Wf-S- OAK ST. HDSF OF THE U N I V LRS ITY OF I LL1 N O I 5 K96p Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. University of Illinois Library NOV 1 13** DEC 17 1956 L161— H-Jl PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE FOREST AND OTHER VEGETATION OF PEGU. SULPICE KURZ, CURATOR OF THE HERBARIUM AND LIBRARIAN, ROYAL BOTANICAL GARDEN, CALCUTTA. CALCUTTA: j^RINTED BY JE. j3. JlEWIS, J3APTIST jVtlSSION j^RESS. 1873. ■I ■ . S'?/. Klip //&S.K. CONTENTS. I.— GENERAL. J Submission, , „ „ „ . Explanation of signs, etc., Short topographical sketch of Pegu, Geological nature of Pegu (with 3 sketches), Climatological notes, Short consideration of other agencies influencing vegetation (with 3 sketches), Position of the Pegu Flora and its zones, (with 2 sketch-maps), Original vegetation and culture, (with a section), Enumeration of forests and their botanical charact er, A. Evergreen Forests, Littoral forests, Swamp forests, Tropical forests, Hill forests, B. Deciduous forests, Open forests, Mixed forests, Dry forests, Bamboo jungles, Savannahs, Natural pastures, Riparian vegetation (with a section), Fresh water vegetation, Salt water vegetation, Vegetation of agrarian lands, Vegetation of villages, waste places, etc., Naturalized plants, Practical review of the Pegu forests, Table of the natural families of plants growing in Burma, II.— SPECIAL. Preliminary I. — Conservancy of forests in Pegu with reference to soil and climate, II. — Utilization of deserted toungyas, with cursory remarks on timber plantations, III. — Some hints with reference to the study of the quality of woods in India, 5 IV.— k % 0 i 3 )/) 10 jj A- ^B.- JE, A. Executive Branch. §. 1. — Preliminary rational Survey, §. 2. — Selection and collection of forest trees, §. 3. — Testing of timber, 4. — Preservation and keeping of wood-specimens, §. 5. — Difficulties of carrying out the system and some of its direct advantages, . B. Auxiliary Branch. §. 1. — Climatology, §. 2. — Soil, §. 3. — Collecting and drying botanical specimens, Conclusion, APPENDICES. -List of Burmese trees. •General Key to the Burmese trees. -List of other not arboreous plants, for which Burmese names have been obtained. -Lord Mayo’s tree (Mayodendron), a new genus from Martaban. -Extracts from Mr. Kurz’s Journal of his tours in British Burma. iParje, 1 2 3 4 8 12 21 24 25 28 ib. 29 30 34 38 ib. 42 48 50 ib. 51 52 54 55 56 59 01 62 64 67 72 78 79 ib. 82 84 86 87 91 95 96 Digitized by the Internet Archive ■ in 2016 https://archive.org/details/preliminaryreporOOkurz ERRATA. Page, 16, in the lithograph of the N. E. quarter of the globe, correct Cold zone into Wintry zone. Page 24, lithograph of W. to E. section of Burma, correct (at right-hand side) tropical, subtropical and sub-temperate zones into regions. Page 33, line 28 from above, read tree-stems for “ tree restems." Page 37, line 21 from below, read Acer isolobum for Aceri solobum. Page 43, line 8 from below, read aerial goslits for spolces. Page 73, line 17 sqq. from above, should be corrected to the effect, that steam-rollers are already largely in use in the tea-districts of India. Page 76, line 16 from below, omit the Chinese tallow tree, which is a leaf-shedder and thus unfit for the purpose indicated. Page 86, line 14 from above, read wiped for whipped. Page 92, line 19 from above, omit the words : “ on a peculiar soil, as in its prevalence or better growth on such soil.” N. B. — The nomenclature of some of the plants mentioned in this Report is to be changed as follows : — Psilobium — Morindopsis ; Pterospermum fuscutn — P. cinnamomeum ; Garcinia cowa = G. Kydia ; Semecarpus heterophyllus = S. albescens ; Hiptage arborea — H. candicans ; Melia Toozendan — M. Bir- manic a ; Lepisanthes montana — L. Burmanica ; Desmodium reniforme — D. oblatum ; Pollinia teclonum (teak grass) - P. micrantha ; Otosemma macrophylla = Millettia extensa. N. B. — For further corrections see list of errata at the end of appendix B on page 95 and of appendix E on page 34. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE FORESTS AND VEGETATION GENERALLY OF PEGU. By S. KURZ, Esq., Botanist on Special Duty. In submitting this report on the vegetation of Pegu, with special reference to the forests of this province, I wish to remark, that I did not consider it necessary to go into minute botanical details. Nor, indeed, would time have allowed me to do so ; for it is quite impossible, in a few months only, to arrange and name carefully so many species of plants, (about 2,200 species of phanerogams) as I have collected in Pegu. Consequently, the determinations of most plants referred to in the following pages, are hand and eye determi- nations, of comparatively little scientific value. My present object has been to draw up only a general sketch of the vegetation of the country. Nor have I fully brought under review the many agencies that co-operate in the modi- fication of vegetation, such as exposure and physical configuration of land, the influence of greater masses of elevated hill ranges in connection with geographical latitude, that of winds and of the neighbourhood of larger expanses of water, or the influence of temperature, of subsoil, moisture of atmosphere, the intensity of solar radiation, &c. Nor am I able to discuss here in a proper way such an important question as the influence of chemical com- position of soil and subsoil upon the presence or absence of certain plants. Although I have collected a fair amount of material in this direction, it will take a good deal of time before the chemical analyses of the specimens of soil collected can be executed, without which a discussion of this question would be simply empirical, and therefore of little positive value. All the above-named conditions, or as they are more properly called, factors, offer so many variations in Burma, that not only a longer stay in the country would be required, in order to come to any reliable conclusions, but the full consideration of all these data would far exceed the scope of a simple general report. For these reasons I have confined my remarks to some of the most important and interesting questions connected with the distribution of plants; and these I have treated as briefly as possible, only occasionally and cursorily introducing matters of a more scientific character, which may possibly interest forest officers of a more inquiring turn of mind. I have treated of such questions in the present report, because there will be no opportuni- ty to discuss them in my forthcoming book on the forest trees of Pegu, for the official instruc- tions before me do not include the introduction of any other information beyond a description of plants important to foresters, and a practical treatment of the forests, cursorily reviewed also in this report, under § 8. A proper practical review of the different varieties of forests will be given in my book, after the whole of the Flora of Burma has been worked out ; for only after this has been done will it become possible to give reliable scientific names of the trees, and to have them accompanied by vernacular names. In the meantime I have given here such a practical conspectus of the Pegu forests as above described, introducing in it only such Burmese names for trees, &c., as appeared to me tolerably trustworthy. 1 ( 2 ) Tho present report may, Ihoroforo, bo divided into tbo following sections : Part I. — GENERAL REPORT. A. — General Aspect of the Country, its Geological Features and Climate, in CONNECTION WITH THE FLORA. § 1. — Limits of Pegu as defined in this report, with a short topographical sketch of tho country. 8 2 . — Geology of Pegu, as far as connected with tho flora. $ 3. — Climatological notes on Pegu. § 4. — Brief review of other conditions that influence vegetation, such as physical struc- ture of substrata, &c. 13. — Botanical Description of Tegu, with special reference to its Forests. § 5. — Position of the Pegu Flora with regard to surrounding floras, and division of the flora into natural zones and districts. § 6. — Distinction of the vegetation into an original and a secondary one. § 7. — Enumeration of the different kinds of forests, &c., and their general character. § 8. — A brief practical conspectus of the above forests of Pegu alone. § 9. — A table of the natural families of plants represented in Burma, together with an approximate estimate of the number of species growing in Burma. Part II.— SPECIAL REPORT. § 1. — Conservancy of Forests in Pegu with reference to soil and climate. § 2. — Utilisation of deserted toungyas, with cursory remarks on timber plantations. § 3. — Some hints with reference to the study of the quality of woods in India. § 4. — Conclusion. APPENDICES. Appendix A. — List of Burmese trees. Appendix B. — General Key for naming the Burmese trees. Appendix C. — Collection of Burmese names for other plants than trees. Appendix D. — Lord Mayo’s tree (Mayodendron ) , a new genus from Martaban. Appendix E. — Communications from Mr. Kurz’s Journal of his tours in Burma. Explanation of Signs &c. used in the Sketches, &c. To avoid repetitions, I append here a table of signs, &c., employed in the sketches that I have introduced from time to time in the body of this report. They are all very simple and easy, and might be used also in future forest surveys of Pegu. mm Yf Tf T TO Evergreen Forests. Mangrove forests. t 4 t I f Tidal forests. ????? Evergreen tropical forests. n o O O Palm-groves. Swamp-forests. Pine forests. Drier Dill forests. Stunted kill forests. Damp kill forests. jU XL yVYYY inn TTTTT f fff f 'Y ''V '4'' W 1 y vTmTvYm Deciduous Forests. Savannak forests. f "f t t t Sit a forests. Bamboo jungle. Y Y YYY Eng forests. Lower Mixed forests. rrm Low forests. Teak trees. Y? YYY? Hill Eng forests. Fyen-kadoo trees. VhtlA Upper dry forests. Eyen-ma trees. Y y y \ ^ Beack jungle. Upper Mixed forests. i.m.. mil. mum Grass lands. Alluvium. Substrata. C=J Soft grey sandstone. Diluvium. L □ Calcareous sandstone. Older formations, ckiefly metamorpliic strata, PART I. GENERAL REPORT. A. — General Aspect of the Country, its Geological and Climatological Features, IN CONNECTION WITH THE FLORA. § 1 . — Short topographical sketch of Pegu. Pegu, as understood in this report, comprises the whole of the country lying between the Irrawaddi, or Tharawaddi, and the Sittang rivers, and extends from the seashore northwards to the frontier of Ava. Virtually it extends into Ava ; but that northern portion is not in- cluded in my present report. It consists, therefore, politically, of parts of Pegu, Prome, Martaban, and other districts. Geographically the country extends from N. Lat. 16° to nearly 19|°, and from E. Long. 95|° to 97°, having a length of about 210 miles, and a breadth varying from 60 to 80 miles. The area comprises about 15,600 square miles, of which hardly one twenty-fifth part is under cultivation. The Pegu Yomah (so called to distinguish it from the Arracan Yomali or Yeomatong ) runs nearly S. and N. parallel with the Irrawaddi and Sittang rivers, forming the watershed between these two rivers as far as Lat. I85 0 . Here the main range divides into two, the one forming the watershed between the Irrawaddi and Pazwoondoung rivers, and the other between the Pegu and Sittang rivers. The hill range itself begins at Rangoon, but branches of hardly perceptible elevation are also met with in the delta : as for instance, those at Syriani pagoda and the Twon-tay-Kon-don, soutli of Shan-soo-gyee. These hills are surrounded on all sides by low lands, except towards the north, where they expand all over the country to the banks of the Irrawaddi, as well as to those of the Sittang. It is a very rugged, but low range, dividing in all directions into numerous spurs, which again are intersected by steep valleys and ravines. The highest tops are the Kambala toung (north) of about 8200 feet elevation, and the Kyouk-pyoo, perhaps a hundred feet higher. The average height of the main ranges varies from 1000 to 2000 feet, occasionally rising to 2,500 feet. The southern extremities, as well as the parts on the head waters of the Pannyo-gyee and Khayengwathay choungs, are much lower than 1000 feet. The principal rivers, besides the Irrawaddi and Sittang, are the Pegu river, with the Pazwocn-doun-choung, and the Hlein river. These two latter rivers, and all the streams that flow into the Irrawaddi and Sittang, rise in the Pegu Yomah. The principal streams falling into the Irrawaddi (enumerated from the north) are the following : 1. — The Paday choung with its feeders : the Khyoung Koung gyee (called in its lower course Bliot-hlyee choung) and the Naweng choung, of which the Myouk-naweug, Chouug- souk and Toung-naweng are the principal feeders . The Hlein river, is a peculiar river running parallel with the Irrawaddi, of which it has apparently been some time ago (and is still to a certain degree) a branch, in the same way, as the Hooghly is only a branch of the Ganges. The upper part of the Hlein river is called Myitmakha choung, and has its sources in the low hills of the Prome District. — It receives feeders only from the east, and these are the following : The Suaylay, Toung-nyo, Myoung, Mengla, Heeling, Thonsay, Okkan, Magyee and Mayzelee choungs, * The streams that flow eastward into the Sittang, are the Ilswa choung with the Theing, Longyan and Sabyeng choungs as principal feeders. 2. — The Khabouug stream with numerous feeders, as the Panbay, the two Choungmenahs, Kyetsha, Myouknway, Hnget-pyoo, Sean-yay and Thabyay choungs. 3. — The Pyoo Choung. 4. — The Koon choung, with the Khayeng-mathay-choung. 5. — The Tonkau choung 6. — The Yay-uway clxonng, with the Pean choung. 7. — The liheingda choung. ( 4 ) 8. — The Kaulee-ya-choung ; and, finally, 9. — The Bhaunee and Kyon-lee choungs, uniting into the Malaka clioung. Idie Pegu river, running from north to south, receives the Won, Thaymay, Kodoo-gway and Khayasoo choungs. The Nga-mo-yeat or Pazwoondoung stream, also called the Founglin river, with the Mahooya clioung as principal feeder, runs in the same direction as the Pegu river, of which it might almost be said to be a feeder. The fall of the principal river's is inconsiderable, and amounts in the Irrawaddi and Sittang rivers, between the sea and Prome and Touugkoo respectively, to not more than about G inches in a mile. § 2. — Geology of Pegu, ns far as connected with the Flora. When speaking of the geological formations of Pegu in connection with the vegetation, it must be borne in mind, that a botanist’s treatment of the geological features of a country differs to a great extent from the treatment of the same subject by a professional geologist, inasmuch as a botanist has not to take into account all those minute details, which are re- quired for fixing the age of the rocks, &c. The botanist has simply to consider the extent and quality of the rocks and soils which are represented in his botanical district, and to draw inferences from them upon the vegetation that grows on each of those formations. Only when he enters into speculations as to the age of floras, their origin and the later geographical distribution of plants, has he also to take into account such geological disturbances as have taken place in former epochs. The geology of Pegu itself is very simple and uniform, for the hills are composed solely of sandstone, skirted along their base by a broader or narrower strip of diluvium, interrupted by a deeper or shallower alluvium, wherever choungs come down from the hills ; and succeed- ed by the vast alluvial plains, through which the Irrawaddi and Sittang flow. It is owing to this uniformity in the nature of the rocks, that we can so easily understand the distribution of plants, while the Martaban or Karen hills, &c. offer many apparent anomalies, which can be explained only after more close study. We have then to consider here the following principal formations : — 1. — Alluvium , deep and shallow. 2. — Diluvium , in the form of laterite, sand or diluvial clay and loam. 3. — Softer grey sandstone, almost destitute of fossils. 4. — Calcareous sandstone, often full of fossils. 1. — Alluvium. The alluvial plains stretch along the principal rivers, for more than 150 miles to the north, where, at Tounghoo and Prome, they have an absolute elevation of about 90 feet only. The surface soil in the valleys of the Sittang and Pegu rivers, as well as iu that of the Irrawaddi, is usually a grey stiff clay of greater or lesser depth, resting often on loose sand or diluvial loam. Diluvial formations of smaller extent crop out in various locali- ties in the midst of alluvium, and especially also iu the deltas of the rivers, in which respect these deltas greatly differ from the Gangetic Delta in Bengal. Wells, in the villages all over the Irrawaddi alluvium from the banks of the Irrawaddi to the base of the hills, are rarely dug deeper than to about 12 to 24 feet in average. The vegetation of these alluvial plains is tidal as far up as the salt water influences them ; passing then into savannahs and savannah-forests, enclosing often swamp forests in depressions. Towards the hills, the savannah forests gradually pass into lower mixed forests. The presence of Lower Mixed forests may be ascribed to two causes, viz., to the lesser depth of the alluvium, and to the neighbourhood of the hills. Generally, the effect of deep alluvium upon vegetation is twofold. First, it prevents a large number of trees from establishing themselves, and secondly, it affects the growth of those which do take possession of the soil, rendering them short stemmed and in many cases crooked. 2. — Diluvium. The diluvial formations stretch nearly all along the base of the Pegu Yomah, until they converge at the northern extremities of the alluvium, viz., near Promo and above Tounghoo, with the same formations of the Arracan and Karen hills, where they cover a more or less extended area, variously interrupted by sandstoues and alluvial forma- tions. This diluvium is composed of various kinds of lateritic rocks, and of gravelly soils, such as sand or loam ; sometimes of very stiff clay. Conglomerates chiefly composed of coarser or finer quartz or ferruginous sandstone pebbles, either cemented by ferruginous loams, &o. or loose, are also frequent, especially in the Prome districts. Along certain tracts the diluvial formations do not crop out at all, but are covered with a thin layer of alluvium, which then usually bears the peculiar low forests, which combine (lie character of Eng and lower mixed forests. Such is the case especially along the baso of the Yomah from the latitudo of Thousay down to the Pazwoondoung valley near Pounggyee. ( 5 ) The term “ laterite,’' as used generally by foresters iu Burma, comprises several heterogeneous rocks and soils, all characterized by a more or less ferruginous appearance, but really connected in no other way, than that they are all permeated by hyperoxide of iron : in fact, they derive their origin from two very different sources ; the one being dilu- vial, while the other series is the product of decomposition of underlying rocks. All the laterite along the western base of the Pegu Yomah, and along the Sittang, is decidedly diluvial, but many laterites on the summits and along ridges of the Prome and Marta- ban hills belong to the latter class, which is, especially in Hindustan, largely developed. The influence, however, of all these rocks on vegetation is the same, or nearly the same. Laterite is a formation of the highest importance in the various floras of India. No other formation except metamorphic and volcanic ones can boast of such a variety of species, in spite of its apparent sterility, as laterite. It is this rock that affects vegetation so much, that the great difference between the floras of Malacca, Borneo, Sumatra, &c., on the one hand, and that of Java on the other side, is produced. It is also this formation which allows so many Australian genera, like Melaleuca , Baeckea, Tristania, Leucopogon, 8fc., to spread so far to the north-west, some of which, like Tristania, spread as far north as the Ava frontier. If all laterite plants were to be erased from a list of the plants of Pegu proper, the flora would be rendered very uninteresting indeed. From about 12 miles S. S. W. from Tounghoo down to Pegu, no true laterite occurs, but a yellowish loam, intermixed with coarse quartz pebbles takes its place. Sometimes the alluvium, here often very light and loose, seems to rest on the sandstone itself. In such localities a strange mixture of evergreens with deciduous forest trees (moist forests) has grown up, changing usually into true tropical forests, where choungs intersect them. The loam soil of yellowish colour, intermixed with small angular pebbles, is especially developed all along the borders of the Pegu and Pazwoondoung alluvia, stretching down as far as Ran- goon. According to its stiffer or looser constitution, Moist or Low forests prevail on them. The gravelly sand soil is predominant in Prome, and not a few peculiar plants occur on it in the Eng forests of that region. The pebbles and sand-granules of that region vary greatly in size in different localities, but all seem to form an impermeable or almost impermeable substratum,* or to rest on such an one. Here boulders and large fragments of fossiliferous calcareous sandstone, of lateritic rocks, and sometimes blocks of fossil wood, are often observed sticking out from the ground or loosely resting on it. 3. — Soft grey sandstone. The next and most important formation, forming nearly one half of the area under consideration, is a soft grey sandstone, composing nearly the whole of the southern x’ange of the Pegu Yomah, from the headwaters of the Hswa choung down to the diluvial formations of the Pegu and Pazwoondoung valleys. Thin layers of older cal- careous sandstone are also found, but only occasionally, as for instance at the obstruction of the Hpyoo choung at Hpyoo-Menglan. But around Kambala toung, the upper part of the Koon and Khayengmathay-choungs, and possibly all around the Prome district, soft and calcareous sandstones are deposited alternately, in thinner or thicker layers. This soft sandstone is everywhere distinctly stratified, the strata, however, are rarely horizontal, but more or less undulating, and more especially so towards the main axis of the Yomah, dipping iu the directions of N. E. to E. N. E. and S. W. to W. S. W. at various angles. The highest crest of the main range of the Yomah, and all the spurs that compose the Kambala toung, consist of a slightly different coarser pale brownish-grey sandstone, dipping regularly to E. by N. at an angle varying from 25 to 50 degrees. Possibly it is only a de- composed calcareous sandstone, on which at least the Kambala beds seem to rest. In the Yan valley, adjoining Kambala toung on the west, the beds of soft and calcareous sandstones and shales are highly folded, almost contorted and cropping out nearly verti- cally. * To avoid misunderstanding, I will remark here, that any bed is to me impermeable, if the constituents of it, whether solid rock, detritus or pebbles, are themselves impermeable. Thus a sand-bank, consisting of siliceous pebbles, is in my eyes impermeable, although mechanically quite permeable ; while a similar sand-bank consist- ing of pebbles of permeable sandstone, would be doubly permeable, viz., mechanically and physically. 