VH, 5 HW No. 45 ' 1 \ Examples of Project-Problem Instruction A JOURNAL PUBLISHED BY KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT EMPORIA, KANSAS 7-5625 TEACHING Published' every month by the Kansas State Normal School at Emporia, representing the official and professional interests of the School. Sent free of charge, on request, to any teacher, editor, public official, alumnus, or eitizen. Entered as second-class matter at the Emporia post office under the act of August 24 , 1912 . Address communications to Teaching, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. Thos. W. Butcher, President of the Kansas State Normal School. H. E. Birdsong, Editor. EDITORIAL COMMITTEE. Oa*l W. Salser, Director Extension Division. E. R. Barrett, Professor of English. Willis H. Kerr, Librarian. H. E. Birdsong, Instructor in English. Vol. IV, No. 5. February, 1919. Whole No. 45. CONTENTS. Examples of Project-problem Instruction. Editorial : page Better Educational Opportunities 3 The Educational Bill, S. 4987 4 J. W. Crabtree. What are Projects and Problems? 7 H. Gr. Lull. Project-problem Instruction in Eighth-grade Geography 11 Miss Jennie Williams. Eighth-grade English 15 J. H. Wilson. Project-problem Instruction in Arithmetic 18 Miss Avice Wright. Project-problem Instruction in Elementary Science 21 Miss Florence Billig. TEACHING 3 EDITORIAL. BETTER EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES. It is not too much to say that the educational bill now be- fore the Congress of the United States promises more for education than any one thing or half dozen things that have been done for education in the last decade. The bill proposes to place in the hands of a federal commission $100,000,000 to be used for the promotion of education among the states, fol- lowing, in a general way, the plan of the Smith-Hughes bill. The state would have to equal the amount of federal funds apportioned to it. Illiteracy, the Americanization of for- eigners, the equalization of educational opportunity with par- ticular reference to rural and village schools, health, prepara- tion of teachers, and a department of education in the Presi- dent’s cabinet are all included in the bill. As everyone knows, our present educational system is dependent wholly upon the ideals, the wealth and the pride of the local state or community. The result is that children who are unfortunate enough to be born where wealth or proper educational ideals are lacking are not given an equal oppor- tunity with children born in more favored communities. And yet they are all American children. This bill proposes to make real in a very concrete sense our sacred declaration concern- ing the equality of opportunity. Aside from a square deal for every child, we have come to know that most children do not live permanently in the communities where they are educated. In other words, a state or community having proper standards of citizenship may be invaded by the products of a system of schools in a state where proper ideals of citizenship are wanting. Under a federal system of education, such as this bill pro- poses, it would be possible to give all of the children of Amer- ica the same instruction along the lines of citizenship. We could establish universally our National ideals. When Uncle Sam brought together his big army he found among the men twenty-one to thirty-one years of age 700,000 who could not read or write. A few years under the operation of this pro- posed law would make such a condition impossible. This 4 TEACHING measure seeks to drive out illiteracy from among our own peo- ple ; it seeks to make a good citizen of every child ; it seeks to Americanize the vast number of foreigners who are already among us and those who are yet to come. Every teacher and every man and woman interested in the development of American institutions and American ideals should get behind this bill. — Thos. W. Butcher. Federal Assistance to Education in the Several States. The Educational Bill, S. 4987. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary National Education Association. INTRODUCTION. On October 10, 1918, Senator Hoke Smith, of Georgia, introduced into the United States senate the most comprehensive and important educa- tional measure that has ever been put before Congress. The bill provides for an annual appropriation of $100,000,000, provided that sums in equal amount be appropriated by the several states, for the purpose of aiding the states to carry on more successfully certain types of education which most vitally concern our national welfare. The main provisions of the bill (S. 4987) are as follows: 1. For the removal of illiteracy, $7,500,000 anually. 2. For the Americanization of foreigners, $7,500,000 annually. 3. For the equalization of educational opportunities within the several states, particularly in rural and village schools, $50,000,000 annually. 4. To cooperate with the states in the promotion of physical and health education and recreation, $20,000,000 annually. 5. To extend and improve the facilities for the preparation of teach- ers for public schools, and particularly the rural schools, $15,000,000 annually. 6. The creation of an executive department known as the Department of Education, with a secretary in the President’s cabinet. This depart- ment is to administer the educational work of the government which is assigned to it. The reasons supporting the bill, the facts which lie back of it, and the beneficial results that would follow its adoption are not written into the bill itself. This series of explanatory articles is written for those who want the facts that support the bill, and for those who are so keenly in- terested in education as related to social welfare as to desire the facts that led up to the preparation and introduction of this bill. THE REMOVAL OF ILLITERACY. The first selective draft showed that there were 700,000 illiterates between 21 and 31 years of age in this country. That fact stunned us, but there was nothing new in it. Kansas had, in 1910, 14,813 such illiterates. The congressional allotment would be $29,537.12 annually. This would have to be equaled by the state, and there would then be available $59,074.24 each year, or almost $4 for each illiterate. If the state should start a ten-year program for the removal of illiteracy, and if it should each year teach one-tenth of its illiterates, there would be available $40 to teach each illiterate to read and write. This plan would eliminate illiteracy from the state within ten years. THE AMERICANIZATION OF IMMIGRANTS. Kansas has 135,450 immigrants, according to the census of 1910. The congressional allotment would amount to $75,174.75. The amount avail- able for Americanization work in the state would be $150,349.50 annually. The reasons why the nation should cooperate with the states in an Americanization program are: 1. Foreigners are admitted to the country under national law. 2. They are privileged to participate freely in a democratic govern- ment. 3. Their contribution to national welfare is in proportion to the training in Americanization afforded them. 4. The permanency of a competent democracy rests on the intelli- gence and patriotism of its citizenry. THE EQUALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES WITHIN THE STATE. The bill before Congress provides $50,000,000 annually, “for the im- provement of public schools of less than college grade, with the definite aim of extending school terms and of stimulating state and local interest in improving, through better instruction and gradation and through con- solidation and supervision, the rural schools and the schools in sparsely settled localities.’' An equal amount by the states would provide $100,- 000,000 annually. The fund is to be distributed on the per teacher basis, and amounts to $80.34 for each public school teacher employed. Kansas has 15,243 teachers and would receive from Congress $1,224,- 622.62. An equal amount by the state for these purposes would make available $2,449,245.24 for the purposes mentioned in the bill. The bill provides that no state shall share in this fund unless it has at least twenty-four weeks of school in each district, unless it enforces an adequate compulsory school attendance law, and unless it provides that “the basis language of instruction in the common school branches in all schools, public and private, shall be the English language only.” PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION. The bill now in the senate provides $20,000,000 annually by Congress “to cooperate with the states in the promotion of physical and health edu- cation and recreation,” including “the medical and dental examination of children of school age, the determination of mental and physical defects in such children, the employment of school nurses, the establishment and maintenance of school dental clinics, and the instruction of the people in the principles of health and sanitation.” The states are to be allotted shares of the appropriation on the basis of total population according to the last census. This provides a federal 6 TEACHING appropriation of 21% cents for each person and requires an equal amount from the state, making a total of 43 % cents for each person. This is a small per capita amount, but for each state there is a substantial sum. Kansas’ population in 1910 was 1,690,949. She would therefore receive from Congress for physical and health education $367,781.41 annually. An equal amount would make available $735,562.82 annually. The war has made us newly conscious of the number physically unfit for military service. Under the first selective draft, 730,756 men were rejected for physical reasons after examination. This is 29 percent of the total number actually examined by local boards. Thousands of these persons are made fit by proper treatment. The economic loss due to preventable illness is not less than 10 percent of our total present produc- tion. When one considers the loss of productive power due to remediable