UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LiBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN BOOKSTACKS LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. ■v» f-0 VI PREFACE. Railways for India and Australia are the themes of daily comment ; and before many years have elajjscd, London will probably be connected by an ii-OQ band of railroads with Calcutta, the capital of our Eastern Empire. Their important uses need not here be discussed. As constituting a great means of social ioter-communication, they are felt to enter into almost all the relations between man and man. Trade, manufactures, agriculture, postal communication, have alike been beneficially influenced by this extra- ordinary invention. The foUovnng facts as respects railway communication in Great Britain, must be regarded as eminently significant : The number of passengers con- veyed by railway, in 1856, amounted to not less than 129,317,592 ; and of these, more than one half traveled by third-class trains, at an average cost of eight-tenths of a penny per mile, the average fare for all classes of pas- sengers not exceeding one penny farthing per mile. The safety with which this immense traffic was conducted is not the least remarkable feature of the system ; for it appears, from Captain Galtou's report to the Board of Trade, that the proportion of accidents to passengers, from causes beyond their own control, was only one person killed to 10,168,449 conveyed.* Those who desire statistical evidence as to the extent to which this new means of communication is employed for the conveyance of manufactures, minerals, and agricultural produce, will find abundant proofs in the same report. In Canada and the United States, the railroad is of greater value even than in England ; it is there regarded as the pioneer of colonization, and as instrumental in opening up new and fertile teri'itories of vast extent — the food-grounds of future nations. What may be the eventual results of the general adoption of railways in the civilized countries of Europe, remains to be seen ; but it is probable that, by abridging distance, bringing nations into closer communication, and enabling them more freely to exchange the products of their industry, they may tend to abate national antipathies and bind together more closely the great families of mankind. Disastrous though railway enterprises and speculations have proved to many .concerned in them, and mixed up though they have been with much fraud and folly, the debt which the public at large owe to railways cannot be disputed ; and after all temporary faults and blots have been admitted and disposed of, they must, nevertheless, be recognized as the most mag- nificent system of public inter-communication that has yet been given to the world. • Captain Galton'a Report to the Committee of Council for Trade, etc., 2l3t July, 1857 i PREFACE. Vii What manner of men were they by whom this groat work was accom- plished ? How did the conception first dawn upon their minds ? By what means did railways grow and quicken into such vigorous life? By what moral and material agencies did the inventors and founders of the system work out the ideas whose results have been so prodigious ? These questions the Author has endeavored to answer in the following Biography of George Stephenson, to whose labors the world is mainly in- debted for the locomotive railway system. Indeed, he has been so closely identified with its origin, progi'ess, and eventual establishment on a sound practical basis, that his life may be said to include the history of Railway Locomotioa almost down to the present time. Independently, however, of these considerations, the life of George Ste- phenson will be found to furnish subject of interest as well as instruction. Strongly self-reliant, diligent in self-cultm-e, and of indomitable persever- auce, the characters of such men — happily numerous in England — are almost equivalent to institutions. And if the Author have succeeded in delineating, however imperfectly, the life and character of George Stephen- son, the perusal of this book may not be without some salutary influence. The Author's acknowledgments are due to the following gentlemen, amongst others, for much valuable information as to the successive im- provements effected by Mr. Stephenson in the locomotive engine, and also with reference to the various railways, at home and abroad, with which he was professionally connected : Mr. Robert Stephenson, M.P. ; Mr. Edwai'd Pease, of Darlington ; Mr. John Dixon, C.E. ; Mr. John Bourne, C.E. ; Mr. Thomas Sopwith, C.E. ; Sir Joshua "Walmsley ; Mr. Jonathan Foster, of Wylam ; Mr. Charles Parker ; Mr. William Kell, and Mr. Clephan, of Gateshead. Many interesting facts, relating to Mr. Stephenson's early career, have been obtained from William Coe and other humble persons, who were only too proud to have the opportunity of communicating what they remembered of their distinguished fellow-workman. The Author is also under obligations to Mr. F. Swauwick, C.E. ; Mr. C. Binns, of Clay Cross, and Mr. Vaughan, of Snibston, for various particu- lars, introduced in the present edition, illustrative of Mr. Stejihenson's private life and habits while residing at Liverpool, Alton Grange, and Tapton House, and which supply an admitted defect in the earlier edition.