief town of the Colony and State. It has always been noted as one of the most cultivated towns in the Union. # CAMDEN, The sixth city of New Jersey, is situated on the left bank of the Delaware River, in Camden county, immediately opposite the city of Philadelphia, with which it is connected by means of 4 steam fer- ries. It is 32 miles south-southwest of Trenton. It is located in a large plain, and is regularly laid off. It is well built, and contains some handsome residences and commercial buildings. It owes its importance to its powerful neighbor, Philadelphia. It contains some extensive manufacturing establishments, and is the terminus of the Camden and Amboy, New Jersey Southern, and West Jersey rail- ways. It is lighted with gas ; is supplied with water ; and has a steam fire department, and an effective police force. Its public schools are good and numerous, and it contains one or two literary institutions. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, chosen by the people. In 1870, the population was 20,045. The city was incorporated in 1831. The other important towns of the State are New Brunswick, on the Raritan River ; Rahway, between New Brunswick and Elizabeth ; Burlington, on the Delaware River, below Trenton ; and Orange, near NEW JERSEY. 423 Newark. Long Branch, in Monmouth county, and Atlantic City, in Atlantic county, on the sea shore, and Cape May, in Cape May county, at the mouth of the Delaware Bay, are among the most fashionable watering places in the Union. THE BATTLE OF TRENTON. The summer and fall of 1776 was the most gloomy period of the American revolution. General Washington had been obliged to retreat from Long Island to New York, thence over the Hudson to New Jersey, and through New Jersey to Pennsylvania, vigorously pursued by an enemy flushed with a series of success. The retreat through New Jersey was attended with circumstances of a painful and trying nature. Washington’s army, which had consisted of 30,000 men, was now diminished to scarcely 3000, and these were without supplies, without pay, and many of them without shoes or comfortable clothing. Their footsteps were stained with blood as they fled before the enemy. The aflairs of the Ame- ricans seemed in such a desperate condition, that those who had been most con- fident of success, began despairingly to give up all for lost. Many Americans joined the British, and took protections from them. In this season of general despondency, the American Congress recommended to each of the States to observe “a day of solemn fasting and humiliation before God.” General Washington saw the necessity of making a desperate eflbrt for the sal- vation of his country. On the night of the 25th of December, 1776, the American army recrossed the Delaware, which was filled with pieces of floating ice, and marched to attack a division of Hessians, who had advanced to Trenton. The sun had just risen, as the tents of the enemy appeared in sight. No time was to be lost — Washington, rising on his stirrups, waved his sword towards the hos- tile army, and exclaimed, “ There^ my brave friends^ are the enemies of your country I and now all I have to ask of you is, to'remember what you are about to fight for! March The troops, animated by their commander, pressed on to the charge ; the Hes- sians were taken by surprise, and the contest was soon decided ; about 1000 were taken prisoners, and 40 killed, among whom was their commander, (a German officer,) Colonel Rahl. In this important expedition, Washington divided his troops into three parts, 424 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. * which were to ass^imble on' the banks of the Delaware, on the night of the 25th of December. One of these divisions, led by General Irvine, was directed to cross the Delaware at the Trenton ferry, and secure the bridge below the town, so as to prevent the escape of any part of the enemy by that road. Another division, led by General Cadwallader, was to cross over at Bristol, and carry the post at Burlington. The third, which was the principal division, and consisted of about 2400 Continental troops, commanded by General Washington in person, was to cross at MTvonkey’s ferry, about nine miles above Trenton, and to march against the enemy posted at that town. The night fixed on for the enter- prise was severly cold. A storm of snow, mingled with hail and rain, fell in great quantities ; and so much ice was made in the river, that the artillery could not be got over until three o’clock ; and before the troops could take up their line of marcli it was nearly four. The general, who had hoped to throw them all over by twelve o’clock, now despaired of surprising the town ; but knowing that he could not repass the river without being discovered and harassed, he de- termined, at all events, to push forward. He accordingly formed his detachment into two divisions, one of which was to march by the lower or river road, the other, by the upper or Pennington road. As the distance to Trenton by these two roads was nearly the same, the general, supposing that his two divisions would arrive at the place of destination about the same time, ordered each of them, immediately on forcing the outguards, to push directly into the town, that they might charge the enemy before they had time to form. The upper division, accompanied by the general himself, arrived at the enemy’s advanced post ex- actly at eight o’clock, and immediately drove in the outguards. In three min- utes, a firing from the division that had taken the river road, gave notice to the general of its arrival. Colonel Raid, a very gallant Hessian officer, who com- manded in Trenton, soon formed his main body, to meet the assailants ; but at the commencement of the action he received a mortal wound. Kis troops, at once confused and hard pressed, and having already lost their artillery, attempted to file off by a road on the right, leading to Princeton ; but General Washington perceiving their intention, threw a bod}^ of troops in their front, which inter- cepted and assailed them. Finding themselves surrounded, they laid down their arms. About 20 of the enemy were killed ; and 909, including officers, surrendered themselves prisoners of war. The number of prisoners was soon increased to about 1000, by the additional capture of those who had concealed themselves in houses. Six field pieces, and a 1000 stand of small arms, were also taken. Of the Americans, two privates only were killed ; two were frozen to death ; one officer and three or four privates were wounded. General Irvine being prevented by the ice from crossing the Delaware, the lower road toward Bordentown remained open : and about 500 of the enemy, stationed in the lower end of Trenton, crossing over the bridge in the commencement of the action, marched down the river to Bordentown. General Cadwallader was prevented by the same cause from attacking the post at Burlington. This well-judged and successful enterprise, revived the depressed spirits of the colonists, and produced an immediate and happy effect in recruiting the American army. THE MURDER OF THE REV. JAMES CALDWELL. The next summer, in June, Knyphausen made his sudden and apparently objectless inroad into New Jersey. On the night of the 24th, Mr. Caldwell slept NEW JERSEY. 425 in his own house, but was wakened early in the morning by tlie news of the ap- proach of the enemy. Mounting his horse in haste, he started for headquarters ith the information. He had proceeded but a short distance, however, "when he began to have serious fears for his wife and family tliat he had left behind. The former, when she bade him good-bye, told him that she had no apprehen- sions for her own safety, for the enemy, she said, would not harm her and her little children. He had often left them in a similar way before, and always found them safe on his return, but now he was oppressed with unusual anxiety, and, after striving in vain to shake it off, turned his horse and galloped back. As he rode up to the door, his wife came out to inquire what he wanted. He told her that he wished her and the children to accompany him to camp, for he felt very uneasy about leaving them behind. But she, knowing they would encumber his movements, smiled at his fears, saying there was no danger at all, and declined entirely to leave the house. In the meantime she went in and brought from the breakfast table a warm cup of coffee. While he sat on his horse drinking it, the enemy came in sight. Handing back the cup, and flinging her a hasty farewell, and commending her to the care and mercy of the God in whom they both trusted’ he struck his spurs into his horse and dashed away. ^ He had not been gone long before she had cause to regret that she had not yielded to his entreaties, for columns of smoke rising in the distance— the screams of terrified women and children running through the streets, told her that the enemy was on a raid, and murder and devastation were marking their passage. She saw at once that she was surrounded with deadly perils, but calm as became the wife of a hero as well as clergyman, she took her infant and retired into a private room to commit herself and children in prayer to God. Arising from her devotions, she sat down upon the bed, and was pondering on her desolate condi- tion, when the maid, who had accompanied her with the other children, stepped to the window to look out. As she did so, she saw a “red coat ” jump over the fence into the yard. Alarmed, she turned quickly and told Mrs. Caldwell. The latter knew at once that evil was intended her, and arose from the bed either to watch the man’s actions or to pass out of the room, when the villain caught a glimpse of her through the window. He knew her at a glance, and, having come on purpose to kill her, he raised his musket and fired at her through the window, when she fell amid her terrified children, pierced by two balls. In the midst of the alarm and confusion that followed, the torch was applied to the house, and soon the little parsonage was wrapped in flames. It was with great difllculty that some of the neighbors, whom the maid informed of the murder were enabled to drag the body out of the burning building. But, having ac’ comphshed this, they were compelled to flee, leaving it exposed in the hot sun in the public street, where it lay for hours with no one humane enough to throw a covering over the pale and ghastly face. At length some of her friends ob- tained permission from the enemy to remove it into the only house left standing near by. ^ Mr. Caldwell was. at the “Short Hills,” with the army, while this murderous scene was being enacted at his quiet home. That evening passing by chance two soldiers who were talking in whispers, he heard the name of “Mrs. Caldwell” repeated two or three times. Suspecting at once that something was wrono-, he asked them what they were talking about— if anything had happened to Mrs. Caldwell. They at first hesitated to reply, unwilling to break to him the painful intelligence, but he besought them so earnestly to let him know the worst that 42G THE GREAT RErUBLlC. they finally told him all. The good man staggered like a smitten ox under the sudden blow, and turned pale as death. Rallying, however, he murmured a broken prayer and turned away to weep alone. That was a painful night to the noble patriot, for not only did he mourn deeply over the tragical end of his wife, whom he loved tenderly, but he was filled with apprehension respecting his or- phaned children, one of whom was an infant — now in possession of the enemy. In the morning he procured a flag of truce and went over to “ Connecticut Farms.” The quiet little village was a heap of smoking ruins, with only here and there a solitary building standing as monuments to mark the desolation. In one of these lay the lifeless body of his wife, and in an adjoining apartment were grouped his weeping children. The enemy, after burning Connecticut Farms, kept on towards Springfield, with the intention of committing the same barbarous cruelties there. Mr. Cald- well, after seeing his wife buried and his children placed in the care of one of his parishioners, hastened forward to join the army. At Springfield, a sharp en- gagement took place between the enemy and the American troops, and though the former were compelled to beat a hasty retreat, it was not till they had burned the village to the ground. Mr. Caldwell was in the hottest of the fight, and see- ing the fire of one of the companies slackening for want of wadding, he galloped to the Presbyterian meeting house near by, and, rushing in, ran from pew to pew, filling his arms with hymn books. Hastening back with these into the battle, he scattered them about in every direction, saying, as he pitched one here and another there, “Now, put Watts into them, boys,” With a laugh and a cheer, they pulled out the leaves, and ramming home the charges did give the British Watts with a will. The next year this patriotic, gifted man met the tragical fate of his wife, and sealed his devotion to his country with his blood. New Jersey remained comparatively tranquil after the raid of Knyphausen, and flags of truce were constantly passing to and fro to New York, and only sol- diers enough were left in the State to act as sentinels at main points. At this time there lived in New York a family by the name of Murray, who had rela- tives residing in Elizabethtown, and who were much beloved by the people in the vicinity for their kindness to Jersey prisoners confined in the city. One of the family. Miss Murray, wishing to visit Elizabethtown, came to Elizabethtown Point on the 24th of November, under a flag of truce. Mr. Caldwell went down in a carriage to meet her, and accompany her to the town. The details of the events that followed, I will let Dr. Murray tell in his own language. “A sentry was kept up at that time at the fort. Tying his horse outside the sentinel, Mr. Caldwell proceeded to the wharf, and taking with him Miss Murray, placed her in his carriage, and then returned to the boat for a small bundle that belonged to her. Thus he passed three times the man who was keeping guard. ’ With a small package he was returning a second time to his carriage, when the sentinel ordered him to stop, thinking, probably, that there was something contraband in the bundle. He replied that the bundle belonged to the young lady in his car- riage. The sentinel said that it must be examined. Mr. Caldwell turned quickly about to carry it back to the boat, that it might be opened there, when the fatal ball struck him. The captain of the guard, hearing the report of a gun, looked around, and saw Mr. Caldwell staggering before him. He ran and caught him in his arms and laid him on the ground, and without speaking a word he almost instantly expired, the ball having passed through his heart. NEW JERSEY. 42t “ The man who shot him was James Morgan, belonging to the Jersey militia an Iiishman by birth, and a man of the most debased and profligate character. He ^Yas always drunk when he could be ; and liquor turned him into a savage. His family resided near a well in Elizabethtown, into which a child of his fell one day and was drowned. When he returned, he found his child dead, and taking it by the arms he beat the broken-hearted mother with the dead body of her own child until her cries brought some of the neighbors to her rescue.” Whether Morgan w^as on duty as a sentinel when he shot Cal dwell is at least questionable. It is said that on his trial it was proved that he had just been re- lieved. Different motives are assigned for the murder. Some say that Morgan was angry because he had not received his regular wages, and, inasmuch as Caldwell was commissary, supposed “he was responsible for the neglect;” others, again, say that he was bribed by the British, or Tories. Whate'^ver the motives might have been that influenced him, he was, after a fair trial, convicted of murder, and hung the next January. The body of Mr. Caldwell was placed on some straw in the bottom of a wagon, and taken up to town, and the next Tuesday buried. A MUTINY IN THE CONTINENTAL ARMY. The situation of General Washington was often, during the war, embarrassing, for want of proper supplies for the army. It was peculiarly so while at Morris- town, in 1780, where he had encamped during the winter. The cold was un- commonly severe, and the army suffered extremely. The following account of the state of the American army is taken from “Grimshaw’s History of the United States: ” “ The distress suffered by the American army did not arrive at its highest pitch until the present season. The officers of the Jersey line now addressed a memo- rial to their State Legislature, complaining, that four months’ pay for a private would not procure for his family a single bushel of wheat ; that the pay of a colonel would not purchase oats for his horse ; and that a common laborer re- ceived four times as much as an American officer. They urged, that unless an immediate remedy was provided, the total dissolution of their line was inevitable ; and concluded by saying, that their pay should be realized, either by Mexican dollars, or something equivalent. Nor was the insufficiency of their support the only motive to complaint. Other causes of discontent prevailed. The original idea of a continental army, to be raised, paid, and regulated upon an equaf and uniform principle, had been, in a great measure, exchanged for that of State es- tablishments ; a pernicious .measure, partly originating from necessity, because State credit M^as not quite so much depreciated as continental. Some States, from their superior ability, furnished their troops not only with clothing, but with many articles of convenience. Others supplied them with mere necessaries ; whilst a few, from their particular situation, could give little or perhaps nothing. The officers and men, in a routine of duty, daily intermixed and made compail- sons. Those who fared worse than others were dissatisfied with a service that allowed such injurious distinctions. Mutiny began to spread, and at length broke out among the soldiers at Fort Schuyler. Thirty-one privates of the gar- rison went off in a body. They were overtaken, and 13 of their number instantly killed. About the same time, two regiments of Connecticut troops mutinied, and got under arms, determined to return home, or gain subsistence by the bayonet. 428 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Their officers reasoned with them, and used every argument that could interest their passions or their pride. They at first answered, ‘ Our sufferings are too great, we want present relief;’ but military feelings were, in the end, trium- phant ; after much expostulation, they returned to the encampment. “It is natural to suppose that the British commander would not lose so favor- able an opportunity of severing the discontented from their companions, and attracting them to his own standard. He circulated a printed paper in the Ameri- can camp ; tending to heighten the disorders by exaggeration, and create desertion by promises of bounty and caresses. But, so great was the firmness of the sol- diery, and so strong their attachment to their country, that on the arrival of only a scanty supply of meat, for their immediate subsistence, military duty was cheerfully performed, and the rolls were seldom dishonored by desertion. “ The necessities of the American army grew so pressing that Washington was constrained to call on the magistrates of the adjacent counties for specified quan- tities of provisions, to be supplied in a given number of daj’^s ; and was compelled even to send out detachments to collect subsistence at the point of the bayonet. Even this expedient at length failed ; the country in the vicinity of the army being soon exhausted. His situation was painfully embarrassing. The army looked to him for provisions ; the inhabitants for protection. To supply the one, and not offend the other, seemed impossible. To preserve order and subordina- tion, in an army of republicans, even when well fed, regularly paid, and com- fortably clothed, is not an easy task ; but to retain them in service, and subject them to the rules of discipline, when wanting not only the comforts but often the necessaries of life, requires such address and abilities as are rarely tound in human nature. These were, however, combined in Washington. He not only kept his army in the field, but opposed those difficulties with so much discretion as to command the approbation of both soldiers and people. “ To obviate these evils. Congress sent a committee of its own members to the encampment of the main army. They confirmed the representations previously made of the distresses and the disorders arising from commissarial mismanage- ment, which everywhere prevailed. In particular, they stated that the main army was unpaid for five months ; that it seldom had more than six days’ pro- vision in advance ; and was on different occasions, for several successive days, without meat ; that the horses were destitute of forage ; that the medical depart- ment had no sugar, tea, chocolate, wine, or spirituous liquors of any kind ; that every department was without money and without credit ; and that the patience of the soldiers, worn down by the pressure of complicated sufferings, was on the point of being exhausted. “Misfortunes, from every quarter, were at this time pouring in upon the United States. But they seemed to rise in the midst of their distresses, and gain strength from the pressure of calamities. When Congress could obtain neither money nor credit for the subsistence of their army, the inhabitants of Philadelphia gave .$300,000 to procure a supply of necessary provisions for the suffering troops ; and the ladies of that city, at the same time, contributed largely to their immediate relief. Their example was generally followed. The patriotic flame which blazed forth in the beginning of the war v’as rekindled. The different States were ardently excited ; and it was arranged that the regular army should be raised to 35,000 effective men.” I 'PENNSYLVANIA. Area, 46,000 Square Miles. Population in I860, 2,906,115 Population in 1870, 3,519,601 The State of Pennsylvania, one of the original members of the Union, lies between 39° 43' and 42° 15' latitude, and between 74° 42' and 80° 35' W. longitude. Its extreme length is about 310 miles, and its extreme width, from north to south, about 160 miles. It is bounded on the north by New York and Lake Erie, on the east by New York and New Jersey, from which it is separated by the Delaware Eiver, on the south by Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia, and on the west by West Virginia and Ohio. TOPOGRAPHY. No State in the Union presents a greater variety of surface than Pennsylvania. Though they do not rise to any great elevation (sel- dom above 2000 feet), its mountains spread over about one-fourth of the State in parallel ridges, in a direction generally from northeast' to southwest, and occupy the southern, central, and eastern counties. Though all forming parts of the great Appalachian chain, they are known by various local appellations. Commencing below Easton, on the Delaware, we have the South Mountain ; then in order, pro- ceeding west or northwest, the Blue or Kittatinny Mountains (both entering the Shite from New Jersey, and passing southwest into Maryland), and the Broad Mountain, which lies south of the North Branch of the Susquehanna. We now cross the river just mentioned, but still have with us the Broad Mountain, under the name of the Tuscarora; passing which, we come upon another ridge, lying mostly 429 430 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. south of the Juniata River, known as Sideling Hill ; which is suc- ceeded in turn by the Alleghany Mountains proper, the dividing ridge between the Atlantic slope and the Mississippi Valley. De- scending the very gradual Ohio slope, we cross two inferior but well- defined chains, known as Laurel and Chestnut Ridges. As before stated, these mountains do not rise to a great height ; the South Moun- tain is within 1000, and the Blue Mountain within 1500 feet. Broad ^fountain is said to rise higher above its immediate base than the Alleghany range, but to be inferior to them in elevation above the sea. These different ridges are separated by valleys, now contracted within narrow limits, and now spreading out to a width of from 15 to 30 miles. The entire belt in Pennsylvania spreads over a space of 200 miles — the greatest breadth the Alleghany range attains in its whole course from Maine to Alabama. In the northern part of the State the mountains become high and rugged hills ; the west is also hilly, and the southeast and northwest moderately so, but occasionally level. The rivers of the western part of the State, cutting their way through the table-land, present sometimes precipitous shores of several hundred feet in height, and many valleys bear evident marks of their having been formed by running water.’^ * The Delaware River washes the eastern shore of the State, and fur- nishes the principal means of access to the sea. The city of Philadel- phia, the second in size in the Union, is situated on this stream, about 40 miles from its entrance into Delaware Bay. The Susquehanna is the principal river of the State. It is formed by two branches, the eastern rising in Otsego Lake, in central New York, and the western in western Pennsylvania. They unite and form the main stream at Northumberland, 60 miles above Harris- burg. Then flowing in a southeasterly direction, it enters the State of Maryland, and empties into Chesapeake Bay. The East, which is also called the North, Branch is 250 miles long, and the West Branch 200 miles. The length of the main stream is about 150 miles. They all flow through a very beautiful and fertile country, which is also rich in mineral resources. A series of canals extends from the mouth of the river to Northumberland, and the navigation of its branches is improved in several places. The principal tributary of the Susque- hanna is the Juniata, which enters it above Harrisburg, and which is famous for its beautiful and picturesque scenery. * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1453. PENNSYLVANIA. 431 VIEW ON THE JONIATA RIVER. The Alleghany River is the principal stream in the western part of the State. It rises in Potter county, and flows northward into New York, after which it sweeps back into Pennsylvania, and pursuing a southwesterly course, unites at Pittsburg with the Monongahela (which rises in West Virginia and flows northward to Pittsburg), and forms the Ohio. It is navigable for small steamers for about 200 miles above Pittsburg. The Ohio lies in this State for the first fifty miles of its course. The Sehuylhill is a beautiful river in the eastern part of the State, It empties into the Delaware at Philadelphia, and supplies that city with fresh water. The Lehigh flows into the Delaware at Easton. Lake Erie, already described in another chapter, is the only lake lying in the State. It washes the northwest part of Pennsylvania for about 50 miles. MINERALS. '^Pennsylvania stands first among the United States in the abun- dance of her coal and iron. Though not possessing a great variety 432 TUE GREAT REPUBLIC. TliK SCHUYLKILL ABOVE PHILADELPPIIA. of rare minerals, and none of the precious metals, she has those which have made England the wealthiest and most powerful nation on the globe, while Spain and Portugal, with their gold, silver, and diamond mines, have become poor in national wealth, and have sunk to a low degree of political influence. Owing no doubt to her homely, but useful minerals, Pennsylvania has advanced, between 1840 and 1850, in a greater ratio in population than even the Empire State (New York), or that vigorous and youthful giant of the West, Ohio. The vast anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania lie mostly between the Dela- ware and Susquehanna rivers, about the head-waters of the Lehigh, Schuylkill, and Lackawana. In 1854 this region sent to market, 5,919,555 tons of coal ; in 1864, the product had increased to 10,564,- 926. Nearly half of this came from Schuylkill county. At Bloss- burg, in Tioga county, and in Clinton county, are mines of bituminous coal, said to be equal, if not superior, to the Newcastle coal of Eng- land ; while the region around Pittsburg, the commencement of the coal field of the Mississippi Valley, abounds in coal of the same kind, but little inferior in purity. Cannel coal of fine quality is found in Beaver county. The bituminous coal mined in western Pennsylvania, in 1864, was estimated at 3,000,000 tons. Petroleum abounds in MOUNT PISGAII AND THE COAL REGION. the western part of the State. The best evidences of the quantity and excellence of the iron of Pennsylvania is the fact^ according to the census report of 1850, that nearly half of the pig, cast, and wrought iron manufactured in the Union was from her forges and furnaces. This State also abounds in lime, marble, slate, and stones suitable for budding. Marble is particularly abundant in Chester and Mont- gomery counties. The most important copper mines in Pennsylvania are in the same counties. Zinc is mined in the vicinity of Bethlehem, plumbago in Bucks county, and lead in Chester and Montgomery counties. A bed of this mineral, of great richness, is reported to have been discovered recently in Blair county. Chromium occurs in Ches- ter and Lancaster counties. Scattered over the State are some of the following minerals: titanium, plumbago, magnetic iron ore, iron pyrites, magnesia, talc, asbestos, barytes, zircon, tourmalin, marl, etc. Salt springs exist on the Monongahela, Kiskeminitas, and Beaver rivers, and in other parts of the State. Nearly 12,000,000 bushels of salt were manufactured here in 18G0. Nitre or saltpetre has re- cently been discovered in an extensive deposit, and of ^reat richness 28 ' 434 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in the central part of the State. There are several medicinal springs, generally chalybeate, the most noted of which are Bedford, in the county of the same name; York, in Adams county; Doubling Gap, in Cumberland; Yellow Springs, in Chester; and Ephrata, in Lan- caster county.’^ * CLIMATE. Tlie southern and eastern portions of Pennsylvania have a milder climate than the western part. In the latter, the winters are long and severe. The summers are very hot all over the State, and all parts are liable to sudden changes from heat to cold. The spring comes early in the southern counties, but is late in the others. As a whole the State is one of the healthiest in the Union. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. As a general rule the soil of the State is good. That of the lime- stone regions, and along the river valleys is excellent, and there are some fine lands in the mountain valleys. Pennsylvania is largely engaged in agriculture, being one of the first States in the Union, with respect to its productions. The system of fiirming is enlightened and progressive, and the people are amongst the most industrious in the world. In 1870 there were 11,515,965 acres of improved land in the State, and 5,740,864 acres of unimproved land. The remainder of the agri- cultural wealth of the State for the same year was as follows ; Cash value of farms, Value of farming implements and machinery, Number of horses, “ milch cows, “ AYorking oxen, “ sheep, “ SAvine, Value of all liA^e stock, Bushels of Avheat, “ rye, “ Indian corn, “ oats, “ barley, “ Irish potatoes, “ buckAAdieat, Tons of hay, $1,043,481,582 $35,658,196 460,339 706,437 30,048 1,794,301 867,548 $115,647,075 19,672,967 3,577,641 34,702,006 36,478,585 529,562 12,889,367 2,532,173 2,848,219 * Lippiiicott’s Gazetteer, p. 1454. PENNSYLVANIA. 435 Pounds of maple sugar, 1,545,917 “ tobacco, 3,467,539 “ beeswax and honey, 824,022: “ wool, 6,561,722. “ butter, 60,834,644 “ cheese, 1,145,209^ Gallons of milk sold, 14,411, 729- Value of orchard products, $4,208,094: “ market garden products, .... $1,810,016 “ slaughtered animals, $28,412,903 “ forest products, $2,570,370 COMMERCE. The returns of tlie port of Philadelphia do not fairly exhibit the foreign trade of this State, since a large portion of its commerce passes through the port of New York. The railroads and canals of the State transport immense quantities of freight every year, and the trade with the South and Y est, by the Ohio Piver, is enormous. The dis- covery of petroleum has greatly increased the foreign and domestic trades of the State. The export of this article from Philadelphia in 1868 was 40,005,620 gallons. In the same year the petroleum trade of Pittsburg amounted to about §13,000,000. In 1860 the State pro- duced §21,266,906 worth of coal, which amount has been greatly increased since then. In 1863, the tonnage of the State was 300,741, of which 94,305 was steam tonnage. In 1861, the total imports of the State amounted to §12,628,348, and the exports to §10,013,097. MANUFACTURES. Pennsylvania is largely engaged in manufactures, ranking in this respect amongst the most important States in the Union. In 1860, there were 21,000 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures," mining, and the mechanic^ arts, employing 223,250 hands, a capital of §189,000,000;* consuming raw material worth §145, 300, COO, and yielding an annual product of §285,600,000. There were 151 cotton mills, employing a capital of §8,253,640, and 6350 male and 7370 female hands, consuming raw material worth §6,732,275, paying §2,- 265,912 for labor, and yielding an annual product of §11,759,000. There were 447 woollen factories, employing 6682 male and 4022 female hands and a capital of $5,642,425 ; consuming raw material worth §6,770,.347; paying §2,239,936 for labor; and yielding an The largest amount so invested in any State. 436 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. annual product of $12,744,373. The other manufactures for tlic same year were valued as follows : Leather, . . . ' $12,491,631 Pig-iron, 11,424,879 Rolled iron, 12,643,500 Steam engines and machinery, 7,243,453 Agricultural implements, 1,455,760 Sawed and planed lumber, 11,311,000 26,570,000 Malt and spirituous liquors, 5,430,000 Boots and shoes, 8,178,935 Eurniture, 2,938,503 Jewelry, silverware, etc., 4,132,130 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Pennsylvania was one of the first states in the task of providing means of rapid and direct communication between her various points. The first great work ever undertaken in this country was the turnpike from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, which until the -completion of the Erie Canal of New A^ork, Avas the great highway between the East and the West. In 1825, the State began an extensive system of _ canals. This undertaking was badly managed, however, and she did not at once derive the great advantages from them she had expected. Many of these works Avere injudiciously located in parts of the State Avhere there Avas no need for them. The consequence Avas that the profits of the paying lines had to be used to defray the expenses of these unprofitable routes, and in the course of time the State Avas burdened Avith a heavy debt on their account. The railroads have taken aAvay the greater part of their business, and have thus greatly increased the burden to the State. The railroads of Pennsylvania are amongst the most important in the country. Philadelphia has direct railroad communication with all the important towns of the State, Avith Ncav York, Baltimore, and all parts of the Union. Seven or eight main lines centre in this city, and three or four in Camden, New Jersey, immediately opposite. These bring through freights and passengers from all parts of the Union to Philadelphia. In 1868, there Avere about 1100 miles of canal navigation in Penn- sylvania, constructed at a cost of over $40,000,000. In the same year there Avere 4037 miles of completed railroads in the State. The cost of construction was $210,081,000. This makes Pennsylvania the first State in the Union Avith respect to the length and cost of her railroad system. PENNSYLVANIA. 437 EDUCATION. The State has always been noted for the excellence of its schools. One of the first efforts of the original settlers was to provide for public education^ and we find that the plan of Government drawn up by William Penn in 1682, provided for the establishment of public schools, and their control by the Governor and Provincial Council. The first Constitution of the State (1776) required the establishment of at lea.st one such school in each county, and in 1786, the State made" a donation of 60,000 acres of the public lauds for the support of the public schools. In 1836, a permanent school fund was established. The educational system is under the control of a State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, who is appointed by the Governor. The State is divided into 2002 school districts, each of which is immediately controlled by six school directors, two of them being elected each year. They hold office for three years. They manage all the business affairs of the schools, appoint the teachers, select the text-books, and make an annual report to the county superintendent. This officer is required to be an experienced teacher, and is elected for three years by the school directors of the county. It is his duty to make a thorough inspection of the schools in his county, to satisfy himself of the com- petency of the teachers and the proficiency of the pupils, and to make an annual report of his observations to the State Superintendent. The Public Schools of the city of Philadelphia are distinct from those of the State, and are supported by the municipal authorities. Includ- ing these, there were 14,212 public schools in Pennsylvania in 1870. The number of teachers was 17,612, of pupils, 828,981. The whole amount expended during the year for public instruction was $7,771,- 761.20. In Philadelphia, in the year 1867, there were 374 schools, with a force of 1314 teachers. The total number of pupils was 129,226, the average attendance, 66,333. There are five normal schools ; at Millersville, Mansfield, Edinboro, and Kutztown. The city of Philadelphia has a fine normal school of its own. The law provides for the establishment of twelve such schools in the State, whenever they may become necessary. The present number of pupils is 2675. There are 13 colleges in Pennsylvania. One of these, the College of Agriculture, is a State institution. It is in vigorous operation, and is meeting with great success. The Medical School of the University 438 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of Pennsylvania, and the Jefferson Medical College, the former founded in 1765, and the latter in 1824, are amongst the best schools of their kind in the world. Besides these are 6 other Medical Colleges. There are 7 Theological Seminaries, 1 Law School, and 9 Colleges of Literature and Science in the State. The University of Pennsylvania and Girard College at Philadelphia ; Dickinson College at Carlisle ; Washington College at Washington ; the Lewisburg University at Lewisburg ; Franklin and Marshal College at Lancaster ; and the Pennsylvania College at Gettysburg, are the principal institutions in the State. In 1870, there were 601 academies, seminaries, and private schools in the State, with 848 teachers, and 24,815 pupils. In 1860, there were 1416 libraries in Pennsylvania, containing 1,- 344,924 volumes. Of these, 529, with 761,299 volumes were public. In the same year, the number of newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State was as follows: daily 29, semi-weekly 3, tri-weekly 1, weekly 297, monthly 28, quarterly 6, annual 3, — total 367. Of these 277 were political, 43 religious, 25 literary, and 22 miscellaneous. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of this State have long been noted for their extent and excellence. The Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane^ at Philadelphia, the State Lunatic Hospital, at Harrisburg, and the Western Pennsylvania Hospital, near Pittsburg, are among the best establishments of their kind in the world. Besides these there are three incorporated hospi- tals, and several private establishments. The Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, established in 1820, and the Institution for the Blind, established in 1833, both at Philadelphia, are open to pupils from New Jersey and Delaware. Those States, consequently, contribute to the support of these esta- blishments. The Training School for Feeble-minded Children is at Media. It is supported in part by the State. Tliere are two Houses of Refuge. One, for Western Pennsylvania and located at Pittsburg, is maintained entirely, and the other, at Philadelphia, in part, by the State, which also maintains 39 schools and homes for the support and instruction of soldiers’ orphans. There are two great Penitentiaries in Pennsylvania — one at Phila- delphia, and the other at Alleghany City. The Philadelphia peni- PENNSYLVANIA. 439 tentiary is one of the most complete establishments of its kind in the country. Both prisons are conducted on the silent system, and the prisoners are kept separate from each other. The discipline is mild but firm, and every effort is made to reform as well as punish the prisoner. In 1866 there were 569 convicts in the Philadelphia prison, and 418 in the Alleghany prison. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the value of church property in Pennsylvania was $22,581,479. The number of churches was 5337. FINANCES. The total debt of the State in December, 1870, was $31,111,661.90. The funded debt was $30,997,700.33, and the unfunded debt $113,964.57. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending November 30, 1870, amounted to $7,737,465.73, and the expenditures to $6,434,522.91. A large part of the debt was discharged in the same year. In September, 1868, there were 197 National Banks in operation in the State, with a capital of $50,247,390. GOVERNMENT. Every male freeman, twenty-one years old, who has paid a State or County tax, within two years, (except in cases of male freemen between 21 and 22 years, who are not required to pay tax as a condition to this right,) and has resided in the State for one year, and in his election district ten days, is entitled to vote at the elections. The State Government is conducted by a Governor, Auditor-Gen- eral, and Surveyor-General, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 33 members, elected for 3 years, one-third retiring annually), and a House of Representatives (of 100 members, elected annually), all chosen by the people. There are, also, a State Treasurer, elected annually by the Legislature, and a Secretary of State, Attorney-Gen- eral, and Adjutant-General, and several other executive officers, appointed by the Governor, -f The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Judges, elected by the people for fifteen years. The Judge who has the shortest term to serve, is Chief Justice. This is the High Court of Errors and Appeals. 440 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The District Courts are two in number, and are established at Philadelphia (for the City and County of Philadelphia) and at Pitts- burg (for the County of Alleghany). Their jurisdiction extends over all civil suits in which the claim exceeds $1000, and in certain other cases prescribed by law. They are the principal commercial courts for the cities in which they are held. The Courts of Common Pleas are each presided over by one Judge, elected for ten years, and one or more Associate Judges, elected for five years. There is a court in every county. They are also Judges of Oyer and Terminer and general jail delivery in their respective counties. Besides these, there are police courts in the cities. For purposes of government, Pennsylvania is divided into 65 coun- ties. Harrisburg is the capital of the State. HISTORY. In 1627, a colony of Swedes and Finns, well provided with means from Europe, settled along the lower part of the western shore of the Delaware, and in a short time spread their settlements to the mouth of the Schuylkill River. In 1655 they were compelled by the Dutch to submit to the authorities of Yew Amsterdam, and in 1664 passed under the rule of the English. In 1681, Charles II. granted the territory west of the Delaware to William Penn, in payment of a debt due by the British Government to Penn’s grandfather. Penn colo- nized his grant at once with members of his own faith (Friends or Quakers), and in 1682 founded the City of Philadelphia. His grant included the present State of Delaware, which was then known as the ^Gower counties.” In 1699, Pennsylvania granted these counties a separate Assembly, but they continued subject to the authority of her Governor until 1776, when, upon the breaking out of the Revolution,, they formed an independent establishment. Penn’s charter failed to- define with exactness the boundaries of his grant, and this led to considerable unpleasantness with the neighboring provinces, which was not settled until 1767, when the surveys of Mason and Dixon defin- itely established the boundaries of the province. The first years of the colony were passed in peace with the Indians, whose friendship was won and retained by the wise and just policy pursued towards them. Upon the outbreak of the war of the Revo- lution, however, they waged upon the colonists a cruel and extermin- ating- warfare, the character of which is well shown by the terrible- massacre at Wyoming. PENNSYLVANIA 441 DEEP CUT, PENNSYLVAJ41A RAILROAD. The lower counties of the State were settled by the Swedes origin- ally, and after them by the Friends or Quakers. These thrifty people soon brought the colony to a flourishing condition, and made it, per- haps, the most successful of all. They were joined in 1750 by a large number of no less thrifty Germans, who settled in the counties around and west of Philadelphia, in the southern part of the State, to which they gave the peculiar characteristics which distinguish them to-day. The colonists contributed their full share to the wars with France,, and gave a hearty support to the measures for securing American independence. Philadelphia was at this time the largest and most important city in America, and was the place at which the Continental Congresses first met. It continued to be the seat of Government until the occupation of the city by the British in 1777, compelled Congress to withdraw to York. The battles of Brandywine and Germantown were fought in this State about the same time. The massacres of Wyoming and Paoli, in the same year, and the memor- able winter at the Valley Forge, are thrilling incidents in the revolu- tionary history of Pennsylvania. 442 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The Convention which adopted the Constitution of the United States held its sessions in the city of Philadelphia, which had already been made memorable by the adoption of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. The Whiskey Insurrection, to which we have already alluded, occurred during Washington’s administration. The State bore its share of the burdens of the war df 1812, and has since always maintained its position as one of the wealthiest, most progressive, and influential members of the Union. During the late Rebellion, it contributed (exclusive of militia) a force of 362,284 men to the army and navy of the United States. The southern counties suffered very much from the incursions of the Confederates. In one of these raids the town of Chambersburg was burned. In June, 1863, the State was invaded by the Confede- rate army under General Lee. This force was defeated at Gettysburg, in Adams county, on the 3d of July, in one of the most memorable and decisive battles of the war. In consequence of this defeat. Gen- eral Lee retreated into Maryland, and recrossed the Potomac. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Philadel- phia, Pittsburg, Alleghany City, Scranton, Reading, Lancaster, Erie, Easton, Norristown, Pottsville, York, Allentown, Danville, Carlisle, Williamsport, Chambersburg, West Chester, Oil City, Wilkesbarre, Johnstown, and Altoona. HARRISBURG, The capital, and sixth city of the State, is situated in Dauphin county, on the east bank of the Susquehanna River, 106 miles west by north of Philadelphia, and 110 miles north of Washington. Latitude 40° 16' N.; longitude 76° 50' W. The city is beautifully located, and its elevated points command fine views of river and mountain scenery. It lies in the midst of a fertile and healthy country, and is regularly laid off. The business of the place is extensive, owing to the fact that it is one of the principal railroad centres of the State, and has canal transportation to the tide- waters of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Its proximity to the great coal and iron regions of the State also adds to its importance. It is already engaged in manufacturing enterprises to a considerable extent. Several extensive iron furnaces, rolling mills, a cotton factory, a manufactory of railway cars, and other works are PEXNSYLYAXiA. 443 SUSQUEHANNA ABOVE HARRISBURG. carried on. The city is rapidly growing in size and population, and promises to be a large and important inland city. The streets are wide and well paved, and the city is substantially built. In its general appearance it resembles Philadelphia, the build- ings being generally of red brick trimmed with white marble. Front street, a handsome avenue, overlooks the Susquehanna, and contains many of the handsomest residences in the city. The Public Buildings are few in number. The State House is an imposing edifice, and occupies a picturesque and commanding position upon a natural eminence, a little north of the centre of the city; and from its dome a fine view may be obtained of the broad and tortuous river, its beautiful islands, its bridges, and the adjacent ranges of the Kittatinny Mountains. The Land Officej a brick building, stands on the right of the State House ; and the State Departments also of brick, on the left. To the south of the Land Office, is the State Arsenal The Court House, on Market street, is a stately structure, built of brick and surmounted by a dome. The State House contains a large and valuable library. There are 9 public schools in the city, and 19 churches. There are 444 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. also an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water from the river. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870, the population was 23,109. The first white settlement made at Harrisburg was in 1719, by an Englishman named John Harris. He purchased from the proprieta- ries of Pennsylvania a grant of 300 acres of land near his residence, and bought of other grantees 500 acres adjoining. He carried on a considerable trade with the neighboring Indians. In 1753, the Penns granted to his son, John Harris, jr., the right to establish a ferry across the Susquehanna at this point, and the settlement became known as Harris’ Ferry. In 1784, the town was laid out. It was made the seat of justice of the new county formed from Lancaster and called Dauphin, in honor of the heir to the Crown of France. The town itself was called Louisburg, in honor of Louis XVI. In 1791, it was incorporated as a town, and its name changed to Harris- burg. In 1812, it became the capital of the State; and in 1860, it was incorporated as a city, and divided into six wards., PHILADELPHIA, In the county of Philadelphia, the largest and most important city of the State, and the second city of the United States, lies between the- Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, 5 miles from their junction and nearly 100 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, following the course of the Dela- ware River and Bay. It is 136 miles northeast of Washington City, and 87 miles southwest of New York. The^ity proper is located in a perfectly level plain ; but the recent additions, especially those on the northwest, are built on a fine rolling country, which abounds in picturesque views which offer a striking contrast to the uniform flat- ness of the old city. As originally laid out in 1701, the city was bounded by the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, and by Vine and Cedar streets. In 1854, the adjoining districts of Spring Garden, Penn, Northern Liberties, Kensington, and Richmond on the north. West Philadelphia on the west, and Southwark, Moyamensing and Passyunk on the south, were consolidated with the city in one muni- cipal government. These constitute, with old Philadelphia, the city proper; but by a recent Act of the Legislature, the limits of the city of Philadelphia have been made coextensive with those of the county, Avhich include an area of 120 square miles. The entire length of the city, from north to south, is 20 miles ; and its greatest breadth, from PENNSYLVANIA. 445 VIEW OF PHILADELPHIA FROM FAIRMOUHT PARK. east to west, 8 miles. The suburbs are very beautiful, and are thickly built up with handsome country seats, villas, cottages, etc. They abound in exquisite scenery, especially in the vicinity of the Wissa- hickon. The most densely settled portion of the city is the southern part, between the two rivers, where the peninsula is only about 2 miles in width. From, this point it widens to the northward. Unlike New York, the population is not crowded into a few houses. The dwel- lings contain one family as a rule, and rarely more than two. They are small as a general thing, large mansions being the exception, save in the richer portions of the city. The densely inhabited portion covers an area of about 9 square miles, extending for about 5 miles along the Delaware, and 2 miles along the Schuylkill. The largest part of the business of the city is transacted between Vine and Spruce streets, east of 12th street. The wealthiest private section, that inhabited by the fashion,^^ is south of Walnut, and west of 7th street. Walnut being considered the most desirable street in the city. Business is making considerable inroads upon this section. Here are to be found some of the most beautiful and elegant residences in the Union. Arch street, north of Market, and Broad street towards its northern end, are among the handsomest and most desirable thorough- fares. Market street, which is entirely devoted to business, extends 446 THE GREAT REPUBLIC THE WISSAHICKOX AT CHESTNUT HILL. throughout the city from east to west, beginning at the Delaware and crossing the Schuylkill. It is 100 feet in width, and is lined with large warehouses, usually of brick. Broad street, 113 feet wide, extends from the northern to the southern limit of the city. Its nortliern ])ortion is lined with elegant residences. The central and southern portions are devoted to business, and contain some of the handsomest buildings in the place. Philadelphia is laid out with great regularity. The original plan of Penn contemplated a city with 10 streets running from river to PEX^'SYLVAXIA, 447 river, and crossed by 25 other streets at right angles to them. Broad and Market streets were to divide this city into four nearly equal por- tions, a considerable area being reserved at the intersection of those streets for. four large squares. These constituted the famous Penn Square, \vhich has been recently stripped of its magnificent trees and shrubbery to make way for the new municipal buildings which are to occupy its four divisions. The streets are usually from 50 to 66 feet in width, with a few of greater breadth. Those running from north to south are n«mbered, beginning at the Delaware or eastern side ; those extending from east to west are named. In the old sections of the city, the sewerage is defective, in consequence of the flatness of the land, but the higher portions have nothing to complain of in this respect. Considering its size and importance, Philadelphia is remark- ably deficient in good pavements. The streets are generally paved with cobble stones, but Belgian and wooden pavements are now begin- ning to make their appearance. The general aspect of the city is bright and pleasing, mingled with a certain primness, however, due to its Quaker origin. Except in^ those jiortions along the water, it is very clean, and is healthy. Market street divides it into two 448 Tin: (JllEAT 11EPU13L1C. THE LEDGER BUILDING. portions, called north and south. The houses are numbered according to the streets between which they are located, 100 to a block. Thus 740 would be located between 7th and 8th streets. This system renders it comparatively easy to find a building in any part of the city. That portion of the city lying east of the Schuylkill is called Philadel- phia, and all west of that river West Philadelphia. As a rule the city is built of brick, but of late years many edifices of brown and free stone, iron and marble, have been erected. ^ Market street is the principal business thoroughfare, and is lined with immense stores, generally devoted to the wholesale trade. Chestnut street corresponds to Broadway in New York, and is the handsomest business street. It is quite narrow, but contains the most elegant buildings in the city, and is one of the handsomest and most attractive streets in tlie Union. It contains the principal hotels ; Independence Hall ; the Custom House ; and the Post-Office. Third street is the great money centre, and is occupied for a considerable distance with the offices of bankers and brokers, many of which are handsome buildings. Now that Penn Square has been destroyed, there are 7 public squares in the city. These are Independence, Washington, Ritten- house, Logan, Franklin, Jefferson, and Norris Squares. ^ They cover each from 6 to 8 acres, are enclosed with tasteful iron railings, and are ornamented with magnificent trees, shrii4>bery, fountains, etc. They -are surrounded with large and elegant residences. PENNSYLVANIA 449 The principal pleasure ground is Fairmount Park, in the northwest portion of the city. This magnificent pleasure ground lies on both sides of the Schuylkill Piver, from the Fairmount water- works to the mouth of the Wissahickon, and along both banks of the latter stream to Chestnut Hill, a distance of miles along the Schuylkill and fi miles along the Wissahickon, making in all, a distance of 13J miles. The entire park comprises nearly 3000 acres, making it the most extensive pleasure ground in the world. Its great length enables it to include the most beautiful portions of the Schuylkill and the far-famed 29 450 THE GREAT REPURLIC THE WISSAIIICKOX. Wissahickon, and it abounds in views of landscape and river scenery unsurpassed in any portion of the world. It is rich in forest trees, on which the white man’s hand has never been laid. It is still in its infancy as a park, the work of improvement having been scarcely begun : but what has been accomplished gives promise of a judicious and tasteful assistance of nature. In its primeval state, this park PENNSYLVANIA. 451 / THE UNION LEAGUE, BROAD STREET. constituted one of the loveliest regions in America. When art and wealth have done their part, it will be indeed worthy of the pride of the people of Philadelphia. The Park contains the Fairmount water-works, and a number of interesting and historical localities. Small steamers ply on the Schuyl- kill from Fairmount water-works to the Falls, and carriages supplied by the Commissioners convey visitors to the principal points at a moderate rate of fares. From the high grounds in the northern por- tion a fine view of the city and the surrounding country is obtained. The public buildings are numerous and handsome. Girard College, in the northern portion of the city, is the finest specimen of Grecian architecture in the United States. It is built of white marble, and is entirely fire-proof. I. here are two additional buildings on each side of the main building, all of which are of marble. The U. S. Custom House, on Chestnut street, also of white marble, is a magnificent struc- ture in the Doric style. It is built on a raised platform, and both fronts are ornamented with noble colonnades of fluted Doric columns. The U. S. Mint, on Chestnut street, extends back to Olive street, 220 feet. It is built of marble, and is the principal establishment of the Federal Government for the coining of money. The Merchants’ Ex- Hange, at the intersection of Walnut, Third, and Dock streets, is a handsome building of white marble. The State House, or as it is 452 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. NEW MASONIC TEMPLE, ON BROAD STREET. better known, Independence Hall, is a plain edifice of brick, remark- able only for its venerable appearance and its interesting history. It was in this building that the early sessions of the Continental Congress were held, and here was adopted the famous Declaration of Independ- ence, on the 4th of July, 1776. The Union League House on Broad street, is a handsome edifice of brick, used as a club house by the Union League of Philadelphia. The Masonic Temple^ now in course of construction, on Broad street between Market and Arch, will be one of the most magnificent structures in the city. Many of the churches are elegant and imposing. The theatres are about 6 in number, and besides these there are a number of inferior places of amusement. The Academy of Music on Broad street, is one of the largest and finest halls in the country ; but the other theatres, though handsome, are not* equal to those of the other large cities of America. The hotels are large, elegant, and well kept. The principal are the Continental, the La Pierre, the Girard, the Merchants^, the American, and Colonnade Hotel. The Continental is a splendid building, and in its internal arrangements is equal to any house of the kind in the Union. The city is well supplied with provisions by means of its excellent markets, of which there are 24. Some of these are handsome struc- tures of brick and iron; others are less pretentious; but the display of edibles of all kinds to be seen in them is perhaps the finest in the PEXXSYLYANIA. 453 world . The great market garden regions of the Middle States lie so close to Phdadelphia, that but a few hours intervene between the gathering of the articles and their delivery to the purchaser in the market. The Educational, Literary, and Scientific Institutions are numerous and of a very high order. The Public Schools have long been noted for their excellence. They are distinct from the State Schools of this kind, and are conducted by the city. There are about 375 free schools Avithin the corporate limits, including two high schools. The average attendance of pupils is about 67,000. There are numerous private schools and academies, which are well attended. Phi- ladelphia has always been famous for the care bestowed by its people upon the educa- tion of the young, and no doubt owes a large share of its prosperity to this care. The University of Pennsyl- vania, 9th street, between Chestnut and Market, em- braces four departments, viz. : the Academical, the Collegiate, the Medical, and the Law. It ranks among the first in- stitutions of its kind in Amer- ica, and its Medical College is the oldest in the Union. The Jefferson Medical College is also a famous and flourishing institution. The Female Medi- cal College is devoted to the object indicated by its name. The others are an Eclectic and Homoeo- pathic Medical College, a College of Pharmacy for the education of druggists and chemists, a College of Dental Siirget'y, a College of Phy- sicians, which is one of the principal sources of the American Phar- macopoeia, and a Polytechnic College, organized on the plans of the Industrial Colleges of France and Germany. The Wagner Free Institute, the gift of Professor Wagner, is a fine institution. Grirard College, in the northwest portion of the city, about two miles from the (State House, was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France and HEMLOCK GLEK OX THE TVISSAHICKOX. 454 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. NEW ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES. a merchant of Philadelphia, who died in 1831. He bequeathed’ $2,000,000 for this purpose. The buildings were completed in 1847, and the institution was opened January 1, 1848. It is devoted to the ‘^gratuitous instruction and support of destitute orphans.^’ The build- ings, 6 in number, are of white marble. The American Philosophical Society has a valuable library and collection of minerals, fossils, and ancient relics. The Franklin Institute is a flourishing society composed of manufacturers, artists, mechanics, and persons friendly to the mechanic arts. It possesses a library of over 8000 volumes, and holds an annual exhibition in October. The Academy of Natural Sciences is one of the best insti- tutions of its kind in the Union. It possesses a library of 26,000 volumes, and a remarkably fine collection of specimens, embracing over 200,000 subjects. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania was founded for the purpose of diffusing a knowledge of local history, especially in relation to the State of Pennsylvania. It has published a number of valuable works on this subject. It possesses a library of 18,000 volumes, and a valuable collection of contemporary documents and relics. The Philadelphia Library was founded in 1731 through the influ- ence of Benjamin Franklin. It numbers about 90,000 volumes, and is free to all who wish to use it. The Mercantile Library is supported by the subscriptions of its members. It contains over 40,000 volumes. The Athanceum Library numbers about 25,000 volumes. Connected PENNSYLVANIA. 455 with it are a news and reading room and a chess room. The Appren- , tices’ Library contains 22,000 volumes ; the Friends' Library 7000- volumes ; and the Law Association Library 7500 volumes. The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Ai'ts possesses a valuable per- manent collection of paintings, and holds an annual exhibition of new works. The Artist^ Fund Society, the Numismatic Society of Phila- delphia, and the School of Design for Women are the other art societies. The Benevolent and Charitable Institutions number more than 100. W e can mention but a few of the most prominent. In respect to her institutions of this kind, Philadelphia is second to no city in the land. The Pennsylvania Hospital is a noble institution, founded in 1751. It possesses an anatomical museum, and a library of more than 10,000 volumes. The County Alms House is an immense struc- ture, situated in the midst of large grounds in West Philadelphia. Connected with it is a hospital with 600 beds. The Pennsyl- vania Insane Asylum is in West Philadelphia. It is one of the best institutions ox the wissahickox drive. of its kind in existence. Its grounds cover an area of 114 acres. The main building is 430 feet long. The United States Naval Hospital, on the "east bank of the Schuylkill, below South street, is for the use of invalid officers and seamen of the U. S. jYavy. The Pennsylvania Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, the Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind, the Preston Retreat, the House of Refuge, the House of Correc- tion, and Wills Hospital are noble charities. The Prisons are well conducted. The Eastern State Penitentiary occupies an area of 11 acres, enclosed by a stone wall, 30 feet high. It is built of stone, and consists of an octagonal building in the centre, from which radiate wings, with rows of cells on each side, and a THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 4 :){) SCHUYLKILL RIVER, FROM THE FALLS. passage way extending the entire length of each wing. It is a model institution in every respect. The PhilddelphicL County Prison is a massive building of stone. It is used for the purposes of a peniten- tiary as well as a county jail and work-house. There are about 375 churches in the city. As a rule they are handsome and substantially built. The meeting-houses of the Friends are generally plain brick structures, remarkable for their absence of display. They are 14 in number. The Cemeteries are, Laurel Hill, Glenwood, Mount Vernon, Monu- ment, Woodlands, Bonaldson’s, Odd Fellows', and Mount Moriah. They are noted for their beauty. Laurel Hill is considered by many persons the most beautiful cemetery in the Union. It is located on the banks of the Schuylkill, in a lovely country, and contains many handsome tombs. Philadelphia is lighted with gas of an excellent quality, which is supplied at a reasonable rate to the citizens. The gas works are con- ducted by the city, and the consumers are secured the best quality of gas that can be made, and are protected from the extortions of private companies. The total length of street mains is about 500 miles. PENNSYL\^AXrA. 457 CHESTNUT STREET BRIDGE, OVER THE SCHUYLKILL, PHILADELPHIA. The city is supplied with water from the Schuylkill Eiver. In 1812 the Fairmount Water Works were begun, and in 1827 water was introduced into the city. Since then the city has constructed additional reservoirs. The Fairmount Water Works, on the Schuyl- kill River, in the northwest part of the city, are very interesting and constitute one of the chief attractions to visitors. The average amount used per diem exceeds 25,000,000 gallons. Philadelphia is connected with the Jersey shore on the opposite side of the Delaware by six lines of steam ferries. Numerous steamers ply on the Delaware between Philadelphia and the towns on that river. The street railway lines are 22 in number. They constitute the best system of street transportation in the Union. By the use of transfer tickets almost any point within the city limits can be reached at a uniform fare of seven cents. There are 9 bridges in and near Philadelphia. Some of these are used exclusively by the railway lines entering the city. The bridge over the Schuylkill at Chestnut street is a beautiful structure of iron, 390 feet long, 42 feet wide, and 40 feet above high water. It cost $500,000. The city is provided with a strong and efficient police force, a fire 458 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. alarm telegraph, and a steam fire department, with more than 30 steam engines. It is divided into 24 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council elected by the people. There are 10 daily, and 40 w^eekly newspapers, and about 60 peri- odicals, weekly and monthly, published in Philadelphia. A large share of the book publishing trade of the Union is carried on here. Philadelphia is largely engaged in manufactures. The district of Manayunk is almost wholly engaged in these enterprises, devoting itself principally to cotton and woollen goods, and carpets. Sugar refining is carried on extensively in the city. Large quantities of shoes, chemicals, medicines, paints, umbrellas, parasols, carts, wheel- barrows, household furni- ture, jewelry, iron manu- factures of every descrip- tion, steam engines, water and gas pipes, military goods, flour, soap, ale and beer, glass, clothing, can- dles, hosiery, etc., etc., are _ manufactured annually. — The total capital invested in manufactures in Phila- delphia is estimated at nearly $100,000,000. Ship building is also carried on to a limited extent. The commerce of Phi- ladelphia is large, and is growing rapidly. Its for- the port of New York. Efforts are now being made to establish direct communication between Philadelphia and Liverpool. In 1865, there were 541 arrivals from foreign ports. The city carries on an immense coasting trade, and its harbor is usually crowded with vessels. In 1865, there were 31,705 arrivals from American ports. The total value of exports from the port of Philadelphia in 1865 was, $11,278,603. The imports in the same year amounted to $7,164,744. The city also conducts a large trade with all parts of the country, and especially with the West, by means of its railroads. Immense quantities of coal and petroleum annually pass through Philadelphia, thus adding to its wealth. PUBLIC FOUNTAIN. eign trade passes principally through PENNSYLVANIA. Philadelphia is at present the fourth city in the Union in commercial importance, but it is making rapid progress towards a higher position. The U. 8, Navy Yard is located on the Delaware River in the southeastern part of the city. It covers an area of 12 acres, and contains 2 large ship-houses, and all the necessary works. Some of the best vessels in the Navy have been constructed here. It also con- tains a sectional floating dock. In 1870, the population of Philadelphia was 674,022. In 1684, it had 2500 inhabitants, in 1778, 42,520 ; in 1820 (up to which time it was the largest city in the Union), 167,325 ; and in 1860, 565,529. The city of Philadelphia was founded by William Penn immediately upon taking possession of the grant of a province by Charles II. He sent out a body of colonists in August 1681, and in 1682, came over himself, and superintended the surveys of the new city. During the latter year, a large number of colonists arrived, the majority of whom were Friends or Quakers, and persons of respectability and wealth. Penn^s deliberate intention was to found a large city, and the general plan of the present city differs very slightly from his original design. The new settlement was named by him Philadelphia, partly from the city of that name in Asia Minor, but principally because of the signi- ficance of the term. Penn’s first care was to make an equitable treaty with the Indians, who, on their part, carefully abstained from molest- ing the new city, which prospered in a marked degree, and became the largest and most important place on the continent, which preeminence it held until about 30 years after the opening of the Revolution. Philadelphia bore its full share in the events of the early wars of the country with the French and Indians, though it was itself never assailed. In 1741, the city was divided into 10 wards. In December 1719, a printing press was set up, and Andrew Bradford began to publish the American Weeldy Mercury , which was continued until 1746. In 1728, the Gazette was begun, which fell to Franklin to conduct in 1729. In the latter year, the building of a State House was author- ized, the site was selected in 1730, and the building begun in 1732, and completed in 1735. The bell tower was not erected till 1750; and on June 7th, 1753, the new great bell,’ cast here, weighing 2080 pounds, with the motto, H^roclaim liberty,’ etc., was raised to its place; this is the bell celebrated in connection with the Declaration of Indepeijdence, and now in Independence Hall. The first Colonial Congress met in Philadelphia at Carpenters’ Hall, a building still in 460 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA. use as a hall, on September 4, 1774. Congress held its sessions at the State House in 1776, and here adopted and signed the Declaration of Independence. The British forces occupied the city from September, 1777, to June, 1778. A census was then taken by General Corn- wallis, and there were found to be 21,767 inhabitants and 5470 houses, but the people were then much scattered. Congress resumed its PENXSYLYANIA. 4G1 sessions at Philadelphia after the British left it, and continued to make this the national capital until the removal to Washington City in 1800. The battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777, was fought within the present chartered limits of the city, 7 miles northwest of the centre of the old city proper. The State Legislature removed its sessions to Harrisburg in 1800, simultaneously with the removal of the seat of the General Government to Washington. The foreign commerce and general trade of Philadelphia increased rapidly after the close of the Pevolution. At the war of 1812 this commerce almost wholly ceased ; in 1816, business and speculation revived, but the results were not fortunate, and direct external trade never recovered its former import- ance. Previous to 1839, the banking capital of Philadelphia was large, and for most of the period previous to 1836, it was the monetary centre of the country. The First Bank of the United States, established by Act of Congress, in 1791, with a capital of §10,000,000, was located here; and the Second Bank of the United States was established here in 1816, with a capital of §35,000,000. The subsequent failure of the bank under its State charter in 1839, and the loss of its large capital, greatly weakened the financial strength of the city, and the monetary centre was permanently transferred to Xew York. The re- vulsion of 1837, and the subsequent financial depression, fell heavily on the city and State, the recovery from them not being apparent until 1844. In 1793, the yellow fever made terrible ravages, nearly deci- mating the population, and driving numbers into the country; and again in 1798, it wus epidemic. In 1832, the Asiatic cholera was very destructive, the victims numbering 770. More recently, there have been milder forms of epidemic cholera and yellow fever, but as a whole the city has from its foundation been conspicuously healthy»^^ The separate municipalities proved for many years the source of considerable trouble, and in 1854, they were all consolidated into one ^mder the general name of Philadelphia. By the same enact- ment, the corporate limits of the city were made to embrace the entire county. PITTSBUEG, The second city in the State, is situated in Alleghany county, at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, which here form the Ohio Eiver. It is 357 miles west of Philadelphia, and 223 north- west of Washington city. The city is located on the triangular plain enclosed by the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers, and by Grant’s Hill 4G2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and the other eminences at the eastern side of the plain. '' The general outline and many other features of this city bear a striking resemblance to the lower part of Kew York. Along the Monongahela the streets were laid out at right angles to each other, and extend either parallel or perpendicular to the river. The same plan was also adopted on the Alle- ghany side, by which arrangement the cross streets meet obliquely a few squares south of the latter stream. The space included within these limits was found insufficient to meet the requirements of the rapidly increasing population, which soon extended itself to t^ie opposite shores. Here have sprung up several large and flourishing towns, the most important of which are Alleghany City and Manchester, situated directly opposite the junction of the Alleghany River with the Ohio, and Birmingham, on the left bank, of the Monongahela. In commer- cial and social interests, all these are identical with the city proper, and we should do Pittsburg injustice, not to consider them as a part of the same community.^’ The situation of Pittsburg is exceedingly beautiful. The city lies in a plain surrounded by hills from 400 to 500 feet in height. At the base of these flow the three rivers we have named. The hills are very rich in coal, iron, and limestone. The soil is fertile to the very summit of the hills, which are covered with picturesque forests, orchards, and gardens, thus giving an additional beauty to the land- scape. An English traveller writes of the scenery as follows : As regards scenery it is beautifully situated, being at the foot of the Alleghany Mountains, and at the junction of the two rivers Monongahela and Alleghany. Here, at the town, they come together, and form the River Ohio. Nothing can be more picturesque than the site, for the spurs of the mountains come down close round the town, and the rivers are broad and swift, and can be seen for miles from heights which may be reached in a short walk. Even the filth and wondrous blackness of the place are picturesque when looked down upon from above. The tops of the churches are visible, and some of the larger buildings may be partially traced through the thick, brown, settled smoke. But the city itself is buried in a dense cloud. The atmosphere was especially heavy when I was there, and the effect was probably increased by the general darkness of the weather. The Monongahela is crossed by a fine bridge, and on the oUier side the ground rises at once, almost with the rapidity of a precipice; so that a commanding view is obtained down upon the town and the two rivers and the different bridges, from a height immediately above them. I PITTS HU RGH. PENNSYLVANIA. 463 was never more in love with smoke and dirt than when I stood here and watched the darkness of night close in upon the floating soot which hovered over the house-tops of the city. I cannot say that I saw the sun set, for- there was no sun. I should say that the sun never shone at Pittsburg, as foreigners who visit London in November declare that the sun never shines there.^^ The city is handsomely built, brick and stone being the principal materials used • but the dense smoke soon defaces the handsomest structure. In consequence of this the place has a black grimy appearance, which effectually mars the work of taste and wealth. There are many handsome residences in the eastern section. The suburbs are preferred for purposes of residence however. They are very picturesque in themselves, and are beautifully built up, and present a very marked contrast to the city in cleanliness. The Public Buildings are among the handsomest in America. The Court House is situated on the summit of Grant's Hill, and is a hand- some edifice of granite, of the Grecian Doric order, with a noble por- tico. The summit of the dome is 148 feet from the ground. The new Custom House is built of freestone in the Grecian style. It con- tains the Post Office. Besides these are several others which are worthy of notice. Some of the churches and commercial buildings are among the principal ornaments of the city. There are also 2 fine market houses, one of which contains a large public hall. The Educational Institutions are in a flourishing condition. The public schools are numerous, and are attended by about 20,000 pupils. Besides these the city contains a number of private schools. The Benevolent Institutions are the Mercy Hospital, under the charge of the Sisters of Mercy, the United States Marine Hospital, the Home for the Friendless, the Church Home, designed chiefly as a home for children of all denominations, the Pittsburg Infirmary, the Poman Catholic Orphan Asylum and a House of Refuge. In addition to these are the Western Pennsylvania Hospital (which has a depart- ment for the insane at Dixmont, 8 miles from the city), and the House of Industry, situated in Alleghany City, but really to be regarded as among the institutions of Pittsburg. The Western Penitentiary of Pennsylvania is located in Alleghany City. It is an immense stone building in the Norman style. There are about 110 churches in the city of Pittsburg, and about 30 in Alleghany City. Some of them are imposing structures and are admirably located. 404 the great republic. Pittsburg is supplied with pure water from the Alleghany River, ami is lighted with gas of an excellent quality. It is divided into 9 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is well provided witli street railways, whicli also connect its business centres with the suburbs on both rivers. Four fine bridges connect it with Alleghany City, and two extend across the Monongahela to Birmingham. Alleghany City is simply an extensive suburb of Pittsburg, and is divided from it by the Alleghany River. It is well built in the main, and contains many handsome residences, being a favorite resi- dence of the people of the greater city, as it is very much cleaner. It contains a large number of manufacturing establishments, and is a place of considerable importance. Here are located the Western Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church ; the Theological Seminary of the Associate Reformed Church; and the Alleghany Theological Institute. In 1870 the population of Alleghany City was 53,181. The manufactures, etc., of the city will be treated of in con- nection with those of Pittsburg. Alleghany is a distinct corporation, and is governed by its own Mayor and Council. Birmingham and Manchester are considerable suburbs. The former is situated on the south side of the Monongehela River, immediately opposite Pittsburg, and the latter is on the Ohio, 2 miles below the city. Mr. Geo. H. Thurston, in his Quarterly Circular, thus describes manufacturing Pittsburg: Pittsburgh is not to be seen in a day, nor yet in a week ; and while the simple fact that it is a great manufacturing city is generally acknowledged, yet the details of that greatness are but little under- stood. Many years ago, before the iron horse had crossed the Alle- ghanies, while yet the transportation of the merchandise for the West was made in the old six-horse Conestoga wagons, the City of Wheeling claimed importance and coming greatness, inasmuch as that forty of those wagons had arrived in that city in one day. Since then Wheel- ing has grown into an active little competitor of Pittsburgh, the great parent of all western manufactures, and of which it, as well as a dozen othei manufacturing towns, are ofP-shoots, the natural outspringing and colonization of PittsburglTs growth. That growth has been so ipaiked and so continuous that we have often, in the past few years, been tempted to remodel the language of Wheeling, and say : Forty miles of mills and factories every day in operation in Pittsburgh. This is no brag, but almost literally a reality, although no doubt a terse explanation of ^ what Pittsburgli really is like ’ is rather startling to her PENNSYLYANIA. 465 own citizens. The real fact is that actual measurement shows that in the limits of what is known throughout the country as Pittsburgh there are thirty-five miles of manufactories of iron, of glass, 'of steel, of copper, of oil, of wools, of cotton, of brass, alone, not to include manufactories in other materials, nor including any of less grade than manufactories of iron chains in iron, or plows in tvood. A measure- ment of the ground also shows that these 36 miles of factories are so closely contiguous that tvere they placed in a single row each factory would have but about 400 feet of front space for its workings. “The statistics of this statement of the extent of Pittsburgh manu- facturing power are these : From the point up the south bank of the Alleghany Eiver to the Sharpsburg bridge is 6 miles; in that dis- tance, between the river bank and Penn street, there are 115 factories of the classes designated. From Sharpsburg bridge down the north bank of the Alleghany Eiver to Wood’s Eun is 8 miles, and in that distance there are 67 manufactories. From Temperanceville to Brownstown, up the west bank of the Monongahela Eiver, is 4 miles, and in that distance there are 70 factories, between the river and Carson street. From the Monongahela bridge up the course of the Monongahela Eiver, to a point beyond Brownstown, is 3J miles, and in that distance, between Carson street and the hill, there are 43 manufactories. From the Point to the Copper AVorks, on the east bank of the Monongahela, is 3J miles, and in that distance there are 65 factories. From Federal street out Ohio street to Duquesne Borough is 1| miles, and in that distance there are 16 factories. On Butcher’s Eun, in a distance of 2 miles, there are 32 factories. Along Liberty street, from the Point to the Outer Depot, there are 19 fac- tories in a distance of 2 miles. On 2d and 3d avenues, from Liberty to Try streets, a distance of 1 mile, there are 18 factories. Along Pennsylvania avenue to Soho street, a distance of 1} miles, there are 17 factories. Between Ohio street and the base of the hill there are, in a distance of 3 miles, 24 factories. ’ “Thus in a distance of 35J miles of streets, there are 475 manu- factories of iron, of steel, of cotton, of oil, of glass, of copper, occupy- ing an average of less than 400 feet front each. “Were these factories placed in a single row, it will be easily seen how compactly they would be crowded, each occupying no more terri- tory than was actually needed. They would be a continuous rorv without interval, and show that in reality there are in Pittsburgh ab- solutely over 35 continuous miles of manufactures in daily operation. 466 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, “ Pittsburghers, then, in answer to the question, what is Pittsburgh like? can readily answer — Like a row 35 miles long of factories twisted up- into a compact tangle all belching forth smoke, all glow- ing with fires, all swarming with workmen, all echoing with the clank of’machinery. The territory over and around which this immense chain of machinery is strung, though all popularly known as Pitts- huro-h, is composed of the city of Pittsburgh and the city of Alleghany , the\oroughs of Temperanceville, West Pittsburgh, Monongahela, South Pittsburgh, Birmingham, pd East Birmingham. The whole forms, however, one compact city, in effect, divided only by the two rivers, which, running through the district, are spanned by numerous bridges, over several of which street railroads link, with their almost contFnuous lines of cars, in one mass, a population in this hive of in- dustry numbering 200,000 sonls. Although the name of Pittsburgh, and the term Pittsburgh manufactures, have been ‘ as household words’ throughout the West, since the days of die earlier Western settlements, still its growth has been so equable with that of the West that but few realize the real magnitude of the community. “ Called into existence by no sudden speculative rush of emigra- tion, drawn primarily by some adventitious circumstances, Pittsburgh has accumulated its population through the course of years from the solid advantages each passing year renders but more apparent. In all past years Pittsburgh has been a point of departure for much of the emigration to the West, a position the city still maintains. Thns naturally Pittsburgh became a supply point for the West, and the West the chief market for her prodnctions. The increase of the popu- lation of the West has told with unerring certainty upon the business and the population of Pittsburgh. “ In 1800, the population of the States through and along wliicli Pittsburgh enjoys river navigation, was 385,667, and that of Pitts- burgh w^s 1665, or a little over per cent., while the value of her business was, in 1803, but $350,000, or equal to 92 ^ per cent, of the population of the West. ‘‘In 1810, there were in the same western territory 1,057,531 in- habitants, and in Pittsburgh 4876, or per cent., being A over the. necessary increase to preserve the ratio of our increase in the city s population, in proportion to that of the West. The amount of busi- ness of the city was then estimated at $1,000,000, equal to 93 per cent, on the population of the territory indicated. “ In 1830, there were 3,331,298 inhabitants in the section of the PENNSYLVANIA. 467 Union before indicated, and in Pittsburgh there were 16,988, still showing the growth of the city was not in the same ratio of increase as the West, as in past periods, but a gain of over what was neces- sary. ''In 1840, there were 5,173,949 inhabitants in the western and southwestern States, and the population of Pittsburgh was 38,931, being per cent., showing not only the maintenance of the progres- sive ratio, but a gain over it of per cent. "In 1836, the business of the city was estimated at $31,146,550, being something over 600 per cent., showing the business of the city had not only kept pace with the population of the West, as shown in previous ratios, but had compounded thereon 500 per cent. In 1860, the population of the Mississippi basin and the western lake slopes (Pittsburgh's market), was shown by the census of that year to be in round numbers 17,000,000. At that date the business of Pittsburgh was estimated at over $100,000,000, showing the ratio of business on the population of the West, attained in 1836 and 1840, M^as still maintained. " The population of the district considered and claimed as Pitts- burgh, being the compact mass of population between and on both sides of the rivers to the city limits, was estimated at 140,000 in that year, showing that in population as well as business the ratio of Pitts- burglTs prosperity with the wealth of the West continues to be main- tained. What the population of the West may be as shown by the census of 1870 we know not, but those who know the great growth of Pittsburgh in the last nine years, the vast increase in her rolling- mills and in her workshops, cannot doubt that the ratio of increase is still maintained. In the great swell of the population of the West, Pittsburgh seems not only to keep pace and to hold her trade, but that trade, like her population, seems to increase in arithmetical pro- portion with the growth of the country. Considering the competitors which have arisen for the market Pittsburgh supplies with her staples, this is worthy especial note as indicative of a natural force in her position and her resources not to be lost sight of in contemplating her future. " The force of Pittsburgh's position is seen at a glance. Distant only 300 to 400 miles from three of the greatest sea-board cities of the Union ; but 200 miles from the great chain of inland seas, and reaching in all directions by continuous river navigation an area of country 1200 by 960 geographical miles, she is at the same time the 468 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. key point of a railway route nearer by 40 miles from New York to the West than any now constructed. Situated in the heart of a bitu- minous coal formation of the Appalachian field, and equally advan- tageously located as to deposits of iron ore, her geographical relations to the staples for manufacturing are unequalled. She stands in a geo- graphical centre from which a circle with a radius of 400 miles em- braces Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, Rhode Island, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Michigan, Canada, parts of Illinois and South Carolina. This circle embraces every variety of climate, and nearly, if not quite all the staples of the United States and its valuable manufacturing minerals, over which she holds the magician’s wand in her unequalled supply of fuel. For ^coal, says VischerSj Cs the indispensable aliment of industry. It is to in- dustry what oxygen is to the lungs — water to the plant — nourishment to the animal.’ The statistics of the coal by which Pittsburgh is surrounded shows how inexhaustible is this element of her force and her progress. The extent of the bituminous coal fields by which Pittsburgh is surrounded _ is equal to 8,600,000 square acres. The amount of coal contained in • that area it is difficult to estimate. It has been stated that the upper seam, rating it at 8 feet, contains 53,516,430,000 tons, which at $2 per ton, or a little over 7 cents per bushel, would be worth $107,032,- 300^000 — a sum which, could it be realized, would pay the national debt thirty times. Of course although centuries will not see it taken from the earth, the figures show what a mine of wealth Pittsburgh has to draw from ; and how mighty is the magnet she possesses to attract to her boundaries minerals and staples of all the States, popu- lation and wealth. At the present time the coal trade of the city amounts to about $10,000,000 annually, and there are in the vicinity of Pittsburgh 103 collieries j the value of lands, houses, improve- ments, cars, etc., amounts to about $11,000,000. The amount of coal mined from these collieries in 1864 was 48,462,966 bushels, of which nearly 30,000,000 bushels were exported down the Ohio River alone. But not in coal alone is her strength shown. In those things which coal enables her busy artizans to produce, is her power equally apparent. As nearly as can be ascertained, one-half of the glass fac- tories in the United States are located at Pittsburgh, where there are 40 firms engaged in the manufacture of glass, who run 60 factories producing the various descriptions of green, window, flint, and lime PENNSYLVANIA. 469 glass, employing over 4000 workmen, and producing between four and five millions worth of glass. In iron and steel, Pittsburgh claims and maintains to be the great market of the country. The exact money value of this great trade has always been difficult to arrive at. Much of the iron is shipped by rail to various points, and much by river. By figures we have at command of the shipments of plate, bar, sheet, and rod iron and steel from Pittsburgh in the year 1865, it would seem that there were ex- ported, by rail alone, to 24 different States, over 143,000 tons, and 180,000 kegs of nails to 20 different States. These railroad exporta- tions, it must not be forgotten, are not probably half the manufacture. That of castings there were shipped by rail alone 5,143,008 pounds in 1864, to 22 different States ; and that by one railroad alone there were received in 1864, into the city, 107,000 tons of pig-iron and blooms, exclusive of the yield of 6 or 8 furnaces running in the city of Pittsburgh, or the imports by river and other railroads. It is esti- mated that of shipments made from Pittsburgh, at least as much is sent by river as by rail. There are over 30 iron rolling-mills in Pittsburgh, 6 steel mills, and between 50 and 60 iron founderies. These figures but feebly indicate the full extent of the great iron and steel trade of the city, of which the sales alone of articles made of iron subject to tax, made and returned to the city, was from March, 1865, to March, 1866, over $27,000,000. Oil is another great staple, and there are in Pittsburgh 58 re- fineries, in which is invested a capital of nearly $8,000,000 in buildings and machinery * and in the tanks and barges necessary to the carrying on of the business, nearly $6,000,000 more. The oil trade of the city for the 5 years from January, 1863, to January, 1868, amounted to about $56,000,000, or an average of about $11,000,000 annually. Other branches of Pittsburgh manufactures might be cited to show its force and solidity, but enough has been stated to partially show what Pittsburgh is like. To show that she is like a great city cf nearly 200,000 population ; that she is a great arsenal for the supply of manufactured articles; that she grows with the growth, and in- creases in wealth with the prosperity of the West. Although she has apparently grown but slowly, yet she has grown like the oak, and but counts her infancy in the years in which other cities spring and ma- ture ; and she stands like a sooty giant astride the head waters of the Ohio, rejoicing in the lusty strength of her fresh youth, while her powerful servant, the mighty Geni of the Mine, throughout the waters 470 THE GREAT RETUBLIC. of the Ohio, along the shores of the Father of Waters, around the borders of the great lakes, on either hand ot the pathway of the iron horse, athwart the Western prairies, proclaims her the dusky Queen of Industry, and commands homage to her iron sceptre in three- fourths of the States of the Union/^ Its very location has placed an enormous trade in the hands of Pittsburg. Lying at the head of the Ohio River, it has water com- munication with every town on the navigable portion of the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Missouri rivers and their tributaries. Being one of the principal railway centres of the West, it has railway con- nections with all parts of the Union. The principal harbor is fur- nished by the Monongahela River, which has a greater depth of water than the Alleghany. The Ohio is navigable to the confluence of those streams for boats of light draught, except at infrequent -periods of very great dryness. The boats are generally built in such a manner as to adapt them to the lowest stages of water. Large side- wheel steamers also navigate the Ohio during the season of high water. By means of these steamers, a heavy trade is maintained with the States along the rivers we have mentioned. Pittsburg thus controls about 12,000 miles of water transportation, and can deliver its products without breaking bulk in over 400 counties of 17 States. In 1865, there were 159 steamboats owned in the city. The number is much greater at present. Besides these, hundreds of steamers, owned in other States, trade with Pittsburg. In 1870, the population of Pittsburg was 86,235. In February, 1754, a party of English settlers built a stockade and established a trading post on the point of land lying between the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers at their confluence, on the site of the present city of Pittsburg. In April, they were attacked and driven away by the French, who claimed the country. The con- querors erected a fort on the spot, and called it Duquesne, in honor ^ of the Governor of Canada. This fort at once became the centre of all the military operations of the French in this part of the country. To the French claim, which was based upon their discovery of the region, the English advanced a counter claim based upon a charter from the Crown, strengthened by a treaty with the Iroquois. The importance attached to the position by the French made it a matter of the greatest moment to the English to obtain possession of it. General Braddock was sent, in 1755, at the head of the largest force that had ever crossed the mountains, to recapture it. He was attacked PENNSYLVANIA. 