2 ( 6 ) Fossil shells of the genera Ostrea and Pa ten, along with Foraminifera, were met with in the interior parts of the Southern Yomah between Wanet, Wachoung and lvenbatee. At the former place, on the watershed between the headwaters of the Pazwoondoung and Kenbatee choungs, at a considerable elevation, say about 700 or 800 feet, iu large blocks similar to reefs, they are much weathered out. In a choung on the Kenbatee side, called Kayoo choung, which is passed in crossing from Wachoung to Kenbatee, fossils are still more numerous, the fossiliferous rocks covering, as it were, the whole bed of the choung. There are several Kayoo choungs iu the Yomah, for instance one iu Upper Zamayee, which might sug- gest a similar occurrence of fossils. This sandstone forms a most intricate labyrinth of low ridges, diverging from a main chain and branching usually almost at right angles, and rendered still wilder by the many ravines and gorges, that are formed by the heavy rains during the south-west monsoon. All these spurs and ridges are, as a rule, steep, often so much so (especially along the main range) that it becomes sometimes very difficult to ascend them, comparatively low as they may be. Very curious is the regular occurrence of the rounded small knolls, that appear so fre- quently on the ridges, especially where other ridges branch off. These cause tiresome ups and downs in marching along ridges otherwise level and easy. The main range itself, of about 1,000 to 1,500 feet elevation, runs in general from north to south with a little westing. To- wards the north it winds much, attaining an elevation of 2,000 to 2,500 feet. The soft sandstono is of a very pormeablo nature, and boars, as a rule, a very rank vege- tation, although the ground is rather poor in herbs and shrubs, and still moro so on tho higher and steeper ridges. This whole soft sandstone formation is covered by a very uniform and usually lofty for- est, viz . , tho upper mixed forest Put in the moister valleys, especially along tho Sittaug side, evergreen tropical forests are frequent, while on tho exposed crests of the highest parts of Kambala toung, &c., upperdry forests for the first time make their appearance. ( 7 ) The area is scantily peopled by Karens (Squau), and Barman villages are seen only along the outer skirt of the hills. A great part ot these hill-Burmans along the Sittang side are called Yabines. 4 . — Calcareous sandstone. As we approach the north-west corner of Pegu, a highly indurated impermeable rock of a rather greenish colour becomes so prevalent, that it produces a striking change in the vegetation. This older sandstone is compact, indistinctly stratified, and is often also highly fossiliferous. It is usually so extremely hard, that scarcely any water is allowed to percolate. Hence decomposition goes ou very slowly and very incompletely. This older sandstone formation possibly extends far into Ava, and is probably accompanied by limestones. I infer this from the Botanical collections which Dr. Wallich made there in 1826. Thin incrustations of ealespar are not unfrequent, but nowhere in large quantities. Sometimes layers of soft grey sandstone are conformably superposed upon the older beds, as for instance, on the path that crosses the watershed between the Paday and Khyoung-Koung- gyee choung, and then au upper mixed forest appears rather abruptly, with such trees as Homalium tomentosum, Millettia Brandisiana (thitpagan) and fine-grown teak. Soft and cal- careous sandstones, with shales, are frequently seen alternating with one another and forming folded or undulating strata, as I have already indicated. Numerous fossils may in places be obtained from this sandstone, and the whole Prome tract up to the main range of the Yomah appears to abound with larger or smaller boulders, which are particularly fossili- ferous. The vegetation on this older formation is peculiar, and quite dissimilar to any occurring in British Burma. This vegetation consists of the Sha forests, curiously mixed up with other trees, that are found elsewhere only on laterite, as for instance, Eng , Engyin, &o. The coun- try looks, during the dry season, barren, dry, and in many respects not unlike Beliar. The above-mentioned would appear to be the principal rocks that influence the vegeta- tion. A granitic rock is also observed fas Hajgr Twynam was good enough to inform me) at Tounghoo, not far from the ferry over the Sittang to Myatson-yee-noung, where a quarry has been worked for some time. But such a local and limited occurrence is of no consequence in a botanical point of view. Schists, syenites and other metamorphic rocks, often accompanied by mountain limestone, appear to cover a great extent of the country east of the Sittang, where they, in the same way as along the Pegu Yomah, are bordered all along the base towards the Sittang by laterite formations, often forming hill ranges 300 to 400 feet high ; but more frequently the outer spurs are covered by numberless larger and smaller fragments and boulders of granitic (syenitic?) and other rocks. Some huge boulders of granite rest on the ground (the under strata probably of schistose rocks) broken up into several pieces, but evidently belonging to one and the same gigantic block. A granitic boulder, broken up , on the ridges towards Shan tounggyee toung', E . of Tounghoo . During the dry seasoh, the springs on the higher ridges for the most part dry up, but trickling springs, which are aetuallj 7 nothing but percolations of rain water, are still frequent at favourable exposures in the valleys. The only spouting spring I met with in Pegu, is at Kenbatee village, in the soft sandy bed of the choung, whence the villagers fetch their water. Spouting springs are such as owe their origin to impermeable strata, and the occurrence of a spouting spring in a locality surrounded by low forests, would confirm my supposition of there being a laterite bed beneath the stiff yellowish clay, which I distinguished as diluvial clay. ( 8 ) This scarcity of spouting springs all over the Yomali hills has struck me much. On the other side, pools of water were observed by me as late as towards the end of March, in the beds of choungs in the driest parts of the Prome district (on compact impermeable sand- stone), while on permeable sti’ata such would have been searched for in vain, owing to tho permeability of the substrata. § 3. — Climatological notes on Pegu* It should be kept in mind, in perusing the following very incomplete sketch of the cli- mate of Pegu, that both seasons (1868-69 and 1870-71) in which I travelled were described to me as unusually hot ones. I was also unable to make hygrometrical observations, as the only hygrometer I had with me went to pieces on the back of my elephant on the very day I started. I must speak, therefore, about such matters only empirically. Nor can I make proper use of my thermometrical observations, extending only over a few (chiefly the hot) months, while travelling in a hilly country, where the results necessarily must be of a very problematical and varied character. The chief topics, in climatology, at least to a forester, are always — (1) . The temperature. (2) . The degree of moisture. (3) . The winds. There are, besides, many other minor points to be observed, many of which, however, such as temperature of soil, become really importantf only in higher latitudes. In the fol- lowing sketch I shall not discuss such matters separately and fully, as the material before me is too incomplete to enable me to do so. In a tropical climate like that of Burma, the first question is always, whether the coun- try enjoys an equable climate (like many of the islands of the Malay Archipelago) with rains and dew all the year round, or whether the year is divided into a dry season and a rainy season. The latter is the case with Burma. It is then chiefly the hot dry season, which in Pegu, as everywhere else in tropical coun- tries more particularly affects the vegetation, regulates its growth and calls into existence the large tracts of deciduous forests. The rainy season is, comparatively, of less importance in the consideration of a tropical flora (Desert floras excepted) for although a great number of xerophilous plants necessarily must disappear, a far greater number of hygrophilous plants will replace them (as is the case in the Martaban hills, when compared with the flora of the Pegu Yomali). The seasons of Pegu are similar to those of Lower Bengal, but the cold season is of shorter duration, and the dry hot, and often also the rainy , season commences a month earlier than in Calcutta. The dry season, divided into a cold and hot one, extends about from December to April, over a period of four to five months. The cold season terminates ordinarily about the end of February, sometimes somewhat earlier, and often rather abruptly. The hot season comprises the months of March and April, during which time (usually in March) one or two heavy thunder-storms moderate the intense heat, until in the first half of May the regular monsoon rains set in, whicli cease more or less completely during November. The above is nearly tho regular course of the seasons. The thermometer rarely rises above 88° in the shade during the cold season, and often sinks as low as 57°, occasionally to 55° or 54°, before sunrise. Heavy dew is the rule, and fogs are often troublesome in the morning hours. During the remainder of the day, the sky is tolerably clear and serene. Pains are almost unknown in the cold season, and the hygro- metrical state of the atmosphere is apparently the same as in Bengal. In the hot season, the thermometer rapidly rises to 95° to 100" in the shade, but tho nights still remain cool and agreeable ; for even at tho height of the season in tho hottest province of the country (Prome), the thermometer never indicated to me more than 74° before sunrise. The deposit of dew is hardly perceptible, ami the atmosphere is nearly as dry as that of Lower Bengal, with the difference that hero the sky is very hazy nearly all the day, while in Behar and Bengal it is tolerably clear. The first shower, usually a very heavy one, occurs in March, and thunder-storms, prognosticating the commencement of tho rainy season, usually break at the end of April or during tho first days of May. * Although I am expecting a series of thermometrical and hygrometrical observations at various stations in Pegu, which Captain W. J. Seaton, Conservator of Forests, British Burma, is kind enough to endeavour to pro- cure for me, I have not thought it advisable to delay the submission of this report, ready since August 187 1 , for an uncertain period. t In expressing myself thus, I do not imply that a lower subterranean temperature might not elfeot changes in the tropical vegetation as interesting as those produced by a higher temperature of the soil in temperate lati- tudes, or vice versa. ( 9 ) In the Prome district, the heat and dryness is considerably greater than in the Irravvaddi and Sittang districts ; for although I had in the Sittang valley at the end of April thermome- ter readings of 104° to 108°, and on one occasion even 1 08° in the shade, these were exceptions ; while during my stay in the Prome district (in March) the thermometer in the shade at midday never stood below 100°, but remained almost stationary between 101° and 103° till 3 or 4 p. M. The sky was then so hazy, that the sun after 4 p. m. regularly, and not seldom during the whole day, appeared only as a large red disk emitting a dull light, hardly equal in intensity to that during a partial eclipse. The temperature in the shade and in the sun, shewed a difference only of 1J to 2 degrees, and I often worked on such days at my table exposed to the direct sun-beams without feeling any more discomfort than in the shade (if such a thing really can be had at this period in the Prome forests). While such a drought reigns in the open country and on the ridges, dew falls in the narrow valleys of the eastern slopes of the Yomah and in the Martaban hills, where evergreen forests skirt the streams, often so heavily that one becomes quite wet when marching in the early mornings through the herbage along their baulc. But after an ascent of a hundred or two hundred feet we meet with, the same dryness again in the deciduous forests, as in the open lands. It is here that we can almost every morning observe a white sheet of vapour in the depths of the valleys resting on the forests, which enables us to appreciate clearly the role which evergreen forests play in the attraction of the currents of vapour. The vicinity of the sea is always accompanied by a greater degree of dampness, especially if no dry land-winds check its influence. It is often remarked that high level plants, such as Polypodium Dipteris, Rhododendron , 8fc., (growing in Java at above 4000 feet elevation) grow along the western coast of Sumatra, Banca, etc. almost down to the edge of the sea. A more careful inquiry into the true circumstances would only shew that they grow there in sheltered damp gorges, where the temperature is moderated by moisture to 'such a degree, that the difference between the two stations is but small or merely nominal. Nor is elevation al- ways an exponent of lower temperature. What Professor O. Sendtner lias shewn to be the rule in the Bavarian Alps, viz., that the temperature on the top of hills or ridges is higher than iu valleys of the same elevation, is also — and to a more marked degree — true in the Pegu hills (and generally in the tropics). One has no need to consult his instruments : this difference of temperature is great enough, not only during the day, but still more so at night. Any one, who has encamped one night in a valley and the following night on an exposed ridge, may have made the observation. When sleeping at the end of February in the Gyo-Gyo val- ley, at the base of the Kambala toung, I required a blanket ; but 2000 feet higher up near the crest of the ridge, the nights were sultry and rather oppressive. The thermometer fully con- firmed this, for while it stood at the lower station at 59j° to G0° before sunrise, it was at my hill-camp as high as 70 J° to 74° at the same hour of the day. In a similar way, the differ- ence of temperature at the two stations at midday amounted to from 2 to 3 degrees in the shade. I have also observed similar great differences* of temperature between hill and valley stations in other parts of the Pegu Yomah as well as in the Martaban hills. Such observations, however, were all made during the hot and dry season, and I have reason to be- lieve that during the rains the differences are either nominal or less marked. With such facts before us, it need not surprise us, if we see, amongst many others, Gleichenia dichotoma, Pteris aquilina or B/echnutn oricntalc, a perfect nuisance iu the plains of J ava, while iu Pegu they appear only above 2000 feet elevation ; or that, for example, Lino-stoma pauciflorum or Vaccinium should be found in Singapore and Sumatra on laterite ground at sea level, while iu Burma it grows in the pine forests, on primary substrata at elevations of from 3000 to 4000 feet and upwards. The fact that pine forests (as I learn from Dr. F. Mason) are met with in Tennasserim so low as at an elevation of only 500 feet, is no doubt to be explained by the same cause. On the other hand we can now correctly understand, why so many plants, (especially trees) which are high-level plants in the Khasya hills, are met with in the deep gorges of the Pegu Yomah at low eleva- tions ; or why so many plants, specifically identical, should be found iu the Malay peninsula, and even Java, and should re-occur in the damp tropical valleys of the Himalayas. While in the above examples, moisture, and — as a consequence of it — lower temperature, are the chief — although not sole — conditions for the existence of those plants, we meet with another set of plants iu Pegu, which — although usually looked upon as temperate forms — vegetate and develope themselves in the hottest and driest season of the year. It is in March and April, at a temperature of 120° to 130° and even higher in the sun, that we see along the banks of the Irrawaddi in flower and fruit Ranunculus sceleratus, Veronica Bccca - bunga, Artemisia carni/olia, the various species of Polygonum , Rumex, etc. and along the Ganges and Bramapootra in Bengal these are accompanied by Rosa, Potcntilla , Coch/earia flava, J uncus, Polxypogon, etc. ! Now here it is evident that these plants, although growing in moist stations, are not hygroclimaticsf — at least not tropical hygroclimatics. * Radiation of insolated heat must be brought into account here. t In fact, all temperate and European forms in Lower ..Bengal, as Cardamine, Lath gras, Vicia, etc. come up only during the dry cold season. 3 ( 10 ) 1 have little experience of the rainy season in Pegu. Towards the close of April, or in the first days of May, gales, occasionally of extreme violence, are experienced, usually accom- panied by heavy showers. It is this period which I may point out as the most favourable, although at the same time the most unhealthy one, to a botanist in Pegu. The amount of old trees, branches, etc. thrown down during such a tempest is often astounding, offering an easy and fruitful harvest of specimens of woody plants otherwise quite out of reach on account of their height. It is true, that at other seasons, apes, and more especially squirrels, are most useful agents for procuring the flowers or fruits of lofty trees, where a gun fails to secure a branch, but it is rarely that one can just guess at the time when such trees are in a stage of development attractive to the animals just mentioned. The temperature of course at this season rapidly falls at the very commencement of the rains, the thermometer indicating to me (in May and June) from 70° to 75° before sunrise, to 90° to 95° in the shade at the hottest time of the day (about 1 p. m.). There was not a day without rain. The annual rain-fall is said to amount at Rangoon to about 85 inches, but in the Prome district — the climate of which resembles in every respect that of Ava — it is cer- tainly considerably less, and further to the north, at Mandalay, the rain-fall is in some years insufficient for the cultivation of rice. As a contrast to this, the annual rain-fall in Teuas- serim amounts at Moulmein to 175, and at Tavoy to 208, inches. The prevailing winds in Pegu are, of course, the monsoon winds, modified, however, so much by the hilly configuration of the country, that they are traceable only on the summit of the higher hill ranges. The whole southern part of Pegu, including the Irrawaddi and Sittang deltas, is exposed to a steady sea-breeze, usually setting in about midday and felt far inland. In the Irrawaddi plains, however, this sea-breeze is soon (above Heuzadah?) checked during the hot season by a dry North West wind, which is probably only a North East monsoon wind modified in its course by the Arracan Yomah 7000 to .8000 feet high, that separates Arracan from Ava. Hence it is that the valley of the Irrawaddi is so much drier than that of the Sittang, which is sheltex-ed on the north by hill ranges of upwards of 5000 feet elevation. From the above fragmentary and necessarily confused notes, it is clear that the climate of Pegu is in every respect far superior to that of Bengal. All the year round — with a few days’ exception — cool refreshing nights prevail. The cold season in Pegu, although of a slightly higher temperature, has one thing in its favour, and that is, the absence of musquitoes. Postscriptum. Since the submission of this report, the meteorological observations alluded to in my remarks at page 8, have, with the exception of the hygrometrioal observations, come to hand. After perusal of these tables, I see no reason to modify any of my statements regarding the climate of Pegu, as made in the foregoing pages, except as to the direction of the wind in the Irrawaddi valley. Dr. Hanks says that, during the hot and rainy seasons, winds generally come from the south and south-west, during other months from the north and north-west, and the observations of Dr. White and others confirm this. My thermometrical observations were chiefly taken inland, where the temperature is necessarily somewhat higher than along the course of large streams, where evaporation, espe- cially in closed valleys, reduces thermometrical readings. I give here an abstract of the records jdaced at my disposal, but in doing so, I must men- tion, that some of them have to be taken with caution. Not to mention the discrepancy that may be observed in the elevation of the stations (Thayet Myo being put at two hundred and forty feet only, while Prome, situated some thirty miles further down the stream, is two hun- dred and sixty feet), there are items which call for remark. At one station the observations were made for six months by means of “ an old metal thermometer — condemned,” while the mini- mum, e. g. at lienzadah, is considerably higher* than the mean temperature of December and February. The observations of Suaygyeen I consider quite unreliable, representing a climate with occasional snow-fall and freezing, were it not for the odd minimum 10 degrees higher than the mean temperature of the hottest month of that station (April, 70°). The Rangoon observations form a contrast to this, shewing a clime hotter than that of Siude or the Punjab ! The observations of annual means of the hygrometrical state of the atmosphere and barome- tric pressure I have omitted here, these being of no valuo in the consideration of vegetation, where only monthly means and extremes come into account. * This can only he explained hy assuming that the readings were taken from a minimum and maximum thermometer, while the ordinary observations took place possibly at a later hour, say at 0 a. m. lint in this case, such minima ought to be brought into account in the computations of mean temperature. Table of Meteorological Observations. ( H ) •saqoui ui pujuiua pmuuy 143-0 Tjl *p 00 74-13 210 9 CO vO 05 VO 30 6^05 CO 05 40-56 46 21 CO 0 a 0 •umraiuipj 1 05 \a 05 x> O GO 05 ^ M VO lO 1.0 • *0 (M CO W •umuiiX'Bxvr 1 6 05 05 o o o o o r“i rH t-H o o C5 i-H 1- o •& o fe p o . 0 43 Vq © h o .52 co ^ rp . > Sb c n ! o £ © * p o co d P .5 "w X So 3-3 Q P £ 0 *. ►"3 U © ^ CO 3 3 • 4-« 2T ® o -g S DO S « 5 s i s a d 0 ® > Q(n ■5 3 o fe ^ a 5 “ g’-S'S ® „ d S rt 3 00 1-9 S' » O ^3 s s s Q £ S "o 0 © 9* a & gg.? 3 l £ C .g _£ 2fl M 3 s da ^ ►“5 ^ r— d H o P g Vf +* d 0 P 25 2 > iS .Sen 1 £ r .^IS 'O be o ^ tT 2 P ^ 0 3 TpP | g s © > - ''CT 0 'O 0 d CO 43 C a p 0 O o © to e- s if bo p s be «rS c OQ 03 O ^ 03 ^ d ? . t> O o . > f^o *”5 d a3 fe‘1^ ° 3 bp £ CO .« "•.fir 3 o t’g H f B 2 2 § H « ® “ s' rs !z cS 2 a £ o - ° a o 0 o _52 . 9 £ 0 ? co 2 S S | . B ^ ro co ^ G2 . uSSf?®* a -ga .!? *2 ~ £ *3 O _ B bo >5^' Q cS S ® d d £ CO PH .£ co £ "O l°1 is £ Pn 2 T g sccc d no ■ .a ! a® ? ^3 to bfi pP # P ■s-s 5 ?’ r K I «j CO 00 GO 00 VO Cl X CO 00 •judy |> 00 05 vO 1 >I CO 0D CO CO CO 9P N 05 GO X 1>»XXXXI>« O GO 05 •qoauj^ 95 84 80-7 73 81 85 80 82-5 8651 88-7 -Xj-eiuqoj 92 80 77- 9 70 76 76 76 78- 61 80 5 •£iBnU'BJ > N iM ^ W |> t> |> *uoip2A0[g; c. 60 c. 30 90 c. 300 240 260 ■uoriiiA-iosqo jo .nio^ 1871 1870 . 1869 1870 1871 Mean, , 1870 1870 P O o bO P P rP d H3 d N P 0 H s? p CO p So g a o S s* ao H Ph * Sunrise — maximum 86.5°, sunset — minimum 77° : tliis is a new way of taking extremes. ^ + The true elevations, based upon levelling, are for Promo 94', for Thayet rnyo 110', and for Tounghoo 100 . I am indebted for these data to Mr. Eug. Oates. ( 12 ) § 4. — Brief considerations of other agencies ichich influence vegetation. Before passing to the botanical description of Pegu, I have thought it might not be uninteresting to notice here a number of conditions which more or less influence vegetation. I must, however, ask indulgence for the fact that the subjects presently to be discussed are not recorded in a more consecutive form, and are treated rather heterogeneously. This want of sequence arises from the fact that I wish to direct attention only to some of the more interesting agencies, omitting many others. The consideration of the origin of Pegu plants, their probable immigration from adjacent or remote countries across ancient mountain-chains, etc., has little or no value in the eyes of a forester. To him it is indifferent whence his trees have come : it is sufficient to know that they are present. The occurrence of wild vanille, wild tea, or rhea has more interest to him than such a puzzling circumstance, for instance, as the occurrence of a species of plantain (Musa gtauca), which is found in the northern Yomah, and turns up again along the southern slopes of Java — a fact which sets at defiance all existing theories of the geogra- phical distribution of plants, as no satisfactory cause whether former continuity of land, or agency of man or bird, can be assigned for its immigration. Nor does he care to consider the strange accumulation of Hindustan plants, which are found in such numbers and so unex- pectedly in the Prome zone, and of which the origin* is almost as problematical as that of the plantain just alluded to. I shall, therefore, pass from speculations to facts, and bring uuder review : (1) The influence of physical structure of soil, etc. (2) The influence of light. (3) The influence of elevation. (4) The influence of exposure. (5) The influence of winds. (6) The influence of jungle-fires. (7) The influence of the nature and germinating power of seeds upon the prevalenco of forest trees. (1 .) — The influence of the quality of rocks, etc. and that of their chemical composition is differently estimated by different authors. While Thurmaun (Essai de phytostatique applique h la chaiue du Jura) admits the importance of the former only, Unger and others (especially Sendtner in his admirable workf on the vegetation of Southern Bavaria and that of the Bavarian Forest) have shewn in a clear and convincing manner the important part which certain chemical elements play in vegetation. Sehuitzleiu and Frikhinger, in their work on the vegetation of the Woernitz and Altmuhl, and also Bogenhard and others, look upon both these factors as equally important, and to a certain degree I adopt their views. The physical and the chemical nature of soil act, in my opinion, reciprocally upon one another. A soil consisting entirely of silicious sand can no more support vegetation than oil can give exist- ence to aquatic plants. A crumb of bread, perfectly dry and exposed to a dry atmosphere, will not be covered by PeniciUium or other mucorine growth, but let the atmosphere become damp, and all conditions for the developement of fungoid growth are given. The fact that any cubic yard of soil contains, after all, all the chemical elements necessary for the requirements of any particular plant, may, to a superficial observer, necessarily convey the idea, that the chemical composition is of no material importance to vegetation ; but this very fact, that such chemical elements must be present, would a priori suggest to mo an opposite opinion. If we know on the one hand from facts, that the organic constituents of one and the same species may vary according to the chemical quality of the soil on which the plant grew, we know on the other hand the not less important fact, that there are chemical compounds, which have a decided influence upon plants, either in modifying, or altogether suppressing, their growth. If we syringe a plot of luxuriant meadow with a strong solution of corrosive sublimate, or arsenic, we shall in a very short time see the whole vegetation on this plot completely die out, although the chemical elements, necessary for the growth of the. plants that have grown here, have not been changed or removed in any way by the experiment. Chloride of sodium, or common salt, is a necessity to tidal or saline plants, but it is also fatal to many inland plants, although it may be accompanied by all those chemical ingredients, believed to be necessary to the nourishment of such plants. The influence of manure upon plants is too well known to need illustration. * Drs. Hooker arid Thomson, in their Flora Indira ascribe this to a climate similar to that of the Carnatic. I can only suggest, that most of these are calcareous plants. What kunkur is in Behar and Hindustan, fossil shells may be in the Prome (and Ava) district. This assumption becomes more probable if we take into account such of these plants — although few — as turn up again on limestone in the Martaban and Moulmein districts, and oven in lower Siam . t This work seems to have remained quite unknown in England, although it is one of the most important productions in the field of geographical botany, based upon truly scientific principles. ( 13 ) If we may rely upon Iiev. Ch. Parish’s “ Botanical Notes, made during a month’s tour from Moulmein to the three pagodas, &c,”* the part which lime and silica play would appear to be not very important iu Burmah. Unfortunately, I myself have never had an opportunity to explore pure limestone districts iu India, and this circumstance has been a great drawback iu all my studies regarding the influence of chemical composition upon vegetation in India. In the above notes it is indicated that chemical influence exists, and that it is of primary importance. I may now show that the physical structure of rocks, &c., is not less important. It is all very well to shew from an analysis, that all chemical constituents are present, and in the needful proportions ; but a more important question, it would seem to me, is, whether these elements are also represented iu such a soluble state as to be taken up by plants in the quantities required by them. It is here then that the physical structure of the rock, and more especially its permeability and hygroscopicity are forced upon our consider- ation. But hygroscopicity is nothing but the ability to absorb moisture, the most important chemical agent in nature, which brings about all those changes, of which we become aware from the decomposition of rocks and their products. The permeability of soil is, in my opinion, as important a factorf as is the hygrometrical state of the atmosphere in climatology ; in fact both are closely connected and depend upon one another. A perfectly impermeable soil, if such could exist,' would simply exclude all phanerogamic vegetation. The degree, however, of hygroscopic quality of substrata is vari- able, and therefore, the vegetation on the same is equally variable. But by studying the effects which are produced by extreme conditions, we arrive at a due appreciation of such a factor : degree is here a matter of valuation, but extremes are matters of fact. On such principles as are here laid down, I can understand, why so few plants should grow on a sandbank : for the simple reason, that here the chemical elements, contained iu the pebbles, are not disclosed for a more luxuriant vegetation. I can understand also, why on laterite and other impermeable formations, the forests should be so poor in growth, and the trees so scattered, or why in a deep sandy alluvium a similar, though modified growth should exist. The occurrence of calcareous plants in small numbers in a purely silicious district would as little surprise me as, for instance, a raspberry or strawberry, on a Burmese hill. The same rock, however, of the same chemical and physical quality, will be disintegrated (especially if of a more permeable nature) to a greater extent iu a damper climate or iu damper and more shady situations, and iu this case the vegetation that grows on the moister locality will necessarily differ greatly. I simply point to the evergreen forests, which grow in the valleys of the Pegu Yomah, and the upper mixed forests, which grow above them on the same sandstone, where hardly one species out of five is found in both sorts of forests. If we reject moisture, or what is equivalent to it, water, as a chemical agent, the theories of the influence of chemical composition* would appear to receive a fatal blow through this example, but we shall learn below of other factors, which are the true causes of this change in vegetation. Highly impermeable rocks, however, are also in very damp climates, as those of the Malay islands, sterile to a greater or less degree, and especially where they embrace large tracts of lands. How far impermeable formations are connected with a drier climate, I cannot elucidate here clearly, § but that they cause a general dryness one can perceive from the laterite vegetation, which appears nearly all along the base of the Yomah in detached patches, enclosed all round by permeable alluvial- beds and sandstone formations. The chemical elements that compose the laterite, in which, amongst others, the great percentage of hyperoxyde of iron is remarkable, do not certainly here come into play ; and this becomes clear, when we find the same laterite plants again upon the calcareous compact sandstone of the Prome district, a rock which may prove to differ little in percentage of oxide of iron from the soft grey, but highly permeable, sandstone. I refer here to such plauts as are found both on the pure laterite and on calcareous sandstone. There is, however, a vegetative element present in the Prome flora, so peculiar to this zone and so restricted, that for these plauts other causes must be sought, and possibty — in the absence of chemical analyses — they may be found in the presence of a great percentage of lime, represented here iu the form of fossil shells. || * Published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. f Amongst Indian Botanists, Griffith, in his itinerary notes, has also admitted the same, although he denies the influence of chemical quality of soil. J Those who wish to learn more on this subject, may refer to Dr. Liebig’s well-known work “ Chemistry adapted to Agriculture and Physiology,” 2 vols. 8th edition, 1865. Much information is contained also in the book How crops grow. By S. W. Johnson, by Rev. A. H. Church and Thiselton Dyer, 1 vol. 1869. § I will here refer only to the Australian plateaus and to the Cape of Good Hope, as also to the Eastern parts of Hindustan and Mexico. || A fude qualitative examination of this sandstone since made, has taught me, that it is of so calcareous a nature, that it eflervesces like ealespar when treated with acids. It is, therefore, more properly called a calca- eons or marl-sandstone. It is remarkable, that the same rock, when decomposed, loses all its carbonate of lime. 4 ( 1* ) All the above remarks have reference more to the general growth and habit of trees than to their nature as species. This latter is the critical question, for although even modem experiments tend to shew, that such a marked influence on the specific value of a plant does exist, they cannot shew that such is a general rule. As far as my own experience in tropical countries goes, I can state, that a formation physi- cally and chemically different, if of some extent, produces everywhere a flora, not only physiog- nomically hut also specifically different, but this is not the case where only small patches of such a different formation occur. While many plants pertinaciously affect a certain soil, a far greater number belong to a class, termed soil-vague, and others are in one district soil-vague and under different climatic conditions soil-stead;/. Only careful analyses of the soils and of the plants themselves can in such cases settle the question. I do not advocate the theory that a species is restricted to a certain soil, but I believe that the same species can occur on any soil, but it cannot, if chemical conditions are contrary to its requirements, support itself as such for successive generations : it will succumb, or lose reproductive power,* or modify its habits more or less.'f Thus those characteristical botanical combinations are produced, which form the most interesting portion of phytogeography. This would have been the place to remark on representative species, which occur on the various formations of Pegu, and more especially to contrast those that occur on permeable and impermeable strata, * but in doing so, I should have to enter again into scientific spe- culations, and I really fear that I have already far too much extended the above notes. But the importance of the soil question to a forester in Pegu must be my excuse, and I shall have an opportunity in the second part of my report to point out, that large sums might have been saved, had this question been always carefully considered in timber plan- tations. In considering the physical structure of substrata, &c., we have to observe other forms of soils, such as sand — fine or coarse, loose conglomerates, fine clayey or loamy soils, gravels, shingle, &c. Por the sake of brevity, I shall only separate the sandy from the clayey soils, for my principal object is to show the general effect of cohesion of rocks and not to specialize all the intermediate conditions. The saudy or gravelly soils, if poor in aluminous ingre- dients, bear as a rule Eng forests, with certain peculiar additions, such as Cycas, Diptero- carpus grandifolius, &c, If rich in clay, they still continue to possess the laterite character along the drier Irrawaddi side ; but along the damp Eastern slopes of the Yomah, they also bear high growing moist forests. The clayey sand or loam soils are, in fact, favourable to the growth of trees and plants generally, and it is on such a soil, that we see the finest wood-oil trees, as Dipterocarpm alatus and D. Icevis, along with Ka-Thitka ( Pentace Burmanica) . Fine clay, if very stiff, becomes to a certain degree impermeable, and therefore fit for the support of the low forests. But a more porous clay, with or without fine silicious sand, especially if very deep, generally produces a peculiar shortness of stem, and a comparatively large developement of crown, as can be observed everywhere in the savannah-forests. But the trees in the lower mixed forests, on the alluvial strata, are also comparatively short in stem and of irregular growth, branching out low down. The number of plants, that grow in "Pegu, is so great, that it would be difficult to enter into specialities, and to say which species are peculiar to clay, and which to other .soils, and if I were to distinguish the soils as minutely as Thurmann did, I fear I should make the understanding of the influence of mechanical structure of soils upon plants only the more difficult. As porous clay soils in Pegu are chiefly alluvial, it is sufficient to direct attention to the vegetative combinations, that are represented on alluvium, such as the alluvial mixed forests and swamp forests, &c., There is a peculiarity, which all the larger alluvial plains of India show, and which it may he interesting here to notice : namely, the great paucity of species, and more especially of species of trees. Alluvium has hardly any plants peculiar to itself, except those which occur in the littoral and swamp forests, both which combinations must bo attributed to other causes, viz., either to the saline quality of the soil, or to superabundance of water. Nearly all plants, if not introduced and spread, are found also on the surrounding older formations, so that there can be little doubt that the plants growing on alluvium, have immigrated from the surrounding non-alluvial lands. Owing to the uniform chemical and physical qualities of alluvium, only such plants would thrive well here, as tiro adapted for such a uniform and comparatively poor soil : hence a great many plants of the surrounding land bocaino ex- * With regard to this, compare Wiegmann’s and Polstorf's trials, which are taken up also in Liebig’s Che- mistry, p. 331 l?qq. A remarkable example is afforded, by the R. Botanic Garden, Calcutta, which is so rich in woody plants that have become impotent for the reasons above mentioned. These usually flower yearly without producing germinable seeds. There are only a few species amongst them, where heteromorphisvi of the repro- ductive organs can be adduced as the cause of sterility. • t The mimetic analogies of plants, so much talked of at the present day, find their solution ill the soil question, not in “ mimicry.” ( 15 ) eluded. It is, therefore, interesting to find, in crossing a large alluvial valley, that a great number of plants disappear in these plains, which are common on the rocky or gravelly soil that we have just left, but that the same plants reappear again on the other side as soon as other conditions are again present. Here permeability appears to play a great part, for the change of vegetation is greatest, if we pass from alluvium to compact sandstone or other im- permeable strata, while the soft permeable sandstone improves, it is true, the growth of the trees very much, but does not in the same degree change the botanical character of the forests, I speak here chiefly of trees. I will here notice one of the most striking of the many examples in Bengal, that occur to me, of a marked change in the character of the herbaceous and perennial vegetation. At Titalya, a station on the road from Kissenguuge to Darjiling is a bungalow, which stands upon a low diluvial hillock hardly fifty feet in height, formed of silicious pebbles, cemented by sand and loam. This hillock is a mere speck in the surrounding alluvium, distant about 16 to 18 miles from the nearest diluvial formations. Along the ravine, through which runs a cart road between the bungalow and the Mahanuddee river, we meet such plants as Eriophorum comosum in abundance, Cheilanthes farinosa, Onychium auratum, Zornia dipKylla, Apocopis sp. Crotalaria albida and acicularis, Batratherum, a Pogonatum without fruits, a terrestrial leci- deous lichen not yet determined, &c. These all are plants that nowhere occur in alluvial soil, and are found again only on the diluvium of the Sikkim Terai, but Eriophorum is, to the best of my belief, absent there also, occurring in the Khasya and Nipal hills up to the North-West Himalaya. Here either the physical or chemical influence of soil is quite apparent. Burned pagodas, &c. in the alluvial plains of Pegu often bear plants that are not found in alluvium at all, such as Sonerila, Adiantum, Cheilanthes, &c. Here also the cause must be looked for in the quality of the bricks, of which the pagodas, &c. are built. (2.) The influence of light is probably most practically shewn, if we pitch a tent on a luxuriantly growing pasture-ground, close it and let it stand there for several weeks. The longer the tent stands, the greater will be the destruction of the plants that grow on the spot. About six or seven weeks are sufficient to kill all the grass. Here the deprivation of the light is the cause of the death of the plants. The influence of light affects vegetation in the tropics greatly, and I have simply to point to the evergreen forests, and more especially to the tropical forests on the one side, and to the mixed forests on the other ; and the effect of light becomes clear in the great difference of the trees and other plants in the two cases. It is not necessary, therefore, to give lists of shade and light loving plants : they are quickly enough recognised, if we simply compare the vegetation of evergreen and deciduous forests. An observation of Dr. Sendtner, in his chapter on Bavarian forest-trees, is not out of place here. He tells us, that light-loving trees bear as a rule winged fruits, for the reason that they are compelled to grow far from each other in order to obtain the necessary degree of light. His acute observation holds good also in tropical countries, and though some exceptions occur, these can be explained by other contrivances with which their fruits or seeds are furnished. Thus, trees like peema ( Lagerstrciemia ) have capsules which split loculicidally, and so remain on the tree that the winged seed may be dispersed by the winds. The teak- tree has its light capsules enclosed in a dense woolly cover, which again is surrounded by a loose bladdery sack, so light indeed, that it is only a sport for winds, &c. The influence of Solar radiation makes itself chiefly felt in accelerating the development of the reproductive organs and in shortening the cycle of vegetative life. (3.) The influence of elevation is tantamount to difference of climate. It is well known, that in ascending a very high mountain, we pass through different regions, (called sometimes also hypsometrical zones) each of which corresponds to a different zone of geogra- phical latitude, except that the atmospheric pressure, the duration of days, and seasons, and the degree of moisture, are not congruent. The Pegu Yomah is too low to show this difference in climate clearly, but the occur- rence of some temperate forms, like Ileracleum, Vaccinium, etc. in the dry forests of the hills is an indication of elevation. In the Martaban hills, where peaks of more than 7000 feet elevation exist, the influence of elevation upon vegetation Is, however, very marked. Indian botanists distinguish the following three chief regions, each of which can be sub- divided into two sub-regions, viz. : — I. — The tropical region, up to 6 or 7000 feet elevation, divided into a tropical (up to- 3000 feet), and a sub-tropical (up to 6 or 7000 feet). II. — The temperate region between 7000 (in places 6000) to 12000 feet elevation, similarly distinguished iuto a subtemperate (up to 9 — 10000 feet) and a temperate region (from 9 or 10000 up to 12000 feet elevation). III. — The alpine region between 12000 and 16000 feet elevation or more, which again may be divided iuto an alpine (between 12000 to 16000 feet) and a glacial region (above 16000 feet elevation). ( 16 ) This, of course, is an approximate scale for the Eastern Himalaya and Khasya hills only, but as we proceed towards the equator, the correspondiug regions become higher situated in the same ratio, as the colder regions gradually descend towards the poles, until zone and region become united in the plains of the polar circle.