^ of this biography. 8, Glenmohr Terrace, ) IljUe Yale, Blackheath. / CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAQE The Village of Wylam — Birthplace Of George Stephenson — Hia Parentage — Race — The Stephenson Family — Wylam Wagon-way — Dewley-Bum 1 CHAPTER n. Is employed as a Ucrd-hoy — Models Clay Engines — Labors a-fleld — Drives the Qin- IlOrse at the Colliery — Bird-nesting — Is made Assistant Fireman — Jolly's Close — Athletic Feats — Is appointed Engineman — Study of the Steam-engine 7 CHAPTER HI. Newburn — Experiments in Artificial Bird-hatching — Puts himself to School and learns to Read and Write — Learns Arithmetic — Love of tame Birds and Ammals — His Dog Blessenger — Learns Engine-brakeing 15 CHAPTER IV. Brakesman at Black Callerton — Duties of the Brakesman — Wages — Ekes out his Earnings by Shoe-mending — Falls in Love — Saves his First Guinea — Sobriety — Quarrel and Fight with Ned Nelson 22 CHAPTER V. Removal to WiUington — Marriage — Attempts to invent Perpetual Motion — Makes Shoes and Shoe Lasts — Clock-cleaning — Birth of his Son — Removal to Killing- worth 28 (ix) X CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. PAQS Killingworth Colliery — Death of his Wife — Journey into Scotland — Appointed Brakesman at Killing^vorth — Intends emigrating to the United States — Takes a Contract for Engine-brakeing — Makes Improvements in Pumping Engines, and acquires Celebrity as a Pump-curer 34 CHAPTER VH. Self-improvement — Ilis Studies with John AVigham, the Farmer's Son — Sends his Son to School — The Cottage at West Moor — Ingenuity of his Contrivances — Is ap- pointed Engine-wright of the CoUiery — Erects his First Engine — Evening Studies — His Obligations to the Newcastle Literary Institute 46 CHAPTER Vm. The Beginnings of Railways and Locomotives — Early Tramroads — Speculations as to mechanical Methods of Traction — Cugnofs Model Locomotive — Symington's Model — Murdoch's Model — Trevethick's Steam-carriage and Locomotive — Blenkinsop's Engine — Mr. Blackett's Experiments at Wylam 57 CHAPTER IX. Mr. Stephenson contemplates building a Locomotive — Is encouraged by Lord Ravens- worth — Want of competent Mechanics — Mr. Stephenson's First Locomotive de- scribed — Successful Application of the Steam Blast — His Second Locomotive — Summary of the important Results effected 78 CHAPTER X. Fatal Accidents from Explosions in Coal Mines — Blasts in the Killingworth Pit — Mr. Stephenson's Experiments with Fire-damp — Contrives the First practicable Miner's Safety Lamp — Its trial in the Killingworth Pit — Further Experiments and Im- provements on the Lamp — Exhibited at Newcastle 91 CHAPTER XL The Invention of the Tube Lamp — Mr. Stephenson charged with Pirating Sir H. Davy's Idea — His Reply — Dates of the respective Inventions — Controversy on the , Subject — Testimonials presented to both the Inventors — Summary of Evidence as to the Invention of the Lamp 106 CHAPTER XH. Further Improvements in the Locomotive — Invents an Improved Rail and Chair — Invents Steam Springs — Experiments on Friction and Gravity — Views on Flat Gradients — Superiority of Iron Roads over Paved Roads 127 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XIII. PAOB His Self-education continuea— Views on Education— The Sun-dial at KilUngwortli— Apprentices his Son as Under-Tiewer at tlie Colliery— Sends him to Edinburgh University 138 CHAPTER XIV. Slow Progress of Opinion as to Railway Locomotion— Sir Richard Phillips's Prophetic Anticipations— William James— Edward Pease, Projector of the Stockton and Dar- lington Railway— Thomas Gray— Mr. Stephenson constructs the Uetton Railway. . 147 CHAPTER XY. Defective Communication between Liverpool and Manchester— A Tramroad projected -Mr. James surveys a Line— Visits Mr. Stephenson at Killingworth— Is admitted to an Interest in the Patent Locomotive— Fails in introducing it— Fails to produce his Plans of the Liverpool Tramroad 164 CHAPTER XVI. Mr. Stephenson's Introduction to Mr. Pease — Is appointed Engineer to the Stockton and Darlington Railway — Makes a new Survey — Proposed Employment of Loco- motives — Fixed Engines advocated — 3Ir. Pease visits Killingworth 173 CHAPTER XVII. Working Survey of the Stockton and Darlington Line — Locomotive Factory at New- castle commenced — J\>ought-iron Rails adopted — The Gauge of the Railway settled — The Tractive Power to be employed — Anticipations of Railway Results — Public Opening of the Line — The "Experiment" — Rival Coiich Companies — Race between Locomotive and Coach — Results of the Traffic — Creation of Middlesborough-on- Tees 180 CHAPTER XVIII. Project of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway revived — The