Digitized by the lr>ternet Archive - in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/littlegiahtcycloOOschu » EDITION • EOR • 1891 • • • • THO • • - • ••• E-GIA! nn ••• CYCLOPEDIA AND 1,000,001 FIGURES AND FACTS By K. L. ARMSXRONQ. With Eighty-Two Colored Maps and Plates. “Which — if you but open — You will be unwilling, For many a shilling, To part with the profit Which you shall have of it.” — The Key to Unkncnon Knowledge. CHICAGO: WESTERN RURAL, MILTON GEORGE,, Publisher. . ' I J II “ The era is fast afproacJiing 'when no 'writer 'will he read by the majority except those who can effect for bales of manu- ,script 'w hat the hydrostatic, screw performs for hales of cotton [ — condense into a period what before occupied a page H'' — Cotter. Copyright, 1889, by Francis J, Schulte.^ Oil f : SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. J^or alphabetical index see page 4 N Gems of Knowledge— Handj Facts to Settle Arguments Loisette’s System of Memory — The Art of Never Forgetting 500 Errors Corrected— Concise Rules in Grammar, Spelling and Pronunciation . . . . : A Dictionary of Words often Mispronounced .... Punctuation The Use of Capital Letters How to Write a Letter . Synonyms and Antonyms— A Dictionary of 12,000 Words of Similar and Contrary Meaning ...... .The World and the Universe — Facts Astronomical, Geo- graphical, Historical and Statistical . . . ' . ^Our Globe and Its Inhabitants . ^^he World’s Principal Countries A Europe Asia PAGE . 9 20 31 38 41 42 42 44 D'^eania 1 Ica N' h America ... ' America ^olai '"ploration . .^he World’s Largest Cities "pities of the U. S over 20,000 Population v^ames and mottoes of States, Geographical Nicknames, etc ^U. S. Statistics in a Nutshell ^U. S. Political History in Brief ^.Presidents of the United States, etc. SfVVars of the United States . . . ^^^he Civil War of 1861-6:; i^tatistics of Wars the World Over ^The Decisive Battles of Historv ^ Slavery and Serfdom Interesting Miscellaneous Information . A History of Organized Labor in the U. S. . Parliamentary Law — 250 Points of Order Decided at Sight 190 riii) G3 G5 G8 G9 84 92 101 108 117 125 128 129 133 141 149 1G9 170 171 177 178 179 181 188 SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. PAGE The World’s History at a Glance — Compact Diagrams (in colors) suggesting Dates, Names and Events, and De- signed for Ready Reference and to Aid the Memory . 193 Interesting Facts of Science and Statistics 225 Some of Nature’s Wonders ........ 231 Legal Advice — Business Law in Brief 232 Business and Legal Forms 260 Interest Laws and Statutes of Limitations 265 U. S. Mining Laws 267 The Law of Copyright 269 Trademarks and Patents 270 Principal Points of Constitutional Law 273 Voting and Naturalization 275 The Presidential Election — The Electoral College and tlie Presidential Succession 276 Qualification of Voters in all the States 278 The Australian Ballot System ........ 279 Presidential Election Statistics 279 The Civil Service 281 Public Lands and Homestead Laws 282 Stage Favorites — Professional and Private Names . . . 283 Points of Criminal Law 284 The Tariff — U. S. Customs Duties 285 The Free List — Articles Free of Duty 287 Stock Investments Explained 289 Insolvency and Proceedings in Bankruptcy .... 292 Terms used on ’Change 292 The Inter-State Commerce Law 293 Insurance — Valuable Information as to Companies and Policies . 295 The Internal Revenue 298 Hints to Advertisers 299 How to Collect a Debt 299 How to Make Change Qiiickly 390 Compound Interest Tables . . 300 Short Interest Rules *^61 How to Detect Counterfeit Money 301 Bankers’ I'ime Table 302 (iv) SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. Facts about Railroads and Transportation 303 Train Management 303 Railroad Signals (Illustrated) 304 Speed on Railroads — Steamboating 305 Facts about the Thermometer 306 Freezing, Fusing and Boiling Points 307 Freezing Mixtures without Ice 308 Physical Exercise — How to Develop the Various Muscles of the Human Body (Illustrated.) 309 Medicine and Hygiene — Diseases and their Remedies — Pre- scriptions by Eminent Practitioners 312 Homoeopathy 319 Contagious Diseases 324 Artificial Feeding of Infants 325 Accidents and Emergencies — What to Do 326 Poisons and their Antidotes 329 Doses of Medicine, etc 330 Relative Value of Various Foods, etc 331 Digestion of Foods, etc 332 Useful Recipes, Trade Secrets, etc 333 Three Hundred Facts about Poultry 341 How to Tell the Age of Various Farm Animals . . . 344 Medicines for the Horse 345 The Seven Bibles of the World 346 Canary Birds — How to keep them healthy and in good song 347 Value of Foreign Money 347 Weights and Measures 348 Practical Calculations: Shortcuts in Arithmetic — Handy Tables for Ready Reckoning 350 Log and Lumber Tables, etc 354 Miscellaneous Tables 358 Facts for Builders 361 Facts for Bricklayers and Plasterers 362 How to Use Cement 365 Useful Tables for Plumbers, etc. 366 Hints for Roofers ............ 368 Facts about Gas 369 (v; SUM MART OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. i I PAGE Painting and Glazing 370 Carpenters’ Work and Measuring 371 Iron Tables, Tables for Metal-workers, etc 378 Areas of Circles 383 Circumferences of Circles 384 Handy Facts for Architects and Builders 385 Horse Power of Engines — Belting, etc 386 Transmission of Power by Wire Ropes 388 Useful Hydraulic Information 380 Boilers, Chimneys, etc 391 Specific Gravity, Tensile and Transverse Strength, etc. . 394 Table of Squares and Cubes of all Numbers from i to 500 . 396 Wedding Anniversaries and Birthdays 400 Natural Sines, etc 401 Useful Information for Printers, Paper Dealers, Pub- lishers, etc . 402 Weather Forecasts 407 Wind and Weather Signals (Illustrated) 411 The Language of Flowers 413 The Language of Gems 414 The Wonders of Electricity — The Telephone, Phonograph, Graphophone, Electric Light, etc., etc. . . . .415 Names and their Meaning: Christian. Names of Men and Women 420 The Standard Silver Dollar 424 Standard Time 424 Theosophy, Buddhism and Mysticism 425 The Evolution Theorj^ 426 The Mind Cure 426 Gems of Poetry 428 Misquotations 432 Postal Information 433 GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL MAPS. Map of North and South America 66 Map of Ontario 67 Map of Quebec 70 Map of Manitoba 71 (vi) SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONf'EiltS. V' I Statistical Map of Alaska . 71 Statistical Map of Alabama , . . 75 Statistical Map of Arizona 78 Statistical Map of Arkansas 70 Statistical Map of California 82 Statistical Map of Colorado 83 Statistical Map of Connecticut 86 Statistical Map of North and South Dakota .... 87 Statistical Map of Delaware 90 Statistical Map of Florida 91 Statistical Map of Georgia 94 Statistical Map of Idaho 95 Statistical Map of Illinois 98 Statistical Map of Indiana 99 Statistical Map of the Indian Territory 102 Statistical Map of Iowa . 103 Statistical Map of Kansas 100 Statistical Map of Kentucky and Tennessee .... 107 Statistical Map of Louisiana IIG Statistical Map of Maine Ill Statistical Map of Maryland 114 Statistical Map of Massachusetts 115 Statistical Map of Michigan 118 Statistical Map of Minnesota 119 Statistical Map of Mississippi 122 Statistical Map of Missouri 123 Statistical Map of Montana 126 Statistical Map of Nebraska 12) Statistical Map of Nevada 130 Statistical Map of New Hampshire and Vermont. . . 134 Statistical Map of New Jersey 134 Statistical Map of New Mexico 135 Statistical Map of New York 13S Statistical Map of North and South Carolina .... 139 Statistical Map of Ohio 142 Statistical Map of Oregon 143 Statistical Map of Pennsylvania 146 (vii) SUMMARr OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. istatisdcal Map of Rhod^ Island ^147 Statistical Map of Texas , 150 Statistical Map of Utah 454 Statistical Map of Virginia and West Virginia .... 454 Statistical Map of Washington . 155 Statistical Map of Wisconsin 458 Statistical Map of Wyoming 459 Map of Mexico 162 Map of Central America and the West Indies . . . 163 CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS. THE world’s history AT A GLANCE. From Abraham to Cyrus , 103 From Cyrus to Alexander 194 From Alexander to Augustus 195 From Augustus to Charlemagne 196 From Charlemagne to Napoleon 108 From Napoleon to the Present Time 201 America : The Colonies 203 The United States 204 STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL DIAGRAMS. The European Balance of Power 209 The World’s Food Supply 210 The Wealth of Nations . 211 Our Foreign Trade 212 Growth of U. S. Population since 1820 213 Religion in the United States 214 Density of Population in the United States 215 The Climates of the United States 216 Consumption of Wine, Malt Liquors and Distilled Spirits in the United States 217 Comparative Growth of Languages during Eighty -two Years 218 Pensions paid by the United States since 1865 . . . 219 Farm Animals throughout the World 220 Acquisition of Territory by the United States . . . , . 221 Duration of Life . 222 The World’s Great Fairs 223 Crops in the United States 224 (viii) This rule to all when I am dead: Be sure you'' re rights then go ahead. — Davy Crockett. GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. Handy Facts to Settle Many Arguments. London plague in 1665. Telephone invented, 1861. There are 2,750 languages. Two persons die every second. Sound moves 743 miles per hour. Chinese invented paper, 170 B.C. A square mile contains 640 acres. A barrel of pork weighs 200 pounds. Hawks can fly 150 ijiiles in one hour. Watches were first constructed in 1476. Chinese in United States in 1880, 105,613. Rome was founded by Romulus, 752 B.C. Gold was discovered in California in 1848. Phonograph invented by T. A. Edison, 1877. The first balloon ascended from Lyons, France, 1783. The first fire insurance office in America, Boston, 1724. Jet is found along the coast of Yorkshire, Eng., near Whitby. Napoleon I. crowned emperor, 1804; Helena, 1820. Electric light invented by Lodyguin and Kossloflf, at London, 1874 - Harvard is the oldest college in the United States; established in 1638. ' War declared with Great Britain, June 19, 1812; peace, Feb. 18^1815. Until i 776 cotton spinning was performed by the hand spin- ning’-wheel. Measure 209 feet on each side and you will have a square acru within an inch. -Postage stamps first came into use in England in the year 184c ; in the United States, in 1847. The highest range of mountains are the Himalayas, the mean elevation being from 16,000 to 18,000 feet. The largest inland sea is the Caspian, between Europe and Asia,' being 700 miles long and 270 miles wide. The term “Almighty Dollar” originated with Washington Irving, as a satire on the American love for gain. 9 GEMS OF KNO W LEDGE. Envelopes were first used'in 1839. Telescopes were invented in 1590. Iron horseshoes were made in 481. A barrel of fiour weighs 196 pounds. A hand (horse measure) is four inches. A rifie ball moves 1,000 miles per hour. First steamer crossed the Atlantic, 1819. Assassination of Lincoln, April 14, 1865. German empire re-established, Jan. 18, 1871. Storm clouds move thirty-six miles an hour. First subscription library, Philadelphia, 1731. Dark Ages, from the 6th to the 14th century. The Latin tongue became obsolete about 580. The great London fire occurred Sept. 26, 1666. The value of a ton of pure gold is $602,799.21. Ether was first used for surgical purposes in 1844. Ignatius Loyola founded the order of Jesuits, 1541. First authentic use of organs, 755; in England, 951. The first newspaper advertisement appeared in 1652. Cork is the bark taken from a species of the oak tree. Benjamin Franklin used the first lightning rods, 1752. Glass windows (colored) were used in the 8th centur3^ Authentic history of China commenced 3,000 years B.C. Introduction of homoeopathy into the United States, ,1825. Spectacles were invented by an Italian in the 13th century. Medicine was introduced into Rome from Greece, 200 B.C. First electric telegraph, Paddington to Brayton, Eng., 1835. The Chaldeans were the first people who worked in metals. First life insurance, in London, 1772; in America, Phila., 1812. Egyptian pottery is the oldest known; dates from 2,000 B.C. Julius Caesar invaded Britain, 55 B.C.; assassinated, 44 B.C. Soap was first manufactured in England in the i6th century. The largest free territorial government is the United States. First photographs produced in England, 1802; perfected, 1841. First marine insurance, A. D. 533; England, 1598; America, 1721. Professor Oersted, Copenhagen, discovered electro-magnetism," in 1819. First American express. New York to Boston — W. F. Hamden. Glass windows were first introduced into England in the 8th century. Chicago is little more than fifty years old, and is the eighteenth city of the world. Glass was made in Egypt, 3,000 B.C.; earliest date of trans- parent glass, 719 B.C. First public schools in America were established in the New England States about 1642. 10 GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. First Atlantic cable operated, 1858. A barrel of rice weighs 600 pounds. The first steel pen was made in 1830. Light moves 187,000 miles per second. Slow rivers flow seven miles per hour. The first lucifer match was made in 1829. A storm moves thirty -six miles per hour. Battles of Bunker Hill and Lexington, 1775. The largest island in the world is Australia. First musical notes used, 1338; printed, 1502. Kerosene was first used for illuminating in 1826. National banks first established in United States, 1816. Slavery in the United States was begun at Jamestown in 1619 First postoffice established, between Vienna and Brussels. 1516. The Alexandrian Library contained 400,000 valuable books 47 Moscow, Russia, has the largest bell in the world, 432,00c pounds. The highest denomination of United States legal tender notei is $10,000. The electric eel is only found in the northern rivers of South America. Columbus discovered America, Oct. 12, 1492; the Northmen A. D. 985. The first theater in the United States was at Williamsburg Va., 1752. Congress declared war with Mexico, May 13, 1846; closec Feb. 2, 1848. The first complete sewing machine was patented by Eliaf Howe, Jr., in 1846. London is the largest city in the world, containing a popula- tion of 4,764,312 persons. First cotton raised in the United States was in Virginia, in 2621; first exported, 1747. The largest university is Oxford, in England. It consists of twenty-one colleges and five halls. First sugar-cane cultivated in the United States, near New Orleans, 1751; first sugar-mill, 1758. First telegraph in operation in America was between Wash- ington and Baltimore, May 27, 1844. The first illumination with gas was in Cornwall, Eng., 1792; in the United States, at Boston, 1822. Printing was known in China in the 6th century; introduced into England about 1474; America, 1536. The great wall of China, built 200 B.C., is 1,250 miles in length, 20 feet high, and 25 feet thick at the base. Glass mirrors first made by Venetians in the 13th century. Polished metal was used before that time. Meerschaum means “froth of the sea.” It is white and soft when dug from the earth, but soon hardens. 11 GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. America was discovered in 1492. A firkin of butter weighs 56 pounds. A span is ten and seven-eighths inches. Pianoforte invented in Italy about 1710. The value of a ton of silver is $37,704.84. First watches made in Nuremberg, 1476. A hurricane moves eighty miles per hour. Modern needles first came into use in 1545. Electricity moves 288,000 miles per second. French and Indian War in America, 1754. The first horse railroad was built in 1826-7. The average human life is thirty- three years. Coaches were first used in England in 1569. French Revolution, 1789; Reign of Terror, 1793. $1,000,000 gold coin weigh 3,685.8 lbs. avoirdupois. Mormons arrived at Salt Lake Valley, Utah, Julj^ 24, 1847. Experiments in electric lighting, by Thomas A. Edison, 1878-80. Daguerre and Nieper invented the process of daguerreotype, .839- The largest cavern in the world is the Mammoth Cave, Ken- ucky. First American library founded at Harvard College, Cam- bridge, 1638. The first iron ore discovered in this country was found in Vir- ginia in 1715. “ Bravest of the Brave ” was the title given to Marshal Ney at ?riedland, 1807. The first steam engine on this continent was brought from England in 1753. The most extensive park is Deer Park in Denmark. It con- :ains 4,200 acres. Books in their present form were invented by Attains, king of Pergamus, in 887. Robert Raikes established the first Sunday-school, at Glou- :ester, Eng., 1781. Albert Durer gave the world a prophecy of future wood engraving in 1527. St. Augustine, oldest city in, the United States, founded by the Spaniards, 1565. Jamestown, Va., founded, 1607; first permanent English set- tlement in America. The first volunteer fire company in the United States was at Philadelphia, 1736. Oberlin College, Ohio, was the first in the United States that admitted female students. The first knives were used in England, and the first wheeled carriages in France in 1559. The largest park in the United States is Fairmount, at Phila- delphia, ana contains 2,740 acres. 12 GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. The highest natural bridge in the world is at Rockbridge, Vir- ginia, being 200 feet high to the bottom of the arch. I The largest circulation of paper money is that of the United States, being 700 millions, while Russia has 670 millions. The largest insurance company in the world is the Mutual Life of New York City, having cash assets of ,$108,000,000. The largest empire in the world is that of Great Britain, being 8,557,658 square miles, and more than a sixth part of the globe. The first electrical signal ever transmitted between Europe and America passed over the Field submarine cable on Aug. 5, 1858. The longest tunnel in the world is St. Gothard, on the line of the railroad oetween Lucerne and Milan, being 9}^^ miles in length. The loftiest active volcano is Popocatapetl. It is 17,784 feet high, and has a crater three miles in circumference and 1,000 feet deep. Burnt brick were known to have been used in building the Tower of Babel. They were introduced into England by the Romans. The most remarkable echo known is that in the castle of Simon - etta, two miles from Milan. It repeats the echo of a pistol sixty times. The largest volcano in the world is Etna. Its base is 90 miles in circumference; its cone 11,000 feet high. Its first eruption occurred 474 B.C. The largest tree in the world, as yet discovered, is in Tulare County, California. It is 275 feet high, and 106 feet in circumference at its base. The largest desert is Sahara, in Northern Africa. Its length is 3,000 miles and breadth 900 miles; having an area of 2,000,000 square miles. The largest suspension bridge is the Brooklyn. The length of the main span is 1,595 feet 6 inches. The entire length of the bridge is 5,989 feet. The first deaf and dumb asylum was founded in England, by Thomas Braidwood, 1760; and the first in the United States was at Hart- ford, 1817. The largest diamond in the world is the Braganza, being a part of the Portuguese jewels. It weighs 1,880 carats. It was found in Brazil in 1741. The grade of titles in Great Britain stands in the following order from the highest: A Prince, Duke, Marquis, Earl , Viscount, Baron, Baronet, Knight. The “Valley of Death,” in the island of Java, is simply the crater of an extinct volcano, filled with carbonic-acid gas. It is half a mile in circumference. The city of Amsterdam, Holland, is built upon piles djdven into the ground. It is intersected by nu merous canals, crossed by nearly three hundred bridges. Coal was used as fuel in England as early 852, and in 1234 the first charter to dig for it was granted by Henry HI. to the inhabitants of Newcastle-on-Tyne. Tobacco was discovered in San Domingo in 1496; afterwards by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. It was introduced in France in 1560, and into England in 1583. The present national colors of the United States were not adopted by Congress until i 777 * The Hag was fi^-st used by Washington at Cambridge, January i, 1776. 1:1 GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. Paris was known as Liitetia until 1184^ when the name of the ^reat French capital was changed to that which it has borne ever since. The longest span of wire in the world is used for a telegraph in India over the river Ristuah. It is over 6,000 feet, and is stretched be- tween two hills, 1,200 feet high. The largest library in the world is in Paris, founded by Louis XIV. It contains 1,4^,000 volumes, 175,000 manuscripts, 300^000 maps and charts, and 150,000 coins and medals. The tallest man was John Hale, of Lancashire, England, who was nine feet six inches in height. His hand was seventeen inches long and eight and one-half inches broad. In round numbers, the weight of $1,000,000 in standard gold coin is iM tons; standard silver coin, 2^ tons; subsidiary silver coin, 25 tons; minor coin, 5-cent nickel, 100 tons. The part of United States territory most recently acquired is the island of San Juan, near Vancouver’s Island. It was evacuated by England at the close of November, 1873. The highest monument in the world is the W ashington monu- ment, being 555 feet. The highest structure of any kind is the Eiffel Tower, Paris, finished in 1889 and 989 feet high. It is claimed that crows, eagles, ravens and swans live to be 100 years old; herons, 59; parrots, 60; pelicans and geese, 50; skylarks, 30; spar- row hawks, 40; peacocks, canaries and cranes, 24. The greatest cataract in the world is Niagara, the height of the American Falls being 165 feet. The highest fall of water in the world is that of the Yosemite in California, being 2,550 feet. The most ancient catacombs are those of the Theban kings, begun 4,000 years ago. The catacombs of Rome contain the remains of about 6,000,000 human beings; those of Paris, 3,000,000. The quickest passage ever made across the Atlantic was that ')f the steamer Etruria, of the Cunard line, being 6 days 5 hours and 30 ninutes from New York to Queenstown ; the distance being 2,850 miles. There has been no irregularity in the recurrence of leap j^ear Wery four years since 1800, and will be none until 1900, which^will be a common year, although it will come fourth after the preceding leap year. The first English newspaper was the English Mercury^ issued in the reign of Qiieen Elizabeth, and was issued in the shape of a pamphlet. The of Venice was the original model of the modern newspaper. The Mormon Church in Utah shows a membership of 127,294 —23,000 families. The church has 12 apostles, 58 patriarchs, 3,885 seventies, 3,ij53 high priests, 11,000 elders, 1,500 bishops, and 4,400 deacons, being an office for each six persons. The seven sages flourished in Greece in the 6th century B.C. They were renowned for their maxims of life, and as the authors of the mottoes inscribed in the Delphian Temple. Their names are: Solon, Chilo, Pittacus, Bias, Periander, Cleobolus, and Thales. The largest stationary engine in the world is at the zinc mines at Frieden ville, Penn. The number of gallons of water raised every minute is i7,‘;oo. The driving wheels are 35 feet in diameter and weigh 40 tons each. “I'lie cylinder is no inches in diameter. The largest number of cattle ever received in one year was that of Chicago in the year 1884, being 1,874,984 beeves, 30,223 calves, 5,640,- 625 hogs, 749,917 sheep, and 15,625 horses. It required 9,000 trains of 31 cars each, which, if coupled together, would reach 2,146 miles. 14 GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. The estimated number of Christians in the world is over 408,- 000,000; of Buddhists, 420,000,000; of the followers of Brahma, 180,000,000; of Mohammedans, 150,000,000; of Jews, 8,000,000; of atheists, deists, and in- fidels, 85,000,000; of pagans, 50,000,000, and of the 1,100 other minor creeds, 123,000,000. The largest producing farm in the world lies in the southwest corner of Louisiana, owned by a northern syndicate. It runs one hundred miles north and south. The immense tract is divided into convenient pas- tures, with stations of ranches every six miles. The fencing alone cost nearly $50,000. The “Seven Wonders of the World” are seven most remarka- ble objects of the ancient world. They are: The Pyramids of Egpyt, Pharos of Alexandria, Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Temple of Diana at Ephesus, the Statue of the Olympian Jupiter, Mausoleum of Arte- misia, and Colossus of Rhodes. A “monkey wrench” is not so named because it is a handy thing to monkey with, or for any kindred reason. “Monkey” is not its name at all, but “Moncky.” Charles Moncky, the inventor of it, sold his patent for $2,000, and invested the money in a house in Williamsburgh, Kings County, N. Y., where he now lives. The Union arch of the Washington Aqueduct is the largest in the world, being 220 feet ; 20 feet in excess of the Chester arch across the Dee in England, ^ feet longer than that of the London Bridge ; 92 feet longer than that at Neuilly on. the Seine, and 100 feet longer than that of Waterloo Bridge. The height of the Washington arch is 100 feet. The largest ship ever built, the Great Eastern, recentlv broken to pieces and sold to junk dealers, was designed and constructed by Scott Russell, at Maxwell, on the Thames. WorK on the giant vessel was com- menced in May, 1854. She was successfully launched January 13, 1858. The launching alone occupied the time from November 3, 1857, until the date above given. Her total length was 600 feet; breadth, 118 feet; total weight when launched, 12,000 tons. Her first trip of any consequence was made to New York in 1859-^. In 1775 there were only twenty -seven newspapers published in the United States. Ten years later, in 1785, there were seven published in the English language in Philadelphia alone, of which one was a daily. The oldest newspaper published in Philadelphia at the time of the Federal convention was the Pennsylvania Gazette^ established by Samuel Keimer, in 1728. The second newspaper in point of age was the Pennsylvania Journal, established in 1742 by William Bradford, whose uncle, Andrew Bradford, established the first newspaper in Pennsylvania, the American Weekly Mercury.^ in 1719. Next in age, but the first in importance, was the Pennsylvania Packet.^ established by John Dunlap in 1771. In 1784 it became a daily, being the first daily newspaper printed on this continent. Statistics of twenty leading libraries in this country show that, of over $500,000 spent, a little over $170,000 spent was devoted to books, while other expenses consumed $358,000. In the Mercantile Library of New York city it costs 14 cents to circulate a volume; in the Astor^ 14^ cents are ^pent on each volume, or 27 cents on each reader; in Columbia Cfollege Library, 2134 cents per reader; in the Library Company of Philadelphia, 26 cents per volume, or 10 cents per head. The largest library in the world is the Na- tional Library of France, founded by Louis XI v., which now contains i,- 400.000 books, 300,000 pamphlets, 175,000 manuscripts, 300,000 maps and charts, 150.000 coins and medals, 1,300,000 engravings, and 100,000 portraits. The Library of Congress is the largest in this country, as it contained 570,000 volumes in 1886. The Mercantile Library of Philadelphia was the seventh in point of size in this country in the same year. There are in the United States 5,338 libraries. 15 GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. The most extensive mines in the world are those of Freiberg, Saxony. They were begun in the twelfth century, and in 1835 the galleries, taken collectively, had reached the unprecedented length of 123 miles, a’ new gallery, begun in 1838, had reached a length of eight miles at the time of the census of 1878. The deepest perpendicidar mining shaft in the world is located at Prizilram, Bohemia. It is a lead mine; it was begun 1832. January, 1880, it was 3,280 feet deep. The deepest coal mine in the world is near Tourney, Belgium; it is 3, 542 feet in depth, but, unlike the lead mine mentioned above, it is not perpendicular. The deepest rock-salt bore in the world is near Berlin, Prussia; it is 4,185 feet deep. The deepest hole ever bored into the earth is the artesian well at Potsdam, which is 5,500 feet in depth. The deepest coal mines in England are the Dunkirk collieries of Lancashire, which are 2,824 feet in depth. The deepest coal shaft in the United States is located at Pottsville, Pa. In 1885 h had reached a depth of 1,576 feet. From this great depth 400 cars, holding four tons each, are hoisted daily. The deepest silver mine in the United States is the Yellow Jacket, one of the great Comstock system at Virginia City, Nevada; the lower levels are 2,700 feet below the hoisting works. The largest locomotive ever constructed prior to 1880 was that made at the Baldwin Locomotive Works during the early part of 1879. It was turned out ready for use April loth of that year and named Uncle Dick. Uncle Dick weighed. 130,000 pounds; was sixty feet from headlight to the rear end of the tender. He is now at work on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe road. During the year 1883 the same works that constructed Uncle Dick turned out several locomotives for the Northern Pacific railroad, each weighing 180,000 pounds. During the same year, as if to overshadow the Baldwin works, the Central Pacific company caused to be built at their shops in Sacramento, Cal., what are really the largest locomotives in the world. They have eight drive-wheels each, the cylinders are 19 inches in diameter, and the stroke three feet. These engines weigh, with the tender, as Uncle Dick’s weight was given, almost 190,000 pounds. The Baldwin Works, in 1889, completed for the Northern Pacific an engine weighing, with tender, 225,000 pounds. “ Liberty,” Bartholdi’s statue, presented to the United States by the French people in 1885, is the largest statue ever built. Its conception is due to the great French sculptor whose name it-bears. It is said to be a likeness of his mother. Eight years of time were consumed in the construc- tion of this gigantic brazen image. Its weight is 440,000 pounds, of which 146,000 pounds are copper, the remainder iron and steel. The major part of the iron and steel was used in constructing the skeleton frame work for the inside. The mammoth electric light held in the hand of the giantess is 305 feet above tide-water. The height of the figure is K2J4 feet; the pedestal 91 feet, and the foundation 52 feet and 10 inches. Forty persons can find standing-room within the mighty head, which is 14)4 feet in diameter. A six-foot man standing on the lower lip could hardly reach the eyes. The index finger is eight feet in length and the nose 3^ feet. The Colossus of Rhodes was a pigmy compared with this latter day wonder. The largest stone bridge on the face of the earth is that finished in May, 1885, at Lagang, China. Chinese engineers had sole control of its construction. It crosses an arm of the China Sea, is nearly six miles in length, is composed entirely of stone, and has 300 arches, each 70 feet high. It is the most colossal structure ever reared by man, yet we sneer at the “heathen Chinee.” The largest truss iron bridge in the world crosses the Firth of Tay, Scotland. It is 18,612 feet in length and composed of eighty- five spans. The longest wooden bridge in the world is that crossing Lake Ponchartrain, near New Orleans, La. It is a trestle-work twenty-one miles in length, built of cypress piles which have been saturated with creosote oil to preserve them. The highest bridge in the United States is over Kin- zina Creek, near Bradford, Pa. It was built in 1882, has a total span of 2,051 feet and is 301 feet above the creek bed. Ifi aE^fS OF KNOWLEDGE. The “Centennial ox,” bred by Samuel Barkley of Somerset County, Pa., was the largest specimen of the bovine the world has ever seen. He weighed 4,900 pounds the day he arrived in Philadelphia. This mountain of beef was of mixed stock, being short-horn, native, ‘‘scrub, and Ayrshi’-e, the short-horn predominating. After the exhibition was ended the giant ox was butchered and exhibited as “sliow beef” at Phila- delphia during the holidays of 1876. A short-horn steer weighing 4,100 pounds was slaughtered at Detroit in 1874. A. N. Meal of Moberly, Mo., formerly owned the largest cow in the world. Mr. Meal disposed of her in 1883, the Cole Circus Company being the purchasers. She weighed the day of sale 3,296 pounds. Mr. John Pratt of Chase County, Kan., was formerly the owner of a cow weighing 3,200 pounds. She was of the common “scrub” stock and stood nineteen hands high. The great pyramid of Cheops is the largest structure of any kind ever erected by the hand of man. Its original dimensions at the base were 764 feet square, and its perpendicular height in the highest point 488 feet; it covers four acres, one rood, and twenty-two perches of ground and has been estimated by an eminent English architect to have cost not less than £30,000,000, which in United States currency would be about $145,200,- 000. Internal evidence proves that the great pyramid was begun about the year 2170 B.C., about the time of the oirth of Abraham. It is estimated that about 5,000,000 tons of hewn stone were used in its construction, and the evidence points to the fact that these stones were brought a distance of about 700 miles from quarries in Arabia. The largest and grandest temple of worship in the world is the St. Peter’s Cathedral at Rome. It stands on the site of Nero’s circus, in the northwest part of the city, and is built in form of a Latin cross. The total length of the interior is 61234 English feet; transept, 446)4 feet; height of nave, 152)4 feet; diameter of ci^alo, 193 feet; height of dome from pave- ment to top of cross, 448 feet. The great bell alone without the hammer or clapper weighs 18,^0 pounds, or over 9)4 tons. The foundation was laid in 1450 A.D. Forty-three Popes lived and died during the time the work was in progress. It was dedicated in the year 1826, but not entirely finished until the year 1880. The cost, in round numbers, is set down at $70,000,000, The Capitol building at Washington, D. C., is the largest building in the United States. The corner stone was laid December 18th, 1793, by President Washington, assisted by other Masons. It was partially destroyed by the British in 1814. The present dome was begun in 1855 and finished in 1863. The flag of the United States first floated from it Decem- ber i2th, 1863. The cost of the entire building has been something over $13,- 000,000. Its length is ^15 feet 4 inches; width, 324 feet. It covers 3^ acres of ground. The distance from the ground to the top of the dome is 307)4 feet: diameter of the dome, 135)4 — making fifth as to size with the greatest domes of the world. The largest and costliest private mansion in the world is that belonging to Lord Bute, called Montstuart, and situated near Rothesay, England. It covers nearly two acres; is built in gothic style; the walls, turrets and balconies are built of stone. The immense tower in the center of the building is 120 feet high, with a balcony around the top. The halls are constructed entirely of marble and alabaster, and the rooms are finished in mahogany, rosewood and walnut. The fire-places are all carved mar- bles of antique design. The exact cost of this fairy palace is not known, but it has never been estimated at less than $8,000,000. The largest body of fresh water in the world is Lake Superior. It is 400 miles long and 180 miles wide; its circumference, including the windings of its various bays, has been estimated at 1,800 miles. Its area in square miles is 32,000, which is greater than the whole of New England, leaving out Maine. The greatest depth of this inland sea is 200 fa^oms, or 1,200 feet. Its average depth is about 160 fathoms. It is 636 feet above sea level. 17 GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. The corner stone of the Washington monument, the highest .n the United States, and until 1880 the highest in the world, was laid July 4th, 1848. Robert E. Winthrop, then the Speaker of the House, delivered the oration. Work progressed steadily for about six years, until the funds of the monumental society became exhausted. At that time the monument was about 1*^5 feet high. From 1854 until 1879 nothing to speak of was done on the building. In the year last above named Congress voted an appro- priation of $200,000 to complete the work. From that time forward work progressed at a rapid rate until December 6th, 1884, when the aluminum apex was set at 551; feet 5^^ inches from the foundation and the work de- clared finished. The foundation is 146)^ feet square; number of stones used above the 130-foot level, 9,163; total weight stone used in work, 81,120 tons. The famous Corliss engine, the largest ever constructed, and the one used to drive the machinery in the great hall at the Centennial of 1876, is now in the shops of the Pullman Car Company at Pullman, near Chicago, 111 . The writer is aware that this differs from other statements that have been made, it being generally supposed that the Emperor ol Brazil bought the engine and removed it to his own country. He did talk of buying it, but the bargain was never consummated. This tireless giani works in an upright position, is over 40 feet high, of 1,400 horse-power, and has two 40-inch cylinders and a lo-foot stroke. The largest ferry-boat ever constructed was named the Solano, and is now in use daily conveying trains across the Straits of Carquinez, between Benecia and Port Costa. The Solano is 460 feet long, 116 feet wide, and 20 foot depth of hold. She has eight steel boilers, four rudders, and a tonage of 3,841 tons. On her decks are four railway tracks, with capacity for 48 ordinary freight cars and two locomotives, or 28 passenger coaches of the largest build. The highest building in the world, not counting the Eiffel tower and the Washington monument, is the Cologne cathedral. The height from the pavement to the top of the cupola is 511 feet. It is 511 feet long, exactly the same as the height, and 231 feet wide. It was begun August 15th in the year 1248, and was pronounced finished August 14th, 1880, over 600 years after the corner stone was laid. The highest mountain on the globe is not, as is generally sup- posed, Mt. Everest, that honor belonging to a lofty peak named Mt. Her- cules on the Isle of Papua, New Guinea, discovered by Capt. Lawson in 1881. According to Lawson, this monster is 32,763 feet in height, being 3,781 feet higher than Mt. Everest, which is only 29,002 feet above the Icv^ of the Indian ocean. The largest State in our grand republic is Texas, which con- tains 274,356 square miles, capable of sustaining 20,000,000 of people, and then it would not be more crowded than Scotland is at present. It has been estimated that the entire population of the globe could be seated upon chairs within the boundary of Texas and each have f ur feet of elbow room. The largest anvil is that used in the Woolwich Arsenal, Eng- land. It weighs sixty tons. The anvil block upon which it rests weighs 103 tons. Altogether 600 tons of iron were used in the anvil, the block and the foundation work. It is said to have been six months cooling before it was sufficiently hard to stand the shock of the immense hammer. The Mississippi river, from the source of the Missouri to the Eads jetties, is the longest river in the world. It is 4,300 miles in length and drains an area of 1,726^000 square miles. The Amazon, which is with- out doubt the widest river in the world, including the Beni, is 4,000 miles in length and drains 2,330,000 square miles of territory. The largest school in the world is the Jews’ free school of Spitalsfield, Eng., which has a daily attendance of2,8oo pupils. 18 GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. New Orleans boasts the largest custom-house in this or any other land. It was begun in 1848 and over thirty years elapsed before it was finished and ready for use. It is built of Quincy granite, the interior being finished in finest marble. It has iii rooms; height from the pave- ment to the top of the cornice is eighty feet, and to the top of the light on the dome 187 feet. The dome itself is 49 feet square and 61 feet high; estimated total cost of building, $4,900,000. The largest hotel in the United States, and probably the largest in the world, is located at San Francisco, Cal. It is nine stories high and cost $3,500,000. It is named the Palace and has accommodations for 1,500 guests. Paris claims the finest theater in the world. It is of solid stone, finished with marble floors, and covers about four acres of ground. La Scala, of Milan, has the largest seating capacity, while the Auditorium at Chicago, completed in 1889, seating 7,000 people, ranks second in that. respect. The Name of God in Forty-eight Languages. Hebrew Eleah, Jehovah Olotu tongue . Chaldaic . . . Eiliah German and Swiss . . Assyrian Flemish Godl Syrian and Turkish . . . . Alah Dutch Malay . . . . Alla English Arabic .. .Allah Teutonic Goth Languages of the Magi..Orsi Danish and Swedish. Old Egyptian Norwegian . . . . Gud Armenian , . . .Teuti Slav Modern Egyptian . . . Teun Polish Bog Greek Polacca Cretan Lapp . . .Jubinal Aedian and Dorian . Ilos Finnish Latin Runic As Low Latin Zemblian . . . Fetiza Celtic Gaelic Diu Pannonian . . . . . . . . Istu French Hindostanee . . Spanish Coromandel . . Portuguese Tartar , . Magatai Old German. Persian Provincial Chinese Low Breton Japanese . . Goezer Italian Madagascar . . . Irish Dia Peruvian . Puchecammae Comparative Cost of Freight by Water and Rail. — I t has been proved by actual test that a single tow-boat can trans- port at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans 29,000 tons of coal, loaded in barges. Estimating in this way, the boat and its. tow, worked by a few men, carries as much freight to its destina- tion as 3,000 cars and 100 locomotives, manned by 600 men^ could transport. 19 LOISETTE’S SYSTEM OF MEMORY. S O MUCH has been said about Loisette’s memory system, the art has been so widely advertised, and so carefully guarded from all the profane who do not send five or many dollars to the Professor, that a few pages showing how every man may be his own Loisette, may be both interesting and valuable. In the first place, the system is a good one, and well worth the labor of mastering, and if the directions are implicitly followed there can be no doubt that the memory will be greatly strength- ened and improved, and that mnemonic feats otherwise impossible may be easily performed. Loisette, however, is not an inventor, hut an introducer. He stands in the same relation to Dr. Pick that the retail dealer holds to the manufacturer : the one pro- duced the article ; the other brings it to the public. Even this statement is not quite fair to Loisette, for he has brought much practical common sense to bear upon Pick’s system, and, in pre- paring the new art of mnemonics for the market, in many ways he has made it his own. If each man would reflect upon the method by which he him- self remembers things, he would find his hand upon the key oi the whole mystery. For instance, the author was once trying to remember the word hlythe. There occurred to my mind the words “ Bellman,” “ Belle,” and then the verse ; ** the peasant upward climbing Hears the bells of Buloss chiming.** “ Barcarole,” “ Barrack,” and so on until finally the word “ bly the ” presented itself with a strange insistance, long after I had ceased trying to recall it. On another occasion, when trjdng to recall the name “ Richard- son,” I got the words “hay-rick,” “ Robertson,” “ Randallstown,” and finally “ wealthy,” from which, naturally, I got “ rich ” and “ Richardson ” almost in a breath. Still another example : trying to recall the name of an old schoolmate, “ Gradjq” I got “Brady,” “grave,” “gaseous,” “gas- tronome,” “ gracious,” and I finally abandoned the attempt, simply saying to myself that it began with a “ G,” and there was an “ a ” sound after it. The next morning, when thinking of something entirely different, this name “ Grady ” came up in my mind with as much distinctness as though someone had whis- pered it in my ear. This remembering was done without any conscious effort on my part, and was evidently the result of the exertion made the day before when the mnemonic processes were put to work. Every reader must have had a similar experience which he can recall, and which will fall in line with the examples given. 20 LOISETTE'S Sl'STEM OF MEMORT, It follows, then, that when we endeavor, without the aid of any system, to recall a forgotten fact or name, our memory presents to us words of similar sound or meaning in its journey toward the goal to which we have started it. This goes to show that our ideas are arranged in groups in whatever secret cavity or recess of the brain they occupy, and that the arrangement is one not alphabetical exactly, and not entirely by meaning, but after some fashion partaking of both. If you are looking for the word “ meadow ” you may reach “ middle *’ before you come to it, or “ Mexico,” or many words beginning with the “m” sound, or containing the “dow,” as “ window ” or “ dough,” or you may get “ field ” or “ farm ” — but you are on the right track, and if you do not interfere with your intellectual process you will finally come to the idea which you are seeking. How often have you heard people say, “ I forget his name, it is something like Beadle or Beagle — at any rate it begins with a B.” Each and all of these were unconscious Loisettians, and they were practicing blindly, and without proper method or direction, the excellent system which he teaches. The thing, then, to do — and it is the final and simple truth which Loisette teaches- — is to travel over this ground in the other direction — to cement the fact which you wish to remember to some other fact or word which you know will be brought out by the implied conditions — and thus you will always be able to travel from your given start- ing-point to the thing which you wish to call to mind. To illustrate : let the broken line in the annexed diagram represent a train of thought. If we connect the idea “ a ” with through the steps c and d, the tendency of the mind ever afterwards will be to get to e from a that way, or from any of the intermediates that way. It seems as though a channel were cut in our mind-stuff along which the memory flows. How to make it flow this way will be seen later on. Loisette, in common with all the mnemonic teach- ers, uses the old device of representing numbers by letters — and as this is the first and easiest step in the art, this seems to be the most logical place to introduce the accepted equivalents of the Arabic numerals : 0 is always represented by z or c soft. 1 is always represented by /, tk or d, ^ is always represented by 3 is always represented by w. 4 is always represented by r, 5 is always represented by /. 6 is always represented by sh^j^ ch soft or g soft. 21 LOISETTE^S SYSTEM OF MEMORY 7 is always represented by g- hard, k c hard, q or final ng, 8 is always represented by f or v, O is always represented by p or b. All the other letters are used simply to fill up. Double letters in a word count only as one. In fact the sytem goes by sound, not by spelling — for instance “ this ” or “ dizzy ” would stand for ten; “catch” or “gush ” would stand for 76, and the only diffi- culty is to make some word or phrase which will contain only the significant letters in the proper order, filled out with non- significants into some guise of meaning or intelligibility.* Sup- pose you wished to get some phrase or word that would express the number 3685, you arrange the letters this way : You can make out “image of law,” “my shuffle,” “ match- ville,” etc., etc., as far as you like to work it out. Now, suppose you wished to memorize the fact that $1,000,000 in gpld weighs 3,685 pounds, you go about it in this way, and here is the kernel and crux of Loisette’s system ; “ How much does $1,000,000 in gold weigh ? ” “ Weigh — scales.” “ Scales — statue of Justice.” “ Statue of Justice — image of law." The process is simplicity itself. The thing you wish to recall, and that you fear to forget, is the weight; consequently you cement your chain of suggestion to the idea which is most You can remember the equivalents by noting the fact that z is the first letter ot ** zero,” and c of ** cipher,” t has but one stroke, n has two, nt three. The script/ is very like 8, the script / like 9; r is the last letter of four, / is the roman num- eral for fiRy* which suggests five. The others may be retained as memorizing these two nonsense lines: Six shy Jewesses ^rAase George Seven ^eat ^ings came 5^uarreli»^. 22 LOISETTE^S SYSTEM OF MEMORY. prominent in ^our mental question. What do jou weigh with Scales. What does the mental picture of scales suggest The statue of Justice, blindfolded and weighing out award and pun- ishment to man. Finally, what is this statue of Justice but the image of law? and the words “image of law,” translated back from the significant letters g soft,^' and /, give you 3-6-8-5, the number of pounds in $1,000,000 in gold. You bind together in your mind each separate step in the journey, the one suggests the other, and you will find a year from now that the fact will be as fresh in your memory as it is to-day. You cannot lose it. It is chained to you by an unbreakable mnemonic tie. Mark, that it is not claimed that “ weight ” will of itself suggest “ scales ” and “scales” “statue of Justice,” etc., but that, having once passed your attention up and down that ladder of ideas, your mental tendency will be to take the same route, and get to the same goal again and again. Indeed, beginning with the weight of $1,000,000, “ image of law ” will turn up in your mind without your con- sciousness of any intermediate station on the way, after some iteration and reiteration of the original chain. Again, so as to fasten the process in the reader’s mind even more firmly, suppose that it were desired to fix the date of the battle of Hastings (A. D. 1066) in the memory; io66 may be represented by the words “ the wise judge ” {th = i, .y = o,y = 6, dg = 6 ; the others are non-significants); a chain might be made thus : Battle of Hastings — arbitrament of war. Arbitrament of war — arbitration. Arbitration — judgment. Judgment — the wise judge. Make mental pictures, connect ideas, repeat words and sounds, go about it any way you please, so that you will form a mental habit of connecting the “battle of Hastings” with the idea of “ arbitrament of war,” and so on for the other links in the chain, and the work is done. Loisette makes the beginning of his system unnecessarily diffi- cult, to say nothing of his illogical arrangement in the grammar of the art of memory, which he makes the first of his lessons. He analyzes suggestion into — 1. Inclusion. 2. Exclusion. 3. Concurrence. All of which looks very scientific and orderly, but is really misleading, and badly named. The truth is that one idea will suggest another. I. By likeness or opposition of meaning, as “ house ” suggests 23 LOISETTE^S SrSTEM OF MEMORY, “ room ’’ or “ door,” etc.; or, “ white ” suggests “ black,” “ cruel,” “ kind,” etc. 2. By likeness of sound, as “ harrow ” and “ barrow” ; “Henry ” and “ Hennepin.” 3. By mental juxtaposition, a peculiarity different in each per- son, and depending upon each one’s own experiences. Thus, “ St. Charles ” suggests “ railway bridge ” to me, because I was vividly impressed by the breaking of the Wabash bridge at that point. “Stable” and “broken leg” come near each other in my experience, so do “ cow ” and “ shot-gun ” and “ licking.” Out of these three sorts of suggestion it is possible to get from any one fact to any other in a chain certain and safe, along which the mind may be depended upon afterwards always to follow. The chain is, of course, by no means all. Its making and its binding must be accompanied by a vivid, methodically directed attention, which turns all the mental light gettable in a focus upon the subject passing across the mind’s screen. Before Loisette was thought of this was known. In the old times in England, in order to impress upon the mind of the rising gene- ration the parish boundaries in the rural districts, the boys were taken to each of the landmarks in succession, the position and bearings of each pointed out carefully, and, in order to deepen the impression, the ^oung people were then and there vigorously thrashed, a mechanical method of attracting the attention which was said never to have failed. This system has had its supporters in many of the old-fashioned schools, and there are men who will read these lines who can recall, with an itching sense of vivid expression, the 144 lickings which were said to go with the mul- tiplication table. In default of a thrashing, however, the student must cultivate as best he can an intense fixity of perception upon every fact or word or date that he wishes to make permanently his own. It is easy. It is a matter of habit. If you will you can photograph an idea upon your cerebral gelatine so that neither years nor events will blot it out or overlay it. You must be clearly and distinctly aware of the thing you are putting into your mental treasure- house, and drastically certain of the cord by which you have tied it to some other thing of which you are sure. Unless it is worth your w'hile to do this, you might as well abandon any hope of mnemonic improvement, which will not come without the hardest kind of hard work, although it is work that will grow constantly easier with practice and reiteration. You need, then : 1. Methodic suggestion, 2. Methodic attention. 3. Methodic reiteration. 24 LOISErrE'S SrSTEM OF MEMORY. And this is all there is to Loisette, and a great deal it is. Two of them will not do without the third. You do not know how many steps there are from your hall door to your bed-room, though you have attended to and often reiterated the journey. But if there are twenty of them, and you have once bound the word “nice,” or “nose,” or “news,” or “ hyenas,” to the fact of the stairway, yow could never forget it. The Professor makes a point, and very wisely, of the impor- tance of working through some established chain, so that the whole may be carried away in the mind — not alone for the value of the facts so bound together, but for the mental discipline so afforded. Here, then, is the “ President Series,” which contains the name and the date of inauguration of each president from Wash- ington to Cleveland. The manner in which it is to be mastered is this: Beginning at the top, try to find in your mind some connection between each word and the one following it. See how you can at some future time make one suggest the next, either by suggestion of sound or sense, or by mental juxtaposi- tion. When you have found this dwell on it attentively for a moment or two. Pass it backward and forward before you, and then go on to the next step. The chain runs thus, the names of the presidents being in small caps, the date words in italics: President.. Chosen as the first word as the one most apt to occur to the mind of any one wishing to repeat the names of the presidents. Dentist Vx^^xdent and dentist. Draw What does a dentist do? To give up When something is drawn from one it is given up. This is a date phrase meaning 1789. Self-sacrifice There is an association of thought between giving up and self- sacrifice. Washington Associate the quality of self-sacrifice with Washington’s charac- ter. Morning wash. ... . . tVaskington. and wash. Dew Early wetness and dew. Flower beds Dew and flowers. Took a bouquet Flowers and bouquet Date phrase (1797). Garden Bouquet and garden. Eden The first garden. Adam Juxtaposition of thought. Adams Suggestion by sound. Fall .Juxtaposition of thought. Failure Fall and failure. Deficit Upon a failure there is usually a deficit. Date word (i 3 oi). Debt Tlxe consequence of a deficit. Bonds Debt and bonds. Confederate bonds. .Suggestion by meaning. Jefferson Davis,. . . . .Juxtaposition of thought. Jefferson. Now follow out the rest for yourself, taking about ten at a time, and binding those you do last to those you have done be- fore each time, before attacking the next bunch. 25 LOISETTE'S SrSTEM OF MEMORY, 1 JeF'TERSON Judge Jeffreys bloody assize bereavement too heavy a sob parental grief mad son Madison Madeira first-rate wine frustrating defeating feet toe tbe line row Monroe row boat steamer the funnel windpipe throat quinzy Quincy Adams quince fine fruit the fine boy sailor boy sailor jack tar Jackson stone wall indomitable tough make oaken furniture bureau Van Buren rent side-splitting divert annoy harassing Harrison Old Harry the tempter 2 the fraud painted clay baked clay tiles Tyler Wat Tyler poll tax compulsory free will free offering burnt offering poker Polk end of dance termination “ly” adverb part of speech part of a man Taylor measurer theodolite Theophilus fill us Fillmore more fuel the flame flambeau bow arrow Pierce hurt feelifig wound soldier cannon Buchanan rebuke official censure to officiate wedding linked Lincoln link stroll sea shore 3 the heavy shell mollusk unfamiliar word dictionary Johnson’s Johnson son bad son dishonest boy thievish boy take give Grant award school premium examination cramming fagging laborer hay field Hayes hazy clear vivid brightly lighted camp fire war field Garfield Guiteau murderer prisoner prison fare half fed well fed well read author Arthur round table tea table tea cup half full divide cleave Cleveland — , la LOISETTE^S SrSTBM OF MEMORY. It will be noted that some of the date words, as “free will,’*' only give three figures of the date, 845; but it is to be supposed that if the student knows that many figures in the date of Polk’s inauguration he can guess the other one. The curious thing about this system will now become apparent. If the reader has learned the series so that he can say it down, from President to Cleveland, he can with no effort, and without any further preparation, say it backwards from Cleveland up to the commencement! There could be no better proof that this is the natural mnemonic system. It proves itself by its works. The series should be repeated backwards and forwards every day for a month, and should be supplemented by a series of the reader’s own making, and by this one, which gives the numbers from o to 100, and which must be chained together before they can be learned. 0 — hoes i-;-wheat 34 — mare 67 — jockey 2 — hen 35— mill 68 — shave 3 — home 36 — image 69 — ship 4 — hair 37— mug 70“eggs 5— oil 38 — muff 71 — ^gate 6 — shoe 39 — mob 72— gun 7 — ^hook 40 — race 73 — comb 8— off 41 — hart 74 — hawker 9 — bee 42 — horn 75 — coal 10 — daisy 43— army 76— cage 1 1 — tooth 44 — warrior 77 — cake 12 — dine 45_royal 78 — coffee 13 — time 46 — arch 79 — cube 14 — ^tower 47 — rock 80 — ^vase 15— dell 48 — wharf 81 — feet 16 — ditch 49 — rope 82 — vein 17 — duck 50-^wheels 83 — fame 18— dove 51— lad 84 — fire 19 — ^tabby 52 — lion 815 — vial 20 — hyenas 53— lamb S^fish 21 — hand 54 — 87— fig 22 — nun 55— lily 88— fife 23 — name 56 — lodge 89 — fib 24 — owner 57 — lake 90 — pies 25 — nail 58 — leaf 91 — putty 26 — hinge 59 — elbow 92 — pane 27 — ink 60 — chess 93 — bomb 28 — knife 61 — cheat 94 — bier 29 — knob 62 — chain 95 — bell 30 — muse 63 — sham 96 — peach 31— mayday 64 — chair 97 — book 32 — hymen 65— jail 98 — beef 33 — mama 66 — ^judge 99— pope m] LOISBTTE^S SYSTEM OF MEMORY. By the use of this table, which should be committed as thoroughly as the President series, so that it can be repeated backwards and forwards, any date, figure or number can be at once constructed, and bound by the usual chain to the fact which you wish it to accompan3^ When the student wishes to go farther and attack larger problems than the simple binding of two facts together, there is little in Loisette^s system that is new, although there is much that is good. If it is a book that is to be learned as one would prepare for an examination, each chapter is to be considered separately. Of each a precis is to be written in which the writer must exercise all of his ingenuity to reduce the matter in hand to its final skeleton of fact. This he is to commit to mem- ory both by the use of the chain and the old system of interro- gation. Suppose after much labor through a wide space of language one boils a chapter or an event down to the final irre- ducible sediment: “ Magna Charta was exacted by the barons from King John at Runnymede.” You must now turn this statement this way and that way; asking yourself about it every possible and impossible question, gravely considering the answers, and, if you find any part of it especially difficult to remember, chaining it to the question which will bring it out. Thus, “ What was exacted by the barons from King John at Runnymede V* “ Magna Charta.” “ By whom was Magna Charta exacted from King John at Runnymede.^” “ By the barons.” “ From whom was,” etc., etc. ? “ King John.” “ From what king,” etc., etc. “King John.” “Where was Magna Charta,” etc., etc. ? “At Runnymede.” And so on and so on, as long as your ingenuity can suggest questions to ask, or points of view from which to consider the statement. Your mind will be finally saturated with the in- formation, and prepared to spill it out at the first squeeze of the examiner. This, however, is not new. It was taught in the schools hundreds of years before Loisette was born. Old news- paper men will recall in connection with it Horace Greeley’s statement that the test of a news item was the clear and satisfac- tory manner in which a report answered the interrogatories, “What?” “When.?” “Where?” “Who.?” “Why.?” In the same way Loisette advises the learning of poetry, e. “The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.” “ Who came down?” “ How did the Assyrian come down?” “ Like what animal did?” etc. And so on and so on, until the verses are exhausted of every scrap of information to be had out of them by the most assiduous cross-examination. 28 /.OTSETTE^S SrSTEM OF MEMORT. Whatever the reader may think of the availability or value of tnis part of the system, there are so many easily applicable tests of the worth of much that Loisette has done, that it may be taken with the rest. Few people, to give an easy example, can remember the value of TT — the ratio between the circumference and the diameter ol the circle — beyond four places of decimals, or at most six — 3. 141592 + . Here is the value to 108 decimal places: 3. I4I59265-3589793238-462643383279502884I97I69399375-10582 09749*445923078 1 •64o62862o8*998628o348*2 5342 1 1 7067982 1 480 86 + By a very simple application of the numerical letter values these 108 decimal places can be carried in the mind and recalled about as fast as you can write them down. All that is to be doiu is to memorize these nonsense lines: Mother Day will buy any shawl. My love pick up my new muif. A Russian jeer may move a woman. Cables enough for Utopia. Get a cheap ham pie by my cooley. The slave knows a bigger ape. I rarely hop on my sick foot. Cheer a sage in a fashion safe. A baby fish now views my wharf. Annually Mary Ann did kiss a jay. A cabby found a rough savage. Now translate each significant into its proper value and yoii have the task accomplished. “ Mother Day,” ^^=3, tkz=i, ^=4 and so on. Learn the lines one at a time by the method of interrogatories. “Who will buy any shawl.?” “Which Mrs. Day will buy a shawl.?” ‘ Is Mother Day particular about the sort ol shawl she will buy?” “Has she bought a shawl?” etc., etc. Then cement the end of each line to the beginning of the next one, thus, “ Shawl ” — “warm garment ” — “ warmth ” — “ love ” — “ my love,” and go on as before. Stupid as the work may seem to you, you can memorize the figures in fifteen minutes this way so that you will not forget them in fifteen years. Similarly you can take Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates and turn fact after fact into non- sense lines like these which you cannot lose. And this ought to be enough to show anybody the whole art. If you look back across the sands of time and find out that it is that ridiculous old “ Thirty days hath September ” which comes to you when you are trying to think of the length of October — if you can quote your old prosody, “O datur ambiguis/' etc., with much more certainty than you can serve up your Horace; if, tOISBTTE^S SrSTEM OF MEMORT. in fine, jingles and alliterations, wise and otherwise, have staj^ed with you, while solid and serviceable information has faded away, you may be certain that here is the key to the enigma of memory. You can apply it yourself in a hundred ways. If you wish to clinch in your mind the fact that Mr. Love lives at 485 Dear- born Street, what is more easy than to turn 485 into the word “rifle” and chain the ideas together, say thus: “Love — happi- ness — good time — picnic — forest — wood" rangers — range — rifle range — rifle — fine weapon — costly weapon — dearly bought — Dearborn. ” Or if you wish to remember Mr. Bowman’s name, and you notice he has a mole on his face which is apt to attract your at- tention when you next see him, cement the ideas thus : “Mole, mark, target, archer. Bowman.” The Copying Pad. — Put i ounce of glue to soak in cold water until pliable and soft. Drain off the surplus water and place the dish in another dish containing hot water. When the glue is thoroughly melted, add 6 ounces of glycerine, which has been previously heated, and mix the two, adding a few drops of carbolic acid to prevent molding. Pour out this mixture into a shallow pan (9x12 inches) and set away to cool, taking care that the surface is free from blisters. After standing 12 hours it is ready for use. To use, write on a sheet of paper what you wish to duplicate with a sharp steel pen and strong aniline ink. When dry, lay the paper face down on the pad, pressing it lightly, and allow it to remain for a moment. On removing the paper an impression will be found on the face of the pad, and if another paper is placed upon it, it will receive a similar impression. When enough impressions have been taken, the face of the pad should be immediately washed with a sponge and cold water until the ink impression is wholly removed. If the surface of the pad becomes dry, wipe it with a moist sponge, and, if uneven, melt over a slow fire. How TO Raise the Body of a Drowned Person. — In a recent failure to recover the body of a drowned person in New Jersey, a French-Canadian undertook the job, and proceeded as follows : Having supplied himself with some glass gallon jars and a quantity of unslacked lime he went in a boat to the place where the man was seen to go down. One of the jars was filled half full of lime, and then filled up with water and tightly corked. It was then dropped into the water and soon after ex- ploded at the bottom of the river with a loud report. After the third trial, each time at a different place, the body rose to the surface and was secured. 30 500 ERRORS CORRECTED. Concise Rules in Grammar, Spelling and Pronunciation. T here are several kinds of errors in speaking. The most objectionable of them all are those in which words are employed that are unsuitable to convey the meaning intended. Thus, a person wishing to express his intention of go- ing to a given place says, “ I propose going,” when, in fact, he purposes going. The following affords an amusing illustration of this class of error : A venerable matron was speaking of hei son, who, she said, was quite stage-struck. “ In fact,” remarked the old lady, “he is going to a premature performance this evening ! ” Considering that most amateur performances are premature^ it cannot be said that this word was altogether mis- applied ; though, evidently, the maternal intention was to con- vey quite another meaning. Other errors arise from the substitution of sounds similar to the words which should be employed ; that is, spurious words instead of genuine ones. Thus, some people say “ renumera- tive^"' when they mean “ remunerative.^' A nurse, recommend- ing her mistress to have a perambulator for her child, advised her to purchase a preamputator ! Other errors are occasioned by imperfect knowledge of the English grammar : thus, many people say, “ Between you and I,” instead of “ Between you and mei' And there are numerous other departures from the rules of grammar, which will be pointed out hereafter. Misuse of the Adjective : “ What beautiful butter!” “ What a nice landscape! ” They should say “ What a beautiful landscape I" “What nice butter I" Again, errors are fre- quently occasioned by the following causes : Mispronunciation of Words: Many persons say pro- nounctaiton instead of prontinciatio7i ; others say pro-nun-ce-a-shun, instead of pro-nun-she-a-shun. Misdivision of Words and Syllables: This defect makes the words a7i ambassador sound like a nambassador^ or an adder like a nadder. Imperfect Enunciation, as when a person says hebben for heaven., ebber for ever^ jocholate for chocolate. To correct these errors by a systematic course of study would involve a closer application than most persons could afford, but the simple and concise rules and hints here given, founded upon usage and the authority of scholars, will be of great assistance to inquirers. 31 GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PRONUNCIA TION RULES AND HINTS FOR CORRECT SPEAKING. Who and whom are used in relation to persons, and which in relation to things. But it was once common to say, “the man which.'* This should now be avoided. It is now usual to say, “Our Father who art in heaven,” instead of "which art in heaven.” Whose is, however, sometimes applied to things as well as to persons. Wc may therefore say, “The country whose inhabitants are free.” Thou is employed in solemn discourse, and you in common language. Ye (plural) is also used in serious addresses, and you in familiar language. The uses of the word it are various, and very perplexing to the uneducated. It !s not only used to imply persons, but things, and even ideas, and therefore in speaking or writing, its assi.stance is constantly required. The perplexity respect- ng this word arises from the fact that in using it in the construction of a long sen- tence, sufficient care is not taken to insure that when it is employed it really points out or refers to the object intended. For instance, “It was raining when John e papers I hold in my hand,” say “ These papers I hold in my hand.” Instead of “ I could scarcely imagine but what,” say “ I could scarcely imagine but that.” Instead of “ He was a man notorious for his benevolence,” say “ He was noted for his benevolence.” Instead of “She was a woman celebrated for her crimes,” say “She was notorious on account of her crimes.” Instead of “ What may your name be ?” say “ What is your name?” Instead of “ I lifted it up," say “ I lifted it.” Instead of “It is equally of the same value,” say “ It is of the same value,” or “ equal value.” Instead of “I knew it previous to your telling me,” say “I knew it previously to your telling me.” 34 '’GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PRONUNCTATT Instead of “ You was out when I called,” say “ You were out when I called.” Instead of “ I thought I should have won this game,” say “I thought I should' win this game.” Instead of “ This much is certain,” say “ Thus much is certain,” or, “ So much is •certain.” Instead of “ He went away it waj' yesterday week,” say “He went away yesterday week.” Instead of “ He came the Saturday as it may be before the Monday” specify the Monday on which he came Instead of “ Put your watch in your pocket,” say “Put your watch into your pocket.” Instead of “ He has^ic?^ riches,” say “ He has riches.” Instead of “ Will you set down ? say “ Will you sit down ? ” Instead of ' No thankee,” say “ No, thank you.” Instead of “I cannot do it without farther means,” say “ I cannot do it without further means.” Instead of “ No sooner but,” or “ No other but,” say “ than.” Instead of Nobody else but her,” say “Nobody but her ” instead of “ He fell down from the balloon,” say “ He fell from the balloon.” Instead of “ He rose up from the ground,” say “He rose from the ground.” Instead of “ These kind of oranges not good,” say “This kind of oranges is not good.” Instead of “ Somehow or another,” say “ Somehow or other.” Instead of “ Will I give you some more tea?” say “ Shall I give you some more tea ? ” Instead of “Oh dear, what will I do?” say “ Oh dear, what shall I do?” Instead of “ I think hidijferent of it,” say “ I think indifferently of it.” Instead of “ I will send xt conformable to your orders,” say “ I will send it con- formably to your orders. ” Instead of “ To be given away gratis, ” say “ To be given away.” Instead of “ Will you enter in?” say “ Will you enter?” Instead of “ This three days or more,” say “These three days or more.” Instead of “ He is a bad gra^nmarian,” say ‘ He is not a grammarian.” Instead of ‘‘ We accuse him for,” say “ We accuse him of.” Instead of “ We acquit Mxmfrom,” say “ We acquit him of.” Instead of “ I am averse from that,” say “ I am averse to that.” Instead of “ 1 confide on you,” say “ I confide in you.” Instead of “As soon as ever,” say “As soon as ” Instead of “The very best,” or “The very wortt,” say “The best or the worst.” Avoid such phrases as “No great shakes,” “ Nothing to boast of,” “Down in my boots,” “ Suffering from the blues.” All such sentences indicate vulgarity. Instead of “ No one hasn't called,” say “ No one has called ” Instead of “ You have a right to pay me,” say “ It is right that you should pay me.” Instead of “ I am going o^fer the bridge,” say “ I am going across the bridge.” Instead of “I should just think I could,” say “ I think I can.” Instead of “There has been good deal,” say “ There has been much ” Instead of saying ‘ The effort you are making for meeting the bill,” say “ The effort you are making to meet the bill.” To say “ Do not give him no more of your money,” is equivalent to saying “ Give him some of your money.” Say “ Do not give him any of your money.” Instead of saying They are not what nature designea them,” say “They are are not what nature designed them to be.” Instead of saying “ I had not the pleasure of hearing his sentiments when I wrote that letter,” say “ I had not the pleasure of having heard,” etc. Instead of “The quality of the apples were good,” say “The quality of the apples was good.” Instead of “ The want of learning, courage and energy are more visible,” say, “ Is more visible.” Instead of “We diey^r want,” say “ We die of want.” Instead of “ He died by fever,” say “ He died of fever.” 35 WlRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. Instead of “ I enjoy \i2A health/’ say “ My health is not good.” Instead of ** Either of the three,” say “ Any one of the three.” Instead of “ Better nor that,” say “ Better than that.” Instead of “ We often think you,” say “We often think of you.” Instead of “ Mine is so good as yours,” say “Mine is as good as yours.” Instead of “ This town is not as large as we thought,” say “ This town is not so large as we thought.” Instead of ''‘Because why?” say “Why?” Instead of “ That there boy,” say “ That boy.” Instead of “That horse is not much worth'^ say “The horse is not worth much.” Instead of “ The subject-matter of debate,” say “ The subject of debate.” Instead of saying “ When he was come back,” say “ When he had come back.” Instead of saying “His health has been shook,'' say “His health has been shaken.” Instead of “ It was spoke in my presence,” say “ It was spoken in my presence.” Instead of “ Very right,” or “ Very wrong,” say “ Right,” or “ Wrong.” Instead of “The mortgageor ^20^ him the money,” say “ The mortgagee paid him the money,” The mortgagee lends ; the mortgageor borrows. Instead of “ I took you to be another person,” say “ I mistook you for another per- son.” Instead of “ On either side of the river,” say “ On each side of the river.” Instead of “ 2 here's fifty,” say “ There are fifty.” Instead of “ The best of the two,” say “The better of the two.” Instead of “ My clothes have become too small for me,” say “ I have grown too stout for my clothes.” Instead of “Two spoonsful of physic,” say “ Two spoonfuls of physic ** Instead of “ She said, says she,” say “She said.” Avoid such phrases as “ I said, says I,” “ Thinks 1 to myself,’* etc. • Instead of “ I don’t think so,” say “I think not.” Instead of “ He was in eminent danger,” say “He was in imminent danger.” Instead of “ The weather is hot," say “ The weather is very warm.” Instead of “I sweat," say “I perspire.” Instead of “ I only want two dollars,” say “ I want only two dollars.” Instead of “ Whatsomever,” say “ Whatever,” or “ Whatsoever.” Avoid such exclamations as “God bless me \ " God deliver me !” “ By God ! ” “By Gosh!” “My Lord!” ‘‘ Upon my soul,” etc., which are vulgar on the one hand, and savor of impiety on the other, for — “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.” PRONUNCIATION. Accent is a particular stress or force of the voice upon certain syllables or words. This mark ' in printing denotes the syllable upon which the stress or force of the voice should be placed. A word may have more than one accent. Take as an instance aspiration. In uttering this word we give a marked emphasis of the voice upon the first and third syllables, and therefore those syllables are said to be accented. The first of these accents is less distinguishable than the second, upon which we dwell longer, there- fore the second accent in point of order is called the primary, or chief accent of the word. When the full accent falls on a vowel, that vowel should have a long sound, as in vo'cal ; but when it falls on or after a consonant, the preceding vowel has a short sound, as in hab'it. To obtain a good knowledge of pronunciation, it is advisable for the reader to listen to the examples given by good speakers, and by educated persons. We learn the pronunciation of words, to a great extent, by imitation, just as birds acquire the notes of other birds which may be near them. But it will be very important to bear in mind that there are many words having a double meaning or application, and that the difference of meaning is indicated by the difference of the accent. Among these words, nouns are distinguished from 3G grammar, spelling and pronunciation. verbs by this means : nouns are mostly accented on the first syllable, and verbs on the last. Noun signifies name; nouns are the names of persons and things, as well as of things not material and palpable, but of which we have a conception and knowl- edge, such as courage, firmness, goodness, strength ; and verbs express actions, movements, &c. If the word used signifies that anything has been done, or is being done, or is, or is to be done, then that word is a verb. Thus when we say that anything is “ an in'sult,” that word is a noun, and is ac- cented on the first syllable ; but when we say he did it ‘‘to insult' another person,” the word insult' acting, and becomes a verb, and should be accented on the last syllable. A list of nearly all the words that are liable to similar variation is given here. It will be noticed that those in the first column, having the accent on the first syllable, are mostly nouns ; and that those in the second column, which have the accent on the second and final syllable, are mostly verbs: — Noun, dr^c. Ab'ject Ab'sent Ab'stract Ac'cent Affix As'pect Attribute Aug'ment Au'gust Bonj/bard Col'league Col'lect Com'ment Com'pact Com'plot Com'port Com'pound Com'press Con'cert Con'crete Con'duct Con'fine Con'flict Con 'serve Con'sort Con'test Con 'text Con 'tract Verb, &^c. abject' absent' abstract' accent' affix' aspect' attrib'ute augment' august' bombard' colleague' collect' comment' compact' complot' comport' compound' compress' concert' concrete' conduct' confine' conflict' conserve' consort' contest' context' contract' Noun, &^c. Con'trast Con'verse Con 'vert Con'vict Con'voy De'crease Des'cant Des'ert De'tail Di'gest Dis'cord Dis'count Efflux Es'cort Es'say Ex'ile Ex'port Ex'tract Fer'ment Fore'cast Fore'taste Fre'quent Im'part Im'port Im'press Im'print In'cense In 'crease Verb, d^c. contrast' converse' convert' convict' convoy' decrease' descant' desert' detail' digest' discord' discount' efflux' escort' essay' exile' export' extract' ferment' forecast' foretaste' frequent' impart' import' impress' imprint' incense' increase' Noun, &^c. In'lay In'sult Ob'ject Out'leap Per'fect Per'fume Per'mit Pre'fix Prem'ise Pres'age Pres'ent Prod'uce Proj'ect Pro' test Reb'el Rec'ord Refuse Re'tail Sub'ject Su'pine Sur'vey Tor'ment Traj ' ect Trans'fer Trans'port Un'dress Up'cast Up'start Verb, St^c. inlay insult' object' outleap' perfect' perfume' permit' prefix' premise' presage' present' produce' project' protest' rebel' record' refuse' retail' subject' supine' survey' torment' traj ect' transfer' transport' undress' upcast' upstart' Cement' is an exception to the above rule, and should always be accented on the last syllable. So also the word consols'. RULES OF PRONUNCIATION. C before a, o, and u, and in some other situations, is a close articulation, like k. Before e, i, and y, c is precisely equivalent to .r in same, this ; as in cedar, civil, cypress, capacity. E final indicates that the preceding vowel is long ; as in hate, mete, sire, robe, lyre, abate, recede, invite, remote, intrude. E final indicates that c preceding has the soqpd of j ; as in lace, lance : and that g preceding has the sound of j, as in charge, page, challenge. E final in proper English words, never forms a syllable, and in the most usee} words, in the terminating unaccented syllable it is silent. Thus, motive, genuine, examine, granite, are pronounced motiv, genuin, examin, granit. E fipali ip a few words of foreign origin, form^ a syllable ; as syncope, ^iniilf> GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION, E final is silent after / in the following terminations, — ble, cle, dle,fle, gle, kle, pie, tie, zle : as in able, manacle, cradle, ruffle, mangle, wrinkle, supple, rattle, puzzle,, which are pronounced mana'cl, cra'd. 1 , rufff, man'gl, wrin*kl, sup’ pi, puz’zl. E is usually silent in the termination en ; as in token, broken ; pronounced tokn, brokn. OUS, in the termination of adjectives and their derivatives, is pronounced us ; in gracious, pious, pompously. CE, Cl, TI, before a vowel, have the sound of sk : as in cetaceous, gracious, 7 no- tion, partial, ingratiate ; pronounced cetashus, grashus, 7 noshun, parshal, ingrashiate. SI, after an accented vowel, is pronounced like zh ; as in Ephesian, confusion ; pronounced Ephezhan, confuzhon. 'GH, both in the middle and at the end of words is silent; as in caught, bought, fright, nigh, sigh ; pronounced caut, baut, /rite, ni, si. In the following excep- tions, however, gh are pronounced as f : — cough, chough, dough, enough, laugh, rough, slough, tough, trough. When WH begins a word, the aspirate h precedes w in pronunciation : as in what, whiff, whale : pronounced hwzt, hwiff, hwale, w having precisely the sound of 00, French ou. In the following words w is silent : — who, whom, whose, whoop, whole. H after r has no sound or use ; as in rheum, rhyme', pronounced reum, ryme. H should be sounded in the middle of words; as in forehead, ab^or, behold, ex- haust, inhabit, unAorse. H should always be sounded except in the following words : — heir, herb, honest, ponor, hour, humor, and humble, and all their derivatives, — such as humorously, herived from humor. K and G are silent before n ; as know, gnaw ; pronounced no, naw. W before r is silent ; as in wring, wreath ; pronounced ring, reath. B after m is silent ; as in dumb, numb ; pronounced dum, num. L before k is silent as in balk, walk, talk ; pronounced bauk, wauk, tauk. PH has the sound of f : as in philosophy ; pronounced filosofy. NG has two sounds, one as in singer, the other as in fin-ger. N after m, and closing a syllable, is silent ; as in hymn, condemn. P before j and t is mute ; as in psalm, pseudo, ptarmigan : pronounced sarm, sudo, tarmigan. R has two sounds, one strong and vibrating, as at the beginning of words and sylla- bles, such as robber, reckon, error ; the other is at the terminations of the words, or when succeeded by a consonant, as farmer, morn. There are other rules of pronunciation affecting the combinations of vowels, etc. ; but as they are more difficult to describe, and as they do not relate to errors which are commonly prevalent, it will suffice to give examples of them in the following list of words. When a syllable in any word in this list is printed in italics, accent or, stress of voice should be laid on that syllable. WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED. Again, usually pronounced 2i-gen, not as spelled. Alien, ale-yen, not a-ll-en. Antipodes, an-^/)>-o-dees. Apostle, as a-pos’ I, without the t. Arch, artch in compounds of our own language, as in archbishop, archduke ; but ark in words derived from the Greek, as archaic, ar-^a-ik ; archaeolo- gy, ar-ke-^>/-o-gy ; archangel, ark-a/«- j^ei ; archetype, ar-ke-type ; archiepis- 38 copal, ar-ke-e-/2J-co-pal ; archipelago, ar-ke-/^/-a-go ; ar-chives, ar-V\vz, etc. Asia, rt-shia. Asparagus as spe’Ied,’not asparagrass. Aunt, ant, not awnt. Awkward, awk-wurd, not awk-urd. Bade, bad. Because, he-caws, not hQ-cos. Been, bin. Beloved, as a verb, h^-luvd \ as an ad- jective, be-/2^z/-ed. Blessed, cursed* GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. etc., are subject to the same rule. Beneath, with the th in breath, not with the th in breathe. Biog'raphy, as spelled, not beography. Caprice, capreece. Catch, as spelled, not ketch. Chaos, >fea-oss. Charlatan, shar-\zt 2 in. Chasm, kazm. Chasten, chasn. Chivalry, shzv-ahy. Chemistry, kem’ -is-try. Choir, kwire. Combat, kom-^a\.. Conduit, kun-^\\.. Corps, kor : the plural corps is pro- nounced korz. Covetous, cuv-G-ius, not cuv-e-chus. Courteous ^:«r^-yus. Courtesy (politeness), ^-wr-te-sey. Courtesy (a lowering of the body), curt- sey. Cresses, as spelled, not cr^^-ses. Cu'riosity, cu-re-t?J-e-ty, not cur^jity. Cushion, coosh-nn, not coosh-/«. Daunt, dawnt, not dant or darnt. Design and desist have the sound of not of z. Desire should have the sound of z. Dew, due, not doo. Diamond, as spelled, not di-mond. Diploma, de-//^-ma, not dipAo-ma. Diplomacy, de-//i?-ma-cy, not dip-\o-ma- cy- Divers (several), di-vtxz \ but diverse (different), ^i'z-verse. Drought, drowt, not drawt. Duke, as spelled, not dook. Dynasty, z/y-nas-ty, not dyn-a%-\.