* Besides this inlluence of geographi- cal zones, exposure depresses and raises regions considerably. No attempt has as yet been made to settle regions in India from a scientific point of view, and, therefore, such deter- minations are only arbitrary and of very relative value. In the above section of the north-eastern portion of the globe, I have attempted to give a rough graphic representation of the different elevations of the principal regions in the different northern latitudes, with special consideration of the Burmese mountains. As regards the zones here adopted, I must refer to § o in the sequel. The Martaban hills, and the hill ranges generally of the whole of Burma, extend only into the subtemperate region (a few peaks in Arracan also into the temperate), and in those regions also we have hoar frost in January. * Dr. Grisebach’s work “ The Vegetation of the world in relation to climate” (2 vols.) reached me onlj while these sheets were passing through the press, and I can, therefore, make no use of the valuable information therein contained. ( 17 ) The extent to which the vegetation is changed by elevation, will be made clear in the subsequent consideration of the forests of the Karen or Martaban hills. Vegetation does as a rule change with greater elevation, “but not at regular intervals. The range of the lower regions is larger up to about the limit where the atmospheric moisture has become considerably diminished by absorption in the lower regions ; in other words, up to a height, where the atmosphere has become so clear and dry, that dampness, al- though still perceptible, ceases to be a powerful factor. A thousand feet of elevation, therefore, in the alpine region in the tropics affects vegetation more than a difference of 2000 or 3000 feet in lower regions. With elevation is also connected the period of flowering and fruiting of plants. It is well'known, that in temperate climates the flowering takes place later in the season in the proportion as we ascend to higher regions. But in tropical countries, this rule does not apply to all plants, as Mr. II. Zollinger has already (Tydschr. v. Ned. Ind.) shown to be the case in Java, for if we attentively observe the state of development of different plants, we shall find some of which the flowers open later as we ascend higher ; and others, which have put forth their flowers or are already fruiting, in the higher regions ; while in the lower parts they are found still in bud. Thus, for instance, in the beginning of March I found the Rho- dodendra and Gentianae on Nattoung at 4000 to 5000 feet elevation in bud only, while on the top of the Nattoung itself they were in full flower. If we examine such plants and compare those which shew a development of flower retarded by elevation, with those whose develop- ment is accelerated by the same cause, we find that the former are mostly species of a more tropical nature, and therefore ascending forms, while the latter are rnoi'e temperate and there- fore descending forms : thus the apparent anomaly is explained. Here, however, I suggest caution as to the correctness of the above conclusion, plausible enough as it may appear at first sight. The factors which exert influence upon the phases of the life of plants are so various, that without special study, one may easily arrive at deduc- tions diametrically opposed to a true state of things. For although I conclude from the nature of the plants observed, that the premature flowering in higher elevations of these hills is due to their general hypsometrical range, it is not to be forgotten that an augment- ed solar radiation, which necessarily accompanies higher regions, causes (as already alluded to in my remarks on light) a more rapid development of vegetation. Hence we see, for instance, in the Alps, Erigeron acre , Calluna vulgaris, Parnassia palustris, Gentiana germanica, &c. in full flower on the top of high hills (6000 to 7000 feet) while in the plains they are still in bud. But it should not be overlooked, that in this case the plants themselves are considerably reduced in size and foliage, and therefore, their vegetative organs are reduced in the same ratio as the development of the reproductive organs is accelerated, or, in scientific language, the metamorphosis is here reduced so as to allow paramorphosis in a shorter period. Another peculiarity due to elevation is the fact that certain shrubby epiphytical plants, which in lower regions are restricted to the highest branches of trees, descend with increasing elevation and become even terrestrial in the higher regions. The cause of this, however, may possibly be found in the light-loving propensities of such plants. The growth of trees is very much impaired at higher elevations,* where the trees become lower and lower, stunted, crooked and gnarled, until they become reduced to mere shrubs in the alpine regions. Strange to say we find the same peculiarities of growth produced in the higher regions by climate, as are seen in the plains on very poor and sterile soils, such as laterite or sand. 4. The influence of exposure can be clearly seen on stems of trees and on rocks that sur- round us. Any one who has paid attention to the cryptogams which grow upon bark or stone, especially lichens, will also have noticed that in open localities these are always in greatest profusion on the northern sides of stems or rocks, while the opposite ones are quite or nearly free of them. In the Southern hemisphere, of course, the reverse takes place. What takes place in this case on a small scale, becomes a powerful factor on a large scale in hilly countries. But the importance of exposure is not equally great throughout all latitudes : it is greatest, where the difference between damp aud dry season, or between winter and summer is great- est. Nor have the same exposures the same influence upon vegetation in different countries. While in temperate and cold climates the 8. and 8. W. exposures are the favourable ones, it is just the reverse in Burma aud other warm countries that are under the influence of the mon- soons. This contrast is due to the fact that intense dry heat is as injurious to vegetation as a winter with rough northern winds in temperate zones of the Northern latitudes. I have, for the sake of brevity, called all north, north-east aud east exposures in Bur- ma, favourable ones ; while south, south-west and west exposures are considered by mo more or less unfavourable to the tropicalf vegetation. But this holds good only up to about 7000 or 8000 feet, at which elevations the reverse gradually takes place, as in temperate zones. * Dr. Sendtner ascribes this solely (o solar radiation. t Iu using the word tropical” I always mean “hot and damp,” whereas heat and dryness would effect aridity. 5 ( 13 ) ■ The above two sketches serve to show this influence ofexposm-e on the Nattoung hills, Martaban. The forests here are stunted hill-forests, while the west and south-west exposures are occupied by hill pastures almost destitute of woody vegetation. The Himalaya belongs geographically to the subtropical zone, and, therefore, might be supposed to form an apparent exception to the influence of exposure as detailed above. But this is not the case at all, for this range belongs, (owing to its great elevation) more to the temperate zone, and, therefore, we see the north-east flanks of the range barren and desolate and confirming the importance of exposure on the grandest scale possible. In fact, if we ascend into the alpine region of Sikkim, we again see all those laws in force that prevail in northern countries, while in the lower portions of the Sikkim-Himalaya, the unfavourable exposures are the same as in Burma I have taken exposure into account everywhere in the following description of the Pegu forests, and it is therefore not necessary to specialize hero all the variations in vegetation, that are produced by this very important factor. Any one who follows up the courses of the numerous choungs along the eastern slopes of the Pegu Yomah, such for example as the Koon and Khayengmathay, will observe also the abrupt change from an evergreen to a deciduous forest, whenever lie passes one of the numerous bentings bordered by steep hill sides. If lie consults his compass, he will also recognise the importance of exposure as suggested above. Wherever ho thinks to have detected an exception to these rules, let him then consult the terrain that surrounds him, and he will find that there is a simple explanation for such an apparent exception, and ( 19 ) will either perceive commanding ridges overtopping or sheltering the sides of a clioung, where he expected, according to exposure, a deciduous forest, or will discern the slopes of the ridges to run at such a low angle, that the influence of exposure is entirely or partially annulled. Steady hot winds blowing against a favourably exposed slope may also suppress (as is the case in the dry hot Prome district) evergreen forests, and so again, a sterile impermeable rocky or pebbly soil may produce a crooked and stunted vegetation even iu the most favourable sites. For every apparent exception iu nature, there is an explanation ; and a forester, who has made himself master of all the various factors which govern vegetation, will look no more upon the extensive mass of forests that spreads out before him as an unmanageable chaos of trees, but will recognise, in all its intricacy, an order and wisdom, which must materially add to the pleasures which an educated man can derive from nature. 5. Influence of winds. Winds can influence vegetation in two different ways, viz. (1) they can cause a drier or moister climate according to their general direction and to the tracts over which they blow, or (2) they can influence the general growth of trees or prevent their growth at all. The first named case belongs to climatology, and is already discussed uuder § 3. The winds that iufluence the growth of trees are chiefly the S. W. monsoon winds which blow forcibly during the raius. In the northern latitudes of our globe they are represented by the northern winds. Trees in exposed situations are, therefore, often bent in conformity with these winds, or at least an eccentric growth of the annual rings can be observed on the sections of trees thus exposed. But in higher regions, as for instance in the Karen hills, these monsoon winds also cause the suppression of jungle growth. In such localities we then find the so-called hill-pastures, on which few or no trees can support them- selves. A crooking of the tops of the crowns of trees is also often the result of such winds. 6. Influence of junr/le-fires. Jungle-fires are happily not often the object of consider- ation with a botanist, but here in Burma they are so regular and so extensive as to become a powerful prohibitive factor in vegetation. During the hot season here a botanist has to collect his flowers enveloped iu smoke and surrounded by fires in all directions. The full influence of jungle-fires will only duly be appreciated after the authorities shall have succeeded in suppressing these destructive agencies, at least so far, that they cease to be the rule and become only exceptions. Against the fire-raising propensities of Burmaus and Karens, the most energetic action of Gfovernment will hardly succeed, and it will be very difficult to prevent these people from setting fire to their toungyas, to which jungle-fires must be chiefly attributed. The jungle-fire'sfc.may be divided into superficial and destructive ones ; the former affec- ting only the low growth, the latter often destroying also trees and other woody plants. Superficial jungle-fires are annual ones, occurring more or less regularly every hot season, sometimes twice over, and burning down the fallen leaves and the dried up grasses and herbs. Old half-rotten but dry logs are often consumed, healthy ones are rarely more than scorched by the fires. Sometimes, but very rarely, the fires enter the outskirts of the evergreen forests, burning up the dry fallen leaves, but doing little damage beyond scorching the undergrowth. The destructive jungle-fires do not occur aunually,* but periodically. They set iu after the bamboo has come into flower. It is well known, that most of the bamboo species, which often form such a dense undergrowth in the Burmese forests, flower rarely ; and that when a species gets into flower, all or nearly all individuals of the same locality flower simultaneously, although the same species in other localities does not. Those few that do not flower the same year, do so usually the following year, a confirmation of the presumption that they are nothing but stragglers of the same stock. After flowering and fruiting they die off. However the dying off is not rapid, but slow, sometimes taking two to three years. The spikelets protrude one behind the other in such profusion, that it is no wonder that the plants become exhausted. It is then, when the bamboo dies off and has become dry enough, that the destructive jungle-fires commence. The quantity of seeds and seedlings burnt up upon such occasions must be astounding, and the comparative scarcity of shrubs may also be attributed to these fires. Perennials and half shrubs are usually burnt down to the ground. They develop leaves or flowers only after the fires have raged over them : whether this is attributable to a normal state of develop- ment or to a forced inheritance, I cannot say. These young flowering shoots are often very different looking from those that are thrown out at a later period, or from individuals that have escaped injury. They resemble somewhat scapiferous plants, or, if branched, such plants as are continuously browsed by cattle. * However, the savannah fires, really fearful in certain respects, may occur annually. They shew us what an amount of heat trees can resist, for although the hark is scorched and often enough burnt to coal, and the foliage totally scorched, they recover again perfectly during the ensuing rainy season. The flames not seldom enve- lope the whole lower part of the crown, especially if the grasses consist of Saccharum procerum and Phragmites. ( 20 ) In a flowering tin-wa (Schizostaehyum pergracile) jangle, I met not a few tin-wa plants hardly half a foot to one foot high, all flowering profusely. They appeared to me, at first sight, seedlings, hut on digging them up, I found a greatly developed stock, so that there remained no doubt that they had been often, probably annually, burnt down, and were thus suppressed in their upward growth, like some of those curious dwarf bamboos which the skilful Japanese produce. Such is also the case with teak and other trees. Their seedlings are burnt down to the ground almost yearly, while their subterranean stock grows every year more and more developed and vigorous, until the yearly shoots from it become strong enough to withstand the fires and to grow up to become trees.* Often, however, two or more shoots emerge, and hence are formed those double and triple stems, so often seen in these forests. (7.) Influence of germinating power of .seeds upon prevalence of forest-trees. The germi- nating of seeds is a chemico-physiological process, which goes ou if certain conditions of warmth, moisture and light are given. The plants which, like some fungi, can grow in perfect darkness are few in number. I distinguish quick germinators and slow germinators. Under quick germinators I in- clude such seeds as either germinate immediately after they have been shed, or at least during the course of the same year of shedding. Some, like mangroves, germinate while still on their parent tree. All such seeds usually ripen very shortly after flowering, and perish very soon after their proper period of germinating has passed away. Slow g-ermiuators seldom germinate freely, but remain slumbering often for long years, until certain conditions favourable for their germination set in. Many of them require a long period for their per- fection after fecundation, sometimes they ripen not before the next following year. They may be caused to germinate by artificial means, such as dipping into hot water, etc., but they are often difficult to raise. There are many gradations between quick and slow ger- minators, but such are of no material importance in the present question. Unimportant as the vitality of seeds may appear at first sight, it is not so when the matter is carefully inquired into, and the relationship between trees producing quick and slow germinating seeds is more closely studied. If we examine any forest in Burma, and select from it the prevailing types, we shall find to our surprise, that nearly all the prevailing trees are quick germinators, while the slow germinators form only a very subordinate part. Unfortunately my knowledge of the germinating power of the seeds of Indian plants is very limited, but it is sufficient to support these inferences of a general .character. It would far exceed the purpose I have in view, were I specially to enumerate all the principal trees of the different forests and to discuss separately the liature of their seeds. It is sufficient to treat the matter here en gros, and to exhibit only the results drawn from a general treatment. Those families of Indian plants that are characterized by quick germinating members are chiefly : Capparideae, Gattifcrae, Ternstroemiaceae, Dipteroccnpeue, Bombaceae, Malpiyhiaceae, Aurantiaceae , Bnrseraccae, Meli - aceae, Sapindaceae , Anacardiaceae, Mimoseae, Caesalpinieae , Rhizophoreae, Combretaceae, Myrta- ceae, Melastomaceae, Lythrariene, Artocarpeae , Acanthaceae, Verbenaccae, Cordiaceae , Lubiatae , Lnurineae , Cupuliferae, Juglandeae, and some others. At the same time the seeds of these families are for a great part also of a perishable nature, and more especially so the Guttiferae , Dipterocarpeae , Sterculiaceae, Aurantiaceae , Anacardiaceae, Rhizophoreae, Myrtaccae, Lnurineae, Cupulifcrac, and partly Artocarpeae : and these families include the trees most common and abundant. In how far the perishable nature and quick germination stand in relation to the absencef of albumen, or to the nature of the albumen itself, whether mealy, fleshy or oily, I am not prepared now to say. If we compare the prevailing types of the Pegu (and also of the Malayan) forests, it is striking indeed that nearly all come to range with one or other of the above named families. But there are not only some very common trees which do not come within these families, but also some important exceptions, which require special consideration. Of the former class I may mention Xanthophyllum, Ueritiera, Pterospermum, Grcwia , Buettneria, Lophopetalum, Gonnarus, Ccltideac, Ilolarrliena, Jasminnm, Chionanthus, Acgiceras and Orchideae , all these having very little or no albumen, although some of their congeners possess plenty of albumen. Some of the more important and direct exceptions that deserve to bo named are Euphorbiaceae , Hydnocarpus, Coniferae, Cornpositae, and Bassia with oily albumen ; further l)il/cni aceae, many Menispermaceae, Flacourtia, Elaeocarpus, Toddalia, many Leyuminome , such as Cassia and Bavhinia, Casearia, Jlomalimn, Araliaceae, many Urticaceae, Antidesmeac , Syniplocos, most of Rubiaceae, and Loyaniaccac, Apocyncac , Sola near, G net am, Myrsinc, Ebenaccae, all Palmar, Eridneae and others; also such important families as Cyperaceae and Gramineac , * The number of plants which do thus withstand the fires and ultimately becomo trees is very small indeed ; the vast majority perish miserably. Remark by Dr. G. King. t Teak has no albumen as stated by Schauer, but large oily cotyledons, and, therefore, offers no exception to the above remark. ( 2t ) Ampelideae , and Anonaceae. In fact, low herbs and half- shrubs, of which the greater part are light-loving, offer most of the exceptions, and seem to follow different laws from those which govern woody plants. Sterculia and palms, however, are not strict exceptions, and may safely be classed among the quick germiuators and perishable seed-bearing plants ; so may several others of those exceptions when the vitality of their seeds shall be known and properly understood. Although the list of exceptions is considerable, it would appear to me that in Pegu, as also in Malayan countries, quick germinators supersede slow germiuators ; and, what is still more perplexing, it seems, as far as my experience goes, that those trees which produce the most perishable seeds, are also those which are most numerous in individuals and have the greatest distribution over an area similar in climate and physical character. Another peculiarity, which deserves mention here, is the fact that many woody plants that are introduced from hilly or rocky tracts into deep alluvial plains, often produce no good seeds, or fail altogether to seed. This is important to know, for it tends to explain the absence of many trees, that are common on older formations all round such allu- vial plains. It would appear, although I speak here only empirically, that seeds of such trees may be carried into the plains, and there germinate and grow up into trees, but that, owing to certain unknown causes (possibly the peculiarity of soil), they have lost to a greater or less degree their power to produce good seeds with a healthy embryo.* Dr. Sendtner has made the interesting observation, that the plants of certain tracts of bog-grounds in Bavaria shew a remarkable unproductiveness and scantiness of fruit. Analyses of such bog-waters have testified the absence of phosphate of lime, so necessary not only to the production of seeds, but also to the formation of bone in cattle. f B. — Botanical Description of Pegu, with special Consideration of the Forests. § 5 . — Position of the Flora with regard to surrounding Floras, with a division of the Flora into natural zones. The Indian Flora, as a whole, is composed of fivej very different floras, viz : — 1. The Affghanistan and Sind Flora, an eastern extension of the Mediterranean Flora. 2. The Hindostan Flora. 3. The Himalayan Flora. 4. The Eastern Indian Flora. 5. The Malayan Flora, which includes Malacca and the Malayan Archipelago ; border- ing to the South the Australian, and to the East tire allied Polynesian Floras. Between Hindostan, the Himalayas and Eastern India a dead alluvial plain extends (on the bed of an ancient sea), known as the Ghmgetie and Iudus plains, which cannot pro- perly be referred to any of the above Floras. It is botanieally a neutral ground, at present almost destitute of indigenous forests except along the sea-coast, and to a botanist a dreary field for explorations. So poor is its Flora, that the whole of these alluvial plains number not above 1300-1400 sp., and even Lower Bengal cannot boast of more than 900-1000 really indigenous plants, amongst which agrarian, swamp, and aquatic plants and grasses pre- dominate. * The same phenomenon takes place in any large garden situated on deep alluvium, the most unfortunate site which could be selected. The number of woody plants that never seed, increases in ratio as the plants become more and more exhausted. Sometimes, after many years’ rest, a petrophilous tree may produce fertile seeds, but these are rare exceptions, chiefly due to the accumulation of fallen leaves etc. that are allowed some- times to collect and to moulder, thus returning to the soil a certain quantity of the chemical nourishment which the trees have derived from it for a longer period. f However, this is hardly the true cause here in the alluvial vegetation, and certainly is to a certain degree in direct opposition to the fact, that alluvial plains produce the greatest amount of cereals, &c. Whatever may be the cause of the reductive quality of alluvium, it is certainly nut ascribable to competition of woody plants with the powerful coarse grasses ; for if we leave the zone of savannahs and enter the lower mixed forests, these grasses disappear, although alluvium is still the formation. In absence of sections I can only suggest that a substratum of plastic retentive clay may exist which causes the waters to stagnate. J I have omitted from this classification the high Asian or Tibetan flora, which properly forms part of the North- Asian floras. 