Canal Companies' Opposition — Provisional Committee formed — Their A'isits to Killingworth — Mr. Stephenson appointed to Survey a Line — Difficulties encountered — Articles in the "Scotsman" and "Quarterly" on Railways 197 CHAPTER XIX. The Liverpool and Manchester Bill in Committee of the House of Commons— Mr. Stephenson in the Witness-box — Mr. Giles proves the Impossibility of forming a Railway over Chat Moss — Mr Stephenson's Ignorance denounced by the Counsel Xll CONTENTS. PAQE for the Opposition— Mr. Adams's Appeal— Defeat of essential Clauses, and With- drawal of the Bill 212 CIIAPTHR XX. Renewed Application to Parliament for the Liverpool and Manchester Bill— Messrs Rennie selected as ParUamcntary Engineers— Passing of the Act— Mr. Stephenson appointed Chief Engineer— The Drainage of Chat Moss— The Directors contemplate the Abandonment of the Work— Mr. Stephenson's Perseverance— His Organization of Labor— The Railway Navvy— Progress of the Works- Private Life and Habits at Liverpool 230 CHAPTER XXI. General Opposition to the Locomotive— Mr. Telford's Report— Variety of Schemes suggested for the working of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway— Messrs. Walker and Rastrick's Report in favor of fixed Engines and against the Locomotive —The Directors offer a Prize of 500?. for the best Engine 250 CHAPTER XXH. The Newcastle Locomotive Foundry— Robert Stephenson's Return from America- Rencontre with Trevethick— The Building of the "Rocket"— Contrivance of the Multi-tubular Boiler— Modification of the Blast-pipe— The "Rocket" finished and sent to Liverpool 261 CHAPTER XXni. The Locomotive Competition at Rainhill— Entry of Engines for the Prize— The Judges appointed— The "Rocket" stript for the Race— The » Novelty "—The " Sans- pareil"— The Performances of the " Rocket "—AVins the Prize— Congratulations of Mr Stephenson— The End of the " Rocket " 274 CHAPTER XXIV. Completion of the Liverpool and Manchester Line— The Public Opening— Fatal Acci- dent to Mr. Huskisson— Lord Brougham's Panegyric of the Railway— Commercial Results of the Undertaking— Further Improvements in the Locomotive— Alleged Monopoly — The Workmen employed — Improvement of the Road and Rolling Stock, 282 CHAPTER XXV. Importance of Mr. Stephenson's Invention of the Passenger Engine— Government and Railways— .Toint-stock Companies— New Railways projected and made— The London and Birmingham Railway— The Kilsby Tunnel— Excess in the Cost of CONTENTS. Xm PAQE Construction beyond the Estimates — Magnitude of tlie Works — Comparison with the Great Pyramid 297 CHAPTER XXVI. *' Advance of Public Opinion in favor of Railways — Singular Instances of Opposition to Railways and Predictions of Failure — Locomotion on Common Roads promoted by the Legislature — Results of the Opening from London to Liverpool, etc. — Bene- fits to the Public — Traveling by Stage-coach and Private Carriage — Mr. Stephenson la a Stage-coach Accident — The Railway at length adopted by all Classes 317 CHAPTER XXVn. Leases the Snibston Estate — Discovery of Beds of Coal — Private Life at Alton Grange — Busiest Period of Mr. Stephenson's Career — Anecdote of the Starved Robins — Lines in the Northern and Midland Districts — The Manchester and Leeds — Lord ■\Vharncliffe's Opposition in Committee — The Littleborough Tunnel — The North Midland — Comparison of the Works with Napoleon's Road across the Simplon — Mr. Stephenson's Anticipations as to the Coal Traffic to London by Railway — The York and North Midland — Public Opening — The Sheffield and Rotherham — Mr. Stephenson's Pupils and Assistants 331 CHAPTER XXVm. Surveys an East Coast Line to Scotland — Line from Chester to Holyhead — West Coast Line to Glasgow— Leeds and Bradford — Rapidity of Railway Development — Is checked by the Monetary Pressure 35" CHAPTER XXIX. The Modern School of English Engineers— Fast Men — History of the Narrow Gauge — Increased Width on the Great Western— Mr. Brunei— Battle of the Gauges — The Atmospheric Railway — The Undulating System — Notions of Fast Traveling — Mr. Stephenson invents a Railway Safety-brake — His Moderate Views of Railway Speed, etc., compared with those of the Fast Men — Commercial Considerations, . . . 368 CHAPTER XXX. Mr. Stephenson resigns the Chief Engineership of several Railways — Residence at Tapton in Derbyshire — Leases Clay Cross and Tapton Collieries — Proposed Testi- monial — ^Sir Robert Peel's AUusion to his useful Career — His Interest in Mechanics' Institutes — Chairman of Yarmouth and Norwich Railway — Completion of the East Coast Route to Newcastle — Public Celebration of the Event — Autobiographic Sketch — The Proposed Northumberland Atmospheric Line — The Newcastle High- level Bridge 385 XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXI. PAOI Railway Management — Railway Success stimulates Speculation— Multitude of New Projects — Sale of Premiums of new Shares on 'Change — The Railway Mania — ^Mr. Stephenson holds aloof from and discountenances it — Immense Number of New Lines