of "*" 1 
 
 UWv ^m'OFILUNOW 
 
 ^ FEB 191$ 
 
 Universal Military Training 
 
 Add ress Delivered at the Convention of 
 44 Uncle Sam’s Safety League" 
 
 The National Defense League 
 
 America 
 
 December twenty-ninth, nineteen fourteen 
 Fort Dearborn Hotel, Chicago 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES BROCKWAY GIBSON 
 
 Chicago, January, Nineteen Fifteen 
 
5 Fid 
 
 UNIVERSAL MILITARY TRAINING 
 
 Now that all the so-called Christian Nations of Europe are 
 engaged in war, the people of America are awakening to the 
 necessity of some adequate military and naval equipment, not 
 for aggression, but for protection against aggression, either from 
 without or within. 
 
 The complete state of unpreparedness of our country from 
 invasion by a foreign power and our almost complete lack of 
 knowledge of military matters, particularly by the masses, is 
 a matter of grave concern and of the deepest interest to all 
 ioyal Americans. 
 
 In view of this fact, I take the libertv of herewith submit- 
 ting an idea which has been in my mind for nearly a quarter 
 of a century and which was considered by no less an authority 
 than the late President, Benjamin Harrison, in an article which 
 appeared in the Century Magazine the latter part of 1891 or 
 early in 1892. 
 
 Without discussing the conditions further, I submit the 
 following: 
 
 That the United States government require every young 
 man of, say eighteen years of age, to enter a special course of 
 military instruction in training schools or other similar institu¬ 
 tions, there to be given a thorough physical training and up¬ 
 building military drill and such other instruction as shall be 
 useful and proper for the making of a well drilled soldier for a 
 'Citizen Reserve, in case the nation needs him in foreign 
 invasion or from domestic strife, such period of training to con¬ 
 tinue for four years of the usual school or college duration. 
 
 During this time the young men should be given a good 
 education equivalent to that of our high schools or academies, 
 and that they should be taught, in addition to the customary 
 branches, America^ history and Economics, such other branches 
 as appertain to a good military or naval education and that they 
 be also taught love of country, loyalty to and reverence for the 
 flag in all that it should represent to them and to the world at 
 large. 
 
 During this period the young men could and in most cases 
 .would be able to choose callings or vocations best suited to their 
 tastes and talents and at the close of this period, fit themselves 
 
for professional, technical or business lives. Under this system 
 they would retire far better educated and physically up-built 
 and up-set men than from sixty to eighty per cent of our 
 younger male population. 
 
 At the close of this period of training and education, the 
 young men should be put on a Citizen Reserve, subject to call 
 for a yearly service of from four to six weeks of camp life, for 
 further instruction and review, such as is in vogue at the Stu¬ 
 dents Military Instruction Camps recently established for sum¬ 
 mer work at Gettysburg, Ludington and California. At the 
 age of forty they should be retired permanently and should be 
 subject to call only in case of domestic strife or foreign invasion 
 and should be classed like the body known as the Landwehr, in 
 Germany. 
 
 By such a system all immigrants of school age could and 
 would become more rapidly Americanized and be made better 
 citizens than through a lifetime of contact with the masses. 
 Many of them would be saved from "the lives of criminals and 
 derelicts where unfortunately many of our younger immigrants 
 wind up, thus becoming charges of the state and nation 'and a 
 menace to our civilization. 
 
 This proposition need not be confined to military training- 
 alone, but may be applied to naval instruction as well. It would 
 give the nucleus of an army of Citizen Reserve of well trained 
 and well educated young men from every class and sphere 
 of life who would become loyal and law-abiding citizens. The 
 discipline of such training and education would promote and 
 produce respect for the authority of superiors in rank or office, 
 making a class of clean-cut men of good habits and impulses. 
 They would learn how to obey and without this they could never 
 learn to command. 
 
 We have in this country a system of compulsory education 
 or attendance at the common schools, then why can it not be ex¬ 
 tended to include this or a similar course of training and instruc¬ 
 tion? We are told that athletes make the best soldiers and it 
 is generally conceded that soldiers usually make the best and 
 most loyal men. Are there any more loyal citizens than those 
 who served in the Civil War, no matter whether they wore the 
 blue or the grey? 
 