defects and to ill health that might easily have been avoided, he is con- vinced that the sensible thing is for the nation and the states to cooperate in an educational program that will avoid this economic loss, and at the same time give to people healthy and therefore happy and efficient bodies. THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. The bill now before Congress provides $15,000,000 annually, and de- mands an equal amount by the states, “to cooperate with the states in preparing teachers for the schools, particularly rural schools”— “to pre- pare teachers, to encourage a more nearly universal preparation of pro- spective teachers, to extend the facilities for the improvement of teachers already in service, to encourage through the establishment of scholar- ships and otherwise a greater number of talented young people to make adequate preparation for public-school service, and otherwise to provide an increased number of trained and competent teachers.” This money is to be apportioned on the public school teacher basis, and amounts to $24.10 per teacher for the promotion of teacher preparation. Kansas had 15,243 public school teachers in 1915-1916. She would receive $367,356.30 for the purposes named above. Doubling this amount would make available a minimum of $734,712.60 for teacher preparation in her tax-supported normal schools and colleges. A NATIONAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION — SUMMARY. The administration of the funds appropriated by S. 4987 involves not only clerical work, but also judgment, discretion, and executive capacity. It ought to be carried forward in a manner befitting the nation's interest in these types of education. For these reasons, the bill provides for the creation of an executive department of the government, to be known as the Department of Education, with a secretary in the President’s cabinet. The bill also provides for three assistant secretaries, for the transfer of the Bureau of Education to the Department of Education, for the transfer cf other educational work of the government to the Department of Educa- tion by Congress or by the President, defines the duties and powers of the secretary, and provides funds for the expenses of the department. The bill further provides for the designation or creation by the state legislatures of the machinery necessary within each state for the coopera- tive administration of the provisions of the bill, and sets up certain necessary safeguards, such as systems of accounting and auditing. TEACHING 7 A summary of the appropriations provided in this bill for Kansas: 1. For the removal of illiteracy $29,537.12 2. For the Americanization of immigrants . 75,174.75 3. For equalizing educational opportunities 1,224,622.62 4. For physical and health education 367,781.41 5. For better and more teacher-preparation 367,356.30 Total $2,064,472.20 Every one of these types of education is of national concern, and the wealth of the nation will be taxed to raise the $100,000,000 which will be distributed on the bases indicated. Every citizen ought to become active in support of the bill, for it is the most important educational measure ever considered by Congress. What are Projects and Problems ? 1 H. G. Lull, Director of Teacher Training, Kansas State Normal School. A pupil may be said to have worked out a project when he has con- sciously set up a purpose, has made plans to accomplish his purpose, has executed his plans, and has finally measured the results of his work by comparing them with his purpose and plans. A problem arises when a perplexing difficulty intercepts the path lead- ing from the pupil’s felt need to the realization thereof. Alternative suggestions arise as to whether one means or another shall be chosen to remove the difficulty. Finally, at least, a tentative choice is made of a certain line of procedure or of a certain end to be attained, and then the work proceeds on the basis of this choice until the difficulty is removed, unless it is seen to be leading the wrong way, in which case new observa- tions are taken, and another choice and a new trial are made to overcome the difficulty. This process is continued until success is reached. The problem, as distinguished from the project, is more a matter of explana- tion or interpretation, involving analysis, while the project is in the main a matter of planning to do something and doing it. A problem may arise as a special case of a project, when the difficulty is connected with the location or definition of the purpose of the project. Or a problem may arise in the process of working out the project, when the difficulty is connected with the question whether one means or another shall be chosen to realize the purpose of the project. Or, again, a problem may arise independently of the project, when, for various reasons, the pupil may be thrown into a problematical situation, which has no connec- tion with the purposing, the planning or the working out of a project. On the other hand, scfme projects involve no perplexing difficulties which can properly be called problems. Ordinarily, however, problems arise much more frequently in connection with the origin and development of projects than otherwise. In the main, therefore, projects and problems are so closely associated in instruction that we may express their relation- ship by using the term, “project-problem instruction.” 1. The theory and the schoolroom procedures of project-problem instruction are dis- cussed more elaborately by the writer in two articles published elsewhere: “Socializing School Procedure,” American Journal of Sociology, to be published in March, 1919; “Project-problem Instruction,” School and House Education, December, 1918. 8 TEACHING PROCEDURES IN PROJECT-PROBLEM INSTRUCTION. The Relation of Recitation to Study. If the recitation and the study of a lesson occur on the same day, the recitation should precede the study. Among other activities of the recitation, the planning and stating of projects, and the anticipation of problems which may occur in the process of working out the project, are important matters. During the study period the pupils work individually, or occasionally in groups of two or three, upon the projects or problems which have been planned and stated in the recitation. The general outline of the project is usually con- structed by the members of the class working together in recitation, while the various problems or points arising in connection with the project are usually worked out by individual pupils in the study period. Many times, of course, it is advisable to have more than one pupil, or even the whole class, work on one problem or point in a study period. But in the study period they should work as individuals and not as a group. The amount of time allotted to each subject on the program should not be arbitrarily divided between recitation and study. Suppose, for ex- ample, that three fifty-minute periods a week are given to geography in a sixth grade. If the class is originating and planning a project which will require more than one fifty-minute period to advance it to the point where supervised study may be profitably carried on, then another period, or even two or three periods, should be used for recitation if necessary before supervised study begins. In general the pupils should work in the recitation until they are ready to study, and they should study until they are ready to recite. Pupil Activities in the Recitation. The pupils work as a socially organized group. At one time they are planning and outlining the project. Sometimes they are raising and stating problems which arise in connec- tion with the work on the project, or independently of the project. Again they are dividing among themselves the work of the project which is to be done in the study period. After considerable work has been done upon the project or problems, the pupils return to another recitation to report the results of their study to their classmates. While a pupil is reporting the others are listening attentively, taking notes on the report and asking questions about matters which are not clear to them. At the conclusion of the report the pupils give criticisms intended to complete the development of the problem or part of the project and to help the one reporting. When all reports of problems or parts of the project have been given, the work of summa- rizing and drawing conclusions begins. The pupil who has proven himself strong in the work is usually made the leader by the class for the task of summarizing and drawing conclu- sions. Out of more or less informal discussion of the points brought for- ward by the individual members of the class, a revised outline of the project is made and conclusions are drawn. Pupil Activities in the Supervised Study Period. It is very important that pupils should be free to move about the room to find materials, to use the dictionary, encyclopedia, reference books, etc. All distracting TEACHING 9 conditions which prevent successful study should be eliminated, such as confusion in using materials, loud talking by both pupils and teacher, conversation about matters not connected with the study, the conducting of a recitation of another class in the room, or the teacher speaking to the whole class at once. Pupils should work individually, or possibly in pairs'. They should be working on problems or parts of a project which were stated and assigned to them or chosen by them in the recitation. Each pupil should write down his part of the project or problem, construct a tentative outline with which to guide his reading or observation, and proceed to think it through before reading or gathering information about it. After he has made his tentative study outline he should investigate its validity by reading from available sources of information, or by observing, or by performing certain experiments to prove or disprove what he has outlined and to find out what other facts are needed to complete his report. As