authorized by Parliament — Sir Robert Peel's Encouragement of direct and uneven Lines — Mr. Stephenson's Letter of Expostulation — Legislative Bungling — Great Waste of Capital — Demoralizing Effects of the Mania — The Navvy as a Con- tractor — Mr. Stephenson's Mode of executing Railway Works 402 CHAPTER XXXn. Introduction to Mr. Hudson — Ilis Railway Career — The Railway King — Acknowledg- ment of Mr. Stephenson's Services — Public Statue proposed — Mr. Hudson's Ap-ropriation of Shares — Results of the Railway Saturnalia — Mr. Hudson de- throned 419 CHAPTER XXXm. The Railway System early adopted by Leopold, King of the Belgians — Mr. Stephen- son consulted in the laying out of the Belgian Railways — Is made Knight of the Order of Leopold — Journeys of Railway Inspection in Belgium — Banquet at Ghent and Brussels — Interview with the King — ^Visit to France and Spain — Illness and Return to England 428 CHAPTER XXXIV. Horticultural Pursuits at Tapton — His Pines.. Melons, and Grapes — Makes Cucum- bers grow straight — Stock-feeding — Theory of Vegetation — Fattening of Chickens — Bees — Indoor Habits — Conversable Faces ; Lord Denman — A'isits of Friends — Reverence for Nature — The Microscope — Spirit of Frolic — A "Crowdie Night" — Humble Visitors — Rebukes Foppery — Visits to London and Newcastle — Visit to Sir Robert Peel at Drayton — The Clay Cross Workmen's Institute 440 CHAPTER XXXV. Correspondence with Inventors — Invents a Three-cylinder Locomotive — His self- acting Carriage-brake — Public Opening of the Trent Valley Railway — Railway Celebration at Manchester — Meeting with Emerson — Illness and Death — Tribute of the London and Northwestern Railway Company to his Memory — Statues — Portrait 453 CHAPTER XXXVI. Character of George Stephenson — Race — Self-reliance — Improvement of Time — Per- severance — Encounter with DiflBculties — Thoroughness — Determination — Attention to Details — Care for his Son's Education — Admiration inspired by him — Generosity — Honest Thrift — Patience — Comparison with Watt — Manners and Deportment — Close Observation of Facts — Hatred of Humbug — "Ornamental Initials" — The Civil Engineers — Offer of Knighthood — Conclusion 466 CONTENTS. XV RESUME OF THE RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. BY R. STEPHEXSOX, ESQ., M.P. PAGE Length of Railways in Great Britain — Cost — Works — Working — Traffic — Wear and Tear — Fares — Postal Facilities afforded by Railways — Legislation for Railways — Management of Railways — Electric Telegraph — Accidents — General Results — Prac- tical Application 483 m fl i) A ft it ft (1) V o (3 ft a LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. CHAPTER I. EARLY YEARS. Arout eight miles west of Newcastle-on-Tyiie stands the colliery village of Wylam, consisting of a number of mean cottages, situated on the north bank of the river Tyne. The Newcastle and Carlisle railway runs along the opposite bank ; and the traveler by that hne sees only the usual signs of a col- liery in the unsightly pumping-engine surrounded by heaps of ashes, coal-dust and slag ; while a neighboring iron-furnace, in full blast, throws out dense smoke and loud jets of steam by day, and lurid flames at night. These works fonn the nucleus of the village, which is almost entirely occupied by coal miners and iron-furnace men. There is nothing to interest one in the village itself. But, a few hundred yards from its eastern extremity stands a humble detached dwelling, which will be interesting to many as the bii-thplace of George Stephenson, the Railway Engineer. It is a common, two-storied, red-tiled building, portioned off into four laborers' apartments. The house is known by the name of High Street House, and was originally so called because it stands by the side of what used to be the old riding Post Road 1 2 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. or Street, between Newcastle and Ilexliam, along which the post was carried on horseback within the memory of people still living. At an eaidier period, this road used to be so unsafe that the Judges, when on circuit, were escorted along it by a considerable body of ai-med men, as a protection against the freebooters who invested the district. A sum of money, de- nominated "dagger money," was annually contributed by the Sheriff of Newcastle, for the purpose of providing daggers and other weapons for the escort ; and it is a curious fact that this tribute still continues to be paid in broad gold pieces of Charles the First's coinage, though the necessity for it has long since ceased.