471 and defeated by the French and Indians, on the 9th of July of that year, at a point on the Monongahela, about 12 miles above the fort. On the loth of October, 1758, a force of 800 men, under Major Grant, advancing to attack the fort, was defeated with terrible loss. On the 25th of November, 1758, the fort fell into the hands of a force of 6000 men under General Forbes. The Frencli and their Indian allies vainly endeavored to check Forbes’ advance, and failing in this, set the fort on fire and retreated on the 24th, the day before the arrival of the English. General Forbes rebuilt and strengthened the fort. It was completed in January, 1759, and was called Fort Pitt, in honor of the great English Minister. The French made several efforts to recapture it, but without success. In 1764, the settlement of the town began, the houses being erected in the vicinity of the fort. In 1772, the fort was abandoned by the English, who had no further use for it as a military post. The site was claimed by Virginia under a charter from James I. Pennsylvania also claimed it under a char- ter from Charles II. Virginia prepared to assert her claim by force, and on the 11th of August, 1775, threw a company of soldiers into Fort Pitt. The Revolution made this a minor question, however, and in August, 1779, Commissioners, appointed by the two provinces, met in Baltimore, and agreed upon the existing boundary which was ratified by their respective Legislatures. The excise troubles of 1 7 91-4, made Pittsburg the scene of considerable violence. In 1845, a fire destroyed the entire business portion of the city, causing a loss of §5,000,000. Pittsburg was incorporated as a borough in 1804, and as a city in 1816. SCEANTON, The fourth city in population in the State, is situated in Luzerne county, on the left bank of the Lackawanna River, 137 miles north- east of Harrisburg. It is the terminus of several railway lines lead- ing direct to Harrisburg, Philadelphia, and New York, and the centre of an immense coal trade. Iron ore is found in large quantities in the vicinity, and the city is largely engaged in the manufacture of iron wares of various kinds. The principal sources of its prosperity, however, are the rich coal mines which lie near the town. These mines are worked by the Pennsylvania and other companies, and em- ploy large numbers of miners of all nationalities. Scranton is a well built town, containing about 4 public schools, 11 churches, and 2 newspaper offices. It is prettily situated, and is / 4T2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. SCRANTOJ^-. improving in its architectural pretensions. During the last few years, the population has increased with unprecedented rapidity. In 1860, the city contained 9223 inhabitants. In 1870, the population was 35,762. If Pittsburg and Alleghany are regarded as one city, Scranton is the third city in Pennsylvania. READING, The fifth city of the State, is situated in Berks county, on the left or east bank of the Schuylkill River, 52 miles east of Harrisburg, and 52 miles northwest of Philadelphia, with both of which places it is connected by railways. It has railway connections with other parts of the State. The Schuylkill Canal brings it in direct commu- nication with the entire Schuylkill region. The river is here crossed by two bridges, one of which is 600 feet long. The city is beautifully situated on a sloping plain, which rises from the river, and is terminated on the east by an eminence called Penn’s Mount. The city is well built, brick being the principal material. The streets are broad and straight, and intersect each other at right- PENNSYLVANIA. 413 angles. The streets are macadamized and afford a firm, smooth road- way, admirably adapted to travel. The general appearance of the town is clean. The principal buildings are the Court House and the churches, some of the latter of which are very handsome. The public schools are excellent, and there are several private schools. There are 23 churches in the city, and 2 daily and 6 weekly newspapers are pub- lished here. Heading is lighted with gas, and supplied with water. The surrounding country is very beautiful, and as this section of the State is one of the finest agricultural regions of the Union, Heading is a place of considerable trade. It is also largely engaged in manu- factures iron, cotton, and flour being the principal articles. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 33,932. Heading was laid out in 1748, by Thomas and Hichard Penn, and named from the town of Heading in England. In 1783, it was incor- porated as a borough ; and in 1847, as a city. LANCASTER, The seventh city of the State, is finely situated in Lancaster county, 1 mile west of Conestoga Creek, 70 miles west of Philadelphia, and 37 miles east-southeast of Harrisburg. The Pennsylvania Central Hailway passes through the city, and connects it with Philadelphia, Harrisburg, and Pittsburg. The slack-water navigation of the Con- estoga gives it water transportation to the sea, and is a source of con- siderable wealth to it. It is situated in the wealthiest and most thickly populated section of the State, and possesses a large trade with the surrounding country and with Philadelphia. It is also largely engaged in manufactures, and is extending its efforts in this direction. It is noted for the production of rifles, axes, carriages, agricultural implements, locomotives, and cotton goods. The city is regularly laid off. The streets are straight and well paved, and intersect each other at right-angles. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water from Conestoga Creek. The majority of the buildings are of brick, and this gives to the place a substantial appearance. Many of the dwellings are elegant and would do credit to any city. The Court House is a fine edifice of stone, in the Grecian style; and the County Prison is a handsome structure, of sand-stone. There are several excellent public schools in the city, and about as many flourishing private schools. Lancaster 474 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. is the seat of Marshal College, organized in 1853, in connection with the old establishment of Franklin College, which was founded in 1787. The city contains 15 .churches, and 2 public libraries. Two daily and 7 weekly newspapers are published here. Lancaster is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 20,233. Lancaster was laid out in 1730. It was js£.ttled principally by Germans, and the present inhabitants are mostly of German descent. It was for many years the largest inland town in the United States, and was the capital of Pennsylvania from 1799 to 1812. In 1818, it was incorporated as a city. ERIE, The eighth city of the State, is situated in Erie county, on the south- east shore of Lake Erie, 90 miles southwest of Buffalo, 129 miles north of Pittsburg, and 310 miles northwest of Harrisburg. It lies immediately opposite the island of Presque Isle, which was once a peninsula. The harbor is one of the largest and best sheltered on the lake. It is about 1 mile wide and 3 J miles long, with a depth of from 9 to 25 feet of water along its entire length. It has been greatly improved and strongly fortified by the United States Government, and its entrance is marked by a light-house. It is connected with the Ohio River at Beaver, by the Erie Extension Canal, and has railway communication with all parts of the Union. It possesses a flourishing lake trade, and is largely engaged in the export of lumber, petroleum, and coal. It is also interested in manufactures to a limited extent, the canal affording extensive water-power. The town is well built, being constructed chiefly of brick. It is situated on an elevated bluff, overlooking and commanding a fine view of the lake. The streets are wide and straight, and cross each other at right-angles. Near the centre of the city is a tasteful park. Erie contains about 13 churches, a public library, 7 newspaper oflices, and several public schools, which rank among the best in the State. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 19,646. It is the only lake port situated in Pennsylvania. Erie was settled about the beginning of the present century. In 1805, it was incorporated. Its history is uneventful, and its growth was slow. The principal event connected with it was the fitting out here of Perry^s fleet during the war of 1812-15. PENNSYLVANIA. 475 EASTON. EASTON, In Northampton county, on the right bank of the Delaware Eiver, at the junction with that stream of the Lehigh Eiver and Bushkill Creek, is a flourishing city. It is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks, is well built, and is lighted with gas and supplied with pure water./ It is finely situated in the midst of some of the most beauti- ful scenery of the State, and is in many respects one of the most pic- turesque cities in America. The Lehigh and Delaware are here crossed by fine bridges. The city possesses good water-power, and is largely engaged in manufactures. Flour, oil, iron, lumber, cotton goods, and fire-arms are the principal articles produced. The city is connected with New York, Philadelphia, and all parts of the State, by railway. By means of these and the Delaware, Lehigh, and Mor- ris Canals, large quantities of coal, lumber, and grain are received and shipped to the principal markets of the country. Easton is one of the most enterprising places in Pennsylvania, and is growing rap- idly in population and importance. It contains the county buildings, several handsome churches, and several excellent schools. It is the seat of Lafayette College^ a flourishing institution. Five newspapers 47G THE GREAT REPUBLIC. are published here. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 10,987. Easton was laid out in 1738, and was incorporated as a town in 1789. The surrounding country is very beautiful, and is rich in iron ore and limestone. MISCELLANIES. OLD TIME CUSTOMS IN PHILADELPHIA. Mr. Watson, in his “Historic Tales of the Olden Time,” gives some interest- ing accounts of the customs of the people of Philadelphia prior to the Revolution. He says : They were distinguished for a frank and generous hospitality. They made many entertainments, but they were devoid of glare and show, and always abun- dant and good. Dr. Franklin, describing the state of the people about the year 1752, says they were all loyal, and submitted willingly to the government of the Crown, or paid for defence cheerfully. “They were led by a thread. They not only had a re- spect, but an affection, for Great Britain, for its laws, its customs, and its man- ners, and even a fondness for its fashions, — not yet subsided. Natives of Great Britain were always treated with particular regard ; and to be ‘an Old England man ’ gave a kind of rank and respect among us.” The old people all testify that the young of their youth were much more re- served, and held under much more restraint in the presence of their elders and parents, than now. Bashfulness and modesty in the young were then regarded as virtues ; and the present freedom before the aged was not then countenanced. Young lovers then listened and took sidelong glances, when before their parents or elders. It was the custom for the younger part of the family, and especially of the fe- male part, to dress up neatly towards the close of the day, and sit in the street porch. Sometimes they would go from porch to porch in neighborhoods, and sit and converse. Tea was such a rarity that it was measured out for the teapots in small hand-scales. Afternoon visits w'ere not made, as now, at night, but at so early an hour as to permit matrons to go home and see their children put to bed. Before the Revolution, no hired man or woman wore any shoes so fine as calf- skin ; coarse neats leather was their every day wear. Men and women then hired by the year — men got £16 to £20, and a servant woman £8 to £10. Out ot that it was their custom to lay up money, to buy before their marriage a bed and bedding, silver teaspoons, and a spinning wheel, etc. Among the rough amusements of men might be mentioned shooting, fishing, and sailing parties. These were frequent, as also mutton clubs, fishing, house and country parties were much indulged in by respectable citizens. Great so- ciability prevailed among all classes of citizens, until the strife with Great Britain sent ‘ every man to his own ways ; ” then discord and acrimony ensued, and the previously general friendly intercourse never returned. We afterw’ards grew an- other and enlarged people. Our girls in the daytime used to attend the work of the family, and in the even- PENNSYLVANIA. ill mg paraded in their porch at the door. Some of them, however, even then, read novels, and walked without business abroad. Those who had not housework employed themselves in their accomplishments, such as making shell-work, cor- nucopias, working of pocket books, with a close, strong-stitched needlework. The ladies, seventy years ago, were much accustomed to ride on horseback for recreation. It was quite common to see genteel ladies riding, with jockey caps. Boarding schools for girls were not known in Philadelphia until about the time of the Kevolution, nor had they any separate schools for writing and cipher- ing, but were taught in common with boys. The ornamental parts of female education were bestowed, but geography and grammar were never regarded for them, until a certain Mr. Horton — thanks to his name — proposed to teach those sciences to young ladies. Similar institutions afterwards grew into favor. It was usual, in the gazettes of 1760 to 1770, to announce marriages in words like these, to wit: “Miss Betsey Lawrence, or Miss Elizabeth Caton, a most agreeable lady, with a large or a handsome fortune.” In still earlier limes, marriages had to be promulged by affixing the intentions of the parties on the court house or meeting house door ; and when the act was solemnized, they should have at least twelve subscribing witnesses. The act which imposed.it was passed in 1700. ^ The wedding entertainments of olden times were very expensive and harassing to the wedded. The house of the parent would be filled with company to dine ; the same company would stay to tea and to supper. For two days, punch was dealt out in profusion. The gentlemen saw the groom on the first floor, and then ascended to the second, where they saw the bride ; there every gentleman, even to 100 in a day, kissed her. Even the plain Friends submitted to these things. I have known rich families which had 120 persons to dine — the same who had signed their certificate of marriage at the monthly meeting ; these also partook of tea and supper. As they formally passed the meeting twice, the same entertainment was repeated. Two days the male friends would call and take punch, and all would kiss the bride. Besides this, the married pair, for two en- tire weeks, saw large tea parties at their home, having in attendance every night the groomsman and bridesmaids. To avoid expense and trouble. Friends have since made it sufficient to pass but one meeting. When these marriage enter- tainments were made, it was expected also that punch, cakes, and meats should be sent out very generally in the neighborhood, even to those who were not visi- tors in the family. Of articles and rules of diet, so far as it differed from ours, in the earliest time, we may mention coffee, as a beverage, was used but rarely ; chocolate for morn- ing and evening, or thickened milk for children. Cookery in general was plainer than now. In the country, morning and evening repasts were generally made of milk, having bread boiled therein, or else thickened with pop-robins — things made up of flour and eggs into a batter, and so dropped in with the boiling milk. A lady of my acquaintance thus describes the recollections of her early days, preceding the war of Independence : Dress was discriminate and appropriate, both as regarded the season and the character of the wearer. Ladies never wore the same dresses at work and on visits ; they sat at home, or went out in the morning, in chintz ; brocades, satins, and mantuas were reserved for evening or dinner parties. Robes or negligees, as they were called, were always worn in 478 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. full dress. Muslins were not worn at all. Little Misses at a dancing school ball (for these were almost the only fetes that fell to their share in the days of discrimination) were dressed in frocks of lawn or cambric. Worsted was then thought dress enough for common days. xVs a universal fact, it may be remarked, that no other color than black was over made for ladies’ bonnets, when formed of silk or satin. Fancy colors were unknown, and white bonnets of silk fabric had never been seen. The first inno- vation remembered was the bringing in of blue bonnets. The time was when the plainest woman among the Friends (now so averse to fancy colors) wmre their colored silk aprons, say, of green, or blue, etc. This W'as at a time when the gay wore white aprons. In time, white aprons w^ere dis- used by the gentry, and then the Friends left off their colored ones and used the wdiite. The same old ladies among Friends, whom we can remember as wearers of the w'hite aprons, wore also large white beaver hats, wnth scarcely the sign of a crowm, and which was indeed confined to the head by silk cords tied under the chin. Eight dollars ivould buy such a hat, when beaver fur was more plentiful. They lasted such ladies almost a whole life of wear. They show^ed no fur. Very decent women went abroad and to churches wdtli check aprons. I have seen those who kept their coach in my time to bear them to church, who told me they went on foot, with a check apron, to the Arch street Presbyterian meeting in their 5 ^outh. Then all hired women wore short gowns and petticoats of domestic fabric, and could be instantly known as such whenever seen abroad. In the former days, it was not uncommon to see aged persons with large silver buttons to their coats and vests — it was a mark of wealth. Some had the initials of their names engraved on each button. Sometimes they were made out of real quarter dollars, with the coinage impression still retained — these were used for the coats, and the elevenpenny-bits for vests and breeches. My father wore an entire suit decorated with conch-shell buttons, silver mounted. The articles of dress in those early times would at the present day not be re- cognized by their names. The following is an advertisement for the year 1745 : “For sale. Tandems, isinghams, nuns, bag and gulix (these all mean shirt- ing), huckabacks (a figured worsted for women’s gowns), quilted humhums, turketees, grassets, single allopeens, children’s stays, jumps and bodice, whale- bone and iron busks, men’s new market caps, silk and worsted wove patterns for breeches, allibanes, dickmansoy, cushloes, chuckloes, cuttanees, crimson dannador, chain’d soosees, lemonees, byrampauts, moree, naffermamy, saxling- ham, prunelloe, barragons, druggets, florettas,” etc., etc. It was very common for children and working women to wear beads made of Job’s tears, a berry of a shrub. They used them for economy, and said it pre- vented several diseases. Until the period of the Revolution, every person who wore a fur hat, had it always of entire beaver. Every apprentice, at receiving his “freedom,” received a real beaver at a cost of six dollars. Their every day hats were of wool, called felts. What were called roram hats, being fur faced upon wool felts, came into use directly after the peace, and excited much surprise, as to the invention. Gen- tlemen’s hats, of entire beaver, universally cost eight dollars. The use of lace veils to ladies’ faces is but a modern fashion, not of more than twentj^ to thirty years standing. Now they wear black, white, and green — the last only lately introduced as a summer veil. In olden time, none wore a veil but as a mark and badge of mourning, and then, as now, of crape in preference to lace. PENNSYLVANIA. 479 Ancient ladies remembered a time, in their early life, when the ladies wore blue stockings and party-colored clocks of very striking appearance. May not that fashion, as an extreme ton of the upper circle in life, explain the adoption of the term, “Blue-stocking Club?” I have seen, in possession of Samuel Coates, Esq., the wedding silk stockings of his grandmother, of a lively green, and great red clocks. My grandmother wore, in winter, very fine worsted green stockings, with a gay clock surmounted with a bunch of tulips. The late President, Thomas Jefferson, when in Philadelphia, on his first mis- sion abroad, was dressed in the garb of his day after this manner, to wit : he wore a long waisted white cloth coat, scarlet breeches and vest, a cocked hat, with a black cockade. Even spectacles, permanently useful as they are, have been subject to the ca; price of fashion. Now they are occasionally seen of gold — a thing I never saw in my youth ; neither did I ever see one young man with spectacles — now so nu- merous. A purblind or half-sighted youth then deemed it his positive disparage- ment to be so regarded. Such would have rather run against a street post six times a day than have been seen with them. Indeed, in early olden time they had not the art of using temple spectacles. Old Mrs. Shoemaker, who died in 1825, at the age of 95, said she had lived many years in Philadelphia before she ever saw temple spectacles — a name then given as a new discovery, but now so common as to have lost its distinctive character. In her early years, the only spectacles she ever saw were called “bridge spectacles,” without any side sup- porters, and held on the nose solely by nipping the bridge of the nose. My grandmother wore a black velvet mask in winter, with a silver mouth-piece to keep it on, by retaining it in the mouth. I have been told that green ones have been used in summer for some few ladies, for riding in the sun on horse- back. Ladies formerly wore cloaks as their chief overcoats ; they were used with some changes of form under the successive names of roquelaurs, capuchins, and cardinals. In Mrs. Bhoemaker’s time, above named, they had no knowledge of umbrellas to keep off rain, but she had seen some few use kitisols — an article as small as present parasols now. They were entirely to keep off rain from ladies. They were of oiled muslin, and of various colors. They were imported from India by way of England. They must, however, have been but rare, as they never ap- pear in any advertisements. Dr. Chancellor and the Rev. Mr. Duche were the first persons in Philadelphia who were seen to wear umbrellas to keep off the rain. They were of oiled linen, very coarse and clumsy, with ratan sticks. Before their time, some doctors and ministers used an oiled linen cape, hooked round tbeir shoulders, looking not unlike the big coat capes now in use, and then called a roquelaur. It was only used for severe storms. About the year 1771, the first efforts were made in Philadelphia to introduce the use of umbrellas in summer, as a defence from the sun. They were then scouted in the public gazettes as a ridiculous effeminacy. On the other hand, the physicians recommended them, to keep of vertigoes, epilepsies, sore eyes, fevers, etc. Finally, as the doctors were the chief patrons. Doctor Chancellor and Doc- tor Morgan, with the Rev. Parson Duche, were the first persons who had the hardihood to be so singular as to wear umbrellas in sunshine. Mr. Bingham, when he returned from the West Indies, where he had amassed a great fortune 480' THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in the Revolution, appeared abroad in the streets attended by a mulatto boy bearing his umbrella. But his example did not take, and he desisted from its use. HOW GENERAL BRADDOCK WAS KILLED. There had long existed a tradition that Braddock M’as killed by one of his own men, and more recent developments leave little or no doubt of the fact. A recent writer says ; “ When my father was removing with his family to the west, one of the Fau- setts kept a public house to the eastward from, and near where Uniontown now stands, as the county seat of Fayette, Pa. This man’s house we lodged in about ttie 10th of October, 1781, twenty-six years and a few months after Braddock’s defeat, and there it was made anything but a secret that one of the family dealt the death-blow to the British general. “Thirteen years afterwards I met Thomas Fausett in Fayette county, then, as he told he, in his 70th year. To him I put the plain question, and received a plain reply, ‘7 did shoot him!'' He then went on to insist, that, by doing sn, he contributed to save what was left of the army. In brief, in my youth, I never heard the fact either doubted or blamed, that Fausett shot Braddock.” Hon. Andrew Stewart, of Uniontown, says he knew, and often conversed with Tom Fausett, who did not hesitate to avow, in the presence of his friends, that he shot General Braddock. Fausett was a man of gigantic frame, of uncivilized half- savage propensities, and spent most of his life among the mountains, as a hermit, living on the game which he killed. He would occasionally come into town, and get drunk. Sometimes he would repel inquiries into the affair of Braddock’s death, by putting his fingers to his lips and uttering a sort of buzzing sound ; at others, he would burst into tears, and appear greatly agitated by conflicting passions. / In spite of Braddock’s silly order, that the troops should not protect themselves behind trees, Joseph Fausett had taken such a position, when Braddock rode up, in a passion, and struck him down with his sword. Tom Fausett, who v/as but a short distance from his brother, saw the wfliole transaction, and immediately drew up his rifle and shot Braddock through the lungs, partly in revenge for the outrage upon his brother, and partly, as he always alleged, to get the general out of the way, and thus save the remainder of the gallant band, who had been sacrificed to his obstinacy and want of experience in frontier warfare. THE MASSACRE OF WYOMING. The year 1776 commenced a new era in the history of the American colonies, and in some measure gave peace to Wyoming in the midst of war, by removing from Pennsylvania the authority of the proprietaries, and royal governors. During this interval of comparative repose, three companies of troops were enlisted at Wjmming for the service of the united colonies. They were attached to tlie Connecticut line, and made part of the troops of that colony. At this time, a full enumeration of the population at Wyoming was made, and the settlements were found to contain 5000 souls. Their militia at the same time amounted to 1100 men, capable of bearing arms ; and of this force about 300 en- listed to serve against the common enemy. After their march, the settlers con- tinued to guard themselves with increased vigilance. Regular garrison duty was PENNSYLVANIA. 481 performed in the several fortifications by classes of the militia in successive order • in addition to which, a patrol called the “Scout,” was established through the valley, which was on duty night and day in succession, exploring all thickets and unfrequented grounds, in search of any lurking enemy which might have come to disturb their peace, or spy out the land. The frontier settlements of the diflerent colonies were at this time continually harassed by incursive parties of British troops and Indians from Canada ; and the surrender of General Burgoyne, which took place in October, 1777, did not produce an abandonment of the system. Early in the spring of 1778, a force consisting of about 800 men, and composed of British regulars, tories, and In- dians, under the command of Colonel John Butler, assembled at Niagara, and marched to the reduction of Wyoming. The Indians were in number about 400, and were commanded by Brandt, a warlike chief of mixed blood. At Tioga Point, these troops procured boats and rafts of wood, upon which they floated down the Susquehanna until they arrived about 20 miles above Wyoming Fort. Here they landed, the latter part of June. On the evening of the 2d of July, they took possession of a fort which the settlers had built on the bank of the river, about a mile below the head of the valley, called Fort Wintermoot. From this fort, which the British commander made his headquarters, were sent small scout- ing parties in search of plunder and provisions, as well as to ascertain the situa- tion and strength of the force wdiich remained for the defence of the settlement. Upon the arrival of these troops, the settlers collected their principal forces in a fortification situated on the west bank of the river, at a large eddy in the stream below Monockonock Island, and about 3 miles above Wyoming Fort. This fort had been built and defended by 40 of the settlers in that vicinity, and had thence obtained the name of “Forty Fort.” The garrison, now assembled here, con- sisted of the most active of the settlers, and amounted to 368 men, a small party being left in the other forts for the protection of the settlement in their immediate vicinity. About a month previous, messengers had been sent from the settlers to the continental army, to inform the commander-in-chief of their situation, and to request that a detachment might be sent to their assistance. On the morning of the 3d of July, the officers of the garrison at Forty Fort held a council to determine on the propriety of marching from the fort, and attacking the enemy wherever found. The debates in this council of war are said to have been conducted with much warmth and animation. The ultimate determination was one on which depended the lives of the garrison, and the safety of the settlements. On one side it was contended that their enemies were daily increasing in numbers— that they would plunder the settlements of all kinds of property, and would accumulate the means of carrying on the war, while they themselves would become weaker ; that the harvest would soon be ripe, and would be gathered or destroyed by their enemies, and all their means of suste- nance during the succeeding winter would fail ; that probably all their messengers were killed, and as there had been more than sufficient time, and no assistance arrived, they would probably receive none, and consequently now was the proper time to make the attack. On the other side it was argued, that probably some or all of the messengers may have arrived at headquarters, but that the absence of the conimander-in-chief .may have produced delay ; that one or two weeks more may bring the desired assistance, and that to attack the enemy, superior as they were in number, out of the limits of their own fort, would produce almost certain destruction to the settlement and themselves, and captivity and slavery— perhaps 482 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. torture, to their wives and children. While these debates were progressing, five men belonging to Wyoming, but, who, at that time, held commissions in the con- tinental army, arrived at the fort. They had received information that a force from Niagara had marched to destroy the settlements on the Susquehanna, and being unable to bring with them any reinforcements, they resigned their appoint- ments and hastened immediately to the protection of their families. They had heard nothing of the messengers, neither could they give any certain information as to the probability of relief. The prospects of receiving assistance became now extremely uncertain. The advocates for the attack prevailed in the council ; and at dawn of day, on the morning of the 3d of July, the garrison left the fort, and began their march up the river, under the command of Colonel Zebulon Butler. Having proceeded about 2 miles, the troops halted for the purpose of detaching a reconnoitering party to ascertain the situation of the enemy. Colonel Butler rode along the flank of the column to invite volunteers for this service. Abraham Pike and an Irish companion offered their services, and they being the only volunteers, were accepted. The scout found the enemy in possession of Fort Wintermoot, and occupying huts immediately around it, carousing in supposed security ; but on their return to the advancing column, they met two strolling Indians, by whom they were fired upon, and upon vdiom they immediately returned the fire without effect. The settlers hastened their march for the attack, but the Indians had given the alarm, and the advancing troops found the enemy already formed in order of battle a small distance from their fort, with their right flank covered by a swamp, and their left resting upon the bank of the river. The settlers imme- diately displayed their column, and formed in corresponding order ; but as the enemy was much superior in numbers, their line was much more extensive. Pine woods and bushes covered the battle-ground ; in consequence of which, the move- ments of the troops could not be so quickly discovered, nor so well ascertained. Colonel Zebulon Butler had command of the right, and was opposed by Colonel John Butler at the head of the British troops on the left. Colonel Nathan Deni- son commanded the left, opposed by Brandt at the head of his Indians on the enemy’s right. The battle commenced at about 40 rods distant, and continued about 15 minutes through the woods and brush without much execution. At this time, Brandt, with his Indians, having penetrated the swamp, turned the left flank of the settlers’ line, and with a terrible war-whoop and savage yell, made a desperate charge upon the troops composing that wing, which fell very fast, and were immediately cut to pieces with the tomahawk. Colonel Denison having ascertained that the savages were gaining the rear of the left, gave orders for that wing to fall back^ in order to prevent being surrounded by the enemy. At the same time. Colonel John Butler finding that the line of the settlers did not ex- tend as far towards the river as his own, doubled that end of his line, which was protected by a thick growth of brushwood, and having brought a party of his British regulars to act in column upon that wing, threw Colonel Zebulon Butler’s troops into some confusion. The orders of Colonel Denison for his troops to fall back having been under- stood by many to mean a retreat, the troops began to retire in much disorder. The savages considered this as a flight, and commenced a most hideous yell, rushed forward with their rifles and tomahawks, and cut the retiring line to pieces. In this situation, it was found impossible to rally and form the troops, and the rout became general throughout the line. The settlers fled in every direc- PENNSYLVANIA. 483 tion, and were instantly followed by the savages, who killed or took prisoners whoever came within their reach. Some succeeded in reaching the river, and escaped by swimming across ; others fled to the mountains ; and the savages, too much occupied with plunder, gave up the pursuit. When the first intelli- gence was received in the village of Wilkesbarre that the battle was lost, the women fled with their children to the mountains, on their w^ay to the settlements on the Delaware, where many of them at length arrived after suflfering extreme hardships. Many of the men who escaped the battle, together with their women and children, who w^ere unable to travel on foot, took refuge in Wyoming Fort, and on the following day, July 4th, Butler and Brandt, at the head of their combined forces, appeared before the fort and demanded its surrender. The garrison being without any efficient means of defence, surrendered the fort on articles of capitu- lation, by which the settlers, upon giving up their fortifications, prisoners, and military stores, were to remain in the country unmolested, provided they did not again take up arms. In this battle, about 300 of the settlers were killed or missing, and from a great part of whom no intelligence was ever afterwards received. The officers killed were, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 10 captains, 6 lieutenants, and 2 ensigns. A considerable number of the inhabitants of the different settlements on the Susquehanna, who, from their attachment to the British cause, were denominated torie^^ joined the British and savage troops previous to the battle, and exhibited instances of the most savage barbarity in the manner in which they carried on the w'ar against their former neighbors and friends. One instance may serve to show the desperate feelings which those times produced. A short distance below the battle-ground, there is a large island in the river called “Monockonock Island.” Several of the settlers, while the battle and pursuit continued, suc- ceeded in swimming to this island, where they concealed themselves among the logs and brushwood upon it. Their arms had been thrown away in their flight, previous to their entering the river, so that they were in a manner defenceless. Two of them in particular were concealed near and in sight of each other. While in this situation, they observed several of the enemy who had pursued and fired at them while they were swimming the river, preparing to follow them to the island with their guns. On reaching the island they immediately wiped their guns and loaded them. One of them with his loaded gun soon passed close by one of these men who lay concealed from hjs view, and was immediately recog- nized by him to be the brother of his companion who was concealed near him, but who, being a tory, had joined the enemy. He passed slowly along, carefully examining every covert, and directly perceived his brother in his place of con- cealment. He suddenly stopped and said, “so it is you, is it?” His brother finding that he was discovered, immediately came forward a few steps, and falling on his knees, begged him to spare his life, promising to live with him and serve him, and even to be his slave as long as he lived, if he would only spare his life. “AZZ tM% is mighty good,'' replied the savage-hearted brother of the supplicating man, “ hut you are a d — d rebel ; " and deliberately presenting his rifle, shot him dead upon the spot. The other settler made his escape from the island, and having related this fact, the tory brother thought it prudent to accompany the British troops on their return to Canada. The conditions of the capitulation were entirely disregarded by the British and savage forces, and after the fort was delivered up, all kinds of barbarities were committed by them. The village of Wilkesbarre, consisting of 23 houses, was 484 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. burnt ; men and their wives were separated from each other and carried into captivity; their/property was plundered and the settlement laid waste. The remainder of the inhabitants were driven from the Valley, and compelled to proceed on foot 60 miles through the great swamp almost without food or cloth- ing. A number perished in the journey, principally women and children— some died of their wounds, others wandered from the path in search of food and were lost, and those who survived, called the wilderness through which they passed, ^^Tlie Shades of Death;'' an appellation which it has since retained. On their way through the swamp, the unhappy fugitives met a detachment of regular troops from the continental army under the command of Captain Spalding, which, in consequence of the representations made by the messengers had been sent to the relief of the inhabitants at Wyoming ; but as all was now lost, they returned to the Delaware, and the remnant of the inhabitants proceeded to their former homes in Connecticut. THE SERMON BEFORE THE BRANDYWINE. There are contradictory opinions about the following sermon, said to be deliv- ered on the eve of the battle of Brandywine. Hence I give it without comments, just as I find it. The name of the chaplain is said to have been Trout. “ They that take the sword shall 'perish hy the sword!" — Matt. xxvi. 53. “SOLDIEKS AND COUNTRYMEN ! We liavc met this evening, perhaps for the last time. We have shared the toil of the march, the peril of the fight, the dismay - of the retreat — alike we have endured cold and hunger, the contumely of the internal foe, and outrage of the foreign oppressor. We have sat night after night, beside the same camp fire, shared the same rough, soldiers’ fare we have together heard the roll of the reveille which called us to duty, or the beat of the tattoo which gave the signal for the hardy sleep of the soldier, with the earth for his bed, and his knapsack for a pillow. And now, soldiers and brethren, we have met in the peaceful valley, on the eve of the battle, while the sunlight is dying away behind yonder heights, the sunlight that to-morrow morn will glimmer on scenes of blood. We have met amid the whitening tents of our encampment ; in times of terror and gloom have we gathered together. God grant it may not be for the last time. “ It is a solemn moment. Brethren, does not the solemn voice of nature seem to echo the sympathies of the town ? The flag of our country droops heavily from yonder staff. The breeze has died away along the green plain of Chadd’s Ford — the plain that spreads before us glistening in sunlight — the heights of the Brandywine arise dark and gloomy beyond the waters of yonder stream, and all nature holds a pause of solemn silence on the eve of the uproar of the bloodshed and strife of to-morrow. “‘They that take the sword shall perish by the sword;’ and have they not taken the sword ? “ Let the blood-stained valley— the desolated homes— the burned farm-house— the murdered farmer— let the whitening bones of our own countrymen answer ! Let the starving mother with the babe clinging to her withered breast, let her answer— with the death rattle mingling with the murmuring tones that mark the last struggle for life ; let the dying mother and her babe answer 1 “ It was but a day past, and our land slept in the light of peace. War was not PENNSYLVANIA. 485 here, wrong was not here. Fraud, and woe, and misery and want dwelt not among us. From the eternal solitude of the green woods, arose the blue smoke of the settler’s cabin ; and golden fields of corn looked forth from amid the waste of the wilderness, and the glad music of human voices awoke the silence of the forest. “Now ! God of mercy ! Behold the change. Under the shadow of a pretext, under the sanctity of the name of God — invoking the Redeemer to their aid, do these foreign hirelings slay our people. They throng our towns, they darken our plains, and now they encompass our posts on the lonely plain of Chadd’s Ford. “‘They that take the sword shall perish by the sword.’ Brethren ! think me not unworthy of belief, when I tell you that the doom of the Britisher is near ! Think me not vain when I tell you that beyond the cloud which now enshrouds us, I see gathering thick and fast, the darker cloud and the blacker storm of Divine Retribution ! They may conquer us on the morrow ! — might and wrong may prevail, and we may be driven from the field — but the hour of God’s ven- geance will come I Aye, if in the vast solitudes of eternal space, if in the heart of the boundless universe, there throbs the being of an awful God, quick to revenge and sure to punish guilt, there will the man, George of Brunswick, called king, feel in his brain and in his heart the vengeance of the eternal Jeho- vah ! a blight will be upon his life — a withered brain, an accursed intellect ; a blight will be upon his children, and his people. Great God ! how dread the punishment ! “ Soldiers ! I look, around upon your familiar faces with a strange interest. To-morrow we will all go forth to battle — for need I tell you that your unworthy minister will march with you, invoking God’s aid in the fight. We will march forth to battle. Need I exhort j'^bu to fight the good fight for your homesteads, your wives, and your children ? “ And in the hour of battle when all around is darkness, lit by the lurid cannon glare, and the piercing musket flash, when the wounded strew the ground and the dead litter your path ; then remember, soldiers, that God is with you. The eternal God is with you, and fights for you. God ! the awful, the infinite, fights for you, and you will triumph. ‘“They that take the sword shall perish by the sword.’ “You have taken the sword; but not in the spirit of wrong and revenge. You have taken the sword for your homes, for your wives, and for your little ones. You have taken the sword for truth, for justice, and for right, and to you the promise is, be of good cheer, for your foes have taken the sword in defiance of all man holds dear. They shall perish by the sword. “ And now, brethren and soldiers, I bid you all farewell. Many of us may fall in the fight of to-morrow. God rest the souls of the fallen— many of us may live to tell the story of the fight of to-morrow, and in the memory of all will rest the quiet scenes of this autumnal night. “ Solemn twilight advances over the valley ; the woods on the opposite heights fling their long shadows over the green of the meadow — around us are the tents of the continental host— the suppressed bustle of the camp, the hurried tread of the soldiers to and fro among the tents, the stillness that marks the eve of battle. “When we meet again, may the long shadows of twilight be flung over a peaceful land. God in heaven grant it 1 Amen.” 486 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, THE BATTLE OF THE BRANDYWINE, Sept. 11th, 1777. The American army, in order to encourage the partisans of independence and overawe the disaffected, marched through the city of Philadelphia ; it afterwards advanced towards the enemy, and encamped behind White Clay Creek. A little after, leaving only the riflemen in the camp, Washington retired with the main body of his army behind the Red Clay Creek, occupying with his right wing the town of Newport, situated near the Christiana, and upon the great road to Phila- delphia ; his left was at Hockesen. But this line was little capable of defence. The enemy, reinforced by the rear guard under General Grant, threatened with his right the centre of the Americans, extended his left as if with the intention of turning their right flank. Washington saw the danger, and retired with his troops behind the Brandywine ; he encamped on the rising grounds which extend from Chadsford, in the direction of northwest to southeast. The riflemen of Max- well scoured the right bank of the Brandywine, in order to harass and retard the enemy. The militia under the command of General Armstrong, guarded a passage below the principal encampment of Washington, and the right wing lined the banks of the river higher up, where the passages were more difficult. The passage of Chadsford, as the most practicable of all, was defended by the chief force of the army. The troops being thus disposed, the American general waited the approach of the English. Although the Brandywine, being fordable almost everywhere, could not serve as a sufficient defence against the impetuosity of the enemy, yet Washington had taken post upon its banks, from a conviction that a battle was now inevitable, and that Philadelphia could only be saved by a victory. General Howe displayed the front of his army, but not however with- out great circumspection. Being arrived at Kennen Square, a short distance from the river, he detached his light-horse to the right upon Wilmington, to the left upon Lancaster road, and in front towards Chadsford. The two armies found themselves within 7 miles of each other, the Brandywine flowing between them. Early in the morning of the 11th of September, the British army marched to the enemy. Howe had formed his army in two columns ; the right commanded by General Knyphausen, the left by Lord Cornwallis. His plan was, that while the first should make repeated feints to attempt the passage of Chadsford, in order to occupy the attention of the republicans, the second should take a long circuit to the uj^per part of the river, and cross at a place w'here it is divided into two shallow streams. The English marksmen fell in with those of Maxwell, and a smart skirmish was immediately engaged. The latter were at first repulsed ; but being reinforced from the camp, they compelled the English to retire in their turn. But at length, they also were reinforced, and Maxwell was constrained to withdraw his detachm.ent behind the river. Meanwhile, Knyphausen advanced with his column, and commenced a furious cannonade upon the passage of Chads- ford, making all his dispositions as if he intended to force it. The Americans defended themselves with gallantry, and even passed several detachments of light troops to the other side, in order to harass the enemy’s flanks. But after a course of skirmishes, sometimes advancing, and at others obliged to retire, they were finally, with an eager pursuit, driven over the river. Knyphausen then appeared more than ever determined to pass the ford ; he stormed and kept up an incredible noise. In this manner the attention of the Americans was fully occupied in the neighborhood of Chadsford. Meanwhile, Lord Cornwallis, at PENNSYLVANIA. 48T the head of the second column, took a circuitous march to the left, and gained unperceived the forks of the Brandywine. By this rapid movement, he passed both branches of the river at Trimble’s and at Jejffery’s fords, without opposition, about 2 o’clock in the afternoon, and then turning short down the river took the road to Dilworth, in order to fall upon the right flank of the American army. The republican general, however, received intelligence of this movement about noon, and, as it usually happens in similar cases, the reports exaggerated its im- portance exceedingly ; it being represented that General Howe commanded this division in person. Washington therefore decided immediately for the most judi- cious, though boldest measure ; this was, to pass the river with the centre and left wing of his army, and overwhelm Knyphausen by the most furious attack. He justly reflected that the advantage he should obtain upon the enemy’s right would amply compensate the loss that his own might sustain at the same time. Accordingly he ordered General Sullivan to pass the Brandywine with his division at an upper ford, and attack the left of Knyphausen, while he, in person, should cross lower down and fall upon the right of the general. They were both already in motion in order to execute this design, when a second report arrived, which represented what had really taken place as false, or in other words, that the enemy had not crossed the two branches of the river, and that he had not made his appearance upon the right flank of the American troops. Deceived by this false intelligence, Washington desisted ; and Greene, who had already passed with the vanguard, was ordered back. In the midst of these uncertainties, the commander-in-chief at length received positive assur- ance, not only that the English had appeared upon the left bank, but also that they were about to fall in great force upon the right wing. It was composed of the brigades of generals Stephens, Sterling, and Sullivan ; the first was the most advanced, and consequently nearest to the English ; the two others were posted in the order of their rank, that of Sullivan being next to the centre. This gene- ral was immediately detached from the main body, to support the former brigades, and being the senior officer, took the command of the whole wing. Washington himself, followed by General Greene, approached with two strong divisions to- wards this wing, and posted himself between it and the corps he had left at Chads- ford, under General Wayne, to oppose the passage of Knyphausen. These two divisions, under the immediate orders of the commander-in-chief, served as a corps of reserve, ready to march, according to circumstances, to the succor of Sullivan or of Wayne. But the column of Cornwallis was aready in sight of the Americans. Sullivan drew up his troops on the commanding ground above Birmingham meeting- house, with his left extending towards the Brandywine, and both his flanks covered with very thick woods. His artillery was advantageously planted upon the neighboring hills ; but it appears that Sullivan’s owm brigade, having taken a long circuit, arrived too late upon the field of battle, and had not yet occupied the position assigned it, when the action commenced. The English having recon- noitred the dispositions of the Americans, immediately formed, and fell upon them with the utmost impetuosity. The engagement became equally fierce on both sides about 4 o’clock in the afternoon. For some length of time the Americans defended themselves wdth great valor, and the carnage was terrible. But such was the emulation which invigorated the efforts of the English and Hessians, that neither the advantages of the situation, nor a heavy and well supported fire of small arms and artillery, nor the unshaken courage of the Americans, were able to resist their 488 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. impetuosity. The light infantry, chasseurs, grenadiers, and guards threw them- selves with such fury into the midst of the republican battalions, that they were forced to give way. Their left flank was flrst thrown into confusion, but the rout soon became general, - The vanquished fled into the woods in their rear ; the victors pursued, and advanced by the great road towards Dilworth. On the first fire of the artillery, Washington, having no doubt of what was passing, had pushed forward the reserve to the succor of Sullivan. But this corps, on ap- proaching the field of battle, fell in with the flying soldiers of Sullivan and per- ceived that no hope remained of retrieving the fortune of the day. General Greene, by a judicious manoeuvre, opened his ranks to receive the fugitives, and after their passage having closed them anew, he retired in good order ; checking the pursuit of the enemy by a continual fire of the artillery which covered his rear. Having come to a defile, covered on both sides by the woods, he drew up his men there, and again faced the enemy. His corps was composed of Vir- ginians and Pennsylvanians ; they defended themselves with gallantry ; the former especially, commanded by Colonel Stephens, made a heroic stand. Knyphausen finding the Americans to be fully engaged on their right, and ob- serving that the corps opposed to him at Chadsford was enfeebled by the troops which had been detached to the succor of Sullivan, began to make dispositions for crossing the river in reality. The passage at Chadsford was defended by an intrenchment and battery. The republicans stood firm at first ; but upon intelli- gence of the defeat of their right, and seeing some of the British troops who had penetrated through the woods, come out upon their flank, they retired in disorder, abandoning their artillery and munitions to the German general. In tlieir retreat, or rather flight, they passed behind the position of General Greene, who still defended himself, and was the last to quit the field of battle. Filially, it being already dark, after a long and obstinate conflict, he also retired. The whole army retreated that night to Chester, and the day following to Philadelphia. There the fugitives arrived incessantly, having effected their escape through by-ways and circuitous routes. The victors passed the night on the field of battle. If darkness had not arrived seasonably, it is very probable that the whole Ameri- can army would have been destroyed. The loss of the republicans was com- puted at about 300 killed, 600 wounded, and near 400 taken prisoners. They also lost ten field-pieces and a howitzer. The loss in the royal army was not in pro- portion, being something under 500, of which the slain did not amount to one-fifth. ADAM POE’S FIGHT WITH THE INDIANS. ' A REMINISCENCE OP THE EARLY HISTORY OP PITTSBURG. About the year 1782, six or seven Wyandotte Indians crossed over to the south side of the Ohio River, 50 miles below Pittsburg, and in their hostile excursions among our early settlers killed an old man, whom they found alone in one of the houses which they plundered. The news soon spread among the white people, seven or eight of whom seized their rifles and pursued the marauders. In this party were two brothers named Adam and. Andrew Poe, strong and active men, and much respected in the settlement. The Indians had frequently been over before, had sometimes penetrated 20 miles into the country, and had always suc- ceeded in recrossing the river without being overtaken by our people. The Poes and their companions were, therefore, particularly anxious not to let them escape PENNSYLVANIA. 489 on this occasion. They pursued them all night, and in the morning found them- selves, as they expected, upon the right track. The Indians could now be easily followed by the traces left upon the dew. The print of one veiy large foot was seen, and it was thus known that a famous Indian of uncommon size and strength must be of the party. The track led to the river. Our people followed it di- rectly, Adam Poe excepted, who feared that they might be taken by surprise, and broke off from the rest to go along on the edge of the bank, under the cover of trees and bushes, and to fall upon the savages suddenly that he might get them between his own fire and that of his companions. At the point where he sus- pected they were, he saw the rafts, which they were accustomed to push before them when they swam the river, and on which they placed their blankets, toma- hawks, and guns. The Indians themselves he could not see, and was obliged to go partly down the bank to get a shot at them. As he descended, with his rifle cocked, he discovered two, the celebrated large Indian and a smaller one, sepa- rated from the others, holding their rifles also cocked in their hands. He took aim at the large one, but his rifle snapped without giving the intended fire. The Indians turned instantly at the sound. Poe was too near them to retreat, and had not time to cock and take aim again. Suddenly he leaped down upon them, and caught the large Indian by the clothes on his breast, and the small one by throwing an arm round his neck. They all fell together, but Poe was uppermost. While he was struggling to keep down the large Indian, the small one, at a word spoken by his fellow savage, slipped his neck out of Poe’s embrace, and ran to the raft for a tomahawk. The large Indian at this moment threw his arms about Poe’s body, and held him fast that the other might come and kill him. Poe watched the approach and the descending arm of the small Indian so well that at the instant of the intended stroke he raised his foot, and by a vigorous and skilful blow knocked the tomahawk from the assailant’s hand. At this the large Indian cried out with an exclamation of contempt for the small one. The latter, how- ever, caught his tomahaAvk again, and approached more cautiously, waving his arm up and down with mock bloA\’s to deceive Poe as to the stroke which was intended to be real and fatal. Poe, however, was so Augilant and active that he averted the tomahawk from his head, and received it upon his wrist, with a con- siderable wound, deep enough to cripple, but not entirely to destroy the use of his hand. In this crisis of peril, he made a violent effort, and broke loose from the large Indian. He snatched a rifle and shot the small one through the breast as he ran up a third time with his lifted tomahawk. The large Indian w^as now on his feet, and, grasping Poe by the shoulder and the leg, hurled him in the air heels over head upon the shore. Poe instantly rose, and a new and more despe- rate struggle ensued. The bank was slippery, and they fell into the water, where each strove to drown the other. Their efforts were long and doubtful, each al- ternately under and half strangled, till Poe fortunately grasped, with his un- wounded hand, the tuft of hair upon the scalp of the Indian, and forced his head into the Avater ; this appeared to be decisive of his fate, for soon he manifested all the symptoms of a drow'ning man bewildered in the moment of death. Poe re- laxed his hold, and discoA'ered too late the stratagem. The Indian was instantly upon his feet again, and engaged aneAV in the fierce contest for life and victorv. They were naturally carried further into the stream, and the current, becoming stronger, bore them beyond their depth. They were now compelled to loosen their hold upon each other, and to swim for mutual safety. Both sought the shore to seize a gun, but the Indian was the best swimmer, and gained it first. 490 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. PoG then turned immediately baek into the water to avoid a greater danger, meaning to dive, if possible, to escape the fire. Fortunately for him, the Indian caught up the rifle which had been discharged into the breast of his smaller com- panion. At this critical juncture, Andrew, his brother, returned in haste, having left the party who had been in pursuit of the other Indians, and who had killed all but one of them, at the expense of three of their own lives. He heard that Adam was in great peril, and alone in the fight with two against him. One of our people, following not far in the rear of Andrew, mistook Adam in the water with his bloody hand for a wounded Indian, and fired a bullet into his shoulder. Adam cried out to his brother to kill the big Indian on the shore, but Andrew’s gun had been discharged and was not again loaded. The contest was now be- tween the savage and Andrew. Each labored to load his rifle first. The Indian, after putting in his powder, and hurrying his motions to force down the ball, drew out his ramrod with such violence as to throw it some yards into the water. While he ran to pick it up, Andrew gained an advantage, and shot the Indian just as he was raising his gun to his eye for a deadly aim. Andrew then jumped into the river to assist his wounded brother to the shore ; but Adam, thinking more of carrying the big Indian home as a trophy than of his own wounds, urged Andrew to go back and prevent the struggling savage from rolling himself into the current and escaping. Andrew, however, was too solicitous for the fate of Adam to allow him to obey, and the Indian, jealous of his honor as a warrior even in death, and knowing well the intention of his white conquerors, succeeded in retaining life and action long enough to reach the current, by which his dead body was carried down beyond the chance of pursuit. This native was the most distinguished among five celebrated brothers belong- ing to the royal family of the tribe of Wyandottes. Notwithstanding he was en- gaged in this predatory expedition, he was acknowledged by all to be peculiarly magnanimous for an Indian, and had contributed, more than any other individual, to preserve and extend the practice which was known to prevail in his tribe, that of not taking the lives of prisoners, and of not suffering them to be treated ill. This practice was an honorable distinction for the Wyandottes, as was well un- derstood by the white people who were traders with the Indians, and by those of our early settlers and brethren who had been made prisoners in war. It was a common remark among them, “ If we become the prisoners of the Wyandottes, we shall be fortunate.” The death of this large Indian and of his four brothers, who were all in the party, was more deeply lamented by the tribe, as was after- ward learned, than all the other losses sustained during the hostilities carried on between them and us. There was a universal, solemn, and distressing mourning. Adam Poe recovered from his wounds, and gave this account in person to James Morrison, Esq., from whom we have received it, and by whom we are assured that it is correct. The courage and enterprise, the suffering and forti- tude, the decision and perseverance of the early settlers of this western country, by whose labors we are now so peaceful and happy, ought not to be forgotten, but may well be related from time to time to excite in us the spirit of similar virtues, and to teach us how to consider the slight privations which we are, or may be, called to meet. Gratitude is more appropriate to our condition than discontent. DELAWARE. Area, 2,120 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 112,216 Population in 1870, 125,015 The State of Delaware, one of the original members of the Union, is situated between 38° 28' and 39° 50' N. latitude, and 75° and 75° 45' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the east by Delaware Eiver and Bay (by which it is separated from New Jersey) and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south and west by Maryland. It is about 96 miles long, from north to south, and 37 miles wide, from east to west. TOPOGRAPHY. The northern part of the State is a fine rolling country, healthy and beautiful ; but the southern and central counties are low and generally sandy. The lower part of the State is occupied by a large cypress swamp. Just north of this swamp, is a slight elevation running north and south. It is occupied with swamps, in which rise the waters flowing into the Delaware Bay. This State and the eastern shore of Maryland, lying between the Delaware and Chesapeake bays, form a low peninsula, over which the salt air sweeps with but little to interrupt it. The Delaware River, which washes the eastern shore of the State, has been described. It is the principal stream. The Brandywine, which enters the State from Pennsylvania, on the norths and flows into the Delaware at Wilmington, is a fine mill stream. Indian River, which flows into the Atlantic in the southern part of the State, is the largest stream lying wholly within the limits of Delaware. A num- 491 492 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. bcr of creeks flow into Delaware Bay and the Atlantic, and the Nanti- coke and Choptank rivers of Maryland rise in the southwestern part of the State. Delaware Bay is a large arm of the sea, separating the States of Delaware and New Jersey. It is 13 miles wide at its mouth. Cape Henlopen, on the southwestern side, is in Delawa]je ; and Cape May, on tlie northeast side, in New Jersey. The bay is 60 miles long, from the capes to the mouth of the Delaware River, and is 25 miles wide at its broadest part. It is considerably obstructed with shoals, which make its navigation difficult in many places. It offers the only harbor between New York and the Chesapeake ; and for the purpose of protecting it, the Government has erected, at a cost of over $2,000,000, a magnificent breakwater consisting of two sides, extending out from the Delaware shore at Cape Henlopen. The upper side protects the harbor thus formed from floating ice, and the lower side guards it from the violence of the waves of the sea. The breakwater is built of massive stone, and is one of the best in the world. MINERALS. Delaware is almost without mineral resources. Bog iron ore exists in the southern swamps; and a fine white sand, used in making glass, is found near the head of Delaware Bay. Large quantities of it are shipped to New England. CLIMATE. The sea breeze, which sweeps over the entire State, renders the climate mild and pleasant, as a general rule; but the winters are sometimes severe and trying. The southern and central portions are afflicted with ague and fever, and are consequently unhealthy. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil in the southern portion of the State is sandy ; in the centre it consists of a mixture of clay and sand ; and in the northern part it is a fine, fertile loam. Since the census of 1860, the State has made great progress in agriculture, and the cultivation of fruit has increased beyond the most sanguine expectations. The abolition of slavery has drawn into the State a considerable emigration of small farmers from New England, and it is becoming one of the most pro- ductive sections of the Union. The peach crop is rarely a failure in DELAWARE. 493 this State, and its small fruits, melons, and sweet potatoes have made it famous throughout the country. In 1869, there were 637,065 acres of improved, and 367,230 acres of unimproved land in Delaware. The other products for the same year were as follows : Cash value of farms (estimated), $31,426,357 Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated), $820,000 Number of horses, 25,160 “ asses and mules, 4,112 “ milch cows, ......... 24,198 “ young cattle, 35,340 “ sheep, . 19,540 “ swine, 51,360 Value of domestic animals, $5,144,706 Bushels of wheat, 830,000 “ rye, 35,000 “ Indian corn, 3,200,000 “. oats, 1,723,000 “ peas and beans, 8,438 “ potatoes, 200,000 “ barley, 6,000 “ buckwheat, 12,000 Poimds of butter, 1,430,502 “ cheese, 6,579 “ beeswax and honey, 68,130 Tons of hay, 30,000 COMMERCE. Delaware has but little direct foreign trade, almost the entire busi- ness of the State passing through the ports of Philadelphia and Balti- more. In 1863, the tonnage owned in the State amounted to 25,963. Delaware exports large quantities of fruit to the northern States, together with a considerable quantity of lumber from her swamps. MANUFACTURES. The only manufacturing town in Delaware, is Wilmington ; but manufacturing establishments are located in various parts of the State. In 1860, the State contained 564 establishments devoted to manufac- tures. They employed 6192 hands and a capital of $5,360,000, con- sumed raw material worth $5,375,000, and yielded an annual pro- duct of $9,920,000. The following is a detailed statement of the value of the principal manufactures in 1860 : 494 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Cotton goods, $919,103 Woollen goods, 156,635 Leather, 37,240 Steam engines and macliinery, 550,500 Agricultural implements, 90,581 Sawed and planed lumber, 260,000 Flour, 1,840,000 Boots and shoes, 226,470 Carriages, 608,580 The railroad cars and gunpowder of Wilmington rank high amongst the products of the State, but no estimates of them are at hand. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The principal public work in the State is the Canal, extending en- tirely across the State and connecting Delaware and Chesapeake bays. It is 16 miles long, 66 feet wide at the surface, 10 feet deep, and is pro- vided with two lift and two tide locks, 100 feet long by. 22 feet wide. It was completed in 1829, cost $2,750,000, and affords inland steam communication between Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. Near the eastern end of the canal, is the famous deep cut,’’ an ex- cavation 90 feet deep, and 6 miles long, through which the canal passes. A railroad from Philadelphia to Baltimore, the main line of the through travel between the North and the South, extends across the northern part of the State. The Deljaware Railroad extends from Wilmington through the centre of the State to the lower part of the eastern shore of Maryland. A branch road leads off from the main stem to Easton, Md., and another into the eastern part of Sussex county. Owing to the extreme narrowness of the State, the Delaware road brings every part of it below Wilmington within direct rail- road communication with all parts of the Union. In 1868, the State contained. 157 miles of completed railroads, constructed at a cost of $5,608,000. The Delaware road, it should be added, connects with steamers for Norfolk at Crisfield, Md., and thus forms the most direct route from Norfolk to Philadelphia and New York. EDUCATION. There is no regular public school system in Delaware, as in the other Middle States. The counties and towns are left to themselves in their .efforts to provide public instruction. The State makes an DELAWARE. 495 annual appropriation for this purpose, of 50 cents for each pupil in Sussex and Kent counties, and 20 cents for each pupil in Newcastle county. In 1860, there were 256 public schools in the State, with 11,736 pupils. The number is about the same at present. A State Normal School was established in 1866. Besides this, there are two colleges in the State with about 90 students. Delaware College is located at Newark, and 8t, Mary^s College at Wilmington. The schools being closed to colored children, about 24 colored schools have been opened in various parts of the State. In 1860, the State contained 114 libraries, of which 64 were public. There were 13 political papers — 9 weekly, and 4 semi-weekly — and 1 literary paper (a weekly), published in Delaware. They had a total annual circulation of 1,010,776 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. Delaware maintains its insane, deaf, dumb, and blind, in the insti- tutions of other States, and has no such establishments of its own. The State is also without a penitentiary. Criminals are confined in the county jails. Until within a year or two, many ofiences were punished by whipping at the public whipping-post, and standing in the pillory. As late as the 5th of December, 1868, a scene of this kind occurred at Newcastle. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the value of church property in Delaware was $846,150. The number of churches was 220. FINANCES. At the beginning of the year 1871, the aggregate indebtedness of the State of Delaware amounted to $1,632,000, an increase of $176,000 in two years. The State has investments amounting to $1,074,150, which is $224,000 more than it held at the beginning of 1869. The receipts of the Treasury for the year 1870 were $120,577. In 1868, there were 11 National Banks in Delaware, with an aggre- gate capital of $1,428,185. GOVERNMENT. In this State every free male citizen, 22 years of age, who has re- sided one year in the State, and for the last month of this year in the 496 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. county, and who has paid a county tax assessed at least 6 months be- fore the election, is entitled to vote; but free male citizens between 21 and 22 years of age may vote without paying taxes, provided they have complied with the other conditions. The Government is conducted by a Governor, and Legislature con- sisting of a Senate (of 9 members) and a House of Representatives (of 21 members), all elected by the people. The Secretary of State is appointed by the Governor, and serves for 4 years. The Attorney- General is appointed in the same way, and holds office 5 years. The State Treasurer and Auditor are elected by the Legislature for 2 years. The Governor serves for 4 years, and the members of the Legislature for 2 years. The Legislature meets once in two years. The Judiciary consists of a Court of Errors and Appeals, Superior Court, Court of Chancery, Orphans’ Court, Court of Oyer and Ter- miner, Court of General Sessions of the Peace and Jail Delivery, Register’s Court, and Justices of the Peace. The Chancellor is the principal Judge of the State. Dover, in Kent county, is the capital. For purposes of government, Delaware is divided into three coun- ties, viz : Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex. HISTORY. The first settlements in this State were made by the Swedes and Finns, in 1627. As we have shown in the sketch of Pennsylvania, they were conquered by the Dutch, in 1655, and turned over to the English when New York passed into their hands, in 1664. Dela- ware formed a part of the territory granted to William Penn, in 1682 ; and from that time until the Revolution, continued to form a part of Pennsylvania. It was allowed a separate Assembly about the year 1701, but remained subject to the authority of the Governor of Penn- sylvania until 1776, when it was granted an independent existence. It adopted a State Constitution, on the 20th of September, 1776, and was received into the Union of the States. The province bore its full share of the burdens of the wars with France; and in the Revolution, the Delaware regiment was known as one of the most efficient in the army. On the 7th of December, 1787, the State ratified the Consti- tution of the United States; and in 1792, a new State Constitution was adopted. In 1865, slavery was abolished in the State by the ratification of an DELAWARE. 491 amendment to the Federal Constitution. The number of slaves was 1798 in 1860, but had been considerably reduced by 1865. CITIES AND TOWNS. Wilmington is the largest town in the State. The other places of importance are, Smyrna, Dover, Newcastle, Delaware City, Seaford, and Lewes. DOVER, The capital of the State, is situated in Kent county, on Jones^ Creek, 6 miles above the Delaware River. It is 50 miles south from Wilmington, and 114 northeast from Washington City. The town is prettily situated on high ground, and is built mostly of brick. The streets are wide' and cross each other at right-angles, and are prettily shaded with trees. The town contains a fine State House, and the buildings devoted to the public offices, all of which face an open and tastefully ornamented square. The railway from Wilmington to Crisfield, Md., passes through Dover, which is thus brought in communication with all parts of the State. There are several flourishing schools in Dover,' 4 churches, and 1 newspaper office. Many of the residences are handsome and attractive. In 1870, the population was 1913. I WILMINGTON, The largest and most important city of the State, is situated in New- castle county, on Christiana Creek, just above its junction with the Brandywine, and within 2 miles of the Delaware* River. It is 28 miles southwest of Philadelphia, and 108 miles northeast of Washing- ton City. It is built on the southern slope of a hill, the summit of which is 110 feet above tide-’water. The upper portions of the city command excellent views of the Delaware River and the surrounding country. The general plan of Wilmington is regular, with wide, straight streets intersecting each other at right-angles. The buildings are principally of brick, and give to the city a substantial air, which is being greatly improved of late by the frequent introduction of stone in the more modern edifices. The principal business thoroughfare is Market street, about a mile in length. It extends from the Chris- tiana to the Brandywine, intersects the other streets at right-angles, and crosses each of the creeks named by a handsome bridge. Street railways connect the principal points of the city. 32 498 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, PEACH FARM. The Public Buildings are the Town Hall, the Custom House, a fine granite structure, and the Institute. The Roman Catholic Collie, about 10 public schools, and 7 or 8 private schools constitute the educa- tional establishments. The Institute contains a spacious hall, a scien- tific lecture-room, and a library of over 8000 volumes. The city also contains a large hospital, an alms-house, and about 30 churches ; is supplied with pure water from the Brandywine, and is lighted with gas. It has a well organized police force, and a steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. Five newspapers are pub- lished here. Wilmington is accessible to steamers and ships, and is connected with Philadelphia and Baltimore by railway. It is also the northern terminus of the Delaware Railway. It is a place of considerable trade, and is also largely engaged in manufactures. The principal of these are iron steamboats, railway cars, steam engines, railroad wheels, locomotive and car springs, mill machinery, other iron goods, powder, carriages, flour, leather, shoes, cotton and woollen goods, and agricul- tural implements. The famous powder works of the Duponts are DELAWARE. 499 situated about 2 miles from the city. In 1870, the population of the city was 30,841. Wilmington occupies the site of Fort Christiana and the village built back of it, which the Dutch called Christianham. After the surrender of the Dutch possessions on the Delaware, it was called Altona. The town was first laid out in 1732, by Thomas Willing, and was called Willing Town, which name was afterwards changed to Wilmington. In 1777, it was occupied by the British. In 1809, it was chartered as the Borough of Wilmington ; and in 1832, it was incorporated as a city. The other towns of the State stand as follows, in respect to popula- tioif: Smyrna, 2110 inhabitants; Newcastle, 1766; Delaware City, 1545; Seaford, 1308; Lewes, 1090. Mv; I, ,v; ' 7 ‘ ' r(?> > F- tutj • 1 '‘:' MM A 7 .' ' 1 > c„ilc!i«t'■• ol- V *»«<(/; bslieiij* _ -|s •,» . . . - ;, jr^o:; acw -{tr^ , rJ-^;,; ^ '3 -tj T}(U I.i! ,••' ■'<; '■ ■ r ■■■ ■ ■-•''■ •: ■■ ,' . ■. ./■ T’ V. .. ■:. <. ' m "I"/; V ‘ v 3 M •S' - pi»o': . H :■ 1 - ‘‘•’f •'tiu.ii;«5 ; .i, ;;:>^tii::vs 'It- ft! '' ■ ' .4 oaot :'',rA ■»i r -; •*iN& ■ ; - I f' , ■, J' <:!•'- KU' V ' • Mj ■'■ ■.;.:■•,// •■•• WAV.rw-'S ■ i'rf.iftf- f Tt: ^■.T;;1 iJv //•■'v'lito..- 'l>fl ;• ’. '; ■ ' '• » 9 .: 41 . :PJ 3 i ,f 4 PART IV. THE SOUTHERI STATES. \ J MARYLAND. Area, 0,356 Square Miles.* Population in 1860, 687,049 Population in 1870, 780,894 The State of Maryland, one of the original members of the Union, is situated between 38° and 39° 44' N. latitude, and 75° 10' and 79° 20' W. longitude. It is 190 miles long from east to west in the ex- treme northern part, and 120 miles wide from north to south in the extreme eastern part. Its width, however, varies greatly in different localities. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the east by Delaware, on^the south by Virginia and West Virginia, and on the west by West Virginia. It is separated from the two Virginias on the south by the Potomac Piver. The District of Columhia, the seat of the Federal Government, lies on the banks of the Potomac, in the southwestern part of the State, and originally formed a part of the State of Maryland.' TOPOGRAPHY. The Chesapeake Bay divides the State into two unequal portions, called the Eastern and Western Shore. The Western Shore is about twice the size of the Eastern, and comprises the more important part of the State. The Eastern Shore is mostly level, or at the best slightly rolling. The surface of the Western Shore rises as it recedes from the bay, and west of Baltimore is rugged and mountainous. The Alleghany Mountains cross the State in the western part, and are known as the Southeast Mountain, Sugar Loaf Mountain, Catoctin, Blue Ridge, Kittatinny, Rugged Mountain, and Will's Mountain. * This estimate is exclusive of the area occupied by the Bay. Including the Chesapeake, the area of the State is about 11,124 square miles. 503 504 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The State is not over G or 7 miles wide in the greater part of this re- gion, bat it is ricli in magnificent scenery. The Chesapeake Bay lies in the eastern part of the State, and di- vides it, as we have stated, into two unequal portions. Tt receives the waters of the Susquehanna at its head, the Elk, Chester, Sassafras, Choptank, and Nanticoke rivers from the Eastern Shore, and the Patapsco, Patuxent, and Potomac from the Western. The bay is about 200 miles long, and for 120 miles lies entirely in Marvland. The lo^ver part, from the mouth of the Potomac, lies in Virginia. Its northern point is called Cape Charles, and its southern Cape Henry. The width between these capes is 12 miles. Above this tlie bay varies in width from 10 to 40 miles. Its shores are thickly studded with inlets, many of which are fine harbors. It is navigable for the largest ships nearly to its head, and for steamers into the Susquehanna. It is one of the most beautiful sheets of water in the world. After passing the southern boundary of Maryland, it receives the waters of the Rappahannock, York, and James livers, of Virginia, on its western side. It connects Alexandria, Norfolk, and Richmond, in Virginia, AVashington City, in the District of Columbia, and Baltimore, in Maryland, with the sea. An immense trade is carried on over its waters. The Chesapeake is famous for the abundance and variety of the game which it furnishes. Its oysters are world-renowned, and seem inexhaustible. The bay and inlets abound in a variety of the finest fish and terrapin, and other salt-water delicacies are found all along its shores. These waters supply the principal markets of the Eastern States with such delicacies. “There is,” says Dr. Lewis, in the “American Sportsman,” “no place in our wide extent of country where wild fowl shooting is followed with so much ardor as on the Chesa- peake Bay and its tributaries, not only by those who make a comfort- able living from the business, but also by gentlemen who resort to these waters from all parts of the adjoining States to participate in the enjoyments of this far-famed duddng ground. All species of wild fowl come here in numbers beyond credence, and it is really ne- cessary for a stranger to visit the region if he wishes to form a just idea of the wonderful multitudes and numberless varieties of ducks that darken these waters, and hover in interminable flocks over these famed feeding grounds. It is not, however, the variety or extraor- dinary numbers of ducks on the Chesapeake that particularly attract the steps of so many shooters to these parts, as there are other rivers MARYLAND 605 OYSTER FISHING. and streams equally accessible where wild fowl also abound. But the great magnet that makes these shores the centre of attraction^ is the presence of the far-famed Canvass-Back, that here alone acquires its ' peculiar delicacy of flavor, while feeding upon the shores and flats of these waters.^^ ^^The canvass-backs/^ says Dr. Sharpless, of Philadelphia, in a paper contributed to ^^Audubon^s Birds of America,’^ ‘^pass up and down the bay, from river to river, in their morning and evening flights, giving, at certain localities, great opportunities for destruction. They pursue, even in their short passages, very much the order of their migratory movements, flying in a line of baseless triangle ; and when the wind blows on the points which may lie in their course, the sportsman has great chance of success. These points or courses of the ducks are materially affected by the winds ; for they avoid, if pos- sible, an approach to the shore ; but when a strong breeze sets them on to these projections of the land, they are compelled to pass within shot, and often over the land itself. In the Susquehanna and Elk rivers there are few of these points for shooting, and there success 506 TUE GREAT REPUBLIC. depends on approaching them while on their feeding grounds. After leaving the eastern point at the mouth of the Susquehanna and Tur- key Point, the western side of the Elk River, which are both mode- rately good for flying shooting, the first place of much celebrity is the Narrows, between Spesutic Island and the western shore. These Narrows are about 3 miles in length, and from 300 to 500 yards in breadth. By the middle of November, the canvass-backs, in particu- lar, begin to feed in this passage, and the entrance and outlet, as well as many intermediate spots, become very successful stations. A few miles down the western shore is Taylor’s Island, which is situated at the mouth of the Rumney and Abbey Island, at the mouth of Bush River, which are both celebrated for ducks, as well as for swans and geese. These are the most northerly points where large fowl are met with, and projecting out between deep coves, where immense numbers of these birds feed, they possess great advantages. The south point of Bush River, Legoe’s Point, and Robbins’ and Pickett’s points, near Gunpowder River, are famous localities. Immediately at the mouth of this river is situated Carroll’s Island, which has long been known as a great shooting ground. Maxwell’s Point, as well as some _ others up other rivers, and even further down the bay, are good places, but less celebrated than those mentioned. Most of these places are let out as shooting grounds for companies and individuals, and are esteemed so valuable that intruders are severely treated. Nor- folk, Virginia, on the Elizabeth River, at the lower extremity of the bay, is the depot for the receipt and sale of the game taken in the Chesapeake, and there the best purchases can be made. The sport, as all who have joined in it full well know, is not without its diffi- culties and its dangers. Says the learned doctor from whom we have already quoted : '' Notwithstanding the apparent facilities that are of- fered of success, the amusement of duck-shooting is probably one of the most exposing to cold and wet; and those who undeitake its en- joyment without a courage ^screwed to the sticking-point,’ will soon discover that ‘ to one good a thousand ills oppose.’ It is, indeed, no parlor sport; for, after creeping through mud and mire, often for hundreds of yards, to be at last disappointed, and stand exposed on points to the 'pelting rain or more than freezing cold,’ for hours, without even the promise of a shot— would try the patience of even Franklin’s 'glorious nibbler.’ It is, however, replete with excite- ment and charm. To one who can enter on the pleasure with a sys- tem formed for polar cold, and a spirit to endure the weary toil of MARYLAND. 607 many a stormy day, it will yield a harvest of health and delight that the roamer of the woods can rarely enjoy. The rivers of the State are little more than arms of the bay. The Patapsco River rises in Carroll county, in the northern part of the State. It flows southw’ard as far as the line of Baltimore and Anne Arundel counties, where it turns to the east, forming the boun- dary between those counties, and emptying into the Chesapeake, 14 miles east of Baltimore City. It is about 80 miles long. Until it reaches the border of Anne Arundel county, it flows through a hilly country, and, being broken by numerous falls, forms a fine mill stream. It flows into the bay through a wide estuary about 14 miles long, and 3 miles wide, which is navigable to Baltimore for the largest ships. The Patuxent River rises about 18 miles southeast of Frederick City, and flowing south-southeast between the counties of Montgomery, Prince George's, Charles, and St. Mary’s, on the right, and Howard, Anne Arundel, and Calvert, on the left, empties into Chesapeake Bay, through a broad estuary, 3 or 4 miles wide. The river is 90 miles long, and is navigable for about 48 or 50 miles from its mouth. It flows through a fine agricultural region. The Chop- tank River rises in Kent eounty, Delaware, and flows into the Chesa- peake Bay, between Dorchester and Talbot counties, on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. About 20 miles from its mouth, it spreads out into a broad estuary, 3 or 4 miles wide, which affords some of the finest water scenery in America. It is about 100 miles long, is navi- gable for steamers for about 40 miles, for sloops for 10 or 15 miles higher, and lies for the greater part in Maryland. The other rivers are the Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Pocomoke, and Nanticoke. These, with the bay itself, cut up the Eastern Shore into so many inlets that vessels can lie alongside the shores of the majority of the farms in that part of the State and receive the crops on board. Kent Islandj in Chesapeake Bay, opposite Annapolis, forms a part of Queen Annes county, and is famous as having been the site of the first English settlement in the State. MINERALS. Coal and iron are found in large quantities in the western part of the State, and of the very best qualities. Copper is found in Frederick and Carroll counties, where important mines are located. Cobalt is found along the Patapsco, and traces of nickel have been discovered 508 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in some of the copper mines. Lignites occur in quantities in Anne Arundel county, mixed with amber and iron pyrites. Alum, porce- lain-clay, lime, chrome, manganese, magnesia, barytes, marble, marl, and ochres are also found, and gold has been discovered. CLIMATE. Lying between the Northern and Southern States, Maryland does not share the extremes of the temperature of either section, but pos- sesses a climate noted for its evenness and mildness. The breezes from the bay sweep over the greater part of the State, and add much to this effect. The country along the bay and its tributaries, however, is sickly, being afflicted with chills and fevers. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the eastern shore is sandy in the lower part, but consists of mixtures of clay and sand above the Choptank River. The lands of Talbot county are among the finest in the State. The southern counties of the western shore have also a sandy soil, but that of the other counties is very fertile. That of Frederick county will compare in productiveness with any in the Union. The agriculture of the State is’ backward. Manures have been but little used, although lime and marl exist in considerable quantities in the State. A change for the better has taken place of late, however. The abolition of slavery has opened the way for the small farmers of New England and the Middle States, who are settling in the State, especially upon the eastern shore, in great numbers. Great attention is being paid to the growing of fruits, to which this State is peculiarly adapted. Large quantities of peaches and small fruits are annually sent to northern markets. Tobacco also forms an important staple. The land is easily brought to a high state of fertility, and in the eastern counties the winters are short and mild. Horses in the sandy counties do not require to be shod, and many of the farms having water boundaries need little or no fencing. In 1869 there were about 3,002,269 acres of improved, and 1,833,306 acres of unimproved land in the State. The other products for the same year may be stated as follows : Number of horses, 99,112 “ asses and mules, 11,310 “ milcli cows, 100,030 MARYLAND. 509 Number of young cattle, 170,110 “ sheep, 160,211 “ swine, 898,120 Yalue of domestic animals, $15,667,853 Bushels of wheat, 7,733,000 “ rye,, 182,000 “ Indian corn, 12,300,000 “ oats, 7,100,000 “ peas and beans, 39,407 “ potatoes, 1,050,000 “ barley, 24,000 “ buckwheat, 150,000 Hhds of tobacco 25,000 Pounds of wool (estimated), 500,000 “ butter, 5,265,295 “ cheese, 8,342 Tons of hay, . 191,000 COMMERCE. Baltimore is the chief commercial city of the State, and is actively engaged in an important trade with the Southern and AYestern States, and with Europe. The tonnage owned in the State in 1863 was 288,860. During the same year the exports of the State amounted to $12,089,072, and the imports to $4,484,399. The coal of this State is coming into considerable prominence as fuel for steamers, and an important trade is carried on wdth all parts of the w^orld in canned fruits, vegetables, oysters, etc., prepared in the Bay counties and in Baltimore. MANUFACTURES. Maryland is extensively engaged in manufactures. In 1860 there were 2980 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, min- ing, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $51,800,000, and 40,900 hands, consumed raw material worth $21,900,000, and returned an annual product of $43,000,000. The value of the prin- cipal manufactures for 1860 was as follows : Cotton goods, . ., $2,796,877 "Woollen goods, i • 581,955 Leather, 1,723,033 Pig-iron, 739,600 Rolled iron, 556,000 Steam engines and machinery, 1,285,000 Agricultural implements, 318,980 Sawed and planed lumber, 720,000 Plour, 8,020,000 510 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Copper, $60,000 Spirituous and malt liquors, 571,927 Boots and shoes, 1,244,167 Furniture, 626,154 Soap and candles, 433,345 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Maryland was one of the first States in the Union to engage in internal improvements. Her first effort was to build the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, between AVashington City and Cumberland. This work cost her over $7,000,000, but has never been a source of profit to her. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, extending from Baltimore across the mountains to the Ohio River, at Wheeling, AVest Va., is one of the most important lines in the Union, and was the first ever opened in this country for purposes of general travel. Baltimore is connected with all the important towns of the State, and with all parts of the Union. In 1868' the State contained 522 miles of com- pleted railroads (including a few miles in the District of Columbia), constructed at a cost of $30,574,000. The total length of canals in the State is about 200 miles. EDUCATION. Until recently the public school system of Maryland was not in keeping with the traditional enterprise and public spirit of the State. Since the close of the war, however, the system has been reorganized and established upon a much better plan. Tlte supervision of schools is rested inf a State Board, County Boards, and School District Boards. The State Board consists of four members, appointed by the Governor. The principal of the State Normal School is ex-officio a member of this board. The State Board has the general control of the educational system of the State. Each county is in charge of a Board of County School Commissioners, appointed by the judges of the Circuit Court, and consisting of three members. Each District Board consists of three persons, appointed by the County School Commissioners. The County Commissioners appoint' County Examiners, who have power to grant to teachers, after examination, certificates of two grades, which are good for three years, but no lono;er. A State tax of 10 cents on each one hundred dollars of tax- able property throughout the State is to be levied annually for the support of the schools. MARYLAND. 