^. Edict, ^-dickt, not ^^/-ickt. E’en, and e’er, een and air. Egotism, ^-go-tism, not ^^-o-tism. Either, ^-ther. Engine, ^«-jin, not z«-jin. Epistle, without the t. Epitome, c-/zV-o-me. Epoch, ^/-ock, not rid. The product ought to be white. You must separate all ^jray parts, as they are not luminous. Make a sifter in the follow- kfig manner : Take a pot, put a piece of very fine muslin very loosely across it, tie around with a string, put the powder into the top, and rake about until only the coarse powder remains ; open the pot and you will find a very small powder ; mix it into a thin paint with gum water, as two thin applications are better than one thick one. This will give a paint that will remain luminous far into the night, provided it is exposed to light during the day. Transferring Engravings. — It is said that engravings may be transferred on white paper as follows : Place the engraving a few seconds over the vapor of iodine. Dip a slip of white paper in a weak solution of starch, and when dry, in a weak solution of oil of vitriol. When again dry, lay a slip upon the engraving and place both for a few minutes under a press. The engraving will be reproduced in all its delicacy and finish. Lithographs and printed matter cannot be so transferred with equal success. • 43 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. A Dictionary of 12,000 Words of Similar and Contrary Meaning. N O TWO words in the English language have exactly the same significance, but to express the precise meaning which one intends to convey, and also to avoid repetitions, it is often desirable to have at hand a Dictionary of Synonyms. Take President Cleveland’s famous phrase, “innocuous desuetude.” If he had said simply, “harmless disuse,” it would have sounded clumsy, whereas the words he used expressed the exact shade of meaning, besides giving the world a new phrase and the news- papers something to talk about. The following list of Synonyms, while not exhaustive, is quite comprehensive, and by cross-reference will answer most requirements. The appended Antonyms, or words of opposite meaning, enclosed in parentheses, will also be found extremely valuable, for one of the strongest figures of speech is antithesis^ or contrast : ABANDON, leave, forsake, desert, renounce, relinquish, quit, forego, let go, waive. (Keep, cherish.) Abandoned, deserted, forsaken, wicked, reprobate, dissolute, profligate, flagitious, corrupt, depraved, vicious. (Cared for, virtuous.) Abandonment, leaving, desertion, dereliction, renunciation, defection. Abasement, degradation, fall, degeneracy, humiliation, abjection, debase- ment, servility. (Honor.) Abash, bewilder, disconcert, discompose, con- found, confuse, shame. (Embolden.) Abbreviate, shorten, abridge, condense, contract, curtail, reduce. (Extend.) Abdicate, give up, resign, renounce, aban- don, forsake, relinquish, quit, forego. Abet, help, encourage, instigate, incite, stimulate, aid, assist. (Resist.) Abettor, assi^ant, accessory, accomplice, pro- moter, instigator, particeps criminis, coadjutor, associate, companion, co-operator. (Opponent.) Abhor, dislike intensely, view with horror, hate, detest, abominate, loathe, nauseate. (Love.) Ability, ca^bility, talent, faculty, capacity, qualifi- cation, aptitude, aptness, expertness, skill, efficiency, accomplishment, attain- ment. (Incompetency.) Abject, grovelling, low, mean, base, ignoble, worthless, dy?Gpicable, vile, servile, contemptible. (Noble.) Abjure, recant, forswear, dis- claim, recall, revoke, retract, renounce. (Maintain.) Able, strong, powerful, muscular, stalwart, vigorous, athletic, robust, brawny, skillful, adroit, competent, efficient, capable, clever, self-qualified, telling, fitted. (Weak.) Abode, residence, habitation, dwelling, domicile, home, quarters, lodging. Abolish, quash, destroy, revoke, abrogate, annul, cancel, annihilate, extinguish, vitiate, invalidate, nullify. (Establish, enforce.) Abominable, hateful, detestable, odious, vile, execrable. (Lovable.) Abortive, fruitless, ineffectual, idle, inoperative, vain, futile. (Effec- tual.,) About, concerning, regarding, relative to, with regard to, as to, respecting, with respect to, referring to, around, nearly, approximately. Abscond, run off, steal away, decamp, bolt. Absent, a., inattentive, abstracted, not attending to, listless, dreamy. (Present.) Absolute, entire, complete, uncondition;d unquali- fied, unrestricted, despotic, arbitrary, tyrannous, imperative, authoritative, imper- ious. (Limited.) Absorb, engross, swallow up, engulf, imbibe, consume, merge, fuse. Absurd, silly, foolish, preposterous, ridiculous, irrational, unreasonable, nonsensical, inconsistent. (Wise, solemn.) Abuse, v., asperse, revile, vilify, re- proach, calumniate, defame, slander, scandalize, malign, traduce, disparage, d^- 44 . STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS, preciate, ill-use. (Praise, protect.) Abuse, n., scurrility, ribaldry, contumely, obloquy, opprobrium, foul, invective, vituperation, ill-usage. (Praise, protection.) Accede, assent to, consent, acquiesce, comply with, agree, coincide, concur, ap- prove. (Protest.) Accelerate, hasten, hurry, expedite, forward, quicken, des- patch. (Retard.) Accept, receive, take, admit. (Refuse.) Acceptable, agree- able, pleasing, pleasurable, gratifying, welcome. (Displeasing.) Accident, casualty, incident, contingency, adventure, chance. Accommodate, serve, oblige, adapt, adjust, fit, suit. (Disoblige, impede.) Accomplice,^ confederate, accessory, abettor, coadjutor, assistant, ally, associate, particeps criminis. (Ad- versary.) Accomplish, do, effect, finish, execute, achieve, complete, perfect, con- summate. (Fail.) Accomplishment, attainment, qualification, acquirement. (Defect.) Accord, grant, allow, admit, concede. (Deny.) Accost, salute, ad- dress, speak to, stop, greet. Account, narrative, description, narration, relation, detail, recital, moneys, reckoning, bill, charge. Accountable, punishable, answerable, amenable, responsible, liable. Accumulate, bring together, amass, collect, gather. (Scatter, dissipate.) Accumulation, collection, store, mass, congeries, concentration. Accurate, correct, exact, precise, pice, truthful. (Erroneous, careless.) Achieve, do, accomplish, effect, fulfill, execute, gain, win. Achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, attainment, performance, acquire- ment, gain. (Failure.) Acknowledge, admit, confess, own, avow, grant, recog- nize, allow, concede. (Deny.) Acquaint, inform, enlighten, apprise, make aware, make known, notify, communicate. (Deceive.) Acquaintance, famil- iarity, intimacy, cognizance, fellowship, companionship, knowledge. (Unfamil- iarity.) Acquiesce, agree, accede, assent, comply, consent, give way, coincide with. (Protest.) Acquit, pardon, forgive, discharge, set free, clear, absolve. ((Condemn, convict.) Act, do, operate, make, perform, play, enact. Action, deed, achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, battle, engagement, agency, instrumentality. Active, lively, sprightly, alert, agile, nimble, brisk, quick, sup- ple, prompt, vigilant, laborious, industrious. (Lazy, passive.) Actual, real, posi- tive, genuine, certain. (Fictitious.) Acute, shrewd, intelligent, penetrating, piercing, keen. (Dull.) Adapt, accommodate, suit, fit, conform. Addicted, devoted, wedded, attached, given up to, dedicated. Addition, increase, accession, augmentation, reinforcement. (Subtraction, separation.) Address, speech, dis- course, appeal, oration, tact, skill, ability, dexterity, deportment, demeanor. Ad- hesion, adherence, attachment, fidelity, devotion. (Aloofness.) Acyacent, near to, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous, bordering, neighboring. (Distant.) Adjourn, defer, prorogue, postpone, delay. Adjunct, appendage, appurtenance, appendency, dependency. Adjust, set right, fit, accommodate, adapt, arrange, settle, regulate, organize. (Confuse.) Admirable, striking surprising, wonderful, astonishing. (Detestable.) Admit, allow, permit, suffer, tolerate. (Deny.) Ad- vantageous, beneficial. (Hurtful.) Affection, love. (Aversion.) Affection- ate, fond, kind. (Harsh.) Agreeable, pleasant, pleasing. Charming. (Disa- greeable.) Alternayng, intermittent. (Continual.) Ambassador, envoy, plenipotentiary, minister. Amend, improve, correct, oetter, mend. (Impair.) Anger, ire, wrath, indignation, resentment. (Good nature.) Appropriate, assume, ascribe, arrogate, usurp. Argue, debate, dispute, reason upon. Arise, flow, emanate, spring, proceed, rise, issue. Artful, disingenuous, sly, tricky, in- sincere. (Candid.) Artifice, trick, stratagem, finesse. Association, combina- tion, company, partnership, society. Attack, assail, assault, encounter. (Defend.' Audacity, boldness, effrontery, hardihood. (Meekness.) Austere, rigid, rigor- ous, severe, stern. (Dissolute.) Avaricious, niggardly, miserly, parsimonious. (Generous.) Aversion, antipathy, dislike, hatred, repugnance. (Affection.) Awe, dread, fear, reverence. (Familiarity.) Awkward, clumsy. (Graceful.) Axiom, adage, aphorism, apothegm, by-word, maxim, proverb, saying, saw. BABBLE, chatter, prattle, prate. Bad, wicked, evil. (Good.) Baffle, confound, defeat, disconcert. (Aid, abet.) Base, vile, mean. (Noble.) Battle, action, combat, engagement. Bear, carry, convey, transport. Bear, endure, suffer, sup- port. Beastly, brutal, sensual, bestial. Beat, defeat, overpower, overthrow, rout. Beautiful, fine, handsome, pretty. (Homely, ugly.) Becoming, decent, fit, seemly, suitable. (Unbecoming.) Beg, beseech, crave, entreat, implore, solicit* 45 STNONTMS AND ANTONYMS. supplicate. (Give.) Behavior, carriage, conduct, deportment, demeanor. Be- lief, credit, faith, trust. (Doubt.) Beneficient, bountiful, generous, liberal, munificent. (Covetous, miserly.) Benefit, favor, advantage, kindness, civility. (Injury.) Benevolence, beneficence, benignity, humanity, kindness, tender- ness. (Malevolence.) Blame, censure, condemn, reprove, reproach, upbraid. (Praise.) Blemish, flaw, speck, spot, stain. (Ornament.) Blind, sightless, heed- less. 1 Far-sighted.) Blot, cancel, efface, expunge, erase, obliterate. Bold, brave, daring, fearless, intrepid, undaunted. (Timid.) Border, brim, brink, edge, margin, rim, verge, boundary, confine, frontier. Bound, circumscribe, confine, limit, restrict. Brave, dare, defy. Bravery, courage, valor. (Cowardice.) Break, bruise, crush, pound, squeeze. Breeze, blast, gale, gust, hurricane, storm, tempest. Bright, clear, radiant, shining. (Dull.) Brittle. Burial, in- terment, sepulture. (Resurrection.) Business, avocation, employment, engage- ment, occupation, art, profession, trade. Bustle, stir, tumult, fuss. (Quiet.) CALAMITY, disaster, misfortune, mischance, mishap. (Good fortune.) Calm, collected, composed, placid, serene. (Stormy, unsettled) Capa- ble, able, competent. (Incompetent.) Captious, fretful, cross, peevish, petulant. (Good-natured.) Care, anxiety, concern, solicitude, heed, at- tention. (Heedlessness, negligence.) Caress, kiss, embrace. (Spurn, buf- fet ) Carnage, butchery massacre, slaughter. Cause, motive, reason. (Ef- fect, consequence.) Cease, discontinue, leave off, end. (Continue.) Cen- sure, animadvert, criticise. (Praise.) Certain, secure, sure. (Doubt- ful.) Cessation, intermission, rest, stop. (Continuance.) Chance, fate, fortune. (Design) Change, barter, exchange, substitute. Changeable, fickle, inconstant, mutable, variable. (Unchangeable ) Character, reputation, repute, standing. Charm, captivate, enchant, enrapture, fascinate. Chastity, purity, continence, virtue. (Lewdness.) Cheap, inexpensive, inferior, common. (Dear.) Cheerful, gay, merry, sprightly. (Mournful.) Chief, chieftain, head, leader (Subordinate.) Circumstance, fact, incident. Class, degree, order, rank. Clear, bright, lucid, vivid. (Opaque.) Clever, adroit, dexterous, expert, skillful. (Stupid.) Clothed, clad, dressed. (Naked.) Coarse, rude, rough, unpolished. (Fine.) Coax, cajole, fawn, wheedle. Cold, cool, frigid, wintry, unfeeling, stoic- al. (Warm.) Color, dye, stain, tinge. Colorable, ostensible, plausible, specious. Combination, cabal, conspiracy, plot. Command, injunction, order, precept. Commodity, goods, merchandise, ware. Common, mean, ordinary,, vulgar. (Uncommon, extraordinary) Compassion, sympathy, pity, clemency. (Cruelty, severity.) Compel, force, oblige, necessitate. (Coax, lead.) Compen- sation, amends, recompense, remuneration, requital, reward. Compendium, compend, abridgment. (Enlargement) Complain, lament, murmur, regret, re- pine. (Rejoice.) Comply, accede, conform, submit, yield. (Refuse.) Com- pound, complex. (Simple ) Comprehend, comprise, include, embrace, grasp, understand, perceive. (Exclude, mistake.) Comprise, comprehend, contain, em- brace, include. Conceal, hide, secrete. (Uncover.) Conceive, comprehend, understand. Conclusion, inference, deduction. Condemn, censure, blame, disapprove. (Justify, exonerate.) Conduct, direct, guide, lead, govern, regulate, manage. Confirm, corroborate, approve, attest. (Contradict.) Conflict, com- bat, contest, contention, struggle. (Peace, quiet.) Confute, disprove, refute, op- pugn. (Approve.) Conquer, overcome, subdue, surmount, vanquish. (Defeat.). Consequence, effect, event, issue, result. (Cause.) Consider, reflect, ponder, weigh. Consistent, constant, compatible. (Inconsistent.) Console, comfort, solace. (Harrow, worry.) Constancy, firmness, stability, steadiness. (Fickle- ness.) Contaminate, corrupt, defile, pollute, taint. Contemn, despise, dis- dain, scorn. (Esteem.) Contemplate, meditate, muse. Contemptible, de- spicable, paltry, pitiful, vile, mean. (Noble.) Contend, contest, dispute, strive, struggle, combat. Continual, constant, continuous, perpetual, incessant. (Inter- mittent. Continuance, continuation, duration. (Cessation.) Continue, persist,, persevere, pursue, prosecute. (Cease.) Contradict, deny, gainsay, oppose. (Confirm.) Cool, cold, frigid. (Hot.) Correct, rectify, reform. Cost, charge, expense, price. Covetousness, avarice, cupidity. (Beneficence.) Cowardice, fear, timidity, pusillanimity. (Courage.) Crime, sin, vice, misdemeanor. (Vir-- 40 STNONTMS AND ANTONYMS, tue.) Criminal, convict, culprit, felon, malefactor. Crooked, bent, curved, oblique. (Straight.) Cruel, barbarous, brutal, inhuman, savage. (Kind.) Cul- tivation, culture, refinement. Cursory, desultory, hasty, slight. (Thorough.) Custom, fashion, manner, practice. DANGER, hazard, peril. (Safety.) Dark, dismal, opaque, obscure, dim. (Light.) Deadly, fatal, destructive, mortal. Dear, beloved, precious, costly, ex- pensive. (Despised, cheap.) Death, departure, decease, demise. (Life.) Decay, decline, consumption. (Growth.) Deceive, delude, impose upon, over-reach, gull, dupe, cheat. Deceit, cheat, imposition, trick, delusion, guile, beguilement, treach- ery, sham. (Truthfulness.) Decide, determine, settle, adjudicate, terminate, re- solve. Decipher, read, spell, interpret, solve. Decision, determination, con- clusion, resolution, firmness. (Vacillation.) Declamation, oratory, elocution, harangue, effusion, debate. Declaration, avowal, manifestation, statement, pro- fession. Decrease, diminish, lessen, wane, decline, retrench, curtail, reduce. (Growth.) Dedicate, devote, consecrate, offer, set, apportion. Deed, act, action, commission, achievement, instrument, document, muniment. Deem, judge, esti- mate, consider, think, suppose, conceive. Deep, profound, subterranean, sub- merged, designing, abstruse, learned. (Shallow.) Deface, mar, spoil, injure, dis- figure. ^Beautify.) Default, lapse, forfeit, omission, absence, want, failure. De- fect, imperfection, flaw, f^ault, blemish. (Beauty, improvement ) Defend, guard, protect, justify. Defense, excuse, plea, vindication, bulwark, rampart. Defer, delay, postpone, put off, prorogue, adjourn. (Force, expedite.) Deficient, short, wanting, inadequate, scanty, incomplete. (Complete, perfect ) Defile, v., pollute, corrupt, sully. (Beautify.) Define, fix, settle, determine, limit. Defray, meet, liquidate, pay, discharge. Degree, grade, extent, measure. Deliberate, v., con- sider, meditate, consult, ponder, debate. Deliberate, a., purposed, intentional, designed, determined. (Hasty.) Delicacy, nicety, dainty, refinement, tact, soft- ness, modesty. (Boorishness, indelicacy.) Delicate, tender, fragile, dainty, re- fined. fCoarse.) Delicious, sweet, palatable. (Nauseous. i Delight, enjoy- ment, pleasure, happiness, transport, ecstacy, gladness, rapture, bliss. (Annoy- ance.) Deliver, liberate, free, rescue, pronounce, give, hand over. (Retain.) Demonstrate, prove, show, exhibit, illustrate. Depart, leave, quit, decamp, re- tire, withdraw, vanish. (Remain.) Deprive, strip, bereave, despoil, rob, divest. Depute, appoint, commission, charge, intrust, delegate, authorize, accredit. De- rision, scorn, contempt, contumely, disrespect. Derivation, origin, source, be^ ginning, cause, etymology, root. Descr ibe, delineate, portray, explain, illustrate, define, picture. Desecrate, profane, secularize, misuse, abuse, pollute. (Keep holy.) Deserve, merit, earn, justify, win. Design, «., delineation, sketch, drawing, cunning, artfulness, contrivance. Desirable, expedient, advisable, val- uable, acceptable, proper, judicious, beneficial, profitable, good. Desire, n., longing, affection, craving. Desist, cease, stop, discontinue, drop, abstain, for- bare. (Continue, persevere.) Desolate, bereaved, forlorn, forsaken, deserted, wild, waste, bare, bleak, lonely. (Pleasant, happy.) Desperate, wild, daring, audacious, determined, reckless. Despised. Destiny, fate, decree, doom, end. Destructive, detrimental, hurtful, noxious, injurious, deleterious, baleful, bane- ful, subversive. (Creative, constructive.) Desuetude, disuse, discontinuance. (Maintenance.) Desultory, rambling, discursive, loose, unmethodical, superficial, unsettled, erratic, fitful. (Thorough.) Detail, n., particular, specification, minu- tiae. Detail, V., particularize, enumerate, specify. (Generalize.) Deter, warn, stop, dissuade, terrify, scare. (Encourage.) Detriment, loss, harm, injury, deter- ioration. (Benefit.) Develop, unfold, amplify, expand, enlarge. Device, artifice, expedient, contrivance. Devoid, void, wanting, destitute, unendowed, unprovided. (Full, complete.) Devoted, attached, fond, absorbed, dedicated. Dictate, prompt, suggest, enjoin, order, command. Dictatorial, imperative, imperious, domineering, arbitrary, tyrannical, overbearing. (Submissive.) Die, expire, de- part, perish, decline, languish, wane, sick, fade, decay. Diet, food, victuals, nourishment, nutriment, sustenance, fare. Difference, separation, disagreement, discord, dissent, estrangement, variety. Different, various, manifold, diverse, unlike, separate, distinct. (Similar, homogeneous.) Difficult, hard, intricate, in- volved, perplexing, obscure, unmanageable. (Easy.) Diffuse, discursive, prolix, 47 STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. diluted, copious. Dignify, aggrandize, elevate, invest, exalt, advance, promote, honor, (Degrade.) Dilate, stretch, widen, expand, swell, distend, enlarge, descant, expatiate. Dilatory, tardy, procrastinating, behindhand, lagging, dawdling. (Prompt.) Diligence, care, assiduity, attention, heed, industry. (Negligence.) Diminish, lessen, reduce, contract, curtail, retrench. (Increase.) Disability, un- fitness, incapacity. Discern, descry, observe, recognize, see, discriminate, separ- ate, perceive. Discipline, order, strictness, training, coercion, punishment, organization. (Confusion, demoralization. Discover, make knov/n, find, invent, contrive, expose, reveal. Discreditable, shameful, disgraceful, scandalous, dis- reputable. (Creditable.) Discreet, cautious, prudent, wary, judicious. (Indiscreet.) Discrepancy, disagreement, differencet variance. (Agreement.) Discrimina- tion, acuteness, discernment, judgment, caution. Disease, complaint, malady, dis- order, ailment, sickness. Disgrace, «., disrepute, reproach, dishonor, shame, odium. (Honor.) Disgrace, y., debase, degrade, defame, discredit. (Exalt ) Disgust, dislike, distaste, loathing, abomination, abhorrence. (Admiration.) Dis- honest, unjust, fraudulent, unfair, deceitful, cheating, deceptive, wrongful. (Honest.) Dismay, z^., terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, appall, dishearten. (En- courage.) Dismay, «., terror, dread, fear, fright. (Assurance ) Dismiss, send off, discharge, discard, banish. (Retain.) Dispel, scatter, drive away, disperse, dissipate. (Collect.) Display, snow, spread out, exhibit, expose. (Hide.) Dis- pose, arrange, place, order, give, bestow. Dispute, Z'., argue, contest, contend, question, impugn. (Assent ) Dispute, ft., argument, debate, controversy, quarrel, disagreement. (Harmony.) Dissent, disagree, differ, vary. (Assent) Distinct, clear, plain, obvious, different, separate. (Obscure, indistinct.) Distinguish, perceive, discern, mark out, divide, discriminate. Distinguished, famous, glor- ious, far-famed, noted, illustrious, eminent, celebrated. (Obscure, unknown, ordin- ary.) Distract, perplex, bewilder. (Calm, concentrate.) Distribute, allot, share, dispense, apportion, deal. (Collect.) Disturb, derange, discompose, agi- tate, rouse, interrupt, confuse, annoy, trouble, vex, worry. (Pacify, quiet.) Dis- use, discontinuance, abolition, desuetude. (Use.) Divide, part, separate, dis- tribute, deal out, sever, sunder. Divine, godlike, holy, heavenly, sacred, a par- son, clergyman, minister. Do, effect, make, perform, accomplish, finished, trans- act. Doci I, tractable, teachable, compliant, tame. (Stubborn.) Doctrine, tenet, articles of belief, creed, dogma, teaching. Doleful, dolorous, woe-begone, rueful, .dismal, piteous. (Joyous.) Doom, »., sentence, verdict, judgment, fate, lot, des- tiny. Doubt, uncertainty, suspense, hesitation, scruple, ambiguity, (Cer- tainty.) Draw, pull, haul, drag, attract, inhale, sketch, describe. Dread, «., fear, horror, terror, alarm, dismay, awe. (Boldness, assurance.) Dreadful, fear- ful, frightful, shocking, awful, horrible, horrid, terrific. Dress, «., clothing, a’ tire, apparel, garments, costume, garb, livery. Drift, purpose, meaning, scope, aim, tendency, direction. Droll, funny, laughable, comic, whimsical, • queer, amusing. (Solemn.) Drown, inundate, swamp, submerge, overwhelm, engulf. Dry, a., and, parched, lifeless, dull, tedious, uninteresting, meagre. (Moist, in- teresting, succulent.) Due, owing to, attributable to, just, fair, proper, debt, right. Dull, stupid, gloomy, sad, dismal, commonplace. (Bright.) Dunce, simpleton, fool, ninny, idiot. (Sage.) Durable, lasting, permanent, abiding, continuing. (Ephemeral, perishable.) Dwell, stay, stop, abide, sojourn, linger, tarry. Dwin- dle, pine, waste, diminish, decrease, fall off. (Grow.) EAGER, hot, ardent, impassioned, forward, impatient. (Diffident.) Earn, ac- quire, obtain, win, gain, achieve. Earnest, a., ardent, serious, grave, solemn, warm. (Trifling.) Earnest, pledge, pawn. Ease, n., comfort, rest. (Worry.) Ease, z/., calm, alleviate, allay, mitigate, appease, assuage, pacify, disburden, rid, (Annoy, worry.) Easy, light, comfortable, unconstrained. (Difficult, hard.) Eccentric, irregular, anomalous, singular, odd, abnormal, wayward, particular, strange. (Regular, ordinary.) Economical, sparing, saving, provident, thrifty, frugal, careful, niggardly. (Wasteful.) Edge, border, brink, rim, brim, margin, verge. Efface, blot out, expunge, obliterate, wipe out, cancel, erase. Effect, ft., consequence, result, issue, event, execution, operation. Effect, z/. , accomplish, fulfill, realize, achieve, execute, operate, complete. Effective, efficient, operative, serviceable. (Vain, ineffectual.) Efficacy, efficiency, energy, agency, instrumen- 48 STNONrMS AND ANTONYMS. tality. Efficient, effectual, effective, competent, capable, able, fitted. Elimi- nate, drive out, expel, thrust out, eject, cast out, oust, dislodge, banish, proscribe. Eloquence, oratory, rhetoric, declamation. Elucidate, make plain, explain, clear up, illustrate. Elude, evade, escape, avoid, shun. Embarrass, perplex, entangle, distress, trouble. (Assist.) Embellish, adorn, decorate, bedeck, beautify, deck. (Disfigure.) Embolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, cheer, urge, impel, stimulate. (Discourage.) Eminent, distinguished, signal, conspicuous, noted, prominent, elevated, renowned, famous, glorious, illustrious. (Obscure, un- known.) Emit, give out, throw out, exhale, discharge, vent. Emotion, perturba- tion, agitation, trepidation, tremor, mental conflict. Employ, occupy, busy, take <5p with, engross. Employment, business, avocation, engagement, office, function, trade, profession, occupation, calling, vocation. Encompass, v., encircle, sur- round, gird, beset. Encounter, attack, conflict, combat, assault, onset, engage- ment, battle, action. Encourage, countenance, sanction, support, foster, cherish, inspirit, embolden, animate, cheer, incite, urge, impel, stimulate. (Deter.) End, n., aim, object, purpose, result, conclusion, upshot, close, expiration, termination, extremity, sequel. Endeavor, attempt, try, essay, strive, aim. Endurance, continuation, duration, fortitude, patience, resignation. Endure, v., last, con- tinue, support, bear, sustain, suffer, brook, submit to, undergo. (Perish.) Enemy, foe, antagonist, adversary, opponent. (Friend.) Energetic, industrious, effec- tual, efficacious, powerful, binding, stringent, forcible, nervous. (Lazy.) Engage, employ, busy, occupy, attract, invite, allure, entertain, engross, take up, enlist. Engross, absorb, take up, busy, occupy, engage, monopolize. Engulf, swallow up, absorb, imbibe, drown, submerge, bury, entomb, overwhelm. Enjoin, order, ordain, appoint, prescribe. Enjoyment, pleasure, gratification. (Grief, sorrow, sadness.) Enlarge, increase, extend, augment, broaden, swell. (Diminish.) Enlighten, illumine, illuminate, instruct, inform. (Befog, becloud.) Enliven, cheer, vivify, stir up, animate, inspire, exhilarate. (Sadden, quiet.) Enmity, ani- mosity, hostility, ill-will, maliciousness. (Friendship ) Enormous, gigantic, co- lossal, huge, vast, immense, prodigious. (Insignificant.) Enough, sufficient, plenty, abundance. (Want.) Enraged, infuriated, raging, wrathful. (Pacified.) Enrapture, enchant, fascinate, charm, captivate, bewitch. (Repel.) Enroll, en- list, list, register, record. Enterprise, undertaking, endeavor, venture, energy. Enthusiasm, earnest, devotion, zeal, ardor. (Ennui, lukewarmness.) Enthu- siast, fanatic, visionary. Equal, equable, even, like, alike, uniform. (Un- equal.) Eradicate, root out, extirpate, exterminate. Erroneous, incorrect, inaccurate, inexact. (Exact.) Error, blunder, mistake. (Truth.) Especially, chiefly, particularly, principally. (Generally.) Essay, dissertation, tract, treatise, ■j.Establish, build up, confirm. (Overthrow.) Esteem, regard, respect. (Con- tempt.) Estimate, appraise, appreciate, esteem, compute, rate. Estrangement, abstraction, alienation. Eternal, endless, everlasting. (Finite.) Evade, equivo- cate, prevaricate. Even, level, plain, smooth. (Uneven.) Event, accident, ad- venture, incident, occurrence. Evil, ill, harm, mischiefi misfortune. (Good.) ExacL nice, particular, punctual. (Inexact ) Exalt, ennoble, dignify, raise. (Humble.) Examination, investigation, inquiry, research, search, scrutiny. Ex- ceed, excel, outdo, surpass, transcend. (Fall Short.) Exceptional, uncommon, rare, extraordinary. (Common.) Excite, awaken, provoke, rouse, stir up. (Lull.) Excursion, jaunt, ramble, tour, trip. Execute, fulfill, perform. Exempt, free, cleared. (Subject.) Exercise, practice. Exhaustive, thorough, complete. (Cursory.) Exigency, emergency. Experiment, proof, trial, test. Explain, expound, interpret, illustrate, elucidate. Express, declare, signify, utter, tell. Extend, reach, stretch. (Abridge.) Extravagant, lavish, profuse, prodigal. (Parsimonious. ) FABLE, apologue, novel, romance, tale. Face, visage, countenance. Face- tious, pleasant, jocular, jocose. (Serious.) Factor, agent. Fail, to fall short, be deficient. (Accomplish.) Faint, languid. (Forcible.) Fair, clear. (Stormy.) Fair, equitable, honest, reasonable. (Unfair.) Faith, creed. (Unbelief, infidelity.) Faithful, true, loyal, constant. (Faithless.) Faithless, perfidious, treacherous, (Faithful.) Fall, drop, droop, sink, tumble. (Rise.) Fame, renown, reputation. Famous, celebrated, renowned, illustrious. (Obscure.) Fanciful, capricious, fantastical, whimsical. Fancy, imagination. Fast, rapid, quick, fleet, expedi- 49 STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. tious. (Slow.) Fatigue, weariness, lassitude. (Vigor.) Fear, timidity, timer-, ousness. (Bravery.) Feeling, sensation, sense. Feeling, sensibility, suscepti- bility. (Insensibility.) Ferocious, fierce, savage, wild, barbarous. (Mild.) Fertile, fruitful, prolific, plenteous, productive. (Sterile.) Fiction, falsehood, fabrication. (Fact.) Figure, allegory, emblem, metaphor, symbol, type Find, find out, descry, discover, espy. (Lose, overlook.) Fine, a*, delicate, nice. (Coarse.) Fine, forfeit, forfeiture, mulct, penalty. Fire, glow, heat, warmth. Firm, constant, solid, steadfast, fixed, stable. (Weak.) First, foremost, earliest. (Last.) Fit, accommodate, adapt, adjust, suit. Fix, determine, establish, settle, limit. Flame, blaze, flare, flash, glare. Flat, level, even. Flexible, pliant, pliable, ductile, supple. (Inflexible.) Flourish, prosper, thrive. (Decay.) Fluctuating, wavering, hesitating, oscillating, vacillating, change. (Firm, steadfast, decided.) Fluent, flowing, glib, voluble, unembarrassed, ready. (Hesitating.) Folks, per- sons, people, individuals. Follow, succeed, ensue, imitate, copy, pursue. Fol- lower, partisan, disciple, adherent, retainer, pursurer, successor. Folly, silliness, foolishness, imbecility, weakness. (Wisdom.) Fond, enamored, attached, affec-; tionate. (Distant.) Fondness, affection, attachment, kindness, love. (Aversion.) Foolhardy, venturesome, incautious, hasty, adventurous, rash. (Cautious.) Fool- ish, simple, silly, irrational, brainless, imbecile, crazy, absurd, preposterous, ridicu- lous, nonsensical. (Wise, discreet.) Fop, dandy, dude, beau, coxcomb, puppy, jackanapes. (Gentlemen.) Forbear, abstain, refrain, withhold. Force, «., strength, vigor, dint, might, energy, power, violence, army, host. Force, v., com- pel. (Persuade.) Forecast, forethought, foresight, premeditation, prognostica- tion. Forego, quit, relinquish, let go, waive. Foregoing, antecedent, anterior, preceding, previous, prior, former. Forerunner, herald, harbinger, precursor, omen. Foresight, forethought, forecast, premeditation. Forge, coin, invent, frame, feign, fabricate, counterfeit. Forgive, pardon, remit, absolve, acquit, ex- cuse, except. Forlorn, forsaken, abandoned, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome. Form, «., ceremony, solemnity, observance, rite, figure, shape, conformation, fashion, appearance, representation, semblance. Form, z/., make, create, produce, constitute, arrange, fashion, mould, shape. Formal, ceremonious, precise, exact, stiff, methodical, affected. (Informal, natural.) Former, antecedent, anterior, previous, prior, preceding, foregoing. Forsaken, abandoned, forlorn, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome. Forthwith, immediately, directly, instantly, instantane- ously. (Anon.) Fortitude, endurance, resolution, fearlessness, dauntlessness. (Weakness.) Fortunate, lucky, happy, auspicious, prosperous, successful. (Un- fortunate.) Fortune, chance, fate, luck, doom, destiny, property, possession, riches Foster, cherish, nurse, tend, harbor, nurture. (Neglect.) Foul, im- pure, nasty, filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled. (Pure, clean.) Fractious, cross, captious, petulant, touchy, testy, peevish, fretful, splenetic. (Tractable.) Fragile, brittle, frail, delicate, feeble. (Strong.) Fragments, pieces, scraps, chips, leav- ings, remains, remnants. Frailty, weakness, failing, foible, imperfection, fault, blemish. (Strength.) Frame, z'., construct, invent, coin, fabricate, forge, mold, feign, make, compose. Franchise, right, exemption, immunity, privilege, free- dom, suffrage. Frank, artless, candid, sincere, free, easy, familiar, open, ingenu- ous, plain. (Tricky, insincere.) Frantic, distracted, mad, furious, raving, frenzied. (Quiet, subdued.) Fraud, deceit, deception, duplicity, guile, cheat, imposition. (Honesty.) Freak, fancy, humor, vagary, whim, caprice, crotchet. (Purpose, resolution.) Free, a., liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, frank, artless, candid, familiar, open, independent, unconfined, unreserved, unrestricted, exempt, clear, loose, easy, careless. (Slavish, stingy, artful, costly.) Free, v., release, set free, deliver, rescue, liberate, enfranchise, affranchise, emancipate, exempt. (Enslave, bind.) Freedom, liberty, independence, unrestraint, famili- arity, license, franchise, exemption, privilege. (Slavery.) Frequent, often, com- mon, usual, general. (Rare.) Fret, gall, chafe, agitate, irritate, vex. Friendly, amicable, social, sociable. (Distant, reserved, cool.) Frightful, fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, terrific, awful, horrible, horrid. Frivolous, trifling, trivial, petty. (Serious, earnest.) Frugal, provident, economical, saving. (Wasteful, extrava- gant.) Fruitful, fertile, prolific, productive, abundant, plentiful, plenteous. (Bar- ren, sterile.) Fruitless, vain, useless, idle, abortive, bootless, unavailing, without avail. Frustrate, defeat, foil, balk, disappoint. Fulfill, accomplish, effect, 50 STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. complete. Fully, completely, abundantly, perfectly. Fulsome, coarse, gross, sickening, offensive, rank. (Moderate.) Furious, violent, boisterous, vehement, dashing, sweeping, rolling, impetuous, frantic, distracted, stormy, angry, raging, fierce. (Calm.) Futile, trifling, trivial, frivolous, useless. (Effective.) GAIN, profit, emolument, advantage, benefit, winnings, earnings. (Loss.) Gain, v., get, acquire, obtain, attain, procure, earn, win, achieve, reap, realize, reach. (Lose.) Gallant, brave, bold, courageous, gay, fine, showy, intrepid, fear- less, heroic. Galling, chafing, irritating, vexing. (Soothing.) Game, play, pastime, diversion, sport, amusement. Gang, band, horde, company, troop, crew. Gap, breach, charm, hollow, cavity cleft, crevice, rift, chink. Garnish, embel- lish, adorn, beautify, deck, decorate. Gather, pick, cull, assemble, muster, infer, collect. (Scatter.) Gaudy, showy, flashy, tawdry, gay, glittering, bespangled. (Sombre ) Gaunt, emaciated, scraggy, skinny, meagre, lank, attenuated, spare, lean, thin. (Well-fed.) Gay, cheerful, merry, lively, jolly, sprightly, blithe. (Solemn ) Generate, form, make, beget, produce. Generation formation, race, breed, stock, kind, age, era. Generous, beneficent, noble, honorable, bountiful. Liberal, free. (Niggardly.) Genial, cordial, hearty, festive, joyous. (Distant, cold.) Genius, intellect, invention, talent, taste, nature, character, adept. Gen- Jeel, refined, polished, fashionable, polite, well-bred. (Boorish.) Gentle, placid, mild, bland, meek, tame, docile. (Rough, uncouth.) Genuine, real, true, un- affected, sincere. (False.) Gesture, attitude, action, posture. Get, obtain, earn, gain, attain, procure, achieve. Ghastly, pallid, wan, hideous, grim, shocking. Ghost, spectre, sprite, apparition, shade, phantom. Gibe, scoff, sneer, flout, jeer, mock, taunt, deride. Giddy, unsteady, flighty, thoughtless. (Steady.) Gift, donation, benefaction, grant, alms, gratuity, boon, present, faculty, talent. (Pur- chase.) Gigantic, colossal, huge, enormous, vast, prodigious, immense. (Diminu- tive.) Give, grant, bestow, confer, yield, impart. Glad, pleased, cheerful, joyful, gladsome, gratified, cheering. (Sad.) Gleam, glimmer, glance, glitter, shine, flash. Glee, gayety, merriment, mirth, jovialty, jovialness, catch. (Sorrow.) Glide, slip, slide, run, roll on. Glimmer, v., gleam, flicker, glitter. Glimpse, glance, look, glint. Glitter, gleam, shine, glisten, glister, radiate. Gloom, cloud, darkness, dimness, blackness, dulness, sadness. (Light, brightness, joy.) Gloomy, lowering, lurid, dim, dusky, sad, glum. (Bright, clear.) Glorify, magnify, cele- brate, adore, exalt. Glorious, famous, renowned, distinguished, noble, exalted. (Infamous.) Glory, honor, fame, renown, splendor, grandeur. (Infamy.) Glut, gorge, stuff, cram, cloy, satiate, block up. Go, depart, proceed, move, budge, stir. God, creator, lord, almighty, jehovah, omnipotence, providence. Godly, right- eous, devout, holy, pious, religious. Good, benefit, weal, advantage, profit, boon. (Evil.) Good, a., virtuous, righteous, upright, just, true. (Wicked, bad.) Gorge, glut, fill, cram, stuff, satiate. Gorg**ous, superb, grand, magnificent, splendid. (Plain, simple.) Govern, rule, direct, manage, command. Government, rule, state, control, sway. Graceful, becoming, comely, elegant, beautiful. (Awk- ward.) Gracious, merciful, kindly, beneficent. Gradual, slow, progressive. (Sudden.) Grand, majestic, stately, dignified, lofty, elevated, exalted, splendid, gorgeous, superb, magnificent, sublime, pompous. (Shabby.) Grant, bestow, im- part, give, yield, cede, allow, confer, invest. Grant, gift, boon, donation. Graph- ic, forcible, telling, picturesque, vivid, pictorial. Grasp, catch, seize, gripe, clasp, grapple. Grateful, agreeable, pleasing, welcome, thankful. (Harsh.) Gratification, enjoyment, pleasure, delight, reward. (Disappointment.) Grave, a., serious, sedate, solemn, sober, pressing, heavy. (Giddy.) Grave, s., tomb, sepulchre, vault. Great, big, huge, large, majestic, vast, grand, noble, august. (Small.) Greediness, avidity, eagerness, voracity. (Generosity.) Grief, afflic- tion, sorrow, trial, woe, tribulatio®. (Joy.) Grieve, mourn, lament, sorrow, pain, hurt, wound, bewail. (Rejoice.) Grievous, painful, afflicting, heavy, baleful, unhappy. Grind, crush, oppress, grate, harass, afflict. Grisly, terrible, hideous, grim, ghastly, dreadful. (Pleasing.) Gross, coarse, outrageous, unseemly, shameful, indelicate. (Delicate.) Group, assembly, cluster, collection, clump, order, class. Grovel, crawl, cringe, fawn, sneak. Grow, increase, vegetate, ex- pand, advance. (Decay, diminution.) Growl, grumble, snarl, murmur, complain. Grudge, malice, rancor, spite, pique, hatred, aversion. Gruff, rough, rugged, 51 SrNONTMS AND ANTONYMS. blunt, rude, harsh, surly, bearish. (Pleasant.) Guile, deceit, fraud. (Candor.) Guiltless, harmless, innocent. Guilty, culpable, sinful, criminal. HABIT, custom, practice. Hail, accost, address, greet, salute, welcome. Hap- piness, beatitude, blessedness, bliss, felicity. (Unhappiness.) Harbor, haven, port. Hard, firm, solid. (Soft.) Hard, arduous, difficult. (Easy.) Harm, in- jury, hurt, wrong, infliction. (Benefit.) Harmless, safe, innocuous, innocent. (Hurtful.) Harsh, rough, rigorous, severe, gruff, morose. (Gentle.) Hasten, accelerate, despatch, expedite, speed. (Delay.) Hasty, hurried, ill-advised. (Deliberate.) Hateful, odious, detestable. (Lovable.) Hatred, enmity, ill-will, rancor. (Friendship.) Haughtiness, arrogance, pride. (Modesty.) Haughty, arrogant, disdainful, supercilious, proud. Hazard, risk, venture. Healthy, salubrious, salutary, wholesome. (Unhealthy.) Heap, accumulate, amass, pile. Hearty, a., cordial, sincere, warm. (Insincere.) Heavy, burdensome, ponderous, weighty. (Light.) Heed, care, attention. Heighten, enhance, exalt, elevate, raise. Heinous, atrocious, flagitious, flagrant. (Venial.) Help, aid, assist, re- lieve, succor. (Hinder.) Heretic, sectary, sectarian, schismatic, dissenter, non- conformist. Hesitate, falter, stammer, stutter. Hideous, grim, ghastly, grisly. (Beautiful.) High, lofty, tall, elevated. (Deep.) Hinder, impede, obstruct, pre- vent. (Help.) Hint, allude, refer, suggest, intimate, insinuate. Hold, detain, keep, retain. Holiness, sanctity, piety, sacredness. Holy, devout, pious, religious. Homely, plain, ugly, coarse. (Beautiful.) Honesty, integrity, probity, upright- ness. (Dishonesty.) Honor, z/., respect, reverence, esteem. (Dishonor.) Hope, confidence, expectation, trust. Hopeless, desperate. Hot, ardent, burning, fiery. (Cold.) However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet. Humble, modest, sub- missive, plain, unostentatious, simple. (Haughty.) Humble, degrade, humiliate, mortify, abase. (Exalt.) Humor, mood, temper. Hunt, seek, chase. Hurtful, noxious, pernicious. (Beneficial.) Husbandry, cultivation, tillage. Hypocrite, dissembler, impostor, canter. Hypothesis, theory, supposition. IDEA, thought, imagination, ideal, imaginary, fancied. (Actual.) Idle, in- dolent, lazy. (Industrious.) Ignominious, shameful, scandalous, infamous. ^Honorable.) Ignominy, shame, disgrace, obloquy, infamy, reproach. Ignorant, unlearned, illiterate, uninformed, uneducated. (Knowing.) Ill, n., evil, wicked- ness, misfortune, mischief, harm. (Good.) Ill, a., sick, indisposed, unwell, dis- eased. (Well.) Ill-tempered, crabbed, sour, surly, acrimonious. (Good- natured.) Ill-will, enmity, hatred, antipathy. (Good-will.) Illegal, unlawful, illicit, contraband, illegitimate. (Legal.) Illimitable, boundless, immeasurable, unlimited, infinite. Illiterate, unlettered, unlearned, untaught, uninstructed. (Learned, educated.) Illusion, fallacy, deception, phantasm. Illusory, imagin- ary, chimerical, visionary. (Real.) Illustrate, explain, elucidate, clear. Illus- trious, celebrated, noble, eminent, famous, renowned. (Obscure.) Image, likeness, picture, representation, effigy. Imaginary, ideal, fanciful, illusory. (Real.) Imagine, conceive, fancy, apprehend, think, presume. Imbecility, silli- ness, senility, dotage. Imitate, copy, ape, mimic, mock, counterfeit. Im- maculate, unspotted', spotless, unsullied, stainless. (Soiled.) Immediate, pressing, instant, next, proximate. Immediately, instantly, forthwith, directly, presently. Immense, vast, enormous, huge, prodigious, monstrous. Immunity, privilege, prerogative, exemption. Impair, injure, diminish, decrease. Impart, reveal, divulge, disclose, discover, bestow, afford. Impartial, just, equitable, un- biased. (Partial.) Impassioned, glowing, burning, fiery, vehement, intense. Impeach, accuse, charge, arraign, censure. Impede, hinder, retard, obstruct, prevent. (Help.) Impediment, obstruction, hindrance, obstacle, barrier. (Aid.) Impel, animate, induce, incite, instigate, embolden. (Retard.) Impending, imminent, threatening. Imperative, commanding, authoritative, despotic. Im- perfection, fault, blemish, defect, vice. Imperil, endanger, hazard, jeopardize. Imperious, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, imperative, lordly, overbear- ing, domineering. Impertinent, intrusive, meddling, officious, rude, saucy, im- pudent, insolent. Impetuous, violent, boisterous, furious, vehement. (Calm.) impious, profane, irreligious, godless. (Reverent.) Implicate, involve, en- tangle, embarrass, compromise. Imply, involve, comprise, infold, import, denote, %ignify. Importance, signification, significance, avail, consequence, weight, 52 STNONTiMS AND ANTONYMS. gravity, moment, imposing, impressive, striking, majestic, august, noble, grand. (Insignificant.) Impotence, weakness, incapacity, infirmity, frailty, feebleness. (Power.) Impotent, weak, feeble, helpless, enfeebled, nerveless, infirm. (Strong.) Impressive, stirring, forcible, exciting, affecting, moving. Imprison, incarcer- ate, shut up, immure, confine. (Liberate.) Imprisonment, captivity, durance. Improve, amend, better, mend, reform, rectify, ameliorate, apply, use, employ. (Deteriorate.) Improvident, careless, incautious, imprudent, prodigal, wasteful, reckless, rash. (Thrifty.) Impudence, assurance, impertinence, confidence, in- solence, rudeness. Impudent, saucy, brazen, bold, impertinent, forward, rude, insolent, immodest, shameless. Impulse, incentive, incitement, motive, instiga- tion. Impulsive, rash, hasty, forcible, violent. (Deliberate.) Imputation, blame, censure, reproach, charge, accusation. Inadvertency, error, oversight, blunder, inattention, carelessness, negligence. Incentive, motive, inducement, impulse. Incite, instigate, excite, provoke, stimulate, encourage, urge, impel. Inclination, leaning, slope, disposition, tendency, bent, bias, affection, attachment, wish, liking, desire. (Aversion.) Incline, v., slope, lean, slant, tend, bend, turn, bias, dispose. Inclose, surround, shut in, fence in, cover, wrap. Include, com- prehend, comprise, contain, embrace, take in. Incommode, annoy, plague, molest, disturb, inconvenience, trouble. (Accomodate.) Incompetent, incapa- ble, unable, inadequate, insufficient, (Competent.) Increase, v., extend, en- large, augment, dilate, expand, amplify, raise, enhance, aggravate, magnify, grow. (Diminish.) Increase, augmentation, accession, addition, enlargement, exten- sion. (Decrease.) Incumbent, obligatory. Indefinite, vague, uncertain, un- settled, loose, lax. (Definite.) Indicate, point out, show, mark. Indifference, apathy, carelessness, listlessness, insensibility. (Application, assiduity.) Indi- gence, want, neediness, penury, poverty, destitution, privation. (Affluence.) In- dignation, anger, wrath, ire, resentment. Indignity, insult, affront, outrage, obloquy, opprobrium, reproach, ignominy. (Honor.) Indiscriminate, promis- cuous, chance, indistinct, conffised. (Select, chosen.) Indispensable, essential, necessary, requisite, expedient. (Unnecessary, supernumerary.) Indisputable, undeniable, undoubted, incontestable, indubitable, unquestionable, sure, infallible. Indorse, ratify, confirm, superscribe. Indulge, foster, cherish, fondle. (Deny.) Ineffectual, vain, useless, unavailing, fruitless, abortive, inoperative. (Effective.) Inequality, disparity, disproportion, dissimilarity, unevenness. (Equality.) In- evitable, unavoidable, not to be avoided, certain. Infamous, scandalous, shame- ful, ignominious, opprobrius, disgraceful. (Honorable.) Inference, deduction, corollary, conclusion, consequence. Infernal, diabolical, fiendish, devilish, hellish. Infest, annoy, plague, harass, disturb. Infirm, weak, feeble, enfeebled. (Robust.) Inflame, anger, irritate, enrage, chafe, incense, nettle, aggravate, imbitter, exas- perate. (Allay, soothe.) Influence, v., bias, sway, prejudice, prepossess. Influ- ence, n.t credit, favor, reputation, character, weight, authority, sway, ascendency. Infringe, invade, intrude, contravene, break, transgress, violate. Ingenuous, artless, candid, generous, open, frank, plain, sincere. (Crafty.) Inhuman, cruel, brutal, savage, barbarous, ruthless, merciless, ferocious. (Humane ) Iniquity, injustice, wrong, grievance. Injure, damage, hurt, deteriorate, wrong, aggrieve, harm, spoil, mar, sully. (Benefit.) Injurious, hurtful, baneful, pernicious, dele- terious, noxious, prejudicial, wrongful, damaging. (Beneficial.) Injustice, wrong, iniquity, grievance. (Right.) Innocent, guiltless, sinless, harmless, inoffensive, innoxious. (Guilty.) Innocuous, harmless, safe, innocent. (Hurtful.) Inordi- nate, intemperate, irregular, disorderly, excessive, immoderate. (Moderate.) In- quiry, investigation, examination, research, scrutiny, disquisition, question, query, interrogation. Inquisitive, prying, peeping, curious, peering. Insane, mad, deranged, delirious, demented. (Sane.) Insanity, madness, mental aberration, lunacy, delirium. ^ (Sanity.) insinuate, hint, intimate, suggest, infuse, introduce, ingratiate. Insipid, dull, flat, mawki^, tasteless, vapid, inanimate, lifeless. (Bright, sparkling.) Insolent, rude, saucy, pert, impertinent, abusive, scurrilous, opprobrious, insulting, offensive. Inspire, animate, exhilarate, enliven, cheer, breathe, inhale. Instability, mutability, fickleness, mutableness, wavering. (Stability, firmness.) Instigate, stir up, persuade, animate, incite, urge, stimulate, encourage. Instil, implant, inculcate, infuse, insinuate. Instruct, inform, teach, educate, enlighten, initiate. Instrumental, conducive, assistant, helping, 53 STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS, ministerial. Insufficiency, inadequacy, incompetency, incapability, deficiency, lack. Insult, affront, outrage, indignity, blasphemy. (Honor.) Insulting, in- solent, rude, saucy, impertinent, impudent, abusive. Integrity, uprightness, hon- esty, probity, entirety, entireness, completeness, rectitude, purity. (Dishonesty.) Intellect, understanding, sense, brains, mind, intelligence, ability, talent, genius. (Body.) Intellectual, mental, ideal, metaphysical. (Brutal.) Intelligible, clear, obvious, plain, distinct. (Abstruse.) Intemperate, immoderate, excessive, drunken, nimious, inordinate. (Temperate.) Intense, ardent, earnest, glowing, fervid, burning, vehement. Intent, design, purpose, intention, drift, view, aim, purport, meaning. Intercourse, commerce, connection, intimacy, acquaintance, interdict, forbid, prohibit, inhibit, proscribe, debar, restrain from. (Allow.) In- terfere, meddle, intermeddle, interpose. Interminable, endless, interminate, infinite, unlimited, illimitable, boundless, limitless. (Brief, concise.) interpose, intercede, arbitrate, mediate, interfere, meddle. Interpret, explain, expound, elucidate, unfold, decipher. Intimate, hint, suggest, insinuate, express, signify, impart, tell. Intimidate, dishearten, alarm, frighten, scare, appal, daunt, cow, browbeat. (Encourage.) Intolerable, insufferable, unbearable, insupportable, unendurable. Intrepid, bold, brave, daring, fearless, dauntless, undaunted, courageous, valorous, valiant, heroic, gallant, chivalrous, doughty. (Cowardly, faint-hearted.) Intrigue, plot, cabal, conspiracy, combination, artifice, ruse, amour. Intrinsic, real, true, genuine, sterling, native, natural. (Extrinsic.) In- validate, quash, cancel, overthrow, vacate, nullify, annul. Invasion, incursion, irruption, inroad, aggression, raid, fray. Invective, abuse, reproach, railing, cen- sure, sarcasm, satire. Invent, devise, contrive, frame, find out, discover, design. Investigation, examination, search, inquiry, research, scrutiny. Inveterate, confirmed, chronic, malignant. (Inchoate.) invidious, envious, hateful, odious, malignant. Invigorate, brace, harden, nerve, strengthen, fortify. (Enervate.) invincible, unconquerable, impregnable, insurmountable. Invisible, unseen, imperceptible, impalpable, unperceivable. Invite, ask, call, bid, request, allure, attract, solicit. Invoke, invocate, call upon, appeal, refer, implore, beseech. In- volve, implicate, entangle, compromise, envelop. Irksome, wearisome, tiresome, tedious, annoying. (Pleasant.) Irony, sarcasm, satire, ridicule, raillery. Irra- tional, foolish, silly, imbecile, brutish, absurd, ridiculous. (Rational.) Irregu- lar, eccentric, anomalous, inordinate, intemperate. (Regular.) Irreligious, profane, godless, impious, sacrilegious, desecrating. Irreproachable, blameless, spotless, irreprovable. Irresistible, resistless, irrepressible. Irresolute, waver- ing undetermined, undecided, vacillating. (Determined.) Irritable, excitable, irascible, susceptible, sensitive. (Calm.) Irritate, aggravate, worry, embitter, madden, exasperate, issue, r., emerge, rise, proceed, flow, spring, emanate. Issue, «., end, upshot, effect, result, offspring, progeny. JADE, harass, weary, tire, worry. Jangle, wrangle, conflict, disagree. Jar- ring, conflicting, discordant, inconsonant, inconsistent. Jaunt, ramble, excur- sion, trip. Jealousy, suspicion, envy. Jeopard, hazard, peril, endanger. Jest, joke, sport, divert, make game of. Journey, travel, tour, passage. Joy, gladness, mirth, delight. (Grief.) Judge, justice, referee, arbitrator. Joyful, glad, rejoicing, exultant. (Mournful.) Judgment, discernment, discrimination, understanding. Justice, equity, right. Justice is right as established bylaw; equity according to the circumstances of each particular case. (Injustice.) Just- ness, accuracy, correctness, precision. KEEP, preserve, save. (Abandon.) Kill, assassinate, murder, slay. Kindred, affinity, consanguinity, relationship. Knowledge, erudition, learning, science. (Ignorance.) LABOR, toil, work, effort, drudgery. (Idleness.) Lack, need, deficiency, scarcity, insufficiency. (Plenty.) Lament, mourn, grieve, weep. .(Rejoice.) Language, dialect, idiom, speech, tongue. Lascivious, loose, unchaste, lustful, lewd, lecherous. (Chaste.) ’Last, final, latest, ultimate. (First.) Laudable, commendable, praiseworthy. (Blamable.) Laughable, comical, droll, ludicrous. (Serious.) Lawful, legal, legitimate, licit. (Illegal ) Lead, conduct, guide. (Follow.) Lean, meagre. (Fat.) Learned, erudite, scholarly. (Ignorant.) Leave, z/., quit, relinquish. Leave, «., liberty, permission, licenc^. (Prohibition.) 54 STNONTMS AND ANTONTHS. Life, existence, animation, spirit, vivacity. (Death.) Lifeless, dead, inanimate. Lift, erect, elevate, exalt, raise. (Lower.) Light, clear, bright. (Dark.) Light- ness, flightiness, giddiness, levity, volatility. (Seriousness.) Likeness, resem- blance, similarity. (Unlikeness.) Linger, lag, loiter, tarry, saunter. (Hasten.) Little, diminutive, small. (Great.) Livelihood, living, maintenance, subsistence, support. Lively, jocund, merry, sportive, sprightly, vivacious. (Slow, languid, sluggish.) Long, extended, extensive. (Short.) Look, appear, seem. Lose, miss, forfeit. (Gain.) Loss, detriment, damage, deprivation. (Gain.) Loud, clamorous, high-sounding, noisy. (Low, quiet.) Love, affection, (Hatred.) Low, abject, mean. (Noble.) Lunacy, derangement, insanity, mania, madness, (Sanity.) Lustre, brightness, brilliancy, splendor. Luxuriant, exuberant. (Sparse.) MACHINATION, plot, intrigue, cabal, conspiracy. (Artlessness.) Mad, crazy, delirious, insane, rabid, violent, frantic. (Sane, rational, quiet.) Madness, insanity, fury, rage, frenzy. Magisterial, august, dignified, majestic, pompous, stately. Make, form, create, produce. (Destroy.) Malediction, anathema, curse, imprecation, execration. Malevolent, malicious, virulent, malignant. (Benevolent.) Malice, spite, rancor, ill-feeling, grudge, animosity, • ill-will. (Benignity.) Malicious, see malevolent. Manacle, v., shackle, fetter, chain. (Free.) Manage, contrive, concert, direct. Management, direction, superin- tendence, care, economy. Mangle, tear, lacerate, mutilate, cripple, maim. Mania, madness, insanity, lunacy. Manifest, v., reveal, prove, evince, exhibit, display, show. Manifest, a., clear, plain, evident, open, apparent, visible. (Hidden, occult.) Manifold, several, sundry, various, divers, numerous. Manly, masculine, vigorous, courageous, brave, heroic. (Effeminate.) Manner, habit, custom, way, air, look, appearance. Manners, morals, habits, behavior, carriage. Mar, spoil, ruin, disfigure. (Improve.) March, tramp, tread, walk, step, space. Margin, edge, rim, border, brink, verge. Mark, «., sign, note, symptom, token, indication, trace, vestige, track, badge, brand. Mark, v., impress, print, stamp, engrave, note, designate. Marriage, wedding, nuptials, matrimony, wedlock. Martial, military, warlike, soldier-like. Marvel, wonder, miracle, prodigy. Marvelous, wondrous, wonderful, amazing, miraculous. Massive, bulky, heavy, weighty, ponderous, solid, substantial. (Flimsy.) Mastery, dominion, rule, sway, ascendancy, supremacy. Matchless, unrivaled, unequaled, unparalleled, peer-, less, incomparable, inimitable, surpassing. (Common, ordinary.) Material, a.y corporeal, bodily, physical, temporal, momentous, important. (Spiritual, imma-. terial.) Maxim, adage, apophthegm, proverb, saying, by-word, saw. Meager, poor, lank, emaciated, Ijarren, dry, uninteresting. (Rich.) Mean, a., stingy, niggardly, low, abject, vile, ignoble, degraded, contemptible, vulgar, despicable. (Generous.) Mean, v., design, purpose, intent, contemplate, signify, denote, in* dicate. Meaning, signification, import, acceptation, sense, purport. Medium, organ, channel, instrument, means. Medley, mixture, variety, diversity, miscel- lany. Meek, unassuming, mild, gentle. (Proud.) Melancholy, low-spirited, dispirited, dreamy, sad. ( Jolly, buoyant.) Mellow, ripe, mature, soft. (Imma- ture.) Melodious, tuneful, musical, silver, dulcet, sv/eet. (Discordant.) Mem- orable, signal, distinguished, marked. Memorial, monument, memento, com- memoration. Memory, remembrance, recollection. Menace, «., threat. Mend, repair, amend, correct, better, ameliorate, improve, rectify. Mention, tell, name, communicate, impart, divulge, reveal, disclose, inform, acquaint. Merciful, com- passionate, lenient, clement, tender, gracious, kind. (Cruel.) Merciless, hard- hearted, cruel, unmerciful, pitiless, remorseless, unrelenting. (Kind.) Merri- ment, mirth, joviality, jollity, hilarity. (Sorrow.) Merry, cheerful, mirthful, joy- ous, gay, lively, sprightly, hilarious, blithe, blithesome, jovial, sportive, jolly. (Sad.) Metaphorical, figurative, allegorical, symbolical. Method, way, man- ner, mode, process, order, rule, regularity, system. Mien, air, look, manner, as- pect, appearance. Migratory, roving, strolling, wandering, vagrant. (Settled, sedate, permanent ) Mimic, imitate, ape, mock. Mindful, observant, attentive, heedful, thoughtful. (Heedless.) Miscellaneous, promiscuous, indiscriminate, mixed. Mischief, injury, harm, damage, hurt, evil, ill. (Benefit.) Miscreant, caitiff, villain, ruffian. Miserable, unhappy, wretched, distressed, afflicted. (Happy.) Miserly, stingy, niggardly, avaricious, griping. Misery, wretched- srjvoArrAfS and antontms. ness, woe, destitution, penury, privation, beggary. (Happiness.) Misfortune, calamity, disaster, mishap, catastrophe. (Good luck.) Miss, omit, lose, fail, mis- carry. Mitigate, alleviate, relieve, abate, diminish. (Aggravate.) Moderate, temperate, abstemious, sober, abstinent. (Immoderate.) Modest, chaste, virtu- ous, bashful, reserved. (Immodest.) Moist, wet, damp, dank, humid. (Dry.) Monotonous, unvaried, dull, tiresome, undiversified. (Varied.) Monstrous', shocking, dreadful, horrible, huge, immense. Monument, memorial, record, re- membrancer, cenotaph. Mood, humor, disposition, vein, temper. Morbid, sick, ailing, sickly, diseased, corrupted. (Normal, sound.) Morose, gloomy, sullen, surly, fretful, crabbed, crusty. (Joyous.) Mortal, deadly, fatal, human. Mo- tion, proposition, proposal, movement. Motionless, still, stationary, torpid, stag- nant. (Active, moving ) Mount, arise, rise, ascend, soar, tower, climb, scale. Mournful, sad, sorrowful, lugubrious, grievous, doleful, heavy. (Happy.) Move, actuate, impel, induce, prompt, instigate, persuade, stir, agitate, propel, push. Multitude, crowd, throng, host, mob, swarm. Murder, v., kill, assassinate, slay, massacre, despatch. Muse, v., meditate, contemplate, think, reflect, cogitate, ponder. Music, harmony, melody, symphony. Musical, tuneful, melodious, harmonious, dulcet, sweet. Musty, stale, sour, fetid. (Fresh, sweet.) Mute, dumb, silent, speechless. Mutilate, maim, cripple, disable, disfigure. Muti- nous. insurgent, seditious, tumultuous, turbulent, riotous. (Obedient, orderly.) Mutual, reciprocal, interchanged, correlative. (Sole, solitary.) Mysterious, dark, obscure, hidden, secret, dim, mystic, enigmatical, unaccountable. (Open, clear.) Mystify, confuse, perplex, puzzle. (Clear, explain.) NAKED, nude, bare, uncovered, unclothed, rough, rude, simple. (Covered, clad.) Name, z/., denominate, entitle, style, designate, term, call, christen. Name, appellation, designation, denomination, title, cognomen, reputation, character, fame, credit, repute. Narrate, tell, relate, detail, recount, describe, enumerate, rehearse, recite. Nasty, filthy, foul, dirty, unclean, impure, indecent, gross, vile. Nation, people, community, realm, state. Native, indigenous, in- born, vernacular. Natural, original, regular, normal, bastard. (Unnatural, forced.) Near, nigh, neighboring, close, adjacent, contiguous, intimate. (Distant.) Neces- sary, needful, expedient, essential, requisite, indispensable. (Useless.) Ne- cessitate, z'., compel, force, oblige. Necessity, need, occasion, exigency, emer- gency, urgency, requisite. Need, necessity, distress, poverty, indigence, want, penury. Need, v., require, want, lack. Neglect, v., disregard, slight, omit, over- look. Neglect, n., omission, failure, default, negligence, remissness, carelessness, slight. Neighborhood, environs, vicinity, nearness, adjacency, proximity. Nervous, timid, timorous, shaky. New, fresh, recent, novel. (Old.) News, tidings, intelligence, information. Nice, exact, accurate, good, particular, precise, fine, delicate. (Careless, coarse, unpleasant.) Nimble, active, brisk, lively, alert, quick, agile, prompt. (Awkward ) Nobility, aristocracy, greatness, grandeur, peerage. Noble, exalted, elevated, illustrious, great, grand, lofty. (Low.) Noise, cry, outcry, clamor, row, din, uproar, tumult. (Silence.) Nonsensical, irrational, absurd, silly, foolish. (Sensible.) Notable, plain, evident, remarkable, signal, striking, rare. (Obscure.) Note, j., token, symbol, mark, sign, indication, re- mark, comment. Noted, distinguished, remarkable, eminent, renowned. (Ob- scure.) Notice, J., advice, notification, intelligence, information. Notice, z'., mark, note, observe, attend to, regard, heed. Notify, v., publish, acquaint, ap- prise, inform, declare. Notion, conception, idea, belief, opinion, sentiment. No- torious, conspicuous, open, obvious, ill-famed. (Unknown.) Nourish, nurture, cherish, foster, supply. (Starve, famish.) Nourishment, food, diet, sustenance, nutrition. Novel, modern, new, fresh, recent, unused, strange, rare. (Old.) Noxious, hurtful, deadly, poisonous, deleterious, baneful. (Beneficial.) Nullify, annul, v^^ate, invalidate, quash, cancel, repeal. (Affirm ) NutritionVfood, diet, nutriment, nourishment. OBDURATE, hard, callous, hardened, unfeeling, insensible (Yielding, tract- able.) Obedient, compliant, submissive, dutiful, respectful. (Obstinate.) Obesg, corpulent, fat, adipose, fleshy. (Attenuated.) Obey, v., conform, comply, submit. (Rebel, disobey.) Object, j., aim, end, purpose, design, mark, butt. Object, v., oppose, except to, contravene, impeach, deprecate. (Assent.) Obnoxious, offen- sive. (Agreeable.) Obscure, undistinguished, unknown. (Distinguished.) 56 S2'NOi\ rMS AND ANTONYMS. Obstinate, contumacious, headstrong, stubborn, obdurate. (Yielding.) Occa- sion, opportunity. Offense, aflfront, misdeed, misdemeanor, transgression, tres- pass. Offensive, insolent, abusive, obnoxious. (Inoffensive.) Office, charge, function, place. Offspring, issue, progeny. Old, aged, superannuated, ancient, antique, antiquated, oosolete, old-fashioned. (Young, new.) Omen, pre- sage, prognostic. Opaque, dark. (Bright, transparent.) Open, candid, unre- serv^ed, clear, fair. (Hidden, dark.) Opinion, notion, view, judgment, belief, sentiment. Opinionated, conceited, egoistical. (Modest.) Oppose, resist, withstand, thwart. (Give way.) Option, choice. Order, method, rule, system, regularity. (Disorder.) Origin, cause, occasion, beginning, source. (End.) Outlive, survive. Outward, external, outside, exterior. (Inner.) Over, above. (Under.) Overbalance, outweigh, preponderate. Overbear, bear down, over- whelm, overpower, subdue. Overbearing, haughty, arrogant, proud. (Gentle.) Overflow, inundation, deluge. Overrule, supersede, suppress. Overspread, overrun, ravage. Overturn, invert, overthrow, reverse, subvert. (Establish, fortify.) Overwhelm, crush, defeat, vanquish. PAIN, suffering, qualm, pang, agony, anguish. (Pleasure.) Pallid, pale, wan. (Florid.) Part, division, portion, share, fraction. (Whole.) Particular, exact, distinct, odd, singular, strange. (General.) Patient, passive, submissive, meek. (Obdurate.) Peace, calm, quiet, tranquillity. (War, riot, trouble, turbulence.) Peaceable, pacific, peaceful, quiet. (Troublesome, riotous.) Penetrate, bore, pierce, perforate. Penetration, acuteness, sagacity. (Dullness.) People, nation, persons, folks Perceive, note, observe, discern, distinguish. Percep- tion, conception, notion, idea. Peril, danger, pitfall, snare. (Safety.) Permit, allow, tolerate. (Forbid.) Persuade, allure, entice, prevail upon. Physical, corporeal, bodily, material. (Mental.) Picture, engraving, print, representation, illustration, image. Piteous, doleful, woful, rueful. (Joyful.) Pitiless, see merciless. Pity, •compassion, sympathy. (Cruelty.) Place, «., spot, site, position, post, situation, station. Place, z/., order, dispose. Plain, open, manifest, evi- dent. (Secret.) Play, game, sport, amusement. (Work.) Please, gratify, paci- fy. (Displease.) Pleasure, charm, delight, joy. (Pain.) Plentiful, abundant, ample, copious, plenteous. (Scarce.) Poise, balance. Positive, absolute, per- emptory, decided, certain. (Negative.) Possessor, owner, master, proprietor. Possible, practical, practicable. (Impossible.) Poverty, penury, indigence, need, want. (Wealth.) Power, authority, force, strength, dominion. Powerful, mighty, potent. (Weak.) Praise, commend, extol, laud. (Blame.) Prayer, entreaty, petition, request, suit. Pretense, n., pretext, subterfuge. Prevailing, predominant, prevalent, general. (Isolated, sporadic.) Prevent, v., obviate, pre- clude. Previous, antecedent, introductory, preparatory, preliminary. (Subse- quent.) Pride, vanity, conceit. (Humility.) Principally, chiefly, essentially, mainly. Principle, ground, reason, motive, impulse, maxim, rule, rectitude, in- tegrity. Privilege, immunity, advantage, favor, prerogative, exemption, right, claim. Probity, rectitude, uprightness, honesty, integrity, sincerity, soundness. (Dishonesty.) Problematical, uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, dis- putable, suspicious. (Certain.) Prodigious, huge, enormous, vast, amazing, as- tonishing, astounding, surprising, remarkable, wonderful. (Insignificant.) Pro- fession, business, trade, occupation, vocation, office, employment, engagement, avowal. Proffer, volunteer, offer, propose, tender. Profligate, abandoned, dis- solute, depraved, vicious, degenerate, corrupt, demoralized. (Virtuous.) Pro- found, deep, fathomless, penetrating, solemn, abstruse, recondite. (Shallow.) Profuse, extravagant, prodigal, lavish, improvident, excessive, copious, plentiful. (Succinct.) Prolific, productive, generative, fertile, fruitful, teeming. (Barren.) Prolix, diffuse, long, prolonged, tedious, tiresome, wordy, verbose, prosaic. (Con- cise, brief.) Prominent, eminent, conspicuous, marked, important^ leading. (Obscure.) Promiscuous, mixed, unarranged, mingled, indiscriminate. (Select.) Prompt, see punctual. Prop, v., maintain, sustain, support, stay. Propa- gate, spread, circulate, diffuse, disseminate, extend, breed, increase. (Suppress.) Proper, legitimate, right, just, fair, equitable, honest, suitable, fit, adapted, meet, becoming, befitting, decent, pertinent, appropriate. (Wrong.) Prosper, flourish, succeed, grow rich, thrive, advance. (Fail.) Prosperity, well-being, weal, wel- fare, happiness, good luck. (Poverty.) Proxy, agent, representative, subititute, 57 STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS, delegate, deputy. Prudence, carefulness, judgment, discretion, wisdom. (Indis- cretion.) Prurient, itching, craving, hankering, longing. Puerile, youthful juvenile, boyish, childish, infantile, trifling, weak, silly. (Mature.) Punctilious’ nice, particular, formal, precise. (Negligent.) Punctual, exact, precise, nice’ particular, prompt, timely. (Dilatory.) Putrefy, rot, decompose, corrupt, decay.’ Puzzle, V., perplex, confound, embarrass, bewilder, confuse, pose, mystify. (En- lighten.) QUACK, impostor, pretender, charlatan, empiric, mountebank. (Savant.) Quaint, artful, curious, far-fetched, fanciful, odd, singular. Qualified, compe- tent, fitted, adapted. (Incompetent.) Quality, attribute, rank, distinction. Querulous, doubting, complaining, fretting, repining. (Patient.) Question, query, inquiry, interrogatory. Quibble, cavil, evade, equivocate, shuffle, prevari- cate. Quick, lively, ready, prompt, alert, nimble, agile, active, brisk, expeditious, adroit, fleet, rapid, swift, impetuous, sweeping, dashing, clever, sharp. (Slow.) Quote, note, repeat, cite, adduce. RABID, mad, furious, raging, frantic. (Rational.) Race, course, match, pur- suit, career, family, clan, house, ancestry, lineage, pedigree. Rack, agonize, wring, torture, excruciate, distress, harass. (Soothe.) Racy, spicy, pungent, smart, spirited, lively, vivacious. (Dull, insipid.) Radiance, splendor, bright- ness, brilliance, brilliancy, lustre, glare. (Dullness.) Radical, organic, innate, fundamental, original, constitutional, inherent, complete, entire. (Superficial. In a political sense, uncompromising; antonym, moderate.) Rancid, fetid, rank, stinking, sour, tainted, reasty. (Fresh, sweet.) Rancor, malignity, hatred, hos- tility, antipathy, animosity, enmity, ill-will, spite. (Forgiveness.) Rank, order, degree, dignity, nobility, consideration. Ransack, rummage, pillage, overhaul, explore, plunder. Ransom, emancipate, free, unfetter. Rant, bombast, fustian, cant. Rapacious, ravenous, voracious, greedy, grasping. (Generous.) Rapt, ecstatic, transported, ravished, entranced, charmed. (Distracted.) Rapture, ecstasy, transport, delight, bliss. (Dejection.) Rare, scarce, singular, uncommon, unique. Rascal, scoundrel, rogue, knave, scamp, vagabond. Rash, hasty, pre- cipitate, foolhardy, adventurous, heedless, reckless, careless. (Deliberate.) Rate, value, compute, appraise, estimate, chide, abuse. Ratify, comfirm, establish, sub- stantiate, sanction. (Protest, oppose. ) Rational, reasonable, sagacious, judicious,;, wise, sensible, sound. (Unreasonable.) Ravage, overrun, overspread, desolate, despoil, destroy. Ravish, enrapture, enchant, charm, delight, abuse. Raze, de- molish, destroy, overthrow, ruin, dismantle. (Build up.) Reach, touch, stretch, attain, gain, arrive at. Ready, prepared, ripe, apt, prompt, adroit, handy. (Slow, dilatory.) Real, actual, literal, practical, positive, certain, genuine, true. (Un- real.) Realize, accomplish, achieve, effect, gain, get, acquire, comprehend. Reap, gain, get, acquire, obtain. Reason, motive, design, end, proof, cause, ground, purpose. Reason, deduce, draw from, trace, infer, conclude. Reason- able, rational, wise, honest, fair, right, just. (Unreasonable.) Rebellion, insur- rection, revolt. Recant, recall, abjure, retract, revoke.' Recede, retire, retreat, withdraw, ebb. Receive, accept, take, admit, entertain. Reception, receiving, levee, receipt, admission. Recess, retreat, depth, niche, vacation, intermission. Recreation, sport, pastime, play, amusement, game, fun. Redeem, ransom, re- cover, rescue, deliver, save, free. Redress, remedy, repair, remission, abate- ment, relief. Reduce, abate, lessen, decrease, lower, shorten, conquer. Re- fined, polite, courtly, polished, cultured, genteel, purified. (Boorish.) Reflect, consider, cogitate, think, ponder, muse, censure. Reform, amend, correct, better, restore, improve. (Corrupt.) Reformation, improvement, reform, amendment. (Corruption.) Refuge, asylum, protection, harbor, shelter, retreat. Refuse, v., deny, reject, repudiate, decline, withhold. (Accept.) Refuse, s., dregs, dross, s^um, rubbish, leavings, remains. Refute, disprove, falsify, negative. (Affirm.) Regard, v., mind, heed, notice, behold, view, consider, respect. Regret, s., grief, sorrow, lamentation, repentance, remorse. Regular, orderly, uniform, cus- tomary, ordinary, stated. (Irregular.) Regulate, methodize, arrange, adjust, organize, govern, rule. (Disorder.) Reimburse, refund, repay, satisfy, indemni- fy. Relevant, fit, proper, suitable, appropriate, pertinent, apt. (Irrelevant.) Re- liance, trust, hope, dependence, confidence. (Suspicion.) Relief, succor, aid, 58 STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. help, redf^ss, alleviation. Relinquish, give up, forsake, resign, su/render, quit, leave, forego. (Retain.) Remedy, help, relief, redress, cure, specific, reparation. Remorseless, pitiless, relentless, cruel, ruthless, merciless, barbarous. (Merciful, humane.) Remote, distant, far, secluded, indirect. (Near.) Reproduce, pro- pagate, imitate, represent, copy. Repudiate, disown, discord, disavow, renounce, disclaim. (Acknowledge.) Repugnant, antagonistic, distasteful. (Agreeable.) Repulsive, forbidding, odious, ugly, disagreeable, revolting. (Attractive.) Res- pite, reprieve, interval, stop, pause. Revenge, vengeance, retaliation, requital, retribution. (Forgiveness.) Revenue, produce, income, fruits, proceeds, wealth. Reverence, n., honor, respect, awe, veneration, deference, worship, homage. (Execration.) Revise, review, reconsider. Revive, refresh, renew, renovate, animate, resuscitate, vivify, cheer, comfort. Rich, wealthy, affluent, opulent, copious, ample, abundant, exuberant, plentiful, fertile, fruitful, superb, gorgeous. (Poor.) Rival, n., antagonist, opponent, competitor. Road, way, highway, route, cou se, path, pathway, ancliorage. Roam, ramble, rove, wander, stray, stroll. Ro^^ust, strong, lusty, vigorous, sinewy, stout, sturdy, stalwart, able-bodied. (Puny.) Rcut, v., discomfit, beat, defeat, overthrow, scatter. Route, road, course, march way, journey, path, direction. Rude, rugged, rough, uncouth, un- polished, harsh, gruff, impertinent, saucy, flippant, impudent, insolent, churlish. (Polished, polite.) Rule, sway, method, system, law, maxim, precept, guide, for- mula, regulation, government, standard, test. Rumor, hearsay, talk, fame, report, bruit. Ruthless, cruel, savage, barbarous, inhuman, merciless, remorseless, relentless, unrelenting. (Considerate.) SACRED, holy, hallowed, divine, consecrated, dedicated, devoted. (Profane.) Safe, secure, harmless, trustworthy, reliable. (Perilous, dangerous.) Sanction, confirm, countenance, encourage, support, ratify, authorize. (Disapprove.) Sane, sober, lucid, sound, rational. (Crazy.) Saucy, impertinent, rude, impudent, in- solent, flippant, forward. (Modest.) Scandalize, shock, disgust, offend, calum- niate, vilify, revile, malign, traduce, defame, slander. Scanty, bare, pinched, in- sufficient, slender; meager. (Ample.) Scatter, strew, spread, disseminate, dis- perse, dissipate, dispel. (Collect.) Secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, sly, underhand, latent, private. (Open.) Seduce, allure, attract, decoy, entice, ab- duct, inveigle, deprave. Sense, discernment, appreciation, view, opinion, feeling, perception, sensibility, susceptibility, thought, judgment, signification, import, sig- nificance, meaning, purport, wisdom. Sensible, wise, intelligent, reasonable, sober, sound, conscious, aware. (Foolish.) Settle, arrange, adjust, regulate, con- clude, determine. Several, sundry, divers, various, many. Severe, harsh, stern, stringent, unmitigated, rough, unyielding. (Lenient.) Shake, tremble, shudder, shiver, quake, quiver Shallow, superficial, flimsy, slight. (Deep, thorough.) Shame, disgrace, dishonor. (Honor.) Shameful, degrading, scan- dalous, disgraceful, outrageous (Honorable.) Shameless, immodest, impudent, indecent, indelicate, brazen. Shape, form, fashion, mold, model. Share, por- tion, lot, division, quantity, quota, contingent. Sharp, acute, keen. (Dull.) Shine, glare, glitter, radiate, sparkle. Short, brief, concise, succinct, summary. (Long.) Show, z/., indicate, mark, point out, exhibit, display. Show, «., exhibi- tion, representation, sight, spectacle. Sick, diseased, sickly, unhealthy, morbid. (Healthy.) Sickness, n., illness, indisposition, disease, disorder. (Health.) Significant, tf., expressive, material, important. (Insignificant.) Signification, import, meaning, sense. Silence, speechlessness, dumbness. (Noise.) Silent, dumb, mute, speechless. (Talkative.) Simile, comparison, similitude. Simple, single, uncompounded, artless, plain. (Complex, compound.) Simulate, dis- simulate, dissemble, pretend. Sincere, candid, hearty, honest, pure, genuine, real. (Insincere.) Situation, condition, plight, predicament, state, position. Size, bulk, greatness, magnitude, dimension. Slavery, servitude, enthrallment, thralldom. (Freedom.) Sleep, doze, drowse, nap, slumber. Sleepy, somnolent. (Wakeful.) Slow, dilatory, tardy. (Fast.) Smell, fragrance, odor, perfume, scent. Smooth, even, level, mild. (Rough.) Soak, drench, imbrue, steep. Social, sociable, friendly, communicative. (Unsocial.) Soft, gentle, meek, mild. (Hard.) Solicit, importune, urge. Solitary, sole, only, single. Sorry, grieved, poor, paltry, insignificant. (Glad, respectable.) Soul, mind, spirit. (Soul is opposed to body, mind to matter.) Sound, v.^ healthy, sane. (Unsound.) STNONTMS AND ANTONYMS. Sound, n.t tone, noise, silence. Space, room. Sparse, scanty, thin. (Lux- uriant.) Speak, converse, talk, confer, say, tell. Special, particular, specific. (General.) Spend, expend, exhaust, consume, waste, squander, dissipate. (Save.) Sporadic, isolated, rare. (General, prevalent.) Spread, disperse, diffuse, ex- pand, disseminate, scatter. Spring, fountain, source. Staff, prop, support, stay. Stagger, reel, totter. Stain, soil, discolor, spot, sully, tarnish. State, common- wealth, realm. Sterile, barren, unfruitful. (Fertile.) Stifle, choke, suffocate, smother. Stormy, rough, boisterous, tempestuous. (Calm.) Straight, direct, right. (Crooked.) Strait, narrow, confined. Stranger, alien, foreigner. (Friend.) Strengthen, fortify, invigorate. (Weaken.) Strong, robust, sturdy, powerful. (Weak.) Stupid, dull, foolish, obtuse, witless. (Clever.) Subject, exposed to, liable, obnoxious. (Exempt.) Subject, inferior, subordinate. (Su- perior to, above.) Subsequent, succeeding, following. (Previous.) Substan- tial, solid, durable. (Unsubstantial.) Suit, accord, agree. (Disagree.) Super- ficial, flimsy, shallow, untrustworthy. (Thorough.) Superfluous, unnecessary, excessive. (Necessary.) Surround, encircle, encompass, environ. Sustain, maintain, support. Symmetry, proportion. Sympathy, commiseration, com- passion, condolence. System, method, plan, order. Systematic, orderly, regu- lar, methodical. (Chaotic.) TAKE, accept, receive. (Give.) Talkative, garrulous, loquacious, communi- cative. (Silent.) Taste, flavor, relish, savor. (Tastlessness.) Tax, custom, duty, impost, excise, toll. Tax, assessment, rate. Tease, taunt, tantalise, tor- ment, vex. Temporary, a., fleeting, transient, transitory. (Permanent.) Tena- cious, pertinacious, retentive. Tendency, aim, drift, scope. Tenet, position, view, conviction, belief. Term, boundary, limit, period, time. Territory, do- minion. Thankful, grateful, obliged. (Thankless.) Thankless, ungracious, pH-ofitless, ungrateful, unthankful. Thaw, melt, dissolve, liquefy. (Freeze.) Theatrical, dramatic, showy, ceremonious, meretricious. Theft, robbery, depre- dation, spoliation. Theme, subject, topic, text, essay. Theory, speculation, scheme, plea, hypothesis, conjecture. Therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence. Thick, dense, close, compact, solid, coagulated, muddy, turbid, misty, foggy» vaporous. (Thin.) Thin, slim, slender, slight, flimsy, lean, attenuated, scraggy. Think, cogitate, consider, reflect, ponder, contemplate, meditate, muse, con- ceive, fancy, imagine, apprehend, hold, esteem, reckon, consider, regard, deem, be- lieve, opine. Thorough, accurate, correct, trustworthy, reliable, complete. (Super- ficial.) Thought, idea, conception, imagination, fancy, conceit, notion, supposition, care, provision, consideration, opinion, view, sentiment, reflection, deliberation. Thoughtful, considerate, careful, cautious, heedful, contemplative, reflective, provident, pensive, dreamy. (Thoughtless.) Thoughtless, inconsiderate, rash, precipitate, improvident, heedless. Tie, v., bind, restrain, restrict, oblige, secure, unite, join. (Loose.) Tie, «., band, ligament, ligature. Time, duration, season, period, era, age, date, span, spell. Tolerate, allow, admit, receive, suffer, per- mit, let, endure, abide. (Oppose.) Top, summit, apex, head, crown, surface. (Bottom, base.) Torrid, burning, hot, parching, scorching, sultry. Tortuous, twisted, winding, crooked, indirect. Torture, torment, anguish, agony. Touch- ing, tender, affecting, moving, pathetic. Tractable, docile, manageable, amen- able. Trade, traffic, commerce, dealing, occupation, employment, office. Tra- ditional, oral, uncertain, transmitted. Traffic, trade, exchange, commerce, in- tercourse. Trammel, n., fetter, shackle, clog, bond, chain, impediment, hin- drance. Tranquil, sti 1, unrufflled, peaceful, quiet, hushed. (Noisy, boisterous.) Transaction, negotiation, occurrence, proceeding, affair. Trash, nonsense, twaddle, trifles, dross. Travel, trip, ramble, peregrination, excursion, journey, tour, voyage. Treacherous, traitorous, disloyal, treasonable, faithless, false- hearted, perfidious, sly, false. (Trustworthy, faithful ) Trite, stale, old, ordinary, commonplace, hackneyed. (Novel.) Triumph, achievement, ovation, victory, conquest, jubilation. (Failure, defeat.) Trivial, trifling, petty, small, frivolous, unimportant, insignificant. (Important.) True, genuine, actual, sincere, un- affected, true-hearted, honest, upright, veritable, real, veracious, authentic, exact, accurate, correct. Tumultuous, turbulent, riotous, disorderly, disturbed, con- fused, unruly. (Orderly.) Tune, tone, air, melody, strain. Turbid, foul, thick, 60 SrNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. muddy, impure, unsettled. (Placid.) Type, emblem, symbol, figure, sign, kin\ sort, letter. Tyro, novice, beginner, learner. UGLY, unsightly, plain, homely, ill-favored, hideous. (Beautiful.) Umbrage, offence, dissatisfaction, displeasure, resentment. Umpire, referee, arbitrator, judge, arbiter. Unanimity, accord, agreement, unity, concord. (Discord.) Unanimous, agreeing, like-minded. Unbridled, wanton, licentious, dissolute, loose, lax. Uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, fitful, equivocal, ambigu- ous, indistinct, variable, fluctuating. Uncivil, rude, discourteous, disrespectful, disobliging. (Civil.) Unclean, dirty, foul, filthy, sullied. (Clean.) Uncom- mon, rare, strange, scarce, singular, choice. (Common, ordinary.) Uncon- cerned, careless, indifferent, apathetic. (Anxious.) Uncouth, strange, odd, clumsy, ungainly. (Graceful.) Uncover, reveal, strip, expose, lay bare, divest. (Hide.) Under, below, underneath, beneath, subordinate, lower, inferior. (Above.) Understanding, knowledge, intellect, intelligence, faculty, comprehen- sion, mind, reason, brains. Undertake, engage in, embark in, agree, promise. Undo, annul, frustrate, untie, unfasten, destroy. Uneasy, restless, disturbed, un- quiet, stiff, awkward. (Quiet.) Unequal, uneven, not alike, irregular, insuffi- cient. (Even.) Unequaled, matchless, unique, novel, new, unheard of. Un- fair, wrongful, dishonest, unjust. (Fair.) Unfit, a., improper, unsuitable, incon- sistent, untimely, incompetent. (Fit.) Unfit, v., disable, incapacitate, disqualify. (Fit.) Unfortunate, calamitous, ill-fated, unlucky, wretched, unhappy, miser- able. (Fortunate.) Ungainly, clumsy, awkward, lumbering, uncouth. (Pretty.) Unhappy, miserable, wretched, distressed, afflicted, painful, disastrous, drear, dismal. (Happy.) Uniform, regular, symmetrical, equal, even, alike, unvaried. (Irregular.) Uninterrupted, continuous, perpetual, unceasing, incessant, end- less. (Intermittent.) Union, junction, combination, alliance, confederacy, league, coalition, agreement, concert. (Disunion, separation.) Unique, unequal, un- common, rare, choice, matchless. (Common, ordinary.) Unite, join, conjoin, combine, concert, add, attach, incorporate, embody, clench, merge. (Separate, disrupt, sunder.) Universal, general, all, entire, total, catholic. (Sectional.) Unlimited, absolute, undefined, boundless, infinite. (Limited.) Unreasonable, foolish, silly, absurd, preposterous, ridiculous. Unrivaled, unequaled, unique, unexampled, incomparable, matchless. (Mediocre.) Unroll, unfold, open, dis- cover. Unruly, ungovernable, unmanageable, refractory. (Tractable, docile.) Unusual, rare, unwonted, singular, qncommon, remarkable, strange, extraordi- nary. (Common.) Uphold, maintain, defend, sustain, support, vindicate. (Desert, abandon. ) Upright, vertical, perpendicular, erect, just, equitable, fair, pure, honorable. (Prone, horizontal.) Uprightness, honesty, integrity, fairness, good- ness, probity, virtue, honor. (Dishonesty.) Urge, incite, impel, push, drive, in- stigate, stimulate, press, induce, solicit. Urgent, pressing, important, imperative, immediate, serious, wanted. (Unimportant.) Usage, custom, fashion, practice, prescription. Use, «., usage, practice, habit, custom, avail, advantage, utility, benefit, application. (Disuse, desuetude.) Use, v., employ, exercise, occupy, practise, accustom, inure. (Abuse.) Useful, advantageous, serviceable, avail- able, helpful, beneficial, good. (Useless.) Useless, unserviceable, fruitless, idle, profitless. (Useful.) Usual, ordinary, common, accustomed, habitual, wonted, customary, general. (Unusual.) Usurp, arrogate, seize, appropriate, assume. Utmost, farthest, remotest, uttermost, greatest. Utter, a., extreme, excessive, sheer, mere, pure. Utter, v., speak, articulate, pronounce, express, issue. Utterly, totally, completely, wholly, quite, altogether, entirely. VACANT, empty, unfilled, unoccupied, thoughtless, unthinking. (Occupied.) Vagrant, n., wanderer, beggar, tramp, vagabond, rogue. Vague, unsettled, un- determined, uncertain, pointless, indefinite. (Definite.) Vain, useless, fruitless, empty, worthless, inflated, proud, conceited, unreal, unavailing. (Effectual, humble, real.) Valiant, brave, bold, valorous, courageous, gallant. (Cowardly.) Valid, weighty, strong, powerful, sound, binding, efficient. (Invalid.) Valor, courage, gallantry, boldness, bravery, heroism. (Cowardice.) Value, v., appraise, assess, reckon, appreciate, estimate, prize, esteem, treasure. (Despise, condemn.) Vanish, disappear, fade, melt, dissolve. Vanity, emptiness, conceit, self-conceit, aflfectedness. Vapid, dull, flat, insipid, stale, tame. (Sparkling.) Vapor, fume, STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. smoke, mist, fog, steam. Variable, changeable, unsteady, inconstant, fihifting, wavering, fickle, restless, fitful. (Constant.) Variety, difference, diversity, change, diversification, mixture, medley, miscellany. (Sameness, monotony.) Vast, spacious, boundless, mighty, enormous, immense, colossal, gigantic, huge, prodigious. (Confined.) Vaunt, boast, brag, puff, hawk, advertise, flourish, parade. Venerable, grave, sage, wise, old, reverend. Venial, pardonable, excusable, justifiable. (Grave, serious.) Venom, poison, virus, .®‘pite, malice, malignity. Venture, n., speculation, chance, peril, stake. Venture, t/., dare, adventure, risk, hazard, jeopardize. Veracity, truth, truthfulness, credibility, accuracy. (Falsehood.) Verbal, oral, spoken, literal, parole, unwritten. Verdict, judgment, finding, decision, answer. Vexation, chagrin, mortification. (Pleasure.) Vibrate, oscillate, swing, sway, wave, undulate, thrill. Vice, vilenes^ corruption, depravity, pollution, immorality, wickedness, guilt, iniquity, crime. (Virtue.) Vicious, corrupt, depraved, debased, bad, contrary, unruly, demoralized, profli- gate, faulty. (Virtuous, gentle.) Victim, sacrifice, food, prey, sufferer, dupe, gull. Victuals, viands, bread, meat, provisions, fare, food, repast. View, prospect, survey. Violent, boisterous, furious, impetuous, vehement. (GentK) Virtu- ous, upright, honest, moral. (Profligate.) Vision, apparition, ghost, phantom, spectre. Voluptuary, epicure, sensualist. Vote, suffrage, voice. Vouch, affirm, asseverate, assure, aver. WAIT, await, expect, look for, wait for. Wakeful, vigilant, watchful. (Sleepy.) Wander, range, ramble, roam, rove, stroll. Want, lack, need. (Abi'ndance.) Wary, circumspect, cautious. (Foolhardy.) Wash, clean, rinse, wet, moisten, stain, tint. Waste, v., squander, dissipate, lavish, destroy, decay, dwindle, wither. Wasteful, extravagant, profligate. (Economical.) Way, method, plan, system, means, manner, mode, form, fashion, course, process, road, route, track, path, habit, practice. Wave, breaker, billow, surge. Weak, feeble, infirm. (Strong.) Weaken, debilitate, enfeeble, enervate, invalidate. (Strengthen.) Wearisome, tedious, tiresome. (Interesting, enter .aining.) Weary, harass, jade, tire, fatigue. (Refresh.) Weight, gravity, heaviness. (Lightness ) Weight, burden, load. Well-being, happiness, prosperity, welfare. Whole, entire, complete, total, integral. (Part.) Wicked, iniquitous, nefarious. (Virtuous.) Will, wish, desir§. Willingly, spontaneously, voluntarily. (Unwillingly.) Win, get, obtain, gain, procure, effect, realize, accomplish, achieve. (Lose.) Winning, attractive, charming, fascinating, bewitching, enchanting, dazzling, brilliant. (Repulsive.) Wisdom, prudence, foresight, far-sightedness, sagacity. (Foolishness.) Wit, humor, satire, fun, raillery. Wonder, v., admire, amaze, astonish, surprise. Wonder, n.^ marvel, miracle, prodigy. Word, n.^ expression, term. Work, labor, task, toil. (Play.) Worthless, valueless. (Valuable.) Writer, author, penman. Wrong, injustice, injury. (Right.) YAWN, gape, open wide. Yearn, hanker after, long for, desire, crave. Yell, bellow, cry out, scream. Yellow, golden, saffron-like. Yelp, bark, sharp cry, howl. Yet, besides, nevertheless, notwithstanding, however, still, ultimately, at last, so far, thus far. Yield, bear, give, afford, impart, communicate, confer, bestow, abdicate, resign, cede, surrender, relinquish, relax, quit, forego, give up, let go, waive, comply, accede, assent, acquiesce, succumb, submit. Yielding, supple, pliant, bending, compliant, submissive, unresisting. (Obstinate.) Yoke, z/., couple, link, connect. Yore, long ago, long since. Young, juvenile, inex- perienced, ignorant, youthful. Youth, boy, lad, minority, adolescence, juvenility. Youthful, young, juvenile, boyish, girlish, puerile. (Old.) ZEAL, energy, fervor, ardor, earnestness, enthusiasm, eagerness. (Indifference.) Zealous, warm, ardent, fervent, enthusiastic, anxious. (Indifferent, careless.) Zest, relish, gusto, flavor. (Disgust.) Lead in the form of filings, under a pressure of 2,000 atmospheres, or thir- teen tons to the square inch, becomes compressed into a solid block, in which it is impossible to detect the slightest vestige of the original grains Under a pressure of 5,000 atmospheres it liquifies. 02 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE Facts Astronomical, Geographical, Historical and Statistical. A ccording to the System of Copernicus (d. 1473 ), the Sun was regarded as the center of the universe. The planets, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, revolved round itin circular orbits; the Moon was a satel- lite of the Earth, spun round it as a center, and accompanied it on its annual rotation round the Sun. Since then this view has been firmly established "in its main principles, but it is now known that the Sun itself moves steadily toward the constella- tion Hercules, and that it is by no means the largest body in the universe. The Solar System is known to consist of a central Sun, round which all the other members revolve. These consist of eight primary planets, viz.: Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune ; twenty secondary planets, satellites^ or attendants upon the planets, of which the Earth has one, Mars two, Jupiter four, Saturn eight, Uranus four, and Neptune one ; a number of minor planets or asteroids situated between Mars and Jupiter, of which 271 are known; sev- eral comets, and a great number of small meteoric bodies. In their broad general features the planets are all alike. The ball or globe-like form is peculiar to all of them, they are all dark bodies, deriving light and heat from the sun, and conse- quently they all reflect the same borrowed light. In common, they all perform two motions, the one a spinning or rotatory mo- tion on an axis, the other a motion of translation, which whirls them round the sun. Both these motions are from west to east, and the orbits which they describe round the sun are not circu- lar, as represented by the Copernican System, but assume more the form of an oval or ellipse. SOME ELEMENTS OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM. Names of the Planets. Diameter in miles. Periodic time. Days. Dis. from the Sun. Miles. Revolves on its Axis. Moves in its Or- bit per hour. Mercury 3,200 88 37 Mill. 24 h. 5 m 110,000 Miles Venus . . 7,700 224.7 69 “ 23 h. 21 m 83.000 “ Earth. . . 7,916 365 ^ 95 a 23 h. 56 m 68,000 ‘• Mars . . . 4,200 687 145 u 24 h. 39 m 54,000 “ Jupiter. . 88,000 4 , 3323 ^ 494 u 9 h. 56 m 30,000 “ Saturn . . 75,000 10,759 906 (( 10 h. 29 m 22,000 “ Uranus 35,000 30,687 1,822 u Unknown 15,000 “ Neptune 38,000 60,127 2,853 u a 12,000 “ Moon. . . 2,180 Dist. from Earth, 238,000 miles. 2,280 “ Sun .... 887,000 1,400,000 times larger than Earth Unknown. G3 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE, The circumference of the earth is measured in this way : Sup- pose two astronomers, A and B, stationed on the same meridian, a certain distance apart, and with accurate instruments, should make careful observations on a certain star at the moment it crossed the meridian ; and A should find tlie star i6 degrees south of the zenith, and B, who is exactly 415 miles south of A, should find it only 10 degrees south of the zenith ; there would then be a difference of 6 degrees between the two places ; and as they are 415 miles apart, one degree must be i-6th of 415 or 69 i-6th miles. * Now, if I degree, which is the 360th part of the earth’s cir- cumference, is 69 i-6th miles, the whole circumference must be 360 times 69 I -6th, or 24,900 miles. It is in this manner that the earth’s magnitude is computed very accurately. The Nebular Hypothesis, now generally accepted by scientists as explaining, as far as possible by human conception, the genesis of the heavenly bodies, was first suggested by Her- schel, and developed by Laplace. It assumes that the solar sys- tem was once an enormous mass of gaseous substance. Rapid rotation being set up in this gaseous mass, it took the form of a disc, and at last, centrifugal force overcoming cohesion, whole rings and fragments flew off from this disc, and by centripetal force contracted into spheroid masses. As in the original mass, the velocity of the outer circle of each body thrown off is greater than the inner circle, and this causes each spheroid to revolve on its own axis. Tliis process goes on, and the central mass con- tinues to cool and shrink, until we have at last a central body with a number of smaller spheroidal bodies revolving around it in orbits the smaller the nearer they are to the central orb. Certain points are assumed in this hypothesis to explain the dis- tribution of matter in our solar system. It js assumed that in the throwing off of great masses from the central disk, immense quan- tities of minute particles were also thrown, which continued to revolve, in the same plane with the large mass, around the center body. By slow degrees these minute atoms, by the law of gravi- tation, were aggregated into the mass nearest to them. These subordinate aggregations would form with most difflculty nearest the large central mass, because of the superior attractive force of the latter, wherefore the interior planets — Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars — are smaller than the two great orbs in the zone be- yond them. These two enormous planets, Jupiter and Saturn, occupy the space where conditions are most favorable to subor- dinate aggregations, but, beyond them, the gravity of aggregat- ing material becomes reduced, and so the planets found in the (14 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. outer zone, Uranus and Neptune, are smaller than the planets of the middle zone. Our Globe and Its Inhabitants. The three primary divisions of man, as indicated by Latham, are the Indo-European, the Mongolian, and the African. I. The Indo-European or Caucasic race originally extended from India across Europe, and increasing ever in civilization and intellectual power from age to age, has become the dominant one in the world, extending its influence to every part ol the earth, supplanting many inferior races, and repeopling wide areas, as in America and Australia, The Caucasic race comprises two principal branches — the Aryan and the Semitic. A third branch, according to M. de Qualrefages, includes the Caucasians proper, Euscarians (Basques), and others. Most of the inhabitants of Europe belong to the Aryan Family they are arranged in the following groups : 1. The Keltic, in the N. W., comprising the Welsh, Gaels, Erse, Manx, and Armoricans. 2. The Italic, chiefly in the S. W. and S., comprising the Italians and other Ro- mance nations — French, Spanish, Portuguese, Roumanesch, and Roumanians. 3. The Thraco-Hellenic, in the S. E., Greeks and Albanians. 4. The Teutonic, in the N. N. W., and center, comprising the Germans, Scandi- navians, Danes, Icelanders, Dutch, Flemings, English. 5. The Lithuanian, S. E. of the Baltic. 6. The Slavonic, in the E., comprising the Russians, Poles, Tsekhs, Serbs, Croats^ Bulgarians, etc. The Indo-European or Caucasic race in Asia comprises the Hindus, Baluchis. Afghans, Iranians (Persia), Galchas'(Zarafshan), and the Semitic tribes of Armenia, Syria, Arabia, etc. II. The Mongolian is divisible into three branches, according to geographical position, which again form numerous smaller families. 1. The Asiatic, comprising the Mongolians of the Chinese Empire, India, and Indo-China ; the Kalmucks, adjoining the Turks, who extend from Southern Europe far into Central Asia; The Magyars of Hungary; the Yakuts and Samoeids (o< Samoyedes) of Siberia ; with the Lapps, Finns, and various tribes of East Europe. 2. The Oceanic Mongolians are composed of two classes. I. The black-skinned^ found in New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, and the islands between New Zealand and New Caledonia. II. The yellow, olive or brown race, occupying New Zea- land, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Moluccas, Philippines, Mada- gascar, etc. 3. The American Mongolians comprise a large number of tribes, the chief of which in North America are— the Athabaskans, Algonkins, Sioux, Paducas, and Mexicans. In South America the Quichuas, Chilians, and Patagonians extend along the west coast. The Caribs, Maypures, Brazilians, Moxos, and Chiquitos occupy the north, east, and center of the continent. The Eskimos form a connecting link between the Asiatic and American branches of this family. III. The African, forming the third great division of the human race, is exhibited in its purest form by the natives of Western Africa. The Negroes occupy the whole central portion of the country from Cape Verd on the west to Khartoom on the east, and south to the Congo. South of the Negros are the Bantus (including the Kafirs), inhabiting the greater part of Africa between the 4th parallel of N. lat. and the Cape. In the S. W. are the Hottentots. Certain dwarfish tribes are found in dif- ferent parts of the continent, as the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert, the Obongo ol the Ogowe basin, and others. The Fulas and Nubas occupy parts of the Soudan ; the former, in the N. W., extend from the Senegal and Niger towards Lake Tchad ; the latter are found in Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, etc. The Gallas, Copts, Somali, of the Sahara, Egypt, and East Africa ; the Abyssinians ; and the Berbers, Kabyles, Tuareks and other tribes of North Africa, belong to the Hamitic race, which is closely allied to the Semitic race. The latter is represented by the Arabs of the N. coast, and of the Arabian Peninsula, and by the Tigres and other tribes or AbyssinU. 65 “The New World,” as the great continents of the Western Hemisphere are called, was first opened to Christian civ- ilization by the discovery of Columbus in 1492. The various coun- tries are all concisely described elsewhere. Area of North Amer- ica, 8,075,000 sq. miles; South America, 7, 535, 000 sq. miles. The entire population in 1880 was about 105,000,000. ONTARIO is the most important province of Canada. Principal products: grain, fruit, lumber, petroleum, copper and iron. Its population, largely of British descent, is one-third of the whole Dominion. Toronto, the capital, is the manufacturing and educational center. (i7 THE WORLD’S PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, Countries. China British Empire Russian Empire. France and Colonies United States German Empire. Austro-Hung. Empire... J apan Holland and Colonies. . . Turkish Empire. Italy. Spain and Colonies. Sokoto. Corea Brazil Mexico Congo Free State Persia Portugal and Colonies. . . Egypt! Sweden and Norway. ... Morocco ' Belgium. Siam Roumaniat Colombia Afghanistan. Argentine Republic Madagascar Abyssinia Saxonyt Peru. Switzerland Bolivia Bokhara Venezuela Chili Denmark Bulgaria! Greece Wurtembergi Servia Oman Guatemala Ecuador Tripoli! Transvaal Salvador. Uruguay Paraguay Honduras Nicaragua Dominican Republic. . . . Montenegro. Costa Rica.. Orange Free State Hayti. Hawaii Sq. Miles. Capitals. < 4,469,200 Pekin 9,079,711 London ! 8,644,100 St. Petersburg. 970,477 Paris 3,6O2y09O Washington 212,028 Berlin 261,591 Vienna 147,669 Tokio. 778,187 The Hague 1,731,280 Constantinople 111,410 Rome 361,953 Madrid. 178,000 Sokoto - 91,430 Seul 3,219,000 Rio de Janeiro 751,177 Mexico.. 636,000 Teheran 240,691 Lisbon 494.000 Cairo. 295,714 Stockholm 314,000 11,373 Fez Brussels 280,550 Bangkok 46,314 Bucharest 331,420 Bogota. 279.000 Cabul 609,386 Buenos Ayres 228,570 129,000 5,789 Antananarivo. Dresden 405,040 Lima 15,981 Berne 481,600 La Paz. 92,300 Samarcand 666,159 Caracas 307,525 Santiago 14.842 Copenhagen 24,700 Sofia 24.977 Athens 7,531 Stuttgart 18.757 Belgrade 81.000 Muscat 46.774 New Guatemala 248,370 Quito 399,000 Tripoli 110,193 Pretoria 7,228 San Salvador 72,112 Montevideo 92,000 Asuncion 42,658 Tegucigalpa 51,660 Managua 20,596 San Domingo 3,486 Cetigno 19,985 San Jose 41,484 Bloemfontein 29,830 Port-au-Prince 6,587 Honolulu Governm’t. Abs. Desp Lim. Mon Abs. Mon Republic Republic Lim. Mon Lim. Mon Lim Mon Lim. Mon Abs. Mon Lim. Mon Lim. Mon Abs. Desp Abs Desp Lim. Mon Republic Free, State Abs. Desp Lim Mon Abs. Mon Lim. Mon Abs. Desp Lim. Mon Abs. Desp Lim. Mon Republic Abs. Desp Republic Abs. Desp Abs. Desp Lim. Mon Republic Republic Republic .Abs Desp F epublic Republic n. Mon Lim. Mon Lim. Mon Lim. Mon Lim. Mon Abs. Mon Republic Republic Abs Mon Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Abs. Mon Republic Republic Republic Lim. Mon 403,000,000 320.676.000 102.970.000 63,672.048 *^62, 622, 250 46,852,450 39,206,052 36,700,118 33,042,238 32,000,000 29,699,785 24,873,621 12,600,000 10.519.000 10 . 200.000 10,007,000 8,000,000 7,653,600 • 7,249,050 6,806,381 6,554,448 6.500.000 5,853,278 5.700.000 5.376.000 4,000,000 4.000. 000 3.026.000 3.000. 000 3.000. 000 2,972,805 2.970.000 2,906,752 2.325.000 2;i30,000 2,121,988 2,115,340 2,045,179 2,007.919 1,979,453 1,971,118 1.820.000 1,600,000 1,278,311 1.146.000 1 . 010.000 800,000 ,554,(!00 520,536 476.000 458.000 400.000 300.000 245,380 180.000 133,518 93,200 66,097 * Official census, 1890 . eluded in German Empire. 68 EUROPE. According to the latest census of its various states, the popula- tion of Europe amounts to 340,000,000, or one-fourth of the entire population of the world. Religion — Christians, 328,000,000 (Roman Catholics, 160,- 000,000 ; Protestants, 85,000,000 ; Greek Church, 83,000,000). Mohammedans, 6,000,000 ; Jews, 5,700,000 ; Heathen, 300,000. Climate — Mean annual temperature and rainfall : Mediter- ranean countries, 59^-66® F., 23-43 inches ; Atlantic coasts, 37^-59° F., 19-118 inches; Baltic district, 37^-50^ F., 15-23 inches ; Black Sea district, 41O-53O F., 7-19 inches ; Subarctic Europe, 19O-32O F. THE BRITISH ISLES. — The British Isles comprise about 500 islands, of which one-half are inhabited. Religion — Church of England (Episcopal), about 14,000,000; Church of Scotland (Presbyterian), about 1,400,000 ; Roman Catholics, about 6,000,- 000; Dissenters, 6,000,000 ; Jews, 60,000. Government — Heredi- tary limited Monarchy. Executive, the Sovereign. Legislative, the Sovereign, the Hoiise of Lords, composed of 4 Royal Princes, 2 Archbishops, 22 Dukes, 19 Marquises, 114 Earls, 28 Viscounts, 24 Bishops, 286 Barons, 16 Scottish Representative Peers, and 28 Irish Representative Peers ; i of the former and 2 of the latter are Peers of England. Total, 540. And lastly, the House of Commons, composed of 670 members, elected every Parliament — 465 for England, 30 for Wales, 72 for Scotland, and 103 for Ire- land. ENGLAND AND WALES form the southern and larger part of Great Britain. State Religion, Protestant Episcopal, 13,- 500,000 ; Dissenters, 12,500,000 (Methodists have 13,270 chapels ; Independents, 2,603 ; Baptists, 2,243). Roman Catholics, 1,058,- 000 ; Jews, 60,000. There are 5 universities (Oxford, 3,090 students; Cambridge, 2,894; Victoria, 1,310; Durham, 181 ; and London); 13 university colleges with 6,800 students ; 9 “ great public schools ” with 3,940 pupils ; a large number of private and higher class schools ; and 19,022 elementary schools attended by 4>50S.825 pupils. In England 80 per cent, of the whole area is productive; in Wales, 60 per cent. Cereal crops occupy a fourth of the pro- ductive area of England, and a sixth in Wales. But manufac- tures, mining, and trade entirely outstrip agricultural industry. Minerals — Coal, 1886, 137,039,441 tons annually, iron, lead, tin, copper, zinc, slate, salt, and shale. Factories — Cotton, 2,481 (465,654 employes); woollen, 1,503 (108,634); silk, 681 (40,134). Total number of textile factories, 6,359, Employes, 814,474. SCOTLAND forms the northern and smaller part of Great Britain. Religion — Established Church of Scotland, 579,043 60 QUEBEC was originally se-ttled by the French, and its present population is largely composed of descendants of the voy- agers, The capital, Quebec, is the oldest city in the Dominion. Its fortifications, when taken by Gen. ^Volfe, were considered, next to Gibraltar, the strongest in the world. The metropolis, Montreal, is notCil lor its churches. 