 The proposition would, to my mind, be the best investment 
 the United States could make for it would give the nation a 
 Citizen Reserve of many millions within a few years, which 
 would be made up of loyal, educated and trained men, who in 
 
grateful return for their education and training, would rush 
 gladly to the defense of their country. 
 
 There is little or no danger of building up a military aris¬ 
 tocracy in this country for the young men would come from 
 every station in life, from the farm and the shop, the country and 
 the city, the children of the rich and the poor, and from every 
 political and religious faith. 
 
 For years the military authorities of America have been 
 preaching PREPAREDNESS. They have not asked for a large 
 army or navy, but for the building up of a reserve force of 
 Citizen Soldiery in which the individual would know enough 
 of arms and field work to make it easy to get him in shape for 
 the field or line. We are told that our small standing army is 
 so scattered that it would not be possible to muster and dis¬ 
 patch a single brigade for any distance in a single day and that 
 it would be weeks before we could get together half a hundred 
 thousand for service at any one point. We are also told that 
 our navy is short 18,0C0 men and that a further shortage of 40,000 
 is in sight. Now, with a coast line of nearly 6,000 miles and a 
 distance of nearly 5,000 miles from coast to coast, by way of 
 the Panama canal, and with an army which would be merely a 
 plaything with any great military power, where would the 
 United States be if suddenly called upon to defend herself 
 against a foreign foe? 
 
 As to the situation now existing permit me to submit the 
 opinions of authorities and experts: 
 
 Hon. A. P. Gardner, member of Congress for Massachusetts, 
 says: “I have sat here like a coward in silence for a dozen 
 vears and listened while men told us that the United States can 
 safely depend, in time of war, on the state militia and on the 
 navy service. All the time I knew it was not so. The Spanish 
 War was declared toward the end of April, there was a call for 
 125,COO volunteers at once and another for 75,000 in May. Did 
 these volunteers mobilize equipped, with the rapidity of the 
 wind? They did not! A good many of them have not mobilized 
 yet.” Again: “As you know, there are many men who believe 
 that the reserve question is the most pressing of all and the idea 
 of an adequate army and navy has a great following.” 
 
 Hon. George E. Foss, Congressman-elect from Illinois, says: 
 
 “1 will be very glad to give the matter my serious consider¬ 
 ation ; as you know, I am for a strong army and navy.” 
 
Admiral George Dewey says: 
 
 “The time when the general public finds its serious atten¬ 
 tion turning, possibly for the first time in our history, to the 
 great problems of national defense is certainly most opportune 
 for the circulation of views which represent mature thought on 
 the subject. In my judgment, those who assist in that work 
 render a patriotic service of the highest merit.” 
 
 Frederic William Wile, former Berlin correspondent of “The 
 Daily Mail”, London, England, the “New York Times” and 
 “Chicago Tribune,” in a speech before the “American Luncheon 
 Club” of London, says: 
 
 “If we cannot fight today, in Heaven's name let us prepare 
 for tomorrow. Let us, while there is still time, create an army 
 worthy of the name. Let us build warships of the utmost 
 capacity of our financial and manufacturing resources. Let us 
 oust from office, as fast as oportunity ofifers, the party or parties 
 that oppose naval or military legislation. Let us take the lesson 
 from this war and banish to the realm of ‘Never Again’ the 
 Utopian theory of Universal Brotherly Love and Disarmament. 
 Let us realize, forevermore, in the light of the bloody history 
 now making before our eyes, that the race is to the prepared and 
 to the strong and to them only. For then, though it will not 
 have been vouchsafed us to strike a blow for our friends in their 
 hour of need, we shall have at least struck for ourselves and 
 for all that is dear and precious to our posterity.” 
 
 Other countries have systems of military training which 
 we may well consider, two of which I will mention: 
 
 In Switzerland from the ages of 8 to 17 years, boys receive 
 military instruction in the public schools and when they enter 
 the “aufzug” they are prepared for actual training in arms. In 
 the first year of service they spend from 67 to 92 days in camp 
 maneuvers, depending on whether they belong to the infantry, 
 cavalry, artillery or engineers. In subsequent years they serve 
 13 days. The total service for thirteen years is 141 days for 
 infantry, 146 days for engineers, 160 days for cavalry and 163 
 days for artillery, making a total of less than six months for 
 the period. 
 