511 The State Normal School is located in Baltimore, and was opened in January, 1866. In September, of the same year, a Model School was added to it. A liberal provision is made for a system of colored schools thoughout the State. The schools of the city of Baltimore are distinct from those of the State, and are controlled by the municipal authorities. They have long been noted for their excellence. The school system in the city is of far older date than that of the State. In 1870 Maryland contained 1347 public schools, exclusive of those of Baltimore City, attended by 75,402 children. The total amount expended upon the public schools in the same year was $751,310. The principal collegiate institutions are Washington College, at Chestertown; St. John’s College, at Annapolis; St. Mary’s College, at Baltimore; St. Charles’s College, at Ellicott’s Mills ; Mount St. Mary’s College, at Emmittsburg; the College of St. James, in Wash- ington county; St. John’s College, at Frederick City; St. Mary’s Theological Seminary, at Baltimore ; the Medical School of the Uni- versity of Maryland, Washington Medical College, the College of Dental Surgery, and Baltimore Female College, at Baltimore ; and the State Agricultural College, in Prince George’s county. They are all prosperous. During the w^ar some of them were temporarily closed, but all are again in operation. The State supports the Agri- cultural College, and assists St. John’s College, at Annapolis, Wash- ington College, at Chestertown, and the Baltimore Female College, at Baltimore City. There were in Maryland, in 1860, about 130 libraries, containing between 130,000 and 140,000 volumes. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State was as follows : daily 6, tri-weekly 2, weekly 49 — total 57 — all political. In the same year several literary and religi- ous papers were published in the State. The political journals had an aggregate annual circulation of 20,721,472 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The city of Baltimore is well provided with penal and charitable establishments of its own. Those of the State are the Penitentiary and the Hospital for the Insane. The Marylcind Penitentiary is located at Baltimore. Extensive additions have been made to its buildings, of late, but there is still a 612 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. deficiency in the accommodations provided for the prisoners. In No- vember, 1867, the number of inmates was 679. The Maryland Hospital for the Insane, at Baltimore, is an excel- lent institution, and is liberally supported by the State. In January, 1868, it contained 113 patients. Two classes are received here — State patients, and those who pay their own expenses. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the value of church property in Maryland was $5,516,150. The' number of churches was 1016. FINANCES. In 1870, the public debt of the State was $13,317,475. The re- ceipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending September 30th, 1870, were $2,522,478, and the expenditures $2,475,069. In 1868, there were 32 National Banks, with a total capital of $12,790,202, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. In this State every male citizen of the United States, twenty-one years old, who has resided one year in the State and six months in the county, is entitled to vote at the elections. The first Constitution of Maryland was adopted in August, 1776. It has been changed several times, the present Constitution having been adopted in 1867. The Government is vested in a Governor (elected by the people for four years), a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 24 members, elected for four years, one-half going out of office every two years), and House of Delegates (of 86 members, elected for two years), a Comptroller, and Treasurer, elected for two years, a Secretary of State, and an Attorney-General and Superintendent of Labor and Agricul- ture, elected for four years. The Governor, Legislature, Comptroller, Attorney-General, and Superintendent of Labor are chosen by the people, the Treasurer by the Legislature, and the Secretary of State and other officers appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. No person holding an office under the United States, and no minister of the gospel is eligible to a seat in either house. The Leg- islature meets biennially. The general election is held in November. The Court of Appeals consists of the Chief J udges of the first seven judicial districts of the State, and a judge from the city of Baltimore, MARYLAND. 513 who is specially elected for that purpose. The Chief Justice is nomi- nated by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. Four of the judges constitute a quorum, but a decision cannot be rendered with- out the concurrence of at least three. The judge who tried the cause in the lower court, is not allowed to participate in the decision in this court. The court has appellate jurisdiction only, but that in all parts of the State. The other courts are the Circuit Courts of the counties, Orphans^ Courts, and Justices’ Courts, held by justices of the peace. Besides these are the several courts — Superior, Circuit, and Criminal — of Baltimore City. Annapolis, in Anne Arundel county, is the capital. For purposes of government, the Stale is divided into 22 counties. HISTORY. The first settlement in the State was made on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, in the year 1631, by Captain William Clayborne, with a party of men from Virginia. On the 20th of June, the terri- tory of Terra Marise, or Mary’s Land, so named in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria of England, was granted by Charles I. to Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore. Calvert sent out a colony in two vessels, the Ark and the Love, in Xovember, 1633. This expedition reached St. Clement’s Island on the 25th of March, 1634, and on the 27th founded the settlement of St. Mary’s (in what is now St. Mary’s county), on the mainland. The expedition was composed mainly of Catholic gentlemen, their families, and followers, and was in charge of Leonard Calvert, the brother of Lord Baltimore, who was ap- pointed Governor. As soon as the colony was firmly established, other emigrants came from England in considerable numbers, and Clayborne, having refused to submit to the authority of the Gover- nor, was driven from Kent Island. The Indians gave the settlers some trouble, but were promptly made to keep the peace. The first Legislative Assembly met in 1639. In 1642, a band of Puritans, expelled from Virginia for refusing to conform to the worship of the Church of England, settled in Mary- land, and were not long in giving evidences of their determination to disregard the authority of the rightful government of the province. Clayborne also came back and regained possession of Kent Island. The Governor made an effort to expel him, but he and his followers, aided by tlie Puritan settlers, not only defeated this effort, but seized 33 oU THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the government of the province, and forced Calvert to fly into Vir- ginia, in 1644. Clayborne held the control of affairs until 1646, when Calvert entered the province at the head of a considerable force, and reestablished the authority of the proprietary. In 1649, the As- sembly enacted this wise statute : Whereas the enforcing of the con- science in matters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous consequences in those Commonwealths where it has been practised, and for the more quiet and peaceful government of this Province, and the better to preserve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within this Province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall be anyways troubled, molested, or discounte- nanced for his or her religion, or in the free exercise thereof.^^ The Puritans gave great trouble to the colony. They had founded the town of Providence, which was afterwards called Annapolis, and were centred mainly in that part of the State. Finally they were granted the county of Charles. Upon the establishment of the Com- monwealth in England, they insisted that the colony ought to submit to it, but the authorities proclaimed Charles II. When the Assembly met again, it was found that the Puritans were largely in excess of - the followers of the Proprietary. In 1652, the Commissioners sent out from England by the Parliament arrived, and completely estab- lished the authority of the Commonwealth. Governor Stone, the representative of Lord Baltimore, was removed. One of the Com- missioners referred to was no other than Clayborne, the old enemy of Lord Baltimore. Kent Island was given up to him, and he was also assigned Palmer Island, at the mouth of the Susquehanna River. In 1654, Lord Baltimore made a vigorous attempt by force of arms to regain his rights. A bitter contest was begun, and continued wdth alternate success and failure until March 25th, 1655, when Lord Baltimore’s forces made an attack on Providence (Annapolis), and were repulsed with terrible slaughter by the Puritans, the whole force being killed or captured. Governor Stone was among the prisoners, all of \vhom were condemned to death. It is known that at least four of them were executed. The Puritans continued to hold the govern- ment until 1657, when Lord Baltimore’s rights were restored, and his brother Philip Calvert appointed Governor. His family continued to hold the government until 1688, when William and Mary, having c,ome to the throne of England, assumed the control of the Province. From this time the Governor was appointed by the Crown, until 1714, when Benedict Charles -Cal vert, the lineal heir of the first pro- MARYLAND. 515 prietor, was granted the government again. Unlike the rest of his family, he was a Protestant, which was the cause of his succession to his hereditary rights. In 1691, the seat of government was transferred to Providence, the name of which was changed to Annapolis. In 1695, a post route, the first in America, was established from the Potomac, through Anna- polis, to Philadelphia. In 1729, the town of Baltimore was founded, Frederick City in 1745, and Georgetown (now in the District of Columbia) in 1751. By 1756 the population of the colony had in- creased to 154,188 souls, of whom over 40,000 were negroes. The colony also increased in material prosperity. By the year mentioned above, the annual export of tobacco was 30,000 hogsheads, and, in spite of the efforts of the home government to prevent it, there were 8 furnaces and 9 forges for smelting copper in operation in the province. During the wars with France, Maryland contributed liberally to the common cause. Between 1754 and 1758, her western frontier suffeied severely from the savages, whose outrages were stopped only by the capture of Fort Duquesne. The colony offered a spirited resistance to the injustice of the home Government, and promptly made common cause in this matter with the other provinces. The outbreak of the Revolution caused the overthrow of the proprietary government, which patriotically sub- mitted to the necessity, and in August, 1776, a Convention of the people adopted a State Constitution, which went into immediate ope- ration. The State made liberal contributions of men and money for the maintenance of the war. The Maryland Line won a name in this struggle, which is one of the most precious legacies they have left to their, children. Congress assembled at Baltimore, and afterwards at Annapolis, towards the close of the war, and it was at the latter place that Washington resigned his commission, on the 23d of Decem- ber, 1783. Upon the close of the war, great and successful efforts were made to settle the western part of the State. Maryland ratified the Federal Constitution April 28th, 1788. During the war of 1812, the shores of the Chesapeake Bay were brutally ravaged by a British fleet commanded by Admiral Cockburn. Frenchtown, Havre de Grace, Frederictown, and Georgetown were sacked and burned. The militia of the State were defeated at Bla- densburg, where they attempted to arrest the march of the British upon Washington City, in 1814. They repulsed the same force at 516 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. North Point, near Baltimore, on the 13th of September, 1814, and killed the British Commander, General Ross; and on the 14th re- pulsed the attack of the enemy's fleet upon Fort McHenry, Avhich protected the entrance to the city of Baltimore. AVhen the question of establishing a seat of Government was brought up, near the close of the last century, Maryland granted to the United States 60 square miles of her territory, lying near the falls of the Potomac. Virginia united with her, and added enough of her own territory to make the grant consist of 100 square miles. The offer was accepted by the United States, and the District of Columbia was erected. The seat of Government was transferred to it in 1800. At the outbreak of the late war, it was generally supposed that Maryland would secede from the Union, and join the other States of the South in their attempt to establish a new Confederacy. This course would undoubtedly have been pursued, had the State been free to act as it wished ; but at the first opening of the struggle, it was promptly occupied by the forces of the General Government. During the war, it was nominally allowed to control its own affairs, but w^s really held down by force until the cessation of hostilities. _ It was invaded three times by a Confederate army, and, with the District of Columbia, formed the base from which the operations of the Federal Army of the Potomac were conducted. The battles of South Mountain and Antietam, or Sharpsburg, and Monocacy Bridge, near Frederick City, were fought in the western part of the State; and Maryland Heights, opposite Harper’s Ferry, on the Potomac, bore a prominent part in the military operations around that place. Raiding parties entered the State repeatedly from Virginia, penetrat- ing upon one occasion beyond Baltimore, and a number of minor conflicts occurred between these parties and detachments of the Union army. During the war, the State furnished a considerable force to the army and navy of the United States; but a much larger number of native Marylanders crossed the Potomac and entered the Southern army. Slavery was abolished by a State Convention in 1864. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the most important cities and towns in the State are, Baltimore, Frederick, Cumberland, Cambridge, Easton, and Chestertown. MARYLAND. 61Y ANNAPOLIS, The capital of the State, is situated in Anne Arundel county, on the south or right bank of the Severn River, "2 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It is beautifully located in full view of the bay, of which it commands extensive and picturesque views. It is 30 miles south by east from Baltimore, and 37 miles east by north from Washington. It is one of the oldest towns in the country, and bears marks of its antiquity on every hand. The buildings are gene- rally in the style of a century ago, though the city contains many handsome modern edifices. As a rule the town is well built. The plan of the city bears some resemblance to that of the National Capi- tal, all of the streets radiating from two points, the State House and the Episcopal church. The city bears ample evidence of the wealth and prosperity which it once possessed in many ancient and extensive mansions, with large ranges of offices and stables, now gone to decay, and in some cases uninhabited. The State House stands near the centre of the city, and is a vener- able edifice of brick, with a lofty dome and cupola. It is situated in a small park on the highest point of the city, and contains the halls of the Legislature, the offices of the Governor and Secretary of State, and the State Library. The hall now occupied by the State Senate was used for the sessions of the Continental Congress near the close of the Revolution, and it was here that Washington resigned his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the American armies. The hall is now ornamented with a large painting commemorating that event. It is from the pencil of Mr. Edwin White, of New York.* To the east of the State House stands the official mansion of the Governor of Maryland, who is obliged to reside here during his term of office. Annapolis is lighted with gas, but many of the buildings still use oil lamps. It is connected with Baltimore and Washington City by a railway, and with the former city by a line of steamers. It was formerly a place of considerable trade, but is now important only as the capital of the State. It contains 6 churches, and 2 newspaper of- fices, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the popu- lation was 5744. The city is well supplied with public and private schools. St. John’s College is a flourishing institution, supported in part by the State. It was closed during the civil war, but is now in a fair way to regain its former prosperity. 518 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Annapolis is the seat of the Naval Academy of the Uiiited States, established during the administration of President Polk, the Hon. Geo. Baneroft being Secretary of the Navy. It is located in the northeast part of the city, immediately on the shore of the Severn, and is de- signed for the education and training of officers of the United States Navy. Annapolis was founded about 1649, and was at first called Provi- dence. The events of its early history have been already related in the sketch of the history of the State. In 1708 it was chartered as a city, and named Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne, who had be- stowed several valuable presents upon the town. It was for many years the most important city in Maryland, but was at length sur- passed by Baltimore, to which city its large trade was transferred. BALTIMORE, The largest and most important city of the State, and the sixth city of the United States, is situated in Baltimore county, on the north side of the Patapsco River, about 12 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It is 38 miles northeast from Washington, 98 miles southwest from Philadelphia, and 200 miles from the ocean by the course of the Chesapeake. The city is built partly along the river shore, and partly along a range of hills overhanging the Patapsco and commanding distant views of the bay. Below Baltimore the river widens into a broad estuary, several miles in width. Some portions of the city are 100 feet above tide water, and the view of Baltimore from the river is very beautiful and attractive. This rolling charac- ter of the ground enables the city to provide the best system of sewerage in the country, and does much to render Baltimore a re- markably clean city. Perhaps no city in the United States has such a picturesque sight as Baltimore, covering as it does a number of emi- nences, which, however inconvenient they may be for the residents, furnish a pleasant variety for the stranger. If the visitor ascends the Washington Monument, in the northern part of the city, on a hill, itself 100 feet above tide, he has one of the finest panoramas furnished by any city in the Union. Immediately beneath and around him are some of the most capacious streets, lined with residences rarely equalled in elegance, size, and position. To the north and northwest are the newer and finer buildings, constituting the fashionable part of the city, while to the south lies the great centre of trade ; a little to the southeast is the harbor, and beyond it Federal Hill ; while far in the MARYLAND 519 BATTLE MONUMEJ^T. distance, but nearly in the same direction, stretches the beautiful arm of the bay on which Baltimore stands. To the east and southeast across Jones’ Falls (a small creek which divides the city into two portions), lie the Old Town and Fell’s Point; and to the west the newer portions, which are extending rapidly. The view is varied by the dome of the Catholic cathedral, the Unitarian church, and the Exchange, by the Shot-tower, by the Battle Monument, and by the steeples and towers of the various churches scattered in all directions ; the whole girt on the northwest and east by beautiful hills crowned with a natural growth of trees. Although the site of the city is such as to cause irregularity in some of the streets, the different sections are laid out with great uniformity. Baltimore street, the fashionable promenade, and seat of the retail and jobbing business, divides the city into two nearly equal portions, the larger part lying to the north. Charles street, crossing this at right angles, also divides the city into two nearly equal parts, the portion called North Charles street being mostly occupied with elegant residences, and South Charles street, between Baltimore and Lombard streets, with extensive wholesale warehouses. 620 THE GREAT .REPUBLIC. From the number and prominence of its monuments, Baltimore lias been denominated the ‘ Monumental City.^ The most remarkable of tliese is the Washington Monument, standing in a small, open area at the intersection of Charles and Monument streets. Its base, 50 feet square and 20 high, supports a doric column 176J feet in height, 'which is surmounted by a colossal statue of Washington, 16 feet high, giving its summit an elevation of 31 2 J feet above the level of the harbor. The shaft, 20 feet square at the base, and 14 at the top, is ascended by means of a 'winding stairway within. The whole is con- strueted of white marble, and cost $200,000. Battle Monument, also a beautiful structure of marble, is situated in Monument Square, in Calvert street, near Lexington street. From the base, which is square and ornamented with various devices, rises a facial column, 18 feet high, on the bands of which are inscribed the names of those who fell while defending the city from the attack of the British, September 12th, 1814. This is surmounted by a beautiful statue of the Goddess of Liberty, 7J feet high, making the entire height of the monument 52J feet. Another object of much interest to strangers is the Mer- chants’ Shot-tower, the highest, it is said, in the world, having an elevation of 246 feet.” * The public buildings are handsome. The City Hall, on Holliday street, is a magnificent building of white marble, covering an entire square; the U. S. Court House, on Fayette street, is a fine granite structure ; a'nd the Z7. S. Custom House and Post Office, on Lombard and Gay streets, the City Jail, the Maryland and Peabody Institutes, the latter of white marble, and the Masonic Hall, also of white marble, are imposing structures. The depots of the Baltimore and Ohio and the Northern Central Railways are among the handsomest buildings of the city. There are also many elegant buildings of stone, iron, and marble, used for mercantile purposes, which must be included among the ornaments of the city. Many of the churches are also worthy of notice in this connection. The educational, literary, and scientific institutions of Baltimore have always been amongst the best in the land. The public schools were famous when those of the other large American cities were striv- ing for the excellence they have since attained. In 1870, the city contained 119 schools, attended by 23,913 pupils. In the same year the city paid $26,322 for schools for colored children. The private * Lippincott’s Gazetteer. MARYLAND. 521 schools are numerous, of a high character, and are well attended. The higher schools are the University of Maryland, the Medical Depart- ment of which was founded in 1807; Loyola College] the Theological School, formerly connected with St. Mary's (R. C.) College ; the Balti- more College of Pharmacy ; and the College of Dental Surgeons. The Peabody Institute, on Charles and Monument streets, is the gift of George Peabody, and is devoted to literary and scientific purposes. It contains a good and growing library, and a gallery of fine arts. The Athanceum, St. Paul and Saratoga streets, contains the Mercan- tile Liby'ary, about 20,000 volumes, and the Baltimore Library, 15,000 volumes. It is also occupied by the Historical Society of Maryland, which possesses a library of 1000 volumes, and a collection of papers and other relics. An annual exhibition of paintings is held in the rooms of this society. The Maryland Institute occupies a large build- ing on Baltimore street near Jones' Falls. The lower part is used as a market. The upper part is an immense hall, in which an annual exhibition of the mechanic arts is held. It possesses a fine library. The reading room belonging to the Board of Trade is supplied with newspapers from all parts of the world. The benevolent and charitable institutions are the Maryland Hos- pital for the Insane, situated on a hill in the eastern part of the city ; the Mount Hope Institution, for the same purpose, under the charge of the Sisters of Charity ; the Baltimore Infirmary, with beds for 300 patients; the Maryland Institution for the Instruction of the Blind; the Church Home and Infirmary, connected with the Episcopal Church; the Union Protestant Infirmary; the Aged Women's Home; the Old Men's Home; the Home of the Friendless ; the House of the Good Shepherd, for the reformation of fallen women ; the Almshouse, and four Dispensaries. The prisons and reformatory establishments are the State Peniten- tiary, the City Jail, a handsome granite structure, and the House of Refuge, for the reformation of juvenile delinquents. The hotels of Baltimore are good. The principal are the City Hotel (Barnum's), and the Gilmore and Eutaw Houses. Baltimore is very far behind its eastern rivals in many things. The streets are badly paved, cobble stones predominating, and the side- walks are of brick. While the city contains a large number of mag- nificent buildings, its principal thoroughfare, Baltimore street, cannot compare with the corresponding streets of either New York, Phila- delphia, Boston, Chicago, or St. Louis. In the private portions, the 522 THE GllEAT REPUBLIC principal material used is brick, with white marble trimmings. Brown stone is now becoming common in the wealthier sections. The city is noted for the large number of small dwellings which it con- tains. These furnish homes for the working classes, who live in greater comfort and privacy than in almost any other large city in the world. Few houses contain more than one family. The more fashion- able quarters are beautifully built up, and will compare favorably with any city in the country. Street railway lines connect the various parts of the city. The cars of every line touch Baltimore street below Calvert and above Gay street, and thus bring all points in connection with the business centre. Similar lines connect the city with its principal suburbs. There are between 160 and 170 churches in Baltimore. Some of these are very costly and beautiful. Baltimore is the See of a Roman Catholic Archbishop, who is the Primate of the United States. The city contains several parks and pleasure grounds. These are Union, Franklin, and Lafayette squares, and Patterson and Druid Hill parks. Patterson Park contains 36 acres, and embraces the MARYLAND. 523 earthworks thrown up for the defence of the city in the war of 1812. Druid Hill Park contains 550 acres, and abounds in fine trees and shrubbery. It is naturally one of the most beautiful of the American parks, and has been greatly improved and ornamented since its pur- chase by the city. It is situated in the northern suburbs of the city, beyond the extreme end of Madison Avenue. The cemeteries are Greenmount, Loudon Park, Baltimore, Mount Olivet, Mount Carmel, and the MTstern. Greenmount is very beauti- ful, and contains many handsome monuments. The theatres of Baltimore are behind those of the other large cities of the Union. The principal are the Holliday Street Theatre and the Concordia Opera House. Baltimore is the terminus of five railway lines, which connect it with all parts of the country. The Baltimore and Ohio Railway is one of the great trunk lines to the West, and one of the finest works in the world. By means of these it conducts an enormous trade with the West, and with the interior of the State of Wirginia. Steamboats ply between Baltimore and the principal towns on the Chesapeake Bay and the rivers emptying into it, and a large coasting trade is carried on from this port. A line of first-class steamers connects the city with the j)ort of Bremen, in Germany, and is bringing a large portion of the emigration from that country through the port of Balti- more.^ Baltimore enjoys very great facilities for commerce from its situation, and needs but the energy and enterprise of its former days to be a more important commercial city than it is. In 1864, the arrivals at the port of Baltimore, not counting the bay craft, were 1143 steamers, 38 ships, 137 barks, 197 brigs, 1025 schooners, mak- ing a total of 2540 vessels. In the same year, the foreign imports of Baltimore were $6,076,300; and the exports were $12,362,448. The registered tonnage for the same year was 45,198; enrolled and licensed, 203,497; making a total of 248,695 tons. By means of the Baltimore and Ohio and Northern Central Railways, a heavy coal trade is carried on through Baltimore. Large quantities of this are shipped from Locust Point. Baltimore is largely engaged in manufactures, Jones’ Falls furnish- ing excellent water-power. Some of the largest machine shops in the country are located here. The principal manufactures are cotton and iron goods, machinery, steam engines, agricultural implements, and flour. The city is abundantly supplied with water from Swann Lake and 524 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Jones’ Falls. The water is brought a distance of seven miles to the city reservoirs, which are from 110 to 150 feet above tide-water. The city is lighted with gas of an excellent quality, and is provided with a police and fire alarm telegraph, an efficient police force, and an admirable steam fire department. It is* governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 267,354. In the year 1729, the General Assembly of Maryland took meas- ures for erecting a town on the north side of the Patapsco in Balti- more county.” The site had been settled as early as 1682, by David Jones, who gave his name to the small stream which now flows through the city of Baltimore, dividing it into old and ^ new town. On the 12th of January, 1730, a town of 60 acres of land was laid out by the county surveyor and commissioners, and called Balti- more in honor of Cecilius Calvert Lord Baltimore. ^^In the same year, William Fell, a ship-carpenter, having purchased a tract east of the falls, called it Fell’s Point, after his own name, which it still bears. In 1732, a new town of 10 acres in 20 lots, was laid out on the east of the falls, and called Jonestown, in honor of David Jones, the first settler. The name has long been forgotten, and as a settle- ment existed there before that of Baltimore, it was called ^ old town. Jonestown was united to Baltimore in 1745, dropping its own name, and two years afterward Baltimore, which properly lay up about the head of the ‘ basin,’ near the foot of the present South Charles street, was extended as far eastw^ardly as Jones’ Falls, under an express pro- vision that there was nothing in the Act recognizing a right to 'elect delegates to the Assembly as representatives from the town.’ This was the earliest manifestation of that singular jealousy, which has ever since been shown in the Legislature by the Maryland county mem- bers against the city of Baltimore.” In 1755, Baltimore contained but 25 houses and 200 inhabitants. In 1767, it was made the county seat. In 1769, the first fire engine was introduced. In 1773, William Goddard began the publication of the " Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser.” In the same year a line of stage coaches and a line of sailing packets were estab- lished between Baltimore and Philadelphia ; and a theatre was built on Albemarle street. In 1775, Baltimore contained 564 houses, and 5934 inhabitants. In 1776, Philadelphia having fallen into the hands of the British, Congress removed to Baltimore, and held its sessions in a building on the southeast corner of Baltimore and Lib- erty streets. In 1784, the streets were lighted with oil lamps, and MARYLAND, 525 SCENE ON BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILWAY. 3 constables and 14 watchmen were appointed ‘^for the security of the town.^^ In 1796, Baltimore was incorporated as a city, the popu- lation being about 20,000. In 1800, the population was 26,514. The city was now highly prosperous, and was possessed of a large and thriving trade with all parts of the world. In 1814, it was attacked by the British, who were repulsed at North Point and at Fort McHenry, by both land and water. In 1829, the first public school was opened. In 1813, the first steamboat, called the Chesa- peake, was placed upon the line to Philadelphia via Frenchtown and Newcastle, Del. On the 4th of July, 1828, the corner-stone of the great Baltimore and Ohio Railway was laid by the venerable Charles Carroll of Carrollton. During the civil war, the city was occupied by the United States troops. It was the scene of a bloody riot on the 19th of April, 1861. FREDERICK CITY, The second city of the State, is situated in Frederick county, 2 miles west of the Monocacy River, 65 miles west of Baltimore, and 44 52G THE GREAT REPUBLIC. miles northwest of \A^ashIngton City. It is 3 miles distant from the main line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, with which it is con- nected by a branch railway. The city is built chiefly of brick and stone; the streets are broad and straight, and cross each other at ri(>*ht-ano:lcs, and are shaded with fine trees. The Court House is a handsome building. The town contains the Deaf and Dumb Asylum of Maryland, 11 churches, a college and an academy and several fine schools, both public and private. Two newspapers are published here. Frederick is next to Baltimore in wealth and commercial impor- tance. It lies in the midst of a fine agricultural section, and pos- sesses a considerable trade. To a limited extent it is engaged in manufactures, leather, iron, wool, paper, and flour being the principal articles produced. It is lighted with gas, is supplied with water, and is provided with a steam fire department.'. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 8526. CUMBERLAND, The third city of the State with regard to population, is situated in Alleghany county, on the left bank of the Potomac River, 179 miles west-by-north of Baltimore, with wFich it is connected by the Balti- more and Ohio Railway. It is the eastern terminus of the National Road. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, whose eastern terminus is at Georgetown, D. C., ends here. The town is connected with Pitts- burg, Pa., by the Connellsville Railway. It is beautifully located at the foot of the mountains, and is generally well built. The CouH House is the principal building. The importance of Cumberland is due to its vicinity to the coal and iron mines of Maryland, which lie but a few miles to the west of it, and in the mountains. Immense quantities of a semi-bituminous coal are mined in this region and shipped east and west. The city is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It contains about 6 churches, several schools, and 3 news- paper offices. In 1870 the population was 8056. MISCELLANIES. THE BALTIMORE RIOT. A few days after the declaration of war, the towm of Baltimore was seriously disturbed. Some harsh strictures on the conduct of Government having appeared in a newspaper of that city, entitled the Federal Republican^ the resentment of the opposite party was shown by destroying the office and press of that establish- MARYLAND. 52T ment. The commotion excited by this outrage had, however, in a great measure subsided, and the transaction was brought before a criminal court for investiga- tion. But events more alarming and tragical shortly afterwards succeeded. On the 26th of July, Mr. Hanson, the leading editor of the obnoxious journal, who had deemed it prudent to leave the disordered city, returned, accompanied by his political adherents ; amongst whom was General Henry Lee, of Alexandria, an officer distinguished in the Revolution for his bravery in partisan warfare at the head of a legion of cavalry, afterwards Governor of Virginia, and a representa- tive from that State in the Congress of the Federal Government. Determined to re-commence the paper, by first printing it in Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, and then transmitting it to Baltimore for distribution, a house was for this purpose occupied in Charles street, secured against external violence, and guarded by a party w'ell provided for defence. On the 28th, papers were accord- ingly issued. These contained severe animadversions against the Mayor, police, and the people of Baltimore, for the depredations committed on the establishment in the preceding month, and were generally circulated throughout the city. In the course of the day- it became known that Mr. Hanson was in the new of- fice in Charles street, and it was early whispered that the building would be as- sailed. A number of citizens who espoused his opinions went, therefore, to the house, and joined in its protection. Towards the evening, a crowd of boys col- lected, who, after using opprobrious epithets to those within, began to throw stones at the windows ; and about the same time a person on the pavement, en- deavoring to dissuade the youths from mischief, was severely wounded by some- thing ponderous thrown from the house. They were cautioned from the windows to desist I but still continued to assail the place with stones. Two muskets were then fired from the upper story ; charged, it was supposed, with blank cartridges, to deter them from further violence ; immediately the crowd in the street greatly increased ; the boys were displaced by men ; the sashes of the lower windows were broken, and attempts made to force the door. Muskets, in quick succession, were discharged from the house ; some military arrived to disperse the crowd ; several shots were fired in return ; and at length a Dr. Gale was killed by a shot from the office door. The irritation of the mob was increased. They planted a cannon against the house, but were restrained from discharging it by the timely arrival of an additional military force, and an agreement that the persons in the house would surrender to the civil authority. Accordingly, early in the follow- ing morning, having received assurances on which the}" thought themselves safe in relying, they surrendered, and were conducted to the county jail, contiguous to the city. The party consisted of about 20 persons ; amongst whom were Gene- ral Lee, General James Lingan, and Mr. Hanson. The Mayor directed the Sheriff to use every precaution to secure the doors of the prison, and the commander of the troops to employ a competent force to pre- serve the peace. In the evening everything bore the appearance of tranquillity ; and the soldiers, by the consent of the magistrate, were dismissed. But shortly after dark, a great crowd of disorderly persons reassembled about the jail, and manifested an intention to force it open. On being apprised of this, the Mayor hastened to the spot, and, with the aid of a few other gentlemen, for a while pre- vented the execution of the design : but they were at length overpowered by the number and violence of the assailants. The Mayor was carried away by force, and the turnkey compelled to open the doors. A tragedy ensued, which cannot be described : it can be imagined only by those who are familiar with scenes of 528 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. blood. General Lingan was killed ; eleven were beaten and mangled with weapons of every description, such as stones, bludgeons, and sledge-hammers, and then thrown as dead, into one pile, outside of the door. A few of the prisoners fortu- nately escaped through the crowd: Mr. Hanson, fainting from his repeated wounds, was carried by a gentleman (of opposite political sentiments), at the hazard of his own life, across the adjoining river, whence he with difficulty reached the dwelling of a friend. No effectual inquisition was ever made into this signal violation of the peace, nor punishment inflicted on the guilty. The leaders, on both sides, underwent trials ; but, owing to the inflammation of public feeling, they were acquitted. ANECDOTE OF CHARLES CARROLL. The name of Carroll is the only one on the Declaration to which the residence of the signer is appended. The reason why it was done in this case is under- stood to be as follows : The patriots who signed that document, did it, almost literally, with ropes about their necks, it being generally supposed that they would, if unsuccessful, be hung as rebels. When Carroll had signed his name, some one at his elbow remarked, “You’ll get clear — there are several of that name— they will not know which to take.”— “Not so,” replied he, and immedE ately added, “of Carrollton.” DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 60 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 75,080 Population in 1870, 131,706 The District of Columbia originally embraced an area of ten miles square, but the portion ceded by Virginia was restored to that State in 1846, so that the present District comprises only the grant made to the General Government by the State of Maryland. It lies on the east side of the Potomac at the head of tide water, 160 miles from the mouth of the river. It includes the cities of Washington and George- town, and is the seat of the Federal Government of the Eepublic. In its physical features it is like those portions of the State of Mary- land immediately surrounding it. Until recently it was governed exclusively by Congress, and had no voice in its own affairs. Early in the year 1871, however, the two Houses of Congress passed a bill, which received the signature of the President on the 21st of February, making great changes in the affairs of the District. By this law the District of Columbia has been given the management of its own affairs. The District is organ- ized as a Territory, with a Government, consisting of a Governor and an Assembly. The Governor is appointed by the President of the United States by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. He holds office for four years and until his successor shall be appointed and qualihed. He must be a citizen of the District for at least 12 months previous to his appointment, and have the qualifica- tions of a voter. His duties and powers are similar to those of the Governor of a Territory of the United States. The Assembly ^ 529 530 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. consists of a Council and a House of Delegates. The Council is composed of 11 members, of whom 2 are residents of the City of Georgetown, 2 residents of the District outside of Washington and Georgetown, and 7 residents of the City of Washington. They are appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They must have the qualifications of voters to be eligible to their office. They hold office for two years, five and six going out on alternate years. The House of Delegates consists of 22 members, 2 from each of the 11 districts into which the District of Columbia is divided. They are elected by the people, and must have the qualifi- cations prescribed for members of the Council. The right of suffrage is conferred upon all male citizens of the United States above the age of 21 years, who have resided in the Dis- trict for a period of 12 months previous to an election, except persons of unsound mind and those convicted of infamous crimes. The Assembly has no power to abridge or limit the right of suffrage. The Government must confine itself entirely to the affairs of the District of Columbia. The inhabitants of the District do not vote for President or Vice-President of the United States. They send one delegate to Congress, who is entitled to the same rights and privileges in that body as are exercised and enjoyed by the Delegates from the several Territories of the United States to the House of Representa- tives. He is by virtue of his position a member of the House Com- mittee for the District of Columbia. His term of office is 2 years. All the acts of the Legislative Assembly are subject at all times to repeal or modification by the Congress of the United States, which body retains its powers of legislation over the District as formerly. By this law the charters formerly held by the Cities of Washing- ton and Georgetown are repealed, and all offices of those corporations abolished. The cities are brought directly under the control of the District Government, which succeeds to the possession of the muni- cipal property. The cities retain their names and boundaries, but no longer exist as separate corporations, the government of both being confided to the authorities of the District. The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia is the highest judicial tribunal. It consists of four justices (one of whom is desig- nated as the Chief Justice), appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate of the United States. The other Courts are the Dis- trict and Criminal Courts, below which are the Justices of the Peace. COLUMBIAN DEAF AND DUMB INSTITUTION. 531 532 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. HISTORY. After the close of the Revolution, Congress continued to meet in the City of Philadelphia. In June, 1783, a band of mutinous soldiers broke into the hall where Congress was in session, and in a grossly insulting manner demanded the back pay” due them, which amounted to a considerable sum. This insult was felt deeply by the members, and it was agreed by common consent that it would be better for the seat of Government to be removed to a part of the country where the danger of a repetition of the occurrence would not be so imminent. Elbridge Gerry introduced a resolution authorizing the building of a Federal City, on the banks of the Delaware or Potomac, and the erection of buildings suitable for the use of Con- gress, provided a good location and the proper amount of land could be obtained on either of those rivers. This resolution was carried on the 7th of October, 1783, but was amended by a provision for build- ings on both rivers, and was repealed on the 26th of April, 1 784. Congress met at Trenton, Y. J., in October, 1784, and appointed three commissioners, who were authorized to lay out a district between _ two and three miles square on the Delaware, for a Federal City. The next January, Congress met in New York, and efforts were made to locate the district on the Potomac, but without success. In September, 1787, the present Constitution of the United States was adopted, which provides that Congress shall have power '' to exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such dis- trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of Government of the United States.” This clause of the Constitution fixed definitely the size of the new district, and was the first real step towards its acquisition. Appre- ciating the advantage of having the Capital within its limits, the State of Maryland, through its Legislature, on the 23d of December, 1788, offered to Congress "any district (not exceeding ten miles square) which the Congress may fix upon and accept for the seat of Government of the United States.” The matter was debated in Con- gress in 1789. It was agreed on all sides that the district ought to be located in a section of the country easy of access from all parts of the Union, and ought to be as central as was consistent with the wealth and popula- tion of the section chosen. The North and the South— for the sec- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 533 tional division of the country had been made even at that early day — each desired to secure the location of the new city within its own limits. The former demanded that the capital should be built on the banks of the Susquehanna, and the latter made a similar demand in favor of the Delaware or Potomac. New York, Philadelphia, Ger- mantown, Havre de Grace, Wright^s Ferry, Baltimore, and Cono- cocheague (now Washington City), each had its partisans. The con- troversy ran very high, and came near resulting in a serious quarrel between the States. On the 5th of September, 1789, the House of Representatives passed a resolution, ^^That the permanent seat of Government of the United States ought to be at some convenient place on the banks of the Susquehanna, in the State of Pennsylvania.’^ This resolution gave great oifence to the Southern members, and even Mr. Madison went so far as to declare that had such an action on the part of Congress been foreseen, Virginia would not have ratified the Constitution. The matter was made worse by the immediate passage of a bill by the House for the purpose of carrying the resolution into effect. The vote stood, 31 to 19. The Senate amended the bill by inserting Germantown, Pennsylvania, instead of the location on the Susquehanna, which amendment was accepted by the House. The House further amended the Act by providing that the laws of Pennsylvania should continue in force in the new district until Con- gress should order otherwise. The Senate decided to postpone the consideration of this amendment until the next session, and the matter went over. Germantown was thus actually chosen as the Federal City, and it needed only the consent of the Senate to the last-men- tioned amendment to make the transaction complete. Thus far none of the States but Maryland had taken any official action in this matter. The South was greatly excited over the course of Congress, all of the Northern States were not pleased, and the matter was felt to be a very serious danger to the harmony of the new Confederation. On the 3d of December, 1789, the General Assembly of Virginia passed an Act ceding a district to Congress on the banks of the Potomac. The cooperation of Maryland was asked in inducing Congress to accept the offer, and a sum not exceeding Si 20,000 was pledged for the erection of public buildings, if Maryland, on her part, would contribute a sum not less than two-fifths of that amount for the same purpose. Maryland at once agreed to the request of Vir- ginia, and pledged herself for the money. Other States now made offers of territory to Congress, but no immediate action upon the sub- ject wa§ taken by that body. 634 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The great question which at that time occupied the attention of the people, was the funding of the public debt. Congress was divided upon the subject. An amendment had been presented to the House, and had been rejected, providing that the General Government should assume the State debts to the amount of $21,000,000. This question had become very closely interwoven with that of selecting a Federal district. The Northern members were in favor of the assumption, but did not desire the location of the district in the South ; and the Southern members, while divided upon the assumption question, were to a man in favor of having the offers of Maryland and Virginia accepted. Matters were at a dead halt, and the future seemed ominous. Jefferson was at this time Secretary of State, and Hamilton Secre- tary of the Treasury. Both were anxious to avert the danger which the vexed questions threatened, and after discussing the matter confi- dentially, came to the conclusion that a compromise was necessary. Hamilton urged that the South should consent to the assumption of the State debts by the Government, and declared that he felt sure if they would do this, the North would agree to locate the capital on the Potomac. It was decided that Jefferson should ask the members whose votes would accomplish this, to dine with him the next day, and lay the matter before them. The dinner was given, the plan proposed by Hamilton discussed, and a sufficient number of votes pledged for the assumption bill. Hamilton undertook to win over the Northern members to the capital scheme, and succeeded. The assumption bill became a law, and Congress definitely accepted the offers of Maryland and Virginia. On the 3d of March, 1791, Congress amended the original Act so as to include the city of Alexandria in the district, and the following proclamation was issued by President Washington, establishing the new district : ^^WhereaSj By a proclamation, bearing date the 14th of January of this present year, and in pursuance of certain Acts of the States of Maryland and Virginia, and of the Congress of the United States, therein mentioned, certain lines of experiment were directed to be run in the neighborhood of Georgetown, in Maryland, for the purpose of determining the location of a part of the territory of ten miles square, for the permanent seat of the Government of the United States; and a certain part was directed to be located within the said lines of ex- periment, on both sides of the Potomac, and above the limits of the Eastern Branch, prescribed by the said Act of Congress ; DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 635 ‘‘And Congress, by an amendatory Act, passed on the 3d day of this present month of March, have given further authority to the Presi- dent of the United States to make any part of the said territory, be- low the said limit, and above the mouth of Hunting Creek, a part of the said District, so as to include a convenient part of the Eastern Branch of the lands lying on the lower side thereof, and also the town of Alexandria ; “ Now, therefore, for the purpose of amending and completing the location of the whole of the said territory of ten miles square, in con- formity with the said amendatory Act of Congress, I do hereby declare and make known that the whole of the said territory shall be located and included within the four lines following, that is to say : “Beginning at Jones^ Point, being the upper cape of Hunting Creek, in Virginia, and at an angle in the outset of 45° west of north, and running in a direct line ten miles, for the first line ; then beginning again at the same Jones’ Point, and running another direct line at a right angle with the first, across the Potomac, ten miles, for the second line;’ then, from the terminations of the said first and sec- ond lines, running two other direct lines, of ten miles each, the one crossing the Eastern Branch aforesaid, and the other the Potomac, and meeting each other in a point. “And I do accordingly direct the Commissioners named under the authority of the said first-mentioned Act of Congress to proceed forth- with to have the said four lines run, and by proper metes and bounds defined and limited, and thereof to make due report under their hands and seals ; and the territory so to be located, defined, and limited, shall be the Avhole territory accepted by the said Act of Congress as the District for the permanent seat of the Government of the United States. “In testimony whereof, I have caused the seal of the United States to be affixed to these presents, and signed the same with my hand. Done at Georgetown aforesaid, the 30th day of March, in the year of our Lord, 1791, and of the Independence of the United States, the fifteenth. George Washington.” The District was laid out by three Commissioners, appointed by the President, in accordance with the Act of Congress, in January, 1791. These Commissioners were Thomas Johnson, David Stuart, and Daniel Carroll. On the 15th of April, in the same year, they superintended the laying of the corner-stone of the District, at Jones’ 536 NEW BUILDING OF THE YOUNG MEN’S CIIBISTIAN ASSOCIATION. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 537 Point, liear Alexandria. This act was performed with the ceremonies prescribed by the Masonic ritual. The District was named Columbia, in honor of the great discoverer of the continent. Having thus acquired a Federal District, and having definitely lo- cated its boundaries, the next step was to lay off the new city which was to be the capital of the nation. This task was confided to Major DEnfant, a distinguished engineer, who was informed by the Com- missioners that the new city would bear the name of Washington.^’ In February, 1871, the Government of the District was reorganized, as has been already described. The cities of the District are Washington and Georgetown. WASHINGTON CITY, The capital of the United States, is situated on the left bank of the Potomac River, between that stream and a tributary called the East Branch, a few miles below the head of tide water. It is 295 miles from the ocean, 226 miles southwest of New York, 432 miles south- west of Boston, 544 miles northeast of Charleston, 1203 miles north- east of New Orleans, 497 miles east of Cincinnati, 763 miles southeast of Chicago, 1200 miles northeast of St. Louis, and 2000 miles in an air line northeast of San Francisco. The Capitol, which is nearly the centre of the city, is located in 38° 52' 20" N. latitude, and 77° 0' 15" W. longitude from Greenwich. The city has connections by railroad and steamboat with all parts of the continent, and telegraphic lines extend from it all over the world. The Potomac is navigable for ships of the largest size as far as Greenleaf’s Point, the site of the Arsenal and Penitentiary. The British fleet anchored here in 1814, and the frigate Minnesota was launched at the Navy Yard some years ago, and carried down the stream after being equipped. The situa- tion of the city is advantageous in many respects. Its front is washed by the Potomac, on the east is the East Branch, and on the left a stream called Rock Creek, which separates it from Georgetown. The general altitude of the city plot is 40 feet above the river, but this is diversified by irregular elevations, which serve to give variety and commanding sites for public buildings. The plot is slightly amphitheatrical, the President’s House, on the west, standing on one of the sides, and the Capitol on the other, while the space between verges towards a point near the river. The President’s House and the Capitol stand centrally with regard to the whole, though situated at the distance of a mile and a half from each other, the former 44 feet 638 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. above the Potomac, and the latter 72 feet. The summit of the hill on which the Capitol stands is the commencement of a plain stretch- ino- east, while that to the north of the President’s House tends westward.” Washington is laid off in a peculiar manner. According to the original plan, the Capitol was designed to be the centre of the city, and the starting point of the whole system of streets. This plan has been adhered to in the main, though it has been altered in some re- spects. The streets running east and west are designated by letters. They are divided into two classes or sets — those north of the Capi- tol, and those south of it. Thus, the first street north of the Capitol is A Street North, and the first street south of it, A Street South ; the next is B Street, North or South, and so on. The streets running north and south are numbered. Thus, the street immediately east of the Capitol is First Street East, and that immediately west of it. First Street West, and so on. These distinctions of North, South, East, and West are most important, as forgetfulness of them is apt to lead to very great blunders. The streets are laid off at regular distances from each other, but for convenience, other thoroughfares, not laid down in the original plan, have been cut through some of the blocks. These are called '' Half streets,” as they occur between and are parallel with the numbered streets. Thus, Four-and-a-half Street is between Fourth and Fifth streets, and runs parallel with them. The avenues run diagonally across the city, cutting the streets at right-angles. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware avenues intersect at the Capitol, and Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, and Connec- ticut avenues intersect at the President’s house. Pennsylvania Ave- nue is the main thoroughfare. It is 160 feet wide, and runs the entire length of the city, from the Eastern Branch to Rock Creek,— which latter stream separates Washington from Georgetown. It was origi- nally a swampy thicket. The bushes were cut away to the desired width soon after the city was laid off, but few persons cared to settle in the swamp. Through the exertions of President Jefferson, it was planted with four rows of fine Lombardy poplars, one on each side and two in the middle,— with the hope of making it equal to the famous Unter den Linden, in Berlin. The poplars did not grow as well as was hoped, however, and, when the avenue was graded and paved by order of Congress, in 1832 and 1833, were removed. The street is now well paved and lighted. It is handsomely built up, and contains some buildings which would do credit to any city. The DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 539 view from either the Capitol or the President’s House along the ave- nue is very fine. There are 1170 blocks or squares, bounded by 22 avenues ranging from 130 to 160 feet in width, named, as far as they go, after the different States ; and 100 streets, from 70 to 100 feet wide. The cir- cumference of the city is 14 miles. There are 199 miles of streets, and 65 miles of avenues. The paving and grading of the streets has been done almost entirely by the city. The Government claims every privilege accorded to it by the original design, but steadily refuses to carry out the part assigned it by that same plan. Were it not for the Public Buildings which it contains, Washing- ton would be a most uninteresting city ; but these have made it one of the principal attractions of the country. With the single exception of the City Hall and the Smithsonian Institute, these buildings are owned and used by the Federal Government of the United States. The Capitol is the grandest and most majestic edifice in the New World, and one of the finest on the globe. It stands on the western brow of a commanding hill, and overlooks the city and the surrounding country. The site was chosen by Washington, who was greatly im- pressed with its advantages. The corner-stone of the original build- ing Avas laid by Washington, on the 18th of September, 1793. This edifice Avas finished in 1811, and was burned by the British army, in 1814. Its reconstruction was begun immediately after the close of the war, and the building Avas completed according to the original design in 1825. In 1851, Avork was begun on the Capitol for the purpose of enlarging and beautifying it. The principal additions con- sist of a massive dome over the central building, and a Aving at the northern and southern extremities of the old structure. The building is not quite finished at present, but Avill require only a few years to complete it. The extension consists of two Avings, each of Avhich has a front of 142 feet 8 inches, and a depth of 238 feet 10 inches, not including the porticoes and steps. The porticoes front the east, and have each 22 monolithic fluted columns. They extend the entire Avidth of the • front, having central projections of 10 feet 4 inches, forming double porticoes in the centre, the Avidth of the gable. There is also a por- tico of 10 columns on the Avest end of each Aving, 105 feet 8 inches Avicle, projecting 10 feet 6 inches, and like porticoes on the north side of the north Aving and south side of the south Aving, Avith a Avidth of 121 feet 4 inches. The centre building is 352 feet 4 inches long and 121 feet 6 inches deep, Avith a portico 160 feet wide, of 24 columns, 540 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. a double faQade on the east, and a projeetion of 83 feet on the west, embracing a recessed portico of 10 coupled columns. The en- tire length of the Capitol is 751 feet 4 inches, and the greatest depth, including porticoes and steps, is 324 feet. The ground actually cov- ered by the building, exclusive of the court-yards, is 153,112 square feet, or 652 feet over 3 J acres. The material of which the extension is built, is a white marble slightly variegated with blue, and was pro- cured from a quarry in Lee, Massachusetts. The columns are all of white marble obtained from Maryland. The principal story of the Capitol rests upon a rustic basement, which supports an ordonnance of pilasters rising to the height of the two stories above. Upon these pilasters rests the entablature and beautiful frieze, and the whole is surmounted by a marble balustrade. The main entrances are by the three eastern porticoes, being made easy of access by broad flights of stone steps with massive cheek-blocks, and vaulted carriage-ways be- neath to the basement entrances.’^ The building faces the east, and the rear is in the direction of the principal part of the city. This location was made under the impres- sion that the neighborhood of the Capitol would be first settled in the growth of the new city; but the designs of the projectors not having been realized, the building now faces the wrong way. Standing in front of the edifice, and at a distance sufficient to take in the whole view, the effect is indescribably grand. The pure white marble glitters and shines in the sunlight, and the huge structure towers above one like one of the famed palaces of old romance. The broad flights of steps of the Avings and central buildings have an air of elegance and lightness which is surprising Avhen their massive character is considered. The pediments of the porticoes will contain magnificent groups of sculpture. The central pediment is decorated with a group sculptured in alto-relievo. The Genius of America, crowned wfith a star, holds in her right hand a shield bearing the letters U. S. A., surrounded with a glory. The shield rests on an altar inseribed with the date, July 4, 1776,’’ encircled with a laurel wreath. A spear is behind her within reach, and the eagle crouches at her feet. She is gazing at Hope, Avho stands on her left, and is directing her attention to Justice, on her right, who holds in her right hand a scroll inscribed. Constitution of the United States,” and in her left the scales. The group is said to have been designed by John Quincy Adams, and was executed by Signor Persico. The northern pediment contains Craw- ford’s famous group, representing the progress of civilization in the United States. America stands in the centre of the tympanum, in DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 541 the full light of the rising sun. On her right hand are War, Com- merce, Youth and Education, and Agriculture ; on her left the pio- neer backwoodsman, the hunter, the Indian and his squaw with an infant in her arms, sitting by a filled grave. The southern pediment has not yet been filled. It is said that the design adopted for it is by William R. Barbee, and represents the discovery of the country by Columbus. The cheek-blocks of the steps to the central portico are ornamented by two fine groups of statuary. The group on the right of the steps represents the discovery of America, and is by Persico. Columbus, landing in the Yew World, holds aloft in his right hand a globe, symbolic of his discovery. He is clad in armor, which is said to be a faithful copy of a suit worn by him. An Indian maiden crouches beneath his uplifted arm, her face expressive of the surprise and terror of her race at the appearance of the whites. The group on the left is called Civilization,^^ and is by Greenough. A terror- stricken mother, clasping her babe to her breast, crouches at the feet of a stalwart Indian warrior, whose arms, raised in the act of striking her with his tomahawk, are seized and pinioned by the husband and father, who returns at the fortunate moment, accompanied by his faithful dog, which stands by ready to spring to the aid of his master. The entire cost of the Capitol and its improvements, when completed, will be over $12,000,000. The interior of the Capitol is in keeping with the exterior. The Rotunda, which is the central portion of the old building, is sur- mounted by a grand dome, the ceiling of which is beautifully frescoed with allegorical designs. The walls are adorned with paintings and statuary, illustrating the history of the country. The effect of the whole is very beautiful. On the east side of the central building, opposite the main entrance, is the Library of Congress, a magnificent hall, filled with a collection of nearly 200,000 volumes. The copyright laws require a copy of each and every copyrighted book published in the United States to be deposited in this library. The library is free to the public for use within the hall, but only Members of Congress and certain other per- sons are privileged to take the books from the hall. On the north side of the Rotunda is the portion of the building used by the Supreme Court of the United States, its officers, and its library, numbering between 25,000 and 30,000 volumes. A hand- some corridor leads from this portion to the new North Wing, used by the Senate of the United States and its Committees. The base- 542 TDE GREAT REPUBLIC. mcnt of this wing is exquisitely frescoed with illustrations belonging to the natural history of North America, the designs being painted from life. The Committee rooms in this wing are handsome apart- ments, elegantly fitted up. The corridors are beautiful, and are mostly of marble, with floors of encaustic tiles. Two handsome marble stairways lead from the basement to the second, or main floor. They are situated in the southeastern and southwestern ends of the wing. They are continued, on a much more magnificent scale, from the second floor to the galleries and rooms of the third floor. This portion of the two wings is on a level with the floor of the Rotunda, and contains the principal apartments of the Capitol. The main entrances are by the magnificent North and South Porticoes, which are now ornamented with the superb bronze doors designed for them. The doors of the Senate portico illustrate the events of the life of Washington. The retiring rooms of the Senate, and the rooms used by the Presi- dent and Vice-President of the United States are gorgeous apartments. The President’s room is adorned with fresco portraits of Washington’s first Cabinet. Eying between the President’s and Vice-President’s rooms is a suite of sumptuous apartments — the most magnificent in the building — known as the Marble Room. The total length of the three rooms is about 85 feet, the width 21 J feet, and the height 19 J feet. The floor is an exquisite piece of mosaic in marble, and the ceil- ing is in panels of slightly colored Italian marble, and rests upon a series of magnificent white Italian marble pillars with elaborate capi- tals. The w^alls are adorned with large and superb mirrors, and are veneered with the finest specimens of Tennessee marble in the country. The windows are richly curtained, the furniture is exquisite, and the apartment is lighted by a large brass chandelier. The suite is used by the Senators as a retiring and private reception room. The prin- cipal apartment in this wing is the Senate Chamber, a magnificent hall, 112 feet in length, 82 feet wide, and 30 feet high. The ceiling is constructed entirely of cast iron, deeply panelled, with stained glass skylights, and ornamented with foliage, pendants, and drops, of the richest and most elaborate description. The walls and ceiling are painted with strong, brilliant colors, and all the iron work is bronzed and gilded. A cushioned gallery extends entirely around the hall. That portion immediately over the chair of the Vice- President of the United States is assigned to the reporters of the press, and a section enclosed by handsome iron railings, and immediately DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 543 facing the Chair, is for the use of the members of the Diplomatic Corps. The rest of the gallery is divided into sections for ladies and gentlemen. A tine view of the hall can be obtained from any part of it. The space under the gallery is enclosed, and used as cloak-rooms, etc. The gallery will seat one thousand persons. Immediately opposite the main door of the Chamber is the chair of the Vice-President of the United States, who presides over the Senate. It is placed on a platform of pure white marble, and behind a desk of the same material. Just below this is a similar but larger desk, used by the Secretary of the Senate and his assistants, and at the foot of this table are the chairs of the short-hand reporters of the debates. The floor rises in the form of an amphitheatre from the space in front of the Secretary's desk to the rear. Along these rows of steps, the registers are built in the floor, and keep the temperature of the Chamber at a fixed heat. The desks of the Senators are of oak, of a handsome and convenient pattern, and are arranged in three semi- circular rows facing the Chair. A comfortable armchair is provided for each desk ; and sofas and chairs for the convenience of Senators and those entitled to the privileges of the floor, are arranged around the sides of the hall. The choice of seats is determined by drawing lots. During the day the glass ceiling allows a soft and pleasant light to pass into the chamber, and at night the gas jets, which are arranged above the skylights, shed through the beautiful hall a radiance which can scarcely be distinguished from the light of the sun. In the South Wing of the old building, and opening upon the Rotunda, is the old Hall of the House of Representatives, one of the most beautiful apartments in the Capitol, In accordance with the popular wish this hall is preserved in its original state, and is now used as a gallery of Statuary. A fine corridor, ornamented with a pair of bronze doors, leads to the new South Wing, now used by the House of Representatives and its officers. These doors are the work of Ran- dolph Rogers, an American artist, and are said to be the finest works of their kind in the world. They illustrate the principal scenes in the life of Columbus. The basement of the South Wing contains the Committee rooms of the House of Representatives. These are equal in magnificence to those of the Senate. The corridors are not as handsome as those of the North Wing, but are still very beautiful. The first floor is reached by an elegant stairway of marble at each end of the wing. 544 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. These stairways are continued to the second floor on a more magnifi- cent scale, and are ornamented with fine paintings by Leutze and other artists. The corridors contain several statues of the great men of America. The Speaker's Room, used by the presiding officer of the blouse of Representatives, is a beautiful apartment, and is orna- mented with portraits of nearly every Speaker since the organization of the Government. The Hall of the House of Representatives occupies the central por- tion of the wing. It is 139 feet long, 93 feet wide, and 36 feet high. It is of sufficient size to afford comfortable accommodations for the increased number of members a century hence. It has an area of 12,927 square feet. The galleries extend entirely around it, and will seat 1200 persons. The seats are cushioned, and present a handsome appearance. That portion opposite the Speaker’s chair is ornamented with a magnificent bronze clock. Immediately over the Speaker’s chair is the Reporters’ Gallery, which is for the exclusive use of the Press. It is furnished with handsome private desks, one of which is assigned to the accredited reporter for some particular journal for the entire session. Some 25 or 30 of the leading newspapers of the land are represented here. The rest of the gallery is divided into sections for the members of the Diplomatic Corps, for ladies, and for gentlemen unaccompanied by ladies. These are separated from each other by iron railings. The ceiling is of cast iron, and is similar to that of the Senate Chamber, but handsomer. In the centre is a large skylight containing a number of panels ornamented with the coats of arms of the various States and Territories of the Union. The hall is lighted by means of this skylight. ^‘An arrangement of movable metallic plates, on the principle of Venetian blinds, is placed under the sunny side of the respective roofs of the House and Senate, so that the same amount of light may be admitted all the time.” The ar- rangement of the gas lights is similar to that of the Senate Chamber. Fifteen hundred burners are placed over the glass of the ceiling, at a distance of an inch apart. Over each one of these passes an incom- bustible wire. The gas is turned on, an electric current flashes along the wire, and in an instant the hall is filled with a soft, pleasing light, which resembles that of the sun. Opposite the principal door, are three desks of pure white marble, ranged one above the other. The highest is occupied by the Speaker of the House, the next by the Clerk of the House and his assistants, and the lowest by the official reporters of the debates. The registers for warming the hall are built DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 545 in the sides of the different steps into which the floor is divided, and openings in the wall permit the heated air to pass off. The engines which work the heating and ventilating apparatus are situated in the basement, and are of such power that the air of the entire hall is re- newed every five minutes. The ceiling is magnificently painted, and the walls below the galleries are laid off in large panels, which are to be ornamented with paintings in fresco illustrative of the principal events in the history of the country. One of these panels has already been filled with a magnificent fresco, by Brumidi, illustrating an event which occurred at the Siege of Yorktown. On the right and left of the Speaker’s chair are full-length portraits of Washington and Lafayette. The portrait of Washington was painted by Vanderlyn, by order of Congress, and that of Lafayette was presented to Congress by the great Frenchman himself, on the occasion of his visit to the United States, in 1825. Both pictures were among the ornaments of the old Hall of Representatives. The floor rises from south to north, like an amphitheatre. The seats and desks of the members (which are similar to those of the Senators) are arranged along this amphi- theatre, in successive circles, facing the Speaker. There are at present 236 of these desks and seats in use. The desks and chairs are all of a handsome pattern, and make a very showy appearance. Seats are chosen by lot at the beginning of every session. The desk of the Sergeant-at-Arms is on the Speaker’s right, that of the Door-keeper on his left. The space under the galleries is enclosed and occupied by two cloak rooms for Members, a Barber Shop for Members, a Fold- ing Room, and Document Room. The Capitol grounds cover an area of several acres, and are hand- somely ornamented with statuary, fountains, shrubbery, etc. The dome of the Capitol is surmounted by Crawford’s statue of Freedom, a magnificent work of bronze. It is placed at an altitude of 300 feet from the ground. From the gallery below the base of the statue magnificent views of the city, the Potomac, and the surrounding country may be had. The Executive Mansion^ or, as it is more commonly called, the White House, is the offieial residence of the President of the United States. It is situated on Pennsylvania avenue, near the western end of the city, and is surrounded by the Treasury, State, AVar, and Yavy Departments. The grounds in front are handsomely ornamented, and in the rear a fine park stretches away to the river. The location is attractive, and commands a magnificent view of the Potomac, but it 35 640 THE GREAT RErUBLIO. is not healthy. Ague and fever prevail in the spring and fall, and render it anything but a desirable place of residence. The building is constructed of freestone, painted white — hence its most common name, the White House.^^ It was designed by James Hoban, and Avas modelled after the palace of the Duke of Leinster. The corner- stone was laid on the 13th of October, 1792, and the house was ready for occupancy in the summer of 1800. It Avas partially destroyed by the British in 1814. It has a front of 170 feet, and a depth of 86 feet. It contains two lofty stories of rooms, and the roof is surrounded AAuth a handsome balustrade. The exterior walls are ornamented Avith fine Ionic pilasters. On the north front is a handsome portico, with four Ionic columns in front, and a projecting screen with three columns. The space betAveen these tAvo rows of pillars is a covered carriage way. The main entrance to the house is from this portico through a massive doorAvay, Avhich opens into the main hall. The garden front has a rusticated basement, Avhich gives a third story to the house on this side, and by a semicircular projecting colonnade of six columns, with two flights of steps leading from the ground to the level of the prin- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 54t cipal story. The interior is handsome, but simple, and contains the state apartments, or rooms used for public receptions, the Executive offices, and the private residence of the President and his family. The United States Treasury is located on Pennsylvania avenue, at the corner of Fifteenth street west, fronting G street. The old build- ing was commenced in 1836, and was constructed of inferior brown sandstone, painted in imitation of granite. In 1855, the extension was begun. It is now nearly completed. This extension has more than doubled the size of the original edifice, and has made the whole building one of the handsomest and most imposing in the country. The old building extended along Fifteenth street, and was ornamented with an unbroken Ionic colonnade, 342 feet long, which, though showy, was inconvenient, as it excluded the light from the rooms. The plan of the extension flanks the old building at each end with massive granite masonry, and makes beautiful terminations of the north and south fronts, which serve to relieve the dreary monotony of the long colonnade, besides providing a large new building at each end. “There are two inner quadrangles formed by the old rear building, extending back from the eastern entrance. These courts are each 130 feet square. The walls of the extension are composed of pilasters, resting on a base which rises some 12 feet above the ground on the southern or lower side. Between the pilasters or antse are belt courses, beautifully moulded, and the facings of the doors and win- dows are fine bold mouldings in keeping. In the centre of the southern, western, and northern fronts are magnificent porticoes. The west front has also the projecting pediments at the ends, corresponding with those on the east side, and each supported by square antse at the angles, with two columns between. The whole building is of the Grecian or Ionic order, and is surmounted by a massive balustrade. The new structure is of the best and most beautiful granite in the world, brought from Dix Island, on the coast of Maine. The antse and columns are monoliths. The large, solid antse weigh nearly 100,000 pounds, and the columns some 75,000. The facility with which the immense masses are hewn out of the quarries, swung on board vessels, brought to the capital, and raised to the positions which the architect in his studio designed them to occupy, conveys a high idea of American art and enterprise. The Treasury Building, as ex- tended, is 465 feet long, exclusive of the porticoes, by 266 feet wide.’’ The courts are ornamented with handsome fountains. A very beau- tiful one adorns the space, in front of the western portico, at the en- 548 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. trance to the President’s Park, and another is now being constructed before the north front. Tlie entrances are through massive gateways. The yard on the north and west sides is lower than the street, and broad flights of steps lead to it. A handsome granite balustrade ex- tends along the north wall. The interior arrangements are unusually fine. The architecture ranks next to that of the Capitol in its mag- nificence, and is peculiarly American in its details. Unlike most of the public buildings, the offices are large, airy, and handsome, pre- senting the appearance of splendid saloons, and affording a greater degree of comfort to the occupants than the narrow, cell-like apart- ments of the old Treasury. The Depdvtiii&Kit of State will soon be located in the Treasury Ex- tension, where elegant and convenient apartments are being prepared for it. The Patent Office, or, as it is sometimes called, the Department of the Interior, is used by the Secretary of the Interior and his clerks, but was designed originally for the use of the Bureau of Patents. This bureau is entrusted with the duty of granting letters patent securing a profitable reward to any person inventing articles beneficial to civilization. The building, known as the Patent Office, occupies two whole squares, and fronts south on F street, north on G street, east on 7th street west, and west on 9th street west. The length of the building, from 7th to 9th streets, is 410 feet, and the width, from F to G streets, is 275 feet. It is built up along die four sides, with a large interior quadrangle about 265 by 135 feet in size. It is constructed in the plainest Doric style, of massive crystallized marble, and though devoid of exterior ornament, is one of the most magnifi- cent buildings in the city. It is grand in its simplicity, and its archi- tectural details are pure and tasteful. It is ornamented with massive porticoes, one on each front, which add much to its appearance. The eastern portico is much admired. That on the south front is an exact copy of the portico of the Pantheon of Rome. The interior is divided into three stories. The ground and second floors are arranged in offices for the accommodation of the business of the Interior Department, but the third floor is occupied by an immense saloon extending entirely around the quadrangle. This is used as the Model Room, but partakes, as far as the south hall is concerned, of the character of a museum.^ The models and other articles are arranged in glass cases on each side of the room, ample space being left in the centre for promenading. There are two rows of cases, one above the other — the upper row be- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 549 UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE. ing placed in a handsome light gallery of iron, reached by tasteful iron stairways, and extending entirely around the east, north, and west halls. The halls themselves are paved with handsome tiles. The ceiling is supported by a double row of imposing pillars, which also act as supports to the galleries, and both the walls and ceilings are finished in marble panels and frescoes. A more beautiful saloon is not to be found in America. Connected with the Patent Office is a valu^le library, and the most interesting museum of American antiquities, etc., in the country. The General Post Office is used by the Postmaster-General of the United States, and his assistants. It covers an entire block, almost directly opposite the Patent Office, and is bounded by E and F streets north, and 7th and 8th streets west. It is 300 feet long, from north to south, and 204 feet wide, from east to west. It is built of white marble, in the Corinthian style of architecture, and is the best repre- sentation of the Italian palatial ever erected upon this continent. It is rectangular in form, with a spacious interior court-yard, 95 by 194 feet in size. On the 7th street side there is a vestibule, which consti- 550 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tutes the grand entrance into the bnilding. The ceiling is composed of exquisitely ornamented marble panels, supported by four marble columns ; and the walls, niches, and floor, are of marble, the floor beino- richly tesselated. On 8th street there is an entrance for mad wagons, handsomely ornamented. The City post-office is in t e street side of the building, and is tastefully arranged. The War Department is situated on Pennsylvania avenue, west of tlie President’s House. It is a plain, old-fiishioned edifice of brick, painted in lead color. It contains the offices of the Secretary of War and his assistants. , . i i* it. The Navy Department is situated immediately in the rear ot the War Department, and fronts on 17th street west. It is a plain bui - incr of brick, and contains the offices of the Secretary of the Jsay and his clerks. It is proposed to erect new and handsome edifices for the AVar and Navy departments. _ c i. a '(-l. The Bureau of Agriculture stands upon a portion of the Smith- sonian Reservation. The grounds about it comprise about 20 acres, and have been laid out with much taste. The building is of pressed brick, four stories high, and is surmounted with a French roof.^ It contains the offices of the Commissioner of Agriculture and his assistants, whose business it is to overlook and promote the agricultural interests of the country, and to receive and publish statistics conceriiiiig them. This is one of the most interesting departments of the The Nam Yard, situated on the Eastern Branch, at the foot of 8th street east, covers an area of 20 acres, enclosed by a high brick wall. It is one of the principal establishments of the Government and con- tains several ship houses, and machine shops for the manufacture of everything needed for the building, equipping, and fitting-out of ships The Arsenal stands at the extreme southern end of the city, on Greenleaf’s Point, at the mouth of the Eastern Branch of the Potomac. It is quite an extensive establishment, and is one of the principal Arsenals of Construction in the country. It is interesting as having been the scene of the trial and execution of the persons concerned in the assassination of President Lincoln. The National Observatory is situated upon an elevated site, south- west of the President’s mansion, near the Georgetown line, and com- mauds a fine view of both cities and of the Potomac River as far down as Fort Washington and Mount Vernon. It is under the control M he Navy Department, and is in charge of a corps of naval officers selected DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 551 for their scle'^tific abilities. It ranks high amongst the Observatories of the world, that of Russia only being superior to it. It is in charge of all the nautical books, maps, charts, and instruments belonging to the Navy. The Smithsonian Institution stands on a part of the portion of the public grounds extending westward from the Capitol to the Potomac River, and called ^‘The 3IalV’ The grounds extend from 7th street west to 12th street west, and from the Canal (which forms the north- ern boundary) to B street south. They are very extensive, com- prising an area of 52 acres, and were laid out by the distinguished horticulturist and landscape gardener, Andrew Jackson Downing, who died while engaged in this work. A handsome monument to his memory stands in the grounds. It consists of a massive vase resting on a pedestal, the whole being executed of the finest Italian marble. The building stands near the centre of the park. The site is about 20 feet above the average level of Pennsylvania avenue, and the centre of the building is exactly opposite 10th street west. The structure is in the style of architecture belonging to the last half of the twelfth century, the latest variety of rounded style, as it is found immediately anterior to its merging into the early Gothic, and is known as the Norman, the Lombard, or Romanesque. The semi- circular arch, stilted, is employed throughout — in doors, windows, and other openings. The main building is 205 feet long by 57 feet wide, and, to the top of the corbel course, 58 feet high. The east wing is 82 by 52 feet, and, to the top of its battlement, 42J feet high. The west wing, including its projecting apsis, is 84 by 40 feet, and 38 feet high. Each of the wings is connected with the main building by a range, which, including its cloisters, is 60 feet long by 49 feet wide. This makes the length of the entire building, from east to west, 447 feet. Its greatest breadth is 160 feet. The north front of the main building is ornamented with two central towers, the loftiest of which is 150 feet high. It has also a handsome covered carriage-way, upon which opens the main entrance to the building. The south central tower is 37 feet square, 91 feet high, and massively constructed. A double campanile tower, 17 feet square, and 117 feet high, rises from the northeast corner of the main building; and the southwest corner has a lofty octagonal tower, in which is a spiral stairway, leading to the summit. There are four other smaller towers of lesser heights, making nine in all, the effect of which is very beautiful, and which once caused a wit to remark that it seemed to him as if a collection 552 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of church steeples had gotten lost, and were consulting together as to the best means of getting home to their respective churches.’’ The entire edifice is constructed of a fine quality of lilac-gray freestone, found in the new red-sandstone formation, where it crosses the Poto- mac near the mouth of Seneca Creek. The Institution was founded by James Smithson, an eminent Englishman. He died in 1828, and left the sum of $515,169 to the United States for the purpose of founding the Institution which bears his name. The object of Smith- son in founding this institution was, in his own words, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an estab- lishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The National Washington Monument stands immediately on the shore of the Potomac, directly west of the Capitol, and south of the White House. It is unfinished. Its total height is to be 600 feet, of which 184 feet have been completed. No work has been done on it for several years. It is to be finished by the voluntary contributions of the citizens of the Republic. It is. to be built of white marble. The City Hall is the property of the City of Washington. It is a common place structure of white marble. Besides the public build- ings, there are a number of fine edifices used for business purposes and for residences. The city is improving rapidly in this respect. The trade of Washington is almost entirely local. The City is con- nected with all parts of the country by railways, and the Potomac is navigable for steamers. Its manufacturing interests are in their infancy. The principal amount of the work done is on Government account. The principal points of the city are connected by street railways. Pure water is brought into the city from the Potomac above George- town. The Aqueduct is one of the finest works in the world. It was constructed by the U. S. Engineer Corps. The city is lighted with gas. It contains about 60 churches, some of which are very handsome. The Markets are bountifully supplied. The Hotels are numerous, but do not compare favorably with those of the other large cities of the country. The Public Schools are, as yet, in their infancy. There are five large public schools,” as they are called, which cor- respond to the high schools” of most other cities, and a number of primary schools. The system is still incomplete, and capable of great expansion and reform. Of late years it has received more attention from the city authorities and the people, and there is now a fair pros- pect that the system will soon be placed upon a basis which will enable it to meet the wants of all classes of the community. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 653 There are many private schools, some of which are excellent, and the city also contains several male and female boarding schools. Columbia Gonzaga (a Roman Catholic Institution) and the National Medical Colleges are located here. The government of the city is merged with that of the District of Columbia. In 1870 the population was 109,204. The early history of Washington has been given in connection with the District of Columbia. In 1800, the period of the removal of the Government from Philadelphia, the population was 3210. By 1810 it had increased to 8208. In 1814 the city was captured by a British army under Lord Ross. Upon their withclrav/al from the city, they .set fire to the Capitol, the President’s Plouse, and the other public buildings, which were either wholly destroyed or greatly injured. In 1864, the city was attacked by a Confederate army under General Early, who failed to capture it, and was forced to retreat. The city has been the scene of some of the most interesting events of the late history of the Republic. GEORUETOWN Is situated in the District of Columbia, on the left bank of the Potomac River, at the head of tide water. It is separated from Washington City by Rock Creek. It is built along a range of hills, the highest of which are called the Heights.” These are occupied by numerous villas and tasteful residence.s, and command extensive vieAvs of Wash- ington and the surrounding country. The city is regularly laid off and is well built, though somewhat old timey ” in appearance. It was once a place of considerable trade, and possessed a large foreign commerce fifty years ago. At present the tonnage owned in the port does not exceed 3000 tons. It is still one of the most important fish markets in the country. Vast quantities of shad and herring are caught in the Potomac and are brought to Georgetown to be packed in barrels. The city is interested in manufactures to a considerable extent, and is improving rapidly in this re.spect. There are nearly 50 flour mills in the city. The Che.sapeake and Ohio Canal really terminates here, although there is a prolongation extending across the Potomac to Alexandria, in Virginia. The canal is carried over the Potomac in an aqueduct, a tremendous structure, 1446 feet in length, and 36 feet above the ordinary level of the river. The cost of this structure was $2,000,000. 