he reads or observes or experiments, he should revise his original outline and finally prepare his report for the class. Teacher Activities in the Recitation. The teacher’s function in the recitation is (1) that of a stimulator, and (2) that of an umpire. She stimulates the class to originate and plan projects, to raise and state problems, which may or may not be related to a project. She leads them to compare their results with their original plan, to become efficient critics of their own work, to organize their work and make new investigations, to realize their needs for skill and technique which are required in work- ing out a project or a problem, and, through all of their work, to realize the maximum purposeful activity of which they are capable. No specific methods guiding the teacher’s work as a stimulator can be laid down. In general she should stimulate the pupils by using thought- provoking questions at the right time and at the right place, and by drop- ping suggestions occasionally when they are needed. However, while the group phase of the recitation isi going on she should use questions and suggestive statements sparingly. She should pass her leadership over to the pupils by refusing to do anything which tfcie pupils can profitably do. As the pupils acquire experience in project work they will gradually evolve and formulate methods of procedure. Then the teacher becomes more and more like an umpire of a game instead of a captain. The pupils will appeal to her frequently, but she should render a decision only afte r they have thoughtfully tried to overcome the difficulty in the project or problem. The teacher should use the minimum number of words necessary to do her part effectively, and she should keep herself out of the pupils’ group as much as possible, and yet make her standards effective. Much of the time her position should be that of an inspector. She should retire to the rear of the room, where she can oversee the work and be as inconspicuous as possible. At times, however, she should take charge of the class and exercise the greatest activity in directing their work, but this should be done in order that the pupils may in turn assume their own group direc- tion successfully. Teacher Activities in the Supervised Study Period. The teacher should stimulate successful study activity by the pupils rather than act as an 10 TEACHING authority or as a general source of information. She should provide the pupils' with facilities, materials and sources of information with which to work. She should stimulate the pupils to think accurately in constructing the tentative outlines of their problems, or their parts of the project which they have undertaken to work up for the class, by asking individual pupils such questions as the following: “What bearing has step ‘4’ upon the problem?” “What is the relation of point ‘5’ to point ‘6’?” etc. When a pupil has finished his tentative outline she should stimulate him to gather carefully the information required by his outline by asking such questions as the following: “With what facts do you support this point?” “From what facts do you draw this conclusion?” “Where would you be likely to find reliable information on this point?” etc. The teacher should stimulate the pupils to do good work in the study period, but she should not do the work for them. Before the pupils recite again she should know accurately what each one has accomplished in the study period, in order that the recitation may be something other than an information quizzing performance. Facilities for Project-problem Instruction. The nature of the. project •or problem determines the direction of the reading, observation or ex- perimentation to be done. Textbooks are inadequate sources of infor- mation. While the teacher should determine in general the kind and the scope of the projects which may arise in her classes, she cannot profitably limit the pupils’ sources of information to the ordinary supply of textbooks, reference and supplementary books of the average school. An accessible library becomes very important. Books and reading materials may be either requisitioned and taken from the library to the schoolrooms or the pupils may be sent to the library for supervised study. The latter plan is preferable, (1) because it is impossible to know in advance just what courses will be needed, and (2) because books kept in the library are accessible to more pupils. If pupils are sent to the library a librarian should supervise their study in exactly the same way as the regular classroom teacher does. The pupils should go to hpr with the class project stated and outlined, and also each pupil should go with his part of the project or problem stated and tentatively outlined. The librarian should teach the pupils to find the required information. She should be a successful stimulator of activity and she should see that the pupils grow more independent in finding and using library materials. EXAMPLES. It is exceedingly difficult to secure records of projects and problems worked out as completely as the theory of the ideal project and of the ideal problem requires. Some records lack in the failure to draw con- clusions; some in the failure to compare conclusions with the original plans; some lack in individual activity and others in class activity. On the whole, however, the following examples of project-problem work show individual initiative, group cooperation, and systematic and sus- tained, purposeful activity. Moreover, the limitations of space in a treatment of this kind make it impracticable to give in detail the class discussions by which the TEACHING 11 various points, problems and conclusions were developed. It is also impracticable to record the various preliminary outlines and studies, many parts of which were necessarily discarded because they had no value in the final organization of the project, or of the problem, although they may have been extremely valuable as groundwork for their solu- tion. Only the final drafts stripped of unnecessary details are given. The examples show a variety of procedures. Some of the projects were initiated and worked out by the class as a whole; some were originated and worked out by individuals and reported by them to the class, while others were originated and worked out by the pupils both individually and in class groups. During the past year project-problem instruction has been carried on successfully from the fourth to the ninth grade, intermediate and junior high-school grades of the training schools of the Kansas State Normal School at Emporia. The following projects and problems have been selected from among those worked out by the sixth, seventh and eighth grades. While the eighth-grade geography class was studying the dominating trade centers of the United States, the following project originated with one of the pupils. It appealed to the class as being worthy of their study, and accordingly it was adopted as a class project. The members of the class working together in the recitation period made a tentative outline of the points required in planning the project. Then followed reading on the outline by members of the class in the supervised study period. When the class met again for recitation the outline was re- vised. Then followed in the next study period an investigation of the jnarious points of the revised outline by different members of the class. U/he following is an exact copy of the work of the pupils. PROJECT-PROBLEM INSTRUCTION IN EIGHTH-GRADE GEOGRAPHY. Miss Jennie Williams, Supervisor of Geography. Project: “To show why the trade of New York is greater than that of San Francisco.” 1. Things we need to know before solving our problem. (1) Value of trade in tons and money. (2) The location of the two cities. (3) The kinds of harbors. (4) Position. (5) Good railways. (6) Transportation on water. (7) Articles of trade. Revised outline. 1. The value of trade in money and quantity of trade in tons. 2. Description of the two harbors. 3. Position of the two cities with reference to our country; to foreign countries. 4. Articles of trade. 12 TEACHING Original Outline. — Marley Thompson. 2. “Description of the two harbors.” New York. (a) Average depth of New York harbor is 50 feet. (b) Deepest place is 67 feet. (c) Shallowest place is 18 feet. (d) No sandbars. San Francisco. (a) Average depth of San Franscisco's harbor is 30 feet. (b) Deepest place is 126 feet. (c) Shallowest place is 2 feet. (d) Quite a number of sandbars. Rules for good harbor. 1. Vessels should have 30 feet of water to float with ease. 2. Harbor should have sufficient area — several square miles. 3. It must be locked, so that a vessel can ride at anchor safely. 4. It must be tideless or nearly so. 5. The deep water must extend to the shore. Facts regarding New York harbor. 1. Great piers have been built on the New Jersey side as well as the New York side of the harbor. 2. The fort of New York has 450 miles of water front, of which 125 miles the largest steamer can navigate. After discussion and criticism by the class the outline was re- arranged with the main points in the following order: 1. Rules for good harbor. 2. Depth. a. New York harbor. b. San Francisco harbor. 3. Added facts. 4. References : a. World Geography, Tarr and McMurry, pages 37 and 125. b. School Century, pages . c. Great Cities of the United States, pages 32 and 230. Original Outline. Note. — B ecause of absence of the pupil to whom this report was assigned, the class worked it out as a group. 