* The lower room in the west end of the humble cottage referred to, was the home of the Stephenson family ; and there George Stephenson was born on the 9th of June, 1781. The apartment is now, what it was then, an ordinary laborer's dwelling — its walls unplastered, its floor of clay, and the bai-e rafters are ex- posed overhead. Robert Stephenson, or "Old Bob," as the neighbors familiarly called him, and his wife Mabel, were a respectable couple, careful and hard working. They belonged to the ancient and honorable family of Workers — that extensive family which constitutes the backbone of our country's greatness — the common working people of England. A tradition is, indeed, preserved in the family, that old Robert Stephenson's father and mother came across the border from Scotland, on the loss of considerable prop- erty there. Miss Stephenson, daughter of Robert Stephenson's tliird son John, states that a suit was even commenced for the recovery of the property, but was dropt for want of means to prosecute it. Certain it is, however, that Robert Stephenson's position throughout life was that of an humble workman. After marrying at Walbottle, a village situated between Wylam and Newcastle, he removed with his wife Mabel to Wylam, where * Notes and Queries, Docembor 27th, 1856. HIS MOTHER. 6 he found employment as fireman of the old pumping-engine at that colliery. The engine which he "fired" has long since been removed: as an old villager said of it, "she stood till she grew fearsome to look at, and then she was pulled down." Mabel Stephenson was the only daughter of Robert Carr, a dyer at Ovingham. Her family had dwelt in the neighborhood of Newcastle for generations. The author, when engaged in trac- ing the early history of George Stephenson, casually entered into conversation one day with an old man near Dewley, a hamlet close adjoining Walbottle. Mabel Stephenson, he said, had been his mother's cousin ; and all their "forbears" belonged to that neighborhood. It appears that she was a woman of somewhat delicate constitution, nervous in temperament, and troubled occa- sionally, as her neighbors said, with the "vapors." But those who remember her, concur in asserting that "she was a rale canny body." And a woman of whom this is said, by general consent, in the Newcastle district, may be pronounced a worthy person indeed. It is about the highest praise of a woman which Northumbrians can express. The meaning of the word "canny" with them is quite different from that which it bears in Yorkshire or the Scotch Lowlands. To be "canny," amongst the Scotch, is to be somewhat innocuous and rather soft ; in Yorkshire, it means sly and knowing, with an assumed simplicity of manner ; but in Northumberland, it means goodness itself — something closely approaching to j)erfection. Applied to a woman, it "caps" eveiy other comphment, and is a climax to them all. The Northumbi'ian people, generally, exhibit many striking and characteristic qualities, inhei'ited, most probably, from the hardy and energetic Northmen, who settled in such numbers along the north-eastern coasts many centuries ago. Taking them as a whole, they are bigger and hardier men* — more enter- * Their tenacity of life would seem to be greater. The locomotive engineer of a large railway informs me. as the result of a long experience, that the north-country engine- drivers and stokers usually recover from injuries to body and limb, which, to south-country workmen, are almost invariably fatal. 4 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. prismg, energetic and laborious — and of more marked individ- uality — than the inhabitants of our more southern counties. They are rougher in manner and more difficult to polish ; but they are full of shrewdness and mother wit, and possessed of great strength of character, of which, indeed, their remarkable guttural speech is but a type. The name Stephenson or Steven- son is said to signify, in the Norse tongue, the son of Steeve, or tlie strong ; and certainly the subject of this story exhibited, in a remarkable manner, this characteristic quality of his family. George Stephenson was the second of a family of six childi-en. The family Bible of Robert and IMabel Stephenson, which seems to have come into their possession in November, 1790, contains the following record of the births of these cliildren, evidently written by one hand and at one time : — "A Rechester of the children belonging Robert and Mabel Stephesoa — " James Stepheson Was Born March the 4 day 1779 " George Stepheson Was Born June 9 day 1781 " Blender Stepheson Was Born April the IG day 1784 " Robert Stepheson Was Born March the 10 day 1788 " John stepheson Was Born November the 4 day 1789 "Ann Stepheson Was Born July the 19 day 1792."' * As the wages earned by Robert Stephenson as fireman, when in full work, did not amount to more than twelve shillings a week, it may be inferred that, even with the most rigid economy, there was very little to spare for the clothing, and nothing for the schooling, of the children. As an aged neighbor, who remem- bers them well, says of the parents: "They had very little to come and go upon; they were honest folk, but sore haudden doon in the world." Robert Stephenson was a slender man, of attenuated frame. He was an exceedingly amiable person, and was long remem- * Of the two daughters. Eleanor married Stephen Liddell, afterwards employed in the LocomotiTe Factory in Newcastle : and Anne married John Nixon, with whom she emi- prated to the United States. John Stephenson .was accidently killed at the Locomotive Factory, in January, 1831. HIS FATHER. 