 In Australia boys begin training at the age of 12 years. 
 Junior cadets are from 12 to 14 years, Seniors cadets, 14 to 18 
 years of age, then come the National Guard of all able bodied 
 men between 18 and 26 years of age. Seniors get 64 hours in 
 
camp each year, the. National Guard, 16 days training each year 
 for six years. The law is expected to furnish by A. D. 1919, 
 100,000 seniors and 128,000 militia in training. 
 
 The above system appears to be along the lines of the Boy 
 Scout movement, which is good as far as it goes, but we must 
 prepare today for a contingency which may arise tomorrow. We 
 propose to begin where the Boy Scout movement leaves off. 
 
 By the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862, which we are in¬ 
 formed originated with Abraham Lincoln, and which became a 
 law by his signature, there were founded and endowed colleges 
 for the education of the children of the masses, “In the Arts and 
 Sciences of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts and not excluding 
 other Scientific and Classical branches, and including MILI¬ 
 TARY TACTICS.” Resulting from this there has been estab¬ 
 lished in nearly every state, a university or an agricultural and 
 mechanical college where military science and tactics are taught 
 to a greater or less degree of perfection, but unfortunately such 
 studies are not obligatory on all able bodied students except in 
 a few states. As near as we have been able to learn, the spirit 
 as well as the letter of the law has been observed and main¬ 
 tained in the state of Illinois better than in the other states. 
 Here all able bodied male students are required to take military 
 instruction and drill three or four hours per week for the first 
 two years of their college courses. The brigade of cadets here 
 is one of the largest in the country, and includes beside the 
 private soldiers, two military bands of 75 each, a light battery, 
 drum and bugle corps, and signal corps. The brigade is made 
 up of students from all classes and departments, the agricultural 
 and mechanical, professional and engineering, the rich and the 
 poor and are of every shade of political and religious faith. 
 
 The full line of student or cadet officers of the institution are 
 from the very best material and are of the highest scholastic 
 standing. At the close of the four years of service and instruc¬ 
 tion, they leave the university with as good an education, in a 
 general way, as those from West Point or Annapolis and are 
 competent in most cases to fill positions in the army or militia 
 with credit to themselves and honor to the Government and 
 their Alma Mater.* 
 
 Here then is the nucleus of a system of the kind of training 
 and instruction above referred to and by the extension and 
 elaboration of the system, each of these state institutions could 
 
turn out in a few years, enough well trained young men to 
 officer an army of a million of men and a Citizen Reserve of 
 not less than ten millions of well trained men. 
 
 With such a reserve well equipped and kept in training and 
 trim by encampment every year, this country would have an 
 army for emergencies not to be lightly dealt with by any foe. 
 
 We regret to admit that there has been adverse criticism 
 on the teaching of military science in the agricultural and other 
 colleges. Officers are often lax in their instruction and dicipline 
 and this is frequently due to the boards of trustees and faculties 
 being opposed to such instruction. In view of the fact that the 
 government has been not only liberal but quite philanthropic, 
 it is to be regretted that these bodies show so much short¬ 
 sightedness. The United States Government has generously 
 provided that any college having 150 male students may have 
 an instructor from the army or navy, but not to exceed 50 army 
 officers and 10 navy officers may be appointed at any one time. 
 Since the act of 1888 this number has been increased to 75 army 
 officers and 10 navy officers. 
 
 There are now 102 schools in the United States teaching 
 military science and yet the total number of students enrolled in 
 these schools in 1913 was but 29,401 and but about 60 per cent 
 of these were taking military drill, a small number, indeed, com¬ 
 pared with what the government ought to expect or demand and 
 infinitely too small for the needs of the country in its equipment 
 and officering of its needful army. 
 
 Order No. 155 of the War Department provides that: “It 
 shall be the duty of the Professor of Military Science and Tactics 
 to enforce Military dicipline at all times when students are 
 engaged in military instruction.” 
 
 In regard to this proposition, we get the opinion of a French 
 officer who knows the military side of the situation and his 
 opinion is certainly worth paying some heed to. Pie says: 
 
 “Without Discipline, courage is nothing. Read the psychol¬ 
 ogy of mob spirit. I don’t mean howling, destructive mobs, I 
 mean groups of people—and you will know that theoretically 
 and in practice, a crowd is influenced by the lowest minds. 
 