3. “Position of the two cities with reference to our country; to foreign countries.” New York is situated as a natural market for our manufacturing states and cities. The port is within short distance of our oldest and most densely settled region. It is situated on the Atlantic, toward which all of our trade has tended for years. It is directly opposite the great commercial countries of Europe. There is a direct waterway to South American ports. The distance across the Atlantic is short. San Francisco is situated a little south of the middle of our western coast. The position is good for trade with other Pacific states. How- ever, this city, up to the present time, has had difficulty in trading with TEACHING IB European countries; the Panama canal has helped and will help more. San Francisco faces the Orient. This is a disadvantage, in that the Oriental nations have not been great commercial nations. The distance to Oriental countries is much greater than to Europe. References : 1. Essentials of Geography, pages 86 and 182. 2. World Geography, pages 37 and 125. 3. Great Cities of the United States, pages 30 and 230. Note. — No revised outline was made of the above report. Original Outline — John Robert Groh. 4. “Articles of trade.” 1. San Franciso: San Francisco is the greatest city in the United States for the shipment of wheat. It also ships cotton, canned goods, oil, barley, prunes, flour, dried fruits, leather, machinery, lumber and corn products. The steamers coming 1 in are loaded with raw silk, coffee, tea, copra, nitrate of soda, tin, sugar, rice, cigars, coal, burlap, vanilla, cheese and Manila hemp. Copra, the main export from Samoa and from many Pacific islands, is the dried meat of cocoanut. It is of value for food and for oil. 2. New York: The leading imports of New York are: rubber, silk goods, furs, jewelry, coffee, tea, sugar and tin. The most important ex- ports are: cotton, meats and bread stuffs. Added to my own list corn and manufactured goods. References : 1. Great Cities of the United States, pages 32 and 231. 2. Essentials of Geography, pages 87, 178 and 180. 3. World Geography, page 187. Note. — The above study was not revised, because it had so little value in relation to the main project. Original Outline — Evelyn Geeslin. 5. “Sources of materials or territories supplying articles.” 1. New York: New York is located in the midst of a great manufac- turing region. It gets material from New England and from the Great Lakes region. From the Great Lakes region the materials are carried through the lakes down the canal to the Hudson, and also by many rail- roads leading to New York. It gets trade from almost all parts of the United States. It exports cotton, raw and manufactured, to England. New York imports chemicals and drugs of different kinds from Germany. It also imports tin and iron from Australia; rubber and coffee from Brazil. 2. San Francisco: San Francisco carries on slaughtering and meat packing, which are very important industries. It also has a great ship- building plant. It imports iron. The surrounding country is engaged in agriculture. San Francisco is the opening for the great California valley. The two principal rivers are San Juaquin and Sacramento. References : 1. Great Cities of the United States, pages 32, 39, and 222. 2. Tarr and McMurry, page 126. 3. Essentials of Geography, pages 87, 89, 175, 179, 180. Note. — The class added to Evelyn Geeslin’s report the following facts, which are much more significant in relation to the main project than her report. 14 TEACHING Cattle and their products are shipped from beyond the Mississippi to New York; immense quantities of grain are sent there from the great agricultural states of the Mississippi valley. New York is the chief market place of our country, because the largest part of our country is connected with it by railroads and waterways. San Francisco draws trade from a much smaller area in our country. The foreign countries with which she trades do not demand things in such large quantities. Original Outline. — Edward Potts. 6. “Ease of transportation.” 1. The East is more densely populated than the West. 2. This makes a great demand; hence greater transportation. 3. Railroads are more easily laid than in the West. 4. The civilized world is on the East. America was discovered on the East. 5. Four railroads run into San Francisco, as against twelve running into New York. 6. New York is the financial center of the United States. 7. The Erie canal connects New York with the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence river. 8. New York has a population of 5,000,000; San Francisco 400,- 000. New York is the first city in size in the United States; second in the world. 9. New York carries more than half of our foreign trade and leads all cities in manufacturing, and has one of the best harbors in the world. 10. New York has wonderful underground, elevated and surface systems of transportation. 11. San Francisco is the eleventh city in size in the United States and has one of the finest harbors in the world ; also the chief city for trade with the Orient, and leads all cities of the United States in exportation of wheat. There are also many great canning factories in California. References : 1. Essentials of Geography, page 87. 2. Great Cities of the United States, page 28. 3. World Geography, page 37. Note. — N o revised study was made of the above report. Conclusions. After a thorough discussion of the foregoing reports, made by individ- ual pupils, the class decided to adopt the following points as their conclu- sions of the project: Our conclusions: 1. The total trade of New York is fifteen times that of San Fran- cisco in money value; the tonnage is thirteen times that of the latter city. 2. The average depth of New York harbor is greater; its water front and area is much larger than that of San Francisco, and therefore can take care of more boats at once. TEACHING 15 3. New York is the outlet of a great manufacturing region, which always means much trade. San Francisco is the outlet of a great agricultural country. 4. San Francisco is not the outlet of a great water route, while a great percent of New York’s trade comes by way of the Great Lakes and Erie canal. 5. New York faces the great commercial nations of Europe, while San Francisco faces the more backward nations of the Orient. 6. New York is the great distributing center for our country. 7. The territory supplying New York trade is many times that of San Francisco; New York draws trade from at least three- fourths of. our country. San Francisco is far from the cen- ter of population, and the greater part of her trade is limited to the country west of the Rocky Mountains. EIGHTH GRADE ENGLISH. J. H. Wilson, Supervisor. The following record of class work lacks a great deal in the essentials of project procedure. The purpose of the work was to heighten ap- preciation of the literary masterpieces chosen for study. The project procedure may be debatable as a method of securing emotional ap- preciation. COMPOSITION AND LITERATURE. The eighth grade, taking up the study of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s writings, read “My First Visit to Niagara” and a biographical sketch of two or three pages. They studied thei picture of Hawthorne, covering certain features and attempting to estimate the qualities of isolated features, eyes, mouth, forehead, nose, and chin. Much interesting speculation resulted, which led to a question of the general nature of the man. The teacher then asked how that might be best found out. The answer was, “Through his writings.” Class discussion set the principles of judgment down as a criterion. The class became interested in the following questions: Did Haw- thorne have any peculiarities which were prominent in all his writings? How do you account for them? How shall we find the solution of our question? The answer was that we should read until we discovered what seemed to us to be the most prominent note in the mood of the writer. Next we should hurry through the selection, noting the im- portant passages to see if the author maintained a uniform attitude toward things, and to see exactly, if possible, what influenced his writings. Each child was then given a different selection of Hawthorne to read. The result was most gratifying and is explained below. When we at- tempted to collect the books in which they were reading, they asked in many cases to keep them in order to finish their reading. The first work of the child was, of course, silent reading. His object was to discover the predominant mood of the writer, and then to skip about to test his conclusions. When sure of his conclusions he was asked to formulate a statement which most accurately pictured the mind 16 TEACHING of the author (topic sentence). Next he was asked to make three or four statements to show what influenced his writings, what his general mood was, and how he reacted to the things about him. Each of the sentences in this paragraph was taken then as the topic about which several things were to be said, and each illustrated by quotation from the book. These paragraphs were then summed up in a final paragraph, which completed the theme, with no mention having been made of its unfolding. The process was repeated, with the child equipped with another selection of the author’s, and later comparisons were made to note the changes which occur in his different works. The uniformity of their conclusion! showed that they had read with understanding. No mention was made in the class of what the different members were discovering until the whole process was completed. Examples of themes on Poe which conform to the same idea we had in studying Hawthorne are attached. This work was done in one hour’s time. The first part of the work consisted of a five-minute discussion in which paramount things relative to the nature, style and tendencies of an author’s writings, with specula- tion as to his own character, were reviewed and brought out by the class. The questions to guide their work were, briefly: (1) a general state- ment as to the nature of the man, with several minor statements pertain- ning to his style, which in this case was decided as being the mood, the words and the characters of the story. (2) The next part of the work consisted of taking each of these minor sentences separately and proving the point made in it with quotations from the readings. (3) After these paragraphs had been written they