554 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Georgetown is said to be a more agreeable place of residence than Washington. It is noted for its cultivated society, and the hospitality of its people. It is the seat of the Georgetown College, a Roman Catholic institution of high rank. The city has its public schools, and a number of private schools. A United States hospital for soldiers is located here. Georgetown is connected with Washington by a street railway. It is supplied with water from the Potomac, is lighted with gas, and contains 10 churches. The government of the city is merged in that of the District. In 1870 the population was 11,384. Georgetown is a much older place than Washington. It was laid out by act of the Colonial Government of Maryland in 1751, and was incorporated as a city in 1789. VIRGINIA. Area, 38,352 Square Miles. Population in I860,* 1,596,318 Population in 1870, 1,225,163 The State of Virginia, the oldest of the original members of the Union, is situated between 36° 30' and about 39° 20' N. latitude, and between 75° 10' and 83° 30' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Maryland, West Virginia, and Kentucky, on the east by Maryland and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by North Carolina and Tennessee, and on the west by Kentucky and’ West Virginia. TOPOGRAPHY. The following description of the natural features of this State is taken from a pamphlet recerftly issued by General John D. Imboden, the Domestic State Agent of Immigration for Virginia." No State in the Union presents a greater variety of surface and climate than Virginia — from the mountains of the interior and the rugged hills east and west of them, to the rich alluvions of the rivers, and the sandy flats on the sea-coast. The greatest extent of moun- tains, and the greatest variety of timbers are found in this State. White Top Mountain, in Grayson county, attains an elevation of six thousand feet. ^^The State is by nature divided into five districts or regions, viz. : the Lower or Tide- water, the Piedmont, the Valley, the Alleghanies, and the Trans-Alleghanies. We will glance at them in their natural order. * Since the census of 1860, the western counties of the old State have been erected into the new State of West Virginia. 555 556 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Lower or Tide- water District. — Thirty-seven counties, mostly bordering on the Atlantic Ocean and Chesapeake Bay, compose this district. It is generally level, not more than 60 feet above tide, even in the highest places. Great navigable streams traverse it in a southeastern direction, such as the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, with a multitude of smaller streams. The great slope which forms this district is ^divided by natural boundaries into no less than twelve principal peninsulas,’ says General Wise, of Virginia, in a recent address, replete with valuable information, ^ the eastern shore of the Chesapeake, that between the Potomac and Rappahannock ; between the Rappahannock and Piankatank ; between the Piankatank and York; the York and James; the Mattapony and Pamunkey; the Chickahominy and the James; the ISTansemond and Dismal Swamp and the Ocean ; the Nansemond and James and the Black- water ; the Blackwater and the Nottoway ; the Nottoway and Me- herrin ; the Meherrin and the Roanoke.’ This favored region contains every variety of soil. The delta of these rivers ^ in the borders of Virginia is richer and rarer in every production than the garden of the Nile.’ There is nowhere near it any ^ arida nutrix leonum’ says General Wise, ^and its only quags of swamp, even in the Big Dragon of the Piankatank, and on the Chickahominy, and around the fire-fly camp of Drummond Lake, are capable of being converted into a New Holland, by dyke and ditch of easy spit and drain, or horticulture of every fruit and vegetable, where drought cannot parch, and of a temperature milder than that much farther south. Vegetation is confined to no one class of plants and trees, and flower^ and fruit, and cereal, and staple crops of every variety flourish with a beauty and a fullness and a flavor to cheer industry and art with luscious plenty at home and a paying profit at the markets of every Eastern city. There is a navigable stream at almost every door. There are eligible sites on every creek and river in this region, not only for all the more common fruits, such as apples, peaches, pears, cherries, berries, plums, and melons, but for the rarer and more delicate fruits — such as grapes, figs, pomegranates, apricots, nectarines, Persian cantelopes, strawberries, and cranberries. Accord- ing to Prince, there are no sites on the continent so Italy-like for fruits, as some of these peninsulas of lowland Virginia. The crops of grain and vegetables are still more various, and the lands the easiest tilled in the world, with mines of marl and shell, and fossils and muck for manure in every part. It is a great mistake VIRGINIA. 557 to suppose that this section is not equally good for stock-raising of its kind, and for clothing as well as for food. It has the finest ranges in its savannas and salt marshes, for small cattle of the Devon breed, and the best for hogs and sheep — and the hardiest blooded horses. The pony of the Chincoteague Island will sell for a higher price than any horse in America proportioned to his girth ; and the best racers of the two last centuries were foaled from the blood the south side of the James. Flax and hemp may be grown to any extent, and cotton has been grown profitably. Its forests furnish the choicest ship-timber from its salt sea atmosphere in thirty miles of the coast. Its Hampton Roads is the largest harbor of the continent, to which the eastern rivers converge from every point of the compass for commerce. And, everywhere, on land and water, nature has provided a meat-house of fisheries and game, venison, wild turkeys, quails and woodcock, rabbits, squirrels, robins, sora, reed-birds, shell-fish, scale-fish, terrapins, turtles, swans, wild geese, brant, wild ducks, and plover innumerable, and indestructible. The salubrity ^ of its climate,’ says General Wise, ^ will compare with that of any region since drainage and liming of the lands began to remove the causes of malarial fevers chiefly at the point where the tides of salt water meet the currents of the fresh water at the rivers.’ The entire region is favorable to the growth of the finer kinds of tobacco, offering great inducements for the settlement of growers from the various portions of European tobacco regions. There is no reason why the finest Cuban tobaccoes should not grow here, and with the now spreading cultivation of the Latakia tobacco plant, brought by Bayard Taylor from Palestine, and successfully introduced already by him in Pennsylvania, a great future is open for this staple in Virginia. Mr. Taylor thinks this variety incomparably better than the finest Yara or Cuba ever grown, and states that it does not deteriorate by being transplanted, but retains perfectly all its delicious characteristics. Market gardeners near Norfolk cultivate early vegetables for the markets of Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York, having their produce ripening from three to four weeks earlier than in those more northern latitudes. They have been known, on from five to ten acres . in cultivation, to make per annum from $2500 to $5000 clear profit. By the Anamessic line of railroad, which now in thirteen hours’ travel connects the city of Norfolk with the metropolis of New York, market gardeners and farmers on the lower Chesapeake Bay, especially those who live in Accomac and Northampton counties, may directly, and 558 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. those of Princess Anne, Norfolk, York, Gloucester, Mathews, Mid- dlesex, Lancaster, and Northumberland may, by means of their own little schooners, in one night’s travel across the bay, offer their produce for sale within twenty -four hours, in the best market on the American continent. The fisheries on these coasts are world-renowned. On the whole line of the counties above mentioned, fish manure can be abundantly obtained for the labor of carrying it away. Wheat and other cereals flourish. During the war in this section, the inhabitants felt no apprehension on the score of living; they could find fish and oysters, and wild ducks, everywhere, and in plenty. In Nansemond county, in the celebrated Dismal Swamp, peat has been discovered. It is now being cut, moulded and shipped to the northern cities, and found to be extremely profitable. By allowing 100 inhabitants to the square mile, and giving 60 acres as a homestead to each family, the lowlands of Virginia can maintain a population of 1,600,000 souls. Piedmont Disteict.— At the foot of the mountains, stretching away to where the navigation of the rivers which traverse the lowlands ceases, a region embracing 32 counties, lies, more diversified in surface than the lowlands— and, of course, more elevated, with a genial, healthful climate. Here are found the greatest inducements for the erection of manufacturing establishments, natural water- power being everywhere abundantly at command. This land is the Piedmont of Virginia— like the vinous land of Italy, though not so naked. As General Wise says : ‘For hill and dale, and grove and meadow, for lawns and orchards, and mountain spires and undulating surface of waving wheat-fields and green swards, and buoyant springs and sparkling fountains, and bracing air— it surpasses all classic lands of Arcadia.’ It is divided by the James into North and South Pied- mont, from the Point of Rocks to Lynchburg, and from Lynchburg to the North Carolina line. The difference in these two divisions of the Piedmont is attributable more to the difference in the past habits of cultivating the two than to any great variation of soil or climate. Though one is farther north, yet the climate of each is much the . same as that of the other, both being affected by a mountain atmos- phere. The northern has the stiffest clay, and cultivates wheat and corn and artificial grasses, and raises live stock ; the southern culti- vates mostly tobacco and corn, though wheat also largely, and grazes but little. Both are beautiful and fertile and fit for farming— capable of the highest culture; are cool and bracing in temperature and blessed with health. VIRGINIA. 559 This district has an area of 10,000 square miles, and is capable of maintaining a population of 1,000,000 souls. It is not generally a lime land, but portions of it are very rich, viz. : Loudoun, Fauquier, Albemarle, and Bedford counties. The tobacco which is raised in the southern section of Piedmont, south of 38°, is known as shipping tobacco. The fine tobacco counties in this section are Albemarle, Henry, Pittsylvania, Halifax, Campbell, etc. Before we reach the third principal region of Virginia we must cross the Blue Ridge, where we find still some of the most beautiful forests of America, and an atmosphere of surpassing salubrity. The productions of this magnificent mountain-belt are similar to those regions on its sides. Waving wheat-fields and pastures and charming valleys, with grazing cattle and hardy husbandry, may everywhere be met. Vineyards are everywhere springing up, and its honey finds now, and its wines will soon find, a market in the world. To the sturdy emigrant this ridge offers still thousands of acres of virgin lands, and nowhere in America will he have nature’s assur- ance of a long life so plainly indicated as here. This ridge alone con- tains at least 2000 square miles, or 1,280,000 acres — enough to divide into 6400 farms of 200 acres each, and to support a population of 50,000 more than it has now. '‘Valley Disteict.— Crossing the Blue Ridge Mountains we come to the celebrated valley of Virginia (Shenandoah and South Branch), not only renowned for the fertility of its soil — 8000 square miles in area, and capable of supporting 800,000 people — but for the splendid characteristics of its inhabitants — originally English, German, Scotch and Irish, now intermixed in one brave race. A continuation of the fruitful Cumberland Valley of Pennsylvania, it stretches between the Blue Ridge and Alleghany Mountains the entire length of Virginia, obliquely from northeast to southwest, nearly 300 miles, and is from 25 to 30 miles wide. Possessing the finest grazing country in the world, and having throughout a limestone foundation, its lands yield from 20 to 40 bushels of wheat, and from 40 to 50 bushels of Indian corn is by no means an extraordinary crop. " To show the remarkable permanancy of its fertility, we cite the following from a traveller in the last century. Burnaby, in his trav<4s, describes the condition of the Germans on the Shenandoah as follows: 'I could not but reflect with pleasure on the situation of these people, and think if there is such a thing as happiness in this life they enjoy it. Far from the bustle of the world, they live in the 660 THE GHEAT REPUBLIC. most delightful climate and richest soil imaginable; they are every- where surrounded with beautiful prospects and sylvan scenes, lofty mountains, transparent streams, falls of water, rich valleys, and majestic woods; the whole interspersed with an infinite variety of flowering shrubs, constitute the landscape surrounding them; they are subject to few diseases ; are generally robust and live in perfect liberty ; they are ignorant of want and acquainted with but few vices ; their inexperience of the elegancies of life precludes any regret that they possess not the means of enjoying them ; but they possess what many princes would give their dominions for — health, content, and tranquillity of mind/ Seventy years later, Bernhard, Duke of Saxe- Weimer, says of this valley : ^ The country was pretty well cultivated, and by the exterior of many country houses, we were induced to be- lieve their inhabitants enjoyed plenty/ Daniel Webster, twenty years after this, in a public oration in the Shenandoah A^alley, said . he had seen no finer farming land in his European travels than in that valley/ Still twenty years later, and the Northern troops when they entered it victoriously, after its great defender, Stonewall Jackson, had fallen, exclaimed : ^ Here is a second Canaan, let us rest here and pitch our tents/ What gives particular interest to this valley and to the Blue Ridge to the European and Northern emigrant is the fact that there have never been many negroes within them at this day the land is cultivated almost entirely by white laborers. ^^The Alleghanies. — Beyond this valley westward rise the Alleghanies. Their range runs northeast and southwest 250 miles, by ^0 miles of average width — making of mountains, valleys, and dales, 12,500 square miles. Besides their aspect of rocks, ridges, caves, valleys, slopes, healing springs, streams, and fountains, they present to the eye a most luxuriant indigenous verdure of blue-grass spread over forests and fields, which offer grazing to live stock on nature’s pastures without cost of clearing or- cultivation. North of the High Knob and Haystack there are no negroes. The whole region of these mountains abounds in minerals of every description, which wait for capital to develop them. Wheat, rye, oats, and other grains, and the fruits of northern latitudes grow luxuriantly every- where in the valleys, dales, plateaus, and on the slopes of these rugged mountains, and offer a most inviting home to a Swiss, a Scot, a Swede, a Norwegian, etc. There is room enough in these mountains for 1,200,000 immigrants of every kind of occupation/’ ' The lower part of the State is divided by the Chesapeake Bay, two VIRGINIA 661 NATURAL BRIDGE. counties lying between the Bay and tiie Ocean. They are known as the Eastern Shore of Virginia. Below the mouth of the Potomac River, the Chesapeake lies wholly in the State, and receives the waters of the Rappahannock, Piankatank, York, and James rivers. The famous oyster fishing grounds of the Chesapeake are within this part of the State, and from them millions of bushels of oysters are gathered every year, and shipped to Baltimore and the northern cities. The Potomae River washes the entire northeast border of the State. It rises in two branches, in the eastern part of West Virginia. These branches unite in Hampshire county, West Va., from which point the main river pursues a generally southeast course to its mouth. It is 350 miles long, exclusive of its branches. It flows into the Chesa- peake Bay through a broad estuary, 50 miles long, and from 6 to 10 miles wide. It is navigable to Washington for first-class vessels. 36 662 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. At Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, it is broken by a magni- ficent fivll, over 50 feet high. The country along its upper waters is beautiful and grand beyond description. At Harper’s Ferry, the river first touches the soil of Old Virginia. Here it breaks through the Blue Ridge, a mountain-pass of the greatest magnificence. It forms the boundary between Maryland and West Virginia and Vir- ginia. Leesburg and Alexandria are the principal towns of Virginia oil the river. George Washington was born on the shores of the lower Potomac. The Rappahannock River is formed by the junction of the North and Rapidan rivers in the eastern part of Culpeper county. Flowing southeast, it empties into the Chesapeake Bay, about twenty-five or thirty miles, below the mouth of the Potomac. It meets the tide at Fredericksburg, its principal town. Above this place it possesses almost unlimited water-power of the best descrip- tion. It is 125 miles long, and flows through a beautiful and fertile country. Together with the Rapidan, it has been rendered famous by the events which occurred on its shores during the late civil war The York River is formed by the junction of the Mattapony and Pamiinkey rivers, at the southeast end of King William county. It is about 40 miles long, with an average width of 3 miles, and flows southeasterly into Chesapeake Bay, directly opposite Cape Charles. West Point, at its head, now a mere hamlet, was once the most im- portant place in the colony of Virginia. Yorktown, so famous in the Revolution and the Rebellion, is situated on the right bank of the river, a mile or two from its mouth. The James River, the principa stream in the State, is formed by the confluence of the Jackson and Cowpasture rivers, on the borders of Alleghany and Bottetourt coun- ties. It flows southeast to the Blue Ridge Mountains, through which it forces its way, forming one of the grandest river passes in America. From this point its general course is northeast to the southern border of Albemarle county, after which it flows east-southeast to the bay , emptying into that body of water between Capes Charles and Henry. It is broken in several places by falls, and at Richmond flows over a succession of rapids six miles long. It is about 450 miles long, exdu- slve of its branches. It is navigable for ships and steamers to Rich- mond, 150 miles from the sea, at the head of tide water. _ The James River and Kanawha Canal furnish uninterrupted navigation from Richmond to beyond the Blue Ridge. The James flows through a beautiful and fertile country along its whole length. Above Rich- mond its water-power is magnificent. The lower part of the river is YIRGINIA. 563 known as Hampton Roads, and is defended by the powerful works of Fortress Monroe and Fort Wool. Lynchburg and Richmond are the principal towns on the river. Norfolk is situated on the Eliza- beth River, 14 miles from its entrance into the James, opposite Fort- ress Monroe. The Roanoke River of North Carolina, and the Hol- ston of Tennessee, rise in the southeast part of Virginia. ' The State is crossed by the Alleghany and Blue Ridge ranges, the former separating it from West Virginia. The Cumberland Mountains form the southwestern boundary, and separate Virginia from Kentucky. The region immediately south of Norfolk is occupied by an immense marsh known as the Dismal Swamp, through which a canal has been cut from Norfolk to Elizabeth City, North Carolina, connecting the waters of the Chesapeake with those of Albemarle Sound. “The celebrated swamp called the ^ Dismal, Wies partly in Vir- ginia and partly in North Carolina ; it extends from north to south nearly 30 miles, and averages, from east to west, about 10 miles. Five navigable rivers and some creeks rise in it. The sources of all these streams are hidden in the swamp, and no traces of them appear above ground. From this it appears that there must be plentiful subterraneous fountains to supply these streams, or the soil must be filled perpetually with the water drained from the higher lands which surround it. The latter hypothesis is most probable, because the soil of the swamp is a complete quagmire, trembling under the feet, and filling immediately the impression of every step with water. It may be penetrated to a great distance by thrusting down a stick, and when- ever a fire is kindled upon it, after the layer of leaves and rubbish is burned through, the coals sink down, and are extinguished. The eastern skirts* of the Dismal Swamp are overgrown with reeds, ten or twelve feet high, interlaced everywhere with thorny bamboo briers, which render it almost impossible to pass. Among these are found, here and there, a cypress, and white cedar, which last is commonly mis- taken for the juniper. Towards the south there is a very large tract covered with reeds, without any trees, which being constantly green, and waving in the wind, is called the green sea. An evergreen shrub, called the gall-bush, grows plentifully throughout, but especially on the borders ; it bears a berry which dyes a black color, like the gall of an oak, and hence its natne. Near the middle of the swamp, the trees grow much closer, both the cypress and cedar ; and being always green, and loaded with large tops, are much exposed to the wind, and 564 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. easily blown down in this boggy place, where the soil is too soft to afibrd sufficient hold to the roots. From these causes the passage is nearly always obstructed by trees, which lie piled in heaps, and riding upon each other; and the snags left in them pointing in every direc- tion, render it very difficult to clamber over them. On the western border of the Dismal Swamp is a pine swamp, above a mile in breadth, the greater part of which is covered to the depth of the knee with water: the bottom, however, is firm, and though the pines grow- ing upon it are very large and tall, yet they are not easily blown down by the wind; so that this swamp may be passed without any hinderance, save that occasioned by the depth of the water. With all these disadvantages, the Dismal Swamp, though disagreeable to the other senses, is in many places pleasant to the eye, on account of the perpetual verdure, which makes every season like the spring, and every month like May. Immense quantities of shingles and other juniper lumber are obtained from the swamp, and furnish employ- ment for many negroes, who reside in little huts in its recesses. Much of the Imnber is brought out of the swamp, either through ditches cut for the purpose, in long narrow lighters, or are carted out by mules, on roads made of poles laid across the road so as to touch each other, forming a bridge or causeway. There are very many miles of such road. The laborers carry the shingles, etc., to these roads from the trees, on their heads and shoulders. The Dismal Swamp Canal runs through it from north to south, and the Portsmouth and Roanoke Railroad passes for five miles across its northern part. It looks like a grand avenue, surrounded on either hand by magnificent forests. The trees here, the cypress, juniper, oak, pine, etc., are of enormous size, and richest foliage ; and below is a thick entangled undergrowth of reeds, woodbine, grape-vines, mosses, and creepers, shooting and twisting spirally around, interlaced and complicated, so as almost to shut out the sun. The engineer who had constructed the road through this extraordinary swamp, found it so formidable a labor as almost to despair of success. In running the line, his feet were pierced by the sharp stumps of cut r^.eds; he was continually liable to sink ankle or knee deep into a soft muddy ooze; the yellow flies and mosquitoes swarmed in myriads ; and the swamp was inhabited by venomous serpents and beasts of prey. The Dismal Swamp was once a favorite hunting-ground of the Indians^ arrow-heads, some knives and hatchets are yet found there; and it still abounds in deer, bears, wild turkeys, wild-cats, etc. The water of this swamp is gene- VIRGINIA. 565 LITTLE STONY FALLS. rally impregnated with juniper, and is considered medicinal by the people of the surrounding country, who convey it some distance in barrels. This swamp is much more elevated than the surrounding country, and by means of the Dismal Swamp Canal might be drained, and thus a vast body of most fertile soil reclaimed; and the canal might be transformed into a railroad; and the juniper soil, which is vegetable, might, perhaps, be used as peat.” MINERALS. The State of Virginia is especially rich in mineral resources, which are still comparatively undeveloped. Gold is found in Fluvanna, Orange, Spottsylvania, Goochland, and Buckingham counties, and the 566 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. mines in these regions can be made to yield a profitable return. The copper ore found in Fauquier county is said to yield 75 per cent, of pure copper. Coal and iron exist in great quantities. Immense beds of bituminous coal lie in the neighborhood of Richmond and in the mountain regions, while anthracite is found in quantities in and beyond the Valley. Numerous salt springs exist in the southwestern counties of the State, from which large quantities of salt were annually produced before the late war. The salt works were either destroyed or greatly damaged during the war, so that this branch of the industry of the State has not fully recovered its importance. The other minerals are lead, plumbago, gypsum, porcelain-clay, fine granite, marble, slate, soapstone, lime, water-lime, and fire-clay. The State also abounds in mineral springs of nearly every known variety. They are famous among the fashionable summer resorts of the Union, and are visited every year by persons from all parts of the country. PRODUCTIONS. The climate, soil, and products of the State having been already described in the quotation from General Imboden’s pamphlet, it is only necessary to offer here a statement of the principal agricultural products in 1866. The following table is taken from the report of the Department of Agriculture for that year : Bushels of Indian corn, “ wheat, “ rye, . . . oats, . . “ buckwheat, “ potatoes, . Pounds of tobacco, . Tons of hay, . . . r 24 , 369,908 4 , 331,364 698,453 10 , 245,156 162,686 1 , 592,166 114 , 480,516 203,698 COMMERCE. Previous to the war, Virginia was engaged in a large and lucrative trade with the States of the Union, and had a growing foreign com- merce. Her tobacco commanded a high price in the markets of Europe, and her export of flour to South America and the West Indies Liounted to near 200,000 barrels annually. Her oyster trade was extremely valuable. Her trade with Europe, however, was car- ried on mainly through the ports north of her. The statistics for 1860, the year before the war, include the present State of West Vir- ginia', but we give them, as there have been no accurate returns since VIRGINIA. 56t the close of the struggle. In 1861, the total exports of the State amounted to $5,858,024, and the imports to $1,326,249. MANUFACTURES. The figures given below represent the condition of Virginia in 1860, and, of course, include the present State of West Virginia. In that year there were 4890 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed 36,590 hands and a capital of $26,640,000, consumed raw material worth $30,880,000, and returned an annual product of $51,300,000. The value of the principal products was as follows : Cotton goods, . . . $1,063,611 Woollen goods, 809,760 Leather, 1,218,700 Pig-iron, 251,173 Rolled iron, 1,147,425 Steam engines and machinery, 1,478,036 Agricultural implements, 339,959 Sawed and planed lumber, 2,540,000 Flour, 15,210,000 Salt, 479,000 Manufactured tobacco, 12,236,683 The manufacturing interests of Virginia were almost fatally injured by the war, and are but slowly recovering from their reverses. The State possesses the most abundant water-power in the world, and is destined to become one day one of the principal seats of American manufactures. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The great rivers of the State are navigable for a large part of their course, and a fine canal, extending from Richmond to Buchanan, in Bottetourt county, beyond the Blue Ridge, connects the mountains with the sea. Railroads extend through the State in various direc- tions, connecting its various cities and towns with the capital, and with all parts of the Union. Five lines centre in Richmond, four in Petersburg, two in Norfolk, three in Lynchburg, and three in Alex- andria. In 1868, the State contained 1416 miles of completed rail- road, constructed at a cost of $49,975,000. The canals of the State have an aggregate length of about 175 miles. 568 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. EDUCATION. There is no free school system in Virginia, though a complete system, including colored schools, will probably be established during the present year (1871). In 1860, there were 23 colleges in the State, some of which are now in West Virginia. Others were burned. The University of Virginia^ at Charlottesville, is the principal school in the State. It was attended by 600 students in 1860. Since the close of the war, it has been reopened, and has regained a large share of its former prosperity. At present the number of stu- dents is about 500. A student is admitted from each Senatorial dis- trict of the State, without charge for matriculation, tuition, or room rent, these expenses being borne by the State. In return for these advantages, the student enjoying them is required to teach in some school in the State for a period of two years after his graduation. William and Mary College^ jdX Williamsburg, was established in 1693, and liberally endowed by William and Mary of England. It was in successful operation until 1860, and was regarded, next to the University, as the best school in the State. During the war, the buildings and other college property were destroyed by fire. Efforts are now being made to restore the institution to its former condition. The Washington- Lee ZJnivefi'sity, at Lexington, was established as an academy before the Revolution. In 1798, it was endowed by Washington, and reorganized as a college. It resumed its operations after the close of the war under the Presidency of General R. E. Lee, assisted by an excellent faculty, and is one of the best and most pros- perous institutions in the State. It was formerly known as Washing- ton College. After the death of General Lee, in 1870, it was given its present name. Hampden- Sidney College, in Prince Edward county, Randolph- Macon College, in Hanover county, and Emory and Henry College, in Washington county, are the other collegiate institutions in the State. The Virginia Military Institute, at Lexington, is entirely a State institution. It was in a high state of prosperity in 1860, but was burned during the war. It was reorganized upon the return of peace, and is now in a flourishing condition again. It is an admirable school, and furnishes its pupils with a thoroughly practical, scientific, and military training. VIRGINIA. 569 PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State of Virginia possesses a Penitentiary , at Richmond, an Asylum for the Blind, an Asylum for the. Deaf and Dumb, and an Asylum for the Insane, at Staunton, and an Eastern Asylum for the Insane, at Williamsburg. No returns of these institutions are at hand. FINANCES. The finances of the State are not in a prosperous condition. The State debt is large and increasing, and the interest thereon has not been paid as it accrued. This is attributed to the increased expenses incident to the peculiar condition of affairs in the State, the adminis- tration of the Government by the military authorities, and the partial failure to collect the revenue. On the 1st of January, 1871, the amount of principal and interest due by the State was $47,390,840. The State holds about $10,048,267 of valuable assets, which, in a few years, will be available for the reduction of the public debt, and it is believed that the ad valorem system of taxation prescribed by the Constitution will produce an annual revenue more than sufficient to meet the annual expenses ; and now that the control of the State is once more in the hands of its own citizens, it is very certain that its obligations will be faithfully met, and that its time-honored reputation for integrity will suffer no stain. GOVERNMENT. After the close of the civil war, Virginia was kept under military rule until the early part of 1870. In the slimmer of 1869, the people of the State, in accordance with the provisions of the Reconstruction Act, elected a State Government, and the Legislature thus chosen, acting provisionally, met at Richmond in October of the same year. Upon the reassembling of Congress, after the Christmas holidays, in 1869, measures were taken for the readmission of the State into the Union. On the 25th of January, 1870, a bill, which had passed both Houses of Congress, received the Executive signature. This bill re- admitted the State under certain stringent conditions, one of the prin- cipal of which was a guarantee on the part of the State never to alter its Constitution so as to deprive negroes of the right of suffrage, nor to pass laws depriving negroes of the right to hold office, or of their school privileges. On the 27th of January, General Can by, the mill- ♦ 570 the great republic. tary commander of the department, transferred the government of the State to the civil authorities. The Legislature met, at the call of the Governor, on the 8th of February, 1870. By the terms of the new Constitution adopted in 1869, the right of suffrage is secured to every male citizen of the United States of the age of 21 years, who has been a resident of thre State for one year, and of the county, city, or town, three months next preceding the election at which he desires to cast his vote. The Government consists of a Governor, and Lieutenant-Governor (who is ex-officio the President of the Senate), elected by the people for four years, and a Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Second Auditor, and Register of the Land Office, elected by joint ballot of the two Houses of the Legislature. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 43 members, and a House of Delegates of 181 members. The two Houses are styled the General Assembly of .the Common- wealth of Virginia. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court of Appeals. It consists of five judges, chosen for a term of 12 years. There are 16 Circuit Courts, the judges of which hold office for 8 years. The State is divided into 82 districts, for each of which a county judge is elected. The courts of the cities have their separate judges. The term of office of the county and city judges is 3 years. All the judges of the State are chosen by a concurrent vote of the two Houses of the General As- sembly. Elections for township and city officers are held on the fourth Thursday in May, and elections for State officers and members of Congress on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The State makes a liberal provision for the cause of education, and measures are now in progress for the establishment of a free school system. ^ Richmond, in Henrico county, is the capital of the State. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 99 counties. HISTORY. Virginia was the first settled of the English colonies. On the 13th of May, 1607, a party of 105 settlers, sent out by the London Com- pany, to whom James I. had given a charter for South Virginia, settled on the north bank of the James River, and founded the town of Jamestown. This colony was composed of worthies^ adventurers, and came in search of gold, which, of course, was not found. It was YIRGINIA. 5U nominally under the control of Captain Newport, but its real leader was the celebrated Captain John Smith, one of the most remarkable men of that period. Nothing but his energy and firmness prevented the colony from becoming a disastrous failure. In 1609, the powers of the London Company were greatly enlarged, and the government of the colony placed in its hands. Additional emigrants were sent out to Virginia, to the number of about 500 persons, and Lord Dela- ware was appointed Governor. The settlers were greatly harassed by the savages, and suffered much from privation and famine, and in 1610 were reduced to only 60 souls, with scarcely food enough to last them ten days. They were reinforced at this juncture by the arrival of Newport, Gates, and Somers, with 150 men, who had been wrecked upon the Bermudas, on their passage from England. They expected to find the colony in a prosperous condition, and were so discouraged by the state of affairs at Jamestowm, that they took the remnant of the colonists on board, and started down the river, intending to sail for Newfoundland, w'here they hoped to be able to take passage to England in some of the fishing vessels. Upon reaching the mouth of the James, they were met by Lord Delaware, the Governor, who had arrived from England with three sliips, with supplies and addi- tional colonists ; and the whole party returned to Jamestown. Virginia now grew rapidly. The settlement at Jamestown was placed beyond all danger of failure ) the Indians were punished for their attacks on the early settlers; and additional villages were founded. In 1619, 1200 colonists were sent over, including 90 re- spectable young women, who were sold to the planters as wives, for 100 pounds of tobacco (worth $75), the price of their passage from England. One hundred felons were also sent over from the English prisons, by the express order of the king, and sold to the colonists as 1 slaves. In the same year, a Dutch trading ship anchored in the James, and sold a number of negro slaves to the planters, thus intro- ducing African slavery into the New World. The colony continued to thrive, and in 1649, contained 15,000 white inhabitants, and 300 negroes. About 30 ships came yearly to trade, and there were nearly 30,000 horses, cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and asses within its limits. During the great civil war in England, Virginia remained faithful to the king, and continued to maintain its loyalty, in spite of the efforts of the Parliament to win it over, until 1652, when it submitted to the Commissioners of the Commonwealth upon terms which were all that the colony could have desired. On the restoration of Charles 5t2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. II., Sir William Berkeley, tlie leader of the Stuart party in the pro- vince, returned to - Virginia, and was reelected Governor. Charles granted many unjust privileges to his favorites, who oppressed the people of Virginia so sorely, being assisted in their oppressions by the Governor, that a portion of the people of the colony took up arms to maintain their ancient rights. They were conquered by the Governor, who treated the vanquished party with such cruelty that he was severely rebuked by the king. This struggle is generally known as Bacon’s Rebellion,” from Nathaniel Bacon, the military leader of the so-called rebels. In 1698, the town of Williarasbbrg was built, and named in honor of William III. The country around Jamestown being marshy and sickly, the seat of government was removed to Williamsburg. The original settlement at once fell into decay, and at present only a ruined church tower marks the site. Virginia bore a prominent part in the wars with France. The war of 1754 originated in the efforts of the colony to break up the line of military posts which the French were establishing along the Ohio River. This struggle first brought into notice a young surveyor, George Washington, who acquired in it a reputation and experience, which made him the foremost soldier in the Province. In 1764 the General Assembly of Virginia made an energetic and spirited protest against the claim on the part of the English Crown to tax the colonies without their consent. The colony was not represented in the first Continental Congress which met in New York, in October, 1765, the Legislature having adjourned before the invita- tion of Massachusetts was received ; but the measures of that body were cordially endorsed at the next session of the Legislature, and throughout the whole struggle, Virginia and Massachusetts were the leading and most influential members of the colonial union. All the leading measures of resistance were originated by one or the other of these provinces. The Royal Governor, Lord Dunraore, endeavored to check the efforts of the people, and was driven out of the capital, and forced to seek refuge on board a British man-of-war. He suc- ceeded in capturing the town of Norfolk, but was finally driven out of it, after which he bombarded it from his ships. During the summer of 1776, he continued to ravage the coast, but was finally driven southward. In 1779, the British General Mathews captured and destroyed the town of Norfolk, took the villages of Portsmouth and Gosport, and destroyed several ships of war in course of construe- VIRGINIA. 5t3 tion there, and burned or captured 130 merchant vessels in the vicinity. In 1781, Benedict Arnold, the traitor, captured and burned the village of Richmond, but being hotly pressed by the American and French forces, retreated to the lower James, and reembarked for Newport, Rhode Island. A few months later, Cornwallis and Phillips entered eastern Virginia, and swept it with fire and sword, destroying and stealing ^10,000,000 worth of property. These out- rages were partially avenged by the capture of Cornwallis^ army at Yorktown, on the 19th of October, 1781. During the v^ar, Virginia furnished her full share of men and means to the cause, besides con- tributing to it many of its great leaders. She gave to it, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and many other good and great men. At the outbreak of the war, Virginia was the first to propose a Confederation of the States, and at its close, perceiving that the system of Government in force was not suited to the necessities of the country, was the first to propose a Convention for the purpose of remedying its defects. * This Convention met at Philadelphia, in 1787, and finally adopted the present Constitution of the United States, which was principally the production of James Madison, of Virginia. It was ratified by Virginia on the 25th of June, 1788, after encountering a strong opposition in the State Convention, led by Patrick Henry and George Mason. The State, in 1784, ceded to the United States its territory north- west of the Ohio river, which has since been organized into the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The present State of Kentucky also formed a part of the original State of Virginia, and was erected into a separate Territory, in 1789. During the war of 1812-15, the shores of the Chesapeake and its tributaries were ravaged by the British, and in 1814, the city of Alexandria was captured by them. During this struggle Virginia again gave a great soldier to the country, in the person of Winfield Scott, who, with Zachary Taylor, also led the American armies to victory in the war with Mexico. In 1831 a serious insurrection occurred, under the leadership of Nat Turner, among the negroes of Southampton county. It was suppressed and the leaders were executed, but not before a number of whites had been massacred. In 1859, the state was invaded at Harper’s Ferry by John Brown and his adherents, the details of which event have already been given in another chapter. 514 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Upon the secession of the Southern States, Virginia made great efforts to secure a peaceful solution of the troubles between the sections ; but failing to accomplish this, withdrew from the Union, and joined the seceded States. Richmond was made the capital of the new Con- federacy, and the Confederate forces were transferred to Virginia, which was thus made the theatre of war. The events of this unhappy struggle are too well known to need repetition here. It is sufficient to say that this State was the scene of some of the most important events of the war. Seven Federal armies were defeated, and over thirty pitched battles, besides numerous minor conflicts, were fought on its soil. Finally Richmond and Petersburg were captured by the Union army, and General Lee, the great military leader of the South, was made a prisoner with all his troops. Virginia seceded from the Union on the 17th of April, 1861, and on the 23d of May, the ordinance of secession was ratified by a popu- lar vote of 90,000. The people of the Western counties were opposed to this action, and being determined not to be forced out of the Union by the action of Eastern Virginia, summoned a convention, winch met at Wheeling in June, 1861, and formed the new State of West Vir- ginia, which now includes that portion of the old State lying between the Alleghany Mountains and the Ohio river.* After the close of the war, the State was subjected to the process of reconstruction, and until January 26th, 1870, was governed by a military commander. Virginia was greatly impoverished by the war. Her manufactures were almost totally destroyed, and her agriculture crippled to a very great degree. The State is now slowly recovering from the effects of these disasters. Now that slavery has been abolished, Virginia offers so many inducements to settlers from other States and from Europe, and such great advantages to capitalists, in its water-power and mineral resources, that there can be little doubt that a few years more will see her embarked in a career of industry and prosperity, which will far exceed anything in her past career. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Norfolk, Petersburg, Alexandria, Lynchburg, Portsmouth, Winchester, Fred- * For a more complete account of this separation, see AVest Virginia. VIRGINIA. 515 ericksburg, Leesburg, Danville, Farmville, Lexington, Charlottes- ville, Salem, Liberty, Ciiristiansburg, Staunton, and Wythe ville. RICHMOND, The capital and the largest city of the State, is situated in Henrico county, on the northeast bank of the James River, at the head of tide-water. It lies at the foot of the lower falls of the James, and is about 184 miles from the sea by the course of the river, and 100 miles in an air-line south-by-west from Washington. Latitude 37° 32' 17" K, longitude 77° 27' 28" W. Richmond is one of the handsomest cities in the Union, and its situation is much admired for its romantic beauty. The city is built on several hills, which are separated from each other by a picturesque valley, through which flows Shockoe Creek. The principal are Shockoe and Church or Richmond hills. From any of these elevations a magnificent prospect may be gained, embracing the beautiful country around the city, and the noble river winding among its green hills, and leaping and dashing over the rocks which break its current for a dis- tance of several miles. Three fine bridges span the stream at inter- vals of from 100 yards to half a mile apart. Two are used by rail- ways entering the city, and connecting it with the States south of Vir- ginia. The other is for vehicles and pedestrians. Richmond is laid out with great regularity, in perfect squares. The streets are broad, straight, and well paved, and, with the exception of the business thoroughfares, are shaded with fine trees. The city is built generally of brick and stone, and the most of the houses are situated in yards adorned with flowers and shrubbery. The principal business thoroughfare. Main street, runs throughout the length of the city, and with the exception of the upper and lower portions, is one of the best-built streets in the Union. Broad street, parallel with Main, is a noble thoroughfare, and is occupied principally with retail stores. The general appearance of the city is handsome and attractive. The long streets, or those running parallel with the river, are named. Those crossing them at right-angles are numbered. The public buildings are handsome. The Capitol is the most con- spicuous object in the city. It stands on Shockoe Hill, in the midst of a handsome square of 10 acres. It is an imposing building, and is adorned with a portico of Ionic columns. It contains a marble statue of Washington, by Houdon, the famous French sculptor. To the west of the Capitol, and within the enclosure of the Capitol Square, / t 576 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. RICHMOND. is the monument erected to Washington by the State of Virginia. It contains an equestrian statue of Washington, by Crawford, and statues of Jefferson, Mason, Henry, Marshal, Lee, and Morgan, by Crawford and Randolph Rogers, The monument is of fine granite ; the statues are of bronze. To the south of the Washington monument stands a fine marble statue of Henry Clay. The Governor’s Mansion, a fine old- fashioned edifice, occupies the northeast portion of the square. The City Hall is an elegant structure on Broad and Capitol streets, oppo- site the square. The Custom House extends from Main to Bank street, immediately south of the Capitol. It is an elegant building of granite, and contains, besides the customs offices, the city post-office, and the United States Court-rooms. During the civil war, the build- ing was occupied by the Executive, State and Treasury Departments of the Confederate Government. The Confederate Congress sat in the Capitol. YIRGINIA. 5n The public schools are good, though few in number. The city also contains the Richmond CollegCj conducted by the Baptist church ; St, Vincentes College^ a Roman Catholic institution ; and the Medical De- partment of Hampden-Sydney College^ the last of which occupies a fine granite building of Egyptian architecture. There are a number of excellent private schools and seminaries in the city, which has always been celebrated for its schools of this character. The Virginia His- torical Society possesses a fine library. The State Library is in the Capitol. There are several colored schools in the city. There are over 30 churches in Richmond, some of which are very handsome. St. John’s, on Church Hill, is interesting from its historic cal associations. The Penal establishments are the City Prison and the State Peniten- tiary. The latter is situated on a hill overlooking the river, and is a large edifice of brick with a fagade nearly 300 feet in length. The Benevolent establishments are numerous, and consist of a city Alms-house, the Bellevue Hospital, the Roman Catholic Orphan Asy- lum, and several societies for the assistance of the poor and distressed. The Cemeteries are Holywood and Shockoe Hill. The former is very beautiful. In the latter are buried some of the most distin- guished men of the country. Richmond is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the James River. Street railways connect its principal points. It is pro- vided with an efficient police force, and a steam fire department, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It has always been a place of great political and commercial importance, and is noted for the culture and hospitality of its people. In 1870, the population was 51,038. Richmond is admirably situated for commerce and manufactures. It lies in the midst of one of the finest agricultural regions of the Union, and has railway connections with all parts of the country. The James River and Kanawha Canal afford water transportation to * the very heart of the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Valley of Vir- ginia. The river is navigable to the city for vessels drawing 10 feet of water, and those drawing 15 feet can lie within 3 miles of the city. There is regular communication by steamers with Norfolk, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway is now completed across the mountains, and will soon be finished to the Ohio River. The city is one of the most important tobacco and wheat markets in the Union, and is one of the principal seats of the 578 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. inauufiicture of tobacco, which is exported in large quantities to the Northern cities for sale. Richmond is already largely engaged in manufactures, and is des- tined to become one of the most important manufacturing centres of America. It is already famous for its flour, its mills being among the most extensive in the country. Cotton and woollen goods, paper and iron ware are produced in considerable quantities. The water- power is derived from the James River, which in the course of a few miles descends 100 feet, thus furnishing an amount of power sufficient to turn all the mills of New England. The water is never too low to be used. The civil war struck a terrible blow at the manufactur- ing interests of Richmond, but the city is slowly recovering its former prosperity. Five daily papers, and a number of weeklies and month- lies are published in the city. Richmond was founded in 1742; and in 1779, while still but a small village, was made the capital of the State. In 1781, it was invaded and occupied by the British, under the command of Benedict Arnold. The invaders burned some public and some private build- ings, and a quantity of tobacco, and retreated towards the lower James. _ In 1789, the place contained 300 houses, and a bridge was built across the river by Colonel John Mayo. In 1800, it contained 5737 inhabi- tants. It was from the first a place of great political importance, ex- ercising a considerable influence over the country south of Virginia as well as over that State. After the secession of the Southern States and the beginning of hostilities in April, 1861, Richmond was made the Capital of the Confederacy, the Southern Government arriving there in June, 1861. From that time the city was the chief object of the efforts of the military forces of the United States. It was de- fended with great skill and determination, but was finally entered by the United States forces, on the 2d of April, 1865. It was set on fire by the Confederate forces on the night of their departure from it, and almost the entire business quarter, including the large mills, etc., was destroyed. Since then, it has been rebuilt on a handsomer and more substantial scale. NORFOLK, The second city of the State, is situated in Norfolk county, on the north bank of the Elizabeth River, 8 miles from Hampton Roads, 32 miles from the ocean, and 160 miles by water, or 106 miles by land, from Richmond. VIRGINIA. 5t9 The city is built principally of brick and stone, on a level plain, and is somewhat irregular in its plan. The streets are wide and are well paved, but the general appearance of the place is unattractive. There are, however, many fine stores and handsome dwellings, and of late the appearance of the city is being gradually improved. The Oity Hall and the Custom House are the principal buildings. Thef city contains 14 churches, a number of excellent schools, public and private, and a hospital. It is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. Norfolk possesses one of the finest harbors in the world. It is easily reached from the sea, and vessels of the largest size can lie alongside the wharves. The entrance to the harbor is defended by the works at and near Fortress Monroe, which also command the entrance to Hampton Roads. The Dismal Swamp Canal connects the Eliza- beth River with Albemarle Sound. A very extensive trade in grain, fruits, and lumber is carried on by means of this canal, which is navi- gable for schooners. A railway connects the city with Petersburg, Lynchburg, and the southwest, and regular lines of steamers and steamships ply between Norfolk and Richmond, Baltimore, Philadel- j)hia. New York, and Boston. The foreign trade of the city is grow- ing rapidly. Its coasting trade is very great. An enormous traffic in market garden produce, fruits, eggs, etc., is maintained with the Northern Cities, the vicinity of Norfolk being devoted almost exclu- sively to truck farms. The trade in oysters and fish is also heavy. Portsmouth, in the same county, lies immediately opposite Norfolk, and is separated from it by the Elizabeth River. It is the terminus of a railway to Weldon, N. C., and the far South. Previous to the war it was the principal naval station of the Republic, and was pro- vided with one of the largest and most complete navy yards in the world. These works were abandoned and destroyed by the United States authorities upon the secession of Virginia. It is doubtful whether they will ever be rebuilt upon as complete a scale. Ferry- boats connect the city with Norfolk. The war greatly injured the prospects of both cities, but they are gradually recovering from their losses. The foreign trade of Norfolk promises to increase rapidly, while the situation of the city will always throw into its hands a large coasting trade. In 1870 the population of Norfolk was 19,256. That of Ports- mouth was 10,492. Norfolk was laid out in 1705, and named from the county of that 580 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. name in England. In 1736, it was incorporated as a borough ; in 1776, it was burned by the British, and in 1845 it was incorporated as a city. In May, 1861, it was occupied and fortified by the Con- federates, and in May, 1862, was captured by the United States forces, who held it until the close of the war. PETERSBURG, The third city of the State, is situated in Dinwiddie county, on the south bank of the Appomattox River, 10 miles from the junction of that stream with the James River at City Point, and 22 miles south of Richmond. It is connected with all parts of the country by railway, and by railway with City Point, where the large vessels trading with the city discharge their cargoes. The city can be reached by vessels of 100 tons. Petersburg possesses a large trade in flour and tobacco, and is to a limited extent engaged in manufactures, the falls of the river, situated above the town, furnishing an enormous water-power. A canal has been cut around these falls, above which small boats can ascend the river for about 100 miles. The city is regularly laid off, and is well built. It contains a num- ber of handsome buildings, public and private ; several fine schools, including a large female college, about 12 churches, and 3 newspaper offices. It includes the village of Blandford, in Prince George county. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the Appomat- tox, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. The city was severely injured by the bombardment to which it was subjected during the civil war. In 1870 the population was 18,950. Petersburg was founded by Act of the General Assembly in 1748, and was named after Peter Jones, the first settler on the spot. In 1752, a bridge was built over the Appomattox. In April, 1781, a British force under General Phillips, 2300 strong, landed at City Point, and advanced upon the city, defeating a small force of militia under Baron Steuben, which sought to oppose their progress,' and cap- tured the town, to which they did considerable damage. They held Petersburg for about 24 hours. In May, of the same year, the town was occupied by Cornwallis^ army. In 1784, the place became a city, and the towns of Blandford, Pocahontas, and Ravenscrofts were united with it. In the summer of 1864, General Grant crossed the James River with his army, and laid siege to Petersburg, continuing at the same VIRGINIA. 581 time his demonstrations against Richmond. The siege was continued until April, 1865, when the Confederates, after a series of severe bat- tles, were compelled to abandon their position around both cities. The retreat which ensued terminated in the surrender of the array of General Lee, which practically closed the war. During the siege Petersburg was frequently cannonaded, and was severely injured. ALEXANDRIA, The fourth city of the State, is situated in Alexandria county, on the right bank of the Potomac River, 7 miles below Washington City, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and a railway. The city is delightfully situated on undulating ground, and commands a fine view of the river and of Washington City. It is substantially built, and possesses some handsome buildings, but its general appearance is that of a quiet inland town. The streets cross each other at right angles, and are generally well paved. Some of them are shaded with mag- nificent trees. The city is supplied with water from Cameron’s Run, a small stream close by, and is lighted with gas. It contains several public and private schools, and is the seat of a Theological Seminary and of a High School of the Protestant Episcopal Church. There are about 12 churches, and 3 newspaper offices in the city. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 13,570. Alexandria was once a place of considerable commercial importance, and possessed a large foreign and domestic trade. Some shipping is still owned in the port. The river furnishes unlimited water trans- portation to the sea, which is continued to the mountains by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and there is railway communication with all parts of the country. The city seemed on the point of recov- ering some share of its former importance when the civil war put an end to its hopes. Alexandria was settled in 1748, an^ was incorporated as a city in 1779. In 1801 it was ceded with other territory to the General Government, and constituted a part of the District of Columbia until 1844, when it was restored to the State of Virginia. In the spring of 1861 it was occupied by the United States forces, and was held by them during the war. Eight miles below Alexandria, on the same side of the Potomac, and within the limits of Fairfax county, is Mount Vernon, the resi- dence and the site of the grave of George Washington. A few years previous to the civil war it was purchased from the Washington 582 THE GREAT REPTJBLTC: MOUNT VERNON. family by a fund raised through the efforts of Edward Everett and others, and made the property of the nation. During the civil war it lay between the lines of the two armies, each of which scrupulously respected it. ‘'Mount Yernon, then known as the Hunting Creek estate, was bequeathed by Augustine Washington, who died in 1743, to Law- rence Washington, who received a captain’s commission in one of the four regiments raised in the colonies, to aid the mother country m her struggle against France and Spain. It was named after Admiral Yernon, under whom Lawrence Washington had served, and for whom he cherished a strong affection. The central part of the man- sion, which is of wood, was erected by Lawrence, and the wings by George Washington. It contains many valuable historical relics, among which are the key of the Bastile, presented by Lafayette, portions of the military and personal furniture of Washington, the pitcher, portrait, etc. The tomb of Washington, which is now fast going to decay, occupies a more picturesque situation than the present one, being upon an elevation in full view of the river. The new tomb, VIRGINIA. 583 mto which the remains were removed in 1837, and subsequently placed within a marble sarcophagus, stands in a more retired situa- tion, a short distance from the house. It consists of a plain but solid structure of brick, with an iron gate at its entrance. Above the arch of this vault are inscribed the following lines ; ‘ Within this enclosure rest the remains of General George Washington.’ ^^The Mount Vernon domain, which has remained since the death of Washington in the possession of his descendants, was purchased a few years ago for the sum of $200,000, raised by subscription, under the auspices of a society of ladies known as the ^Ladies’ Mount Ver- non Union Association.^ It is therefore, and will continue to be, the property of the nation. In this noble movement the late Hon. Ed- ward Everett took a distinguished and active part.^^ LYNCHBURG, The fifth city of the State, is situated in Campbell county, on the south bank of the James River, 120 miles west-southwest of Rich- mond, and 20 miles from the Blue Ridge. It is built along a steep declivity, which rises from the river shore, and is situated in a beau- tiful and picturesque country. It is irregularly laid off, but contains several handsome buildings. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the river, which is pumped into a reservoir situated 253 feet above the level of the river. Lynchburg is one of the principal railway centres of the State, being the junction of roads leading directly from Norfolk, Richmond, Washington City, and Bristol, Tennessee. It is connected with Richmond by the James River Canah These roads and the canal have made it a place of considerable trade. It is one of the principal tobacco markets of the State, and has also a large grain trade. Large quantities of tobacco are manufactured here. The city is, to a limited extent, engaged in manufactures, the river affording extensive water- power. Tobacco, cotton and woollen goods, and flour are the princi- pal articles. The city contains 10 churches, several public and private schools, and 3 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 6825. Lynchburg was founded in 1786, and named after John Lynch, one of the original settlers. In 1805 it was incorporated as a city. 584 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MISCELLANIES. THE FIRST LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA. One of the first acts of Yeardley, in Virginia, was to emancipate the remaining servants of the colony. The labor now being free, each man enjoying the fruits of his own industry, and anxious to increase his store, there was no fear of scarcity, and no time or opportunity for mutiny among the scattered and indus- trious planters. With the increasing strength and independence of the colony, all fear of the savages had vanished. It is manifest that in these altered circum- stances a modification of the despotic government ought to have been made, be- cause its severity was no longer necessary, and while the power existed it might be abused, as the colony seriously experienced in the case of Argali. The mo- ment the colonists began to take an interest in the country, by the enjoyment of their own labor and the possession of property, it was right that they should have some share in that government, in the prudent conduct of which they were most interested. Yeardley was aware of tliis, for, without any authority from home which we can trace, he called together a General Assembly, consisting of two members from every town, borough, or hundred, besides the Governor and Council, which met at Jamestown, near the end of June, 1619. In this Assembly seven corporations were represented, and four more were laid off in the course of the same summer. In this first North American legislature, wherein were “ debated all matters thought expedient for the good of the colony,” several acts were passed which were pronounced by the treasurer of the company to be “well and judiciously carried,” but which are unfortunately lost to posterity. This was an eventful year to the colony, for, in addition to their Assembly, a college was established in Henrico, with a liberal endowment. King James had exacted £15,000 from the several bishops of his kingdom for the purpose of educating Indian children, and 10,000 acres of land were now added by the company ; and the original de- sign was extended to make it a seminary of learning also for the English. One hundred idle and dissolute persons, in custody for various, misdemeanors, were transported by the authority of the king and against the wishes of the company to Virginia. They were distributed through the colony as servants to the plant- ers ; and the degradation of the colonial character, produced by such a process, was endured for the assistance derived from them in executing the various plans of industry, that were daily extending themselves. This beginning excited in the colonists a desire for using more extensively other labor than their own, an opportunity for the gratification of which, unfortunately, too soon occurred. In this eventful year, too, a new article was introduced into the trade of the com- pany with the colony, by the good policy of the treasurer. Sir Edward Sandys, which produced a material change in the views and feelings of the colonists with regard to the country. At the accession of Sir Edward to office, after twelve years’ labor, and an expenditure of £80,000 by the company, there were in the colony no more than 600 persons, men, women, and children. In one year he provided a passage for 1261 new emigrants. Among these were 90 agreeable young women, poor, but respectable and incorrupt, to furnish wives to the colo- nists. The wisdom of this policy is evident— the men had hitherto regarded Virginia only as a place of temporary sojourn for the acquisition of wealth, and never dreamed of making a permanent residence in a place where it was impos- VIRGINIA. 585 sible to enjoy any of the comforts of domestic life. They had consequently none of those endearing ties of home and kindred to bind them to the country, or at- tach them to its interests, which are so necessary to make a good citizen.' This new commodity was transported at the expense of the colony, and sold to the young planters, and the following year another consignment was made of 60 young maids of virtuous education, young, handsome, and well recommended A wife in the first lot sold generally for 100 pounds of tobacco, but as the value of the new article became known in the market, the price rose, and a wife would bring 150 pounds of tobacco. A debt for a wife was of higher dignity than other debts, and to be paid first. As an additional inducement to marriao-e, married men were generally preferred in the selection of officers for the colony Do mestic ties were formed, habits of thrift ensued, comforts were increased, and happiness diffused ; the tide of emigration swelled : within three years 50 patents for land were granted, and 3500 persons found their way to Virginia. In the month of August of this year an event occurred which stamped its im- press upon the Constitution of Virginia, and indeed of the whole southern portion of America. This Avas the introduction of 20 African slaves by a Dutch vessel which availed itself of the freedom of commerce, which had been released from the shackles of the company’s monopoly in the early part of this year, to rivet the bonds of slavery upon a portion of their fellow creatures and their descend- ants.^ The indented and covenanted servants which had been long known in Virginia, and whose condition was little better than that of slavery, Avas a small evil and easily removed, because they were of the same color and country with their masters ; when they w^ere emancipated, they leaped at once from their shackles to the full dignity of freedom. No one scorned to associate with them, and no one spurned their alliance ; if honorable and worthy in other respects, they were equal to their masters, and might even rise to distinction. But not so the poor African. Nature has fixed upon him a stamp which cannot be erased or forgotten, even when his fetters have crumbled to the dust. TREATY BETWEEN VIRGINIA AND ENGLAND. In 1650, the Government of the Commonwealth of England sent a powerful fleet to reduce the Colony of Virginia to submission, as that colony had until then refused to acknoAvledge any authority but that of King Charles. The fleet cast anchor before Jamestown, in the month of June, 1650. The colonists made a formidable show of resistance, which so impressed the Cromwellian officers that they consented to receive the surrender of the colony upon the following terms, AAffiich were highly honorable to Virginia. The reader will notice that the poor little colony is recognized by the Commonwealth as its “ equal.” The articles of surrender are concluded between the Commissioners of the Commonwealth, and the Council of State and Grand Assembly of Virginia, as equal treating with equal. It secures — 1st. That this should be considered a voluntary act, not forced or constrained by a conquest upon the country ; and that the colonists should have and enjoy such freedoms and privileges as belong to the freeborn people of England. 2dly. That the Grand Assembly, as formerly, should convene and transact the affairs of Virginia, doing nothing contrary to the Government of the Common- wealth or laws of England. 3dly. That there should be a full and total remission of all acts, words, or writ- ings against the Parliament. 586 THE GREAT. REPUBLIC. 4thly. That Virginia should have her ancient bounds and limits, granted by the charters of the former kings, and that a new charter was to be sought from Parliament to that effect, against such as had trespassed upon their ancient rights. [This clause would seem to be aimed at some of the neighboring colonies.] Stilly. That all patents of land under the seal of the colony, granted by the Governor, should remain in full force. Gthly. That the privilege of fifty acres of land for every person emigrating to the colony, should remain in full force. 7thly. That the people of Virginia have free trade, as the people of England enjoy, with all places and nations, according to the laws of the Commonwealth ; and that Virginia should enjoy equal privileges, in every respect, with any other colon}'- in America. 8thly. That Virginia should be free from all taxes, customs, and impositions whatsoever ; and that none should be imposed upon them without the consent of their Grand Assembly ; and no forts or castles be erected, or garrison maintained, without their consent. 9thly. That no charge should be required from the country on account of the expense incurred in the present fleet. lOthly. That this agreement should be tendered to all persons, and that such as should refuse to subscribe to it, should have a year’s time to remove themselves and effects from Virginia, and in the meantime enjoy equal justice. The remaining articles were of less importance. This was followed by a supplemental treaty, for the benefit of the Governor and Council, and such soldiers as had served against the Commonwealth in England— allowing them the most favorable terms. ANECDOTES OF PATRICK HENRY. The wants of a large family compelled his father to find employment for his sons. At the age of 15, Patrick was put behind the counter of a country mer- chant, and the year following entered into business with his elder brother, Wil- liam, with whom was to devolve its chief management ; but such were his idle habits, that he left the burden of the concern to Patrick, who managed wretchedly. The drudgery of business became intolerable to him, and then, too, “he could not find it in his heart ” to disappoint any one who came for credit ; and he was very easily satisfied with apologies for non-payment. He sought relief from his cares by having recourse to the violin, flute, and reading. An opportunity was presented of pursuing his favorite study of the human character, and the charac- ter of every customer underwent this scrutiny. One year put an end to the mercantile concern, and the two or three following Patrick was engaged in settling up its affairs. At 18 years of age he married Miss Shelton, the daughter of a neighboring farmer of respectability, and com- menced cultivating a small farm ; but his aversion to systematic labor, and want of skill, compelled him to abandon it at the end of two years. Selling off all his little possessions at a sacrifice, he again embarked in the hazardous business of merchandise. His old business habits still continued, and not unfrequently he shut up his store to indulge in the favorite sports of his youth. His reading was of a more serious character ; history, ancient and modern, he became a proficient in. Livy, however, was his favorite ; and having procured a copy, he read it YIRGINIA. 58Y throagli at least once a year in the early part of his life. In a few years his sec- ond mercantile experiment left him a bankrupt, and without any friends enabled to assist him further. All other means failing, he determined to try the law. His unfortunate habits, unsuitable to so laborious, a profession, and his pecuniary situation unfitting him for an extensive course of reading, led every one to sup- pose that he would not succeed. With only six weeks’ study, he obtained a li- cense to practise, he being then 24 3^ears of age. He was then not only unable to draw a declaration or a plea, but incapable, it is said, of the most common and simple business of his profession. It was not until his 27th year that an oppor- tunity occurred for a trial of his strength at the bar. In the meantime the wants and distresses of his family were extreme. They lived mostly with his father- in-law, Mr. Shelton, who then kept a tavern at Hanover Courthouse. Whenever Mr. Shelton M^as from home, Henry took his place in the tavern, which is the identical public house now standing at Hanover Courthouse. The occasion on which his genius first broke forth, was the controversy between the clergy and the Legislature and people of the State, relating to the stipend claimed by the foimer. The cause was popularly known as the PdTsons^ cclusb. A decision of the court on a demurrer, in favor of the claims of the clergy, had left nothing un- determined but the amount of damages in the cause which was pending. Soon after the opening of the court, the cause was called. The scene which ensued is thus vividly described by Wirt : “ The array before Mr. Henry’s eyes was now most fearful. On the bench sat more than 20 clergymen, the most learned men in the colony, and the most ca- pable, as well as the severest critics before whom it was possible for him to have made his dehut. The courthouse was crowded with an overwhelming multitude, and surrounded with an immense and anxious throng, who, not finding room to enter, were endeavoring to listen without, in the deepest attention. But there was something still more awfully disconcerting than all this ; for in the chair of the presiding magistrate sat no other person than his own father. Mr. Lyons opened the cause very briefly : in the way of argument he did nothing more than explain to the jury, that the decision upon the demurrer had put the Act of 1750 entirely out of the way, and left the law of 1748 as the only standard of their damages ; he then concluded with a highly-wrought eulogium on the benevolence of the clergy. And now came on the first trial of Patrick Henry’s strength. No one had ever heard him speak, and curiosity was on tiptoe. He rose very awk- wardly, and faltered much in his exordium. The people hung their heads at so unpromising a commencement ; the clergy were observed to exchange sly looks with each other ; and his father is described as having almost sunk wfith confusion from his seat. But these feelings were of short duration, and soon gave place to others of a very different character. For now w^ere those wonderful faculties which he possessed for the first time developed ; and now was first witnessed that mysterious and almost supernatural transformation of appearance, wiiich the fire of his own eloquence never failed to wmrk in him. For, as his mind rolled along, and began to glow from its own action, all the exuvicB of the clown seemed to shed themselves spontaneouslj^ His attitude by degrees became erect and lofty. The spirit of his gehius aw’^akened all his features. His countenance shone with a nobleness and grandeur which it had never before exhibited. There was a lightning in his eyes which seemed to rivet the spectator. His action became graceful, bold, and commanding ; and in the tones of his voice, but more especi- ally in his emphasis, there w^as a peculiar charm, a magic, of which any one wflio 588 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ever heard him will speak as soon as he is named, but of which no one can give any adequate description. They can only say that it struck upon the ear and upon the heart, in a manner which language cannot tell. Add to all these his wonder-working fancy, and the pecujiar phraseology in which he clothed its images ; for he painted to the heart with a force that almost petrified it. In the language of those who heard him on this occasion, ‘he made their blood run cold, and their hair to rise on end.’ “ It will not be difficult for any one who ever heard this most extraordinary man to believe the whole account of this transaction, which is given by his surviving hearers ; and, from their account, the courthouse of Hanover county must have exhibited, on this occasion, a scene as picturesque as has been ever witnessed in real life. They say that the people, wfiiose countenances had fallen as he arose, had heard but a very few sentences before they began to look up ; then to look at each, other with surprise, as if doubting the evidence of their own senses ; then, attracted by some strong gesture, struck by some majestic attitude, fascinated by the spell of his eye, the charm of his emphasis, and the varied and commanding expression of his countenance, they could look aw’ay no more. In less than 20 minutes they might be seen, in every part of the house, on every bench, in every window, stooping forward from their stands, in death-like silence ; their features fixed in amazement and awe, all their senses listening and riveted upon the speaker, as if to catch the last strain of some heavenly visitant. The mockery of the clergy was soon turned into alarm, their triumph into confusion and despair, and at one burst of his rapid and overwhelming invective, they fled from the bench in precipitation and terror. As for the father, such was his surprise, such his amazement, such his rapture, that, forgetting where he was, and the character wdiich he w’as filling, tears of ecstasy streamed down his cheeks, without the power or inclination to repress them. “ The jury seem to have been so completely bewildered that they lost sight not only of the Act of 1748, but that of 1758 also ; for, thoughtless even of the ad- mitted right of the plaintiff, they had scarcely left the bar when they returned with a verdict of one penny damages. A motion was made for a new trial ; but the court, too, had now lost the equipoise of their judgment, and overruled the mo- tion by a unanimous vote. The verdict, and judgment overruling the motion, w’ere followed by redoubled acclamation, from within and without the house. The people, who had with difficulty kept their hands off their champion from the moment of closing his harangue, no sooner saw the fate of the cause finally sealed, than they seized him at the bar, and, in spite of his own exertions aqd the continued cry of ‘ order ’ from the sheriffs and the court, they bore him out of the courthouse, and, raising him on their shoulders, carried him about the yard in a kind of electioneering triumph.” From this time Mr. Henry’s star w^as in the ascendant, and he at once rose to the head of his profession in that section. In the autumn of 17G4, having re- moved to Roundabout, in Louisa county, he was employed to argue a case before a committee on elections of the House of Burgesses. He distinguished himself by a brilliant display on the right of suffrage. Such a burst of eloquence from a man of so humble an appearance, struck the committee with amazement, and not a sound but from his lips broke the deep silence of the room. In 1765, he was elected a member of the House of Burgesses, when he intro- duced his celebrated resolutions on the Stamp Act. Among his papers there was found, after his decease, one sealed and thus endorsed : YIRGINIA. 589 “Enclosed are the resolutions of the Virginia Assembly, in 1765, concerning the Stamp Act. Let my executors open this paper.” On the back of the paper containing the resolutions was the following endorsement : “ The within passed the House of Burgesses in May, 1765. They formed the first opposition to the Stamp Act, and the scheme of taxing America by the British Parliament. All the colonies, either through fear, or the want of opportunity to form an opposi- tion, or from influence of some kind or other, had remained silent. I had been for tlie first time elected a burgess a few days before, was young, inexperienced, unacquainted with the forms of the house and the members who composed it. Finding the men of weight averse to opposition, and the commencement of the tax at hand, and that no person was likely to step forth, I determined to venture ; and alone, unaided and unassisted, on the blank leaf of an old law-book, wrote the within. Upon offering them to the house, violent debates ensued. Many threats were uttered, and much abuse cast on me by the parties for submission. After a long and warm contest, the resolutions passed by a very small majority, perhaps one or two only. The alarm spread throughout America with astonish- ing quickness, and the ministerial party were overwhelmed. The great point of resistance to British taxation was universally established in the colonies. This brought on the war, which finally separated the two countries, and gave inde- pendence to ours. Whether this will prove a blessing or a curse, will depend upon the use our people make of the blessings which a gracious God hath be- stowed on us. If they are wise, they will be great and happy. If they are of a contrary character, they will be miserable. Righteousness alone can exalt them as a nation. Reader, whoever thou art, remember this ; and, in thy sphere, prac- tise virtue thyself, and encourage it in others. P. Henry.” It was in the midst of the above-mentioned debate that he exclaimed, in tones of thunder, “Csesar had his Brutus — Charles the First his Cromwell — and George the Third— ”(“ Treason !” cried the speaker — “Treason ! treason !” echoed from every part of the house. Henry faltered not for a moment ; taking a loftier atti- tude, and fixing on the speaker an eye of fire, he finished his sentence with the firmest emphasis) — “way 'profit hy tlieAr example. If this be treason, make the most of it.” Henceforth Mr. Henry was the idol of the people of Virginia, and his influence as one of the great champions of liberty extended throughout America. In 1769, he was admitted to the bar of the general court. Without that legal learning which study alone can supply, he was deficient as a mere lawyer. But before a jury, in criminal cases particularly, his genius displayed itself most brilliantly. His deep knowledge of the springs of human action, his power of reading in the flitting expressions of the countenance what was passing in the hearts of his hearers, has rarely been possessed by any one in so great a degree. In 1767 or 1768, Mr. Henry removed back to Hanover, and continued a member of the House of Burgesses until the close of the Revolution, acting upon its most important committees, and infusing a spirit of bold opposition in its members to the pretensions of Britain. He was a delegate to the first Colonial Congress, which assembled Sept. 4, 1774, at Philadelphia. Upon Lord Dunmore’s seizing the gunpowder at Williamsburg, in the night after the battle of Lexington, Henry summoned volunteers to meet him ; and, marching down towards the capitol, compelled the agent of Dunmore to give a pecuniary compensation for it. This was the first military movement in Virginia. The Colonial Convention of 1775 elected him the colonel of the first regiment, 590 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and the commander of “ all the forces raised and to be raised for the defence of the colony.” Soon resigning his command, he was elected a delegate to the Con- vention, and not long alter, in 177G, the first Governor of the commonwealth, an ol'iice he held by successive re-elections until 1779, when, without an intermission, lie was no longer constitutionally eligible. While holding that office, he was signally serviceable in sustaining public spirit during the gloomiest period of the Revolution, providing recruits, and crushing the intrigues of the Tories. On leaving the office of Governor, he served, until the end of the war, in the Legislature, when he was again elected Governor, until the state of his affairs caused him to resign in the autumn of 1786. Until 1794 lie regularly attended the courts, where his great reputation obtained for him a lucrative business. In 1788 he was a member of the Convention of Virginia, which so ably and elo- quently discussed the Constitution of the United States. He employed his mas- terly eloquence, day after day, in opposition to the proposed Constitution. His hostility to it proceeded entirely from an apprehension that the Federal Govern- ment would swallow the sovereignty of the States ; and that ultimately the liberty of the people would be destroyed, or crushed, by an overgrown and ponderous consolidation of political power. The Constitution having been adopted, the Government organized, and Washington elected President, his repugnance measurably abated. The chapter of amendments considerably neutralized his objections; but, nevertheless, it is believed that his acquiescence resulted more from the consideration of a citizen’s duty, confidence in the Chief Magistrate, and a hopeful reliance on the wisdom and virtue of the people, rather than from any material change in his opinions.” In 1794, Mr. Henry retired from the bar. In 1796, the post of governor was once more tendered to him, and refused. * In 1798, the strong and animated reso- lutions of the Virginia Assembly, in opposition to the alien and sedition laws, which laws he was in favor of, “conjured up the most frightful visions of civil war, disunion, blood, and anarchy ; and under the impulse of these phantoms, to make what he considered a virtuous effort for his country, he presented him- self in Charlotte county as a candidate for the House of Delegates, at the spring election of 1799,” although he had retired to private life three years previously. His speech on this occasion, before the polls were opened, was the last effort of his eloquence. “ The power of the noon-day sun was gone ; but its setting splendors were not less beautiful and touching.” Mr. Henry was elected by his usual commanding majority, and the most formidable preparations were made to oppose him in the Assembly. But “the disease which had been preying upon him for two years now hastened to its crisis ; and on the 6th of June, 1799, this friend of liberty and man was no more.” By his first wife he had six children, and by his last, six sons and three daugh- ters. He left them a large landed property. He was temperate and frugal in his habits of living, and seldom drank anything but water. He was nearly six feet in height, spare, and raw-boned, and with a slight stoop in his shoulders ; his complexion dark and sallow ; his countenance grave, thoughtful, and pene- trating, and strongly marked with the lines of profound reflection, which with his earnest manner, and the habitual knitting and contracting of liis brows, gave at times an expression of severity. “ He. was gifted with a strong and musical voice, and a most expressive countenance, and he acquired particular skill in the use of them He could be vehement, insinuating, humorous, and sarcastic, by turns, and always with the utmost effect. He was a natural orator of the YIRGINIA. 591 highest order, combining imagination, acuteness, dexterity, and ingenuity, with the most forcible action, and extraordinary powers of face and utterance. As a statesman, his principal merits were sagacity and boldness. His name is bril- liantly and lastingly connected with the history of his country’s emancipation.” “In private life, Mr. Henry w^as as amiable as he was brilliant in his public career. He was an exemplary Christian, and his illustrious life was greatly orna- mented by the religion which he professed. In his will he left the following testimony respecting the Christian religion : ‘ I have now disposed of all my property to my family. There is one thing more I wish I could give them, and that is the Christian religion. If they have that, and I had not given one shilling, they would be rich ; and if they have not that, and I had given them the whole w'orld, they would be ’ SPEECH OF LOGAN, A MINGO CHIEF. [ This celebrated chief was distinguished for magnanimity in war, and greatness of soul in p*eace. He was always acknowledged the friend of the white people, until the year 1774, when his brother and others of his family were murdered by the whites. This drew on a bloody war with the whites, and* the Indians w’^ere obliged to sue for peace. The following speech was delivered at a treaty held by Governor Dunmore, of Virginia, with the Mingoes, Shawanese, and Delawares. Logan, though desirous of peace, remained in his cabin in silence, till a messen- ger was sent to him, to know whether he would accede to the proposals. Logan, after shedding many tears for the loss of his friends, answered as follows : ] “I appeal to any white man to say, if ever he entered Logan’s cabin hungry, and he gave him not meat : if ever he came cold and naked, and he clothed him not. During the course of the last long and bloody war, Logan remained idle in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such was my love for the whites, that my countrymen pointed as they passed, and said, ‘ Logan is the friend of white men. ’ I had even thought to have lived with you, but for the injuries of one man. Colonel Cresap, the last spring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all the relations of Logan, not even sparing my women and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in the veins of any living creature. This called on me for revenge. I have sought it : I have killed many : I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my country, I rejoice at the beams of peace : but do not harbor a thought that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never felt fear. He will not turn on his heel to save his life. Who is there to mourn for Logan ? — Not one.” WASHINGTON AND THE WIDOW CUSTIS. It w’’as in 1758 that Washington, attired in a military undress, and attended by a body servant, tall and militaire as his chief, crossed the ferry called Williams’s, over the Pamunkey, a branch of York River. On the boat touching the southern or New Kent side, the soldier’s progress was arrested by one of those personages who give the beau ideal of the Virginia gentleman of the old regime, the very soul of kindness and hospitality. It was in vain the soldier urged his business at Williamsburg, important communications to the Governor, etc. Mr. Chamber- layne, on whose domain the militaire had just landed, would hear of no excuse. Colonel Washington w^as a name and character so dear to all Virginians, that his passing by one of the castles of Virginia, without calling and partaking of the hospitalities of the host, was entirely out of the question. The colonel, however. 592 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. did not surrender at discretion, but stoutly maintained his ground till Cliamber- layne, bringing up bis reserve in the intimation that he would introduce his triend to a young and charming widow, then beneath his roof, the soldier capitulated, on condition that he should dine— only dine— and then, by pressing his charger and borrowing of the night, he would reach Williamsburg before his excellency could shake off his morning slumbers. Orders were accordingly issued to Bishop, the colonel’s body servant and faithful follower, who, together with the fine English charger, had been bequeathed by the dying Braddock to Major Washing- ton, on the famed and fated field of Monongahela. Bishop, bred in the school of European discipline, raised his hand to his cap, as much as to say, “Your orders shall be obeyed.” The colonel now proceeded to the mansion, and was introduced to various guests, (for when was a Virginia domicil of the olden time without guests ? ) and, above all, to the charming widow. Tradition relates that they were mutually pleased, on this, their first interview— nor is it remarkable ; they were of an age when impressions are strongest. The ladj’’ w’as fair to behold, of fascinating manners, and splendidly endowed with worldly benefits. The hero was fresh from his early fields, redolent of fame, and with a form on which “ every god did seem to set his seal, to give the world assurance of a man.” The morning passed pleasantly away, evening came, with Bishop, true to his orders and firm at his post, holding the favorite charger with one hand, while the other was waiting to offer the ready stirrup. The sun sunk in the horizon, and yet the colonel appeared not. “ ’Twas strange, ’twas passing strange ;” surely he was not wont to be a single moment behind his appointments— for he was the most punctual of all men. Meantime, the host enjoyed the scene of the veteran at the gate, while the colonel was so agreeably employed in the parlor ; and proclaiming that no visitor ever left his home at sunset, his military guest was, without much difficulty, per- suaded to order Bishop to put up the horses for the night. The sun rode high in the heavens the ensuing day, when the enamored soldier pressed with his spur his charger’s side, and speeded on his way to the seat of government, where, having dispatched his public business, he retraced his steps, and, at the White House, the engagement took place, with preparations for marriage. And much hath the biographer heard of that marriage, from the gray -haired domestics who waited at the board where love made the feast and Washington the guest. And rare and high was the revelry at that palmy period of Virginia’s festal age ; for many were gathered to that marriage, of the good, the great, the gifted, and they, with joyous acclamations, hailed in Virginia’s youthful hero a happy and prosperous bridegroom. “And so you remember when Colonel Washington came a courting of your young mistress?” said the jbiographer to old Cully, in his hundredth year. “ Ay, master, that I do,” replied the ancient family servant, who had lived to see five generations ; “great times, sir, great times — shall never see the like again !” “ And Washington looked something like a man, a proper man— hey. Cully?” “ Never seed the like, sir — never the like of him, though I have seen many in my day— so tall, so straight ! and then he sat on a horse and rode wMth such an air ! Ah, sir, he was like no one else. Many of the grandest gentlemen, in the gold lace, were at the wedding ; but none looked like the man himself.” Strong, indeed, must have been the impression which the person and the manner of Washington made upon the “rude, untutored mind” of this poor negro, since the lapse of three-quarters of a century had not sufficed to efface it. VIRGINIA. 