 “Fear is the greatest thing in the world, it is_the governing 
 motive of every life,—fear of poverty, fear of exposure, fear of 
 
consequences, fear of failure—there is no such actual quality 
 as courage. It is fear conquered, under control, but without 
 discipline men are going to revert to the primeval quality, fear, 
 and do things which as gallant, honest gentlemen of civil life 
 they would blush to think of.” 
 
 Our worthy Secretary of State tells us that were the Presi¬ 
 dent to issue a call to arms, between sunrise and sunset, a million 
 loyal men would rush to the defense of the colors. Suppose that 
 is so, what are we to do with them? They would be simply a 
 disorganized mob, possibly an intelligent and loyal mob, but a 
 mob nevertheless. With what would this mob of a million men 
 be armed?—with bottles of grape juice?—with unfermented 
 patriotism?—we have not enough rides or ammunition. 
 
 Wm. E. Stone of Indiana, says : “I think it Js of the greatest 
 importance that the students of colleges do have instruction in the 
 knowledge and in the principles of Military Science. There is an 
 excellent reason for that, and the graduates of any of these, are 
 particularly qualified for service to the country in times of war." 
 
 As to the effect of Scholastic Military Training, the Adjutant 
 General’s report of 1892 says: “Mental development is as im¬ 
 portant a part of the soldier’s education as physical, and perhaps 
 more so, and as much has been accomplished, and still more at¬ 
 tempted, to make our army lead in this respect, as it does now in 
 quality, pay, quarters and general comforts-.” 
 
 Major General Leonard Wood says: “We are trying to de¬ 
 velop a sense of responsibility in the young men of the country, 
 a sense of responsibility toward their military duty. We educate 
 them to perform all sorts of civil duties. We do not want to 
 make professional soldiers or jingoes, but we want to plant in 
 our people a sensible and sane idea of PREPARATION, what 
 it means and what its value is ; its value not only as tending to 
 improvement in fighting but its value as a matter of humanity, 
 because if we are well prepared war will not be thrust upon us, 
 and if it is thrust upon us we will be able to make it short and 
 carry it through with a minimum loss because our officers and 
 men know how to perform their duties effectively.” 
 
 Col. H. O. S. Heistand, Department Adjutant U. S. Army, 
 says: “The Army of the United States should be a UNIVER¬ 
 SITY for defense, in which men should serve until they are 
 qualified soldiers. This country is good and every man who 
 lives under its protection should fit himself to aid in its defense.” 
 
President W ilson and others, say that the country does not 
 want to be turned into a military camp; that is quite true, but 
 there is no more danger of turning it into a military camp than 
 there is of turning it into a great religious or athletic camp be¬ 
 cause certain people and churches hold yearly camp meetings or 
 because other thousands frequent the baseball and football games 
 to enjoy the sport and observe the skill of these well trained men.* 
 We hear that the President does believe in the necessity for “mar¬ 
 tial defense." Will he kindly explain just what he does mean and 
 will he define his ideas of “Citizen Soldiery?" 
 
 We are all pacificists, none of us want war, neither do we 
 want famine or fire, but the best way to avoid these calamities, 
 is to fortify ourselves against them. How can we fortify our¬ 
 selves better against war or invasion than cultivating a knowl¬ 
 edge of the Art and Science of Military Defense, as we are now 
 cultivating the Art and Science of Agriculture and Manufacture. 
 By giving our young men training in the manly art of self defense 
 of both body and country, by making them into well built, 
 healthy, law abiding and liberty loving citizens, who will at the 
 same time be respectors of order and authority as represented by 
 those whom the people have chosen or appointed to administer 
 the affairs of government, we will have accomplished much. We 
 do not aim to make soldiers alone, but soldierly men, and at the 
 same time to provide for defense in the future in case of the na¬ 
 tion's need. Armies do not necessarily cause war but have pre¬ 
 vented war, any one conversant with history knows, this: Han¬ 
 nibal's successes in the beginning of the Punic Wars were as 
 much because of Rome’s unpreparedness as because of Hannibal's 
 great generalship. 
 