70 MANITOBA, a province of Canada, is a great wheat-growing country, this cereal ripening in no days. Furs are also a leading product. The first settlers (1731) were French, and English traders first made their appearance in 1767. Climate very severe in winter, but occasionally hot in summer. Winnipeg is the capital- 71 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. members ; Free Church of Scotland, 333,098 members; United Presbyterian, 182,170 members; Episcopal, 76,939; Roman Catholic, 320,000. Education — There are 4 universities (Aber- deen, 830 students ; Edinburgh, 3,164 ; Glasgow, 2,231 ; St. An- drews, 212); I college (Dundee, 332 students); nearly 300 higher class schools with about 70,000 pupils ; and 3,092 elementary schools with (1886) 615,498 scholars. Government grant (1887), £445.883- The total area of Scotland is 19,084,659 acres, and. out of this number 14,613,446 acres consist of woods, bog and waste land, water, and hill-land. Only 25 per cent, of the whole area is pro- ductive. Cereal crops occupy a fourth of the productive area, and agriculture is limited to the plains and valleys of the east and south. Minerals — Coal (20,373,478 tons in 1886), iron, lead, slate, etc. Factories — Cotton, 147 (37,167 employes); woolen, 274 (27,546); flax, 152 (39,086); jute, 105 (36,269). Total number of textile factories, 776 with 152,279 employes. IRELAND has the Atlantic Ocean on all sides except the east, where it is separated from Great Britain by St. George’s Chan- nel, the Irish Sea, and North Channel. Religion — Roman Catholics, 3,960,891 ; Protestant Episcopalians, 620,000 ; Presby- terians, 470,734; Methodists, 48,839; Jews, 472. Education — There are 2 universities (Dublin, 1,258 students, and the Royal University); 3 Queen’s Colleges, Belfast (400), Cork (249), Gal- way (94); 1,500 superior schools with 200,000 pupils; 8,024 ele- mentary schools (1886) with an average attendance of 490,484, Government grant (1887) £888,966. Ireland is essentially an agricultural country ; the mineral re- sources are small, and mining is not prosecuted with vigor. Of the whole area, 74 per cent, is productive, and cereal ci'ops oc- cupy one-ninth of this. Minerals — Coal is extensively dis- tributed ; but from its inferior quality and its not being found near iron, it is not much wrought — only 105,563 tons having been produced in 1886. Iron ore is common, but smelting cannot be carried on for want of fuel. Manufactures — The chief manu- facture is linen, which is mostly confined to Ulster. Factories — • Linen, 166 (61,749 employes); woolen, 141 (3,136); cotton, 7 (1,248), Total number of textile factories, 330 with 68,158 em- ployes. SPAIN is bounded on the north bj^ France and the Bay of Biscay ; on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal; and on the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea. Religion — Roman Catholic, except 34,000 (6,654 Protestants). Government — Con- stitutional monarchy. Executive, the King. Legislative, the King, and Cortes, composed of the Senate with 360 members, and Congress of 431 members. Education — 30,000 elementary 72 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. schools with 1,700,000 pupils ; 10 universities with 15,700 students. PORTUGAL. — On the east and north Portugal is bounded by Spain,^and on the west and south by the Atlantic Ocean. Re- ligion — Roman Catholic; 500 Protestants. Government — Hered- itary limited monarchy. Executive, the King and Cabinet. Legislative, the Cortes, composed of House of Peers with 162 members, and House of Commons with 149 members. Educa- tion — 5,500 schools with 240,000 pupils ; i university with 670 students. FRANCE is bounded on the north by the English Channel ; on the west by the Bay of Biscay ; on the south by Spain and the Mediterranean Sea ; and on the east by Belgium, Germanj^, Switzerland, and Italy. Religion — Roman Catholic. About 693,000 Protestants. Government — Republican. Executive, the President of the Republic. Legislative, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The former composed of 300 members, and the later of 584 members. Education is entirely under Gov- ernment supervision. There are 16 “ facultes des lettres et des sciences,” 14 “ facultes de droit,” and 6 “ facultes de medecine,” with (1884) 12,195 students. Elementary and secondary schools, 86,000, with over 6,000,000 pupils. BELGIUM. — On the west Belgium is bounded by the North Sea ; on the north by the Netherlands ; on the east by Holland; and on the south by France. Religion — The Roman Catholic religion is professed by nearly the entire population, though full liberty and social equality is granted to all confessions. There are 15,000 Protestants, and 3,000 Jews. Government — Constitu- tional and hereditary monarchy. Executive, the King and ministry. Legislative, vested in the King, the Chamber of Rep- resentatives, and the Senate. The Chamber consists of 138 members, and the Senate of 69. Education — There are 4 uni- versities (Brussels, Ghent, Liege, and Louvain), attended in 1886-87 by 4,990 students ; 150 higher class schools with 27,675 pupils ; and 6,350 primary and infant schools with 673,938 pupils in 1885. THE NETHERLANDS are bounded on the west and north by the North Sea ; on the south by Belgium ; and on the east by Germany. Religion — Protestants, 2,469,814 ; Roman Catholic, 1,439,137; Jews, 81,693. Government — Hereditary and consti- tutional monarchy. Executive, the King. Legislative, the King and Parliament or States-General, composed of the First Cham- ber with 50 members, and the Second Chamber with 100. Edu- cation — There are 4 universities (Leyden, Groningen, Utrecht, and Amsterdam), attended by (1886) 2,110 students ; 1,278 pri- vate and higher class schools, with (1885) 174,604 scholars ; 2,923 73 ALASKA was purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,500,000, and the United States Government has already regained that sum from the seal fisheries. Principal industries, fishing, canning, trapping and mining. The population is largely Indian, only about 2,000 being whites. The climate of Alaska is modified by the Pacific fiulf Stream and long summer days. Winter temperature at Sitka averages about the sanie as Washington, D. C. 74 , WateriSv-. >. Floreiie / W Dec»tutY r'-'y^l Green ^ Moulton V o Pebble J Thom Hill.-o- L FalkTiW® v~^-o^a^ir8 Ms. o\ Houston I BioVspri Springs jMper ^ j. ■ 7»»»^wtr T„^p, 'Fayette C.H. Sp rings 'Garf^ BiMn?nghRi lartsells Guntersville Oollinsville/ f^ntr^ Atalla Blountsville P "Whitney^/ acks^fiTiUo? .c4««iSEI*"* v Alpine WedoweOo | f ibiana \ AsMand * \ ^ , Goodwater X „ ‘i ) f illo 'I .i.jB'iSaloi I 1 ■Creek o Wy^ \ Rockford ^7^ _ - A.La^jette * S \J)aaevilic Xl . # / 3 WetuApk uburn'V^^^ Lively^ Tuskeegee Seale Jg-,- Hurt3boro^>>>^ W [Morris o. * Trussvjillft Millport Carrollton ] o oy Tforthrt Tusptn< ^nioor mderburf Wera' River Bendy xrjjj Centrevill^ I ^ ■Cincinnati ^ Cliantoi f Maples^lfey ^ (PlantersviRe \ Elmorel , P/attvilleo I ,MONTGOM£l C o Linden-vGulf^^ “Rembert o ShilohjRMiiiterc intley Cr. Butler J rJPintlala vneville o . jMorganvilllAdai t DeposiUf » CoE^ierce “ ;e° /6eorgiana {^Garland “/ ^^iiie ^ni /Everkreen.^ ° , Reeder’s Mills X Abbeville o ^ o Oiark j^Columbiaj ^n Cowarts o Warwick Lynno o Tensaw immocY /°Ai^alui J Btew^in'o Lewijjsta. >P 5 n^d G 1 1 Mjeona,! CjlronelleV Pera • Miuette, |>bile |mo Daphne VMAP OF ALABAMA Area sq.miles _51,540 ALABAMA ranks fourth in cotton, fifth in mules and molasses sixth in sugar, seventh in rice and iron ore, tenth in bituminou* coal, seventeenth in population. First settlement by the French iv. Mobile, 1711. Admitted to the Union i 8 iq. 75 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. public elementary schools, with 440,851 pupils; and 1,017 public and private infant schools, with 107,563 pupils. GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG. Religion — All Roman Catholic, with exception of 2,200. Gov- ernment — In 1867 the Duchy was proclaimed neutral territory, the King of the Netherlands being declared the Grand Duke ; but in all other respects it is independently administered. SWITZERLAND is the most mountainous country in Europe, the .immense mass of Mt. St. Gothard forming the center or nucleus of a system of mountains, covered with perennial snow, the peaks of which rise from 5,000 to 15,000 feet above sea level. The chief passes are St. Bernard, 8,120 feet ; Cervin, 10,938 feet ; Simplon, 6,595 Gothard, 6,936 feet ; Splugen, 6,945 feet. Religion — 58 per cent. Protestants ; 41 per cent. Roman Catholics. Government — Federal Republic of 22 Cantons. Ex- ecutive, Federal Council of 7, including the President. Legisla- tive, the State Council of 44 members, and the National Council ot 145 Representatives. Education — Compulsory. There are 4 universities (Basel, Bern, Zurich, and Geneva), with 1,500 students, and 5,500 elementary and secondary schools with 500,000 pupils. GERMANY. — On the north Germany is bounded by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea ; on the east by Russia ; on the south by Austria and Switzerland ; and on the west by France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Religion — 1880, Pro- testants, 28,330,970 ; Roman Catholics, 16,232,600 ; Jews, 561,610. Government — The 26 States which comprise the German Empire are united into a Confederation. The supreme direction of the military and political affairs is vested in the King of Prussia, controlled by the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, consisting of 62 members appointed by the individual States of the Empire, and the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm, .composed of 397 mem- bers elected by universal suffrage. Education — There are 21 universities, attended in 1887 by 27,784 students; 57,000 ele- mentary schools with 7,100,000 pupils ; and 1,484 higher class and technical schools with 266,228 pupils. NORWAY AND SWEDEN.— These two kingdoms, forming the Scandinavian Peninsula, are bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the*east by Russia, the Gulf of Bothnia, and the Baltic Sea ; on the south by the Baltic Sea, the Sound, Cat- tegat, and Skager Rack ; and on the west bv the Atlantic Ocean NORWAY. Religion-— Lutheran Protestant with the exception of 7,238. Government— Norway and Sweden together form an hereditary 76 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. and limited monarchy, the King of Sweden being also King of Norway, but each country having a separate legislative govern- ment* Executive, the King. Legislative, the Storthing, consist- ing of the Lagthing of 28 members, and the Odelsthing of 86 members. Education — There are 6,600 elementary schools with 279.000 pupils ; and i university with 1,350 students. SWEDEN. Religion — Lutheran Protestant, with 21,000 exceptions. Gov- ernment — Executive, the King. Legislative, the Diet, composed of two Chambers, the First with 142 members, and the Second with 214 members. Education — There are 2 universities with 2,500 students, and 10,000 elementary and other schools with 700.000 pupils. AUSTRO-HUNGARY. — Austria is bounded on the north by Poland, Silesia, And Saxony ; on the west by Bavaria and Switzerland ; on the south by Venetia, the Adriatic and the Balkan States ; and on the east by Moldavia and West Russia. Religion — Roman Catholics, 25,598,000 ; Protestants, 3,630,000 ; Jews, 1,646,000. Government — Austria and Hungarj^ form a hereditary dual-monarchy, each country having its own Parlia- ment, Ministry, and Administration. They are both united under a hereditary sovereign, the Emperor of Austria being also King of Hungary, and a controlling body known as the “ Dele- gations.” Education — Austria has 8 universities, attended in 1887 by 14,540 students; 1,824 higher class schools with 180,162 pupils ; and 17,419 elementary schools with 2,781,220 pupils. Hungary has 2 universities, attended in 1887 by 4,169 students ; 374 higher class schools with (1885) 49)4^9 p^ipii^ j elementary schools with 1,841,668 pupils. ITALY . — The Peninsula of Italy projects into the Mediter- ranean Sea, which forms its southern boundary. On the north it is bounded by Austria and Switzerland ; on the west by France and the Tyrrhenian Sea ; and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. Religion — Roman Catholic, but about 62,000 Protestants and 38.000 Jews. Government — Executive, the King. Legislative, the King and Parliament, consisting of two Chambers — the Sen- ate, consisting of the Royal Princes and any number of dis- tinguished men above 40 years of age who are nominated by the King. The Second Chamber, that of the Deputies, consists of 508 members elected by the people. Education — Italy had (1884) 21 universities with 13,334 students. DENMARK. — On the west Denmark is bounded by the North Sea ; on the northwest by the Skager Rack ; on the east by the Cattegat, the Sound, and the Baltic ; and on the south by the Baltic and the German province of Schleswig. Religion — The ARIZONA ranks fifth in silver, ninth in gold, eighth in sheep, forty-first in miles of railway, forty-eighth in population. First explored by the Spaniards in 1526; organized as a territory, 1863. ARKANSAS ranks fifth among the States in cotton, ninth in mules, twenty-fifth in population. First settlement by the French at Arkansas Post, 1685. Admitted to the Union in 1836. THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. State religion is Lutheran, though complete toleration is ex- tended to every sect. In 1880 only 17,526 persons did not belong to the Lutheran Church. Of this number 3,946 were Jews and 2,985 Roman Catholics. Government — Hereditary Limited Monarchy. Executive, the King and Ministry. Legislative, the Rigsdag, or Diet, composed of the Landsthing, or Upper House, with 66 members, and the Folkething, or House of Com- mons, with 102 members. Education — Elementary education is compulsory. The university at Copenhagen has about 1,300 students. There are 45 colleges and higher schools, and 2,940 parochial schools with 231,935 pupils. EUROPEAN RUSSIA is bounded on the east by Siberia and the Caspian Sea ; on the south by Persia, the Black Sea, and Turkey ; on the west by Austria, Germany, the Baltic Sea, and Sweden ; and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Religion — The established religion is the Russo-Greek. Protestants, 4,766,000 ; Roman Catholics, 8,910,000. Government^ — Absolute hereditary monarchy. Executive and legislative, the Czar. Administra- tive entrusted to four Councils, the Council of the Empire, the Ruling Senate, the Holy Synod, and the Committee of Ministers. Finland has a partly independent government — Grand I)uke, the Czar. Education — Including Finland, there are — 9 uni- versities with 14,000 students, and 38,000 schools with 2,250,000 pupils. In 1882 only 19 per cent, of the Russian recruits could read and write. TURKEY IN EUROPE.- The Ottoman Empire in Europe now, strictly speaking, only comprises the immediate provinces, the remainder of its territory being divided among the independ- ent and tributary states of the Balkan Peninsula, Religion — More than one-half of the population are Christians, chiefly be- longing to the Greek Church ; the remainder consist of Moham- medans, with a few Jews. Government — Absolute monarchy. The Sultan is ruler, and his will is absolute, in so far as it is not in opposition to the precepts of the Koran. The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under the supreme direction of the Sultan, by the Grand Vizier, the head of the temporal gov- ernment, and the “ Sheik-ul-Islam,” the head of the church. GREECE is bounded on the north by Turkey in Europe ; on the east by the ^gean Sea ; on the south by the Mediterranean Sea ; and on the west by Turkey and the Ionian Sea. Religion — Greek Orthodox Church with the exception of 46,000. Govern- ment — Limited monarch3\ Executive, the King. Legislative, the Boule (Chamber of Deputies) consisting of 150 representa- tives. Education — There are 2,600 schools attended by 140,000 pupils, and i university with 2,400 students. 80 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. MALTA. — The Maltese group comprises the islands of Malta, Gozo, and Comino. Area — 119 square miles (Malta, 95 square miles). Population — 159,231 (excluding British soldiers). The Government is administered by a Governor, who is assisted by an Executive Council of 6 members, and by a Council of Gov- ernment, 9 official and 8 elected members, of which the Gov- ernor is president. The British garrison consists of 5,216 British soldiers. GIBRALTAR. — This celebrated fortress, commanding the en- trance to the Mediterranean, belongs to Great Britain, and is situated on a rocky promontory in the south of Spain. Area — 2 square miles. Population — 1886 (including military), 24,139. The Governor in command of the garrison exercises all the exe- cutive and legislative authority. The garrison consists of 5,758 British soldiers. HELIGOLAND. — Two islands in the North Sea, 25 miles from the mouth of the Elbe. Area — Three-quarters square mile. Population — 1881, 2,000. Religion — Lutheran. Government — British dependency, with a Governor assisted by an Executive Council. CYPRUS. -r-An island situated in the most eastern basin of the Mediterranean Sea. Area — 3,584 square miles. Population — 186,173. Religion — One-fourth Mohammedan, the remainder mainly of Greek Church. The Government of Cyprus is admin- istered by Great Britain on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, the Legislature consisting of a High Commissioner, who is also Commander-in-Chief, with a Council of 18 members. Six mem- bers are non-elective, and three are chosen by the Mohammedan residents. Annual subsidy payable to Turkey, <£92,800. There are a number of schools on the island ; the Government grant in 1886-87, inclusive of that for building purposes, was £3,000. ICELAND. — This island, belonging to Denmark, lies in the Atlantic Ocean, about 600 miles west of Norwaj^ and about 250 miles east of Greenland. Area — 39,566 square miles. Popula- tion — 72,445. Religion — All Protestants, belonging to the Luth eran Church. Government — The Legislative power is vested in the Althing, consisting of 36 members, 30 elected by popular suffrage, and 6 nominated by the King of Denmark. A Minister for Iceland, nominated by the King and responsible to the Althing, is at the head of the administration ; while the highest local authority is vested in the Governor, called Stiftamtmand, who resides at Reykjavik. Education — The natives are distin- guished for their love of learning, and, notwithstanding their poverty and adverse circumstances, it is rare to find an Icelander who cannot read and write. There is a college at Reykjavik, 81 CALIFORNIA ranks first in gold, barley and grape culture, second in wool, third in hops, fifth in wheat, eighth in silver, twenty-fourth in population. First settlement by Spaniards, 1769, at San Diego. Admitted to the Union 1850. 82 COLORADO ranks first in silver, fourth in gold, thirty-first in population. First settlement, by Americans, near Denver, about 1850. Organized as a territory 1861; admitted to the Union, 1876. THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. attended by about loo scholars. The commerce consists in the exchange of wool, butter, skins, fish, and oil for European manu- factures. ASIA. Asia constitutes the eastern and main part of the Old World. Greatest breadth (Cape Chelyuskin 78^ 12' N.) to Cape Romania (i® 10' N.) 5,300 miles. Greatest length, Cape Baba (26° 3' E.) to East Cape (169O o' W.) 7,000 miles. Area— 17,300,000 square miles, nearly five times that of Europe, or one- third of the land surface of the globe. Population— According to the latest estimates there are 840,000,000 inhabitants, or one- half of the entire population of the world. Religion — Christians, 15.000. 000 ; Mohammedans, 80,000,000 ; Brahmins, Buddhists, etc., 745,000,000. Climate— Northern or Siberian Zone has a mean annual temperature of less than 32® F., Verkhoyansk (the pole of greatest cold), mean temperature, 2^ F., January 56^ F., July 59.8° F. Central Zone has summer and winter of great extremes. Southern and Eastern Zones (monsoon region) have a regular alternation of seasons. Lahore (Panjab), mean tem- perature, 75® F., January 53O F., June 93^ F'. TURKEY IN ASIA, the western promontory of Asia, lies between 12^ 30' and 42^ N. lat., and 26^ and 48° E. long. Area — 680,000 square miles. Population — 16,174,100. Religion — The prevailing religion is Mohammedanism, of which there are 12.000. 000 adherents, while about 3,000,000 are nominally Chris- tians, including Greeks, Armenians, etc. Government — This, the greater part of the Turkish Empire, is divided for adminis- trative purposes into 24 official provincial governments or vila- yets. At the head of each of these is placed a Vali or Gover- nor-General, who represents the Sultan, and is assisted by a provincial council. Education — Throughout the Turkish Empire public schools have been long established in most considerable towns, while colleges, with public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the principal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establishments is rather limited. ARABIA. — A huge peninsula of S. W. Asia, bounded on the north by Turkey in Asia ; on the east by the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman ; on the south by the Indian Ocean and Gulf of Aden ; and on the west by the Red Sea. Total area of penin- sula, 1,219,000 square miles (independent Arabia, 966,952 square miles). Population— (Estimated) 3,700,000. ^ The inhabitants are either Bedouins or “wanderers,” or “Hadesi,” settled in towns and villages. Religion— With the exception of a few Jews th( inhabitants are Mohammedans. At no time has Arabia beei united into one harmonious whole, and at present large portioiV Ha THE WOE LB AND THE UNIVERSE. of its territory are claimed by foreign powers. Turkey claims as part of its Asiatic dominion the district of El Hasa bordering on the Persian Gulf, and the vilaj^ets of Hadjaz and Yemen extending along the eastern shores of the Red Sea. Egypt holds possession of the Sinai peninsula and the old land of Midian which extends southward from the Gulf of Akaba. The terri- tory belonging to Britain comprises the fortress of Aden, Perim Island at the entrance to the Red Sea, the Kuria Muria Islands off the southeast coast, and the island of Kamaran in the Red Sea. The remainder of the country embraces all the interior and the south and east coasts between the Bahrein Islands and Aden. It is divided among an uncertain number of petty and independent states, the chief of which are Oman in the extreme east, extending inland from the gulf of the same name, with Muscat for its capital, and Jebel Shammar and Nejd in the in- terior, the capital of the former being Hail, and of the latter Riad. Hadramaut, on the south coast, is split up into numerous little states or principalities. PALESTINE. — This interesting region, the scene of the grandest events in the history of the world, is a narrow belt of land, bounded on the north by the mountain ranges of Lebanon and Hermon ; on the east it stretches over the tableland of the Hauran to the Arabian desert ; on the south it merges into the desert of Sinai ; and on the west it is bounded by the Mediter- ranean Sea. Area — ii,ooo square miles. Population — Estimated, 700,000. Religion — Mohammedan (nearly 300,000 Christians in Lebanon). Government — Under Turkish rule, for administrative purposes, Palestine is divided into the government of el Kuds (Jerusalem), comprising the country west of the Dead Sea and the Jordan, as far north as about 32*^ 30'; the government of Jebel Libnan (Lebanon), occupied by the slopes of that range on either side ; the remainder is included in the vilayet of Syria. One of the most striking features of Palestine is its natural divi- sion into four parallel strips — the Coast Plain, the Hill Country, the Jordan Valley, and the Eastern Plateau. The Coast Plain, from 10 to 20 miles wide, extends without a break from the desert on the south to Mount Carmel (1810 feet) on the north. The Hill Country, commencing south of the Mediterranean, traverses the country from south to north (Mount Hermon, 9,400 feet; Mount of Olives, 2,683 feet). The Jordan Valley runs nearly parallel to the coast from the base of Mount Hermon to the Dead Sea, which occupies its deepest portion. The East- ern Plateau has a height of 2,500 to 3,000 feet, attaining its great- est altitude in Mount Hor (Jebel Horoun), 4,580 feet. The one great river of Palestine is the Jordan, which, emerging from underground as a full-bodied stream at the Springs of Has- 85 CONNECTICUT ranks first among the States in clocks, third in silk goods, fourth in cotton goods, eighth in tobacco, twenty-ninth in population. First settlement, by English, at Wind.sor, 1635. One of the thirteen original States. 80 DAKOTA in 1880 ranked third in gold, ninth in silver, twenty- sixth in miles of railway, thirty-ninth in population. First settle- ment, by Americans, at Pembina. Organized as a territory 1861; Admitted into the Union as two States, 1889. Population, 1890, South Dakota, 328,808 (rank 37th); North Dakota, 182,719 (rank 41st). 87 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE, beija, 847 feet above the sea, flows first through the Waters of Meron, then through the Sea of Galilee, 682 feet below the Mediterranean, from which it passes down the wide valley of El Ghor, and finally falls into the Dead Sea, the surface of which is 1,292 feet below the Mediterranean. PERSIA is bounded on the north by the Caspian Sea and Asiatic Russia ; on the west by Turkey in Asia ; on the south by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea ; and on the east by Af- ghanistan and Baluchistan. Religion — Mohammedan with about 74.000 exceptions. Government — Despotic, the power of the Shah (Nasir-ed-Din, s. 1848), being absolute, in so far as it is not opposed to the accepted doctrines of the Koran. Under him, the Executive is carried on by a Council of 19 Ministers, pre- sided over by a brother of the Shah. Education — There are a large number of colleges supported by public funds, and numer- ous schools for children. A larger proportion of the population of Persia are possessed of the rudiments of education than of any other country in Asia, except China. AFGHANISTAN. — A country on the N. W. frontier of India., boundecTon the north by Turkestan ; on the east by India ; on the south by Baluchistan ; and on the west by Persia. Area — • 298,235 square miles (inclusive of Kafiristan). Population — 4,500,000, mainly Mohammedans of the Sunni sect. Govern- ment — Emir. In consequence of its inaccessible highland tracts, its numerous races and their tribal organization, no civil admin- istration can be said to exist beyond the collection of the revenue. BALUCHISTAN is bounded on the north by Afghanistan ; on the east by India ; on the south by the Arabian Sea ; and on the west by Persia. Area — 106,635 square miles. Population — 500.000 ; Mohammedans of Shiah and Sunni sects. Govern- ment — The Khan concluded a treaty in 1876 with Britain, by which he has become a feudatory of the Empress of India. This treaty places the whole country at the disposal of the Britisih Government for all military and strategic purposes. KHIVA AND BOKHARA.— Two Khanates, bounded on the north by the Sea of Aral and Russian possessions ; on the south by Afghanistan and Russian possessions ; and on the west by the Trans-Caspian district ; being separated from each other by the Oxus. Area — Khiva, 22,290 square miles ; Bokhara 92,168 square miles. Population — Khiva, 700,000 ; Bokhara, 2,130,000. Religion — The inhabitants of both states are Mohammedans. Government — Bokhara, since the capture of Samarkand by Russia, 1868, is little more than a vassal state of that country, though still allowed to enjoy a certain show of political inde- pendence under a Khan or Mir. Khiva — The Russians cap- 88 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. iured Khiva in 1873, abolished slavery, and compelled the Khan to acknowledge himself a vassal of the Czar. INDIA. — On the north India is bounded by the Himalaya Mountains ; on the west by Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the Indian Ocean ; on the south by the Indian Ocean ; and on the east by the Bay of Bengal and Indo-China. Population — British Territory, exclusive of Upper Burma, 198,790,853 ; Native States, 55,150,456; Ceylon, 2,763,984; Nepal and Bhotan, 2,700,000; French Possessions, 273,611; Portuguese Possessions, 475,172; total, 260,154,076. Religion — 187,000,000 Hindus ; 50,000,000 Mohammedans ; 3,500,000 Buddhists ; 1,862,634 Christians (Ro- man Catholics, 963,059 ; Protestants, 535,081; other sects, 364,- 494). Government — Executive, the British Viceroy. Adminis- trative, the Secretary of State for India, and Council of 15 mem- bers. Education, 1885 — 4 universities (Calcutta, Madras, Bom- bay, and the Panjab). The total number of educational institu- tions (1885-86), 122,516, with 3.332,851 students. CHINA. — The Chinese Empire is bounded on the north and northwest by Asiatic Russia ; on the south and southwest by British India ; on the southeast by Indo-China ; and on the east by the Pacific Ocean. Estimated area of the Empire, 4,469,200 square miles (China proper, 1,554,000 square miles ; Manchuria, 380,000 square miles ; Mongolia and Zungaria, 1,452,000 square miles ; Thibet, 651,500 square miles ; Eastern Turkestan, 431,700. Population — China proper, 382,078,860; Manchuria, 12,000,000; Mongolia and Zungaria, 2,600,000; Thibet, 6,000,000 ; Eastern Turkestan, 580,000. Religion — Bulk of the people, Buddhists; religion of the state and higher classes, Con- fucianism ; 30,000,000 Mohammedans; 1,000,000 Roman Cath- olics ; 50,000 Protestants. Government — Despotic monarchy. Administrative, the “Nei-ko” or Cabinet (4 members and two assistants). Education — In China proper few are unable to read and write. Communication — 20,000 miles of imperial roads, 40 miles of railway built but unused, and 5,482 miles of telegrapIT wire. JAPAN. — Religion — Chiefly Buddhism (74,400 priests) ; Shin- toism (15,058 priests); Christians, 1883, 40,524; Christianity gaining rapidly. Government — Absolute monarchy — Emperor or “Mikado.” Education, 1884 — i university with i,feo students; 29,233 elementary schools with 3,233,226 scholars; and 1,636 high and other schools with 89,879 pupils. Railways — 370 miles in 1887. BURMA. — Upper Burma until recently was an independent kingdom, governed by King Theebaw, a despotic monarch, but, early in 1886, the King was deposed and pensioned, and the country annexed to the Indian Empire, being placed under the 89 DELAWARE ranks twenty-first among the States in orchard products, forty-second in population. First settlement, by Swedes, at Cape llenlopen, in 1627. Delaware is one of the thirteen original States. FLORIDA ranks third among the States in sugar and molasses, sixth in rice, tenth in cotton, thirty-second in population. First settlement, by Spaniards, at St. Augustine, 1565* Admitted into the Union in 1845. THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE, Chief Commissioner of Lower Burma. Area — 140,000 square miles (exclusive of Burmese Shan States, 40,000 square miles). Population — 3,500,000. Religion — Buddhism. Education — A complete national system of public instruction has been developed, and a knowledge of letters is universal. SIAM is the only remaining independent native state in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Area — 280,303 square miles. Popula- tion — 5,750,000. Government — Absolute monarchy. Legislat- ive, the King assisted by a Council of Ministers and the Council of State. For administrative purposes the country is divided into 41 provinces with a Governor at the head of each. East of Siam the remainder of the Indo-Chinese peninsula is occupied by the French colonies and protectorates of Anam, Tongking, Cochin China, and Cambodia. Area — Anam, 106,290 square miles ; Tongking, 35,000 square miles ; Cochin China, 23,090 square miles ; Cambodia, 32,380 square miles. Population — Anam, 6,000,000; Tongking, 9,000,000; Cochin China (1883), 1,639,777 ; Cambodia, 1,500,000. Government — By a decree of October 1887 the French possessions are placed under a Gover- nor-General, under whom are 2 Residents-General for Tongking and Cambodia, a Resident for Anam, and a Lieutenant-Gover- nor for Cochin China. RUSSIA IN ASIA , — The Asiatic possessions of Russia are bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the east by the Pacific Ocean ; on the south by the Chinese Empire, Bokhara, Afghanistan, Persia, and Turkey in Asia ; and on the west by European Russia. Area — 6,645,720 square miles. Population — 15,865,740. Religion — Christianity and Mohammedanism pre- vail in Caucasia, while in Central Asia and Siberia Christianity is professed by the Slavs, Buddhism, Shamanism, and Moham- medanism by the native races. Government — For administra- tive purposes the country is divided into five general govern- ments — Caucasus, Turkestan, Stepnoye, Eastern Siberia, and Amur. At the head of each of these is either a Viceroy, or a Governor-General, the representative of the Czar, who as such has the supreme control and direction of all afiairs, whether civil or military. Education — In Siberia the means provided for higher education consist of 15 gymnasia, 2 real schools, and 3 normal schools. Primary education is in a very unsatisfactory state, there being only 665 schools, scattered over the whole country, with an attendance of 23,470 pupils. OCEANIA Comprises all the islands and archipelagos in the Pacific Ocean and is usually divided into the four great sections of Malaysia, 92 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. Micronesia, Melanesia or Australasia, and Polynesia. Total area — 4,211,093 square miles. Population — 39,161,370. I. Malaysia is usually considered as part of Asia under the “ East Indian Archi- pelago,” but here it is included with Oceania. Chief islands — Sumatra, 179,290 square miles : population, 1884,2,948,715. Java, 50,800 square miles; population, 20,931,654. Borneo, 284,918 square miles; population, 1,858,000. Celebes, 77,179 square miles; population, 933,823. Moluccas, 20,429 square miles; population, 352,580. Philippines, 114,219 square miles ; population, 5,636,232. Lesser Dutch Islands, 42,489 square miles; population, 2,000,000. The total area of its islands is 769,324 square miles, and the population 34,661,000. II. Micronesia includes the Caroline and Pelew Islands, 1,450 square miles; population, 36,000. Mariannes, 443 square miles ; population, 8,665. Gilbert Islands, 165 square miles ; population, 35,200. Marshall Islands, 154 square miles ; population, 11,600. Total area, 1,322 square miles ; population, 91,465. III. Melanesia or Australasia comprises the great islands of Australia, 2,948,- 798 square miles; population, 1885, 2,631,553. Tasmania, 26,215 square miles; population, 137,211. New Zealand, 104,403 square miles; population, 578,482. Fiji Islands, 8,048 square miles; population, 126,000. New Guinea, 311,580 square miles; population, 2,500,000. New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands, 7,644 square miles; population, 60,703. Solomon Islands, etc., 23,546 square miles; population, 252,350. Total area, 3,430,234 square miles ; population, 4,229,155. IV. Polynesia — Chief groups. Friendly Islands, 384 square miles; population, 25,000. Samoa Islands, 1,073 square miles ; population, 36,800. Society Islands, 636 square miles ; population, 16,300. Marquesas, 491 Square miles ; population, 5,776. Sandwich Islands, 6,558 square miles; population, 57,985. Total area, 10,- 313 square miles; population, 179,550. TABLE OF EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS. Country. Area in Square Miles. Population. British, - - . 3 , 169,389 3 , 223,041 Dutch, ... Spanish, - . . 718,800 28 , 500,000 116,250 5 , 680,665 German, - - - 88,650 343,600 French, - . - 9,104 85,753 Portuguese,- 6,290 300,000 AUSTRALIA. — Greatest length, Cape Byron (153^ 38' E.j to Steep Point (113° E.), 2,400 miles. Greatest breadth. Cape Y ork (lo® 40' S.) to Cape Wilson (39^^ 10' S.) 2,000 miles. Area — 2,948,798 square miles (Victoria, 87,884 square miles ; New South Wales, 310,700 square miles ; Queensland, 668,224 square miles; South Australia, 903,690 square miles; West Australia, 978,300 square miles). The surface is for the most part a level plateau, with a mean elevation of 1,180 feet above sea level. A large part of the interior, particularly in the west, consists of sandy and stony desert.^ Tl\e mountainous region is almost ex-’ clusively confined to the eastern and southeastern coasts, where, at an average distance of sixty miles., a belt of about 150 miles in width is formed. The only great river system is that of the Murray, 1,550 miles long, with a drainage area of 270,000 square miles. Inland salt lakes are a characteristic feature of the continent, the chief being Lakes Eyre, Torrens, Gairdner 93 GEORGIA ranks second among the States in rice and sweet po- tatoes, third in cotton and molasses, fourth in sugar, seventh in mules, tenth in hogs, and twelfth in population. First settlement, by English, at Savannah, 1733. One of the thirteen original States. 94 IDAHO ranks sixth among the States and Territories in gold, seventh in silver, forty-fifth in population. First settlement, by Americans, in 1842. Organized as a Territory in 1863. Population, 1887, territorial census, 143,669. “Idaho” means light on the moun- tains. Admitted to the Union 1890. 95 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. and Amadeus. North Australia and the north part of Queens- land lie in the torrid zone and have a mean temperature of 78® F. In the temperate zone extreme temperatures prevail. Bris- bane, maximum 102*^; minimum 40^ F. Sydney, average 61^ F. Melbpurne, maximum 105^; minimum 30^ F. Adelaide, maxi- mum 110^ ; minimum 35° F. Perth, average 65^ F. NEW SOUTH WALES — Is the oldest of the Australasian col- onies. Area — 310,700 square miles. Population^Estimated 1,022,767, exclusive of 7,984 aborigines. Religion — Protestants, 516,512 ; Roman Catholics, 207,606 ; Jews, 3,266. Government — Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British Crown, assisted by a Cabinet of 10 Ministers. Legislative, the Parlia- ment consisting of the Legislative Council of 52 members, and the Legislative Assembly of 122 members. Education — In 1886 there were i university (Sydney), attended by 340 students ; 3 colleges and one grammar school with 480 scholars ; 647 private schools with 38,766 pupils ; and 2,250 schools under the Depart- ment of Public Instruction with 186,126 scholars. VICTORIA, — Area — 87,884 square miles. Population — Esti- mated 1,027,749, exclusive of 594 aborigines. Religion, 1881 — Protestants, 613,183; Roman Catholics, 203,480; Jews, 4,33a Government — Executive, the Governor, appointed bj^ the British Crown, assisted by an Executive Ministry of 10 members. Legislative, the Parliament, composed of the Legislative Coun- cil of 42 members, and the Legislative Assembly of 86 members. Education — Free, secular and compulsory. There were, 1885, ^ university at Melbourne with 2 affiliated colleges attended by 444 students, 1846 state-aided schools attended by, in 1886, 230,- 576 pupils, and 707 private schools with 44,059 scholars. QUEENSLAND. — Area — 668,224 square miles. Population — (E^imated), 354,596 (aborigines about 20,000). Religion — 1886, Protestants, 217,991; Roman Catholics, 77,077; Jews, 724. Government — Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British Crown, assisted by an Executive Council of 7 ministers. Legis- lative, the Parliament consisting of the Legislative Council of 39 members, and the Legislative Assembly of 59 members. The defence forces comprise a volunteer corps of from 3,000 to 4,000 men, two gunboats and one torpedo boat. Education — Free and secular. In 1886 there were 7 grammar schools attended by 565 pupils ; 108 private schools with 8,177 pupils ; and 479 public elementary schools with 58,939 scholars. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. — The name South Australia would appear to imply that this colony is confined to the south of the continent, but on the contrary it extends to the farthest north, under the name of the Northern Territory. Area — 90309,6 9 G THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. square miles. Population — Estimated 313,355 (exclusive of ab- origines). Religion — Church of England, 75,812 ; Roman Cath- olics, 42,628 ; and Wesleyan Methodists, 42,103. Government — Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British Crown, and an Executive Council of 6 members. Legislative, the Parlia- ment consisting of the Legislative Council with 24 members, and the House of Assembly with 52 members. Education — The system of education is liberal, compulsory, state-aided, and secular. There were, 1885, i university (Adelaide) with 150 stu- dents, 472 public schools, attended by 49,664 pupils, and 363 private schools with 13,524 scholars. WESTERN AUSTRALIA.— This, the largest of the Australa- sian colonies, includes all that portion of Australia situated to the westward of 129^ East long. Area — 978,300 square miles. Population — 1886, 39,584. Religion — Protestants, 20,613; Roman Catholics, 8,413. Government — Executive, the Governor, ap- pointed by the British Crown, assisted by an Executive Council of 6 members. Legislative, the Legislative Council composed of 9 nominated and 17 elected members. Education — State-aided, secular, and compulsory. There are 2 grammar schools, 77 elementary schools, attended by 3,192 pupils, and 17 assisted schools with 1,287 scholars. TASMANIA . — This island in the South Pacific Ocean is situ- ated between the parallels of 40° 33' and 43® 40' S. lat., and 144® 40' and 148® 23' meridians E. long., at the southeastern extremity of the Australian mainland, from which it is separated by Bass Strait, about 150 miles wide. Area — 26,215 square miles. Popu- lation — 1887, 137,211 (aborigines quite extinct). Religion— Protestants, 102,551; Roman Catholics, 30,516; Jews, 316. Government — Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British Crown, assisted by an Executive Council of 4 members. Legis- lative, the Parliament, composed of the Legislative Council of 18 members, and the House of Assembly of 36 members. Edu- cation — Compulsory. There are 16 superior schools or colleges. Primary education is administered by a department under which are 209 public elementary schools, attended by 16,014 scholars. NEW ZEALAND. — Situated about 1,200 miles to the south- east of Australia, consists of a group of three principal islands, called respectively, the North, South, and Stewart Islands, and several islets mostly uninhabited. Area — 104,403 square miles. (North Island, 45,687 square miles ; South Island, 57,313 square miles ; Stewart Island, 1,300 square miles). Population — 1886, 578,482 (exclusive of 41,969 Maoris). Religion — Protestants, 461,340; Roman Catholics, 79,020; Jews, 1,559. Government — Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British Crown, as- 97 ILLINOIS ranks firr.t in corn, wheat, oats, me'at packing, lum- ber traffic, malt and distilled liquors and miles of railway; second in rye, coal, agricultural implements and hogs; third in popula- tion, manufactures, iron and steel and cattle. First settlement, by French, Kaskaskia, 1682. Admitted to the Union, 1818. 98 INDIANA ranks second in wheat, fourth in corn, hogs and agri- cultural implements, eighth in coal and population, seventh in cattle and miles of railway. First settlement, by French, at Vincennes, 1730. Admitted to the Union, 1816. THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. sisted by the Ministry of 7 members. Legislative, the Governor and the “General Assembly,’' composed of the Legislative Council of 54 members, and the House of Representatives with 95 members. Education — Compulsory, secular and free. In 1885, there were 3 colleges affiliated with the University of New Zealand, attended by 1,075 students ; 23 grammar schools with 2, 35S pupils; 288 private schools with 12,473 pupils; and 1,054 state schools with 105,234 scholars. NEW GUINEA is the largest island in the world, if we ex- clude Australia, and lies some'8o miles to the north of Queens- land. All the land to the west of 141O E. long, is claimed by the Dutch. East of this. New Guinea has been divided between Britain and Germany, the boundary line running in a direction from northwest to southeast, the northern portion belonging to Germany and the southern part to Britain. ” BRITISH NEW GUINEA. Area — 86,457 square miles. Population — 135,000 (total popu- lation of New Guinea, 2,500,000). Government — Special and Deputy Commissioners who reside at Port Moresby, the seat of administration and only port of entry for goods, etc. GERMAN NEW GUINEA. In 1885, Germany took possession of the northern part of New Guinea, lying to the east of the Dutch, and north of the British possessions. This territory was called Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land. Afterwards the New Britain Islands, and the islands of Bougain- ville, Choiseul, and Isabel, in the Solomon group, were annexed under the name of Bismarck Archipelago. Area — 95,653 square miles. Population — 318,000. The seat of administration is at Finschhaven, where the Governor resides. THE FIJI ISLANDS.— The Fiji or Viti Archipelago lies east of the New Hebrides, and comprises about 225 islands and islets, nearly 80 of which are inhabited. Area — 8,048 square miles. Population — 1887, 126,010, nearly all natives. Religion — In 1885, the Wesleyan Mission consisted of 976 churches, and 279 other preaching-places with an attendance of 104,866; the Roman Catholic Mission of 14 churches and 70 chapels with an attendance of 9,100. Government — Fiji is a Crown colony of Great Britain and its affairs are administered by a Governor and Executive Council of 4 members. Laws are prepared by a Legislative Council, consisting of 6 official and 6 unofficial mem- bers, of which the Governor is president. Native administration is carried on through the chiefs under the Governor’s super- vision. Education — Two public schools, state-supported, had an attendance, in 1885, of 267. 42,698 scholars are taught by the native teachers of the Wesleyan Mission. The Roman Catholic 100 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. Missions conduct 84 native schools with 1,040 scholars. The chief exports are sugar, copra and cotton. AFRICA Forms the vast southwestern peninsula of the Old World, being joined to Asia bj the narrow isthmus of Suez. Greatest length, 5,000 miles. Greatest breadth, 4,600 miles. No other land division on the globe has such a rounded and compact outline. Access to the interior is rendered difficult by the general absence of gulfs and large inlets. The coast line measures 16,000 miles, or 720 square miles of surface to each mile of coast. Area — About 11,000,000 square miles, being three times that of Eu- rope, or one-fifth of the land surface of the globe. Population — No definite figures exist for the larger part of Africa, but the population is estimated at about 200,000,000, or over one-seventh of the inhabitants of the world. Climate — Only the northern shores and the southern extremity of the continent have a mean temperature of less than 68^ F. with winter rains. From 18*^ N. lat. to 20° S. lat. extends the region of tropical rains ; maximum temperature in Khartoum, 115^ F. The rainless regions are the Sahara and the Kalahari. SOUTH AFRICA. — The southern extremity of Africa, washed by the Atlantic Ocean on the west and by the Indian Ocean on the south and east, comprises the colonies and protectorates of Great Britain, the Dutch republics, and various less important divisions. CAPE COLONY Is a British possession. Executive, the Governor and Exec- utive Council. Legislative, the Legislative Council of 22 mem- bers and House of Assembly of 74 members. NATAL. The Government of Natal is administered for the British Crown by a Governor, assisted by an Executive Council and a Legislative Council of 30 members. SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. Government — Under the suzerainty of the British Crown. Executive vested in the President. Legislative in the Volksraad of 44 members. ORANGE FREE STATE. Government — Executive, the President assisted by an Exec- utive Council. Legislative, the Volksraad of 56 members. CENTRAL AFRICA. — With the rapid advance which explora- tion has made in Central Africa within recent years, there has followed a great rivalry among European nations for colonies and protectorates. Since the founding of the Congo Free State, 101 THE INDIAN TERRITORY was originally set apart as a reser- vation for peaceful tribes. Organized in 1834, but under different forms of government from the other Territories. The lands are held in common by the Indians, and whites can hold only through marriage with Indians. Grazing and agriculture are the leading industries. Oklahoma was opened to white settlers in 1889. 102 IOWA ranks first in hogs, second in cattle, corn, hay and oats, third in horses, fifth in miles of railway, seventh in wheat and coal, tenth in population. First settlement, by French Canadians, at Burlington, 1788. Admitted to the Union in 1846. 103 THE WOE LI? AND THE UNIVERSE. international commissions have distributed native territory so freely, that in a short time but fe'sv of the original states will remain. CONGO FREE STATE. In 1885, the Congo Free State was constituted and defined by the International Conference held at Berlin. It was declared neutral and free to the trade of all nations, and has been suc- cessively recognized by all the leading countries of the world. The state is placed under the sovereignty of Leopold II., King of the Belgians, and is governed by an Administrator-General, who resides at Boma, the capital. Area, 800,000 square miles. Population, 24,000,000. Annual grant from Leopold II., $200,- 000. EASTERN EQUATORIAL AFRICA. A commission was appointed in 1886, by Britain and Germany, to fix the boundaries of Zanzibar with reference to German ter- ritory. They agreed that Zanzibar is to possess a strip of coast from Cape Delgado to the Tana River, and extending ten miles inland, with several ports north of the latter ; that Germany is to have, as a sphere of influence, the country stretching from the Rovuma River, northward to and including Kilimanjaro ; and that Britain’s sphere embraces the country between Kilimanjaro and tne Tana River. Zanzibar — Area, 9,190 square miles (Zanzibar Island, 614 square miles ; Pemba, 372 square miles ; Mafia, 210 square miles ; Mainland, 8,000 square miles). Population, 250,000. Imports, 1883, $6,000,000 ; Exports, $4,000,000. Germany — Protectorates, Wito Land, 5,200 square miles ; Usagara, etc., 20,700 square miles ; territory in which protect- orates may be established, 122,800 square miles. British territory in which protectorates may be established, 72.000 square miles. THE PORTUGUESE COLONIES South of the Equator are named, respectiveljs Angola and Mozambique. The former, on the west coast, extends from the Cunene River to the mouth of the Congo and includes the small territories of Cabinda and Landana, north of the latter. Area, 115.000 square miles; Population, 1,000,000. Mozambique ex- tends from Cape Delgado to Delagoa Bay, and up the lower Zambesi, but only a few isolated points are actually occupied. Area, 80,000 square miles. Population, 600,000. FRENCH COLONIES. Equatorial France comprises the Gaboon and Ogowe-Cong® regions, which, as defined at the Berlin Conference, have an 104 THE WOE LB AND THE UNIVERSE. area of 174,000 square miles ; with about 1,700,000 inhabitants. Imports (Gaboon), 1883, $840,000 ; exports, $1,480,000. GERMAN COLONIES. On the southwest coast Luderitz Land comprises all the land between the Cunene and Orange Rivers (with the exception of Walvisch Bay), and the interior lands acquired by treaty. Area, 200.000 square miles, with about 236,000 inhabitants. EGYPT. — Previous to 1884 the Khedive claimed authority over territories extending southward as far as the Equator. But within the last few years the inhabitants of these equatorial provinces have rebelled against the authority of the Egyptian Government. As a result these districts have been abandoned, and Akashe, above Wady Haifa, about 800 miles up the Nile from Cairo, has been provisionally agreed upon as the boundary of Egypt on the south. On the north it is limited by the Medi- terranean Sea ; on the east by Arabia and the Red Sea ; and on the west by Tripoli and the Libyan Desert. Religion — 500,000 Copts, descendants of the old Egyptians, who are Christians ; 91.000 foreigners, also Christians ; rest Mohammedan. Gov- ernment — Egypt is nominally a vassal state of the Porte, to which it pays a yearly tribute of £695,792, but practically it is independent under the rule of an hereditary Khedive or Viceroy. The administration is now carried on by native Ministers, sub- ject to the ruling of the Khedive, and under the supervision of England. A Legislative Council consisting of 30 m.embers has recently been formed, but its power is very limited. Education — Numerous elementary and secondary schools are found throughout the country, from which the pupils pass to special colleges. THE SUEZ CANAL. —From remote ages the Isthmus of Suez has been traversed by a canal following nearly the line of the present one ; nothing certain, however, seems to be known as to who was its first constructor, but the credit is generally given to Pharaoh Necho, who reigned about 600 b.c. It, in course of time, got silted up with sand, but was cleared out by Trajan in the second century a.d., and again in 767. The Emperor Napoleon desired to reconstruct the canal, and had the isthmus surveyed, but nothing was done till M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, in 1854, obtained permission from the Viceroy of Egypt to construct a canal, uniting the Mediterranean and Red Seas. A company was formed to carry out his views, two-fifths of the i^apital being furnished by the Viceroy, and the remainder in Europe, chiefly in France. The work was commenced in i860, and on September 28, 1869, M. Lesseps sailed in a small steamer through it. The canal runs north and south from Port Said to 105 KENTUCKY ranks first in tobacco, fourth in malt and distilled liquors, sixth in hogs, seventh in corn, eighth in rye, coal, mules; iith in population. First settlers, English, Boonesboro, 1775. Ad- mitted to the Union, 1792. TENNESSEE ranks second in peanuts, third in mules, sixth in tobacco, seventh in copper and hogs, niuth in corn and cotton, twelfth in population. First settlejrs, English, Fort London, 1757. Admitted to Union, 1796. 107 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. Suez; the length from sea to sea is 99 miles, with a width of 327 feet for 77 miles, and of 196 for the remaining 22 miles; the depth is 26 feet. In November, 1875, the British Government pur- chased from the Khedive the original shares held by him for ^3^976,582. It is now proposed to widen the canal to 166 metres. The canal has reduced the distance frorn London to India from 11,379 miles to 7,628, a saving of 36 days on the voyage by the Cape. The number of vessels that passed through the canal in 1886 was 3,100. The tonnage, 8,183,313 ; the receipts £2,241,095. MAURITIUS. — An island lying in the Indian Ocean, and a possession of Great Britain, 500 miles east of Madagascar^ in- cludes within its government, as dependencies, the Seychelles Group, Rodriguez, and Diego Garcia Islands, and about seventy other islets. Area — 713 square miles (with dependencies, 1,025 square miles.) Population — 1887, 368,415. Religion — 108,000 Roman Catholics and 8,000 Protestants. The Government is ad- ministered by the Governor, aided by an Executive Council of 5 members, and a Legislative Council of 27 members. Education- One college with 145 students, and 140 primary schools, attended by 15,792 pupils in 1886. Government grant in 1886, £42,943. ST. HELENA. — A solitary island situated in the South Atlan- tic, 760 miles from the nearest land. Ascension. Area — 47 square miles. Population — 1883, 5,085. It is controlled for Great Britain by a Governor, aided by an Executive Council of 4 members. NORTH AMERICA Forms the northern and larger part of the New World ; the greater portion of it is almost entirely confined to the north temperate zone. Greatest length, 4,400 miles. Greatest breadth, 3,800 miles. The outline, more especially in the north, where it takes the form of an achipelago of islands, is very much inter- sected and broken by the numerous inlets of the sea. Excluding Arctic America and Greenland (1,338,500 square miles) the area is about 8,000,000 square miles. In a continent extending over about 65 degrees of latitude and nearly twice as many of longi- tude, great varieties of climate are necessarily met with. While the Pacific shores have generally a milder climate than those of the Atlantic, the average temperature of the continent is lower than that of corresponding latitudes in the Old World. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.— Within the Dominion of Canada is included all the land lying north of the United States, with the exception of Alaska, Newfoundland, and Labrador. Exclusive of the Arctic Islands, the total area is 3,420,777 square miles. Population — 1881 (census), 4,324,810. 1889 (estimated),, 5,000,000. French, 1,298,930; Irish, 957,403; English, 881,300; 108 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE, Scotch, 699,863; Germans, 254,320; Indians (1885), 129,525. Religion — No state church. In 1881, there were 1,791,982 Ro- man Catholics; 2,422,285 Protestants (Presbyterians, 676,165; Church of England, 574,818; Methodists, 1,042,980); Jews, 2,393. Government — Executive authority vested in the British Crown, and exercised in its name by a Governor-General, aided by a Privy Council. Legislative, vested in the Parliament, composed of the Senate with 78 members, and the House of Commons with 215 members. Education — 24 colleges with 2,000 students. In 1884, there were 730 private and high schools with 88,593 pupils, and 15,000 public and elementary schools with 904,600 pupils. BRITISH COLUMBIA, situated on the west coast of North America, comprises the territory between the Rocky Mountains and th^ Pacific Coast, together with Vancouver Island and Qiieen Charlotte Islands. Area — 341,305 square miles. Population — Estimated, 1886, 60,000. Government — Lieutenant-Governor and Executive Council of 4 members, together with the Legislative Assembly of 25 members. Education — Twelve high and su- perior schools with 2,283 pupils, and 71 nublic schools with 2,188 pupils. NEW BRUNSWICK has an area of 27,174 square miles. Population, 1881 — 321,233 (1576 Indians). Government — Ad- ministered by a Lieutenant-Governor, assisted by an Executive Council, a Legislative Council of 18 members, and a Legisla- tive Assembly of 41 members. Education — Besides King’s Col- lege at Fredericton, and numerous grammar schools, there were, in 1886, 1,515 public schools with 61,802 pupils. MANITOBA, formerly the Red River Settlement, was formed into a distinct province in 1870, and admitted into the Confeder- ation in the same year. It is situated in the center of the conti- nent. Area — 60,520 square miles. Population — 1881, 65,954 (1886, 108,640). Government — Administered by a Lieutenant- Governor, assisted by an Executive Council of 5 members and a Legislative Assembly of 35 members. Education — Nine high schools with 400 pupils, and 394 elementary schools with 12,694 pupils. NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.— This province comprises nearly the whole of British North America from the boundary of the United States to the most northerly part of the con- tinent, and from the western shores of Hudson Bay to the Rocky Mountains, with a total area of 2,553,337 square miles, and an estimated population of 79,293, of whom 25,000 are In- dians. 109 LOUISIANA ranks first among the States in sugar and molasses, third in rice, seventh in cotton, ninth in salt, twenty- fifth in population. The first settlement was in 1699, by French, at Iber- ville. Admitted to the Union in 1812. 110 MAINE ranks fifth among the States in buckwheat and copper, eighth in hops and potatoes, eleventh in hay, and thirtieth in population. The first settlers were French, at Bristol, 1625. Ad- mitted to the Union in 1820. Ill THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE, Out of this vast territory, in 1882, the Dominion Government formed four provisional districts: Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Athabasca. The Government is vested in a Lieutenant- Governor and a Council of 20. Both Assiniboia and Alberta are traversed bj the Canadian Pacific Railway, and settlement is rapidly taking place along its route. NOVA SCOTIA , — Nova Scotia, a peninsula of North America on its east side, forms with the island of Cape Breton one of the provinces which constitute the Dominion of Canada. Area — 20,907 square miles. Population, 1881 — 440,572, (2138 Indians). Government — Administered by a Lieutenant-Governor, aided by an Executive Council, a Legislative Council of 21 members, and a Legislative Assembly of 38 members. Education — There are 6 colleges, the best endowed being King’s College at Windsor, several high schools, and 2,111 public schools attended by 86,858 pupils in 1886. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.— Prince Edward Island lies in the southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between New Brunswick and Cape Breton, to the north of Nova Scotia, from which it is separated by Northumberland Strait. Area — 2,133 square miles. Population, 1881 — 108,891 (323 Indians). Government — Vested in a Lieutenant-Governor and an Execu- tive Council, a Legislative Council of 13 members, and a Legis- lative Assembly of 30 members. Education — 20 high and superior schools with 831 pupils, and 437 public schools attended by 22,414 pupils in 1886. NEWFOUNDLAND. — The island of Newfoundland forms a British province, distinct as yet from the Dominion of Canada. Its Government extends over the mainland strip of Labrador, from which it is separated by the Strait of Belle Isle, 12 miles across. Area — 42,000 square miles. Population, 1884 — 193,121. Religion — Church of England, 69,000; Roman Catholics, 75,254; Wesleyans, 48,787. Government — The Government is admin- istered by a Governor, appointed by the British Crown, assisted by an Executive Council (not exceeding 7 members), a Legis- lative Council (not exceeding 15 members), and a House of Assembly consisting of 36 representatives. Education — 1885, 402 aided schools attended by 27,322 pupils. LABRADOR, a dependency of Newfoundland, forms the most easterly part of America. The coast is mainly fre- quented for the sake of the seal and cod, and when those fisher - ies are in progress, the population of the country (normally about 4000) is raised to upwards of 25,000. THE UNITED STATES.— On the north the United States 112 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. are bounded by British North America; on the west by the Pacific Ocean; on the south by Mexico, the Gulf of Mexico, and Florida Channel; and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and New Brunswick, Extent nearly as large as Europe; total area, 3,602,- 990 square miles. Alaska, 577,390 vsquare miles. Rivers and lakes occupy 38,400 square miles. Population — 1880 census, 50,497,057 (1889, estimated, 60,000,000). Nationalities, 1880 — Native hovft, 43,475,840; Colored fopulatio 7 i^ 6,580,793; Indians^ 339>098; Chinese^ 105,465; Germans^ 1,966,742; Irish^ ^yi'^Canadians, E 7 iglish, 662,676; Scanduiavians^ 440,262; Scotch, 170,- J36; Welsh, 83,302; and 519,254 other nationalities. Education — There are 365 universities with 69,728 students, 1,617 pi'ivate schools with 160,137 pupils, and 11,169,923 scholars in the public schools, maintained at a cost of $110,000,000 in 1885; 4,923,431 adults could not read and 6,239,958 were unable to write in 1880. In South Carolina, Louisiana, Alabama and Georgia 45 per cent, could not read; adult colored people, 70 per cent, illiterate. North Atlantic States. — Connecticut, Maine, Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont. — Great for- ests and rapid streams, affording abundant water-power, have placed lumbering and shipbuilding among the foremost industries of this section. Maine alone produces annually sawed timber to the value of $12,000,000, while, during 1882, 120 vessels of 61,- 296 tons were built in the same State. Middle Atlantic States.^ — Dist. of Columbia, Delaware, Mary land, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania. — Abundance of coal and iron, and the great facilities for internal and external communication have rendered mining and manufacturing the chief industries and largely developed commerce. In 1885, 48,345,680 tons of coal and 3,813,212 tons of pig and rolled iron were produced, while in 1880 there was 90,600 manufactories. The import and export trade of New York during 1886 amounted to $733,000,000, being 56 per cent, of the entire commerce of the country. South Atlantic States. — Florida, Georgia, North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia. — The warm climate and wide coast plains offer pre-eminent advantages for the cultivation of cotton, tobacco and rice, while orange cul- ture flourishes in Florida. In 1880, 95,380,000 pounds of rice; in 1882, 124,079,780 pounds of tobacco and 2,121,000 bales of cotton; and, in 1885, over 200,000,000 oranges were raised in these States. Northern Division East of the Mississippi. — In this division we include Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio and Wisconsin. These States possess great natural 113 MARYLAND ranks second among' the States in fisheries, fourth in coal, seventh in tobacco, eighth in copper, ninth in iron ore, twenty-third in population. The first settlement was at St. Mary, by English, in 1634. One of the thirteen original States. 114 MASSACHUSETTS ranks first in cotton, woolen and worsted goods, cod and mackerel fishing, second in wealth and commerce, third in manufactures, printing and publishing, sixth in iron and steel, seventh in population. First settlement, by English, at Ply- mouth, 1620. One of the thirteen original States. 115 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE advantages of fertile soil and large deposits of valuable minerals, so that agriculture, grazing, manufacturing and mining have become wide-spread industries. According to the agricultural returns for 1886, 569,703,000 bushels of corn, 161.881.000 bushels of wheat, and 235,693,000 bushels of oats were grown; while, in 1887, there were 3,705,660 horses and 8,693,147 cattle. In 1882, 256,047,310 pounds of tobacco were produced. During 1885, 19,587,190 tons of coal and 1,562,566 tons of iron Were produced. In 1880 the manufacturing establishments num- bered 68,320. Northern Division West of the ]\ /ssissippi. — In this are included Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Missouri, Dakota and the Indian Territory. Industries similar to above. 611.107.000 bushels of corn, 160,006,000 bushels of wheat, and 217.798.000 bushels of oats were grown during 1886, while the farm stock included, in 1887, 3,290,569 horses and 11,518,417 cat- tle. 7,885,610 tons of coal and 67,955 tons of iron were produced in 1885. In 1880 the manufactories numbered 19,720. Southern Division. — Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas. The warm and moist climate and extreme fertility of the soil have made the growth of cotton, rice and sugar-cane the foremost industries. During 1882, 4.794.000 bales of cotton were raised, while Louisiana, Missis- sippi and Texas produced 25,000,000 pounds of rice in 1880, and Louisiana alone 145,986 hogsheads of sugar in 1886-87. Highland States and Territories. — This region, em- bracing Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming, has a cool and remarkably drv climate, and the valleys afford fine pasture, but the rich mines of gold and silver in the mountains render mining the chief occu- pation. During 1885 gold valued at $14,260,000, silver valued at $48,910,000, and 2,471,397 tons of coal were produced. The Pacific Coast. — This section embraces California, Oregon and Washington Territory. This district with the above mentioned is, perhaps, the richest in metals on the globe. Besides mining, the chief occupation, the forests of the outer slope furnish inexhaustible supplies of timber, so that lumbering has become a distinctive industry. The most wealthy and populous ^tate is California, which, besides its immense mineral deposits, possesses great fertility of soil in its valleys, so that agriculture and the cultivation of fruits, both of the temperate and semi-tropical zones, are in a most advanced condition. During 1885 gold valued at $13,620,000, silver valued at $2,580,000, and 448,095 tons of coal were produced, while, in 1886, the wheat crop of California alone amounted to 36,165,000 bushels, and the 116 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. lumber produce of Puget Sound (Washington) to $1,200,000 in 1880. MEXICO. — Area, 751,177 square miles. Population, 10,460,703 ?n 1884, 20 per cent, white race, 43 per cent, natives of mixed race, and 37 per cent. Indians. Religion — Prevailing religion, Roman Catholic, though by law there is toleration of all other religions. 62 Protestant churches with over 20,000 adherents. Government — A confederate republic. Executive, the President. Legisla- tive, the Congress, consisting of the House of Representatives with 227 members, and the Senate with 56 members. Army — 20,635 men (peace footing); 164,000 men (war footing). Navy — 7 small vessels. Education — 1884, 8,986 elementary schools with nearly 500,000 pupils, and 138 higher schools with 17,200 scholars. Government grant, $3,400,000. Finance — Revenue, 1886-87 (estimated), $30,625,000; expenditures, 1886 — 87 (esti- mated), $26,700,000; national debt, $162,737,650. Imports — 1885-86, $41,285,000. Exports — 1885-86, $51,500,000. Chief articles exported, 1884-85 — Precious metals, $13,425,000; textile fibers, $4,630,000. Industries — 102,240 men employed in mining. Between 1021 and 1880 silver to the value of $900,000,000, and gold to the value of $4,841,000 were produced. 88 cotton factories with 12,846 employes. CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES.— The Central American States comprise that portion of the narrow belt of land adjoining North and South America which extends from the southern borders of Mexico, south of the Yucatan peninsula, to the beginning of the Isthmus of Panama — Guatemala, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica and British Hon- duras. The West Indies are an immense number of islands and islets, some of them mere rocks, extending from 10° to 27O N. lat. and from 55° 30' to 85® W. long. They are divided physi- cally into three distinct groups, the Bahamas, the Greater An- tilles and the Lesser Antilles. But politically they are, with a few exceptions, divided between European powers — Spain, Great Britain, France, Holland and Denmark. SOUTH AMERICA Forms the southern and lesser part of the great American Peninsula, and is joined to North America by the Isthmus of Panama, which, at its narrowest part, is only 30 miles broad. Greatest length, Pt. Gallinas to Cape Horn, 4,700 miles. Greatest breadth. Cape Branco to Cape Burica, 3,200 miles. The outline is regular and forms a continuous though curved line, not greatly serrated or broken into by the sea, except at the south, where a large number of islands occur. The coast line measures 16,500 miles, or 420 miles of surface to each mile of coast. Area 117 MICHIGAN ranks first among- the States in copper, lumber and salt, second in iron ore, third in buckwheat and wool, fifth in hops and potatoes, sixth in wheat and barley, seventh in agricultural implements, eighth in miles of railway, ninth in population. First settlement, by French, at Detroit, 1650. Admitted to the Union, >837- 1J8 MINNESOTA ranks fourth among the States of the Union in wheat and barley, eighth in oats and hay, and twentieth in popula- tion. The first settlement in Minnesota was by Americans, Red River, 1812. Admitted into the Union in 1858. 119 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. ' — 7,000,000 square miles, nearly twice that of Europe, or one- eighth of the entire land surface of the globe. The number ot inhabitants, according to the latest estimates, amounts to over 32,000,000. With two-thirds of its area within the torrid zone, the average temperature in South America is necessarily higher than that of North America. The moisture is also very great, attains its maximum in the extreme north, and is everywhere greater on the eastern side of the Andes than on the western. COLOMBIA. — The Republic of Colombia, as the former Re- public of New Granada is now styled, is a federal republic of nine departments, in the northwest part of South America. The most western of these departments is the isthmus connecting the two continents. There is no state religion, natives and foreigners alike being guaranteed the most complete freedom of worship; in Bogota and other towns Protestant churches have been opened. Government — Republican. Executive-^The President, assisted by seven Ministers. Legislative — The Congress, consist- ing of the Senate and House of Representatives, the fornj^^r composed of 27 members, the latter of 66. Each department administers its own finances, etc. The forces comprise a stand- ing army of 3,000 men. Education — Considerable attention is paid to education, there being as many as 1,800 schools giving instruction to 75,000 pupils, while an “Escuela Normal,*’ or col- lege for the instruction of teachers, is provided for in the capital of each department. Panama Canal — The canal in course of construction across the isthmus, between Panama and Colon, will have a total length of 47 miles; average depth, 28 feet; mini- mum width, 72 feet. VENEZUELA. — Religion — The Roman Catholic is the state religion, but there is toleration of all others, though they are not permitted any external manifestations. Only one per cent, of the population in 1884 were whites. Government — Republican. Executive — The President, assisted by six Ministers and the Fed- eral Council of 16 membei:s. Legislative — The Congress, com- posed of the Senate and the House of Representatives, the former with 24 senators, the latter with 52 representatives. The Pro- vinces or States of the Republic have each their own executive and legislature. Education — There were (1884) two universities, 19 federal colleges with 2,538 students; 19 private colleges and normal schools with 907 students, and 1,794 schools attended by 95,000 pupils. GUIANA. — Guiana, in its widest sense, certainly embraces the whole of the Sierra Parime, thus including districts at present belonging to Venezuela and Brazil; but the name is now gener- ally restricted to the colonial possessions of Britain, Holland and France, in this part of the world. British Guiana is by far 120 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. the most flourishing, agriculturally and commercially, ot the three colonies. The population embraces 7,538 origines. Gov- ernment — The Governor, appointed by the British Crown, assisted by the Court of Policy of nine members, and a Com- bined Court containing, in addition to those nine, six flnancial representatives. ECUADOR. — Included within the Republic 01 Ecuador are the Galapagos Islands, situated in the Pacific about 730 miles due west of the coast. According to the constitution the religion of the Republic is Roman Catholic to the exclusion of every^ other. Government — Executive, the President. Legislative, the Congress of two houses, the first consisting of two senators for each province, and the second of deputies elected by the people. Army — About 1,600 men. Education — Only about 75,000 of the population can read or write. PERU , — The population of Peru includes about 350,000 un- civilized Indians. By the terms of the constitution the Roman Catholic is declared the religion of the state, and the public ex- ercise of any other is prohibited. At the census of 1876 there were 5,087 Protestants and 498 Jews. Government — Repub- lican. Executive, the President, assisted by a Cabinet of 5 Ministers. Legislative, the Senate and House of Representa- tives, the former composed of deputies (i for every 30,000 inhabit- ants), and the latter of representatives nominated by the pro- vincial electoral colleges of each department. During the war with Chili the army was raised to about 19,000 men; it now numbers about 5,900. The fleet consists of 2 cruisers and 2 small troop ships. Education — By a return of 1880 the facili- ties provided for education consist of i university at Lima, 5 lesser universities, 45 higher class schools and 650 public and private schools with 32,555 pupils. BOLIVIA. — Bolivia is the most centrally situated state of South America, and, with the exception of Paraguay, is the only one without a seaboard. Religion — The mixed races forming the population are regarded as at least nominally Christian. Government — Republican. Executive, the Presi- dent, assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of 5 Ministers. Legislative, the Congress, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives, both elected by universal suffrage. The standing army consists of 1,013 officers and 2,000 men, and costs upwards of two-thirds of the public revenue. Education — According to a report issued in 1884, the schools and universi- ties were attended by only 12,000 pupils and students, or about 5 per cent, of the population of school age. There are four uni- versities. 121 MISSISSIPPI ranks second among the States in cotton, fifth in rice, sixth in mules and molasses, seventh in sugar, eighteenth in population. The first settlers in Mississippi were French, at Nat- chez, 1716. Admitted into the Union in 1817. MISSOURI ranks first in mules, third in oxen, hogs, torn and copper, fifth in population, sixth in iron ors, wool and horses, seventh in oats, eighth in wheat and tobacco, ninth in miles of railway, sheep and potatoes. First settlement, French, at Ste. Genevieve, 1764. Admitted into the Union in 1821. 123 THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. BRAZIL. — The most extensive and most prosperous of the South American States. The Roman Catholic is the established religion of the state, though all other sects are tolerated. Government — Constitutional and hereditary monarchy. Execu- tive, the Emperor, assisted by a responsible Ministry. Legisla- tive, the General Legislative Assembly, consisting of the Senate ♦vith 6o members, and the Chamber of Deputies with 125 mem- bers. Army — Peace footing, 15,048 men and 6,847 gendarmerie. War footing, 32,000 ^men. Navy — 65 ships (9 ironclads) /nanned by 5,788 men. Education— In 1885 there were 5,520 public, 957 private schools, and 286 “colleges” attended by "435,- 997 pi^pils in all. PARAGUAY is one of the smallest, and, with the exception of Bolivia, the only landlocked state of South America. The Roman Catholic is the established religion of the state, but the free exercise of other religions is permitted. Government — Republican. Executive, the President, assisted by a Cabinet of 5 Ministers. Legislative, the Congress, composed of the Senate and the House of Deputies. The armed defense forces consist of 500 men and a fleet of 3 river steamers. Education — In 1885 there were 99 state public schools, with 3,676 pupils; 50 private schools with 1,424 pupils, and a national college with 150 students. URUGUAY is the smallest of the South American States. The Roman Catholic is the state religion, but there is complete toleration of all sects. Government — Republican. Executive, the President, assisted by a council of five members. Legisla- tive, the parliament, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, the former c®nsisting of 19 members, the latter of 53. The defense forces consist of 3,540 regulars, a national guard of 20,000 men, 5 river steamers and 3 gunboats. Education — One university at Montevideo, attended in 1886 by 1,452 students; 341 public schools with 28,380 pupils, and, in 1885, 429 private schools with 20,899 scholars. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.— -Religion — Roman Catholic, but all creeds are tolerated. Government — Republican. Executive, the President. Legislative, the National Congress, composed of the Senate with 30 members, and the House of Deputies with 86. Arm}^ — 7»324 men, exclusive of the national guard of about 350,000 men. Navy — 39 ships (3 ironclads) manned by 2,150 men. Education — In 1885 there were 2 universities at- tended by 880 students, various superior schools, 15 lyceums with 3,189 pupils, and, in 1886, 3,415 elementary schools with 180,768 scholars. CHILL — Religion — Roman Catholic, but all other religions 124 POLAR EX PL ORA TION. are protected. Government — Republican. Executive, the President. Legislative, the Senate of 43 members, and the Chamber of Deputies of 126. Armj — 6,510 regulars, and the national guard of 53,741 men. Navy — 32 ships (3 ironclads) with 2,385 men. Education — One university and numerous lyceums attended, in 1886, by 5,900 students; 532 private schools with 28,- 242 pupils, and 862 public primary schools with 78,810 scholars- Polar Exploratfon Really begins with the search for the northeast passage. With this object Willoughby left England with three ships in 1553. Nova Zembla was sighted, but the voyage was disastrous, two ships were lost and with them perished the first leader of an Arc- tic expedition. In 1556 another expedition, under Burroughs, set out for the same purpose, but without success. The north- east passage proving impracticable, efforts were directed to the northwest. bTobisher sailed in 1576 and discovered Meta In- cognita, a part of the present Baffin Land. Ten years later Davis navigated the strait which bears his name, advancing northward to 72° N. Barents, a Dutch seaman, made three voyages to the northeast. In 1596, on his third voyage, he dis- covered Spitzbergen and reached a latitude of 80° N. Sailing thence to Nova Zembla he doubled the north point and wintered on the eastern side of the island. Hudson, between the years 1607-1610, made four voyages; two of these were to the north- east, and a latitude of 80^ 23' N. was attained. On his third voyage he discovered Hudson River, and in the following year, 1610, the strait and bay since named after him. These dis- coveries were supplemented in 1616, when Baffin sailed up Davis Strait into Baffin’s Bay. During the eighteenth century Russian explorations made great progress. The entire northern coast of Siberia was gradually discovered, while, in 1728, Bering examined the strait between Asia and America, and in 1741 Liakov, a Russian merchant, the islands now known as New Siberia. The numerous expeditions of the present century have driven the unknown regions of the north into comparatively nar- row limits. In 1819 Parry passed through Lancaster Sound and wintered on Melville Island; eight years later he sailed to Spitz- bergen, and traveling northward on sledges, reached 82^ 45' N. Of the numerous expeditions which left England in search of Franklin, who had sailed in 1845, that under M’Clure in 1850 was, perhaps, the most important, since the northwest passage was then traversed for the first time. In 1853 Kane con- siderably extended knowledge in Smith Sound, while in 1874 the Austrian expedition discovered the archipelago of Franz Josef Land. The Nares expedition of 1875-6, passing through Smith 125 MONTANA in 1890 ranked fourth among the States and Terri- tories in silver, fifth in gold, fifteenth in cattle, forty-seventh in miles of railway and forty-fourth in population. First settlement, by Americans, in 1852. Organized as a Territory in 1864; admitted to the Union in 1889. 120 NEBRASKA ranks eighth among the States of the corn and barley, ninth in rye, twenty-sixth inpopulation, was first settled by immigrants from the other States, into the Union in 1867. Union in Nebraska Admitted 127 THE WORTHS LARGEST CITIES. Sound, wintered farther north than any previous expedition, and a sledding party under Markham reached 83 O 20 ', a latitude only surpassed by that of Lockwood, in the Greeley expedition, who, in 1882 , stood under 83 ^ 24 ' N. Finally, in 1878 , Norden- skjold performed in the “Vega” that northeast passage which Willoughby had attempted over 300 years before/ The World’s Largest Cities. The following information is often inquired for, and as it may- be useful in many cases for reference, we have compiled a table of the largest cities in the world, with their populations as stated by the latest authorities. In the absence of any official census, the Chinese cities have simply to be estimated, and, of course,r must be accepted as an approximation only. We have not given any city whose population is below 500 , 000 , though there are many we could enumerate which closely approach that figure. It will be seen that in the 35 cities tabulated below there are 32 ,- 510,319 souls, or nearly the population of the British Isles, a fact which cannot be grasped in a moment by any ordinary intellect. Aitichi, Japan 1,332,050 Moscow, Russia 611,074 ■ ■ New York, N. Y.. . .1,513,501 Paris, France 2,269,023 Pekalonga, Java 505,201 Pekin, China 800,000 Philadelphia, Pa 1,046,252 St. Petersburg, Russia. 766,964 ,099,133 Sartama, Japan 962,917 700.000 Sian, China 1,000,000 630.000 St. Louis, Mo 460,357 514,048 Tat-Seen-Loo, China. 500,000 600.000 Tien-Tsin, China 950,000 800.000 Tokio, Japan ...... 987,887 600.000 Tschautchau-fu, Ch’a. 1,000,000 500.000 Tsin-Tchoo, China. . . 800,000 573.000 Vienna, Austria 726,105 .3,955,819 Woo-chang, China. . . 800,000 500,900 Bangkok, Siam 500,000 Brooklyn, N. Y 804,377 Berlin, Prussia 1,122,330 Calcutta, India.... ... 766,298 Canton, China 1,500,000 Changchoofoo, China. 1,000,000 _ Chicago, 111 .... ... .1,099,133 Sartama, Japan Constantinople, T’k’y . Foo-choo, China Glasgow, Scotland . . . Hang-Chow-foo, Ch’a. Hang-Tcheon, China. Han-Kow, China King-te-Chiang, Chi’a Liverpool, England. . . London, England.. Madrid, Spain .... Estimated Age of the Earth. — According to geologi- cal computation, the minimum age of the earth since the forma- tion of *^he primitive soils is 21 , 000,000 years — 6 , 700,000 years for the primordial formations, 6 , 400,000 years for the primary age, 2 , 300,000 years for the secondary" age, and 460,000 years for th^ tertiarv ag<, and 100,000 since the appearance of man upon the globe. 128 THE CENSUS OF 1890, THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES- OFFICIAL TABULATION. The population of the United States on June i, 1890, as shown by the official count, completed in 1891, exclusive of white persons in the Indian Territory, Indians on reservations, and Alaska, was 62,622,250. The following comparative table gives the figures for each State. The black figures after the name of the State show that State’s rank as regards population. New York still heads the list, as in 1880, and is followed by Pennsylvania. Illinois changes places with Ohio, and is now third. Of the other changes in the list the most marked are those of Texas, which rises from No. ii to No. 7; Kentucky, which drops from 8 to ii; Minnesota, which rises from 26 to 20; Nebraska, which rises from 30 to 26; Mary- land, which drops from 23 to 27; Colorado, which rises from 35 to 31: Vermont, which drops from 32 to 36; Washington, which rises from 42 to 34: Delaware, which drops from 38 to 42; Nevada, which drops from 43 to 49, and Arizona, which drops from 44 to 48. STATES AND TERRITORIES. POPULATION. INCREASE FROM 1880 TO 1890. INCREASE FROM 1870 TO 1880. 1890 . 1880 . 1870 . Percentage. Percentage. The United States 62,622,250 50,155,783 38,558.371 24.86 30.08 North Atlantic Div . .. 17,401,545 14,507,407 12,298,730 19.95 17.96 Maine .30 661,086 648,936 626,915 1.87 3.51 New Hampshire .33 376,530 346,991 318,300 8.51 9.01 Vermont .36 332,422 332,286 330,551 0.04 0.52 Massachusetts . 6 2,238,943 1,783,085 1.457,351 25.57 22.35 Rhode Island 35 345.506 276,531 217.353 24.94 27.23 Connecticut .29 746,258 622,700 537,454 19.84 15.86 New York . 1 5.997.853 5,082,871 4.382,759 18.00 15.97 New Jersey ,18 1 . 444.933 1,131,116 906,096 27.74 24.83 Pennsylvania 2 5,258,014 4,282,891 3.521,951 22.77 21.61 South Atlantic Div . . . 8,857,920 7,597.197 5,853,610 16.59 29.79 Delaware 42 168,493 146,608 125,015 14-93 17.27 Maryland .27 1.042,390 934.943 780,894 11.49 19.73 District of Columbia.39 230,392 177.624 131,700 29.71 34.87 Virginia 15 1,655,980 1,512,565 1,225,163 9.48 23 . 46 West Virginia 28 762,794 618,457 442,014 23.34 39.92 North Carolina 16 1,617,947 1 , 399.750 1,071,361 15.59 30.65 South Carolina 23 1 , 151.149 995,577 705,606 15.63 41.10 Georgia 12 1 . 837.353 1,542,180 1,184,109 19.14 30.24 Florida 32 391,422 269,493 187,748 45.24 43.54 129 * h i.i 1 5f; ;i;< jO*l H T'^Tri -' I ' fv'V ' . . • » I . . > ■ wrv'rx'f -TV ! . ■i - * ■ ■ /- •' • :[y :< j: /l l' -; • ■/ , : . .U)'Urv.: f.’ ;» .Wf . .. T ; // ;ro-’' ' V' ‘ ! . ' ,■->> ••’ »■ : f ' * .i-f i f''* ; 1.3., . .. . . *>-..>1 ) •'') . .a^c . • . ' 'r.xr:., •’ ;■! •• ) , ■ •/ >]' a) -'S^n '• r^ '*r v’ * » :r'' il ■ •'> : ,h Tct-^r^ • , j r * ; ■ : r'K ^ ' .* ,■; i.i*-.'.) * */■ •: :■« •; ;. ; ;. .J-r-. ', >:-'v ,ir>tv . .. ri 7 *.-;]k^j-T j .-vf:;';"- '•» Cities and Towns of over 8,000 Population — Continued. CITIES AND TOWNS. 1890. 1880. CITIES AND TOWNS. 1890. 1880. Binghamton, N, Y... 35,005 17,317 Denver, Colo 106,713 35,629 Birmingham, Ala 26,178 3,086 Des Moines, Iowa 50,093 22,408 Bloomington, 111 20,048 17,180 Detroit, Mich 205,876 116,340 Boston, Mass 448,477 362,839 Dover, N. H 12,790 11,687 Braddock, Pa 8,561 3,310 Dubuque, Iowa Duluth, Minn 30,311 22,254. Bradford, Pa io, 5H 9,197 33,115 9,416 3,48.3 Bridgeport, Conn 48,866 27,643 Dunkirk, N. Y 7,248 Bridgeton, N. J 11,424 8,722 Dunmore, Pa East Liverpool, Ohio. 8,315 5,151^ Brockton, Mass 27,294 13,608 10,956 5,56a Brookline, Mass 12,103 8,057 Easton, Pa 14,481 11,924- Brooklyn, N. Y Brunswick, Ga 806,343 566,663 East Portland, Ore. . . 10,532 2,934- 8,459 2,891 East Providence, R. I 8,422 5,056- Buffalo, N. Y 255,664 155,134 East St. Louis, III 15,^69 9,185 10,119 8,787 Burlington, Iowa 22,565 19,450 Eau Claire, Wis 17,415 Burlington, N. J 8,222 6,090 Elgin, 111 17,823 Burlington, Vt 14,590 11,365 Elizabeth City, N. J . . 37,764 28,229 Butler, Pa 8,734 3,163 Elkhart, Ind 11,360 6,953 Butte, Mont 10,723 3,363 Elmira. N. Y 29,708 20,541 Cairo, 111 10,324 9,011 El Paso, Texas 10,338 73^ Cambridge, Mass .... 70,028 52,669 Erie, Pa 40,634 27,737 Camden, N. J 58,313 41,659 Evansville, Ind 50,756 29,280 Canton, Ohio 26,189 12,258 Everett, Mass 1 1,068 4,159 Carbondale, Pa 10,833 7,714 Fall River, Mass 74,398 48,961 Cedar Rapids, Iowa.. 18,020 10,104 Findlay, Ohio 18,553 4,633 Charlston, S. C 54,955 49,984 Fitchburg, Mass 22,037 12,429 Charlotte, N. C 11,557 7,094 Flint, Mich 9,803 8,409 Chattanooga, Tenn. . . 29,100 12,892 Flushing, N. Y 10,868 a 6,683 Chicago, 111 I ,099,850 503,185 Fond du Lac, Wis. . . . 12,024 13,094 Chicopee, Mass 14,050 11,286 Fort Scott, Kans 11,946 5,372 Chillicothe, Ohio ..... 11,288 8,670 10,938 Fort Smith, Ark 11,311 3,099 Chippewa Falls, Wis. 3,982 Fort Wayne, Ind 35,393 26,880 Chelsea, Mass 27,909 21,782 Fort Worth, Texas... 23,076 6,663 Chester, Pa 20,226 1 1 , 690 14,997 Framingham, Mas^. . . 9,239 6,235 Cheyenne, Wyo 3,456 Frederick, Md 8,193 8,659 Cincinnati, Ohio 296,908 255,139 Freeport, 111 10,189 8,516 Cleveland, Ohio 261,353 160,146 Fresno, Cal 10,818 1,112 Clinton, Iowa 13,619 9,052 Galesburg, 111 15,264 11,437 Clinton, Mass 10,424 8,029 19,416 Galveston, Texas .... 29,084 22,248 Cohoes, N. Y 22,509 Gardner, Mass. ...... 8,424 4,988 Colorado Spr’gs, Colo 11,140 4,226 Gloucester, Mass. ... 24,651 19,329 Columbia, Pa 10,599 8,312 10,036 Gloversville, N. Y. . . . 13,864 7,133 32,016 7,464 Columbia, S. C 15,353 Grand Rapids, Mich. ■60,278 Columbus, Ga 17,303 10,123 51,647 Green Bay, Wis 9,069 8,607 Columbus, Ohio 88, 150 Greenville, S. C 6,160 Concord, N. H 17,004 13,843 Greenwich, Conn 10,131 7,892 Corning, N. Y 8,550 4,802 18,063 Hagerstown, Md 10,118 17,565 6,627 Council Bluffs, Iowa. . 21,474 Hamilton, Ohio 12,122 Covington, Ky 37,371 29,720 Hannibal, Mo 12,857 11,074 Cranston, R. I 8,099 5,940 Harrisburg, Pa 39,385 30, 762 .Cumberland, Md 12,729 10,693 Harrison, N J Hartford, Conn 8,338 6,898 Cumberland, R. I 8,090 6,445 53,230 42,015 Dallas, Texas 38,067 10,358 Hastings, Neb 13,584 2,817 Danbury, Conn 16,552 11,666 Haverhill, Mass 27,412 18,472 Danville, 111 11,491 7,733 Hazelton, Pa 11,872 6,935 Danville, Va 10,305 7,526 Helena, Mont 13,834 3,624 Davenport, Iowa 26,872 21,831 Henderson, Ky 8,835 5,365 Dayton, Ohio 61,220 19,84 1 38,678 Hoboken, N. J 43,648 30,999 Decatur, III 9,547 Holyoke, Mass 35,637 21,915 Delaware, Ohio 8,224 6,894 Hornellsville, N. Y. . . 10,996 8,195 Denison, Texas 10,958 3,975 Hot Springs, Ark 8,086 3,554 T32 Cities and Towns of over 8,000 Population — Continued. CITIES AND TOWNS. 1890. 0 00 00 CITIES AND TOWNS. 1890. 1880. Houston, Texas 27,557 16,513 Macon, Ga 22,746 12,749 Hudson, N. Y 9,970 8,670 Madison, Ind Madison, Wis. 8,937 13,426 8,945 Huntington. W. Va .. 10, to8 3,174 10,324 Hutchinson, Kans ... 8,682 1,540 Mahanoy, Pa 11,286 7,181 Hyde Park, Mass. . . . 10,193 7,088 Malden, Mass 23,031 12,017 Indianapolis, Ind .... Ironton, Ohio 105,436 75,056 Manchester, Conn. . . . 8,222 6,462 10,939 8,857 Manchester, N. H 44,126 32,630 Iron Mountain, Mich. Ishpeming, Mich 8,599 11,197 6,039 Manchester, Va Manistee, Mich 9.246 12,812 5,729 6,930 Ithaca, N. Y 11,079 9,105 Mankato, Minn 8,838 5,550 Jackson, Mich 20,798 16,105 Mansfield, Ohio 13,473 9,859 Jackson, Tenn Jacksonville, Fla 10,039 5,377 Marblehead, Mass 8,202 7,467 17,201 7,650 Marietta, Ohio 8,273 5,444 Jacksonville, 111 10,740 16,038 10, 927 Marinette, Wis 11,523 8,769 2, 750 Jamestown, N. Y 9,357 Marion, Ind 3, 182 Janesville, Wis 10,836 9,018 Marion, Ohio 8,327 3,899 Jeffersonville, Ind. . . . 10,666 9,357 Marlborough, Mass . . 13,805 10,127 4,690 Jersey City, N. J.... 163,003 120,722 Marquette, Mich 9,093 Johnston, R. I 9,778 5,765 Marshalltown, Iowa.. 8,914 6,240 6,836 Johnstown, Pa 21,805 8,380 Massillon, Ohio 10,092 Joliet, 111 2^,264 11,657 Meadville, Pa 9,520 8,860 Joplin, Mo 9,943 7,038 Medford, Mass 11,079 7,573 Kalamazoo, Mich Kankakee, 111 “. . . 17,853 9,025 11,937 5,651 Melrose, Mass Memphis, Tenn 8,519 64,495 4,560 33,592 Kansas City, Kans... 38,316 3,20c Menominee, Mich .... 10,630 3,288 Kansas City, Mo 132,716 55,785 Meriden, Conn 21,652 15,540 Kearney, Neb 8,074 1,782 Meridian, Miss 10,624 4,008 Keokuk, Iowa 14,101 18,080 12,117 9,890 Michigan City, Ind. . . 10,776 7.366 Key West, Fla Kingston, N. Y Middletown, Conn... 9,013 6,826 21,261 18,344 9,693 Middletown, N. Y. . . . 11,977 8,494 Knoxville, Tenn 22,535 Milford, Mass 8,780 9,310 Kokomo, Ind 8,261 4,042 Millville, N. J 10,002 7,660 La Crosse, Wis 25,090 14,505 Milwaukee, Wis 204,468 115,587 Lafayatte, Ind 16,243 14,860 25,769 Minneapolis, Minn . . . 164,738 46,887 Lancaster, Pa 32,01 1 Moberly, Mo 8,215 6,070 Lansing, Mich 13,102 8,319 Mobile, Ala 31,076 29,132 Lansinburg, N. Y. . . . 10,550 7,432 Moline, 111 12,000 . 21,883 7,800 Laredo, Texas 11,319 9,855 3,521 Montgomery, Ala. . . . 16,713 La .Salle, 111 7,847 Mount Carmel, Pa... 8,254 2,378 Lawrence, Kans Lawrence, Mass 9,997 8,510 Mount Vernon, N. Y. 10,677 4,586 44,654 39,151 Muncie, Ind 11*345 5,219 Leadville, Colo 11,212 19,768 14,820 16,546 Muscatine, Iowa. 11,454 8,295 11,262 Leavenworth, Kans. . . Muskegon, Mich 22,702 Lebanon, Pa 14,664 8,778 Nanticoke, Pa 10,044 3,884 Lewiston, Me Lexington, Ky 21,701 19,083 Nashua, N. H 19,311 13,397 21,567 16,656 Nashville, Tenn 76,168 43,350 Lima, Ohio 15,987 7,567 Natchez, Miss 10,101 7,058 Lincoln Neb 55,154 13,003 Natick, Mass 9,118 8,479 Lincoln, R. I 20,355 13.765 Nebraska City, Neb.. 11,494 4,183 Little Falls, N. Y 8,783 6,910 New Albany, Ind 21,059 16,423 Little Rock, Ark 25,874 13,138 Newark, N. J 181,830 136,508 Lockport, N. Y 16,038 13,522 Newark, Ohio 14,270 9,600 Logansport, Ind 13,328 11,198 New Bedford, Mass.. 40,733 26,845 Long Island City, N. Y 30,506 17,129 New Brighton, N. Y. . 16,423 12,679 Los Angeles, Cal 50,395 11,183 New Britain, Conn . . . 19,007 11, 800 Louisville Ky 161,129 123,758 New Brunswick, N. J 18,603 17,166 Lowell, Mass 77,696 59,475 Newburg, N. Y 23,087 18,049 Lynchburg, Va 19,709 15,959 Newburyport, Mass.. 13,947 13,538 Lynn, Mass 55,727 38,274lNewcastle, -Pa It, 600 8,418 McKeesport, Pa 20,741 8,212, New Haven, Conn . . . 81,298 62,882 129 NEVADA, in the census of 1880, ranks second among the States in gold, fourth in silver, thirty-eighth in population. First set- tled by Americans, immigrants from the other States, in 1850. Ad- mitted to the Union in 1864. 1 NEW HAMPSHIKE ranks third in manufacture of cotton goods, fifteenth in potatoes, thirty-first in population. First settle- ment, English, at Little Harbor, 1623. VERMONT ranks fourth in copper, seventh in hops and buckwheat, thirty-second in popu- lation. First settlement, English, Fort Dummer, 1764. 131 Cities and Towns of over 8,000 Population •— Continued. CITIES AND TOWNS. 1890. 1880. CITIES AHD TOWNS. 1890. i88o. New London, Conn. . . 13.757 10,537 Quincy, Mass 16,723 10,570 New Orleans, La 242,039 216,090 Racine, Wis 21,014 16,031 Newport, Ky 24,918 20,433 Raleigh, N. C 12,678 9.265 Newport, R. I 19.457 15,693 Readmg, Pa Richmond, Ind 58,661 43.278 New Rochelle, NY... 8,318 5,276 16,608 12,742 Newton, Mass 24.379 16,995 Richmond, Va .81,388 63,600 New York, N. Y 1,515.301 34.871 1,206,299 21,966 13.063 Roanoke, Va 16, 1 59 133.896 Norfolk, Va-. Rochester, N. Y 89.366 Norristown, Pa 19.791 Rockford, 111 23,584 13.129 North Adams, Mass. . 16,074 10,191 Rock Island, 111 13.634 11.659 Northampton, Mass.. 14.990 12,172 13.956 Rockland, Me 8,174 7.599 Norwalk, Conn 17.747 Rome, N. Y 14,991 12,194 Norwich, Conn 16,156 15,112 Rutland, Vt 11,760 12,149 Oakland, Cal 48,682 34,555 Sacramento, Cal 26,386 21,420 Ogden, Utah 14,889 6,069 Saginaw, Mich.. Saint Joseph, Mo.... 46,322 29.541 Ogdensburg, N. Y. . . 11,662 10,341 52,324 32,431 Oil City, Pa 10,932 7.315 .Saint Louis, Mo 451,770 350,518 Omaha, Neb 140,452 30,518 Saint Paul, Minn 133,156 41.473 Orange, N. J 18,844 13.207 Salem, Mass 30,801 27.563 Oshkosh, Wis 22,836 15.748 Salt Lake City, Utah. 44.843 20, 768 Oswego, N. Y 21,842 21,116 San Antonio, Texas.. 37.673 20,550 Ottawa City, 111 9.985 7.834 San Diego, Cal 16,159 2,637 Ottumwa, Iowa 14,001 9,004 Sandusky, Ohio 18,471 15,838 Owensborough, Ky. . . 9.837 6,231 San Francisco, Cal. . . 298,997 233.959 Paducah, Ky 13,076 8,036 San Jose, Cal Saratoga Spr’gs, N. Y 18,060 12,567 Paris, Texas 8,254 8,408 3.980 11.975 8,421 Parkersburg, W. Va. . 6,582 Savannah, Ga 43.189 30,709 Passaic, N. J 13.028 6,532 Schenectady, N. Y. . . 19,902 13.655 Paterson, N. J 78,347 51.031 Scranton, Pa 75.215 45.850 Pawtucket, R. I 27,633 19,030 Seattle, Wash 42,837 ' 3.553 Peabody, Mass 10, 158 9.676 9,028 Sedalia, Mo 14,068 9.561 Peekskill, N Y 6,893 .Shamokin, Pa 14.403 8,184 Pensacola, Fla 31.750 6,845 Sheboygan, Wis Shenandoah, Pa 16,359 7.314 Peoria, 111 41,024 9.512 29,259 4,808 15.944 11.979 10. 147 Perth Amboy, N, J . . . Shreveport, La 8,009 6,578 Petersburg, Va 22,680 21,656 Sing Sing, N. Y 9.352 Philadelphia, Pa : [,046,964 847,170 Sioux City, Iowa 37.806 7.366 Phillipsburg, N. J. ... 