503 The precise date of the marriage the biographer has been unable to discover having in vain searched among the records of the vestry of St. Peter’s church^ New Kent, of which the Rev. Mr. Munson, a Cambridge scholar, was the rector’ and performed the ceremony, it is believed, about 1759. A short time after their marriage. Colonel and Mrs. Washington removed to Mount Vernon, on the Po- tomac, and permanently settled there. “Tins union,” says Sparks, “was in every respect felicitous. It continued intimate acquaintances and to the nation, the character of Mrs. Waslimgtoii was ever a tlieme of praise. Affable and courteous, exemplary lu her deportment, remarkable for her deeds of charity and piety, unostentatious, and without vanity, she adorned by her domestic virtues the sphere of private life, and filled with dignity every station in which she was placed.” Previous to his acquaintance with Mrs. Custis, Washington had been pleased with other ladies.^ The author above quoted on this point says, that in 1756, While in New Aork, he was lodged and kindly entertained at the house of Mr. Beverley Robinson, between whom and himself an intimacy of friendship sub- sisted, which, indeed, continued without change, till severed by their opposite fortunes twenty years afterwards in the Revolution. It happened that Miss ary Philips, a sister of Mrs. Robinson, and a young lady of rare accomplish- ments, was an inmate of the family. The charms of this lady made a deep im- pression upon the heart of the Virginia colonel. He went to Boston, returned, and was again welcomed to the hospitality of Mr. Robinson. He lingered there till duty called him away ; but he was careful to intrust his secret to a confiden- tial friend, whose letters kept him informed of every important event. In a few months, intelligence came, that a rival was in the field, and that the conse- quences could not be answered for, if he delayed to renew his visits to New York. Whether time, the bustle of a camp, or the scenes of war had moderated his ad- miration, or whether he despaired of success, is not known. He never saw the lady again till she was married to that same rival, Captain Morris, his former associate in arms, and one of Braddock’s aids-de-camp. “He had before felt the influence of the tender passion. At the age of 17, he was smitten by the graces of a fair one, whom he called a ‘lowland beauty,’ imd whose praises he recorded in glowing strains, while wandering with his surveyor’s compass among the Alleghany Mountains. On that occasion he wrote despond- ing letters to a friend, and indited plaintive verses, but never ventured to reveal his emotions to the lady who was unconsciously the cause of his pains.” THE DEATH OF WASHINGTON. ^ Tobias Lear, a gentleman of fine education, who was Washington’s Secretary tor a long time, gave a simple but graphic account of the scenes at the time of the death of Washington. It will be remembered that the malady was violent in- flammation of the throat. On the first attack, Washington paid no attention to it, and on being advised to take some simple remedy for hoarseness, he said, “ No, you know I never take an 3 dhing for a cold. Let it go as it came.” That was on Friday evening, the 13th of December, 1799. Between 2 and 3 o’clock the next morning, he awoke Mrs. Washington, and, with great difficulty of utter- ance, told her he was very unwell, and had had an ague. He would not permit her to rise to procure a remedy, lest she should take cold ; but at daylight, when the servant came to make the fire in the room, she was sent to call Mr Lear 38 594 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Washington was tiien breathing with great difficulty, and one of the overseers was called in to bleed him, while a servant was dispatched for Doctor Craik. The bleeding afforded no relief. Dr. Craik arrived about 9 o’clock, and other physicians were sent for. But all their remedies were applied in vain. The malady increased in violence, and at 4 o’clock in the afternoon the General whis- pered, “I find I am going. My breath cannot last long. I believed from the first that the disorder would prove fatal.” Between 5 and 6 o’clock. Dr. Craik went to the bed and asked the sufferer if he could sit up. He held out his hand, and was raised up. He then said to the several physicians present, “ I feel my- self going ; I thank you for your attentions ; but I pray you to take no more trouble about me.” He lay down again, and all retired except Dr. Craik. He continued in the same situation, uneasy and restless, but without complaining ; frequently asking what hour it was. At about 8 o’clock, the physicians came into the room and applied blisters and cataplasms of bran to his legs and feet, after which they went out, except Dr. Craik, without a ray of hope. About 10 o’clock, he made several attempts to speak, and at length, with great difficulty, he whispered to Mr. Lear, “lam just going. Have me decently buried ; and do not let my body be put into the vault in less than three days after I am dead.” He then looked at Mr. Lear, and said, “Do you understand me?” Mr. Lear replied, “Yes,” when the expiring Patriot said, “ It is well.” These were his last words. About ten minutes before his death, his breathing became easier. He felt of hi3 own pulse, and a few moments afterwards expired. The hour was 11 o’clock on Saturday evening. The only persons in the, room at tlie time were Mrs. Washington, Dr. Craik, Mr. Lear, Mrs. Forbes, the housekeeper, Washington’s favorite house-servant Christopher, and Caroline, Molly, and Charlotte, other servants. Mr. Lear held the hand of Washington to his bosom. Dr. Craik stood weeping near. Mrs. Washington sat at the foot of the bed, and Christopher was at its side. When all was silent, Mrs. Washington asked, with a firm and collected voice, “ Is he gone ? ” All were too full for utterance, but an affirmative sign assured her that he was no more. “ ’Tis well,” she said, in the same voice, “all is over now ; I shall soon follow him ; I have no more trials to pass through.” ^ NORTH- CAROLINA. Area, 50,704 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 992,622 Population in 1870, 1,071,404 The State of North Carolina, one of the original members of the Union, lies between 33° 53' and 36° 33' N. latitude, and between 75° 25' and 84° 30' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Virginia and Tennessee, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by South Carolina, Georgia, and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by Tennessee. Its extreme length, from east to west, is about 450 miles, and its extreme width, from north to south, about 180 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. In the southern and southeastern parts of the State, the surface is level and sandy, and often marshy. These swamp lands are owned by the Board of Literature, in trust for the Public Schools, and are now offered to actual settlers on very liberal terms. The better class of these lands are generally covered with a heavy and dense growth of timber, vines, reeds, and grass ; the soil is from five to fifteen feet deep, and consists of decomposed vegetable matterj fine sand, and finely comminuted clay. It produces exuberantly all the grains, grass, cot- ton, rice, peas, potatoes, turnips, pumpkins, melons, the garden vege- tables, apples, peaches, and grapes ; but the best test of its fertility is its growth of Indian corn, an exhausting crop, which it will yield in large amounts, from year to year, without manures or stimulants, and for an indefinite period. It will not produce as much per acre as the heavy clay soils in the highest state of improvement; but considering 595 596 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the difference of the expense of production, the crops of the former are vastly the more profitable. The average yield of Indian corn per acre, without the application of fertilizers or stimulants, is from fifty to seventy-five bushels ; and experience has proved that this will continue, from year to year, for more than a century ; while science infers, from the facts of the past and from careful analyses, that even two centuries of close cultivation will not exhaust the natural and ever renewing fertility of these soils. The swamps of eastern North Carolina do not generate the malaria which, in the marshy regions further south, causes malignant fevers ; and the experience of a large population devoted for over a century to open-air pursuits, will confirm the state- ment that the laborers here, in the woods, in the fields, and on the waters, are generally as healthy as in any part of the country. The great Dismal Swamp, already described, occupies the upper part of the counties lying immediately north of Albemarle Sound. About sixty miles back from the coast, the surface begins to lise, and forms a fine hill country in the central part of the State. The western part is traversed by the ranges of the Alleghany Mountains, one of which (the Iron Mountains) forms the boundary between North Carolina and Tennessee. These mountains are rarely lower- than 1000 feet. The principal peaks are Clingman’s Peak, 6941 feet, and Mount Mitchell, 6732 feet high, which form parts of the Black Mountains, and Roan Mountain, 6720 feet. Grandfather Mountain, 5788 feet, and Grandmother Mountain, 2500 feet high. The coast is lined by a chain of low islands or sand reefs, which lie between the mainland and the ocean, enclosing a series of sounds or lagoons, which are very shallow and difficult of navigation. Albe- marle Sound, one of the most important of these, lies in the extreme northeastern part of the State, immediately south of the Dismal Swamp. It extends inland from the ocean about 60 miles, and is from 4 to 15 miles wide. Just northeast of it is a smaller body of water called Currituck Sound, with which it communicates by a nar- row inlet. Communication is had with Pamlico Sound in the same way. Pamlico Sound lies immediately south of Albemarle Sound, and is separated from it by a swampy neck of land, which comprises the counties of Hyde, Tyrrel, Washington, and Beaufort. The Sound is 80 miles long, and from 10 to 25 miles wide. Its average depth is about 20 feet, but many shoals occur in it. It is connected with Albe- marle Sound at its northeastern extremity by a narrow inlet, in which, halfway between the two sounds, lies Roanoke Island, famous as NORTH CAROLINA. 697 having been the site of the first English colony in America, and the scene of a fierce and bloody battle during the late war. The Roanoke and Chowan rivers are the principal streams flowing into Albemarle Sound, and the Tar and Neuse rivers the principal streams flowing into Pamlico Sound. The Roanoke River rises in two branches in Virginia, which unite at Clarksville, in Mecklenburg coun- ty, in that State. Its general course is east-southeast, as far as the northwest end of Halifax county (N. C.), where it enters North Caro- lina, and flows southeast to Albemarle Sound. It meets tidewater at Weldon ill Halifax county, 150 miles from its mouth, but above that place is frequently broken by rapids. The length of the main stream is 250 miles. One of its branches, the Staunton River, is about 200 miles long, and is regarded by some writers as the true Roanoke. This would make the length of the river about 450 miles. The Tar River, the lower part of which is sometimes called the Pamlico River, rises near the western border of Granville county, and flows southeast into Pamlico Sound. It is navigable for small vessels to Tarboroiigh, in Edgecombe county. The Neuse River rises in Person county, the central northern county of the State, and flows southeast into Pamlico Sound. It is about 300 miles long, and is the second river in size in the State. It is navigable to Waynesborough, 100 miles from its mouth, but light draught boats have ascended it 100 miles farther. Its lower part forms a broad estuary several miles wide, and about 25 miles long, through which it empties its waters. Extensive forests of pitch and pine lie along its upper waters, or more properly above Kinston. Goldsborough, Sraithfield, Kinston, and Newberne are its principal towns. The Cape Fear River, the principal stream in the State, is formed by the confluence, in Chatham county, of the Plaw and Deep rivers. It flows thence, in a southeasterly direction, through the centre of the State, into the Atlantic Ocean. At its mouth it is divided into two channels by Smith’s Island. It is the only river of the State flowing directly into the ocean, and is navigable to Fayetteville, 120 miles. By means of canals, dams, etc., boats are enabled now to reach the coal mines of Chatham county. It is a little over 300 miles long. Wilmington, the principal city of the State, Fayetteville, and Elizabethtown are situated on its banks. Cape Fear, the most southern point of the State, is formed by the lower end of Smith’s Island. The mouth of the rtver is defended by Fort Fisher, which was bombarded and taken from the Confederates by the naval and land forces of the Union during the late war. The Yad- 59S TUE GREAT REPUBLIC. SEA COAST OF NORTH CAROLINA. Jcin (called the Great Pedee in South Carolina) and Catawba (Wateree in South Carolina), and several of the principal rivers of South Caro- lina rise in and flow for some distance through this State. The waters of North Carolina abound in flsh. The fisheries of Pamlico and Albe- marle Sounds are amongst the most valuable in the world. There are several inlets breaking through the sand ridge lying along the coast, and several fine harbors within the limits of the State. The most prominent points of this ridge are known (commencing on the north) as Cape Hatteras, Cape Lookout, and Cape F ear. SOIL, PRODUCTIONS, CLIMATE, MINERALS, MANUFACTURES, etc. From a communication from the Governor of North Carolina to the United States Commissioner of Emigration, we take the following description, which fairly represents the present condition of the State : The eastern section is mostly covered with pines, the middle and western with vast forests of oaks (of many species) interspersed with the poplar, hickory, walnut, maple, etc. Seven large rivers, with their numerous tributaries^ traverse the State, furnishing unlimited NORTH CAROLINA. 599 water-power as they flow down from the mountains through the middle section ; and as they move with a moderate current across the champaign country, on the east, into the chain of sounds which skirt the coast, they furnish with these an aggregate of 900 miles of inland* naviga- tion, which might be doubled by carrying westward the system of - slack-water improvements already commenced. With these navigable waters is interlaced the railroad system of the State, amounting to 998 miles completed, and 400 more in progress, which, with 350 miles of plank-roads and turnpikes, brings the sea-coast into ready com- munication with every part of the State. ''The Soil is very various; alluvial and peaty accumulations abound near the coast and along the rivers, while in the middle and western regions the soil is mainly of granitic origin, and represents every grade of sandy or clayey loam of various fertility. " The Climate has also a wide range, being tempered on the sea- board to something like the mildness of that of the Gulf States, while in the mountain region it approaches the rigor of New York. In the middle section, which constitutes the larger part of the State, and represents the average climate, the mean annual temperature is 60 degrees (Fahrenheit) the mean summer temperature 75 degrees; mean winter, 43 degrees; extreme summer (diurnal), 89 degrees; average absolute maximum, 99 degrees; extreme winter (diurnal), 20 degrees; average absolute minimum, 12 degrees. The annual fall of ram is 45 inches. The number of cloudy days in the year is 130 ; rainy days, 60. ^ "The Vegetable Peoductions are numerous. The most im- portant are wheat, corn, oats, rye, potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, rice, cotton, tobacco, turpentine, grapes, and fruits. Y/heat and corn are produced with facility and abundance in all parts; rye, oats, and potatoes flourish in the middle and western regions ; rice, sweet pota- toes and peas in the eastern ; tobacco in the middle ; cotton in the south- ern counties of the middle, and in the eastern section; turpentine and pine* lumber are peculiar to the east. The fruits most extensively and largely cultivated are the apple, peach, pea*r, and cherry, repre- sented by numerous varieties. No part of the continent is better adapted to these than the middle and western regions. The principal grasses are the orchard, herd’s, timothy, and blue, to which must be added clover and lucerne. All these flourish in the middle and western regions, and some of them grow wild ; hence, stock-raising is easy and profitable. The stock chiefly raised- are horses, mules, cows, 600 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. sheep, and hogs. The grapes usually eultivated, besides foreign varieties, are the Seuppernong, Catawba, Lincoln, and Isabella, all natives of the State, the first three being excellent wine grapes. The Seuppernong is peculiar to the eastern section. The following abstract from the United States Census Report for 1860, will best show the productions and capabilities of the State : — Live stock, Wheat, Corn, . Oats, Rye, Peas, Potatoes, Sweet potatoes, . . . Cotton, Tobacco, Rice, Wool, Honey, Turpentine, 3.326.000 annual product. 4.700.000 bushels annual product. 30.000. 000 2.800.000 “ “ “ 437.000 “ “ 1.900.000 “ “ “ 830.000 “ 6.140.000 “ 58.000. 000 pounds per annum. 32,900,000 “ “ “ 7.600.000 “ . “ 883.000 “ 2.055.000 1,000,000 barrels “ “ The Manufactures are chiefly cotton, wool, spirits of turpen- tine, lumber, iron, and paper. “ The amount invested in the manufacture of cotton is $2,250,000 ; lumber, $1,000,000; turpentine, $2,000,000; iron, $500,000; wool, $350,000. Fisheries abound in the sounds and rivers of the eastern counties. The species of fish mostly taken are the herring, shad, blue-fish, mullet, and rock. The number of barrels annually packed for mar- ket is about 100,000 on the waters of Albemarle Sound. Consider- able quantities are packed at other points. Minerals. — The most important of these are coal, iron, gold, copper, silver, lead, plumbago, limestone, marble, agolmatolite, soap- stone, manganese, whetstones, grindstones, roofing-slates, porcelain clay, and fire-clay. The coal is bituminous, and exists in two beds, situated respectively one hundred and two hundred miles from the coast, on Cape Fear River and on Dan River. It is abundant, accessible, and of good quality. Iron ore of excellent quality abounds in all parts of the State ; the principal seats of its manufacture being on the Cape Fear, Catawba, and Yadkin rivers. Gold is found in almost all parts of the State, especially in the middle region ; the annual product for many years has been $250,000. Copper mines abound in the middle, northern, and western counties. Plumbago is NORTH CAROLINA. 601 found in great abundance near the capitalj and again in the western region j marble in the middle and western j and marl everywhere in the eastern section. A chain of silver and lead mines (containing gold also) traverses the central portion of the State.” COMMERCE. The exports of North Carolina are principally pitch, tar, turpentine, cotton, and rice. In 1 860, the commerce of the State was as follows : Exports 1760,094; imports $365,931. A vigorous trade with the Northern States has sprung up since the war. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1868 there were 977 miles of completed railroads in North Carolina, constructed at a cost of $20,121,000. Two main lines cross the State, one from Weldon to Wilmington, the other from Danville, Virginia, to Charlotte. There is still another important road from Greensboro in Guilford county, to Morehead City, on the Atlantic coast. This road crosses the Wilmington and Weldon road at Golds- borough. There is direct communication between the important towns of this State, by the lines above mentioned and their branches, and also with all parts of the Uni6n. The roads of North Carolina were almost destroyed during the war, and are slowly recovering from their losses. EDUCATION. The University of ^^orth Carolina is located at Chapel Hill, in Orange county. It was founded in 1789, and with its lands, emolu- ments, and franchises, is under the control of the State, and is to be held to an inseparable connection with the Free Public School System of the State. The benefits of the University as far as practicable are to be extended to the youth of the State, free of expense for tuition. Previous to the late war, this institution was in a very flourishing condition, but its resources have been crippled by the failure of the State Bank, in which $200,000 of its endowment was invested. The Board of Education elect for the University one Trustee for each county in the State, whose term of office is eight years. One-fourth of the Trustees are chosen every second year. The Board of Educa- tion and the President of the University are ex-officio members of the Board of Trustees, and with three other Xi’«stees to be ajipointed by the Board, constitute the Executive Committee of the Trustees of the University of North Carolina. The Governor is ex-offido President C02 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of the Board of Trustees, and Chairman of the Executive Committee of the University. “ Before the war, public schools were maintained in the State, by means of the income derived from the Literary Fund, which amounted to $2,500,000 in ISOO. About half of this fund was swept away by the war ; and the system of district schools, which had brought a rudi- mentary education within the reach of all, free of cost, was prostrated, but measures have been taken to revive it.. The Constitution provides for a general and uniform system of Free Public Schools. The Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Superintendent of Public Works, Super- intendent of Public Instruction, and Attorney-General constitute a State Board of Education, which succeeds to all the powers and trusts of the President and Directors of the Literary Fund of North Caro- lina, and has full power to legislate and make all needful rules and regulations in relation to Free Public Schools, and the Educational Fund. The Superintendent of Public Instruction has the chief over- sight of the schools. Each county is divided into school districts, in each of which one or more public schools must be maintained at least four months in the year. The schools of each county are under the supervision and control of county commissioners elected biennially.’^ * In 1870 there were about 1250 schools in the State, attended by 32,650 white, and 12,350 colored children. In 1860 there were 16 colleges in the State. In the same year there were in North Carolina 301 libraries, con- taining 190,091 volumes. The newspapers and periodicals of the State were 73 in number, with an aggregate circulation of 4,862,572 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. This State has no Penitentiary, but the Constitution of 1868 re- quires that one shall be erected as speedily as possible, and also author- izes the establishment of Houses of Refuge and Workhouses, as they may become necessary. The State Insane Asylum^ at Raleigh, is an excellent institution. It was in a very prosperous condition before the war, but during hos- tilities it was greatly impoverished, and was greatly inconvenienced by the lack of funds and supplies. It is now in operation under more favorable auspices, and has about 180 inmates. * American Year Book, vol. i. p. 424. NORTH CAROLINA. 603 The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and Blind^ at Raleigh, was closed for a while during the war, but was reopened in January, 1866. Binding books, and making shoes and brooms, constitute the princi- pal work of its pupils. In 1867 it had 93 inmates, 26 of which were blind. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the value of church property in the State was $1,999,227, and the number of churches, 2270. . FINANCES. In January, 1871, the State debt amounted to $29,900,045. The annual expenses of the State, including the interest, at six per cent, on the debt, are about $2,500,000, and are j>rovided for by 'taxation. In 1868 there were 6 National Banks in the State, with a capital of $653,300. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of North Carolina was adopted by the people in April, 1868. The present State officers were elected at the same time, and hold office for four years from the 1st of January, 1869. Every male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided in the State one year, and in the county six months, has the right to vote at the elections, but no person may vote without being registered. The Government of the State is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Attorney-General, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 50 members) and House of Representatives (of 120 members), all chosen by the people. The Executive officers are chosen every fourth year, and members of the Legislature every two years. The Governor is advised in his duties by a Council of State, of which the Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and the Superintendents of Public Works and of Public Instruction, are ex-officio members. A separate journal of the pro- ceedings of this Council is kept, which must be submitted to the Legislature for examination whenever called for. The courts of the State are the Supreme Court, Superior Court, and one County Court for each county, the judges of which are elected by the people. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Justices. For purposes of government. North Carolina is divided into 86 counties. Raleigh, in Wake county, is the capital of the State. C04 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. HISTORY. The first attempt of the English to settle their possessions in America^ was made at Roanoke Island, in this State, in 1585. The colonists got into trouble with the Indians, and the settlement was abandoned the following year. In 1630, an immense tract of land, south of the Chesapeake, was granted to Sir Robert Heath, and called Carolina. As he did not colonize it, however, the grant was afterwards declared forfeit. In 1663, the territory was granted by Charles II. of England to a company of eight of the most distinguished noblemen of England. This grant embraced the territory lying between lati- tudes 29° and 36° 30' north, and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The grantees were giv^en full powers over their domain. The northern part of this province was, about this time, settled by dissenters from Virginia. It was called Albemarle, and an absurd Constitution for its government was drawn up for the proprietors by John Locke. It was for about twenty-five years, nominally, the supreme law of the province, but was at length abandoned, because of the impossibility of carrying out its provisions. The colonists, however, showed a rare wisdom in the establishment of their government. They carefully guarded the rights of property and of person, and granted entire free- dom in matters of religion. The colony grew and prospered slowly, and in 1674 contained only 4000 inhabitants. Its early history, how- ever, was marked by continuous strife between the authorities and the inhabitants. In 1695, John Archdale, a Quaker, was appointed Gov- ernor. By a series of wise measures, he succeeded in restoring order and quiet, and in establishing churches and providing for their sup- port. During his administration tar and turpentine were first ex- ported. In 1711, by the aid of troops from Virginia, a rebellion which had been incited by Thomas Cary, who wished to retain his place as Governor, was suppressed. A little later, the Tuscarora Indians commenced a merciless war upon the settlers. They were conquered, with the aid of the neighboring colonies, in 1713, and compelled to move northward. In 1729, the king purchased the privileges of the proprietors, and Carolina became a royal province, and was divided into two colonies, called North and South Carolina. Slavery was introduced into the colony a4 an early day, and continued to form the basis of its agricultural industry until 1865. In 1765, the population was greatly increased by the arrival of a band of Pres- byterians from the north of Ireland, who settled in the northwestern NORTH CAROLINA. 605 part of the State. They were followed by a colony of Moravians, who settled between the Yadkin and Dan rivers, and a colony of Highlanders, who settled on the upper Cape Fear, near the present town of Fayetteville. The colony actively supported the measures of resistance to the aggressions of the crown, and was represented in the first Continental Congress, which met in 1774. The Governor endeavored to put a stop to the seditious proceedings of the patriots, but without effect. A hearty cooperation was given to the cause of the United Colonies, and in May, 1775, a convention of the people of Mecklenburg county formally threw off their allegiance to Great Britain, and proclaimed the independence of North Carolina. This declaration' was not generally sustained in the province, however. In July, 1775, the Governor took refuge on board a man of war in Cape Fear River, from which he issued his orders to his partisans to join him on the coast. They made several efforts to do so, being very numerous in the State. In the summer of 1775, a party of 1500 loyalists, under command of McDonald and McLeod, on their way to the coast, were met by a force of patriots, under Caswell and Moore, and routed, with a loss of 850 prisoners, including McDonald. McLeod was killed. The assembly took vigorous measures to maintain the cause of the colonies, and between August 20th, 1775, and July, 1776, ordered nine regiments to be raised for service in the American army. In April, 1776, the delegates of the colony, in the Continental Congress, were ordered to unite with the delegates of the other colonies in a declara- tion of independence of the British crown. In December, 1776, a State Constitution was adopted. North Carolina was partly exempt from the horrors of the war until 1780. The successes of the British forces in Georgia encouraged a strong party of tories to rise in arms, and 700 of them set out to join the British at Augusta, Georgia. They were met and routed on their march by Pickens’ partisan band of South Carolina. Seventy of them were tried for and convicted of treason, and five of them were hanged. Two parties of tories rose in 1780. One succeeded in reaching the British outposts, but the other was dispersed. On the 9th of October, 1780, the strongest body of tories, which had yet taken arms for the king, was defeated at King’s Mountain, by a force of militia under Shelby and Sevier. They lost 150 killed, including their leader. General Fergusson, and a large number wounded. The rest, 800 in number, surrendered, and 10 of their leaders were hanged on the field. 606 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 'riic battle of Guilford Court House, (March 15th, 1781,) in which General Greene was defeated, was fought in this State. North Caro- lina furnished her full quota of men during the war, and fairly won the privileges which the successful issue of the struggle brought the States. In 1784, the State ceded to the United States the territory now embraced in the State of Tennessee. The Constitution of the United States did not prove acceptable to North Carolina, and was rejected by the Convention in 1788, but was finally ratified in 1789. The sympathies of the people of North Carolina were with the South in the late war, and on the 20th of May, 1861, an ordinance of secession was adopted, and the State withdrew from the Union and joined the Southern Confederacy. Large numbers of troops were contributed to the Confederate army, and the forts along the coast were occupied. Fort Hatteras, at Hatteras Inlet, was taken by the Federal fleet in 1861, and Fort Fisher and the other defences of the Cape Fear, by the army and navy in 1865. The fall of Fort Fisher opened the way to Wilmington, which was at once occupied by the Union army. The State was held by the various columns of Sherman’s army, in 1865, which advanced from Cheraw, South Carolina, through Fay- etteville, and from Wilmington, and Morehead City, and concentrated at Goldsborough, after which they advanced on Raleigh. The Con- federates made several efforts to check this advance, but were too weak to accomplish anything. The battles of Averasboro and Ben- tonville were fought by the armies of Sherman and Johnston, and the latter general surrendered his forces to the former, near Raleigh, and closed the war in the State. During the war, several severe struggles occurred on the coast, the principal of which were the capture of Roanoke Island by the Union forces, and of Plymouth by the Con- federates. In 1865 a Provisional Governor was appointed by the President, and in 1867 the State became a part of the Second Military District,” commanded by Major-General Daniel E. Sickles. A State Conven- tion was held in 1868, which adopted the present Constitution. This instrument was ratified by the people at the polls in April, and on the 25th of June, 1868, Congress formally readmitted the State into the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. . The principal cities and towns are, Newberne, Fayetteville, Salis- bury, Charlotte, Henderson, Elizabeth City, Beaufort, Warrenton, Greensboro, Kinston, and Tarboro. KORTH CAROLINA 60 T CAPITOL AT RALEIGH. RALEIGH, The capital of the State, is situated in Wake county, 4 miles west of the Neuse River, 286 miles southwest of Washington, latitude 35° 47' N., longitude 78° 48' W. It is very near the centre of the State, and lies in the midst of a beautiful country. The site of the city is elevated, and is noted for its healthfulness. The city is well built as a rule, the central portion is occupied by a handsome park, covering 10 acres, and known as Union Square. From this park four streets, each 100 feet in width, radiate in as many directions ; these streets divide the city into four parts, each of which is a square of four acres. In Union Square stands the State House, a magnificent edifice, and one of the largest and most imposing of all the State Capitols. It is built of granite in imitation of the Parthenon, is surrounded with columns of the same material, and is crowned with a grand dome. It is 166 feet long by 90 feet wide. Raleigh also contains the Governor's residence, and the other State buildings, the State Lunatic Asylum, and the North Carolina Institution for the Deaf and Dumby a Court-house, a jail, 5 churches, and about 9 news- 608 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. paper offices. It has direct railway communication with all parts of the State and the Union. Raleigh was made the capital of North Carolina in 1788. It is named after Sir AUalter Raleigh. In 1870 the population was 10,149. WILMINGTON, The largest city in the State, is situated in New Hanover county, on the east bank of the Cape Fear River, just below the entrance of the northeast branch of the Cape Fear into the main stream. It is 34 miles from the sea, 135 miles southeast of Raleigh, and 416 miles southwest of Washington City. The city is located in a plain ex- tending back from the river, and those of the streets that are not paved are very sandy. As a general rule the city is well built. It contains several fine public buildings, a number of churches, several public and private schools, a theatre, and about 4 newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, and has an efficient police force. It is the handsomest city in the State, and is regarded as a pleasant place of residence. Wilmington is the chief commercial city of North Carolina. It is connected with all parts of the Union by railway. Lines of steamers navigate the Cape Fear to Fayetteville, and steamships ply regularly between this port and the principal cities of the Northern and South- ern States. Large quantities of rice, cotton, turpentine, rosin, tar, pitch, lumber, and naval stores are exported annually from Wilming- ton. In 1861, the year before the civil war, the tonnage of the district was 14,511 tons registered, and 10,394 licensed and enrolled. The war struck a severe blow at the commerce of the city, but it is now rapidly regaining its former proportions. The city contains a number of steam saw-mills, planing and rice-mills, machine shops, and distilleries. Wilmington is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 13,446. Wilmington was originally called Newton, and was given its present name in honor of an English nobleman of that name, who had secured Governor Johnston the government of the colony. It was settled before the Revolution, and during the war was merely an unimportant village. It was occupied by the British in January, 1781, and held by them until the close of the war. During the civil war it was strongly fortified by the Confederates, and was one of the principal ports from which they kept up their communications with Europe. It was the centre of a large blockade trade. It was blockaded by the NORTH CAROLINA. 609 Unites States fleet during the war, but the arrival and departure of vessels from foreign ports continued with great regularity, until the capture of Fort Fisher, and the defences at the mouth of the Cape Fear, by a combined attack of the land and naval forces of the United States on the 15th of February, 1865. On the 22d of the same month, Wilmington was occupied by the United States array, and remained in their possession until the close of the war. NEWBERNE, A flourishing town in Craven county, is one of the principal ports of the State. It is situated at the junction of the Neuse and Trent rivers, 50 miles from Pamlico Sound, and 120 miles southeast of Raleigh. It is a fine old town, substantially built, and attractive in a[)pearance, and is connected with all parts of the State by railway. It is a place of considerable trade. The Neuse is a mile wide at this point, and is navigable for steamers for about 8 months in the year. The principal exports are grain, lumber, turpentine, tar, and naval stores. Newberne contains the county buildings, several churches, schools, and 2 newspaper offices. In 1870 the population was 5849. Newberne is one of the oldest towns in the State, and was at one time the capital of North Carolina. In March, 1861, it was attacked and captured by the United States forces, under General Burnside, after a sharp fight of four hours. CHARLOTTE, In Mecklenburg county, is one of the most important towns in the State. It is situated on Sugar Creek, 158 miles west-southwest of Raleigh. It is pleasantly located in a Vjeautiful country, and lies in the midst of the gold region of the State. In 1838, a branch Mint was established here by the United States, for the purpose of coining the gold rained in this section. The war put an end to its operations, and since then it has not been revived. Charlotte contains several churches and schools, 2 newspaper offices, and the county buildings. It is one of the principal railroad centres of the State, and possesses a considerable trade. In 1870 the population was 4473. Charlotte was settled before the Revolution. The famous Meck- lenburg Convention met here in 1775, and adopted its Declaration of Independence. The British troops occupied the town in 1780, and it was here that General Greene relieved Gates of the command of the American army. 39 610 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MISCELLANIES. THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY IN AMERICA. Sir Humphrey Gilbert is entitled to the honor of planting the first English colony in America. His first expedition, on which he had expended much of his private fortune, failed— from what cause is uncertain. The second expedition, undertaken four years afterwards, was still more un- fortunate ; for it lost to the world the gallant and accomplished projector of the expedition. Five vessels sailed from Plymouth on Tuesday, the 11th of June, 1583. Two days afterward, the vice-admiral complained of sickness aboard, and returned with the finest ship in the fleet to Plymouth. The admiral, nevertheless, continued his course with his little squadron, and took possession, with the feudal ceremony, of Newfoundland, to be held by him as a fief of the crown of Eng- land, in accordance with the terms of his charter. The looseness of morals displayed by the mariners of that day is truly disgust- ing, and increases our wonder at the daring of men who’ could venture ^so far from home, in such frail barks, with almost a certainty of encountering on the great highway, in their fellow-men, greater perils than were presented by all the terrors of the deep. Robbery by sea was too common, and often committed in violation of the most sacred obligations, even upon persons engaged in the very act of relieving the distress of the depredators. Gilbert seems to have been cursed with a remarkably riotous and insubordinate company. The sick and dis- affected were left at Newfoundland, to be sent home with the Swallow, and the admiral proceeded with his three remaining barks. On Tuesday, the 20th of August, they sailed from the harbor of St. John’s, and on the 29th, in about latitude 44 degrees, the largest remaining vessel, by the care- lessness of the crew, struck, and went to pieces, and the other barks were forced by a high sea and a lee shore to struggle for their own preservation, which they accomplished with difficulty— alleging, at the same time, that they could see none of the crew of the wreck floating upon timbers, but all seemed to have gone down when the ship broke up. A few, however, escaped to Newfoundland in the ship’s pinnace, as was afterwards discovered. This calamity, followed by continual storms, in an unknown and shoaly sea, enhanced by an extreme scantiness of provisions, and want of clothes and com- forts in the two little barks which yet remained, induced the admiral, at the ear- nest solicitation of his men, to return homeward. Sir Humiflirey Gilbert was vehemently persuaded by the crew of the Golden Hind to remain with them dur- ing the voyage; but, as some malicious taunts had been thrown out by some evil-disposed person, accusing him of being afraid of the sea, he chose to continue to sail in his little pinnace, the Squirrel, which was burdened beyond her strength. After the vessels had left the Azores to the south, and reached the latitude ot England, they encountered violent and continued storms. On Monday, the 9t i of September, the Squirrel was nearly cast away, but recovered, and the admiral was seen sitting abaft with a book in his hand, and heard to cry out to those in the Hind, “ We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.” That same night, at 12 o’clock, the Squirrel being in advance, her light suddenlj^ disappeared, and her hardy crew, with their gallant commander, sleep forever in the deep. The Hind reached Falmouth in safety, but after encountering imminent peril to the last moment. KORTH CAROLINA. 611 The daring spirit of the mariners of that day is amazing. Sir Walter Raleigh, the step-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, so far from being intimidated by the melancholy fate of his relative, or disheartened by the unprofitable and disastrous termination of most of the voyages to America, undertook in the very next year an expedition to the coast of the present United States. He easily obtained one of the usual unlimited patents from Elizabeth, and, leaving the cold nortb^ with its barren snows, its storms, icebergs, and certain evils, together with its imagin- ary wealth, he spread his sails for the sweet south, where he was sure to find a fertile soil and a delightful climate, though his ship’s company might not all be enriched by the discovery of gold. On the 3d of July they found shoal water, “ and smelt so sweet and strong a smell, as if they had been in the midst of some delicate garden abounding with all kinds of odoriferous flowers.” On the 13th, they entered Ocracock Inlet, on the coast of the present State of North Carolina, and landed on Wocoken Island. They commenced an inter- course with the natives, who proved to be bold, confiding, intelligent, and honor- able to their friends, but treacherous, revengeful, and cruel towards their enemies. The English explored a little the surrounding islands and bays, and returned home in September, carrying with them two natives, Manteo and Wanchese. The glowing description given by the adventurers, on their return, of the beauty of the country, the fertility of the soil, and pleasantness of the climate, delighted the queen, and induced her to name the country of which she had taken posses- sion, Virginia, in commemoration of her unmarried life. It might be expected that so favorable an account would soon lead to a new expedition. Accordingly, another was prepared for the succeeding year, con- sisting of seven vessels. Ralph Lane was appointed by Raleigh, Governor of the colony, which consisted of 108 persons. Sir Richard Grenville took command of the fleet, and several learned and accomplished men attended the expedition, one of whom has ’transmitted to posterity many interesting particulars of the na- ture of the country, and the habits, manners, and government of its inhabitants. The English soon began to maltreat the harmless, unpretending, and simple natives, and they, on the other hand, to grow jealous of the power of the over- bearing strangers. They soon learned the inordinate passion of the newcomers for gold, and, taking advantage of their credulity, inflicted upon them the labor of many fruitless expeditions in search of pretended mines — hoping, at the same time, by these divisions, to weaken the power of the liftle colony to such a degree that they might be able to destroy it in detachment ; but the English were too cautious for this, and went too short a distance, and in force too powerful for the Indians to encounter with the great disparity of arms. The greatest advantage which accrued from these expeditions, and indeed from the whole attempt at a settlement, was the discovery of Chesapeake Bay. The little colony, finding no gold, and receiving no supplies from Engla^, had begun to despond, when most unexpectedly Sir Francis Drake arrived, on his return from his expedition against the Spaniards in South America, with a fleet of 23 ships. The sagacity of Drake perceived in a moment what was neces- sary for the colony, and his generosity supplied them with provisions, vessels, and other things necessary to maintain their position, extend their researches, and, if necessary, to return to England ; but the accomplishment of his purpose was defeated by a violent storm wiiich suddenly arose, and nearly wrecked his whole fleet, driving the vessel of provisions intended for the colony to sea, and 613 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. destroying the vessels which had been set apart to be left for their use. He would, have supplied others ; but the colony, with their Governor at their head, earnestly requesting permission .to return to England, he complied with their wishes. Thus terminated the first English settlement in America. This little colony, during its sojourn with the Indians, had acquired something of their fondness for the use of tobacco, and learned to regard it with almost the same superstitious reverence, as a powerful medicinal agent. vUpon their return, they introduced the use of this plant into England ; and a weed at first disgust- iiig and nauseating to all who use it, has become gradually the favorite luxury (and indeed with many a necessary of life) of all classes of society, and of both the young and the old throughout the w'orld — and this, after experience has proved that in most cases it is an injury rather than a benefit to the health. THE GREATEST AMERICAN. The largest man on record was Miles Darden, a native of North Carolina, who was born* in 1798, and who died in Tennessee in 1857. He was 7 feet and 6 inches high, and in 1845 weighed 872 pounds. At his death he weighed a little over 1000 pounds. In 1839, his coat w^as buttoned around three men, each ot them weighing over 200 pounds, who walked together in it across the Square at Lexington. In 1850, it required 13^ yards of cloth, 1 yard wide, to make him a coat. Until 1853 he was active and lively, and able to bear labor ; but from that time w^as compelled to stay at home, or be hauled about in a two-horse wagon. His coffin was 8 feet long, 35 inches deep, 32 inches across the breast, 18 inches across the head, and 14 inches across the feet. It required 24 yards of black vel- vet to cover the sides and lid of the coffin. Miles Darden was twice married, and his children are very large, though it is probable that none of them will ever attain the gigantic weight and size of their father. Area, Population in 1860, (Whites, 291,388 ; Negroes, 412,320) Population in 1870, The State of South Carolina, one of the 13 original States of the Union, lies between 32° and 35° 10' N. latitude, and between 78° 35' and 83° 30' W. longitude. It is bounded on tbe north and northeast by North Carolina, on the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by Georgia. The State is almost triangular in shape. I he Savannah River forms the western boundary, and separates it from Georgia; and the coast line is about 200 miles long. 34,000 Square Miles. 703,708 705,163 TOPOGRAPHY. Along the coast, and for about 100 miles inland, the surface is low and sandy. Large swamps occupy the lower part of the State, and in this district rice is extensively cultivated. A chain of low islands of great fertility and beauty extends along the coast, separated from the mainland by a series of shallow lagoons, through which navigation is maintained between Charleston and Florida, safe from the violence and dangers of the sea. These islands extend down the Georgia and hlorida coast, and produce the famous “Sea Island Cotton.” About is known as the Midland country.” Beyond this is the “Ridge,” a sudden eleva- tion, which IS overtopped in the northwest by the Blue Ridge Moun- tains which cross this part of the State, and attain their greatest height in Table Mountain, 4000 feet above the sea. “From the mouth of the Great Pedee River to that of the Savan- nah, the coast of South Carolina is lined with a series of bays, sounds, 613 614 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and lagoons, which, though mostly shallow, have sufficient depth to allow of an extensive coasting navigation. Commencing at the Great t^edee, and proceeding south, we have Winyaw Bay, at the mouth of that river; then, in order. Bull’s Bay, Charleston Harbor, St. Helena Sound, and Port Royal Entrance, with a number of smaller inlets. The harbor of Beaufort is much the best of these, admitting vessels drawing 11 feet water; Charleston Harbor is obstructed by a danger- ous bar°; St. Helena Sound is the most capacious of these inlets, but is beset'with shoals. Georgetown, at the head of Winyaw Bay, can only be reached by vessels of small draught ; and Stono Inlet, south of Charleston, has but 10 feet water on the bar. The Santee River, with its main affluents, the Congaree and Wateree, passes almost di- rectly through the middle of the State. It is about 100 miles from the junction of the Congaree and Wateree to the mouth of the Santee, and about 300 miles from their confluence to their sources in North Carolina. The Great Pedee enters the State from North Carolina (where it bears the name of Yadkin), and courses through the north- east part of South Carolina, about 150 miles, into Winyaw Bay ; the Saluda and Broad rivers drain the northwest of the State, and unite to form the Congaree; the Broad River rises in the west of North Carolina ; the Edisto and Combahee drain the southwest of the State, and flow into the Atlantic after courses of 150 to 200 miles ; Lynch’s Creek is a tributary from the west, and Wacamaw and Little Pedee from the east of the Great Pedee; all have their sources in North Carolina. The larger streams run in a southeast direction, and fur- nish an inland navigation of about 2400 miles, apart from the creeks and inlets of the sea. The Savannah River can be navigated by steamboats to Hamburg, and for smaller boats still higher. The Wacamaw may be ascended 12 miles, the Great Pedee 200 miles, the Congaree and the Wateree about the same distances by steamboats. All these rivers are boatable above the distances mentioned, for keel- boats. Greenville is the only district in the State without the advan- tage of navigation. Water-courses abound in all the districts favor- able for mill-sites.” * MINERALS. The Agricultural Bureau of the United States makes the following statement of the mineral resources of the State in 1868 . “ Iron of superior quality, in great abundance, is found in Spartan- * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1814. SOUTH CAROLINA. 615 burg, but only used for plantation purposes ; ore is reported in Abbe- ville. Gold is found in Spartanburg, in Pickens (where a company is successfully at work, near Walhalla), in Abbeville (where ' Horn's gold mine,' discovered in 1834, has already yielded $1,000,000, and is still worked with profit) ; and in York some mines have lately been sold to Northern capitalists, including some California miners. Lead, also, is found in Spartanburg, copper and silver in Pickens, very pure ochre in Abbeville, and immense beds of kaolin and superior buhr- stone. Marl in Barnwell contains a large percentage of lime. This district has had several manufactories of cotton, paper, etc., in profit- able operation, and some are yet running successfully." CLIMATE. The climate of South Carolina corresponds with that of the south of France, and of Italy. The winter is mild and short, the spring is pleasant, and the heats of the summer are tempered by the cool sea- breezes which sweep over the State. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the State is divided into six varieties; 1. The Tide Swamp, which is devoted exclusively to the culture of rice. 2. The Inland Swamp, in which grow rice, cotton, corn, and peas. 3. The Salt Marsh, in which grows the long cotton. 4. The oak and pine, in which grow long cotton, corn, potatoes, etc. 5. The oak and hickory, growing short cotton and corn. 6. The Pine Barrens, devoted to fruits, corn, etc. A publication, recently issued by the State authorities, gives the following account of the productions of South Carolina: “ The usual productions of this State are cotton, the long and short staple, rice, both swamp and upland, tobacco, indigo, sugar, wheat, rye, corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat, peas, beans, sorghum, broom- corn, sunflower, guinea corn, sweet potato&s, and Irish potatoes. Hemp, flax, and hops grow luxuriantly. Of fruits, our orchards will show apples, pears, quinces, plums, peaches, apricots, nectarines, cher- ries, oranges, lemons, olives, figs, pomegranates, and the American date, the persimmons, of many kinds. Of berries, we have the mul- berry, raspberry, strawberry, blackberry, huckleberry, sparkleberry, and elderberry. Of nuts, we have the walnut, pecan nut, chestnut,’ hickory, hazel-nut, and chinoapin. The grape grows luxuriantly in 616 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. RICE FIELDS, SOUTH CAROLINA. every portion of the State. In our woods and swamps enormous vines are found, extending to the topmost branches of the tallest forest-trees. Around Aiken, about 500 acres are now planted in grapes, and the quantity increases annually. The vines are healthy and vigorous. The silkworm thrives well with us, and the Moms multicaulis flourishes without any more care or attention than any of our forest-trees, and the growth is so rapid that the leaves can be used the second year after planting. The tea-plant is successfully culti- vated. Of garden products, we have turnips, carrots, parsnips, arti- chokes, mustard, benne, rhubarb, arrow-root, water-melons, musk- melons, cucumbers, cabbages, kale, salads, peppers, squashes, tomatoes, pumpkins, onions, leeks, okra, cauliflower, beans, peas, radishes, celery, etc., etc. — in short, almost whatever can be raised in any garden in the world. Of flowers, we have in our gardens whatever the earth will yield in beauty and fragrance. The rose is a hedge-plant, the japonica blossoms in the open air throughout the winter, the jasmine perfumes our thickets, and the violet borders our roads. In 1869, the principal products of the State were as follows : Pounds of rice (estimated), . Bales of cotton, Bushels of wheat, . . . . 60,000,000 220,000 920,000 SOUTH CAROLINA. 61Y Bushels of com, 8,100,000 “ peas and beans, 1,728,074 “ sweet potatoes (estimated), . . . 3,000,000 Pounds of butter, 8,177,934 The agriculture of South Carolina was much damaged by the war. Many of the inland plantations, and nearly all along the coast were ruined, and the abolition of slavery produced serious losses by greatly demoralizing the only class of laborers available. The State is slowly recovering from its misfortunes. It has, however, a serious difficulty to contend against — the majority of its inhabitants are negroes. Whatever w^e may hope for them in the future, the blacks are now in a wretched condition of ignorance and degradation, and it will require all the energy and genius of the Palmetto State to rise to the position to which it is naturally entitled. COMMERCE. The foreign trade of South Carolina was very large previous to the war, owing to her heavy exports of cotton and rice, much of which was also shipped to the Northern States. The principal port is Charleston. In 1860, the total exports of the State amounted to $21,205,337, and the imports to $1,569,570. MANUFACTURES. Agriculture being almost the exclusive pursuit of the people, manu- factures are comparatively neglected in South Carolina, though the northwestern part of the State is admirably suited to them, having a salubrious climate, and an abundance of fine water-power. In 1860, the aggregate capital of the manufactures of this State was $5,610,000. The annual product of manufactures and mining was $6,800,000. With the raw material on the spot,^^ says a recent State publica- tion, ^^and water-power and fuel everywhere in abundance, no better opening for the establishment of factories can anywhere be found than in South Carolina. This must be obvious to all reflecting minds. We have the cotton, the most valuable manufacturing material in the world, growing in fields on the borders of which the stream passes by, where the mill would find an efiective site r we have the iron ore in abundance, and the fuel near at hand, to make our own metal and build our own machinery ; we have the clay for stoneware and pot- tery, the fine kaolin for porcelain, and the silica for glass, in many portions of the State ; we have the fine-grained and hard woods in 618 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. our forests for all the branches of cabinet-making; and we have an excellent and ever-ready market for all our produce. The port of Charleston is connected by a system of railroads with all parts of the State and the whole country, the harbor is safe and capacious, and is visited by vessels from all parts of the "vv^orld. In addition, we have the port of Georgetown, and the magnificent Port Royal, situated in a rich and fertile region, enjoying a pleasant and salubrious climate, deep and capacious enough for the manoeuvres of the largest war-vessels in the world.^^ INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The railroads of South Carolina were almost destroyed by the con- tending armies during the war, but are now slowly but surely recov- ering from their prostration. In 1868, there were 988 miles of com- pleted railroads in the State, constructed at a cost of $25,208,000. “ A glance at the raap,’^ continues the publication from which we have just quoted, will show that a railroad station is within easy reach of every corner of the State. The Charleston and Savannah Railroad connects us with all the principal Southern cities. The South Carolina Railroad runs up to Columbia, the capital of the State, and by a branch to Augusta, from thence forming a chain of connections with the Western States. The Greenville and Columbia Railroad, by its main line and several branches, reaches every western and north\ratern section of the State, and by its connection with the Blue Ridge Railroad (which for the present terminates at the German town and settlement of Walhalla, in Pickens District), will in a few years unite us with Cincinnati, in Ohio. The Columbia and Char- lotte Railroad traverses the northern sections of the State, and, by the Danville Railroad, terminates in Richmond, Virginia. The North- eastern Railroad connects with the Wilmington and Manchester Rail- road, and is one of the lines of travel from Charleston to New York. Thus it will be seen, that this State has a complete net- work of inter- communication, whilst connecting with every main avenue of the business and travel of this continent by direct lines.’^ EDUCATION. In 1860, there were 14 colleges, 226 academies and other schools, and 757 public schools in the State. The University of South Caro- lina, at Columbia, was an institution of high reputation, and was enjoying great prosperity in 1860. The war caused the discontinu- SOUTH CAROLINA. 619 ance of all the schools, many of them having their buildings burned, and since the restoration of peace the State has been too poor to do much for the cause of education. The system of public instruction has been revised under the new Constitution, and is placed in charge of a State Superintendent, who is chosen by the people at each general election for State officers. Each county or district is in charge of one School Commissioner, chosen biennially by the people of the district. These Commissioners constitute a State Board of Education, of which the State Superin- tendent is ex-officio Chairman. The Legislature is required by the new Constitution to provide a uniform system of public schools. At- tendance at these or at private schools is made compulsory upon all children between the ages of 9 and 16 years, except in case of bodily or mental infirmity. The State is also required to levy taxes for the support of these schools, and for the support of a Normal School, a State University, an Agricultural College, schools for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, and a State Reform School. A permanent school fund is also established for this purpose. In 1860, the number of volumes in the libraries of this State w*as 471,512, but nearly, if not fully, two-thirds of these were destroyed during the war. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State is provided with a Penitentiary and Lunatic Asylum, and the Constitution makes a liberal provision for their support, and for the establishment and maintenance of such other charitable and penal institutions as may be found necessary. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, the value of church property in this State was $3,481,236. Much of this was destroyed during the war, the heaviest losses oc- curring in Charleston and Columbia, where nearly all the church buildings were utterly demolished. FINANCES. On the 31st of October, 1870, the total debt of the State was $7,665,908. The expenditures of the treasury from the 15th of May to the 15th of November, 1868, were $409,688, and the receipts for the same period were $435,373. 620 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. There were at the same time 3 National Banks, with a capital of $G85,000, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of the State was adopted in 1868. Every male citizen of the United States, 21 years old, without regard to race, color, or former condition, who has resided in the State one year and in the county six months, is a voter. The disfranchised are paupers, convicts, persons of unsound mind, and persons disqualified by the Constitution of the United States. The Government is vested in a Governor and Lieutenant-Governor, who must be 30 years old, and two years a resident of the State. They are elected by the people biennially. The other exe^itive offi- cers are a Secretary of State, Treasurer and Receiver-General, Auditor, and Attorney-General, elected by the people for four years. The Legislature consists of a Senate (of 31 members) and House of Repre- sentatives (of 124 members). The Senators are elected for four years, one-half retiring every two years. Representatives are chosen bi- ennially. ^^The judicial power of the State is vested in a Supreme Court; in two Circuit Courts, viz : a Court of Common Pleas, having civil juris- diction, and a Court of General Sessions, with criminal jurisdiction only; in Probate Courts, and in justices of the peace. The General Assembly may also establish such municipal and other inferior courts as may be deemed necessary. The Supreme Court is to consist of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices, chosen by a joint vote of the General Assembly for a term of six years. The Circuit Judges are to be chosen in the same manner, and hold office four years. A Court of Probate is to be established in each county, the judge of which shall be chosen by a vote of the people for a term of two years. Justices of the peace are elected by the people, and have jurisdiction of all cases where the amount involved does not exceed one hundred dollars.’^ The seat of Government is located at Columbia. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 30 districts or counties. HISTORY. The State was first settled by a band of French Huguenots under Jean Ribault, who, in May, 1562, planted a colony on a beautiful island in a spacious inlet, which he named Port Royal. The sur- SOUTH CAROLINA. 621 rounding country he called Carolina, in honor of Charles IX., of France. He left 26 persons in this colony, and went back to Europe ; but the settlers became dissatisfied, mutinied, killed their command- ant, abandoned the enterprise, and sailed for France in a rude vessel which they had built. Their vessel proved a failure, and, after suf- fering great hardships and privations, they were rescued by an English ship, and carried to Euppe. A permanent colony was planted at Port Royal by the English in 1670. The settlers removed, in 1671, to the site of old Charleston, on the west side of the Ashley River, and in 1680 again removed to the point of land between the Cooper and Ashley rivers, and founded the present city of Charleston. The province grew rapidly, and under the general name of Carolina was united with the settlements in North Carolina, under one Govern- ment, the nature of which we have already described in the last chapter. In 1729, the king bought out the proprietors, and South Carolina came into existence as a separate royal province. By this time it had been well settled by a considerable number of French Huguenots, and Swiss, Irish, and German emigrants. The colony was greatly harassed during its infancy by the savages, and united with Georgia in putting a stop to the depredations of the Spaniards, who -had settled Florida and were guilty of many outrages upon their English neighbors. The province was one of the most prominent in the measures of resistance to British aggression adopted by the colonies, and in the summer of 1775 repulsed a British fleet under Sir Peter Parker, which sought to force an entrance into Charleston Harbor. The State was the scene of many desperate and bloody encounters during the war. Charleston was taken by the British, ^’vho held the country for nearly two years, during which the partisan bands of Marion, Sumter, and Pickens maintained a constant and bloody guerilla warfare against them, and against their Tory adherents, of which the State contained large numbers. The battles of Camden, Eutaw Springs, and the Cowpens were fought in South Carolina, which State main- tained its ancient reputation for bravery and patriotism throughout the whole struggle. The original Constitution of the State was adopted in March, 1776, and the Constitution of the United States was ratified in May, 1798. The State grew rapidly in wealth and importance after the forma- tion of the Federal Union. Negro slavery increased rapidly. The number of slaves in 1790 was 107,091, and in 1860, 402,406, while 622 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the white population had increased only 107 per cent, in 70 yeai’s, being 140,178 in 1790, and 291,388 in 1860. In the latter year, the free and slave negroes constituted nearly 60 per cent, of the whole population. Being a strictly agricultural community, the State was naturally averse to the high tariff system so popular in the manufacturing States of the North, and, as we have seen elsewhere in this book, carried its opposition to the tariff measures of the General Government to the verge of open war. From that time it became the leader of the extreme States’ Rights party of the South, and upon various occasions threatened to secede from the Union. In December, 1860, after the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency, the State seceded from the Union. The ordinance of secession was adopted by the State Convention, on the 20th of December, 1860. The forts, arsenals, and public property of the United States in South Carolina were seized and occupied by the State forces, except Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor, which was held by a detachment of the Federal army. Hostilities began in the bombardment and capture of this fort by the Confederates in April, 1861. During the war Charleston was besieged by the United States army, and its harbor blockaded by the navy. Several severe battles occur- red in its immediate vicinity, but all the efforts of the fleet to reduce its defences were repulsed. In the summer of 1863, the defences of James Island were captured, and from that time the city was sub- jected to a severe bombardment, which laid a large part of it in ruins. It was held by the Confederates until Sherman’s movements com- pelled them to evacuate it. As they left it they set fire to it, and nearly the whole city was destroyed. It was at once occupied by the Union troops. Port Royal Harbor v/as the scene of a severe naval bombardment in the fall of 1861. The Confederate forts defending the entrance were captured, and the harbor and its islands held during the war. After reaching Savannah at the close of his march from Atlanta, Sherman moved his army through this State, from the neighborhood of Port Royal to beyond Cheraw. His troops destroyed immense quantities of property, and damaged the State to a terrible extent. The capital, Columbia, was fired (the origin of the fire still remaining a disputed question) and almost entirely destroyed. After the close of the war, a Provisional Government was appointed by the President. A State Convention was held, a new Constitution SOUTH CAROLINA. 623 framed, and an excellent system of Government established. Con- gress, however, denied the right of the President to make such changes, and in 1867 abolished the new order of affairs, and organized the State into a military district, the command of which was given to Major-General Daniel E. Sickles. In August, 1867, General Sickles was removed, and General Canby put in his place. In January, 1868, a State Convention met at Charleston and adopted a Constitution, which was ratified by the people, and on the 25th of June, 1868, the State was readmitted into the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns, besides the capital, are Charleston, Georgetown, Camden, Greenville, Orangeburg, and Winnsboro. COLUMBIA, The capital and second city of the State, is situated in Richland district, or county, on the east bank of the Congaree, just belo\y the confluence of the Broad and Saluda rivers. Latitude 33° 57' N., longitude 81° 7' W. It is 124 miles north-northwest of Charleston, and 500 miles southwest of Washington. Columbia is one of the most beautiful cities in the Union. It is handsomely built, its streets are well paved, and are broad, straight, and shaded with stately trees, among which the magnolia and the live oak are conspicuous. It is located on the bluffs of the Congaree, a few miles Uelow the falls of that stream, and is noted for the elegant mansions and exquisite gardens with which it abounds. The vicinity of the city is one of the most highly cultivated portions of the Union, and is noted for its model plantations, as welLas for its fine scenery. The public buildings are among the handsomest in the country. The State House is, a magnificent edifice, 170 feet long and 60 feet wide, and cost nearly three millions of dollars. The Insane AsyluTu is under the control of the State. It is a splendid building and is richly endowed. The city buildings are handsome. Columbia contains a number of fine public and private schools. The South Carolina College^ sometimes called the TJniversity of South Cai olinaj is a flourishing institution. Here are located a theological school of the Presbyterian Church, and a Roman Catholic College. The city is supplied with pure water, and is lighted with gas. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. It contains a number of churches and 3 newspaper offices. In 1870 the population was 9298. G24 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Columbia is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Congaree River, and is connected Avith all parts of the Union by railways. It is the centre of a large cotton trade. The city was occupied by the forces of General Sherman on the 17th of February, 1865. On the same day a disastrous fire occurred, which laid a large portion of the city in ashes. CHARLESTON, The largest city and the metropolis of the State, is situated in Charles- ton district, or county, at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, which unite to form its harbor. It is 7 miles from the sea, 124 miles south-southeast of Columbia, and 540 miles southwest of AVashington. The city is built upon a plateau elevated about 12 feet above the level of the water. The tides rise to a height of 6 feet, and sweep by the city with a strong current, thus contributing greatly to its healthfulness. The Cooper and Ashley rivers are from 30 to 40 feet deep, the former is 4200, and the latter 6300 feet wide. The harbor is spacious, and will admit vessels drawing 17 feet water. ^^The coup d^oeil is imposing and highly picturesque. Though the grounds are low, hardly more than 12 feet above high water, the effect is fine; and the city, like Venice, seems, at a little distance, to be absolutely rising out of the sea. The bay is almost completely land-locked, making the harborage and roadstead as secure as they are ample. The adjuncts contribute to form a tout ensemble of much beauty. Directly at the entrance of the city stands Castle Pinckney, a fortress which covers an ancient shoal. A little south of Pinckney is Fort Ripley, a small square work, built of Palmetto logs, and filled with paving stones, built in 1862. On the sea-line rises Fort Moultrie, famous, as Fort Sullivan, in beating off, and nearly destroying, the British fleet, under Sir Peter Parker, in 1776. On the eastern extremity of the same island (Sullivan’s), on which Fort Moultrie stands, may yet be traced the outline of the fortress which, under Colonel Thompson, Avith 700 Carolina rifles, defeated Sir Henry Clinton at the very moment Avhen Moultrie drove Parker aAvay from the South. Within the harbor the most conspicuous object, and the one also of commanding interest, is the ruined walls of Sumter. This fort, with that of Moultrie, once constituted the chief defences of Charleston. The events and operations of Avhich these massive ruins have formed the chief centre and culminating point are too fresh in the public recollection to SOUTH CAROLINA, 625 CHARLESTON. require more than a brief retrospect in these pages. The fort, which is an octagonal work of solid masonry, stands in the middle of the harbor. The armament consisted, at the time of the attack, of 140 guns. It was occupied by Major Anderson on the night of December 26, 1860, and at noon of the 27th the Union flag was hoisted over it. On the 11th of January following. Governor Pickens demanded a surrender of the fort, wdiich being refused, preparations were com- menced to attack it. Fire was opened under direction of Geneial G. T. Beauregard at 4.30 o’clock a. m., April 11th, 1861, from the batteries on James Island. After a defence of thirty-two hours the garrison surrendered, and were transported to New York in the steamer Baltic. The present condition of the work sufliciently attests the warmth of the second attack, August, 1863. On James Island are seen the ruins of old Fort Johnson. On the opposite headlands of the Haddrill you may trace the old lines which helped in the defence of the city eighty years ago, but which are now mostly covered by the smart village of Mount Pleasant. These points, north, east, and south, witli the city lying west of them, bound the harbor, leaving an ample circuit of bay — coursing over wliich from 40 ’ ( 52 C THE GREAT REPUBLIC. south to north, the eye pursues the long stretch of Cooper River, the Etivvando of the red men, along the banks of which, for many miles, the sight is refreshed by noble rice-fields, and in many places by the mansions and homesteads of the former planters. Steamers ply up this river, and return the same day, affording a good bird’s-eye view of the settlements, along a very picturesque shore line on either hand. It was up this river that Mr. Webster distinguished himself by shoot- ing an alligator, or rather shooting at him — the alligator diving at the shot, and leaving the matter sufficiently doubtful to enable an old lawyer and politician to make a plausible case of it. Standing on James Island, or on the battlements of Fort Sumter, the eye notes the broad stream of the Ashley, winding from west of the city, round its southernmost point, to mingle with the waters of the Cooper. The Ashley was anciently a region of great wealth and magnificence. It is still a river of imposing aspect — broad, capacious, with grassy, well-wooded banks, beyond which you may still behold some antique and noble edifices.” The city is regularly built, and is about 2 miles long by about I 5 miles in width. The streets are not very wide, but are laid off regu- larly, and the city is one of the best built in the country. The prin- cipal streets are Meeting and King. These run north and south, nearly parallel, the whole length of the city. Meeting street is 60 feet wide, and on it is transacted the principal business of the city. It contains some of the handsomest public buildings, and the leading hotels. King street is much narrower, and is the principal shopping street large proportion of the population of Charleston consists of the gentry of the contiguous parishes, who, possessing large planting in- terests, are sufficiently opulent to maintain abodes in the city as well as on their plantations. Here they educate their children, and hither they resort in midsummer. This is the secret of something anomalous in the life of Charleston. It is resorted to in summer as a watejyng- place by the people of the country. This practice will account for some of those characteristics which are thought to be peculiar to the city. The planters bring with them wealth and leisure, and these naturally beget luxurious tastes and habits. These elevate the tone of society, but tend to the disparagement of labor and industry. Hence extravagant standards of living, and deficient enterprise as well as industry. The city covers a considerable extent of territory, more than its SOUTH CAROLINA. 621 number of people would seem to imply, as in other cities, in conse- quence of the suburban character of so many of the residents. The dwelling-houses of these are generally isolated, having large open grounds on every side, which are used for gardens. Rare exotics, the finer fruits, the peach, the nectarine, the orange, fill these spaces, and, with the vine, impart a rich, tropical character to the aspect of the abode, which itself may be neither very large nor very magnificent. Ample piazzas and verandahs, ranging from 1 to 3 stories, give cool- ness and shade to the dwelling. The houses are of brick or wood ; there are few of stone. Charleston exhibits a peculiar taste in archi- tecture. It is like no other city in the Union in this respect. There are few regular blocks or rows of buildings. There is no uniformity. Each man has built after his own fashion ; and there are some singu- lar emanations of taste ; but what is lost in propriety is gained in variety, and with fine gardens, open plats of shrubbery, shade and fruit trees, the orange, peach, etc., creepers, vines, the rich foliage of the magnolia, the oak, the cedar, the Pride of India, girdling the wTiite dwellings and the green verandahs, the effect is grateful and highly picturesque.^^ Scattered through the city are a number of small public squares, the principal of» which, the Battery, commands a fine view of the harbor. The public buildings are numerous and handsome. The most con- spicuous are the City Hall, Court House, Police Court, Custom House, Jail, Workhouse, and South Carolina Hall. The schools of Charleston have always been famous. They embrace all classes, from the public primary school to colleges of a high grade. The principal establishments of the higher class are the Military Academy, conducted by the State (one-half of its pupils being State or free students) ; the Charleston College, founded in 1788; and the Medical College of the State of South Carolina. The city contains several fine libraries, among which are the Mercantile, Apprentices, and City Libraries. The Art Society and Historical Society are ex- cellent institutions, and each possesses a valuable collection of works relating to its objects. The benevolent establishments are well conducted. They consist of an Almshouse, an Orphan Asylum, and a Hospital, together with several humane and charitable societies. The cemeteries are among the most beautiful in the world, and are greatly admired. The city contains over 30 churches, several fine hotels, about 4 daily newspapers, and .sev’^eral weeklies. It is lighted with gas, and is sup- 028 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. plied with Avatcr. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 48,956. During the late war, the city was subjected to a severe bombard- ment from the United States batteries on the bay islands, and was se- verely injured. It is now slowly recovering from this damage, and the old buildings are being replaced with better and more convenient edifices. _ i t- • u Charleston is connected with the principal cities of the Union by railway, and by steamers with the Atlantic and Gulf ports, it is the centre of a large coasting trade, and possesses some foreign commerce. It exports more rice than any other city in the Union, and is next to New Orleans and Mobile in its exportation of cotton. It has also a laro'e trade in tobacco, lumber, and flour. Considerable shipping is owned in the port. The commerce of the city Avas entirely destroyed by the late Avar, but is now rapidly reviving. Charleston Avas settled about the year 1679, by an English colony acting under a charter from the British Crown. The expedition was led by William Sayle, Avho became the first Governor. Some years later the settlers were joined by a number of French Hugumiots, who had been exiled from their native country on account of their religion. Its growth Avas greatly retarded by the fierce fevers incident to the southern coast, and by many other difficulties ; but it surmounted these, and by 1731 contained 600 houses and 5 churches. It took an active part in the troubles of the Revolution, and, although it con- tained a large number of persons devoted to the royal authority, sided with the colonies. On the 24th of June, 1776, a British fleet under Sir Peter Parker, consisting of 9 ships of Avar, attacked the American fort on Sullivan’s Island, Avhich commanded the entrance to the har- bor The fort was unfinished and badly armed, and was garrisoned by only 400 men under Colonel Moultrie. The British were repulsed Avith severe loss, and came near losing their fleet. In 1778, a severe fire consumed 252 houses. On the 1st of April, 1780, Charleston aa^s besieged by the British under Sir Henry Clinton. It Avas defended by General Lincoln and a small American force, who held out until May 12th, Avhen they surrendered, half the city being in rums and the people starving. The British held the city imUl 1782. ^ In 1783 Charleston Avas incorporated as a city. In 1796, it Avas again ravagec by a fire, Avhich destroyed nearly a third part of the city and propel ty to the amount of $2,500,000. Charleston Avas the centre of the Secession movement which resulted SOUTH CAROLINA. 629. in the civil war. The beginning of hostilities — the bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter — occurred here. The harbor was closely blockaded during the war, and the defences of the city were frequently attacked by land and sea, and the city itself was subjected to a severe and destructive bombardment. After a long and desperate siege, it was recaptured by the United States forces on the 18th of February, 1865. MISCELLANY. AN INCIDENT IN THE LIFE OF SERGEANT JASPER. Jasper had a brother, who had joined the British, and who held a similar rank in the army. To this brother he was warmly attached, and actually ventured into the British garrison at Ebenezer to see him. His brother was exceedingly alarmed, lest he should be seized and hung as an American spy ; for his name was well known to many of the British officers. “Do not trouble yourself,” said Jasper ; “ I am no longer an American soldier.” “lhank God for that, William,” exclaimed his brother, heartily shaking him by the hand ; “and now only say the word, my boy, and here is a commission for yon, with regimentals and gold to boot, to fight for His Majesty, King George.” Jasper shook his head, and observed, that though there was but little encour- agement to fight for his country, he could not find it in his heart to fight against her. And there the conversation ended. After staying two or three days with his brother, inspecting and hearing all that he could, he took his leave, returned to the American camp by a circuitous route, and told General Lincoln all that he had seen. Soon after he made another trip to the English garrison, taking with him his particular fiiend. Sergeant Newton, who was a young man of great strength and courage. His brother received him with his usual cordiality ; and he and his friend spent several days at the British fort without giving the least alarm. On the morning of the third day, his brother observed that he had bad news to tell him. • “Ay ! what is it ? ” asked William. “Why,” replied his brother, “here are ten or a dozen American prisoners, brought in this morning, as deserters from Savannah, whither they are to be sent immediately ; and, from what I can learn, it will be apt to go hard with them for it seems they have all taken the king’s bounty.” “ Let us see them,” said Jasper. So his brother took him and his friend New- ton to see them. It was indeed a melancholy sight to see the poor fellows hand- cuffed upon the ground. But when the eye rested on a young woman, wife of one of the prisoners, with her child, a sweet little boy of five years, all pity for the male prisoners was forgotten. Her humble garb showed that she was poor ; but her deep distress, and sympathy with her unfortunate husband, proved that she was rich in conjugal love, more precious than all gold. She generally sat on the ground opposite to her husband, with her little boy leaning on her lap, and her coal black hair spreading in long, neglected tresses on her neck and bosom. Sometimes she would sit, silent as a statue of grief, her eyes fixed upon the 630 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. earth : then she would start with a convulsive throb, and gaze on her husband’s face with looks as piercing sad as if she already saw him struggling in the halter, herself a widow, and her son an orphan. While the child, distressed by his mother’s anguish, added to the pathos of the scene by the artless tears of childish suffering. Though Jasper and Newton were undaunted in the field of battle, their feelings were subdued by such heart-stirring misery. As they walked out into the neighboring wood, the tears stood in the eyes of both. Jasper first broke silence. “Newton,” said he, “my days have been but few ; but I believe their course is nearly finished.” “ Why so, Jasper ? ” “ Why, I feel that I must rescue those poor prisoners, or die with them, other- wise, the remembrance of that poor woman and her child will haunt me to my grave.” “That is exactly what I feel, too,” replied Newton ; “ and here is my hand and heart to stand by you, my brave friend, to the last drop. Thank God, a man can die but once ; and why should we fear to leave this life in the way of our duty? ” The friends embraced each other, and entered into the neeessary arrangements for fulfilling their desperate resolution. Immediately after breakfast, the prisoners were sent on their way to Savannah, under the guard of a sergeant and corporal, with 8 men. They had not been gone long, before Jasper, accompanied by his friend Newton, took leave of his brother, and set out on some pretended errand to the upper country. TheyTiad scarcely got out of sight of Ebenezer, before they struck into the woods, and pushed hard after the prisoners and their guard, whom they closely dogged for several miles, anxiously watching an opportunity to make a blow. The hope, in- deed, seemed extravagant; for what could two unarmed men do against ten^ equipped with loaded muskets, and bayonets ? However, unable to give up their countrymen, our heroes still travelled on. About 2 miles from Savannah, there is a famous spring generally called the Spa, well known to travellers, who often stopped there to quench their thirst. “Perhaps,” said Jasper, “the guard may stop there.” Hastening on through the woods, they gained the Spa, as their last hope, and there concealed them- selves among the thick bushes that grew around the spring. Presently, the mournful procession came in sight of the spring, where the sergeant ordered a halt. Hope sprung afresh in the bosoms of our heroes, though no doubt mixed with great alarms; for “it was a fearful odds.” The corporal, wdth his guard of four men, conducted the prisoners to the spring, while the sergeant, with the other four, having grounded their arms near the road, brought up the rear. The prisoners, wearied with their long walk, were permitted to rest themselves on the earth. Poor Mrs. Jones, as usual, took her seat opposite to her husband, and her little boy, overcome with fatigue, fell asleep in her lap. Two of the corporal s men were ordered to keep guard, and the other two to give the prisoners drink out of their canteens. These last approached the spring, where our heroes lay concealed, and, resting their muskets against a pine tree, dipped up water. Having drunk themselves, they turned away with replenished canteens, to give to the prisoners also. “Now, Newton, is our time,” said Jasper. Then, burst- ing like lions from their concealment, they snatched up the two muskets that were resting against the pine, and in an instant shot down the two soldiers who were upon guard. It was now a contest who should get the loaded muskets that SOUTH CAROLINA. 631 fell from the hands of the slain ; for*by this time a couple of brave Englishmen, recovering from their momentary panic, had sprung and seized upon the mus- kets ; but before they could use them, the swift-handed Americans, with clubbed guns, levelled a final blow at the heads of their brave antagonists. The tender bones of the skull gave way, and down they sunk, pale and quivering, without a groan. Then hastily seizing the muskets, which had thus a second time fallen from the hands of the slain, they flew betw^een their surviving enemies and their w^eapons, grounded near the road, and ordered them to surrender ; which they instantly did. They then snapped the handcuffs off the prisoners, and armed them with muskets. At the commencement of the fight, poor Mrs. Jones had fallen to the earth in a swoon, and her little son stood screaming piteously over her. But, when she recovered, and saw her husband and his friends freed from their fetters, she be- haved like one frantic with joy. She sprung to her husband’s bosom, and, wdth her arms round his neck, sobbed out, “ My husband is safe — bless God, my hus- band is safe.” Then, snatching up her child, she pressed him to her heart, as she exclaimed, “ Thank God ! my son has a father yet.” Then, kneeling at the feet of Jasper and Newton, she pressed their hands vehemently, but in the full- ness of her heart she could only say, “ God bless you ! God Almighty bless you ! ” For fear of being retaken by the English, our heroes seized the arms and regi- mentals of the dead, and, with their friends and captive foes, recrossed the Sa- vannah, and safely joined the American army at Parisburgh, to the inexpressible astonishment and joy of all. GEORGIA. Area, 58,000 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 1,057,286 (Whites, 591,588. Negroes, 465,698) Population in 1870, 1,195,338 The State of Georgia, the most southern of the original members of the Union, lies between 30° 21' 39" and 35° N. latitude, and be- tween 81° and 85° 53' 38"- W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by North Carolina and Tennessee, on the east by South Caro- lina, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Florida, and on the west by Florida and Alabama. The Savannah Eiver separates it from South Carolina, and the Chattahoochee forms a part of the western boundary, separating the lower half of the State from Alabama and Florida. The greatest length of Georgia, from north to south, is about 300 miles, and its greatest width, from east to west, about 250 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. Along the coast, and for about 100 miles inland, the surface is flat and marshy, resembling the lower part of South Carolina. Rice is largely cultivated here. A fine rolling country occupies the centre of the State, while the northern and northwestern parts are traversed by the ranges of the Blue Ridge Mountains, which vary in height from 1200 to 4000 feet. The southeastern part contains a series of swamps, having a circuit of about 180 miles, known under the general name of Okefonokee Swamp. This is one of the wildest and rankest tracts in the South, and abounds in alligators, lizards, cranes, snakes, etc. The coast is lined with a chain of islands, similar to those of South Carolina, which produce the Sea Island cotton. The 632 GEORGIA. 633 waters lying between these islands and the shore constitute an inner passage along the coast, and are navigable for light draft vessels. The coast is deeply indented with inlets, some of which atford good harbors. ° The Savannah River, which separates the State from South Caro- lina, is formed by the Tugaloo and Seneca rivers. It is about 500 miles long, and is navigable for large steamboats to Augusta, 230 miles from the sea. ^ Ships ascend to Savannah, about 15 miles from Its mouth. It IS lined with fine cotton and rice plantations, and above Augusta is an excellent mill stream. The Ogeeehee River flows almost parallel with it, and empties into Ossabaw Sound, a short dis- tance south of Savannah. It is navigable for small vessels for 30 or 40 miles, and for flat-boats to Louisville, near the centre of the eastern part of the State. Its principal branch, the Cannouchee, is navigable for small vessels for 50 miles. The Altamaha River flows into the Atlantic, south of the Ogeeehee. It is formed by the Oconee and Ocmulgee, which, rising in the northern part and flowing through central Georgia, unite about 100 miles from the sea, and form the Altamaha. The main river is ascended by ships to Darien, not far from its mouth. The Ocmulgee is navigable for small steamers to Macon, and the Oconee to Milledgeville, the capital of the State — each neariy two hundred miles from the sea. The Santilla and St. Mary's dram the extreme southeastern part of the State, and are navigable for small vessels for about 30 or 40 miles, and much higher for flat- boats. The ChattahooGhee River rises in the Blue Bidge IMountains, in Habersham county, in the extreme northeastern corner of the State. Flowing southwest to West Point, it strikes the boundary between Georgia and Alabama, and turns to the south, washing the western shore of the State to its southern extremity, where it empties into the Appalachicola River, of Florida. It is about 550 miles long, and is navigable for steamers, from November to June, to Columbus, 350 miles from its mouth. The rapids begin at Columbus. The upper part of the river flows through the gold region of Georgia, and is a fine mill stream. The Flint River is its principal branch. It rises in the western part of the centre of the State, and flows southwest into the Chattahoochee, just above the mouth of that river. It is about 300 miles long, and is navigable for steamers to Albany. The other riveis are the Tallapoosa and Coosa, the sources of the Alabama, in the northwest, the Hiawassee, one of the sources of the Tennessee, in the north, and the Ocklockony and Suwanee and their branches, in the south, which flow into Florida. 634 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MINERALS. The minerals of this State are gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, man- ganese, titanium, graphite, antimony, zinc, granite, marble, gypsum, limestone, coal, sienite, marl, burrstone, soapstone, slate, jasper, ame- thyst, chalcedony, cornelian, agate, rose quartz, garnets, and several others more or less valuable. Diamonds are sometimes found. The gold region lies in the northern part of the State, principally in and around Lumpkin county. Until the discovery of gold in California, it was the principal source of our supply. Previous to the war, the General Government maintained a branch mint at Dahlonega, in the centre of the gold region. In 1852, $476, 788 were coined at this mint. These mines are far from being exhausted, and are worked now with considerable profit. The white marble quarries of Cherokee county are of great extent, a portion of them affording statuary marble. The slate quarries of Polk county are now attracting much attention. The slate is con- sidered equal to the Welsh, and is now being shipped to New York. The quarry is of enormous extent. Hydraulic cement, nearly white in color, and of excellent quality, is made near Kingston, Bartow county. The indications of petroleum in Floyd county are strong. That section has been thrown up in the wildest confusion. The formation is the lower silurian, abounding in fossils, and both the limestone and shale are highly bituminous. Iron ore abounds in Bartow and other counties.’