decided that to complete the paper a summing-up statement of the whole thing should be made. EXACT CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ’CLASS. The Fall of the House of Usher. Daisy Bramwell. — Judging from this story, “The Fall of the House of Usher,” Poe is a silent and/ mysterious writer and a stern man. His mood here is mysterious and dreamy. Poe likes to use a great many un- usual words that have the same meaning as smaller and more common words. His character, Roderick Usher, is of an old family, and he is a nervous and fretful' man, who being superstitious and afraid of the re- sults of the future, is in an infirm state of health. Poe is dreaming and letting his imagination go as far as it likes in the mystery of the house of Usher: “I looked upon the scene before me — upon the mere house and the simple landscape features of the domain, upon the vacant eye-like windows, upon a few rank ridges, and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees.” The meaning of a “great many unusual words” is that he likes to be different from other people by using unusual words, as “tarn,” which means a mountain lake, or as “phantasmagoric,” which is one of his favorite words. The description of his first character, Roderick Usher, shows he is wondering about the place and its mystery. “Yet the character of his face had been at all times remarkable — a cadaverousness of complexion; an eye large, liquid and luminous beyond comparison ; lips somewhat thin and very pallid, but of a surpassingly beautiful curve; a nose of a deli- cate Hebrew model, but with breadth of nostril unusual in similar formations; a finely molded chin, speaking in its want of prominence of TEACHING 17 want of moral energy.” He goes on describing him by telling of his web-like hair. My impression of Poe is that he is a silent and mysterious man, think- ing and wondering of what is to come. He writes as if he were in a stupid and dreamy mood, as if his senses were numbed by something. The Raven. Charles Coleman. — Poe was a strange man and wrote all of his stories in that strain. He wrote mysterious stories and poems. His words are unusual and express supernatural qualities. Most of the characters are queer or supernatural. Mystery and ghastliness are shown in these lines: “Ghastly grim and ancient raven wandering from the nightly shore.” His words are unusual and express a supernatural quality; “Quaff, oh quaff, this kind nepenthe and forget this lost Lenore!” Also the repetition of “Quoth the raven Nevermore!” makes it queer or super- natural. Poe was a very mysterious man. This is proved by his strange and mysterious writings. He was a very nervous man, and this stands out in most of his writings. Dan Schaffner. — Poe was a man who wrote about mysterious things. He often had mysterious moods. While he was in these moods he wrote about very unusual things. He had an unusual command of words, which was a great advantage to him. His characters were out of the ordinary, such as “The Raven” or “The Goldbug.” He had moods of mystery and dreaming and he wrote about very unusual things. “Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before. But the silence was unbroken and the stillness gave no token, and the only word there spoken was the whispered word Lenore.” This illustrates the mood Poe was in when he wrote “The Raven.” He had an unusual command of words, which was a great advantage to him. “Ghastly grim and ancient raven wandering from night’s Plutonian shore.” He had queer ways of dealing with his characters and bringing them out. “The Raven” and “The Goldbug” show how unusual some of his characters are. Poe was an unusual man. He had a mysterious disposition and unusual skill as a writer. He would sit down and figure out how he could write an unusual and weird poem or story. His works were weird and mysterious. The House of Usher. Sarah Howe. — Poe was a weird and mysterious man. His writings show that he was in a strange mood and he thought about weird and unnatural things. He used words that would describe the queer things that he was writing, words that tell of weird people and places. His characters have some strange happening or things connected with them, or else they are strange and mysterious in themselves. His mood was always queer. He would write about melancholy things. This quotation shows his mood: “During the whole of a dull, dark and soundless day in autumn of the year, when the 'clouds hung oppressively low in the heavens, I had been passing alone on horseback through a singularly dreary tract of country, and at length found himself, as the shades of the evening drew on, within view of the melancholy house of Usher.” The quotation shows Poe’s power of description and his use of words: “Feeble gleams of encrimsoned light made their way through the trellised. panes, and served to render sufficiently distinct the more promi- nent objects around; the eye, however, struggled in vain to reach the remoter angles of the chamber, of the recesses of the vaulted and fretted ceiling.” Poe describes one of his characters: “In the manner of my friends 18 TEACHING I was at once struck with an incoherence, an inconsistency; and I soon found this to arise from a series of feeble and futile struggles to over- come an habitual trepidancy, an excessive nervous agitation.” In this we also see Poe. Poe was a very queer man and his mind dwelt on unnatural and mysterious things. All of his writings are weird and mysterious. He put his queer feelings into writings, and that makes his queer stories. Thomas Butcher. — From what I have read of Edgar Allen Poe, I should say he was quite a mysterious writer and he always wrote of the supernatural. His style of writing is very singular. His mood seems to be alone and forlorn, and he takes life with the feeling of an outcast. He uses many words of which the meaning may not be plain, but they carry a mysterious feeling and his characters are strange and unreal. His mysterious mood and his forlorn outcasted feeling is shown in a quotation from “The' Raven” : “Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary.” In a quotation from “The Fall of the House of Usher” his mysterious and strange words and characters are shown: “To an anomalous species of terror I found him a bounden slave.” I am impressed wth Poe as having gone through many experiences of terror, as all his writings carry this symbol. He always gave an under- note of mystery to his writing. I like his writings and look upon them as unreal. He was a man who had gone through many thrilling scenes. Mabel Rohr. — Poe was a man who liked detective and mystery stories. He was) a man who wrote of dark and gloomy surroundings. He used words that suggest weird, desolate and ghostly things in all his descrip- tions. His characters are people who were given to wild actions and were nearly mad or insane. Poe was a man who liked detective and mystery stories — “The Fall of the House of Usher.” He was a man who wrote of dark and gloomy surroundings: “Having deposited our mournful burden upon tressels within this region of horror, we partially turned aside the yet unscrewed lid of the coffin, and looked upon the face of the tenant.” He used words that suggest weird, desolate and ghostly things in all his descriptions: “I endeavored to believe that much if not all of what I felt was due to the room — of the dark and tattered draperies which, tor- tured into motion by the breath of the rising tempest, swayed fitfully to and fro upon the walls, and rustled uneasily about the decorations of the bed.” His characters were people who were given to wild actions, and were nearly mad or insane: “Madman! Here he sprang furiously to his feet, and shrieked out his syallables as if in the effort he were giving up his soul. Madman! I tell you that she now stands without the door!” Poe was a man who liked solitude. He was very nervous and imagina- tive. His stories are very good descriptions for those who like mystery stories. PROJECT-PROBLEM INSTRUCTION IN ARITHMETIC. Sixth and Seventh Grade Classes. Miss Avice Wright, Supervisor. The following are abbreviated records of project-problem work in arithmetic. Types of problem instruction in arithmetic arise from three main sources. First, and of most importance, are the problems which occur in connection with projects arising from other subjects in the curriculum. This serves not only as an economy of time in correlating subject matter, but also as an excellent basis for the application of the mechanics of arithmetic. From this aspect of the subject arithmetic TEACHING 19 in the upper grades may be termed more and more a service subject. Second, problems arise from interests stimulated as a new subject is considered in arithmetic. The various departments make service demands upon each other. The following problems represent a demand by the pupils in a home economics class upon an arithmetic class to which the girls belong. The boys of the class in arithmetic were interested in helping the girls solve such problems. 7. Correlation of the subject-matter. 1. Domestic Science Lesson in Mashed Potatoes. Data brought to arithmetic from cooking lesson in spring of 1917 : Weight of potatoes 2 lb., 5 oz. Amt. butter each used y 2 Ts. Amt. milk each used 2%Ts. Portion 6 Total amt. for 61 Total amt. for 6? Cost per lb. Cost per lb. ' 45 4 Cost per pt. 5 $ Measurements to be used : 2 cups butter — 1 lb. 32 tablespoons butter — 1 lb. 16 tablespoons milk — 1 cup. 2 cups milk— 1 pt. Such questions as the following arose from this data: (1) What was the average amount of potatoes each used? (2) What was the cost of mashed potato each made? (3) What was the total cost of mashed potato? (4) What was the cost of raw potato used by each? Total amount? (5) What was the cost of milk and butter each used? Total amount? II. The problem which arises in connection with the subject matter of the arithmetic course of study. (1) The following problem arose in connection with the general study of investment. This particular one arose out of the pupils’ study of the cost of their own living. Statement of the problem: “Is it cheaper to buy or rent a home in Emporia?” The following are questions which were worked out by an eighth-grade pupil, using his own home as the basis of his information. Renter : 1. What is the rent paid? 2. What is the value of your house, and has the value changed? If so, what change has been made? 3. How long have you rented this house? 