6 ( 22 ) The Burmese Flora is a part of the Eastern or Further Indian Flora, of which the Khasya hills form the extremest North-west, and Siam and Cochin-china the extremest East and South-east parts. It may be divided into several tracts, such as the Arracan Yomah, Pegu Yomah, the Martaban or Karen hills, and finally into the Tenasserim and Ava tracts. Each of these tracts has its peculiarities, which, however, I do not consider it necessary to elucidate here. Before treating of the zones of Pegu, we must distinguish, first, general or geographical, and, second, special or local zoues. Botanically we usually distinguish the following general zones on the Northern (and also Southern) hemisphere of our globe, which nearly agree with the geographical ones, viz : 1. The equatorial zone, from the equator to North Lat. 1 5.° 2. The tropical zone, from North Lat. 15° to 23.° 3. The subtropical zone, from North Lat. 23° to 34.° 4. The warmer temperate zone, from North Lat. 34° to 45°. 5. The colder temperate zone, from North Lat. 45° to 58.° 6. The subarctic zone, from 58° to 66.° 7. The arctic zone, from 66° to 72,° and 8. The polar zone, from 72° to the pole. For these somewhat too artificial zones, founded chiefly on the yearly means of temperature, I wish to substitute the following revised scheme :* I. — The warm zone ( Thermozone ), from the equator to 35° North Lat. The seasons of the year are either little marked, or are more usually divided into a dry and rainy season. The thermometer very seldom sinks below freezing-point and then only along its borders in contact with the wintry zone. There is almost no dilference between day and night under the equator, but it varies gradually towards the northern borders of the zone from a fraction of an hour to about 4 hours. It is divided into : 1. A tropical subzone, from the equator to the tropic of Cancer, and 2. A subtropical subzone, from the tropic of Cancer (23§°) to 35° North Lat. Each of these subzones must again carefully be distinguished into such tracts as have a moist climate (hygroclimatic tracts), and such as are more or less destitute of rains (Nero- climatic tracts), such as the African and Asiatic deserts. II. — The wintry zone ( Cheimazone ), from 35° North Lat. to the arctic circle, (66|°). The seasons of the year consist of a winter and a summer, with spring and autumn. During winter there is freezing and a more or less regular fall of snow. Here the days and nights are still distinct, but the difference between day and night varies from 5 to 24 hours. There are two divisions of this zone, viz : 1. A subtemperate subzone, from 35° to 45° North Lat. and 2. A temperate subzono, from 45° North Lat. to the arctic circle. III. — The polar or frigid zone (Polozonc) , from the arctic circle to the polo. Summers are of very short duration, winters very long and rigorous, and, towards the polos, eternal. There is no daily difference between day and night, but a long day from two to more than six months duration, alternating with a night of a similar length, during which only mysterious lights, such as the aurora borealis, present a substitute for the sun. The two subzoncs are : * In doing so it will be observed that I have abandoned the old-fashioned notions of botanists regarding “ temperate forms.” This, however, is not the proper place to discuss the reasons of my views, ( 23 ) 1. The arctic subzone, from the arctic circle to 72° North Lat. Scanty vegetation. 2. The circumpolar subzone, from 72° North Lat. to the pole. No vegetation. (?). For convenience sake, I have marked off these zones and subzones at the geographical lines, but these actually follow no mathematical lines, but are rectified by the lines of equal summer and winter temperatures (isochimens and isotherms of the respective seasons, or rather of the coldest and warmest months of the year). The whole Eastern Indian Flora belongs, according to my scheme, to the warm zone, and the Pegu Flora, which we have here to consider more specially, would have to be placed in the tropical subzone. It is usual to divide larger tracts into smaller or special zones, quite independent of the zones above discussed, and so I do here. This is done to facilitate the understanding of the distribution of plants and other peculiarities in climate, &c. The Pegu province does not bear an uniform Flora, but extends into the Ava tract. It is, however, not necessary here, for the special purpose for which this report is written, to make sucli a distinction of Floras. We shall, therefore, treat the part which belongs scienti- fically to the Ava Flora, as a mere zone. From § 3 it is already clear that the climate of Pegu allows of a division into zones, each of which has its peculiarities, as well in vegetation, as in general appearance. I dis- tinguish three principal zones in Pegu, viz. : 1. The tidal zone, the limits of which may be drawn in a straight line from Bassein to Xhayazoo on the Sittang river, interrupted only by the Southern extremity of the Yomah that terminates at Rangoon. The characteristic trees here are mangroves and other tidal trees. 2. The Pegu zone, which extends over the whole province with the exception of an almost rectangular tract at the North-Western corner. Owing to peculiar climatological conditions, this zone might be subdivided into a Sittang and a Tharrawaddi district. The former being the moister one, permits so many evergreens to immigrate from the Martaban hills as to make its Flora more allied in a botanical point of view to that of Martaban. The Tharrawaddi district holds the mean between the Sittang district and the next or Prome zone. True continuous evergreen forests (swamp-forests excepted) are here almost unknown, although patches of evergreen trees form a substitute for evergreen forests in more sheltered valleys. It is interesting to observe here, how few of the evergreen trees of the Sittang district cross the Yomah range into the Tharrawaddi district, although physical facilities do exist. From the Arracan Yomah, which is said to be covered by evergreen forests, no evergreens seem to come over the broad alluvium of the Irrawaddi. The true cause of this lies probably in the unfavourable exposure of this side of the Yomah, and all the unfavourable climato- logical changes that accompany such an exposure. 3. The Prome zone, the line of which may be drawn from Myanoung on the Irra- waddi to the top of the Kambala toung, and thence along the main range to the fron- tier,* is the driest zone in the whole of Burma and is, so far as I could learn, quite destitute of evergreen forests. Towards Mandalay in Ava the climate becomes so arid that there is often not sufficient rain during the rainy season for the cultivation of rice. This dry Prome (or more correctly Ava) climate allows such plants to grow, as Coch/ospermum Gossypium, Tribulus, Prim, Premna viburnoides, Bcerlianvia repanda, Balanites, Azima, forests of Acacia Catechu, Celsia Coromandeliana, Polygala Vahliana, Decaschistia sp. near crotonifolia , Hibiscus Solandra, Sebastiania Chamaelea, liuellia suffruticosa, Andrographis echioides, Peristrophe calyculata, Holmsltioldia sanguinea, Polanisia Chelidonii, Psoralea corylifolia, Indigofera viscosa, Ranunculus sceleratus, Blepharis Maderaspatana, Bauhinia racemosa and B. diphylla , Acacia Farnesiana, Rosa involucrata, Monenteles spicata, Carissa, Pavetta parviflora, Morinda tomentosa, Sphaeranthus amarantoides, Strychnos potatorum, Hibiscus micranthus, Artemisia carnifolia, Linaria ramosissima, Iphigenia indica, &c. All these are forms which remind one of Hindostan, and most of them do not occur anywhere else in Burma, nor in Arracan and Chittagong, but are found in the adjoining parts of Ava. The true sal-tree ( Shorea robusta), is also said to occur further to the North, viz., in Ava, and there is little cause left for hesitation to believe this, after such a number of Hin- dostanee plants have been found, many of which even form the prevailing types of the Prome Flora. The chief characteristic forms of Prome are Tectona Hamiltonii (ta-hat) Erythrina sp. (eng kathit) Acacia leucophloea (dha-noung), Hymenopyramis brachiata, Capparis grandis (Koungkwa) and very many others. Of course, none of these zones abruptly terminate at the lines drawn. As I hard- ly need explain, they gradually merge one into the other. But along the main range of the Yomah the division is rather abrupt ; for in travelling during March or April from the Prome district to the Sittang side, a change is met with in the vegetation, when passing the main range, which must impress any one, whether he be a careful observer or not. * TLe country along the frontier North ofTounghoo is unknown tome, but I have reason to suspect that the line of the Ava zone extends to the Sittang along the watershed of the Lonyan choung. ( 24 ) Tho accompanying map of Pegu will give an idea of trie different zones in this province. The map itself is a copy* from Dr. Brandis’ Sketch-map of the teak localities in B. Burma, with very few alterations. It would have been desirable to compile a new and more correct map on a larger scale, and to enter in it the different forests, soils, &c., but this is not practi- cable at present. § 6 . — Distinction of the vegetation into an original and a secondary one. The vegetation of Pegu, as of any other country, must be distinguished into an original and a secondary one, the latter being produced by the agency of man. The limits between the two are arbitrary and in many cases can by no means be traced satisfactorily. It is, how- ever, useful to distinguish between original Flora and cultivation, and to keep them apart, for reasons easily to be comprehended. The mixing up of these states of vegetation may change the whole botanical physiog- nomy of a country so as to make it very unintelligible or misleading. For instance any one who would draw up a description of the Flora of the Gangetic Delta as it now pre- sents itself, would produce a picture quite different to what really existed when cul- tivation had not yet advanced so far in Bengal ; for the alluvial plains of lower Bengal have been at some time exactly what the Irrawaddi valley is now. My own explorations have shewn me clearly, that the Gangetic plains must have been covered by the same kinds of forest (consisting, however, partially of different species), as we now find along the Irrawaddi. There have been extensive savannahs and savannah-forests gradually passing into lower mixed forests towards the base of the Himalayas, Behar and the Khasyah-hills, and as gradually running into savannahs and tidal jungles towards the sea coast. Laterite and diluvial formations are not so developed in Bengal, but where they occur along the borders of the vast alluvial plain, the vegetation on them is as characteristic and peculiar as it is iu Pegu ; for although the plants dilf'er to a great extent specifically, their habit and phy- siological character are equivalent. The accompanying plate contains two sections, one of Burma from Toungoop to the Sal- ween, the other of the Gangetic valley from the Bajmehal hills to the Himalayas. A cursory inspection of these two sections will shew that, in spite of all the differences iu the geo- logical nature of the hill tracts, the relationship and distribution of the vegetation is, and still more has been, iu Bengal precisely the same as that of Pegu. The Fug-forests are here represented by sal-forests, f while the upper mixed forests, &e., are in habit also the same, although differing greatly in their specific constituents. This section, therefore, will serve two purposes, first to bring under view the whole chain of forests from the Irrawaddi to the Sittang ; and, second, to give at the same time a hypsometrical exhibition of the Burmese hills, as compared with those of the Himalayas. In a botanical point of view, the study of the vegetation of such large expanses of allu- vium, as that of the Ganges and Bramapootra, is interesting in so far as it teaches us that these alluvia offer as powerful a barrier as the sea, if not one even more powerful, to the dis- persion of plants. But these are considerations of little interest to the forester. In the second part of my report I shall introduce more botanical sections on a larger scale, which will show more clearly the regularity of distribution of the foi’ests of Pegu. Another division of the different vegetative combinations, if I may be allowed to call the different kinds of forests, savannahs, &c., by this denomination, is into forests and low natural vegetation. This is a practical division, introduced more for the sake of rendering the subject easier for forest officers, than as one based upon sound scientific principles. The forests may be distinguished into evergreen forests and those that shed their leaves during the dry season. The transition from deciduous forests to evergreen forests is not unfrequent, but, generally speaking it is not so difficult to detect this, as it is to distin- guish recently cultivated lands from original vegetation. As regards the different kinds of forest, I need hardly say that they are classified only as a means for distinguishing certain associations of trees ; for so great is the variety of forests in Pegu, that I might easily have doubled their number had I seeu any real advantage in doing so. It must not be supposed that these forests present themselves every where in the same proportions and under the same conditions; on the contrary, they offer so many transitions, that I found myself several times in a dilemma, not knowing ex- actly in what kind of forest I was then travelling. Scientifically sucli irregularities and * It is a matter of infinite regret to me, that this copy has been executed by the artists under my charge so carelessly and so incorrectly. These men are only accustomed to draw plants, and have hardly any idea of maps. However, I hope, the map will be good enough to shew the zones, and to exhibit roughly also the routes I took when in Burma. t These sal-forests are all along the base of the Himalayas situated on raised diluvial banks ; throughout Behar and the Bajmehal hills they appear on gradually rising laterite and other impermeable strata, pertinaciously avoiding alluvium and permeable strata, just as the eng-forests in Burma. Shewing /.ones Irr awn-dd 1 40ne I I Sitting : iouiw 1 T'ltfnl 'K8ITTA r ( 25 ) aberrations can bo explained more or less easily ; practically, they will remain a source of difficulty to those who are not botanists. However, there are certain indications, derived from the conditions of soil, and especially of the substratum, and from the physical nature of the locality, by which (guided by certain characteristic plants) one can finally reduce such doubtful jungle formations to their proper places more or less accurately. Let me give an example. The savannah mixed forests of the deep alluvium of the Irrawaddi plains are vei’y easily recognised in their normal state, but when the trees in them get crowded, as along the cart road from Tharawa (opposite Henzada) to Thabyaygon on the Hline river, they become composed of so many trees, derived from the lower mixed forests, as to make it difficult to say whether we have to do with a savannah or lower mixed forest. In this case the conditions of soil and climate are the same, but the allu- vium is probably not deep enough to produce a vegetation identical with that which we might have expected here. Possibly also a different substratum exists. The general growth, how- ever, of the trees, and especially the long coarse wild sugarcane so characteristic of savannah forests, are indications strong enough to place the present forest in the same division with savannah mixed forests, or to make a slight variety of it. The vegetation of cultivated lands, swamps, waters, &c., is of course of little or no value to forest officers, but I allude to it here for the sake of completeness. § 7 . — Enumeration of the different kinds of forests, Sfc., and their botanical characters. Having shewn in the preceding section how I distinguish the larger divisions of vegetation in Pegu, it remains for me to classify the different smaller variations of vegetative combinations, as the different kinds of forests, savannahs, &c., are called by phytogeographists. I shall first submit a conspectus of them, and afterwards treat them one by one in the same order as here indicated. I find some little difficulty in treating the same kind of forest under one and the same heading, because, although practically identical, the same kind of forest contains often an admixture of trees peculiar to the zone in which they grow. In such cases I have usually added some of the more striking peculiarities in the different zones. Some of the forests occur only in one single zone, such as the Sha forests in the Prome zone. It was my intention to omit in the present scheme of forests, &c., all those forests which are met with East of the Sittang, and to restrict myself solely to the vegetation between the Irrawaddi and Sittang rivers. I should have done so for two reasons, viz., (1) because I un- derstood from the official correspondence before me, that the area should be limited to that extent, and, (2) because a due appreciation of the character of the Karen or Martaban hills (as I have ventured to call the whole range of hills between the Sittang and Salween rivers) can only be attained from a longer residence in those regions. I myself have travelled but little in those parts, and I spent hardly more than two weeks in exploring the interior portions up to 7000 feet elevation. After reconsideration, however, I thought it might be useful, in spite of the incompleteness of my experience, to introduce those forests. These are all high level forests, viz. the evergreen hill forests and the hill Eng forests. I.— ORIGINAL VEGETATION. A. — Forests. AA. — Evergreen Forests. 1. Littoral forests. a. Mangrove jungles. b. Tidal forests. 2. Swamp forests. 3. Tropical forests. a. Closed tropical forests. b. Open tropical forests, or moist forests. 4. Evergreen hill forests, or temperate forests. (All unrepresented in the Pegu Yomah). a. Drier hill forests (3000-7000 feet). b. Pine forests (3000-7000 feet). c. Damp hill forests (3000-6000 feet). BB. — Deciduous Forests. 5. Open forests (chiefly on diluvial formations). a. Hill Eng forests (not represented in Pegu). b. Eng or laterite forests. c. Low forests. 7 ( 20 ) 6. Mixed forests. a. Alluvial mixed forests, (on alluvium). a a. Lower mixed forests. lb. Savannah forests. cc. Beach jungle. b. Upper mixed forests, or teak forests. (On permeable sandstones and meta- morphic rocks). aa. Moister teak forests. lb. Drier teak forests. 7. Dry forests (chiefly on caloareous substrata). a. Mixed dry forests. b. Sha forests. c. Hill dry forests. B. — Savannahs and low natural vegetation. AA. — Land vegetation. 8. Bamboo jungles. 9. Savannahs. 10. Natural pastures. a. Long-grassed or jungle pastures. b. Short-grassed or lowland pastures. c. Hill pastures (not represented in Pegu). 11. Riparian vegetation. a. Vegetation of rivers, &c., with sandy or clayey beds (on alluvial formations). b. Vegetation of rivers, choungs, &c., with rocky beds (chiefly on older forma- tions). BB. — Vegetation of swamps and waters. 12. Sweet water vegetation. a. Vegetation of swamps. b. Vegetation of lakes and other stagnant waters. c. Vegetation of running waters, such as rivers, &o. 13. Saltwater vegetation. a. Vegetation of tidal swamps, salt lakes, &c. b. Vegetation of the sea. II.— VEGETATION OF CULTIVATED OR LATELY CULTIVATED LANDS 1. Vegetation of agrarian lands. a. Lower agrarian lands, as rice fields, &c., turning after harvest usually into pastures. b. Upper cultivated lands or toungyas, turning after desertion into poon- zohs and jungles. 2. Village vegetation. a. Native gardens, waste places, &c. b. Village vegetation itself. 3. Naturalized plants. I.