8,644 7. 181 Sioux Falls, S. Dak.. 10,177 2,164 Phoenixville, Pa 8,514 6,682 Somerville, Mass 40,152 24.933 Pine Bluff, Ark 9.952 3.203 South Bend, Ind 21,819 13.280 Piqua, Ohio 9.090 6,031 South Bethlehem, Pa. 10,302 4.925 Pittsburg, Pa 238,617 156,389 South Omaha, Neb. . . 8,062 Pittsfield, Mass 1 7, 28 1 13.364 Spencer, Mass Spokane Falls, Wash. 8,747 7.466 Pittston, Pa 10,302 1 1,267 7,472 19,922 350 Plainfield, N. J 8,125 Springfield, 111 24.963 19.743 Plattsmouth, Neb.... 8,392 4.175 Springfield, Mass.... 44.179 33,340 Plymouth, Pa 9.344 6,065 Springfield, Mo 21,850 6,522 Port Huron, Mich. . . . 13.543 8,883 Springfield, Ohio 31.895 20,730 Port Jervis, N. Y 9.327 8,678 Stamford, Conn 15,700 11,297 Portland, Me 36,425 33.810 Steelton, Pa 9.250 2,447 Portland, Ore 46,385 17.577 Steubenville, Ohio. . . . 13.394 12,093 Portsmouth, N. H . . . . 9,827 9.690 Stillwater, Minn 11,260 9.055 Portsmouth, Ohio.... 12,394 11.321 .Stockton, Cal 14.424 10,282 Portsmouth, Va 13,268 11,390 Streator, III 11,414 5,157 Pottstown, Pa 13.285 5.305 Superior, Wis 11,983 Pottsville, Pa 14,117 22,206 13.253 Syracuse, NY Tacoma, Wash 88,143 51.792 Poughkeepsie, N. Y.. 20,207 36,006 1,098 Providence, R. I 132,146 104,857 Taunton, Mass 25.448 21,213 Pueblo, Colo 24.558 3,2i7|Terre Haute, Ind 30,217 26,042 (Junicy, 111 31.494 27,268, Tiffin, Ohio 10,801 7.879 132 Cities and Towns of over 8,000 Population — Concluded. CITIES AND TOWNS. 1890. 1880. CITIES AND TOWNS. 1890. 1880. Titusville, Pa 8,073 0,046 Westfield, Mass 9,805 7,587 Toledo, Ohio 81,434 50,137 West Troy, N. Y Weymouth, Mass 12,967 8,820 Topeka, Kans 31,007 15,452 10,866 10,570 Trenton, N. J 57,458 29,910 Wheeling, W. Va 35,013 30,737 Troy, N. Y 60,956 56,747 Wichita, Kans 23,853 4,911 Union, N. J 10,643 5,849 Wilkesbarre, Pa 37,718 23,339 Utica, N. Y 44,007 33.914 Williamsport, Pa 27,132 8,648 18,934 Vernon, Conn 8,808 6 , 9*5 Willimantic, Conn 6,608 Vicksburg, Miss 13,373 11,814 Wilmington, Del 61,431 42,478 Vincennes, Ind 8,853 7,680 Wilmington, N. C . 20,056 17,350 Waco, Texas 14,445 7,295 Winona, Minn 18,208 10,208 Waltham, Mass 18,707 11,712 12,164 Winston, N. C 8,018 2,854 Warwick, R. I 17,761 Woburn, Mass 13,499 10,931 Washington, D, C. . . . 230,392 177,624 Woonsocket, R. I . . . . 20,830 16,050 Waterbury, Conn 38,646 17,806 10,697 Worcester, Mass 84,655 58,291 Watertown, N. Y 14,725 Yonkers, N. Y 32,033 18,892 Watertown, Wis 8,755 7,883 York, Pa 20,793 13,940 Wausau, Wis West Bay City, Mich. West Chester, Pa 9>253 4,277 Youngstown, Ohio... Zanesville, Ohio 33,220 15,435 12,981 8,028 6,397 7,046 21,009 18,113 The Wonderful Growth of Chicago. The population of Chicago in 1830, was 70; 1840, 4,853; 1845, 12,088; 1850, 29,963; 1855, 60,227; i860, 112,172; 1865, 178,900; 1870, 298,977; 1872, 364,377; 1880, 503,185; 1884, (estimated) 675,- 000; 1885, (estimated), 727,000; 1886, (estimated) 750,000; 1887, (estimated) 760,000; 1889, (estimated) 1,000,000; 1890, 1,099,133. THE NAMES OF THE STATES. Alabama — Indian; meaning “Here we rest.” Arkansas — “Kansas,” the Indian name for “smoky water,” with the French prefix “arc,” bow or bend in the principal river. California — Caliefite For 7 talla^ Spanish for “ hot furnace,” in allusion to the climate. Colorado — Spanish; meaning “ colored,” from the red color of the Colorado river. Connecticut — Indian; meaning “ long river.” Dela^vare — Named in honor of Lord Delaware. Florida — Named by Ponce de Leon, who discovered it in 1512, on Easter Day, the Spanish Pascua de Flores^ or “Feast of Flowers.” Georgia — In honor of George II. of England. ////- 7 iois — From the Indian “illini,” men, and the French suffix “ois,” together signifying “ tribe of men.” Indiaiia — Indian land. Iowa — Indian; meaning “beautiful land.” Kansas — Indian; meaning “smoky water.” Kentucky — Indian ; for “ at the head of the river; ” or “ the dark and bloody ground.” Louisi- ana — In honor of Louis XIV. of France. Maine — From the province of Maine, in France. Maryland — In honor of Henri- etta Maria, queen of Charles L of England. Massachusetts — The plate of the great hills (the blue hills southwest of Boston). 133 NEW JERSEY ranks first in silk goods, zinc and fertilizing marl, fourth in iron ore, fifth in iron and steel, sixth in buckwheat, man- ufactures and soap, seventh in rye, nineteenth in population, P'irst settlement, by Dutch, at Hergen, 1620. One of the thirteen original States, 134 NEW MEXICO ranks er^th in silver^ eleventh in gold, nine- teenth in sheep, t\Vehty-second in cattle, thirty-si^^th in miles of railway, and 43d iii population. First settlement, by Spaniards, at Santa Fe, 1537. Organized as a territory, 1850. Population in 1885, territorial census, 134,141. 135 NAMES OF THE STATES, Michigan — The Indian name for a fish weir. The lake was so called from the fancied resemblance of the lake to a fish trap. Minnesota — Indian; meaning “ skj-tinted water.” Mississippi — Indian; meaning “ great father of waters.” Missouri — Indian; meaning “muddy.” Nebraska — Indian; meaning “water val- ley.” Nevada — Spanish; meaning “snow-covered,” alluding to the mountains. New Hampshire — From Hampshire county, England. New Jersey — In honor of Sir George Carteret, one of the original grantees, who had previously been governor of Jersey Island. New Tork — In honor of the Duke of York. North aiid South Carolina — Originally called Carolina, in honor of Charles IX. of France. Ohio — Indian; meaning “beautiful river.” Oregon — From the Spanish “oregano,” wild marjoram^ which grows abundantly on the coast. Pennsylvania — Latin: meaning Penn’s woody land. Rhode Island — From a fancied resemblance to the island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean. Tennessee — Indian, meaning “river with the great bend.” Texas — Origin of this name is unknown. Vermont — French; meaning green mountain. Virginia— In honor of Elizabeth, the “Virgin Queen.” Wisconsin — Indian; meaning “ gathering of the waters,” or “ wild rushing channel.” MOTTOES OF THE STATES. Arkansas — Regnant populi: The peoples rule. Calif or- 7tia — Eureka: I have found it. Colorado — Nil sine numine: Nothing without the Divinity. Co7inecticut — ^ui tra7tstulit sustinet: He who has transferred, sustains. Delaware — Liberty and Independence. Florida — In God is our trust. Georgia — Wisdom, Justice, Moderation. Illinois — State Sovereignty and National Union. Iowa — Our liberties we prize, and our rights we will maintain. Ka7isas — Ad astra per aspera: To the stars through rugged ways. Kentucky — United we stand, divided we fall. Louisiana — Union and Confidence. Maine — Dirigo: I direct. Maryland — Crescite et 7nultiplicamini : Increase and multiply. Massachusetts — Ense petit placida7n sub libertate quiete77i: By her sword she seeks under liberty a calm repose. Michigan — Si quceris peninsulam a7noenam circu7hspice: If thou seekest a beautiful peninsula, look around. Minnesota — HEtoile du Nord: The Star of the North. Missouri — Solus populi supre7na lex esto: Let the welfare of the people be the supreme law. Nebraska — Popular Sovereignty. Nevada — Volens et potens: Willing and able. New Jersey — Liberty and Independence, New Tork — Excelsior : Higher. Ohio — Im- perium in imperio: An empire within an empire. Oregon — Alis volat propriis: She flies with her own wings. Petinsylva- nia — Virtue, Liberty, Independence. Rhode Island — Hope. 136 GEOGRAPHICAL NICKNAMES. South Carolina — Animis opibiisque parati: Ready with our lives and property. Te^inessee — Agriculture, Commerce. Ver- ftiont — Freedom and Unity. Virginia — Sic semper tyrannis: So be it ever to tyrants. West Virgiiiia — Montani semper liberi: The mountaineers are always free. Wisconsin — For- ward. United States — E pluribus unum: From many, one. Annuit coeptis: God has favored the undertaking; Novus ordo seclorum: A new order of ages. The first named on one side of the great seal, the other two on the reverse. GEOGRAPHICAL NICKNAMES. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Alabama, Cotton State; Arkansas, Toothpick and Bear State; California, Eureka and Golden State; Colorado, Centennial State; Connecticut, Land of Steady Habits, Freestone State and Nut- meg State; Dakota, Sioux State; Delaware, Uncle Sam’s Pocket Handkerchief and Blue Hen State; Florida, Everglade and Flowery State; Georgia, Empire State of the South; Idaho, Gem of the Mountains; Illinois, Prairie and Sucker State; Indiana, Hoosier State; Iowa, Hawkeye State; Kansas, Jayhawker State; Kentucky, Corn-cracker State; Louisiana, Creole State; Maine, Timber and Pine Tree State; Maryland, Monumental State; Massachusetts, Old Bay State; Michigan, Wolverine and Benin* sular State; Minnesota, Gopher and North Star State; Mississippi, Eagle State; Missouri, Puke State; Nebraska, Antelope State; Nevada, Sage State; New Hampshire, Old Granite State; New Jersey, Blue State and New Spain; New Mexico, Vermin State; New York, Empire State; North Carolina, Rip Van Winkle, Old North and Turpentine State; Ohio, Buckeye State; Oregon, Pacific State; Pennsylvania, Keystone, Iron and Oil State; Rhode Island, Plantation State and Little Rhody; South Caro- lina, Palmetto State; Tennessee, Lion’s Den State; Texas, Lone Star State; Utah, Mormon State; Vermont, Green Mountain State; Virginia, Old Dominion; Wisconsin, Badger and Copper State. NATIVES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. Alabama, lizards; Arkansas, toothpicks; California, gold-hun- ters; Colorado, rovers; Connecticut, wooden nutmegs; Dakota, squatters; Delaware, muskrats; Florida, fly-up-the-creeks; Georgia, buzzards; Idaho, fortune seekers; Illinois, suckers; Indiana, hoosiers; Iowa, hawkeyes; Kansas, jayhawkers; Ken- tucky, corn-crackers; Louisiana, creoles; Maine, foxes; Mary- land, clam-humpers', Massachusetts, Yankees; Michigan, wol- verines; Minnesota, gophers; Mississippi, tadpoles; Missouri, pukes; Nebraska, bugeatefs; Nevada, sage-hens; New Hampshire, granite boys; New Jersey, blues, or clam-catchers; New Mexico, 137 NEW YORK ranks first in manufactures, population, printing and publishing, hops, hay, potatoes, buckwheat and milch cows; second in salt, silk goods, malt and distilled liquors, miles of rail- way and barley; third in agricultural implements, iron ore, iron and steel, oats and rye, fourth in wool. First settlement, by the Dutch, at New Amsterdam (now New York City), 1614. One of the original States. NORTH CAROLINA ranks first in tar and turpentine, second in copper, third in peanuts and tobacco, fourth in rice, ninth in cot- ton, fifteenth in population. First settlers, English, Cowan River, 1650. SOUTH CAROLINA ranks first in rice and phos- phates, fifth in cotton, and 21st in population. First settlers, English, Ashley River, 1670. North and South Carolina are both original States. GEOGRAPHICAL NICKJVAMES, Spanish Indians; New York, Knickerbockers; North Carolina, tarheels; Ohio, buckeyes; Oregon, hard cases; Pennsylvania, pennamites, or leather-heads; Rhode Island, gunflints; South Carolina, weazles; Tennessee, whelps; Texas, beef-heads; Utah, polygamists; Vermont, green-mountain boys; Virginia, beagles; Wisconsin, badgers. NICKNAMES OF CITIES. Atlanta, Gate City of the South; Baltimore, Monumental City; Bangor, Lumber City; Boston, Modern Athens, Literary Emporium, City of Notions, and Hub of the Universe; Brook- lyn, City of Churches; Buffalo, Queen of the Lakes; Burling- ton (Iowa), Orchard City; Charleston, Palmetto City ; Chicago, Prairie, or Garden City; Cincinnati, Queen of the West and Porkopolis; Cleveland, Forest City ; Denver, City of the Plains; Detroit, City of the Straits; Hartford, Insurance City; Indian- apolis, Railroad City; Keokuk, Gate City; Lafayette, Star City; Leavenworth, Cottonwood City ; Louisville, Falls City; Lowell, Spindle City; McGregor, Pocket City; Madison, Lake City; Milwaukee, Cream City; Nashville, Rock City; New Haven, Elm City; New Orleans, Crescent City; New York, Empire City, Commercial Emporium, Gotham, and Metropolis of America; Philadelphia, City of Brotherly Love, City of Penn, (^aker City, and Centennial City; Pittsburgh, Iron City and Smoky City; Portland (Me.), Hill City; Providence, Roger Williams’s City, and Perry Davis’s Pain Killer; Raleigh, Oak City; Richmond (Va.), Cockade City; Richmond (Ind.), Quaker City of the West; Rochester, Aqueduct City; Salt Lake City, Mormon City; San Francisco, Golden Gate; Sa- vannah, Forest City of the South; Sheboyan, Evergreen City; St. Louis, Mound City; St. Paul, North Star Citj^; Vicksburg, Key City; Washington, City of Magnificent Distances, and Federal City. The English Sparrow. The first English sparrow was brought to the United States in 1850, but it was not until 1870 that the species can be said to have firmly established itself. Since then it has taken posses- sion of the country. Its fecundity is amazing. In the latitude of New York and" southward it hatches, as a rule, five or six broods in a season, with from four to six young in a brood. As- suming the average annual product of a pair to be twenty-tour young, of which half are females and half males, and assuming further, for the sake of computation, that all live, together with their offspring, it will be seen that in ten years the progeny of a single pair would be 275,716,983,698. 140 U. S. STATISTICS IN A NUTSHELL. r I aHE last census of the United States, taken in 1890, and the I results of which were announced in 1891, shows that we have' a POPULATION of 62,622,250. The census of 1880 counted 50,155,783, of whom 1 7,392,099 were earners. The combined wealth of the country in 1880 amounted to over $50,000,000,000 — about $880 per liead, or $2,600 per worker. Half of this was in lands and houses. This half was made up of farms, $10,197,000,000 ; residence and business real-estate, $9,881,- 000,000 ; public buildings, churches, etc., not taxed, $2,000,000,- 000. One-eighth was railroads ( $5,536,000,000); another eighth, household furniture and supplies ($5,000,000,000); the other quarter, live stock and farm tools ($2,406,000,000); mines and quarries ($781,000,000); telegraphs, ships and canals ($419,000,- 000); specie ($612,000,000); miscellaneous ($650,000,000); and the stock of products and imports ( $6,160,000,000). The annual product or earnings of the nation ape given by the census of 1880 as $8,500,000,000. One-tenth of this is used on farms. The product is very unevenly divided. An even divi- sion would give about $450 per year to each earner, or less than 45 cents per day for each person. But it has been reckoned that in 1880 fifty persons had an average income of $1,000,000 each per year ; 2,000, $100,000; 100,000, $10,000; a million, $1,000; 14,000,000 under $400 per year. The chief wastes are as follows : 1. Drink. The “liquor bill” of this country, at the price paid dram-shops, is estimated at from $474,000,000 up, of which a large part is worse than waste. 2. Fire. The loss by fire each year now exceeds $100,000,000, of which the $50,000,000 paid back by insurance companies is none the less loss. The expenses of insurance companies are $35,000,000 in addition, and for fire departments, $25,000,000 more. 3. Crime and pauperism. The census reported 59,255 crimi- nals in jail, and 67,067 paupers in poor-houses. These are by no means all. Their support costs over $12,500,000 per year, but the full loss by crime runs probably toward fifty millions. 4. Waste of food. We consume now about $500,000,000 worth of food, of which probably 10 per cent is wasted by extrava- gance, bad cooking, etc., or $50,000,000. 5. Strikes and lack of employment. There were in one year ( 1880) 762 strikes recorded, of which 226 are known to have re- sulted in a loss of $3,700,000 unearned wages. Still greater is the loss by lack of employment for men willing to work. 141 OHIO ranks first in agricultural implements and wool, second in petroleum, iron and steel, fourth in population, wheat, sheep, coal, malt and distilled liquors; fourth in printing and publishing, salt and miles of railway; fifth in milch cows, hogs, horses, hay, tobac- co, iron ore and manufactures. First settled, by English, at Mari- etta, 1788. Admitted into the Union, 1803. 142 OREGON ranks seventh among the States and Territories in fisheries, fifteenth in wheat, thirty-eighth in population. First settlement, by Americans, in i8ii. Organized as a territory in 1848, and admitted into the Union in 1859. J43 FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. The following gives the area of our country, and when and how the territory was acquired : . Square Miles. Territory ceded by England in 1783 815,615 Louisiana acquired from France in 1803 930,928 Florida acquired from Spain in 1821 59,268 Texas admitted into the Union in 1845 237,504 Oregon, by treaty in 1846 280,425 California taken from Mexico in 1845 649,762 Arizona, from Mexico by treaty in 1854 27,500 Alaska, from Russia by treaty in 1867 577,390 Total square miles 3,578,392 INCREASE OF POPULATION IN UNITED STATES. 1831-40 Natural. 28.02 Immigration. 4.65 Total per Cent. 32.67 1841-50 26.19 9.68 35.87 1851-60 24.20 11.38 35.58 1861-70 15.38 7.25 22.63 1871-80 22.78 7.29 30.07 The increase of population since 1730 has averaged 32 per cent, every 10 years. At this rate there would he eighty-eight millions in 1900 . From 1880 to 1890 the increase was 24.86 per cent. The increase of population in Europe since the fourteenth cen- tury is as follows, according to Mulhall (thousands omitted): 1380. 1480. 1580. 1680. 1780. 1880. British Isles . . 2,360 3,700 4,600 5,532 9,561 35,004 France 11,240 12,600 14,300 18,800 25,100 37,400 Germany 600 800 1,000 1,400 5,460 45,260 Russia 1,200 2,100 4 300 12,600 26,800 84,440 Austria 2,300 9,500 16,500 14,000 20,200 37,830 Italy Spain 8,400 9,200 10,400 11,500 12,800 28,910 7,500 8,800 8,150 9,200 9,960 16,290 Total 33,600 46,700 59,250 73,032 109,881 285,134 GOVERNMENT SALARIES. The salary of the President of the United States is $ 50,000 a year, the Vice President, $ 8 , 000 ; Cabinet officers, $ 8 , 000 . Sena- tors, $ 5,000 and mileage ; Congressmen, $ 5,000 and mileage. Chief Justice Supreme Court, $ 10,500 ; associate Justices, $ 10 ,- 000 . The diplomats get good pay : Ministers to Germany, 144 U, S. STATISTICS IN A NUTSHELL, Great Britain, France and Russia, $17,500 ; Ministers to Brazil, China, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Japan and Spain, $12,- 000; Ministers to Chili, Peru and Central America, $10,000; Minis- ters to Argentine Confederation, Hawaiian Islands, Belgium, Hayti, Colombia, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey and Venezuela, $7,500 ; Ministers to Switzerland, Denmark, Paraguaj^ Bolivia and Portugal, $5,000 ; Ministers to Liberia, $4,000. The heads of the Government departments receive : Superintendent of Bureau of Engraving and Printing, $4,500 ; Public Printer, $4,- 500 ; Superintendent of Census, $5,000 ; Superintendent of Naval Observatory, $5,000 ; Superintendent of the Signal Service, $4,- 000 ; Director of Geological Surveys, $6,000 ; Director of the Mint, $4,500 ; Commissioner of General Land Office, $4,000 ; Commissioner of Pensions, $3,600 ; Commissioner of Agricul- ture, $3,000 ; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, $3,000 ; Commis- sioner of Education, $3,000 ; Commander of Marine Corps, $3,- 500 ; Superintendent of Coast and Geodetic Survey, $6,000. The pay of army officers is fixed as follows : General, $13,- 500; Lieut. -General, $11,000; Major-General, $7,500; Brigadier- General, $5,500 ; Colonel, $3,500, Lieutenant-Colonel, $3,000 ; Major, $2,500 ; Captain, mounted, $2,000 ; Captain, not mounted, $1,800 ; Regimental Adjutant, $1,800 ; Regimental Quartermas- ter, $1,800 ; ist Lieutenant, mounted, $1,600; ist Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,500; 2d Lieutenant, mounted, $1,500 ; 2d Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,400 ; Chaplain, $1,500. The navy salaries are : Admiral, $13,000 ; Vice-Admiral, $9,000 ; Rear-Admiral, $6,000 ; Commodore, $5,000 ; Captain, $4,500 ; Commander, $3,500 ; Ifieut-Commander, $2,800; Lieutenant, $2,400 ; Master, $1,800 ; Ensign, $1,200 ; Midshipman, $1,000 ; Cadet Midshipman, $500 ; Mate, $900 ; Medical and Pay Director and Medical and Pay Inspector and Chief Engineer, $4,400 ; Fleet Surgeon, Fleet Pay- master and Fleet Engineer, $4,400 ; Surgeon and Paymaster, $2,- 800 ; Chaplain, $2,500. STATE AND TERRITORIAL CAPITALS. Alabama, Montgomery; Arizona, Prescott; Arkansas, Little Rock; California, Sacramento; Colorado, Denver; Connecti- cut, Hartford; North Dakota, Bismarck; South Dakota, Pierre; Delaware, Dover; Florida, Tallahassee; Georgia, Atlanta; Ida- ho, Boise City; Illinois, Springfield; Indiana, Indianapolis; In- dian Territory, Tahlequah; Iowa, Des Moines; Kansas, To- peka; Kentucky, Frankfort; Louisiana, Baton Rouge; Maine, Augusta; Maryland, Annapolis; Massachusetts, Boston; Michi- gan, Lansing; Minnesota, St. Paul; Mississippi, Jackson; Missouri, Jefferson City; Montana, Helena; Nebraska, Lin- coln; Nevada, Carson City; New Hampshire, Concord; 145 PENNSYLVANIA ranks first in rye, iron and steel, petroleum, coal; second in population, manufactures, buckwheat, potatoes, printing and publishing; third in milch cows, hay and miles of rail- way; fourth in oats and tobacco; fifth in silk goods, wool, malt and distilled liquors; sixth in salt, copper and agricultural implements; eighth in horses and sheep. First settlement, English, Philadel- phia, 1682. One of the thirteen original States. 14G RHODE ISLAND ranks second among the States of the Union in cotton, flax and linen goods, thirty-third in population. The first settlement was by the English at Providence in 1636. One of the thirteen original States. 147 U. S, STATISTICS IN A NUTSHELL. New Jersey, Trenton ; .New Mexico Territory, Santa Fe ; New York, Albany; North Carolina, Raleigh; Ohio, Columbus; Oregon, Salem ; Pennsylvania, Harrisburg ; Rhode Island, New- port and Providence ; South Carolina, Columbia ; Tennessee, Nashville; Texas, Austin; Utah Territory, Salt Lake City; Vermont, Montpelier ; Virgina, Richmond ; Washington, Olym- pia ; West Virginia, Wheeling ; Wisconsin, Madison; Wyom- ing Territory, Cheyenne. Portraits on Bank Notes and Postage Stamps. On United States notes — $i, Washington; $2, Jefferson; $5, Jackson; $10, Webster; $20, Hamilton; $50, Franklin; $100, Lincoln; $500, General Mansfield; $1,000, DeWitt Clinton; $5,000, Madison; $10,000, Jackson. On silver certificates — $10, Robert Morris; $20, Commodore Decatur; $50, Edward Everett; $100, James Monroe; $500, Charles Sumner, and $1,000, W. L. Marcy. On gold notes — $20, Garfield; $50, Silas Wright; $100, Thomas H. Benton; $500, A. Lincoln; $1,000, Alexander Hamil- ton; $5,000, James Madison; $10,000, Andrew Jackson. Those which appear on postage stamps are: On lo-cent stamp, the head of Jefferson, from life-size statue by Powers; 6-cent, Lincoln, from bust by Volk; 5- cent, Garfield; 4-cent, Jackson; 2 -cent, Washington, after Houdin’s bust; i-cent, Franklin, from profile bust by Rubicht. Postal card, Jefferson. Symbolic Meaning of Colors. — White was the emblem of light, religious purity, innocence, faith, joy and life. In the judge, it indicates integrity; in the sick, humility; in the woman, chastity. Red, the ruby, signifies fire, divine love, heat of the creative power, and royalty. White and red roses express love and wis- dom. The red color of the blood has its origin in the action of the heart, which corresponds to, or symbolizes, love. In a bad sense red corresponds to the infernal love of evil, hatred, etc. Blue, or the sapphire, expresses heaven, the firmament, truth from a celestial origin, constancy and fidelity. Yellow, or gold, is the symbol of the sun, of the goodness of God, of marriage and faithfulness. In a bad sense yellow signi- fies inconstancy, jealousy and deceit. Green, the emerald, is the color of the spring of hope, particu- larly of the hope of immortality and of victory, as the color of the laurel and palm. Violet, the amethyst, signifies love and truth, or passion and suffering. Purple and scarlet signify things good and true from a celestial origin. Black corresponds to despair, darkness, earthliness, mourning, negation, wickedness and death. 148 U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF. T hat enthusiastic little rebel, Rhode Island, was the first of the colonies to declare itself “ free from all dependence on the crown of Great Britain.” This she did on May 4, 1776. The Assembly of Virginia in the same month in- structed her delegates to the Continental Congress to present to that body a proposition “ affirming the independence of the colo- nies from Great Britain.” In compliance with these instructions Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, on June 7, 1776, introduced his famous resolutions: “That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances. That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective colonies for their consideration and approbation.” John Adams seconded these resolutions, and an animated discus- sion ensued. On June 8, a committee consisting of Thomas Jef- ferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston, was appointed to draw up a declaration of independence embodying the sense of Lee’s resolutions. On July 2, Lee’s resolutions were passed by the vote of twelve of the thirteen colonies, the New York delegates refraining from voting for want of instructions from their province. On July 3, the formal declaration, almost precisely as written by Thomas Jef- ferson, was presented by the committee above named, and was debated with great spirit, John Adams being the chief speaker on the part of the committee. The discussion was resumed on the morning of the 4th, and at 2 o’clock in the afternoon, after one or two slight modifications, it was adopted. The announce- ment was hailed with the liveliest enthusiasm. “Ring! ring!” shouted the lad stationed below to give the signal to the old bell- nan in the State House tower; and he did ring until the whole city shouted for joy. The King’s arms were wrenched from the Court House and burned in the streets; bonfires were lighted, the city illuminated, and the exultation was prolonged far into the night. In New Y ork City the populace hurled the leaden statute of George III. from its pedestal and molded it into bul- lets, and in all the great cities similar demonstrations of enthu- siasm were exhibited. The Declaration of Independence was signed August 2, 1776, when President John Hancock said, “ There must be no pulling different ways, we must all hang together,” to which Franklin replied, “Yes, we must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.” 149 TEXAS ranks first in cattle and cotton, second in sugar, sheep, rtules and horses, sixth in miles of railway, seventh in milch cows, eighth in hogs and rice, seventh in population. First settle- ment, by Spaniards, at San Antonio, in 1692. Admitted into the Union in 1845. 15a r UTAH ranks third among the States and Territories in silver, tenth in gold, fifteenth in coal, thirty-fourth in miles of railway, thirty-ninth in population. First settlement, by Americans, at Salt I^ake City 1847. Organi/-ed as a Territory in 1850. 151 V. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. State constitutions were adopted in the same year as follows: .By New Jersey (July 2), Virginia (July 5), Pennsylvania (July 15), Maryland (Aug. 14), Delaware (Sept. 20), North Carolina (Dec. 18). 1778 — Independence of United States acknowledged by France by a treaty of alliance and commerce. 1779 — Naval victory of John Paul Jones. 1781 — A French fleet in aid of the United States drives the British from Chesapeake Bay. Surrender of Cornwallis. 1782 — Independence recognized by Holland. 1783 — Independence acknowledged by Sweden, Denmark, Spain and Russia, successively. Definite treaty of peace with Great Britain, Sept. 3. 1789 — Formation and adoption of the Constitution. American politics begins properly with the close of the Revolu tionary war, out of which travail this nation was born. When the British departed they left behind them thirteen separate and independent States joined together in a feeble confederation and governed as a whole, so far as they would consent to be governed at all, by the inadequate Continental Congress. The finances were in a deplorable condition; the States were jealous of each other, and of the Congress. As everything was badly defined and unsettled there were constant encroachments and abuses, and it seemed that after achieving freedom America was about to cast it aw’ay. During the war there had been two parties, the Tories, who were 'English in sympathy, and the Whigs, who were American to the core. These gave place to two new di- visions, one of which favored a closer and lasting union in which the States should bind themselves together into a compact gov- ernment — called the Federalists; and one which, while gener- ally admitting the need for a closer and more binding union, still sought to preserve the sovereignty and independence of the States — these were known as the Anti-Federalists. Our Consti- tution and our form of government are the result of the two op- posing forces, and its great flexibilitj^ — its perfection — is to be ascribed to the wisdom with which the fathers sought out and chose what was best in the scheme of either. It is impossible here to do more than outline the growth of parties, but no man can be an intelligent voter who does not study the foundation of the republic. Every citizen should pur- sue this subject further in the pages of the Federalist^ which argued one side of the issue, and in the writings of Thomas Jef-. ferson, who upheld the other. It will show how high ran feeling at the time, when it is pointed out that, although the Constitu- tion was adopted in 1787, it was ratified by but eleven States in 1788. Still this was enough to set the new nation up in business. 152 U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF GEORGE WASHINGTON (1789-1797) was the unanimous choice of the electoral college, and the hero of the revolution be- came the first President of the United States in 1789. It is not to be imagined that even at that time the people were all of one mind about the Constitution. There is no document — not even the Bible — which is not subject to different interpretations, and the great charter of our American liberties was no exception to the rule. Parties were formed known as strict constructionists and loose constructionists, the former Federalists, the latter Anti- Federalists, the first believing in a strongly centralized govern- ment, the second jealously observant of the rights of the States. It will be found that a close analysis of the distinction made there has been and is the dividing line of American parties ever since. Of course new issues complicated the old ones. The Anti-Fed- eralists changed their name to the Democratic -Republican party, and warmly urged the alliance with France. In the rev- olution which had just ended, the French alone had first come to our aid, and on land and sea had waged war upon our common enemy. Hence there was a lively sense of gratitude to that great nation throughout the country, made none the less by the estab- lishment of the republic, and hardly destroyed by the atrocities of the Reign of Terror. The Federalists, on the other hand, in- clined toward England as the national friend, through the ties of kinship and common language. In spite of these differences of opinion, which were daily growing more bitter, there was practically no partisanship during Washington’s administration. He called Federalists and Anti-Federalists into his cabinet, which was composed of men of such opposite views as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, and his farewell address, which every school boy has read, is full of grave warning against the evils and dangers of party spirit. But with Washington in retirement, the contest began. The ■^Federalists put JOHN ADAMS (1797-1801) in the field, and elected him in spite of the English treaty which John Jay had made and which Adams had supported. Thomas Jefferson be- came vice-president, because at that time the vice-presidency went to the man receiving the next largest vote for president, a system which was in force until 1804. There were many reasons why the Federalist triumph could not be a permanent one. England was intensely unpopular, and the administration was accused of favoring that kingdom unduly. The alien and sedition laws caused an access of the public dis- pleasure, and the party split into two sections, one following Ad- ams, the other Hamilton. Nominations for the election were made by members of Congress; Adams and Pinkney were chosen 153 VIRGINIA ranks first in peanuts, second in tobacco, eighth in salt and iron ore, fourteenth in population. First settlers, Eng- lish, at Jamestown, 1607. One of the original States. WEST VIRGINIA ranks fifth in salt and coal, eighth in buckwheat, iron and steel, twenty-eightlj in population. First settlers, English, at Wheeling, 1774. Admitted into the Union in 1863. 154 WASHINGTON, in 1890, ranked eighth among the States and Territories in gold, forty-sixth in miles of railway, and 34th in population. First settlement, by Americans, at Astoria, in 1811. Organized as a territory in 1853, and admitted into the Union in 1889. 155 U. S. POLITICAL HISTORT IN BRIEF, as the Federal standard-bearers, Jefferson and Aaron Burr as the Republican. Jefferson and Burr were elected, but as both had received the same number of votes, the election was thrown into the House, which chose THOMAS JEFFERSON (1801-1809) the third president of the United States. The history of his administration was a quiet one. He refused to make the civil service the spoil of victory, and gave proof of the flexibility of his ideas of government by the purchase of Louisiana Territory from France in 1803, which was a measure tending strongly toward Federalism — giving a hostage, as it were, to the central government on the part of the States. Jefferson also agreed to the building of the great post road to the Ohio, which was by no means a Republican scheme. JAMES MADISON (1809-1817) was elected fourth presi- dent. He, like Jefferson, was a Republican, although, as has been pointed out, that party is more nearly akin to what is to-day called Democracy. C. C. Pinkney, the Federalist candidate who opposed him, and who had run twice against Jefferson, received 47 electoral votes, while Madison was given 122. The Feder- alists lost every part of the country save New England, and one result of this election was to give that sectional tone to our poli- tics which has to a greater or less extent endured to the present time. The country was drifting into a war with England at the time, and the public spirit Was aroused by the continual outrages per- petrated upon our sailors on the high seas by British ships. The Republicans were recognized as the fighting party, and under the leadership of Calhoun, Clay and Crawford, the War of 1812 was begun. The Federalists protested, and in Massachusetts and Connecticut the governors refused to allow the militia to go out of the State, save to repel invasion. That argument lasted but a short time, however, for the country was invaded and the city of Washington captured and burned. The treaty of peace was signed in the winter of 1814, but before the news reached this country Andrew Jackson had gained the magnificent victory of New Orleans, on January 8, 1815. With the close of Madison’s administration a new era in our politics began. The questions of Federalism and of the French or English friendship were dead, and new issues were coming up. These were the tariff, the management of finances and the devel- opment of industry. What became known as the Era of Good Feeling followed, which lasted from the election of JAMES MONROE (1817-1825) up to 1828. Upon Monroe’s second election in 1821, there was no opposition to him, and he would have had the unanimous vote of the electoral college had not one 156 U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF, of the electors declared that that honor should be confined sacredly to Washington. It was the Slavery Question which put an end to the era of good feeling, and which burned hotly, and more hotly, un' til it wrapped the whole land in the flames of civil war. It began with the application of Missouri for admission into the Union in 1820. Prior to that time Mason and Dixon’s Line, which is the boundary of Maryland and Pennsylvania, and the Ohio River, formed the division between slave States and free. Missouri lies beyond the Mississippi River, and out of the limits fixed, and the question was a threatening one until Henry Clay brought in his famous Missouri Compromise, which ad- mitted Missouri as a slave State, and forbade slavery north of 36° 30' north latitude. To balance Missouri in the Senate, Maine was admitted at the same time as a free State. A protective tariff had been devised by John C. Calhoun in 1816, and President Monroe strengthened and increased the pro- tection accorded. In 1819 he purchased Florida from Spain; and in 1823, in consequence of the war made by Spain against her revolted colonies in the three Americas, he voiced that splendid declaration which will always be associated with his name — the Monroe Doctrine. This doctrine briefly is that the United States will not interfere in any European war, nor will it permit European interference or European control in America North or South. No better proof could be given of the condition of parties than the election which ended Monroe’s tenure of office. The electoral college chose a vice-president, John C. Calhoun, but its vote for the presidencj^ was so scattered between Jackson, Adams, Crawford and Clay that the choice was thrown into the House. Here, by an alliance of the friends of Clay and Adams, Jackson was defeated and JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1825- 1829) became the sixth president. Claj^ was rewarded with the portfolio of State, and out of the alliance the “Whig” Party was formed. Their principles were in part those of the old Fed- eralists. They were for a high tariff with strong protection, and they early declared for a policy of internal improvements to be paid for by the nation at large. Jackson’s followers took the place of the old anti-Federalists; they were strict construction- ists, opposed to the tariff, and in their principles and speeches was to be found the nucleus of the States’ rights doctrine. They called themselves “ Democrats. ” The four years of Adams’ presidency was passed in marshaling and organizing the two opposing forces. ANDREW JACKSON (1829-1837), the seventh president, carried everything before him. The electoral vote was 178 to 83; 15 T WISCONSIN ranks second in hops, third in barley and potatoes, fourth in rye and buckwheat, fifth in oats and agricultural imple- ments, seventh in iron, steel and wool, eighth in hay and milch cows, ninth in copper, sixteenth in population. First settle- ment, French, at Green Bay, in 1660. Admitted into the Union in 1S48. 158 WYOMING, in 1880, ranked twelfth among the States and Terri- tories in cattle, fourteenth in gold, sixteenth in coal, thirty-fourth in miles of railway, forty-seventh in population. First settlement, by Americans, in 1^7. Organized as a territory in 1868. Admitted to the Union 1890. 159 U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF, the popular, 647,231 for Jackson, 509,097 for Adams. As soon as he had taken up the reigns of power, Jackson removed some five hundred office-holders from their places, on Marcj’s famous theory that “to the victors belong the spoils.’* Upon this prin- ciple the tenure of political office still practically, if not theoret- ically, depends. The Tariff was exceedingly unpopular at the South, which was then as now, an agricultural rather than a manufacturing region. Several States had protested, and in 1830 Senator Hayne laid down the doctrine of Nullification — that any State could declare null and void any act of Congress. Webster answered this declaration in the debate which has since been famous. The original discussion was not on the tariff* regula- tions, but on the sale of public lands. The struggle was a hot one. Jackson took occasion to put himself on record at once with his celebrated toast, “Our Federal Union, it must be pre- served.” The words were first uttered at a dinner in honor of his birthday. Calhoun took the opposite view, and in 1831 the president’s cabinet was broken up by the issue. A new tariff bill was passed, but the South was still dissatisfied, and in 1832 South Carolina passed the Nullification ordinance. Jackson at once sent a naval force into Charleston harbor, and Congress passed a bill enforcing the tariff; but Henry Clay again came forward with a compromise which was accepted on both sides. The United States Bank was the next bone of contention. It had been chartered in 1816 for twenty years. After a struggle with Congress, and with his secretary of the Treasury, Duane, who would not remove the national deposits from the bank. Jack- son dismissed Duane and appointed Taney secretary of the Treas- ury. The deposits ceased. The Senate at once passed a vote of censure on the president, but the House, after investigating the bank, sustained Jackson at every point and refused a new char- ter. The fight with the Senate, in which there was an adverse majority, continued until the end of Jackson’s term. During his administration was the first weak beginning of the Abolition party. The Anti-Slavery Society was formed in 1833. It was the target for abuse and violence, which culminated in the assassina- tion of Lovejoy. Congress solemnly declared that it would listen to no petitions upon the question of slavery, and Jackson asked that the sending of abolition documents through the mails should be prohibited. This the Senate refused. The Democratic candidate, MARTIN VAN BUREN (1837- 1841), the eighth president, was elected over W. H, Harrison and several other opposition nominees, including Daniel Webster. He followed out Jackson’s polic}^ to the letter, one part of which, the celebrated “specie circular,” brought on the Great Panic of 1837. 160 U, S, POLITICAL II I ST OR r IN BRIEF. This was an order to United States agents to receive only gold and silver for public lands. Banks collapsed, money became Scarce, and failures were most frightfullj’^ numerous. In 1840 Van Buren was renominated, but the Whigs, by an attack on the Democratic financial policy, carried the country and elected W. H. HARRISON (1841) the ninth president. It was in this campaign that the abolitionists produced their first national plat- form, which favored the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and the Territories. In the same year the Democracy at Baltimore resolved that Congress had no power to interfere with or control the domestic institutions of the several States, which were the sole and proper judges of everything pertaining to their own affairs not prohibited by the Constitution, and that the efforts “ by Abolitionists or others to interfere with ques- tions of slaverj'^ were calculated “ to lead to the most alarming and dangerous consequences,” “ to diminish the happiness of the people and endanger the stability and permanence of the Union, and ought not to be countenanced by anj^ friend of our political institutions.” The convention also adopted a resolution to the effect that every attempt to abridge the rights or privileges of for- eign-born citizens should be resisted. This was aimed at the Know-nothing tendency then just appearing, w'hich had, how- ever, no affiliation with the Abolition movement, already vig- orous. Harrison did not live out the year, and he was succeeded by the vice-president, JOHN TYLER (1841-1845), the tenth pres- ident. Tyler rapidly got into trouble with his cabinet, which, save Webster, deserted him on issues connected with his attempt to carry out Harrison’s financial polic3^ The slavery question was pressing forward more and more urgentW for solution all this time. An Ohio Congressman, Giddings, brought the issue into the House of Representatives, and was censured by that body for so doing. He resigned and was at once unanimously re- elected. A new tariff bill was brought in, and the proposition then made for a division of the surplus among the States. Finance, protection, internal improvements, and indeed every minor issue, had to give way to the great puzzle of slaver^'. It was coming on for adjustment, and no hand could stay it. In the campaign of 1844 it produced the dispute over the re-annexation of Texas. The Democratic platform declared the Great Ameri- can Measures — the taking in of Texas and Oregon. As Texas would be a slave territory, the idea was antagonized in the North, but after a close and perplexed election JAMES K. POLK (1845-1849), the eleventh president, was elected. Henry Clay, the Whig candidate, was beaten by the vote of 62,300 which was given to Jas. G. Birney by the Liberty party. 161 < CO o Q UJ The Republic of Mexico comprises 27 States, a federal district and the territory of Lower California. The principal industries are agriculture, mining and stock raising. Climate mild and healthful in the elevated interior, but hot and pestilential along the coast. The Mexicans are a very mixed race, about one-tenth being Creoles, descendants of Spanish colonists. 1G2 < CO C3 C3> UJ < CO O CO LU Central America and West Indies. — Central America consists of five independent republics and the British colony Balize. Principal products, coffee, su^ar and dyewoods. In the elevated interior, gold, silver and coal abound. Sugar, tobacco and cigars, coffee and fruits are the principal products of Cuba. Two inde- pendent negro republics, Hayti and San Domingo, constitute the island of Hayti. 163 U. S. POLITICAL II IS TORT IN BRIEF. The new administration at once took up'the Texas matter, and the War with Mexico was the necessary consequence. The his- tory of that struggle will be found in its appropriate place in this book. It is here necessary merely to point out the results. By the treaty of Guadalupe- Hidalgo, the United States acquired all that country which we now call the great West, including the treasures of California and the Sierras. The northwestern frontier was fixed at the 49th degree of north latitude, and the adminis- tration closed with the largest accession of land that had yet been made to the Republic. The Wilmot Proviso attempted to block slavery in the new territories, and Oregon was organized as free soil. A low tariff bill was passed, and the Whigs got through a river and harbor bill which the president promptly vetoed. This brought the country up to the campaign of 1848, in which the Whigs recov- ered the government. The platform of the Democracy made at Baltimore approved the Mexican war, congratulated the republic of France on achieving its liberty, and the world on the downfall of thrones and dominations everywhere. The same year, at Philadelphia, the Whigs resolved merely that Zachary Taylor was the best man for president. At Buffalo, in the same year, the Abolitionists determined that they would forget all past politi- cal differences in a common resolve to maintain the rights of free labor against the aggression of the slave power, and to secure a free soil to a free people. This convention also demanded cheap postage; river and harbor improvements when required for the general convenience; indorsed the idea of the homestead law; and inscribed on its banner “free soil, free speech, free labor and free men.” The magic of military success and the excellent organization of the Whigs made ZACHARY TAYLOR (1849-1850) twelfth president. lie lived but a short time and was succeeded by the vice-president, MILLARD FILLMORE (1850-1853), thirteenth president. With 1850 what might be called the war period of American politics began. In this year was introduced the Clay compro- mise, which admitted California as a free State, but on the other hand altered the Fugitive Slave Laws, which inflamed the North to the point of war. Several of the States met the action of Congress by personal liberty laws, which really amounted to nul- lification. The old parties broke up; there were Democrats, and Free Soil Democrats, and Whigs. Winfield Scott, the Whig can- didate, carried only four States in the Union, and FRANKLIN PIERCE (1853-1857), the fourteenth president, was elected. There was soon actual fighting, on the dividing line between North and South. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill repealed the Mis- 164 U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. souri compromise and made all new territory open to slavery. The Whig party split in two on this issue, one of the sections be- coming the Republican party of the day, the other going over finally to the Democrats, a fact which will account for much of the confusion on purely financial and tariff issues to be found in both those parties to-da3^ When you find a Republican who is a free trader, or a Democrat who is a protectionist, the anomaly is to be traced directly to the fissure, and the new sides taken in the 1850’s on the free soil question. Passions were at fever heat. In Kansas the “Jay hawkers” and the “Border Ruffians” were already at each other’s throats. It was plain that the matter in dispute could only be settled by an appeal to the arbitrament of arms. In 1856 the Republicans nominated their first candidate, Gen. John C. Fremont, “the Pathfinder.” Their platform recites that the convention was called without regard to previous political differences, to enable all opposed to the repeal of the Missouri compromise to come together. The platform opposed the exten- sion of slavery into the territories; declared that Congress should prohibit in the territories “the twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery;” and opposed all prescriptive legislation, thus antagonizing the Democracy on the slavery issue and the Know-nothings on nativism. The Whigs met at Baltimore. Their platform is devoted exclusive!}^ to a denunciation of “geo- graphical parties,” and a recommendation of Millard Fillmore, the American or “Know-nothing” candidate for President. The Democrats added little to former platforms, save that they de- clared against the Know-nothings on their war on foreigners, and agreed with them in their declaration against intervention with slavery. Thej^ nominated and elected JAMES BU- CHANAN (1857-1861), fifteenth president. Fremont, however, polled a popular vote of 1,341,264 against Buchanan’s 1,838,169, while Fillmore received 874,534. The Dred Scott Case now came on to exacerbate still more bitterly public feeling. Chief Justice Taney declared that a negro was a chattel, that the compromise of 1820 was unconsti- tutional, and that a slave-owner might settle with his property where he pleased, in any territory. Following this came John Brown’s raid into Virginia — his attempt to excite a slave insur- rection, and his death upon the gallows. There was nothing for it but war, and into war the country rapidly drifted. The campaign of i860 was the most confused in the whole history of American politics. There was talk of secession in the air. There was notoriously war preparation in the South. The North was divided. Every man felt that parties would have to be re-arranged and new political frontiers defined. The 165 U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF, “Constitutional U nion” party met at Baltimore. All it demanded was the “Constitution of the country, the union of the States, and the enforcement of the laws.” The Republicans met at Chi- cago. The platform is the most significant in the political his- tory of the republic, and contains the essence of all its history since that date. It denounced the threats of disunion made by Democrats in Congress as an “avowal of contemplated treason” which it was the duty of the people to “rebuke and forever silence.” It asserted that the normal condition of all the terri- tory of the United States is that of freedom; that the reopening of the slave trade was a crime against humanity; that duties should be adjusted so as to encourage the development of the industrial interests of the whole country; that Congress should pass a complete and satisfactory homestead law; that the rights of citizenship enjoyed by foreigners should not be abridged or impaired; that the rights of all citizens, native or naturalized, should be protected abroad and at home. The Douglas Demo- cratic platform, adopted at Charleston, favored the acquisition of Cuba; declared that State legislatures which interfered with the enforcement of the fugitive slave law were revolutionary and subversive of the Constitution; and reaffirmed the Cincinnati platform of 1856 on tariff. The Breckinridge platform, adopted at Charleston and Baltimore, reaffirmed the Democratic platform adopted at Cincinnati, with certain “explanatory resolutions,” which in substance were that slave-owners had a right “to settle with their property” in the territories without being interfered with by territorial or congressional legislation. On these issues four candidates were put in the field. The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln; the Democrats, J. C. Breckinridge; the Constitutional Union party, John Bell; the Independent Democrats, Stephen A. Douglas. ABRAHAM LINCOLN (1861-1865) was chosen sixteenth president, by a popular vote of 1,866,352; Douglas received 1,375,157; Breckin- ridge, 845,763; Bell, 589,581. On December 20, i860. South Carolina declared that the Union was dissolved, and a Secession resolution was passed. Following, six other slave States immediately seceded. Ever}^ effort was made to stem the tide of disunion, but nothing could be done save with arms in the field. A peace congress met and proved futile. The Crittenden compromise was scoffed out of court. The Confederate States of America was formed at Montgomery, Alabama, in February, 1861, with Jefferson Davis as president, and slavery and low tariffs as its corner stone. The first ball was fired April 14, 1861, and the great issue of the century joined. For the time politics were relegated to the background. IG6 U. S. POLITICAL HISTORT IN BRIEF, There were only Unionists and Secessionists. The financing of the great struggle led to a high tariff, the issue of treasury notes, and finally the establishment of the national banking system. The internal revenue system was developed, an income tax was imposed, greenbacks were issued, and the resources of the country marshaled to meet the expenses of a war that cost $1,000,000 a day. On Jan. i, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the Southern slaves, and marks an epoch in the history of the world. Two years later, under the apple tree at Appomattox, Lee surrendered to Grant, and the war ended with the complete triumph of the Northern arms. There had in the meantime been another presidential election, in which Lincoln defeated George B. McClellan and John C. Fremont. Shortly after Lee’s surrender Lincoln was assassi- nated by J. Wilkes Booth, an actor, and ANDREW JOHNSON (1865-18^), the seventeenth president, took up the chief magis- tracy. The problem of the day was the Reconstruction of the old slave States, upon which the new president and his party at once quarreled. The point at issue was the proper safe-guarding of the newly -freed negro. Congress passed the Civil Rights bill, the Freedman’s Bureau bill, and submitted the XIVth Amendment to the Constitution. The president was finally impeached by Congress, but his trial before the Senate resulted in an acquittal by one vote. ULYSSES S. GRANT (1869-1877), the eighteenth president, was elected over Horatio Seymour, on a platform adopted by the Republicans at Chicago, which denounced repudiation; favored suffrage on equal terms to all men; encouraged immigration and declared itself in sympathy with all oppressed people who are struggling for their rights. The Democratic platform of 1868 acknowledged that the questions of slavery and secession had been forever settled by the war or by constitutional conventions; and favored amnesty for all political offenses. It made a very distinct pronouncement on tariff in the following words: “A tariff for revenue upon foreign imports, and such eqyal taxation under the internal revenue laws as will afford incidental pro- tection to domestic manufactures, and as will, without impair- ing the revenue, impose the least burden upon, and best promote and encourage, the great industrial interests of the country.” The XVth Amendment, guaranteeing negro suffrage,was passed by Congress in 1869. A Liberal Republican ticket, with Horace Greeley at its head, was supported by the united opposition against Grant in 1872, but was defeated easily, and Greeley, one of the greatest figures in later American politics, died sliortly 167 U, S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF. afterwards. The South was pacified, and the Treaty of Wash- ington made, which involved the payment of the Alabama claims by the English Government. In 1876 occurred the famous Hayes and Tilden Controversy, which tested the fiexibility of our electoral machinery so se- verely. Tilden was the Democratic nominee, and he had an undoubted popular majority — 4,284,265, against 4,033,295 for Hayes. Rival electors claimed to have been elected in Louisiana and Florida. Intimidation, fraud and illegal voting were charged, and Congress finally appointed the Electoral Commis- sion to settle the dispute, as there was nothing in the Constitu- tion to cover the circumstances. On a party vote the commission awarded the disputed electoral votes to the Republican candidate, thus making RUTHERFORD B. HAYES (1877-1881) nine- teenth president of the United States. Specie payment was re- sumed during this administration, and the silver coinage act passed. From this time on to the present the tariff issue has been the chief matter of debate in each campaign. In 1880 the Republi- cans elected JAMES A. GARFIELD (1881) twentieth presi- dent. He was assassinated by a madman, Charles J. Guiteau, and CHESTER A. ARTHUR (1881-1885) became twenty- first president. The most important measure of this administra- tion was the passage of the Pendleton civil service reform bill. GROVER CLEVELAND (1885-1889), the twenty-second president, was the first Democrat chosen since the war. Out of his famous tariff reform message the Democratic platform of 1888 was stated at St. Louis, and the country was invited to choose squarely between protection as represented by Benjamin Harrison, the Republican candidate, and a tariff revision as rep- resented by Cleveland. The result was, after one of the most remarkable struggles in American politics, already known by its well earned name of the Campaign of Intellect, that BENJAMIN HARRISON (1889 — . . . ) was elected twenty-third president of the United States, THE BY-WAYS OF AMERICAN POLITICS. — The minor American parties which h^ve appeared and disappeared during our century and over of national life are the following ; Anti-Renters, a New York party which flourished about 1841. They resisted the collection of back rents on the Van Rens- selaer manor near Albany. They had strength enough to defeat Wright, the regular Democratic candidate for Governor of New York. Bam-bumerS, New York, 1846, seceders from the Democratic party. They were opposed to slavery extension. BucktailS, New York, about 1815; they supported Madison. Conservatives, New York and some other States, 1837: paper money Democrats. DOUghfaces, 1820, Northern members of Congress who voted in favor of the Missouri compro- mise. Hunkers, New York, a faction of the Democrats favoring the South, Barn- burners being the other factor, KnoW-NothlngS, New York, 1854, opposed to naturalization of foreigners unless they had been twenty-one years in the country. 168 U. S. POLITICAL HISTORT IN BRIEF, LOCO-FOCOS, New York, 1835; a branch of the Democratic party. Liberal Republicans, 1872; Republicans who joined with the Democrats in support of Greeley for president. Temperance, or Prohibition, from 1830 down, in inany States ; in favor of preventing or restricting the sale of liquors. The total Prohibition vote at the Presidential election in 1888 was 249,937. Woman’s Rights, from i860 down; those who favored granting to women the right of suffrage. PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. Native State > u u Inaug- U RATED. Name. os H W) ta u z < z ta g u d u > 0 Politics. Place of Death. Goorge Washington. Va.... English.. . Va.... 1789 57 Fed. . Mount Vernon,1799 John Adams Mass. English.. . Mass. 1797 62 Fed. . Quincy, Mass., 1826 Thomas Jefferson . . . Va.. . . Welsh.... Va.... 1801 58 Rep. . Monticello,Va. 1826 James Madison Va.... English. . . Va.... 1809 58 Rep. . Montpelier. V a. 1836 James Monroe Va.... Scotch Va.... 1817 59 Rep. . N ewY ork City, 173 1 John Quincy Adams. Mass. English. . . Mass. 1825 58 Rep. . Washington, 1848 Hermitage, Ten., ’45 Andrew Jackson. . . . S. C.. Scot- Irish. Tenn 1829 62 Dem.. Martin Van Buren. . N. Y.. Dutch N. Y.. 1837 65 Dem.. Kinderhook N Y,’62 William H. Harrison Va.... English. . . Ohio.. 1841 58 Whig. Washington, 1841 John Tyler Va.... English. . . Va.... 1841 51 Dem.. Richmond, Va, 1862 James K. Polk N. C.. Scot- Irish. Tenn. 1845 60 Dem.. Nashville,Ten, 1849 Zachary Taylor. .... Va.... English. . . La... 1849 55 Whig. Washington, 1850 Millard Fillmore N. Y.. English. . . N. Y.. 1850 60 Whig. Buffalo, N. Y., 187 Franklin Pierce. . .. N. H. English. . . N. H. 1853 49 Dem.. Concord, N.H,1869 James Buchanan Pa. .. Scot- Irish. Pa... 1857 60 Dem.. Wheatland,Pa,1868 Abraham Lincoln . . . Ky... English. . . III.... 1861 62 Rep. . Washington, 1865 Greenville, Ten, ’75 Andrew J ohnson N. C. English.. . Tenn. 1865 57 Rep. . Ulysses S. Grant — Ohio.. Scotch. .. . 111.... 1869 47 Rep. . MtM 'Gregor NY’85 Rutherford B. Hayes Ohio.. English. . Ohio.. 1877 55 Rep. . „ James A. Garfield. . . Ohio.. English. . . Ohio.. 1881 49 Rep. . Long BrancTl, 1881 Chester A. Arthur. . . Vt. . . . Scot- Irish. N. Y.. 1881 51 Rep. . New York City, 1886 Grover Cleveland. . . N. J.. Ohio.. English. . . English. . . N. Y.. 1885 48 66 Dem.. Benjamin Harrison. . Ind. . . 1889 Rep. . GENERALS COMMANDING THE U. S. ARMY. From To From To George Washington. Henry Knox Josiah Harmer Arthur St. Clair James Wilkinson.. . . George Washington. James Wilkinson.. . . Henry Dearborn. . . . Jacob Brown 1775 1783 1788 1791 1796 1799 1800 1812 1815 1783 1784 1791 1796 1798 1799 1812 1815 1828 Alexander Macomb Winfield Scott George B. McClellan Henry W. Halleck. . Ulysses S. Grant. . . William T. Sherman Philip H. Sheridan. . John M. Schofield.. . 1828 1841 1861 1862 1864 1869 1883 1888 1841 1861 1862 1864 1869 1883 1888 If a railway were built to the sun, and trains upon it were run at the rate 0130 miles an hour, day and night, without a stop, it would require 350 years to make the journey from the earth to the sun. 169 WARS OF THE UNITED STATES. Statement of the Number of United States Troops Engaged. Wars. From — To— Regu- lars. Militia AND V 0 L U N- TEERS. Total. W^ar of the Revolution. Northwestern Indian wars War with France . . . War with Tripoli. . . . Apr 19, 1775 Sept 19, 1790 July 9,1798 June 10, 1801 Apr 11. 1783 Aug 3 , 1795 Sept 30, 1800 June 4, 1805 Aug 9,1814 130,711 164,080 309,781 8,983 <*4,593 *3,330 13,781 Creek Indian war . . . July 27, 1813 600 13,181 War 1812 with Gt. Britain June 18, 1812 Feb 17, 1815 85,000 471,622 576,622 Seminole Indian war Nov 20, 1817 Oct 21, 1818 1,000 6,911 7,911 Black Hawk Indian war. Cherokee disturbance or Apr 21, 1831 Sept 31, 1832 1,339 5,126 6,465 removal Creek Indian war or dis- 1836 1837 9,494 9,494 turbance May 5,1836 Sept 30, 1837 935 12,483 13,418 Florida Indian war Dec 23, 1835 Aug 14, 1843 11,169 29,953 41,122 Aroostook disturbance... 1838 1839 1,500 1,500 War with Mexico Apache, Navajo, and Apr 24, 1846 July 4,1848 30,954 73,776 112,230 Utah war 1849 1855 1,500 1,061 2,561 Seminole Indian war 1856 1858 3,687 2,687 2,772,408 Civil wart 1861 1865 * Naval forces engaged. T The number of troops on the Confederate side was about 600 , oco. The number of casualties in the volunteer and regular armies of the United States, during the war of 1861*65, was re- ported by the Provost Marshal General in 1866 : Killed in battle, 61,362 ; died of wounds, 34,727 ; died of disease, 183,287 ; total died, 279,376 ; total deserted, 199,105. Number of soldiers in the Confederate service who died of wounds or disease (partial state- - merit), 133,821. Deserted (partial statement), 104,428. Number of United States troops captured during the war, 212,608 ; Con- federate troops captured, 476,169. Number of United States troops paroled on the field, 16,431 ; Confederate troops paroled on the field, 248,599. Number of United States troops who died while prisoners, 29,725 ; Confederate troops who died while pris- oners, 26,774. The Bible. There is no date from beginning to end in the Bible. It com- prises some 60 documents, and is supposed to have been written by about 40 men ; 54 miracles are recorded in the Old and 51 in the New Testament; total, 105. The shortest verse in the Old Testament is “Remember Lot’s wife.” There is one in the New Testament as short as John xi. 35, in point of words, but not in letters, viz: Thessalonians v. 16, “Rejoice evermore.” Then there are 2 chapters in the Bible alike verbatim, and i book, Esther, in which the Deity is not mentioned. 170 THE CIVIL WAR OF 1861-66. Number of Men in the Union Army Furnished by Each State and Territory, from April 16, 1861, to Close of War. Number OF Men Furnish’d Aggregate Reduced to A Three Years’ Standing. 2,556 1,611 8,289 7,836 15,725 15,725 4,903 3,697 55,864 50,623 12,284 10,322 1,290 1,290 259,092 214,133 196,363 153,576 76,242 68,630 20,149 18,706 75,760 70,832 5,224 4,654 70,107 56,776 46,638 41,275 146,730 124,104 87,364 80,111 24,020 19,693 545 545 109,111 86,530 3,157 2,175 1,080 1,080 33,937 30,849 76,814 57,908 States and Territories. Alabama Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts . , Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey States and Territories. 448,850 3,156 313,180 1,810 337,936 23,236 31,092 1,965 33,288 New York North Carolina, Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania . . , Rhode Island. . . South Carolina.. Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia. . . Wisconsin. . , Dakota Dist of Columbia Indian Territory Montana. . . . New Mexico Utah Washington Ter U S Army U S Volunteers U S col’r’d troops Total 2,772,408 Number OF Men Furnish’d 32,068 91,327 206 16,534 3,530 6,561 "964 93,441 Aggregate Reduced TO A Three Years’ Standing. 392,270 3,156 240,514 1,773 265,517 17,866 *26,394 1,632 29,068 ’27*714 79,260 206 11,506 3,530 ’*4, *432 *‘’*964 91,789 2,320,272 The armies of the United States were commanded during the war of the Rebellion by President Lincoln as commander-in- chief under the constitutional provision; and under him, as general commanders, by Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott until Nov. 6, i86i; by Major General George B. McClellan from Nov. 6, i86i, to March ii, 1862; by Major General Henrj^ W. Halleck from July ii, 1862, to March 12, 1864 (there be- ing no general commander between March ii and July ii, 1862); and Lieutenant General and General U. S. Grant from March 12, 1864, to March 4, 1869. The first of the principal armies into which the force of the United States was divided was the Army of the Potomac. This army was called into existence in July, 1861, and was organized by Major General George B. McClellan, its first commander^ Nov. 5, 1862, Major General A. E. Burnside took com- mand of it; Jan. 25, 1863, Major General Joe Hooker was placed in command, and June 27, 1863, Major General George G. Meade succeeded him. The Army of the Ohio was organ- ized by General D. C. Buell, under a general order from the 171 THE CIVIL WAR OF 1861-65. War Department dated Nov. 9, 1861, from troops in the military department of the Ohio. General Buell remained in command until Oct. 30, 1862, when he was succeeded by General W. S. Rosecrans. At this time the Army of the Ohio became the Army of the ^Cumberland and a^ new department of the Ohio was formed and Major General H. G. Wright assigned to the command thereof. He was succeed by Major General Burn- side, who was relieved by Major General J. G. Foster of the command of both department and army. Major General Scho- field took command Jan. 28, 1864, and Jan. 17, 1865, the de- partment was merged into the Department of the Cumberland. The Army of the Cumberland was formed of the Army of the Ohio, as above noted. It continued under the command of Gen- eral Rosecrans until October, 1863, when General George H. Thomas took command of it. The Army of theTennessee was originally the Army of the District of Western Tennessee, fighting as such at Shiloh. It became the Army of theTennessee on the concentration of troops at Pittsburgh Landing under Gen- eral Halleck, and when the Department of the Tennessee was formed, Oct. 16, 1862, the troops serving therein were placed under command of Major General U. S. Grant. Oct. 27, 1863, Major General William T. Sherman was appointed to the command of this army; March 12, 1864, Major General J. B. McPherson suc- ceeded him; July 30, 1864, McPherson having been killed, Major General O. O. Howard was placed in command, and May 19, 1862, Major General John A. Logan succeeded him. Other minor armies were the Army of Virginia, which was formed by- the consolidation of the forces under Major Generals Fremont, Banks and McDowell, by order of the War Department, Aug. 12, 1862. Major General John Pope was placed in command, but after the disastrous defeat of this general at Manassas the army as such was discontinued and its troops transferred to other organizations. The Army of the James was formed of the Tenth and Fourteenth corps and cavalry, and was placed under thp command of Major General Butler. Its operations were carried on in conjunction with the Army of the Potomac. Other tem- porary arrangements of the troops formed the Army of the Mis- sissippi in the Mississippi River operations in 1862; the Army of the Gulf in Louisiana in May, 1863; the Army of West-Vir- ginia, in the valley of the Shenandoah, in May, 1864, and the ^rmy of the Middle Military Division in Virginia in the fall of i86jj. A HORSE will live 25 days without solid food, merely drinking watei'; 17 days without either eating or drinking; and only 5 days when eating solid food without drinking. 172 19 20 5 12 21 10 -14 20 21 7 7 8 18 862 8 8 16 8 14 23 6-7 10 5 25 29 30 31 1 8 9 26 27 1 5 9 22 27 29 30 -30 1 14 15 17 -20 3-5 8 7 13 -29 863 11 3 1 PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR. Place. Federai. Toss. CONFED. Loss. Borabard’nt Ft. Sumter. Riot Baltimore no one hurt 3 k, 7 w 7 k, 8 w 16 k. 34 w. 6 m Carthage, Mo 13 k, 31 w 250 k & w Rich Mountain, W. Va. . , 11 k, 35 w 140 k, 150 w Bull Run, Va . . .4500 k; w, p, 28 c 1852 k & w Wilson’s Creek, Mo Cheat Mountain, W. Va. ..481 k, 1011 w,700p .223 k. 721 w, 292 m 13 k, 20 w, 60 p . .42 k, 108 w, 1624 p ...421 k, 1317 w, 3 m 100 k&w, 20 p 25 k, 75 w Ball’s^BlufF, Va . .220 k, 266 w, 500 p 36 k, 264 w, 2 p . . .84 k, 288 w, 285 m ..261 k, 427 w, 278 m ..kandw no report 2500 p, 42 guns c .400 k and w, 2000 p 1.300 p 8 k, 23 w, 250 p 6 k, 24 w Milford,' Mo 2 k, 17 w 39 k, 207w 192 k, 140 p 50 k, 150 w ....30k,50 w,25()0p 231 k. 1007 w, 15000 p 1100 k, 2500 w, 1600 p . . .50 k, 200 w, 200 p 600 k&w, 300 p 1728 k, 8012 w, 959 m 17 k, 6300p .446 k. 1735 w, 150 p Fort Donelson, Tenn . . . 91 k, 466 w 100 k, 400 w Pittsburg Landing, Tenn. 1614 k, 7721 w, 3963 m Williamsburg^ Va . . .2073 k & w, 623 p 700 k, 1000 w, 300 p Winchester, Va FTanover C. H , Va 53 k, 526 m 500 k & w, ^0 p Corinth, Minn Fair Oaks, Va 890 k, 3627 w, 1222 p 5739 k & w 2800 k, 3897 w Fair Oaks, Va 8000 k&w Cross Keys, Va 60() k&w Port Republic, Va . . .67 k, 361 w, 574 m 1060 k. w & m Chickahominy, Va 80 k, 150w 1 000 k&w Gaines Mills, Va,... About the same Malvern Hill, Va Nearly 5000 Baton Rouge, La 600 k. w & m Gedar Mountain, Va 1000 k, 1500 w Gallatin, Tenn . . . 110 k&w Kettle Run, Va . . .800 k&w, 1000 p 12000 k. w & m Gro ve ton, Va Bull Run 2nd .800 k, 4000 w, 3000 p ..200 k,700w, 2000 p . . .700 k. 3000 w Richmond, Ky 250 k, 500 w Chantilly, Va 800 k&w South mountain, Md Harper’s F’y, 3 d’ys’ siege Antietam, Md . 443 k, 1806 w, 76 m .80 k, 120 w, 11583 p 12500 loss 500 k, 2343 w, 1500 p 1500 k&w 15000 loss luka. Miss 135 k, 527 w . .263 k, 400 w, 600 p 1423 k, 2268 p, 5692 w 1300 k, 3000 w, 200 p 1500 k&w Corinth, Miss 315 k, 1812 w, 232 m 3200 k. w and m Perry ville, Ky Prairie Grove, Ark 495 k, 600 w Fredericksburg. Va 1512 k, 6000 w, 2078 p . .191 k, 982 w, 756 m 1800 k&w Vicksburg no report Stone River, Tenn 1533 k, 6000 w . .9000 k&w, 1000 p . . .550 k&w, 5000 p . .100 k, 400 w, 300 p 1500 k, w & m Fort Hindman, Ark 1000 k, w & m Fort Donelson, Tenn 12 k, 20 w Suffolk. Va 173 PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL 'W AK.— Continued. Date. Place. Federal Loss. CoNFED. Loss. May 1 “ 2 “ 2-3 “ 12 “ 14 “ 16 “ 18-22 “ 27 June 6 “ 9 “ 14 26 July 1-2-3 “ 4 “ 4 “ 5 “ 8 “ 18-19 Sept. 9 19-20 “ 14 Dec. 4 “ 23-25 “ 25 “ 27 “ 27-30 Mar. 25, 1864 Apr. 8-9 “ 17-20 May 57 <« “ 12 “ 12-15 “ 13-15 “ 25-28 June 1 “ 15-18 22 “ 27 July y 20 “ 22 “ 27-30 Aug. 5-20 “ 15-18 “ 19 25 “ 31 Sept, 19 “ 21 “ 26 29— Oct. 1 LaGrange, Ark 2000 k, w & m Fredericksburg, Va Chancellorsville, Va Tackson. Miss 15000 k & w, IJOOO p 40 k, 240 w, 6 m . 18000 k&w, .5000 p 400 k&w Champion Hills, Miss 426 k, 1842 w 400 k, w & m Big Black River, Miss, . . . 29 k, 242 w 2600 k, w & m Vicksburg. Miss 2500 loss no report Port Hudson 900 k, w & m 600 k. w & m Milliken’s Bend. Miss . .127 k, 287 w, 157 m 200 k, 500 w Beverlv Ford. Va 750 k. w & m Winchester, Va 2000 k. w & m 850 k, w & m Shelbyville, Tenn .... 85 k, 468 w, 13 m 1634 p.no rep’t k&w .... total loss 37000 total loss 28198 Vicksburg surrenders .... Helena, Ark .245 k, 3688 w, 303 p 250 k, w & m .9(00 k & w, 30000 p . . .500 k&w, 1000 p 4000 p Bolton, Miss Port Hudson surrenders. . 5500 p Ft. Wagner, S. C .... 700 ic. w & m 500 k, 331 w Cumberland Gap 2000 p Chickamauga 1644 k,9262 w,4945 m ‘...51 k,329 w 17000 k, w & m . . .1200 k&w, 800 p 161 Op Bristow Station, Va Knoxville, Tenn 000 k & w Chattanooga 4000 k & w 16000 k, w & m Ringgold, Ga 300 p Locust Grove, Va 2500 k, w & p Paducah, Ky Mansfield, La 500 k & w, 1500 p 2000 p Plymouth, N. C 150 k, 1700 p 1500 k&w Wilderness, Va loss 30000 loss 30000 Spottslyvania. Va loss 10000 Spottsylvania, Va 4000 p Ft. Darling, Va .'^od k. w & m no report Resaca, Ga 700 k, 2800 w no report Dallas, Ga 1800 k & w . . .300 p, 4000 k&w 8000 k, w & m Cold Harbor, Va 9000 k. w & m Petersburgh, Va loss 10000 no report Weldon R. R , Va 600 k & w, 1250 p Kennesaw Mt., Ga 1000 k & w no report Monocracy. Md 1000 k & w Peach Tree Creek, Ga, . . 1713 k, w & m . .5000 k&w, lOlK) p 10000 k&w Atlanta. Ga . . .3.521 k & w Petersburgh, Va .5000 k. w & m Mobile Bay, Ala 120 k, 88 w no rep’t k&w, 1756 p Deep Bottom. Va .... loss 4000 6 Mile Station. Va 30C0 k & w 1500 p Weldon R. R., Va 1000 k & w, 3000 p 1500 k&w Atlanta, Ga .50 k. .50 m. 439 w Winchester, Va 3000k &w 5C0 k, 4000 w, 25( 0 p 400 k & w, 1100 p 1500 k&w Fisher’s Hill Ironton, Mo 9 k. 60 w Petersburg, Va .... .5000 k & w . .2800 k&w Oct. 19 “ 26 “ 27 Nov. 30 Dec. 15 Cedar Creek, Va 4000 k & w, 1300 p . .2800 k&w, 1300 p 9(Ktk, 3800 p Nims’ Creek. Mo 2000 p, 1000 k & w Hatchetts Run, Va Franklin, Tenn 800 m, 400 k, 1500 w 189 k, 1033 w, 1104 m 6500 k, w & m 1600 k, w & m 1750 k, 38(0 w, 702 p 23000 k, w & m Nashville, Tenn 171 PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL ySf XK.— Concluded. Date. Place. Federal Loss. CONFED. Loss. Jan. 15, 1865 Ft. Fisher 110 k, 536 w ....440 k&w, 2500 p 20-22 Wilmington, N. C 250 k & w 1072 P Feb. 27 Waynesboro’, Va 5 k, 1352 P Kingston, N. C loss 1000 . .1200 k&w, 2400 P 74 k,774 w 327 k, 373 P Mar. 19 loss 1646 167 k, 1625 P 25-27 Petcrsburgh, Va 180 k, 1240 w, 990 m ...2200 k&w, 2800 P Apr. 1 Five Forks, Va loss 3000 5000 P 2 Selma, Ala 3000 ]> <> 2 3 Petersburgh & Richmond . 8000 k. w & m 6 Farmville & Sailors Ck. . . 6000 9 Surrender of Gen. Lee. , . 26115 i< 11 Ft. Blakely, Mobile 2000 k & w ....500 k&w, 4300 (( 12 Surrender of Mong’y, Ala 2700 p, 100 12 Salisbury, N. C 1800 I << 26 Surrender of Gen.J ohnston 27500 P May 1 Surrender of Gen. Morgan 1200 P 4 Surrender of Gen. Taylor. 10000 V «< 10 Surrenderof TallahasseeFl 7(^ k 8000 P •4 10 Near Boco, Chico, Tex 70 • 4 10 Capture of Jeff. Davis “ 26 Surrender of Gen. Smith. 2COOOP In addition to the battles given above there were 421 minor battles, engage- ments and skirmishes. Principal Biaval Battles of tlie Civil War. 1862, Feb. 6 — Fort Henry, Tenn., captured by Commodore Foote. Feb. 8 — Roanoke Island, N. C., captured by Commodore Goldsborough and Gen. Burnside. 16 — Fort Donelson, Tenn., combined forces of Gen. Grant and Commodore Foote. Mar. 8 — Confederate ram Merrimac “sinks” U. S. Frig- ates Cumberland and Congress, Hampton Roads, Va. 9 — Federal Monitor disables the Merrimac. April 6 — Pittsburgh Landing. 8 — Capture of Island No. 10. II — Fort Pulaski, Ga., cantured by land and naval forces. 24 — Forts Jackson, St. Phillip and New Orleans. May 13 — Natchez, Miss., captured by Admiral Farragut. July I — Malvern Hill. 1863, Jan. II — Fort Hindman, Ark., Admiral Porter. II — U. S. steamer Hatteras sunk by Confederate Alabama. 17 — Monitor Weehawken captures Confederate ram Atlanta. 175 THE CIVIL WAR OF 1861-65. May i8 — Vicksburg, Miss., Admiral Porter. July 8 — Port Hudson, Miss., captured. 8 — Natchez, Miss. 1864, June 19 — U. S. steamer Kearsarge “ sinks the Alabama ” off Cherbourg, France. Aug. 5 — Mobile, Ala., Admiral Farragut. 1865, Jan. 15 — Fort Fisher, N. C., captured by Gen. Terry ana Commodore Porter. During the Civil War the Federal Navy was increased in two years to over 400 vessels, the greater part of which were used in blockading Southern ports ; notwithstanding their vigilance and effectiveness, many Confederate cruirers managed to escape the blockade and destroy the Northern merchant vessels. At the present time (1880) not one-half the vessels belonging to the navy are in active service ; the greater portion of those in commission are employed in what is called squadron service. There are seven squadrons, viz, the European, the Asiatic, the North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, the North Pacific, the South Pacific and the Gulf squadrons. These squadrons are under ‘:ommand of a high naval officer of the rank of commo* dore rear admiral, whose ship is called the hag-ship of the squad’ on. Vessels Captured or Destroyed toy Con- federate “ Cruisers.’^ Ship? .... BrigJ Barkf .... Schooners 80 46 84 67 Steamboats Gunboats. . Cutter Tug 4 2 1 1 Vessels Captured or Destroyed for Violation of tlie Blockade, or in Battle, from May, 1861, to May, 1865. Schooners. . . . . .. 735 Gunboats 3 Sloops ... 155 Propellers 4 Steamers . . . . ... 262 Pilot boats 2 Barks ... 27 Boats 8 Brigs ... 30 Y achts 2 Ships . . . 13 Tugs 3 Ironclads and rams . . .. 16 Barkentine 1 Brigantines. . . 2 Miscellaneous . Pungv .\ . . 86 1 Tin, when compressed in powder, becomes solid under a pres- sure of ten tons on the square inch, zinc at thirty -eight tons, antimony at thirty-eight tons, aluminum at thirty-eight tons, bismuth at thirty-eight tons, and copper at thirty-three tons. 176 Cost Of Recent Wars. Crimean war £340,000,000 Italian war of 1859 . . 60,000,000 American civil war — North 940,000,000 “ “ “ —South 460,000,000 Schleswig-Holstein war 7,000,000 Austrian and Prussian war, 1866 66,000,000 Expeditions to Mexico, Morocco, Paraguay, etc., (estimated) 40,000,000 Franco-Prussian war 500,000,000 Russian and Turkish war, 1877 210,000,000 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 ^ . 30,000,000 £2,653,000,000 This would allow $10 for every man, woman and child on the nabitable globe. It would make two railways all around the world at $250,000 per mile each. These figures are furnished by the Peace Society, London. I^osses from War in Xwenty-Five Years (1855-80.) Killed in.battle, or died of wounds and disease. Crimean war 750,000 Italian war, 1859 45,000 War of Schleswig-Holstein 3,000 American civil war — the North 280,000 “ ‘‘ “ —the South 200,000 War between Prussia, Austria and Italy, 1866. 45,000 Expeditions to Mexico, Cochin China, Morocco, Paraguay, etc 65,000 Franco-German war of 1870-71 — France. . . 155,000 “ “ “ “ “ — Germany. 60,000 *Russian and Turkish war of 1877 225,000 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 40,000 Total 1,868,000 Crensrtli and Cost of American Wars. Wars. Length. Cost. 1. War of the revolution .. . 7 years — 1775-1782 $ 135,193,703 2. Indian war in Ohio Ter. 3. War with the Barbary St Length. 7 years— 1775-1782 $ 1790 1803-1804 1811 3 years— 1812-1815 1815 1817 1832 1845 4. Tecumseh Indian war. . 5. War with Great Britain. 6 . Algerine war 7. First Seminole war 8 . Black Hawk war 9. Second Seminole war. . . 10. Mexican war 2 years — 1846-1848 11. Mormon war 1856 12. Civil war 4 years— 1861-1865 $6,500,000,000 *About thirty thousand skeletons of Russian and Turkish soldiers were shipped to England in x88i, as manure, in the form of bones or bone dust. L177] 107,159,003 66,000,000 GREA T BA TTLES OF HIS TORT. The number placed hors-de-combat in battle are not relatively so large as formerly, as the table below will show: Thrasymene Men Engaged. Hors-de-combat. Ratio. 65,000 17,000 27 per cent. Cannae . . . . 146,000 52,000 34 Bannockburn .... . . . . 135,000 38,000 28 Agincourt 62,000 11,400 18 Crecy . . . . 117,000 31,200 27 Marengo 58,000 13,000 22 Austerlitz , . . . 170,000 23,000 13 Borodino . . . . 250,000 78,000 31 Waterloo . . . . 145,000 51,000 35 Alma , . . . 103,000 8,400 8 “ Sadowa . . . . 402,000 33,000 8 Gravelotte . . . . 320,000 48,500 15 Gettysburg . . . . 140,000 8,000 5 According to Napoleon, the proportions of an army should be 70 per cent, infantry, 17 per cent, cavalry, and 13 per cent, between artillery, engineers and train. The proportion of men capable of bearing arms is estimated at 25 per cent, of the population. At the close of the Franco-German war the Germans took from the French 7.234 pieces of cannon, including 3,485 field pieces and 3,300 fortress guns. At the battle of Waterloo the British artillery fired 9,467 rounds, or one for everj^ Frenchman killed. Xlie Decisive Battles of History. Actium, B.C. 31. The combined fleets of Antony and Cleo- patra defeated by Octavius, and imperialism established in the person qf Octavius. Philippi, B.C. 42. Brutus and Cassius defeated by Octavius and Antony. The fate of the Republic decided. Metaurus, B.C. 207. The Carthaginians, under Hasdrubul, were defeated by the Romans, under Caius and Marcus Livius. Arbela, B.C. 331. The Persians defeated by the Macedonians and Greeks under Alexander the Great. End of the Persian empire. Syracuse, B.C. 414. The Athenians defeated by the Syracu- sans and their allies, the Spartans, under Gylippus. Marathon, B.C. 490. The Athenians, under Miltiades, de- feated the Persians under Datis. Free government preserved. Winfeld-Lippe, A.D. 9. Teutonic independence established by the defeat of the Roman legions under Varus at the hands of the Germans under Arminius (Hermann). Chalons, A.D. 451. The Huns, under Attila, called the 178 DECISIVE BATTLES OF IIISTORT, “ Scourge of God,” defeated by the confederate armies of Romans and Visigoths. Tours, A.D. 732. The Saracens defeated by Charles Martel and Christendom rescued from Islam. Hastings, A.D. 1066. Harold, commanding the English army, defeated by William the Conqueror, and a new regime established in England by the Normans. Siege of Orleans, A.D. 1429. The English defeated by the French under Joan of Arc. Defeat of the Spanish Armada, A.D. 1588. England saved from Spanish invasion. Lutzen, A.D 1632. Decided the religious liberties of Germany Gustavus Adolphus killed. Blenheim, A.D. 1704. The French and Bavarians, undei Marshal Tallard, defeated by the English and their allies, undei Marlborough. Pultowa, A.D. 1709. Charles XII., of Sweden, defeated bj the Russians under Peter the Great. Saratoga, A.D. 1777. Critical battle of the American War ol Independence. The English defeated by the Americans undei Gen. Gates. Valmy, A.D. 1792. An invading army of Prussians, Aus trians and Hessians, under the Duke of Brunswick, defeated bj the French under Kellermann. The first success of the Republh against foreigners. Trafalgar. On the 21st of October, A.D. 1805, the great naval battle of Trafalgar was fought. The English defeated the French and destroyed Napoleon’s hopes to successfully invade England. Waterloo, A.D. 1815. The French, under Napoleon, defeated by the allied armies of Russia, Austria, Prussia and England, under Wellington. Siege of Sebastopol, A.D. 1854-5. The Russians succumbed to the beleaguering armies of England, France and Turkey, and the result was delay in the expansion of the Russian Empire. Gettysburg, July,_A.D. 1863. The deciding battle of the war for the Union. The Confederates under Gen. Lee defeated by the Union forces under Meade. Sedan, A.D. 1870. The decisive battle of the Franco-German war. Slavery and Serfdom* Some of the wealthy Romans had as many as 10,000 slaves. The minimum price fixed by the law of Rome was $80, but after great victories they could sometimes be bought for a few shillings on the field of battle. The day’s wages of a Roman gardener were about 16 cents, and his value about $300, while a black- 179 SLA VERT AND SERFDOM, timiih was valued at about $ 700 , a cook at $ 2 , 000 , an actress at $ 4 , 000 , and a physician at $ 11 , 000 . The number of slaves emancipated in the British Colonies in 1834 was 780 , 993 , the indemnity aggregating, #in round figures, $ 100 , 000 , 000 . In Brazil, in 1876 , there were 1 , 510,800 slaves, 15 per cent, of the entire population. These were held by 41,000 owners, averaging 37 to each owner. In 1882 the number of slaves was 1 , 300 , 000 . Owing to the gradual abolition of slavery in Brazil by law it is expected that it will be entirely obsolete in 1900 . Slavery in tlie United States* Year. Number. Year. Number. 1790 697,900 1830 2,009,030 1800 893,040 1840 2,487,500 1810 1,191,400 1850 3,204,300 1820 1,538,100 1860 3,979,700 Serfdom in RLussia* There were 47 , 932,000 serfs in Russia in 1861 , as follows ; Crown serfs, 22 , 851 , 000 ; appanage, 3 , 326 , 000 ; held by nobles, 21 , 755 , 000 . The cost of redemption was, in round numbers, about $ 325 , 000 , 000 , as follows : Mortgages remitted $152,000,000 Government scrip 101,000,000 Paid by serfs 52,000,000 Balance due 20,000,000 The indemnity to the nobles was $15 per serf. The lands are mortgaged to the state till 1912 . The lands ceded to Crown serfs are mortgaged only till 1901 . The item of “ mortgages remitted ” is the amount due by nobles to the Imperial Bank and canceled. Austrian Servitude (1840). Value. Labor (two days per week) $175,000,000 Tithe of crops, etc 60,000,000 Male tribute, timber 7,000,000 Female tribute, spun wool 9,000,000 Fowl, eggs, butter 5,000,000 Total $256,000,000 There were 7 . 000,000 serfs, whose tribute averaged more than $ 3 ^ per head, which was, in fact, the rent of their farms. Some Bohemian nobles had as many as 10,000 serfs. The redemption was effected by giving the nobles 5 per cent. Government scrip, and land then rose 50 per cent, in value. 180 Oerman {Serfs. In 1848 the state took 60 , 000,000 acres from the nobles, leaving them still 25 , 000,000 acres, and gave the former among the serfs. Indemnity as follows: i. Government scrip, $900 for each serf family, to nobleman. 2 . Land tax, $15 per annum, transferred to peasant. 3 . Interest, $35 per annum for 47 years, to be paid by peasant to the state, being 4 per cent, on cost of redemption. Famofis Oiants aud Dwarfs. The most noted giants of ancient and modern times are as follows: Name. .Place. Goliath Palestine Galbara Rome John Middleton England Frederick’s Swede.. . Sweden Cujanus Finland Gilly Tyrol . Patrick Cotter Cork . . Chang Gow Pekin . Height, Feet. Period. 11.0 B.C. 1063. 9.9 Claudius Caesar. 9.3 A.D. 1578. 8.4 7.9 8.1 8.7 1806. 7.8 1880. Many of the great men of history have been rather small in stature. Napoleon was only about 5 ft. 4 in., Washington was 5 ft. 7 in. One of the greatest of American statesmen, Alexander H. Stephens, never excelled 115 pounds in weight, and in his old age his weight was less than 100 pounds. The more notable human mites are named below: Name. Height, inches. Date of Birth. Place of Birth. Count Borowlaski 39 1739 Warsaw. TomThumb(Chas. S. Stratton) 31 1837 New York. Mrs. Tom Thumb 32 1842 Che-Mah 25 1838 China. Lucia Zarate 20 1863 Mexico. General Mite 21 1864 New York. l^Tictions in Ireland. The total number of families evicted in Ireland for 33 years is 482,000 as below: Years. Evicted. Re-admitted. Net Evictions. 1849-51 263,000 73,000 190,000 1852-60 110,000 28,000 82,000 1861-70 47,000 8,000 39,000 1871-80 41,000 6,000 35,000 1881-82 21,000 4,000 17,000 Total 482,000 119,000 363,000 The number of persons actually evicted was oyer two millions (say 70,000 per annum). 181 Oreat Klnancial Panics. The most remarkable crises since the beginning of the present century have been as follows: 1814. England, 240 banks suspended. 1825. Manchester, failures 2 millions. 1831. Calcutta, failures, 15 millions. 1837. United States, “Wild-cat” crisis; all banks closed. 1839. Bank of England saved by Bank of France. Severe also in France, where 93 companies failed for 6 millions. 1844. England. State loans to merchants. Bank of England reformed. 1847. England, failures 20 millions; discount 13 per cent. 1857. United States, 7,200 houses failed for iii millions. 1866. London, Overend-Gurney crisis; failures exceeded 100 millions. 1869. Black Friday in New York (Wall street), September 24. Hxcessivc Heat In tlie Past. In 1303 and 1304 the Rhine, Loire and Seine ran dry. The heat in several French provinces during the summer of 1705 was equal to that of a glass furnace. Meat could be cooked by merely exposing it to the sun. Not a soul dare venture out be- tween noon and 4 p. m, In 1718 many shops had to close. The theaters never opened their doors for three months. Not a drop of water fell during six months. In 1773 the thermometer rose to 1 18 degrees. In 1778 the heat of Bologna was so great that a great number of people were stifled. There was not sufficient air for the breath, and people had to take refuge under the ground. In July, 1793, the heat again became intolerable. Vegetables were burned up, and fruit dried on the trees. The furniture and wood-work in dwelling-houses cracked and split up; meat went bad in an hour. Summer Heat In Various Countries. The following figures show the extreme summer heat in the various countries of the world : Bengal and the African desert, 150° Fahrenheit; Senegal and Guadaloupe, 130°; Persia, 125®; Calcutta and Central America, 120^; Afghanistan and the Ara- bian desert, no®; Cape of Good . Hope and Utah, 105®; Greece, 104®; Arabia, 103®; Montreal, 103®; New York, 102®; Spain, India, China, Jamaica, 100®; Sierra Leone, 94®; France, Den- mark, St. Petersburg, Shanghai, the Burman Empire, Buenos Ayres, and the Sandwich Islands, 90®; Great Britain, Siam, and Peru, 85®; Portugal, Pekin and Natal, 80®; Siberia, 77®; Aus- tralia and Scotland, 75®; Italy, Venezuela and Madeira, 73®; Prussia and New Zealand, 70®; Switzerland and Hungary, 66®; Bavaria, Sweden, Tasmania and Moscow, 65®; Patagonia and the Falkland Isles, 55®; Iceland, 45®; Nova Zembla, 34®. 182 * Severest Cold on Record. 1234. Mediterranean frozen ; traffic with carts. 1420. Bosphorus frozen. 1468. Wine at Antwerp sold in blocks. 1658. Swedish artillery crossed the Sound. 1766. Snow knee-deep at Naples. 1789. Fahrenheit thermometer marked 23^ below zero at Frank- fort, and 36® below at Basle. 1809. Moscow, 48° below zero, greatest cold recorded there ; mercury frozen. 1829. Jakoutsk, Siberia, 73O below zero on the 25th of January ; greatest cold on record. 1846. December marked 25*^ below zero at Rontarlier ; lowest ever marked in France. 1864. January, Fahrenheit stood at zero in Turin ; greatest cold recorded in Italy. Captain Parry, in his Arctic explorations, suffered for some time 51 degrees below zero. Frost is diminishing in Canada with the increase of population, as shown by the fact that Hudson’s Bay was closed, from i828-’37, 184 days per annum, and from 1871-80 only 179 days per annum. Xlie Oreat Famines oi History* Walford mentions 160 famines since the nth century, namely: England, 57; Ireland 34; Scotland, 12; France, 10; Germany, II ; Italy, etc., 36. The worst in modern times have been: Country. Date. No. of Victims. France 1770 48,000 Ireland 1847 1,029,000 India 1866 1,450,000 Deaths from hunger and want were recorded as follows in 1879, according to Mulhall: Ireland, 3,789; England, 312; Lon- don, loi; France, 260. The proportion per 1,000 deaths was, re- spectively, 37.6, .6, 1.2, .3. Remarkable Plas:ues of Hodlerii Ximes. Date. Place. Deaths. Weeks. Deaths per Week. 1656.. . .Naples . . .380,000 28 10,400 1665.. . . London ... 68,800 33 2,100 1720.. . . Marseilles ... 39,100 36 1,100 1771.. . . Moscow ... 87,800 32 2,700 1778.. . .Constantinople . . . ...170,000 18 9,500 1798.. ..Cairo ... 88,000 25 3,500 1812. . . .Constantinople . . . . . . 144,000 13 11,100 1834.. , .^Cairo ... 57,000 18 3,200 1835. . . . Alexandria ... 14,900 17 900 1871.. . . Buenos Ayres . . . . ... 26,300 11 2,400 183 Heisrlit of BloteA CatlieilralSt ntomimeiitSt etc. Feet. Eiftel Tower, Paris 989 Washington Monument 555 Pyramid, Cheops, Egypt. . . .543 Cathedral, Cologne 511 “ Antwerp 476 “ Strasburg 474 Tower, Utrecht 464 Steeple, St. Stephen’s, Vienna 460 Pyramid, Khafras, Egypt. ...456 St. Martin’s Church, Bavaria.456 Chimney, Port Dundas, Glas- gow 454 St. Peter’s, Rome 448 Notre Dame, Amiens 422 Salisbury Spire, England ... 406 Cathedral, Florence 380 “ Cremona 372 “ Freiburg 367 St. Paul’s, London 365 Cathedral, Seville 360 Pyramid, Sakkarah, Egj^pt. .356 Cathedral, Milan 355 Notre Dame, Munich 348 Invalides, Paris ... .347 Parliament House, London. .340 Cathedral, Magdeburg ... .337 St. Patrick’s, New York. . . .328 St. Mark’s, Venice 328 Feet Cathedral, Bologna 321 “ Norwich, Eng . . . 309 “ Chichester, Eng. 300 “ Lincoln, Eng... 300 Capitol, Washington 300 St.James’Cathedral,Toronto.316 Trinity Church, New York. 283 Cathedral, Mexico 280 “ Montreal ..... .280 Campanile Tower, Florence. 276 Column, Delhi 260 Cathedral, Dantzic 250 Porcelain Tower, Nankin.. 248 Custom House, St. Louis. . .240 Canterbury Tower, Engl’d.235 Notre Dame, Paris 232 Chicago Board of Trade. . . .230 St. Patrick’s, Dublin 226 Cathedral, Glasgow 225 Bunker Hill Monument. . . .220 Notre Dame, Montreal 220 Cathedral, Lima 220 “ Rheims 220 “ Garden City,L. 1.219 St. Peter and Paul, Phila. . . . 210 Washington Mon., Balto. . .210 Vendome Column, Paris. . .153 Principal of tlie Public Debt. 1855 July 1 ...$ 35,586,858 56 1872 July 1 .. $2,253,251,328 78 1856 (( 31,972,537 90 1873 u . 2,234,482,993 20 1857 u 28,699,831 85 1874 ii . 2,251,690,468 43 1858 u 44,911,881 03 1875 n . 2,232,284,531 95 1859 (( 58,496,837 88 1876 u . 2,180,395,067 15 1860 (( 64,842,287 88 1877 (( . 2,205,301,392 10 1861 u 90,580,873 72 1878 ii . 2,256,203,892 53 1862 ii . . . 524,176,412 13 1879 ii . 2,245,495,072 04 1863 a ... 1,119,772,138 63 1880 ii . 2,120,415.370 63 1864 ... 1,815,784,370 57 1881 ii . 2,069,013;569 58 1865 u ... 2,680,647,869 74 1882 ii . 1,918,312,994 03 1866 a ... 2,773,236,173 69 1883 ii . 1,884,171,728 07 1867 a ... 2,678,126,103 87 1884 ii . 1,830,528,923 57 1868 (( ... 2,611,687,851 19 1885 ii . 1,876,424,275 14 1869 ‘‘ ... 2,588,452,213 94 1886 “ . 1,756,445,205 78 1870 (( ... 2,480,672,427 81 1887 Dec.L. . . 1,664,461,536 38 1871 . . . 2,353,211,332 32 1888 44 . 