 In the light of civilization, as we see it in Europe today, it 
 is the veriest nonsense to talk about disarmament and peace, 
 peace being maintained depending solely on the goodness of men 
 and nations, a sort of a Christian Science faith, a faith in the 
 absent treatment, as it were. The human race is not so far ad¬ 
 vanced from the barbarism of the Dark Ages as we might believe 
 or even hope, if any credence is to be placed in the reports we 
 get from across the water, hence it is well for us to sit up and 
 take notice. 
 
 These issues must be squarely met, there is no middle 
 course. It would be just as logical to rely upon protection and 
 defense without armament and preparation as to rely solely on the 
 “Science of Health” to ward off the ravages of cholera and famine 
 
 
and fires. We have gotten beyond the efficacy of the absent 
 treatment method. 
 
 Washington charged the nation to prepare for War in times 
 * of Peace, but we would better prepare for Peace in times of War. 
 It does not follow that we must have war because of being 
 prepared ; we could better avoid war by being prepared, history 
 proves this. In every war this country has ever had it was 
 never prepared. The War of the Revolution, that of 1812, the 
 Mexican War, the Civil War and the Spanish-American War 
 found us unprepared in every particular. Wisdom counsels 
 us to act while we yet have the time to be so prepared for war 
 that we shall forever have peace even if we have to fight to main¬ 
 tain it. 
 
 Would a farmer refuse to fence in his land to protect his 
 crops from foragers and thieves; would a householder decline 
 to have locks and bolts on his doors to keep out burglars ; would 
 a sane man refuse to properly clothe himself against the winter’s 
 blasts? If so, then sensible people would surely say there is 
 something lacking in the disregarding of Self-preservation, which 
 is the first law of life. 
 
 Military training will not unfit a man for business or the 
 professions, but will put him in better shape to battle with the 
 world and life. A knowledge of order and discipline will not 
 unfit any man. This is quite clearly proven in the case of 
 Germany; during the past thirty years there has been more 
 militarism than in generations before, yet in spite of this Ger¬ 
 many has succeeded in business and in the professions more 
 than any other country, during the same period. Germany’s 
 population has doubled, her wealth has doubled, she has made 
 greater advancement in science and in material welfare than 
 any other land across the water, and in the face of this great 
 military preparedness, Germany has not had a war in the past 
 forty years. Germany is not fighting because of being prepared, 
 but because the other nations were evidently unprepared. 
 
 The writer has visited many foreign lands, he has seen the 
 soldiery of most of them and has a personal acquaintance with 
 many. He has some knowledge of the armies of Germany, 
 France, England, Greece, Turkey, Russia and also of Canada 
 and Mexico, and knows something of their personnel and fitness. 
 No finer bodies of men can be found than in most of these 
 European armies. They are well up-set, well drilled, healthy 
 
 i 
 
and manly fellows in their bearing on parade or in private life. 
 Many of them when they entered the army were not robust, 
 but were hollow chested, stoop shouldered, and in many ways 
 under the average physical standard, but within one year after 
 military service began, they developed into strong up-set athletes 
 and soldiers as hardy as mountaineers or as the American 
 Cowboy. 
 
 America has been the sanctuary of the oppressed as she 
 was from the first when the fathers sailed away from their 
 home countries to create a new nation, in a new land far away 
 from the Monarchies of the Old World, and all over the world the 
 oppressed are turning their wistful eyes to us and are stretching 
 out torn and bleeding hands, beseeching us for sympathy and 
 succor. Something beside weak and sloppy Peace Talk is ex¬ 
 pected of us and we will fail in our God-given privileges if we 
 do not show ourselves earnest, forceful and strong. 
 
 Moral virility is what gave America its lustre in its classic 
 days of old; let us, therefore, not dim this lustre by substituting 
 indecision, careless confidence and foolhardy unpreparedness 
 for this virility. We are here to fulfill a plain duty, the duty of 
 taking thought for tomorrow. People of the Monarchies need 
 not think for themselves, they have their thinking done for them 
 but people of a great democracy must think and act for them¬ 
 selves if they would perpetuate the heritage left by the Fathers. 
 
 This, my countrymen, is my argument as counsel for The 
 Defense. 
 