— ORIGINAL VEGETATION. A. — Forests. Instead of giving a dry resume, where and under what conditions forests are found in Pegu, I will introduce here a few passages from the lecture,* which Dr. F. v. Mueller in Melbourne delivered to the colonists of Australia, with regard to Australian forests, their functions in nature and their use to man. “ How forests beneficially affect a clime, how they supply equablo humidity, how they afford extensive shelter, create springs, and control the flow of rivers : all this the teachings of science, the records of history, and, more forcibly still, the sufferings or even ruin of numerous and vast communities, have demonstrated in sad experiences, not only in times long past, but even in very recent periods. In what manner the forests arrest passing miasmata, cr set a limit to the spreading of rust-spores from ruined cornfields ; in what man- * Baron F. v. Mueller, Forest culture in its relation to industrial pursuits. ( 27 ) ner their humid atmosphere and their feathered singers effectually obstruct the march of armies of locusts in the Orient, or hinder the progress of vast masses of acrydia in North America, or oppose the wanderings of other insects elsewhere, all this has been clearly witnessed in our own age. How the forests, as slow conductors of heat, lessen the tempera- ture of warm climes, or banish siroccos ; how forests, as ready conductors of electricity, much influence and attract the current of the vapours, or impede the elastic flow of the air with its storms and its humidity far above the actual height of the trees, and how they condense the moisture of the clouds by lowering the temperature of the atmosphere, has over and over again been ascertained by many a thoughtful observer. In what mode forests shelter the soil from solar heat, and produce coolness through radiation from the endlessly multiplied surfaces of their leaves, and through the process of exhalation ; how, in the spongy stratum of decaying vegetable remnants, they retain far more humidity than even cultivated soil ; how they with avidity re-absorb the surplus of moisture from the air, and refresh by a never- wanting dew all vegetation within them and in their vicinity, has been explained, not only by natural philosophy, but also often by observations of the plainest kind. How forest trees, by the powerful penetration of their roots, decompose the rocks, and force unceasingly from deep strata the mineral elements of vegetable nutrition to the surface ; how they create and maintain the sources for the gentle flow of watercourses for motive power, aqueducts, irrigation, water traffic and navigation ; how they mitigate or prevent malarious influences, of all this we become cognisant by daily experiences almost everywhere around us. We have to look, therefore, far beyond a mere temporary wood supply, when we wish to estimate the blessings of forest-vegetation rightly ; and our mind has to grasp the complex of causes and sequences originating with and depending on the forests, before their value as a total can be understood.” “ Let us then take timely warning ; let us remember that denuded earth parts with its warmth by radiation, and is intensely heated by insolation ; that thus in woodless countries the extremes of climate are brought about in rendering the winter-cold far more intense and boisterous, and the summer-heat far more burning and oppressive. Let us remember why the absence or destruction of forests involves periodic floods and droughts, with all the great disasters inseparable therefrom. Let us bear in mind that even in our praised Australia many a pastoral tenant saw his herds and flocks perish, and even the very kangaroos off his run ; how he looked hopefully for months and months at every promising cloud which drew up on the horizon, only to dissolve rainless in the dry desert air ; while when the squatter’s ruin was completed, the last pasture parched, and the last waterpool dried up, great atmospheric changes would send the rain-clouds over the thirsty land with all the vehemence of precipita- tion, and would convert dry creeks into foaming torrents, or inundate with furious floods the very pastures over which the carcases of the famished cattle and sheep were strewn about ! Picture to yourselves the ruined occupant of the soil, hardly able to escape with his bare life from the sudden scenes of these tragic disasters ! Fortunately, as yet such extreme events may not have happened commonly ; yet they did occur, and pronounced their lessons impres- sively. Let it be well considered, that it is not alone the injudicious overstocking of many a pasture, or the want of water storage, but frequently the very want of rain itself for years in extensive woodless districts, which renders occupation of many of our inland tracts so precari- ous. Let it also not be forgotten, how, without a due proportion of woodland, no country can be great and prosperous ! Remember how whole mountain districts of Southern Europe became, with the fall of the forests utterly depopulated ; how the gushes of wide currents washed away all arable soil, while the bordering flat land became buried in debris ; how its rivers became filled with sediment, while the population of the lowlands were at the same time involved in poverty and ruin ! Let us recollect that in many places the remaining alpine in- habitant had to toil with his very fuel for many miles up to the once wooded hills, where barrenness and bleakness would perhaps no longer allow a tree to vegetate ! It should be borne in mind that the productiveness of cereal fields is often increased at the rate of fully 50 per cent, merely by establishing plantations of shelter-trees ; that the progress of drift-sand is checked by tree plantations ; and that a belt of timber not only affords protection against storms, but also converts sandy wastes finally into arable meadows, thus adding almost un- observed, yet unceasingly, so far to the resources of a country.” “ Shall we follow then the example of those improvident populations, who, by clearing of forests, diminished most unduly the annual fall of rain, or prevented its retention ; who caused a dearth of timber and fuel, by which not solely the operations of their artisans be- came already hindered or even paralysed, but through which even many a flourishing country tract was already converted almost into a desert. Should we not rather commence to convert any desert tract into a smiling country, by thinking early and unselfishly of the requirements of those who are to follow us ? Why not rather imitate the example set by an Egyptian sovereign, who alone caused, during the earlier part of this century, 20,000,000 of trees to be planted in formerly rainless parts of his dominions.” ( 28 ) AA. — Evergreen Forests.* The evergreen forests comprise all forests, the trees of which do not shed their leaves during the hottest and driest part of the year, or from February to the beginning of the rains in May. I do not, however, mean that all the trees represented in such forests, are evergreens : the evergreen trees are only the prevailing types in them. But although a mathematical line cannot be drawn between evergreen and deciduous forests, tire demarcation between them is nearly as conspicuous as that of the Eng forests and mixed forests. Not rarely these evergreens are seen in valleys intruding their deuse dark-green heads into the drier mixed forests above them. 1 . — Littoral forests. The littoral forests stretch all along the coasts, wherever flat shores and alluvial deposits prevail. They extend as far into the interior (especially in the so-called deltas of larger rivers) as tho tidal wave penetrates. In Pegu itself the tidal zone in a line drawn from Khayazoo to Bassein will probably indicate the general limit of the littoral forests. They do not, however, cover the whole extent of the country (as is the case in the Soonderbuns of lower Bengal) south of this line, but are restricted to the alluvial formations, and more especially to the immediate vici- nity of the rivers and tidal channels. They are often enough interrupted by other kinds of forests, which either grow on the higher grounds or on diluvial formations. Neither are they uniformily composed of the same trees, but vary as much in their constituents as do all other forests in Burma. For this reason I fouud it useful to divide them into the two following varieties, viz. : a. Mangrove jungles and swamps, covered regularly by all tides. b. Tidal jungles, usually covered only during spring and higher tides. a. — Mangrove jungles. These forests, in the sense I take them, occupy the flat muddy shores along the sea, and especially along the estuaries of rivers and streams, forming the outer skirt of vegetation, and often extending (during flood tide) far into the sea. They are regularly submerged by the tides, and are very poor in species, when compared with other forests. They form rather dense and usually low jungles of 40 to 70 feet in height with glossy dark-green foliage. The most characteristic trees and shrubs found here are those which are generally known under the name of mangroves, such as Bruguiera gymnorhiza, and sometimes B. oxy- phylla, Rhizopkora conjugata and Rh. mucronata (all these called by the Burmaus pyoo ) , further Ceriops Roxburghiana, Kandelia Rheedei , Sonneratia apetala, S. acida and S. Grijfithii, Lumnitzera racemosa, Garapa obovata, Scyphiphora caryophyllacea, Brownlowia lanceolata , Aegi- ceras corniculata, Acanthus ilicifolius. Amongst the poor shrubbery Acanthus volubilis, a Moya, Acrostichum aureum, and a few others are found. Where Bruguiera and Rliizophora prevail, the soil is washed out from the roots by the sea in all directions, so as to form often a complete labyrinth of network, presenting an ugly and dirty aspect. Numerous irregular short stems of undeveloped trees, looking like pinnacles, or irregular knobs arising from the exposed roots, accompanied by numerous mangroves in all stages of growth from the stick-like seedling up to the full-grown tree, make walking amongst them very troublesome. The grey mud, which is so soft that one sinks continually up to or above the ankles, bears hardly any other plants, except seedlings of such families as are of a mangrove character. The ground, burrowed by various sea-animals, such as crabs, &c., is sub- merged during flood tide, when the lower trees and shrubs show only their crowns above the sea, while the higher mangrove trees, sticking out from the expanse of water, appear like a floating forest. These are usually the trees of which we first catch sight when approaching the shores of a low country. b. — Tidal jungles. The tidal jungles resemble in many respects the mangrove jungles, especially along the very borders of the tidal channels, but they are usually devoid or nearly so of true mangroves, such as Bruguiera, Rhizophora, Sfc. They not only occupy the sea- shore, but far up country, especially aloug the various river systems. They are even found, where the influence of tide is very inconsiderable, and the water only very slightly brackish. Their average height is from 40 to 50 feet, or even in some cases higher, and some- times they are reduced to shrubs. They have plenty of shrubby undergrowth. During spring tides they are more or less inundated, but ordinary tides seldom reach them. The most * Compare also 1. Dr. Brandis’ report on the Attaran forests for the year 18G0. (Selections from the Records of the Government of India, No. XXXII. 1861 ), and 2. Dr. Brandis’ Auszugeines Briefes des Dr. D. Brandis. Domdamee Forests, 23rd March, 1862. (Botanische Zeitung, 1863, p. 43). 3. H. Falconer. Report on the Teak Forests of Tenasserim. (Selections from tho Records of the Bengal Government, No. IX. 1852). 4. Dr. McClelland. Report on the Teak Forests of Pegu. (Selections from the Records of the Government of India, No. IX. 1855). ( 29 ) tic trees here are Sonneratia apetala and Avicennia tomentosa, forming nearly one-third of their entire hulk. According as the one or the other of these two trees prevails, we see these forests assuming a rather willow-like appearance, with drooping branches and lax linear foliage of a light greyish green color ; or low jungles present themselves of a mean height hardly exceeding 25 to 40 feet with a broad dull green foliage collected into dense almost spherical crowns. The other trees and shrubs that are associated with the above trees are, for the great part, the same as those in the mangrove jungles. These are especially: Sonneratia acitla and pus polystachya, Albizzia lucida, Pithecolobium lobatum , Payanelia multijuga, Amoora Rohituka, Discospermum sphacrocarpum ?, Diospyros cordifolius ?, Tctranthera 2 or 3 species, Bischoflia Jamaica ; Trewia nudiflora, Hibiscus mlpinus , Pterospermun acerifolium, Sterculia ornata, Elaeocarpus tuberculatus etc., etc. * In the tropioal forest of the Toukyeghat valley which stretches between the seven pagodas and the Bogelay ridges (an area of hardly 8 to 9 square miles), not less than 300 to 350 different kinds of trees alone have been observed by me. Not a day passed, without my having had to add 1 or 2 kinds more to my lists, and so it went on until I became compelled by sickness to leave this forest-tract. The best mixed forest of equal extent would hardly give 70 to 80 kinds of trees. f Not St. Javanica, JR. Br., which is identical with a Blumean species. X These wood-oil trees are strictly no evergreens, but the succession of leaf-shedding and leaf-forming is here so rapid, that young leaves are already developed, while the old ones are still dropping off. ( 32 ) A third stratum is composed of smaller trees, all or nearly all evergreens, and seldom higher than 30 to 50 feet. They are numerous in species, especially along choungs. Some of the more frequent and characteristic are : Alsodeia longiracemosa, Phoebe pubescens, Hydnocarpus heterophyllus, Siphonodon celastrinus, Baccaurea sapida, Micromelum pubescens, Spathodea ignea, Turp'mia pomifera, Stylocoryne densiflora, Haasia sp., Cmnamomum, Ostodes paniculata, Elacocarpus grandifolius, floribundus, etc., Erioglossum edule, Tetrantliera Roxburghii and macrophylla, Aglaia 2 or 3 species, Holigarna Grahamii (Semecarpus Wight), Maesa ramentacea, Drimycarpus racemosus, Ccltis molliusciila, Suregada sp. ; Ardisia anceps and another species, Ficus macrophylla, fistulosa, etc., Millettia atropurpurea and 31. sericea, Erythrina Sumat- ran a along choungs, Dalbergia cana, Eugenia formosa, Memecylon ovatum and luteolum ?, Saccopetalum Brandisii, Aporosa dioica, Cupania glabrata, and Sumatrana, Nanopet alum myrian- thum, Sumbavia macrophylla , Cleidion Javanicum, Macaranga gummiflua, Chaetocarpus castaneae- carpa , Excoccaria baccata, Castanopsis argentea, Sponia orientalis ? Gunizanthus pilosulus, Cyathocalyx martabanica, Goniothalamus, Garcinia cornea and heterandra, Eurya serrata, Gracia Nicrocos, Zanthoxylon Budrunga, Glycosmis citrifolia, Murraya exotica and Koenigii, a Clausena , Atalantia sp., Picrasma Javanica, Ochna Wallichii, Melia Toozendan ? Schizocheton grandiflorum, Heynea pubescens, Jlex godayam, Evonymus glabcr, Biospy ros oleifolia, variegatus and one or two other species, Euphoria Longana, Linociera terniflora, Cylicodaphne sp,. Anti- desma, Barringtonia macrostachya l Nephelium hypoleucum, Vitex heterophylla, Myristica longi- folia, glauca and Jrya, Antidesma menasu, Lepisanthes montana , and many others. Of bamboos I give only the native names, as my examination of Burma bamboos has not yet closed. Bamboos in these forests are very frequent, growing sometimes as high as the stratum of the big trees, say nearly 90 to 100 feet. The kinds especially met with are wabo, wapyoo gyee, waya, kyattounwa, and the smaller sort of wathabwot. Wan way is a large powerful climber. Of palms and screw pines, a splendid Livistona, Arenga saccharifera, Areca 1 or 2 sp. Licuala peltala, Caryota urens, Wallichia oblongifolia, Zalacca. sp. and Calamus arborescens along choungs, are the more common ones. Pandanus furcatus is also not uufrequent, especially in the hilly parts of Martaban. Another stratum, which deserves consideration, consists of shrubs, large and small. Many of the shrubs shoot up with a single stem, like a treelet ; others are climbers or creepers. It is difficult to deal with the members of the latter category, of which some have stems as thick as trees ; they are stem clasping or climbing, and run into the crowns of the loftiest trees, often hiding the crowns or drooping down from them in ornamental but almost inaccessible festoons. Such climbers and creepers are Malaisia sp., Ventilago caly- calata, Hibiscus scandens, Illigera 2 sp., Artabotrys Burmanica, Calycopteris Roxburghii, Dalbergia stipulacea ?, Salacid sp., Acrostichum scandens, Colubrina, Zizyphus glabra, Scindapsus pertusus, and officinalis, Pothos scandens, Naravelia smilacifolia, Thunbergia laurifolia, Porana speciosa, Acacia intsia ?, caesia and rugata, Gouania leptostachya, and integrifolia, Vanilla sp., Jasminum reticulatum , laurifolium, anastomosans, and a few other species, Tinosj)Ora nudiflora, Stcphania, Cocculus glaucescens, Neuropeltis ovata, Chondrospermum smilaci/olium, Parabaena sagittata, Buett- neria aspera and pilosa, Momordica sp., Aspidopteris, Erythropalum scandens, Rhynchospermum Wallichii, Fagraea globosa, Phytocrene gigantea, Vitis lanceolaria, oxyphylla, rhodoclada, discolor, pentagona, repens, adnata, etc., Chamca 2 — 3 sp., Hiptage sp., Elaeagnus sp., Mezoneuron ennea- phyllum, Cnestis platantha, Combretum decandrum and Chinense, Modecca trilobata, Hodgsonia heteroclita, Ancistrocladus extensus , Toddalia aculeata, TJncaria pilosa, sessiUfructus and another sp., Conocephalus, Gnetum, GriJfUhia, Smilax ovalifolia and another species, Spatholobus scri- copliylla ?, acuminata, Dalbergia cana, Bauhinia ornata, B. anguina, and 3 or 4 species of Calamus. The principal erect shrubs are Alsodeia Bengalensis, Hephitidea Wallichii, Ixora (several species, but all witli white or pale rose flowers,) Gendarussa vulgaris, (especially along choungs,) Rottlera muricata ?, Alsophila contaminans and (in Toukyeghat) glabra., Angiopteris evecta, Bohmeria malabarica, zm&platyphylla, Chasalia wallichiana, Grumilea elongata, Horinda umbcllata, Adenosacme, Petunga Roxburghii, Clerodendron infortunatum and nutans, C/aoxylon long folium, XJnona desmos, Anaxagorca Zeylanica, Capparis membranifolia, Sterculia coccmca, Sideroxylon nervosum, Wall; Glycosmis pentaphylla, and arborea, Leea sambucina, Lepisanthes montana, Dissochaeta cyanocarpa, Trevesia palmata, Maesa lndica and permollis, Ardisia enspa and another sp., Diospyros chartacea, Connarus monocarpus, Pavetta lndica ?, Mussaenda, and others. The last and lowest stratum is the vegetation that covers the ground. Owing to a certain degree of darkness that reigns in these forests all the year round, the number of herbs, etc., is comparatively small. In the denser parts of those forests the ground is covered only with decaying leaves, rotting trunks of trees, etc., and vegetation is excluded here to a great extent, but where the forests become more open, as is especially the case along choungs, the vegetation becomes rich, and we see often an abundance of Strobilanthcs fiava, neesii, Jimbiiutus, and especially &. rufescens , Daedalacanthus Paris/tii, Phloy acanthus insignia ( 33 ) and another magnificent spocios (Ph. curvi floras), Justicia flaccida, Peristrophe, Eranthemum datum , Ebermeyera lanceolata, Bragantia latifolia , Etatosternma sesquifolium and some other species, Chavica Roxburghii, Siriboa, Wallichii ? and bohmeriaefolia, Golocasia fornicata, Agla- onema simplex and oblong i folium, Uomaloncma and other Aroideae, Desmodium reniforme (?) Geophila reniformis especially under the shade of bamboo, Ophiorrhiza, Pogonia plicata, Tupis- tra nutans, Monochilus nervosus, Corymbis distidia, Molineria capitu/ata, Dianella ensifolia, Dra- caena terniflora and ensiformis,(?) Ophiopogon Wallichii, lleliosanthes violacca, Disporum sp., Flos- copa paniculata , Pollia Indica and thyrsiflora, (?), Carex Indica, Scleria elata, (?) and pandano- phylla, Cyperus moestus , Panicum plicatum, Centotheca lappacca, along with numerous Scitami- neae and Marantaccac. If grass-clothing is almost unknown in true tropical forests, (except along the courses of larger ckoungs exposed to light) the ferns often replace the grass by the density of their growth. Amongst them the following deserve mention : Davallia strigosa and hirta, Lindsaea ensifolia, Pteris crctica, pcdata, qaadri and bi-aurita, Asplenium resectum, sylvaticum, polypodioides and esculentum, Nephrodium calcaratum, terminans, extensum, molle, abruption, Lcuzeanum, decurrens and polymorphum ; Polypodium multilineatum, tenerifrons, irregulare and pteropus, Davallia Australis, Aerostichum appendiculatum, variabile, flagelliferum and virens. All these are ter- restrial. On trees or rocks are observed chiefly Ilymenophylleae, as Trichomanes Iienzaianum, Filicula, pyxidiferum and Javanicum, Davallia bullata, Asplenium nidus and laser pitiifolium, Nephrolepis exaltata, Polypodiun irioidcs, and axillaris. Amongst twiners etc., are chiefly Lygo- dium polystachyum and pinnatifidum, as also Aerostichum scandens. A great part of the perennials and sometimes of the annuals nestle on the stems and still more on the upper branches of trees, thus vying for light. These are the aerial or epiphytical plants, of which especially Orchideac and Cyrtaiulreae deserve mention. A few Scifamineae also grow sometimes on trees. The tropical forests of Pegu proper are compara- tively very poor in epiphytical plants, if compared with those of Martaban and Tenasserim. The mosses etc. in these forests are bpt sparingly represented, and are stricted more to the rocky slopes and to boulders in and along ckoungs, while the tree restems are poorly inhabited by small adpressed kinds, chiefly scale mosses. The green clothing of the trees, caused by mosses, etc. is nearly wanting here, and the stems, though usually embraced by climbing Aroideae, ferns, etc. shew their bark in its natural state, or only sparingly invested by mosses and lichens, the latter being usually surrounded with a peculiar bluish or leaden coloured indistinct thallus. Lichens are still more scanty here, but they reappear in great number on the exposed upper part of trees, and more so on the branches of the loftier trees, owing, no doubt, to their light-seeking propensities. Bamboo, however, is frequently seen covei’ed by 3 or 4 very singular lichens with greenish white thallus. Of mosses are chiefly seen several species of Fissidens, Macromitrium, Galymperes, and Hypna ; of scale mosses Leyeunia, Lophocolea, and similar forms. The abundance of ephiphyllic scale mosses, accompanied by some lichens, on leaves of trees, shrubs, etc. is cha- racteristic of evergreen forests. Fungi, of course, find favourable conditions in these forests, and their development is accordingly great, especially during the rains. Sphaerias however, are remarkably rare ; in fact, with the exception of Xy/aria, I met with only two or three species. An orange-coloured Alga (Chroolepus flavum) is often enough seen on stems and branches, and on living leaves one or two other species of green Algae are not uufrequent (chiefly Scytonema). I may mention also as characteristic of tropical forests, that the foliage of many of the shrubs, etc. show a peculiar more or less distinct metallic steel blue hue ; some of the plants, (like Sdagiuella,) so much so, that they have become favourites with gardeners. C. Open tropical forests. — The moist forests, or open tropical forests, differ from the for- mer chiefly in their lesser degree of dampness and the reduction of the several vegetative strata to only three or four, as also in the smaller amount of climbers, thus rendering these forests more open and less difficult to penetrate. They are to a certain extent a combination of mixed, and tropical forests. These moist forests are found especially along the eastern base of the Pegu Yomah as far down as Rangoon. In the latter district they occupy the lower and moister parts of the laterite range, that terminates at the confluence of the Pazwoondoung and Rangoon rivers. But usually they grow on more gravelly soil or on raised shallow alluvium resting on gravel or sandstones. They are often difficult to distinguish from the former, and merge from one into the other, where the terrain is of a varied character. The shrubbery in them is comparatively scanty, and often enough the herbage on the ground differs in little or nothing from that of the more shady mixed forests. The principal trees are such as occur above described in the true tropical forests, but ap- pear to be much more poorly represented in species. Those chiefly seen are Dipterocarpus laevis and alatus, Parashorca stellata, Pentace Birmanica, Antians toxicaria (the Javanese upas tree), Eugenia sp. (toung thabyay), Beilschmiedia sp. ?, Garcinia coiva, Eugenia sp. (thabyay nee), Ca- rallia integerrima, Albizzia lucida, Engelhardtia Roxburghii, Millettia atropurpurea, Baccaurea 9 ( 34 ) sapida, Ghrysophyllum Roxburgh ii, Lagerstrocmia tomentosa, Dillenia parviflora, and similar ones. Amongst the lower trees may be noted Grewia microcos, Helena ramentacea, Crypteronia paniculata, Mi lima tomentosa, Cinnamomum obtusifolium, Castanopsis anjentea , Erioglossum edule, Aporoxa dioica, Castanospermum, Turpinia pomifera, Phoebe pubescens, etc. Of shrubs and climbers, amongst the numerous seedlings and young trees that shoot up here, may be mentioned Grnmilea elonejata, Melastoma Malabathricum, Jasminum sp. Con- narus, Cnestis, Uvaria macrophylla, a tomentose yellow-flowered Bauhinia, Combretum decan- drurn, Ventilago, Toddalia aculcata , etc. Also Wallichia oblongifolia , Zalacca sp., Areca, and Licuala are frequent. Strobilanthes ru/escens is a characteristic plant here, accompanied usually by Molineria capitulata, Clerodendron infortunatum, Dracaena ensifolia ? , Polygonum Chinense ? ; Aglaonema oblong if blium, Adenostemma latifolium, numerous Scitamineae, etc. To these associate themselves numerous annuals and perennials of the leaf-shedding forests, especially of the lower mixed forests, so that the soil-clothing resembles more thedast named forest formation. 