^ CLIMATE. The climate of Georgia is the most delightful of any of the far Southern States. The southern and southeastern parts are cooled by the sea breeze, and the mountain regions are, though severe in winter, delightfully cool in summer. The spring comes early and is pleasant. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil along the coast and the rivers is fertile, and produees almost any variety of food. About 65 or 70 miles from the coast, the Pine Barren region begins. This soil is naturally poor, but is easily fertilized. It produces valuable timber and naval stores. In the southwestern part of the State, the soil is light and sandy, but, although fertile, is easily worn out, and requires careful manuring. GEORGIA 635 In the middle counties the soil consists of a red loam originally fer- tile, but greatly exhausted by the bad system of agriculture pursued in the State. The northern part of the State is very fertile, and will produce cotton, but is much better adapted to the growth of grain, to which it is principally devoted. Cotton is raised in the central and southern counties, and rice along the coast and the lower parts of the principal rivers. The great extent of navigable rivers in this State renders it easy to bring the crops to market, and thus lightens the bur- dens of the producer. Grain is extensively grown in this State. The greater part of the cotton region can be tilled by white labor, but here and elsewhere, rice requires a cultivation which would be fatal to white laborers. The agricultural interests of Georgia were fearfully damaged by the civil war, and the State is but slowly recovering from its losses. The statistics of 1869, the latest available, are very imperfect. They are as follows : / Acres of improved land, Bushels of wheat, “ rye, “ oats, “ Indian corn, “ barley, “ potatoes, “ peas and beans, .... Tons of hay, Number of horses, “ mules and asses, . . . “ milch cows, “ young cattle, . . . . . “ swine, Value of domestic animals, .... Bales of cotton, Pounds of rice (estimated), .... COMMERCE. 8 , 062,758 2 . 170.000 73.000 1 . 200.000 27 , 500,000 . 13,300 248.000 1 , 965,212 48.000 198,300 200,150 301,180 780,350 2 , 150,300 $ 45 , 372,734 495.000 30 , 000,000 At the commencement of the civil war, Georgia was building up a valuable and growing trade with the Northern States and with Europe. In 1860, the foreign exports of the State amounted to $18,483,038, and the imports to $782,061. MANUFACTURES. With an enterprise which won her the title of the Empire State of the South,^^ Georgia was making great progress in manufactures 63G THE GREAT REPUBLIC. when the wiir broke out. Nearly all her establishments were either entirely destroyed, i;j:.,i:!.;, ^ ' , .. -'• Av4;r^w ,:.-»•= .^ '...iv-^v a' ,fr^:4j.K;-> .^t- '^■:'k* J > •--'c'' '< ' TW]v*v •./ ^ ‘.5' *?!! .g,<.i.v.:*fl,X) -crtais!®-..! ,. J.,,* iR-s&a9d-v'.,.w35A' .o-.i^i-il' ;J;t^ -«{c.n &■ ‘iai •Vt-1 :^‘ ■■' Jf#. .iW.r .' \JJ:t. . .. .;- ■ 1^,1. i^f-' i:^,,;.4-':»'(;s »;■ ^B'-h:; - ; < 4 x;i >! x - . *’ •.W'-.rS- -V7-JL?4iii?. i>iA •*?•'». ... . . ■'■■' l.U>.* '".viaef: r;iWR!»3i 5i,:....~.^i,>/t:.V!« r»!.-,^„ M3,, - :'..., ;t“'’''.. V l a 5T R -1^ i^: Xv-. ;, „• ;. ix. ':i V . =,..^. , L, f ; a, iU -3 . X X,^v 9rn7. rvri sah --'’' ' '.. : 764 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitutipn of the State was ratified by the people in May, 1862. Every white male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided m the State one year, and in the county thirty days, is entitled to vote at the elections. Paupers, lunatics, and convicts, are not allowed to vote. The Government is vested in a Governor, Secretary of State Audi- tor. Treasurer, Attorney-General, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 22 members, elected for two years) and a House of Dele- gates (of 61 members, elected for one year), all elected by the peo- ple. The State officers are chosen for two years. The Legislature meets every year on the third Tuesday in January, and sits for 45 days only, unless two-thirds of both houses agree to prolong the session. ° The Courts of the State are, the Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts and County Courts. The Supreme Court of Appeals consists of 3 judges, elected by the people for 12 years, one judge retiring every 4 years. . ^ ^ The seatof Government is located at Charleston, in Kanawha county. The State is divided into 63 counties. HISTORY. This Stete formed a part of Virginia until the outbreak of the late war. Being unwilling to be forced out of the Union by the action of the eastern counties, the people of the w'estern district met at Wheeling in convention, on the 11th of June, 1861, and organized a State Government. Delegates from 40 counties were present. On the 26th of November, 1861, another Convention met at AYheeling and adopted a State Constitution for the new State of West Virginia. This was ratified by the people on the 3d of May, 1862, but Congress insisted on the adoption of certain amendments to the Constitution. These changes were made by the Convention, the amendments sustained by a vote of the people, and the new State was admitted into the Union on the 20th of June, 1863. During the war the State was repeatedly invaded by the Confede- rates, and those regions bordering on the old State of Virginia put to considerable loss. The Kanawha Valley was the scene of several se- vere battles, but -towards the close of the war the State was almost exempt from hostilities. WEST VIRGINIA. fgg *" Sentiment, the Uvion element preponderating, however. A large number of men enlisted in the Con- stlTLmy^^' troops to the United CITIES AND TOWNS. bn™ 'oh'"f 'T' “t' “u Parkersburg, Martins- Wefl’sbulg ^«"''^burg, Clarksburg, Fairmont, Grafton, and CHARLESTON, The capital of the State, is situated in Kanawha county, on the north bank of the Kanawha River, 60 miles from its mouth, and at its con- fluence with the Elk River, and about 150 miles S.S.W. of Wheeling. e river here is about 300 yards wide, and is navigable for smaU steamers during the entire year. These furnish the only means of oTtrcro • • 1 tu Vii,^ arleston will soon be connected with Eastern Vir- sCtiti ^ “ -“-P o” -- Charleston is a pretty country town, containing the county buildings a newspaper office, 3 or 4 churches, and several schools. Its only iS portance is due to its being the capital of the State. Being diLult of access, it is believed that the seat of Government will soon be re ^ ovrf to some more convenient town. In 1870 the population was Just above Charleston are the famous Kanawha Salt Works which xtend on both sides of the river for about 15 miles. Previous to the civil war they gave employment to about 3000 persons, and produced laje quantities of salt annually. During the civil war tLy weS greatly injured. The entire Kanawha region is rich in coai and abounds in flne \yater-power. Its proximity to the iron regions of the S IoT”ta manufaeJing, whil will no doubt be improved in the course of a few years. ^ WHEELING, The commercial and political metropolis of West Virginia and the ot the Ohio River, and on both sides of Wheelino- Crept nf the of the latter stream, 92 miles below Pittsburg, 365 milL above Gin- 766 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, WHEELING. cinnati, and 420 miles west of Washington by the Baltimore and Ohio Railway. Latitude 40° 7' N. ; longitude 80° 42' W. The city is built along a narrow alluvial tract extending from the river to a range of hills less than a mile from the water, and running parallel with it. It is about 2 miles in length, with an average breadth of half a mile. It is regularly laid out, with moderately wide streets crossing each other at right angles, and though it contains a number of handsome buildings, public and private, is but indifferently built as a whole. The streets are tolerably well paved, and some of them are well shaded with handsome trees. The houses are mostly of brick, and nearly the whole of those recently erected are of this material. The principal public buildings are, the United States Custom House (in which is located the Post Office), a handsome granite edifice, and the Court House. The city contains 24 churches, some of which would do credit to any city ; an efficient hospital; 7 public schools, and several excellent private schools, its female seminaries being among the best in the country ; a free library of 35,000 volumes ; 2 hotels, and 4 newspaper offices. Its principal points are connected by a street railway, which is also extended across the Ohio to the town of Bridgeport, in the WEST VIRGINIA. T6t , State of Ohio ; it is lighted with gas, is supplied with pure water from the Ohio River, and is provided with a steam fire department, and an efficient police force. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 19,282. Wheeling lies in the midst of one of the loveliest portions of the Ohio Valley, and is destined to become a place of very great import- ance. It is connected with Baltimore and the East by the Baltimore and Ohio Railway. A railway on the opposite side of the river con- nects it with Pittsburg and Cleveland, and another on the same side with Columbus, Cincinnati and all parts of the West. The Ohio is navigable for steamers during the greater part of the year, and affords water communication with all parts of the Mississippi Valley. The city is engaged in a heavy river trade, a number of steamboats being owned in Wheeling. The prosperity of the city is due almost entirely to its manufactures. The mills by which it is surrounded are filled with coal, which lies but a few feet below the surface. The large mills mine their own coal at a moderate cost, many of the coal banks,’^ as they are called, lying within the city limits. Dr. Reeves, of Wheeling, writing in 1870, thus speaks of the manufactures of the city : In the manufacture of iron and nails, within the limits of the city, 2295 persons are employed ; of these the principal operatives are boilers and their helpers, 620; blacksmiths, 80; nailers, 127; nail- feeders, 385. Boilers work at the furnaces by turns of ten hours, both day and night, and prepare the metal for the rolls, where it is made into bars and nail sheeting. This class of laborers is generally composed of Germans and Irish — the most of them foreign born, and, as a rule, are a hardy set of men. The nail mills qf Wheeling — the Riverside Iron Works, Belmont, La Belle, and M^heeling Iron and Nail Works, including the two mills at Benwood and Bellaire, which are four miles distant from Wheeling, cut 17,350 kegs of nails per week, or about 902,200 kegs annually, at an average value of $4,059,900. Besides these, and other rolling mills for the manufacture of railroad bar rod, hammer iron, sheet iron, bridge iron, bolts, etc., there are two spike mills which turn out annually, for railroad and boat building purposes, from 50,000 to 60,000 kegs. The toughness of Wheeling nails, and therefore their superiority to nails made at other mills, is generally conceded. The Whitaker Mills, situated on the bank of Wheeling Creek, engage principally in the manufacture of railroad iron, spikes^ 768 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. sheet iron, etc., and are capable of rolling and finishing 60 tons of railroad bars per day. Fifty miles of the rails of the great Pacific road were made at these mills. The Norway Manufacturing Com- pany’s mills, situated in South Wheeling, are supplied with machin- ery of the most improved invention, and are capable of doing all kinds of wrought iron bridge work. A part of the grand railway superstructure soon to span the Missouri at St. Charles, near St. Louis, is now going through these mills, which not only proves their capacity, but as well their competitive ability. The hinge and tack factories are extensive establishments, and because of the superior manufacture of their stocks, they are rapidly extending their trade in ail directions. The founderies and machine shops give employment to 475 persons, who are remarkable for their general good health, notwithstanding their frequent excesses in eating and drinking. There are eight founderies in the city. Three or four of these establishments are principally engaged in duplicating the patterns of machinery employed in the different iron and nail mills, and they are also as well prepared to make original patterns and single castings of any shape and for any purpose, weighing from one pound to fifteen tons. Recently a new item of business — the making of iron fronts of the most beautiful and substantial patterns, for business houses — has come into existence. ^^The stove market is entirely supplied from home founderies, which turn out annually thousands of different patterns, both for cooking and heating purposes. In this particular line of trade, busi- ness is constantly on the increase, for two reasons, mainly : the truly excellent patterns made, and the exceedingly low price at which they are sold. Besides, it has been ascertained that Wheeling stoves with- stand greater and longer heat without burning than many patterns of Eastern and Northern manufacture. There are eight machine shops in the city. Of these the Baltimore and Ohio are the most extensive, and command the labor of from 60 to 120 men, both day and night. In each of the other shops, how- ever, equally skilled machinists are busily employed the year round making steam-engines, boilers, shafting, mill work, steamboat irons, etc., etc. In a word, anything in the way of Machinery can be made at the Wheeling shops as well and at as low price as it can be furnished from the competing shops of Pittsburg and Cincinnati. The Manufacture of Glass. — In this department there are six extensive establishments — one of which is said to be the largest WEST VIRGINIA. 169 of the kind in the United States — which employ 860 persons of both sexes, men and women, boys and girls. Many articles of Wheeling glass manufacture find ready sale in the markets of other cities — from Maine to California ; and it is, indeed, remarkable that New England sand can be shipped to Wheeling, where it is made into the finest flint glass wares, and then these sent to Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York and Boston, for sale at even smaller prices than their own manufacturers can produce like articles. Some idea may be had of the extent of the business done, when it is mentioned that to one house alone, the annual cost of packages, boxes, barrels, etc., for shipment of wares, is $15,000 ; and that during the past three months, over 16,000 second-hand barrels have been used at a cost of $5000. The superior quality of Wheeling window glass is generally acknowledged. Several of the finer grades, usually cut into large panes, closely resem- ble the best specimens of imported plate glass. Besides the manufacture of iron, nails and glass, there are several establishments which are of very great importance, both on account of the amount of capital invested, and the number of skilled laborers they employ. First in importance among these, perhaps, are the two‘ extensive ship-yards — one in North W^heeling, the other in South Wheeling. Many first-class boats are built at these yards, and fur- nished with the most improved machinery from Wheeling shops. There are also several extensive wagon and carriage manufactories in the city. In these establishments a very large capital is invested. Their trade is principally with the South, and the supply of their manufactures scarcely equals the demand. The woollen factory is a busy institution, and supplies the home and other markets with many excellent fabrics.’^ There are about 34 establishments engaged in the manufacture of the articles referred to. Besides these, flour, white lead, and silk are also produced here. The Ohio is crossed at Wheeling by a beautiful wire suspension bridge, which is one of the largest in the world, with a span of 1010 feet. The height of the towers is 153 feet above low- water mark, and 60 feet a'bove the abutments. The bridge is supported by four wire cables, each 1380 feet in length, and 8 inches in diameter. The cost of the bridge was $210,000 in gold. It extends from Wheeling proper to Zanes’ Island, now the 7th ward of the city of Wheeling. On the western side of the island, a covered wooden bridge connects it with the town of Bridgeport in Ohio. 49 \ 110 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Wheeling was originally settled in 1769 by Colonel Ebenezer Zane, his brothers Silas and Jonathan, and a number of others. They chose the site of the present city for their new home, and the next spring brought out their families. The name of the city is derived from an Indian word — Weeling — signifying the place of a head. Some years before the settlement a party of whites descending the Ohio, stopped at the mouth of the creek. They were murdered by the Indians, who cut off the head of one of the victims, and placed it on a pole with the face to the river, and called the spot Weeling. Soon after the settlement a fort was built near the mouth of the creek. In Septem- ber, 1777, this Fort (Henry) was besieged by a force of about 500 Indian warriors, led by the notorious renegade Simon Girty. The garrison, only 42 strong, repulsed the attack, until the arrival . of a reinforcement of about 50 men, when the savages raised the siege and retreated. After the close of the Revolution the city grew slowly. The introduction of steam navigation on the Ohio, gave it an impetus, and it soon entered upon its manufacturing career, which can be limited only by the amount of capital available to its citizens. After the secession of Virginia, and the separation from the old State, it was made the capital of West Virginia, and continued to be the seat of Government until the removal of the capital to Charleston, in 1870. PARKERSBURG, The second city of the State, is situated in Wood county, on the east bank of the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Little Kanawha, 100 miles below Wheeling, and about 400 miles by railway west of Washington. It is well laid out, and is neatly built. It contains a Court House, about 5 churches, several good schools, 3 newspaper offices, and several steam mills. It is the western terminus of the Northwestern Virginia railway, a branch of the Baltimore and Ohio railway. The Ohio River is here crossed by a fine railway bridge, by means of which close connections are made with the railways leading to Cincinnati, etc. The city is also actively engaged in the river trade. The valley of the Little Kanawha abounds in oil wells, many of which are very profitable. Just below Parkersburg is the long cele- brated BlannerhassePs Island. Good turnpike roads extend from Parkersburg to Winchester and Staunton, in Eastern Virginia, In 1870, the poj)ulation of Parkersburg was 5546. WEST VIRGINIA. m MISCELLANY. BORDER LIFE, Dodridge, in his “Notes on Western Virginia,” gives the following account of the life led by the settlers of that region : The settlements on this side of the mountains commenced along thelVTononga- hela, and between that river and the Laurel ridge, in the year 1772. In the succeeding year they reached the Ohio River. The greater number of the first settlers came from the upper parts of the then colonies of Maryland and Virginia. Braddock’s trail, as it was called, was the route by which the greater number of them crossed the mountains. A less number of them came by the way of Bed- ford and Fort Ligonier. TJiey effected their removals on horses furnished with pack-saddles. This was the more easily done, as but few of these early adven- turers into the wilderness were encumbered with much baggage. Land was the object which invited the greater number of these people to cross the mountain, for, as the saying then was, “It was to be had here for taking up; ” that is, building a cabin and raising a crop of grain, however small, of any kind, entitled the occupant to 400 acres of land, and a pre-emption right to 1000 acres more adjoining, to be secured by a land-office warrant. This right was to take effect if there happened to be so much vacant land, or any part thereof, ad- joining the tract secured by the settlement right. At an early period the Government of Virginia appointed three commissioners to give certificates of settlement rights. These certificates, together with the sur- veyor s plat, were sent to the land-office of the State, where they lay six months, to await any caveat which might be offered. If none was offered, the patent then issued. There was, at an early period of our settlements, an inferior kind of land title, denominated a “tomahawk right,” which was made by deadening a few trees near the head of a spring, and marking the bark of some one or more of them with the initials of the name of the person who made the improvement. I re- member having seen a number of those “tomahawk rights ” when a boy. For a long time many of them bore the names of those who made them. I have no knowledge of the efficacyof the tomahawk improvement, or whether it conferred any right whatever, unless followed by an actual settlement. These rights, how- ever, were often bought and sold. Those who wished to make settlements on their favorite tracts of land, bought up the tomahawk improvements, rather than enter into quarrels with those who had made them. Other improvers of the land, with a view to actual settlement, and who happened to be stout veteran fellows, took a very different course from that of purchasing the “tomahawk rights.” When annoyed by the claimants under those rights, they deliberately cut a few good hickories, and gave them what was called in those days a “laced jacket,” that is, a sound whipping. ’ Some of the early settlers took the precaution to come over the mountains in the spring, leaving their families behind to raise a crop of corn, and then return and bring them out in the fall. This I should think was the better way. Others, especially those whose families were small, brought them with them in the spring. My father took the latter course. His family was but small, and he 7^2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. brought them all with him. The Indian meal which he brought over the moun- tain was expended six weeks too soon, so that for that length of time we had to live without bread. The lean venison and the breast of wild turkeys we were taught to call bread. The flesh of the bear was denominated meat. This artifice did not succeed very well. After living in this way for some time, w'e became sickly, the stomach seemed to be always empty and tormented with a sense of hunger. I remember how narrowly the children watched the growth of the po- tato tops, pumpkin and squash vines, hoping from day to day to get something to answer in the place of bread. How delicious was the taste of the young potatoes when we got them ! What a jubilee, when we were permitted to pull the young corn for roasting ears. Still more so, when it had acquired sufficient hardness to be made into jonny-cakes by the aid of a tin grater. We then became healthy, vigorous, and contented with our situation, poor as it was. My father, with a small number of his neighbors, made their settlements in the spring of 1773. Though they were in a poor and destitute situation, they never- theless lived in peace ; but their tranquillity was not of long continuance. Those most atrocious murders of the peaceable, inoffensive Indians, at Captina and Yellow Creek, brought on the war of Lord Dunmore, in the spring of the year 1774. Our little settlement then broke up. The women and children were re- moved to Morris’s Fort, in Sandy Creek glade, some distance to the east of Uniontown. The fort consisted of an assemblage of small hovels, situated on the margin of a large and noxious marsh, the eflluvia of which gave the most of the women and children the fever and ague. The men were compelled by ne- cessity to return home, and risk the tomahawk and scalping-knife of the Indians, in raising corn to keep their families from starvation the succeeding winter. Those sufferings, dangers, and losses, were the tribute we had to pay to that thirst for blood which actuated those veteran murderers who brought the war upon us. The memory of the sufferers in this war, as well as that of their de- scendants, still looks back upon them with regret and abhorrence, and the page of history will consign their names to posterity with the full weight of infamy they deserve. My father, like many others, believed that, having secured his legal allotment, the rest of the country belonged of right to those who chose to settle in it. There was a piece of vacant land adjoining his tract, amounting to about 200 acres. To this tract of land he had the pre-emption right, and accordingly secured it by warrant ; but his conscience would not permit him ter retain it in his family ; he therefore gave it to an apprentice lad whom he had raised in his house. This lad sold it to an uncle of mine for a cow and a calf, and a wool hat. Owing to the equal distribution of real property directed by our land laws, and the sterling integrity of our forefathers in their observance of them, we have no districts of sold land,” as it is called, that is, large tracts of land in the hands of individuals, or companies, who neither sell nor improve them, as is the case in Lower Canada and the northwestern part of Pennsylvania. These unsettled tracts make huge blanks in the population of the country where they exist. The division-lines between those whose lands adjoined were generally made in an amicable manner, before any survey of them was made, by the parties con- cerned. In doing this, they were guided mainly by the tops of ridges and water- courses, but particularly the former. Hence the greater number of farms in the western parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia bear a striking resemblance to an amphitheatre. The buildings occupy a low situation, and the tops of the WEST VIRGINIA. IIS surrounding hills are the boundaries of the tract to which the family mansion belongs. Our forefathers were fond of farms of this description, because, as they said, they were attended with this convenience, “that everything comes to the house down hill.” Most of the early settlers considered their land as of little value, from an appre- hension that after a few years’ cultivation it would lose its fertility, at least for a long time. I have often heard them sa}^ that such a field would bear so many crops, and another so many more or less than that. The ground of this belief concerning the short-lived fertility of the land in this country, was the poverty of a great proportion of the land in the lower parts of Maryland and Virginia, which, after producing a few crops, became unfit for use, and was thrown out into commons. My reader will naturally ask where were their mills for grinding grain ? Where their tanneries for making leather ? Where their smith-shops for making and repairing their farming utensils ? Who were their carpenters, tailors, cabinet workmen, shoemakers, and weavers ? The answer is, those manufacturers did not exist, nor had they any tradesmen who were professedly such. Every family was under the necessity of doing everything for themselves as well as they could. The hommony-block and hand-mills were in use in most of our houses. The first was made of a large block of w^ood about 3 feet long, with an excavation burned in one end, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, so that the action of the pestle on the bottom threw the corn up to the sides tow'ards the top of it, from whence it continually fell down into the centre. In consequence of this movement, the whole mass of the grain was pretty equally subjected to the strokes of the pestle. In the fall of the year, while the Indian corn was soft, the block and pestle did very well for making meal for jonny-cake and mush, but were rather slow when the corn became hard. The sweep was sometimes used to lessen the toil of pounding grain into meal. This was a pole of some springy elastic wood, 30 feet long or more ; the butt end was placed under the side of a house, or a large stump. This pole was supported by two forks, placed about one-third of its length from the butt end, so as to ele- vate the small end about 15 feet from the ground ; to this was attached, by a large mortise, a piece of a sapling, about 5 or 6 inches in diameter, and 8 or 10 feet long. The lower end of this was shaped so as to answer for a pestle. A pin of wood was put through it at a proper height, so that two persons could work at the sweep at once. This simple machine very much lessened the labor, and ex- pedited the work. I remember that, when a boy, I put up an excellent sweep at my father’s. It was made of a sugar-tree sapling. It was kept going almost constantly, from morning till night, by our neighbors for several weeks. In the Greenbrier country, where they had a number of saltpetre caves, the first settlers made plenty of excellent gunpowder by means of those sweeps and mortars. A machine still more simple than the mortar and pestle was used for making meal, while the corn was too soft to be beaten. It was called a grater. This was a half-circular piece of tin, perforated with a punch from the concave side, and nailed by its edges to a block of wood. The ears of corn w’ere rubbed on the rough edges of the holes, while the meal fell through them on the board or block to which the grater was nailed, which, being in a slanting direction, discharged the meal into a cloth or bowl placed for its reception. This, to be sure, was a slow way of making meal, but necessity has no law. THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The hand-mill was better than the mortar and grater. It was made of two circular stones, the lowest of which was called the bed-stone, the upper one the runner. These were placed in a hoop, with a spout for discharging the meal. A statf was let into a hole in the upper surface of the runner, near the outer edge, and its upper end through a hole in a board fastened to a joist above, so that two persons cOuld be employed in turning the mill at the same time. The grain was put into the opening in the runner by hand. These mills are still in use in Pal- estine, the ancient country of the Jews, To a mill of this sort our Saviour al- luded, when, with reference to the destruction of Jerusalem, he said : “ Two women shall be grinding at a mill, the one shall be taken and the other left,” This mill is much preferable to that used at present in Upper Egypt for making the dhoura bread. It is a smooth stone,, placed on an inclined plane, upon which the grain is spread, which is made into meal by rubbing another stone up and down upon it. Our first water-mills were of that description denominated tub-mills. It con- sists of a perpendicular shaft, to the lower end of which a horizontal wheel of about 4 or 5 feet in diameter is attached ; the upper end passes through the bed- stone, and carries the runner after the manner of a trundlehead. These mills were built with very little expense, and many of them answered the purpose very well. Instead of bolting cloths, sifters were in general use. They were made of deerskins, in a state of parchment, stretched over a hoop, and perforated with a hot wire. Our clothing was all of domestic manufacture. We had no other resource for clothing, and this indeed was a poor one. The crops of flax often failed, and the sheep were destroyed by the wolves. Linsey, which is made of flax and wool — the former the chain, the latter the filling — was the warmest and most substantial cloth we could make. Almost every house contained a loom, and almost every W'oman was a weaver. Every family tanned their own leather. The tan-vat was a large trough sunk to the upper edge in the ground, A quantity of bark was easily obtained every spring in clearing and fencing land. This, afler/drying, was brought in, and in wet days was shaved and pounded on a block of wood, with an axe or mallet. Ashes were used in place of lime, for taking off the hair. Bears’ oil, hogs’ lard, and tallow, answered the place of fish oil. The leather, to be sure, was coarse ; but it was substantially good. The operation of currying was performed by a drawing-knife, with its edge turned, after the manner of a currying-knife. The blacking for the leather was made of soot and hogs’ lard. Almost every family contained its own tailors and shoemakers. Those who could not make shoes, could make shoepacks. These, like moccasins, were made of a single piece of leather, with the exception of a tongue-piece on the top of the foot. This was about 3 inches broad, and circular at the lower end. To this the main^piece of leather was sewed with a gathering stitch. The seam behind was like that of a moccasin. To the shoepack a sole was sometimes added. The women did the tailor work. They could all cut out and make hunting-shirts, leggins, and drawers. The state of society which existed in our country at an early period of its set- tlement, was well calculated to call into action every native mechanical genius. This happened in this country. There was in almost every neighborhood some one, whose natural ingenuity enabled him to do many things for himself and his neighbors, far above what could have been reasonably expected. With the few WEST YIRGINIA. 116 tools -whicli they brought with them into the country, they certainly performed wonders. Their plows, harrows with wooden teeth, and sleds, were in many instances w^ell made. Their cooper-ware, which comprehended everything for holding milk and water, was generally pretty well executed. The cedar-ware, by haying alternately a white and red stave, was then thought beautiful ; many of their puncheon floors were very neat, their joints close, and the top even and smooth. Their looms, although heavy, did very well. Those w’ho could not exercise these mechanic arts, were under the necessity of giving labor or barter to their neighbors in exchange for the use of them, so far as their necessities required. For a long time after the first settlement of this country, the inhabitants in general married young. There was no distinction of rank, and very little of for- tune, On these accounts the first impression of love resulted in marriage ; and a family establishment cost but a little labor, and nothing else. A description of a wedding, from the beginning to the end, will serve to show the manners of our forefathers, and mark the grade of civilization which has succeeded to their rude state of society in the course of a few years. At an early period, the practice of celebrating the marriage at the house of the bride began, and, it should seem, with great propriety. She also had the choice of the priest to perform the cere- mony.^ A wedding engaged the attention of a whole neighborhood ; and the frolic was anticipated by old and young with eager expectation. This is not to be wondered at, when it is told that a wedding was almost the only gathering which was not accompanied with the labor of reaping, log-rolling, building a cabin, or planning some scout or campaign. In the morning of the wedding-day, the groom and his attendants assembled at the house of his father, for the purpose of reaching the mansion of his bride by noon, which was the usual time for celebrating the nuptials, which for certain must take place before dinner. Let the reader imagine an assemblage of people, without a store, tailor, or mantuamaker, within 100 miles ; and an assemblage of horses, without a black- smith or saddler within an equal distance. The gentlemen dressed in shoepacks, moccasins, leather breeches, leggins, linsey hunting-shirts, and all home-made. The ladies dressed in linsey petticoats, and linsey or linen bed-gowns, coarse shoes, stockings, handkerchiefs, and buckskin gloves, if any. If there were any buckles, rings, buttons, or rufiles, they were the relics of old times ; family pieces, from parents or grand-parents. The horses were caparisoned with old saddles, old bridles or halters, and pack-saddles, with a bag or blanket thrown over them; a rope or string as often constituted the girth as a piece of leather. The march, in double file, was often interrupted by the narrowness and ob- structions of our horse-paths, as they were called, for we had no roads ; and these difficulties were often increased, sometimes by the good, and sometimes by the ill-will of neighbors, by falling trees, and tying grape-vines across the way. Sometimes an ambuscade was formed by the wayside, and an unexpected dis- charge of several guns took place, so as to cover the wedding-party with smoke. Let the reader imagine the scene which followed this discharge ; the sudden spring of the horses, the shrieks of the girls, and the chivalric bustle of their partners to save them from falling. Sometimes, in spite of all that could be done to prevent it, some were thrown to the ground. If a wrist, elbow, or ankle hap- pened to be sprained, it was tied with a handkerchief, and little more was thought or said about it. THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ^6 Another ceremony commonly took place before the party reached the house of the bride, after the practice of making whiskey began, which was at an early period ; when the party were about a mile from the place of their destination, two young men would single out to run for the bottle ; the worse the path, the more logs, brush, and deep hollows, the better, as these obstacles afforded an op- portunity for the greater display of intrepidity and horsemanship. The English fox-chase, in point of danger to the riders and their horses, is nothing to this race for the bottle. The start was announced by an Indian yell ; logs, brush, muddy hollows, hill and glen, were speedily passed by the rival ponies." The bottle was always filled for the occasion, so that there was no use for judges ; for the first wdio reached the door was presented with the prize, with which he returned in triumph to the company. On approaching them, he announced his victory over his rival by a shrill whoop. At the head of the troop, he gave the bottle first to the groom and his attendants, and then to each pair in succession to the rear of the line, giving each a dram ; and then, putting the bottle in the bosom of his hunting-shirt, took his station in the company. The ceremony of the marriage preceded the dinner, which was a substantial backwoods feast, of beef, pork, fowls, and sometimes venison and bear-meat, roasted and boiled, with plenty of potatoes, cabbage, and other vegetables. Dur- ing the dinner the greatest hilarity always prevailed, although the table mfght be a large slab of timber, hewed out with a broadaxe, supported by four sticks set in auger-holes ; and the furniture, some old pewter dishes and plates ; the rest, wooden bowls and trenchers ; a few pewter spoons, much battered about the edges, were to be seen at some tables. The rest were made of horns. If knives were scarce, the deficiency was made up by the scalping-knives, which were car- ried in sheaths suspended to the belt of the hunting-shirt. After dinner the dancing commenced, and generally lasted till the next morn- ing. The figures of the dances were three and four-handed reels, or square setts and jigs. The commencement was always a square four, which was followed by what was called jigging it off ; 'that is, two of the four would single out for a jig, and were followed by the remaining couple. The jigs were often accompanied with what was called cutting out ; that is, when either of the parties became tired of the dance, on intimation the place was supplied by some one of the company without any interruption of the dance. In this way a dance was often continued till the musician was heartily tired of his situation. Towards the latter part of the night, if any of the company, through weariness, attempted to conceal themselves, for the purpose of sleeping, they were hunted up, paraded on the floor, and the fiddler ordered to play, “Hang out till to-morrow morning.” About 9 or 10 o’clock, a deputation of the young ladies stole off the bride, and put her to bed. In doing this, it frequently happened that they had to ascend a ladder, instead of a pair of stairs, leading from the dining and ball-room to the loft, the floor of w^hich was made of clapboards, lying loose, and without nails. As the foot of the ladder was commonly behind the door, which w^as purposely opened for the occasion, and its rounds at the inner ends were well hung with hunting-shirts, pettieoats, and other articles of clothing, the candles being on the opposite side of the house, the exit of the bride was noticed by but few. This done, a deputation of young men in like manner stole off the groom, and placed him snugly by the side of his bride. The dance still continued ; and if seats happened to be scarce, which was often the case, every young man, when not engaged in the dance, was obliged to offer his lap as a seat for one of the girls ; WEST VIRGINIA. m and the offer was sure to be accepted. In the midst of this hilarity, the bride and groom were not forgotten. Pretty late in the night, some one w’ould remind the company that the new couple must stand in need of some Refreshment ; black Betty, which was the name of the bottle, was called for, and sent up the ladder ; but sometimes black Betty did not go alone. I have many times seen as much bread, beef, pork, and cabbage sent along with her as would afford a good meal for half a dozen hungry men. The young couple were compelled to eat and drink, more or less, of whatever was offered them. It often happened that some neighbors or relations, not being asked to the wedding, took offence ; and the mode of revenge adopted by them on such occa- sions was that of cutting off the manes, foretops, and tails of the horses of the wedding company. On returning to the infare, the order of procession, and the race for black Betty, was the same as before. The feasting and dancing often lasted for several days, at the end of w^hich the whole company were so exhausted with loss of sleep, that several days’ rest were requisite to fit them to return to their ordinary labors. Should I be asked why I have presented this unpleasant portrait of the rude manners of our forefathers, I in my turn would ask my reader, why are you pleased with the histories of the blood and carnage of battles ? Why are you de- lighted with the fictions of poetry, the novel, and romance ? I have related truth, and only truth, strange as it may seem. I have depicted a state of society and manners which are fast vanishing from the memory of man, with a view to give the youth of our country a knowledge of the advantages of civilization, and to give contentment to the aged, by preventing them from saying, “that former times were better than the present.” TENNESSEE. Area, 45,600 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 1,109,801 (Whites, 826,782 ; Negroes, 283,019.) Population in 1870, ...... 1,258,376 The State of Tennessee is situated between 35° and 36° 36' N. lati- tude, and between 81° 40' and 90° 15' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Kentucky and Virginia, on the east by North Carolina, on the south by North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and on the west by Arkansas and Missouri. Its extreme length, from east to west, is about 430 miles, and its average breadth about 110 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The eastern part of the State is crossed by the various ranges of the great Alleghany chain, which are here known as the Stone, Iron, Bald, and Unaka Mountains. The Cumberland Mountains, which form the southeastern border of Kentucky, cross this State in a south- western direction, and pass into Alabama. They lie about 40 or 50 miles west of the Alleghany range, the valley between them being watered by the Holston, Clinch, and the other head waters of the Tennessee River. The Cumberland Mountains cover an area of about fifty miles wide, and are thickly wooded. Beyond this range a fine rolling country, known as Middle Tennessee, extends westward to the Tennessee River. Between that stream and the Mississippi the land is either greatly rolling or flat. The Mississippi River washes the entire western shore of the State. Memphis, the principal city, is situated on this river, in the extreme southwestern corner of Tennessee. The Tennessee River is formed by 778 TENNESSEE. lid the confluence of the Holston and Clinch rivers, which, rising in the Alleghany Mountains, in Virginia, unite at Kingston, in this State. It flows in a generally southwestern direction to the base of the Cum- berland Mountains, at the point where the boundaries of Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia touch each other, and then sweeps around to the southwest, flows across the entire northern part of Alabama, touches the northeastern corner of Mississippi, and, bending to the north, crosses the States of Tennessee and Kentucky, and empties into the Ohio River at Paducah, 48 miles above the mouth of the latter stream. At Florence, Alabama, 280 miles from its mouth, the navi- gation is interrupted by the Muscle Shoals, a series of fine rapids, ex- tending for about 20 miles above this point. Beyond these rapids, the stream is again navigable for steamers as far as Knoxville, on the Holston, 500 miles above Florence. The Tennessee is 800 miles long, flowing through this State for 400 miles, and its principal branch, the Holston, 300 miles long, making a total length of 1100 miles. The chief towns of this State on its banks are Knoxville and Chattanooga. It flows for the most part through a beautiful and fertile country. The Cumberland River, which flows across the northern part of Middle Tennessee, rises in the Cumberland Moun- tains in the southeastern part of Kentucky. It enters this State at the northeast angle of Jackson county, and flows in a generally south- western direction to Nashville, after which its course is mainly north- west. It crosses the southern boundary of Kentucky, about 10 miles east of the Tennessee River, and flows parallel with that stream into the Ohio. It is about 600 miles long. At high water it is navigable for large steamers to Nashville, 200 miles from its mouth, and for small steamers 300 miles higher. The Forked Deer, Big Hatchie, and Obion flow into the Mississippi, and are each navigable for a greater or less distance. All the waters of this State ultimately find their way to the Mississippi. MINERALS. The mineral resources of Tennessee are developed to but a limited extent, though her hills and mountains contain stores of iron, of coal, and of copper, of zinc, of sandstone, and of the finest marble, awaiting the capital, enterprise, and labor that shall dig out and utilize these dormant mines of wealth. Iron ore is found in great abundance in nearly all the counties of Eastern and Middle Tennessee ; copper, in Greene, Sevier, Polk, Perry, and other counties; coal, in the coun- 780 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ties of Campbell, Rhea, Marion, etc. ; some gold is reported in Polk, salts, in Greene and Hawkins ; lead, in Perry ; fine marble and build- ing-stones, in Hawkins, Campbell, Monroe, Meigs, Giles, and William- son ; thick stratum of shale, in Coffee, etc., etc. The timber resources are also extensive, embracing a great variety, and many of the finest quality of forest trees — hickory, the various oaks, poplar, walnut, ash, beech, chestnut, locust, cedar, sugar, pine, etc., which cover a large portion of the vast tracts classed ^ wild or unimproved lands.^ The soil ranges from that of the deep rich bottoms, of exhaustless fertility, to light and hilly uplands, which require high culture to become pro- ductive. In a number of counties, the iron interest has been partially developed. In Greene, one furnace is in operation, and a northern company have purchased several thousand acres of ore-lands, and will soon have extensive works completed. Near the town of Greeneville, there is a bed of sulphate of iron, from which copperas was made during the war, and where even the clay is impregnated with the mineral. Our Montgomery correspondent says : ^ that within twenty- five miles of Clarksville there are from ten to twenty furnaces lying idle for want of capital ; most of them were burned during the war, and the proprietors being unable to rebuild and run them, would sell out very low.’ The zinc of Greene county is said to be very rich ; during the war, Epsom salts were also made to some extent in the mountains. In Hawkins, our correspondent states, ^ there is an underground stream of salt water traversing the valley, which has been tapped at several points, at one of which the manufacture of salt has been successfully prosecuted for a number of years, though not upon a large scale ; but it is thought that, with capital and enterprise, it might be made to rival the salt-wells of southwestern Virginia in the production of this valuable product. ... A most beautiful quality of marble is found at various points in this county; one quarry of which was worked to a considerable extent before the war. Much capital might be profitably invested and many laborers use- fully employed in the manufacture and preparation for market of the two articles named — salt and marble — as well as iron, the ore of which is present in the mountains.’ Our Marion correspondent says, Ghe quantity of bituminous and semi-bituminous coal and iron ore in this county is unlimited, with but little development of the former and none of the latter, though the inducements are great, produce being abundant and transportation good and improving.’ ”* * Agricultural Report. TENNESSEE. 181 CLIMATE. The climate is usually mild. Except in the eastern part the winters are short and pleasant, and snow does not often fall. The summers are cool and delightful, and the State is generally healthful. In the mountains the winters, though short, are severe. SOIL^ AND PRODUCTIONS. In the mountains of East Tennessee, the land is poor and difficult of cultivation. The valleys, however, are fertile, and amply repay the labor expended upon them. The soil of Middle Tennessee is generally good, whilst that of Western Tennessee consists of a rich black mould. The staple products are Indian corn, tobacco, and cotton. The agriculture of Tennessee was almost destroyed by the war, the State being, like Virginia, a vast battle-field, but the people are slowly recovering from their losses, and are bringing their crops up to some- thing like the old average. In 1869, the State contained 6,795,337 acres of improved land. The principal returns for the same year were : Bushels of wheat, 6,750,000 “ rye, 226,000 “ peas and beans, 547,803 “ oats, 3,500,000 “ Indian corn, 47,500,000 “ Irish potatoes, 1,000,000 Tons of hay, .... 158,000 Pounds of butter, 10,017,787 Number of horses, 300,975 “ asses and mules, 131,780 “ milch cows, 260,190 “ sheep, 960,312 “ swine, 2,800,312 “ young cattle, . 709,360 Value of domestic animals, $65,211,425 In 1870, the cotton crop amounted to about 215,000 bales, and the tobacco crop is estimated at about 35,000,000 pounds. COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. This State has scarcely any foreign trade. Its cotton is exported - from New Orleans, and the most of its other products are disposed THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 782 \ of ill that city. Memphis has an important trade with the States along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers and with Arkansas. Previous to the war manufactures were an important interest in Tennessee, and were becoming more extensive every year. The water power of the State is magnificent, and offers many inducements to capitalists. In 1860 there were 2572 establishments in Tennessee devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing a capital of $14,426,261, and 12,528 hands, consuming raw material worth $9,416,514, and yielding an annual product of $17,987,225. The principal products were stated as follows for that year : Value of cotton goods, $698,122 “ flour and meal, 3,820,801 “ pig-iron, 457,000 “ bar and rolled iron, 483,248 “ copper, 404,000 “ coal, 413,662 “ sawed and planed lumber, 1,975,481 “ leather, 1,118,850 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. There were, in 1868, in the State of Tennessee, 1317 miles of com- pleted railroads, constructed at a cost of $34,186,000. Nashville, Memphis, and Chattanooga are the principal railroad centres of the State, and are connected with each other and with all parts of the country. Western and Middle Tennessee are covered with a network of roads extending into Kentucky on the north, and Mississippi and Alabama on the south, and the great route from Virginia to the Mis- sissippi crosses the eastern part of the State in a southwest direction, from Bristol to Chattanooga. These railroads were almost entirely destroyed during the war. EDUCATION. In 1860, there were in Tennessee 35 colleges, with 2932 students; 274 academies and other schools, with 15,793 pupils; and 2965 pub- lic schools, with 138,809 pupils. Schools were organized in this State as early as 1780, in East Tennessee, and by the year 1795 there were 3 colleges in the State. The new Constitution makes a liberal provision for the support of free schools. A permanent school fund is established, and taxes are levied for the maintenance of the schools. The educational system is plax3ed in charge of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, and is * similar to that of West Virginia. TENNESSEE. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Nashville. It is provided with fine commodious buildings, and is conducted on the silent system. The Tennessee Hospital for the Insane and the Tennessee Blind School are located at Nashville. They were damaged greatly, and met with many losses during the war, but have been reopened with success since the return of peace. Measures are on foot for the erec- tion of a hospital for the colored insane. T]ie Tennessee Deaf and Dumb School is at Knoxville. It was established in 1845. It was broken up during the war, and the build- ing occupied by the two armies, in turn, as a hospital, and greatly damaged. It was reopened in 1866, and is now prosperous. FINANCES. In 1867 the State debt amounted to $32,562,323, of which $23,- 601,000 consisted of bonds loaned to railroads. The expenditures of the treasury for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1867, were $2,259,522, and the receipts $2,336,445. In 1868 there were 12 National banks, with a capital of $2,025,300, doing business in the State. GOYEKNMENT. By the Constitution of this State every male citizen 21 years old, residing in the State 1 year and in the county 6 months, who has paid the poll tax specified by the Constitution, is entitled to vote at the elections. The government of the State is vested in a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptroller, Attorney-General, and a General As- sembly, consisting of a Senate and House of Delegates. The Gover- nor and members of the Legislature are elected by the people for two years. The State officers, with the exception of the Attorney-General, are elected for four years by the Legislature. The Attorney-General is appointed by the judges of the Supreme Court. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, Courts of Chan- cery, Circuit Courts, County Courts, and Justices’ Courts. The Su- preme Court consists of 5 judges, no two of which must reside in the same part of the State. The seat of Government is at Nashville. For purposes of government the State is divided into 84 counties. THE GREAT REPUBLIC. m HISTORY. Tennessee originally formed a part of the province of North Caro- lina. It was, at the time of its settlement, a vast wilderness, which was claimed as a hunting ground by the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Shaw- nees, and the Six Nations. The Cherokees dwelt in the extreme south- east part, but no other tribe made the Territory a place of habitation. In 1756 Andrew Lewis was sent into this region for the purpose of settling it, by the Earl of Loudon, then the Governor of Virginia, and commander of the Royal forces in America. He built a post, which he called Fort Loudon, on the Wautauga or Little Tennessee, about 30 miles southwest of Knoxville. This settlement is now a thriving village. The fort was given a strong garrison of British troops, and, influenced by the sense of the protection which this force imparted, the region round about was soon partially settled by emi- grants, and in the spring of 1758 the garrison of the fort was increased to 200 men. In 1758, Colonel Bird built a post in what is now Sullivan county. This was for some time believed to be in Virginia, and was called Long Island Fort. In 1768, many families came out to the new region, and settled along the Holston and Wautauga rivers. In 1769, or 1770, a party of 10 hunters descended the Cumberland River to the Ohio, in boats which they had built, stopping for a while at the site of the present city of Nashville. They descended the Ohio to the Mississippi, and passed down that river to Natchez, which was then a Spanish settle- ment. They were kindly treated by the Spaniards, and some of them remained there, but others returned to the settlements along the Wautauga. In 1760, Fort Loudon was besieged by the Cherokees, and closely invested for a month. The garrison, 200 in number, consumed their horses and dogs, and finally, being on the point of starvation, surren- dered upon condition that they should be allowed to return to Vir- ginia. They were suffered to depart and to march 15 miles from the fort without being molested, but when they had accomplished that distance, were treacherously attacked and nearly all massacred on the spot. This outrage was avenged the next year by Colonel Grant, who, with a force of 2600 regular and provincial troops and friendly Indians, invaded the Cherokee country and laid waste their fields and villages. These severe measures compelled the savages to sue for peace. TENNESSEE. T85 By the outbreak of the Bevolution fhe Tennessee country was quite thickly settled, and the populatfon was increasing at an encouraging rate. In 1776, the Cherokees, incited by the British, waged a formid- able war upon the settlers, but were defeated by the forces of Virginia and North Carolina. The Tennessee settlements, at this time known as the District of Washington,^^ were represented in the Convention which framed the Constitution of North Carolina, and, in 1780, the Tennessee militia, under Colonel Levier, bore a conspicuous part in the bloody battle of King’s Mountain. After the war lands in this region were offered the North Carolina troops in payment of the bounties due them. Many of them accepted the offer and settled on the lands. Others sold their warrants to actual settlers. Nashville had been settled by a party of two or three hun- dred, under Colonel Eobertson, as early as 1780, and the rich lands of Davidson county, lying around it, now attracted the greater part of the holders of the military warrants. In 1785, the inhabitants of the present counties of Sullivan, Wash- ington, and Greene, attempted to set up an independent State Govern- ment, as they declared, and with truth, that the capital of North Carolina was too far away to benefit them. They called their new State FranUin. This course produced considerable confusion, which was not quieted until 1790, when North Carolina ceded the territory to the United States. Congress established a Territorial Government, and the region was called ''The Territory of the United States south- west of the Ohio Eiver.” In 1794, the Territory of Tennessee was organized, and the Legis- lature met at Knoxville. The next year it was found that it con- tained a population of 77,262, of which 10,613 were negro slaves. Efforts were now made to secure its erection into a State, and on the 1st of June, 1796, Tennessee was admitted into the Union. The State took an active part in the second war with England, and contributed to the cause Andrew Jackson, who won the victory of New Orleans, and many of the hardy backwoodsmen Avho fought under him that day. After the return of peace, Tennessee entered upon a career of pros- perity, which was checked by the Eebellion. Being a slaveholding State, it was expected that the people would take sides with the ex- treme pro-slavery party. When the Gulf States seceded from the Union in the winter of 1860-61, Tennessee was urged to join them. The Legislature submitted to the people the call for a Convention, for 786 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, NASHVILLE. tlie purpose of seceding, and this call was defeated by a popular majority of 64,114. After the fall of Fort Sumter, however, the Governor convened the Legislature in extra-session, and on the 9th of May, 1861, that body adopted an Ordinance of Secession, and sent representatives and senators to the Confederate Congress. Western and Middle Tennessee were very clearly in sympathy with this action of the Legislature, but East Tennessee was loyal to the Union. The State was at once occupied by the Confederates, and in the spring of 1862, the western and northern portions fell into the hands of the Union forces. Volunteers enlisted on each side, and the State became the western battle-field of both armies. The severe battles of Fort Donnelson, Shiloh and Pittsburg Landing, Murfreesboro, Chat- tanooga, Knoxville, and Kashville, were fought witnin the limits of the State. After the close of the war, a Provisional Governor was appointed, and the State was restored to its former position in the Union on the 24th of July, 1866. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are, Memphis, Knoxville, Chattanooga, and Murfreesboro. TENNESSEE. NASHVILLE, The capital and second city of the State, is situated in Davidson county, on the left bank of the Cumberland River, at the head of steamboat navigation, about 200 miles from the mouth of that stream, 230 miles east-northeast of Memphis, and 684 miles southwest of Washington. Latitude 36° 9' N ; longitude 86° 49' W. The city is delightfully situated in a beautiful, healthy, and fertile country, and has long been one of the most important places in the southwest. It is built on an elevated blufP of limestone, and com- mands fine views of the river and vicinity. It is regularly laid ofP, and contains many handsome edifices. Many of the residences are palatial in their character. The public buildings are handsome. The Capitol is one of the finest edifices on the continent. It stands on an eminence 197 feet above the river, and is built of fine fossilated limestone, much like marble, which was quarried on the spot. Many of the blocks weigh 10 tons each. Its dimensions are 270 by 140 feet. ^‘Its architecture is Grecian, consisting of a Doric basement, and supporting on its four fronts, Ionic porticoes, modelled after those of the Erechtheum at Athens.’' In the centre of the building is a tower 80 feet high. The halls of the Legislature are among the handsomest in the country, being surpassed only by those of the two Houses of Congress. The cost of the Capitol was $1,000,000 in gold. The Lunatic Asylum, and the State Penitentiary are imposing buildings. The latter contains 200 cells. The City Hall is also a handsome building. The schools of the city are noted for their excellence. It has several public schools in operation, and one for colored children. The University of Nashville, founded in 1806, is an institution of high character. Its Medical Department is regarded as an excellent school. The female schools are considered the best in the State. The State Library contains over 1 2,000 volume^. The Cumberland River is crossed here by a fine bridge. The river is navigable for steamers during the greater part of the year, and Nashville is the seat of a heavy river trade. It has railway com- munication with all parts of the State and country. It contains about 14 churches, and about 8 newspaper and 4 magazine offices. It is lighted with gas, is supplied with water from the Cumberland River, and possesses a steam fire-engine department, and an efficient police force. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the popu- lation was 25,865. 788 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MEMPHIS. Nashville has long been noted for its enterprising spirit, literary taste, and polished society. It is in everything but geographical position a Southern rather than a Western city. It was founded in 1779, by a party of emigrants from North Carolina, and established as a town by the Assembly of that State, in 1784. It was named in honor of Colonel Francis Nash, who fell at the head of his regiment at Ger- mantown. It suffered very greatly during the civil war. It was occupied by tl^e United States army in February, 1862, and held until the close of the war. On the 16th of December, 1864, General Thomas, in command of the United States forces, inflicted a bloody defeat upon the Confederate army, under General Hood, in the vicinity. MEMPHIS, The largest city in the State, is situated in Shelby county, on the east bank of the Mississippi River, just below the mouth of Wolf River, 420 miles below St. Louis, 956 miles above New Orleans, and 230 miles west-southwest of Nashville. It stands on the 4th Chickasaw Bluff, and possesses the only convenient location for a commercial city between the mouth of the Ohio and Vicksburg, Mississippi, a dis- tance of 650 miles. Possessing this, it has become the most populous and important place on the river, between St. Louis and New Orleans* TENNESSEE. 789 The bluff, on which the city is built, is elevated 60 feet above the river, and is about 3 miles in length. At its base a bed of sandstone projects into the river, and forms the levee or landing. The city lies entirely on the bluff above, and presents a fine appearance when viewed from the river. An esplanade, several hundred feet in width, occupies the front of the plateau, and this is lined with handsome buildings, which face the river. The general appearance of the city is attractive, and many of the business edifices and private residences would do credit to any city in the land. Memphis is lighted with gas, and a street railway connects its various points. It contains about 24 good public schools, several private schools, a Mercantile Library, 20 churches, and 10 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the popu- lation was 40,226. Memphis is the most important city on the lower Mississippi, be- sides New Orleans. It has grown with surprising rapidity, notwith- standing the civil war, which injured it severely. It is connected with all parts of the country by railway, and controls a large share of the enormous trade of the Mississippi. It is the principal point for shipping the rich produce of Tennessee, Northern Mississippi, and Arkansas. Corn, cotton, wheat, and tobacco are exported in large quantities. In 1736, the French selected the bluff, on which Memphis stands, as a suitable position for the establishment of a fort, but they neglected to occupy it. In 1783, the Spanish Government directed W. H. Gayoso, the Acting-Governor of Louisiana, to occupy and fortify the bluff, which was done. They held the place until the purchase of Louisiana by the United States. In the same year. Fort Pickering was established here by the United States forces. The settlement of the town was begun in 1820. During the first part of the civil war it was held by the Confederates. It was captured by the United States forces in June, 1862, and held by them until the close of the war. KNOXVILLE, The third city of the State, and the principal place in East Tennessee, is beautifully situated, in Knox county, on the north bank of the Holston River, 4 miles below its junction with the French Broad River, 185 miles east of Nashville. It is located on high ground, from which are obtained magnificent views of the river and distant 790 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Blue Mountains of Chilhowee. The town is well built, and is said to be an agreeable place of residence. It contains the University of East Tennessee, the State Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, 5 churches, several public and private schools, and 2 newspaper offices. It is extensively engaged in the manufacture of window-glass. The city is connected with all parts of the country by railway, and the river is ^ ' tiavigable for steamers at all seasons. Fine marble quarries, iron ore, and bituminous coal abound in the surrounding country. In 1870, the population was 8008. 'Knoxville was laid out in 1794, in which year it was made the capital of the State, which it continued to be until 1817. During the civil war, it was the centre of the opposition to the Confederacy, which was maintained throughout the whole struggle by the East T^^esseans. It was taken by the United States forces in the fall of 186k The^ next year it was besieged by the Confederates, under General Loiigstreet, and was reduced to severe straits. Several desperate battles occurred in the vicinity. It was relieved finally by the United States army, under General Burnside. MISCELLANY. THE BOYHOOD OF ANDREW JACKSON. His parents were Scotcli-Irisli emigrants from Carrickfergus, of tlie humblest condition in life, and to add to the struggles of the family with adversity, his father died just after the birth of his son. His mother was obliged to find a home, as housekeeper and poor relation, in the family of a brother Jn-law, and here young Andrew passed the first ten or twelve years of his life. He soon ac- quired the reputation of being the most mischievous boy in the neighborhood, always full of pranks and getting into trouble. His school-days were not of the most promising character; nor, judging from Mr. Parton’s lively description, was his youthful brain in danger of being turned by any superfluity of book- learning. In due time the boy was sent to an “ old-field school,” an institution not much unlike the road-side schools in Ireland of which we read. The Northern reader is, perhaps, not aware that an “ old-field” is not a field at all, but a pine forest. When crop after crop of cotton, without rotation, has exhausted the soil, the fences are taken away, the land lies waste, the young pines at once spring up, and soon cover the whole field with a thick growth of wood. In one of these old fields, the rudest possible shanty of a log house is erected, with a fire-place that extends from side to side, and occupies a third of the interior. In winter, the in- terstices of the log walls are filled up with clay; which the restless fingeis of the boys make haste to remove in time to admit the first warm airs of spring. An itinerant schoolmaster presents himself in a neighborhood; the responsible farmers pledge him a certain number of pupils, and an old-field school is estab- lished for the season. Such schools, called by the same name, exist to this day 4 TENNESSEE. in in the Carolinas, differing little from those which Andrew Jackson attended in his childhood. Beading, writing, and arithmetic were all the branches taught in the early day. Among a crowd of urchins seated on the slab benches of a school like this, fancy a tall, slender boy, with bright blue eyes, a freckled face, an abundance of long, sandy hair, and clad in coarse, copperas- colored cloth, with bare feet dangling and kicking, and you have in your mind’s eye a picture of Andy as he appeared in his old-field school days in the*Waxhaw settlement. His mother seems to have had more ambitious views for her son, and hoped that by being enabled to obtain for him a liberal education, she would have the pleasure to see him “wag his pow in a pulpit” as a clergyman of the Presbyte- rian Church. He was not destined, however, to “beat the drum ecclesiastic,” though if his good mother’s wishes could have been realized, he wo'uld doubtless have proved a valiant soldier of the “ church militant,” and dealt thick and heavy blows on the sinner and heretic with as much unction as he subsequently discom- fited the invaders of his country at New Orleans. He was a fighter from his earliest boyhood. Not a drop of tame blood ran in his veins. Andy was a wild, frolicsome, wilful, mischievous, daring, reckless boy ; gene- rous to a friend, but never content to submit to a stronger enemy. He was pas- sionately fond of those sports which are mimic battles— above all, wrestling. Being a slender boy, more active than strong, he was often thrown. “I could throw him three times out of four,” an old schoolmate used to say, “ but he would never stay ihroioed. He was dead game, even then, and never would give up.” He was exceedingly fond of running foot races, of leaping the bar, and jumping, and in such sports he was excelled by no one of his years. To younger boys, who never questioned his mastery, he was a generous protector; there was nothing he would not do to defend them. His equals and superiors found him self-willed, somewhat overbearing, easily offended, Tiery irascible, and, upon the whole, “ difficult to get along with.” One of them said, many years after, in the heat of controversy, that of all the boys he had ever known, Andrew Jackson was the only bully who was not also a coward. But the boy, it appears, had a special cause of irritation in a disgraceful disease, name unknown, which induces a habit of — not to put too fine a point on it — “ slobbering.” Woe to any boy who presumed to jest at this misfortune ! Andy was upon him incontinently, and tliere was either a fight or a drubbing. There is a story, too, of some boys secretly loading a gun to the muzzle, and giving it to young Jackson to fire off, that they might have the pleasure of seeing it “ kick ” him over. They had that pleasure. Springing up from the ground, the boy, in a frenzy of passion, exclaimed : “ By , if one of you laughs. I’ll kill him!” He soon had an opportunity for pursuing higher game. He was 9 years old when the Declaration of Independence was signed. By the time the war ap- proached the obscure settlement in the region of the Catawba, where he was born, he was a little more than 13. A change now came over his rustic life. The schoolhouse was closed, the peaceful labors of the people interrupted. His elder brother Hugh had already mounted his horse and ridden southward to meet the bloody strife. It was on the 29th of May, 1780, that Tarleton, with 300 horse- men, surprised a detachment of militia in the Waxhaw settlement, and killed 113 of them, and wounded 150. The wounded, abandoned to the care of the settlers, were quartered in the houses of the vicinity, the old log Waxhaw meeting-house 792 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. itself being converted into a hospital for the most desperate cases. Mrs. Jack- sou was one of the kind women who ministered to the wounded soldiers in the church, and under that roof her boys first saw what war was. The men were dreadfully mangled. Some had received as many as thirteen wounds, and none less than three. For many days Andrew and his brother assisted their mother in Avaiting upon the sick men ; Andrew, more in rage than pity, though pitiful by nature, burning to avenge their wounds and his brother’s death. Tarleton’s massacre at the WaxhaAv settlement kindled the flames of Avar in all that region of the Caroliuas. Andrew, with his brother Robert, was present at Sumter’s attack on the British post at Hanging Rock, Avhere he might have re- ceived his first lesson in the art of war. Soon after he passed his 14th birthday, there ensued a fierce, intestine warfare in the vicinity of his home — a war of Whig and Tory, neighbor against neighbor, brother against brother, and even father against son.^ Among other instances of the madness that prevailed, a case IS related ot a Whig, avIio, having found a friend murdered and mutilated, devo- ted himself to the slaying of Tories. He hunted and lay in Avait for them, and betore the Avar ended had killed 20, and then, recovering from that insanity, lived the rest of his days a conscience-stricken Avretch. Andrew and his brother soon began to take a personal share in the eventful conflict. Without enlisting in any regular corps, they plunged into the fight on their OAvn hook, joining small par- ties that went out on single enterprises of retaliation, mounted on their OAvn horses, and carrying their own weapons. Mr. Parton gives a description of one of his adventures in this line, which illustrates both the time and the boy : “In that fierce, Scotch-Indian warfare, the absence of a father from home was often a better protection to his family than his presence, because his presence in- vited an attack. The main object of both parties Avas to kill the fighting men, and to avenge the slaying of partisans. The house of the quiet hero Hidis, for example, was safe until it Avas noised about among the Tories that Hicks Avas at home. And thus it came to pass, that when a Whig soldier of note desired to spend a night Avith his family, his neighbors Avere accustomed to turn out and serve as a guard to his house while he slept. Behold Robert and Andrew Jack- son, with G others, thus employed one night in the spring of 1781, at the domicil of a neighbor. Captain Sands. The guard on this occasion Avas more a friendly tribute to an active partisan than a service considered necessary to his safety. In short, the night Avas not far advanced before the whole party Avere snugly housed and stretched upon the floor, all sound asleep except one, a British de- serter, who was restless, and dozed at intervals. “Danger was near. A band of Tories, bent on taking the life of Captain Sands, approached the house in two divisions, one party moving toAvard the front door, the other toward the back. The wakeful soldier, hearing a suspicious noise, rose, went out of doors to learn its cause, and saw the foe stealthily near- ing the house. He ran in in terror, and seizing AndreAV Jackson, Avho lay next the door, by the hair, exclaimed : ‘ The Tories are upon us ! ’ “Andrew sprang up and ran out. Seeing a body of men in the distance, he placed the end of his gun in the low fork of a tree near the door and hailed them. No reply. He hailed them a second time. No reply. They quickened their pace, and had come within a few rods of the door. By this time, too, the guard in the house had been roused, and were gathered in a group behind the boy. Andrew discharged his musket, upon which the Tories fired a volley, which killed the hapless deserter Avho had given the alarm. The other party of Tories, TENNESSEE. 793 who were approaching the house from the other side, hearing this discharge, and the rush of bullets above their heads, supposed that the firing proceeded from a party that had issued from the house. They now fired a volley, which sent a shower of balls whistling about the heads of their friends on the other side. Both parties hesitated, and then halted. Andrew having thus, by his single discharge, puzzled and stopped the enemy, retired to the house, where he and his comrades kept up a brisk fire from the windows. One of the guard fell mortally wounded by his side, and another received a wound less severe. In the midst of this sin- gular contest, a bugle was heard, some distance off, sounding the cavalry charge, wdierenpon the Tories, concluding that they had come upon an ambush of Whigs, and w^ere about to be assailed by horse and foot, fled to where they had left their horses, mounted, dashed pell-mell into the woods, and w’ere seen no more. It appeared afterward that the bugle charge was sounded by a neighbor, who, judg- ing from the noise of musketry that Captain Sands was attacked, and having not a man wdth him in his house, gave the blast upon the trumpet, thinking that even a trick so stale, aided by the darkness of the night, might have some effect in alarming the assailants.” After peace was restored to his neighborhood, young Jackson embraced every opportunity to engage in a “free fight,” beside sharing largely in the fun and frolic, which were almost as congenial to his disposition as the drubbing of an adversary. Several Charleston families of wealth and distinction w^ere waiting in the settlement for the evacuation of their city. With the young men whose acquaintance he thus made, Andrew led a life in the summer and autumn of 1783 that was more merry than wise. He now began to betray that taste for horse- flesh which became such a decided passion in after life. He ran races and rode races, gambled a little, drank a little, indulged in a cock-fight occasionally, and presented a glorious specimen of the Young America at that day. He seems to have had but a faint love for his Carolina relations, and was probably regarded as the scapegrace of the family. It is credibly related that his first attempt at earning a living for himself was in the capacity of a country schoolmaster; but, after trying his hand in this un- congenial employment for a short time, he resolved to study law. Gathering together his scanty earnings, he mounts his horse, sets his face to the northward in quest of a master with whom to pursue his law studies, and finally enters an office in Salisbury, N. C., at the age of 18. Of his residence in that pleasant old town, Mr. Parton has succeeded in bagging some characteristic if not altogether edifying reminiscences : “Salisbury teems with traditions respecting the residence there of Andrew Jackson as a student of law. Their general tenor may be expressed in the lan- guage of the first old resident of the town, to whom I applied for information : Andrew Jackson was the most roaring, rollicking, game-cocking, horse-racing, caid-playing, mischievous fellow that ever lived in Salisbury.’ Add to this such expiessions as these : ‘ He did not trouble the law books much,’ ‘ He was more in , the stable than in the office,’ ‘He was the head of all the rowdies hereabouts.’ That is the substance of what the Salisbury of 1859 has to say of the Andrew Jackson of 1785. Nothing is more likely than that he was a roaring, rollicking fellow, over- flowing with life and spirits, and rejoicing to engage in all the fun that was going; but I do not believe that he neglected his duties at the office to the extent to which Salisbury says he did. There are good reasons for doubting it. At no V94 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. part of Jackson’s career, when we can get a look at liiin through a pair of trust- worthy eyes, do we find him trifling with life. We find him often wrong, hut always earnest. He never so much as raised a field of cotton whicli he did not have done in the best manner known to him. It was not in the nature of this young man to take a great deal of trouble to get a chance to study law, and then entirely to throw away that chance. Of course he never became, in any proper sense of the word, a lawyer^ but that he was not diligent and eager in picking up the legal knowledge necessary for practice at that day, will become less credible to the reader the more he knows of him. Once, in the White House, 45 years after this period, when some one from Salisbury reminded him of his residence in that town, he said, with a smile and a look of retrospection on his aged face : ‘Yes, I lived at old Salisbury. I was but a raw lad then, hut I did my best.'' ” KENTUCKY. Area, ' 37,680 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 1,155,684 (Whites, 919,517 ; Negroes, 236,167.) Population in 1870, 1,321,911 The State of Kentucky is situated between 36° 30' and 39° 10' IST. latitude, and between 81° 50' and 89° 26' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, on the east by West Virginia and Virginia, on the south by Tennessee, and on the west by Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. It is very irregular in shape, the northern line following the windings of the Ohio KIver. Its ex- treme length, from east to west, is about 300 miles, and its greatest width (following a line drawn south from Cincinnati, Ohio) about 180 miles. At its southwest end it is not over 50 miles wide. TOPOGKAPHY. The southeast part of the State is crossed by the Cumberland Moun- tains, which separate it from Virginia. Some outlying ridges of this range, none of them more than 2000 feet high, extend into the south- east counties. The centre of the State is a fine rolling country, but west of the 85th meridian of longitude the surface is principally level, except along the Ohio Kiver, which is bordered by a range of hills. These hills approach the stream as near as half a mile in some places, and in others recede from it to a distance of 10 or 20 miles. The Ohio River washes the entire northern and northwestern shore of the State, and receives the waters of the Big Sandy (which separates Kentucky from West Virginia), Licking, Kentucky, Salt, Green, Cumberland and Tennessee rivers. It borders the State for 600 795 196 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. miles, and is navigable for large steamers the whole distance. The Kentucky River rises in the southeast part of the State, the Licking in the northeast, the Salt and the Green rivers in the centre. All flow in a generally northwest course. They are all navigable for over 50 miles, except the Licking. MINERALS. Kentucky is rich in mineral resources, and her beds of coal and mountains of iron are almost inexhaustible. Coal is found in abun- dance at Greenup, Rockcastle, Laurel, Pulaski, Whitley, Clinton, Ed- monson, Hardin, Ohio, Butler, Christian, Webster, and other coun- ties. In most of these counties this coal is of excellent quality, but used only for home consumption, there being no means of transporta- tion. In Laurel county, the coal beds are from 3 to 5 feet in thick- ness. Iron is found in greater or less quantity in Greenup, Trimble, Rockcastle, Pulaski, Whitley, Russell, Clinton, Edmonson, Ohio, Butler, etc., but, like the coal deposits, has been but feebly developed. In Greenup, the furnaces are closed up, ore within reach of present facilities being pretty well exhausted. Iron ore is found all through Russell county. ^ About 35 years since a very superior iron was manufactured here, from which some of the blacksmiths made good edged tools without steel. The iron was hard and tough. There has been no development since, and it is doubted whether the ore is in sufficient quantity to pay for working.’ This ore also abounds in Clinton county, and David Dale Owen, in his Geological Survey of Kentucky, in speaking of this and counties east of it, says: — ‘There is every reason for believing that their resources in coal and iron — staple commodities of those nations of greatest prosperity — will, when fully developed, compare favorably with those of any civilized country on the face of the earth.’ In Butler county there is much iron ore, but it is said to be of the honeycomb variety, which is considered comparatively valueless. A large amount of capital could be profitably invested in utilizing the iron interest of this State. “ Lead is found in Trimble, Owen, Bourbon, Scott, Franklin, An- derson, Livingston, and counties contiguous. In Anderson there is a mine said to yield 80 per cent, of lead, but the chemist making the test reported that it would not pay to work it. In Livingston, lead has been found upon the surface, but has not been worked to any extent. Salt wells exist in several counties, but are not worked. In KENTUCKY. 'T9t INSIDE MAMMOTH CAYE. Clinton, says our correspondent, fine stream of salt water has been struck on Willis Creek, in the northwest, and a company are now at work producing salt, and the prospect is considered good. There is a fine opening for men experienced in salt making, there being an abundance of water, and timber and labor is cheap. Salt for the Nashville market and for the Cumberland River country comes from Ohio and Western Virginia. The cost of shipping salt down the Ohio and up the Cumberland is certainly much greater than down the Cumberland to Nashville.’ Salt water also abounds in Metcalfe, Anderson, Whitley, Russell, etc. There has recently been discovered a gold mine in Anderson county, and its value is being now tested by a company. Saltpetre is found in Rockcastle, and limestone and free- stone abound in Lewis, Trimble, Clarke, and other eounties. Our Lewis county correspondent claims for his county ^ the finest ledge of freestone from Pittsburg to Cincinnati, from which nearly all the fine buildings in the latter city are now being built, and the rock of which the Cincinnati and Covington bridge was built was taken from 798 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the quarries of this county ; not extensively worked, there being but one quarry in operation, employing 200 men/ * CLIMATE. The climate is mild and healthful. The winters are short and pleasant, and the summers are cool and delightful. The State is al- most exempt from the sudden States. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. As a general rule the soil of Kentucky is extremely fertile. Scarcely any of the land is unfit for cultivation. The soil is generally a black mould, often two and three feet deep. Extensive and almost impene- trable canebrakes occur in various parts of the State, and fine natural pastures occupy a region lying in the south central part, along the sources of the Green River, and known as the Barrens.^’ The State is almost exclusively agricultural in its pursuits. The great staples are corn, tobacco, flax, hemp, and wheat. There are 20,563,652 acres of improved and unimproved land in the State, valued at $217,672,826. The tobacco crop, in 1870, amounted to 90,000 hhds. In 1869, the principal returns were as follows: changes which afflict the Atlantic Bushels of wheat, . . . . “ Indian corn, . . “ oats, “ Irish potatoes, “ rye, “ barley, . . . , Tons of hay, Number of horses, . . . , “ asses and mules, “ milch cows, . , “ sheep, . . . . “ swine, . . . , “ young cattle, . , Value of domestic animals, . Pounds of wool (estimated), “ flax 5.500.000 51,500,000 5.800.000 2 . 100.000 775.000 804.000 155.000 650,811 140,910 280,191 1,001,861 2,690,870 610,845 $69,868,237 2,500,000 800.000 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Kentucky has no foreign commerce, but carries on an active trade with the States along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. Stock raising * Agricultural Report, March, 1868. KENTUCKY. forms an important interest in this State, and large droves of cattle, horses, and mules are annually sent to the Eastern States for sale. In 1860, there were in this State 3450 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capi- tal of $20,256,579, and produced goods worth $37,931,240. The principal products were as follows : Yalue of woollen goods, $1,128,882 “ agricultural implements, 597,118 “ pig-iron, 534,164 “ rolled iron, 514,000 “ steam engines and macliinery, . . . 1,004,664 “ coal, 476,800 “ sawed and planed lumber, 2,200,674 “ flour, 5,034,745 “ spirituous and malt liquors, .... 1,179,351 “ leather, 701,555 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1868, there were 625 miles of completed railroads in Kentucky, constructed at a cost of $22,393,000. The principal cities and towns in the northern, central, and western portions of the State are con- nected with each other and with all parts of the Union by railroad, but still many of the finest sections of the State are without such means of communication with the cities on the Ohio. Several im- portant roads have been projected, and if constructed will remedy this defect. A canal extends around the falls of the Ohio, at Louisville. It is one mile and a half long, and was constructed by the General Government, at a cost of $750,000. . . EDUCATION. In 1860, Kentucky contained 20 colleges, with 2486 students; 233 academies and other schools, with 17,597 pupils; and 4507 public schools, with 156,158 pupils. • The public school system is in charge of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boards of County Commissioners and local trustees in the districts, and measures are being carried out which will revolu- tionize the old system and render it more efficient. The State has a permanent school fund. The most important institution in the State is the Kentucky Uni- versity. This now includes the State University established in 1858, 800 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Transylvania University, and the Agricultural College. It is located at Lexington, and includes Asliland,^^ the home of Henry Clay. In 1860, there were 196 libraries in the State, with 148,012 volumes ; and the number of newspapers and periodicals was 77, of which 65 were political, 5 religious, and 4 literary. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Frankfort. In January, 1871, it contained 680 convicts. Considerable additions have been recently added to the buildincrs. There are two Lunatic Asylums, the Eastern,’^ at Lexington, and the Western,’^ at Hopkinsville. The former contained 258 inmates, in October, 1867, and the latter 283, in September, 1868. The Kentucky Institution for Deaf Mutes is located at Danville, and contains about 96 pupils ; and the Institution for the Education and Training of Feeble-minded Children is at Danville, and contains about 52 pupils. The State has no juvenile reformatory establishments in operation, but the new House of Reform was completed and ready for use in the summer of 1871. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, there were 2179 churches in this State, and the value of church property was $3,928, 620. FINANCES. On the 10th of October, 1870, the total debt of the State was $1,424,934. The total expenditures of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending in October, 1870, amounted to $1,082,639, and the receipts to $996,750. .. In October, 1868, there were 15 National banks, with a capital of $2,885,000, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. Every white male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided two years in the State, one year in the county, and sixty days in the precinct in which he presents his ballot, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, and Attorney-General, and a KENTUCKY. 801 General Assembly, composed of a Senate (of 38 members, elected for four years, one half retiring biennially) and a House of Delegates (of 100 members, elected for two years). The Governor, Lieutenant- Governor, Auditor, and Attorney-General, and Members of tlie Legis- lature are elected by the people. The Secretary of State is appointed by the Governor, and confirmed by the Senate. All the State officers serve four years. The courts of the State are a Supreme Court of Appeals (con- sisting of four judges). Circuit Courts, County Courts, and Justices’ Courts. All the judges are Justices of the Peace, and all are elected by the people. In the Supreme Court, the judge having the shortest term to servo is the Chief Justice, The seat of Government is at Frankfort. For purposes of government the State is divided into 109 counties. HISTORY. Kentucky was originally included within the limits of Virginia. The name is an Indian word, signifying “the dark and bloody ground.” In 1766, Colonel James Smith made a journey of explora- tion into this region, starting from the Holston River. He was accom- panied by three white men and a negro slave. He found the territory unoccupied by any Indian tribes for purposes of residence, but evidently used as a hunting-ground by several of them. It gave evi- dence of great fertility, and its rich beauty impressed the explorers profoundly. In 1767, John Findley and several companions set out from North Carolina on a trading expedition to this region, and in 1769, Daniel Boone entered.it with a party of five, in which went John Findley, for the purpose of exploring it. The party built a cabin on Red River, from which they made repeated excursions. During one of these excursions, Boone and a man named Stuart were captured by the Indians. They made their escape, and returned to their camp. They found it deserted and destroyed, but never learned the fate of those whom they had left there. Soon after this Boone returned to his home in North Carolina. ’ In 1770, a party of Tennesseans, from the Clinch River, under Colonel James Knox, went into Kentucky. They remained there some time, and thoroughly explored the southern and middle parts. Boone’s party was in Kentucky at this time, but never encountered Colonel Knox or any of his men. They confined their explorations to the middle and northern sections. 