5' bercd for his curious love of nature as well as of romance. He was accustomed, while tending his engine-fire in the evenings, to draw around him the young people of the village, and to feast their imaginations with his wonderful stories of Sinbad the Sailor, and Robinson Crusoe, besides others of his own invention. Hence he was an immense favorite with all the boys and girls of the place, and "Bob's engine-fire" was always their favorite resort. Another feature in his character, by Avhich he was long remem- bered, was his strong affection for birds and animals of all sorts. In the winter time, he had usually a fiock of tame robins about him, and they would come hopping familiarly round the engine- fire, to pick up the crumbs which he saved for them out of his slender dinner. In summer time, he went bird-nesting in his leisure hours ; and one day he took his little boy George to see a blackbird's nest for the first time. Holding liim up in his arms, the boy gazed with wonder into the nest full of young birds — a sight which he never forgot, but used to speak of with delight to his intimate friends, when he himself had groAvn an old man. While a boy at Wylam, George led the ordinary life of work- ing-people's children. He played about the doors ; went bird- nesting when he could ; and ran errands to the village. In course of time he was promoted to the office of carrying his father's dinner to him while at work ; and he helped to nurse his younger brothers and sisters at home — for in the poor man's dwelling every hand must early be turned to useful account. None of the children ever went to school ; the family was too poor, and food too dear, to admit of that. One of the duties of the elder children was to see that the younger ones were ke})t out of the way of the chaldron wagons which were then dragged by horses along the wooden tramroad immediately in front of the cottage door. Wooden railways were early used in Northumberland ; and this at Wylam was destined to be the first on which a locomotive engine traveled regularly between the coal-pit and the loading-quay. At the time, how LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. ever, of which we speak, locomotives had scarcely been dreamt of; horses were still the only tractive power ; and one of the daily sights of young Stephenson was the coal-wagons dragged by their means along this wooden railway at Wylam. Thas eight years passed ; after which, the coal having been worked out on the north side, the old engine was pulled down, and the Stephenson family, following the work, removed from Wylam to Dewley Burn. The Duke of Northumberland, (to whom most of the property in the neighborhood belongs,) had opened a new pit there. An engine was erected, of which Robei't Hawthorn, father of the afterwards celebrated Newcastle engi- neers, was the plugman or engineman ; and Robert Stephenson was appointed to act as his fireman. Dewley Burn, at this day, consists of a few old-fashioned low- roofed cottages, standing on either side of a babbUng little stream. They are connected by a rustic wooden bridge, which spans the rift in front of the doors. Li the central one-roomed cottage of this group, on the right bank, Robert Stephenson settled tor a time with his family. The pit at which he was employed stood in the rear of the cottages. It has long since been worked out and closed in ; and only the marks of it are now visible — a sort of blasted grass covering, but scarcely concealing the scorije and coal-dust, accumulated about the mouth of the old pit. Looking across the fields, one can still discern the marks of the former wagon-way, leading in the direction of Walbottle. It was joined on its course by another wagon-road leading from the dir(^ction of Black Callerton. Indeed, there is scarcely a field in the neighborhood that does not exhibit traces of the workings of former pits. But grass now grows over all the wagon-roads there. The coal has all been "won ;" and pit engines, appai-atus and workmen, have long since passed away. CHAPTER II. BEGINS A CAREER OF LABOR. As EVERY child in a poor man's house is a burden until his little hands can be turned to profitable account and made to earn money towards supplying the indispensable wants of the family, George Stephenson was put to work as soon as an opportunity of employment presented itself. A widow, named Grace Ainslie, then occupied the neighboring farmhouse of Dewley. She kept a number of cows, and had the privilege of grazing them along the wagon-ways. She needed a boy to herd the cows, to keep them out of the way of the wagons, and prevent their straying or trespassing on the neighbors' "liberties ;" the boy's duty was also to bar the gates at night after all the wagons had passed. George petitioned fur this post, and to his great joy he was appointed, at the wage of two-pence a day. It was