4. How much interest did you make on money with which you could buy this house? Or how much interest could you have made on the money required to buy this house? Owner: 1. What did you pay for your home? 2. How much is it worth now? 20 TEACHING 3. When did you buy it? 4. What was the rate of interest charged at the time you bought the house and has it changed since date of pur- chase? 5. What permanent improvements have you made? Cost? 6. What is the annual insurance on the property? 7. What temporary improvements, such as tinting walls and painting of the outside of the house, have been made? 8. What are the taxes on the property? 9. What was the rental value? i. e., what could you have rented your property for at the time of purchase? Has the rental value changed since that time? If you rented your property at the time .of purchase what did it rent for? Has the rent changed since that time? In considering the problem the pupil found that he must consider his own home from the standpoint of the renter as well as that of the owner. With the above outline in hand he sought the necessary information in his own home, and then the problem was ready for solution. 2. The following problem also arose out of the pupil’s interest and work on problems of the cost of living in connection with the larger topic in the course on investment: “Can a man support comfortably a family of five on $100 a month ?” The pupil attacked this problem by itemizing different expenditures as far as he could make them out in school, and then with the outline in hand he sought information in his own home. The following ledger sheet is a copy of one child’s problem: Debit. Credit. Salary ...( $100.00 ........ Taxes $5.00 Lights .50 Water 1.75 Groceries 25.00 Repairs 3.00 Clothing 15.00 Education 5.00 Phone '. . . . 1.25 Doctor bill 3.00 Fuel 10.00 Enjoyments 5.00 Balance for savings account 26.50 $100.00 $100.00 III. Type of problem arising in connection with school activities. This problem arose from the fact that many of our pupils felt that the school owed them much on account of the small tuition fee which they paid to the school. So it was suggested that an excellent problem would be as follows: “What is the cost per pupil in the school?” As a group they made an outline of the items they would need to know. Pupils’ account with the state (for one year) : TEACHING 21 Debit. Credit. Total salaries of teachers and janitor $16,128.08 Supplies, books, papers and materials for Miss Beye’s and Mr. Wells’s departments 296.45 Light 245.52 Heat 503.93 Water 82.19 Miscellaneous expenses 1,336.14 Amount received for tuition $810.66 Balance 17,986)'. 10 $18,796.76 $18,796.76 Number of pupils in school during school year, 192. Number of pupils in school during summer session, 263. Average number in school, 227. Cost per pupil, $79.23. In order to ascertain the above facts the pupils first organized, and each one had a certain number of teachers to see in order to find out what percent of their time they spent in the school as compared with the amount of time spent in the instruction of college students in the Normal School, so that the exact salary which should be charged to the school should be determined. This served as excellent percentage work. Then a committee was appointed to visit the bursar’s office and ask him to make a list showing the other expenses of the school. The con- clusions of this problem were very evident from the result obtained. The pupils keenly appreciated what was being done for them. PROJECT-PROBLEM INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. Miss Florence Billig, Supervisor. During an informal discussion in an eighth-grade elementary science class concerning the hygienic conditions: of their home city, this general project was stated: “To find out what problems confront the city of Emporia in maintaining the health of its people.” The working out of the project involved many subprojects and prob- lems. As the discussion progressed the following questions were raised: 1. What relation does "the Board of Health have to the health of Em- poria? 2. What provisions are made for securing pure milk in Emporia? 3. How does Emporia secure pure water? What is the condition of the water in Emporia? 4. How is garbage disposed of in Emporia? 5. How is sewage disposed of in Emporia? 6. What care is taken to keep the streets and alleys clean? 7. Why should we fight the fly? What is done in Emporia to fight the fly? 8. Why should we fight the mosquito? What is done in Emporia to fight the mosquito? 9. What does Emporia do to prevent the spread of contagious diseases? 10. What means has Emporia to protect its people from disease? 11. What can each of us do to help in the protection of the health of the people of Emporia? 22 TEACHING Evelyn Geeslin, a member of the class, was assigned the subproject to show: “How Emporia takes care of its garbage.” The following is a record of her work: 1. Every town has garbage. 2. Garbage must be taken care of or else it will cause sickness. 3. Garbage must not be thrown on the ground, for it will draw flies. What I want to know in order to solve my project: 1. What is garbage? 2. What laws are' there in Emporia concerning the disposal of garbage? 3. How is the garbage of Emporia disposed of? 4. Who has charge of garbage disposal? 5. How does Winfield, Kansas (the so-called child’s home town), take care of its garbage? Discussion (as given by the pupil to the class) : Garbage is waste from the kitchen, such as potato and apple parings, bones, corn cobs, corn husks, etc. Revised ordinances of Emporia, 1915, section 146: “Refuse in street; penalty. Any person who shall in this city cause or suffer any offal, manure, rubbish, filth, or suffer any vegetable or animal refuse or any foul or noxious liquor to be discharged out of or flow from premises occupied by him to be thrown into, deposited or left in or upon any street, alley, public square, vacant lot or any public place in said city shall be fined in any sum not less than five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars.” Revised ordinances of Emporia, 1915, section 321: “Garbage. No garbage or obstructions of any kind shall be deposited in any catch basin, manhole or sewer, and no person shall damage or remove any portion of the catch basin, manhole, lamp hole, flush tank or sewer. The installation of slop hoppers outside of buildings is prohibited.” From a visit with Doctor Corbett, the health officer of Emporia, I found : 1. Garbage must be separated from rubbish. 2. Garbage must be placed in a closed bucket or can near the alley. If it is not in a closed bucket or can the garbage man need not collect it. 3. Garbage must be collected in a closed wagon, three times a week in summer and once a week in winter. 4. Some garbage is buried in trenches north of Emporia. The garbage collector can use or sell any garbage he collects. The incinerator in which the garbage was, previous to this time, burned is now broken and will not be repaired because it was considered an unnecessary expense to the city. 5. The garbage collector is hired by the health department. He is paid $100 a month by the city. He must furnish and keep his own horses, but the city owns the wagons in which the garbage is collected. 6. Garbage in open cans is a good breeding place for flies. Flies carry diseases. In order to know what some other city is doing with its garbage, I wrote the following letter : Emporia, Kan., 606 West Twelfth St., June 26, 1917. To the Board of Health, Winfield, Kan: My Dear Sirs — In my science class I am working on the garbage 23 TEACHING problem of Emporia. I would appreciate any information you might give me concerning the following questions : 1. What laws have you concerning the disposal of garbage? 2. How do you dispose of the garbage? 3. Is garbage collected regularly in your city? Please send me a copy of the ordinances of Winfield. I thank you for this favor. Yours truly, Evelyn Geeslin. In answer to this letter the following information was received : 1. Garbage must be kept in a closed can, easily accessible for removal. 2. One man and a team work full time in gathering garbage. 3. Garbage is collected regularly. 4. There are no published copies of city ordinances for distribu- tion. References : Revised ordinances of Emporia, 1915, sections 146 and 321. Board of health, Emporia, Kansas. Board of health, Winfield, Kansas. This report was followed by a report from Herbert Drake, who made a careful investigation of the garbage cans in a section of the city near the school: “In this district there were forty houses. In' all but twelve cases there was a receptacle of some kind in which to put gar- bage. In these twelve cases the garbage was emptied on the ground. In seven cases the garbage was emptied in wooden boxes; nine families put garbage in uncovered tubs, while seven used old pails. Five families had regulation garbage cans. These were the only ones which had covers. I am going to investigate other alleys, but from this study I do not believe the good rules which Emporia has regarding garbage dis- posal are being strictly enforced.” This study was followed by a discussion of what other cities, as Chicago and New York, are doing along this line. The part each member of the class could play in improving the situation was carefully con- sidered. Dan Schaffner, another member of the class, worked out the following project: “To study the water situation, to find out its relation to the health of the people of Emporia.” What I know about my project: 1. Emporia secures its drinking water from the Neosho river. 