4. — Ilill-Forests. (Not represented in Pegu, but introduced here for completeness sake.) The evergreen hill-forests are solely the product of the influence of elevation, and hence they are found only on those hill ranges, which attain a height favourable for their growth. Although they descend in Martaban as far down as 3000 feet, they nowhere occur at a similar elevation on the Yomah range from the Kambala toung to Kyouk pyoo toung. The cause of this would appear to be the great dryness of the country all round, and the dry N. W. winds during the hot season. The impermeability of the calcareous sandstone, .that composes these ranges, has also, in my opinion, much to do with the the absence of these forests in the Pegu Yomah. The occurrence on these crests of Vaccinium and other epiphytical and more temper- ate plants, although specificalty different from those of the Martaban hills, is to my eyes suffi- cient proof, that the climate alone is not the sole cause of the absence of nearly all temperate terrestrial plants, but that the cause is more particularly due to the substratum. These hill forests appear on the hills east of Sittang, hardly 30 miles distant from the opposite base of the Yomah, and extend, no doubt, as far to the north as the Himalayas, and still further in a southerly direction. They have, I feel sure, once occupied all the elevated ranges of the country to the east of the Sittang from about 3000 feet and upwards, but they are now greatly reduced by the never-resting axe of the Karens. In fact, they have disappeared altogether along many of the greater valleys, although the character of the vegetation on the deserted toungyas still sugests their former existence. I divide this class of forests into the following three varieties : — a. Drier Hill-forests (3 to 7000 feet). b. Pine-forests (3 to 7000 feet). c. Damp Hill-forests (3 to 6000 feet). It is possible, that further and more extended explorations in the Karen hills, will necessitate the introduction of more varieties of hill-forests. 1 myself have traversed only a very small area during a very hurried tom\ a. Drier hill-forests. — The dry evergreen hill-forests or, as they may be called more briefly, the drier hill-forests, occupy the ridges and summits of the hill ranges, resembling- in this respect the upper mixed forests. They range usually from 4 to 7000 feet elevation, but along unfavourable exposures (especially along the S. and S. W. faces of the ridges,) they may be found as low down as 3000 feet. The average height of the trees in them is about 40 to 60 feet, and the growth is often stunted and gnarled, especially at exposed situations. Potanically they might be called the forests of oaks and Ternstroerniiiceae, but I believe, the name given above to them is the more preferable. The dryness during the hot season is here, (especially below 4000 feet,) considerable, al- though naturally it is not so great as in the dry forests of the plains, and jungle-fires are fre- quent in spite of the laudable precautions of the Karens to prevent them when they burn their toungyas. The formation of humus-soil is therefore only partial. The forests may be distinguished into the upper drier hill-forests, or briefly the stunted hill-forests, and the lower drier hill-forests. Both these varieties of forests have so many forms in common, that it is more their general appearance, than the presence of any peculiar vegetative forms, that marks them, Stunted ldll-forests. These forests are restricted to the highest crests and ridges of the Martaban hills, usually above 6000 feet elevation, and possibly are rarely, if ever, subjected to jungle-fires, owing to their remoteness from human habitations. They gra- dually pass into the lower drier hill-forests in such a way that it is often quite impossible to say where the one begins and the other ends. But where they are much exposed to the prevailing winds and to the influence of weather, they appear to bo more abruptly sepa- rated, and the distinguishing line is therefore conspicuous. They consist chiefly of stunted ( 35 ) and often pygmean trees, up to 30 (most of them, however, only up to 20) feet in height, witli very short stems and compact and usually spherical crowns from a glossy yellowish to a brown- ish dark green colour, shewing numerous gnarled and crooked branches. They often grow so close together that it is difficult to force one’s way through them, and during heavy gales, which often occur at these heights, this dense mass of a glossy varied foliage is curiously moved by the wind resembling from an elevated position the waves of a disturbed sea. Owing to the very limited area in Martaban which rises to such an elevation, these forests are necessarily of very small extent. On the summit of the Nattoung, one of the highest peaks in the Karen hills, they are cut off very abruptly at the unfavourable situations giving place to a scanty shrubby vegetation, which again soon passes into hill pastures, which will be described in the sequel. The whole top of a hill (the name of which I have unfortu- nately forgotten, but it is i think the same as Segako hill in Dr. Brandis’ map of Martaban), situated about 2 or 3 miles from Nattoung, and probably 2 or 300 feet higher than it, is completely covered by them. The principal trees and shrubs, (for it is not easy to distinguish here between the two) as observed by me are : Gaultheria punctata ?, Vaccinium bracteatum ? and 2 or 3 other species, Andromeda ovalifolia, My mine semiserrata, Anneslea monticola, Ternstroemia Japonica (stunted), Eurya chinensis and E. icallichiana, Schima Noronhce ? (stunted,) Pyrenaria diospyricarpa, Erythroxylon Eunthianum, Pirns Karensium, Bucklandia populnea (stunted), Myrsine semiserrata and avenis, Cornus oblonga, Symplocos lucida and *S. sulcata, Rhododendron formosum, Quercus sp. nov. ? Castanca, Myrica sapida (stunted), Turpinia Nepalensis and a few others. Climbers and scandent shrubs still occur in these forests, but are stunted like the trees. Those chiefly noted by me, are Millettia monticola , Brandisia discolor , Embelia floribunda, Jasminum attenuatum, Smilax, Rubus rugosus and alpestris. The under- growth is chiefly composed of a low Arunclinaria, which grows often so dense as to fill up the whole space between the trees and shrubs. Further, Ardisia crispa, Ecodia gracilis, Hypericum triflorum, Strobilanthes foetidissima , Osbechia crinita and many others. An erect Smilax, Polystichum aculeatum and a few other ferns are locally very frequent. Epiphytic plants are here numerous, besides a great variety of Orchids amongst which a beautiful Pleione is most common. Cyrtandraceae are also not uncommon, and there are numerous ferns. The stems and branches are loaded with mosses and scalemosses, amongst which dense patches of Ilymenophyliaceae (chiefly II. exsertum and Javanicum) are interwoven. During the hot season however these shrivel up to a certain degree, but recover with the first show- er of rain. Here it is that shrubby lichens become more numerous and conspicuous, and a Peltigera of a peculiar green colour is seldom missed amongst the patches of moss. Lower drier hill-forests. The lower drier forests are rather stunted forests of a mean height varying according to exposure and to the degree of resulting dampness from 50 to 80 feet. The trees resemble in habit somewhat those which are seen in the Eug or low forests of the plains. They occuy nearly all the exposed ridges from 4,000, or often from 3,000, feet and upwards. Jungle fires are here frequent, but not regular. While in the stuuted forests Ericineoe formed the typical constituents, here Ternstroemiacece and Cupuliferce prevail. The following are the more frequent trees : Ternstroemia Japonica , Eurya Chinensis and Japonica, Anneslea monticola, Saurauya sp., Schima Noronhce and oblata, Pyrenaria camelli- aflora, Echinocarpus sp., Turpinia Nepalensis, Bucklandia populnea, Nelitris paniculata, Sym- plocos polycarpa, lucida and sulcata, Cornus oblonga, Diospyros fca/ci ? Andromeda ovalifolia Callicarpa arborea, Cinnamomum sp., several species of Tetranthera, Daphnidium caudatum ? Aperula polyantha ? , Litscea foliosa and other Laurinece, Betula acuminata, Helicia excelsa Quercus lenacarpa, brevicuspis, and others, Castanopsis inermis and 1 or 2 other species, Pinits khasya passim, Coffea tetrandra, Garcinia anoma/a, Myrica sapida, Pithecolobium mon- tanum ? , Albizzia stipulata, Dillenia aurea, Wendlandia ligustrina, Engelhardtia serrata, Rhus senvialata ? , Nptapleurum glaucum and hypoleucum , Macropanax orcophilum * , Olea dentata Beilschmiedia sp. ? , Alstonia scholaris ? , Emblica officinalis, and others. Of palms only a stuuted Chamaerhops ( C . khasyana ?) occurs here but scantily. A climbing bamboo, with fruits as large as a woodapple, is frequent here, and another beri’y-bearing but erect species is locally a prevailing type. In the lower parts bamboos are still more prevalent, and two gigantic species (wabo and kyellowa) are common at elevations below 4,000 feet. The climbing vegetation here I have explored but little, but those climbers and scandent shrubs which occurred to me most frequently were Mucuna prurita ?and macrocarpa, the latter with stems nearly as thick as the trees themselves upon which they rest, Rubus rugosus, Millettia ?, Embelia ribes and floribunda, Clematissp., a species of Ampelopsis (A. Hima/ayaua ?), 3 to 4 species of Vitis, a fine Calamus possibly new, Smilax lanceaefolia, Bauhinia sp., Dalbergia velutina, Cnestis ignea and several others. Of shrubs ami halfshrubs the following are the more conspicuous — Linostoma paucijlorum Melanthesopsis J'ruticosa, Melasloma maiabathricum (the normal form with longer calyx- ( 30 ) scales), Osibecltia crinita and pulchella, Rottlera sp., Pteroloma triquetrum with hairy pods, Evodia gracilis, Inula cappa, Polygala harensium, Polygonum chine me, Lespedeza. .sp. (near L. eriocarpa), with beautifully blue flowers, Daphne pendula ? and involucrata, Maoutia Puya, Indigofer a uncinnata, Desmodium concinnum, multiforum ?- and gy routes, Pueraria Wallichii Flemmingia semia/ala, involucrata and micam , Artemisia vulgaris locally, Senecio densi floras, Vaccinium 2 to 3 sp., Brandisia discolor, Glerodendron villosum, Colquhounia sp., Crotalaria ferruginca ? and Chinensis, Dalbergia velutina, Psychotria capitata, Grumilea elongata ? Ixora sp., Mussacnda glabra, Phyllodium pulchellum, Camellia sp., Taber naymon tana sp., Leea, and many others. An arborescent fern with a short black fibrous stem ( Breynia insignis) is not uncommon, especially in more shady localities. Ptcris aquilina, Gleichenia dichotorna and longissima are the more prevailing terrestrial ferns, along with Onychium auratum, Blechnum orientate, etc. The ground is covered by grasses and other plants in localities where the forest is more open. The most common grasses are Arunclinella sp., Spodiopogon sp., Iletcropogon sp., Andro.scepia gigantea, Panicum montanum, p/icatum, Roylcanum, etc., Trisetum sp., and in lower regions the so-called Teak-grass ( Pollinia tectonum of Brandis). Besides these Batra- therum sp. ? , a Phragmitoid grass, Imperata cylindrica , Thyssanolcena acarifera, are locally not uncommon. Carex baccans, condensata and several other species, as also Sclerice are nowhere to be missed. Associated with these grasses we find Hedyotis polycarpa ? and ulmifolia ? Polygonum Chinense, Plcdranthus striatus, Smilax sp. erect., Sonerila maculata, Anaphalis adnata, Ophelia pulchella ?, Gentiana pedicellata and marginata t, Ivnoxia lasiocarpa, Galium asperifolium, Stro- bilanthes foetidissima, Brandisii, Karensium, etc., Anisomcles f, Prenanthes sp., Geniostoma strobi- liferum, Acrocephalus capitatus, Saussurea del tonlca, Alectra Indica, Drosera peltata, Myriactis Lepidagathis, Lobelia Wallichiana, Ainsliaea pteropoda, Vernonia cinerea, Blumea runcin- nata and (data, Conyza viscosula and absinthifolia, Dumasia sp. near I). congesta, Shuteria vestita, Pogostemon parviflorum and strigosum, Elsholtzia polystachya, Scutellaria discolor, Achyrospermum densiflorum, Leucas ciliata,Smithia conferta, Commelyna obliqua, Cyanotis fasciculata, Gnaphalium ochroleucum, Senecio Griffithii t, Exacum pter ant-hum, Ophiorrhizophyllum macrobotryum, Didy- mocarpus mollis, Bupleurum tenue, Selinum sp.?', Viola serpens, Alpinia nutans, Pdiosanthes, Eulophia, Pliayus, Smilax sp. (near S. rigida), Dianclla montana, Costus speciosus, Dichrocep- hala latifolia, Siegesbeckia orientalis, Viola serpens along chouugs, etc, etc. The trees are inhabited by numerous mosses and scalemosses, as also by Lichens, which latter appear here especially developed. A long Alectoria depends from nearly all the crooked branches, and shrubby lichens, like Pcltigera, Cladonia, etc., now make their appear- ance from about 6,000 feet elevation and upwards. Numerous and beautiful orchids, large and small, ornament the stems and branches. It is here, that we first meet with Cypri- pedium (near C. villosum). Oberonia, Coelogyne, Cryptochilus, Eria, numerous Dendrobia, Pleione, Vanda, Saccolabium , etc., etc. represented by numerous species. Amongst other epiphytic plants deserve to be mentioned, a probably new species of Vaccinium, and Vacci- nium variegafum, auriculatum, and loranthifolium, Xyris wallichii, Centrostemma multiflorum, Aeschynanthus sp., Lysionotus ternifolius, Boyar, etc., and numerous ferns, such as Vittaria elongata? and. falcata, Hymenophyllum exsertum and Javanicum, Asplenium ensiforme, norm ale. Polypodium lineare , normale, rhynchophyllum and conjugutum, Lycopodium cdoefolium and others. The granitic and schistose rocks are covered by lichens, mosses and Selaginellae, accom- panied by little annual phanerogams, such as Sonerila, Xyris icallichii and Bidymocarpus mollis, along with several grasses, and Asplenium heterocarpuin, planiculme, and australe, etc. Parasites are also numerous and plentiful, amongst which Loranthus hypoleucus with its burning red flowers and Henslowia heterandra with dark green foliage quickly attract attention. A species of Viscum, very near to the European mistletoe, is often seen here. On the roots of trees the curious Balanophora globosa is conspicuous. As in European forests so also here the ground, where exposed, affords shelter to a number of acrocarpous mosses, like Campylopus, Pogonalum, etc. Funaria hygromctrica fvar. Nepalensis ), true to its habits everywhere in the world, selects recently burnt up localities, and as jungle-tires are extensive, so is its distribution. Terrestrial lichens also appear here, such as Baeomyecs, Cladonia, etc., but not so frequent as in the pine forests. b. Pine forests — The Pine forests, called from a pine ( Pinus Khasya), that forms the greatest portion of it arc rather local, and restricted to the unfavourable situations, viz. to the IS. W. and S. slopes. They are much subjected to jungle-fires, which are hero destructive in the ex- treme, often burning down the finest trees. Many a burnt down trunk of a pine may hornet with in the midst of the forests looking from a distance like a black pillar. The average height of these forests is 70 to 80 feet, sometimes moro ; but along much exposed slopes, very much less. These forests are very open and almost without climber- vegetation. It is seldom that we find really pure pine forests ; they are moro frequently ( 37 ) mixed up with trees from the drier hill forests. As a rule the upper part of spurs and ridges is covered by these pine forests, but the ravines and deep narrow valleys between them are occupied by drier hill forests. It is almost unnecessary to sum up the leafy trees which associate with the pines, as they are the same which I have summed up under the head of drier hill forests, but I shall note here a few of those which I met moro frequently : Daphni- dium, Aperula, Helicia, Albizzia stipulata, Pithecolobium montanum ? Wendlandia ligustrina, an arboreous Vaccinium, Andromeda o rail folia, Myrsine, Dillenia anrea,Anneslea, Eurya,Myrica, Tristania Burmanica, Engelhardtia, Ternstroemia Japonica , Turpinia N< pale ns is, etc. Cha- maerops Kliasyana is here still to be met and presents a curious sight along with pine trees. Of shrubs Linostoma pauciflorum, Melastoma malabathricum, Maoutia Puya, Lespedeza, Desmodinm, etc. occur sparingly. A scandent or semiscandent bamboo with berry-like fruits is here not uncommon. The ground is usually densely covered by the fallen needles of the . pines, so much so, that no vegetation can spring up except scantily. Burmans, who do not wear shoes, have the greatest difficulty in getting over such localities, and even to a European it is very tire- some to climb up such ridges, in consequence of the ground being rendered slippery by those needles. The plants, which I met growing amongst the needles, were Senecio, Inula cappa, Dianella, Lespedeza, Panicum montanum, Imperafa, Scleria, Androscepia, etc. Of ferns Glei- chenia dichotoma and longissima, and Pteris aquilina were nearly the only ones I saw. Those pine forests, which are mixed up with leafy trees, have the ground usually — al- though not to the same extent — covered by similar grasses and shrubs, as in the dry hill- forests. In spite of the greater dryness that prevails in these forests, such epiphytical plants as orchids, asclepiads, etc. are still frequent, and some of them characteristic. Cryptogams are also numerous, especially the lichens, which become here quite conspicuous. Baeomyces roseus forms often large rounded patches on ground destitute of vegetation. C. — The damp hill-forests. The damp hill-forests, ranging from about 3,000 to 6,000 feet elevation, so much resem- ble in external aspect the true tropical forests of the plains, that they can be distinguished from them only by the occurrence of botanically different trees, and chiefly by tire total, or nearly total, absence of certain plant-families, such as Dipterocarpeae, Meliaceae, Sapindaceae, Dilleniaceae, Sterculiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Lythrarieae, and Sapotaceae. The average height of these forests stands little below that of the tropical forests, and jungle fires cannot possibly enter them, so dense, and moist are they. The formation of humus is therefore undisturbed. These forests occur only along favourable situations and in sheltered valleys, especially along choungs. The great height of the lofty trees composing the damp hill forests, and also the very short time I spent in them when passing by, renders it perfectly impossible for me to give a correct idea of the nature of the trees that grow in these forests. I therefore can note only a very few of them. Quercus (several species) and Cupuliferous trees generally seemed frequent, Ilex daphnephy lloides, Ternstroemia Japonica, Bucklandia populnea, several fig-trees Eugenia, Laurineae, Ostodes paniculata, Podocarpus, Gynocardia oaorata, Diospyrus sp. and numerous others. Of smaller trees Turpinia nepalensis, Ginnamomum, Litsaea, Eriobotrya notoniana, Calophyllum polyanthmn, Aceri solobum, Masa Indica, Rhododendron Veitchianum and some- times Rh. arboreum, Spathodea ignea, Qarcinia anomala, etc. A semiscandent bamboo, not unlike in foliage to Melocanna baccifera, is often met with along choungs ; also an elegant fern-tree ( Alsophila comosa) of 20 to 25 feet height, and Pandanus furcatus. Except a fine Calamus or two, I missed (strange to say) palms, and only at lower elevations met such trees as Arcca, IVallichia, Arenga saccharifera, Garyota ureas and Licuala peltata. Of shrubs, climbers, etc. I observed during my run through these forests : Rubus alpestris and Moluccanus, Jasminum attennatum, Adenosacme several species of Smilax as S. lancecefolia and elegans, Microtropis gracinifolia, Hoya fusca, a Vernonia, Ardisia crispa and clliptica, large climbing Fici, Clematis acuminata, Solatium membranaceum, Strobilanthes lamioides , and many others. The ground is usually destitute of grass-clothing, but occasionally small patches of Garex, Scleria elata ? and others species occur. The grass is locally replaced by Ophiopogon, Peliosanthes macrophylla and Molineria capitulata, all of which are plants which form a pre- vailing type of the low vegetation in these forests. Of herbs and perennials, which are often very numerous and luxuriant, especially along choungs, the following may be mentioned : Polygonum sp , Ainsliaea Brandish with white flowers, Polygonatum punctatum, (often epiphytic), Elatostemma ficoides, umbrosurn and an- other small-leaved species in great profusion, two species of Sonerila, an Arisaema, and many other Aroideae, Strobilanthes penstemonoides , Begonia barbata and laciniata, Ophiorrhiza em- it) ( 38 ) hence ns, Hypoxia minor, Disporum sp., Sarcopyramis nrpalensis, Justicia caloncura, Brandis* and sometimes quadrifaria, and others. Of terrestrial ferns occur Polystichum aculeatum, Davallia immersa and nodosa, Pterin bi-and quadriaurita, Asplenium ensifolium, Gymnogramme ellipticum, Diacalpe aspidioides, two species of Selaginella, etc. The plants creeping or trailing round the stems of trees are chiefly Piperaceae, Aroidece, (especially Scindapsus and Pot/ios), Lygodium pinnatifidum and polystachyum, Acrostichum scandens etc. Orchids are seldom seen here, for they have retreated to some extent to the upper parts of trees. Mosses and scalemosses cover most of the stems in dense patches, along with Hyme ■ nophylla, Vittaria and Polypodium, Antrophium , etc. as also Cyrtandracew, etc. On account of the darkness, lichens are again rare, but epiphyllous lichens along with epiphyllous scale- mosses overgrow the leaves of shrubs, etc., that often show the same bluish metallic lustre, which is seen in the tropical forests. The above sketch of these damp hill-forests does not give a correct description of them, but comprises only the results of observations made during a short run through them. A proper exploration of these forests would take as many months as I have spent hours in them. BB. Leafshedding Forests. The leafshedding or deciduous forests are the most important to a forester in Burma, for they yield the most valuable timber trees of the country. They are quite or nearly quite leafless during the dry seasons, but many of the trees put out their young leaves long before the rains set in. The shedding of leaves of the various trees is also not simul- taneous, nor does this phenomenon take place at precisely the same period iu each of the four zones, but sets in later in damper climates. Junglefires are in all these forests more or less regular and re-occur often in the same year. — The varieties of these forests is great, and the demarcation between those varieties often very obsolete. However the three chief varieties, where they present themselves in a pure character, are well marked, and the impression which an “ Eng-dein” (Eng forest) produces is not easily to be forgotten. These three chief classes ofleaf-shedding forests are the open forests, the mixed forests and the dry-forests. 