light employment, and he had plenty of spare time on his hands, wliich he spent in bird-nesting, making whistles out of reeds and scrannel straws, and erecting Lilliputian mills in the little water-streams that ran into the Dewley bog. But his favor- ite amusement at this early age was erecting clay engines, in conjunction with his chosen playmate, Tom Thirlaway. They found the clay for their engines in the adjoining bog ; and the hemlock., wliicli grew about, supplied them with abundance of imaginary steampipes. The place is still pointed out, "just aboon (7) 8 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the cut-end," as the people of the hamlet describe it, where the future engineer made his first essays in modeling. This early indication of a mechanical turn may remind the reader of a sim- ilar anecdote of the boy Smeaton, who, when missed one day by his parents, was found mounted on the roof of the cotta"-e fixinf a puny windmill. As the boy grew older and more able to woik, he was set to lead the horses when ploughing, tliough scarce big enough to stride across the furrows ; and he used afterwards to say that he rode to his work in the mornings, at an hour when most other children of his age were fast asleep in their l)eds. He was also employed to hoe turnips, and do similar fai-m work, for which he was paid the advanced wage of four-pence a day. But his highest ambition was to be taken on at the colliery where his father worked ; and he shortly joined his elder brother James there as a "corf-bitter," or "picker," where he was employed in clearing the coal of stones, bats and dross. His wages were now advanced at sixpence a day, and afterwards to eightpence when he was set to drive the gin-horse. Shortly after, he went to Black Callerton Colliery to drive the gm there. And as that colliery lies about two miles across the fields from Dewley Burn, the boy walked that distance early in the morning to his work, returning home late in the evenino-. Some of the old people of Black Callerton still remember him as a "grit bare-legged laddie," and they describe jiim as being then "very quick-witted, and full of fun and tricks." As they said, "there was nothing under the sun but he tried to imitate." He was usually foremost in the sports and pastimes of vouth. Among his first strongly developed tastes, was the love of birds and animals, which he inherited from his father. Blackbirds were his especial favorites. The hedges between Dewley and Black Callerton were capital bird-nesting places ; and there was not a nest there that he did not know of, When the young birds were old enough, he would bring them home with him, feed them, jolly's close. 9 and teach them to fly about the cottage unconfined by cages. One of his blackbirds became so tame that, after flying about the doors all day, and in and out of the cottage, it would take up its roost upon the bed-head at night. And most singular of all, the bird would disappear in the spring and summer months, when it was supposed to go into the woods to pair and rear its young, after which it would reappear at the cottage and resume its social habits during the winter. This Avent on for several years. George had also a stock of tame rabbits, for which he built a little house behind the cottage, and for many years he continued to pride himself upon the superiority of his breed. After he had driven the gin for some time at Dewley and Black Callerton, he was taken on as an assistant to his father in firing the engine at Dewley. This was a step of promotion which he had anxiously desired ; his only fear being lest he should be found too young for the work. Indeed, he afterwards used to relate how he was wont to hide himself from sight when the owner of the colliery went around, lest he should be thought too little a boy thus to earn his small wages. Since he had modeled his clay engines in the bog, his young ambition was to be an engine-man. And to be an assistant fireman was the first step towards this position. Great, therefore, was his exultation when, at about fourteen years of age, he was appointed assistant fire- man, at the wage of a shilling a day. But the coal at Dewley Burn being at length worked out, and the pit being about to be "laid in," the family prepared for another removal. This time their removal was to Jolly's Close, a few miles to the south, close behind the village of Newburn, where another coal mine of the Duke's called "the Duke's Winnin," had recently been opened out. Jolly's Close then consisted of a small row of cottages situated upon a flat space of ground enclosed by lofty banks on either side, at the bottom of the narrow rift called Walbottle Dean. Jolly's Close, however, no longer exists, and only a few of the to LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. oldest people in the neighborhood are aware that such a place ever was. A mountain of earth, shale and debris, the accumula- tion of fifty years, lies tumbled over its site — the rubbish, or "deeds," having been