2. There is a pumping station about two and one-half miles north of town which pumps the water from the river. The big tanks are located about one-half mile from the river. There is a water tower which forces the water to town. 3. We are sometimes told to boil our water because it is not pure. 4. Mr. Smith is superintendent of the waterworks. What I want to know to work my project: 1. What are the dangers of impure water to health? a. Typhoid fever. b. Cholera. 2. What home methods are used for purifying the water? a. Boiling. 24 TEACHING b. Settling. c. Distilling. d. Filtering. 3. How does Emporia secure a pure water supply? 4. How does Emporia keep its people from wasting water? Finding the problem too extensive, Dan Schaffner secured assistance from other members of his class, but he took up the first problem, which he stated as follows: “What are the dangers of impure water to health?” What I want to know about my problem: 1. What diseases are dangerous because of impure drinking water? 2. How long have people known that impure water is dangerous? I secured good information on my problem from the following refer- ences: Gulick Series, Town and City, pages 99 to 140. O’Shea and Kellogg, Health and Cleanliness, pages 170 to 190. Hunter, Civil Biology, pages 289 to 383. Discussion (by Dan Schaffner) : Two thousand years ago the Romans knew that pure drinking water was the secret of good health. To get pure drinking water they built an aqueduct to the Latin Hills, many miles away. They did not use the water from the Tiber, which ran through the city, for they were afraid of it. The Romans knew one thing — that impure water is dangerous to health. The Chinese knew this too. They also knew that no matter how dirty the water was, a few minutes would make it as safe as if it had come from a spring. The Chinese usually put a few leaves of tea in the water. In England the people have been slow to realize the importance of pure drinking water, as the London epidemics showed. Epidemic of — Duration. Deaths. 1847 23 weeks, 13,565 1854 23 weeks, 10,684 1865 23 weeks, 5,548 The deaths in these epidemics were caused by cholera, the germs of which were in the water that the people had been drinking. Typhoid fever is another disease caused by impure drinking water. In Cleveland, Ohio, deaths due to typhoid fever in 1904, before the new intake was installed, were: In February 45 In March 50 In April 27 In 1905, after the new intake, ten miles from the sewage outlet, water to be taken from the lake five miles from land, was installed, the deaths were: In February 2 In March 5 In April 7 Emporia secures its drinking water from the Neosho river. The water is filtered before it is turned into the mains. Before the filters were installed the water was allowed to settle in large reservoirs. It was boiled or filtered in many of the homes before being used. The Emporia ice plant sold distilled water to those desiring it. Water contains many germs which are harmful to health. Typhoid TEACHING 25 fever and cholera are two diseases commonly caused by using impure drinking water. Charles Coleman worked out the next problem concerned with the water project, which was stated as follows: “What home methods are used for purifying water?” What I want to know about the home methods used in purifying water : 1. How does boiling purify water? 2. Why does boiled water taste “flat”? 3. How long should water be boiled to make it pure? 4. Will freezing kill germs? 5. Why should boiled water be kept in a cool place? 6. What good does settling do? 7. How is water distilled? 8. Why is water distilled? 9. What does the home filter do to water? References which I consulted in working my problem: Red Cross Text, Elementary Hygiene and Home Care of the Sick. Hessler, First Year of Science, pages 80, 87 and 115. Pease, General Science, pages 68 and 69. ElhufF, General Science, pages 87, 138, 226. Caldwell and Eikenberry, General Science, pages 107 and 108. Emporia Ice Plant, Emporia^ Kan. Gulick Series, Town and City, pages 117 to 132. Discussion as given to the class by Charles Coleman. There are several ways of making impure water safe for drinking purposes. Boiling is a very common way used in the home. The water should be allowed to stand for some time in order that all solid matter in the water will settle to the bottom. The water should then be care- fully turned into another vessel, not allowing the settlings to go into the second vessel. The water should then be boiled for at least twenty minutes. A longer time would be better. The vessel should be covered and the water should be cooled. It can be poured from one vessel to another to allow it to mix with the gases of the air. After doing this it will not taste “flat.” The water should then be put in sterilized jars or bottles and put in the ice box to cool. Boiling the water kills thei bacteria in the water. Freezing does not kill bacteria. It only stops their multiplication. When the ice melts, and becomes warm enough, the bacteria begin developing again. If the boiled water is kept in a cool place it tastes better. In many homes the solid particles in the water are allowed to settle in the bottom of the vessel. Lime will make the water become clear. Lime forms a precipitate which settles to the bottom, carrying with it many bacteria. Settling really only frees the water from solid particles and does not purify as far as bacteria are concerned. Distilling is one way of purifying water. It is really a very simple thing to do. By boiling, water is changed to vapor, which in turn is condensed. While in the form of vapor, the water is carried through sterilized pipes to another tank. No germs or solid parts will pass from the first tank to the second. The pupil distilled some faucet water. To show the process more clearly, red ink was put in the tank and heated. Only clear water was caught in the second tank. 26 TEACHING The class visited the ice plant of Emporia, where water is distilled in the commercial way. Distilled water is used in the manufacture of ice. A short report on filters was given by Joe Longshore, a member of the class. The detailed study of a filter was taken up when the sand filter, used in Emporia, was studied. The filter question was stated in the form of a problem as follows: “Qf what value are filters in purifying the water?” What I want to know about filters : 1. What is a filter? 2. What is the purpose of a filter? 3. What kinds of filters are used? I consulted the following references in working out my problem: Gulick Series, Town and City, pages 125 to 132. O’Shea and Kellogg, Health and Cleanliness. Discussion by Joe Longshore: Filters are used in many homes. Charcoal, sand and various kinds of stones are used. These serve mainly to clarify the water. The danger in the use of home filters is almost as great as in the use of water which has not been filtered, because they are not always kept clean. Home filters require absolute cleanliness. It has been found that large city filters are of the greatest value in protecting the city from disease. It has been found by experimenting that filtered sewage can be made safe to drink. The secret of the value of the sand filter is that on each grain of sand there are microbes. There are more on the surface of the filter than farther down, for they need oxygen. These friendly microbes find their best food in the worst kind of sewage. They are responsible for purifying the water. Filters are generally made with a cement bottom. In this is laid a pipe which has openings through which the water can pass. Above this is a layer of coarse gravel, a layer of medium coarse gravel, and a layer of fine gravel about the size of a pea. On top of this are three or more feet of sand. The water is on top of the sand. Class conclusions drawn from the study of the methods used in puri- fying water. TEACHING 27 1. Water can be purified by settling, boiling, distilling, using chemicals, and by using filters. 2. Settling is commonly used, but is not safe, for microbes are not killed. Some may settle to the bottom with the solid matter. 3. Sand filters are excellent for commercial uses. 4. The common home filters are dangerous unless kept absolutely clean. 5. Distilling is the best way to purify water. All dishes used should be sterilized before being used to hold distilled water. 6. Boiling is the Jbest and most convenient means of purifying water. Drawn by pupil Diagram of a Sand Filter. 3 Uro ^ h/ > OAjdl. P >1 7 w i Qjt/VY&V wl k- c^ia^A qh&Ajel, Oj^cjoeL d The next problem of the water project, “How does Emporia secure a pure water supply?” was worked out by the class. What we want to know: 1. Where does our water come from? 2. How is the water pumped? 3. What processes does the water pass through on its way from the Neosho river to our faucets? 4. We want to visit the water plant. Mr. Alva Smith, superintendent of the Emporia water department, went with the class to the pumping station and to the filter station, ex- plaining every process through which the water passes before being turned into the mains. Notes were taken by the class. Samples of the gravel and sand used in the filter and of the alum and lime used were given to the class. In the following lesson the material was organized by the class. Diagrams were made by the class. Copies of a few of the diagrams are reproduced here. They are in each case as nearly as possi- ble like the originals. 1. Source. The water of Emporia comes from the Neosho river. There are two dams in the river. The Ruggles dam is located seven miles up the river from the pumping station and holds back 400,000,000 gallons of water. The dam at the pumping station holds back 110,000,000 gallons of water. 2. The pumping station. The water is pumped by an electric pump. 28 TEACHING Diagram of Filtering plant of Emporia. head fcowjt. IkPtpe ^vou^ which rater cymes jr»w r,uev. — tx~~ ■ rao.m . Jk 5 m - ffifehr fallen Statwv* i-^^c chamber :ca$ u( <**»»»$ Msm /c, / /7 ■^C70* F/^- i- 3. Pipe line. The water is pumped from the Neosho river and is car- ried through a sixteen-inch pipe to the aerator. 