5. Open Forests. The open or diluvial forests comprise nearly all those forests, which grow chiefly on diluvial formations, such as laterite, gravelly soil, rocky debris and even stiff clay or loam, especially when resting on impermeable substrata. These forests are to a botanist the most interesting amongst the leaf-shedding forests, as they abound iu novelties and in plants peculiar to them alone. Practically they appear as dry and more or less stunted and crooked forests, at present of little value to a forester, except the Eng tree which gives a valuable wood. The soil is usually unsuitable or nearly so for rice cultivation, but wherever but a comparatively thin layer of clay or loam overlies the laterite, rice, I am informed, does grow beautifully aud gives a 60 to 70-fold harvest. As the trees which grow here stand far from each other, these forests are very open and sunny and the vision is not hindered by large undergrowth or climbers, for the latter are reduced to a few species, which often lose their climbing habits to a great extent, owing to dryness and quantity of light. I have distinguished them into the three following kinds, vis. A. Hill Eng forests, which are not represented iu Pegu, but are frequent in the east of Sittang, on rocky debris and laterite, that cover the lower ridges there. B. Eng- or Laterite forests, so called from a species of woodoil tree (Eng-), that is peculiar to them. 0. Low forests, which much resemble the former but are usually destitute of Eng trees, and offer other peculiarities. A. Hill Eng forests . — These forests stand in a certain relation to the drier hill-forests, and transition from the one to the other occurs sometimes. They grow chieily amongst debris of metamorphic and schistose rocks, but also on hill-laterito, on all the lower outspurs of the Martaban hills towards and along the Sittang river up to 2,000 feet elevation. They resemble the Eng Forests lower down, so much, that in external appearance, they are identical with them. A number of trees aud other plants, are, however, found in them, whioh though they make a distinction will 1 fear after a longer exploration of transitional forests finally redueo this variety of fores ts to a simple modification of Eng forests. There are many difficulties with which one has to struggle in classifying forests, and it is only after long experience that the true characteristic features of a variety of forest can be fixed. 1 cannot but quote hero. Dr. Brandis’ own words (Selections of Government of India, No. XXXII. Report on Attaran forests for 1860, p. 37 ) relative to these difficulties : “ Hesitation therefore iu submitting reports on a subjoct (character of forests) the very principles of which have yet to be deve- loped may appear excusable. Their investigation unavoidably involves many questions of ( 39 ) a purely scientific nature, and it is not always possible to determine beforehand the extent of time required for a satisfactory completion of researches of that nature.” — These are words which ought to be carefully weighed by those who believe, that one has simply to take out his notebook and to write down the names of trees, etc. that surround him. A correct understand* ing of forests implies discrimination between characteristic and accidental constituents. The average height of the trees here is variable, ranging between 30 to 60 feet. Most of the trees that will be enumerated hereafter under the head of Eng forests are also found here, but those which occur more frequently are the following : Tristania Burmanica, Anneslea fragrans, Engelhardtia serrata, Dipterocarpus gonopterus, and obtusifolius (also 1). luberculatus is not missed), Quercus semiserrata Brandisiana , Buncana and annulata, Lantana arborea, DiUenia augusta, Melanorrhoea glabra, Castanea, Dalbercjia cultrata, Vitex sp., Pentacme Siamensis, Kydia calycina, Wendlandia sp., B/iussp., Randia erythroclada, Schima,Xylia dolabriformis, Olea dentata, Vernonia volkamericefolia, etc. The shrubby and perennial vegetation is almost the same as in the Eng forests, and so are the few climbers. Of herbs, etc., we meet frequently with Urena lobata, Lepidagathis hyalina , Blumca flava etc., Lygodium, Knoxia lasiocarpa, Acrocephalus capitatus, Scleria lithosperma, Ophiurus corym- bosas ? Arundinelia sp., Inula cappa, Eugenia sp., (thabyay pyoo) Vernonia rigiophylla, Des- modium gyroides, Exacum pteranthum, Mitreola, Crotalaria neriifolia and albida, Flemmingia lati/olia ? and involucrata, Hedyotis galioides, Tropidia curculigoides, etc. Orchids, epiphytical on trees, along with ferns are almost the same as in the Eng forests. Mosses, etc., are scarce, but lichens abound, especially the cortical ones ; there are however but few stone-lichens. B. Eng or Laterite Forests. — These forests grow, as the name already indicates, chiefly on laterite, but occur also on other diluvial formations in a less developed form. These diluvial formations are composed chiefly : (1.) Of a yellowish loose clayey sand soil. (2.) Of a reddish or rather rusty coloured sand soil, mixed with ferruginous clay. (3.) Of a yellowish heavy stiff clay. (4.) Of gravelly laterite with silica pebbles and debris. (5.) Of a pinkish coloured silicious gravel (especially in Prome). (6.) Of laterite rock, covered by flying fine sand. (7.) Of vesicular or cavernous ferruginous heavy laterite-rock, enclosing pebbles of silica or other rocks (in the latter case similar to almond-stones and more or less disintegrated. (8.) Of a fine-grained angular ferruginous sand-stone ? or shales ? (especially in some localities of the Rangoon district). The depressions in these lands are usually filled up with fine loose sand, clay or loam, and are probably inundated during the rains. Such places are then overgrown chiefly by grasses and sedges of a character which I denominate jungle-pastures (cf. 10, a). The average height of these forests is variable, depending chiefly upon the depth of the substratum. In pure laterite it is depressed to 30 to 40 feet while an admixture of a clayey or loamy soil causes the Eng trees to grow up to a height of 70 to 80 feet. Most of the trees show dark- ashgrey or blackish stems, usually covered by a very brittle cracked and tabulated thick bark. With the exception of Eng and a few others, the trees are usually more or less crooked, and many have the branching of their crowns gnarled and crooked, and, I might say, unpro- portionately thick and ungraceful. All these give to these forests a peculiar aspect, and, when growing on pure laterite, they possess to a great extent the habit of those alpine stunted forests, which are exposed to prevailing storms. The principal tree is here, as already mentioned, the Eng or Ein tree ( Dipterocarpus tuberculatus), but this tree is not necessarily present in all localities, for there are many so called Eng-forests without a single Eng tree in them. Where however laterite is exposed and forms a cavernous glazy rock, Eng is the prevailing tree. Of the other trees, which occur in larger numbers, the follow- ing are the more important : DiUenia pulcherrima, Shorea leucobotrya, Pentacme Siamensis, Walsura mllosa, Lophopetalum icallichii, Zizyphus rugosa, Buchanania latifolia, Melanorrtuea usitata, Symplocos racemosa, Diospyros Birmanicus, Myrsine-lucida Phyllanthus ( Emblica ) macrocarpa, Aporosa macrophylla, and villosa, Dalbergia cultrata, Xylia dolabriformis , Wcnd- landia tinctoria, Nauclea cordifolia, Terminalia tomentella (pangah), Careya arborea, Lager- strcemia macrocarpa, Strychnos nux vomica, Heteropanax fragrans, Odina wodier, Pterocarpus Indicus rare, Terminalia alata (tomentose toukkyan), several Randiie, Gardenia, such as G. pomif era, suavis etc., a Stcrculia, Eugenia Jambolana ? ,Schleichera trijuga, etc., etc. Also one or two stray trees, characterestic of lower mixed forests, are found here, and the teak tree forms on a pure laterite spur near Karway on the Sittang an almost pure but small forest, partaking quite the habits of other trees growing on laterite. On gravelly soil we find in the Prome district many other peculiar trees along with the above, such as a new species of Leucomeris, a Tetranthera, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius , a stemless Cycas ( C . Siamensis), Iliptage arborea, Rhus paniculata, Gardenia turgida and ( -10 ) dasycarpa, Flacourtia sapid a, and many others. These may probably be immigrants from tlio Ava Flora, with which I am unfortunately only imperfectly acquainted. Besides these prevailing trees we meet locally with other trees which are peculiar, be- cause they are restricted to these or similar diluvial forests, and occur nowhere in conspi- cuous quantities : they are sporadic and endemic at the same time. Such are for instance An- neslea fragrans, Tridesmis pruniflora, Ochrocarpus Siamensis, Tristania Birmanica, and ' such like. Most of the trees in these forests flower during the hottest time of the year, when destitute of leaves, and a lovely sight it is to see the crowns of many trees at the same time enveloped iu red, white, and yellow blossoms, while all around is barren, and hardly a green leaf is visible for miles. Of bamboos there are only teiwa ( Bambusa tnlda) and, chiefly in the Promo district, myiuwa ( Bamb . stricta), but these are very common, especially along the out- skirts of these forests. Of palms the only one I met with was a stemless date palm (Phoenix, ncaulis) , but this is frequent enough. The heart of it is a vegetable much sought after by Burmans. The shrubbery is meagre and often low, consisting chiefly of TJvaria ferruginea, Thespesia Lampas, Micromelum hirsutum, Ochna fruticulosa, Leea pumila, Strobilanthes phyl- lostachya, glaucescens and auriculatus, Barleria cristata, Ncuracanthus tetragonostachyus, Premna hirta, Indigo/era atropurpurea, and Brunonis, Desmodium polycarpum, Flemmingia semialata and cordifolia, Bauhinia acuminata, Ixora subsessilis, Phyllodium pulchellum, Sau- ropus sp., Desmodium triquetrum , Vernonia rigiophylla, Inula poly gonat a and cappa, etc. Most of these are, however, no true shrubs, but rather large perennials and sometimes annuals. Climbers are, as above alluded to, scanty and often resemble erect shrubs with a ten- dency to climb. They are nearly all of such kinds as grow in the drier mixed forests from whence they have probably intruded, without finding here a congenial substratum. Such are Otosemma extensa, Zizyphus oenoplia, Colabrina asiatica, Breweria e/egans ? Cocculus villosus, Zehneria umbellata, Bttiea superba, Embelia villosa, some Ipomoeae and Argyraia, etc. The herbage of the ground is either scanty in the extreme, the reddish, yellowish, or white soil being exposed in all directions, or more usually numerous herbs and perenuials in company with andropogonous grasses and sedges loosely cover the surface, without being- crowded, except in clayey or loamy moulds and depressions. The chief plants which are nearly equally distributed all over the diluvial forests are : Sid a carpinifolia and rhombi- folia, and Mysurensis ? , Urena lobata and speciosa , Triumfetta angulata, Nchonia origanoi- dcs along with a very large-leaved variety, Ebermeyera Maclellandii, and diffusa, Hygropliila salicifolia, Barleria poly tricha, Lepidagathis incurva and mucronata, Justicia decussata, Borreria lasiocarpa, Spermacoce, Aneilema .scapijiorum, Gynura sinuata ? , several terrestrial orchids, as Peristylus, Microstylis, etc. Microrhynchus glaber, Cephalostigma paniculatum, Exacum stylosum, Canscora Schultesii, Pterostigma cap it at um, Limnophila conferta, Vandellia mollu- ginoides, Buchnera tetrasticha and cruciata, Sopubia stricta, Anisomeles ovata, Leucas mol- lissima, G/obba expanse ? , Grotalaria alata, acicularis, calycina and linifblia ? , Uraria crinita and hamosa, Alysicarpus bupleurifolius ? , Dunbaria mollis, Eriosema Chinense, Cassia mimusoides, Blumea flava, racernosa, etc. Rungia pectinata, Costus speciosus, Osbeckia Chinensis, several species of Eriocaulon and Xyris, Mitrasacme Indica, Hitchenia sp., Ammannia multi- flora etc. etc. The grasses are chiefly Scleriae, Rhynchospora Wallichiana and Prcscottiana Lipocarpha sphacelata, Cyperus niveus, Eragrostis plumosa, Brownei, Zeylanica, etc., Haemar- thria, Ophiurus, Muelilenbeckia ? , Dimer ia , Antisthyria, Cymbopogon, Schizachyrium brevi- folium, several species of Andropogon and Iscliaemum, Pollinia, Sctaria glauca, Chrysopogon Gryllus, Rottboellia, Hymenachne Indica, Panicum any ustatum , etc. Of ferns may be seen Adiantum lunulatum, Cheilanthes varians, farinosa and tenuifolia, Ncphr odium filix mas var. cochleata. As we travel through these forests, we alight often upon patches of solitary plants, which turn up from time to time, of such beauty or rarity,* that they richly compensate a botanist for the long and hot walk he has to undertake to get at them. Here are Solomonia longiciliata, Chloranthus insignis, Ncuracanthus grandiflorus and subuninervius Poly gala leptalea, Eulophia, Aneilema spectabile, etc. ; there we see a few plants of Oleandra Cummingii, a probably new and almost erect Lygodium, a hairy dull yellow Gynura, Drosera peltata and Burmanni, Sonerila tenera, Blinkworthia lycioides, and others, again we come through a profusion of a large new species of Knoxia, Smithia grandis, a hairy new species of Cassyta, a probably new sp. of Clausena, Linostoma Siamense, Artabotrys Kurzii or wo find in the vesicular holes of laterite rocks in sheltered places a curious new genus of Aroidcae with snow-white spathes, ( Hapaline Benthamiana ) or the little plants of an Ariopsis. During the hot season a number of gaudy coloured flowers spring up, making truly a flower garden of the blackened burnt ground. Such are especially Scitamincae and Am ary l- * Similar to what we experience in wandering, for example, over the sterile and monotonous heath-lands of Southern Bavaria, etc., where we meet at great distances here a patch of Adonis vemalis, there one of Pulsatilla, etc., etc. ( 41 ) < ideac, as Raempferia Candida , and Parishii, Curcuma rubescens ? , Crinnm sp., Gaslrochihcs Hcmiorchiis Birmanica, Gynura, etc., besides Ochna suffruticosa and such like stainless dicotylids. The trees, owing to their coarse fissured bark, are especially fitted for the support to epiphytical plants, and these are, therefore, developed hero to a degree, which would appear quite extraordinary, were it not, that they comprise mostly such plants as need light rather than dampness for their development. A host of orchids make their appearance, flowering at the height of the hot season ; when they exhibit the splendour of their blossoms in a most wonderful manner almost unknown in evergreen forests. Dendrobium anceps, Dalhousiea- num, aggregation, hedyosmuin, barbatulim , cretaccum, chrysotoxum, formosum, moschatum, nodatum, etc., Eriae, Ac. rides odoratum, Bolbophyllum, Saccolabia , Vanda teres, Bensoni, coeru- lescens, Cymbidium, etc. etc. are frequent every where. In fact the most peculiar orchids are restricted to these and other drier forests exposed to the sun, while such as are identical or nearly allied with Malayan forms occur only in the evergreen forests, and more especially in the hill forests. Dischidia mumrnularia and several Uoyae, along with Drymoglossum, Niphoboli and Platycerium are the chief plants on the trees. Mosses are scarce, a JIacromitrium and a Leuco- blepharum being the chief ones on the trees, while Garckca phascoules is the most common on the ground. Lichens are here plentiful and many of them are very remarkable species. C. Low forests. — These resemble in every respect the former, but differ from them essen- tially in the following points: They are greatly mixed up with trees of the lower mixed forests and grow like these, not on a rocky or stony ground, but on clay or loam, resting most probably on impermeable strata of diluvium. The ground is rather densely covered by long and stiff grasses and the Eng tree is seldom found here. The soil is either a very heavy stiff and usually yellowish clay or loam, on which Andropogonous grasses chiefly spring up, or a grey alluvial clay, on which Imperata cyliudrica is often the chief grass which grows. They might therefore be distinguished into two groups, the former occurring chiefly along the western slopes of the Yomah from Thonsay southwards, while the other is peculiar to the lands adjoining the eastern slopes of the Yomah from the Koon Choung to near Pegu. But as they contain almost the same trees and herbage, I treat them under one and the same head. The height and growth of the trees is the same as in the Eng forests, and when I say that they are a combination of the lower mixed forests and the Eng forests, I give them their true character. Here are to be found nearly all the trees of both these varieties of forests, and not rarely teak, Eng and myaya ( Grewia microcos) are seen growing side by side. Even Homa- lium tomentosum which so pertinaciously avoids diluvial formations, is found here occasionally. The following kinds of trees are also to be found associated with the above : Miliusa ve- lutina, Walsura villosa, Daphnidium, argenteum, Albizzia lucida, Anogeissus acurninatus, Aporosa macrophylla, Symplocos racemosa, several species of Randia and Gardenia, Aporosa villosa Zizyphus rugosa, Nauclea Brunonis, Dillenia pcntagyna and pulcherrima, Strychnos nuxvomica , Xylia dolabriformis, Holarrhena pubescens, Da/bergia cultrata, and 1). purpurea (thitpoh) ; Termi- nalia tomentella ( pangah), Odina wodier, Pterospermum semisagittatum, Terminalia Belerica Lagerstroemia macrocarpa and L. flos reginae, Cinnamamum obtusifolium ? , Antidesma diandrum, Emblica officinalis, Cureya arborea, Grewia microcos, Terminalia alata and crenulata, Lophopetalum, etc. As in Savannah mixed forests, so also here in these low forests, certain trees become pre- valent to the exclusion of the greater part of their usual companions, and we meet with Dalbergia cultrata (Yind-yke) Terminalia alata (toukkyan), Strychnos nux-vomica (Khabouug) forests, etc. Bamboo is very subordinate here, but groups of wapyoogeley, teiwa, tinwa and myinwa are met with. Climbers are here more numerous, without however impairing the openness of the forest. They are all such as grow in the Eng or lower mixed forests, as for example Butca superba, Sphenodesma, Otosemma macrophylla, Calycopteris Roxburghii, etc. The undergrowth is composed of rather high but meagre grasses, amongst which the follow- ing prevail : Ischaemum bijugum and obliquivalvis ? , Andropgon pertusum ? , Gryllus, and many other species, Leptochloa ? , Eragrostis Brownei, rubens and 2 or 3 other species, Coix heteroclita, Pollinia, Androscepia gigantea, Hymenaclime Indica, Panicum angustatum, Chloris digitata, Ophiurus perforatus, polystachyus f , etc., Scleria lithosperma, Haemarthria ? , Dimeria, Aris- tida setacea, Anthistyria, Gymbopogon, Schizachyrium brevifolium, Cyperus Silhetensis, niveus, etc. Panicum brizoides, and others. When Imperata cyliudrica is the principal grass, few others spring up with it. Amongst the grasses grow numerous perennials and half shrubby plants, such as, Flem- mingia involucrata, strobilifcra and 1 or 2 other species, Crotalaria alata, acicularis, sessiliflora calycina, linifolia, and albida, Teramnus mollis, Dunbaria mollis, Cassia mimusoides, a lfabc- naria with yellow flowers, Gloriosa superba, Ophiopogon Wallichii, Pterostigma capitatum ? , Sida rhombifolia and carpmifolia, TJrena rigida and spcciosa, Micromelum hirsutum , Osbcckia 11 ( 42 ) Ckinensis, Nekonia origanoides , Ebermeyera Mac/ellandii and diffusa, Slrobilanthes glaucescens and phyllostachya, Neuracanthus tetragonostachyus , Uraria hamosa, Sopubia strictu, F l<‘ ai- ming ia lineal a , Desmodium polycarpum , triquetrum, pulchellum , trichocaulon ? , and triflorum, Judicia dectmata, Teplirosia purpurea, Urena lobata, Ageratum eonyzoides, Vernonia cinerea, Lrpidagathis recur on, Phaylopsis , Lygodium pinna-turn, Knoxia lasiocarpa, Acroceplialus capitatus, Triumfetta angulata, Costas speciosus, Xyris, Eriocaulon, Impatiem Ckinensis, Ardisia Wallichii, Lepidagathis mucronata, Phrynium parviflorum ? , Asparagus acerosus, Lera 2 or 8 species, Blu- mea t lava and several other species, Musa rubra, Alpinia Allughas, etc. etc. The epiphytical vegetation is hero much the same as in the Eng forests. These low forests shew many transitions into lower mixed forests along their lines of contact, and it is often very difficult to distinguish between the two. 6 . — Mixed forests. Under this heading I comprise a variety of forests, which grow chiefly on permeable substrata, such as alluvial and sandstone formations. These differ from the open forests amongst other things in their general aspect and in the height and growth of the trees, as also in the prevalence of climbers. They comprise more than half of the area, which I comprise under the denomination of Pegu. They are at the present time most important to a forester, but at the same time are most difficult to subdivide into marked varieties. I shall how- ever try to overcome some of the difficulties by taking these varieties of mixed forests in as extended a sense as possible. I divide them, therefore, into the two following divisions, each of which will be subdivided again under its respective headings : — a. Alluvial mixed forests. b. Upper mixed forests. A. — Alluvial mixed forests. These forests occupy chiefly the alluvial plains from the base of the lulls to the banks of the larger rivers. Towards the Irrawaddi, Sittang and other large rivers they assume the character of savannahs while towards the hills they gra- dually pass into the upper mixed forests, especially when growing in shallow alluvium resting on sandstone. They are of a moister character than the upper mixed forests, and therefore are richer in trees and climbers, but lower in growth and much poorer in bamboo-growth. Ivyattounwa and wayah are rarely if ever seen in true lower mixed forests, and a number of small herbs, indicative of a greater dryness and more light, are here wanting or at least are very rare. I shall consider these forests under the following headings : — an. Lower mixed forests. bb. Savannah forests. ec. B!• a, p P >=3 — 0 o 93 ^ p^ E3 I— ■ S- Hi GO 5* S. 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