1,680,917,706 23 184 1890 Dec. 1 ...1.547 ,296,426 00 Reliiriou in America* Churches. Ministers. Communi- cants. Adventists 1,344 775 91,769 Baptists 37,156 26,545 3,336,553 387,619 Congregationalists 3,936 8,723 Friends 392 200 96,000 German Evangelical Church 550 430 80,000 Lutherans 6,130 3,429 785,987 Methodists 41,271 24,485 3,943,875 Mennonites 500 450 80,000 Moravians 84 70 9,928 New Jerusalem 87 92 3,994 966,437 Presbvterians 11,783 8,834 Protestant Episcopal 3,109 3,664 351,699 Reformed 1,942 1,320 243,825 Roman Catholics Schwendfeldians 6,241 6,546 6,832,954 700 Unitarians 362 434 20,000 Universalists 719 713 36,238 Total in United States 115,610 81,717 17,267,878 Indian Country* The entire extent of territory" now in a state of reservation for Indian purposes, including all portions of the Indian Terri- tory, whether in fact occupied or unoccupied by Indians, is 112,- 413,440 acres, being equivalent to an average of 456 acres for each Indian, computed on the last reported number of the total population, including those estimated as outside the reservations. Of this area about 81,020,129 acres are within the scope of the general allotment law of 1887, and afford an average for the population residing upon such lands, amounting to 173,985, of about 465 acres to each. It will be seen that, by the execution of the general allotment law and breaking up of the reservations, a wide area of the public domain will be opened to settlement. The Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Semi- noles, constituting the five civilized tribes; the Osages, Miamis, Peorias, and Sacs and Foxes of the Indian territory, and the Seneca nation in New York are excepted from the provisions of the allotment act. The territorj^ occupied by them embraces 21,969,695 acres, not counting therewith the 6,024,239 acres of the Cherokee outlet, the 1,887,801 acres known as Oklahoma, and the 1,511,576 acres lying in the Indian territory south of the north fork of the Red river. The number of these excepted Indians is shown by the reports to be 72,110 in all. ]91oiiopoly. The following is a table of the leading alien holders of lands in the United States, with amount of holdings in acres : An English syndicate, No. 3 , in Texas 3,000,000 The Holland Land Co., New Mexico 4,500,000 Sir Edw. Reid and a syndicate, Florida 2,000,000 English syndicate in Mississippi 1,800,000 Marquis of Tweedale 1,750,000 Phillips, Marshall & Co., London 1,300,000 German- American syndicate, London 750,000 Bryan H. Evans, of London 700,000 Duke of Sutherland 425,000 British Land Company in Kansas 320,000 Wm. Wharley, M. P., Peterboro, Eng 310,000 Missouri Land Co., Edinburgh, Scotland. 300,000 Robert Tennent, of London 230,000 Dundee Land Co., Scotland 247,000 Lord Dunmore 120,000 Benjamin Neugas, Liverpool 100,000 Lord Houghton in Florida 60,000 Lord Dunraven in Colorado 60,000 English Land Company in Florida 50,000 English Land Company in Arkansas 50,000 Albert Peel, M. P., Leicestershire, Eng lO.OCO Sir J. L. Kay, Yorkshire, Eng 5,000 Alexander Grant, of London, in Kans 35,000 English syndicate, Wisconsin .. 110,000 M. Ellerhauser, of Halifax, in W. Va 600,000 A Scotch syndicate in Florida 500,000 A. Boysen, Danish consul in Milwaukee 50,000 Missouri Land Company, of Edinburgh 165,000 Total .20,647,000 To these syndicate holdings should be added the following: The Arkansas Valley Company in Colorado, a foreign corporation, whose inclosures embrace upward of 1 , 000,000 acres; the Prairie Cattle Company (Scotch) in Colorado, upwards of 1 , 000 , 000 ; H. H. Metcalf, River Bend, Col., 200 , 000 ; John W. Powers, Colorado, 200 , 000 ; McDaniel & Davis, Colorado, 75 , 000 ; Routch- ler & Lamb, Colorado, 40 , 000 ; J. W. Frank, Colorado, 40 , 000 ; Garnett & Langford, Colorado, 30 , 000 ; E. C. Tane, Colorado, 50 , 000 ; Leivesy Brothers, Colorado, 150 , 000 ; Vrooman & McFife, Colorado, 50 , 000 ; Beatty Brothers, Colorado, 40 , 000 ; Chick, Brown & Co., Colorado, 30 , 000 ; Reynolds Cattle Company, Colorado, 50 , 000 ; several other cases in Colorado, embracing from 10,000 to 30 , 000 ; Coe & Carter, Nebraska, fifty miles of fence; ]. W. Wilson, Nebraska, forty miles; J. W. Bdster, twenty miles; William Humphrey, Nevada, thirty miles; Nelson & Son, Nevada, twenty-two miles; Kennebec Ranch, Nebraska, from 20^000 to 50,000 acres. 186 Xlie American Itidian* The total Indian population of the United States in 1887, exclusive of Alaska, was 247,761. The Indian reservations in 1886 amounted to 135,978,345 acres, or 212,466 square miles approximately. The popular idea that there was originally a large Indian population in the territory now covered by the United States, and that the numbers have decreased with each succeeding gene- ration, as it came in contact with the fire-arms and fire-water of the white man’s civilization, is probably erroneous. There are no statistics available, but careful observation and comparison has induced such students of Indian history as Mr. J. P. Dunn, Jr., to fix the Indian population of our present Territory, at the time of European colonization, at 530,000 approximately, and Mr. Elbridge S. Brooks, the latest writer upon the Indians, materially modifies those figures, expressing the opinion that in 1600 there were not over half a million of Indians between the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic Ocean, and, in fact, that the Indian population of today is substantially the same in volume that it was when Columbus discovered America, or Leif Ericson either. Illiteracy. The 1880 census enumerates 36,761,607 persons of ten years of age and upward. Of this number 4,923, 451, or 13.4 per cent., are returned as unable to read, and 6,239,958, or 17 per cent., as unable to write. The following States show over 40 per cent, of their population as unable to write: Alabama, 60; Florida, 43; Georgia, 50; Louisiana, 49; Mississippi, 50; New Mexico, 65; North Carolina, 48; South Carolina, 55; and Virginia, 41, and the following States with less than 5 per cent, unable to read: Connecticut, 4; Dakota, 3; Illinois, 4; Indiana, 5; Iowa, 2; Kansas, 4; Maine, 4; Michigan, 4; Minnesota, 4; Montana, 5; Nebraska, New Hampshire, 4; New Jersey, 5; New York, 4; Ohio, 4; Oregon, 4; Pennsylvania, 55 Utah, 5; Virginia, 5, and Wisconsin, 4. Ayerag^e of Import Duties in Various Countries. Ratio to Imports. Per Cent. 5 % 6K 6 " United Kingdom.. France Germany Russia 18 Austria 5 Italy n Spain 24 Portugal 26 Holland 1 187 Belgium Denmark Sweden and Norway. Europe United States Canada Australia ..... Brazil. ... , , . .... Argentine Republic. . Ratio U Imports Per Cent 9 12 28 15 18 44 37 Ors^ani^eil I^atior in tlie Unltedl States* The first strike in this country occurred in New York City in 1803, when a number of sailors struck for an advance of wages. 1806. The tailors this year established the first organization in the United States, in the present form of a trades union. 1819. The hatters organized a union of their craft. 1825-30. The Columbia Charitable Association of Shipwrights and Caulkers was organized. 1825. As early as this year the questions of shorter hours of work, better wages and protection of operatives in factories were being agitated, and during the years that immediately followed, social unions of different crafts were springing up in cities and manufacturing centers. 1828. The Workingmen’s Party, a local political organization in New York, Boston, Philadelphia and other cities, appeared. 1829. At the State election in New York a workingmen’s ticket was put in the field, and elected one candidate to the Legislature — Ebenezer Ford, of New York. 1831. First local unions of printers. 1831. The New England Association of Farmers, Mechanics and Workingmen formed. 1832. Ten-hour movement among the shipwrights and caulk- ers throughout New England cities was followed by strikes, which proved unsuccessful. 1834. A mechanics’ convention met at Utica, N. Y., and pro- tested against convict labor. 1835. From this year onward strikes occurred in the different trades from time to time, with varying results. 1840. About this time many trades were organized, and some were enrolled in Labor Reform associations. 1840. President Van Buren established the ten-hour system for all employes of the Government in the Navy Yards. 1844-45. First effort of co-operation in connection with the labor movement originated in Boston. 1845. The New England Workingmen’s Association was or- ganized in Boston. 1845, October 12. The first Industrial Congress of the United States convened in New York. 1847. New Hampshire passed a law making ten hours a legal day’s work. 1850. The labor agitation at this period was principally directed to a reduction in hours of work by legal enactment. It entered into politics and many candidates were run on that issue. 1850-60. National and international trades unions were organ- ized, granting charters to local bodies and organizing new branches, from Maine to California. 1861-65. The eight-hour movement obtained great impetus during the war. II IS TORT OF ORGANIZED LABOR. 1866. There was a revival of the labor movement, and many new organizations were formed. 1S64. The Cigarmakers’ International Union was formed. 1866. An eight-hour bill for the benefit of Government em- ployes was introduced in Congress, and finally became a law in 1868 by the signature of President Johnson. 1866. First National Labor Congress met at Baltimore, August 20. This body met annually in ditferent cities for several years. 1869. The Knights of Labor were organized in Philadelphia. The labor movement from 1870 to the present time has been a continuous growth in the number of trades unions and increase in their membership, attended by strikes, lock-outs and settle- ments by arbitration, the agitation for labor legislation and efforts at political party organization. Congress created a National Bureau of Labor in 1884. Most of the trades unions organizations in the United States were represented at a convention held at Columbus, O., in December, 1886, when a national organization was formed, a. constitution adopted and the title taken of The American Federation of Labor. This body and the Order of Knights of Labor of America (which is a secret order) are the two principal national labor organizations of the United States. The total number of newspapers published in the world at present is estimated at about 40,000, distributed as follows; United States, 15,000; Germany, 5,500; Great Britain, 5,000, France, 4,092; Japan, 2,000; Italy, 1,400; Austria-Hungary, 1,200; Asia, exclusive of Japan, 1,000; Spain, 850; Russia, 800; Australia, 700; Greece, 600; Switzerland, 450; H Hand, 300; Belgium, 300; all others, 1,000. Of these about half are printed in the English language. Coal in the United States. — This country has an area of between 300,000 and 400,000 square miles of known coal fields, from which i million tons is mined yearly — enough to belt the earth at the equator with a ring five and a half feet thick by five and a half feet wide. The quantity “in sight” is estimated to be sufficient to supply the whole world for a period of fifteen hundred to two thousand years. Roman money mentioned in the New Testament, reduced to English and American standard : £ s. d. far. $ cts. Amite 0 0 0 0 75 0 00.354 A farthing, about 0 0 0 1 50 0 00 687 A penny, or denarius 0 0 7 2. 0 13 75 A pound, or mina 3 2 0 0 . 13 75 . 189 PARLIAMENTARY LAW AT A GLANCE. List of Motions Arranged According to their Purpose and Effect. [Letters refer to rules below.] Modify Uw or amending. 8. To amend or to substitute, or to divide the question ' * K To refer to committee. 7. To commit (or recommit) - Deferring Action. 6. To postpone to a fixed time - *• * « - - - . 4. To lay on the table - Suppressing or extending dehate. 5. For the previous question - -- -- -AE To limit, or close, debate A To extend lirnits of debate - Suppressing the question. Objection to consideration of question - - A H M 9. To postpone indefinitely 4. To fay upon the table AE To bring up a question the second time. S debatable question - - - D E F To reconsider j ^ndebatabfe question - - A E F Concerning Orders., Rules., etc. 3. For the orders of the day AEH To make subject a special order To amend the rules - -- -- -- -- To suspend the rules - -- -- -AEF To take up a question out of its proper order - - - A To take from the table -------AE Questions touching priority of business - - - - - "jpuestions of privilege. Asking leave to continue speaking after indecorum - - A Appeal from chair’s decision touching indecorum A E H L Appeal from chair’s decision generally - - - E H L Question upon reading of papers - AE Withdrawal of a motion - -- -- -- AE Closing a meeting. 2 . To adjourn (in committees, to rise), or to take a 1 A F F recess, without limitation ----(" ^ I. To fix the time to which to adjourn ------ B Order of Precedence. — The motions above numbered 1 to 9 take pre- cedence over all others in the order given., and any one of them., except to amend or substitute., is in order while a motion of a tower rank is pending. Rule A. Undebatable, but remarks may be tacitly allowed. Rule B. Undebatable if another question is before the assembly. Rule C. Limited debate allowed on propriety of postponement only. Rule D. Opens the main question to debate. Motions not so marked do not allow of reference to main question. Rule E. Cannot be amended. Motion to adjourn can be amended when there is no other business before the house. Rule F. Cannot be reconsidered. Rule G. An affirmative vote cannot be reconsidered. Rule H. In order when another has the floor. Rule I. A motion to reconsider may be moved and entered when another has the floor, but the business then before the house may not be set aside. This motion can only be entertained when made by one who voted originally with the prevailing side. When called up it takes precedence of all others which may come up, excepting only motions relating to adjournment. Rule K. A motion to amend an amendment cannot be amended. 190 PARLIAMENTART LAU'. Rule L. When an appeal from the chair’s decision results in a tie vote, the chair is sustained. Rule M. Requires a two-thirds vote unless special rules have been enacted. Rule N. Does not require to be seconded. GENERAL RULES. No motion is open for discussion until it has been stated by the chair. The maker of a motion cannot modify it or withdraw it after it has been stated by the chair, except by general consent. Only one reconsideration of a question is permitted. A motion to adjourn, to lay on the table, or to take from the table, can- not be renewed unless some other motion has been made in the interval. On motion to strike out the words, “Shall the words stand part of the motion?” unless a majority sustains the words, they are struck out. On motion for previous question, the form to be observed is, “Shall the main question be now put?” This, if carried, ends debate. On an appeal from the chair’s decision, “Shall the decision be sustained as the ruling of the house?” The chair is generally sustained. On motion for orders of the day, “Will the house now proceed to the orders of the day?” This, if carried, supersedes intervening motions. When an objection is raised to considering questions, “Shall the ques- tion be considered?” objections may be made by any member before debate has commenced, but not subsequently* Letter Combinations. — When King Stanislaus of Poland, then a young man, came back from a journey, the whole Lescinskian House gathered together at Lissa to receive him. The schoolmaster, Jablowsky, prepared a festival in commemoration of the event, and had it end with a ballet performed by thirteen students, dressed as cavaliers. Each had a shield, upon which one of the letters of the words “ Domus Lescinia** (The Lescinskian House) was written in gold. After the first dance, they stood in such a manner that their shields read " Domus Lescinia after the second dance, they changed order, making it read, Adts incoiumis'* (\ 5 nhzxmed art thou here); after the third, ** Mane sidus locz” (Continue the star of this place); after the fourth, Sts columna Dei** (Be a pillar of God); and finally, “/.' scande solium!** (Go! ascend the throne). Indeed, these two words allow of 1,556,755,200 transpositions ; yet that four of them convey independent and appropriate meanings is certainly very curious. To Tell Pure Water. — The color, odor, taste and purity of water can be ascertained as follows: Fill a large bottle made of colorless glass with water; look through the water at some black object. Pour out some of the water and leave the bottle half full ; cork the bottle and place it for a few hours in a warm place ; shake up the water, remove the cork, and critically smell the air con- tained in the bottle. If it has any smell, particularly if the odor is repulsive, the water should not be used for domestic purposes. By heating the water an odor is evolved that would not otherwise appear. Water fresh from the well is usually tasteless, even if it contains a large amount of putrescible organic matter. All water for domestic purposes should be perfectly tasteless, and remain so even after it has been warmed, since warming often develops a taste in water which is tasteless when ©old. Hand Grenades. — Take chloride of calcium, crude, 20 parts ; common salt, 5 parts ; and water, 75 parts. Mix and put in thin bottles. In case ol lire, a bottle so thrown that it will break in or very near the fire will put it out. This mixture is better and cheaper than many of the high-priced grenades sold for the purpose of fire protection. How TO Get Rid of Rats. — Get a piece of lead pipe and use it as a funnel to introduce about ounces of sulphide of potassium into any outside holes tenanted by rats, not to be used in dwellings. To get rid of mice use tartar emetic mingled with any favorite food ; they will eat, sicken and take their leave. 191 Great Fires and Coiiflagfrations. London, Sept. 2-6, 1666. — Eightj-nine churches, many public buildings and 13,200 houses destroyed; 400 streets laid waste; 200,000 persons home- less. The ruins covered 436 acres. New York, Dec. 16, 1835.— 600 buildings; loss, $20,000,000. Sept. 6, 1839. — $10,000,000 worth of property. Pittsburgh, April 10, 1845. — 1,000 buildings; loss, $6,000,000. Philadelphia, July 9, 1850.— 350 buildings; loss, $1,500,000; 25 persons killed; 9 drowned; 120 wounded. St. Louis, May 4, 1851. — Large portion of the city burned; loss, $15,000,000. San Francisco, May 3-5, 1851. — 2,500 buildings; loss, $3,^00,- 000; many lives lost. June 22, 1851. — 500 buildings; loss, $3,000,000. Santiago (Spain), Dec. 8, 1863. — A fire in the church of the Campania, beginning amid combustible ornaments; 2,000 persons killed, mostly women. Charleston, S. C., Feb. 17, 1865. — Almost totally destroyed, with large quantities of naval and military stores. Richrnond, Va., April 2 and 3, 1865. — In great part destroyed by fire at time of Confederate evacuation. Portland, Me., July 4, 1866. — Almost entirely destroyed; loss, $15,000,000. Chicago, Oct. 8 and 9, 1871. — 3)^ square miles laid waste; 17,450 buildings destroyed; 200 persons killed; 98,500 made homeless. July 14, 1874. — Another great fire; loss, $4,000,000. Great forest fires in Michigan and Wisconsin, October 8-14, 1871. — 2,000 lives lost. Boston, Nov. 9-1 1, 1872. — 800 buildings; loss, $73,000,000; 15 killed. Fall River, Mass., Sept. 19, 1874. — Great factory fires; 60 per- sons killed. St.John, N. B., June 21, 1876. — Loss, $12,500,000. Brooklyn Theater burned, Dec. 5, 1876. — 300 lives lost. Seattle and Spokane, Wash., 1889. — About $10,000,000 each. Great Floods and Inundations. An inundation in Cheshire, England, A.D. 353. — 3,000 per- sons perished. Glasgow, A.D. 758. — More than 400 families drowned. Dort, April 17, 1421. — 72 villages submerged; 100,000 people drowned. Overflow of the Severn, A.D. 1483, lasting ten days. — Men, women and children carried away in their beds, and the waters covered the tops ot many mountains. General inundation in Holland, A.D. 1530. — By failure of dikes; 400,000 said to have been drowned. At Catalonia, A.D. 1617. — 50,000 drowned. Johnstown, Pa., May 31, 1880.— By the bursting of a huge reservoir on the mountains, the town was almost entirely destroyed, and about 6,000 persons perished. The water in its passage to Johnstown descended about 250 feet. The theoretical velocity due to this descent would be about 127 feet per second or be- tween 86 and 87 miles an hour. According to the best accounts from 15 to 17 minutes were occupied in the passage to Johnstown, a distance of about twelve miles. Thus the average velocity could not have been far short of 50 miles an hour. The impetus of such a mass of water was irresistible. As the flood burst through the dam it cut trees away as if they were stalks of mullein. 192 THE WORLD’S HISTORY AT A GLANCE. Compact Diagrams Suggesting Dates, Names and Events. Designed to Aid the Memory and for Ready Reference. B. C. FROM ABRAHAM TO ' CYRUS. ASSYRIA. HEBREWS. .-^GYPT.; ^ CHALDiBA. 96. Abraham born. 1900 1800 BABYLONIA. 50. Ismi-Dagon. 21. Call of Abraham. '' :ic [gOlO '•-v. J k i' l ;* . _■ . a'l^ha- &et iicveuted. : 1700 6. Jacob removes in- to Egypt. kiug^ 1600 Seso^ti^ 1500 Arabians subdue Chaldaea. 71. Moses born. “v f 1400 91. Exodus from 51. He^^re-ws enter Canaan. 1300 ^eth<^' ■ ’ 1200 Semiramis. ; 45. Gi^or* conquers the Mriianites. 50. Nebuchadnez- 36. Samson defeats 1100 30. Tigleth-Pileserl. tl>e Philistines. 1000 *"95. Saul, king. pS- David, king. 15. Solomon, king. .'iHeops ‘bu'i I d s , J^Vgr^t Pyra- 900 go. C^een of Sheba , visits Solomon. 75. Death of Solomon. Two kingdoms formed — Judah and Israel. Shishak^ i S.hishak thvades 1 , : Jud^u plunders" , ■ .thef ,^b^le., . 75. Sardanapalus. 800 70. Assy rians con- quer PhcEnicia. 92. Syrians besiege 1 Samaria. } (II.) 700 600 600 47- Nabonassar, 28. Shalmaneser. 23. Invades Phoenicia. 17. Sennacherib. 9. Asarhadon. 26. Nabopolasser. 5. Nebuchadnezzar the Great. 87. Nebuchadnezzar invades Phoe- 71. Assyrians invade Israel. 21. The ten tribes car- ried into captiv- ity. 10. Sennacherib’s army of 185,000 destroyed in one night in Judea. 5. Nebuchadnezzar invades Judea. 87. J e r u s a 1 e m d e- stroyed. Jews led away into captivity 55. Belshazzar. 38. Cyrus the Mede, king of Persia, takes Babylon. 36. Jews returned to Jerusalem. 29. Death of Cyrus. FROM CYRUS TO ALEXANDER. 400 94. Darius in-^ vades f Greece.- 85. Xerxes in-> vades - Greece.! 79. Persians re-i treat hom^ 65. Artaxcrxesf Battle of Cuy naxa; Cy-' r u s t h el Yo u n g e 1+ slain. ! 90. defea^^j^ Persian^! Maratho^« 60. BattlesiM Thernr.fe pylae - Salamis. rp: 79. Battles ^ Mycalea^i^ Piatsea.- 1 :% 31. Peloponii^^ sian Ty'af " ^ 13. Athens vades (III.) 300 200 94. Persians aid Athenians in battle of Cnidus 36. Darius 111 . Codomanus. 1 . Amyntas. kS Philip II. [38. Defeat of I A t h e n 1“ 1 ans and Thebans I at Cher- | onea. 36. Alexander.! 34. Persia in- vade d by Alexander. Battle of GraniQUS. 33. Battle of Issus. Conquest of Syria. Conquest of Egypt. Siege of Tyre. 31. Battle of Arbela. 30. Darius assassinated. 28. Alexander invades India. 24. Alexander dies at Babylon. FROM ALEXANDER TO AUGUSTUS. EGYPT. 22. Ptolemy I. I. Battle of Ip- sus. 84. Ptolemy Phila d e 1 - phus. 46. Ptolemy Evergetes. Egy pti a ns conquer Syria. 21. Ptolemy Philopater. 4 Ptolemy Epiphanes. SYRIA. 23. Seleucus 1 . 83. Antioch us I. 46. Seleucus II. 26. Seleucus III 23 Antioch us the Great. MACEDON. 88. L y s i m a - chus. King of Tnrace, subjects Macedon. 20. Philip V. II. War with Rome. emperor, under tlie &TH OfTcHRIST. (IV.) 100 B. C. A. D. 100 200 800 ''So. Ptolemy Phi lometer. 45. Ptolemy Physcon. Ptolemy La- thyrus. 82. Thebes de- stroyed. 1 ^. Ptolemy Au- letus. I^S. Independent. h<. Antioch us IV. "70. Antiochus plundersje- rusalem. 30. Antiochus VII. 33. Antiochus vm. 12. Antio'chus IX. 51. Ptolemy Bac- chus and Cleopatra. 43. Cleopatra, 31. Battle of Ac- tium. ’^o. Egypt a Ro- ibo. Antiochus XII. I65. Antiochus defeated by Pompey. Syria subject to Rome. 99. Second war with Rome. 72..Third Roman war. 68. Battle of Pydna M a c e d o n conquered. 51. Oaul ‘ ^ f8. Civil war* *^'Q5C Inc^^ f4. Assassination ^ Jut ‘ ^ ti ^ >’ .V*' ^ FROM AUGUSTUS TO CHARLEMAGNE. 70. Destruction of Jerusalfemi, ‘ - ^ ^^^Ertiption of Mount. Vesuvius, eoyeriia^ p #cihicth "persecution. 97; Battle of X.yiAnl«» - pestilence, ; ^ ^^.Cbhstantine sole emperor, J '• (V.) WESTERN EMPIRE. EASTERN EMPIRE. 400 Gothi tin^r Alaric overrun Italy. 8. Theodosius H. 10. Rome besieged and sacked. 47. Tribute paid to Attila, King or the Hons. Romans leave Briteia* 50 . Maiciao* 55 . Anglo*Saxons conquer Britoee. ^72. VisigoUis conquer Spain. 76 . Odoacer captures Rome. Bnd of the Empire. 1 86. Franks in Gaul. 89. Ostrogoths in Italy. 600 7. Kingdom of the Franks founded by Clovis. 2 . Empire ravaged bf the Persiaiit. 52. Ostrogoths expelled from Italy. 29. Jnsdnian code poblisbed. 96. Lombards overrun Ita 'y. 81. Slavonians in Thrace. 600 56. Clovis II. king oi France. 12. Mohammed spreads his doctrines. 62. Lombards defeat Constans 11 , in Italy. 14. Persians ravage Syria and Palestine. 97. Conq lest of Northern Africa by the Saracens. 40. Saracens invade Egypt. 73. Siege of Constantinople. 700 II. Saracens invade Spain. 32. Battle of Tours. Saracens defeated by the Franks under Charles Martel. 74. Charlemagne conquers the Lom- bards. 20. Saracens defeated at Constantinople. 30. Iconoclasts burn and de- stroy works of art. 800 .^4)rli&6iague 1 II. Bulgarians defeat the Greek emperor. '(VI.) 800 900 1000 1100 12001 FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO NAPOLEON. ENGLAND. 28. Egbert king. 71. Alfred the Great. FRANCE, 4EimfAinr; >j elsewhere. 51. Pill age d by Northmen. 14, Louis th^ Deh bounaire^ Charles the 9. Death of Haroun al Raschid, the Caliph. 24. Athelstan. 79. Edward the Martyr as- sassinated. 13. Svenn c o n - quers Eng- land. 17. Canute king. 42. Edward the Confessor. 66. B a 1 1 1 e of Hastings. William the Conqueror. 89. William II. Henry I. 35. Stephen, 54. The Planta- genets. Henry II. 71. Invasion of Ireland. 89. R i c h a r d Coeur de Lion. 90. John Lack- land. 15. Magna Char- ta signed. 16. Henry III. 72. Edward I. 82. Conquest of O I^C 97. Sir William Wallace in Scotland. 12. Rollo, Duke of Normandy, 87. Hugh Ca- put, King of France 70. Russians in- vade Thrace and are de- feated. 65. Turks cap- ture Jeru- salem. 96. F i r s t Cru- sade. 99. C r u s a d ers take Jeru- salem. 25. Venice flour- ishes. 46. Second Cru- sade. 59. War of the Guelphsand Ghibellines. 72. S a 1 a d i n * s conquest in Asia. 87. Third C r u - sade. 94. Fourth Cru- sade. Fifth Cru- sade. 17. Si xth Cru- sade. 18. G e n g h i s Kha n,the Mogul, conqueror of Asia. 68. Eighth and last Crusade. 1300 1400 1500 (VII.) ENGLAND. Edward II. 14. Battle of Bannock- burn. 27. Edward III. 46. B a 1 1 1 e of Cressy. 56. B a 1 1 1 e of Poictiers. 77. Richard II. 99. Henry IV. of Lv.ncas- ter. 13. H e n r y V. War with France. 15. B a 1 1 1 e of Agincourt. 22. Henry VI. War of the Roses. 61. H o u s e of York. Edward IV. 83. Edward V. Richard III. 8 <. The Tudors. Henry VII. ~Henry VIII. 13. B a 1 1 1 e of Flodden. 36. Ann Boleyn beheaded. 47. Edward VI. 53. Mary. 58. Elizabeth. FRANCE. 14 L o u i s X. 16, P h i 1 i p V. 21. Charles IV. 28. Philip VI. 50. John II. 64. Charles V. 80. CharlesVI. GEKMAN 7. Revolt o f the Swiss. William Tell. 15. B a ttl e of Mo r gar- ten. 49. Charles IV. of House of L u X- emburg. 78. W e n c e s- laus. 22. C h a r 1 e s 0 . Sigismund. VII. ^ 29. Joan of Arc raises siege of Orleans. 51. English ex- pelled from France. 61. Louis XI. 81. Charles VIII. 96. Louis XII. vasion. 15. Fran c i s I. 25. B a 1 1 1 e of Pavia. 47. Henry II. 59. Francis II. 60. Hugue not war. iLSEWHERE. 40.. Frederick. 93. Max i m i 1 - ian I. I. Knights Templar suppressed. 40. Battle of Tarifa i n Spain — Moors de- feated. 47. Rienzi frees Rome. ^.Battle of Nicopolis. Christian s defeated. 2. B a 1 1 1 e of Angora, famerl an e captures Bajazet. 22. Amurath II. consolid’es Ottoman Empire. 42. B a 1 1 1 e of ^ Vasag. Turks beat- en by Hun- garians. 53. Amurath II. ca p tu r e s Constanti- nople. 56. Battle of Bel- grade. 92. Columbus disc ove r s America. 13. English in- Si*7i Ref o r m a- : — tion — Luther.';^ 19. Charles V; 21. Diet of . Worms. ^ 56. Abdication of Charles^ V. _ f Ferdinai}.cb L 21. Wars of Charles V. in Italy. 53. Ivan IV., Russia. 56. Philip II. in Spain. 65. Netherlands revolt. VIIL 1600 1700 ENGLAND. 87. M a r y of Scots be- headed. 88. Spanish Ar- mada. 3. The Stuarts. James I. 25. Charles I. 49. C o m m on- wealth. Oliver Cromwpll. 60. Stuarts r e- stored. Cha r 1 e s II. 79. Habeas Cor- pus apt;. 85. James II. 88. William and Mary. 90. Battle of the Boyne. 2. Anne, 14. H o u s e of Ha n ove r. G e o r g e I. 27. Ge o r g e II. 39. War with Spain. 46. Stuart troub- les in Scot- land. Battle of Culloden. 56. War with France. 60. George III. 75. War with Americ a n Colonies. FRANCE. 72. Mass acre St. Bar- tholo- mew’s day. 84. Henry III. 89. Henry IV. of Na- GERMANY. 64. Maxi m i 1 - " ian II, 76. Rudolph 8: 10. Louis XIII. 27. S i e g e of Rochelle. 43. Louis XIV. 48. W ars of the Fronde. 72. H o 1 1 a n d invaded. 85. E d i c t of Nantes revoked. 15. Louis XV. 45. B a 1 1 1 e of Fontenoy. 74. Louis XVI. 89. States Gen- eral. 90. Revolution. 93. Louis XVI. beheaded. Republic. 99. Napol eon First Con- sul. i2wMa th i a s. Thirty y’rs war.- ^rFerdina n d n. 20. B at tie of Rrague. ^"30. Invasion of Gustavus Adolphus 2 of S we- 1 den. 32. Battle of Lutzen. 37. Ferdina n d III. 59. Leopold 1 . Jose ph I. Charles VI. Char’s VII. War of the Austria n succes- sion.,' H o ijy5 e Loraine." Fra n els Jo^seph n. " -Leopold n. Francis,. H. Rhenish ‘ ' Province^ ' Revolt? War,w 4 th , Fraiace.:-;-- ELSEWHERE.! 71. Battle of Le- panto. li. Ho Hand a republic. 52. Dutch A d- miral Van Tromp. 83. John Sobies- ki, king of Poland, defeats the Tu r k s at Vienna. .Peter the Great, Russia. 97. Charles XII. Sweden. War of Spanish succession Battle of Pultowa, defeat o f Charles XII. Catherine I. of Russia. Frederick II. of Prussia. Capture of Berlin. Catherine II. of Russia. Partition of Poland. Prussia en- larged. 1800 (IX.) ENGLAND. I. Union with Ireland. 3. War with France. 5. B a 1 1 1 e of Trafalgar. 8. Peninsu 1 a r war. 12. War with United States. 15. B a 1 1 1 e of Waterloo. FRANCE. 4. Napoleon emperor. 5. Battle of Austerlitz. 6. Of Jena. 9. Of W a g- ram. 12. Rus s i a n campaign. 13. War with all Eu- rope. 14. Allies en- ter France. Napoleo n sent to Elba. 15. Napoleon returns. Battle of Waterloo. Napoleo n sent to St. Helena. ' _ ’'■■Bar'V-.a r'i a,: ’ W^St^h a- . i i* a a n d > Wurte ni.-* es- tablisiTed. 6. Prussians at ^ _ ''yv a r wildi an Pfj^Fru s s i a:rk--$-i ’ oecu^ '3 ha a n i '^©jffbde ta- v^n ELSEWHERE. I. Alexanderl. Russia. 5. Russia joins the coa 1 i - tion against France. 12. French i n- vade Rus- sia. Moscow burnt. 15. Holy Alli- a n c e be- tween Rus- sia, Prus- s i a and Austria. FROM NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME. ENGLAND. 20. George IV. 30. William IV. 37. Vi c t o r i a. 39. War with China. 48. Tro u b 1 e in Ireland. 53. Crimean war. 56. War with Persia. 57. Indian muti- ny. 67. War with Abyssinia. 73. Ashantee war. 78. War in Af- ghanistan. 79. Zula war. FRANCE. 24. Ch a r 1 e s X. 30. Conque s t Algiers. Louis Phillipe. 48. R e V o 1 u- tion. Republic. 51. Coup d’e- tat. <2. Napoleo n III. em- peror. 59. War with Austria. Battles of Ma ge n- ta and Solferino. 70. War with Prussia. Battle of Sedan. . I nsui^ectL.^ in 61. Willi am L 64. 66 . 70. War with . Denmark, War w ij:_h Austria. Battle of Sa- dowa. Inva^on of France, ♦ German Era -c pirc re-es- tablished. Willi am I. : dm^^rpr,. ELSEWHERE 27. Greece inde- pendent. . Hunga r i a n war. Francis J o- seph e ra- pe r o r of Austria. Siege of Se- bastopol. A 1 ex a n d e r II., Russia. Victor Emanuel king of It- aly. Revolu tion in Spain. A m a d e u s king of Spain. . Rome capi- tal of Italy. ENGLAND. 1800 8o. Famine in Ireland. Land League. 82. War in Egypt. 88. Irish home rule d i s- cussions. U. S. Cov- er n m e n t dismiss Lord Sack- yille, Brit- ish minis- ter. FRANCE. 70. Surrender of Napo- leon. 71. O utbreak of the Com- mune. Paris tak- en by storm. Repub 1 i c. Th i e r s president. 73. M acM a- hon pres- ident. 79. Jules Gre- vy presi- dent. 87. Sadi-Car - not presi- dent. 89. Boulanger ex c i t e- GERMANY. ELSEWHERE. 88. D e a t h WiBiam:!. -- Accession • y and, death of :R^eder^ William II. 89? Mining strikes^ 75. Alphonso VII., Spain. 77. Russo- Turkish 79. H u m b e r t king of Italy. 81. Alexa n d e r II. of Rus- sia assassi- nated. Alexa n d e r m. N'or/olk. So fare you well, my little good Lord Cardinal. IVolsey. So farewell to the little good you bear me. Farewell, a long farewell to all my greatness! This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hopes, to-morrow blossoms, And bears his blushing honors thick upon him: The third day comes a frost, a killing frost; And — when he thinks, good easy man, full surely His greatness is a ripening — nips his root And then he falls as I do. I have ventured. Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, This many summers in a sea of glory. But far beyond my depth: my high-blown pride At length broke under me, and now has left me Weary and old with service, to the mercy Of a rude stream that must forever hide me. Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye! Shakespeare^ Henry F///., Act ///., Scene (X.) AMERICA. discovers Atneric*. 4iiscovetV>i|^«t<>undlaQd; fr:,‘^’’' ' ' ; ■''''* 5'^ .-VV' 1‘allure. T 1733 Settlement at Jamestown | Virginia. New Amsterdam settled by Dutch. Massachusetts. Puritans land at Plymouth Rock Swedes and Finns settlement Catholic settlement ax St. Mary’s.... Settlements at Hartford and Windsor. .. ^ Connecticut;. Roger Williams settles Elizabethtown settled Delawarei^t',:^, Maryland. Rhode Island. NeV J;ersey. Clarendon colony settlement,..., 4 North Carolina. Pennsylvania. Carteret colony found old Charleston... . South Carolina. William Penn Oglethorpe founds Savannah Separated from Massachusetts.. . ... New Hampshire. | 1754 1800 (XII.) French and Indian war. 55. Braddock’s defeat. 58. Fort DuQuesne taken by Washington. 65. Colonial Congress at New York resists stamp act. 68. General Gates sent to Boston. 70. Boston massacre. 74. Congress meets in Philadelphia. 75. The Revolutionary War begins with battle of Lexington Battle of Bunker Hill. 76. Declaration of Independence. 77. Battle of Princeton. Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga. 78. Battle of Monmouth. 81. Battle of Cowpens. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 83. Treaty of peace. 87. Constitution adopted, 88. Constitution ratified by eleven States. THB UNITED STATES. 89. George Washington president. John Adams vice-president. 90. Indian war in Ohio. 91. Vermont admitted. 92. Kentucky admitted. 94, Whiskey insurrection. 96. Tennessee admitted. qj, John Adams president. _ !Jliomas Jefferson vice-president. .99.. Death of Washington. Washington City, D. C., th 6 capital. I, Thomas Jefferson president. Aaron Burr vice-president. a. Ohio admitted. SPANISH AND 5RITISH AMERICA. 3, Hayti Republic, 8. King of Portugal goes to Brazil. 1803 [ S Louisiana purchased from the French. War with Tripoli. 5.- George Clinton vice-president. -7. Trial of Aaron Burr. 9. James Madison president, George Clinton vice-president. II. Battle of Tippecanoe. 12. Louisiana admitted. War with England. Invasion of Canada, Surrender of Mackinaw. 13. Battle of Lake Erie. Com. Per^ captures English fleet. Elbridge Gerry vice-president. ' Battle of the Thames. 14. Battle of Lundy^s Lane. ; ^ English c^ture Washington city . and burn public buildings. Battle of North Point. Bombardment of Fort McHenry, 15. Battle of 'New Orleans. a6. Indiana admitted. James Monroe president, ' ^ Daniel Tompkins T^,e»president. Mississippi admittedfcf^ - 18. Illinois admitted. Florida war. 19. Alabama admitted, Jr Purchase of Florida, :s(Oi Missouri Compromise, Maine admitted. 21. Missouri admitted, 23. Monroe docfcric^ declarednt 24. Visit of Hafayettt.' (XIII.) 9. Buenos Ayres War of Inde- pendence. II. Dr. Francia dic- tator of Para- guay. 15. Brazil made a kingdom. 16. Buenos Ayres independent. 7. Chili, after a hard struggle, inde- I pendent. 21. Mexico indepen- dent. Spaniards driven out of Peru. 22. Brazil indepen- dent. Dom Pedro em- peror. Iturbide emperor of Mexico. United States ac- knowledge in- dependence of So’h American Rtr^blics. 24. Bolivar dictator of Peru. tc. Bolivia indepen- dent. 1 1825 John Quincv Adams president. John C. Calhoun vice-president; i6. Uruguay i n d c- pendent. Protective tariff bill passed. 29. Andrew Jackson president. John 0 , Calhoun vice-president. ' ^ 32. Veto United States Bank bill. Black Hawk war. 29. Formation of United States- of Colombia. 33. Martin Van Buren vice-president. . Pubjic funds withdrawn from United States Bank. 35. Seminole war. ji. Dom Pedro ab- dicates, his six year old son, Dom Pedro II., emperor of Brazil. 36. Arkansas admitted. . , 52. Texans revolt. 35:. Martin V an Buren president. J - Richard M. Johnson vice-president. " Michig'an admitted. Financial crisis, banks suspend, ness failures and distress throughout; the country. ^ J3. D e f e a t of the Mexicans. 40. Northeastern boundary line disputes. 57. Insurrection i n Canada. 41. William H. Harrison president. John Tyler vice-president. Harrison dies April 4th, ; John Tyler president. Veto of bank bill. 43. Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island. 44. Texas applies for annexation, 45, James K. Polk president. George M. Dallas vice-president., Texas annexed. r Florida admitted. 45. War between U. S. and Mexico. 46. Iowa admitted. War with Mexico. Battles of Palo Alto, and Resaca de la Palma. 47. Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo and Contreras. Capture of city of Mexico. 48. Acquisition of New Mexico and Calin> fornia. Wisconsin admitted. . (XIV.) 1849 ‘.jg^aehary Tja-vlor ;< 'MiUara Fillmore' vlcgypre^^i^^^-^ 50. Lopez’ attempt on Cuba. ;‘ 5Jtji /Pue^Edeot Taylor dies. - '■ ■'■■: MUlard FiUmote president*^ / - ; *' \ , ^^fbrnia admitted. - >: + Fugitive siav^ law passfd^ ^ ' •*'.■- ■ - / \ 51, Lopez garroted. ^r^FranklixrFteTce president. ^"^-WiHiara RHfus King ^ Martin Kosra prote^pQ'. ..j* • '< 53. Santa Anna dic- tator of Mexi- co. 55, Commotions in Kansas, ,1,— • X 'James Buchanan presideniti- . C, Breckinridge vice*presid©ttt. . ^iJI'ilOjped Scott decision, , ^ 56. Walker’s Nic- araguan expe- dition. Hinuesota admitted* §8. Juarez president of Mexico. Se>, Oregon admitted. £x, Kansas admitte d. -Abraham L i n- V; , ' ^j^n president. } Hannibal H a m- lin vic.e-presi’t. Attack on Fort- . : Sumter. • ;' Harper’s Ferry _* ' a n d Norfolk ■■■seizedi' B^le of B u "CONFEDERATE STATES. ; 3 i. Sou th Carolina, Mississippi, Ala- , bama, Florida, Georgia, Louis- iana, Texas, '■ Arkansas, Ten- nessee and N’th p Carolina, se- j cede. (XV.) 6a. Capture of Fort JDoiddson. Battle o f /P e a B Ridge. « Batfele of Shiloh, Battle, of -F a i r Seven days’ bat- [■; tles~-C h i c k a- hominy, Hattie of Cedar Mountain; Second battle of ' Bull Run^ i'p a t i o n prod amation' 1 ^issued, p: .Virginia adhitted. 4 Jefferson Davis i president. 1 Virginia secedes. 02. Battles of Corinth, \ o f Fredericks- burg. of Mur- 1 freesboro. 63. Battle of Chan- cellorsville. Siege of Vicks- burg. Battle of Getty 8- ; burg. Battle of Chicka- mauga. 62. France at war with Mexico. 63. French enter city of Mexico. Archduke Max- imilian of Aus- tria invited to become e m- peror, 64. He accepts. 1864 S'/- lifeva^ adi^fedv? ^ 5^^ ^65. Andi’E^^V'- . Johnson vice-president. ;.i President Liii^In shot, April 14!^ Andrew Joiinsofi:^ --president. ' k.i^m nesty^^r s « u e d ' ' by the president. ^ Siege of Peters- burg. Battle of Five Forks. Capture of Peters- burg and Rich- mond, Surrender of Lee, Johnston and Kirby Smith, End of the war. <^S- 66 . 67, Nebraska admitted; ^ ^ " Alask^ purchased. 68, Readmission of Southern 69. Ulysses S. Grant president. - ' ' 1 Schuyler Colfax vice-president. 72. Genevan award. ^ 1 73. Henry Wilson vice-president. Modoc war, 76 . Colorado admitted, 77. Rutherford B. Hayes president, William A. Wheeler vice-president. Railroad riots. - . 81. James A. Garfield president. ^ ' Chester-A. Arthur vice-president, * President Garfield shot by Gniteau,- . : Chester A. Arthur president, - 85. Grover Cleveland president. . Thomas A. Hendricks vice-presicfent. , ^ 86. Anarchist riot, Chicago. 88. Lord Sackville, British minist^fr* missed. 89. Benjamin W, Harrison president. Levi P. Morton vice-president. North and South Dakota. ' and Montana admitted to th«lt^nl6n.; . 90. Idaho and Wyoming admitted to the XJmph. (- 9 ^- Paraguay at war with Uruguay, Brazil and Ar- senti ne Re pub - Spain and Chili at war, Juarists in Mex-, ico have great successes. Surrender and execution o t Maximilian. Cuban revolt. War between Chili and Peru. Civil war in Hayti. XVI. Austria Hungary GERMANY FRANCE JEiiropean Proportionate Strength 1,000 parts. Balance of Bower. I Deduced from tables ^sof population, wealth, debts, Sonnies, navies & railroadr Greece Switzerland Servia Denmark Bulgaria! iRoumania NOT^ay Neth’Pds Belgium Portugal J 7 u /\ _■ P-' 213 , \ 113 t RUSSIAN EMP, Great ' ' ■ Britain and h-- ■ - V-' ; Ireland Ky Our Foreign Trade. Exports to. ilSSS.) Great Britain $364,210,116 $ 180,136,570 In the small blocks below the figures stand for millions . Germany France Canada 56,414, 42,200,446 West Indies and Cent’l America 78,421,835 72,109,816 37,245,119 Brazil Cuba Belgium Spain East Ind. China Australia n 25.2 43,084,123 42,842,097 10 . 53,710,234 25,180,733 9.8 14.6 15.5 6,1 21.7 1 7.9^ 17.8 r 49,319,087 Hawaii Isl’ds 1 i\ 11 Argent. Hep. ■ 6.6' 5.9 Austria ^"8.6 Sweden & Nor. 2.7 3.2 , , ^ Denmark 3.6 : ■ Italy Neth’Bds Mexico Japan Russia Switzerland Colombia Portugal Chili 12.7 18.4 16.2 ^ 12.3 ' 9.8 17.2 4.2j^ 18.6 11.3 3.5 13.'; r rs 4.3 5,2 1.5 i .2.4 2.8 i. H All other CounFs iL7 [ 9.8 Growth of IT. S. Population since 1820. Immigration, and increase . Original Stock 1889 - 21 , 467,649 1880 — 1870 1860 1850 - 1840 1830 SFATISTICS. In the cholera visitation of 1866, the proportion of deaths per 10,000 inhabitants in the principal cities of Europe was as fol- lows; London, 18; Dublin, 41; Vienna, 51; Marseilles, 64; Paris, 66; Berlin, 83; Naples, 89; St. Petersburg, 98; Madrid, 102; Brussels, 184; Palermo, 197; Constantinople, 738. There were 48,930 blind people in the United States in 1880, and 33,880 deaf mutes. It is estimated that the number of insane persons in the United States is 168,900. Catises of Insanity. — Hereditary, 24 per cent.; drink, 14 per cent.; business, 12 per cent.; loss of friends, ii per cent; sickness, 10 per cent.; various, 29 per cent. This result is the medium average arrived at by Mulhall on comparing the returns for the United States, Engand, P'rance and Denmark. No FEWER than 1,326 editions of the Bible were published in the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centu- ries it was translated and published in many languages by the polyglot press of Propaganda Fide at Rome. In the nineteenth century the English and American societies have printed, in the Protestant version, 124,000,000 copies of the Bible or of the New Testament, viz: British, 74,000,000; American, 32,000,000; other societies, 15,000,000 copies. The King James version of the Bible contains 3,566,480 let- ters, 773,746 words, 31,173 verses, 1,189 chapters, and 66 books. The word and occurs 46,277 times. The word Lord occurs 1,855 times. The word Reverend occurs but once, which is in the 9th verse of the iiith Psalm. The middle verse is the 8th verse of the ii8th Psalm. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra contains all the letters of the alphabet except the letter J. The 19th chapter of II Kings and the 37th chapter of Isaiah are alike. The longest verse is the 9th verse of the 8th chapter of Esther. The shortest verse is the 35th verse of the nth chapter of St. John. There are no words or names of more than six syl- lables. Some of Nature’s Wonders. The human body has 240 bones. The musical scale was invented in 1022. Man’s heart beats 92,160 times in a day. A salmon has been known to produce 10,000,000 eggs. Some female spiders produce 2,000 eggs. A queen bee produces 100,- 000 eggs in a season. There are 9,000 cells in a square foot of honejxomb. It requires 2,300 silk worms to produce one pound of silk. It would take 27,600 spiders to produce one pound of web. 231 LEGAL ADVICE B LACKSTONE defines law as the rules of human action or conduct, but what is commonly understood by the term is the civil or municipal regulations of a nation as applied to a particular country. The forms of law which gov- ern civil contracts and business intercourse are distinguished as statute and common. Statute law is the written law of the land, as enacted by State or national legislative bodies. The com- m.on law is grounded on the general customs of England, and includes the law of nature, the law of God, the principles and maxims of the law and the decisions of the superior courts. It overrides both the canon and the civil law where they go be- yond or are inconsistent with it. To the man involved in litigation the best advice is to go to the best lawyer he can find. But an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, and the purpose of the following pages is to furnish the ounce of prevention. Knowledge is power in nothing so much as in business law, especially since the law pre- sumes that no man is ignorant of the law. Business Law in Brief. Ignorance of the law excuses no one. It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. The law compels no one to do impossibilities. An agreement without consideration is void. Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in law. A receipt for money paid is not legally conclusive. The act of one partner binds all the others. The seal of a party to a written contract imports consider- ation. A contract made with a minor cajinot be enforced against him. A note made by a minor is voidable. A contract made with a lunatic is void. A contract made on a Sunday is void. Principals are liable for the acts of their agents. Agents are liable to their principals for errors. Each individual in a partnership is liable for the whole amount of the debts of the firm. A note which does not state on its face that it bears interest, will bear interest only after due. A lease of land for a longer term than one year is void unless in writing. An indorser of a note is exempt from liability if notice of its dishonor is not mailed or served within twenty-four hours of its non payment. In case of the death of the principal maker of a note the holder 232 LEGAL ADVICE. is not required to notify a surety that the note is not paid, before the settlement of the maker’s estate. Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an intoxicated person, are not collectible. If no time of payment is specified in a note it is payable on demand. An indorser can avoid liability by writing “without recourse” beneath his signature. A check indorsed by the payee is evidence of payment in the drawer’s hands. An outlawed debt is revived should the debtor make a partial payment. Want of consideration — a common defense interposed to the payment of negotiable paper — is a good defense between the original parties to the paper ; but after it has been transferred before maturity to an innocent holder for value it is not a de- fense. Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or indorsed in blank, which has been stolen or lost, cannot be collected by the thief or finder, but a holder who receives it in good faith before ma- turity, for value, can hold it against the owner’s claims at the time it was lost. Sometimes the holder of paper has the right to demand pay- ment before maturity ; for instance, when a draft has been pro- tested for non-acceptance and the proper notices served, the holder may at once proceed against the drawer and indorsers. If a note or draft is to be paid in the State where it is made, the contract will be governed by the laws of that State. When negotiable paper is payable in a State other than that in which it is made, the laws of that State will govern it. Marriage con- tracts, if valid where they are made, are valid evervwhere. Contracts relating to personal property are governed by the laws of the place where made, except those relating to real estate, which are governed by the laws of the place where the land is situated. If negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as security for the payment of a loan or debt, falls due, and the bank fails to de- mand payment and have it protested when dishonored, the bank is liable to the owner for the full amount of the paper. Agreements and Contracts. A contract or agreement is where a promise is made on one side and assented to on the other, or where two or more per- sons enter into engagement with each other by a promise on either side. In a written contract assent is proven by the signa- ture or mark. In verbal agreements it may be given by a word 233 LEGAL ADVICE, or a nod, by shaking of hands, or by a sign. The old saw, “Silence gives consent,” is often upheld in law. The conditions of a contract, as applying to individuals, are: I. Age ; 2. Rationality ; and 3, as to Corporations, the posses- sion of general or special statutory powers. Persons under age are incompetent to make contracts, except under certain limitations. Generally such persons are incapa- ble of making binding contracts. As to rationality, the general principle of law is that all persons not rendered incompetent by personal disability, or by considerations of public policy, are capable of making a contract. Corporations have powers to make contracts strictly within the limits prescribed by their charters, or by special or general statute. The first step toward a contract is the proposition or offer, which may be withdrawn at any time before it is agreed to. When the proposition is verbal, and no time is specified, it is not binding unless accepted at once. To give one the option or re- fusal of property at a specified price, is simply to give him a cer- tain time to make up his mind whether he will buy the property or not. To make the option binding he must accept within the time named. The party giving the option has the right to with- draw it, and sell the property to another, at any time previous to its acceptance, if the offer is gratuitous, and there is no consid- eration to support it. If a letter of acceptance is mailed, and immediately after a letter withdrawing the offer is received, the contract is binding. An acceptance takes effect from the time it is mailed, not from the time it is received ; it must, however, be in accordance with the original proposition, for any new matter introduced would constitute a new offer. When the offer is accepted, either ver- bally or in writing, it is an express assent, and is binding. A contract made under a mistake of law is not void. Every- body is presumed to know the law. This, however, applies only to contracts permitted by law and clear of fraud. A refusal of an offer cannot be retracted without the consent of the second party. Once a proposition is refused, the matter is ended. And no one has the right to accept an offer except the person to whom it was made. The consideration is the reason or thing for which the parties bind themselves in the contract, and it is either a benefit to the promisor or an injury to the oth^r party. Considerations are technically divided into valuable and good^ and it sometimes happens that the consideration need not be expressed, but is im- plied. A valuable consideration is either money or property or service to be given, or some injury to be endured. A promise to marry is considered a valuable consideration. A good con- 234 LEGAL ADVICE, sideration means that the contract is entered into because of con^ sanguinity or affection, which will support the contract when executed, but will not support an action to enforce an executory contract. Whether a consideration is sufficient or not is tested by its being a benefit to the promisor or an injury to the other party. If it has a legal value, it makes no difference how small that value may be. The promisor need not always be benefited, as, for instance, the indorser of a note, who is liable although he gets no benefit. But if a person promise to do something him- self for which no consideration is to be received, there is no cause of action for breach of the contract. There are several causes which void contracts, first among which is fraud. Fraud is defined to be “every kind of artifice employed by one person for the purpose of willfully deceiving another to his injury.” No fraudulent contract will stand in law or in equity. The party upon whom the fraud has been prac- ticed must void the contract as soon as he discovers the fraud, for if he goes on after having knowledge of the fraud he cannot afterwards avoid it. But the one who perpetrates the fraud cannot plead that ground for voiding it. Contracts in restraint of trade are void, as also are contracts in opposition to public policy, impeding the course of justice, in restraint of marriage contrary to the insolvent acts, or for immoral purposes. Anj violation of the essential requisites of a contract, or the omissior of an essential requisite, will void it. DON’T enter into an agreement on a Sunday unless it is rati fied on a week day. DON’T make a contract with a person of unsound mind oj under the influence of liquor, or otherwise under restraint ol liberty, mind or body. Use caution in making contracts with an illiterate, blind or deaf and dumb person, and see to it that witnesses are present. DON’T put a forced construction on a contract — the intent of the parties is a contract. DON’T suppose that you can withdraw a proposition made in writing and sent by mail after the party to whom it was made has mailed an unconditional acceptance. DON’T suppose that a conditional acceptance of a proposition is binding on the party making the proposition. DON’T forget that the courts will construe a contract ac- cording to the law prevailing where it was made. DON’T forget that the law says, “no consideration, no con- tract,” and that the courts will not enforce a contract which is too severe -in its provisions. DON’T sign an agreement unless you have carefully "weighed its provisions, which should all be fixed and certain. 235 Notes and Negotiable Paper. The superstructure of business as it exists to-daj rests on the broad foundation of confidence — the result of what maj be called the evolution of commerce, and the principal stages in this evo- lution are an interesting study. First there was only barter in kind, as still practiced among savages — for example, the ex- change of a bushel of corn for a handful of arrow-heads. Then came the introduction of money as a medium of exchange ; and to-day we have the substitution of negotiable paper as docu- mentary evidence of indebtedness, including promissory notes, due bills, drafts, checks, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange, bank bills, treasury notes (greenbacks), and all other evidences of debt, the ownership of which may be transferred from one person to another. The mere acknowledgment of debt is not sufficient to make negotiable paper ; iho. j>romise of payment or an order on some one to pay is indispensable. This promise must be for money only. The amount must be exactly specified. The title must be transferable. This feature must be visible on the face of the paper by the use of such words as “bearer” or “order.” In some of the States peculiar phrases are ordered by statute, as “Payable without defalcation or discount,” or “Payable at ,” naming the bank or office. A written agreement, signed by one person, to pay another, at a fixed time, a stated sum of money, is a promissory, note. It becomes negotiable by being made payable to an order on some one or to bearer. As it is a contract, a consideration is one of its essential elements. Yet, although it be void as between the two first parties, being negotiable and coming into the hands of another person who gives value for it, not knowing of its defect, it has full force and may be collected. The date is of great consequence. In computing time, the day of date is not counted, but it is the fixed point beginning the time at the end of which payment must be made. Omission of the date does not destroy a note, but the holder must prove to the time of its making. The promise to pay must be precise as to time which the note is to run. It must be at a fixed period, or conditional upon the occurrence of something certain to hap- pen, as “at sight,” “five days after sight,” “on demand,” “three months after date,” “ten days after the death of John Doe.” The time not being specified, the note is considered “payable on de- mand.” The maker, the person who promises and whose signature the note bears, must be competent. Insane people and idiots are naturally ^ and aliens, minors and married women may.be legally^ incompetent. The maker is responsible and binds himself to pay the amount stated on the note at its maturity. He need not 236 LEGAL ADVICE. pay it before it becomes due, but should he do so and neglect to cancel the note, he would be again responsible if any other per- son, without knowledge of such payment, acquired it for value before maturity. Even a receipt for payment from the first payee would not stand good against the subsequent holder. The payee is the person in whose favor the note is drawn— the legal holder, the person to whom the money must be paid. When a note is made payable simply to bearer, without naming the paj^ee, any one holding the note honestly may collect. A subsequent party, one who cornes into possession of the note after the original holder, has a better claim than the first one, for the reason that between the maker and the first paj^ee there may have been, in the contract, some understanding or condition militating against the payment when it would become due, but the third person, knowing nothing of this, gives his value and receives the note. The law will always sustain the subsequent party. The indorser is held responsible if the maker fails to pay when the note arrives at maturity. A note payable to order must be indorsed by a holder upon passing it to another, and, as value has been given each time, the last holder will look to his next preceding one and to all the others. A note, being on deposit as collateral security, becoming due, the temporary holder is the payee and must collect. An indorsement is a writing across the back of the note, which makes the writer responsible for the amount of the note. There are various forms of indorsement. 1. In blanks the indorser simply writing his name on the back of the note. 2. General^ or in full^ the indorser writing above his signa- ture “Pay ” or “Pay or order.” 3. ^nalified^ the words “without recourse” being used after the name of the payee in the indorsement. 4. Co 7 iditional^ a condition being stated, as: “Pay , unless payment forbidden before maturity.” 5. Restrictive^ as: “Pay only.” The blank indorsement, the full indorsement and the general indorsement are practicallj' the same; each entitles the holder of the note to the money, and to look to the indorser for pay- ment if the maker of the note defaults. It has even been held that in a general indorsement the holder had the right to fill in the words “or order” if he saw fit. The qualified indorsement releases the indorser from any liability in case the maker of the note defaults. The conditional and restrictive indorsement are used only in special cases. Each indorser is severally and collect- ively liable for the whole amount of the note indorsed if it is 237 LEGAL ADVICE, dishonored, provided it is duly protested and notice given to each. The indorser looks to the man who indorsed it before him, and so back to the original maker of the note. As soon as a note is protested, it is vitally necessary that notice should be sent to each person interested at once. TO BE ON THE SAFE SIDE, it is well to see to it that any note offered for negotiation — Is dated correctly; Specifies the amount of money to be paid; Names the person to whom it is to be paid; Includes the words “or order” after the name of the payee, if it is desired to make the note negotiable; Appoints a place where the payment is to be made; States that the note is made “for value received;” And is signed by the maker or his duly authorized representa- tive. In some States phrases are required in the body of the note, such as, “without defalcation or discount ;” but, as a general thing, that fact is understood without the statement. Partnership. The general rule is that every person of sound mind, and not otherwise restrained by law, may enter into a contract of part- nership. There are several kinds of partners : 1. Ostensible partners, or those whose names are made public as partners, and who in reality are such, and who take all the benefits and risks. 2. Noininal partners, or those who appear before the public as partners, but who have no real interest in the business. 3. Dormant^ or silent partners, or those whose names are not known or do not appear as partners, but who, nevertheless, have an interest in the business., 4. Special^ or limited partners, or those who are interested in the business only to the amount of the capital they have invested in it. 5. General partners, who manage the business, while the capital, either in whole or in part, is supplied by a special part- ner or partners. They are liable for all the debts and contracts of the firm. A nominal partner renders himself liable for all the debts and contracts of the firm. A dormant partner, if it becomes known that he has an inter- est, whether creditors trusted the firm on his account or not, be- comes liable equally with the other partners. The regulations concerning special or limited partnerships, in 238 LEGAL ADVICE. any particular State where recognized, are to be found in the statutes of such State ; and strict compliance with the statutes is necessary in order to avoid incurring the responsibilities at- taching to the position of general partner. A person who lends his name as a partner, or who suffers his name to continue in the firm after he has actually ceased to be a partner thereof, is still responsible to third persons as a partner. A partner may buy and sell partnership effects ; make con- tracts in reference to the business of the firm ; pay and receive money ; draw, and indorse, and accept bills and notes ; and all acts of such a nature, even though they be upon his own private account, will bind the other partners, if connected with matters apparently having reference to the business of the firm, and transacted with other parties ignorant of the fact that such deal- ings are for the particular partner’s private account. The repre- sentation or misrepresentation of any fact made in any partner- ship transaction by one partner, or the commission of any fraud in such transaction, will bind the entire firm, even though the other partners may have no connection with, or knowledge of the same. If a partner sign his individual name to negotiable paper, all the partners are bound thereby, if such paper appear on its face to be on partnership account. If negotiable paper of a firm be given by one partner on his private account, and in the course of its circulation pass into the hands of a hona fide holder for value, without notice or knovv^ledge of the fact attending its creation, the partnership is bound thereby. One partner cannot bind the firm by deed, though he may by deed execute an ordinary release of a debt due the partnership. If no time be fixed in articles of copartnership for the com- mencement thereof, it is presumed to commence from the date and execution of the articles. If no precise period is mentioned for continuance, a partner may withdraw at any time, and dis- solve such partnership at his pleasure ; and even if a definite period be agreed upon, a partner may, by giving notice, dissolve the partnership as to all capacity of the firm to bind him by con- tracts thereafter made. The withdrawing partner subjects himself, however, to a claim for damages by reason of his breach of the covenant. The death of a partner dissolves the partnership, unless there be an express stipulation that, in such an event, the representa- tives of the deceased partner may continue the business in con- nection with the survivors, for the benefit of the widow and children. A partnership is dissolved by operation of law ; by a voluntary and bona fide assignment by any partner of his interest therein ; 239 LEGAL ADVICE. by the bankruptcy or death of any of the partners ; or by a war between the countries of which the partners are subjects. Immediately after a dissolution, notice of the same should be published in the papers, and a special notice sent to every person who has had dealings with the firm. If these precautions be not taken, each partner will still continue liable for the acts of the others to all persons who have had no notice of such dissolution. DON’T enter into a partnership without carefully drawn articles, and don’t sign the articles until the partnership funds are on deposit. DON’T forget that a partner may be called upon to make good partnership losses with his individual property, and that each partner may be held for the acts of the other partners as well as for his own. DON’T enter a firm already established unless you are will- ing to become responsible for its debts. DON’T do anything out of the usual run of business without the consent of your partners. DON’T mix private matters with partnership affairs, and don’t continue in a partnership where trust and confidence are lacking. DON’T continue a partnership after expiration of articles, and do not make any change without due public notice. DON’T dissolve a partnership without due public notice or without designating a member to settle all matters outstanding. Agency and Attorney. By agency is meant the substitution of one person by and for another, the former to transact business for the latter. An agency may be established by imflication — an express agree- ment with a person that he is to become the agent of another not being necessary — or verbally^ or by 'writing. A verbal crea- tion of agency suffices to authorize the agent to make a contract even in cases where such contract must be in writing. Agency is of three kinds : special, general and professional. A special agency is an authority exercised for a special purpose. If a special agent exceed the limits of his authority, his principal is not bound by his acts. A general agency authorizes the transaction of all business of a particular kind, or growing out of a particular employment. The principal will be bound by the acts of a general agent, though the latter act contrary to private instructions, provided he keep, at the same time, within the general limits of his au- thority. Professional agents are those licensed by the proper authority to transact certain kinds of business for a compensation. The 240 LEGAL ADVICE. following are among this class of agents: i. Attorneys. 2. Brokers. 3. Factors. 4. Auctioneers. 5. Masters of .Ships. In regard to the subject of an agency, the general rule is, that whatever a man may do in his own right he may also transact through another. Things of a personal nature, implying personal confidence on the part of the person possessing them, cannot be delegated. Infants, married women, lunatics, idiots, aliens, belligerents, and persons incapable of making legal contracts, cannot act as principals in the appointment of agents. Infants and married women may, however, become principals in certain cases. Agency may be terminated in two ways : (i) by the act of the principal or agent ; (2) by operation of law. In the latter case, the termination of the agency is effected by lapse of time, by completion of the subject-matter of the agency, by the ex- tinction of the subject-matter, or by the insanity, bankruptcy or death of either party. DON’T do through another what would be illegal for you to do yourself. DON’T lose any time in repudiating illegal acts of your agent. DON’T make an illegal act of your agent’s j^our own by ac- cepting the benefit thereof. DON’T transact business through an agent unless he can show that he stands in his principal’s stead in the matter in hand. DON’T, as agent, appoint sub-agents without the consent of your principal. DON’T go beyond your authoritj'- in an agency unless you are willing to become personally responsible. DON’T accept an agency, or act as an attorney in fact, in com- plicated matters unless your powers are clearly defined in writing. Landlord and Tenant. Leases for one year or less need no written agreement. Leases for more than a year must be in writing; if for life, signed, sealed, and witnessed in the same manner as any other import- ant document. Leases for over three years must be recorded. No particidar form is necessary. If no agreement in writing for more than a year can be pro- duced, the tenant holds the property from year to year at the will of the landlord. If there is no agreement as to time, the tenant as a rule holds from year to j^ear. A tenancy at will may be terminated by giving the tenant one month’s notice in writing, requiring him to remove from the premises occupied. 241 LEGAL ADVICE, A tenant is not responsible for taxes, unless it is so stated in the lease. The tenant may underlet as much of the property as he de- sires, unless it is expressly forbidden in the lease. Tenants at will cannot underlet. A married woman cannot lease her property under the com- mon law, but this prohibition is removed by statute in most of the States. A husband cannot make a lease which will bind his wife’s property after his death. A lease made by a minor is not binding after the minor has attained his majority. It binds the lessee, however, unless the minor should release him. Should the minor receive rent after attaining his majority, the lease will be thereby ratified. A lease given by a guardian will not extend beyond the majority of the ward. A new lease renders void a former lease. In case there are no writings, the tenancy begins from the day possession is taken ; where there are writings and the time of commencement is not stated, the tenancy will be held to com- mence from the date of said writings. Leases on mortgaged property, whereon the mortgage was given prior to the lease, terminate when the mortgage is fore- closed. Where a tenant assigns his lease, even with the landlord’s con- sent, he will remain liable for the rent unless his lease is sur- rendered or cancelled. There are many special features of the law of landlord and tenant in relation to agricultural tenancy. Generally an outgo- ing tenant cannot sell or take away the manure. A tenant whose estate has terminated by an uncertain event which he could neither foresee nor control is entitled to the annual crop which he sowed while his estate continued, by the law of emble- ments. He may also, in certain cases, take the emblements or annual profits of the land after his tenancy has ended, and, unless restricted by some stipulation to the contrary, may re- move such fixtures as he has erected during his occupation for convenience, profit or comfort; for, in general, what a tenant has added he may remove, if he can do so without injury to the premises, unless he has actually built it in so as to make it an integral part of what was there originally. The following are immovable fixtures : Agricultural erec- tions, fold-yard walls, cart house, barns fixed in the ground, beast house, carpenter shop, fuel house, pigeon house, pineries substantially fixed, wagon house, box borders not belonging to a gardener by trade, flowers, trees, hedges, ale-house bar, dress- ers, partitions, locks and keys, benches affixed to the house, " 242 LEGAL ADVICE. statue erected as an ornament to grounds, sun dial, chimney piece not ornamental, closets affixed to the house, conduits, conservatory, substantially affixed, doors, fruit trees if a tenant be not a nurseryman by trade, glass windows, hearths, millstones, looms substantially affixed to the floor of a factory, threshing machines fixed by bolts and screws to posts let into the ground. DON’T occupy premises until a written lease is in your pos- session, and don’t depend on promises of a landlord unless they are part of such lease. DON’T accept a married woman as tenant unless the law of the State permit her to make an executory contract. DON’T think that you can legally eject sub-tenants unless you have given them notice of the tenant’s forfeiture of his lease. DON’T make such improvements in premises occupied by you as the law would regard as immovable fixtures, unless you are willing to turn them over to the landlord when your lease expires. A building erected on foundations sunk into the ground would become part of the realtj^ and thus belong to the landlord. DON’T think, however, that you have no right to remove trade fixtures erected by you. DON’T accept less than thirty days’ notice when you rent by the month. DON’T forget that where premises are let for illegal use the law will not aid you in collecting arrears for rent. Law Relating to Farms, Etc. In a deed to agricultural property the boundaries should be clearly determined. The question, What does the farmer get.^ is answered by these boundaries, and the deed to a farm always in- cludes the dwelling houses, barns and other improvements thereon belonging to the grantor, even though these are not mentioned. It also conveys all the fences standing on the farm, but all might not think it also included the fencing-stuff, posts, rails, etc., which had once been used in the fence, but had been taken down and piled up for future use again in the same place. But new fencing material, just bougjit, and never attached to the soil, would not pass. So piles of hop poles, stored away, if once used on the land, and intended to be again so used, have been considered a part of it, but loose boards or scaffold poles, merely laid across the beams of a barn and never fastened to it, would not be, and the seller of the farm might take them away. Stand- ing trees, of course, also pass, as part of the land; so do trees blown down or cut down, and still left in the woods where they fell, but not if cut and corded up for sale; the wood has then be- come personal property. 243 LEGAL ADVICE. If there be any manure in the barnyard or in the compost heap on the field, ready for immediate use the buyer ordinarily, in the absence of any contrary agreement, takes" that also as be* longing to the farm, though it might not be so if the owner had previously sold it to some other party, and had collected it to- gether in a heap by itself, for such an act might be a technical severance from the soil, and so convert real into personal es- tate; and even a lessee of a farm could take away the^manure made on the place while he was in occupation. Growing crops also pass by the deed of a farm unless they are expressly re- served, and when it is not intended to convey those it should be so stated in the deed itself; a mere oral agreement to that effect would not be, in most States, valid in law. Another mode is to stipulate that possession is not to be given until some future day, in which case the crops or manures may be removed before that time. An adjoining road is, to its middle, owned by the farmer whose land is bound, unless there are reservations to the con- trary in the deeds through which he derives title. But this own- ership is subject to the right of the public to the use of the road. If a tree grows so as to come over the land of a neighbor, the latter may cut aw'ay the parts which so come over, for he owns his land and all that is above or below it. If it be a fruit tree he may cut every branch or twig which comes over his land, but he cannot touch the fruit which falls to the land. The owner of the tree may enter peaceably upon the land of the neighbor and take up the branches and fruit. Lien Laws. Any one who, as contractor, sub-contractor or laborer, per- forms any work, or furnishes anj^ materials, in pursuance of, or in conformity with, any agreement or contract with the owner, lessee, agent or one in possession of the property, toward the erection, altering, improving or repairing of any building, shall have a lien for the value of such labor or materials on the build- ing or land on which it stands to the extent of the right, title and interest of the owner, lessee or person in possession at the time of the claimant’s filing hi? notice wdth the clerk of the county court. Such lien is called a mechanic’s lien. The notice should be filed within thirty days after comple- tion of the work or the furnishing of the materials, and should state the residence of the claimant, the amount claimed, from whom due, when due, and to whom due, the name of the person against whom claimed, the name of the owner, lessee or person in possession of the premises, with a brief description of the latter. 244 LEGAL ADVICE, Liens cease in one year after the filing of the notice, unless an action is begun, or the lien is continued by an order of court. The following classes of persons are generally entitled to lien: 1. Bailees, who may perform labor and services, on the thing bailed, at the request of the bailor. 2. Innkeepers, upon the baggage of guests they have accommodated. 3. Common carri- ers, upon goods carried, for the amount of their freight and dis- bursements. 4. Vendors, on the goods sold for payment of the price where no credit has been expressly promised or implied. 5. Agents, upon goods of their principals, for advancements for the benefit of the latter. 6. All persons are entitled to the right of lien who are compelled by law to receive property and bestow’ labor or expense on the same. The right of lien may be w^aived: i. By express contract. 2. By neglect. 3. By new agreement. 4. By allowing change of 'possession. 5. By surrendering possession. The manner of the enforcement of a lien, whether it be an inn- keeper’s, agent’s, carrier’s, factor’s, etc., depends wholly upon the nature and character of the lien. DON’T purchase real estate unless the records have been thoroughly searched for all liens known to the law, or until all notices of action against the same have been discharged. DON’T think that you have no right to sell perishable property on which you have a lien. Your lien will attach to the proceeds. DON’T foreclose a lien without proper notice. DON’T make payments to a contractor before you have full knowledge of all liens filed. DON’T forget that liens take precedence according to pri- ority, and that interest always runs on a judgment. Deeds — Transfer of Property. A deed is a writing by wLich lands, tenements or heredita- ments are conveyed, sealed and delivered. It must be written or printed on parchment or paper; the parties must be competent to contract; there must be a proper object to grant; a sufficient consideration; an agreement properly declared; if desired, it must have been read to the party executing it; it must be signed and sealed; attested by witnesses, in the absence of any statute regulation to the contrary; properly acknowledged before a competent officer; and recorded within the time and in the office prescribed by the State wherein executed. The maker of a deed is the grarilor ; the party to whom it is delivered, graii tee. If the grantor have a wife, she must, in the absence of a statute to the contrary, sign and acknowledge the deed; otherwise, after the husband’s death, she may claim the use of one-third, during her life. 245 LEGAL ADVICE, By ^genersil warranty deed the grantor covenants to insure the lands against all persons whatsoever; by a special warranty deed he warrants only against himself and those claiming under him. In deeds made by executors, administrators or guardians there is generally no warranty. A quit-claim deed releases all the interest which the grantor has in the land, whatever it may be. A deed of trust is given to a person called a trustee, to hold in fee simple, or otherwise, for the use of some other person who is entitled to the proceeds, profits or use. A deed may be made void by alterations made in it after its execution; by the disagreement of the parties whose concurrence is necessary; or by the judgment of a competent tribunal. Interlineations or erasures in a deed, made before signing, should be mentioned in a note, and witnessed in proper form. After the acknowledgment of a deed the parties have no right to make the slightest alteration. An alteration of a deed after execution, if made in favor of the grantee, vitiates the deed. If altered before delivery, such alteration destroys the deed as to the party altering it. Abstracts of title are brief accounts of all the deeds upon which titles rest, and judgments and instruments affecting such titles. The evidences of title are usually conveyances, wills, orders or decrees of courts, judgments, judicial sales, sales by offi- cers appointed by law, acts of the Legislature and of Con- gress. DON’T accept a deed unless all the following conditions are complied with: i. It must be signed, sealed and witnessed. 2. Interlineations must be mentioned in the certificate of acknowl- edgment. 3. All the partners must join in a deed from a part- nership. 4. A deed from a corporation should bear the corpo- rate seal and be signed by officers designated in the resolution of the directors authorizing it. 5. A deed from a married woman should be joined in by the husband. 6. A deed from an executor should recite his power of sale. 7* The consideration must be expressed. DON’T deed property to your wife direct. A deed to your wife does not cut off obligations contracted previously. DON’T pay consideration money on a conveyance of real estate until the record has been searched to the moment of pass- ing title, and unless you know of your own knowledge that no judgments, mortgages or tax liens are outstanding against the property. DON’T delay in having a deed or mortgage recorded. DON’T attempt to give a better title than you have your- self. 246 Mortgages. A mortgage is a conveyance of property, either real or per- sonal, to secure payment of a debt. When the debt is paid the mortgage becomes void and of no value. In real estate mort- gages the person giving the mortgage retains possession of the property, receives all the debts and other profits, and pays all taxes and other expenses. The instrument must be acknowl- edged, like a deed, before a proper public officer, and recorded in the office of the county clerk or recorder, or whatever officer’s duty it is to record such instruments. All mortgages must con- tain a redemption clause and must be signed and sealed. The time when the debt becomes due, to secure which the mortgage is given, must be plainly set forth and the property conveyed must be clearly described, located and scheduled. Some mortgages contain a clause permitting the sale of the property without decree of court when a default is made in the payment either of the principal sum or the interest. A foreclosure is a statement that the property is forfeited and m.ust be sold. When a mortgage is assigned to another person, it must be for a valuable consideration; and the note or notes which it was given to secure must be given at the same time. If the mortgaged property, when foreclosed and brought to sale, brings more money than is needed to satisfy the debt, inter- est and costs, the surplus must be paid to the mortgagor. Satisfaction of mortgages upon real or personal property may be either — 1. By an entry upon the margin of the record thereof, signed by the mortgagee or his attorney, assignee or personal representa- tive, acknowledging the satisfaction of the mortgage, in the presence of the recording officer; or — 2. By a receipt indorsed upon the mortgage, signed by the mortgagee, his agent or attorney, which receipt may be entered upon the margin of the record; or — 3. It may be discharged upon the record thereof whenever there is presented to the proper officer an instrument acknowl- edging the satisfaction of such mortgage, executed by the mort- gagee, his duly authorized attorney in fact, assignee or personal representative, and acknowledged in the same manner as other instruments affecting real estate. Chattel mortgages are mortgages on personal property. Most of the rules applicable to mortgages on real estate apply also to those on personal property, though in some States there are laws regulating personal mortgages. Any instrument will answer the purpose of a chattel mortgage which would answer as a bill of sale, with a clause attached providing for the avoid- ance of the mortgage when the debt is paid. A chattel mortgage will not cover property subsequently ac- 247 LEGAL ADVICE. quired bj the mortgagor. Mortgages of personal property should contain a clause providing for the equity of redemption. A mortgagee may sell or transfer his mortgage to another party for a consideration, but such property cannot be seized or sold until the expiration of the period for which the mortgage was given. Mortgages given with intent to defraud creditors are void. DON’T lose any time in having a mortgage properly recorded. DON’T pay installments on chattel mortgages unless the same are indorsed thereon. DON’T lose sight of the fact that a chattel mortgage is a con* ditional bill of sale. DON’T accept a chattel mortgage the term whereof is for more than a year. DON’T neglect to have a chattel mortgage signed, sealed and witnessed, and don’t fail to see to it that the schedule contains every article embraced under it. DON’T fail to see to it that goods or chattels mortgaged to you are properly insured. DON’T suppose that a chattel mortgage is valid when the debt to be secured by it is not. DON’T give a chattel mortgage payable on demand unless you are prepared to forfeit the chattels at any moment. DON’T think that destruction by fire or otherwise of the chattels mortgaged wipes out the debt. DON’T forget that foreclosure in the case of a chattel mort- gage is unnecessary except to cut off claims of other creditors. Assignments. An assignment is a transfer of property made in writing. In effect it is passing to another person all of one’s title or interest in any sort of real or personal property, rights, actions or estates. However, some things are not assignable; an officer’s pay or commission, a judge’s salary, fishing claims. Government bounties, or claims arising out of frauds or torts. Personal trusts cannot be assigned, as a guardianship or the right of a master in his apprentice. Unlike many other legal devices the holder of an assignment is not bound to show that a valuable consideration was given. The owner of a cause of action may give it away if he pleases, and in the positive absence of evidence to the contrary the court will presume that the assignment was for a sufficient con- sideration. Proof will be called for only when it appears that the assign- ment was a mere sham or fraudulent. No formality is required 248 LEGAL ADVICE, by law in an assignment. Any instrument between the con- tracting parties which goes to show their intention to pass the property from one to another will be sufficient. It may be proved," for instance, by the payee of a note, that he indorsed (or delivered without indorsement) the note to the assignee, and this is sufficient evidence of assignment. In every assignment of an instrument, even not negotiable, the assignee impliedly warrants the validity of the instrument and the obligation of the third party to pay it. He warrants that there is no legal defense against its collection arising out of his connection with the parties; that all parties were legally able to contract, and that the amount is unpaid. An assignment carries with it all the collateral securities and guaranties of the original debt, even though they are not men- tioned in the instrument. Where property is assigned for the benefit of creditors, its act- ual transfer to the assignee must be made immediately. When an assignment is made under the common law, the assignor may prefer certain creditors; but in a State where this sort of an as- signment is governed by statute, no preference can be shown. An assignment for the benefit of creditors covers all of the as- signor’s property, wherever or whatever it may be, that is not exempt from execution. When insured property is sold the insurance policy should be assigned. This can only be done with the consent of the in- surer, and that consent must be at once obtained. Correct schedules of the property assigned should accompany and be attached to every assignment. Inns, Hotels and Boarding-houses. An inn, or hotel, is a place of entertainment for travelers. If an innkeeper opens his house for travelers, it is an implied en- gagement to entertain all persons who travel that way, and upon this universal assumption an action will lie against him for damages if he, without good reason, refuses to admit a trav- eler. Innkeepers are responsible for the safe custody of the goods of their guests, and can limit their liability only by an express agreement or special contract with their guests; but if goods are lost through negligence of the owner himself the innkeeper’s liability ceases. An innkeeper may retain the goods of his guest until the amount of the guest’s bill has been paid. A boarding-house is not an inn, nor is a coftee-liouse or eat- ing-room. A boarding-house keeper has no lien on the goods ol a boarder except by special agreement, nor-is he responsible for their safe custody. He is liable, however, for loss caused by the 249 LEGAL ADVICE, negligence of his servants. An innkeeper is liable for loss with- out such negligence. Bonds. A written instrument, admitting an obligation on the part of the maker to pay a certain sum of money to another specified person at a fixed time, for a valuable consideration, is called a bond. The obligor is the one giving the bond; the beneficiary is called the obligee. This definition applies to all bonds, but gen- erally these instruments are given to guarantee the performance or non-performance of certain acts by the obligor, which being done or left undone, as the case may be, the bond becomes void, but if the conditions are broken it remains in full force. As a rule, the bond is made out for a sum twice the amount of any debt which is apt to be incurred by the obligor under its con- ditions, the statement being set forth that the sum named is the penalty, as liquidated or settled damages, in the event of the failure of the obligor to carry out the conditions. An act of Providence, whereby the accomplishment of a bond is rendered impossible, relieves the obligor of all liability. A bond for the payment of money differs from a promissory note only in having a seal. Bills of Sale. A bill of sale is a formal written conveyance of personal prop- erty. If the property is delivered when sold, or if part of the purchase money is paid, a written instrument is not necessary to make the conveyance, but it is convenient evidence of the trans- fer of title. But, to protect the interests of the purchaser against the creditors of the seller, the bill is not sufficient of itself; there should also be a delivery of the property. If an act- , ual and continued change of possession does not accompany the sale R is void as against the creditors of the seller and subse- quent purchasers and mortgagees in good faith, unless the buyer can show that his purchase was made in good faith, without in- tent to defraud, and that there was some good reason for leav- ing the property in the hands of the seller. Guaranty Is an assurance made by a second partj^ that his principal will perform some specific act. For instance, A gives B a note, and C by indorsing the instrument guarantees to B that A will pay it at maturitj^ C is the guarantor. His liability is special, and if B renews the note when it becomes due he is no longer liable. A guaranty for collection is a very different thing from a guar- anty of payment. The first warrants that the money is collect- 250 LEGAL ADVICE. ible; the latter, that it will be paid at maturity. In the first case the party guaranteed must be able to prove that due diligence was employed in attempting to collect the money; in the second, no such proof is necessary. The only form necessary in guaran- teeing a note is writing one’s name across the back of it, — a pro- cess commonly called indorsing. Corporations. Several persons joining together for the accomplishment of any business or social purpose can legally organize themselves into a corporation, a form of partnership which combines the resources of all, and yet gives a limited pecuniary liability, amounting only to the amount of stock owned by each stock- holder. In the States, the legislature of each Commonwealth enjoys the power of regulating the corporations, and in the Terri- tories this power is, of course, vested in the General Government. The actual cost of organization amounts to something less than $10, most of which is in fees to the Secretary of State. When the stock has been subscribed a meeting is called, and each share- holder casts a vote for every share which he owns or holds a proxy for, for each person who is to be elected director, or he may give one director as many votes as the number of shares he is voting, multiplied by the number of directors to be elected, amounts to. or distribute his votes as he chooses. Thus, if he owns ten shares of stock and there are six directors to be elected, he has sixty votes, which he can give, either ten for each director, or twenty for each of three, or sixty for one, or in any other way that he sees fit, sq that his whole vote will not be more than sixty votes. These directors meet as soon after the election as pos- sible and choose a president, vice-president, secretary and treas- urer, whereupon the corporation is ready for business. The law in all the States on the subject of incorporating com- panies is very similar, and the necessary forms are to be obtained usually from the Secretary of State. Wills and How to Make Them. Every description of property, whether real or personal, may be given by will. In the case of persons dying owing debts, however, the law gives to the executors sufficient of the personal property of the deceased to pay off all existing indebtedness, irrespective of the terms of the will; and where the personal property is not sufficient for this purpose, real property may be so appropriated. Property may be bequeathed by will to all persons, including married women, infants, lunatics, idiots, etc. Wills may be made by any person not • disqualified by age or 251 LEGAL ADVICE. mental incapacity. Generalh^ speaking, a person must have at- tained the age of twentj^-one years before he or she can make a valid will of lands, and the same age, in many States, is re- quired for a will of solely personal property. In New York males of eighteen and females of sixteen are competent to bequeath personal property. “Sound and disposing mind and memory” are always essential to the validity of any will. For this reason, idiots, lunatics, intoxicated persons (dur- ing intoxication), and persons of unsound or weak minds, are incompetent to make wills. A will procured by fraud is also invalid, although the testator be fully competent to make a valid will. All wills must be in writing, except those made by soldiers in active service during war, and by sailors while at sea. Such persons may make a verbal or 7iu7tcufative will, under certain restrictions, as to witnesses, etc. No particular form of words is required. A valid will must be subscribed or signed by the testator, or some one for him, in his presence, and at his request. The sig- nature must be affixed in the presence of each of the witnesses. In case the will be signed by some one for him, the testator must acknowledge the signature to be his own in presence of the wit- nesses. The testator must declare to each of the subscribing witnesses that the instrument is his “last will and testament.” This is of the utmost importance, and is called the “publication.” There must be at least two (three are required in some of the States) subscribing witnesses, who must act as such at the tes- tator’s request, or at the request of some one in his presence. The subscribing witnesses must not be beneficially interested in the provisions of the will. These witnesses must all sign the will in the presence of the testator, and (in New York and some of the other States) in the presence of each other. A codicil is an appendix annexed to the will after its execution, whereby the testator makes some change in, or addition to, his former disposition, and must be signed, published and attested in the same manner as the original will. The revocation of a will may be express or implied. Express, by the execution of a new and later will, or by the intentional destruction of the old one, or by a formal written revocation, signed and witnessed in the same manner as the will itself. An implied revocation is wrought by the subsequent marriage of the testator and the birth of children, or by either. DON’T leave anything uncertain in a will, and don’t neglect to declare it to be your last will and testament. DON’T make a will without two (better three) witnesses, none of whom must be interested in it. See that each witness writes his full name and address. 