802 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The reports of Boone and Knox caused the settlers of Virginia and North Carolina to feel a lively interest in the new country, in which the lands given to the Virginia troops, for services in the French war, were located. Surveyors were soon after sent out to lay off these lands, and in 1773, a party, under Captain Bullit, reached the falls of the Ohio, and built a fortified camp there, for the purpose of sur- veying the region. In 1774, James Harrod built a station, which soon grew into con- siderable importance, and thus founded the town of Harrodsburg, the oldest settlement in Kentucky. The next year, 1775, Daniel Boone built a fort on the site of the present town of Boonesborough. The savages made repeated attacks upon his party, hoping to drive them away, but without success. The fort was finished by the middle of April, 1775, and soon after Boone was joined by his wife and daughters. He continued to reside in the fort with them. In the same year Simon Kenton built a cabin on the site of the present town of Washington, in Mason county. In the spring of 1777, the General Assembly of Virginia consti- tuted the Kentucky region a county, and established a Court of Quarter Sessions at Harrodsburg. During the Revolution the settlements suffered much from the British and Indians. In 1780, several of the forts were taken by them, cannon being employed for their reduction. A large number of settlers came out in 1780 and 1781, notwith- standing the danger from the Indians. On the 19th of August, 1782, a bloody battle was fought between the whites and the savages, near Blue Lick Springs, in which the former were defeated. For some years after this, numerous expeditions were sent from Kentucky into the Indian country (the present State of Ohio) and many severe conflicts were fought in that region. After the close of the Revolution, the Government of Virginia and the Federal Congress afforded so little protection to the settlers that they became restless and discontented. The trouble was increased by the fear that the Federal Government meant to surrender the right to navigate the Mississippi, which the settlers saw would be essential to the future prosperity of their country. It was some time before these discontents were quieted. In 1774 and in 1775, conventions were held at Danville, which recommended peaceable and quiet separation from Virginia, and the establishment of a separate Government for KENTUCKY, 86^ Kentucky, Several other conventions were held, during which a de- sire for a separate nationality was distinctly expressed. Spain en- deavored to draw the Kentuckians off from the Union by offers of special privileges on the Mississippi, but better counsels prevailed, and the Kentuckians adopted an address to Congress. The result was that the Territory of Kentucky was ceded by Virginia to the General Government It was fully organized by Congress in 1790, and in 1792 was admitted into the Union as a State. Its population now numbered 75,000. The inefficient protection against the Indians afforded by the Federal Government, the taxes, and the Mississippi question continued to agitate the State for some years, and until the purchase of Louisiana put an end to the Mississippi dispute, and the peace of 1815 broke the power of the savages. During the second war with England, Kentucky contributed many troops to the western army under General Harrison. Many of her best citizens were killed at the massacre at the River Raisin, and in the attempt to relieve Fort Meigs. Her citizens responded promptly to the call for troops for the defence of New Orleans, and the Kentucky riflemen made a proud name on the plains of Chalmette. Indeed, they volunteered so fast that the State authorities had to intervene, and compel them to remain at home. The Kentucky troops nobly sustained their old reputation in the war with Mexico. The State grew rapidly in population and wealth, and was prosper- ing beyond the most sanguine expectations of its original founders. When the Rebellion broke out, the people were divided in sentiment, and a strong effort was made to withdraw the State from the Union, and unite it with the Confederacy. Failing to accomplish this, the friends of the South crossed the Tennessee line, and entered the Con- federate army. The State authorities, however, remained loyal to the Union, and the regular administration of the Government, though much interrupted, was continued. The State was invaded by the Confederate forces in the summer of 1861, and was held by them until the next spring, when they were forced back into Tennessee. In the summer of 1862, it was again invaded by the Confederates. Several severe battles were fought on its soil, and it was frequently entered and harassed by raiding parties. CITIES- AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Newport, Maysville, Henderson, Paducah, Columbus, Hickman, Danville, and Paris. 804 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. FRANKFORT, The capital of the State, is situated in Franklin county, on the north- east bank of the Kentucky River, 60 miles from its mouth, 53 miles east of Louisville, and 550 miles west of Washington. Latitude 38° 14' N., longitude 84° 40' W. The site of the town is a deep valley, surrounded by abrupt hills. Towards the northeast it rises to a considerable height, and from this portion of the town views may be had of some most exquisite scenery. The city is regularly laid out, and is generally well built. Many of the houses are constructed of a tine limestone or marble which abounds in the vicinity. The general appearance of the city is hand- some and picturesque. The State Capitol is a fine building of white marble. It stands on an eminence near the centre of the town. Frankfort contains the Governor's House, the State Penitentiary, the State Arsenal, a Court House, six churches, several good schools, the State Institution for Feeble Minded Children, and the Kentucky Military Institute. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with spring-water brought into the town in iron pipes. Two newspapers are published here. In 1870, the population was 5396. The Kentucky River is 100 yards wide at Frankfort, and is spanned by a chain bridge which connects the city with the suburb of South Frankfort. Steamers ascend to the city, which is the centre of an active trade. The river here flows through a deep channel of lime- stone rock, and is noted for its beautiful scenery. Railroads connect Frankfort with Louisville, Cincinnati, Nashville, and the other cities of the Union. Frankfort was established by Act of the Legislature of Virginia, in 1786. It was made the capital of Kentucky in 1792. During the civil war, it was captured by the Confederate cavalry, on the 6th of September, 1862. LOUISVILLE, The largest city in the State, is situated in Jefferson county, on the south or left bank of the Ohio River, at the head of the falls, 51 miles west of Frankfort, 625 miles by the course of the river below Pittsburg, 394 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, and 590 miles west-by-south from Washington. The city is built on a spacious sloping plain, 70 feet above low- KENTUCKY, 805 FRAmvFORT. water mark, and is laid out with regularity, the streets, which are from 60 to 120 feet in width, intersecting at right-angles in a direc-^ tion with and from the river. Ten streets run parallel with the river, and thirty streets intersect them. Along the river shore are extensive wharves. The streets are generally well paved, and are in many instances shaded with trees. The general appearance of the city is britrht and attractive, and here are to be seen some of the handsomest buildings in the West. The surrounding country is very beautiful. The principal public buildings are the City Hall, the Court House, the Custom House, and the Masonic Hall, all of which are handsome structures. The schools of Louisville have always been regarded as among the best in the country. Its public schools are perhaps the oldest in the West. There are a number of public schools for both sexes, and several flourishing private seminaries. The higher schools are the University of Louisville, and the Medical Institute. There is a Laio School connected with the University. The Mercantile Library is a flourislnng institution with a good collection of books; and the His- torical Society, possesses many interesting documents relating to the early history of the State. The Benevolent Institu^ons are well managed. They are the State Asylum for the Blind, whose handsome buildings were erected partly by the contributions of the citizens ; the State Marine Asylum, two S06 THE GREAT REPUBLIC LOUISVILLE. Orphan Asylums^ and several societies for the relief of the poor and sufFerino;. The city contains about 40 churches, and about 12 newspaper and 4 magazine offices ; and is lighted with gas, and supplied with water from the Ohio River. It possesses an efficient police force, and a steam fire engine service. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 100,753. Louisville is connected with all parts of the country by railway. The Ohio is here crossed by a magnificent railway bridge, which gives the city unbroken communication with the East and West. The navigation of the Ohio is interrupted at Louisville by the only falls which occur in the course of the stream. These falls are very picturesque in appearance. In high stages of the water, they entirely disappear, and steamboats pass over them ; but when the water is low, the whole width of the river, which is scarcely less than a mile, has the appearance of a great many broken risers of foam, making their way over the rocks. The river is divided by a fine island, which adds to the beauty of the scene. To overcome the obstruction caused KENTUCKY. 807 by the falls, a canal was cut around them, in 1833. It is miles long, 60 feet wide, 10 feet deep, with a total lockage of 22 feet. It was cut through the solid limestome rock, and cost $750,000. The city carries on a heavy river trade, both above and below the falls. Its wharves are at all times thronged with steamers and other river craft, carrying to and fro a merchandise inferior only to that coming and going from Pittsburg and Cincinnati. The principal exports are tobacco, bagging, rope, cordage, spirits, pork, flax, hemp, live stock, and machinery. The value of the commerce of the city is estimated at from $80,000,000 to $100,000,000 per annum. A large number of steamers engaged in the river trade are owned in the city. The city is also largely engaged in manufacturing enterprises. It has a number of machine shops and founderies ; several large steam bagging factories, rope walks, cotton and woollen factories, flouring mills, tobacco factories, distilleries, breweries, and agricultural imple- ment factories, whose aggregate production makes up a large portion of its industry. The city has grown rapidly in wealth and popula- tion during the last ten years. Louisville was laid out in 1773, but no settlement was made on the spot till 1778, when a block-house was built. In 1780, the town was established by an Act of the Virginia Legislature. In 1800, the population amounted to 600. The settlement suffered considerably in its infancy from the incursions of the Indians, but grew rapidly after the close of the second war with England. COVINGTON, The second city of the State, is situated in Kenton county, on the south bank of the Ohio and the west bank of the Licking, at the con- fluence of those rivers, and immediately opposite the city of Cincin- nati, Ohio, with which it is connected by a suspension bridge. It is also connected with the city of Newport on the opposite side of the Licking by a suspension bridge. It is 60 miles north-northeast of Frankfort. The city is built on a beautiful plain extending back from the river, and the streets are so arranged as to appear from the hills back of Cincinnati as a continuation of that city. The city is well built and presents a handsome appearance from the river. Many persons doing business in Cincinnati reside here. The city is lighted with gas and supplied with water, and is connected with Cincinnati by a street railway. It contains about 10 churches, several good pub- lic and private schools, and a newspaper office. It is the seat of the 808 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Western Theological Seminary, a richly endowed institution under the direction of the Baptists. It contains a number of rolling mills, pork houses, and manufactories of hemp, silk, and tobacco. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 24,505. Covington has direct railway connection with Frankfort and Louisville. NEWPORT, The third city of the State, is situated in Campbell county, on the south bank of the Ohio, and on the east bank of the Licking River, immediately opposite Cincinnati and Covington. It is connected with Covington by a handsome suspension bridge across the Licking. It is beautifully situated, possessing an advantage over either of the neighboring cities in this respect. It is occupied principally with resi- dences, many of ’which are very handsome. It contains several schools, about 12 churches, and a newspaper office. Several large rolling mills, iron founderies, and steam mills, and a manufactory of silk goods, are located here. An arsenal and barracks of the United States army are located here at the junction of the two rivers. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water. In 1870, the population was 15,087. LEXINGTON, The fourth city of the State, is situated in Fayette county, on the Town Fork of the Elkhorn River, 25 miles southeast of Frankfort, 94 miles east of Louisville, and 81 miles south of Cincinnati. It is beautifully situated in the heart of a lovely country, and is one of the prettiest and wealthiest cities in the State. It is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks, with well-paved streets bordered with ornamental trees. It is one of the best built towns in the West, many of the pub- lic and private buildings being noted for their beauty. The surround- ing country is occupied with elegant country seats, and adds very much to the general appearance of Lexington. Lexington is noted for the excellent schools which it contains. The public and private schools are in flourishing condition. Transylvania University is located here, and is regarded as one of the best schools in the West. Its law and medical schools are largely attended. Its library numbers over 25,000 volumes. The city also contains a handsome Court House, the State Lunatic Asylum, about 12 churches, and several newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas and supplied with pure water. It is largely en- KENTUCKY. 809 ^ gaged in the manufacture of bagging, ropes, iron, brass, silver ware^ carriages, and machinery. It is connected by railway with all parts of the State. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 14,801. About a mile and a half from Lexington is Ashlandj the home of Henry Clay. The city contains a handsome monument to his memory,, erected in part by the State. Lexington was founded in 1776. It appears that a party of hun- ters, in 1775, while encamped on the spot where Lexington is now built, heard of the first conflict between the British and Provincial forces at Lexington, Mass. , In commemoration of this event, they called the place of their encampment Lexington. The town was in- corporated by Virginia in 1782, and was for several years the capital of Kentucky. In 1787, the publication of the Kentucky Gazette was begun; and in 1798 Transylvania University wus established. MISCELLANY. ADVENTURES OF DANIEL BOONE. WRITTEN BY HIMSELF. It was on the 1st of May, 1769, that I resigned my domestic happiness, and left my family and peaceable habitation on the Yadkin River, in North Carolina, to wander through the wilderness of America, in quest of the country of Kentucky, in company with John Finley, John Stuart, Joseph Holden, James Monay, and William Cool. On the 7th of June, after travelling in a western direction, we found ourselves on Red River, where John Finley had formerly been trading with the Indians, and from the top of an eminence saw with pleasure the beautiful level of Ken- tucky. For some time we had experienced the most uncomfortable weather. We now encamped, made a shelter to defend us from the inclement season, and began to hunt, and reconnoitre the country. We found abundance of wild beasts- in this vast forest. The buffaloes were more numerous than cattle in the settle- ments, browsing on the leaves of the cane, or cropping the herbage on these ex- tensive plains. We saw hundreds in a drove, and the numbers about the salt- springs were amazing. In this forest, the habitation of beasts of every American kind, we hunted with great success until December. On the 22d of December, John Stuart and I had a pleasing ramble ; but fortune changed the day at the close of it. We i^assed through a great forest, in which stood myriads of trees, some gay witli blossoms, others rich with fruits. Nature was here a series of wonders and a fund of delight. Here slie displayed her in- genuity and industry in a variety of flowers and fruits, l)eautifully colored, ele- gantly shaped, and charmingly flavored ; and Ave were favored with numberless, animals presenting themselves perpetually to our Anew. In the decline of the- day, near Kentucky River, as we ascended the brow of a small hill, a number of 810 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Indians rushed out of a canebrake and made us prisoners. The Indians plun- dered us, and kept us in confinement seven days. During this time, we dis- covered no uneasiness or desire to escape, which made them less suspicious ; but in the dead of night, as we lay by a large fire in a thick canebrake, when sleep had locked up their senses, my situation not disposing me to rest, I gently awoke my companion. We seized this favorable opportunity and departed, directing our course toward the old camp, but found it plundered, and our company de- stroyed or dispersed. About this time, my brother, with another adventurer, who came to explore the country shortly after us, were wandering through the forest, and accidentally came upon our camp. Notwithstanding our unfortunate circumstances, and our dangerous situation, surrounded with hostile savages, our meeting fortunately in the wilderness gave us the most sensible satisfaction. Soon after this my companion in captivity, John Stuart, was killed by the sav- ages, and the man who came with my brother, while on a private excursion, was soon after attacked and killed by the wolves. We were now in a dangerous and helpless situation, exposed daily to perils and death, among savages and wild beasts, not a white man in the country but ourselves. Although many hundreds of miles from our families, in the howling wilder- ness, we did not continue in a state of indolence, but hunted every day, and pre- pared a little cottage to defend us from the winter. On the 1st of May, 1770, my brother returned home for a new recruit of horses and ammunition, leaving me alone, without bread, salt, or sugar, or even a horse or a dog. I passed a few days uncomfortably. The idea of a beloved wife and family, and their anxiety on my account, would have disposed me to melancholy if I had further indulged the thought. One day I undertook a tour through the country, when the diversities and beauties of nature I met with in this charming season expelled every gloomy thought. Just at the close of the day, the gentle gales ceased ; a profound calm ensued ; not a breath shook the tremulous leaf. I had gained the summit of a commanding ridge, and, looking around with astonishing delight, beheld the ample plains and beauteous tracts below. On one hand, I surveyed the famous Ohio rolling in silent dignity, and marking the western boundary of Kentucky with inconceivable grandeur. At a vast distance, I beheld the mountains lift their venerable brows and penetrate the clouds. All things were still. I kindled a fire near a fountain of sweet water, and feasted on the loin of a buck which I had killed a few hours before. The shades of night soon overspread the hemis- phere, and the earth seemed to gasp after the hovering moisture. At a distance I frequently heard the hideous yells of savages. My excursion had fatigued my body and amused my mind. I laid me down to sleep, and awoke not until the sun had chased away the night. I continued this tour, and in a few days ex- plored a considerable part of the country, each day equally pleasing as the first ; after which I returned to my old camp, which had not been disturbed in mj^ ab- sence. I could not confine my lodging to it, but often reposed in thick cane- brakes to avoid the savages, who I believe frequently visited my camp, but, fortunately for me, in my absence. No populous city, with all its varieties of commerce and statelv structures, could afford such pleasure to my mind as the beauties of nature I found in this country. Until the 27th of July, I spent my time in an uninterrupted scene of sylvan pleasures, when my brother, to my great felicity, met me according to appoint- KENTUCKY. 811 ment at our old camp. Soon after we left the place, and proceeded to the Cum- berland River, reconnoitering that part of the country, and giving names to the different rivers. In March, 1771, I returned home to my family, being determined to bring them as soon as possible, at the risk of my life and fortune, to reside in Ken- tucky, which I esteemed a second Paradise. On my return, I found my family in happy circumstances. I sold my farm on the Yadkin and what goods we could not carry with us, and, on the 2r)th of Sep- tember, 1773, we took leave of our friends and proceeded on our journey to Kentucky, in company with five more families, and 40 men that joined us in Powell’s Valley, which is 150 miles from the new settled parts of Kentucky. But this promising beginning was soon overcast with a cloud of adversity. On the 10th of October, the rear of our company was attacked by a party of Indians, who killed 6, and wounded one man. Of these, my oldest son was one that fell in the action. Though we repulsed the enemy, yet this unhappy affair scattered our cattle and brought us into extreme difficulty. We returned 40 miles, to the settlement on Clench River. We had passed over two mountains, Powell and Walden’s, and were approaching Cumberland Mountain, when this adverse fortune overtook us. These mountains are in the wilderness, in passing from the old settlement in Virginia to Kentucky ; they range in a southwest and northeast direction ; are of great length and breadth, and not far distant from each other. Over them nature has formed passes less difficult than might be ex- pected from the view of such huge piles. The aspect of these clifl’s is so wild and horrid that it is impossible to behold them without horror. Until the 6th of June, 1774, I remained with my family on the Clench, when myself and another person were solicited by Governor Dunmore, of Virginia, to conduct a number of surveyors to the falls of Ohio. This was a tour of 800 miles, and took 62 days. On my return. Governor Dunmore gave me the command of three garrisons during the campaign against the Shaw^nees. In March, 1775, at the solicitation of a number of gentlemen of North Carolina, I attended their treaty at Wataga with the Cherokee Indians, to purchase the lands on the south side of the Ken- tucky River. After this. I undertook to mark out a road in the best passage from the settlements through the wilderness to Kentucky. Having collected a number of enterprising men, well armed, I soon began this work. We proceeded until w’e came within 15 miles of where Boonsborough now stands, wdiere the Indians attacked us, and killed 2, and wounded 2 more of our party. This Avas on the 22d of March, 1775. Tw^o days after, w’ e were again attacked by them, when we had 2 more killed, and 3 w’ounded. After this, we proceeded on to Kentucky River without opposition. On the 1st of April, we began to erect the fort of Boonsborough, at a salt lick 60 yards from the river, on the south side. On the 4th, the Indians killed one of our men. On the 14th of June, having completed the fort, I returned to my family on the Clench, and whom I soon afterw^ard removed to the fort. My wife and (laughter were supposed to be the first white women that ever stood on the banks of Kentucky River. On the 24th of December, the Indians killed one of our men, and wounded another ; and on the 15th of July, 1776, they took my daughter prisoner. I im- mediately pursued them with 8 men, and on the 16th overtook and engaged them. I killed 2 of them and recovered my daughter. 812 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The Indians, having divided themselves into several parties, attacked in one da)^ all our infant settlements and forts, doing a great deal of damage. The hus- bandmen were ambushed and unexpectedly attacked while toiling in the field. They continued this kind of warfare until the 15tli of April, 1777, when nearly 100 of them attacked the village of Boonsborough, and killed a number of its in- habitants. On the 16th, Colonel Logan’s fort was attacked by 200 Indians. There were only 13 men in the fort, of whom the enemy killed 2, and wounded one. On the 20th of August, Colonel Bowman arrived with 100 men from Virginia,, with which additional force we had almost daily skirmishes with the Indians, who began now to learn the superiority of the “ long knife,” as they termed the Virginians ; being out-generalled in almost every action. Our affairs began now to wear a better aspect ; the Indians no longer daring to face us in open field, but sought private opportunities to destroy us. On the 7th of February, 1778, while on a hunting excursion alone, I met a party of 102 Indians and 2 Frenchmen, marching to attack Boonsborough. They pursued and took me prisoner, and conveyed me to Old Chilicothe, the principal Indian town on Little Miami, where we arrived on the 18th of February, after an uncomfortable journey. On the 10th of March, I was conducted to Detroit, and while there was treated with great humanity by Governor Hamilton, the British commander at that port, and Intendant for Indian Affairs. The Indians had such an affection for me, that they refused £100 sterling, of- fered them by the Governor, if they would consent to leave me with him, that he might be enabled to liberate me on my parole. Several English gentlemen, then at Detroit, sensible of my adverse fortune, and touched with sympathy, gene- rously offered to supply my wants, which I declined with many thanks, adding that I never expected it would be in my power to recompense such unmerited generosity. On the 10th of April, the Indians returned with me to Old Chilicothe, where we arrived on the 25th. This was a long and fatiguing march, although through an exceeding fertile country, remarkable for springs and streams of water. At Chilicothe I spent my time as comfortably as I could expect ; was adopted, ac- cording to their custom, into a family where I became a son, and had a great share in the affection of my new parents, brothers, sisters, and friends. I was exceedingly familiar and friendly with them, alwaj'^s appearing as cheerful and contented as possible, and they put great confidence in me. I often went a hunt- ing with them, and frequently gained the applause for my activity at our shoot- ing matches. I was careful not to exceed many of them in shooting, for no people are more envious than they in this sport, I could observe in their counte- nances and gestures the greatest expressions of joy when they exceeded me, and when the reverse happened, of envy. The Shawnee king took great notice of me, and treated me with profound respect, and entire friendship, often intrusting me to hunt at my liberty. I frequently returned witli the spoils of the woods, and as often presented some of what I had taken to him, expressive of duty to my sovereign. My food and lodging were in common with them ; not so good, indeed, as I could desire, but necessity made everything acceptable. I now began to meditate an escape, and carefully avoided giving suspicion. I continued at Chilicothe until the 1st day of June, when I was taken to the salt springs on Sciotha, and there employed ten days in the manufacturing of salt. During this time, I hunted with my Indian masters, and found the land, for a great extent about this river, to exceed the soil of Kentucky, KENTUCKY. r 813 On my return to Chilicothe, 150 of the choicest Indian warriors were ready to march against Boonsborough. They were painted and armed in a frightful man- ner. This alarmed me, and I determined to escape. On the 26th of June, before sunrise, I went off secretly, and reached Boons- borough on the 30th, a journey of 160 miles, during which I had only one meal. 1 found our fortress in a bad state, but we immediately repaired our flanks, gates, posterns, and formed double bastions, which we completed in ten days. One of my fellow-prisoners escaped after me, and brought advice, that on account of my flight, the Indians had put off their expedition for three weeks. About the 1st of August, I set out with 19 men to surprise Point Creek-town, on Sciotha, within 4 miles of which we fell in with 40 Indians going against Boonsborough. We attacked them, and they soon gave way, without any loss on our part. The enemy had one killed and two wounded. We took three horses and all their baggage. The Indians having evacuated their town, and gone altogether against Boonsborough, we returned, passed them on the 6th, and on the 7th ar- rived safe at Boonsborough. On the 9th, the Indian army, consisting of 444 men, under the command of Captain Duquesne, and 11 other Frenchmen, and their chiefs, arrived and sum- moned the fort to surrender. I requested two days’ consideration, which was granted. During this we brought in through the posterns all the horses and other •cattle we could collect. On the 9th, in the evening, I informed their commander that we were deter- mined to defend the fort while a man was living. They then proposed a treaty : they would withdraw. The treaty was held within 60 yards of the fort, as we suspected the savages. The articles were agreed to and signed, when the In- dians told us, as it was their custom for two Indians to shake hands with every white man in the treaty, as an evidence of friendship. We agreed to this also. They immediately grappled us to take us prisoners, but we cleared ourselves of them, though surrounded by hundreds, and gained the fort safe, except one man, wdio was wounded by a heav}'- fire from the enemy. The savages now began to undermine the fort, beginning at the watermark of Kentucky River, which is 60 yards from the fort ; this we discovered by the water being made muddy by the clay. We countermined them by cutting a' trench across their subterraneous passage. The enemy, discovering this by the ■clay we threw out of the fort, desisted. On the 20th of August, they raised the siege, during which we had 2 men killed, and 4 wounded. We lost a number of cattle. The loss of the enemy was 37 killed, and a much larger number w^ounded. We picked up 125 pounds of their bullets, beside what stuck in the logs of the fort. In* July, 1779, during my absence. Colonel Bowman, with 160 men, went against the Shawnees of Old Chilicothe. He arrived undiscovered. A battle en- sued, which lasted until 10 in the morning, when Colonel Bowman retreated 30 miles. The Indians collected all their strength and pursued him, when another engagement ensued for two hours, not to Colonel Bowman’s advantage. Colonel Harrod proposed to mount a number of horses, and break the enemy’s line, who at tliis time fought with remarkable fury. This desperate measure had a happy effect, and the savages fled on all sides. In these two engagements we had 9 men killed and one wounded. Enemy’s loss uncertain. Only two scalps were ■taken. 814 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. June 23d, 1780, 500 Indians and Canadians, under Colonel Bird, attacked Riddle and Martain’s station, and the forks of Licking River, with 6 pieces of ar- tillery, They took all the inhabitants captive, and killed one man and two wo- men, loading the others with the heavy baggage, and such as failed in the journey were tomahawked. The hostile disposition of the savages caused General Clarke, the commandant at the falls of Oliio, to march with his regiment and the armed force of the country against Peccaway, the principal town of the Shawnees, on a branch of the Great Miami, which he attacked with great success, took 70 scalps, and re- duced the town to ashes, with the loss of 17 men. About this time, I returned to Kentucky with my family ; for, during my cap- tivity, my wife, thinking me killed by the Indians, had transported my family and goods, on horses, through the wilderness, amidst great dangers, to her father’s house in North Carolina. On the 6th of October, 1780, soon after my settling again at Boonsborough, I went with my brother to the Blue Licks, and on our return he was shot by a party of Indians, who followed me by the scent of a dog, which I shot, and es- caped. The severity of the winter caused great distress in Kentucky, the enemy, during the summer, having destroyed most of the corn. The inhabitants lived chiefly on buffalo’s flesh. In the spring of 1782, the Indians harassed us. In May, they ravished, killed, and scalped a woman and her two daughters, near Ashton’s station, and took a negro prisoner. Captain Ashton pursued them with 25 men, and in an engage- ment, which lasted two hours, his party were obliged to retreat, having 8 killed, and 4 mortally wounded. Their brave commander fell in the action. On August 18th, two boys were carried off from Major Hoy’s station. Captain Holder pursued the enemy with 17 men, who were also defeated, with the loss of 7 killed, and 2 wounded. Our affairs became more and more alarming. The savages infested the country, and destroyed the whites as opportunity presented. In a field near Lexington, an Indian shot a man, and, running to scalp him, was himself shot from the fort, and fell dead upon the ground. All the Indian na- tions were now united against us. On August 15th, 500 Indians and Canadians came against Briat’s station, 5 miles from Lexington. They assaulted the fort, and killed all the cattle round it ; but being repulsed, they retired the third day, having about 80 killed ; their wounded uncertain. The garrison had 4 killed, and 9 wounded. On August 10th, Colonels Todd and Trigg, Major Harland and myself, speedily collected 176 men, well armed, and pursued the savages. They had marched be- yond the Blue Licks, to a remarkable bend of the main fork of the Licking River, about 43 miles from Lexington, where we overtook them on the 19th. The savages, observing us, gave way, and wm, ignorant of their numt)ers, passed the river. When they saw our proceedings, having greatly the advantage in situation, they formed their line of battle from one end of the Licking to the other, about a mile from the Blue Licks. The engagement was close and warm for about 15 minutes, when we, being overpowered by numbers, were obliged to retreat, with a loss of 67 men, 7 of whom were taken prisoners. The brave and much-lamented Colonels Todd and Trigg, Major Harland, and my second son, were among the dead. We were afterward informed that the Indians, on num- bering their dead, finding that they had 4 more killed than we, 4 of our people, they had taken, were given up to their young warriors, to be put to death after their barbarous manner. KENTUCKY. 815 On our retreat, we were met by Colonel Logan, who was hastening to join us with a number of well-armed men. This powerful assistance we wanted on the day of the battle. The enemy said, one more fire from us would have made them give way. I cannot reflect upon this dreadful scene without great sorrow’. A zeal for the defence of their country ted these heroes to the scene of action, though with few men, to attack a powerful army of experienced warriors. When w'e gave w^ay, they pursued us with the utmost eagerness, and in every quarter spread destruc- tion. The river was difficult to cross, and many w'ere killed in the fight, some just entering the river, some in the water, others after crossing, in ascending the cliffs. Some escaped on horseback, a few on foot ; and being dispersed every- where, in a few hours brought the melancholy news of this unfortunate battle to Lexington. Many wddows were now made. The reader may guess what sorrow filled the hearts of the inhabitants, exceeding anything that I am able to describe. Being reinforced, we returned to bury the dead, and found their bodies strewed everywhere, cut and mangled in a dreadful manner. This mournful scene ex- hibited a horror almost unparalleled ; some torn and eaten by wild beasts ; those in the river by fishes ; all in such a putrid condition that one could not be dis- tinguished from another. When General Clarke, at the falls of the Ohio, heard of our disaster, he ordered an expedition to pursue the savages. We overtook them within 2 miles of their town, and we should have obtained a great victory had not some of them met us when about 200 poles from their camp. The savages fled in the utmost disorder, and evacuated all their towns. We burned to ashes Old Chilicothe, Peccaway, New Chilicothe, and Willstown ; entirely destroyed their corn and other fruits, and spread desolation through their country. We took 7 prisoners and 15 scalps, and lost only 4 men, 2 of whom were accidentally killed by ourselves. This campaign damped the enemy, yet they made secret incursions. In October, a party attacked Crab Orchard, and one of them, being a good way before the others, boldly entered a house in which were only a woman and her children, and a negro man. The savage used no violence, but attempted to carry off the negro, who happily proved too strong for him, and threw him on the ground, and in the struggle the woman cut off his head with an axe, while her little daughter shut the door. The savages instantly came up, and applied their tomahawks to the door, when the mother putting an old rusty gun-barrel through the crevice, the savages immediately went off. From that time till the happy return of peace between the United States and Great Britain, the Indians did us no mischief. Soon after this, the Indians de- sired peace. Two darling sons and a brother I have lost by savage hands, w’hich have also taken from me 40 valuable horses, and abundance of cattle. Many dark and sleepless nights have I spent, separated from the cheerful society of men, scorched by the summer’s sun, and pinched by the winter’s cold, an instrument ordained to settle the wilderness. Daniel Boone. Fayette county^ Kentucky. OHIO. Area, 39,964 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 2,339,511 Population in 1870, 2,665,002 The State of Ohio is situated between , 38° 32' and 42° N. latitude, and between 80° 35' and 84° 40' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Michigan and Lake Erie, on the east by Pennsylvania and West Virginia, on the south by West Virginia and Kentucky, and on the west by Indiana. Its extreme length from north to south is about 200 miles, and its width about 195 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The centre of the State is occupied by a level country elevated about 1000 feet above the level of the sea, and the north central part of the State is crossed by a ridge of hills which separate the waters which flow into Lake Erie from those which flow into the Ohio River. A second slope interrupts tlie Ohio slope in the south central part of the State, and from this ridge the lower part of the State is a fine rugged country, wliich rises into a range of bold hills along the Ohio River. There are some prairie lands in the centre and northwest, and in the latter portion is a large tract of great fertility, called the Black Swamp, a considerable part of whicJi is heavily timbered. Much of the country in the neighborhood of Lake Erie is marshy. Lake Erie, already described, forms the greater part of the northern boundary, and receives the waters of the Maumee, Sandusky, Huron, and Cuyahoga. With the exception of the Maumee, which has its source in Indiana, all these streams rise in and flow through this State. The principal towns on the lake are Cleveland and Sandusky. San- 816 OHIO. 81 dusky Bay extends inland for about 20 miles. There are several good harbors on the lake. The Maumee is the only navigable river empty- ing into the lake. Steamers ascend it for 18 miles. The Ohio River forms the greater part of the eastern, and the whole of the southern boundary, first touching the State about 50 miles be- low its head, and flows by it for a distance of about 470 miles. It is navigable the whole distance for large steamers for one-half of the year. Its principal tributaries, beginning on the east, are the Mus- kingum, Scioto, Little Miami, and Miami rivers. They vary in length from 110 to 200 miles. The Muskingum is navigable, by means of dams and locks, to Zanesville, a distance of 70 miles. At high water, boats ascend to Coshocton, 30 miles above Zanesville. The others are not navigable at all. They flow through a beautiful and highly productive country, and furnish an abundance of excellent water- power. There are several islands belonging to this State in the* southwest end of Lake Erie. The principal of these is Kelley’s Island, which produces a fine quality of wine. MINERALS. Coal and iron are the principal minerals of the State. Salt springs are numerous, and marble and lime are found in large quantities. The first two are very abundant, and are of an excellent quality. In 1860, $2,327,621 worth of pig-iron were produced in Ohio, and $1,539,713 worth of coal. This made Ohio the second iron and coal producing State in the Union. CLIMATE. In the southern part of the State, the climate is mild. Snow does not lie long upon the ground. The climate of the northern part is rigorous, and is quite as severe as that of the Atlantic States of the same latitude. Severe droughts sometimes occur in Ohio, and cause considerable damage to the crops, but they are not of frequent occur- rence. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is fertile, there being very little land in -the State that cannot be brought under profitable cultivation. Indeed, it is to the extremely favorable character of her soil that Ohio owes her present 52 818 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. proud position in the Union, having grown and prospered more rapidly than any otlier State. Sixty years ago, a vast forest covered almost the entire country between the Virginia line and Lake Erie. Now the same area is occupied by one of tlie most important States of the Union, possessing a population of nearly 3,000,000 souls, and ranking amongst the first members of the Confederacy in her wealth and resources. Wine raising is now a very important’ interest along the Ohio River. In 1870, there were about 15,000,000 acres of improved lands in the State. In the same year, the agricultural statistics, as reported by the Secretary of State, were as follow's : Bushels of wheat, . . “ Indian corn “ oats, . . . “ harley, . . • “ rye, . • . “ buckwheat, “ Irish potatoes, “ sweet potatoes, “ flaxseed, “ apples, “ peaches. Tons of hay, . . clover hay. Pounds of tobacco, “ flax, . “ butter, “ cheese, “ maple sugai “ wool, . “ grapes. Gallons of wine, . “ sorghum molasses. Number of horses, “ mules, “ sh.eep, “ swine, “ cattle. . 26,499,729 . 62,443,346 . 24,417,799y . 1,689,416 852,722 223,766 . 10,274,605 119,746 611,046 . 15,518,685 . 1,444,523 . 1,784,947 360,268 . 15,943,116 . 18,723,377 .■ 38,783,607 . 20,520,168 . 3,302,714 . 19,292,858 . 3,794,899 155,535 . 1,777,100 704,664 22,057 , 5,052,028 . 1,720,113 . 1,521,421 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. This State possesses little foreign commerce, but its river and lake trade is immense, and is estimated at over $150,000,000 annually. The river trade is the more important part of this. The number of steamers entering and clearing from Cincinnati is about 4000 each way annually. OHIO. 819 The manufactures of this State, though still in their infancy, are growing in importance. In 1860, Ohio contained 10,710 establish- ments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $58,000,000, and 81,200 hands, consuming raw material worth $70,000,000, and yielding an annual product of $125,000,000, making this the third State in the Union in respect to the value of goods produced. The principal products were valued as follows : Cotton goods, Woollen goods, Leather, Kolled iron, Steam engines and machinery. Agricultural implements. Sawed and planed lumber, . Flour, Salt, Liquors, Boots and shoes, Furniture, $ 629,500 692,333 2 , 799,239 692.000 4 , 855,005 2 , 690,943 5 . 600.000 27 , 130,000 277.000 6 . 109.000 3 , 623,827 3 , 703,605 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1868, Ohio contained 3402 miles of completed railroads, con- structed at a cost of $135,332,000, ranking second in the list of States with respect to the total length of its roads, and fourth with respect to their cost. The State is a perfect network of railways, no town or village being more than a few miles from a railroad depot. Direct lines lead from all the points of importance to the principal cities of the Union. The energy and foresight displayed by the State in the construction of these roads have greatly added to its wealth and prosperity. Ohio was the first Western State to engage in the construction of canals. In 1860, there were 956 miles of canal navigation in the State. In spite of the abundance of railroad transportation, the canals of Ohio still continue to occupy an important position in the com- merce of the State. EDUCATION. Ohio is one of the most prominent States in the Union in respect to its educational system. Schools \^re established in this State soon after its first settlement, and in 1804, the University of Ohio was founded at Athens. In 1867, there were 26 colleges, with 4783 820 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. students; 43 female seminaries, with 4217 students; 65 academies and normal schools, with 6167 pupils; and 647 private schools, with 26,450 pupils. In 1870, there were 11,401 public schools, with 719,902 pupils. The State has a permanent school fund, amounting to $3,334,500. The interest of this is applied to the schools, and the remainder of the sura needed for them each year made up by taxes, fines, licences, etc. In 1870, the amount expended on the schools was $4,960,771. The general supervision of the free school system of the State is vested in a Commissioner of Schools, who is 'elected by the people for three years. The cities, towns, and incorporated villages are controlled each by a local Board of Education chosen by the people thereof. A State Board of Examiners alone has power to grant certificates of competency to teachers. These certificates, unless revoked by the Board, are good for the lifetime of the holder. In 1860, the State contained 3082 libraries, with 790,666 volumes. Of these 469 were public libraries. In tlie same year there were 256 political, 37 religious, and 24 lite- rary newspapers and periodicals published in Ohio, making a total of 317. Of these 24 were daily, 4 semi- weekly, 8 tri- weekly, 260 weekly, 41 monthly, and 3 annual. They had an annual aggregate circulation of 71,767,742 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions are under the supervision of a Board of State Charities. The Penitentiary is located at Columbus. It is one of the best in- stitutions of its kind in the Union, and is provided with handsome and commodious buildings. There is a school attached to the prison, in which the convicts are taught the rudiments of a plain education. Tlie proceeds of the labor of the prisoners more than supports the institution, rendering it inexpensive to the State. In 1866, there were 860 convicts confined here. The Ohio Reform School is located in Fairfield county, six miles sou til of Lancaster. It is provided with ample buildings, and a farm of 1170 acres. It is considered one oi* the most perfect establishments in the Union. In 1870, it contained 335 boys. The Institution for the Education of the Blind, and the Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, are located at Columbus. OHIO. 821 In November, 1870, the former contained 119 pupils, and the latter 312 pupils. There are three Lunatic Asylums in the State ; the Central Ohio Asylum^ at Columbus ; the Northern Ohio Asylum, at Newburgh ; and the Southern Ohio Asylum, at Dayton. The first was destroyed by fire on the 17th of November, 1868, and six of the patients perished in the flames. The remaining institutions, in 1870, contained 878 patients. In the same year there were in the county infirmaries and jails 1176 insane persons. The Asylum for Idiots contains 170 patients. EELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, there were 5210 churches in Ohio, and the value of church property was $12,988,762. FINANCES. In January, 1871, the State debt amounted to $9,752,136. During the year 1870, the receipts of the Treasury were $4,837,990, and the expenditures $4,071,953. In the same year there were 139 National banks, with a capital of $22,573,881, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. Every white male citizen of the United States, 21 years old, who has resided in the State one }^ear, is entitled to vote. Persons in the military or naval service of the United States, idiots, and insane persons are excluded from the ballot. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Comptroller, and Attorney- General, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, all chosen by the people. The Governor, Lieutenant- Governor, Treasurer, Secretary of State, and Attorney-General, and members of the Legislature are elected for two years. The Comp- troller and Auditor are elected for four years. There is also a Board of Public Works, consisting of 3 members, elected for 3 years, one .member retiring each year. The courts of the State are the Supreme Court, consisting of five judges, elected by the people, the judge with the shortest term being the Chief Justice, the Courts of Common Pleas, District Courts, and Probate Courts in each county. 822 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The seat of Government is establislied at Columbus. The State is divided into 88 counties. HISTORY. The territory now embraced in the State of Ohio was first settled by the English, who, in 1749, built a trading-post upon the Great Miami River. Previous to this, the French had explored the terri- tory, and had established a trading-post on the lower Ohio, at a point within the present limits of the State of Illinois. They were jealous of the establishment of the English post on the Miami, and incited the Indians to join in an attack upon it. They destroyed it in 1752^ after a severe fight, and carried the traders into captivity in Canada. For some years the territory was in dispute, between the French and English. The Ohio Company claimed the right, under the charter, which they held from the English king, to establish trading-posts along the Ohio, and the French were very active in their efforts to put a stop to the advances of their English rivals. It was this quarrel which first brought Washington forward as a military leader. The territory was inhabited by Indian tribes, who were friendly to the French, and hostile to the English. They made frequent incursions across the Ohio against the settlements of the whites in Virginia, and were in their turn frequently attacked in their own homes by the English. During the Revolution, they were the allies of the British, and waged a bitter warfare upon the western settlements of the Ameri- cans. This gave rise to several memorable campaigns by the Ameri- can forces west of the Ohio, in which the savages were severely punished. After the close of the Revolutionary War, several of the States be- came involved in disputes as to the right of soil in this territory, which were only settled by the cession of all the State claims to the United States. Virginia, in ceding her claims, reserved nearly four millions of acres, near the falls of the Ohio, as bounty lands for her State troops, and Connecticut reserved a similar tract, near Lake Erie, Avhich was sold to actual settlers. The sales of these lands laid the foundation of the school fund of Connecticut. In 1788, the town of Marietta was founded by the New England Ohio Company, who purchased the lands on which they located their emigrants, from the United States Board of Treasury. In 1791, the town of Gallipolis was settled by 168 French emigrants. Other set-^ OHIO. 823 tiers now came out, and the territory commenced to assume the cha- racter of a permanent settlement. The Indians had by this time become very troublesome. General Harmar was sent- against them with a considerable force, in 1790, but, although he inflicted considerable damage upon them, did not succeed in intimidating them. In 1791, General St. Clair, the Gov- ernor of the Territory, marched against the Indian towns on the Maumee, with a force of 3000 men. He was surprised by the savages on his march, and his whole army routed, after a desperate struggle, with a loss of more than 600 men. In 1794, General Anthony Wayne, of Revolutionary fame, was sent into the Indian country with a force of 3500 men. On the 20th of August, he inflicted a crushing defeat upon them at the falls of the Maumee. After this he ravaged their country, and pressed them so hard that they were glad to sue for peace, and for some years the territory was free from hostilities. *By this time Cincinnati had been settled, and the country along the southwestern shore of Lake Erie was beginning to attract emigrants. The Miami country was thickly populated, and the shores of the Ohio were beginning to be dotted with farms. In 1799, the first Territorial Legislature assembled. Laws were passed confirming all that had been done by the Governor, and pro- viding for the future security of the Territory. William Henry Har- rison, then Secretary of the Territory, was chosen a delegate to Con- gress. Measures were begun and vigorously prosecuted, during the next two years, for the purpose of securing the admission of the Ter- ritory into the Union. These efforts were crowned with success. Early in 1802, a Convention met at Chillicothe, and adopted a State Constitution, which was accepted by Congress, and on the 30th of April, 1802, Ohio was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. In 1810, war broke out with the Indians, who, under the leadership of the famous chief Tecumseh, began a series of bloody outrages upon the whites. General Harrison, then Governor of the Territory of Indiana, marched against them and defeated them in the battle of Tippecanoe, in 1811. During the second war with England, the western frontiers suffered greatly frc\m the British and Indians. Ohio bore her full share in the struggle, and her sons were amongst the first to volunteer for service against the common foe. In 1816, the seat of Government was transferred from Chillicothe to Columbus, and, in 1817, the first steps were taken by the State for the construction of the canals which have added so much to her wealth. 824 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. STATE CAPITOL, AT COLUMBUS. After the treaty of 1815, the State grew with unparalleled rapidity. We have already shown the condition of Ohio at present, and can add nothing to the simple statement that this great and flourishing commonwealth but little more than half a century ago was a howling wilderness.^^ During the Rebellion this state contributed 317,133 men to the service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of Ohio are, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Dayton, Toledo City, Zanesville, Sandusky, Chillicothe, Hamilton, Springfield, Portsmouth, Steubenville, Brook- lyn, Newark, Xenia, Piqua, Mansfield, Circleville, Marietta, Lancaster City, Mount Vernon, and Canton. COLUMBUS, The capital and third city of the State, is situated in Franklin county, on the east bank of the Scioto River, 90 miles from its mouth, 120 miles northeast of Cincinnati, and 350 miles northwest of Wash- ington. Latitude 39° 57' N. ; longitude 83° 3' W. OHIO. 825 The land on which the city is built rises gradually from the river, and the streets are laid out at right-angles. Hroad- street extends from the river along the National Road to the east of the city, and is 120 feet wide ; and High street, 100 feet wide, crosses Broad at right-angles. This is the principal business street. At the intersection of the two thoroughfares is a handsome public square of 10 acres. The streets are shaded with trees, and are well paved. Street railways connect the various points of the corporate limits. The city is well built, and many of the buildings are handsome and spacious. The State Capitol stands in the centre of the public square. It is a splendid edifice, 304 feet long by 184 feet wide. It is built of a fine white limestone resembling marble. The interior decorations are very fine. The State Penitentiary is located immediately upon the bank of the river, and is built of Ohio marble. It is one of the most imposing structures in the State. The State Institution for the Blind, the Ohio Lunatic Asylum, and the Deaf and Dumb A^lum, are handsome buildings. The city contains a number of public and private schools. The Starling Medical College is a flourishing institution. The Lutheran Church has a theological seminary here. There are about 26 churches and several newspaper offices in Columbus. The city is lighted with gas and is supplied with pure water. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is one of the principal railway centres of the State, and is the seat of a large and active trade with the surrounding country. In 1870, the population was 33,745. In 1812, Columbus was selected as the site of the State capital. At this time it was a wilderness, but it grew rapidly from the first, but was still a small inland village when the State Government was re- moved to it in 1816. In 1820, it had 1400 inhabitants. The com- pletion of the National Road to the city brought it into more direct communication with the rest of the country, and greatly accelerated its growth. CINCINNATI, Tlie Metropolis of the State, is situated in Hamilton county, on the right or northern bank of tlie Ohio, opposite the mouth of the Licking River. It IS 120 miles southwest of Columbus, 476 miles by water from Pittsburg, 529 miles from the mouth of the Ohio, 1520 miles from New Orleans, 280 miles southeast of Chicago, and 610 miles' west of Washington. It is the eighth city in respect of population in the United States, and the third city in the West. 826 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The city is beautifully located. It is in the centre of a lovely val- ley, surrounded by hills. It occupies the whole of the first and second planes above the Ohio River, and extends over the greater part of the third, or still higher elevations of Mount Adams, Mount Au- burn, Mount Washington, etc. The first of these planes or tables, called “ the bottom,'’ is at an elevation of 50 feet above low-water mark ; the second, called the hill,” about 60 feet higher, and is densely built upon, being the thickest* settled portion of the city. Above this are the hills of Mount Auburn, etc., 200 feet higher. Viewed from one of these last hills, the city appears to occupy the centre of an im- mense basin, the view being in every direction terminated by swelling hills. The grade of these planes or terraces has for years been changing to conform to the general improvement of the city, and now affords the regular and facile ascent required by heavy draughts, as well as to permit the safe drainage of water from the upper ter- races of the city. The city is regularly laid out, the streets crossing each other at right- angles. They are generally about 66 feet in width ; are well graded and paved, and are in many cases lined with beautiful shade trees. Those running east and west are denominated Water, Front, Columbia, Pearl, Third, Fourth, etc. ; while those running north and south are named Broadway, Sycamore, Main, Walnut, Western Row, etc. Main street extends from the steamboat landing on the river northwardly to the northern bound of the second plane. , The steamboat landing covers an open area of about 10 acres, with a front- age of 1000 feet. The shore is paved from low-water mark, and is provided with wharfboats or floating wharves, which rise and fall with the river; in the lieight of which there is a great variation, the mean annual range from high to low water being about 50 feet. Pearl street, parallel with the river, is the great jobbing mart. Fourth street is the Fifth Avenue” of the town, a long, wide, elegant, fashionable promenade upon the crown of the First Terrace, follow- ing the course of the river. Fifth street contains the markets, and displays a scene of busy life through an extent of three or four miles. Cincinnati is one of the best built cities in the country, and in its business portions especially will compare favorably with any Ameri- can city. The improvement in this respect has been very marked ' during the last ten years. Many handsome residences lie within the city limits, and in the suburbs. The suburb of Clifton is one of the CINCINNATI. \ OHIO S21 VIEW ON FOURTH STREET, GTNCINNATI. handsomest villages in the Union. As in all western cities, how- ever, the buildings soon become tarnished and blackened by the coal smoke, the coal burned here being very soft, and throwing off a dense, black smoke. The public buildings give evidence of the rapid growth in wealth and importance of the city. The material generally employed in the best buildings is a fine freestone or sandstone, though white limestone is used to some extent. The Court House is a handsome edifice of white limestone, resembling marble. It cost $500,000. The City Hall, the Custom House, the Melodeon Hall, Mozart Hall, and the Masonic Hall, are the other prominent structures. The colleges, churches, and benevolent establishments of the city are among its principal ornaments. The schools are numerous, and are of a high character. There are a number of flourishing private schools and seminaries, and about 22 public schools, including two high schools in operation. The Col- lege of St. Xavier, the Lane Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), the Fairmount Theological Seminary, the Wesleyan Female College, 828 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and the Woodward and Eclectic Medical Colleges are the principal I institutions of the higher class. The Benevolent Institutions are, the Lunatic Asylum, the Commer- cial Hospital, the Cincinnati, St. Peter’s, St. Aloysius, and We^t Ger- man Protestant Orphan Asylums, the Widow’s Home, the Asylum for Indigent Females, the House of Refuge, the Hotel for Invalids, the Longview Asylum, and the Almshouse. They are among the best arranged and most efficient institutions in the country. There are 9 public libraries in Cincinnati, two of which are German. The Cincinnati Observatory is located on Mount Adams, and forms a conspicuous object in any view of the city. It was built by the volun- tary contributions of the citizens, the grounds being the gift of the late Nicholas Longworth.^ Under the management of the late Pro- fessor Mitchell it was raised to a high degree of excellence and useful- ness. The city contains 4 first-class hotels, about 110 churches, 4 theatres, about 56 newspapers and periodicals, 8 of which are daily, and several large publishing houses. It is liglited with gas, and supplied with pure water from the Ohio River. Street railways connect its various portions, and it possesses an efficient police force, a police and fire- alarm telegraph, and a steam fire department. This city built the first steam fire-engine ever used in America. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 216,239. The Ohio is crossed at Cincinnati by a magnificent suspension bridge, uniting Cincinnati with Covington, Kentucky, begun in 1856, and completed in 1867. The entire length of the bridge is 2252 feet; the distance between the towers 1057 feet; height of the towers 230 feet; elevation of the floor at the middle 100 feet above low-water mark. The entire cost of the bridge was over $1,500,000. It is traversed by a street railway, connecting Cincinnati and Covington. It is an imposing and massive structure, and a great ornament to the city. There are 10 cemeteries in the vicinity, the principal of which is the Spring Grove Cemetery, a very beautiful city of the dead.^^ Besides its river connections, Cincinnati has direct communication by railway with all parts of the State and Union. The Miami Canal connects it with Lake Erie, furnishing also excellent water-power for manufacturing purposes. Nine lines of railway enter the city, and through trains run from Cincinnati to all important points east and west. OHIO. 829 THE TYLER DAVIDSON FOUNTAIN. The river trade of Cincinnati is enormous, and is on the increase in spite of the activity of the various railway lines. During the year ending August 31, 1864, 435 steamboats and barges were engaged in this trade, or about 121 more than were employed in 1854. In the same year the arrivals of steamers numbered 2936, though the trade with the Lower Mississippi and New Orleans was destroyed by the war. Since the close of the war, and the o])ening of the Mississippi trade, the city has resumed its full share in this source of wealth. Cincinnati ranks next to Chicago as a pork market of the Republic. An English writer, who visited Cincinnati a few years ago, humorously says of this branch of its industry : ‘‘The great business of Cincinnati is hog killing now, as it used to be in the old days of which I have so often heard. It seems to be an established fact that in this portion of the world the porcine genus are all hogs. One never hears of a pig. With us a trade in hogs and pigs is subject to some little contumely. There is a feeling, which has perhaps never been expressed in words, but which certainly exists, that these animals are not so honorable in their bearings as sheep 830 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and oxen. It is a prejudice which by no means exists in Cincinnati. There hog killing and salting and packing is very honorable, and the great men in the trade are the merchant princes of the city. I went to see the performance, feeling it to be a duty to inspect everywhere that which I found to be of most importance ; but I will not describe it. There were a crowd of men operating, and I was told that the point of honor was to ^ put through’ a hog a minute. It must.be understood that the animal enters upon the ceremony alive, and comes out in that cleanly, disemboweled guise in which it may sometimes be seen hanging up previous to the operation of the pork butcher’s knife. To one special man was appointed a performance which seemed to be specially disagreeable, so that he appeared despicable in my eyes; but when on inquiry I learned that he earned five dollars (or a pound sterling) a day, my judgment as to his position was reversed. And, after all, what matters the ugly nature of such an occupation when a man is used to it ? ” Upwards of 40 houses are engaged in this trade. About 700,000 hogs are annually killed and packed here. The value of the annual product of these houses in pork and lard is estimated at about $ 8 , 000 , 000 . The city is largely engaged in manufactures. There are numerous iron and brass founderies, machine shops, flouring mills, manufacto- ries of furniture, of lard and stearine oil, and of candles, distilleries, and wine factories. Considerable quantities of clothing, tobacco, and waofons are also made here. The hills of the Ohio abov^e and below o the city are lined with extensive vineyards, which produce large quan- tities of wine, which finds a market in the city. The vineyard and wine cellars of the late Mr. Longworth are well known throughout the country. In 1864, the total exports of the city amounted to $239,079- 825; and the imports to $389,790,537. The principal articles of export were valued as follows: merchandise, $^5,973,400 ; cotton, $34,973,840; tobacco, $22,286,485; whiskey, $10,520,500; horses, $8,523,847 ; sugar, $6,790,054 ; oil, $5,610,580 ; candles, $3,043,768 ; flour, $2,556,242; hemp, $2,363,760; and furniture, $2,154,075. The cities of Covington and Newport lie on the Kentucky shore, immediately opposite Cincinnati. Cincinnati was first settled on the 26th of December, 1788, by a party of men under Matthias Denman and Robert Paterson, sent out to improve a portion of the purchase made by the Hon. John Cleves OHIO. 831 Symmes. This purchase embraced a tract of 311,682 acres, lying be- tween the Great and Little Miami rivers, and extending along the Ohio River for a distance of 37 miles. This party landed opposite the mouth of the Licking River, and laid out a village called Losan- tiville, a name shortly abandoned for that of Cincinnati. In Feb- ruary, 1789, Judge Symmes himself arrived with another party, and, landing at North Bend, laid out what was designed to be a large city, to which they gave the name of Symmes. This site is now marked by the village of Cleves. In a short while a detachment of United States troops was sent to the Bend to protect the settlers there. Fort Washington had been built at Cincinnati by this time, however, and the troops were removed thither soon after their arrival at the Bend, and in a short while Symmes was compelled to yield its pretensions to Cincinnati. In 1790, the expedition of General Harrison against the Indians rendezvoused at and began its march from Fort Washington, -which was also the starting point of the ill-fated expedition of St. Clair, in 1791. In 1792, the first (Presbyterian) church was erected, on what is now the corner of Main and Fourth streets. In 1793, the first newspaper, The Sentinel of the Northwest Territory,’^ was es- tablished. In January, 1794, a line of two keel boats, with bullet- proof covers and portholes, and provided with cannon and small arms, w^as established between Pittsburg and Cincinnati, each making a trip once in four weeks. During this time the town progressed very slowly. With the opening of the present century a change foi the better set in, and its growth became marked and rapid. The intro- duction of steam navigation placed in its hands the enormous river trade, which it has since retained. In 1819, it was incorporated as a city. Its progress since its settlement is shown by the following table : Ypar. Population. 1795 , 500 1800 , 750 1810 , . 2,540 1820 , 9,602 1830 , 24,831 1840 , 46,338 1850 , 115,436 1860 , 171,000 1870 , 216,239 The city contains a large German population, the district mainly inhabited by them being known as Over the Rhine.’* 832 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. CLEVELAND, The second city of the State, is situated in Cuyahoga county, on the southern shore of Lake Erie, at the mouth of Cuyahoga Eiver, 135 miles east-northeast of Columbus, 255 miles northeast of Cincinnati, and 195 miles by water southwest of Buffalo. The city is beautifully located on an elevated gravelly plain over- looking the lake, at an elevation of from 60 to 100 feet above it. The Cuyahoga River flows through the city, its tortuous course adding to the picturesque character of the scenery and affording an excellent harbor for several miles. From various points excellent views are ob- tained of the lake, which in summer seems a shoreless sea studded with the white sails of vessels, and in the winter resembles the Arctic Ocean, being a vast solitude of ice. 'Cleveland is justly considered one of the handsomest American cities. It is regularly laid ofl* the streets, with a few exceptions, intersecting each other at right-angles. They are generally from 80 to 120 feet wide, and are so thickly shaded with maple trees — with the exception of the heavy business streets — that Cleveland has been named ‘^The Forest City.’^ In the centre of the city is a handsome public square of 10 acres, in which stands a marble statue of Commo- dore Perry, the hero of Lake Erie. The Nicholson or wooden pave- ment is used on all the principal streets. Superior street is the prin- cipal* shopping thoroughfare, and contains the hotels. River and Mer- win streets, on the east bank of the river, are the heavy business streets; and Euclid and Prospect streets are the favorite localities for residence. They are beautiful avenues, and are lined with hand- some dwellings. The principal public buildings are, the United States Building, con- taining the Custom House, Post Office, and United States Court ; the United States Marine Hospital ; the County Court House; the City Police Court and Prison, and the County Jail. These are built of stone. The public schools of Cleveland have long been noted for their excellence. There are about 74 in all, including 2 high schools. Besides these, there are a number of private schools and seminaries in the city. The principal establishments of the higher class are, the Cleveland Medical College, Charity Hospital Medical College, and the Homoeopathic Medical College, oM of which are flourishing institutions. The Cleveland, Library Association possesses a fine library, and holds an annual course of lectures. OHIO 833 There are about 32 benevolent societies in the city. The principal establishments are, the United States Marine Hospital ; the Cleveland Orphan Asylum; 3 Roman Catholic orphan asylums; the Home of the Friendless (Episcopal); the City Infirmary; the House of Refuge; the Charity Hospital. Fourteen newspapers, 5 of which are daily, and 9 magazines, are published in Cleveland. The city contains about 43 churches, and 7 hotels. It is lighted with gas and is supplied with water, which is forced by steam from Lake Erie into an elevated reservoir, from which it is distributed through the city. It is provided with an efficient police force, a police and fire alarm telegraph, a steam fire-engine de- partment, and a system of street railways. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 92,846. The position of Cleveland on Lake Erie has placed it in possession of an important trade. It is next to Buffalo the most important port on the lake. The harbor is good, and has been greatly improved by the United States Government. During the season of navigation daily lines of passenger steamers ply between Cleveland and the Lake Superior ports, and about 20 lines of steam propellers maintain a busy trade with the principal towns on all the great lakes. There is direct communication between Cleveland and Liverpool, England, by 53 834 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. sailing vessels, via the lakes, the Welland Canal and the St. Lawrence. The lake trade is very large and valuable, and is increasing. The Ohio Canal connects the lake with the Ohio River at Portsmouth, and, by means of a branch at Beaver, seven lines of railway, one leading direct to the oil regions of Pennsylvania, connect the city v'ith all parts of the Union. These have added greatly to its trade. The lake trade alone is estimated at about #225,000,000 per annum. Cleveland is largely engaged in ship-building. Many vessels have been constructed here for ocean service as well as for the lake trade. The manufactures of the city are growing rapidly. It is especially favored in this respect, owing to its proximity to the coal fields, its daily receipts from the mines, and its great facilities for distributing its products over the country. Iron, machinery, nails, copper, wooden ware, paper, furniture, woollen goods, flour, oil, and beer are the prin- cipal articles. The surrounding country is the famous Western Re- serve, one of the richest dairy regions in the West, and its products' find a market in this city. * Cleveland was the first settlement within the limits of Cuyahoga county. It was laid out in October, 1796, and was named in honor of General Moses Cleveland, a native of Connecticut. In 1836, it was incorporated as a city. In 1840, it contained but 6071 inhabitants. DAYTON, The fourth city of the State, is situated in Montgomery county, on the eastern bank of the Great Miami River, at the mouth of the Mad River, 67 miles west-by-south of Columbus, 52 miles north-northeast of Cin- cinnati, and 460 miles west-by-north of Washington. Dayton is a noticeably handsome city. It is regularly laid out, with streets 100 feet wide crossing each other at right-angles. The public buildings are elegant, and great taste has been displayed in the construction of the private residences. The County Court House is built of pure white marble, and its architecture is somewhat in the style of the Parthenon. It is said to be the most elegant structure of its class in the western States. The city contains over 34 churches, a public library, several hotels, 8 public and several private schools, and 4 newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with water. It is provided'with a police force and steam fire department, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 32,579. Seven railways centre at Dayton. The city is one of the most im- OHIO, 835 THE COURT HOUSE, AT DAYTOJf. poitant manufacturing towns in the West. There is abundant water- power, which is derived from the waters of the Mad Eiver, brought into the city by means of a hydraulic canal. The manufactures con- sist principally of railroad equipments, iron ware, paper, cotton and woollen fabrics, etc. The city is the seat of the Southern lAinatic Asylum of Ohio. Dayton was .settled on the 1st of April, 1796. In 1806, it was incorporated. It grew slowly, however, until the close of the war of 1812. TOLEDO, The fifth city of the State, is situated in Lucas county, on the W'estern bank of the Maumee River, 4 miles from its mouth, and 10 miles from Lake Erie. It is 134 miles northwest of Columbus, 100 miles west of Cleveland, and 246 miles northeast of Cincinnati. The city lies on an elevated plain. It is regularly laid out, but is indifferently built. The principal buildings are the Public School housra and the churches. The site of the city was unhealthy, until within the last ten years; but it is now said to be as healthy as any city on the lake. The city contains about 20 churches, several public and private schools, 4 newspaper offices, and a hotel. It is lighted with gas, is supplied with water by means of artesian wells; possesses a system of street railways, and a steam fire department; and is gov- erned by a Myor and Council. In 1870, the population was 28,546. Toledo is just entering upon its manufacturing career, and offers 836 THE GREAT REPUBLIC, great inducements to capitalists. Wooden ware, iron, flax, tobacco, flour, cotton fabrics, and chandlery are made here in small quantities. It is an important commercial city, however. It has railway con- nections with all parts of the State and Union, and the river furnishes a safe and commodious harbor for vessels navigating the lakes. It is the northern terminus of the Miami and Erie Canal, which, starting from Cincinnati, traverses the fertile valleys of the Miami and Mau- mee. The Wabash and Erie Canal connects it with Evansville, Ind., on the Ohio River, traversing in its course the valley of the Wabash. The lake, the canals and the railways annually pour a large and grow- ing trade into the lap of Toledo. The city is an important grain and timber market, and is destined to become of greater importance with the development of the surrounding country. Several grain eleva- tors are in operation along the harbor. Toledo covers the site of a stockade fort, called Fort Industry, built in 1800, near what is now Summit street. It was originally divided into two settlements, Vistula and Port Lawrence, both of which languished till about the year' 1833. In 1836, the two villages were united in one corporation as the city of Toledo. The comple- tion of the canals, about the year 1845, marks the beginning of its commercial importance; since which time, it has grown with great rapidity in population and in wealth. SANDUSKY, The sixth city of the State, is situated in Erie county, on the southern shore of Sandusky Bay, 5 miles from Lake Erie, 110 miles north-by- east of Columbus, and 210 miles north-northeast of Cincinnati. The ground on which the city is built rises as it recedes from the lake, and commands extensive and charming views of it. It is regu- larly laid out, with wide streets shaded with trees, intersecting each other at right-angles. A handsome public square occupies the centre of the city ; and around it stand the principal churches. The city is well built, many of the buildings being constructed of a fine limestone, taken from the inexhaustible bed of this stone on which the city is built. Large quantities of this stone are exported. There are in Sandusky about 18 churches, several schools, several newspaper offices, and 2 hotels. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 13,000. Sandusky is engaged in manufactures to a limited extent. It is OHIO. 83t principally a commercial town, however. Its harbor is excellent and safe, admitting vessels of all sizes. During the season of navigation it is generally full of steamers and sailing craft trading between San- dusky and the various lake ports. Three railways connect the city with all parts of the State and Union. Sandusky was originally settled in 1817, by two pioneers from Connecticut, and the first dwelling was built during the fall of that year. The first church was built in 1830. The other cities and towns of importance are, Zanesville, Ports- mouth, Hamilton, Xenia, Springfield, Newark, Marietta, Chillicothe, Steubenville, Urbana, and Mansfield. MISCELLANY. SIMON KENTON. Simon Kenton was a Virginian by birth, and emigrated to the wilds of the West in the year 1771. He was born (according to a manuscript which he dic- tated to a gentleman of Kentucky, some years since,) in Fauquier county, on the 15th of May, 1755, of poor parents. His early life was passed principally on a farm. At the age of 16, having a quarrel with a rival in a love affair, he left his antagonist upon the ground for dead, and made quick steps for the wilderness. In the course of a few days, wandering to and fro, he arrived at a small settle- ment on pheat Creek, one of the forks of the Monongahela, where he called him- self Butler. Here, according to Mr. McClung, he attached himself to a small company headed by John Mahon and Jacob Greathouse, which was about start- ing farther west, on an exploring expedition. He was soon induced, however, by a young adventurer of the name of Yager, who had been taken by the western Indians when a child, and spent many years among them, to detach himself from the company, and go with him to a land which the Indians called Kan-tuc-kee, and which he represented as being a perfect elysium. Accompanied by another young man, named Strader, they set off for the backwoods paradise in high spirits : Kenton not doubting that he should find a country flowing with milk and honey, where he would have little to do but to eat, drink, and be merry. Such, however, was not his luck. They continued wandering through the wilderness for some weeks, without finding the “promised land,” and then retraced their steps, and successivel}’- explored the land about Salt Lick, Little and Big Sandy, and Gu}^andotte. At length, being totally wearied out, they turned their atten- tion entirel}' to hunting and trapping, and thus spent nearly two years. Being discovered by the Indians, and losing one of his companions (Strader), Kenton was compelled to abandon his trapping-waters, and hunting-grounds. After divers hardships, he succeeded in reaching the mouth of the Little Kanawha, with his remaining companion, where he found and attached himself to another exploring party. This, however, was attacked by the Indians, soon after com- mencing the descent of the Ohio, compelled to abandon its canoes, and strike diagonally through the woods for Greenbriar county. Its members suffered much 838 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in iiccomplisliing this journey, from fatigue, sickness, and famine ; and on reach- ing the settlements separated. Kenton’s rival of the love affair had long since recovered from the castigation >vhich he had given him. But of this the young hero had not heard. He there- fore did not think proper to venture home ; but, instead, built a canoe on the IMonongahela, and once more sought the mouth of the Great Kanawha, where he hunted till the spring of 1774. This year, he descended the Ohio as far as the mouth of Big Bone Creek, and was engaged in various explorations till 1778, when he joined Daniel Boone in his expedition against the Indian town on Paint Creek. Immediately, on his return from this, he was dispatched by Colonel Bowman, with two companions, to make observations upon the Indian towns on Little Miami, against which the colonel meditated an expedition. He reached the towns in safety, and made the necessary surveys without being observed by the Indians ; and the expedition might have terminated much to his credit, and been very useful to the settlers in Kentucky, had he not, before leaving the towns, stolen a number of the Indians’ horses. The animals were missed early on the following morning, the trail of the marauders was discovered, and pursuit instantly commenced. Kenton and his companions soon heard cries in their rear, knew that they had been discovered, and saw the necessit}^ of riding for their lives. They therefore dashed through the woods at a furious rate, with the hue and cry after them, until their course was suddenly interrupted by an im- penetrable swamp. Here they, from necessity, paused for a few moments, and listened attentively. Hearing no sounds of pursuit, they resumed their course : and skirting the swamp for some distance, in the vain hope of crossing it, they dashed otf in a straight line for the Ohio. They continued their furious speed for 48 hours, halting but once or twice for a few minutes to take some refreshment, and reached the Ohio in safety. The river was high and rough, and they found it impossible to urge the jaded horses over. Various etforts were made, but all failed. Kenton was never remarkable for prudence ; and, on this occasion, his better reason seems to have deserted him entirely. By abandoning the animals, he might yet have escaped, though several hours had been lost in endeavoring to get them over. But this he could not make up his mind to do. He therefore called a council, when it was determined, as they felt satisfied they must be some 12 hours in advance of their pursuers, that they should conceal their horses in a neighboring ravine, and themselves take stations in an adjoining wood, in the hope that by sunset the high wind would abate, and the state of the river be such as to permit their crossing with the booty. At the hour waited for, however, the wind was higher, and the water rougher than ever. Still, as if completely infatuated, they remained in their dangerous position through the night. The next morning was mild ; the Indians had not yet been heard in pursuit, and Kenton again urged the horses over. But, recollecting the difficulties of the preceding day, the affrighted animals could not now be induced to enter the water at all. Each of the three men therefore mounted a horse, abandoning the rest (they had stolen quite a drove), and started down the river, with the intention of keeping the Ohio and Indiana side till they should arrive opposite Louisville. But they were slow in making even this movement ; and they had not ridden over 100 yards when they heard a loud halloo, proceeding apparently from the spot which they had just left. They were soon surrounded by the pursuers. One of Kenton’s companions effected his escape, the other was killed. Kenton was made pris- oner — “falling a victim,” says Mr. McClung, “to his excessive love of horse- flesh.”. OHIO. 839 After the Indians had scalped his dead companion, and kicked and cuffed Ken- ton to their hearts’ content, they compelled him to lie down upon his back, and stretch out his arms to their full length. They then passed a stout stick at right angles across his breast, to each extremity of which his wrists were fastened by thongs of buffalo-hide. Stakes were next driven into the earth near his feet, to which they were fastened in like manner. A halter was then tied round his neck, and fastened to a sapling which grCw near. And finally, a strong rope was passed under his body, and wound several times round his arms at the el- bows — thus lashing them to the stick which lay across his breast, and to which his wrists were fastened, in a manner peculiarly painful. He could move neither feet, arms, nor head ; and was kept in this position till the next morning. The Indians then, wishing to commence their return -journey, unpinioned Kenton, and lashed him by the feet to a wild, unbroken colt (one of the animals he had stolen from them), with his hands tied behind him. In this manner he was driven into a captivity as cruel, singular, and renq^rk- able in other respects, as any in the whole history of Indian warfare upon this continent. “A fatalist,” says the author of the “Sketches of Western Adven- ture,” “would recognize the hand of destiny in every stage of its progress. In the infatuation with whicli Kenton refused to adopt proper measures for his safety, while such were practicable ; in the persevering obstinacy with which he remained on the Ohio shore until flight became useless ; and afterward, in that remarkable succession of accidents, by which, without the least exertion on his part, he was so often at one hour tantalized with a prospect of safety, and the next plunged into the deepest despair. He was eight times exposed to the gauntlet — three times tied to the stake — and as often thought himself upon the eve of a terrible death. All the sentences passed upon*iim, whether of mercy or condemnation, seem to have been pronounced in one council only to be reversed in another. Every friend that Providence raised up in his favor, was immedi- ately fallowed by some enemy, who unexpectedly interposed, and turned his short glimpse of sunshine into deeper darkness than ever. For three weeks he was constantly see-sawing between life and death ; and during the whole time he was perfectly passive. No wisdom, or foresight, or exertion, could have saved him. Fortune fought his battle from first to last, and seemed determined to per- mit nothing else to interfere.” He was eventually liberated from the Indians, when about to be bound to the stake for the fourth time and burnt, by an Indian agent of the name of Drewyer, who was anxious to obtain intelligence for the British commander at Detroit, of the strength and condition of the settlements in Kentucky. He got nothing im- portant out of Kenton ; but in three weeks. Football of Fortune was sent to De- troit, from which place he effected his escape in about eight months, and returned to Kentucky. Fearless and active, he soon embarked in new enterprises; and was with George Rogers Clarke, in his celebrated expedition against Vincennes and Kaskaskia ; with Edwards, in his abortive expedition to the Indian towns in 1785 ; and with Wa 5 me, in his decisive campaign of 1794. Simon Kenton, throughout the struggles of the pioneers, had the reputation of being a valuable scout, a hardy woodsman, and a brave Indian fighter ; but, in reviewing his eventful career, he appears to have greatly lacked discretion, and to have evinced frequently a want of energy. In his after life he was much re- spected, and he continued to the last fond of regaling listeners with stories of the early times. A friend of ours, who some years ago made a visit to the 840 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. abode of the venerable patriarch, describes in the folIoAving terms his apioearance at that lime: “Kenton’s form, even under the AA'eight of 79 years, is striking, and must have been a model of manly strength and agility. His eye is blue] mild, and yet penetrating in its glance. The forehead projects very much at the eyebrows which are well defined — and then recedes, and is neither very high nor very broad. His hair, which in active life was light, is now quite gray • itis nose is straight ; and his mouth, before he lost his teeth, must have been expres- sive and handsome. I observed that he had yet one tootli— which, in connection with his character and manner of conversation, was continually reminding me of Leatherstocking. The whole face is remarkably expressive, not of turbulence or excitement, but rather of rumination and self-possession. Simplicity, frankness honesty, and a strict regard to truth, appeared to be the prominent traits of his character.” In . giving an answer to a question which my friend asked him, I was particularly struck with his truthfulness and simplicity. Tlie question was, whither the account of his lite, given in the “ Sketches of Western Adventure,’’ w^as true or not. “Well, I’ll tell you,” said he ; “ not true. The book says that when Blackfish, the Injun warrior, asked me, when they had taken me prisoner, if Colonel Boone sent me to steal their horses, I said, ‘ No, sir.’ ” Here he looked indignant and rose from his chair. “ I tell you I never said ‘ sir ’ to an Injun in my life ; I scarcely ever say it to a white man.” Here Mrs. Kenton, who was engaged in some domestic occupation at the table, turned round and remarked, that when they were last in Kentucky, some one gave her the book to read to her husband ; and that when she came to that part, he would not let her read any further. “And I tell you,” continued he, “I was never tied to a stake in my life to be burned. They had me painted black when I saw Girty, but not tied to a stake.” We are inclined to think, notwithstanding this, that the statement in the “Sketches,” of his being three times tied to the stake, is correct ; for the^ author of that interesting work had before him a manuscript account of the pioneer’s life, which had been dictated by Mr. Kenton to a gentleman of Kentuck}^, a number of years before, when he had no motive to exaggerate, and his memory was comparatively unimpaired. But he is now beyond the reach of earthly toil, or trouble, or suffering. His old age Avas as exemplary as his youth and man- hood had been active and useful. And though his last years \Amre clouded by poverty, and his eyes closed in a miserable cabin to the light of life, yet shall he occupy a bright page in our border history, and his name soon open to the light of fame. INDIANA. Area, 83,809 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 1,350,428 Population in 1870, 1,680,637 The State of Indiana is situated between 37° 60' and 41° 50' N. latitude, and between (about) 84° 50' and (about) 88° W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Michigan and Lake Michigan, on the east by Ohio and Kentucky, on the south by Kentucky, and on the west by Illinois. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 280 miles, and its extreme width, from east to west, about 144 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The Ohio River is bordered for the most part by a range of hills, and the country south of the M'^hite River is mostly rugged. A low ridge enters the State from Kentucky, and crosses the southern part in a northwestern direction. The Mdiite and Wabash rivers break through this ridge in a series of rapids. The rapids of the Ohio River are produced by the same cause. Korth of the White River, the country is either gently rolling or level. Fine prairies occupy the western counties, and the eastern part of the State is heavily timbered. Some swamp lands occupy several of the northwestern counties. Lahe Michigan, already described, washes the western portion of the northern part of the State. Michigan City is the principal town on the lake. The Ohio River washes the entire southern shore of the State, and receives the waters of its principal stream, the Wabash. The Wahash 841 842 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. rises ill tlie western part of the State of Ohio^ and enters Indiana near the centre of the eastern boundary. It then flows northwest to Huntington, where it bends to the southwest, and flows in that direc- tion across the State to the Illinois border, below Terre Haute. It then forms the boundary between Indiana and Illinois for about 100 miles, and empties into the Ohio River at the southwestern extremity of the former State. It is 550 miles long, and is navigable for 300 miles for steamboats, at high water. The T^hite Rivcv is the principal branch of the Wabash. It formed by two branches, called the East Fork and the West Fork. The West Fork, which may be re- garded as the main stream, rises in the eastern part of the State, and is 300 miles long. It flows through the central part of Indiana, and is navigable, at high water, for 200 miles above the mouth of the White River. The East Fork is 250 miles long, and is navigable for flat-boats. The two branches unite near Kinderhook, in Davies county. The main stream is about 40 or 50 miles long. The gen- eral course of the White River and its branches is southwest. The Wabash is obstructed at low water by a ledge of rocks just above the mouth of the White River. The Maumee and its branches drain the northeastern counties, and the Kankakee, one of the sources of the Illmois, flows through the northwest. The Upper St. Joseph’s of Michigan flows for 30 miles through this State, in the extreme northern part. The Tippecanoe and Mississinewa, flowing into the Wabash, the White Water and Blue River flowing into the Ohio, and the Flat Rock flowing into the White River, are the other streams of importance. MINERALS. The southwestern part of the State is rich in coal beds. It is esti- mated that they are capable of producing 50,000,000 bushels to the square mile. Iron, zinc, gypsum, marble, limestone, and sandstone, of an excellent building quality, and grindstones are found. CLIMATE. The climate is mild as a general rule, but liable to sudden and severe changes. The summers are warm, but the winters, though severe, are short, and except in the most northern counties deep snows are not usual. INDIANA. 843 SOIL AND PEODUCTIONS. The soil of the State is good, and has never been worked to its fall capacity. The best and most fertile lands lie along the rivers. The State contains a great deal of excellent grazing land. According to thelleport of the Agricultural Bureau for 18G9, there were in Indiana 8,242,183 acres of improved land. In the same year, the other returns were as follows ; Bushels of wheat, u Indian corn, .... u rye, .... 575,000 u oats, (C barley, u buckwheat, u potatoes, Pounds of tobacco, butter Tons of hay, • . Number of horses, asses and mules, . . . .... 35.340 u sheep, u milch cows, u swine, u young cattle, Value of domestic animals, . . . COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. ' This State has no foreign commerce, but has an active lake and river trade. Manufactures do not yet occupy the position to which the cheapness of fuel and abundance of water-power in Indiana entitle them. The State is almost entirely agricultural at present, but there is good reason to believe that it will one day become a prominent manufacturing community. In 1860, the State contained 5120 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $18,875,000, consumed raw material worth $27,360,000, and returned an annual product of $43,250,000. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1868, Indiana contained 2211 miles of completed railroads, con- structed at a cost of $79,387,000. Nearly all the great lines between the far West and the East cross this State, which is one of the fore- 844 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. most in the country in the work of internal improvements. A perfect network of roads covers the State, and there is scarcely a county which is not crossed in some part by a railroad. Seven lines centre at the capital, and half a dozen cross the northern part of the State to Chicago. All the important points are thus connected with each oth#r, and with all parts of the country. The roads of Indiana are amongst tlie best in the country. In 1860, there were 453 miles of canal navigation in the State. EDUCATION. Indiana is one of the first States in respect to the provision made for public education. In 1868, there were 14 colleges in the State, the principal of which is the State University, at Bloomington, which is a part of the public school system, and furnishes education free. A State normal school has been established at Terre Haute. The educational system is under the general control of a Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, elected by the people for a term of two years. He reports the condition of the schools to the Legislature at the end of his term. A County Commissioner is in charge of the schools of each county, and in each city and township the schools are controlled by a Board of Trustees. An Examiner is appointed in each county by the Commissioner. It is the duty of this official to visit the schools and examine the teachers, under the direction of the Commissioner, and to hold a Teachers^ Institute in his county at least once a year. In 1866, the school fund amounted to $7,613,490. The number of public schools in the State was 8166, and the number of pupils was 402,812. There were also 2026 private schools, with 49,322 pupils. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. There are two State prisons in this State — the State Prison, North, at Michigan City, and the State Prison, South, at Jeffersonville. At the Jeffersonville prison, the labor of the convicts is let out to con- tractors, and the Institution is self-sustaining. The State conducts the northern prison. The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb is at Indianapolis, and is a flourishing and excellent institution. The Institute for the Education of the Blind, and the Hospital for the Insane, are also at Indianapolis. They are well managed. In the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, shoe- I INDIANA. 845 making and cabinet-making are taught the boys, while the girls are instructed in needle- work. Brash and broom making are carried on by the boys, and bead work of various kinds by the girls, at the Blind Asylum. In October, 1867, there were 169 deaf mutes in the first institution named above; 96 blind persons in the second ; and in 1868, 313 lunatics in the third. The Soldiers^ and Seamen’s Home is located in Bush county. It was established in this county in 1866, and will accommodate 100 patients. A State Reform School is just being put in operation in Hendricks county. BELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, there were 2933 churches in Indiana, and the value of church property was $1,065,274. LIBBABIES AND NEWSPAPERS. In 1860, there were 258 libraries in the State, containing 94,201 volumes. In the same year the number of newspapers and magazines pub- lished in this State was as follows : daily, 13 ; semi-weekly, 5 ; weekly, 160 ; monthly, 8. Total, 186. Of these 172 were political, 6 religious, 5 literary, and 3 miscellaneous. They had an aggregate annual circu- lation of 10,090,310 copies. FINANCES. On the 31st of October, 1870, the State debt amounted to $3,970,- 601. The receipts of the Treasury during the fiscal year ending Octo- ber 31st, 1870, amounted to $3,896,541, and the expenditures for the same period to $3,532,406. In 1868, there were 68 National banks doing business in the State, with a capital of $12,867,000. GOVERNMENT. By the terms of the State Constitution, every male citizen of the United States, 21 years old, who has resided in the State six months, and every male of foreign birth, 21 years old, who has resided in the United States one year, and in the State six months, and has declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, 846 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Secretary of State, Auditor of State, Treasurer of State, and Attorney- General, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 50 members) and a House of Representatives (of 98 members), all elected by the people. The General election is held in October. The Governor and Lieutenant-Governor are chosen for four years, and the other officers and the Legislature for two years. The Legislature meets biennially in January. The Courts of the State are the Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, and a Court of Common Pleas. The judges are elected by the people; those of the Supreme Court for seven years, those of the Circuit Courts for six years, and those of the Court of Common Pleas for four years. The Supreme Court consists of four judges. The seat of Government is established at Indianapolis. Indiana is divided into 92 counties. HISTORY. Originally a part of New France, Indiana was first explored by the French missionaries and traders. As early as 1700, Vincennes was a missionary station, and in 1716 it became a trading-post. It is be- lieved that the first actual white settlers were French soldiers, who, by frequent intermarriages with the Indians, lost their habits of civili- zation, and became a degenerate community, remaining a distinct class for fully one hundred years. The treaty of 1763, turned over to Great Britain all the French possessions east of the Mississippi. During the Revolution, the French settlers were bitterly hostile to the English, and in one instance gave such accurate information of the situation and condition of the British fort at Vincennes, that General Rogers Clark, of Virginia, was enabled to capture it. After the close of the Revolution, the territory east of the Mississippi became the property of the United States. Soon after the settlement of Ohio, several military expeditions were sent into the present State of Indiana, which was then known as the Indian country. In 1790, General Harmar destroyed the Indian towns on the Maumee, which are supposed to have occupied the site of the present town of Fort Wayne, but was himself very badly handled by the savages. In May, 1791, an expedition from Kentucky, under General Charles Scott, laid waste the towns on the Wabash and Eel rivers, without losing a man ; and in the following: August, another INDIANA. 84Y Kentucky expedition crossed into Indiana, and completed the work which General Scott had begun. The Indians continued hostile after the treaty of 1795, owing to the efforts of Tecumseh, but a portion of them sold their lands to the United States for the benefit of the white settlers. , In 1802 and 1803, and again in 1807, unsuccessful efforts were made to introduce slavery into the Indiana territory in spite of the prohibition of the ordinance^ by which the territory had been ceded to the United States. The Indians having become troublesome again, the Governor, Gen- eral William Henry Harrison, summoned the people to take up arms against them. The savages were led by Tecumseh and his brother The Prophet, two able and determined chieftains. General Harrison marched into their country with a considerable force. On the 7th of November, 1811, he appeared with his army before Tippecanoe {the Prophets town) on the Wabash, and demanded that the savages should restore all the property they had taken from the whites. A conference was held between the American commander and Tecumseh, in which it was agreed that hostilities should not begin until the next morning. Harrison, however, knew that the Indians would not scruple to disregard the truce, and bivouacked his army in order of battle. His suspicions were realized. Just before daylight Tecumseh made a furious attack upon the American camp, but, thanks to the wise precautions of Harrison, was repulsed, and his warriors routed with terrible loss. Harrison followed up his victory by devastating the Indian country. Soon after this the tribes sued for peace. During the war of 1812 the Indians joined the British in their efforts against the Americans, but were terribly punished for so doing. Their warriors were slain and their country laid waste, and in the battle of the Thames their famous chieftain, Tecumseh, was killed. In the year 1800 the region now included in the States of Illinois and Indiana was organized as the Territory of Indiana. I?i 1809 Illinois Territory was separated from Indiana. On the 29th of June, 1816, a State Constitution was adopted by the people, in Convention, and on the 11th of December, of the same year, Indiana was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. The new State grew rapidly, and attracted settlers from all parts of the country. Emigrants from Europe also came over, and it en- tered upon that splendid career of wealth and prosperity which it is still pursuing. 848 THE GREAT REPUBLIC STATE HOUSE AT DIA'A ATOIAS. During the late war Indiana furnished 195,147 troops to the ser- vice of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are, New Albany, Evansville, Fort Wayne, Lafayette, Terre Haute, Madison, Richmond, Laporte, Jeffersonville, Logansport, and Michi- gan City. INDIANAPOLIS, The capital and largest city of the State, is situated in Marion county, on the west fork of White River, just below the mouth of Fall Creek, 109 miles northwest of Cincinnati, 200 miles southeast of Chicago, and 573 miles west by north of Washington. Latitude, 39° 46' N. ; longitude, 86° 5' W. It is located in an extensive plain, and lies in almost the exact centre of the State. The city is regularly laid out, and is well built. It is making rapid progress every year in the character of its edifices, both public and private, and is now noted as one of the handsomest and most attractive of the Western capitals. The streets are wide, and generally cross each other at right angles. Four of them, however, are diagonal, and converge to a circular area in the centre of the town. Washington street is the principal thoroughfare, and is 120 feet wide. The streets are well paved, are shaded with trees, and are traversed by lines of street railways. The INDIANA. 849 business portions boast many handsome and showy structures, and the private streets contain a large number of elegant residences. The public buildings are a credit to the city and State. The State House is a noble edifice, built in imitation of the Parthenon, and sur- mounted by a dome. Its dimensions are 180 by 80 feet. The Court House and the Union Depot are the other prominent buildings. The schools of the city are excellent and prosperous. The public schools deserve special commendation, and the private academies and seminaries are well conducted. The Northwestei'u Christian Univer- ■sity^ conducted by the Christian Church, the Baptist Female College^ the Indiana Female College, and the Indiana Medical College, are located here. The State and Mercantile Lih'aiies are the principal collections of books. The Benevolent Institutions are, the State Lunatic Asylum, the State Asylums for the Blind, and for the Deaf and Dumb, and several local institutions for the relief of the poor and afflicted. The city contains about 34 cliurches, and several newspaper offlces, is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water. It is provided with an efflcient police force, and a steam fire department, and is gov- erned by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 48,244. Eight railway lines centre at Indianapolis, and make it one of the most important railway points in America. Manufactures are carried on to a limited extent, iron, machinery, paper, flour, and window sashes being the principal products. Indianapolis is noted for its rapid growth. In 1820, when the site was selected for the capital of the State, it was covered with a dense forest. The first settlement was made in the spring of that year, and on the 1st of January, 1825, the State offlces were removed from Corydon to this place. The State Capitol was finished in 1834. ^ EVANSVILLE, ' In Vanderburgh county, on the northern bank of the Ohio, is the second city of the State, with respect to population. It is 200 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, 200 miles below Louisville, Ky., and 144 miles southwest of Indianapolis. The city lies on a high bank of the river, the ground sloping gradually from the first street to the edge of the water. It is well built, and presents a handsome appear- ance from the river. The principal streets are wide and well paved. The public buildings are, the Court House, the Marine Hospital of the United States, and the State Bank. The city is lighted with gas, and .54 850 THE GREAT REPUBLIC EVANSVILLE. is supplied with water from the Ohio. It contains about 30 churches, a number of public and private schools, about 4 newspaper offices, and several hotels. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 22,830. Evansville is one of the most important places in the State. It is the terminus of the Wabash and Erie Canal, which is 462 miles long, and the principal market of the famous Green River Valley of Ken- tucky. The annual exports of the city exceed $8,000,000 in value, of which pork, lard, and tobacco are the principal articles. The city is also extensively engaged in the manufacture of iron, brass, and flour. The coal for this purpose is mined about a mile from the Court House. A large portion of the population is of German origin. The town was laid out in 1836, at which time the site was covered with a dense forest. It received its name from Robert Morgan Evans, a native of Virginia, one of the original proprietors. FORT WAYNE, In Allen county, is situated at the confluence of the St. Joseph’s and St. Mary’s rivers, which here unite and form the Maumee. It is 1 12 miles northeast of Indianapolis, and 96 west of Toledo, Ohio. The city is laid out on the level prairie land, and is well built. It has grown rapidly in the past ten years, and its railway connections have, made it a place of considerable importance. The Wabash and Erie Canal connects it with the Ohio and Lake Erie. It contains about 10 churches, 4 news- INDIANA, 851 NEW ALBANY. paper offices, several public schools, a female college, and the county buildings, and is lighted with gas and supplied witli water. It is the chief market for the rich ocuntry surrounding it, and is & place of considerable trade. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 17,718, making it the third city of the State. Fort Wayne occupies the site of the Twightwee Village '' of the Miami Indians. The F rench at an early day built a trading-post here, and in 1764, the English erected a fort on the spot. /In 1794, General Anthony Wayne erected a new fort, which was called by his name, and which has given its name to the present city. It was continued as a military-post until 1841, until the removal westward of the Miamis and Potawatomies. NEW ALBANY, In Floyd county, on the right bank of the Ohio Eiver, is the fourth city of the State. It is 3 miles below the falls of the Ohio, and 5 miles below Louisville, 136 miles below Cincinnati, and 100 miles south-by-east from Indianapolis. It is a handsome city, built on level ground, at a slight elevation above the river, with broad well-paved streets, shaded with handsome trees. It contains some showy build- ings and fine residences. The principal are the county buildings. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the S52 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Ohio. It contains about 18 churches, several public and private schools, a PresbyteHan Theological Seminary, and 2 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 14,273. New Albany is the most important commercial city in the State. It is the centre of a large river trade, and its commerce with all parts of the State is important. Next to Cincinnati it is the principal point on the Ohio for the construction of steamers. It contains 6 steamboat ^ yards. It is also engaged in the manufacture of iron, brass, machinery, nails, locomotives, woollen goods, flour, and engines for steamboats. The town was laid out in 1813. MADISON, In Jefferson county, is the fifth city of the State. It lies on the right bank of the Ohio River, 90 miles below Cincinnati, 44 miles above Louisville, and 86 miles south-southeast of Indianapolis. The city lies in a beautiful and picturesque valley, which, with the hills on the Kentucky shore, and those of Indiana, and the bold curve and broad sweep of the Ohio, affords a panorama rarely equalled. This valley is about three miles long, and is enclosed by hills nearly 400 feet high. The city is well built, the ground on which it lies being about 30 or 40 feet above the highest floods. The principal streets are well paved, and the city is lighted with gas and supplied with water. The principal buildings are the Court House and the United States Hos- pital The city contains about 14 churches, 2 public libraries, 3 large public schools, and 2 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 10,709. Madison is connected with all parts of the State by railways, and is largely engaged in the river trade. The annual value of the com- merce of the city is estimated at more than $8,000,000. Large quantities of breadstuffs are exported, and several founderies, machine shops, etc., are in operation in the city. There are also several exten- sive pork-packing establishments. Madison was first settled in 1807. The site was then covered with a dense growth of poplars, beech, and walnut, and the present landing was covered with a growth of cotton-wood, the water s edge being fringed with willows. LAFAYETTE, In Tippecanoe county, on the left bank of the Wabash River, is the sixth city of the State. It is 66 miles northwest of Indianapolis, and INDIANA. 853 LAFAYETTE. 123 miles southeast of Chicago. The city is pleasantly situated on ground gradually rising from and commanding a fine view of the river. It is regularly laid out, and is rapidly improving in the cha- racter of its buildings. It contains a handsome court house, 4 public and several private schools, 14 churches, and 4 newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas. In 1870, the population was 13,506. In the centre of the city, on the public square, is a fine medicinal well. The well was sunk for drinking water, and at the depth of 230 feet this mineral stream was struck. It is a salt sulphur water, and closely resembles that of the Blue Lick Springs of Kentucky. It is applicable to numerous diseases, such as bronchitis, rheumatism, dyspepsia, diseases of the liver, kidneys, sexual organs, and in general for disturbances of the secretive organs or surfaces. The stream is constant, and ample for bathing and drinking purposes. Lafayette is a place of considerable trade, and the most important grain market in the State. The Wabash Canal connects it with the Ohio and Lake Erie, and 3 railways connect it with the rest of the State. It possesses excellent water-power, and is within immediate reach of valuable beds of iron, coal, and clay. Lafayette was laid out in 1825, on Government land. Seven miles north of the city, on the line of the railway to Chicago, is the famous battle-field of Tippecanoe, where on the 7th of November, 1811, Gen- eral Harrison defeated the Indian chief Tecumseh. 854 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. TERRE HAUTE, In Vigo county, on the left or eastern bank of the Wabash River, is tlie seventh city of the State. It is 73 miles west of Indianapolis, 109 miles north of Evansville, and 187 east of St. Louis. The site of the city is elevated about 60 feet above low water, and a few feet above the level of the surrounding prairie. The situation is very beautiful. The prairie is noted for its fertility, and the beauty of its landscape. The plan of the city is rectangular. The streets are wide, and are famous for their handsome shade trees. The greater portion of the city is built of brick, and many of the houses are handsome. The residences as a rule are located in grounds ornamented with shrubbery. The city contains a fine court house, a town hall, about 12 churches, several public and private schools, 2 female colleges, and 5 newspaper offices. The Wabash is here crossed by a fine bridge. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water. It is gov- erned by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 16,103. Terre Haute offers great inducements to manufacturers. It is sur- rounded by extensive coal-fields, and building stone and iron ore of a superior quality lie close by. It is a place of considerable trade, having railway communication with all parts of the country, and being one of the principal shipping points on the Wabash and Erie Canal. Large quantities of pork, grain, and flour are annually exported. Terre Haute was first settled in 1816, since which time it has grown steadily. MISCELLANY. THE MEETING OF GENERAL HARRISON AND TECUMSEH. In the spring of 1810, General Harrison, being Governor of the Northwestern Territory, and residing at Vincennes — the seat of Government — had learned from various quarters that Tecuniseli had been visiting the different Indian tilbes, scattered along the valleys of the Wabash and Illinois, with a view of forming an alliance and making common cause against the whites, and that there was great probability that his mission bad been successful. Aware, as he was, that if this was the case, and that if the combination had been formed, such as was repre- sented, the settlements in the southern portion of Indiana and Illinois werS in great danger ; that Vincennes itself would be the first object of attack, and that, with a handful of troops in the territory, a successful resistance might not be made ; and not probably fully aware of the extent of the organization attempted by Tecumseh, and desirous of avoiding, if he could, the necessity of a call to arms, he sent a message to him, then residing at the “Prophet’s Town,” inviting INDIANA. 855 him to a council, to be held at as early a.period as possible, for the purpose of talking over and amicably settling all difficulties which might exist between the whites and the Shawnees. It was not until the month of August of the same year, that Tecumseh, accompanied by about 70 of his warriors, made his appear- ance. They encamped on the banks of the Wabash, just above the town, and Tecumseh gave notice to the Governor that, in pursuance of his invitation, he had come to hold a talk “with him and his braves.” The succeeding day was appointed for the meeting. The Governor made all suitable preparations for it. The officers of the territory and the leading citizens of the town were invited to be present, while a portion of a company of militia was detailed as a guard — fully armed and equipped for any emergency. Notice had been sent to Tecumseh, previous to the meeting, that it was expected that himself and a portion of his principal warriors woiild be present at the council. The council was held in the open lawn before the Governor’s house, in a grove of trees which then sur- rounded it. But two of these, I regret to say, are now remaining. At the time appointed, Tecumseh and some 15 or 20 of his warriors made their appearance. With a firm and elastic step, and with a proud and somewhat defiant look, he advanced to the place where the Governor and those who had been invited to at- tend the conference were sitting. This place had been fenced in, with a view of preventing the crowd from encroaching upon the council during its deliberations. As he stepped forward, he seemed to scan the preparations which had been made for his reception, particularly the military part of it, with an eye of suspicion — by no means, however, of fear. As he came in front of the dais^ an elevated portion of the place, upon which the Governor and the officers of the territory were seated, the Governor invited him, through his interpreter, to come forward and take a seat with him and his counsellors, premising the invitation by saying : “Tliat it was the wish of their ‘ Great Father,’ the President of the United States, that he should do so.” The chief paused for a moment, as the words were ut- tered and the sentence finished, and raising his tall form to its greatest height, surveyed the troops and the crowd around him. Then, with his keen eyes fixed upon tlie Governor for a single moment, and turning them to the sky above, with his sinewy arm pointing toward the heavens, and with a tone and manner indi- cative of .supreme contempt for the paternity assigned him, said, in a voice whose clarion tone was heard throughout the whole assembly : “ My Father ? — The sun is my father — the earth is my mother — and on her bosom I will recline.” Having finished, he stretched himself with his warriors on the greensward. The effect, it is said, was electi icil, and for some moments there was perfect silence. The Governor, through the interpreter, then informed him, “that he had un- derstood he had complaints to make, and redress to ask, for certain wrongs which he CTecumseh) supposed had been done his tribe, as well as the others; that he felt disposed to listen to the one and make satisfaction for the other, if it was proper that he should do so. That in all his intercourse and negotiations witli the Indians, he had endeavored to act justly and honorably with them, and believed he had done so, and had learned of no complaint of his conduct until he learned that Tecumseh was endeavoring to create dissatisfaction toward the Gov- ernment, not only among the Shawnees, but among the other tribes dwelling on the Wabash and Illinois ; and had, in so doing, produced a great deal of trouble between them and the whites, by averring that the tribes whose land the Govern- ment had lately purchased, had no right to sell, nor their chiefs any authority to 856 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. convey. That he, the Governor, had invited him to attend the council, with a view of learning- from his own lips, whether there was any truth in tlie reports which he had heard, and to learn whether he, or his tribe, had any just cause of complaint against the whites, and, if so, as a man and a warrior, openly to avow it. That as between himself and as great a warrior as Tecumseh there sliould be no concealment — all should be done by them under a clear sky, and in an open path, and with these feelings on his own part, he was glad to meet him in coun- cil.” Tecumseh arose as soon as the Governor had finished. Those who knew him speak of him as one of the most splendid specimens of his tribe — celebrated for tlieir physical proportions and fine forms, even among the nations who sur- rounded them. Tall, athletic, and manly, dignified, but graceful, he seemed the beau ideal of an Indian chieftain. In a voice first low, but, with all its indis- tinctness, musical, he commenced his reply. As he warmed with his subject, his clear tones might be heard, as if “ trumpet-tongued,” to the utmost limits of the assembled crowd who surrounded him. The most perfect silence prevailed, ex- cept when the warriors who surrounded him gave their guttural assent to some eloquent recital of the red man’s wrong and the white man’s injustice. Well in- structed in the traditions of his tribe, fully acquainted with their history, the councils, treaties, and battles of the two races for half a century, he recapitulated the wrongs of the red man from the massacre of the Moravian Indians, during the Revolutionary war, down to the period he had met the Governor in council. He told him “he did not know how he could ever again be the friend of the white man.” In reference to the public domain, he asserted “that the Great Spirit had given all the country from the Miami to the Mississippi, from the lakes to the Ohio, as a common property to all the tribes that dwelt within those bor- ders, and that the land could not, and should not be sold without the consent of all. That all the tribes on the continent formed but one nation. That if the United States would not give up the lands they had bought of the Miamis, the Delawares, the Potawatomies, and other tribes, that those united with him were determined to fall on those tribes and annihilate them. That they were deter- mined to have no more chiefs, but in future to be governed by their warriors. That their tribes had been driven toward the setting sun, like a galloping horse (Ne-kat-a-cush-e Ka-top-o-lin-to). That for himself and his warriors, he had de- termined to resist all further aggressions of the whites, and that with his consent, or that of the Shawnees, they should never acquire another foot of land.” To those who have never heard of the Shawnee language, I may here remark it is the most musical and euphonious of all the Indian languages of the West. When spoken rapidly b}'- a fluent speaker, it sounds more like the scanning of Greek and Latin verse, than anything I can compare it to. The effect of this address, of which I have simply given the outline, and which occupied an hour in the de- livery, may be readily imagined. William Henry Harrison was as brave a man as ever lived. All who knew him will acknowledge his courage, moral and physical, but he was wholly unpre- pared for such a speech as this. There was a coolness, an independence, a defi- ance in the whole manner and matter of the chieftain’s speech which astonished even him. He knew Tecumseh well. He had learned to appreciate his high qualities as a man and warrior. He knew his power, his skill, his influence, not only over his own tribe, V)ut over those who dwelt on the waters of the Wabash and Illinois. He knew he was no braggart — that what he said he meant — what he promised he intended to perform. He was fully aware that he was a foe not INDIANA. 857 to be treated light — an enemy to be conciliated, not scorned — one to be met with kindness, not contempt, ^"here was a stillness throughout the assembly when Tecumseh had done speaking which was painful. Not a whisper was to be heard — all eyes were turned from the speaker to the Governor. The unwarranted and unwarrantable pretensions of the chief, and the bold and defiant tone in which he had announced them, staggered even him. It was some moments be- fore he arose. Addressing Tecumseh, w'ho had taken his seat with his warriors, he said : “ That the charges of bad faith made against the Government, and the assertion that injustice had been done the Indians in an}" treaty ever made, or any council ever held with them by the United States, had no foundation in fact. That in all their dealings with the red man, they had ever been governed by the strictest rules of right and justice. That while other civilized nations had treated them with contumely and contempt, ours had alw’ays acted in good faith with them. That so far as he individually was concerned, he could say, in the pres- ence of the ‘Great Spirit,’ wdio was w^atching over their deliberations, that his conduct, even wdth the most insignificant tribe, had been marked with kindness, and all his acts governed by honor, integrity, and fair dealing. That he had uniformly been the friend of the red man, and that it was the first time in his life that his motives had been questioned or his actions impeached. It was the first time in his life that he had ever heard such unfounded claims put forth, as Te- cnmseh had set up, by any chief, or any Indian, having the least regard for truth, or the slightest knowledge of the intercourse between the Indian and the wdiite man, from the time this continent was first discovered.” What the Gover- nor had said thus far had been interpreted by Barron, the interpreter to the Shaw'uees, and he w"as about interpreting it to the Miamis and Potaw^atomies, wdio formed part of the cavalcade, when Tecumseh, addressing the interpreter in Shawnee, said, “ He lies ! ” Barron, w'ho had, as all subordinates (especially in the Indian department) have, a great reverence and respect for the “powers that be,” commenced interpreting the language of Tecumseh to the Governor, but not exactly in the terms made use of, when Tecumseh, who understood but little English, perceived from his embarrassment and aw'kwardness, that he w'as not giving his words, interrupted him, and, again addressing him in Shawnee, said “ No, no ; tell him he lies."'' The guttural assent of his party showed they coin- cided with their chief’s opinion. General Gibson, Secretary of the Territory, who understood Shawnee, had not been an inattentive spectator of the scene, and understanding the import of the language made use of, and from the excited state of Tecumseh and his party, was apprehensive of violence, made a signal to the troops in attendance to shoulder their arms and advance. They did so. The speech of Tecumseh was literally translated to the Governor. He directed Barron to say to him, “he would hold no further council with him,” and the meeting broke up. One can hardly imagine a more exciting scene — one which would be a finer subject for an “historical painting,” to adorn the rotunda of the Capitol. On the succeeding day, Tecumseh requested another interview with the Governor, which was granted on condition that he should make an apology to the Governor for Ids language the day before. This he made through the interpreter. ]\Ieasures for defence and protection were, however, taken, lest there should be another outbreak. Two companies of militia were ordered from the country, and the one in town added to them, while tlm Governor and his friends went into council fully armed and prepared for any contingency. The conduct of Tecumseh upon ■858 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. this occasion was entirely different from that of the day before. Firm and in- trepid, showing* not the slightest fear or alarm, surrounded as he was with the military force quadrupling his own, he preserved the utmost composure and •equanimity. No one could have discerned from his looks, although he must have fully understood the object of calling in the troops, that he was in the slightest degree disconcerted. He was cautious in his bearing, dignified in his manner, and no one from observing him would for a moment have supposed he was the principal actor in the thrilling scene of the previous day. In the interval between the sessions of the first and second council, Tecumseh had told Barron, the inteipreter, “that he had been informed by the whites, that the people of the Territory were almost equally divided, half in favor of Tecum- seh, and the other adhering to the Governor.” The same statement he made in council. He said “that two Americans had made him a visit, one in the course of the preceding winter, the other lately, and informed him that Governor Harri- son had purchased land from the Indians without any authority from the Gov- ernment, and that one half of the people were opposed to the purchase. He also told the Governor that he, Harrison, had but two )^ears more to remain in office, und that he, Tecumseh, could prevail upon the Indians who sold the lands not to receive their annuities for that time ; that when the Governor was displaced, as he would be, and a good man appointed as his successor, he would restore to the Indians all the lands purchased from them.” After Tecumseh had concluded his speech, a Wyandotte, a Kickapoo, a Potawatomie, an Ottawa, and a Winnebago chief, severally spoke, and declared that their tribes had entered into the “ Shaw- nee Confederacy,” and would support the principles laid down by Tecumseh, whom they had appointed their leader. At the conclusion of the council, the Governor informed Tecumseh that “he would immediately transmit his speech to the President, and as soon as his answer was received, would send it to him ; but, as a person had been appointed to run the boundary line of the new purchase, he wished to know whether there would be danger in his proceeding to run the line.” Tecumseh replied, “that he and his allies were determined that the old boundary line should continue, and that if the whites crossed it, it would be at their peril.” The Governor replied, “that since Tecumseh had been thus candid in stating his determination, he would be equally so with him. The President, he was convinced, would never allow that the lands on the Wabash were the property of any other tribes than those who had occupied them and lived on them since the white people came to America. And as the title to the lands lately purchased was derived from those tribes by fair purchase, he might rest assured that the right of the United States would be supported by the sword.” “So be it,” was the stern and haughty reply of the Shawnee chieftain, as he and his braves took leave of the Governor and wended their way in Indian file to their camping ground. And thus ended the last conference on earth between the chivalrous and gallant Tecumseh, the Shawnee chief, and he who since the period alluded to has ruled the destinies of tlie nation as its Chief Magistrate. The bones of the first lie bleaching on the battle field of the Thames— those of the last are deposited in the mausoleum that covers them on the banks of the ■Ohio. ILLINOIS. 55,410 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 1,711 951 Population in 1870, 2,538,400 The State of Illinois is situated between 37 ° and 42° 30' N. lati- tude, and between 87° 30' and 91° 40' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Wisconsin, on the east by Lake Michigan and Indiana, ou the south by Kentucky, and on the west by Missouri and Iowa! It is separated from Kentucky by the Ohio, and from Missouri and Iowa by the Mississippi. One half of the eastern partis divided from Indiana by the Wabash. TOPOGRAPHY. There is a hilly region in the southern part, and some rugged country in the northwest; but as a general rule, the surface of IllFnois is level, consisting in many parts of gently undulating prairies, which are covered with a luxuriant grass and an abundance of beautiful wild flowers. They also abound in wild fowl. Says a recent writer: “The great landscape feature of Illinois is its prairies, which are seen in almost every section of the State. The want of variety, which is ordinarily essential to landscape attraction, is more than compensated for in the prairie scenery, as in that of the boundless ocean, by the impressive qualities of immensity and power. Far as the most searclung eye can reach, the great unvarying plain rolls on ; its sublime grandeur softened but not weakened by the occasional groups of trees in its midst, or by the forests on its verge, or by the countless flowers everywhere upon its surface. The prairies abound in game. The prairie duck, sometimes but improperly called grouse, 859 8G0 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. are most abundant in September and October, when large numbers are annually taken. Perhaps the most striking picture of the prairie country is to be found on Grand Prairie. Its gently undulating plains, profusely decked with flowers of every hue, and skirted on all sides by woodland copse, roll on through many long miles from Jack- son county, northeast to Iroquois county, with a width varying from one to a dozen or more miles. The uniform level of the prairie region is supposed to result from the deposit of waters by which the land was ages ago covered. The soil is entirely free from stones, and is extremely fertile. The most notable characteristic of the prairies, their destitution of vegetation, excepting in the multitude of rank grasses and flowers, will gradually disappear, since nothing prevents the growth of the trees but the continual fires which sweep over the plains. These prevented, a fine growth of timber soon springs up;, and as the woodlands are thus assisted in encroaching upon and occupying the plains, settlements, and habitations will follow, until the prairie tracts are overrun with cities and towns. Of the thirty- five and a half millions of acres embraced within the State, but thirteen millions, or little more than one-third, were improved in 1860, showing that despite her wonderful progress in population and production, she is yet only in her infancy. Excepting the specialty of the prairie, the most interesting landscape scenery of this State is that of the bold, acclivitous river shores of the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Illinois rivers.’’ * Lake Michigan forms the northern part of the eastern boundary .- Chicago, the principal city, is situated near the southern end of the lake, and possesses a very large lake trade. The other towns on Lake Michigan are, Otsego, Waukegan, Rockland, and Evanston. . The Mississippi River forms the western boundary of this State, and receives the waters of the Rock, Illinois, and Kaskaskia rivers, besides those of several smaller streams. The important places on the Mississippi, beginning on the north, are Galena, Rock Island, Oquawka, Quincy, Alton, East St. Louis, and Thebes. The Ohio River forms the southern boundary, and empties into the Mississippi, at the extreme southern end of the State. The city ot Cairo is situated at the confluence of these two rivers, and is an important place. The Illinois River is the largest in the State. It is formed by the confluence of the Des Plaines and Kankakee, which unite at * Appleton’s Hand-Book of American Travel. ILLINOIS. 861 Dresden, in Grundy county, southwest of Lake Michigan. It flows ,^cross the State in a southwestern direction, and empties into the Mississippi about 20 miles from Alton. It is about 320 miles long, and has been rendered navigable at all seasons, to Ottawa, 286 miles from the Mississippi. Peoria, 200 miles from its mouth, is the most important town on the river. The Fox and Sangamon rivers are its principal branches. The former rises in Wisconsin, and is 200 miles long. It is a fine mill-stream ; the latter rises in the east-central part of the State, and flows west into the Illinois. It is 200 miles long, and is navigable at high water for small steamers. The Rock River rises in Fond du Lac county, in Wisconsin, about 10 miles south of Lake Winnebago, and flows southward into Illinois, near the centre of the northern part of the State. It then turns to the south- west and flows across the State into the Mississippi, at Rock Island City. It is 330 miles long, and though interrupted in several places by rapids, could be rendered navigable at a small expense ; steamers have ascended it to Jefferson, Wisconsin, 225 miles. It flows through one of the most beautiful and fertile portions ^f Illinois. The Kas- kaskia River rises in Champaign county, in the eastern part of the centre of the State, and flows southwest into the Mississippi a few miles below the town of Kaskaskia. It is 300 miles long, and is navigable for steamers for a considerable distance. The Vermilion^ Embarras, and Little Wabash rivers, small streams, flow into the Wabash from this State. Several small lakes lie in the northern part of the State. MINERALS. There are extensive deposits of lead in the extreme northwestern part of this State, and extending into Wisconsin and Iowa. The principal mines lie in the vicinity of Galena. Copper exists in large quantities in the northern part of the State. Bituminous coal abounds. Iron is also found in abundance in the north, and to a limited extent in the south, and it is said that silver has been discovered in St. Clair county. There are a number of vsalt springs in the State, and a variety of medicinal springs. The other minerals are zinc, lime, marble, freestone, gypsum, and quartz crystals. CLIMATE. The climate is not very severe, but is subject to sudden changes. Deep snows are not of general occurrence, but occasionally take place, and at long intervals the rivers are frozen over. 862 THE GREAT REPUBLIC.- SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. Illinois is one of tlie richest agricultural States in the Confederacy.. The soils are all highly fertile and productive. In the bottoms, or al- luvial borders of the rivers, the soil is chiefly formed from the de- posits of water during flood. In some cases the mould so formed is twenty-five feet and upward in depth, and of inexhaustible fertility., A tract called the ‘American Bottom,’ extending along the Missis- sippi for ninety miles, and about five miles in average width, isof tliis formation. About the French towns it has been cultivated, and pro- duced Indian corn every year, without manuring, for a century and a half. The prairie lands, although not so productive, are yet not in- ferior for many agricultural purposes, and are preferred, where wood is to be had, on account of their superior salubrity. The barrens, or oak openings, have frequently a thin soil.” The agricultural wealth of the State is thus summed up in the Re- port of the General Land Office for 1867 : “In 1850, Illinois l^d 76,208 farms, valued at $96,133,290; in 1860, 144,338, valued at $408,944,033. The quantity of land in farms increased about 77 per cent, during the decade, the improved land 165 per cent., the cash value of farms about 325, and the value of farming implements and machinery nearly 200 per cent. “The value of live stock in 1850 was $24,209,258 ; in 1860, $72,- 501,225; and in 1865, according to the State returns, it had advanced to $123,770,554, showing an increase, during the ten years following 1850, of 200 per cent., or 20 per cent, per annum, and 70 per cent, for the five years following 1860, or 14 per cent, per annum. “New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio are the only States making larger quantities of butter ; and, in the value of slaughtered animals, Illinois is exceeded only by New York. “In 1860, Illinois produced 23,837,023 bushels ot wheat, and 115,- 174,777 bushels of Indian corn, being 14 bushels of wheat and 67 bushels of Indian corn to every man, woman, and child. “ The State surpassed all others in wheat and corn products, there having been cultivated upon its soil nearly one-seventh of the entire wheat and corn crop of the United States. In 1865, 177,095,852 bushels of Indian corn were produced, and 25,266,745 bushels of wheat. The entire grain crop in 1865, including Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat, amounted to 232,620,1 73 bushels. The crop of potatoes was 5,864,408 bushels, tobacco, 18,867,722 pounds, and ILLINOIS. 863 hay, 2,600,000 tons, the whole amounting in value to $116,274,322. Besides this, there were produced in 1865, 5,000,000 pounds of cotton, a branch of industry just beginning to receive attention, yet already pronounced one of the most profitable crops in the southern part of the State ; also large quantities of grass-seeds, maple and sorghum sugar and molasses, flax, flaxseed, hemp, hops, silk cocoons, bees-wax, honey, wine, butter and cheese, peas and beans. The wool clip in 1865 was over 6,000,000 pounds; orchard products of the value of $2,000,000, and market $500,000. ^‘The year 1865 was unfavorable for wheat in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, the yield in each being less than either 1862, 1863, or 1864. Illinois then produced 32,213,500 bushels. ''In every year since 1860, the State has maintained a position as the leading wheat and corn-growing region, while the product of other staples is annually increasing.^’ In 1869 the principal returns were as follows: Bushels of wheat, ^ 29,200,000 “ Indian corn, 121,500,000 oafs, . . ... 35,726,000 “ Irish potatoes, 7,500,000 “ rye, 675,000 “ buckwheat, 251,000 barloy, 1,250,000 Pounds of butter, 28,052,551 Tons of hay, 2,800,000 Number of horses, 1,340,320 mules and asses, 99 450 “ milch cows, 85o’340 “ sheep, 1,340,120 “ swine 3,502,820 “ young cattle, 2,320,500 Value of domestic animals, $100,501,270 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Illinois possesses a large lake and river trade, dealing principally in agricultural products. The grain trade of Chicago is immense; the lumber trade is also important, and Chicago is at present the j^rincipal pork market of the Republic. Manufactures occupy a secondary place in Illinois. In 1860, the State contained 4100 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $27,700,000, and 24,370 hands; consumed raw material worth $33,800,000, and yielded an annual product of $56,750,000. 8G4 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Illinois is one of the foremost States in the Union in respect to its internal improvements. In 1868, there were. 3250 miles of com- pleted railroads in the State, constructed at a cost of $139,185,000. The Report of the General Land Office for 1867 thus refers to the in- ■ ternal improvements of this State : “ The railroad system is on a scale commensurate with its advanta- geous position in respect to agriculture and internal commerce ; 31 60 miles are completed, and now in operation, 812 miles more are in course of construction, making in the aggregate 3979 miles, or one mile of railroad to 14 square miles of territory. Eight lines cross the eastern boundary of the State, and the Mississippi River is ap- proached within the State by thirteen, connecting with the east and west through routes across the States of Missouri and Iowa, and northern routes through Wisconsin and Minnesota, westward to the Pacific, and eastward to the great trade marts of the Atlantic coast. In addition to the facilities thus afforded to commerce, a canal has been constructed from Lake Michigan, at Chicago, to La Salle, on the Illinois River, 100 miles in length, affording communication by water between the lake and the Mississippi. The canal is now being enlarged by deepening its channel to accommodate large class vessds, so that the waters of Lake Michigan will flow through to the Illinois River, the bed of which is improved so as to establish unin- terrupted steam navigation at all seasons from the Mississippi, by way of the lakes and the St. Lawrence, to the Atlantic.” EDUCATION. There are twenty-four colleges in Illinois ; the majority of them are in prosperous condition. Some of them are really entitled to rank only as academies and seminaries. The public school system is excellent. There is a permanent school fund, and taxes are levied for the support of the schools. In . 1868, the amount thus expended in the State was $6,430,881. In the same year there were 10,705 schools in the State, conducted by 19,037 teachers, and attended by 708,780 children. The State Normal University is located at Normal, near the city of Bloomington, and is a flourishing institution, amply provided with .buildings and grounds. At the close of the regular term, a Teachers’ ILLINOIS. 865 Institute IS usually held for two weeks, and is attended by hundreds of teachers from all parts of the State. The 8tq,te Industrial University is located at Quincy. It was opened in 1868, and has a good number of students. It embraces the following schools : Science, Literature, and Arts ; Agriculture; Me- chanical Science and Art ; Military Tactics and Engineering ; Mining and Metallurgy ; Civil Engineering ; Analytical and Applied Chem- istry ; Natural History and Practical Geology ; Commercial Science and Art. Students may^ choose their studies, provided they are suffi- •eiently advanced to keep up with the regular classes. The educational system of the State is under the general supervision of a State Superintendent of Public Schools, who is elected by the people for four years. He has power to make such rules as he may deem necessary for the government of the schools, and his construction ofexistmg laws upon this subject must be accepted by his subordi- nates. He reports once in two years to the Legislature. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, who is required to visit the schools and direct their general operations. He reports bi- ranially to the State Superintendent. Each township elects its Irustees, who have the immediate management of its schools. They report once in two years to the County Superintendent. Each Dis- trict has three Directors, who manage the finances of the schools. All teachers are required to possess certificates of competency from the State or County Superintendent. A County Superintendent’s certificate is good for two years in the county in which it is issued. Ihe State Superintendent’s certificate is good in any part of Illinois during the life of its holder. in Illinois, attended by 20,907 pupils. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 1 Q Penitentiary is located at Joliet, and was completed in loo8. The whole area of land pertaining to the Penitentiary is 72 19 acres; whole area within main wall, 16 acres; the main wall is 25 feet high and 6 feet thick; there are 100 cells for separate system, 7 y eet and 15 feet high, 900 cells for congregate system, and 100 ce s for females, 4 by 7 feet, and 7 feet high. Each cell has a dis- tinct ventilating tube extending to roof, with two registers in each. All partitions, floors, and ceiling of cells are formed each of one stone, 00 ^ 866 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. eight inches thick. The buildings and walls stand on rock foun- dation. All the buildings and grounds are supplied with pure water from a spring at the bluff; the buildings are warmed by steam ; the kitchen and wash rooms are furnished with steam and other cook- ing and washing fixtures of the most modern and approved kinds. The engines, of 150 horse power each, furnish the motive power for the machinery, running nearly 1500 feet of heavy line shafting. Altogether, it is one of the most complete prisons in the United States, as well as the most extensive and best arranged manufacturing estab- lishment in the West. Until July, 1867, the labor of convicts had been farmed out to contractors, who were bound to meet all the ex- penses of the prison. At that date, the State assumed entire control. A Board of Commissioners was appointed by the Governor, and this Board selected a Warden, who has the general management of the prison, under the direction of the Commissioners. All minors under the age of 18, except for the crime of robbery, burglary, or arson, con- victed of any criminal offence, are exempted from punishment in the Penitentiary. They may be fined and sent to county jail, or either, for misdemeanors, but for higher crimes are always sent to the county jail. The number of these young offenders is steadily increasing in the State. * The Illinois State Hospital for the Insane, the Institution for the Education of the Blind, and the Institution for Idiots and Imhedles, are located at Jacksonville. They are admirably organized and con- ducted, and are furnished with commodious buildings. They take rank among the first institutions of a similar nature in the Union. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860, there were 2424 churches in Illinois. The value of church property was $6,890,810. LIBRARIES AND NEWSPAPERS. In 1860, there were 854 libraries in Illinois, containing 244,394 volumes. Of these, 246 are public libraries. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State was as follows : daily, 23 ; semi-weekly, 1 ; tri- weekly, 6; weekly, 238 ; monthly, 17; making a total of 285, with an aggregate annual circulation of 27,464,764 copies. * American Year-Book, vol. i., p. 321. ILLINOIS. 861 FINANCES. On the 30th of November, 1870, the State debt amounted to ?4,890,937, with $3,082,104 in the Treasury applicable to its pay- ment. The receipts of the treasury for the fisc*al year ending No- vember 30, 1868, were $2,276,763, and the expenditures $2,126,668. The estimated revenue for 1871 is $3,124,316. In 1868, there were 83 National banks, with a capital of $12,070,000 doing busines.s in the State. GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided in the State one year, and in the county ninety days, is entitled to vote at the elections. The government of the State is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant- Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and Attorney- General, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 51 members chosen for four years, one-half retiring biennially), and a House of Representatives (of 153 members, chosen for two years), all elected by the people. All the State officers, except the Treasurer, whose term is two years, are chosen for four years. The Legislature meets annually on the first Monday in January. The courts of the State are, the Supreme Judicial Court, 28 Cir- cuit Courts, and Justices’ Courts. The Supreme Court consists of three divisions, corresponding to the three divisions of the State, and has appellate jurisdiction only. The city of Chicago has its own courts. The seat of Government is established at Springfield. The State is divided into 102 counties. HISTORY. This State was first known to the whites by the name of The Illinois Country,” and was first explored, in 1673, by Marquette (a missionary), and Joliet, who came from Canada, and were followed by La Salle and Hennepin. About the year 169.3, mission .stations were established by the French at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Peoria. During the early part of the eighteenth century the French made several settlements on the lower Missi-ssippi, and a .Jesuit monastery was established at Kaskaskia. Towards the middle of the eighteenth century, the British began to advance their claims to the Illinois V 868 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. country, and the French commenced to build new forts and strengthen the old ones to resist them. In 1763, all the French possessions east of the Mississippi were ceded to Great Britain, who thus became mistress of the Illinois country. During the Revolution the British had posts at Kaskaskia, Ca- hokia, and St. Vincent (the latter now Vincennes, Indiana). They were captured by General Rogers Clark, the American commander in this region, in one of the most memorable campaigns in ouFhis'tory. In 1784, Virginia ceded her territory northwest of the Ohio River (of which Illinois then formed a part) to the United States. In 1800, the Territory of Indiana was formed, embracing the country between the State of Ohio and the Mississippi, and, in 1809, Illinois was elected into a separate Territory, with its present name. It grew rapidly in population, and on the 23d of December, 1818, was ad- mitted into the Union as a sovereign State. During the war of 1812 the settlers suffered much from the savages and British. In the year 1812, Captain Heald, commanding Fort Dearborn, which occupied the site of the present city of Chicago, was directed by General Hull, who surrendered Detroit to the British, to evacuate that post, distribute his stores among the Indians, and retire to Fort Wayne, in Indiana. Captain Heald had no confidence in the savages, and threw his powder into the wells, and poured his whiskey on the ground. This done, he abandoned the fort, and set out on his march to Indiana. The savages were particularly anxious to obtain the powder and whiskey, and were so exasperated at failing to secure them that they fell upon the garrison after it had pro- ceeded two miles from the fort, and massacred 41 men, 2 women, and 12 children. This terrible occurrence for a long time cast a gloom over the Territory. In 1832, during the prevalence of the Black Hawk War, the northern* part of the State suffered much from the depredations of the savages. In 1840, the Mormons, being driven out of Missouri, settled on the east bank of the Mississippi, in this State, and founded a city which they called Nauvoo. They were granted extraordinary privi- leges by the State, but were the object of the bitter hatred of the in- habitants of the surrounding country. Several conflicts occurred be- tween the two parties, and the State militia was called out to preserve the peace. Joseph Smith, the Mormon leader and Prophet,’’ and his brother, Hiram, were imprisoned in the jail at Carthage, where ILLINOIS. 869 STATE HOUSE, SPRINGFIELD. th.ey were attacked by a mob and assassinated, on the 27th of Jane, 1844. The prisoners were at the time under the protection of the State, and this made the assassination all the more outrageous. Like all such violent acts, it failed of its object, and made the success of Mormonism more certain. Soon after this, the Mormons abandoned Nauvoo, and began their emigration to their present home in Utah. During the late war, the State of Illinois furnished (to December 1, 1864) 197,364 troops to the service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of Illinois are, Chicago, Peoria, Quincy, Bellville, Alton, Eockford, Galena, and Bloomington. SPRINGFIELD, The capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Sangamon county, 3 miles south of the Sangamon Eiver, 97 miles northeast of St. Louis, and 188 miles southwest of Chicago. Latitude 39° 48' N. ; longitude 89° 33' W. The city lies near the centre of the State, and is built on the open prairie which surrounds it in every direction. It is regularly laid out, and is well built. The streets are S10 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. wide and straight, and are ornamented with shade trees. From the abundance of its shrubbery and floral ornaments Springfield has been called ‘'the City of Flowers.’' Many of the residences are large and handsome, and the business section contains numerous showy buildings. The State House is an elegant structure, and stands in a beautiful square of three acres, in the centre of the city. On the streets facing the square are the various public buildings of the State and city. The Court House and State Arsenal are the other prominent buildings. The city contains about 13 churches, several public and private schools, the Illinois State University, 2 hotels, and 5 newspaper offices, and is lighted with gas. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 17,365. Lying in a country unsurpassed in fertility, Springfield is a place of considerable commercial importance. It has railway connections with Chicago and St. Louis, and with all parts of the State and the West. It is also engaged in the manufacture of flour, woollen goods, and iron ware. In the vicinity are extensive beds of bituminous coal. The city is noted as having been the home of the late President Lincoln. In the picturesque cemetery of Oak Ridge, two miles north of the city, the statesman lies buried. Springfield was first settled in 1819. In 1822 it was formally laid out, and in 1837 it became the capital of the State. CHICAGO, The metropolis of the State, is the fifth city of the Republic and the second city of the Western States. It is situated in Cook county, on the western side of Lake Michigan, about 30 miles north of its southern end, at the mouth of the Chicago Riv^er, on the margin of a prairie several miles in width. It is 188 miles northeast of Spring- field, 285 miles northeast of St. Louis, 300 miles northwest of Cincin- nati, 928 miles northwest of New York, and 763 miles northwest of AVashington. The site of Chicago is low, being but five feet above the lake, but sufficiently elevated to prevent inundation. “The general direction of the lake shore here is north and south. The water, except at the mouth of the river, is shoal, and vessels, missing the entrance ground, go to pieces in a storm within 100 yards of the shore. The harbor of Chicago is the river, and nothing more. It is a short, deep, slug- glish stream, creeping through the black, fat mud of the prairie, and VAN INCENS SNfbER PHILYA W: ILLINOIS. 871 in some places would hardly be thought worthy of a name ; but it makes itself wonderfully useful here. Outside of its mouth a vessel has no protection, nor are there any piers or wharves. The mouth of the river has been docked and dredged out, to afford a more easy entrance ; but, after you are once in, it narrows to a mere canal, from 60 to 75 yards in width. The general course of the river, for about three-fourths of a mile, is at right angles with the lake shore, and this portion is known as the Chicago River. It here divides, or more properly, two branches unite to form it, coming from opposite direc- tions, and at nearly right angles to the main stream. These are called, respectively, the 'North Branch' and the 'South Branch,' and are each navigable for some 4 miles, giving, in the aggregate, a river front of some 15 or 16 miles, capable of being increased by canals and slips, some of which have already been constructed. Into the 'South Branch ' comes the Illinois Canal, extending from this point 100 miles to La Salle, on the Illinois River, forming water communication between the lakes and the Mississippi. For the want of a map, take the letter H ; call the upright column on the right hand the lake shore ; let the cross-bar represent the Chicago River, the left hand column will stand for the two branches, and you have a plan of the water lines of the City of Chicago, which will answer very well for all purposes of general description. The general divisions thus formed are called, respectively, 'North Side,' 'South Side,' 'West Side.' In this narrow, muddy river, lie the heart and strength of Chicago. Dry this up, and Chicago would dry up with it, mean and dirty as it looks. From the mouth of the St. Joseph River, in Michigan, round to Milwaukie, in the State of Wisconsin, a distance, by the lake shore, of more than 250 miles, Chicago is the only place where 20 vessels can be loaded or unloaded, or find shelter in a storm. A glance at the map, then, will show that it is the only accessible port — and hence the commercial centre — of a vast territory, measuring thousands of square miles of the richest agricultural country in the world." The harbor is being gradually deepened to admit vessels of a large class, and is being so greatly improved at the expense of the General Government that it will soon be one of the best on the lakes. The city is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks, with the streets having an average width of 80 feet. From the lake the city extends westward for about 5 miles. Its length, parallel with the lake, is about 8 miles. The ground gradually rises to the westward to an ex- tent sufficient to drain the city thoroughly. The streets are paved 8t2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. to a great extent with the Nicholson pavement of wooden blocks. Until 1856, most of the streets of Chicago were planked, and the buildings then erected were generally without cellars. Consequently in the spring of the year the ground asserted its original character of a swamp. Since 1856, it has become necessary to change the grade of the city several times, and this has made a difference of from two to five feet in the original level. The process of raising the houses of . Chicago was one of great interest. Buildings of immense size, and even entire blocks, were raised several feet above thek original level without a crack being made in them, or a single thing displaced. During all this time the houses were occupied, and the business and every day life of the occupants went on as usual. The following account from the Chicago Tribune^ of the raising of a entire block of business houses, in the spring of 1860, will show how the work was carried on : For the past week the marvel and the wonder of our citizens and visitors has been the spectacle of a solid front of first-class busi- ness blocks, comprising the entire block on the north side of Lake street, between Clark and La Salle streets, a length of 320 feet, being raised about four feet by the almost resistless lifting force of 6000 screws. The block comprises 13 first-class stores, and a large double marble structure, the Marine Bank Building. Its subdi- visions are a five-story marble front block of three stores ; a second four-story block of three stores, and a five-story block of four stores, at the corner of Clark street — these all presenting an unbroken front, in the heart of our city, and filled with occupants. This absence from annoyance to the merchants and the public was due to the skill with which the contractors hung the side walks to the block itself, and carried up the same with the rise of the building. The block was raised four feet eight inches, the required height, in five days, when the masons put in the permanent supports. The entire work occupied about four weeks. An estimate from a reliable source made the entire weight thus raised about 35,000 tons. So carefully was it done, that not a pane of glass was broken, nor a crack in masonry appeared. The internal order of the block prevailed undisturbed. The process of raising, as indicated above, was by the screw, at 6000 of which, three inches in diameter and of three-eighths thread, 600 men were employed, each man in charge of from eight to ten screws. A com- plete system of signals was kept in operation, and by these the work- men passed, each through his series, giving each screw a quarter turn. ILLINOIS. 873 THE TRIBUNE BUILDING. then returning to repeat the same. Five days’ labor saw the immense weight rise through four feet eight inches, to where it stood on tempo- rary supports, while rapidly being replaced by permanent foundations. The work, as it stands, is worth going miles to see, and has drawn the admiration of thousands within the past week.” Chicago is one of the most magnificent cities on the continent, and is often called the ^^New York of the West.” The business streets are lined with splendid warehouses, which have no superiors in ele- gance and convenience in any of the Eastern cities. Iron, stone, and marble are in common use. Lake street is the Broadway of Chicago, while Michigan avenue and Wabash avenue are lined with princely edifices, and are adorned with rows of luxuriant trees. South Water street is devoted to the heavy wholesale trade. Many of the private residences on the north and west side of the river are handsomely built, and are surrounded with elegantly ornamented grounds. su THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The Chicago River is crossed by numerous bridges, uniting the various parts of the city. These are all dra\vbridg€‘S, made so in order not to interfere with the navigation of the river. They are hung in the middle, and turn on a pivot, only two men being needed for each bridge. In 1867-8, a tunnel was built under the river, and is now in constant use by vehicles and pedestrians. It is the only work of the kind in America, and with the exception of the Thames Tunnel, in London, the only one in the world. Street railways connect the various portions of the corporate limits. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from Lake Michigan. The water is brought into the city by means of a tunnel, extending from the shore, under the bed of the lake, to a crib or well built up in the lake, two miles from the land. The depth of the. shore shaft is 69 feet, and of the lake shaft 64 feet. The crib is simply a well into which the water of the lake is allowed to flow, and from which it makes its way to the city through the tunnel, which is nearly circular in form, being 5 feet 2 inches high, and 5 feet 2 inches wide. It is enclosed in brick masonry, 8 inches thick. The cost of the entire work was about $1,000,000. The city contains two arte- sian wells of great value. They are respectively 911 and 694 feet deep, and flow about 1,200,000 gallons daily. The principal public buildings are the Custom Souse, in which is the Post Office, a fine building of stone ; the Chamber of Commerce, a beautiful edifice of white marble; the Court House ; Crosby’s Opera House ; and the Merchants’ Exchange. There are about 112 churches in the city. Some of which possess handsome buildings. The schools of the city, both public and private, are noted for their excellence. There are about 27 public schools, 3 commercial colleges, and 24 Roman Catholic convents and schools in operation. The institutions of the higher class are the University of Chicago, founded by the late Senator Douglas, and possessing a series of elegant buildings; the Chicago Theological Seminary ; the Presbytey'ian Theological Semi- nary; the University of St. Mary of the Lake ; the Push Medical College, and two other medical colleges. The Dearborn Observatory possesses a fine telescope. The Academy of Sciences \\2lS a collection of 38,000 specimens in the various departments of natural history. The His- torical Society Library numbers 85,000 bound and unbound books and ])amphlets. The library of the Young Men’s Association contains about 10,000 volumes; that of the Law Lnstitute numbers over 8000 volumes.. ILLIJNOIS. 8t5 The charitable and benevolent institutions are numerous and well managed. The principal are the United States Marine Hospital; the Cook County Hospital; the Magdalen Asylum; the Protestant Or- phan Asylum ; the Home for the Friendless ; St. Joseph's (male) and St. Mary's (female) orphan asylums ; and iho. Soldiers' Home. The city contains about 5 theatres, and a number of concert and lecture halls, and second-class places of amusement. The cemeteries are 12 in number. Graceland, Rose Hill, Calvary, and Oak woods are the principal. They are all situated beyond the city limits. The city contains a number of handsome public squares. The principal of these are the Esplanade or Lake Park, and Dearborn, Union, Jefferson, and Lincoln Parks. With the exception of the last, these contain from 1 to 5 acres each. Lincoln Park embraces an area of 60 acres, fronting on the lake, and will eventually be the hand- somest pleasure-ground in the West. The hotels of Chicago are among the best in the country, including 4 or 5 first-class establishments, and several inferior houses. The Tremont, Sherman, Richmond, and Briggf Houses are the leading establishments. The city is supplied with an efficient police force and steam fire de- partment, a police and fire alarm telegraph, and is governed by a Mayor and Council elected by the people. In 1870, the population was 298,977. The position of Chicago on the lake and its connections by rail- way with the rest of the Union have made it one of the most im- portant })laces in America. Possessing now one of the best harbors on the great chain of lakes, it controls a large share of the enormous trade of those inland seas, and its water communication with the Gulf of Mexico is made sure by means of tlie Michigan and Illinois Canal, which is so constructed as to turn the current of the Chicago River into the navigable portion of the Illinois River. This canal is being deepened so as to admit the passage of steamers from the Il- linois to Chicago and the lakes. Fifteen lines of railway centre here, and afford rapid and direct communication with all parts of the Union. Lines of steamships ply between Chicago and the various ports on Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior. Some idea of the lake trade of Chicago may be gained from the following statement published by the Custom House authorities of the port. The state- ment is for the year 1870: 876 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. During the months of April, May, June, July, August, September, Oc- tober and ^^ovember, the following number of vessels entered and cleared the port of Chicago, and those of the other cities mentioned : Entered. Cleared. Chicago 12,546 12,358 New York 5757 6158 Philadelphia 2098 1698- Baltimore 1786 1866 New Orleans ' 1148 1352 San Francisco 468 499 Mobile 456 408 Savannah 596 610 Entered at Chicago during the eight months of navigation... 12,546 Entered at other ports during the same time 12,259 Chicago ’s excess 287 Average tonnage of vessels entered at Chicago 239,921 Average tonnage of vessels entered at New York 599,661 Chicago is the largest interior grain market in the world. In 1838, the first shipment of wheat was made, and consisted of 78 bushels. In 1867, the total receipts of grain and flour were as fol- lows : 1,814,236 barrels of flour ; 13,090,868 bushels of wheat ; 23,- 018,827 bushels of corn; 10,988,617 bushels of oats; 1,306,204 bushels of rye; 2,246,446 bushels of barley ; in all, equal to 59,722,142 bushels of grain, the heaviest amount received in any one year. The grain elevators of Chicago are among its greatest curiosities. There are about 17 in all, possessing an aggregate capacity of 10,055,000 bushels. An English traveller thus describes them : An elevator is as ugly a monster as has been yet produced. la uncouthness of form it outdoes those obsolete old brutes who used to roam about the semi-aqueous world, and live a most uncomfortable life with their great hungering stomachs and huge unsatisfied maws. The elevator itself consists of a big moveable trunk — moveable as is that of an elephant, but not pliable, and less graceful even than an elephant’s. This is attached to a huge granary or barn ; but in order to give altitude within the barn for the necessary moving up and down of this trunk — seeing that it cannot be curled gracefully to its purposes as the elephant’s is curled — there is an awkward box erected on the roof of the barn, giving some twenty feet of additional height, up inta which the elevator can be thrust. It will be understood, then, that this big moveable trunk, the head of which, when it is at rest, is thrust up into the box on the roof, is made to slant down in an oblique direction from the building to the river; for the ele- ILLINOIS 87T SCENE ON LAKE STREET. vator is an amphibious institution, and flourishes only on the banks of navigable waters. When its head is ensconced within its box, and the beast of prey is thus nearly hidden within the building, the un- suspicious vessel is brought up within reach of the creature’s trunk, and down it comes, like a mosquito’s proboscis, right through the deck, in at the open aperture of the hold, and so into the very vitals and bowels of the ship. When there, it goes to work upon its food with a greed and an avidity that is disgusting to a beholder of any taste or imagination. And now I must explain the anatomical ar- rangement by which the elevator still devours and continues to devour till the corn within its reach has all been swallowed, masticated, and digested. Its long trunk, as seen slanting down from out of the build- ing across the wharf and into the ship, is a mere wooden pipe; but this pipe is divided within. It has two departments; and as the grain-bearing troughs pass up the one on a pliable band, they pass empty down the other. The system, therefore, is that of an ordinary dredging machine ; only that corn and not mud is taken away, and that the buckets or troughs are hidden from sight. Below, within the 878 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. stomach of the poor bark, three or four laborers are at work, helping' to feed the elevator. They shovel the corn up toward its maw, so that at every swallow he should take in all that he can hold. Thus the troughs, as they ascend, are kept full, and when they reach the upper building they empty themselves into a shoot, over which a porter stands guard, moderating the shoot by a door, which the weight of his finger can open and close. Through this doorway the corn runs into a measure, and is weighed. . By measures of forty bushels each, the tale is kept. There stands the apparatus, with the figures plainly marked, over against the porter’s eye; and as the sum mounts nearly up to forty bushels he closes the door till the grains run thinly through, hardly a handful at a time, so that the balance is exactly struck. Then the teller standing by marks down his figure, and the record is made. The exact porter touches the string of another door, and the forty bushels of corn run out at the bottom of the measure, dis- appear down another shoot, slanting also toward the water, and de- posit themselves in the canal boat. The transit of the bushels of corn from the larger vessel to the smaller will have taken less than a minute, and the cost of that transit will have been — a farthing. But I have spoken of the rivers of wheat, and I must explain what are those rivers. In the working of the elevator, which I have just attempted to describe, the two vessels were supposed to be lying at the same wharf, on the same side of the building, in the same water, the smaller vessel inside the larger one. When this is the case, •the corn runs direct from the weighing measure into the shoot that communicates with the canal boat. But there is \not room or time for confining the work to one side of the building. There is water on both sides, and the corn or wheat is elevated on the one side, and reshipped on the other. To effect this, the corn is carried across the breadth of the building ; but, nevertheless, it is never handled or moved in its direction on trucks or carriages requiring the use of men’s muscles for its motion. Across the floor of the building are two gut- ters, or channels, and through these small troughs on a pliable band circulate very quickly. They which run one way, in one channel, are laden ; they which run by the other channel are empty. The corn pours itself into these, and they again pour it into the shoot which commands the other water. And thus rivers of corn are running through these buildings night and day. The secret of all the motion and arrangement consists, of course, in the elevation. The corn is lifted up ; and when lifted up, can move itself and arrange itself, and weigh itself, and load itself.” ILLINOIS. 879 Next to its trade in grain is the lumber trade of Chicago; the city being the most important lumber market in the United States. In 1867, there were received here 861,912,900 feet of lumber, 432,261,000 shingles, and 143,847,000 pieces of laths. Chicago ranks next to New York as a beef and cattle market. In 1864, its receipts were 336,627 head. As a beef-packing point it is unsurpassed by any city on the continent, its annual packing amounting to about 100,000 head. As a pork-packing point it is the first in the Union, having sur- passed Cincinnati some years ago. In 1864-5, 760,514 hogs were killed and packed here. In the same year, the total receipts of hogs at Chicago amounted to 1,410,320. The pork houses of Chicago are models of their kind, and are richly worth visiting. The pork house is usually a substantial structure of brick, of about 180 by 160 feet on the ground floor, with a large and commodious lard house adjoining, but separated from it by a heavy brick wall and iron doors to prevent the steam and vapor from entering the main build- ing. The pork house is three stories high, with a strong, double, flat roof, and this roof is arranged into convenient pens, the whole being capable of containing 4000 hogs at once. The lower floor is used for curing and storing the meat, the second for packing and shipping, and the third for cooking and cutting up the hogs. As soon as the hogs arrive at the pork house, they are driven up an inclined plane to the pens at the top of the building. They are allowed to remain there two nights and a day. By this arrange- ment they are given an abundance of pure, fresh air, and are brought to the best possible sanitary condition. If they were killed imme- diately after hard exercise and excitement, as in driving them to the slaughter pens, the flesh would be in a high state of fever, the marrow in a semi-fluid condition, and this would produce what is known as foul joints, and the meat would in a short time become tainted and eventually unfit for use. When the time for killing arrives, twenty hogs are driven into a pen with a fine grated floor. A man enters the pen, and with a long hammer deals each hog a blow on the forehead between the eyes, which fells him to the floor. He is followed by another man, who cuts the throat of each animal with a sharp knife, the blood flowing through the grated floor into gutters which conduct it to a large tank outside the building. Another lot of hogs is driven into an adjoining pen, and the same process gone through with. 880 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Wlien the hogs have been bled sufficiently, they are, one at a time, slid down an inclined plane into a large scalding tub or vat, in which the water is kept at a regular temperature by steam coils. Here they are floated along slowly until they reach the table at the opposite end, where they are taken out by a very simple contrivance worked by one man. After being placed upon the table, they are passed along through the hands of different men, each of whom has stated duties to perform. The first two take from the back in an in- stant all the bristles suitable for the brushmaker or cobbler, and de- posit them in barrels for removal ; eight or ten pairs more of men strip the hog of its coat, and clean it, when the gambrel stick is put into it, and it is swung to an overhead railway, and thoroughly drenched with cold water to remove all impurities. It is then opened and the intestines removed, after which it is again drenched with cold water, and the back bone is split down, and the leaf lard loosened. It is then taken to the cooling room, and allowed to remain there two days, in which time all animal heat disappears. The hog is then cut up. One blow from an immense cleaver severs the head from the body. Another man cuts away the hind-parts con- taining the hams, and the remainder of the hog is cut up according to the requirements of the market, the leaf lard being taken away by hand. So rapidly is the cutting process performed, that two expert men can easily cut up over 2000 hogs in eight hours, though the day’s work is generally confined to about 1200 head. The process is completed in the curing room. Here a solution of saltpetre is liberally applied to all the green meat, except the shoulders ; and, while wet, it is covered with salt, and packed away in tiers to dry. In three weeks it is handled again ; receives a second dressing of salt, and is allowed to stand seven days more, when it is cured, and ready for packing. After the small intestines are removed from the hog, they are taken by men and boys, and all the fat is separated from tliem and placed in large vats of water to wash it clean, going through two waters, when it is ready to be put into the lard tank. The lard house is, like the main building, three stories in height. In the second story are seven large iron tanks, extending up through the ceiling into the third story, where they are each provided with an 0 })ening used for filling them. In these tanks all the fatty sub- stances used for making lard are placed until the vessels are full. The mass is then subjected to a jet of steam from the boilers, of a ILLINOIS. 881 pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch. Each tank is provided with a safety valve, so that on reaching the maximum pressure al- lowed the steam passes off, causing a continuous flow of steam throuo'h the whole mass. By tliis process every particle of lard is set free from the mass. After the steam has been kept on for a certain time, a faucet is opened midway of the tank, or about where the lard and water meet, and the former is drawn off into an immense clarifying vessel in which, on being subjected to a heat of 300 degrees Fahrenheit, it is thoroughly cleared of all impurities, a part rising to the top of the lard, where it is skimmed off, and the rest settling at the bottom, from which it is drained off by a faucet. The remainder is the purest and sweetest lard that can be made, being entirely free from any un- pleasant odor, and as agreeable to the taste as new, unsalted butter. The refuse material is used in various ways, nothing that can be put to any conceivable use being thrown away. The salt trade of Chicago is also important, varying from 650,000 to 775,000 barrels annually. In 1867, there were 7500 buildings erected in Chicago, at a cost of $7,500,000. The name of the city is said to have been derived as follows : Along the shores of the river the wild onion was found in great abundance, to which the Indians gave the name Chi-ka-jo, from which the word Chicago IS derived. The first white men to visit the spot were the early French Jesuit missionaries and fur traders. Father Marquette visited it in 1673, and Perrot about the year 1770. At that time, this territory was in possession of the Miami Indians, but subsequently the Potawatomies crowded the Miamis back, and became the sole possessors, until the year 1795, when they became parties to a treaty with Wayne, by which a tract of land, six miles square, at the mouth of the Chicago Kiver, was ceded to the United States— the first ex- tinction of Indian title to the land on which Chicago is built. In 1804, Fort Dearborn was built by the United States on the point south of the river, near its mouth. In 1812, the Government, becoming appre- hensive that a fort so far advanced from the frontiers could not be successfully held against the British and their allies, ordered its evacu- ation. On the 12th of August, Captain Heald, the commandant, marched out of the fort with his little garrison, consisting of about 75 persons in all, and commenced his withdrawal along the lake sliore. When he had gotten about two milas from the fort he was attacked 56 882 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. by the Potawatomie Indians, and 52 persons, viz., 12 militia, 26 re- gidars, 2 women and 12 children, were killed and wounded. The rest succeeded in escaping. The Indians destroyed the fort, but it was rebuilt in 1816, under Captain Bradley. The fort was held as a mili- tary post until 1837, when the Indians having left the country, it was abandoned. In 1831, Chicago contained a few log cabins which had sprung up around the fort, and about a dozen families besides the officers and soldiers in Fort Dearborn. On the 26th of September, 1833, the town was laid out, and on the 4th of March, 1837, received its first charter. At that time, it contained 4470 inhabitants. It re- mained stationary until about 1840, when it began its remarkable career of prosperity. The following table will show its rapid growtli during the past thirty years : Year. 1840 , . 1850 , . 1860 , . 1870 , . Population. 4853 29,963 109,420 298,977 QUINCY, In Adams county, is the second city of the State. It is situated on the eastern or left bank of the Mississippi, 160 miles above St. Louis, 268 miles southwest of Chicago, and 109 miles west of Springfield. The city is built on a limestone bluff, 125 feet above the river, of which it commands beautiful and extensive views. It is well built, and contains a number of handsome edifices. Some of the residences are tasteful and elegant. It is lighted with gas and supplied with water. It contains several excellent public and private schools, 24 churches, 10 public halls, a court house, and 5 newspaper offices. Two of these journals are printed in the German language, a large proportion of the inhabitants being of German origin. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 24,052. Quincy is actively engaged in the Mississippi River trade, and the landing is usually thronged with steamboats. The city is the terminus of two lines of railway, which connect it with all parts of the West on both sides of the Mississippi. The surrounding country is an extensive, fertile, and highly cultivated prairie ; and of this region Quincy is the principal market. The city is to a limited extent engaged in manufactures; iron, tobacco, lumber, flour, ma- ILLINOIS. QUIXCY. chinery and carriages being tlie principal articles produced. About 100,000 hogs are packed here annually. Quincy was settled about the year 1822, the first inhabitant being John Wood, of the State of New York. In 1825, the town was laid ont by order of the county court. It received its name on the day that John Quincy Adams was inaugurated President of the United States. The Indians continued in the vicinity as late as 1832, when the Black Hawk War occurred. At the time of the first settlement of the town, there were but three white inhabitants within the limits of the present county of Adams. These were obliged to go to Atlas, 40 miles distant, where there was a horse-mill, in order to have their corn meal ground, this being their principal breadstuff. PEORIA, In the county of the same name, is the third city of the State. It is situated on the right or western bank of the Illinois River, at the I 8P‘’'"gfieW, 151 miles south- west of Chicago, and 193 miles from the mouth of the Illinois River. Ihe city IS located on elevated ground, above the highest stage of the water, and slopes down gradually to the river’s edge. The city is regularly laid out ; the streets are nearly all 100 feet wide, and are well graded, and often shaded with trees. A traveller, writing of it, says : 884 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. “ Peoria is the most beautiful town on the river. Situated on rising ground, a broad plateau, extending back from the blutf, it has escaped the almost universal inundation. The river here expands into a broad, deep lake. This lake is a most beautiful feature in the scenery of the town, and as useful as beautiful, supplying the inhabitants with ample stores of fish, and in winter with an abundance of the purest ice. It is often frozen to such a thickness that heavy teams can pass securely over it. A substantial drawbridge connects the town with the opposite shore of the river. Back of the town extends one of the finest rolling prairies in the State, which furnishes to Peoria its sup- plies and much of its business.^^ The city contains 28 churches, several excellent public schools, 5 daily newspapers, a city hall, and the county buildings. It is lighted with gas and supplied with water, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 22,849. Peoria is the most populous town on the Elinois River, and one of the most important commercial points in the State. The river is navi- gable for steamers at all stages of the water, and navigation is only suspended in the season of ice. By means of it large quantities of grain, pork, lumber, and ice are exported. Regular lines of steam- ers ply between Peoria and St. Louis, and the Michigan arid Illi- nois Canal affords steamboat communication with Chicago. Several lines of railway centre here, and afford rapid and sure connections with all parts of the State. The city is largely engaged in distilling whiskey, and is interested in manufactures to a limited extent. Peoria was first visited by Joseph Marquette and M. Joliet, in 1673. In 1680, La Salle erected a fort and trading-post here. After the conquest of Canada, Illinois passed into the hands of the English. In 1796, Peoria was described as ‘'an Indian village, composed of pseudo savages, made of the native tribe of Peoriaco Indians, and Canadian French, a few Indian traders and hunters.’^ In December, 1812, this settlement was burned by the American forces. In 1813, Fort Clark was erected on the spot by order of Governor Edwards. In 1819, the actual settlement of the present town was begun. In 1831, Peoria was incorporated as a town, and in 1844 as a city. GALENA, In Jo Daviess county, is the fifth city of the State. It is situated on Fevre River, 6 miles from its entrance into the Mississippi, 250 miles north-by-west of Springfield, 160 miles west-northwest of Chicago, ILLINOIS. 8»5 1651 miles above New Orleans, and 450 miles above St. Louis. “ The river, sometimes called the Galena, on whose rocky shelf this town is built, IS more properly an arm of the Mississippi Eiver, sitting up effect. The .streets rise one above another, and communicate with each other by flights of step.,, so that the houses on the higher streets are perched like an eagle’s eyrie, overlooking the rest, and command- ing an extensive prospect. Plea.saiit churches meet the eye on the first ledge or terrace above the levee, and private residences wearing an aspect of neatness and comfort adorn each successive height.’^ The city IS well paved, and the houses are built mostly of brick. It is ig ted with gas, and contains, beside the county buildings, a number o churches and public schools, and several newspaper offices. It is govenied by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was Galena is one of the oldest and most interesting towns in the State, but owes Its importance entirely to the great lead mines by which it is surrounded in every direction. Considerable quantities of copper are found in connection with the lead. It is estimated that these mines are capable of yielding 150,000,000 pounds annually for an indefinite period in the future. Mineral from some eight or ten mining localities therlber"'” ’^“1 sl'T^^nt down the Mississippi, river to ^ “ ®f®a“hoat communication between Galena and the railway ^ connected with all points east and west by is hiliv "f The country describes it: appearance. A visitor thus as fidlTf t"/ spotted with little mounds of yellow earth, and is as fu 1 of holes as a worm-eaten cheese. Some winding road at ength brings you to the top of one of these bare, bleak hills® and to a arger mound of the same yellowish earth, with which the whole windlass, and a man is winding up tubs full of dirt and rock, which continually increase the pile under his feet. Beneath him, forty, fifty, a hundred feet under ground is the miner. As we look arom;d on sTiIL'?V"® ® “d know that beneath each one a rcl';itl tr‘“- " -«dle, let us lass man m I i®®® ‘''® The wind- lass-man makes a loop in the end of the rope, into which you put one 386 the great REPUBLIC. foot, and, clasping, at the same time, the rope with one hand, slowly you begin to go down ; down, it grows darker and darker; a damp, grave-like smell comes up from below, and you grow dizzy with the continual whirling around, until, when you reach the bottom and look up at the one small spot of daylight through which you came down, you start with alarm as the great mass of rocks and earth over your head seem to be swaying and tumbling in. You draw your breath a little more freely, however, when you perceive that it was only your own dizziness, or the scudding of clouds across the one spot of visible sky, and you take courage to look about you. Two or three dark little pas^ges, from four to six feet high, and about three feet wide, lead off into the murky recesses of tlie mine; these are called, in mining par- lance, drifts. You listen a little while, and there is a dull ‘ thud^ ! thud’:’ cornea from each one, and tells of something alive away off in the gloom, and, candle in hand, you start in search of it. You eye the rocky walls and roof uneasily as, half bent, you thread the narrow passage, until, on turning some angle in the drift, you catch a glimpse of the miner, he looks small and dark, and mole-like, as on his knees, and pick in hand, he is prying from a perpendicular crevice the rock, a lump of mineral as large as his head, and which, by the light of his dim candle, flashes and gleams like a huge carbuncle ; or, per- haps it is a horizontal sheet or vein of mineral that presents its e ge to the miner; it is imbedded in the solid rock, which must be picked and blasted down to get at the mineral. He strikes the rock with his pick, and it rings as though he had struck an anvil. You cannot conceive how, with that strip of gleaming metal, seeming like a ma- eician’s wand, to beckon him on and on, he could gnaw, as it were, his narrow way for hundreds of feet through the rock. But large, indeed, you think, musf be his organ of hope, and resolute his perse- verance, to do it with no such glittering prize in sight. Yet such is often the case, and many a miner has toiled for years, and iii the whole time has discovered scarcely enough mineral to pay for the powder used. Hope, however, in the breast of the miner, has as many lives as a cat, and on no day, in all his toilsome years could you