 CHARLES BROCKWAY GIBSON, 
 
 1505 Morse Ave., Chicago, Ill. 
 
*NOTE.—Under the efficient management of Major Frank D. 
 Webster, 20th Infantry, U. S. Army, Professor of Military Science and 
 Commandant of the University of Illinois Brigade of Cadets, there 
 has been built up an organization which is attracting the notice of the 
 military departments of other universities and colleges throughout the 
 country. There were registered this year—1914-15—3,000 able bodied 
 male students, subject to military service and training. There is a 
 brigade of 5 regiments, three military bands, aggregating 165 members, 
 a drum and bugle corps, a signal corps and a light battery. These 
 students receive the best instruction possible to be given them, with 
 the equipment the United States government provides. The Rifle Club 
 began service in class “C” and through their excellent marksmanship, 
 won over all competitors the past year and were raised to class “A”. 
 The University of Illinois sent a larger body of students to the summer 
 military camp at Ludington, Mich., than any other similar institution 
 in the country. 
 
 It is to be regretted that the United States and the State govern¬ 
 ments do not furnish these state institutions with as complete equip¬ 
 ment as is furnished at West Point and Annapolis, for under these 
 circumstances, these institutions could turn out each year a body of 
 young men as well educated and as well trained as are turned out of 
 these government schools. Under those circumstances we would have 
 a body of men each year capable of imparting valuable knowledge to 
 the masses who should be taught to be soldierly men, capable of self 
 protection, and capable of serving their country in times of need, not 
 as mobs, but as well trained and effective soldiers or sailors. 
 
 The Outlook says: “To prepare to protect ourselves from the 
 ignorance, the self-interest, and the injustice of others is in no way to 
 lose sight of the demands of that ideal knowledge, world democracy, and 
 international justice to which we, as a people, have dedicated the 
 United States. * * No man and no woman seeks a helpmate who is so 
 
 weak as to be incapable of injustice and tyranny. The ideal husband is 
 not found in the man too feeble to beat his wife: he is found in the man 
 whose self-control, whose sense of responsibility, whose devotion, makes 
 such an action unthinkable.” 
 
 The Outlook further says: “The first duty of a government is to 
 protect the persons and property of its citizens. ___ If it is not equipped 
 for rendering this service it does not deserve to be called a government. 
 
 * If it fails to furnish necessary protection because it is not 
 as strong as its assailant, we do not blame it—we pity it. If it fails to 
 furnish necessary protection because of its cowardice or carelessness, 
 we do not pity it—we blame it. * , * * Democracy is self-gov¬ 
 erning; democracy must also be self protecting. * * * A dis- 
 
organized body of men armed for battle but not under constituted 
 authority, is a mob. An organized and co-operating body of men armed 
 for battle, under constituted authority, is an army. * * * They 
 
 must know how to combine and co-operate under constituted authority, 
 and must be trained in habits of prompt obedience that they may work 
 together under one head. * * * A mob is no protection to a 
 
 people.’’ 
 
 Secretary of War Garrison says: “We must get a reserve of trained 
 men in the states, a reserve of army officers to command the men.” 
 
 Ex-President Roosevelt says: “Nations that are prepared for war 
 occasionally suffer from it, but if they are unprepared for it they suffer 
 far more often and far more radically.” 
 
 There are many others who evidently think as we do in relation 
 to building up a national reserve. Dr. G. Frank Lydston, who has 
 served in the National Guard of Illinois and also in the Volunteer Army 
 during the Spanish war, says as follows, in the current number of the 
 Press Club Scoop: 
 
 “This is how to build up a,reserve. 
 
 “1. Institute military training in all schools, beginning with the 
 primary grades and in all penal institutions. 
 
 “2. Have short term enlistments in the regular army. 
 
 “3. Encourage the formation of rifle clubs and private military 
 organizations under governmental supervision and support. 
 
 “4. Pay the National Guardsman for his service. 
 
 “5. Institute training camps for National Guardsmen in which actual 
 war conditions are closely imitated. 
 
 “And I would suggest first, the establishment of military posts, 
 governed entirely by the utility in giving military training to the 
 National Guard. As matters now stand, the military post is of little 
 use in this respect. The regular army and the National Guard should 
 be welded together in some way.” 
 
 This preparation for National Defense is a national matter, and not 
 a state matter. As the whole is greater than any part, so the nation is 
 greater than any state. An army or even a “Citizen Reserve” should 
 be under the guidance and control of the Government at Washington, and 
 the government subject to the advice and guidance of competent experts 
 from the Army and Navy departments.—C. B. G. # 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 
 
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