252 LEGAL ADVICE, DON’T make a new will unlevss you destroy or revoke the old one, and don’t add a codicil unless it is executed in the same way as the original will. DON’T neglect to make a new will if you mortgage or sell property devised or bequeathed in a prior one. DON’T make a will which does not provide for children that may be born. DON’T will property to a corporation whose charter does not permit it to take by devise or bequest. DON’T fail to say “bequeath” for personal and “devise” for real property. Heirship to Property Not Bequeathed. In England, where the policy is to keep landed estates undivided, the law of primogeniture prevails, giving to the eldest son and his descendants superior rights to the property. In case of de- fault, the second son and his descendants become the heirs, and so on. If there be only daughters, they inherit equally. In the United States the property would be divided among the heirs as follows: (i.) To the children. These, if of equal de- gree, receive the property in equal shares. If of unequal degree, the more remote descendants take the share that would have be- longed to their parent, if living. Thus: A, B andC are children of the testator, and of these B and C are living and A is dead, at the testator’s death. The estate, after paying all debts, will be divided into three equal parts, the descendants of A, together, receiving one -third, and B and C each another third; but in case A left no descendants, then B and C each will be awarded one half of the property. (2.) If there are no descendants the parents of the testator would receive the estate, the father being sometimes preferred to the mother. (3.) If parents are not living, the brothers and sisters of the testator would take the property, sharing equally. If one or more of the brothers or sisters had died, their children would receive the share that would have descended to their pai'ent. (4.) Grandparents would be the next claimants, after which (5.) uncles and aunts, and after them (6.) their children, and so on. In case no heirs are found, the property inures to the State. The above principles are stated as generally recognized in the laws of the several States. As these laws, however, vary, full information can only be obtained from the statutes of the several States. Legacies and the Duties of Executors and Administrators. A legacy is a gift or bequest of personal property by will or testament. Legacies are of three kinds: General, specific and demonstrative. 253 LEGAL ADVICE. A general legacy does not amount to a bequest of any par- ticular portion of, or article belonging to, the personal estate of the testator, as distinguished from all others of the same kind; as a bequest of a sum of money, or a horse. A specific legacy is a bequest of property specifically desig- nated, so as to be definitely distinguished from the rest of the testator’s estate; as, a bequest of all the money contained in a certain box, or the horse in the testator’s stable. A demonstrative legacy is a bequest of a certain amount of money to be paid out of a particular fund; as, a bequest of $500 to be paid out of the proceeds of the sale of certain property. An executor should first extinguish all the lawful debts of the testator, and for this purpose all the personal property may be applied, if necessary, even though some of it has been bequeathed in specific legacies. After the debts are paid, the specific legacies are next to be satisfied; then the demonstrative legacies; and lastly, the general legacies. If there be insufficient assets to satisfy any of the legacies in either of these three classes suc- cessively, those in the same class will be paid ratably and in proportion, and subsequent classes will fail entirely. Residuary legatees take subject to all other legacies. A resid- uar}^ legatee is one to whom is bequeathed “all the rest, residue and remainder” of an estate. Specific and general legacies are subject to ademption; thus, if the testator bequeath “the horse in his stable,” and at the time of his death has no horse, the legacy fails entirely and is said to be “adeemed.” Or, if the legacy bequeaths the furniture in a cer- tain specified house, and the testator remove the furniture to another house, the legacy is adeemed. Legacies are vested, or contingent. A vested legacy is one where the legatee acquires an absolute present right to present or future enjoyment. A contingent legacy is one where the right of enjoyment depends upon some contingency; as, a gift to a child if he attains the age of twenty-one years. A cumulative legacy is one additional to a previous legacy contained in the same will.. In New York, and several other States, a legacy given to a subscribing witness of a will is void. An executor may be a legatee. It is also provided that “no person having a husband, wife, child, or parent, shall bequeath to a corporation more than one half of his personal estate after the payment of his debts.” Legacies are not required to be paid in less than one year from the time of the testator’s death. This time is allowed to the ex- ecutor to enable him to ascertain the nature and value of the property, the full liabilities of the testator and to collect the assets. - LEGAL ADVICE, A legacy to an infant should not be paid except under ordov' of the court, and such order will be governed by the laws of the State. DON’T become an executor or administrator unless you are * willing and have time to attend to the duties, and don’t enter upon a trust until you thoroughly understand your duties and powers. DON’T mix trust and personal funds. DON’T paj" out a dollar of trust money without proper vouchers, and don’t fail to keep accurate accounts. DON’T liquidate any claim until you have the whole estate in hand. DON’T pay a bequest before the time fixed in the will without deducting interest. DON’T give a promissory note as executor or administrator. DON’T execute a con^ per cent. There was a “minimum” of 30 cents per square yard on cotton cloth. Wool over 10 cents a pound was rated at 20 per cent, until June I, 1825, then 25 per cent, for one year, and then 30 per cent. The average rate on all imports from 1825 to 1828 was 47.17 per cent, and on dutiable goods 50.29 per cent. THE “TARIFF OF ABOMINATIONS.’’ The “Tariff of Abominations,” as it is called, was approved May 19, 1828, and went into operation part the following July and part in Sep- tember. In the House 105 members voted for it and 94 members, mostly from New England and the South, against it. In the Senate the vote was 26 to 21. It had special reference to iron, wool and manufactures of wool. The duty on wool was four cents per pound and 40 per cent, for one year; then four cents and 45 per cent, for a year; then four cents and 50 per cent. Somewhat lower duties were provided for in an Act passed on May 24, 1828, again in May, 1830, and still again on July 13, 1832. The average duty on all goods from 1829 to 1832 was 47.81 per cent, and on all dutiable articles 51.55 per cent. The Modifying Tariff of 1832 was intended “ to correct the inequalities of that of 1828.” It was passed by the Whigs, or National Republicans, and levied high duties on cotton and woolen goods and other articles to which protection was meant to be applied. The vote in the House was 132 to 65 and in the Senate 32 to 16, the votes in favor of it coming from all sections of the country. The New England vote in the House was a tie. It was approved on July 14, and took effect on March 3, 1833. The existing duties were superseded by the Act, some of them reduced and a few raised. In a separate Act of the same date railroad iron was made free. Under its operation the average rate on imports in 1832-33, during the ten months it was in force, was 28.99 per cent, and dutiable articles 38.25 per cent. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 provided for taking off one-third of the duties each year until a uniform rate on all of 20 per cent, should be reached. It passed the House by 119 to 85 and the Senate by 29 to 16. New England then joined the Middle States in voting for high protective duties. It was approved on March 2, 1833, the day before the Tariff of 1832 went into operation, and took effect on January i, 1834. The terms of the compromise were that all duties which in the Tariff of 1832 exceeded 20 per cent, should have one-tenth of the excess over 20 per cent, taken off on January i, 1834; one-tenth more on January i, 1836; again one-tenth in 1838, and another one-tenth in 1840; so that by 1840 four-tenths of the excess over 20 per cent, would be disposed of. Then on January i, 1842, one-half of this remaining excess was to be taken off, and on July I, 1842, the other half of the remaining excess was to go. There would, therefore, after July i, 1842, have been a uniform rate of 20 per cent, on all articles. The average duty on all imports from 1834 to 1842 was 19.25 per cent, and on dutiable articles 34.73 per cent. 286 THE TARIFF. THE TARIFF OF 1842. The Tariff of 1842 was passed by the Whigs as a party measure, and was avowedly protective. It took effect on August 30, iS\2, changed all existing rates, was amended in March, 1843, and died December i, 1846. New England and the Middle States gave it strong support. The South was earnest in opposition and the West was a tie. The average rate on all imports under it was 26.92 per cent, and on dutiable articles 33.47 per cent. The Polk-Walker Tariff of 1846 is one of the most noteworthy acts in the fiscal history of our government. Robert J. Walker, of Mississippi, who was President Polk’s Secretary of the Treasury, laid down these principles as a basis for revenue reform in his celebrated report of 1845; “ No more money shall be collected than is needed for economical adminis- tration. “The duty on no article should exceed the lowest rate which will yield the largest revenue. “Below such rate discrimination may be made, or for imperative reasons an article may be made free. “ Luxuries should be taxed at the minimum rate for revenue. “ Duties should be all ad valorem, and never specific. “ Duties should be so imposed as to operate as equally as possible through- out the Union, without respect to class or section.’’ The bill framed on this basis was approved by Mi. Polk on July 30, 1846. It passed the House by 114 to 95, the East being in opposition and the West and South in support. The vote in the Senate on a third reading was a tie, and Vice-President Dallas gave the casting vote in the affirmative. The Senate on the final passage stood 28 to 27. This Act superseded the Whig tariff, and remained in force until 1861. It swept away specific and compound duties. It divided all dutiable merchandise into eight classes, which introduced greater simplicity into the whole system of customs regulations. The average duty on all imports was, from 1847 to 1857, 23.20 per cent, and on dutiable articles 26.22 per cent. The Tariff of 1857, which was the next in order, made a still further reduc- tion in duties. It was approved on March 3, 1857, took effect on July i, and remained in force until April i, 1861. New England united with the South in giving it 123 votes to 72 in the House, and in the Senate 33 to 12. The average duty OH all goods, from 1858 to 1861, was 15.66 per cent, and on dutiable articles 20.12 per cent. THE MORRIEIi TARIFF. The Morrill Tariff of I861 differed from all its predecessors in that it provided for a general system of compound and differential duties, specific and ad valorem, and also made a distinction between goods imported from different parts of the world. It passed the House on May ii, i860, by a vote of 105 to 64, and the Senate on February 20, 1861, by a vote of 25 to 14. From the first, through all the cumbrous legislation that has followed in its wake, it has been avowedly protective. It was frequently changed during the War of the Rebellion, ostensibly for purposes of revenue. At an early period in its history the number of rates ran up to over two thousand. From 1861 to 1869 every year produced some enlargement of the original scheme. In 1870 there was some modification of rates, generally in the line of reduction. Tea and coffee, taxed since 1861, were then put on the free list, and the duties on cotton and woolen goods, wool, iron, paper, glass and leather were lowered about 10 per cent. The free list was somewhat enlarged, but the reduction was rescinded in the Act of March 3, 1875. The duty on quinine was abolished on July I, 1879. The average duty on all imports, from 1862 to 1883, was 34.16 per cent, and on dutiable articles 42.74 per cent. The Commission Tariff was passed by the House on March 3, 1883, by a 287 THE TARIFF. vote of 152 to 116, and passed the Senate on March 2, the vote being 32 to 31. This was the tariff which was in force until October 6, 1890, when it was superseded, except as to tobacco and tin-plate, by the operation of the McKinley bill. Under it the average had been put by Senator Carlisle at 45^ per cent., while Senator Aldrich insisted that the average was 45.13 per cent. As to the average rate under the Tariff of 1890, or McKinley Tariff, Senators Aid- rich and Carlisle again differed, the former estimating it at about 41 per cent., while Mr. Carlisle computed it at 60 per cent. — the highest in the history of the Government. It passed the House by a vote of 152 to 81, and the Senate by a vote of 33 to 27. Bovines vs. EquiNES. — The differences anatomically and physiologically between the cattle tribe (Bos) and the horse family (Equus) is an interesting study. In parallel tables these can be seen at a glance. They have been condensed with a view of bringing the whole matter into a nutshell, so they may be understood at a glance: Cattle — Have two toes Horned Have no mane Long hair in a tuft at end of tail . . . , Pawing with fore-feet denotes anger, Seize forage w ith the tongue Lips slightly movable Have no upper incisor teeth Lie down fore parts first Rise on hind-legs’ first Four stomachs They chew the cud Have gall bladder Mouth generally open when wearied. Defense by goring Bellow or moo Do not sweat Have dewlap No warts on inside of hind-legs Never use teeth in fighting Do not retract the ears Very rough tongue Short, broad head Wide, drooping ears Limbs formed for strength Do not roll in the dust Sleep with both ears alike Lie down to sleep Eat and lie down to ruminate Shoulders straight Horses — .Have one toe. .Without horns. .Have flowing mane. .Tail covered with longhair. .Pawing with fore-feet denotes hunger. . Gather food with the lips. .Lips very movable. . Have upper and lower incisors. .Lie down hind parts first. .Rise on fore-legs first. .One stomach. .Do not chew the cud. .Have no gall bladder. .Mouth never open from exhaustion. .Defense by kicking. .Neigh or whinny. .Perspire easily. . Have no dewlap. .Hard, oval warts inside hind-legs, .Use the teeth in fighting. .Retract the ears when angry. .Soft, smooth tongue. .Long, narrow head. Erect, narrow ears. .Limbs formed for speed. .Do roll in the dust. ..Sleep with one ear forward. .Often sleep standing. .Never ruminate. Eat little and often. .Shoulders sloping. Monarchs and Their End. — The world has had 2,550 kings or emperors of whom records are known, and who have reigned over seventy- four peoples. Of these rulers, 300 were o\n2rthrown, sixty-four were forced to abdi- cate, twenty-eight committed suicide, twenty-three became mad or imbecile, 100 were killed in battle, 123 were captured by the enemy, twenty-five were tortured to death, 151 were assassinated, and 108 were executed. 288 STOCK INVESTMENTS EXPLAINED VHE CAPITAL of corporations is always divided into shares, usually of $ioo each. These are known as stocky and represent an interest in the property and profits of the company. A dividend is the distribution of the profits, proportionate to number of shares held among the stockholders. Stock certificates are written instruments, signed by the proper officers of the company, and certifying that the holder is the owner of a certain number of shares. These are transferable, and may be bought and sold the same as other property. The sum for which each share or certificate was issued is the far valuej and the amount for which it can be sold the market value. Preferred Stock takes preference of the ordinary stock of a corporation, and the holders are entitled to a stated per cent, annually out of net earnings before a dividend can be declared on common stock. Preferred stocks are generally the result of reorganization, although sometimes issued in payment of floating or unsecured debts. Watering Stock. — Sometimes the charter of a corporation forbids the declaring of a dividend exceeding a certain per cent, of the par value of its stock. In this case the directors may find it desirable to “water” the stock — that is, issue additional shares. This increase in the number of shares of course reduces the per- centage of dividend, although the same profit in the aggregate is secured to the stockholders. Dealing in Stocks. The person employing a broker to buy the stock is required to advance at the outset a certain per cent, of the purchase price of the stock, as security for possible losses by reason of a decline of the stock while in the broker’s hands. The amount of the mar- gin required is generally lo per cent., but may be more or less, and frequently is nothing at all, depending on the broker’s confi- dence in his customer’s readiness to meet losses, if there be any. The broker then goes into the stock exchange and buys of some selling broker the stock indicated, the buying broker him- self advancing the purchase money. The relation existing between the customer and the broker in a transaction of this kind may be brieflj^ stated as follows: The broker agrees: i. That he will buy for his customer the stock indicated, at its market value. 2. That he will hold the stock for the benefit of his customer so long as the necessary margin is advanced, and kept paid, or until notice is given by either party that the transaction must, be closed. 3. That he will at all times have the stock in his possession or under his con- trol; or an equal amount of other shares of the same stock, sub- 289 STOCKS AND BONDS, ject to the call of the customer. 4. That he will sell the shares on the order of the customer, on payment to him of the pur- chase price advanced by the broker, accounting to the customer for the proceeds of the sale. 5. That he will exercise proper care and competent skill in the services which he undertakes to perform. The customer agrees: i. To pay the margin called for at the outset. 2 . To keep good such margin according to the fluctua- tion of the market. 3. To take the stock purchased by his order when requested to do so by the broker, paying the latter the dif- ference between the margin advanced and the sum paid for the stock by the broker, together with his commissions for doing the business. Although the broker’s money bought the stock, it belongs to the customer, together with all its earnings and dividends, while in the broker’s possession, and the customer is entitled to the possession of the stock on payment to the broker of the sum of money to which he is entitled. The broker may pledge the stock, or use it in his business, as collateral, but he must have it ready when called for by the cus- tomer, or other shares of the same stock equivalent in value. The customer and the broker may make an express agreement that the broker may sell the stock without notice to the customer in the case of a threatened decline. Generally speaking, when there are no directions as to selling, the broker will be protected if he can show that he followed the usual custom of brokers in like circumstances. If the customer fails to advance the necessary margin when called for on reasonable notice, the broker may sell for his own protection. The reasonable notice may be an hour, a day, or a week, de- pending on the condition of the market for that particular stock. If a broker fraudulently converts the stock to his own use, he is guilty of embezzlement. . Bonds. A bond is in the nature of a promissory note — the obligation of a corporation, state, county or city to pay a certain sum of money at a certain time, with interest payable at fixed periods or upon certain conditions. The bond of a company may be a perfectly safe investment, when the stock is not; and the stock of a prosperous and suc- cessful company, paying large dividends or having a large sur- plus, may sell at a higher price than the bonds of the same com- pany, the income from which is limited to the agreed rate of in- terest which they bear. A much closer scrutiny should be made 290 BROKERAGE AND COMMISSION^ of a company’s standing when one thinks of investing in its share capital, than when it is the intention to loan the company money on its mortgage bonds. Generally the bonds of business corporations are secured by mortgage, but some classes of bonds are dependent on the solv- ency or good faith of the company issuing them. The coupons attached to bonds represent the different install- ments of interest, and are to be cut off and collected from time to time as the interest becomes payable. Bonds are sometimes issued without coupons, and are then called registered bonds. Such bonds are payable only to the registered owner, and the in- terest on these is paid by check. Convertible bonds are such as contain provisions whereby they may be exchanged for stock, lands or other property. Bonds are known as First Mortgage, Second Mortgage, etc.. Debentures, Consols, Convertible Land Grant, Sinking Fund, Adjustment, Income or otherwise, according to their priority of lien, the class of property upon which they are secured, etc. In- come bonds are generally bonds on which the interest is only payable if earned, and ordinarily are not secured by mortgage. Bonds are also named from the rate of interest they bear, or from the dates at which they are payable or redeemable, or from both; as, U. S. 4’s 1907, Virginia 6’s Western Union 7’s, coupon, 1900, Lake Shore reg. 2d, 1903. Brokerage and Commission. A commission merchant, or factor, is an agent intrusted by his principal with goods to be sold, with the authority to deduct from the proceeds of the sales a certain sum agreed upon as com- pensation for his services, remitting the balance to his principal. Such an agent impliedly agrees to perform his duties in a care- ful and diligent manner, and to obey the orders and instructions which he receives from his principal so far as he is able. He is bound to exercise his judgment and discretion to the best advantage of his principal, and to render just and true accounts. In the absence of special instructions to the contrary, he has an implied authority to sell at such times, and at such prices, as in the exercise of his discretion he may deem for the best inter- ests of his principal. He may sell on credit, if it is customary so to do, among those in the same business, unless he has received orders to the con- trary. All profits made by him in handling his principal’s property or money, beyond his ordinary compensation, are for the benefit of the principal. He cannot himself be the purchaser of the goods intrusted to 291 TERMS USED ON 'CHANGE, him to sell, unless he deals openly and fairly with his principal, and acquaints him with all the facts and circumstances material for him to know. Bankruptcy. Laws have been enacted in nearly all the States for the pur- pose of distributing the property of an insolvent debtor ratably among his creditors and discharging the debtor from further liability. Proceedings may be instituted by the debtor himself or by a creditor. As a general rule, proceedings in one State are not binding on a creditor residing in another State; but if Congress were to pass a national bankrupt lav/, this would annul all State laws on the subject, and proceedings under the national law; would bind creditors in all the States and Territories. Insolvency proceedings are generally commenced by a peti- tion to the Judges of the court of insolvency, setting forth among other things the debtor’s inability to pay all his debts in full, and his desire to surrender all his property for the benefit of his creditors. If satisfied of the truth of matters alleged in the petition, the judge issues an order commanding the proper officer to take the debtor’s property and. hold it until a certain time, when the cred- itors meet and choose an assignee. The assignee then takes charge of the property, turns it into money, and declares a dividend for the creditors. Pending the proceedings, the debtor may be examined on oath for the purpose of making him disclose all matters concerning his property and the disposal thereof. If the debtor has conformed to the insolvent law in all re- spects, he is entitled to a discharge from his debts, which is given him by the judge on the debtor’s obtaining the requisite assent from the creditors. In nearly all the States an insolvent debtor may, with the con- sent of his creditors, and in some States without such consent, assign all his property to a trustee for the benefit of his cred- itors, who converts it into money, dividing it fro rata among the creditors. Terms Used on ’Change. Accommodati'.w Paper.— ^Notes or bills not representing an actual sale or trade transaction, but merely drawn to be discounted for the benefit of drawer, acceptor or indorsers, or all combined. Balance of Trade. — Difference in value between total imports and exports of a country. Ballooning. — To work up a stock far beyond its intrinsic worth by favorable stories or fictitious sales. Bear.— One who strives to depress the price of stocks, etc. , and for this reason “ goes short.” Buying Long. — B uying in expectation of a rise. Breadstuffs. — A ny kind of grain, corn or meal. 292 THE INTER-STATE COMMERCE LAW. Broker. -^An agent or factor; a middleman paid by commission. Brokerage. — A percentage for the purchase or sale of money and stocks. Bull. — A broker or dealer who believes that the value of stocks or breadstuffs will rise, and speculates for a rise. Call. — Demand for payment of installments due on stocks. Call. — A privilege given to another to “ call ” for delivery at a time and price fixed. Clique. — A combination of operators controlling large capital in order to unduly expand or break down the market. Collaterals. — Any kind of values given in pawn when money is borrowed. Corners. — The buying up of a large quantity of stocks or grain to raise the price. When the market is oversold, the shorts, if compelled to deliver, find themselves in a “corner.” Curbstone Brokers. — Brokers or agents who are not members of any regular organization, and do business mainly on the sidewalk. Delivery. — When stock or grain is brought to the buyer in exact accordance with the rules of the Exchange, it is called a good delivery. When there are irregulari- ties, the delivery is pronounced bad, and the buyer can appeal to the Exchange. Differences — The price at which a stock is bargained for and the rate or day of delivery are ncv usually the same, the variation being termed the difference. Factor. — An agent appointed to sell goods on commission Factorage. — Commissions allowed factors. Flat. — Inactive; depressed; dull. The flat value of bonds and stocks is the value without interest. Flyer. — A small side operation, not employing one’s whole capital. Forcing Quotations is where brokers wish to keep up the price of a stock and to prevent its falling out of sight. This is generally accomplished by a small sale. Gunning a stock is to use every art to produce a break when it is known that a certain house is heavily supplied and would be unable to resist an attack. Kite-Flying. — Expanding one’s credit beyond wholesome limits. Lame Duck. — Stock-brokers’ slang for one unable to meet his liabilities. Long. — O ne is long when he carries stock or grain for a rise. Pointer. — A theory or fact regarding the market on which one bases a specula- tion. Pool. — The stock or money contributed by a clique to carry through a corner. Price Current. — T he prevailing price of merchandise, stock or securities. Selling Short. — To “ sell short” is to sell for future delivery what one has not got, in hopes that prices will fall. Watering a stock is the art of doubling the quantity of stock without improving its quality. ^ THE INTER-STATE COMMERCE LAW. The Inter-State Commerce Act is a law passed bj Congress in 1887, for the regulation of rates and the management of inter- state commerce. It applies to carriers engaged in the transpor- tation of passengers or property wholly by railroad or partly railroad and partly by water, from one State, Territory or District of the United States to any other State, Territory or District, or to or from a foreign country. It provides for the appointment of a board of five commissioners, empowered to enquire into the management of the carriers and determine the reasonableness of their rates. A carrier whose line is entirelj^ within a State is subject to the act so far as it makes or accepts through rates on inter- State commerce. Among other things the act requires that all charges shall be just and reasonable; that charges for a shorter distance shall not 293 THE LA WS OF CHANCE. exceed those for a longer distance on the same line in the same direction, when the circumstances and conditions are similar; that there shall be no unjust discrimination as between persons or classes of traffic or localities, in the charges made or in the service rendered; that the rates charged for transportation shall be printed, filed with the Commission and kept for public inspection at the several stations, and that the carriers shall an- nually make a complete exhibit of their business to the Commis- sion. The act makes exceptions from its provisions of the carriage of property for the United States or for any State or municipal government, or for charitable purposes, or to or from fairs and expositions, and it allows of the issuing of mileage, excursion or commutation tickets, and admits of the giving of reduced rates ta ministers of religion and free transportation to the officers and employes of the carrier, and to the principal officers of other carriers. The Laws of Chance. — Card-players who are continually bewailing their ill-luck of always receiving the same poor cards, will, perhaps, be reassured by knowing that the fifty-two cards,, with thirteen to each of the four players, can be distributed in 53,644,737,756,488,792,839,237,440,000 different ways, so that there would still be a good stock of combinations to draw from, even if a man from Adam’s time had devoted himself to no other occupation than that of playing at cards. The Place Where the Sun Jumps a Day. — Chatham Island, lying off the coast of New Zealand, in the South Pacific Ocean, is peculiarly siluated, as it is one of the habitable points of the globe where the dr.y of the week changes. It is just in the line of demarkation between dates. There, at high 12 Sun- day, noon ceases, and instantly Monday meridian begins. Sun- day comes into a man s house on the east side and becomes Monday by the time it pasce:- out the western door. A man sits down to his noonday rlinner < n Sunday, and it is Monday noon before he finishes it. There Saturday ir Sunday and Sundaj^ is Monday, and Monday becomes suddenly transferred into Tues- day. It is a good place for people who have lost much time, for by taking an early start they can always get a day ahead on Chatham Island. It took philosophers and geographers a long time to settle the puzzle of where Sunday noon ceased and Monday noon began with a man traveling west fifteen degrees an hour, or with the sun. It is to be hoped that the next English arctic expedition will settle the other mooted question: “Where will one stop who travels northwest continually?” * 294 INSURANCE A STOCK Insurance Coinpany is one whose capital is owned by stockholders, they alone sharing the profits and they alone being liable for losses. The business of such a company, and also of a mixed company, is managed by directors chosen by the stockholders. Policy-holders, unless at the same time stockholders, have no voice in the management of the company’s business or in the election of its officers. A Mutual Insura7ice Company is one in which the profits and losses are shared among the policy-holders (the insured.) Mixed Companies are a combination of the foregoing. In a mixed company all profits above a certain fixed dividend are usually divided among the policy-holders. Some mutual and mixed companies issue what are called no7t- participating policies. The holders of these do not share in the profits or losses. FIRE INSURANCE. Policies for fire insurance are generally issued for a period of one to five years. Ordinarily, in case of loss by fire, the insured will be paid the extent of his loss up to the amount of insurance, unless the insurance company prefer to replace or re- pair the damaged property, which privilege is usually reserved. If the policy contains the “average clause” the payment will cover only such portion of the loss as the amount of insurance bears to the value of the property insured. A Floati7ig Policy is one which covers property stored in several buildings or places. The name is applied more particu- larly to policies which cover goods whose location may be changed in process of manufacture, or in the ordinary course of business. The “average clause” is a usual condition of policies of this class. Short Rates are rates for a term less than a year. If an insur- ance policy is terminated at the request of the policy-holder, the company retains the customaiy “short rates” for the time the policy has been in force, as shown by the following tables: Policy for 1 year. Policy for 2 years. Policy for 3 years. Policy for 4 years. Policy for 5 years. Charge this pro- portion of whole Premium. 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 20 per cent. 2 “ 4 “ C “ 8 “ 10 “ 30 3 “ 6 “ 9 “ 12 “ 15 “ 40 “ 4 8 ** 12 “ 16 “ 20 “ 50 “ 5 “ 10 ** 15 “ 20 “ 25 “ 60 “ 6 “ 12 18 “ 24 “ 30 “ 70 “ 7 ‘‘ 14 “ 21 “ 28 “ 35 “ 75 “ 8 “ 16 ** 24 “ 32 “ 40 “ 80 “ 9 ** 18 “ 27 “ 36 “ 45 “ 85 “ 10 “ 20 “ 30 “ 40 “ 50 “ 90 “ 11 22 “ 33 “ 44 “ 55 “ 95 “ [295 IJVSC/J?AJVCB, When a policy is terminated at the option of the company, a ratable portion of the premium is refunded for the unexpired term. LIFE INSURANCE. In ordinary life policies a certain premium is to be paid every year until the death of the insured, when the policy becomes paj^able to the beneficiary. There are other kinds of policies, however, and these are described below: Limited Payment Life Policy. — Conditions: Premiums to be paid annually for a certain fixed number of years, or until the death of the insured, should that occur prior to the expiration of this period. Policy payable at death of the insured. Advantages: Payments on this kind of policy may all be made while the insured is best able to make them, and, if he live to an old age, the policy will not be a con- tinual burden, but will rather be a source of income, as the yearly dividends may be taken out in cash or added to the amount of insurance. Ter 7 n Life Policy. — In this method of insurance, the insurance company agrees to pay to the beneficiaries a certain sum on the death of the insured, should that event occur within a fixed term. Endowment Policy. — A combination of a Term Life Policy and a Pure Endow- ment. These policies are issued for endowment periods of lo, 15,20, 25, 30 or 35 years, and may be paid up by a single payment, by an annual premium during the endowment period, or by five or ten annual payments. Conditions: i. Insurance during a stipulated period, payable at the death of the insured, should that event happen within said period. 2. An endowment of the same amount as the policy, payable to the insured, if still living at the end of the period fixed. Advantages: Limited term of payments; insurance during the time when the death of the insured would cause most embarrassment to his family; provision for old age, as the amount of the policy will be paid to the insured if still living, at a time when advanced age may make it of great benefit. Annuity Policies are secured by a single cash payment and insure the holder the yearly payment of a certain sum of money during life. Joint Life Policy. — An agreement to pay a certain sum on the death of any one of two or more persons thus insured. Non forfeiting Policies do not become void for non-payment of premiums. In some companies all limited payment life policies, and all endowment policies, after premiums for three (or two) years have been paid, and the original policy is sur- rendered within a certain time, provide for paid-up assurance for as many parts of the original amount assured as there shall have been complete annual premiums received in cash by the company. Some companies voluntarily apply all credited dividends to the continuance of the insurance. Others apply the legal reserve to the purchase of term insurance at regular rates. Special Forms. — The Reserve Endowment, Tontine Investment and other special policies guarantee to the holder a definite surrender value at the termination of certain periods. The surrender value of a policy is the amount in cash which the company will pay the holder of a policy on its surrender — the legal reserve less a certain per cent, for expenses. The Reserve of life insurance policies is the present value of the amount to be paid at death less the present value of all the net premiums to be paid in the future. The Reserve Ftmd of a life insurance company is that sum in hand which, invested at a given rate of interest, together with future premiums on existing policies, should be sufficient to meet, all obligations as they become due. It is the sum of the separate reserves of the several policies outstanding. The Exf>ectatio7i of Life is the number of years which one 29fi INSURANCE, may probably live. This average number of years has been de- termined from the experience of insurance companies. Age. Expecta- tion in years. di bX) bX) C Expecta- tion in years. 0 28.15 20 34.22 40 26.04 60 15.45 80 5.85 1 36.78 21 33.84 41 25.61 61 14.86 81 5.50 2 38.74 22 33.46 42 25.19 62 14.26 82 5.16 3 40.01 23 33.08 43 24.77 63 13.66 83 4.87 4 40.73 24 32.70 44 24.35 64 1305 84 4.66 5 40.88 25 32.33 45 23.92 65 12.43 85 4.57 6 40.69 26 31.93 46 23.37 66 11.96 86 4.21 7 40.47 27 31.50 47 22.83 67 11.48 87 3.90 8 . 40.14 28 31.08 48 22.27 68 11.01 88 3.67 9 39.72 29 30.66 49 21.72 69 10.50 89 3.56 10 39.23 30 30.25 50 21.17 70 10.06 90 3.43 11 38.64 31 29.83 51 20.61 71 9.60 91 3.32 12 38.02 32 29.43 52 20.05 72 9.14 92 3.12 13 37.41 33 29.02 53 19.49 73 8.69 93 2.40 14 36.79 34 28.62 54 18.92 74 8.2i5 91 1.98 15 36.17 35 28.22 55 18.35 75 7.83 95 1.62 16 35.76 36 27.78 56 17.78 76 7.40 17 35.37 37 27.34 57 17.20 77 6.99 18 34.98 38 26.91 58 16.63 78 6.59 19 34.59 39 26.47 59 16.04 79 6.21 MARINE AND TRANSIT INSURANCE. Insurance of vessels and their cargoes against the perils of navigation is termed Marine I^isurance. Inland a^id Transit Insurance refer to insurance of merchan- dise while being transported from place to place either by rail or water routes, or both. Uisurance Certificates^ showing that certain property has been insured and stating the amount of the insurance and the name of the party abroad who is authorized to make the settle- ment, are issued by marine companies. They are negotiable and are usually sent to the consignee of the merchandise to make the loss payable at the port of destination. The adjustment of marine policies in case of loss is on the same principle as the adjustment of fire policies containing the “average clause.” Ope 7 i Policies are such upon which ad'ditional insurances may be entered at different times. Number of families in the United States (census of 1880), 9,945,916; average number to a square mile, 3.43. Number of dwellings, 8,955,842; average to the square mile, 3.02. Number of acres to a family, 186.62. Number of persons to a family, 5.04. Number of persons to a dwelling, 5.6, Number of farms in the United States in 1880, 4,008,907; in 1870, 2,659,985; in i860, 2,044,077; in 1850, 1,449,073. 297 INTERNAL REVENUE. The internal revenue of the U. S. includes the taxes on spirits, tobacco, etc., and most of the receipts from national taxes, except customs duties and the receipts from the sale of public lands, patent fees, postal receipts, etc. The Constitution declares that Congress has the power “to lav and collect taxes, duties, imports and excises,” and that they shall be uniform throughout the U. S., and provides that direct taxes shall be apportioned among the States only in proportion to the population. At the close of the revolution raising money by internal taxation was hardly thought of, and at that time the condition of the people and manufactures would not warrant it. The first in- ternal revenue tax imposed by Congress was that of March 3, 1791, on distilled spirits of domestic manufacture, the enforce- ment of which led to the whiskey insurrection. In 1798 the first direct tax of the kind, one of $2,000,000, was apportioned among the States, and it was proposed that it should be levied on dwelling-houses, slaves and land. All internal taxes were repealed in 1802 in accordance with the recommendation of President Jefferson, and no others were authorized until 1813, when the war with England necessitated an increased revenue. These taxes were continued a few j^ears after the war, but were abolished, and none were levied until 1861. The civil war forced a renewal of the internal revenue system, and in 1861 a direct tax of $20,000,000 was apportioned among the States. On July i, 1862, an act was passed levying taxes on all sorts and kinds of articles too numerous to mention. A few industries were taxed out of existence and all were more or less disturbed, but the people submitted without opposition. Great reductions were made after the war ceased, and at the present time the only subjects of internal revenue taxation are tobacco, spirits, fermented liquors, bank circulation and oleomarga- rine. The following have always been exempt from taxation in the U. S.: Public property of both State and nation; the property of in- corporated institutions of learning; houses of worship; cemeteries and the personal property of individuals, so far as to cover the lecessities of life. In 1792 the amount raised by internal revenue was $208,942; in }866, $309,226,813; in 1887, $118,837,301. You Cannot Count a Trillion. — It is impossible to count A trillion. Had Adam counted continuously from his creation to the present day, he would not have reached that number, for it would take him over 9,512 years. At the rate of 200 a minute, there could be counted 12,000 an hour, 288,000 a day, and 105,- 120,000 a year. 298 HINTS TO ADVERTISERS. The first thing for an advertiser to decide is the mediums which reach the desired class of customers. Cheap mediums do not, as a rule, bring good returns, neither does it follow that a periodical claiming a large circulation takes precedence over one with a less circulation. The tone of the publication and charac- ter of its readers determine much. A first class periodical with a bona fide paid circulation is far more desirable than a much larger sample copy circulation. People who think enough of a, publication to buy it are very apt to read it. Except in special cases, hand-bills and dodgers are of little or no account. The advertisement must be attractive, and if lasting results be desired, the goods must be as represented, and the advertisement honestly worded. The occasional advertiser reaps but meager results; ’tis the constant, persistent advertiser w^ho reaps the most benefit. The secret of success in advertising lies largely in keeping the name and goods constantly before the eye of the public. Printer’s ink is beneficial to any business, but common sense and good judgment are absolutely necessary. The shrewd ad- vertiser and successful business man exercises as much care and discretion in placing his advertisement as he does in buying his goods. HOW TO COLLECT A DEBT. Thousands of dollars are lost every day through negligence or carelessness of creditors. If there is a fixed date for payment, be on hand promptly to re- ceive it. If not paid, follow it up closely. If party cannot pay now, get a promise for another date of payment. Pleasant words and a genial bearing invariably are more effective than threats of legal measures. If the debtor lives near, call and express your urgent needs of money, etc. If 3^ou cannot get it all, take a part, and get a note for the bal- ance. Notes are more easily handled and collected than open accounts. If the debtor is irresponsible, get him to secure an indorser, so that you “can get the money on it at the bank,” etc. If possible, “know your man.” With some it is absolutely necessary to be sharp and positive, while the man who honestly intends to pay can be handled better by pleasant words, though frank and business-like. If a debtor is at a distance, write a courteous letter, inclosing bill or statement, requesting prompt settlement. If necessary, a second or third letter should be written. 299 HOW TO MAKE CHANGE QUICKLY. Always consider the amount of purchase as if that much money were already counted out, then add to amount of purchase enough small change to make even dollars, counting out the even dollars last until full amount is made up. If the purchase amounts to 57 cents, and you are handed $ 2.00 in payment, countout 43 cents first to make an even dollar. Then lay out the other dollar. Should the purchase be $ 3 . 69 , to be taken out of $ 20 , 00 , begin with $ 3.69 as the basis and make up even $ 4.00 by laying out 31 cents. This 31 cents with the amount of the purchase you will consider as $ 4 . 00 , and count out even dollars to make up the $ 20.00 which the customer has handed in. MERCHANTS’ COST AND PRICE MARKS. All merchants use private cipher marks to note cost or selling price of goods. The cipher is usually made up from some short word or sentence of nine or ten letters, as: CORNELIUS, A. 123456789 0. Five dollars, according to this key, would be eaa. But gen- erally an extra letter is used to prevent repeating the mark for 0 . If the sign for a second 0 in this case were we would have eay instead of eaa. TIME IN WHICH MONEY DOUBLES. Per Cent. Simple Int. Comp. Int. Per Cent. Simple Int. Comp. Int. 2 50 years. 35 years. 5 20 years. 14 yrs. 75 da. 2)^ 40 years. 28 yrs. 26 da. 6 16yrs. 8mos. 11 yrs. 327 da. 3 33 yrs.4mos. 23 yrs. 164 da. 7 14yrs. 104 da. 10 yrs. 89 da. 31 ^ 28yrs. 208 da. 20 yrs. 54 da. 8 12)^ years. 9 yrs. 2 da. 4 25 years. 17 yrs. 246 da. 9 11 yrs. 40 da. 8 yrs. 16 da. 4)^ 22 yrs. 81 da. 15yrs.273da. 10 10 years. 7yrs. lOOda. “ A Dollar Saved, a Dollar Earned.” The way to accumulate money is to save small sums with regularity. A small sum saved daily for fifty years will grow at the following rate: Daily Savings. Result. Daily Savings. Result. One cent $ 950 Ten cents 9,504 Twenty cents 19,006 Thirty cents 28,512 Forty cents 38,015 Fifty cents 47,520 Sixty cents $ 57,024 Seventy cents 66,528 Eighty cents. ....... 76,032 Ninety cents 85,537 One Dollar 475,208 300 SHORT INTEREST RULES. To find the interest on a given sum for any number of days, at any rate of interest, multiply the principal by the number of days and divide as follows: At 3 per cent., by . . . . At 4 per cent., by .... At 5 per cent., by ... . At 6 per cent., by ... . At 7 per cent., by ... . At 8 per cent., by ... TRADE DISCOUNTS. 120 At 9 per cent., by . . . 40 . 90 At 10 per cent., by. . . . 36 72 At 12 per cent., . by . , . . 30 . 60 At 15 per cent.. ,by. . . . 24 52 At 20 per cent., , by . . . 18 . 45 Wholesale houses usually invoice their goods to retailers at ‘list” prices. List prices were once upon a time supposed to be retail prices, but of late a system of “long” list prices has come into vogue in many lines of trade — that is, the list price is made exorbitantly high, so that wholesalers can give enormous dis- counts. These discounts, whether large or small,^ are called trade discounts, and are usually deducted at a certain rate per cent, from the face of invoice. The amount of discount generally depends upon size of bill or terms of settlement, or both. Sometimes two or more discounts are allowed. Thus 30% and 5% is expressed 30 and 5, meaning first a discount of 30% and then 5% from the remainder. 30 and 5 is not 35%, but 33)^%. 10, 5 and 3 off means three successive discounts. A wholesale house allowing 10, 5 and 3 off gets more for ite goods than it would at 18 off. HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT MONEY. In the space at disposal here, it is impossible of course to give a complete illustrated counterfeit detector, but the following simple rules, laid down by Bank Note Examiner Geo. R. Baker, will be found extremely valuable: Examine the f rm and features of all human figures; if graceful, and features distinct, examine the drapery. Notice whether the folds lie naturally, and observe whether the fine strands of the hair are plain and distinct. Examine the lettering. In a genuine bill it is absolutely perfect. There has never been a counterfeit put out but was more or less defective in the lettering. Counterfeiters rarely, if ever, get the imprint or engraver’s name perfect. The shading in the background of the vignette and over and around the letters forming the name of the bank, on a good bill, is even and perfect; on a counterfeit it is un- even and imperfect. The die work around the figures of the denomination should be of the same character as the ornamental work surrounding it. Never take a bill deficient in any of these points. Big Trees. — Of ninety-two redwood trees in Calaveras Grove, Cal., ten are over thirty feet in diameter, and eighty-two have a diameter of from fifteen to thirty feet. Their ages are estimated at from 1,000 to 3,500 years. Their height ranges from 150 to 237 feet. 301 BANKERS^ TIMEB TA^BI^B. To Find tlie Number of I>ays Between Any Two Bates of tbe Same Year, or Two Con* secutive Years, Consult the following table. The numbers in black letter at head of the columns represent the months: — I, January; 2 , February, etc. In leap years, add one to the corresponding numbers of all dates after February 28. H 0 »H « 00 <35 0 (M eo lO «D 06 ^ '05 OpOppOOOOOrHrH— lrHrH^t^T-lT-li-l'MC- J>. t- J>- r- J>- 1:- ir- 1:^ 1:- r- 1- 1- t- 1:^ !>- 1:^ r- !>• H O’— lOiO'J>-OOa5 0rH 0 CO 0 CO 0 CO 0 CO CO 0 CO CO CO ?0> lO CD CO CO • © oO’-HCMcO'^tocot— ooa50<— ic^cO''^'iocoi-^<5oa50T— (c CO lO CO ir - 00 05 0 rH CO lO CO J^- 00 05 0 t-H (M CO 10 P 00 ■ 0 r-H r-l I— 1 rH —1 7— 1 1—1 f-H I-H rH (M oq (M Cd CM C.0i0i-0‘0»oicut»pcopppcocopcocoi'-b-i>-i:— I0i0i0i0>0i0i0»0i0i0u5ic»0»0*0i0i0»0i0i0i0i0i0i0»0»00»0i0uj0 © 1:^00050— lQC0t^00(05Oi— l0 0 »0 0 40 U3 0 • COt-COOSOi— l(MC0'^tOPr-ia005Or-H(M'C0'’^OtOCDCOCOPPCOCOpCOCOb-|--l^b-l— r-lr-t-Jr-r-COCiOGOOOciOQO • Tt< ''f Ilf Tf •rtl '1'^< Tfl CO • 40CDb-(5C35O-H{MC0'’^t0C0b-0005Oi-l(Mr0^t0C0t^00C5Oi— '(MCO-^IO 'M-lr^l'~b-r-b-r^C0Q0Q000C50C0C50Q0C500Ci050505i05<35(35iO COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO t-iWW^»0©b»X©©^WW^W5©b*X©©^WMTf<»'5©b»X©©iH w H tocox— 00<050i— (-<5005Oi— l0C01'-Q005Oi— I!MC0 ii*1i0C0^Q005O7-I (M ’ Water, sixteen parts Muriate Ammonia, } • c i. 1 Nitrate of Potash, } ' 1 Sulphate of Soda, eight parts j Water, sixteen parts J Sulphate of Soda, three parts Dilute Nitric Acid, two parts Nitrate of Ammonia, 1 Carbonate Soda, >• each one part . Water, ) Phosphate Soda, nine parts ) Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts f Sulphate of soda, five parts [ Dilute Sulphuric Acid, four parts J Sulphate of Soda, six parts ^ Muriate Ammonia, four parts ! Nitrate of Potash, two parts. f Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts J Sulphate of Soda, six parts Nitrate of Ammonia, five parts Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts THE HEBREW RACE. The Hebrew race is distributed over the Eastern continent as follows : In 'Europe there are 5,400,000; in France, 63,000 ; Germany, c;62,ooo, of which Alsace- Loraine contains 39,000 ; Austro- Hungary, 1,544,000; Italy, 40,000; Netherlands, 82,000; Rou- mania, 265,000 ; Russia, 2,552,000 ; Turkey, 105.000, and in other countries 35,000, Belgium containing the smallest number, only 3,000. In Asia there are 319,000 ; Asiatic Turkey, 47,000, in Palestine there being 25,000 ; Asiatic Russia, 47,000 ; Persia, 18,000 ; Mid- dle Asia, 14,000; India, 19,000, and China, 1,000. Africa contains 350,000 ; Egypt, 8,000 ; Tunis, 55,000 ; Algiers, 35,000 ; Morocco, 60,000 ; Tripoli, 6,000, and Abyssinia, 200,000. The entire number of Hebrews in the world is nearly ^300,000. 308 PHYSICAL EXERCISE. HE principal methods of developing the physique now pre- scribed by trainers are exercise with dumbbells, the bar bell and the chest weight. The rings and horizontal and paral- lel bars are also used, but not nearly to the extent that they formerly were. The movement has been all in the direction of the sim- plification of apparatus; in fact, one well-known teacher of the Boston Gynmasium when asked his opinion said: “Four bare walls and a floor, with a well-posted instructor, is all that is really required for a gymnasium.” Probably the most important as well as the simplest appliance for gymnasium work is the wooden dumbbell, which has dis- placed the ponderous iron bell of former days. Its weight is from three-quarters of a pound to a pound and a half, and with one in each hand a variety of motions can be gone through, which are of immense benefit in building up or toning down every muscle and all vital parts of the body. The first object of an instructor in taking a beginner in hand is to increase the circulation. This is done by exercising the ex- tremities, the first movement being one of the hands, after which come the Avrists, then the arms, and next the head and feet. As the circulation is increased the necessity for a larger supplj" of oxygen, technicall v called “oxygen-hunger,” is created, which is only satisfied by breathing exercises, which develop the lungs. After the circulation is in a satisfactory condition, the dumbbell instructor turns his attention to exercising the great muscles of the body, beginning with those of the back, strengthening which holds the body erect,thus increasing the chest capacity, invigorating the digestive organs, and, in fact, all the vital functions. By the use of very light weights an equal and symmetrical development of all parts of the body is obtained, and then there are no sudden demands on the heart and lungs. After the dumbbell comes exercise with the round, or bar bell. This is like the dumbbell, with the exception that Jhe bar connecting the balls is four or five feet, instead of a few inches in length. Bar bells weigh from one to two pounds each, and are found most useful in building up the respiratory and diges- tive systems, their especial province being the strengthening of the erector muscles and increasing the flexibility of the chest. Of all fixed apparatus in use the pulley weight stands easily first in importance. These weights are available for a greater variety of objects than any other gymnastic appliance, and can be used either for general exercise or for strengthening such muscles as most require it. With them a greater localization is possible than with the dumbbell, and for this reason they are recommended as a kind of supplement to the latter. As chest de- 309 T. The bar bell — chest expander. 2. Anterior muscular de- veloper. 3. Developing loins and lumbar region- — aid to diges- tion. 4. Side and loin development. 5. Giant pulley exercise — for elev^ating right side of chest. 6. Developing muscles that hold the shoulders back. 7. Developing muscles of front upper iChest.’^ 8. Posterior development — to make one erect. [310 PH r SI CAL EXERCISE. velopers and correctors of round shoulders they are most effec- tive. As the name implies, they are simply weights attached to ropes, whicli pass over pulleys, and are provided with handles. The common pulley is placed at about the height of the shoulder of an average man, but recently those which can be adjusted to any desired height have been very generally introduced. When more special localization is desired than can be ob- tained by means of the ordinary apparatus, what is known as the double-action chest weight is used. This differs from the or- dinary kind in being provided with several pullej^s, so that the strain may come at different angles. Double-action weights may be divided into three classes — high, low and side pulleys — each with its particular use. The highest of all, known as the giant pulleys, are made es- pecially for developing the muscles of the back and chest, and by stretching or elongating movements to increase the interior' capacity of the chest. If the front of the chest is full and the back or side chest deficient, the pupil is set to work on the giant pulley. To build up the side-walls he stands with the back to the pulley-box and the left heel resting against it; the handle is grasped in the right hand if the right side of the chest is lacking in development, and then drawn straight down by the side; a step forward with the right foot, as long as possible, is taken, the line brought as far to the front and near the floor as can be done, and then the arm, held stiff, allowed to be drawn slowly up by the weight. To exercise the left side the same process is gone through with, the handle grasped in the left hand. Another kind of giant pulley is that which allows the operator to stand directly under it, and is used for increasing the lateral diameter of the chest. The handles are drawn straight down by the sides, the arms are then spread and drawn back by the weights. Gen- erally speaking, high pulleys are most used for correcting high, round shoulders; low pulleys for low, round shoulders; side pul- leys for individual high or low shoulders, and giant pulleys for the development of the walls of the chest and to correct spinal curvature. The traveling rings, a line of iron rings covered with rubber and attached to long ropes fastened to the ceiling some ten feet apart, are also valuable in developing the muscles of the back, arms and sides. The first ring is grasped in one hand and a spring taken from an elevated platform. The momentum carries the gymnast to the next ring, which is seized with the free hand, and so the entire length of the line is traversed. The parallel bars, low and high, the flying rings, the horizontal bar and the trapeze all have their uses, but of late years they have been rele- gated to a position of distinct inferiority to that now occcupied by the dumbbells and pulley weights. (311] MEDICINE AND HYGIENE Diseases and tlielr Remedies -Prescriptions tiy Eminent Practitioners. I T should be clearly understood, that in all cases of disease, the advice of a skillful physician is of the first importance. It is not, therefore, intended by the following information to supersede the important and necessary practice of the medi- cal man; but rather, by exhibiting the treatment required, to show in what degree his aid is imperative. In cases, however, where the disorder may be simple or transient, or in which re- mote residence, or other circumstances, may deny the privilege of medical attendance, the following particulars will be found of the utmost value. Moreover, the hints given upon what should be avoided will be of great service to the patient, since the physiological is no less important than the medical treatment of disease. The numbers refer to prescriptions on pp. 315-318. Apoplexy — Lay the head upon a bag of pounded ice, imme- diate and large bleeding from the arm, cupping neck, leeches to the temples, aperi- ents Nos. I and 7, one or two drops of cotton oil rubbed or dropped on the tongue. Avoid excesses, intemperance, animal food. Bile, Bilious,or Liver Complaints — Abstinence from malt liquor, cool homoeopathic cocoa for drink, no tea or coffee, few vegetables, no broths or soups; lean juicy meat not overcooked for dinner, with stale bread occasionally and a slice of toasted bacon for breakfast. Nos. 44 and 45. Chicken Pox — Mild aperients. No. 4,. succeeded by No. 7, and No. 8, if much fever accompany the eruption. Chilblains — Warm, dry woolen clothing to exposed parts in cold weather, as a preventive. In the first stage, friction with No. 48, used cold. When ulcers form they should be washed twice daily with carbolic soap and dressed with benzoted zinc ointment. Or, chilblains in every stage, whether of simple in- flammation or open ulcer, may always be successfully treated by Goulard’s extract, used pure or applied on lint twice a day. Common Continued Fever — Aperients; in the commence- ment No. I, followed by No. 7; then diaphoretics. No. 8, and afterwards tonics. No. 13, in the stage of weakness. Avoid all excesses. Common Cough — The linctus. No. 42 or No. 43, abstinence from malt liquor, and protection from cold, damp air. Avoid cold, damp, and draughts. Constipation — The observance of a regular period of evac- uating the bowels, which is most proper in the morning after breakfast. The use of mild aperients. No. 37, and brown bread instead of white. T here should be an entire change in the dietary for a few days while taking opening medicine. Consumption — The disease may be complicated with various morbid conditions of the lungs and heart, which require appropriate treatment. Take cod liver oil, malt and whisky. To allay the cough. No. 32 is an admirable remedy. Avoid cold, damp, excitement and over-exertion. Convulsions (Children) — If during teething, free lancing of the gums, the warm bath, cold applications to the head, leeches to the temples, an emetic, and a laxative clyster. No. 20. Croup — Leeches to the throat, with hot fomentations as long as the attack lasts; the emetic. No. 16, afterwards the aperient. No. 5. Avoid cold and damp. Keep the air in the sick-room moistened with steam. A Simple Croup Remedy. — Take the white of an egg, stir it 312 MEDICINE AND HYGIENE, thoroughly into a small quantity of sweetened water, and give it in repeated doses until a cure is effected. If one egg is not sufficient, a second, or even a third should be used. Dropsy — Evacuate the w^ater bj means of No. lO, and by rub- bing camphorated oil into the body night and morning. Epilepsy — If accompanied or produced by fullness of the ves- sels of the head, leeches to the temples, blisters, and No. i and No. 7. If from de- bility or confirmed epilepsy, the mixture No. 18. Avoid drinking and excitement. Let the patient alone during the convulsion. Eruptions on the Face — The powder, No. 30, internally, sponging the face with the lotion No. 31. Avoid excesses in diet. Erysipelas — Aperients, if the patient be strong. No. i, fol- lowed by No. 7, then tonics. No. 27. No. 27 may be used from the commencement for weak subjects. Faintness — Effusion of cold water on the face, stimulants to the nostrils, pure air, and the recumbent position; afterwards, avoidance of the excit- ing cause. Avoid excitement. Frost-bite and Frozen Limbs — No heating or stimulating liquors must be given. Rub the. parts affected with ice, cold, or snow water, and lay the patient on a cold bed. Gout — The aperients No. i, followed by No. 24, bathing the parts with gin-and-water; for drink, weak tea or coffee. Warmth by flannels. Ab- stain from wines, spirits, and animal food. Gravel — No. 5, followed by No. 7, the free use of magnesia as an aperient. The pill No. 22. Abstain from fermented drinks and hard water. Another form of gravel must be treated by mineral acids, given three times a day. Whooping Cough — ‘Whooping cough may be complicated with congestion or inflammation of the lungs, or convulsions, and then becomes a serious disease. If uncomplicated, No. 43. Hysterics — The fit may be prevented by the administration of thirty drops of laudanum, and as many of ether. When it has taken place, open the windows, loosen the tight parts ofihe dress, sprinkle cold water on the face, etc. A glass of wine or cold water when the patient can swallow. Avoid excitement and tight lacing. Indigestion — The pills No. 2, with the mixture No. 18, at the same time abstinence from veal, pork, mackerel, salmon, pastry, and beer; for drink, homoeopathic cocoa, a glass of cold spring water the first thing every morning. Avoid excesses. Inflammation of the Bladder — Aperients No. 5 and No. 7, the warm bath, afterwards opium; the pill No. 11, three times a day till relieved. Avoid fermented liquors, etc. Large quantities of water should be taken, especially spring water containing lithia. Inflammation of the Bowels — Leeches, blisters, fomenta- tions, hot baths, iced drinks, the pills No. 19; move the bowels with clysters, if neces- sary, No. 20. Avoid cold, indigestible food, etc. Inflammation of the Brain — Application of cold to the head, bleeding from the temples or back of the neck by leeches or cupping; aper- ients No. I, followed by No. 7, No. 15. Avoid excitement, study, intemperance. Inflammation of the Kidneys — Leeches over the seat of pain, aperients No. 5, followed by No. 49; the warm bath. Avoid violent exercise, rich living. Inflammation of the Liver — Leeches over the right side, the seat of pain, blisters, aperients No. i, followed by No. 7, afterwards the pills No. 19, till the gums are slightly tender. Avoid cold, damp, intemperance, and anxiety. Inflammation of the Lungs — Leeches to seat of pain, 313 MEDICINE AND HTGIENE. succeeded by a blister; the demulcent mixture. No. 14, to allay the cough, with the powders No. 15, whisky and milk. Avoid cold, damp, and draughts. Inflammation of the Stomach — Leeches to the pit of the stomach, followed by fomentations, cold iced water for drink, bowels to be evacuated by clysters; abstinence from all food except cold gruel, milk and water. Avoid ex- cesses and condiments. Inflammatory Sore Throat — L eeches and blisters ex- ternally, aperients No. i, followed by number 7; gargle to clear the throat. No. 17. Avoid cold, damp, and draughts. Inflamed Eyes — The bowels to be regulated by No. 5, drop 5% cocaine solution in the eye every three or four hours, the eyelto be bathed with No. 35. Influenza — No. 4 as an aperient and diaphoretic. No. 14 to allay fever and cough. No, 28 as a tonic, when weakness only remains. Avoid cold and damp, use clothing suited to the changes of temperature. Intermittent Fever, or Ague — Take No. 13 during the intermission of the paroxysm of the fever; keeping the bowels free with a wine glass of No, 7. Avoid bad air, stagnant pools, etc. Itch — The ointment No. 28, or lotion No. 29. Jaundice — The pills No. i, afterwards the mixture No. 7, drinking freely of dandelion tea. Looseness of the Bowels (English Cholera) — One pill No. 19, repeated if necessary; afterwards the mixture No. 21. Avoid unripe fruits, acid drinks, ginger beer; wrap flannel around the abdomen. Measles — A well-ventilated room, aperients No. 4, with No. 34 to allay the cough and fever. Menstruation (Excessive) — No. 40 during the attack, with rest in the recumbent position; in the intervals. No. 39. Menstruation (Scanty) — In strong patients, cupping the loins, exercise in the open air, No. 40, the feet in warm water before the expected period, the pills No. 38; in weak subjects No. 39. Gentle and regular exercise. Avoid hot rooms, and too much sleep. In cases of this description it is desirable to apply to a medical man for advice. It may be useful to many to point out that penny- royal tea is a simple and useful medicine for inducing the desired result. Menstruation (Painful) — No. 41 during the attack; in the intervals. No. 38 twice a week, with No. 39. Avoid cold, mental excite- hient, etc. Mumps — Fomentation with a decoction of camomiles and poppy heads; No. 4 as an aperient, and No. 9 during the stage of fever. Avoid cold, and attend to the regularity of the bowels. Nervousness — Cheerful society, early rising, exercise in the open air, particularly on horseback, and No. 12. Avoid excitement, study, and late meals. Palpitation of the Heart — The pills No. 2, with the mixture No. 12. Piles — The paste No. 34, at the same time a regulated diet. When the piles are external, or can be reached, one or two applications of Goulard’s extract, with an occasional dose of lenitive electuary, will generally succeed in cur- ing them. Quinsy — A blister applied all around the throat; an emetic, No. 16, commonly succeeds in breaking the abscess; afterwards the gargle No. 17. Avoid cold and damp. Rheumatism — Bathe the affected parts with No. 23, and take ‘ internally No. 24, with No. 25 at bedtime, to ease pain, etc. Avoid damp and cold, wear flannel. 314 MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. Rickets — The powder No. 33, a dry, pure atmosphere, a nourishing diet. Ringworm — The lotion No. 32, with the occasional use of the powder No. 5. Fresh air and cleanliness. Scarlet Fever — Well-ventilated room, sponging the body when hot with cold or tepid vinegar, or spirit and water; aperients. No. 4; diapho- retics, No. 8. If dropsy succeed the disappearance of the eruption, frequent purg- ing with No. 5, succeeded by No. 7. Scrofula — Pure air, light but warm clothing, diet of fresh animal food; bowels to be regulated by No. 6 and No. 26, taken regularly for a con- siderable time. Scurvy — Fresh animal and vegetable food, and the free use of ripe fruits and lemon juice. Avoid cold and damp. Smallpox — A well-ventilated apartment, mild aperients; if fever be present. No. 7, succeeded by diaphoretics No. 8, and tonics No. 13 in the stage of debility, or decline of the eruption. St. Vitus Dance — The occasional use, in the commence- ment, of No. 5, followed by No. 7, afterwards No. 46. Thrush — One of the powders No. 6 every other night; in the intervals a dessertspoonful of the mixture No. 18 three times a day; white spots to be dressed with the honey of borax. Tic Doloreux — Regulate the bowels with No. 3, and take, in the intervals of pain. No. 27. Avoid cold, damp, and mental anxiety. Toothache — Continue the use of No. 3 for a few alternate days. Apply liquor ammoniae to reduce the pain, and when that is accomplished, fill the decayed spots with silver succedaneum without delay, or the pain will re- turn. A drop of creosote, or a few drops of chloroform on cotton, applied to the tooth, or a few grains of camphor placed in the decayed opening, or camphor moist- ened with turpentine, will often afford instant relief. Typhus Fever — Sponging the body with cold or tepid water, a well-ventilated apartment, cold applications to the head and temples. Aperients No. 4, with refrigerants No. 9, tonics No. 13 in the stage of debility. Water on the Brain — Local bleeding by means of leeches, blisters, aperients No. 5, and mercurial medicines. No. 15. Whites — The mixture No. 36, with the injection No. 37. Clothing light but warm, moderate exercise in the open air, country residence. Worms in the Intestines — The aperient No. 5, followed by No. 7, afterwards the free use of Ikne water and milk in equal parts, a pint daily. Avoid unwholesome food. PRESCRIPTIONS. To be used in the cases enumerated under the head '‘’’Diseases ” {pages 312-315.) The following prescriptions, originally derived from various prescribers’ Pharmacopoeias, and now carefully revised, embody the favorite remedies employed by the most eminent physicians.: 1. Take of powdered aloes, nine grains; extract of colocynth, compound, eighteen grains; calomel, nine grains; tartrate of antimony, two grains; mucilage, sufficient to make a mass, which is divided into six pills; two to be taken every twenty-four hours, till they act thoroughly on the bowels; in cases of inflam- mation, apoplexy, etc. 2. Powdered rhubarb, Socotrine aloes, and gum mastic, each one scruple; make into twelve pills; one before and one after dinner. 315 MEDICINE AND HTGIENE, 3. Compound extractor colocjnth, extract of jalap, and Castile soap, of each one scruple; make into twelve pills. 4. James’ powder, five grains; calomel, three grains; in fevers, for adults. For children, the following; Powdered camphor, one scruple: calomel and powdered scammony, of each nine grains; James* powder, six grains; mix, and divide into six powders. Half of one powder twice a day for an infant a year old; a whole powder for two years; and for four years, the same three times a day. 5. James’ powder, six grains; powdered jalap, ten grains; mix, and divide into three or four powders, according to the child’s age; in one powder if for an adult. 6. Powdered rhubarb, four grains; mercury and chalk, three grains; ginger in powder, one grain; an alterative aperient for children. 7. Fluid extract cascara, six drams; tincture aloes four drams; tincture hyoscyamus, four drams; neutralizing cordial, two ounces; dessertspoonful every four hours until the bowels move freely. 8. Nitrate of potass, one dram and a half; spirits of nitric ether, half an ounce; camphor mixture, and the spirit of mindererus, each four ounces; in fevers, etc. ; two tablespoonfuls, three times a day, and for children a dessert- spoonful every four hours. 9. Spirit of nitric ether, three drams; dilute nitric acid, two drams; syrup, three drams: camphor mixture, seven ounces; in fevers, etc., with debility; dose as in preceding prescription. 10. Decoction of broom, half a pint; cream of tartar, one ounce; tincture of squills, two drams; in dropsies; a third part three times a day. 11. Pills of soap and opium, five grains for a dose, as directed. 12. Ammoniated tincture of valerian, six drams; camphor mixture, seven ounces; a fourth part three times a day; in spasmodic and hysterical disorders. 13. Bisulphate of quinia, half a dram; dilute sulphuric acid, twenty drops; compound infusion of roses, eight ounces; two tablespoonfuls every four hours, in intermittent and other fevers, during the absence of the paroxysm. 14. Almond mixture, seven ounces and a half; wine of an- timony and ipecacuanha, of each one dram and a half; a tablespoonful every four hours; in cough with fever, etc. 15. Calomel, one grain; powdered white sugar, two grains; to make a powder to be placed on the tongue every two or three hours. Should the calomel act on the bowels, powdered kino is to be substituted for the sugar. 16. Antimony and ipecacuanha wines, of each an ounce; a teaspoonful every ten minutes for a child till vomiting is produced; but for an adult a large tablespoonful should be taken. 17. Compound infusion of roses, seven ounces; tincture of myrrh, one ounce. 18. Infusion of orange peel, seven ounces; tincture of hops, half an ounce; and a dram of carbonate of soda; two tablespoonfuls twice a day. Or infusion of valerian, seven ounces; carbonate of ammonia, two scruples; compound tincture of bark, six drams; spirits of ether, two drams; one tablespoonful every twenty-four hours. 19. Blue pill, four grains; opium, half a grain; to be taken three times a day. 20. For a Clyster — A pint and a half of gruel or fat broth, a tablespoonful of castor oil, one of common salt, and a lump of butter; mix, to be in- jected slowly. A third of this quantity is enough for an infant. 21. Chalk mixture, seven ounces; aromatic and opiate con- fection, of each one dram: tincture of catechu, six drams; two tablespoonfuL* every t\vo hours. 316 MEDICINE AND IITGIENE. 22. Carbonate of soda, powdered rhubarb, and Castile soap, each one dram; make thirty-six pills; three twice a day. 23. I^otion — Common salt, one ounce; distilled water, seven ounces; spirits ot wine, one ounce; mix. 24. Dried sulphate of magnesia, six drams; heavy carbon- ate of magnesia, two drams; wine of colchicum, two drams; water, eight ounces; take two tablespoonfuls every four hours. 25. Compound powder of ipecacuanha, ten grains; powdered guaiacum, four grains; in a powder at bedtime. 26. Brandish’s solution of potash; thirty drops twice a day in a wineglass of beer. 27. Bisulphate of quinia, half a dram; dilute sulphuric acid, ten drops; compound infusion of roses, eight ounces; two tablespoonfuls every eight hours, and as a tonic in the stage of weakness succeeding fever. 28. Flowers of sulphur, two ounces; hog’s lard, four ounces; white hellebore powder, half an ounce ; oil of lavender, sixty drops. 29. Iodide of potass, two drams; distilled water, eight ounces. 30. Flowers of sulphur, half a dram; carbonate of soda, a scruple; tartarized antimony, one-eighth of a grain; one powder night and morning, in eruptions of the skin or face. 31. Milk of bitter almonds, seven ounces; bichloride of mer- cury, four grains; spirits of rosemary, one ounce; bathe the eruption with this lotion three times a day. 32. Sulphate of zinc, two scruples; sugar of lead, fifteen grains; distilled water, six ounces; the parts to be washed with the lotion three times a day. 33. Carbonate of iron, six grains; powdered rhubarb, four grains; one powder night and morning. 34. Aromatic powder and pepsin, each one dram; make twelve powders; one three or four times a.day. 35. Sulphate of zinc, twelve grains; wine of opium, one dram; rosewater, six ounces. 36. Sulphate of magnesia, six drams; sulphate of iron, ten grains; diluted sulphuric acid, forty drops; tincture of cardamoms (compound), halt an ounce; water, seven ounces; a fourth part night and morning. 37. Decoction of oak bark, a pint; dried alum, half an ounce; for an injection; a syringe full to be used night and morning. 38. Compound gamboge pill and a pill of asafoetida and aloes; of each half a dram; make twelve pills; two twice or three times a week. 39. Griffith’s mixture — one tablespoonful three times a day. 40. Ergot of rj^e, five grains; in a powder, to be taken every four hours. This should only be taken under medical advice and sanction. 41. Powdered opium, half a grain; camphor, two grains, in a pill; to be taken every three or four hours whilst in pain. 42. Syrup of balsam of tolu, two ounces; the muriate of mor- phia, two grains; muriatic acid, twenty drops; a teaspoonful twice a day. 43. Salts of tartar, two scruples; twenty grains of powdered cochineal; lb of honey; water, half a pint; boil and give a tablespoonful three times a day. 44. Calomel, ten grains; Castile soap, extract of jalap, extract of colocynth, of each one scruple; oil of juniper, fivedrops; make into fifteen pills; one three times a day. 317 MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 45. Infusion of orange peel, eight ounces; carbonate of soda,. ,ine dram; and compound tincture of cardamoms, half an ounce; take a table- spoonful three times a day succeeding the pills. 46. Carbonate of iron, three ounces; sjrup of ginger sufficient to make an electuary; a teaspoonful three times a day. 47. Take of Castile soap, compound extract of colocynth, com- pound rhubarb pill and the extract of jalap, each one scruple; oil of caraway, ten drops; make into twenty pills, and take one after dinner every day whilst neces- sary. 48. Spirit of rosemary, five parts; spirit of wine, or spirit ot turpentine, one part. 49. Take of thick mucilage, one ounce; castor oil, twelve drams; make into an emulsion; add mint water, four ounces: spirit of nitre, three drams; laudanum, one dram; mixture of squills, one dram; and syrup, seven drams; mix; two tablespoonfuls every six hours. Rules for the Preservation of Health. Pure Atmospheric Air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen and a very small proportion of carbonic acid gas. Air once breathed has lost the chief part of its oxygen and acquired a proportionate increase of carbonic acid gas. Therefore, health requires that we breathe the same air once only. The Solid Part of our Bodies is continually wasting and requires to be repaired by fresh substances. Therefore, food which is to repair the loss should be taken with due regard to the exercise and waste of the body. The Fluid Part of our Bodies also wastes constantly; there is but one fluid in animals, which is water. Therefore, water only is neces- sary, and no artifice can produce a better drink. The Fluid of our Bodies is to the solid in proportion as nine to one. Therefore, a like proportion should prevail in the total amount of food taken. Light Exercises an Important Influence upon the growth and vigor of animals and plants. Therefore, our dwellings should freely admit the solar rays. Decomposing Animal and Vegetable Substances yield various noxious gases which enter the lungs and corrupt the blood. Therefore, all impurities should be kept away from our abodes, and every precaution be ob- served to secure a pure atmosphere. Warmth is Essential to all the bodily functions. Therefore, an equal bodily temperature should be maintained by exercise, by clothing or by fire. Exercise Warms, Invigorates and purifies the body; cloth- ing preserves the warmth the body generates; fire imparts warmth externally. Therefore, to obtain and preserve warmth, exercise and clothing are preferable to fire. Mental and Bodily Exercise are equally essential to the general health and happiness. Therefore, labor and study should succeed each, other. Man will live most Healthily upon simple solids and fluids, of which a sufficient but temperate quantity should be taken. Therefore, over- indulgence in strong drinks, tobacco, snuff, opium, and all mere indulgences, should be avoided. Sudden Alternations of Heat and Cold are dangerous; (especially to the young and the aged). Therefore, clothing, in quality and quantity, should be adapted to the alternations of night and day and of the seasons; and drinking cold water when the body is hot, and hot tea and soups when, cold, are productive of many evils. SIS MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. The Skin is a Highly Organized Membrane full of minute pores, cells, blood vessels and nerves; it imbibes moisture or throws it off, ac- cording to the state of the atmosphere and the temperature of the body. It also “breathes,” asdo the lungs (though less actively). All the internal organs sympa- thize with the skin. Therefore, it should be repeatedly cleansed. Fire Consumes the Oxygen of the air and produces noxious gases. Therefore, the air is less pure in the presence of candles, gas or coal fire, than otherwise, and the deterioration should be repaired by increased ventilation. Late Hours and Anxious Pursuits exhaust the nervous system and produce disease and premature death. Therefore, the hours of labor and study should be short. Moderation in Eating and drinking, short hours of labor and study, regularity in exercise, recreation and rest, cleanliness, equanimity of temper and equality of temperature — these are the great essentials to that which surpasses all wealth, health of mind and body. HOMCEOTATHY. Principles of Homceopathy. — As homoeopathy is now prac- ticed so widely, and, indeed, preferred to the older system in many families, this department could scarcely lay claim to be considered complete without a brief mention of the principal remedies used and recommended by homoeopathic practitioners, and the disorders for which these remedies are especially appli- cable. The principle of homoeopath^" is set forth in the Latin words ^'‘similia similibtis cura7iturj'' the meaning of which is “likes are cured by likes.” The homoeopathist, in order to cure a disease, administers a medicine which would produce in a per- fectly healthy subject symptoms like but not identical with, or the same as, the symptoms to counteract which the medicine is given. He, therefore, first makes himself thoroughly acquainted with the symptoms that are exhibited by the sufferer; having ascertained these, in order to neutralize them and restore the state of the patient’s health to a state of equilibrium, so to speak, he administers preparations that would produce symptoms of a like character in persons in good health. It is not said, be it remembered, that the drug can produce in a healthy person the disease from which the patient is suffering; it is only advanced by homoeopathists that the drug given has the power of pro- ducing in a person in health symptoms similar to those of the disease under which the patient is languishing, and that the cor- rect mode of treatment is to counteract the disease symptoms by the artificial production of similar symptoms by medical means, or, in other words, to suit the medicine to the disorder, by the previously acquired knowledge of the effects of the drug by experiment on a healthy person. Homoeopathic Remedies are given in the form of globules or tinctures, the latter being generally preferred by homoeopathic practitioners. When contrasted with the doses of drugs given by allopathists, the small doses administered by homoeopathists 319 HO MCE OP A THIC REMEDIES. must at first sight appear wholly inadequate to the purpose for which they are given; but homoeopathists, whose dilution and trituration diffuse the drug given throughout the vehicle in which it is administered, argue that by this extension of its stir- face the active power of the drug is greatly increased. Large doses of certain drugs administered for certain purposes will pass through the system without in anj^ w'ay affecting those organs which will be acted on most powerfully by the very same drugs when administered in much smaller doses. Thus a small dose of sweet spirit of nitre will act on the skin and promote perspi- ration, but a large dose will act as a diuretic only and exert no influence on the skin. Great stress is laid by homoeopathists on attention to diet, but not so much so in the present day as when the system was first in- troduced. The reader will find a list of articles of food that may and may not be taken in a succeeding page. Below are given briefly a few of the more common ailments “that flesh is heir to,” with the symptoms by which they are indicated and the medicines by which they may be alleviated and eventually cured. Asthma, an ailment which should be referred in all cases to the medical practitioner. Symptoms. Difficulty in breathing, with cough, either spasmodic and without expectoration, or accompanied with much expectoration. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, especially with congestion or slight spitting of blood; Antimoniurn tartaricum for rattling and wheezing in the chest; Arsenicum for chronic asthma; Ipecacuanha; Nux vomica. Bilious Attacks, if attended with diarrhoea and copious evacuations of a bright yellow color. Medicines. Bryonia, if arising from sedentary occupation, or from eating and drinking too freely; or Nux vomica and Mercurius in alternation, the former correcting constipation and the latter nausea, fullness at the pit of the stomach and a foul tongue. Bronchitis. Symptoms. Catarrh, accompanied with fever; ex- pectoration, dark, thick, and sometimes streaked with blood; urine dark, thick and scanty. Medicines. Aconitum napellus; especially in earlier stages; Bryonia for pain in coughing and difficulty in breathing; Antimoniurn tartaricum, loose cough, with much expectoration, and a feeling of, and tendency to, suffocation; ipecacu- anha, accumulation of phlegm in bronchial tubes and for children. Bruises and Wounds. — For all bruises, black eyes, etc., apply Arnica lotion; for slight wounds, after washing well with cold water, apply Arnica plaster; to stop bleeding, when ordinary means fail, and for larger wounds apply concentrated tincture of Calendula. Cold in the Head or Catarrh. Symptoms. Feverish feeling generally, and especially about the head, eyes, and nose, running frorn, and obstruction of nose;soreness and irritation of the throat and bronchial inhes. Medicines. Aconitum napellus for feverish symptoms; Belladonna for sore throat and headache with inclination to cough; Mercurius for running from nose and sneezing; Nux vomica for stoppage of nostrils; Chamomilla for children and v/omen, for whom Pulsatilla is also useful in such cases. Chilblains. Symptoms. Irritation and itching of the skin, which assumes a bluish red color. Medicines. Arnica montana, taken internally or used as outward application, unless the chilblain be broken, when Arsenicum should be used. If the swelling and irritation do not yield to these remedies, use Belladona and Rhus toxicodendron. 320 HO MCE OP A THIC REMEDIES. Cholera, i. Bilious cholera. Symptoms. Nausea, proceed- ing to vomiting, griping of the bowels, watery and offensive evacuations, in which much bile is present, accompanied with weakness and depression. Medicines. Bryonia, with ipecacuanha at commencement of attack. 2. Malignant or Asiatic cholera. as in bilious cholera, but in a more aggravated form, followed by what is called the “cold stage,” marked by great severity of griping pain in stomach accompanied with frequent and copious .vatery evacuations, and presently with cramps in all parts of the body; after which the extremities become chilled, the pulse scarcely discernible, the result of which is stupor and ultimately death. Medicines. Camphor in the form of tincture, in frequent doses, until the sufferer begins to feel warmth returning to the body, and perspiration ensues.^ In the latter stages. Cuprum and Veratrum. Tincture of Camphor is one of the most useful of the homoeo- pathic remedies in all cases of colic, diarrhoea, etc. In ordinary cases fifteen drops on sugar may be taken every quarter of an hour until the pain is allayed. In more aggravated cases, and in cases of cholera, a few drops may be taken at intervals of from two to five minutes. A dose of fifteen drops of camphor on sugar tends to counteract a chill if taken soon after premonitory symptoms show themselves, and act as a prophylactic against cold. Colic or Stomach Ache. — This disorder is indicated by griping pains in the bowels, which sometimes extend upwards into and over the region of the chest. Sometimes the pain is attended with vomiting and cold per- spiration. A warm bath is useful, and hot flannels, or ajar or bottle filled with hot water should be applied to the abdomen. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, especially when the abdomen is tender to the touch, and the patient is feverish; Belladonna for severe griping and spasmodic pains; Bryonia for bilious colic and diarrhoea; Chamo- milla for children. Constipation. — Women are more subject than men to this confined state of the bowels, which will, in many cases, yield to exercise, plain, nutri- tious diet, with vegetables and cooked fruit, and but little bread, and an enema of milk and water, or thin gruel if it is some time since there has been any action of the bowels. Medicines. Bryonia, especially for rheumatic patients, and disturbed state of the stomach; Nux vomica, for persons of sedentary habits, especially males; Pul- satilla, for women; Sulphur, for constipation that is habitual or of long continuance. Convulsions. — For convulsions arising from whatever cause, a warm bath is desirable, and a milk and water enema, if the child’s bowels are con- fined. Medicines. Belladonna and Chamomilla, if the convulsions are caused by teething, with Acomtum napellus if the little patient be feverish; Aconitum napellus, Cina, and Belladonna, for convulsions caused by worms; Aconite and Cof- foea, when they arise from fright; Ipecacuanha and Nux vomica, when they have been caused by repletion, or food that is difficult of digestion. Cough. — For this disorder, a light farinaceous diet is desirable, with plenty of out-door exercise and constant use of the sponging-bath. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, for a hard, dry, hacking cough; Antimonium, for cough with wheezing and difficulty of expectoration; Belladonna, for spasmodic cough, with tickling in the throat, or sore throat; Bryonia, for hard, dry cough, with expectora- tions streaked with blood; ipecacuanha, for children. Croup. — As this disorder frequently and quickly terminates fatally, recourse should be had to a duly qualified practitioner as soon as possible. The disease lies chiefly in the larynx and bronchial tubes, and is easy recognizable by the sharp, barking sound of the cough. A warm bath and mustard poultice will often tend to give relief. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, in the earlier stages of the disorder, and Spongia and Hepar sulphuris, in the more advanced stages, the latter medicine being desirable when the cough is not so violent and the breathing easier. Diarrhcea. — The medicines to be used in this disorder are those which are mentioned under colic and bilious attacks. Dysentery is somewhat similar to diarrhoea, but the symp- ;121 HO MCE OP A THIC REMEDIES, toms are more aggravated in character, and the evacuations are chiefly mucus streaked with blood. As a local remedy hot flannels or a stone jar filled with hot water and wrapped in flannel should be applied to the abdomen. Medicines. Colocynthis and Mercurius in alternation. Dyspepsia or Indigestion arises from v/eakness of the digestive organs. Symptoms. Chief among these are habitual costiveness, heartburn and nausea, disinclination to eat, listlessness and weakness, accompanied with fatigue after walking etc., restlessness and disturbed sleep at night, bad taste in the mouth, with white tongue, especially in the morning, accompanied at times with fullness in the region of the stomach. and flatulence, which causes disturbance of the heart. The causes of indigestion are too numerous to be mentioned here, but they may be inferred when it is said that scrupulous attention must be paid to diet (see p. 324); that meals should be taken at regular and not too long intervals: that warm drinks, stimulants and tobacco should be avoided; that early and regular hours should be kept, with a cold or chilled sponge bath every morning: and that measures should be taken to obtain a fair amount of exercise, and to provide suita- ble occupation for both body and mind during the day. Medicines. Arnica montana for persons who are nervous and irritable, and suffer much from headache; Bryonia for persons who are bilious and subject to rheumatism, and those who are listless and disinclined to eat, and have an unpleasant bitter taste in the mouth; Hepar sulphuris for chronic indigestion and costiveness, attended with tendency to vomit in the morning; Mercurius in cases of flatulence, combined with costiveness; Nux vomica for indigestion that makes itself felt from 2 a. m. to 4 a. m., or thereabouts, with loss of appetite and nausea in the morning, and for persons with a tendency to piles, and those who are engaged in sedentary occupations; Pulsatilla for women generally, and Chamomilla for children. Fevers. — For all fevers of a serious character, such as scarlet fever, typhus fever, typhoid fever, gastric fever, intermittent fever, or ague, etc., it is better to send at once for a medical man. Incases of ordinary fever indicated by alternate flushes and shivering, a hot dry skin, rapid pulse, and dry, foul tongue, the patient should have a warm bath, take but little nourishment, and drink cold water. Medicine. Aconitum napellus. Flatulency. — This disorder, which arises from, and is a symp- tom of indigestion, frequently affects respiration, and causes disturbance and quick- ened action of the heart. The patient should pay attention to diet, as for dys- pepsia. Medicines. Cina and Nux vomica; Pulsatilla for women, and Chamo- milla for children. See Dyspepsia. Headache. — This disorder proceeds from so many various causes, W’hich require different treatment, that it is wiser to apply at once to a regu- lar homoeopathic practitioner, and especially in headache of frequent occurrence. Medicines. Nux vomica when headache is caused by indigestion; Pulsatilla being useful for w’omen; Belladonna and Ignatia, for sick headache; Aconitum napellus and Arsenicum for nervous headache. Heartburn. — For this unpleasant sensation of heat, arising from the stomach, accompanied by a bitter taste, and sometimes by nausea, Nux vomica is a good medicine. Pulsatilla may be taken by women. Indigestion. — See Dyspepsia. Measles. — This complaint, which seldom attacks adults, is in- dicated in its early stage by the usual accompaniments and signs of a severe cold in the head— namely, sneezing, running from the nose and eyelids, which are swol- len. The sufferer also coughs, does not care to eat, and feels sick and restless. About four days after the first appearance of these premonitory symptoms, a red rash comes out over the face, neck and body, which dies away, and finally disap- pears in about five days. The patient should be kept warm, and remain in one room during the continuance of the disorder, and especially while the rash is out, lest, through exposure to cold m any way, the rash may be checked and driven inwards. Meaicines. Aconitum napellus, and Pulsatilla, which are sufficient for all ordinary cases. If there be much fever. Belladonna; and if the rash be driven in by a chilf, Bryonia. 