4. The aerator. (See figure 1 for location of aerator.) The aerator has a concrete foundation. There are sixteen pans, arranged as shown in figure 2. The water comes through the sixteen-inch pipe (2) and empties into the upper pan. The water is aerated as it falls from pan to pan. This oxidizes the iron soluble to an insoluble form, and frees the water of gases. 5. The lime head. The water is carried from the aerator through a trough into a small basin (Figs. 1, 3) in the building. Here lime is TEACHING 29 introduced into the water. The lime head holds 4,500 pounds of lime. This amount lasts about two weeks. The rate of feeding can be changed. 6. The coagulating basin. The water, after receiving the lime, passes over and under a series of baffles, and is then carried to the coagulating basin (4), which is north of the aerator. The coagulating basin is fourteen feet deep and has a number of baffles. There is a scum on the water, which is caused by the floculates. The water is carried from this coagulating basin to the coagulating basin (5), south of the aerator. This basin also contains a series of baffles. 7. The reservoir. The water is carried from the south to coagulating basin (5) by means of flume (6), to the north reservoir or settling basin (7). The water empties into a trough (8), along the west end of the tank. From this trough the water overflows into the reservoir and does not produce a current. This reservoir, which is 400 feet long, 160 feet wide and 20 feet deep, holds seven and one-half million gallons of water. From this north reservoir or settling tank (7) the water is carried through a trough leading from the trough (9) along the west side of the settling basin to the east coagulating basin (10). The flow of water into this basin is regulated by a gate at the entrance to the basin. This basin is eleven feet deep. Here the water passes over and under a series of baffles to the mixing chamber (12). Diagram of Aerator. i i ' 1 I 1 I i I 1 i 1 i I 1 i L- — 1 I 1 1 1 1 I l | | | HzPlPC. through whtdx reiser T7j. X * 8. The alum mixing station. This station (12) is inside the building. The alum troughs are upstairs. These hold 600 pounds of alum. Water is poured on the alum until it is dissolved and until a two percent solution is made. On a second floor there is a chemical room, which contains two orifice boxes, which control automatically the amount of alum which enters the mixing basin (12). 9. The filter. Water from the mixing station enters a trough along the west side of the filter through a pipe about three feet from the top of the wall. The water enters the filter from the trough through holes in the wall. This water forms a mat flocculant over the sand. After the 30 - TEACHING water has filtered through the sand it is carried through six-inch pipes into the dear-water well. There are wheels in front of each filter which regulate the entrance of water into the filter. There are four filters (1) (2), (3), (4). 10. Washing the filter. The water is first drained off. Air is forced through the six-inch pipes in the bottom of the filter. This stirs up the sand. Water is then forced through the sand. The muddy water is carried off through troughs into pipes which lead to the river below the dams. Water is then emptied into the filter as described in the preceding discussion of filter. 11. The dear-water well. Water from the filter enters the dear- water well, which is under the entire filter room. This well is 53 feet by 31 feet by 10 feet. The water, is pumped from the dear-water well to the south reservoir (Fig. 1, 13). The pipe which carries the water from the dear-water well to the south reservoir runs underground and has its outlet (14) about five feet from the top of the basin. 12. Wells. Between the north and south reservoirs there are three wells. (Fig. 1, 15, 16 and 17.) The water from No. 15 is piped to the city. Well 16 was used under the old system of water supply, but is now abandoned. Well 17 is used when the basins are drained. The water is then carried to the sewer, which empties into the Neosho river below the dams. 13. Water tower. The water tower gives! the pressure for the water used in the city. All water passes through the tower. The tower holds 50,000 gallons of water. In case of fire, water is turned into the mains directly from the river. A model of a filter was made by one of the boys. The accompanying diagrams were made by various members of the class. Dan Schaffner worked out the following problem : “How does Emporia keep its people from wasting water?” References : Gulick, Town and City, pages 89 to 98. Superintendent of water department, Emporia, Kan. Dan Schaffner’s discussion: By investigations made, it hasi been found that there is great difference in the amount of water used by the different towns. It has also been found that in towns which use water meters, not nearly so much water is used, although the people say they use all the water they need for their homes, lawns, factories and public buildings. In towns where no meters are used the faucet is often left open during the winter nights to keep the pipes from freezing, and during the hot summer days to cool milk and butter. Many times broken faucets are not repaired as soon as they should be, and water is wasted. The city water department can easily tell when the mains are leaking if meters are used. Emporia uses water meters. Meters are good for Emporia because: 1. Each family uses all the water it needs but is careful about wast- ing it. 2. Each family pays for as much water as it uses and for no more. 3. The people and the water department keep the pipes, fixtures and mains repaired, so that water will not be wasted. A model meter was loaned to Dan Schaffner by the superintendent of the water department. It was studied by the class. A trip was made to read water meters. TEACHING 31 ^Project: “To show how Emporia tries to prevent the spread of con- tagious diseases.” Presented to the class by Lois Maxwell. What I know about my project. 1. People with a contagious disease are usually quarantined. 2. The health officer puts the quarantine sign on the house. 3. Different colored signs are put on the houses for different diseases. What I want to know about my project. 1. What is a contagious disease? 2. Is it worth while to quarantine? 3. How does quarantine keep disease^ from spreading? 4. What is fumigation? Why is it necessary after a person has had a contagious disease? 5. Of what value is vaccination? 6. How does the health officer get his position? 7. What part do I have in preventing the spread of contagious diseases in Emporia? References consulted: Kansas State Board of Health, Bulletins. American Red Cross, Elementary Hygiene and Home Care of the Sick. Discussion as given by Lois Maxwell to the class: “Contagious diseases are special diseases which are communicated be- tween persons, either by direct contact or by means of an intermediate agent.” When one member of a family has a contagious disease, other members of the family may go among the public and to their place of business where they might easily spread the disease. To prevent this from happening, laws have been made. By them, everyone suffering from a contagious disease must be quarantined to prevent people from visiting them and to keep the members of the family from going among the people. It is necessary to quarantine houses in which there is a contagious dis- ease to keep the disease from spreading. Fumigation is the process of disinfecting articles such as furniture and clothing and things which are apt to have the disease germs on them. Fumigation must take place after every contagious disease. Sometimes the whole house is fumigated and sometimes only the room in which the patient has lived. The disinfectants used are chloride of lime, bichloride of mercury, quicklime and carbolic acid. Clothes may be disinfected by boiling. Sul- phur and formaldehyde are generally used for fumigating. Vaccination makes us immune from certain diseases. We can be vaccinated for smallpox. The duties of the health officer of Emporia are many. He must appoint a man to collect the garbage, a man to inspect the places where our food comes from. When the health officer receives the notice of a contagious disease he must investigate the place where the sick person might have gotten it. Then he must see that the person or family is quarantined. After the person has died or recovered, he should see that the premises are properly disinfected. He must keep a record of all cases of contagious diseases, quarantines and fumigations made. The health officer gets his position by being appointed by the mayor. He does not receive a salary but gets fees for various things which he does, as, for example, putting up quarantine signs. There are many things which we can do to help in preventing con- tagious diseases in Emporia. 32 TEACHING 1. We should keep our bodies in good healthy condition so that we shall not be so apt to become sick. 2. We should observe all quarantines. 3. We should report any case of sickness which might be a con- tagious disease. 4. We can have plenty of good light and fresh air in our rooms. 5. We should call a doctor when we are sick, and especially if we are broken out with a rash. 6. We should see that our doors and windows are screened so that flies and mosquitoes cannot get into our houses. 7. We should not drink water unless we know that it is pure. If-we are not certain, we should boil the water at least twenty minutes. 8. We should not -buy milk unless we are sure it comes from a dairy which lives up to the' city milk ordinance. 9. We should not put natural ice in our drinking water, for it may have germs in it. Freezing does not kill germs. 10. We should not eat fruit or vegetables before they are cooked, unless they are thoroughly cleaned. I