322 no MCE OP A THtC remedies. Mumps. — This disorder is sometimes consequent on measles. It is indicated by the swelling of the glands under the ear and lower jaw. It is far more painful than dangerous. Fomenting with warm water is useful. Medichies. Mercurius generally; Belladonna may be used when mumps follow an attack of measles. Nettlerash. — This rash, so called because in appearance it re- sembles the swelling and redness caused by the sting of a nettle, is generally pro- duced by a disordered state of the stomach. Medicines. Aconi^um napellus, Nux- vomica, or Pulsatilla, in ordinary cases; Arsenicum is useful if there is much fever; Belladonna if the rash is accompanied with headache. Piles. — The ordinary homoeopathic remedies for this painful complaint are Nux vomica and Sulphur. Sprains. — Apply to the part affected a lotion of one part of tincture of Arnica to two of water. For persons who cannot use Arnica, in conse- quence of the irritation produced by it, a lotion of tincture of Calendula may be used in the proportion of one part of the tincture to four of water Teething. — Infants and very young children frequently ex- perience much pain in the mouth during dentition, and especially when the tooth is making its way through the gum. The child is often feverish, the mouth and gums hot and tender, and the face flushed. There is also much running from the mouth, and the bowels are disturbed, being in some cases confined, and in others relaxed, approaching to diarrhoea. Medicines. These are Aconitum napellus, in ordinary cases; Nux vomica, when the bowels are confined; Chamomilla, when the bowels; are relaxed; Mercurius, if the relaxed state of the bowels has deepened into diarrhoea;: Belladonna, if there be symptoms of disturbance of the brain. W HOOPING Cough. — This disease is sometimes of long duration, for if it shows itselfin the autumn or winter months, the little patient will frequently retain cough until May or evenj une,when it disappears with return of warmer weather. Change of air when practicable is desirable, especially when the cough has been of long continuance. In this cough there are three stages. In the first the symptoms are those of an ordinary cold in the head and cough. In the second the cough be- comes hard, dry and rapid, and the inhalation of the air, after or during the par- oxysm of the coughing, produces a peculiar'sound from which the disease is named. In the final stage the cough occurs at longer intervals, and the paroxysms are less violent and ultimately disappear. In this stage the disease is subject to fluctuation, the cough again increasing in frequency of occurrence and intensity if the patient has been unduly exposed to cold or damp, or if the weather is very changeable. Children suffering from whooping-cough should have a light nourishing diet and only go out when the weather is mild and warm. Medicines. Aconitum napellus in the very commencement of the disorder, followed by Ipecacuanha and Nux vomica when the second stage is just approaching and during its continuance. These medicines may be continued if necessary during the third stage. Worms. — The presence of worms is indicated by irritation of the membrane of the nose, causing the child to thrust its finger into the nostrils; by irritation of the lower part < f the body; by thinness, excessive appetite and restless- ness in sleep. Children suffering from worms should eat meat freely and not take so much bread, vegetables, and farinaceous food as children generally do. They should have as much exercise as possible in the open air, and be sponged with cold water every morning. The worms that mostly trouble children are tljjithread worms, which are present chiefly in the lower portion of the intestines, and the round worm. Medicine, Sr^c. Administer an injection of weak salt-and-water, and give Aconitum napellus, to be followed by Ignatia and Sulphur in the order in which they are here given. These are the usual remedies for threadworms.^ For round worms, whose presence in the stomach is indicated by great thinness, sickness and discomfort, and pain in the stomach, Aconitum napellus, Cina, Ignatia, and Sulphur are given. Extent of Doses in Homceopathy, — Homoeopathic medi- cines are given in the form of globules, pilules, or tincture, the last-named being: 323 ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OF INFANTS. generally preferred. The average doses for adults are from half a drop to one drop of the tincture given in a tablespoonful of water, trom two to four pilules, or from three to six globules. In using the tincture it is usual to measure out a few tablespoonfuls of water and to add to it a certain number of drops regulated by the quantity of water that is used. For children medicine is mixed at the same strength, but a less quan- tity is given. The proper quantity for a dose is always given in books and manuals for the homoeopathic treatment of disease. Small cases of the principal medicines used in homoeopathy can be procured from most druggists, and with each case a little book showing tjie symptoms and treatment of all ordinary complaints is usually given. Diet in Homceopathy. — The articles of food that are chiefly recommended when attention to diet is necessary are stale bread, beef, mutton, poultry, fresh game, fish, chiefly cod and flat fish, avoiding mackerel, etc., eggs and oysters. Rice, sago, tapioca, and arrowroot are permitted, as are also potatoes, car- rots, turnips, broccoli, cauliflower, asparagus, French beans, and broad beans. Water, milk, cocoa and chocolate may be drunk. It is desirable to avoid all things that are not specified in the foregoing list. Ripe fruit may be eaten, but unripe fruit, unless cooked, should be scrupulously avoided. ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OF INFANTS. The following formula, by a physician of high standing, has been found beneficial in numerous cases where everything else failed to produce satisfactory results. In the author’s own fam- ily, it saved the life of an infant daughter who had been given up by an old practitioner, but who, it seems, was dying simply from lack of proper nourishment. She is now a rosy, robust child, in perfect health, and the pet of the household. The vir- tue of this formula consists in the fact that it most nearlj^ corre- sponds to the natural nourishment from a healthy mother’s breast. In using this formula care should be taken to use only absolutely pure water, and all bottles and vessels should be scru- pulously clean. The cream and milk should be from one cow only : Take two tablespoonfuls of cream, two tablespoonfuls of lime Vv^ater, one tablespoonful of good milk, three tablespoonfuls of a solution of sugar of milk containing eighteen drams to one pint of pure water. This quantity warmed is enough for once feeding a child of four months. For an older child add one teaspoonful of milk to the mixture for each month over four. F or a younger child, diminish the quantity of milk in the same ratio. The child should be fed every two hours and a half during the day and evening and as little as possible at night. If the child be constipated, substitute barley water for lime water. In preparing the barley water a porcelain-lined kettle should be employed if possible. Use best pearl barley, and boil to a very thin gruel, which strain. Each feeding must, of course, be made fresh, although the barley water and the sugar-of-milk solution may be made in quantities. Cholera Mixture — Take equal parts of tincture of cayenne, tincture of opium, tincture of rhubarb, essence of peppermint, and spirits of camphor. Mix well. Dose, 15 to 30 drops in a wine-glass of water, according to age and violence of the attack. Repeat every fifteen or twenty minutes until relief is obtained. Cure for Hiccough — Sit erect and inflate the lungs fully. Then, retaining the breath, bend forward slowly until the chest 324 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES, meets the knees. After slowly arising again to the erect posi- tion, slowly exhale the breath. Repeat this process a second time, and the nerves will be found to have received an access of energy that will enable them to perform their natural functions. Choking — A piece of food lodged in the throat may some- times be pushed down with the finger, or removed with a hair- pin quickly straightened and hooked at the end, or by two or three vigorous blows on the back between the shoulders. Contagious Diseases. The following points will help to determine the nature of a suspicious illness: Disease. Rash or Eruption. Appearance. Durati’n in days. Remarks. Chicken-pox . , . Small rose pimples changing to vesi- cles 2d day of fever or after 24 h’rs* illness 6-7 Scabs from about fourth day 0 f fever. Erysipelas Diffuse redness and swelling 2d or 3d day of illness Measles Small red dots like 4th day of fever or after 72 hours’ illness. . 2d day of fever 0 r a f t e r 24 hours’ illness. . 3a day of fever or after 48 hours’ illness., nth to 14th day. 6-10 Rash fades 0 n flea bites 7th day. Rash fades 0 n 5th day. Scabs form 9th or loth day, fall off about 14th. Accompanied by diarrhoea. Scarlet Fever. Bright scarlet, dif- fused 8-10 Small-pox Typhoid Fever. Small red pimples changing to vesi- cles, then pustules Rose-colored spots scattered U-21 22-30 there is danger of infection after a child has been exposed to a contagious disease. The following table gives the information concerning the more important diseases: Symptoms appear. Period ranges from On 14th day “ 2d day “ 14th day ** 19th day “ 14th day ** 4th day ** 12th day “ 2ist day “ 14th day io-i8 days 2- 5 days 10-14 days 16-24 days 12-20 days I- 7 days 1-14 days 1-28 days 7-14 days Disease. Patient is Infectious. Chicken-pox Diphtheria Measles* Mumps Rotheln Scarlet Fever Small-pox Typhoid Fever W HOOPING CoUGHt. . Until all scabs have fallen off. 14 d’s after dis’pear’ce of membrane. Until scali’g and cough have ceas’d. 14 days from commencement. 10-14 days from commencement. Until all scaling has ceased. Until all scabs have fallen off. Until diarrhoea ceases. Six weeks from beginning to wllioop. *In measles the patient is infectious three days before the eruption appears, tin whooping-cough the patient is infectious during the primary cough, which may be three weeks before the whooping begins. 325 ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. WHAT TO DO. If an artery is cnt^ red blood spurts. Compress it above the voound. If a vein is cut^ dark blood flows. Compress it below and above. If choked., go upon all fours and cough. For slight burns^ dip the part in cold water; if the skin is destroyed., cover with varnish or linseed oil. For apoplexy., raise the head and body ; for fainting^ lay the person flat. Send for a physician when a serious accident of any kind occurs., but treat as directed until he arrives. Scalds and Burns — The following facts cannot be too firmly impressed on the mind of the reader, that in either of these accidents the iirsty best, and often the only remedies required, are sheets of wadding, fine wool, or carded cotton, and in the default of these, violet powder, flour, magnesia, or chalk. The object for which these several articles are employed is the same in each in- stance; namely, to exclude the air from the injured part; for if the air can be effec- tually shut out from the raw surface, and care is taken not to expose the tender part till the new cuticle is formed, the cure may be safely left to nature. The moment a person is called to a case of scald or burn, he should cover the part with a sheet, or a portion of a sheet, of wadding, taking care not to break any blister that may have formed, or stay to remove any burnt clothes that may adhere to the surface, but as quickly as possible envelop every part of the injury from all access of the air, laying one or two more pieces of wadding on the first, so as effectually to guard the burn or scald from the irritation of the atmosphere; and if the article used is wool or cot- ton, the same precaution, of adding more material where the surface is thinly cov- ered, must be adopted; a light bandage finally securing all in their places. Any of the popular remedies recommended below may be employed when neither wool, cotton, nor wadding are to be procured, it being always remembered that that ar- ticle which will best exclude the air from a burn or scald is the best, quickest, and least painful mode of treatment. And in this respect nothing has surpassed cotton loose or attached to paper as in wadding. If the Skin is Much Injured in burns, spread some linen pretty thickly with chalk ointment, and lay over the part, and give the patient some brandy and water if much exhausted; then send for a medical man. If not much injured, and very painful, use the same ointment, or apply carded cotton dipped in lime water and linseed oil. If you please, you may lay cloths dipped in ether over the parts, or cold lotions. Treat scalds in same manner, or cover with scraped raw potato; but the chalk ointment is the best. In the absence of all these, cover the injured part with treacle, and dust over it plenty of flour. Body in Flames — l^ay the person down on the floor of the room, and throw the table cloth, rug, or other large cloth over him, and roll him on the floor. Dirt in the Eye — Place your forefinger upon the cheek-bone, having the patient before you; then slightly bend the finger, this will draw down the lower lid of the eye, and you will probably be able to remove the dirt; but if this will not enable you to get at it, repeat this operation while you have a netting- needle or bodkin placed over the eyelid; this will turn it inside out, and enable you to remove the sand, or eyelash, etc., with the corner of a fine silk handkerchief. As soon as the substance is removed, bathe the eye with cold water, and exclude the light for a day. If the inflammation is severe, let the patient use a refrigerant lotion. Ihme in the Eye — Syringe it well with warm vinegar and water in the proprotion of one ounce of vinegar to eight ounces of water; exclude ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES, Iron or Steel Spicule in the Eye — These occur while turning iron or steel in a lathe, and are best remedied by doubling back the upper or lower eyelid, according to the situation of the substance, and with the flat edge ol a silver probe, taking up the metallic particle, using a lotion made by dissolving six grains of sugar of lead and the same of white vitriol, in six ounces of water, and bath- ing the eye three times a day till the inflammation subsides. Another plan is — Drop a solution of sulphate of copper (from one to three grains of the salt to one ounce of water; into the eye, or keep the eye open in a wineglassful of the solution. Bathe with cold lotion, and exclude light to keep down inflammation. Dislocated Thumb — This is frequently produced by a fall. Make a clove hitch, by passing two loops of cord over the thumb, placing a piece of rag under the cord to prevent it cutting the thumb; then pull in the same line as the thumb. Afterwards apply a cold lotion. Cuts and Wounds — Clean cut wounds, whether deep or superficial, and likely to heal by the first intention, should always be washed or cleaned, and at once evenly tind smoothly closed by bringing both edges close together, and securing them in that position by adhesive plaster. Cut thin strips of sticking plaster, and bring the parts together; or if large and deep, cut two broad pieces, so as to look like the teeth of a comb, and place one on each side of the wound, which must be cleaned pre- viously. These pieces must be arranged so that they shall interlace one another; then, by laying hold of the pieces on the right side with one hand, and those on the other side with the other hand, and pulling them from one another, the edges of the wound are brought together without any difficulty. Ordinary Cuts are dressed by thin strips, applied by pressing down the plaster on one side of the wound, and keeping it there and pulling in the opposite direction: then suddenly depressing the hand when the edges of the wound are brought together. Contusions are best healed by laying a piece of folded lint, well wetted with extract of lead, or boracic acid, on the part, and, if there is much pain, placing a hot bran poultice over the dressing, repeating both, if neces- sary, every two hours. When the injuries are very severe, lay a cloth over the part, and suspend a basin over it filled with cold lotion. Put a piece of cotton into the basin, so that it shall allow the lotion to drop on the cloth, and thus keep it always wet. Hemorrhage, when caused by an artery being divided or torn, may be known by the blood issuing out of the wound in leaps or jerks, and being of a bright scarlet color If a vein is injured, the blood is darkfer and flows continuously. To arrest the latter, apply pressure by means of a compress and bandage. To arrest arterial bleeding, get a piece of wood (part of a broom handle will do), and tie a piece of tape to one end of it; then tie a piece of tape loosely over the arm, and pass the other end of the wood under it; twist the stick round and round until the tape compresses the arm sufficiently to arrest the bleeding, and then confine the other end by tying the string around the arm. A compress made by enfolding a penny piece in several folds of lint or linen should, however, be first placed under the tape and over the artery. If the bleeding is very obstinate, and it occurs in the arm, place a cork underneath the string, on the inside of the fleshy part, where the artery may be felt beating by any one; if in the leg, place a cork in the direction of a line drawn from the inner part of the knee towards the outer part of the groin. It is an excellent thing to accustom yourself to find out the position of these arteries, or, indeed, any that are superficial, and to explain to every person in your house where they are, and how to stop bleeding. If a stick cannot be got take a handkerchief, make a cord bandage of it, and tie a knot in the middle; the knot acts as a compress, and should be placed over the artery, while the two ends are to be tied around the thumb. Observe always to place the ligature between the wound and the heart. Putting your finger into a bleeding wound, and making pressure until a surgeon arrives, will generally stop violent bleeding. Bleeding from the Nose, from whatever cause, may gen- erally be stopped by putting a plug of lint into the nostrils; if this does not do, apply a 327 ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. cold lotion to the forehead; raise the head, and place over it both arms, so that it will rest on the hands; dip the lint plug, slightly moistened, into some powdered gum arabic, and plug the nostrils again; or dip the plug into equal parts of powdered gum arabic and alum, and plug the nose, Or the plug may be dipped in Friar’s balsam, or tincture of kino. Heat should be applied to the feet; and, in obstinate cases, the sudden shock of a cold key, or cold water poured down the spine, will often instantly stop the bleeding. If the bowels are confined take a purgative. Injections of alum solution from a small syringe into the nose will often stop hemorrhage. y lOLENT Shocks will sometimes stun a person, and he will re • main unconscious. Untie strings, collars, etc.; loosen anything that is tight, and in- terferes with the breathing; raise the head; see if there is bleeding from any part; apply smelling-salts to the nose, and hot bottles to the feet. In Concussion, the surface of the body is cold and pale, and the pulse weak and small, the breathing slow and gentle.^ and the pupil of the eye generally contracted or small. You can get an answer by speaking loud, so as to arouse the patient. Give a little brandy and water, keep the place quiet, apply warmth, and do not raise the head too high. If you tickle the feet the patient feels it. In Compression of the Brain from any cause, such as apo- plexy, or a piece of fractured bone pressing on it, there is loss of sensation. If you tickle the feet of the injured person he does not feel it. You cannot arouse him so as to get an answer. The pulse is slow and labored; the breathing deep, labored, and snorting; the pupil enlarged. Raise the head, loosen strings or tight things, and send for a surgeon. If one cannot be got at once, apply mustard poultices to the feet and thighs, leeches to the temples, and hot water to the feet. Choking — When a person has a fish bone in the throat, insert the forefinger, press upon the root of the tongue, so as to induce vomiting; it this does not do, let him swallow a large piece of potato or soft bread; and if these fail, give a mustard emetic. Fainting, Hysterics, etc. — Loosen the garments, bathe the temples with water or eau-de-Cologne; open the window, admit plenty of fresh air, dash cold water on the face, apply hot bricks to the feet, and avoid bustle and exces- sive sympathy. Drowning — Attend to the following rules: — i. Lose no time. 2. Handle the body gently. 3. Carry the body face downwards, with the head gently raised, and never hold it up by the feet. 4. Send for medical as- sistance immediately, and in the meantime act as follows; 5. Strip the body; rub it dry, then wrap it in hot blankets, and place it in a warm bed in a warm room. 6. Cleanse away the froth and mucus from the nose and mouth. 7. Apply warm bricks, bottles, bags of sand, etc., to the armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet. 8. Rub the surface of the body with the hands inclosed in warm, dry worsted socks. 9. If possible, put the body into a warm bath. 10. To restore breathing, put the pipe of a common bellows into one nostril, carefully ^losing the other, and the mouth; at the same time drawing downwards, and pushing gently backwards, the upper part of the windpipe, to allow a more free admission of air; blow the bellows gently, in order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be raised a little; then set the mouth and noscrils free, and press gently on the chest; repeat this until signs of life appear. The body should be covered the moment it is placed on the table, except the face, and all the rubbing carried on under the sheet or blanket. When they can be obtained, a number of tiles or bricks should be made tolerably hot in the fire, laid in a row on the table, covered with a blanket, and the body placed in such a manner on them that their heat may enter the spine. When the patient revives, apply smelling-salts to the nose, give warm wine or brandy and water. Cautions .— Never rub the body with salt or spirits. 2. Never roll the body on casks. 3. Continue the remedies for twelve hours without ceasing. Hanging — Loosen the corcL or whatever it maj be by which the person has been suspended. Open the temporal artery or jugular vein, or bleed from the arm; employ electricity, if at hand, and proceed as for drowning, taking the additional precaution to apply eight or ten leeches to the temples. 328 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. Apparent Death from Drunkenness — Raise the head; loosen the clothes, maintain warmth of surface, and give a mustard emetic as soon as the person can swallow. Apoplexy and Fits Generally — Raise the head; loosen all tight clothes, strings, etc.; apply cold lotions to the head, which should be shaved; apply leeches to the temples, bleed, and send for a surgeon. Suffocation from Noxious Gases, etc. — Remove to the fresh air; dash cold vinegar and water in the face, neck, and breast; keep up the warmth of the body; if necessary, apply mustard poultices to the soles of the feet and to the spine, and try artificial respirations as in drowning, with electricity. Lightning and Sunstroke — Treat the same as apoplexy. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. Always send immediately for a medical man. Save all fluids vomited, and articles of food, cups, glasses, etc., used by the patient before taken ill, and lock them up. As a rule give emetics after poisons that cause sleepiness and raving; — chalk, milk, eggs, butter, and warm water, or oil, after poisons that cause vomiting and pain in the stomach and bowels, with purging; and when there is no inflammation about the throat, tickle it with a feather to excite vomiting. Vomiting may be caused by giving warm water, with a teaspoonful of mustard to the tumblerful, well stirred up. Sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) may be used in place of the mustard, or powdered alum. Powder of ipecacuanha, a teaspoonful rubbed up with molasses, mav be employed for children. Tartar emetic shoulA never he given^ as it is excessively depressing, and uncontrolable in its effects. The stomach pump can only be used by skillful hands, and even then with caution. Opium and other Narcotics — After vomiting has occurred, cold water should be dashed over the face and head. The patient must be kept awake, walked about be- tween two strong persons, made to grasp the handles of a galvanic battery, dosed with strong coffee, and vigorously slapped. Belladonna is an antidote for opium and for morphia, etc., its active principles; and, on the other hand, the latter counteract the effects of belladonna. But a knowledge of medicine is necessary for dealingwith these articles. Strychnia— Aher emetics have been freely and successfully given, the patient should be allowed to breathe the vapor of sulphuric ether, poured on a handker- chief and held to the face, in such quantities as to keep down the tendency to con- vulsions. Bromide of potassium, twenty grains at a dose, dissolved in syrup, may be given every hour. Alcoholic Poisoning shoxAd be combated by emetics, of which the sulphate of zinc, given as above directed, is the best. After that, strong coffee internally, and stim- ulation by heat externally, should be used. Acids are sometimes swallowed by mistake. Alkalies, lime water, magnesia, or common chalk mixed with water, may be freely given, and afterward mucilaginous drinks, such as thick gum water or flaxseed tea. Alkalies are less frequently taken in injurious strength or quantity, but sometimes children swallow lye by mistake. Common vinegar may be given freely, and then castor or sweet oil in full doses— a tablespoonflil at a time, repeated every half hour or two. Nitrate of silver when swallowed is neutralized by common table salt freely given in solution in water. 329 DOSES OF MEDICINE, 'fhe salts of mercury or arsenic (often kept as bedbug poison), which are power- Tul irritants, are apt to be very quickly fatal. Milk or the whites of eggs may be freely given, and afterward a very thin paste of flour and water. In these cases an emetic is to be given after the poison is neutralized. Phosphorus paste, kept for roach poison or in parlor matches, is sometimes eaten iby children, and Has been willfully taken for the purpose of suicide. It is a power- ful irritant. The first thing to be done is to give freely of magnesia and water; then to give mucilaginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, gum water or sassafras pith and water; and lastly to administer finely-powdered bone-charcoal, either in pill or in mixture with water. In no case of poisoning should there be any avoidable delay in obtaining the advice of a physician, and, meanwhile, the friends or bystanders should endeavor to find out exactly what has been taken, so that the treatment adopted may be as prompt and effective as possible. DOSES OF MEDICINE. NAME OF DRUG. Aloes Anise Oil Aqua Ammonia(dilute) Balsam Copaiba Balsam of Fir Bismuth Bromide of Potassium. Buchu Leaves Calomel (as alterative) Castor Oil Citrate of Iron Citrate Iron & Quinine Cream of Tartar Dover’s Powder Elecampane Epsom Salts Gallic Acid Iodide of Potassium. . . Kino Mandrake Mercury with Chalk.. Morphine Muriate of Ammonia. . Opium Paregoric Peppermint Essence.. Pepsin Quinine Rochelle Salts Rhubarb Saltpetre Samonin Syrup of Squills Iodide of Iron *• Senna DOSE. NAME OF DRUG. DOSE. 3 to 15 grains. 5 to 15 drops. 10 to 30 drops. 10 to 40 drops. 3 to 10 drops. 5 to 40 grains. 5 to 40 grains. 20 to 40 grains. 1-12 to I grain, t to 8 teasp’fuls. 2 to 5 grains. 3 to 8 grains. ^ to 3 teasp’fuls. 5 to 10 grains. 20 to 60 grains. ^ to 1 ounce. 5 to 10 grains. 2 to 10 grains. 10 to 30 grains. 5 to 20 grains. 2 to 8 grains. % to ^ grain. 5 to 20 grains. ^ to 2 grains. I teaspoonful. 5 to 30 drops. I to 5 grains. 1 to 10 grains. ^ to 1 ounce. 5 to 30 grains. 5 to 20 grains. 2 to 5 grains. to 1 teaspful. 15 to 30 drops. I to 6 teasp’fnls. Syrup of Sarsaparilla. . Seneka Rhubarb Tannic Acid Tinct. of Aconite Root Aloes Asafoetida . . . Belladona.. . . Bloodroot Columbo .... Camphor. . . . Cayenne Castor Catechu Cinch. Comp Colchicum. . . Digitalis Ginger Gentian Com Guaiac. Kino. . . Lobelia. Muriate Iron. Myrrh. Nux Vomica. Opium (Laudanum) Rhubarb, “ & Senna Tolu.... Valerian Turpentine ... Wine Ipecac (Diaph.). “ “ (Emetic). “ Colchicum Root' I to 4 teasp’fuls. I to 2 teasp’fuls. I to 2 teasp’fuls. I to 5 grains. I to 5 drops, i to 8 teasp’fuls. ^ to I teasp’ful. 10 to 30 drops. % to teasp’ful. i to 2 teasp’fuls. 5 to 60 drops. 10 to 60 drops. ^ to I teasp’ful. ^ to 2 teasp’fuls. ^ to 4 teasp’fuls. 15 to 60 drops. 5 to 20 drops. ^ to I teasp’ful % to 2 teasp’fuls. to I teasp’ful. ^ t0 2 teasp’fuls. % to s teasp’ful. 10 to 30 drops. ^ to I teasp’ful. 5 to 10 drops. 10 to 25 drops. I to 4 teasp’f^uls. I to 4 teasp’fuls. ^ to I teasp’ful. ^ to 2 teasp’fuls. 10 to 40 drops. 10 to 30 drops. A£-e^ years . . Doses Age,, mo7iths Doses Table of Proportionate Poses. 80 65 50 25-40 20 16 12 5 3 7 1 1 8 5 8 T E ^ 8 ¥ ^ 12 i 8 5 2 t 3 1 ^ 8 ¥ 6 2 1 i tV iV 330 lja,rg:cst Safe Doses of Poisonous Drug^s* Every person should know the largest doses, which is safe to take, of active medicines. The following table shows the larg- est doses admissible, in grammes, and also the equivalent in grains for solids, and in minims for liquids. The doses are ex- pressed in fractions, thus: 1-13, 1-64, meaning one-thirteenth, one-sixty-fourth. In non professional hands it is the safest plan to strictly observe the rule of never giving the maximum dose of any medicine: Medicines. Grammes. Grains. Medicines. Grammes. Grains. Arsenious Acid .. .005 1-13 Ext. Opium . .1 1 ^ Acid, Carbolic .. .05 % “ Stramon, Seed . .05 % “ Hydrocyanic . .06 1 Fowler’s Solution . .4 6 min. Aconita .. .0041 -16 Lead, Sugar of . .06 9-10 Aconite Root .. .15 2 ^ Mercury, Corrosive Chlor. . .03 9-20 Arsenic, Iodide .. .025 % “ Red Iodide . .03 9-20 Atropia .. .001 1-64 Morphia and its Salts . .03 9-20 Atropia Sulph. .. .001 1-64 Nitrate Silver . .03 9-20 Barium, Chlor .. .12 1 % Oil, Croton . .06 9-10 Belladonna, Herb .. .2 3 Opium . .15 2 % “ Root .. .1 Phosphorus . .015 2-9 Codia .. .05 % Potassa, Arsenite . .005 1-13 Conia .. .001 1-64 “ Cyanide . .03 9-20 Digitalis .. .3 43 ^ Santonine . .1 1 ^ Ext. Aconite Leaves .. .1 Soda, Arsenite . .005 1-13 “ “ Root .. .025 % Strychnia and Salts . .01 1-6 “ Belladonna .. .1 lU Tartar Emetic . .2 3 “ Cannabis Indica. .. . .. .1 Veratria .005 1-13 “ Conium .. .18 2 % Veratrum Viride .3 43^ “ Digitalis .. 2 3 Zinc, Chloride .015 2-9 “ Nux Vomica, Ale — .. .05 % “ Valerian te .06 9-10 Relative Value of Food (Reef par> Oysters, 22; milk, 24; lobsters, 50; cream, 56; codfish, 68; eggs, 72; turbot, 84; mutton, 87: venison, 89; veal, 92; fowl, 94; herring, 100; beef, 100; duck, 104; sal- mon, 108; pork, 1 16; butter, 124; cheese, 155. Percentage of Carbon in Food. Cabbage, 3; beer, 4; carrots, 5; milk, 7; parsnips, 8; fish, 9; potatoes, 12; eggs, 16; beef, 27; bread, 27; cheese, 36; peas, 36; rice, 38; corn, 38; biscuit, 42: oatmeal, 42; sugar, 42; flour, 46; bacon, 54; cocoa, 69; butter, 79. Foot-tons of Energy Per Ounce of Food. Cabbage, t6; carrots, 20; milk, 24; ale, 30; potatoes, 38; porter, 42; beef, 55; egg, 57; ham, 65; bread, 83; egg (yolk), 127; sugar, 130; rice, 145; flour, 148; arrowroot, 151; oatmeal, 152; cheese, 168; butter, 281. Eoss of Meat in Cooking. 100 lbs. raw beef = 67 Ifes. roast I too Ifes. raw fowl = 80 roast 100 “ “ = 74 “ boiled 100 “ “ = 87 boiled 400 “ raw mutton *=75 “ roast \ 100 “ raw fish = 94 boiled Tlie Percentage of Starcli. In common grains is as follows, according to Prof. Yeomans: Rice flour, 84 to 85; Indian meal, 77 to 80; oatmeal, 70 to 80; wheat flour, 39 to 77; barley flour, 67 to 70; rye flour, 50 to 61; buckwheat, 52; peas and beans, 42 to 43; potatoes (75 per cent, water), 13 to 15. Tlie Degrees of Sugar. In various fruits are: Peach, 1.6; raspberry, 4.0; strawberry, 5.7; currant, 6.i; gooseberry, 7.2; apple, 7.9; mulberry, 9.2; pear, 9.4; cherry, io.8; grape, 14.9. 331 Digestion of Various Foods. Easy of Digestion — Arrowroot, asparagus, cauliflower, baked apples, oranges, grapes, strawberries, peaches. Moderately Digestible — Apples, raspberries, bread, puddings, rhubarb, chocolate, coffee, porter. Hard to Digest— -Nuts, pears , plums, cherries, cucumbers. onions, carrots, parsnips. TIME REQUIRED FOR DIGESTION. Hrs. Min. Hrs. Min. 1 30 Mutton, roast , - - t 3 “ sour 2 00 “ broiled 10 00 Beans, pod, boiled 30 “ boiled 00 Beef, fresh, rare, roasted. 3 00 Oysters, raw 55 “ “ dried 3 30 “ roast 15 4 GO “ stewed 3 30 Beets, boiled 45 Pork, fat and lean, roast 5 15 Bread, wheat, fresh 3 30 “ “ “ boiled... 3 15 “ corn 3 15 “ “ “ raw 3 00 Butter (melted) 3 30 Potatoes, boiled 30 Cabbage, with vinegar, raw 2 00 “ baked 30 “ boiled 4 30 Rice boiled 1 00 Cheese (old, strong) 3 30 Sago “ ... .1 45 Codfish 2 00 Salmon, salted, boiled 4 00 Custard, baked 2 45 Soup, beef, vegetable 4 00 Ducks, domestic, roasted 4 00 “ chicken boiled 3 00 “ wild, “ 4 30 “ oyster “ 3 30 Eggs, fresh, hard, boiled, 3 30 Tapioca, boiled : 2 (H) “ “ soft “ 3 00 Tripe, soused, boiled 1 00 ‘‘ “ fried 3 30 Trout, fresh, boiled or fried. 1 30 Goose, roast.. 2 00 Turkey, domestic, roast 2 00 Lamb, fresh, boiled 2 30 “ wild, roast. 2 18 Liver, beef, boiled 2 00 Turnips, boiled 3 30 Milk, boiled 2 00 Veal, fresh, broiled 4 00 “ raw .... 2 15 “ fresh, fried 4 30 Parsnips, boiled . 2 30 Venison steak, broiled 1 35 Fat, Water and Muscle Properties of Food. 100 PARTS. Water. Muscle. Fat. 100 PARTS. Water. Muscle. Fat. Cucumbers 97.0 1.5 1.0 Mutton 44.0 12.5 40.0 Turnips ....94.4 1.1 4.0 Pork 38.5 10.00 50.0 C abbage 90.0 4.0 5.0 Beans 14.8 24.0 57.7 Milk, cows’ .....86.0 5.0 8.0 Buckwheat 14.2 8.6 75.4 Apples 84.0 5.0 10.0 Barley - . .... 14.0 15.0 68.8 Eggs, yolk of. ... , 79.0 15.0 27.0 Corn 14.0 12.0 73.0 Potatoes 75.2 1.4 22.5 Peas 14.0 23.4 60.0 Veal 10.1 1.65 Wheat 14.0 14.6 69.4 Eggs, white of. . . . 53.0 17.0 .0 Oats 13.6 17.0 66.4 Lamb .... 50.5 11.0 35.0 Rice 6.5 79.5 Beef 50.0 15.0 30.0 Cheese 65.0 19.0 Chicken 46.0 18.0 32.0 Butter 100.0 Percentage of Nutrition in Various Articles of Food. Raw cucumbers, 2; raw mellons, 3; boiled turnips, 4^; milk, 7; cabbage, 73^; currants, 10; whipped eggs, 13; beets, 14; apples, 16; peaches, 20; boiled codfish, 21; broiled venison, 22; potatoes, 223^1 ffied veal, 24; roast pork, 24; roast poul- try, 26; raw beef, 26; raw grapes, 27 ; raw plums, 29 ; broiled mutton, 30; oatmeal porridge, 75; rye bread, 79; boiled beans, 87; boiled rice, 88; barley bread, 88; wheat bread, 90; baked corn bread, 91; boiled barley, 92; butter, 93; boiled peas, 93; raw oils, 94. 332 USEFUL RECIPES, TRADE SECRETS, ETC. Toothache Cure. Compound tinct. benzoin is said to be one of the most certain and speedy cures for toothache; pour a few drops on cottpn, and press at once into the diseased cavity, when the pain will almost instantly cease. Toothache Tincture. Mix tannin, i scruple; mastic, 3 grains; ether, 2 dr^ms. Apply on cotton wool, to the tooth, previously dried. Charcoal Tooth Paste. Chlorate of potash, dram; mint water, i ounce. Dissolve and add powdered charcoal, 2 ounces; honey, i ounce. Excellent Mouth Wash. Powdered white Castile soap, 2 drams; alcohol, 3 ounces; honey, 1 ounce; essence or extract jasmine, 2 drams. Dissolve the soap in alcohol and add honey and extract. Removing Tartar from the Teeth. This preparation is used by dentists. Pure muriatic acid, one ounce; water, one ounce; honey, two ounces; mix thoroughly. Take a toothbrush, and wet it freely with this preparation, and briskly rub the black teeth, and in a moment’s time they will be perfectly white; then im- mediately wash out the mouth well with water, that the acid may not act on the enamel of the teeth. This should be done only occasionally. Bad Breath. Bad breath from catarrh, foul stomach, or bad teeth, may be temporarily relieved by diluting a little bromo chloralum with eight or ten parts of water, and using it as a gargle, and swallowing a few drops before going out. A pint of bromo chloralum costs fifty cents, but a small vial will last a long time. Good Tooth Powder. Procure, at a druggist’s, half an ounce of powdered orris root, half an ounce of prepared chalk finely pulverized, and two or three small lumps of Dutch pink. Let them all be mixed in a mortar, and pounded together. The Dutch pink is to impart a pale reddish color. Keep it in a close box. Another Tooth Powder. Mix together, in a mortar, half an ounce of red Peruvian bark, finely powdered; a quarter of an ounce of powdered myrrh; and a quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk. A Safe Depilatory. Take a strong solution of sulphuret of barium, and add enough finely powdered starch to make a paste. Apply to the roots of the hair and allow it to remain on a few minutes, then scrape off with the back edge of a knife blade, and rub with sweet oil. Quick Depilatory for Removing Hair. Best slacked lime, 6 ounces; orpiment, fine powder, 1 ounce. Mix with a covered sieve and preserve in a dry place in closely stoppered bottles. In using mix the powder with enough water to form a paste, and apply to the hair to be removed. In about five minutes, or as soon as its caustic action is felt on the skin, remove, as in shaving, with an ivory or bone paper knife, wash with cold water freely, and apply cold cream. Tricopherous for the Hair. Castor oil, alcohol, each i pint; tinct. cantharides, one ounce; oil bergamot, ounce; alkanet coloring, to color as wished. Mix and let it stand forty-eight hours, with occasional shaking, and then filter. Liquid Shampoo. Take bay rum, 2 )/^ pints; water, pint; glycerine, i ounce; tinct. cantharides, 2 drams; carbonate of ammonia, 2 drams borax, 34 ounce; or take of New England rum, 1^ pints; bay rum, i pint; water 34 pint; glycerine, i ounce; tinct. cantharides, 2 drams; ammon. carbonate, 2 drams; borax, 34 ounce; the salts to be dissolved in water and the other ingredi- ents to be added gradually. Cleaning Hair Brushes. Put a teaspoonful or dessertspoonful of aqua ammonia into a basin half full of water, comb the loose hairs out of the brush, then agitate the water briskly with the brush, and rinse it well with clear water. Hair Invigorator. Bay rum, two pints; alcohol, one pint; cas- tor oil, one ounce; carb. ammonia, half an ounce; tincture of cantharides, one ounce. Mix them well. This compound will promote the growth of the hair and prevent it from falling out. 333 USEFUL RECIPES, ETC. 'For Dandruff. Take gljcei^ne, four ounces; tincture of carl* tharides, five ounces; bay rum, four ounces; water, two ounces. Mix, and apply once a day, and rub well down the scalp. Mustache Grower. Simple cerate, i ounce; oil bergamot, lo minims; saturated tinct. of cantharides, 15 minims. Rub them together thoroughly, or melt the cerate and stir in the tincture while hot, and the oil 34 to i 34 drs ( Enlarged Glands, etc ) Cathartic and Nutritive I to 2 pts j For colts as an Antacid \ 34 to I oz 1 and Laxative j j For Mange, Itch, Lice, \ 1 and other Parasites [ j Nervous Stimulant. For ) 1 Paralysis j 15 to 25 grs [Anodyne and Anti-spas- ^ J modic. Given in Colic, ! j Inflamation of Bowels, | [ Diarrhoea, etc J 34 to I dr Antacid 34 to I oz • Tonic. During Convalescence 15 to 50 grs Diuretic and Febrifuge I to 3 drs Similar to Bicarb. Potash 3 to 8 drs f Antiseptic and Alterative. ) 34 to 1 oz (For Blood Diseases J (Antacid, an antidote to) \ poisoning by acids ) 4 to 6 ozs Anodyne & Anti-spasmodic X to 2 ozs Antidote. Vinegar Magnesia and oil j Vinegar and raw I Linseed Oil ( Infusion of oak •< bark. Give also ( Linseed Oil Eggs, Milk, etc Eggs and Milk Eggs, soap, gruel Opium Stimulate Hydrated Pero.x- ide of Iron 1 Give freely starch •< or flour, with ( water largely j Whites of eggs I with milk, freely f Salaratus, follow- ! e d quickly b y j copperas, dissolv- [ ed in water [Belladonna, str*g j coffee, brandy & ■{ ammonia. Dash cold water on and [ keep horse movi’g j Linseed oil large- ( ly, raw 345 MEDICINES FOR THE HORSE. — Continued. Name of Drug. Action and Use. Dose. Strychnia Sulphur Sweet Sp’ts Nitre Tannic Acid Tartar Emetic j Tonic & Stimulant. For 1 j Paralysis j r Alterative and Laxative. ( ( Skin diseases, Rheu’tism j Diuretic and Diaphoretic. Astringent Sedative and Alterative M to I gr to 2 oz to oz 20 to 40 grs ^ to 54 dr Tin. Aconite Root Sedative. For Lung Fever, etc 15 to 35 d’ps Tin. Cantharides Tincture Ergot Tincture Iodine Tincture Iron Tr. Nux Vomica Tincture Opium White Vitriol Stimulant and Tonic Parturient Used externally j Tonic and Astringent. ) "j For Typhoid Diseases f j Tonic. Stimulant in Par- j 1 alysis and Dyspepsia f Anodyne and Anti-spasmodic j Astringent. For Wounds ) \ Cuts & Sores, in solution j I to 2 drs 1 to 2 oz ^ to I oz 2 to 4 drs I to 2 ozs 5 to 15 grs Antidote. Tobacco Tannic Acid f Small doses o f ! Nux Vomica, stim- I ulants largely, & [ keep moving See Nux Vomica See Opium Milk, eggs & flour For a colt one month old, give one twenty-fourth of the full dose for an adult horse as given above; three months old, one-twelfth; six months old, one-sixth; one year old, one-third; two years old, one-half; three years old, three-fourths. The Seven Bibles of the World Are the Koran of the Mohammedans, the Eddas of the Scandi- navians, the Try Pitikes of the Buddhists, the Five Kings of the Chinese, the Three Vedas of the Hindoos, the Zendavesta, and the Scriptures of the Christians. The Koran is the most recent of these seven Bibles, and not older than the seventh century of our era. It is a compound of quotations from the Old and New^ Testaments, the Talmud, and the Gospel of St. Barnabas. The Eddas of the Scandinavians were first published in the' fourteenth century. The Pitikes of the Buddhists contain sublime morals and pure aspirations, and their author lived and died in the sixth century before Christ. There is nothing of excellence in these sacred books not found in the Bible. The sacred writings of the Chinese are called the Five Kings, king meaning web of cloth, or the warp that keeps the threads in their place. They contain the best sayings of the best sages on the ethico-political duties of life. These sayings cannot be traced to a period higher than the eleventh century B.C. The Three Vedas are the most ancient books of the Hindoos, and it is the opinion of Max Muller, Wil- son, Johnson, and Whitnej^ that they are not older than eleven centuries B.C. The Zendavesta of the Persians is the grandest of all the sacred books next to our Bible. Zoroaster, whose say- ings it contains, was born in the twelfth century B.C. Moses lived and wrote his Pentateuch fifteen centuries B.C., and, therefore, has a clear margin of 300 years older than the most ancient of the sacred writings. 346 CANARY RIRRS. HOW TO KEEP THEM HEALTHY AND IN GOOD SONG. Place the cage so that no draught of air can strike the bird. Give nothing to healthy birds but rape, hemp, canary seed, water, cuttle-fish bone, and gravel paper or sand on floor of cage. A bath three times a week. The room should not be overheated. When moulting keep warm and avoid all draughts of air. Give plentj^ of German summer rape seed. A little hard boiled egg mixed with cracker, grated fine, once or twice a week, is excellent. Feed at a certain hour in the morning. DISEASES AND CURES. Husk or Asthma. The curatives are aperients, such as en- dive, water cresses, bread and milk and red pepper. Pip. Mix red pepper, butter and garlic and swab out the throat. Sweating. Wash the hen in salt and water, and dry rapidly. Costiveness. Plenty of green food and fruit. Obstruction of the Rump Gland. Pierce with a needle. Press the inflamed matter out, and drop fine sugar over the wound. Lice. Keep a saucer of fresh water in the cage and the bird will free itself. Overgrown Claws or Beak. Pare carefully with a sharp knife. Moulting. Give plenty of good food and keep warm. Saf- fron and a rusty nail put in their drinking water is excellent. Loss of Voice. Feed with paste of bread, lettuce and rape seed with yoke of egg. Whisky and sugar is an excellent remedy. What a Horse Can Draw. On metal rails a horse can draw:- One and two-thirds times as much as on asphalt pavement. Three and one-third times as much as on good Belgian blocks. Five times as much as on ordinary Belgian blocks. Seven times as much as on good cobble-stone. Thirteen times as much as on ordinary cobble-stone. Twenty times as much as on an earth road. Forty times as much as on sand. A modern compilation of engineering maxims states that a horse can drag, as compared with what he can carry on his back, in the following proportions: On the worst earthen road, three times more; on a good macadamized road, nine; on plank, twenty-five; on a stone trackway, thirty-three; and on a good railway, fifty- four times as much. Value of Foreign Money. Pound sterling of England, $4.84: guinea, $5.05; crown, $1.21; shilling, 24 cents; Napoleon of France, $3.84; five-franc, 96 cents; franc, i 8 j 4 cents; thaler of Saxony, 68 cents; guilder of Netherlands, 40 cents; ducat of Austria, $2.28; florin of Austria, 483^ cents; doubloon of Spain (1800), $15.54; real of Spain, 5 cents; five roubles of Russia, $3.95; rouble, 75 cents; franc of Belgium, 183^ cents; ducat of Bavaria, $2.27; franc of Switzer- land, 18^ cents; crown of Tuscany, $1,053^. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Troy Weight — 24 grains make i pennyweight, 20 penny- weights make i ounce. By this weight, gold, silver and jewels only are weighed. The ounce and pound in this are same as in Apothecaries’ weight. Apothecaries’ Weight — 20 grains make one scruple, 3 scruples make i dram, 8 drams make i ounce, 12 ounces make i pound. Avoirdupois Weight — 6 drams make i ounce, 16 ounces make one pound, 25 pounds make i quarter, 4 quarters make i hundredweight, 2,000 pounds make i ton. Dry Measure — 2 pints make i quart, 8 quarts make i peck, 4 pecks make i bushel, 36 bushels make i chaldron. LiqyiD OR Wine Measure — 4 gills make i pint, 2 pints make 1 quart, 4 quarts make i gallon, 31 gallons make i barrel, 2 barrels make 1 hogshead. Time Measure — 60 seconds make i minute, 60 minutes make 1 hour, 24 hours make i day, 7 days make i week, 4 weeks make i lunar month, 28, 29, 30 or 31 days make i calendar month (30 days make i month in computing interest), 52 weeks and i day, or 12 calendar months, make i year; 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 49 seconds make i solar year. Circular Measure — 60 seconds make i minute, 60 minutes make i degree, 30 degrees make i sign, 90 degrees make 1 quadrant, 4 quadrants or 360 degrees make i circle. Long Measure — Distance — ^ 3 barleycorns i inch, 12 inches I foot, 3 feet i yard, 5^ yards i rod, 40 rods i furlong, 8 furlongs i mile. Cloth Measure — 2 }/^ inches i nail, 4 nails i quarter, 4 quarters i yard. Miscellaneous — 3 inches one palm, 4 inches i hand, 6 inches i span, i8 inches i cubit, 21.8 inches 1 Bible cubit, 2^4 feet i military pace. Square Measure — 144 square inches i square foot, 9 square feet 1 square yard, 30^^ square yards i square rod, 40 square rods i rood, 4 roods i acre. Surveyors’ Measure — 7.92 inches i link, 25 links i rod, 4 rods I chain, lo square chains or 160 square rods i acre, 640 acres i square mile. Cubic Measure — 1,728 cubic inches i cubic foot, 27 cubic feet I cubic yard, 128 cubic feet i cord (wood), 40 cubic feet i ton {shipping^ 2,150.42 cubic inches I standard bushel, 268.8 cubic inches i standard gallon, i cubic foot four-fifths of a bushel. Metric Weights — lo milligrams i centigram, 10 centigrams I decigram, 10 decigrams 1 gram, 10 grams i dekagram, 10 dekagrams i hekto- gram, 10 hektograms i kilogram. Metric Measures — (One milliliter — Cubic centimeter.) — 10 milliliters i centiliter, 10 centiliters i deciliter, 10 deciliters i liter, 10 liters i dekaliter, 10 dekaliters i hektoliter, 10 hektoliters i kiloliter. Metric Lengths — lo millimeters i centimeter, 10 centi- meters I decimeter, 10 decimeters i meter, 10 meters i dekameter, 10 dekameters i hektometer, 10 hektometers 1 kilometer. Relative Value of Apotliecaries’ and Imperial Measure* Apothecaries. Imperial. I gallon equals 6 pints, 13 ounces, 2 drams, 23 minims. I pint " 16 “ 5 “ 18 “ I fluid ounce equals i “ o “ 20 “ 1 fluid dram “ i “ 2^4 '* 348 Handy Metric 'Tablett* The following tables give the equivalents of both the metric ind common systems, and will be found convenient for reference: Approximate Accurate Equivalent. Equivalent. 1 inch [length], . . . 2]^ cubic centimeters 2.539 1 centimeter 0.4 inch 0.393 1 yard 1 meter 0.914 1 meter (39.37 inches) 1 yard 1.093 1 foot 30 centimeters 30.479 1 kilometer (1,000 meters) % mile 0.621 1 mile VA kilometers 1.600 1 gramme [weight] 15]^ grains 15.432 1 grain 0.064 gramme. 0.064 1 kilogramme (1,000 grammes) 2.2 pounds avoirdupois 2.204 1 pound avoirdupois.. A kilogramme 0.453 1 ounce avoirdupois (437^ grains) 28V^ grammes 28.349 1 ounce troy, or apothecary (480 grains).. .31 grammes 31.103 1 cubic centimeter [bulk]..,. 1.06 cubic inch 0.060 1 cubic inch 16^ cubic centimeters 16.386 1 liter (1,000 cubic centimeters) 1 United States standard quart... 0.946 1 United States quart 1 liter 1.057 1 fluid ounce 2934 cubic centimeters 29.570 1 hectare (10,000 square meters) [surface]. 234 ^cres 2.471 1 acre 0.4 hectare 0.40 It may not be generally known that we have in the nickel five-cent piece of our coinage a key to the tables of linear measures and weights. The diameter of this coin is two centimeters, and its weight is five grammes. Five of them placed in a row will, of course, give the length of the decimeter; and two ot them will weigh a decagram. As the kiloliter is a cubic meter, the key to the measure of length is also the key to the measures of capacity. Any person, therefore, who is fortunate enough to own a five-cent nickle, may carry in his pocket the entire metric system of weights and measures. Haiiily Weig^lits and Measures* One quart of wheat flour is one pound. One quart of corn meal weighs eighteen ounces. One quart of butter, soft, weighs fourteen to sixteen ounces. One quart of brown sugar weighs from a pound to a pound and a quarter, according to dampness. One quart of white sugar weighs 2 pounds. Ten medium- sized eggs weigh one pound. A tablespoonful of salt is one ounce. Eight table- spoonfuls make a gill. Two gills or sixteen tablespoonfuls, are half a pint. Sixty drops are one teaspoonful. Four tablespoonfuls are one wineglassful. Twelve tablespoonfuls are one teacupful. Sixteen tablespoonfuls, or half a pint, are one tumblerful. The Meaning of Measures — A square mile is equal to 640 acres, A square acre is 2O8.71 feet on one side. An acre is 43,560 square feet. A league, 3 miles, A span, 10% inches, A hand, 4 inches. A palm, 3 inches. A great cubit, ii inches. A fathom, 6 feet. A mile, 5,280 feet. Domestic and Drop Measures Approximated — A tea- spoonful, one fluid dram 4 grams; a dessertspoonful, two fluid drams 3 grams; a tablespoonful, half fluid ounce 16 grams; a wineglassful, two fluid ounces 64 grams; a tumblerful, half pint 256 grams. The original Mrs. Partington was a respectable old lady who lived at Sidmquth, in Devonshire, England. Her cottage was on the beach, and during a terrific storm (November, 1824) the sea rose to such a height as every now and then to invade the old lady’s residence. The old lady persistently mopped out the water with such help as she could command, until finally she was compelled to retreat to an upper story. 349 PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS. Short Cuts in Arithmetic — Handy Tables for Ready Reckoning. To Ascertain the Weight of Cattle — Measure the girt close behind the shoulder, and the length from the fore part of the shoulder-blade along the back to the bone at the tail, which is in a vertical line with the buttock, both in feet. Multiply the square of the girt, expressed in feet, by ten times the length, and divide the product by three; the quotient is the weight, nearly, of the fore quarters, in pounds avoirdupois. It is to be observed, however, that in very fat cattle the fore quarters will be about one-twentieth more, while in those in a very lean state they will be one-twentieth less than the weight obtained by the rule. Rules for Measuring Corn in Crib, Vegetables, etc., AND Hay in Mow — This rule will apply to a crib of any size or kind. Two cubic feet of good, sound, dry corn in the ear will make a bushel of shelled corn. To get, then, the quantity of shelled corn in a crib of corn in the ear, measure the length, breadth and height of the crib, inside the rail; multiply the length by the breadth and the product by the height, then divide the product by two, and you have the number of bushels of shelled corn in the crib. To find the number of bushels of apples, potatoes, etc., in a bin, multiply the length, breadth and thickness together, and this product by eight, and point off one figure in the product for decimals. To find the amount of hay in a mow, allow 512 cubic feet for a ton, and it will come out very generally correct. To Measure Bulk Wood — To measure a pile of wood, multiply the length by the width, and that product by the height, which will give the number of cubic feet. Divide that product by 128, and the quotient will be the number of cords. A standard cord of wood, it must be remembered, is four feet thick; that is, the wood must be four feet long. Farmers usually go by surface measure, calling a pile of stove wood eight feet long and four feet high a cord. Un- der such circumstances thirty-two feet would be the divisor. How, TO Measure a Tree — Very many persons, when looking for a stick of timber, are at a loss to estimate either the height of the tree or the length of timber it will cut. The following rule will enable any one to approxi- mate nearly to the length from the ground to any position desired on the tree: Take a stake, say six feet in length, and place it against the tree you wish to measure. Then step back some rods, twenty or more if you can, from vl^hich to do the meas- uring. At this point a light pole and a measuring rule are required. The pole is raised between the eyes and the tree, and the rule is brought into position against the pole. Then by sighting and observing what length of the rule is required to cover the stake at the tree, and what the entire tree, dividing the latter length by the former and multiplying by the number of feet the stake is long, you reach the approximate height of the tree. For example, if the stake at the tree be six feet above ground and one inch on your rule corresponds exactly with this, and if then the entire height of the tree corresponds exactly with say nine inches on the rule, this would show the tree to possess a full height of fifty-four feet. In practice it will thus be found an easy matter to learn the approximate height of any tree, building, or other such object. To Measure Casks or Barrels — Find mean diameter by adding to head diameter two-thirds (if staves are but slightly curved, three-fifths) of difference between head and bung diameters, and dividing by two. Multiply square of mean diameter in inches by .7854, and the product by the height of the cask in inches. The result will be the number of cubic inches. Divide by 231 for standard or wine gallons, and by 282 for beer gallons. Grain Measure — To find the capacity of a bin or wagon- bed, multiply the cubic feet by .8 (tenths). For great accuracy, add % of a bushel for every 100 cubic feet. To find the cubic feet, multiply the length, width and depth together. Cistern Measure — To find the capacity of a round cistern or tank, multiply the square of the average diameter by the depth, and take 3-16 of 3fi0 PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS. the product. For ereat accuracy, multiply by .1865. For square cisterns or tanks, ir ultiply tiie cubic feet by .2%. The result is the contents in barrels. Land Measure — T o find the number of acres in a body of land, multiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the product by 160. When the opposite sides are unequal, add them, and take half the snm for the mean length or width. Measures of Capacity — T he following table, showing con- tents of boxes, will often be found convenient, taking inside dimensions : 24 in. X 24 in. x 14.7 will contain a barrel of 31J4 gallons. 15 in. x 14 in. x ii in. will contain 10 gallons. 85^ in. x 7 in. X 4 in. will contain a gallon. 4 in. X 4 in. X3.6 in. will contain a quart. 24 in. X 28 in. x 16 in. will contain 5 bushels. 16 in. X 12 in. x 11.2 in. will contain a bushel. 12 in. X 1 1. 2 in. X 8 in. will contain a half bushel. 7 in. X 6.4 in. X 12 in. will contain a peck. 8.4 in. X 8 in. X 4 in. will contain a half peck, or 4 dry quarts. 6 in. X 5 3-5 in., and 4 in. deep, will contain a half gallon. 4 in. X 4 in., and 2 i-io in. deep, will contain a pint. Food for Stock. One hundred pounds of good hay for stock are equal to: Beets, white silesia, 669; turnips, 469; rye straw, 429; clover, red, green, 373; carrots, 371; mangolds, 368^; potatoes, kept in pit, 350; oat straw, 317; potatoes, 360; carrot leaves (tops), 135; nay, English, 100; Lucerne, 89; clover, red, dry, 88; buckwheat, 78%; corn, 62^; oats, 59; barley, 58; rye, 53)^; wheat, 44)/^; oil-cake, linseed, 43; peas, dry, 37 beans, 28. Number of Shrubs, Plants or Trees in an Acre. Distances apart. No. of Plants. Distances apart. No. of Plants. Distances apart. No. of Plants. 1 by 1 43,560 5 by 2 4,356 15 by 15 193 U4 “ iy2 19,360 5 3 2,904 16 16 170 2 “ 1 21,780 5 4 2,178 17 “ 17 150 2 “ 2 10,890 , 5 « 5 1,742 18 “ 18 134 2H “ 25^ 6,969 6V4 “ 5^ 1,417 19 “ 19 120 3 “ 1 14,520 6 “ 6 1,210 20 ** 20 108 3 “ 2 7,260 6^“ 1,031 24 24 75 3 “ 3 4,840 7 7 888 25 “ 25 69 3^ 3,555 8 “ 8 680 27 27 59 4 “ 1 10,890 9 9 537 30 30 48 4 ‘‘ 2 5,445 10 (« 10 435 40 40 27 4 “ 3 3,630 11 it 11 360 50 50 17 4 “ 4 2,722 12 “ 12 302 60 “ 60 12 4M “ 4^ 2,151 13 • ( 13 257 66 (( 66 10 5 “ 1 8,712 14 14 222 The city of Ghent, Belgium, stands on twenty-six islands, con- nected with each other by eighty bridges. The city of Venice is built on eighty islands, connected by nearly 400 bridges. In Venice canals serve for streets and gondolas for carriages. Bricks and common pottery ware owe their red color to the iron naturally contained in the clay of which they are formed, the iron, by the ac- tion of the heat, being converted into red oxide of iron. Some varieties of clay, like that found near Milwaukee, contain little or no iron, and bricks made from such clay are consequently of a light yellow color. 351 Quantity of Seeds Required for Planting’. Asparagus * . . Beet Carrot Cabbage * [ Cauliflower j Celery Egg plant, Endive.. . . Lettuce — Okra Onion Parsnip.. . . Radish -Salsify Spinach . . . Tomato. . . Turnip Seeds, per ounce. Length of Drill, per oz. Vitality. Years. 1,000 to 1,200 50 feet 4 to 6 1,200 to 1,500 100 “ 6 “ 8 20,000 to 24,000 200 “ 1 “ 3 8,000 to 12,000 Transplant 4 “ 6 50,000 to 60,000 Transplant 3 “ 5 5,000 to 6,000 Transplant 5 “ 6 20,000 to 24,000 Transplant 8 “ 10 25.000 to 30,000 400 feet 5 “ 6 500 to 600 50 “ 5 “ 6 7,000 to 8,000 200 “ 1 “ 2 5.000 to 6,000 200 “ 1 “ 2 3,000 to 4,000 100 “ 4 “ 5 2,500 to 3,000 100 “ 4 “ 5 2,000 to 3,000 100 “ 4 “ 5 About 20,000 Transplant 4 “ 5 8,000 to 12,0i() 200 feet 6 “ 7 M umber of Pounds to tlie Busliel, Lieg^al Weight, in the Different States* States. 1 Wheat. d pm * 1 Oats. 1 Barley. CIS V ; 1': Shelled 1 Corn 1 Corn on 1 the Cob. j Corn Meal, j Potatoes. 1 Sweet 1 Potatoes. j Onions. j Beans. j Peas. Dried Apples. Anthracite 1 Coal. || Arkansas 60 56 32 48 52 70 50 60 50 57 60 46 24 80 65 39 50 40 52 60 56 32 48 48 56 50 60 50 60 60 Georgia 60 5632 47 52 56 70 48 60 55 57 60 60 24 80 Illinois 60 56i32 48 52 56 70 48 60 55 57 60 24 80 Indiana 60 56 48 50 56 68 50 60 48 60 25 Iowa 60 5632 48 52 56 70 60 *46* 57 60 24 ‘ 80 ' Kansas 60 56 32 48 50 56 70 *50* 60 50 57 60 24 80 Kentucky. 1,0 56132 47 55 55 70 50 60 55 57 60 * 60 ’ 24 76 ]V1 1 p 60 50 30 48 48 ' 56 50 60 52 64 60 Massachusetts 60 56 .39 U8 48 56 50 60 56 52 Michigan 60 '56 32 48 48 56 ‘70* 50 60 56 54 60 60 22 60 56 32 48 42 56 60 28 Minnesota 60 56 32 48 52 56 60 57 60 24 New Hampshire.. 60 56 32 56 50 60 60 60 60 56 30 48 50 56 60 54 57 60 60 25 N ew J ersey New York 60 56 32 48 48 56 60 62 60 North Carolina... f^bin 60 56 0 48 50 54 46 50 60 56 33 48 50 56 ’ 70 ’ 60 50 50 60 60 22 60 56 32 47 48 56 56 Pennsylvania 56 32 1 48 56 *50 60 50 Knode isianu South Carolina, . . . 60 56 33 ;48 56 ‘7(V 50 60 ‘ 50 ’ 57 60 60 26 Tennessee 56 32 148 50 ' 56 72 50 60 50 56 60 60 26 60 156 32 148 46 1 52 60 56 60 60 V 6rmont* ••••••••* yirginia 60|56 '32 14§ .52 1 56 70 50 60 56 57 60 60 *28' *80 Wisconsin 60 56 '32 !48 15(J 1 56 70 60 50 60 28 Ants never sleep. Emerson mentions this as “a recently ob* served fact.” 352 Barbed Wire Required for Fences* Estimated number of pounds of barbed wire required to fence space or distances mentioned, with one, two or three lines of wire, based upon each pound of wire measuring one rod feet). I Line. 2 Lines. 3 Lines. I square acre 101/^ 152 Ifes. I side of a square acre 12% 253^ lbs. 38 It>s. I square half-acre 36 lbs. 72 lbs. 108 lbs. 1 square mile 1280 lbs. 2560 lbs. 3840 lbs. I side of a square mile 320 lbs. 640 lbs. 960 lbs. T rod in length 1 lb. 2 lbs. 3 lbs. 100 rods in length 100 lbs. 200 lbs. 300 lbs. 100 feet in length 6 1-16 lbs. 12% lbs. 18 3-16 lbs. • To Measure Corn or Similar Commodity on a Floor — Pile up the commodity in the form of a cone; find the diameter in feet; multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the product by one-third the height of the cone in feet; from this last product deduct one-fifth of itself, or multiply it by .803564, and the result will be the number of bushels. Contents of Fields and Lots — An acre is 43,560 square feet. The following table will assist farmers in making an ac- curate estimate of the amount of land in different fields under cultivation: 10 rods X 16 rods 1 A. 100 ft. X 10St% ft.=% 8 (( X 20 “ 1 ii 25 “ X 100 “ = .0574 5 u X 32 “ == 1 a 25 “ X 110 “ = .0631 4 a X 40 “ = 1 a 25 “ X 120 “ = .0688 5 yards X 968 “ 3=3 1 ii 25 “ X 125 “ = .0717 10 u X 484 yds =: 1 ii 25 “ X 150 “ = .109 20 u X 242 “ 1 a 2178 square feet = .05 40 (( X 121 “ = 1 a 4356 44 44 = .10 80 u X 60)4 “ = 1 a 6534 44 44 — .15 70 (( X 69X “ = 1 a 8712 4* 4» = .20 220 feet X 198 feet = 1 a 10890 44 44 = .25 440 ii X 99 “ = 1 a 13068 44 4 4 = .30 110 u X 369 “ 1 a 15246 44 44 = .35 60 if, X 726 “ = 1 a 17424 44 44 = .40 120 ii X 363 “ = 1 ii 19603 44 44 . = .45 240 ii X 181}^ ft. = 1 a 21780 44 44 = .50 200 ii X 108/j “ = % a 32670 44 44 = .75 100 ii X 145A “ = % a 34848 44 44 = .80 There is a lake of pitch in the island of Trinidad, about a mile and a half in circumference. While the asphaltum near the shores is sufficiently hard at most seasons to sustain men and quadrupeds, it grows soft and warm toward the center, and there it is in a boiling state. 353 ORA]>£ PER MIEE, TIMBER, ETC. Grade per Mile— The following table will show the grade per mile as thus indicated: An inclination of — 1 foot in 15 is 352 feet per mile 1 “ 20 is 264 “ “ 1 “ 25 is 211 “ “ 1 30 is 176 “ “ 1 “ 35 is 151 “ “ 1 foot in 40 is 132 feet per mile 1 “ 50 is 106 “ 1 “ 100 is 53 “ “ 1 “ 125 is 42 “ To Find the Quantity of Lumber in A Log — Multiply the diameter in inches at the small end by one-half the number of inches, and this product by the length of the log in feet, which last product divide by 12 . Example. How many feet of lumber can be made from a log 30 inches in diameter and 14 feet long? 30 X 35 450 X 14 = 6300 -- 12 525 feet. Ans. To Tell the Soundness of Timber — Apply the ear to the middle of one of the ends, while another party strikes the other end. The blow will be clearlj^ and distinctly heard, how.- ever long the beam may be, if the wood is sound and of good quality, but if decay has set in, the sound will be muffled and in- distinct. The toughest part of a tree will always be found on the side next the north. The Number of Cubic Feet in a Round Log of Uni- form Diameter — Square the diameter, in inches, multiply by .7854, and multiply this product by the length in feet, divide by 144, and the quotient is the number of cubic feet. Number of Cubic Feet in the Trunk of a Standing Tree — Find the circumference in inches, divide by 3.1416, square the quotient, multiply by the length in feet, divide by 144, deduct about one-tenth tor thickness of bark, and the result will be, approximately, the number of cubic feet. Following are some curious facts about fishes. While natural- ists have generally accepted Cuvier’s view that the existence of fishes is silent, emotionless and joyless, recent observations tend to show that many fishes emit vocal sounds. The anabas scandens, the climbing perch of India, quits the water and wanders over banks for considerable distances, and is even said to climb trees and bushes. At Tranquebar, Hindoostan, may be seen the strange spectacle of fish and shell-fish dwelling high on lofty trees. The perch there climos up tall fan-palms in pursuit of certain shell-fish which form his favorite food. Covered with viscid slime, he glides smoothly over the rough bark. Spines, which he may sheathe and unfold at will, serve him like hands to hang by, and with the aid of side fins and a powerful tail he pushes himself upward. One species of fish, the sticklebacks, are known to build nests. There are several varieties of this fish, all natives of fresh water with one or two exceptions. They are found in the Ottawa River. The ^prinodon is a sightless fish which gropes in the dreary waters of the Mammoth C 5 ave of Kentucky. Abraham’s purchase of the cave of Machpelah is the first re- corded commercial transaction. 354 BOARD AND PLANK MEASUREMENT AT SIGHT. This table gives the square feet and inches in boards or planks from 3 to 25 inches wide, and 4 to 20 feet long. If a board be longer than 20 feet, or wider than 25 inches, unite two of the numbers. d |OQO«^OQO'-00050iH— ((MCOrHiOCOlHQdo50rH(MC d dc000rlHl0C0C0t-00 0505OrH^^d^l0)OO^00» c OOOHtfOoOHhiOOO^OOOHHOOO'rHOOOHtHOOOHHOQO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO QO d t t-H t— I rH 1 -H t-H tH rH rH rH r— ' _d 05^'HC0--00'.0OlCOl''. d ■H (M Q0 C:COjOrHCOrH'rTl05C0 d ’~l-H(MCv«C‘t^tH30C005dod .S OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO d 1— irHrHC^. 13 5 . 10 5)^ 9 6 . BOAT. 7 1>< 206 ORDINARY. Length. Size. Inches. No. to Lb. 2^ i 716 3 fine. .1* 588 3 lyV 448 4 ....336 6 IM 216 6 2 166 7 2K 118 8 2K 94 10 2% 72 12 3>^ 60 20 3^ .... 32 30 4J^ 20 40 4% 17 50 5 14 60 6K 10 LIGHT. 4“ 1% ....373 5 1% 272 6 .... 2 196 BRADS. 6^ 2 163 8 2}4 96 10 2% 74 12 3K 50 Size. Length Inches. No. to Lb. 4'*.. ...IK.. ...384 5 .. ...IK.. ...256 6 .. ...2 .. ...204 8 .. ...2K.. ...102 10 .. ...3 .. ...80 12 .. ...3%.. ...65 20 .. ...3K . ...46 6^. CORE. ...2 .. ...143 10 2 % 12 .... 3 ^ 20 ... . S)i 30 m 40 68 60 42 25 18 4^ .... 14 W W 2% 69 W H L2)^ 72 SLATE. 3* 1j-\ 288 4 244 5 1% 187 6 2 146 In the above table d stands for penny. This term penny, as applied to nails, is generally supposed to have been derived from pound. It originally meant so many pounds to the thousand; that is, six-penny means six pounds of nails to the thousand. Xacks. Size. Length. Number to Pound. Size. Length, jj Number to Pound. Size. Length. Number to Pound. 1 oz. K 16000 4 oz. tV 4000 14 oz. To 1143 4K 10066 1 « 9 1 6 2666 16 % 1000 2 K 8000 ^ 8 K 2000 18 it 888 2K A 6400 10 1600 20 1 800 3 K 5333 . 12 k 1333 22 ItV 727 359 RAILROAD SPIKES, Size Measured Under Head. Average No. per keg of 200 lbs. Ties two feet between centers. Four spikes per tie. Makes per Mile. Rail used. Wt. per Yard. 360 5870 lbs. — 293 ^ kegs. 45 to 70 5 Xj\ 400 5170 (( —26 (( 40 to 56 6 xi^ 450 4660 u -23K a 35 to 40 530 3960 u —20 it 28 to 35 600 3520 u -17^ i( 24 to 35 4KxA 680 3110 u -15>^ it ^ 20 to 30 4 XxV 720 2940 u -14% (( 900 2350 it -11% it [16 to 25 4 x% 1000 2090 i( -40% t( 3i^xK 3 x% 1190 1240 1780 1710 i( 4( — 9 - 8% ({ it [16 to 20 2>^xM 1342 1575 (( - 7% iC 12 to 16 RAILS REQUIRED PER MILE OF FOLLOWING WEIGHT PER YARD. Weight Tons of 2,240 lbs. per yard. per Mile. 16 lbs. 25 tons, 320 lbs. 20 “ 31 “ 960 “ 25 39 “ 640 “ 28 “ 44 ‘'• 0 30 47 “ 320 “ CROSS TIES, PER MILE. Center to Center. No. Ties. lU Feet ....3520 1% it ....3017 2 it ....2640 2% (i ....2348 2 % it . ,. 2113 Weight Tons of 2.240 lbs. per yard. per Mile. 35 lbs. 55 tons, 0 lbs. 40 “ 63 it 1920 ft 45 “ 70 it 1600 56 “ 88 it 0 it 60 94 it 640 it 65 “ 102 tt 320 it 70 “ 110 tt 0 ft SPLICE , JOINTS. PER MILE. Two Bars and Four Bolts and Nuts to each Joint. Rails, 20 feet long, 528 joints. it 24 it ic 440 ft it 26 it if 406 it (t 28 it it 378 ft {( 30 it ft 352 ft Nails Required for Rifferent Kinds of Work, For 1,000 shingles, 3^ to 5 lbs. 4c?. nails, or 3 to 2 ,%. 3<^. 1,000 laths, about 7 lbs. -^d. fine. 1,000 feet clapboards, about 18 lbs. 6 d. box. 1,000 feet covering boards, about 20 lbs. Zd. common, or 25 lbs. lod. 1,000 feet upper floors, square edged, about 38 lbs. \od. floor, or 41 lbs. 12^/. floor, 1,000 leet upper floors, matched and blind-nailed, 38 lbs. 10^., or 42 lbs. 12^. common. 10 feet partitions, studs or studding, 1 lb. jod. common. 1,000 feet furring, 1x3, about 45 lbs. 10^. common. 1,000 feet furring, 1x2, about 65 lbs. ioout Oaso A cubic foot of good gas, from a jet one thirty-third of an inch in diameter and a flame of four inches, will burn 65 minutes. Internal lights require four cubic feet, and external lights about five cubic feet, per hour. Large or Argand burners will require from six to ten feet. In distilling 56 pounds of coal, the volume of gas produced in cubic feet, when the distillation was effected in three hours, was 41.3; in seven hours, 37.5; in twenty hours, 33.5; in twenty-five hours, 31.7. A retort produces about 600 cubic feet of gas in five hours, with a charge of about one and a half cwt. of coal, or 2,800 cubic feet in twenty -four hours. [ 369 ] PAINTING AND GLAZING. Painters’ work is generally estimated by the square yard, and the cost depends on the number of coats applied, quality of work and material to be painted. One coat, or f riming^ will take, per loo yards of painting, 20 pounds of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Two-coat work, 40 pounds of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Three-coat, the same quantity as two-coat; so that a fair estimate for 100 yards of three-coat work would be 100 pounds of lead and 16 gallons of oil. One gallon priming color will cover 50 superficial yards; white zinc, 50 yds.; white paint, 44 yds.; lead color, 50 yds.; black paint, 50 yds.; stone color, 44 yds.; yellow paint, 44 yds.; blue color, 45 yds.; green paint, 45 yds.; bright emerald green, 25 yds.; bronze green, 75 yds. One pound of paint will cover about 4 superficial yards the first coat, and about 6 each additional coat. One pound of putty, for stopping, every 20 yards. One gallon of tar and i lb. of pitch will cover 12 yards superficial the first coat, and 17 yards each additional coat. A square yard of new brick wall requires, for the first coat of paint in oil, ^ lb.; for the second, 3 lbs.; for the third, 4 lbs. A day’s work on the outside of a building is 100 yards of first coat, and 80 yds. of either second or third coat. An ordinary door, including casings, will, on both sides, make 8 to 10 3'ds. of painting, or about 5 3^ds. to a door without the casings. An or- dinary window makes about 2}^ or 3 j^ds. Window Glass is sold by the box, which contains, as nearly as possible, 50 sq. ft., whatever the size of the panes. The thick- ness of ordinary", or “single thick” window glass is about one- sixteenth of an inch, and of “double thick” nearly in. The tensile strength of common glass varies from 2,000 to 3,000 lbs. per sq. in., and its crushing strength from 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. Where Skylights are glazed with clear or double thick glass, it may be psed in lengths of from 16 to 30 in. by a width of from 9 to 15 in. A lap of at least an inch and a half is necessary for all joints. This is the cheapest mode of glazing. The best, however, for skylight purposes is fluted or rough plate glass. The following thicknesses are recommended as proportionate to sizes: 12x48, 3-16 in.; 15x60, 34 20x100, % in.; 94x156, 3^ in. Polished French plate window glass, which is the highest grade of window glass in the market, may be obtained in lights ranging in size from one inch square upwards. Owing to the extra cost of rolling large lights the price of these per square foot is sometimes double that of smaller lights. Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things unseen. — New Testament. 370 PANES OF WINDOW GLASS IN A BOX OF 50 FEET. Size, in inches. Panes in box. Size, in inches. Panes in box. Size, in inches. Panes in box. Size, in inches. Panes in box. 6x 8 150 12x19 32 16x20 23 24x44 7 7x 9 115 12 X 20 30 16x22 20 24 X 50 6 8 X 10 90 12x21 29 16 X 24 19 24 X 56 5 8x11 82 12 x 22 27 16 X 30 15 26 X 36 8 8x12 75 12x20 26 ' 16x86 12 26x40 7 9x10 80 12x24 25 16 X 40 11 26x48 6 9x 11 72 13 x 14 40 18x20 20 26x54 5 9x12 67 13 X 15 37 18x22 18 28x34 8 9x13 62 13x16 35 18 x24 17 28 X 40 6 9 x 14 57 13x17 83 18x26 15 28x46 6 9 X 15 53 13x18 81 18 X 34 12 28 X 50 5 9x16 50 13x19 29 18x36 11 30x40 6 10x10 72 13x20 28 18x40 10 30x44 4 10x12 60 13x21 26 18x4t 9 30x48 5 10x13 55 13x22 25 20 X 22 16 30x54 5 10x14 52 13 X 24 23 20x24 15 32x42 5 10 x 15 43 14x 15 34 20 x25 14 32x44 5 10 X 16 45 14x16 82 20x26 14 32x46 5 10x17 42 14x18 29 20 X 28 13 32x48 5 10x18 40 14x19 27 20 X 80 12 32x50 4 11x11 59 14x20 26 20x34 11 32 X 54 4 11x12 55 14x22 23 20 X 36 10 32x56 4 11x13 50 14x24 22 20x40 9 32 X 60 4 11x14 47 14 X 28 19 20 X 44 8 34 X 40 5 11 X 15 44 14x32 16 20 X 50 7 34x44 5 11x16 41 14x36 14 22x24 14 34x46 5 11x17 39 14 X 40 13 22 X 26 13 34x50 4 11 xl8 36 15 X 16 30 22x28 12 34x52 4 12x12 ■ 50 15x18 27 22x86 9 34x56 4 12x13 46 15 x 20 24 22x40 8 36x44 5 12 X 14 43 15 x 22 22 22 X 50 7 36 X 50 4 12x15 40 15x24 20 24 X 2S 11 36 X 56 4 12x16 38 15 X 30 16 24 X 30 10 36 X 60 3 12x17 35 15 X 32 15 24 X 32 10 36x64 3 12x18 33 16 X 18 25 24 X 36 9 40x60 3 CARPENTERS’ WORK AND MEASURING. What is called Naked Flooring in carpentry are the joists which support the flooring boards and ceiling of a room. There are different kinds, but they may all be comprised in the three following — viz.: single joisted floors, double floors, and framed floors. A single joisted floor consists of only one series of joists; sometimes every third or fourth joist is made deeper, with ceiling joists nailed across at right angles. This is a good method, as ceilings stand better than when the laths are nailed to the joists alone. A double floor consists of binding, bridging, and ceiling joists; the binding joists are the chief support of the floor, and the bridging joists are nailed upon the upper side of them; the ceiling joists are either notched to the under side or framed between 871 CARPENTERS'' WORK AND MEASURING, with chased mortises. The best method is to notch them. Framed floors difter from double floors only in having the binding joists framed into large pieces of timber called girders. Single joisted floors, when the bearing exceeds ten feet, should be cross-bridged between the joists to prevent them from turning or twisting sideways, and also to stiffen the floor; when the bearing exceeds fifteen feet, two rows will be necessary, and so on, adding another row for each five feet bearing. Single joisting may be used to any extent for which timber can be got deep enough; but where it is desirable to have a per- fect ceiling, the bearing should not exceed i8 ft., nor the distance from center to center be more than i6 inches; otherwise the bearing for the laths become too long to produce good work. To find the depth of a joist, the length of bearing and the thick- ness being given — Rule. — Divide the square of the length in feet by the thick- ness in inches, and the cube root of the quotient, multiplied by 2.2 for pine, or 2.3 for oak, will be the depth in inches. Example . — Suppose a joist whose bearing is 10 feet, and the thickness two inches, what will be the depth? Here 10X10=100, divided by 2, the thickness=50, the cube root of which is 3,684X2.2=8. loqS^equals 8 inches, the depth. To find the scantlings of joists for different bearings from 5 to 20 feet, at several thicknesses, refer to the table on following page. Girders are the chief support of a framed fioor, and their depth is often limited by the size of the timber; therefore the method of finding the scantling may be divided in two cases — Cask i. — To find the depth of a girder when the length of bearing and thickness of girder are given. Rule . — Divide the square of the length in feet by the thick- ness in inches, and the cube root of the quotient, multiplied by 4.2 for pine, or 4.34 for oak, will give the depth required in inches. Case 2. — To find the thickness when the length of bearing and depth are given. Rule . — Divide the square of the length in feet by the cube or the depth in inches, and the quotient multiplied by 74 for pine, or by 82 for oak, will give the thickness in inches. In these rules the girders are supposed to be ten feet apart, and this distance should never be exceeded, but should the dis- tance apart be more or less than 10 feet, the thickness should be made proportionate thereto. 372 CARPENTERS^ WORK AND MEASURING. I Length of 1 bearing in 1 Feet. 1 Thickness 1 2 inches. I Thickness 1 2X inches. I Thickness 1 3 inches. 52 s 1 o .S IS 1 Thickness 1 4 inches. c c/5 a c tA t •! c ■5 c cn •5 ^ S' C Q - 0)' c Q •'- (U c Q Q -2 S’ c Q - 5 5H 4K % 4 6 5 4M 7 6 5K 6K 5 8 7 6K 5% 5K 9 7M 6% 6 5% 10 8 7K 7 6^ 6K 11 8% 8 7K 7 12 9)^ 8>^ 8 7>^ 13 9^ 9 8 14 10 9)^ 9 8K 8 15 lOK 9% . 91^ m 8K 16 11 10>^ m 9M 8% 17 lOK lOK 9X 9K 18 12 IIM 10 19 12)^ 11>^ lOK lOK 10 20 13 12 llJi lOM 1034 When the breadth of girders is considerable it is an excellent method to saw them down the middle and bolt them together, with the sawn sides outward. Partitions unsupported from underneath the floors should be supported from the walls by means of a simple truss. This can be made by setting two pieces of scantling into the walls on either side at the floor to abut against each other at the ceiling or against a collar-beam over the doors. This plan will obviate the sinking of floors so often seen under partitions. Weight of Lumber, Etc., Dry. Flooring — Dressed and matched, per 1,000 ft 1,800 lbs. Siding — Dressed per 1,000 ft 800 “ Ceiling — ^ inch thick, per 1,000 ft 800 “ “ ■“ “ “ “ ; 900 “ Boards— Dressed one side, per 1,000 ft 2,100 “ and dimensions, rough, per 1,000 ft 2,500 “ Shingles — per 1,000 250 ’Lath — per 1,000 pieces 500 “ Pickets — Dressed, per 1,000 pieces 1,800 “ “ Rough, per 1,000 pieces 2,500 “ 373 WEAR ANR TEAK OF BUIERINO IRATERIAES. The figures given below are averages deduced from replies made by eighty-three competent builders in twenty-seven cities and towns of Western States: Material in Buildings. Frame Dwellings. Brick Dwellings. (Shingle roof) Frame Stores. Brick Stores. (Shingle roof) Average Life, years. Percentage of Depre- ciation per Annum. Average Life, years. Percentage of Depre- ciation per Annum. Average Life, years. Percentage of Depre- ciation per Annum. Average Life, years. Percentage of Depre- ciation per Annum. Brick 75 66 Plastering 20 5 30 /o 3K ie 6 30 ■*-/2 3K Painting, outside. . . . 5 20 7 14 5 20 6 16 Painting, inside 7 14 7 14 5 20 6 16 Shingles 16 *6 16 6 16 6 16 6 Cornice 40 40 2>^ 30 3K 40 2>^ Weather-boarding . . 30 3K 30 3K Sheathing 50 2 50 ’2 40 2>^ 50 *2 Flooring 20 5 20 5 13 8 13 8 Doors, complete. . . 30 3K 30 3K 25 4 30 3K Windows, complete. 30 3K 30 3K 25 4 30 3K Stairs and newel .... 30 3K 30 3K 20 5 20 5 Base 40 2X 40 30 3K 30 3K Inside blinds 30 3K 30 3K 30 3K 30 3K Building hardware. . 20 5 20 5 13 8 13 8 Piazzas and porches. 20 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 Outside blinds . . . 16 6 16 6 16 6 16 6 Sills and first floor joints 25 4 40 2K 25 4 30 3K Dimension lumber. . 50 2 75 IK 40 21^ 66 IK In Java the “Valley of the Upas Tree” is sometimes called the “Valley of Death,” and its deadly influence was formerly ascribed to the malignant properties of a peculiar vegetable pro- duction of the island, called the “ upas tree,” which especially flourishes in this locality. Recent travelers, however, declare that accounts of the fatality attending a passage of this famous valley have been greatly exaggerated. A MAN may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and eat of the fish that hath fed of that worm. — Shakespeare, 374 Sizes of Chaips and Desks for Schools. Desks for Single Scholar, 2 ft. long ; For Two Scholars, 3 ft. 10 in. Age of Scholar. Height of Chair. Height of Desk (next scholar). Space Occupied by Desk and Chair. 16 to 18 vears. inches. 29K inches. 2 feet 9 inches. 14 to 16 (( u 28 » 2 9 u 12 to 14 u 153^ tt 27K “ 2 (( 8 tt 10 to 12 (t UK tt 26K “ 2 u 7 tt 8 to 10 (( 13K tt 25K “ 2 tt 5 tt 7 to 8 u 12K tt 24 “ 2 tt 4 (( 6 to 7 tt UK It 22)^ “ 2 tt 3 (( 5 to 6 lOK tt 21 “ 2 tt 2 tt 4 to 5 9K tt 19 2 tt 0 tt WEIGHT OF FLOORS, AND THE LOAD UPON SAME. The dead weight of a fire-proof floor will average for the arches, concrete, plastering and flooring, 70 lbs. per sq. foot. The live weight, equal to a dense crowd of people, 80 lbs. per sq. foot, or a total for an office building of 150 lbs. per sq. foot. The following loads are exclusive of weight of arches and beams : Dense crowd of people . . . . 80 lbs. per sq. foot For floors of houses 50 tt tt tt tt Theaters and churches 80 tt tt tt tt Ball rooms 90 tt (( tt tt Ware houses . . . . .250 tt tt tt tt Factories . . . . 200 to 450 tt tt tt tt Snow 30 inches deep 15 tt tt it a Brick walls 112 tt tt cubic u Stone (Chicago lime stone, dressed) 160 tt tt tt (( The dead weight of a wooden floor, including wood joists: Double flooring and plastering will average .25 lbs. per sq. foot If deafened 35 “ “ “ “ Stud partition of wood plastered each side. . .20 “ “ “ “ In estimating the weight of a flat ceiling and roof it will be safe to assume the following: Ceiling of wooden construction 15 lbs per sq. foot. Ceiling of iron construction 25 to 65 “ “ “ “ Roof of wooden construction 45 “ “ “ “ Roof of iron construction 65 to 100 “ “ “ “ The weight of roof includes the wind pressure and snow. Strength of Piers. — Granite will sustain 40 tons per sq. ft.; Berea (sand stone), 30 tons per sq. ft.; limestone (mag- nesium), 29 tons per sq. ft.; Portland (sand stone), 13 tons per sq. ft.; brick in cement, 3 tons per sq. ft.; rubble masonrv, 2 tons per sq. ft.; lime, cement foundation, 2 )/^ tons per sq. ft. 375 WEIGHT OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. Weight of Stones.— -Granite, (averages) per cubic foot, 170 lbs.; limestone (magnesium), 144 lbs.; Berea (sand stone), 140 lbs.; free stone, 140 lbs.; gypsum, natural state, 140 lbs. One ton of vein marble is 13 cubic feet; of statuary marble, granite, 13)^; of Berea stone, 14X; limestone, mag- nesium, 13%. Weight OF Masonry. — Granite, per cubic foot, 1 60 lbs.; of Berea stone range, 140; of limestone rubble, 140; of brick, dry, 1 15; of brick, dry (press), 130; of brick, dry (fire), 150; of brick masonrj^ in mortar, 110; of brick masonry cement, 112. Weight of Marble Slabs. — One-half inch thick, per sq. foot, 7.17 lbs.; ^ inch thick, 10.75; ^ i^^h thick, 14.32; inch thick, 17.92; 134 inch thick, 21.05; inch thick, 25.08; 2 inch thick, 28.67; 2)^ inch thick, 35.83. Cement and Lime. — One bushel of Portland cement weighs 96 lbs.; of Rosendale, 70; of Louisville, 62; of quicklime well shaken, 80; of quick lime, loose, 70. Iron and Wood. — One cubic foot of wrought iron weighs 480 lbs.; of cast iron, 450; of oak (seasoned), 48; of pine (sea- soned), 36. Coal. — One bushel of Anthracite weighs 86 lbs.; of Bitumin- ous, 80; of coke (Connellsville), 40; of charcoal (hardwood) 30. Miscellaneous Weights. — Per cubic foot: Ordinary quick lime, 53 lbs.; old mortar, 90; new mortar, well tempered, 115; new mortar, no; river sand (average), 107; river sand (screened), 95; clay with gravel, 130; earth — vegetable, 90; earth — loamy, 100; earth — semi fluid, no. San Marino, in Italy, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, is the oldest Republic in the world. It is, next to Monaco, the smallest State in Europe. The exact date of the establishment of this Republic is not known, but according to tradition, it was in the fourth century, by Marinus, a Dalmatian hermit, and has ever since remained independent. It is mountainous, and contains four or five villages. The word “liberty” is inscribed on its capitol. Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery.^ Forbid it. Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death ! — Patrick Henry. The law is a sort of hocus-pocus science, that smiles in yer face while it picks yer pocket; and the glorious uncertainty of it is of mair use to the professors than the justice of M.—Macklin. Knowledge is of two kinds: we know a subject ourselves or we know where we can find information upon it. — Jo]i7tso7i, 376 Crushing and Tensile Strength, in Lbs., per Sq. Inch of Natural and Artificial Stones. DESCRIPTION. Weight per Cubic ft. in lbs. Crushing Force. Lbs. per Square Inch. 164 8,400 to 10,914 15,300 3,522 1,088 . 3,319 5,340 17,000 18,941 12,624 10,382 3,216 9,681 9,300 808 166 PreestnnPj Relleville Freestone, Caen Freestone, Connecticut Sandstone, Acquia Creek, used for Capi- tol, Washington T.imestone, Magnesian, Grafton, 111 Marble, Hastings, N. Y Marble, Italian M?^i*ble, Stockbridge, City Hall, N. Y.. Marble Statuary Marble, Veined Slate 165 Rrick, Fed 135.5 Brick, Pale Red 130.3 562 Brick, Common 800 to 4,000 6,222 to 14,216 2,177 521 Brick, Machine Pressed Brick, Stock Brick-work, set in Cement, bricks not very hard Brick, Masonry, Common 500 to 800 Cement, Portland 1,000 to 8,300 1,280 Cement, Portland, Cement 1, Sand 1. . . . Cement, Roman '342 Mortar 120 to 240 Crown Glass 31,000 TENSION. 427 to 711 Portland Cement Portland Cement, with Sand 92 to 284 Glass, Plate 9,420 50 Mortar Plaster of Paris 72 Slate 11,000 Error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it. — Thomas Jefferson. Virtue is like precious odors, most fragrant when they are incensed or crushed. — Lord Bacon, 377 WEIGHT OF CAST IRON COLUMNS, PER LINEAL FOOT OF PLAIN SHAFT. THICKNESS OF METAL. 3 34 in. %in. 3^ in. %in. J^in. 1 in. 13^ in. l^in. IK in. l^in. 2 in. 2 4.3 6.0 7.4 8.4 9.2 9.7 9.8 5.5 7.8 9.8 11.5 12.9 14.0 14.7 3 6.8 9.7 12.3 14.6 16.6 18.3 19.6 33^ 8.0 11.5 14.7 17.6 20.3 22.6 24.6 4 9.2 13 3 17.2 20.7 23.9 26.8 29.5 43^ 10.4 15.2 19.6 23.8 27.6 31.1 31.4 37.3 39.9 5 11.7 17.0 22.1 26 9 31.3 35.4 39 3 42.8 46.0 53^ 12.9 18.9 24.5 29.9 35.0 39.7 44.2 48.3 52.2 6 14.1 20.7 27.8 33.0 38.7 44 0 49.1 53 9 58 3 63^ 15.3 22.6 29.5 36.1 42.3 48.3 54.0 59.4 64.4 7 16.6 24.4 31.9 39.1 46.0 52.6 58 9 64 9 70.6 81.0 73^ 17.8 26.2 34.4 42.2 49.7 56.9 63.8 7074 76.7 88.4 8 19.0 28.1 36.8 45.3 53.4 61.2 68.7 75.9 82.8 95.7 83^ 20.2 29.9 39.3 48.3 57.1 65.5 73.6 81.5 89.0 103.1 9 21.5 31.8 41.7 51.4 60.8 69 8 78 5 87 0 95.1 110.5 9K 22.7 33.6 44.2 54.5 64.4 74.1 83.5 92.5 101.2 117.8 133.2 10 23.9 35.4 46.6 57.5 68.1 78.4 88.4 98.0 107.4 125.2 141.7 157.1 103^ 25.2 37.3 49.1 60.6 71.8 82.7 93.3 103.5 113.5 132.5 150.3 166.9 11 26.4 39.1 51.6 63.7 75.5 87.0 98.2 109.1 119.7 139.9 158.9 176.7 IIK 27.6 41.0 54.8 66.7 79.2 91.3 103.1 114.6 125.8 147.3 167.5 186.5 12 28.8 42.8 56.5 69.8 82.8 95.6 108.0 120.1 131.9 154.6 176.1 196.3 123^ 44.6 58.9 72.9 86.5 99.9 112.9 125.6 138.1 162.0 184.7 206.2 13 46.5 61.4 75.9 90.2 104.2 117.8 131.2 144.2 169.4 193.3 216.0 133^ 63.8 79.0 93.9 108.5 122.7 136.7 150.3 176.7 201.9 225.8 14 66.3 82.1 97 6 112.8 127.6 142.2 156.5 184.1 210.5 235.6 143^ 68.7 85.2 101.2 117.0 132.5 147.7 162.6 191.4 219.1 245.4 15 71.2 88.2 104 9 121.3 137.5 153.2 168.7 198.8 227.6 255.2 16 76.1 94.3 112.3 129.9 147.3 164.3 181.0 213.5 244.8 274.9 17 81.0 100.5 119.7 138.5 157.1 175.3 193.3 228.3 262.0 294.5 18 85.9 106.6 127.0 147.1 166.9 186.4 205.6 243.0 279.2 314.1 19 90.8 112.8 134 4 155.7 176.7 197.4 217.8 257.7 296.4 a33.8 20 95.7 118.9 141.7 164.3 186.5 208.5 230.1 274.4 313.5 353.4 Increase in Weight for 1-2 In. Increase in Diameter. K in. Kin Kin. Kin. K in. K in 1 in. IKin. IKin- IKin. l^in. 2 in. 1.2 1.8 2.5 3.1 3.7 4.3 4.9 5.5 6.1 7.4 8.6 9.8 378 WEIGHT OF CAST IRON BATES. Diameter, Inches. Weight, Lbs. Diameter, Inches. Weight, Lbs. Diameter, Inches. Weight, Lbs. 2 1.09 5 17 04 8 69.81 2>^ 2 13 22.68 83.73 3 3.68 6 29.45 9 99.40 5.84 6>^ 37 44 10 136.35 4 8 73 7 46.76 11 181.48 4)^ 12 42 7>^ 57.52 12 235.65 To Find the Weight of Cast Iron Balls When the Diameter is Given — Rule: Multiply the cube of the diameter by .1377- To Find the Diameter of Cast Iron Balls When the Weight is Given — Rule: Multiply the cube root of the weight by 1.936. To Find the Weight of a Spherical Shell — From the weight of a ball of the outer diameter subtract the weight of one of the inner diameter. Cast Iron — Assumed Weight in Estimating A cubic foot .....= 450 lbs. A square foot, i inch thick . . . . “ 38 “ A bar i inch square and i foot long . . = 3*125 “ TABJLE OF WEIGHT PER EINEAE FOOT OF ROFND CAST IRON. Diameter, Inches. Weight, Lbs. Diameter, Inches. Weight, Lbs. Diameter, Inches. Weight, Lbs. 1 2.45 5 61 36 9 198.80 3.84 5K 67.65 221.51 5 52 6>^ 74.25 10 245 . 44 7.52 5% 81.15 10>^ 270.60 2 9.82 6 88. 3g 11 296 98 12.43 6H 95.87 324 59 2)^ 15.34 6>^ 103.70 12 353.43 2% 18.56 6M 111.83 13 414.79 3 22 09 7 120.26 14 481 06 3H 25.92 7K 129.01 15 552 23 3K 30 07 7K 138 06 16 628.32 3% 34 52 7% 147.42 17 709 31 4 39.27 8 157 08 18 795.22 4M 44.33 167.05 20 981 75 4>^ 49.70 177.33 22 1187.92 55.38 , 8 % 187.91 24 1413.72 379 Rules for Obtaining Approximate Weight of Cast Iron. Square of diameter multiplied by 2.46 equals weight of cast iron round bar i foot long. To ascertain weight of cast iron columns or pipe subtract weight of inside diameter of shell from weight of outside diame- ter. Square of the diameter divided by 5 equals approximately the weight of a circular cast iron plate i inch thick. Rules for Obtaining Approximate Weight of Wrought Iron. For Round Bars — Rule: Multiply the square of the diame- ter in inches by the length in feet, and that product by 2.6. The product will be the weight in pounds, nearly. For Square and Flat Wrought Bars — Ru.e: Multiply the area of the end of the bar in inches by the length in feet, and that by 3.32. The product will be the weight in pounds, nearly. To find the sectional area of a bar of wrought iron, given the weight per foot, multiply by 3 and divide by 10. To find the weight per foot, given the area, divide by 3 and multiply by 10. To Convert Weight of Wrought Iron into Cast Iron . X 0.928 “ “ “ Steel X 1.014 “ “ “ Zinc . X 0.918 “ “ “ Brass X 1.082 “ “ “ Copper . X 1.144 “ “ ‘‘ Lead X 1.468 Square Iron into Round . X .7854 Decimal Approximations Useful in Calculations, Cubic inches. X .267 = lbs. average cast iron. u a X .281 (( a wrought iron. (( a X .283 = a a cast steel. a X .3225 = a a copper. u a X .3037 = it a brass. u a X .26 a a zinc. u it X .4103 = a ti lead. u a X .2636 = a it tin. a a X .4908 = a ti mercury. Cylin. a X .2065 = a it cast iron. a a X .2168 = C( it wrought iron. it ti X .2223 = u it cast steel. a a X .2533 = u ti copper. a a X .2385 a ti brass. it “ X .2042 = a it zinc. it u X .3223 = a it lead. a “ X .207 = a it tin. ' it a X .3854 = a it mercury. 380 Weight of a Lineal Foot of Flat Bar Iron, in Lbs. BIRMINGHAM GAUGE. THICKNESS IN FRACTIONS OF INCHES, Breadth m Inches. 5-16 % 7-16 ka % % % 1 1 .83 1.04 1.25 1.46 1.67 2.08 2.50 2.92 3.34 .93 1.17 1.40 1.64 1.87 2.34 2.81 3.28 3.75 1 ^ 1.04 1.30 1.56 1.82 2.08 2.60 3.13 3.65 4.17 1.14 1.43 1.72 2.00 2.29 2.87 3.44 4.01 4.59 1 >I 1.25 1.56 1.87 2.19 2.50 3.13 3.75 4.38 5.00 1 % 1.35 1.69 2.03 2.37 2.71 3.39 4.07 4.70 5.43 m 1.46 1.82 2.19 2.55 2.92 3.65 4.38 5.11 5.84 iVs 1.56 1.95 2.34 2.74 3.13 3.91 4.69 5.47 6.26 2 1.67 2.08 2.50 2.92 3.34 4.17 5.01 5.86 6.63 2 y 8 1.77 2.21 2.66 3.10 3.55 4.43 5.32 6.21 7.10 2 % 1.87 2.34 2.81 3.28 3.76 4.69 5.63 6.57 7.52 2 % 1.98 2.47 2.97 3.47 3.96 4.95 5.95 6.94 7.93 2 y 2 2.08 2.60 3.13 3.65 4.17 5.21 6.26 7.30 8.35 2 % 2.19 2.74 3.28 3.83 4.38 5.47 6.57 7.67 8.77 2 :fi 2.29 2.87 3.44 4.01 4.59 5.74 6.88 8.03 9.18 2 /^ 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.20 4.80 6.00 7.20 8.40 9.60 3 2.50 3.13 3.75 4.38 5.01 6.26 7.51 8.76 10.02 3 ^ 2.71 3.39 4.07 4.74 5.43 6.78 8.14 9.49 10.86 2.92 3 65 4.38 5.11 5.84 7.30 8.76 10.23 11.69 3 ^ 3.13 3.91 4.68 5.47 6.26 7.82 9.39 10.95 12.52 4 3.34 4.17 5.00 5.84 6.68 8.35 10.02 11.69 13.36 iy 3.54 4.43 5.32 6.21 7.09 8.87 10.64 12.42 14.19 iy 2 3.75 4.69 5.63 6.57 7.51 9.39 11.27 13.15 15.03 4.06 4.95 5.94 6.94 7.93 9.91 11.89 13.88 15.86 5 4.17 5.21 6.26 7.30 8.35 10.44 12.52 14.61 16.70 5 ^ 4.38 5.47 6.57 7.67 8.76 11.06 13.14 15.34 17.53 6 y 2 4.59 5.73 6.88 8.03 9.18 11,48 13.77 16.07 18.37 6 % 4.80 6.00 7.20 8.40 9.60 12.00 14.40 16.80 19.20 6 5.01 6.25 7.51 8.76 10.02 12.53 15.03 17.53 20.05 Wrought Iron, Assumed Weight. A cubic foot ..... A square foot, i inch thick A bar i inch square, i foot long . A “ I “ “ I yard long . , r=480 =r 40 lbs. ti (( OAUGES AND THEIR EQIJIVAEENTS. No. 27, equal to A inch. No. 12, equal to A inch. U 21, “ u A (( 10, ii a >8 it “ 18, “ (( A a (( 8, a it ii it “ 16, » (( tV a it 6, it it a “ 14, “ it A u it 6, (( a A a “ 13, “ it A (( u 4, it a a Truth is as impossible to be soiled by any outward touch as the sunbeam. — Lord Bacon, 381 AMERICAN ANR BIRMINGHAM WIRE GAUGES. THICKNESS IN INCHES. • Haswell. Gauge. Thickness American Gauge. Thickness Birmingham Gauge. Gauge. Thickness American Gauge. Thickness Birmingham Gauge. 0000 .46 .454 17 .0452 .058 000 .4096 .425 18 .0403 .049 00 .3648 .38 19 .0359 .042 0 .3248 .34 20 .0319 .035 1 .2893 .30 21 .0284 .032 2 .2576 .284 22 .0253 .028 3 .2294 .259 23 0225 025 4 .2043 .238 24 .0201 .022 5 .1819 .22 25 .0179 .02 6 .1620 .203 26 .0160 .018 7 .1443 .18 27 .0142 .016 8 .1285 .165 28 .0126 .014 9 .1144 .148 29 .0112 .013 10 .1019 .134 30 .01 .012 11 .0907 .12 31 .0089 .01 12 .0808 .109 32 0079 .009 13 .0719 .095 33 .007 .008 14 .0641 .083 34 .0063 .007 15 .057 .072 35 .0056 .005 16 .0508 .065 36 005 .004 Tlie Area, of a Circle. Of all plane figures, the circle is the most capacious, or has the greatest area within the same limits. It is geometrically demon- strable that it has the same area as a right-angled triangle with a base equal to its circumference, and a perpendicular equal to its radius, that is, half the product of the radius and circumfer- ence. It is obviously larger than any figure, of however mani^ sides, inscribed within its perimeter, and smaller than any cir- cumscribed polygon. As a result of laborious calculations on this basis (pushed in one instance to 600 places of decimals with- out reaching the end), it has been ascertained that the ratio of the diameter to the circumference of any circle (sufficient) ex- act for all practical purposes), is as i : 3.1416 ( 3 . 141592653 - 4 -) or in whole numbers, approximately, as 7 : 22 , or more nearly as 113 : 355 . Hence, to find the circumference or diameter, the other quantity being known, multiply or divide by 3 . 1416 ; and to find the area, multiply half the diameter by half the circumfer- ence, or the square of the diameter by .7854 ( 3 . 1416 - 7 - 4 ). To FIND THE SURFACE OF A GLOBE, multiply the Square of the diameter by 3 . 1416 . To FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A GLOBE, multiply the cube of the diameter by . 5236 . [382] AREAS OF CIRCLES, Advancing by eighths. AREAS . E cs 5 0 Vs % Vs 0 .0 .0122 .0490 .1104 .1963 .3068 .4417 .6013 1 .7854 .9940 1.227 1.484 1.767 2.073 2.405 2.761 2 3.1416 3.546 3.976 4.430 4.908 5.411 5.939 64.91 3 7.068 7.669 8.295 8.946 9.621 10.32 11.04 11.79 4 12.56 13.36 14.18 15.03 15.90 16.80 17.72 18.66 5 19.63 20.62 21.64 22.69 23.75 24.85 25.96 27.10 C 28.27 29.46 30.67 31.91 33.18 34.47 35.78 37.12 7 38.48 39.87 41.28 42.71 44.17 45.66 47.17 48.70 8 50.26 51.84 53.45 55. C 8 56.74 58.42 60.13 61.86 9 63.61 65.39 67.20 09.02 70.88 ' J 2.75 74.69 76.58 10 78.54 80.51 82.51 84.54 86.59 88 66 90.76 92.88 n 95.03 97.20 99.40 101.6 103.8 106.1 108.4 110.7 12 113.0 115.4 117.8 120.2 122.7 125.1 127.6 130.1 13 132.7 135.2 137.8 140.5 143.1 145.8 148.4 151.2 14 153.9 156.6 159.4 162.2 165.1 167.9 170.8 173 7 15 176.7 179 6 182.6 18). 6 188.6 191.7 194.8 197.9 16 201.0 204.2 207.3 210.5 213.8 217.0 220.3 223.6 17 226.9 230.3 233.7 287.1 240.5 243.9 247.4 250.9 18 254.4 258.0 261.5 265.1 268.8 272.4 276.1 279.8 19 283.5 287.2 291.0 294 8 298.8 302.4 306.3 310.2 20 314.1 318.1 322.0 326.0 330.0 334.1 338.1 342.2 21 346.3 350.4 351.6 358.8 363.0 367.2 371.5 375.8 22 380.1 384.4 388 8 393.2 397.6 402.0 406.4 410.9 23 415.4 420.0 424.5 429.1 433 7 438.3 443.0 447.6 24 452.3 457.1 461.8 466.6 471.4 476.2 481.1 485.9 25 490.8 495.7 500.7 505.7 510.7 515.7 520.7 525.8 26 530.9 536.0 541.1 546.3 551.5 556.7 562.0 567.2 27 572.5 577.8 583.2 588.5 593.9 599.3 604.8 610.2 28 615.7 621.2 62 : 6.7 632.3 637.9 643.5 649.1 654.8 29 660.5 666.2 671.9 677.7 683.4 689.2 695.1 700.9 30 706.8 712.7 718.6 724.6 730.6 736.6 742.6 748.6 31 754.8 760.9 767.0 773.1 779.3 785.5 791.7 798.0 32 804.3 810.6 816.9 823.2 829.6 836.0 842.4 848.8 33 855.3 861.8 868.3 874.9 881.4 888.0 894.6 901.3 34 907.9 914.7 921.3 928.1 934.8 941.6 948.4 955.3 35 962.1 969.0 975.9 982.8 989.8 996.8 1003.8 1010.8 36 1017.9 1025.0 1032.1 1039.2 1046.3 1053.5 1060.7 1068.0 37 1075.2 1082.5 1089.8 1097.1 1104.5 1111.8 1119.2 1126.7 38 1134.1 1141.6 1149.1 1156.6 1164.2 1171.7 1179.3 1186.9 39 1194.6 1202.3 1210.0 1217.7 1225.4 1233.2 1241.0 1248.8 40 12.56.6 1264.5 1272.4 1280.3 1288.2 1296.2 1304.2 1312.2 41 1320.3 1328.3 1336.4 1344.5 1352.7 1:360.8 1369.0 1377.2 42 1385.4 1393.7 1402.0 1410.3 1418.6 1427.0 1435.4 1443.8 43 1452.2 1460.7 1469.1 1477.6 1486.2 1494.7 1503.3 1511.9 44 1520.5 1529.2 1537.9 1543 . 6 1555.3 1564.0 1572.8 1581.6 45 1590.4 1599.3 1608.2 1617.0 1626.0 1634.9 1643.9 1652.9 383 CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES, Advancing by eighths. CIRCUMFERENCES. i n 5 0 ^8 % Vs 0 .0 .3927 .7854 1.178 1.570 . 1.963 2.356 2.748^ 1 3.141 3.534 3.927 4.319 4.712 5.105 5.497 5.890 2 6.283 6.675 7.068 7.461 7.854 8.246 8.639 9.032 3 9.424 9.817 10.21 10.60 10.99 11.38 11.78 12.17 4 12.56 12.95 13.35 13.74 14.13 14.52 14.92 15.31 5 15.70 16.10 16.49 16.88 17.27 17.67 18.06 18.45 6 18.84 19.24 19.63 20.02 20.42 20.81 21.20 21.59 7 21.99 22.38 22.77 23.16 23.56 23.95 24.^4 24.74 8 25.13 25.52 25.91 26.31 26.70 27.09 27.48 27.88 9 28.27 28 66 29.05 29.45 29.84 30.23 30.63 31.02 10 31.41 31.80 82.20 32.59 32.98 33.37 33.77 34.16 11 34.55 34.95 35.34 35.73 36.12 36.52 36.91 37.30 12 37.69 38.09 38.48 38.87 39.27 39.66 40.05 40.44 13 40.84 41.23 41.62 42.01 42.41 42.80 43.19 43.58 14 43.98 44.37 44.76 45.16 45.55 45.94 46.33 46.73 15 47.12 47.51 47.90 48.30 48.69 49.08 49.48 49.87 16 50.26 50.65 51.05 51.44 51.83 52.22 52.62 53.01 17 53.40 53.79 64.19 54.58 54.97 55.37 55.76 56.15 18 56.54 56.94 57.33 57.72 58.11 58.51 58.90 59.29 19 59.69 60.08 60.47 60.86 61.26 61.65 62.04 62.43 20 62.83 63.22 63.61 64.01 64.40 64.79 ,65.18 65.58 21 65.97 66.36 66.75 67.15 67.54 67.93 68.32 68.72 22 69.11 69.50 69.90 70.29 70.68 71.07 71.47 71.86 23 72.25 72.64 73.04 73.43 73.82 74.22 74.61 75.00 24 75.39 75.79 76.18 76.57 76.96 77.36 77.75 78.14 25 78.54 78.93 79.32 79.71 80.10 80.50 80.89 81.28 26 81.68 82.07 82.46 82.85 83.25 83.64 84.03 84.43 27 84.82 85.21 85.60 86.00 86.. 39 86.78 87.17 87.57 28 87.96 88.35 88.75 89.14 89.53 89.92 90.32 90.71 29 91.10 91.49 91.89 92.28 92.67 93.06 93.46 93.85 30 94.24 94.64 95.03 95.42 95.81 96.21 96.60 96.99 31 97.39 97.78 98.17 98.57 98.96 99.35 99.75 100.14 32 100.53 100.92 101.32 101.71 102.10 102.49 102.89 103.29 33 103.67 104.07 104.46 104.85 105.24 105.64 106.03 106.42 34 106.81 107.21 107.60 107.99 108.. 39 108.78 109.17 109.56 35 109.96 110.35 110.74 111.13 111.53 111.92 112.31 112.71 36 113.10 113.49 113.88 114.28 114.67 115.06 115.45 115.85 37 116.24 116.63 117.02 117.42 117.81 118,20 118.61 118.99 38 119.38 119.77 120.17 120.56 120.95 121.34 121.74 122.13 39 122.52 122.92 123.31 123.70 124.09 124.49 124.88 125.27 40 125.66 126.06 126.45 126.84 127.24 127.63 128.02 128.41 41 128.81 129.20 127.59 129.98 130.38 130.77 131.16 131.55 42 131.95 132. ?4 132.73 133.13 133.52 133.91 134.30 134.70 43 135.09 135.48 135.87 136.27 136.66 137.05 137.45 137.84 44 138.23 138.62 139.02 139.41 139.80 140.19 140.59 140.98 45 141.37 141.76 142.16 142.55 142.94 143.34 143.73 144.12 384 Table of Decimal Equivalents of 8ths, 16ths, 32nds and 64ths of an Inch. 8ths. 125 .250 .375 .500 .625 .750 .875 leths. tV = .062.5 A = .1875 A = .3125 xV = .4375 x\ = .5625 ^ = 6875 f| = .8125 11 = .9375 32lldS. xV = .03125 Jj = .09375 A = .15625 X = .21875 5^ = .28125 II ^ .34375 II = .40625 II = .46875 1.1= ,5.3125 ll = .59375 |,1 = .65625 If = .71875 II = .78125 U = .84375 I I = .9C625 II == .96875 64tlis. = . 015625 = .046875 g^j = .078125 gV == .109375 = .140625 = .171875 If = .203125 if = .234375 if == .265625 If = .296875 If = .328125 If == .359375 If = .390625 If == .421875 If == .453125 If 2= .484375 If = .515625 If = .546875 If = .578125 II = .609375 If == .640625 If = .671875 If = .703125 If = .734375 II = .765625 |i = .796875 If = .828125 If = .859375 If = .890625 If = .921875 If == .953125 If == .984375 Handy Facts for Architects and Builders. Pitch of tin, copper or tar-and-gravel roofs five-eighths of an inch to the foot and upwards. The average weight of 20,000 men and women weighed at Boston was: Men, ^^s.; women, 124 ^% Smallest convenient size of slab for a 14-in. wash bowl, 21 by 24 in. Height of slab from floor, 2 ft. 6 in. Urinals should be 2 ft. 2 in. between partitions; partitions 6 ft. high. Space occupied by water-closets, 2 ft. 6 in. wide; 2 ft. deep. Dimensions of double bed, 6 ft. 6 in. by 4 ft. 6 in. Dimensions of single bed (in dormitories), 2 ft 8 in. by 6 ft. 6 in. Dimensions of a bureau, 3 ft. 2 in. wide, i ft. 6 in. deep, and upwards. Dimensions of a common wash-stand, 2 ft. 4 in. wide, i ft. 6 in. deep. 385 HANDT FACTS FOR ARCHITECTS, ETC. Dimensions of a barrel — Diameter of head, 17 in.; bung, 19 in.; length, 28 in.; volume, 7,680 cubic in. Dimensions of billiard tables (Collender) — 4 ft. bj 8 ft.; 4 ft. 2 in. by 9 ft.; and 5 ft. by 10 ft. Size of room required respect- ively, 13 by 17; 14 by 18; 15 by 20. Horse-stalls — Width, 3 ft. 10 in. to 4 ft., or else 5 ft. or over in width — nine feet long. Width should never be between 4 and 5 ft., as in that case the horse is liable to cast himself. HORSf: POWER OF STEAM ENGINES, ETC. The unit bf nominal power for steam engines, or the usual es- timate of dynamical effect per minute of a horse, called by en- gineers a “horse power,” is 33,000 pounds at a velocity of i foot per minute, or, the effect of a load of 200 pounds raised by a horse for 8 hours a day, at the rate of 2)^ miles per hour, or 150 pounds at the rate of 220 feet per minute. Rule. — Multiplj^ the area of the piston in square inches by the average force of the steam in pounds and by the velocity of the piston in feet per minute; divide the product by 33,000, and of the quotient equal the effective power. Another Rule. — The diameter of the piston in inches, mul- tiplied hy itself, multiplied by the stroke in inches, multiplied by the revolutions per minute (not the strokes), multiplied by the mean effective (average pressure per square inch on piston), mul- tiplied by .00000397, gives the gross or indicated horse power. For the net effective horse power, deduct from the above about 34 for friction of the working parts. The mean effective pressure can be accurately determined only by the aid of an indicator. When the indicator is not used, and in the calculation the boiler pressure is substituted for the mean effective pressure, deduct from the result obtained from 40 to 60 per cent, for loss by condensation and friction of steam pipes and passages, decrease of pressure in cylinder due to expansion, back pressure of exhaust, and friction of the working parts. For engines from 20 to 60 horse power, an average of 50 per cent, may be deducted; for smaller engines, more. The mean pressure in the cylinder when cutting off at 34 stroke equals boiler pressure multiplied by .597 % K % .670 .743 .847 .919 .937 .966 .992 Best designed boilers, well set, with good draft and skillful firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per pound of first- 386 HORSE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES. class coal. The average result is from 30 to 60 per cent. beloM this. In calculating horse power of Tubular or Flue boilers, con- sider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to one noniina) horse power. One square foot of grate will consume on an average 12 lbs of coal per hour. Steam engines, in economjq vary from 30 to 60 lbs. of fe^* water and from 2 to 7 lbs. of coal per hour per indicated H. P. HOitSE: POWER OF BEETING. A simple rule for ascertaining transmitting power of belting without first computing speed per minute that it travels, is as fol- lows: Multiply diameter of pulley in inches by its number of revolutions per minute, and this product by width of the belt in inches; divide the product by 3,300 for single belting, or by 2,100 for double belting, and the quotient will be the amount of horse power that can be safely transmitted. Table for Single Eeatlier, Four Ply Rubber and Four Ply Cotton Belting, Belts not Overloaded* 1 INCH WIDE, 800 FEET PER MINUTE=1 HORSE POWER. Speed in Ft per Min. 2 3 4 WIDTH OF BELTS IN INCHES. 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H P. H. P. H. P. H P. 400 1 2 21 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 600 n 2} 3 3| 6 7i 9 101 12 13^ 15 800 n 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 " 16 18 20 1000 2 n 5 6| 7i 10 in 15 171 20 221 25 1200 3 6 71 • 2 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 1503 3| 6| n n in 15 18| 22i 26i 30 33| 37i- 1800 n C| 9 Hi 131 18 22i 27 311 36 401 45 2000 5 10 in 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 2400 6 9 12 15 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 2800 7 10| 14 in 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 3300 lu 15 18i 221 30 37i 45 521 60 671 75 3500 13 in 22 26 35 44 521 61 70 79 88 4000 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 4500 lU 17 221 28 34 45 57 69 78 90 102 114 5000 19 25 31 m 50 62i 75 871 100 112 125 Double leather, six-ply rubber or six-ply cotton belting will transmit 50 to 75 per cent, more power than is shown in this table. (One inch wide, 550 feet per minute=one horse power.) 387 Table of Transmission of Power by Wire Ropes. 1 Diameter of [i Wheel in Ft. Number of Revolutions. Trade No. of Rope. 1 Diameter of Rope. Horse Power. j Diameter of Wheel in Ft. 1 Number of Revolutions. 1 Trade No. of Rope. Diameterof Rope, Horse Power. 4 80 23 3 8 3.3 10 80 (19 (18 f a i 55 0 ( 58 4 4 4 lOG,: 120 .^23 23 3 J 1 4.1 5 0 10 100 (19 (18 f j 68 7 ( 73 0 4 140 23 S 8 5.8 10 120 (19 (18 5 8 H j 82 5 ( 87 6 5 80 22 tV 6 9 10 140 (19 (18 i H j 96 2 (102 2 5 5 100 120 22 22 7 1 S' _7_ 8.G 10 3 11 80 (19 (18 f xi j 64 9 1 75 5 5 140 22 12.1 11 100 (19 (18 f T6 j 81 1 ( 94 4 6 80 21 1 2 10 7 11 120 (19 (18 f 1 1 T6 j 97 3 (113 3 6 6 100 120 21 21 1 2 1 13 4 16 1 11 140 (19 (18 5 8 1 1 1 6 S113.6 ■(132.1 6 140 21 1 18 7 12 80 (18 (17 1 1 T6 f j 93 4 } 99.3 7 80 20 9 16 16.9 12 100 (18 }17 f jll6 7 U24 1 7 7 100 120 20 20 9 T6 9 21.1 25 3 12 120 (18 (17 H I jl40 1 (148 9 7 140 20 T 6 rs- 29 6 12 140 (18 (17 1 1 1 6 3 X (163.5 U73 7 8 80 19 1 22.0 13 80 (18 (17 3 X (112 0 ^122.6 8 8 100 120 19 19 5 8 5 27 5 33 0 . 13 100 (18 |l7 1 1 T6 3 X (140 0 (153 2 8 140 19 8 5 'S 38.5 13 120 118 (17 H 3 X (168 0 (183 9 9 9 80 100 (20 (19 (20 (19 5 16 8 9 5 T6 8 j40.0 (41 5 (50 0 (51 9 14 14 11 80 100 120 (17 (16 (17 (16 (17 (16 i i i 1 J i (148 0 ■(141 0 (185 0 (176 0 j222 0 (211 0 9 120 (20 (19 9 5 TF 8 j60 0 (62 2 15 80 17 (16 f i (217 0 (217 0 9 140 (20 9 5 j70 0 15 100 (17 (16 3 ? i (259.0 (259 0 (19 (72 6 15 120 (17 (16 3 T i j300 0 ■(300.0 388 USEFUL HYDRAULIC INFORMATION. A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs pounds and contains 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water weighs 6234 pounds, and contains 1,728 cubic inches or 734 gallons. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the velocity. The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a perfect vacuum it will sustain a column of mercury 29.9 inches or a column of water 33.9 feet high. To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. Approximately we say that every foot elevation is equal to 34 pound pressure per square inch; this allows for ordinary fric- tion. To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the stand- ard of speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root, and the product will be the diameter in inches of the pump cylinder. To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 100 feet of piston speed per minute: Square the diameter of the water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example: Ca- pacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. The square of the diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, the number of gallons per minute (approximately). To find the horse power necessary to elevate water to a given height, multiply the total weight of the water in lbs. by the height in feet and divide the product by 33,000 (an allowance of 25 per cent, should be added for water friction, and a further al- lowance of 25 per cent, for loss in steam cylinder). The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam pressure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The area of the water piston multiplied by the pressure of water per square inch gives the resistance. A margin must be made be- tween the power and the resistance to move the pistons at the required speed — say from 20 to 40 per cent., according to speed and other conditions. To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches, will give the total number of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon in inches), and the product is the capacity in gallons. With the efficient working of pumps certain precautions are necessary. Following are a few hints that will be of service to persons interested in the subject: Care should be exercised to prevent foreign substances from entering the suction 889 * USE]!> UL HTDRA ULIC IN FORM A TION. In case ot such danger a stramer should be used and the total area of the strains holes should be from two to five times the area of the pipe. It is of great advantage to have the suction pipe as straight and free as possible. Elbows and valves obstruct the flow of water much more than usually supposed. Above all other things, the suction pipe should be perfectly air-tight, as a very small leak will supply the pump with so much air that little or no water will be ob- tained. It is advantageous, and, when high speed is desired, becomes a necessity, to con- nect a vacuum chamber to the suction pipe near the pump. A foot-valve should be used on long or high suctions. Its area should be at least as much as the pipe. If in an exposed position, the pump should be thoroughly drained after stopping, to prevent injury by frost, by means of the drain-cocks provided for the purpose. When a pump is to remain idle for some time the steam cylinder should be well oiled before stopping. The stuffing-boxes should be carefully packed so as not to necessitate them being screwed down too tight. The most economical speed to run a pump is loo feet per minute. The friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the velocity. To find the capacity of a Double-Acting Pump in U. S. gal- lons per minute, multiply together: the area of the water cylin-' der in inches; the length of the stroke in inches; the number of single strokes per minute. Divide the product by 231. For a Single-Acting Pump take half the number of single strokes. For domestic use water should be kept in wooden or iron tanks. Zinc can be used to advantage. The use of lead-lined tanks is exceedingly dangerous, especially for keeping rain water. CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL CISTERNS OR TANKS For Each Foot of Depth (U. S. Gallons). Diameter in Feet. Gallons. Pounds. Diameter in Feet. Gallons. Pounds. 2.0 23.5 196 9.0 475.9 3,968 2.5 36.7 306 9.5 530.2 4,421 3.0 52.9 441 10.0 587.5 4,899 3.5 72.0 600 11.0 710.9 5,928 4.0 94.0 784 12 0 846.0 7,054 4.5 119.0 992. 13.0 992.9 8,280 5.0 146 9 1,225 14.0 1,151.5 9,602 5.5 177.7 1,482 15.0 1,321.9 11,023 6.0 211.5 1,764 20.0 2,350.1 19,596 6.5 248.2 2,070 25 0 3,672.0 31,620 7.0 287.9 2,401 30.0 5,287.7 44,093 7.5 330.5 2,756 35.0 7,197.1 60,016 8.0 376.0 3,135 40.0 9,400.3 78,3o8 8.5 424.5 3,540 The great philosopher, Plato, defined man as a featherless biped. Thereupon the shrewd old cynic, Diogehese, plucked the feathers from a goose, and, having labeled it “Plato’s man,” threw it over into the philosopher’s class-room, 390 SIZE, CAPACITY, ETC., OF BOILERS. LOCOMOTIVES. Length. Diam. Fire Box Dome. Flues. Length. Area Chimney. Capac- ity. Ft. in. incl.es. inches. inches. in. ft. in. sq. inches. sq. m. 7 3 3 ) 30x30 IGxlG 4G 2 4 G 138 850 7 3 42 30x3G lGx20 48 2>^ 4 G 240 1100 8 3 42 3Gx3G lGx20 48 2>^ 5 240 1250 I ) 3 42 .>Gx3G 20x24 48 234- 7 240 1725 12 3 42 3Gx42 24x24 40 3 8 G 280 2000 I i 3 42 3Gx42 24x24 40 3 10 G 280 2500 1) 3 48 42x3G 24x24 50 3 7 350 2000 11 3 48 42x42 24x30 50 3 10 G 350 3000 K) 48 42x48 30x30 50 3 11 9 350 3G00 Shell 34 1 5 heads and fire-box, x\-in. C. H No. 1 flange ; wrought iron rings around fire door and in legs. HORIZONTAL TUBULARS. Length . Diam. Dome. No. Flues. Area Chimney. Heating S. Capacity. Feet. inches. inches. in. sq. inches. sq. inches. sq. inches. 10 3G 20x20 30 3 2G0 280 1400 12 3G 20x24 30 3 2G0 330 1650 10 42 20x24 40 3 350 380 1900 12 42 24x24 40 3 350 440 2200 14 42 24x24 40 3 350 480 2400 IG 42 24x30 40 3 350 5G0 2800 14 48 24x30 50 3 440 G30 3150 IG 48 24x30 50 3 440 725 3625 IG 54 30x3G 50 3K G25 850 4250 IG GO 30x3G 50 4 ^ 800 975 4875 18 GO 30x3G 50 4 800 1250 6250 Small boilers: Shell j^ in. C. H. No. 1 iron; heads, ^ H. No. 1 flange iron. Large boilers (54-in. and upwards): Shell %‘in. C. H. No. 1 iron; heads, C. H. No. 1 flange iron. BRICK CHIMNEYS. Thickness of brick- work, one brick from top to twenty -five feet from top; a brick and a half from 25 to 50 ft. from top, in- creasing by half a brick for each additional 25 feet to bottom. The diameter at base should be not less than one-tenth the height. If the inside diameter at top exceed 4 3^ feet, the top length should be a brick and a half thick. 391 BOII^SR CHIIRNEYS. For marine boilers the general rule is to allow 14 sq. in. of chimney for each nominal horse-power. For stationary boilers the area of the chimneys should be one-fifth greater than the combined area of all the flues or tubes. Where boilers are pro- vided with other means of draught the dimensions of the chimney are not so important. Oiameter and Heiglit of Boiler Chimneys, Horse pow’r of Boiler. Height of Chimney. Interior Diam. at Top. Horse pow’r of Boiler. Height of Chimney. Interior Diam. at Top. 10 60 ft. 14 inches. 70 120 ft. 30 inches. 12 75 “ 14 “ 90 120 “ 34 16 90 “ 16 “ 120 135 “ 38 “ 20 99 “ 17 “ 160 150 “ 43 “ 30 105 “ 21 “ 200 165 “ 47 60 120 “ 26 “ 250 180 “ 42 “ 60 120 “ 27 “ 380 195 “ 57 ‘‘ Table of the Principal Alloys. A combination of copper and tin makes bath metal. A combination of copper and zinc makes bell metal. A combination of tin and copper makes bronze metal. A combination of tin, antimony, copper and bismuth makes britannia metal. A combination of tin and copper makes cannon metal. ' A combination of copper and zinc makes Dutch gold. A combination of copper, nickel and zinc, with sometimes 7 little iron and tin makes German silver. A combination of gold and copper makes standard gold. A combination of gold, copper and silver makes old-standard gold. A combination of tin and copper makes gun metal. A combination of copper and zinc makes mosaic gold. A combination of tin and lead makes pewter. A combination of lead and a little arsenic makes sheet metal. A combination of silver and copper makes standard silver. A combination of tin and lead makes solder. A combination of lead and antimony makes type metal. A combination of copper and arsenic makes white copper. How to Mix Printing Inks and Paints in the Preparation of Tints. THE FIRST NAMED COLOR ALWAYS PREDOMINATES. Mixing dark green and purple makes bottle green. Mixing white and medium yellow makes buff tint. Mixing red, black and blue makes dark brown. Mixing bronze, blue, lemon yellow and black makes darkgreen. Mixing white, medium yellow and black makes drab tint. Mixing white, lake and lemon yellow makes flesh tint. 393 MIXING INKS AND PAINTS. Mixing lemon yellow and bronze blue makes grass-green. Mixing white and black makes gray tint. Mixing white and purple makes lavender tint. Mixing red, black and medium yellow makes maroon. Mixing lake and purple makes magenta. Mixing medium yellow and purple makes olive green. Mixing medium yellow and red makes orange. Mixing white, ultramarine blue and black makes pearl tint. Mixing white and lake makes pink. Mixing ultramarine blue and lake makes purple. Mixing orange, lake and purple makes russet. Mixing medium yellow, red and white makes sienna. Mixing white and ultramarine blue makes sky blue. Mixing ultramarine blue, black and white makes slate. Mixing Vermillion and black makes Turkey red. Mixing white, yellow, red and black makes umber. Durability of Different Woods. Experiments have been lately made by driving sticks, made of different woods, each two feet long and one and one-half inches square, into the ground, only one-half an inch projecting out- ward. It was found that in five years all those made of oak, elm, ash, fir, soft mahogany, and nearly every variety of pine, were totally rotten. Larch, hard pine and teak wood were decayed on the outside only, while acacia, with the exception of being also slightly attacked on the exterior, was otherwise sound. Hard mahogany and cedar of Lebanon were in tolerably good con- dition; but only Virginia cedar was found as good as when put in the ground. This is of some importance to builders, showing what woods should be avoided, and what others used by pref- erence in underground work. The duration of wood when kept dry is very great, as beams still exist which are known to be nearly i,ioo years old. Piles driven by the Romans prior to the Christian era have been ex- amined of late, and found to be perfectly sound after an immer- sion of nearly 2,000 years. The wood of some tools will last longer than the metals, as in spades, hoes and plows. In other tools the wood is first gone, as in wagons, wheelbarrows and machines. Such wood should be painted or oiled; the paint not only looks well, but preserves the wood; petroleum oil is as good as any other. Hard wood stumps decay in five or six years; spruce stumps decay in about the same time; hemlock stumps in eight to nine years; cedar, eight to nine years; pine stumps, never. Cedar, oak, yellow pine and chestnut are the most durable woods in dry places. Timber intended for posts is rendered almost proof against rot by thorough seasoning, charring and immersion in hot coal tar. specific Gravity of Various A gallon of water or wine weighs lo lbs, the basis of the following table. Substances. and this is taken as LIQUIDS. TIMBER. METALS. Water 100 Cork 24 Zinc Sea water 103 Poplar 38 C^ast iron Dead Sea 124 Fif 55 Tin Alcohol 84 81 Bar iron Olive oil .... 92 Pear 66 Steel Tujpentine 99 Walnut 67 Copper Wine 100 Cherry. . . . . , 72 Brass Urine 101 Maple 75 Silver Cider 102 Apple 79 Lead Beer 102 Ash 84 Mercury Woman’s milk. . . . .... 102 Beech 85 Gold Cow’s “ .... .... 103 Mahogany . . 106 Platina Goat’s “ .... 104 Oak 117 Porter .... 104 Ebony 133 PRECIOUS STONES. Emerald ... 277.5 1 Diamond . . . ....... 353.0 1 Garnet 719 721 729 779 783 869 840 1,357 1,926 265.3 , 1 Topaz. . 401.1 1 Ruby. . . 77 SUNDRIES. Peat . .. 133 Porcelain 93 Opium .. 134 Stone 94 Honey .. 145 Marble. . , 117 Ivory .. 183 Granite. . 120 Brick .. 200 Chalk .... 130 Sulphur .. 203 Glass. ... 428.3 Indigo 77 Gunpowder Butter Ice Clay Coal Weiglit in Cubic .Keet. Lbs. per Cub. Ft. 15 36 51 56 62 66 70 70 72 80 226 252 278 279 289 Cork Cedar Beech Butter Water Mahogany . Ice . . Oak Clay Coal Brick . . . Stone. . . Granite . Glass ... Iron Copper. . Silver. . . Lead. . .. Gold.... Lbs. per Cub. Ft. . 120 . 150 . 166 . 172 . 470 . 520 . 630 .. 680 , 1,155 OTensile and Xransverse Strensrtb A crushing force of i,ooo lbs. per square inch on a bar i inch square, and 12 inches long, gives the following ratios of strength: Tensile. Transverse. I Tensile . Transverse. Stone .. 100 10 Cast iron. . . , 158 20 Glass .. 123 10 1 Timber 1,900 85 Xensile Xest of Steel. BAR 8 INCHES LONG. Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Extension, Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Extension, Section. per Sq. Inch. Inches. Section. per Sq. Inch. Inches. 1.0000 13.93 .01 .8325 28 35 1.40 .9799 16.96 .10 .7088 27 32 2.C0 .9331 23.43 .40 .5541 25.05 2.20 .8741 27.23 1.00 Elastic Limit. . . . 17.40 tons. Cohesion Maximum strain . 28..35 “ Extension. . . 2714 per cent. Breaking load... . 25.05 “ Contraction. 394 TENSILE STRENGTH OF STEEL,— Continued. Taking the strength of Swedish iron at lOO, the tensiU strength of steel compares thus: Swedish iron 100 I Cannon steel ]73 Boiler steel 118 | Spring steel 202 Pecuniary Value of Metals* Few people have any idea of the value of precious metals other than gold, silver and copper, which are commonly supposed to he the most precious of all. There are many metals more valuable and infinitely rarer. The following table gives the names and prices of all the known metals of pecuniary worth: Price per Av. pound. $ 330 00 225 00 225 00 150 00 130 00 115 00 64 00 Price per Av. pound. Vanadium #10,000 OO Rubidium 9.070 00 Zirconium 7,200 00 Lithium 7,000 00 Glucium 5,400 00 Calcium 4,500 00 Strontium 4,200 00 Terbium 4,080 00 Vitrium.,, 4,080 00 Erbium 3,400 00 Cerium 3,400 00 Didymium 3,200 00 Indium 3,200 00 Ruthenium 2,400 00 Rhodium 2,300 00 Niobium 2,300 00 “ ■ 1,800 00 1,400 00 1,300 00 1,090 00 900 00 689 00 500 00 Barium. Palladium . Osmium . . . Iridium Uranium . . Titanium . . Chromium. Gold Molybdenum . Thallium Platinum Manganese . . . Tungstein Magnesium. . . Potassium Aluminum. . . . Silver Cobalt Sodium Nickel Cadmium Bismuth Mercury Arsenic ...... Tin Copper Antimony Zinc Lead 64 00 32 00 20 00 16 00 8 00 5 00 4 00 2 50 95 50 25 25 16 11 08 VALUE OF METALS AS CONDUCTORS. Heat. Electricity. Heat. Electricity. Gold .... 100 94 Iron 37 16 Platinum. . .... 98 16 Zinc 36 29 Silver .... 97 74 Tin 30 15 Copper. . . . 100 Lead 18 8 TENACITY OF METALS. A wire, 0.84. of a line in diameter, will sustain weights as follows: Lead. Tin. .. Zinc. . Gold. , 28 lbs. 35 “ no “ . 150 “ Silver 187 lbs. Platinum 274 “ Copper 302 “ Iron 549 FLUID DENSITY OF METALS. Zinc. Iron. Tin. . 6.48 1 Copper 8.22 6.88 Silver 9.51 7.03 1 Lead 10.37 395 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 85 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES OF ALL NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 500. Squares. Cubes. No. Squares. Cubes. 1 1 55 30 25 166 375 4 8 56 31 36 175 616 9 27 57 32 49 185 193 16 64 58 33 64 195 112 25 1 25 59 34 81 205 379 36 2 16 60 36 00 216 000 49 3 43 61 37 21 226 981 64 5 12 62 38 44 238 328 81 7 29 63 39 69 250 047 1 00 1 000 64 40 96 262 144 1 21 1 331 65 42 25 274 626 1 44 1 728 66 43 56 287 496 1 69 2 197 67 44 89 300 763 1 96 2 744 68 46 24 314 432 2 25 3 375 69 47 61 328 509 2 56 4 096 70 49 00 343 000 2 89 4 913 71 50 41 357 911 3 24 5 832 72 51 84 373 248 3 61 6 859 73 53 29 389 017 4 00 8 000 74 54 76 405 224 4 41 9 261 75 56 25 421 875 4 84 10 648 76 57 76 438 976 5 29 12 167 77 59 29 456 533 5 76 13 824 78 60 84 474 552 6 25 15 625 79 62 41 493 039 6 76 17 576 80 64 00 512 000 7 29 19 683 81 65 81 531 441 7 84 21 952 82 67 24 551 368 8 41 24 389 83 68 89 571 787 9 00 27 000 84 70 56 592 704 9 61 29 791 85 72 25 614 125 10 24 32 768 86 73 96 636 056 10 89 35 937 87 75 69 658 503 11 56 39 304 88 77 44 681 472 12 25 42 875 89 79 21 704 969 12 96 46 656 90 81 00 729 000 13 69 50 653 91 82 81 753 571 14 44 54 872 92 84 64 778 688 15 21 59 319 93 86 49 • 804 357 16 00 64 000 94 88 36 830 584 16 81 68 921 95 90 25 857 375 17 64 74 088 96 92 16 884 736 18 49 79 507 97 94 09 912 673 19 36 85 184 98 96 04 941 192 20 25 91 125 99 98 01 970 299 21 16 97 336 100 1 00 00 1 000 000 22 09 103 823 101 1 02 01 1 030 301 23 04 110 592 102 1 04 04 1 061 298 24 01 117 649 103 1 06 09 1 092 727 25 00 125 000 104 1 08 16 1 124 864 26 01 132 651 105 1 10 25 1 157 625 27 04 140 608 106 1 12 36 1 191 016 28 09 148 877 107 1 14 49 1 225 043 29 16 157 464 108 1 16 64 1 259 712 396 TABLE OF SQUARES AND CVBES—Con^inu^d. No. 1 Squares. Cubes. No. Squares. Cubes. 109 1 18 81 1 295 029 169 2 85 61 4 826 8(i9 110 1 21 00 1 331 000 170 2 89 00 4 913 000 111 1 23 21 1 367 631 171 2 92 41 5 000 211 112 1 25 44 1 404 928 172 2 95 84 5 088 448 113 1 27 69 1 442 897 173 2 99 29 5 177 717 114 1 29 96 1 481 544 174 3 02 76 5 268 ()24 115 1 32 25 1 520 875 175 3 06 25 5 359 375 116 1 34 56 1 560 896 176 3 09 76 5 451 776 117 1 36 89 1 601 613 177 3 13 29 5 545 233 118 1 39 24 1 643 032 178 3 16 84 5 639 752 119 1 41 61 1 685 159 179 3 20 41 5 735 339 120 1 44 00 1 728 000 180 3 24 00 5 832 01 »0 121 1 46 41 1 771 561 181 3 27 61 5 929 741 122 1 48 84 1 815 848 182 3 31 24 6 028 568 123 1 51 29 1 860 867 183 3 34 89 6 128 487 124 1 53 76 1 906 624 184 3 38 56 6 229 504 125 1 56 25 1 953 125 185 3 42 25 6 331 625 126 1 58 76 2 000 376 186 3 45 96 6 434 856 127 1 61 29 2 048 383 187 3 49 69 6 539 203 128 1 63 84 2 097 152 188 3 53 44 6 644 672 129 1 66 41 2 146 689 189 3 57 21 6 751 269 130 1 69 00 2 197 GOO 190 3 61 00 6 859 OOO 131 1 71 61 2 248 091 191 3 64 81 6 967 871 132 1 74 24 2 299 968 192 3 68 64 7 077 888 133 1 76 89 2 352 637 193 3 72 49 7 189 057 134 1 79 56 2 406 104 194 3 76 36 7 301 384 135 1 82 25 2 460 375 195 3 80 25 7 414 875 136 1 84 96 2 515 456 196 3 84 16 7 529 536 137 1 87 69 2 571 353 197 3 88 09 7 645 373 138 1 90 44 2 628 072 198 3 92 04 7 762 392 139 1 93 21 2 685 619 199 3 96 01 7 880 599 140 1 96 00 2 744 000 200 4 00 00 .8 000 000 141 1 98 81 2 803 221 201 4 04 01 8 120 601 142 2 01 64 2 863 288 202 4 08 04 8 242 408 143 2 04 49 2 924 207 203 4 12 09 8 365 427 144 2 07 36 2 985 984 204 4 16 16 8 489 664 145 2 10 25 3 048 625 205 4 20 35 8 615 125 146 2 13 16 3 112 136 206 4 24 36 8 741 816 147 2 16 09 3 176 523 207 4 28 49 8 869 743 148 2 19 04 3 241 792 2(^8 4 32 64 8 998 912 149 2 22 01 3 307 949 2 9 4 36 81 9 129 329 150 2 25 00 3 375 000 210 4 41 00 9 261 00 J 151 2 28 (•! 3 442 951 211 4 45 21 9 393 931 152 2 31 04 3 511 808 212 4 49 44 9 528 128 153 2 34 09 3 581 577 213 4 53 69 9 663 597 154 2 37 16 3 652 264 214 4 57 96 9 800 344 155 2 40 25 3 723 875 215 4 62 25 9 938 375 156 2 43 36 3 796 416 216 4 66 56 10 077 646 157 2 46 49 3 869 893 217 4 70 89 10 218 313 158 2 49 64 3 944 312 218 4 75 24 10 360 232 159 2 52 81 4 019 679 219 4 79 61 10 503 459 160 2 56 00 4 096 000 220 4 84 00 10 648 000 161 2 59 21 4 173 281 221 4 88 41 10 793 861 162 2 62 44 4 251 528 222 4 92 84 10 941 048 163 2 65 69 4 330 747 223 4 97 29 11 089 567 164 2 68 96 4 410 944 224 5 01 76 11 239 424 165 2 72 25 4 492 125 225 5 06 25 11 390 625 166 2 75 56 4 574 296 226 5 10 76 11 543 176 167 2 78 89 4 657 463 227 5 15 29 11 697 083 168 2 82 24 4 741 632 228 5 19 84 11 852 352 TABLE OF SQUARES AND CVBES-Contmued. No, Squares. Cubes. No. Squares. Cubes. 229 6 24 41 12 008 989 289 8 35 21 24 137 569 230 5 29 00 12 167 000 290 8 41 00 24 389 000 231 5 33 61 12 326 391 291 8 46 81 24 642 171 232 5 38 24 12 487 168 292 8 52 64 24 897 088 233 5 42 89 12 649 337 293 8 58 49 25 453 757 234 6 47 56 12 812 904 294 8 64 36 25 412 184 235 5 52 25 12 977 875 295 8 70 25 25 G72 375 236 5 56 96 13 144 2.56 296 8 76 16 25 934 336 237 5 61 69 13 312 053 297 8 82 09 26 m 073 238 5 66 44 13 481 272 298 8 88 04 26 463 592 239 5 71 21 13 651 919 299 8 94 01 26 730 899 240 5 76 00 13 824 000 300 9 00 00 27 000 000 241 5 80 81 13 997 521 301 9 06 01 27 270 901 242 5 85 64 14 172 4S8 302 9 12 Ot 27 543 608 213 5 90 49 14 348 907 303 9 18 09 27 818 127 244 5 95 36 14 526 784 304 9 24 16 28 094 464 245 6 00 25 14 706 125 305 9 30 25 28 372 625 246 6 05 16 14 886 936 306 9 36 36 28 652 616 247 6 10 09 15 069 223 307 9 42 49 28 934 443 248 6 15 04 15 252 992 308 9 48 64 29 218 112 249 6 20 01 15 438 249 309 9 54 81 29 503 629 2.50 6 25 05 15 625 000 310 9 61 00 29 791 000 251 6 30 01 15 813 251 311 9 67 21 30 080 231 252 6 35 04 16 003 008 312 9 73 44 30 371 328 253 6 40 09 16 194 277 313 9 79 69 30 664 297 254 ' 6 45 16 16 387 064 314 9 85 96 30 959 144 255 6 50 25 16 581 375 315 8 92 25 31 255 875 2.56 6 55 36 16 777 216 316 9 98 56 31 554 496 257 6 60 49 16 974 593 317 10 04 89 31 855 013 258 6 65 64 17 173 512 318 10 11 24 32 157 432 259 6 70 81 17 373 979 319 10 17 61 32 461 759 260 . 6 76 00 17 576 000 320 10 24 00 32 768 000 261 6 81 21 17 779 581 321 10 30 41 S3 076 161 262 6 86 44 17 984 728 322 10 36 84 33 386 248 263 6 91 69 18 191 447 323 10 43 29 33 698 267 264 6 96 96 18 399 744 324 10 49 76 34 012 224 265 7 02 25 18 609 625 325 10 56 25 34 328 125 266 7 06 56 18 821 096 326 10 62 76 34 645 976 267 7 12 89 19 034 163 327 10 69 29 34 965 783 268 7 18 24 19 248 832 328 10 75 84 35 287 552 269 7 23 61 19 465 109 329 10 82 41 35 611 289 270 7 29 00 19 683 000 330 10 89 00 35 937 000 271 7 34 41 19 902 511 331 10 95 61 36 264 691 272 7 39 84 20 123 648 332 11 02 24 36 594 368 273 7 45 29 20 346 417 333 11 08 89 36 926 037 274 7 50 76 20 570 824 334 11 15 56 37 259 704 275 7 56 25 20 796 875 335 11 22 25 37 595 375 276 7 61 76 21 024 576 336 11 28 96 37 933 056 277 7 67 29 21 253 933 337 11 35 69 38 272 753 278 7 72 84 21 484 952 338 11 42 44 38 614 472 279 7 78 41 21 717 639 339 11 49 21 38 958 219 280 7 84 00 21 952 000 340 11 56 00 39 304 000 281 7 89 61 22 188 041 341 11 62 81 39 651 821 282 7 95 24 22 425 768 342 11 69 64 40 001 688 283 8 00 89 22 665 187 343 11 76 49 40 353 607 284 8 06 56 22 906 304 344 11 83 36 40 707 584 285 8 12 25 23 149 125 345 11 90 25 41 m 625 286 8 17 96 23 393 656 346 11 97 16 41 421 736 287 8 23 69 23 639 903 347 12 04 09 41 781 923 288 8 29 44 23 887 872 348 12 11 04 42 144 192 398 TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES— No. Squares. Cubes. No. Squares. Cubes. 349 12 18 01 42 508 519 409 16 72 81 68 417 929 350 12 25 00 42 875 0(10 410 16 81 00 68 921 (jOO 351 12 32 01 43 243 551 411 16 89 21 69 426 531 352 12 39 04 43 614 208 412 16 97 44 69 934 528 &33 12 46 09 43 986 977 413 17 05 69 70 444 997 354 12 53 16 44 361 864 414 17 13 96 70 957 914 355 12 60 25 44 738 875 415 17 22 25 71 473 375 356 12 67 36 45 118 016 416 17 30 56 71 991 296 357 12 74 49 45 499 293 417 17 38 89 72 511 713 358 12 81 64 45 882 7'2 418 17 47 24 73 034 632 359 12 88 81 46 268 279 419 ir 55 61 73 560 059 3G0 12 96 00 46 656 090 420 17 64 00 74 088 000 3bl 13 03 21 47 045 881 421 17 72 41 74 618 461 302 13 10 44 47 437 928 422 17 80 84 75 151 418 3o3 13 17 69 47 832 147 423 17 89 29 75 686 937 36i 13 24 96 48 228 544 424 37 97 76 76 225 024 365 13 32 25 48 627 125 425 18 06 25 76 765 625 566 13 39 56 49 027 896 426 18 14 76 77 308 776 367 13 46 89 49 430 863 427 18 23 29 77 854 483 368 13 54 24 49 836 032 428 18 31 84 78 402 752 3 >9 13 61 61 50 243 409 429 18 40 40 78 9.53 5^9 370 13 69 00 50 653 000 i 430 18 49 00 79 507 000 37 L 13 76 41 51 C64 811 1 431 18 57 61 81) 062 991 372 13 83 84 51 478 848 432 18 63 24 80 621 568 373 13 91 29 51 895 117 1 483 18 74 89 81 182 737 374 13 98 76 52 313 624 ' 431 18 83 56 81 746 504 375 14 06 25 52 734 375 435 38 92 25 82 312 875 376 14 13 76 53 157 376 436 19 00 96 82 881 856 377 14 21 29 53 582 633 437 19 09 69 83 453 453 878 14 28 84 54 010 152 438 19 18 44 84 027 672 379 14 36 41 54 439 939 430 19 27 21 84 604 519 380 14 44 00 54 872 000 440 19 36 00 85 184 000 381 14 51 61 55 306 341 441 19 44 81 85 766 121 3>2 14 59 24 55 742 968 442 39 53 64 86 350 888 383 14 66 89 56 181 887 443 19 62 49 86 938 307 384 14 74 56 56 623 104 444 19 71 36 87 528 284 385 14 82 25 56 066 625 445 19 80 25 88 121 125 386 14 89 96 57 512 456 416 39 89 16 88 716 536 387 14 97 69 57 960 603 447 20 98 09 89 314 623 388 15 05 44 58 411 072 418 20 07 04 89 915 392 389 15 13 21 58 863 869 449 20 16 01 90 518 849 390 15 21 00 59 319 000 450 20 2a 00 91 125 000 391 15 28 81 59 776 471 451 20 34 01 91 733 751 392 15 36 64 60 236 288 452 20 43 04 92 345 408 393 15 44 49 60 698 457 453 20 52 09 92 959 677 394 15 52 36 61 162 984 451 20 61 16 93 576 664 395 15 60 25 61 629 875 455 20 70 25 94 396 375 31-6 15 68 16 62 (99 1.36 456 20 79 38 94 818 816 397 15 76 09 62 570 773 457 20 88 49 95 443 993 393 15 84 04 63 044 792 458 21 97 64 96 071 9!2 399 15 92 01 63 521 199 459 21 06 81 96 702 579 400 16 00 00 64 000 000 460 21 16 00 97 336 000 401 16 08 01 64 481 201 461 21 25 21 97 972 181 402 16 61 04 64 964 808 462 21 31 44 98 611 128 403 16 24 09 65 450 827 463 21 43 69 99 252 847 404 16 32 16 6 5 939 264 464 21 62 96 99 897 344 405 16 40 25 66 430 125 465 21 62 25 100 554 625 406 16 48 36 66 923 416 466 21 71 56 101 394 696 407 16 56 49 67 419 143 467 21 80 89 101 847 563 4 '8 16 64 64 67 917 321 468 21 90 24 102 503 232 399 TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES-^ a^c/uc/eJ. No. Squares. Cubes. No. Squares. Cubes. 469 21 99 61 103 161 709 485 23 52 26 114 084 125 470 22 09 00 103 823 000 486 23 61 96 114 791 256 471 22 18 41 104 487 111 487 23 71 69 115 501 303 472 22 27 84 105 154 048 488 23 81 44 116 214 572 473 22 37 29 105 823 817 489 23 91 21 116 930 169 474 22 46 76 106 496 424 490 24 01 00 117 649 000 475 22 56 25 107 171 875 491 24 10 81 118 370 771 476 22 65 76 107 850 176 492 24 20 64 119 095 488 477 22 75 29 108 531 333 493 24 30 49 119 823 157 473 22 84 84 109 215 352 494 24 40 36 120 553 784 479 22 94 41 109 902 239 495 24 50 25 121 287 375 480 23 04 00 no 592 000 49.3 24 60 16 122 023 936 481 23 13 61 111 284 641 497 24 70 09 122 763 473 482 23 23 24 111 980 168 498 24 80 04 123 505 992 483 23 32 89 112 678 587 499 24 90 01 124 251 499 484 23 42 56 113 379 904 500 25 00 00 325 000 000 LENGTH OF CIRCULAR ARC. Huygens’ approximation to length of a circular arc: A = Chord of any circular arc. B = Chord of half that arc. R = Radius of the circular arc. L = Length of the circular arc. \ 3 Or, as it is usually written, L = 2 B + >< (2 B — A). WEDDING ANNIVERSARIES. First, cotton; second, paper; third, leather; fifth, wooden; seventh, woolen; tenth, tin; twelfth, silk and fine linen; fifteenth, crystal; twentieth, china; twenty-fifth, silver; thirtieth, pearl; fortieth, ruby; fiftieth, golden; seventy-fifth, diamond. YOUR BIRTHDAY. Born on Monday, fair in face; Born on Tuesday, full of God’s grace-, Born on Wednesday, the best to be had; Born on Thursday, merry and glad; Born on Friday, worthily given; Born on Saturday, work hard for a living; Born on Sundaj^, shall never know want. An indenture is a deed or instrument in writing. Originally such writings were made in duplicate upon a sheet of paper which was afterwards indented or cut apart in a waved or notched line. One piece was given to each of the parties to the contract, and when the two were put together they would, of course, fit into each other exactly. This mode of indenture has passed out of use, but the term survives. 400 NATURAL SINES, ETC. NO (L’ P Sine. Cover. Cosecnt. Tangt. Cotang. Secant. Versin, Cosin. bi) OJ P 0 .00 1.00000 Infinite. .0 Infinite. 1.00000 .0 1.00000 90 1 .01745 .98254 57.2986 .01745 57.2899 1.00015 .0001 .99984 89 2 .03489 .96510 28.6537 .03492 28.6362 1.00060 .0006 .99939 88 .05233 .94766 19.1073 .05240 19.0811 1.00137 .0013 .99862 87 4 .06975 .93024 14.3355 .06992 14.3006 1.00244 .0024 .99756 86 6 .08715 .91284 11.4737 .08748 11.4300 1.00381 .0038 .99619 85 6 .10452 .89547 9.5667 .10510 9.5143 1.00550 .0054 .99452 84 7 .12186 .87813 8.2055 .12278 8.1443 1.00750 .0074 .99254 83 8 .13917 .86082 7.1852 .14054 7.1153 1.00982 .0097 .99026 82 9 .15643 .84356 6.3924 .15838 6.3137 1.01246 .0123 .98768 81 10 .17364 .82635 5.7587 .17632 5.6712 1.01542 .0151 .98480 80 11 .19080 .80919 5.24(8 .19438 5.1445 1.01871 .0183 .98162 79 12 .20791 .79208 4.8097 .21255 4.7046 1.02234 .0218 .97814 78 13 .22495 .77504 4.4454 .23086 4.3314 1.02630 .0256 .97437 77 14 .24192 .75807 4.1335 .24932 4.0107 1.03061 .0297 .97029 76 15 .25881 .74118 3.8637 .26794 3.7320 1.03527 .0340 .96592 75 16 .27563 .72436 3.6279 .28674 3.4874 1.04029 .0387 .96126 74 17 .29237 .70702 3.4203 .30573 3.2708 1.04569 .0436 .95630 73 18 .30901 .69098 3.2360 .32491 3.0776 1.05146 .0489 .95105 72 19 .32556 .67443 3. (>7 15 .34432 2.9042 1 .05762 .0544 .94551 71 20 .34202 .65797 2.9238 .36397 2.7474 1.06417 .0603 .93969 70 21 .35836 .64163 2 7904 .38386 2.6050 1.07114 .0664 .93358 69 22 .37460 .62539 2 6694 .40402 2.4750 1.07853 .0728 .92718 68 23 .39073 .60926 2.5593 .42447 2 3558 1.08636 .0794 .92050 67 24 -40673 .59326 2 4585 .44522 2. 2460 1.09463 .0864 .91354 66 25 .42261 .57738 2.3662 . 46630 2.1445 1.10337 .0936 .90630 65 26 .43837 .56162 2.2811 .48773 2.0503 1.11260 .1012 .89879 64 27 .45399 .54600 2.2026 .50952 1.9626 1.12232 T089 .89100 63 28 .46947 .53052 2.1300 .53170 1-8807 1.13257 .1170 .88294 62 29 .48480 .51519 2.0626 .55430 1.8040 1.14335 .1253 .87461 61 30 .50000 .50000 2.0000 .57735 1.7320 1.15470 .1339 .86602 60 31 .51503 .48496 1.9416 .60086 1.6042 1.16663 .1428 .85716 59 32 .52991 .47008 1.8870 .62486 1.6003 1.17917 .1519 .84804 58 33 .51463 .45536 1.8360 .64940 1.5398 1.19236 .1613 .83867 57 34 .55919 .44080 l.)882 .67450 1.4825 1.20621 .1709 .82903 56 35 .57357 .42642 1.7434 .70020 1.4281 1.22077 .1808 .81915 55 36 .58778 .41221 1.7013 .72654 1.3763 1.23606 .1909 .80901 54 37 .60181 .39318 1.6616 .75355 1.3270 1.25213 .2013 .79863 53 38 .61566 .38433 1.6242 .78128 1.2799 1.26901 .2119 .78801 52 39 .62932 .37067 1.5890 .80978 1.2348 1.28675 .2228 .77714 51 40 .64278 .35721 1.5557 .83909 1.1917 1.30540 .2339 .76604 50 41 .65605 .34394 1.5242 .86928 1.1503 1.32501 .2452 .75470 49 42 .66913 .33086 1.4944 .90040 1.1106 1.34563 .2568 .74314 48 43 .68199 .31800 1.4662 .93251 1.0723 1.36732 .2686 .73135 47 44 .69465 .30534 1.4395 .96568 1.0355 1.39016 .2806 .71933 46 45 .70710 .29289 1.4142 1.00000 1.0000 1.41421 .2928 .70710 45 Cosin. Versin. Secant. Cotang. Tangt. Cosecnt. Cover. Sine. The term bankrupt originated in connection with the money- changers of Italy. They sat in the market-place with their money displayed on a bench (or banc, as it was called) before them. When one of these financial gentle- men failed his banc (or bench) was said to be broken, and he was styled a bank- rupt. The modern bank inherits its name from the unimposing money-bench (banc) of mediaeval Italy. 401 Useful Information for Printers and Publishers. Standard Newspaper Measure. The standard newspaper measure, as recognized and now in general use, is 13 ems pica. The standard of measurement of all sizes of type is the em quad, not the letter m. Leads and Slugs. Leads are designated as “ — to-pica,” the number being that fraction of a pica which the lead is, viz.: a 6-to-pica lead is one- sixth of a pica in thickness, or six 6-to-pica’s are equal to one pica; four 4-to-pica’s one pica, and so with other sizes or thick- nesses of leads. Slugs — “Leads” of nonpareil thickness and greater are called slugs, viz.: nonpareil slugs, brevier slugs, pica slugs, etc. Average Weight of Matter. A “piece” of solid matter 13 ems pica wide and 6 inches long will weigh about 3% lbs., but, in order to allow for the sorts usually remaining in case, 4^ lbs. of type would be required to set that amount of solid matter. When the matter is to be leaded the weight of the type may be reduced about one-quarter, i. e., a single column of six-column folio, solid, will weigh loj^ lbs., re- quiring about 13 lbs. of type, while the same length column, leaded with 6-to-pica leads, will contain but 7% lbs. solid matter, requiring about 10 lbs. of type to set the same. Example — A single page of regular six-column folio or quarto (13x19^) contains 256^ square inches of matter: 256^X4%~^I3 (sqfiafe inches of 4 % lbs. of type) =86-|-, the number of pounds of type required to set that amount of mat- ter, including sorts in case. How to Estimate for Body Type. To estimate the quantity of type (solid) necessary to fill a given space, multiply the number of square inches by 5^ (esti- mated weight, in ounces, of one square inch of matter, including sorts in case) divide the product by 16, and the result will be the weight of type required. If leaded, a reduction in weight ot type may be made as above. Example — A single page of regular six-column folio or quarto (i2xiqX) contains 2c6X square inches of matter: 256XX5K-i6=86+, the number of pounds of type required to set that amount of matter, including sorts in case. Miscellaneous Information. The following table gives the number of “ems” in a space 6x13 ems pica, also the average number of “ems” in 4 ounces: Number of Ems in Pearl Agate No’ pi Min’n BreVr Bourg Lg. Pr Sm. Pi Pica 6x13 Ems Pica 368X 312 230X 177 138?^ mVa 92 78 4 Ounces 196 165 132 100 78 61 61 43 35 402 Newspaper Measurement. Table showing the number of ems of the different sizes of newspaper type in a line, the number of lines necessary to make 1,000 ems, and the length in inches. Also the number of ems in the regular lengths of columns: 13 Ems Pica, 6 ^ c £ 0 K 0 1: s a Isg .2^ 0 "o Jso' .2 -3 o" 0 ^ 'G 0 00 WIDTH OF G W '‘So .3.2 ^ P 0 fe a Standard Column. d a d 8 5 _m 0 .2 50 OH 7 Col or 0 , Ems i 8 Col. Ems 9 Col, Ems j Agate 28^ So /4 2% 5,040 6,505 7,180 7.900 8,630 9,310 Nonpareil 26 38^ 3^ 4,325 5,615 6,160 6.785 7,410 8,020 Minion 2214 45 3,175 4,115 4,515 4,970 5,440 5,885 Brevier 513/3 2,465 3,200 3,510 3,865 4.220 4,575 Bourgeois 57^ 714 1,950 2,525 2,770 3,050 3,330 3,615 Long Primer 64>^ 9 1,610 2,085 2,290 2,520 2,755 2,970 Leads for Newspapers. Table showing the number of leads, 13 ems pica long, con- tained in one pound, and the number required to lead 1,000 ems of matter; together with the number of leads in a single col- umn of matter, regular sizes of newspapers: Size of Body Type TO BE Leaded with 6-to-Pica Leads. INo. Leads |to pound. |No. Leads 1 1 , coo Ems. 4 Col. Fol. or Quarto. Leads in 1 Column. 1 5 Col. Foil or Quarto. 1 Leads in Column. 1 6 Col. Fol. or Quarto. Leads in Column. 7 Col. Fol, or Quarto. Leads in Column. 8 Col. Fol. Leads in C olumn. 9 Col. Fol. Leads in 1 Column, Agate 60 26 132 170 185 206 224 241 Nonpareil 60 29 125 162 179 197 215 233 Minion 60 34 108 140 154 169 185 201 Brevier CO 40 99 128 141 1.55 169 183 Bourgeois 60 45 88 114 125 138 150 163 Long Primer CO 52 84 108 119 131 143 154 Book Work Measurement. Table showing the number of ems to a line, and the number of lines contained in 1,000 ems of matter, standard book meas- ure. Also, the space, in inches, filled by 1,000 ems of matter of the different measures: Size of Type. 21 Ems Pica. 23 Ems Pica. 25 Ems Pica. No. Ems in Line. No. Lines | 1,000 Ems. No. Inch’s 1,000 Ems. No. Ems in Line. C/3 t/l c £ ^ § 0 0 - No. Inch’s 1,000 Ems. No. Ems in Line. No. Lines 1,000 Ems. No. Inch’s 1,000 Ems. Nonpareil ...... 42 24 2 46 2’% 1% 50 1 1 20 Brevier 3114 3 .H 3^ 35 2 % 3% 37% 26% 3 Long Primer 25K 3 <3^ 5K 27% 36 5 30 1 1 33% 4% Small Pica 23 43M 6 H 25 40 6% 27% 36% 5% Pica 21 48 8 23 43% 7% 25 1 1 40 6% 403 Leads for Book Work. Number of 4-to-pica and 6-to-pica leads, standard book measures, contained in one pound, and number required to lead 1,000 ems of matter of the standard sizes of book type: 25 EMS. 23 EMS. 21 EMS. The columns of figures on the right give the number of leads required to lead 1,000 ems of matter of the sizes of type named. Those on the left, the number of leads in one pound. Nonpareil, jj Brevier. d V B bi) Small Pica. ci 0 No. Leads to Pound. ■ No. Leads to Pound. No. Leads to Pound. ) ( 21 Ems P’a long 17 25 33 36 41 31 34 37 V4-to-Pica...^ 23 “ “ 15 23 30 34 37 j (25 “ “ “ 13 21 27 32 33 ) (21 “ “ “ 16 23 30 33 39 21 23 25 v6-to-Pica. ..K 23 “ “ “ 14 21 27 31 35 j (25 “ “ - 12 19 25 2S 31 Sizes of Newspapers* TERM. Five-column Folio . - - - - Six-column Folio - - - - - Six column Folio, extra margin Seven-column Folio - - - - - Seven-column Folio, extra margin Eight-column Folio - - - - - Nine-column Folio - - . - Four- column Quarto . . _ . Five-column Quarto - - - - Six-column Quarto . _ - - Seven-column Quarto - - - - SIZE. 20 X 26 inches 22 X 31 inches 22 X 32 inches 24 X 35 inches 24 X 36 inches 26 X 40 inches 28 X 44 inches 22 X 31 inches 26 X 40 inches 30 X 44 inches 35 X 48 inches Common Sizes of Flat Papers* NAME. SIZE. Flat Letter - 10 x 16 Small Cap - - 13 x 16 Flat Cap - - 14x17 Demy - - - 16 x 21 Folio - - 17 x 22 NAME. SIZE. Medium - - 18 x 23 Double Small Cap - 16 x 26 Royal - - - 19 X 24 Double Cap - 17 x 28 MEASUREMENT BY SQUARE INCHES. With the follovring table the printer dispenses entirely with a type measure proper, resorting to the common inch rule. After getting the square inches in his job, he may take the figures directly from the table, or, if the square inches are in excess of the table, add two or more of the numbers together ; as, for instance, 79 square inches of brevier, the seventh line gives 567 ems for 7 inches, add a cipher and you have 5.670 ems for 70 404 SQUARE-INCH TTPE MEASUREMENT. inches, and in the ninth line add 729 ems to the 5,670 ems, and you have a total of 6,399 in 79 square inches. NUMBER OF EMS IN SQUARE INCHES. (Adapted to the Point System.) Pica. Small Pica. 1 Long Primer Bour- geois. Brevier. Minion. Nonpa- reil. i sou are inch. . 36 44 52 64 81 106 144 2 “ inches. 72 88 104 128 162 212 283 3 ‘‘ 108 132 156 192 243 318 432 4 “ 144 176 208 256 324 424 576 5 “ 180 220 260 320 405 530 720 6 “ 216 264 312 384 486 636 864 7 “ 252 308 364 448 567 7^2 1008 8 “ 288 352 416 512 648 848 1152 9 “ “ 324 396 468 576 729 954 1296 10 “ “ 360 440 520 640 810 1060 14-10 11 “ 396 484 572 704 891 1166 1584 12 “ 432 528 624 768 972 1272 1728 13 “ 468 572 676 832 1053 1378 1872 14 “ “ 504 616 728 896 1134 1484 2016 15 “ “ 540 660 780 960 1215 1590 2160 )6 “ 576 704 832 1024 1296 1696 2304 17 “ 612 748 884 1088 1377 1802 2442 18 “ “ 648 792 936 1152 1458 1908 2592 19 “ “ 684 803 988 1216 1539 2014 2736 20 “ ** 720 880 1040 1280 1620 2120 2880 21 “ 756 924 1092 1344 1701 2226 3024 22 “ 792 968 1144 1408 1782 2332 3168 23 “ 828 1012 1196 1472 1863 2438 3312 24 “ 864 1056 1248 1536 1944 2544 3456 25 “ 900 1100 1300 1600 2025 2650 3600 26 “ 936 1144 1352 1664 2106 2756 3744 27 “ 972 1188 1404 1728 2187 2862 3888 28 “ 1008 1232 1456 1792 2268 2988 4032 29 “ “ 1044 1276 1508 1856 2349 3074 4176 30 “ “ 1080 1320 1560 1920 2430 3180 4320 31 “ 1116 1364 1612 1984 2511 3286 4464 32 “ “ 1152 1408 1664 2048 2592 3392 4608 33 “ “ 1188 1452 1716 2112 2673 3498 4752 34 ** 1224 1496 1768 2176 2754 3604 4896 35 “ 1260 1540 1820 2240 2835 3710 5040 36 “ 1296 1584 1872 2304 2916 3816 5184 37 “ “ 1332 1628 1924 2368 2997 3922 5328 38 “ “ 1368 1672 1976 2432 3078 4028 5472 39 “ “ 1404 1716 2028 2496 3159 4134 5616 40 “ ** 1440 1760 2080 2560 3240 4240 5760 41 “ “ 1476 1804 -2132 2624 3321 4346 5904 42 “ 1512 1848 2184 2688 3402 4452 6048 43 “ “ 1548 1892 2236 2752 3483 4558 6192 44 “ 1584 1936 2288 2816 3564 4664 6336 45 “ 1620 1980 2340 2880 3645 4770 6480 46 “ 1656 2024 2392 2944 3726 4876 6624 47 “ 1692 2068 2444 3008 3807 4982 6768 48 “ “ 1728 2112 2496 3072 3888 5088 6912 49 “ “ 1764 2156 2548 3136 3969 5194 7056 50 “ 1800 2200 2600 3200 4050 ! 5300 7200 405 SIZES OF BOOK ANB PRINT PAPERS. TO FIND WEIGHT OF A GIVEN SIZE TO CORRESPOND WITH BULK OF SAMPLE. Rule — To find weight required for a given size to correspond in thickness with a given sample, multiply the weight of sample by the dimensions of sheet required, and divide by the product of the dimensions of sample. The table below gives all the regular sizes: Size and Weight of Sample. crned with twelve glit- tering stars, and a scepter in his right hand. Friday, or Friga, Hertha or Edith, was the mother of the gods and wife of 409 THE MATFLOWEirS PASSENGERS. Woden. She was the goddess of love and pleasure and was portrayed as a female with a naked sword in her right hand and bow in her left hand, implying that in extreme cases women should fight as well as men. Saturday, or Seater, is the same as the Roman Saturnus. He was represented on a pedestal, stand- ing on the back of a prickly fish called a perch, his head bare, with a thin, meager face. In his left hand he held a wheel and in his right a pail of water with fruits and flowers. The sharp fins of the fish implied that the worshipers of Seater should pass safely through every difficulty. The wheel was emble- matic of their unit}" and freedom, and the pail of water implied that he could water the earth and make it more beautiful. The Mayflower’s Passengers. The following is a true list of the male passengers landed at Plymouth in the Mayflower : Isaac Allerton. Jno. Alden. Jno. Allerton. William Bradford. William Brewster. John Billington. Peter Brown. Richard Britterage. John Carver. Francis Cook. James Chilton. John Crackston. Richard Clarke. Edward Dotey. Servants as follows : Carter. Hooke. Cooper. Langmore. Ely. Latham. Holbeck. Minter. Francis Eaton. Thomas English. Samuel Fuller. John Howland. Stephen Hopkins. Edward Leister. John Goodman. Richard Gardiner. George Soule. Capt. Miles Standish. Edward Tilly. John Tilly. Christopher Martin. Thomas Tinker. William Mullins. Edmund Margeson. Degony Priest. Thomas Rogers. John Rigdale. Edward Fuller. Moses Fletcher. John Turner. Edward Winslow. William White. Richard Warren. Thomas Williams. Gilbert Winslow. More. Power. Sampson. Story. Thompson. Trevore. Wilder. The great Egyptian obelisk in Central Park, New York, is one of the most noted monoliths in the world. It was quarried, carved and erected about the time of Abraham to commemorate the deeds of an ancient Pharaoh. Five hundred years later the conquering Sesostris, the bad Pharaoh of Scripture, carved on its surface the record of his famous reign. The royal cartouch (or oval) shows that the work was done under the immediace order and sanction of the king. But Sesostris (or Rameses II.) reigned one hundred years before the Trojan war; so all the symbols now seen on Cleopatra’s Needle were already venerable with age in the days of Priam, Hector, Helen, Agamemnon. Achilles and Ulysses. The Roman poet Horace says there were brave men before Agamemnon, but they lacked a Homer to save their names from oblivion. Sesostris, however, was an exception. He escaped oblivion without the aid of a Homer. Homer’s heroes are to be con- gratulated above all men on having their story sung by such a minstrel; but with this thought there always goes a little doubt as to whether there ever were such heroes and such deeds outside of Homer’s imagination. The hard granite of the Egyptian mountains leaves no doubt that Sesostris lived a»d reigned, [410] WIND AND WEATHER SIGNALS. On March i, 1887, a new system of weather signals was intro- duced by the United States Signal Office of the War Department, and has since been in use at all the stations of the service. The flags adopted for this purpose are four in number, and of the form and dimensions indicated below: No. I. White Flag. Clear or fair ‘weather. No. 2. Blue Flag. Rain or snow. No. 3. Black Triangular Flag. Temperatzire signal. No 4. White Flag with black square in center. Cold wave. Example. S Number i, white flag, six feet square, indicates clear or fair weather. Number 2, blue flag, six feet square, indicates rain or snow. Number 3, black triangular flag, four feet at the base and six feet in length, always refers to temperature; when placed above numbers i or 2 it indicates warmer weather; when placed below numbers i or 2 it indicates colder weather; when not displayed, the indications are that the temperature will remain stationary, or that the change in temperature will not vary five degrees from the temperature of the same hour of the preceding day. Number 4, white flag, six feet square, with black square in center, indicates the approach of a sudden and decided fall in temperature. This signal is usually ordered at least twenty-four hours in advance of the cold wave. It is not dis- played unless a temperature of forty-five de- grees, or lower, is expected. When number 4 is displayed, number 3 is always omitted. When displayed on poles, the signals are arranged to read downward; when displayed from horizontal supports, a small streamer is attached to indicate the point from which the signals are to be read. Interpretation of Displays. No. I, alone, indicates fair weather, station- □ Cold wave, fol- lowed by rain or snow, suc- ceeded by fair weather; colder. ary temperature. No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, station- Example. ► □ BLUE Warmer, fair weather, followed by rain or ary temperature. No. I, with No. 3 below it, indicates fair weather, colder. No. 2, with No. 3 above it, indicates warmer weather, rain or snow. No. I, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, cold wave. No. 3, with Nos. I and 2 below it, indicates warmer, fair weather, followed by rain or snow. Storm, Cautionary and Wind-Direction Signals. A red flag with a black center indicates that the storm is expected to be ot marked violence. A yellow flag with a white center indicates that the winds ex- pected will not be so severe, but well-found; seaworthy vessels can meet them Vithout danger. The red pennant indicates easterly winds; that is, from the north- ast to south inclugive, and that generally the storm center is approaching. If 41X WIND AND WEATHER SIGNALS, above cautionary or storm-signal, winds from northeast quadrant are more probable; below, winds from southeast quadrant. The white pennant indicates westerly winds; that is, from north to southwest inclusive, and that generally the storm center has passed. If above cautionary or storm-signal, winds from northeast quadrant are more probable; if below ^ winds from southwest quadrant. White Pennant, Westerly Winds. Time Difference Between the City of New York and the Principal Foreign Cities. H. M. Antwerp 5 13 Berlin 5 50 Bremen 5 31 Brussels 5 14 Buenos Ayres. 1 02 Calcutta 10 50 Constantinople 6 53 FASTER THAN N. Y. H. M. Dublin 4 31 Edinburgh . . 4 43 Geneva 5 21 Hamburg ... 6 36 Liverpool ... 4 44 London .... 4 56 Madrid 4 42 H. M. Melbourne. ... 9 14 Paris 5 02 Rio de Janeiro 2 03 Rome 5 46 St. Petersburg. 6 57 V alparaiso 10 Vienna 6 01 SLOWER THAN N. Y. H. M. Canton .H 31 Havana 33 Hong Kong.. .11 27 Mexico, City of ] 40 Panama 12 Vera Cruz 1 29 Yokohama. .. .10 45 Actual New York mean time is given. The Climates of the United States. Mean annual temperature, Fahrenheit, at places named. Alabama Mobile Alaska Sitka Arizona ..... Tucson Arkansas Little Rock California San Francisco. . Colorado Denver.. Connecticut Hartford Dakota Fort Randall .... Delaware. Willmington Dist. Columbia . . Washington Florida Jacksonville Georgia Atlanta Idaho Fort Boise Illinois . .Springfield Indiana Indianapolis Indian Territory. Fort Gibson Iowa Des Moines Kansas Leavenworth Kentucky ....... I.oiii.sville ....... Louisiana New Orleans .... Maine . Aiip^iista Maryland ....... Baltimore Massachusetts . . . Boston Michigan Detroit Minnesota St. Paul 66 ° Mississippi 46 Missouri 69 Montana 63 Nebraska 55 Nevada 48 New Hampshire. 50 New Jersey 47 New Mexico. ... 53 New York 55 North Carolina. . 69 Ohio 58 Oregon 52 Pennsylvania. . . . 50 Rhode Island 51 South Carolina. . . 60 Tennessee 49 Texas 51 Utah 56 Vermont 69 Virginia 45 Washington T. . . 54 West Virginia. . . 48 Wisconsin 47 Wyoming. 42 Jackson 64° St. Louis 55 Helena 43 Omaha 49 C’p Winfi’ld Scott 50 Concord 46 Trenton 53 Santa Fe 51 Albany 48 Raleigh 59 Columbus 53 Portland 53 Harrisburg 54 Providence 48 62 Nashville. . .c. . . 58 Austin 67 Salt Lake City. . . 52 Montpelier 43 Richmond 57 Steilacoom 51 Romney 52 Madison 45 Fort Bridger 41 412 THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS. A cluster of flowers can be made to express any sentiment, if care is taken in the selection. If a flower is offered reversed, its original signification is con- tradicted, and the opposite implied. A rosebud divested of its thorns, but retaining its leaves, con- veys the sentiment, “I fear no longer; I hope.” Stripped of leaves and thorns, it signifies, “There is nothing to hope or fear.” A full-blown rose, placed over two buds, signifies “Secrecy.” “Yes” is implied by touching the flower given to the lips; “No,” by pinching off a petal and casting it away. “I am” is expressed by a laurel leaf twined around the bou- quet; “I have,” by an ivy leaf folded together; “I offer you,” by a leaf of Virginia creeper. COMBINATIONS Moss Rosebud, Myrtle, Mignonette, Colored Daisy, Lily of the Valley, Ferns, Yellow Rose, Broken Straw, Ivy, Scarlet Geranium, Passion Flower, Purple Hyacinth, Arbor Vitae, Columbine, Day Lily, Broken Straw, Witch Hazel, Colored Daisy, White Pink, Canary Grass, Laurel, Golden-rod, Monkshead, Sweet Pea, Forget-me-not, Arbor Vitae. — Unchanging friendship. Camellia, White. — Loveliness. Candy-Tuft. — Indifference. Carnation, White.— Disdain. China Aster. — Variety. Clover, Four-Leaf. — Be mine. Clover, White. — Think of me. Clover, Red. — Industry. Columbine. — Folly. Daisy. — Innocence. Daisy, Colored. — Beauty. Dead Leaves. — Sadness. Deadly Nightshade. — Falsehood. Fern. — Fascination. Forget-me-not. Fuchsia, Scarlet. — Taste. Geranium, Horseshoe. — Stupidity. Geranium, Scarlet. — Consolation. 413 A confession of love. Your qualities surpass your charms of beauty. ( Your unconscious sweetness ( has fascinated me. f Your jealousy -< has broken ( our friendship. I trust you will find consolation, j through faith, j in your sorrow; [ be assured of my unchanging friendship, f Your folly and coquetry have - broken the spell of your ^ beauty. Your talent and perseverance will win you glory. I Be cautious; danger is near; I depart soon; ^ forget me not. Geranium, Rose. — Preference. Golden-rod. — Be cautious. Heliotrope. — Devotion . Hyacinth, White. — Loveliness. Hyacinth, Purple. — Sorrow. Ivy. — F riendship. Lily, Day. — Coquetry. Lily, White. — Sweetness. Lily, Yellow. — Gayety. Lily, Water. — Purity of heart; elegance. Lily of the Valley.— Unconscious sweet- ness. Mignonette. — Your qualities surpass your charms. . Monkshead. — Danger is near. Myrtle. — Love. Oak. — Hospitality. Orange Blossoms. — Chastity. THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS. Pansy. — Thoughts. Passion Flower. — Faith. Primrose. — Inconstancy. Rose. — Love. Rose, Damask. — Beauty ever new. Rose, Yellow.— Jealousy. Rose, White. — I am worthy of you. Rosebud, Moss. — Confession of love. Smilax. — Constancy. THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS. Amethyst. — Peace of mind. Regarded by the ancients a having the power to dispel drunkenness. Bloodstone. — I mourn your absence. Worn by the ancienh as an amulet or charm, on account of the medicinal and magical virtues it was sup posed to possess. Diamond. — Pride. Awarded supernatural qualities from the most remote period down to the Middle Ages. Has the power of making mer, courageous and magnanimous. Protects from evil spirits. Influences the gods to take pity upon mortals. Maintains concord between husband and wife, and for this reason was held as the most appropriate stone for the espousal ring. Emerald. — Success in love. Mentioned in the Bible as worn in the breast-plate of the High Priest as an emblem of chastity. Ruby. — A cheerful mind. An amulet against poison, sadness, evil thoughts. A preservative of health. Admonishes the wearer of impending danger by changing color. Sapphire. — Chastity. Procures favor with princes. Frees from enchantment. Prevents impure thoughts. Topaz.— -Fidelity. Calms the passions. [tagion. Turquoise. — Success and happiness. Preserves from con- Garnet. — Fidelity in every engagement. Onyx. — Reciprocal love. Opal. — Pure thoughts. Pearl. -^Purity and innocence. Straw. — Agreement. Straw, Broken. — Broken agreement. Sweet Pea. — Depart. Tuberose. — Dangerous pleasures. Thistle. — Sternness. Verbena. — Pray for me. White Jasmine.— Amiability. Witch Hazel. — A spell. Making Blackboards. — The following directions for this work are given us by an experienced superintendent : The first care must be to make the wall surface or boards to be blacked perfectly smooth. Fill all the holes and cracks with plaster of Paris mixed with water; mix but little at a time; press in and smooth down with a case knife. The cracks between shrunken boards may be filled in the same way Afterward use sandpaper. The ingredients needed for slat- ing are (i) liquid gum shellac, sometimes called shellac varnish; (2) lampblack or drop black. Gum shellac is cut in alcohol, and the liquid can be obtained of any druggist. Pour some shellac into an open dish, and stir in lampblack to make a heavy paint With a clean brush, spread on any kind of surface but glass. Put on a little and test it. If it is glossy and the chalk slips over it, reduce the mixture with alcohol Alcohol can be bought of any druggist. If it rubs off, let the drug- gist put in more gum to make the liquid thicker. One quart of the liquid and a 5 cent paper of lampblack are sufficient to slate all the blackboards in any country school with two coats. How TO Polish Horns. — First boil the horn to remove the pith, if it has been freshly taken from the animal. If it is an old, dry horn, the pith may be dried out, and boiling is not necessary: but it may be laid in hot water for a short time to make it soft. Then scrape off all the roughnesses with a coarse file, a knife or a piece of glass. When the rough spots are removed rub around the horn with coarse sandpaper, then with a finer kind. After this, rub the horn lengthwise with a flannel cloth which has been dipped in powdered punaice- stone or rotten stone, and moistened in linseed oil. This rubbing should continue till all the sandpaper marks are removed, then give a final rubbing with a clean flannel cloth, and lastly, with a piece of tissue paper. 414 THE WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY. THE TELEPHONE. — The principle of the telephone, that sounds could be conveyed to a distance by a distended wire, was demonstrated by Robert Hook in 1667, but no practical application was made of the discovery until 1821, when Professor Wheatstone exhibited his “Enchanted Lyre,” in which the sounds of a music box were conveyed from a cellar to upper rooms. The first true discov- erer of the speaking telephone, however, was Johann Philipp Reis, a German sci- entist and professor in the institute of Friedrichsdorf, April 25, 1861, Reis exhib- ited his telephone at Frankfort. This contained all the essential features of the modern telephone, but as its commercial value was not at all comprehended, little attention was paid to it. Reis, after trying in vain to arouse the interest of scientists in his discovery, died in 1874, without having reaped any advantage from it, and there is no doubt that his death was hastened by the distress of mind caused by his continual rebuffs. Meanwhile, the idea was being worked into more practical shape by other persons. Professor Elisha Gray and Professor A.G. Bell, and later by Mr. Edison. There is little doubt that Professor Gray’s successful experiments con- siderably antedated those of the others but Professor Bell was the first to perfect his patent. February 12, 1877, Bell’s articulating telephone was tested by experi- ments at Boston and Salem, Mass , and was found to convey sounds distinctly from one place to the other, a distance of eighteen miles. This telephone was exhibited widely in this country and in Europe during that year, and telephone companies were established to bring it into general use. Edison’s carbon “loud-speaking” tel- ephone was brought out in 1878. It is not worth while to go into details on the sub- ject of priority of invention. The Examiner of Patents at Washington, July 21, 1883, decided that Professor Bell was the first inventor, because he was the first to com- plete his invention and secure a full patent. Since 1878 there have been many im- provements in the different parts of the telephone, rendering it now nearly perfect in its working. THE PHONOGRAPH. — The principle of the phonograph is very simple. All sound is produced by vibrations of the air. Therefore, any sound whatever can be reproduced by reproducing its vibrations. The phonograph is re- garded as one of the wonders of the nineteenth century, and yet its foundation prin- ciple is as readily understood as the multiplication table, and its construction is sim- plicity itself. A small brass cylinder is made to turn on a metal shaft, and upon its surface is cut a spiral groove, corresponding to threads cut on the shaft. Over the cylinder is spread a sheet of tin foil, secured on its edges by some highly adhering substance. A crank attached to the shaft turns the cylinder, giving it at the same time a rotary and a horizontal motion. In front of the cylinder is a mouthpiece, hav- ing on its bottom (next the cylinder) a very thin plate or diaphragm of metal, to which is attached a round steel point. Before using the apparatus the steel point must be accurately adjusted opposite to that part of the foil lying over the spiral groove. If the lips are now applied to the mouthpiece and any sentence spoken, the crank at the same time being turned, the vibrations imparted to the metal plate by the voice will cause the steel point to come into contact with that part of the foil overlying the groove and to make on it a series of indentations as it revolves and is carried forward laterally before the mouthpiece. These indentations vary in depth and sectional outline according to the force and kind of vibrations made, and are in fact a tran- scription of the sounds. They are then translated by bringing the cylinder back to its starting-point and substituting for the mouthpiece a resonator. The steel is then held by a screw close to the foil, and as the cylinder moves the point retraces the in- dentations from beginning to end and communicates to the metal diaphragm the same vibrations which it had received from it, and these vibrations, communicated to the resonating apparatus, are reproduced as spoken words. If the crank is turned with exact regularity the exact pitch and tone of the speaker’s voice will also be given back. The phonograph was invented by Mr. Edison in 1877 and brought before the public early in the following year. The inventor believed that the numerous practical applications of this machine would commend it very largely to general use. This has not thus far proved to be the case, not because the instru- ment itself is lacking, for added experiment only proves its more remarkable possi- bilities, but probably because the invention is so wholly new and strange, so at vari- ance with anything previously known and understood, that men have not yet been able to comprehend its application to everyday affairs. [ 415 ] THE WONDERS OF ELECTRICITT. THE GRAPHOPHONE. — This invention is the work of Mr. Sum- ner Taintor, aided by Professor Bell, the telephone inventor. The machine is oper- ated on the principle of the phonograph. It is very simple and is free from mechan- ical complication. It has a treadle, and it looks very much like a small sewing- machine. Edison discovered the art of recording and reproducing sound, but his in- vention could not be used because of its clumsy mechanical arrangement, coupled with the very inferior and unsatisfactory methods of recording the sounds produced. He used a piece of tinfoil upon which the sound waves were indented and from which they were easily obliterated. The present inventor, Mr. Taintor, saw that a less destructible material was required, and after considerable experiment tried a preparation of wax and paraffine. This is the surface now used, and it works perfectly. He then made an entirely new apparatus, and the result is the graphophone, a machine which will sing a song, report a whistle, or give the quality and inflections of the voice in a most charming way. The small point which is attached to the diaphragm of the machine cuts a minute hair line in the wax surface. This line is so faint that it is scarcely perceptible to the naked eye, yet it serves to give a reproduction, so as to be distinctly heard by the listener, of a song, a laugh, or an ordinary speech. THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY.— Electricity may be applied to the propulsion of cars in two different ways. In one case the current is supplied to the electro-motors from storage batteries carried by the cars. This method requires no change in the ordinary roadbed used by the steam railway, but no means have yet been invented for making or operating economically the storage battery required. In the second case the current is supplied to the motors on moving trains from sta- tions along the line of road through properly placed conductors. The method re- quires a peculiar construction of the road throughout with reference to the necessary electrical conditions. Several different forms of the electric railway are possible, depending on the method by which the current is conducted to the motors. By one method the two rails are used as conductors, the current going out by one rail and returning by the other, and passing to the electro-motors through the wheels of the train, which are insulated. There is much leakage or loss of power in this method, however, and its inventors have essayed to overcome by using a third rail or conduc- tor for the outgoing current, utilizing both rails for its return. We will briefly de- scribe the method of working the Siemens electric railway, which has been applied successfully to several short railway lines in Europe. The longest of these lines is that between Portrush and Bushmills, in the north of Ireland, which is six miles long. The line is a three-foot gauge, single track, laid at one side of the country road. The third rail, or conductor, is placed beside the roadbed, 17 inches above the ground. It is a T-rail carried upon insulator posts. The current is conveyed by tbe conductor to the car by means of two steel springs, one at each end. Wherever the railway crosses roads the conductor is carried underground. The current from the conducting rail passes through the car to the return rails by a switch worked by a lever — with which resistance coils can be placed in or out of circuit — then through the electro-motor to the wheels by whieh it reaches the rails. The motor is placed in the center of the car, beneath the floor, being connected with the axle of one pair of wheels by gearing. The reversing and brake levers are placed at each end of the car, so that it can be operated from either end. The rails of the track are laid in the usual manner, and are connected with the strips of cop- per to insure good electrical contact. In the Edison and Field railway, which was exhibited at the Chicago Exhibition of Railway Appliances, the same general plan was observed, but the conductor was placed between the two other rails, and the current was conveyed from this rail to the car through stiff wire brushes pressing on each side of the rail. These were operated by a lever reaching down from the car. This track was 1,553 length. THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. — Setting aside natural phenomena, as the lightning and St. Elmo’s fire, and all mere experiments with the electric spark, the first inventor of the electric light was Sir Humphrey Davy, who in th^ early part of the century produced the arc light with a battery of 2,000 cells. The mode of producing this light is as follows: When the terminal wires of an electric battery 416 THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. are brought together and then separated slightly an intense, bright light between them results, and this, because of its curved form, is called the electric arc. Thft light, in temperature as well as brightness, exceeds all other artificial sources of heat, by its means the hardest substances, even the diamond, being entirely consumed. The wires of the battery in this light melt and drop off in globules, but it was found that hard carbon points on the wires would prevent this, as well as increase the in- tensity of the light. Davy used pieces of charcoal. Foucault, in his experiments in 1844, used carbon from the retorts of gas-works, which is much harder. Foucault’s improvement led to the first practical use of the electric light. It was used to il- luminate the Place de la Concorde, in Paris, being placed on the knee of one of the statues there, and amazing all beholders with its brilliant power. The carbon points, though not destroyed as rapidly as wire, yet of course must waste in the con- suming heat of the light. In time the distance between them is increased until the light is interrupted, and they must be brought together again to renew the illumina- tion. Thomas Wright, of London, invented the first apparatus for moving the points automatically toward each other, a feature which now belongs to several forms of electric lighting. As it has been found that the positive carbon wastes more rapidly than the negative, that point is made to move over a wider space than the other in the same interval of time. In iSssJules Duboscq’s electric lamp — thus far the most perfect of the kind — was shown at the Paris Exhibition, and Professor Tyndall, of England, adopted it for the illustration of his lectures on light and colors. In 1858 the works of the new Westminster bridge, London, were illuminated by Watson’s electric light, and the following year the magneto-electric light, invented by Professor Holmes, was suc- cessfully tried at the lighthouse at Dover. In 1861 the French Government pro- vided for the illumination of eight coast light-houses by the electric light. But, though improvements were made in the invention during the fifteen years following, little was accomplished toward practical electric lighting until the invention of JablochkofPs candle. Paul Jablochkoff was a Russian, who for his scientific knowL edge and skill had been appointed director of telegraph lines between Moscow and Kursk. He resigned this post in 1875, desiring to devote his time wholly to scien-> tific study. He intended to visit the Centennial Exhibition in this country in 1876. but on his way hither stopped in Paris, where a noted chemist induced him to re^ main by placing a large laboratory at his disposal. Here a few months later ha produced the electric candle, whose discovery made a great sensation. This con- sisted of two carbons placed side by side, separated and encased in an insulating and fusible substance. As the carbons wasted the fusible substance was also con- sumed. The light given by this candle was soft and steady, and a large number of them speedily came into use in Europe. It was quite overshadowed in importance, however, by the incandescent lamp, which was first invented about 1870. The dif- ferent kinds of electric lights now in use may be divided into five groups, thus; i. Glow lamps or incandescent lamps, in which the light is produced by a bad conduc- tor in an uninterrupted circuit, the conductor itself being not directly consumed. 2 Mixed or semi-incandescent lamps, in which the light is produced at the place of contact between two conductors, one of them being consumed more or less rapidly. 3. Regulated lamps, in which the light is formed by the voltaic arc, and the dis- tance of the carbons is continually regulated by clockwork or other means. 4. Electric candles, having the carbons parallel, as above described. In each of these groups a series of different lamps have been invented, differing somewhat in details of construction. Thus we have, in the incandescent lamps, the Swan lamp, the Maxim lamp, the Edison lamp, the Siemens lamp, and others. We may briefly de- scribe the Edison as a type of the class. In this bamboo fiber is used for the carbon filament, and this is attached to platinum wire. By means of machinery the bam- boo is divided into small fibers, and pressed in U-shaped moulds, then put into ovens, where they are allowed to become carbonized. They are then attached to the plantinum wire and fused in a glass stopper. A glass tube is now blown into a bulb, the stopper is placed in it, and both bulb and stopper are fused together. The bulb is then exhausted of its air — for the electric light requires a vacuum for its brilliancy — and the opening at its apex is closed by fusing. The platinum wires of the lamp are connected with the copper wires from a battery, and the lamp is ready for use. A very simple contrivance for breaking the current by turning a 417 STORAGE OF ELECTRICITT, key serves to ignite or extinguish the lamps. Each lamp is guaranteed to burn 800 hours; after about that period both the platinum and the carbon are exhausted by slow combustion, and a new lamp must be fitted on. The principal difference be- tween the incandescent lamps is in the preparation of the carbon filament. Those for the Swan lamp are made from cotton fibers soaked in sulphuric acid, then packed in fine pal-dust, and exposed to heat. The Maxim lamp filaments are prepared from Bristol paper; those of the Lane-Fox lamp from hemp and coke; those of the Bernstein lamp — one of the most brilliant made — are of silk carbonized in coal-dust. The half-incandescent lamps are quite a recent invention, the first being made in 1878. In these the light arises at the point of contact, and the essential features of the plan consist of a pencil of carbon pressed against a carbon block; as its point is consumed the pencil is pushed forward, thus rendering the light continuous. Some eight or nine different lamps have been invented on this plan. The regulated arc lamps include an even larger number of patents, of which the best known in this country is the Brush light. The lights in ail these are formed between the points of the carbon rods, and the details of clockwork for moving forward the rods as they are consumed are too technical for description Still another style of electric lamp has the carbons inclined at an angle to each other, and some very successful lamps, as the Soleil, have been made on this plan. It might be here noted that the great impetus given to the electric light by the work of Mr. Edi.son was not so much in improving the lamp as in cheapening the process of generating the electricity, and inventing a ready mode of dividing the light. Hitherto the expense attendant upon the production of the electric force, and the difficulty of using it simul- taneously at a large number of illuminating points, had been the two principal bar- riers in the way of applying the electric light to public use. STORAGE OF ELECTRICITY. — It must be noted, to begin with, that the term “storing electricity” conveys, usually, an altogether erroneous idea to the uninitiated. They are apt to conceive of it as pouring electricity into some re- ceptacle, as we pour oil into a lamp, to be used when needed. But, in fact, elec- tricity is an energy, not a substance, and therefore is not capable of storage, in the ordinary sense. What is really done by the “storage” apparatus is to convert elec- tricity into chemical energy, under such circumstances that, by proper arrange- ments, it may be readily converted back into electricity. The secondary batteries used for the storing purpose are more correctly termed accumulators. The first bat- tery of this kind was made by Ritter about 1840,, and it consisted of a series of disks of a single metal, alternated with cloth or card moistened in a liquid by which the metal would not be affected chemically. In 1859 Mr. Gaston Plante made a sec- ondary battery, for which he used plates of lead, instead of plates of platinum. Passing^ a current through these, lead oxide was deposited, and after the charging current was removed, the lead and lead oxide were found to yield a very slight cur- rent. To increase this Plante devised the plan of first charging the plates, then discharging, then charging again with the battery current reversed, and so on,until,by repeated oxidations and subsequent reductions of the oxidized material, very porous plates were made. These, by their porosity, exposed a large surface to the oxidizing action of the current, so that a small porous plate took up as much electricity as one of large superficial area. Plante found that by connecting a number of cells to- gether, and after charging them, arranging them in series, that is, the positive plate of one connected with the negative plate of another, and so on, he could store for use quite powerful currents of electricity. In 1880 another electrician, M. Camille Faure, devised the plan of coating Plante’s lead plates with red lead, and then en- casing them in flannel. The advantage of the red lead is that it is very quickly made porous, and therefore the process of repeated charging of the plates, known as the “forming” process, was reduced from weeks to days, and even to hours. This discovery, by reducing the time and expense of making the secondary battery, gave it a commercial value thai it never had before, and it was hailed as a great advan- tage. Since that time a number of patents have been obtained lor storage batteries, and they now exist in different forms, but generally modeled on the inventions of Plante and Faure. The efforts of inventors have been mainly directed toward re- ducing the weight of the cells and to devising new ways of holding the red lead on the plates. This last-named substance, becoming porous, drops off readily, and for 418 ELECTRICAL TERMS. this reason the encasements of flannel, etc., were first devised. In some of the stor- age batteries, a plate, or frame, of cast lead is used, with receptacles, cells, etc., which are filled with the red lead. ELECTRICAL TERMS. — The technical terms used in regard to electricity refer to units of various nature. Thus the unit of capacity is one farad; th^ unit of activity, one watt; the unit of work one joule; the unit of quantity, one coul- omb; the unit of current, one ampere; the unit of resistance, one ohm; the unit of magnetic field, one gauss; the unit of pressure, one volt; the unit of force, one dyne. The names are mostly derived from the names of men that have been famous in the field of electrical research. Thus Michael Faraday, James Watt and James P. Joule, famous English discoverers, give their names to the first three units men- tioned; Charles A. Coulomb and Andre M. Ampere, French inventors, to the two units following; G. S. Ohm and Carl F. Gauss, Germans, name two more units; and the volt is named from the Italian discoverer, Volta. The dyne is derived from the root word of dynamo, itself meaning for ce. Preserving Wood. — There have been a number of processes patented for preserving wood. One of them, very generally used, consists in im- mersing the timber in a bath of corrosive sublimate. Another process consists in first filling the pores with a solution of chloride of calcium under pressure, and next forcing in a solution of sulphate of iron, by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is formed in the body of the wood, which is thus rendered nearly as hard as stone. Wood prepared in this way is now very largely used for railroad ties. Another pro- cess consists in impregnating the wood with a solution of chloride of zinc. Yet another way is to thoroughly impregnate the timber with oil of tar containing crea- sote and a crude solution of acetate of iron. The process consists in putting the wood in a cylindrical vessel, connected with a powerful air pump. The air is with- drawn, and the liquid subjected to pressure, so that as much of it as possible is forced into the pores of the wood. The processes above given not only season the timber so that it is not subject to dry rot, but also keep it from being injured by the weather, or being attacked by insects or worms. To Make Cloth Waterproof. — There have been various devices for rendering cloth waterproof without the use of India rubber. The most successful of these, no doubt, is the Stenhouse patent. This consists of the appli- cation of paraffine combined with drying oil. Paraffine was first used alone, but it was found to harden and break off from the cloth after a time. When drying oil was added, however, even in a very small quantity, it was found that the two sub- stances, by the absorption of oxygen, became converted into a tenacious substance very like resin. To apply this the paraffine is melted with drying oil, and then cast into blocks. The composition can then be applied to fabrics by rubbing them over with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed. Or the melted mixture may be applied with a brush and the cloth then passed through hot rollers in order to cover its entire substance perfectly. This application makes cloth very repellant to water, though still pervious to air. The Rule of the Road. — The “rule of the road” in the United states is “turn to the right;” in England it is the reverse. The rule holds in this country in the case where two vehicles going in opposite directions meet. When one vehicle overtakes another the foremost gives way to the left and the other passes by on the “offside;” and when a vehicle is crossing the direction of another it keeps to the left and crosses in its rear. These two rules are the same in this country and in England, and why the rule concerning meeting vehicles should have been changed it is impossible to say. We find this point of difference noted by all authorities, but no reason for it is ever suggested. Probably, as it is easier to turn to the right than to the left, it was adopted as the more preferable custom in some of the early colonies, and in due time became embodied in local law, and thus was handed down to later times. Piano Polish. — Take equal proportions of turpentine, linseed *1 and vinegar. Mix; rub in well with a piece of flannel cloth. Then polish with a piece of chamois skin. This treatment will entirely remove the dingy appearance that age gives to fine woods. 419 NAMES AND THEIR MEANING. CHRISTIAN NAMES OF MEN. Aaron, Hebrew, a mountain, or lofty. Abel, Hebrew, vanity. Abraham, Hebrew, the father of many, Absalom, Hebrew, the father of peace. Adam, Hebrew, red earth. Adolphus, Saxon, happiness and help. Adrian, Latin, one who helps. Alan, Celtic, harmony; or Slavonic, a hound. Albert, Saxon, all bright. Alexander, Greek, a helper of men. Alfred, Saxon, all peace. Alonzo, form of Alphonso, q. v. Alphonso, German, ready or willing. Ambrose, Greek, immortal. Amos, Hebrew, a burden. Andrew, Greek, courageous. Anthony, Latin, flourishing. Archibald, German, a bold observer. Arnold, German, a maintainer of honor. Arthur, British, a strong man. Aulusdn,’ } ''enerable, grand. Baldwin, German, a bold winner. Bardulph, German, a famous helper. Barnaby, Hebrew, a prophet’s son. Bartholomew, Hebrew, the son of him who made the waters to rise, Beaumont, French, a pretty mount. Bede, Saxon, prayer. Benjamin, Hebrew, the son of a right hand. Bennet Latin, blessed, Bernard, Gemnan, bear’s heart, Bertram, German, fair, illustrious. Bertrand. Gerjnan, bright raven. Boniface, Latin, a well doer. Brian, French, having a thundering voice. Cadwallader, British, valiant in war. Csesar, Latin adorned with hair. Csleb, Hebrew, a dog. Cecil, Latin, dim-sighted. Charles, German, noble-spirited. Christopher, Greek, bearing Christ. Clement, Latin, mild tempered. Conrad, German, able counsel. Constantine, Latin, resolute. Cornelius, Latin, meaning uncertain. Crispin, Latin, having curled locks. Cuthbert, Saxon, known famously. Dan, Hebrew, judgment. Daniel, Hebrew, God is judge. David, Hebrew, well-beloved. Denis, Greek, belonging to the God of wine. Douglas, Gaelic, dark gray. Duncan, Saxon, brown chief. Dunstan, Saxon, most high. Edgar, Saxon, happy honor. Edmund, Saxon, happy peace. Edward, Saxon, happy keeper. Edwin, Saxon, happy conqueror. Egbert, Saxon, ever bright. Elijah, Hebrew, God the Lord. Elisha, Hebrexv, the salvation of G'^d. Emmanuel, Hebrew, God with us. Enoch, Hebrew, dedicated. Ephraim, Hebrew, fruitful. Erasmus, Greek, lovely, worthy to be loved. Ernest, Greek, earnest, serious. Esau, Hebrew, hairy. Eugene, Greek, noble, descended. Eustace, Greek, standing firm. Evan, or Ivan, British, the same John. Everard, German, well reported. Ezekiel, Hebrew, the strength of God. Felix, Latin, happy. Ferdinand, German, pure peace. Fergus, Saxon, manly strength. Francis, German, free. Frederic, German, rich peace. Gabriel, Hebrew, the strength of God. GoefFrey, German, joyful. George, Greek, a husbandman. Gerard, Saxon, all towardliness. Gideon, Hebrew, a breaker. Gilbert, Saxon, bright as gold. Giles, Greek, a little goat. Godard, German, a godly disposition. Godfrey, German, God’s peace. Godwin, German, victorious in God. Griffith, British, having great faith. Guy, French, a leader. Hannibal, Punic, a gracious lord. Harold, Saxon, a champion. Hector, Greek, a stout defender. Henry, German, a rich lord. Herbert, German, a bright lord. Hercules, Greek, the glory of Hera, or Juno. Hebrew, cleaving to ihe Lord. Horace, Latin, meaning uncertain. Horatio, Italian, worthy to be beheld. Howel, British, sound or whole. Hubert, German, a bright color. Hugh, Dutch, high, lofty. Humphrey, German, domestic peace. Ignatius, Latin, fiery. Ingram, German, of angelic purity. Isaac, Hebrew, laughter. Jabez, Hebrew, one who causes pain. Jacob, Hebrew, a supplanter. James, orjacques, beguiling. Joab, Hebrew, fatherhood. Job, Hebrew, sorrowing. Joel, Hebrew, acquiescing. John, Hebrew, the grace of the Lord. Jonah, Hebrew, a dove. Jonathan, Hebrew, the gift of the Lord Joscelin, Germa7t,]\xs\.. [420 NAMES AND THEIR MEANING. Joseph, Hebrew^ addition. Joshua, Hebrew, a Saviour. Josiah or Josais, Hebrew, the fire of the Lord, Julius, Latin, soft haired. Lambert, Saxon, a fair lamb. Lancelot, Spanish, a little lance. Laurence, Latin, crowned with laurels. Lazarus, Hebrew, destitute of help. Leonard, German, like a lion. Leopold, German, defending the people. Lewis or Louis, French, the defender of the people. Lionel, Latin, a little lion. Llewellin, British, like a lion. Llewellyn, Celtic, lightning. Lucius, Latin, shining. Luke, Greek, a wood or grove. Manfred, German, great peace. Mark, Latin, a hammer. Martin, Lxitin, martial. Matthew, Hebrew, a gift or present. Maurice, Latin, sprung of a Moor. Meredith, British, the roaring of the sea. Michael, Hebrew, who is like God? Morgan, British, a mariner. Moses, Hebrew, drawn out. Nathaniel, Hebrew, the gift of God. Neal, French, somewhat black. Nicholas, Greek, victorious over the peo- ple. Noel, French.^ belonging to one^s nativ- ity- Norman, French, one born In Normandy. Obadiah, Hebrew, the servant of the Lord. Oliver, Latin, an olive. Orlando, Italian, counsel for the land. Orson, Latin, a bear, Osmund, Saxon, house peace. Oswald, Saxon, ruler of a house. Owen, British, well descended. Patrick, Latin, a nobleman. Paul, Latin, small, little. Paulinus, Latin, little Paul. Percival, French, a place in France. Percy, English, adaptation ol “pierce eye.** Peregrine, Latin, outlandish. Peter, Greek, a rock or stone. Philip, Greek, a lover of horses. Phineas, Hebrew, of bold countenance. Ralph, contracted from Randolph, or Randal, or Ranulph, Saxon, pure help. Raymond, German, quiet peace. Reuben, Hebrew, the son of vision. Reynold, German, a lover of purity. Richard, Saxon, powerful. Robert, German, famous in counsel. Roderick, German, rich in fame. Roger, German, strong counsel. Roland or Rowland, German, counsel for the land. Rollo, form of Roland, q. v. Rufus, Latin, reddish. Samson, Hebrew, a little son. Samuel, Hebrew, heard by God. Saul, Hebrew, desired. Sebastian, Greek, to be reverenced. Seth, Hebrew, appointed. Silas, Latin, sylvan or living in the woods. Simeon, Hebrew, hearing. Simon, Hebrew, obedient. Solomon, Hebrew, peaceable. Stephen, Greek, a Ci'own or garland. Swithin, Saxon, very high. Theobald, Saxon, bold over the people. Theodore, Greek, the gift of God. Theodosius, Greek, given of God. Theophilus. Greek, a lover of God. Thomas, Hebrew, a twin. Timothy, Greek, a fearer of God. Titus, Greek, meaning uncertain. Toby, or Tobias, Hebrew, the goodness of the Lord. Valentine, Latin, powerful. Victor, Latin, conqueror. Vincent, Latin, conquering. Vivian, Latin, living. Walter, German, a conqueror. Walwin, German, a conqueror. Wilfred, Saxon, bold and peaceful. William, German, defending many. Zaccheus, Syriac, innocent. Zachary, Hebrew, remembering the Lord. Zebedee, Syriac, having an Inheritance. Zechariah, Hebrew, remembered of the Lord. Zedekiah, Hebrew, the justice of the Lord. CHRISTIAN NAMES OF WOMEN. Ada, German, same as Edith, q. v. Adela, German, same as Adeline, q. v. Adelaide, German, same as Adeline,^^. v. Adeline, German, a princess. Agatha, Greek, good. Agnes, German, chaste. Alethea, Greek, the truth. Althea, Greek, hunting. Alice, Alicia, German, noble. Alma, Latin, benignant. Amabel, Latin, loveable. Amy, Amelia, French, a beloved. Angelina, Greek, lovely, angelic. Anna, or Anne, Hebrew, gracious. Arabella, Latin, a fair altar. Aureola, Latin, like gold. Aurora, Latin, morning brightness. Barbara, Latin, foreign or strange. Beatrice, Latin, making happy. [431 NAMES AND THEIR MEANING, Bella, Italiany beautiful. Benedicta, Latin ^ blessed. Bernice, Greek, bringing victory. Bertha, Greek, bright or famous. Bessie, short form of Elizabeth, q. v. Blanch, French, fair. Bona, Latin, good. Bridget, Irish, shining bright. Camilla, Latin, attendant at a sacrifice. Carlotta, Italian, same as Charlotte, q.v. Carolin€,Ieminine of Caroles, the Latin of Charles, noble spirited. Cassandra, Greek, a reformer of men, Catherine, Greek, pure or clean. Cecilia, Latin, from Cecil. Charity, Greek, love, bounty. Charlotte, French, all noble. Chloe, Greek, a green herb. Christiana, Greeks belonging to Christ. Cicely, a corruption ^Cecilia, q v. Clara, Latin, clear or bright Clarissa, Latin, clear or bright. Constance, Latin, constant. Dagmar, German, ]oy of the Danes. Deborah, Hebrew, a bee. Diana, Greek, Jupiter’s daughter. Dorcas, Greek, a wild roe. Dorothea or Dorothy, Greek, the gift oi God. Edith, Saxon, happiness. Eleanor, Saxon, all fruitful. Eliza, Elizabeth, Hebrew, the oath oi God. Ellen, another form ^Helen, q. v. Emily, corrupted from Amelia. Emma, German, a nurse. Esther, Hesther, Hebrew, secret. Eudoia, Greek, prospering in the way. Eudora, Greek, good gift. Eudosia, Greek, good gift or well-given. Eugenia, French, well-born. Eunice, Greek, fair victory. Eva or Eve, Hebrew, causing life. Fanny, diminuthte of Francis, q. v. Fenella, Greek, bright to look on. Flora, Latin, flowers. Florence, Latin, blooming, flourishing. Francis, German, free. Gertrude, German, all truth. Grace, Latin, favor. Hagar, Hebrew, a stranger. Hadassah, Hebrew, form of Esther, q. v. Hannah, Hebrew, gracious. Harriet, German, head of the house. Helen or Helena, Greek, alluring. Henrietta , and dim. of Henry, q. v. Hephzibah, Hebrew, my delight is in her. Hilda, German, warrior maiden. Honora, Latin, honorable. Huldah, Hebrew, a weazel. Isabella, Spanish^ fair Eliza. Jane or Jeanne, fern. ^John, q. v. Janet, Jeannette, little Jane. J emima, Hebrew, a dove. Joan, Hebrew, fern, of John, q. v. Joanna or J oh anna, form ^Joan, q. v, Joyce, French, pleasant. Judith, Hebrew, praising. Julia, Juliana, Julius, q. v, Katherine, form