shot over from tlie hillside, once a green hill, but now a scarified, blasted rock, along which furnaces blaze and engines labor night and day. The stream in the hollow, wliich used to run in front of old Robert Stephenson's cottage door, is made to pay tribute in the form of water power at every wheel in the Dean ; and only a narrow strip now remains of what was once a green meadow. One of the old persons in the neighborhood, who knew the family well, describes the dwelling in which they lived, as a poor cottage of only one room, in which the father, mother, four sons and two daughters lived and slept. It was crowded with three low-poled beds. This one apartment served for parlor, kitchen, sleeping-room and all. The cottage went with the work, and the use of it formed part of the Avorkman's wage — the Duke being both the employer and the landlord. The children of the Stephenson family were now growing up apace, and were most of them of an age to be able to eai'n money at various kinds of colliery work. James and George, the two eldest sons, worked as assistant firemen ; and the younger boys worked as wheelers or pickers on the banktops. The two girls helped their mother with the household work. So fiir as weekly earnings went, the family were at this time pretty comfortable. Their united earnings amounted to from 35s. to 4O5. a week ; and they were enabled to command a fair share of the necessaries of life. But it will be remembered that in those days, from 1797 to 1802, it was much more dilficult for the working classes to live than it is now ; for money did not go near so far. The price of bread was excessive. Wheat, which for three years preceding 1795, had averaged only 54s., now advanced to 7Gs. a quarter; and it continued to rise until in December, 1800, it had advanced to 130s., and barley and oats FEATS OF STRENGTH. 11 in proportion. There was a great dearth of provisions ; com riots were of frequent occurrence ; and the taxes on all articles of consumption were very heavy. The war with Napoleon was then raging ; derangements of trade were frequent, causing occa- sional suspensions of employment in all departments of industry, from the pressure of which working people are always the first to suffer. During this severe period, George Stephenson continued to live with his parents at Jolly's Close. Other workings of the coal were opened out in the neighborhood ; and to one of these he was removed as fireman on his own account. This was called the "Mid Mill Winnin ;" there he had for his mate a young man named Bill Coe, and to these two was entrusted the working of the little engine put up at Mid Mill. They worked together there for about two years, by twelve-hour shifts, George firing the engine at the wage of a shilling a day. He was now fifteen years old. His ambition was as yet limited to attaining; the standinsj of a full workman, at a man's wages ; and with that view he endeavored to attain such a knowledge of his engine as would eventually lead to his employ- ment as an engine-man, with its accompanying advantage of higher pay. He was a steady, sober, hard-working young man, and nothino: more, according to the estimate of his fellow-work- men. One of his favorite pastimes in by-hours was trying feats of strength with his companions. Although in frame he was not particularly robust, yet he was big and bony, and considered very strong for his age. His principal competitor was Robert Haw- thorn, with whom he had frequent trials of muscular strength and dexterity, such as lifting heavy weights, throwing the hammer, and putting the stone. At throwing the hammer George had no compeer ; but there was a knack in putting the stone which he could never acquire, and here Hawthorn beat him. At lifting heavy weights ofi" the ground from between liis « 12 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. feet — by means of a bar of iron passed through Ihem, the bar placed against his knees as a fulcrum, and then straightening the spine and lifting tliem sheer up — Ste])lienson was very successful. On one occasion, they relate, he lifted as much as sixty stone weight in this way — a striking indication of his strength of bone and vigor of muscle. When the pit at Mid Mill was closed, George and his compan- ion Coe were sent to work another pumping-engine, erected neai' Throckley Bridge, where they continued for some months. It was while Avorking at this place, that his wages were raised to 1 2s. a week — an event of no small importance in his estimation. On coming out of the foreman's office that Saturday evening on which he received the advance, he announced the fact to bis fellow-workmen, adding triumphantly, " I am now a made man for life!" The pit opened at Newbura, at which old Robert Stephenson worked, proving a fjiilure, it was closed ; and a new pit was sunk at Water-row, on a strip of land lying between the Wylam wagon-way and the river Tyne, about half a mile west of New- burn Church. A pumping-engine Avas erected there by Robert Hawthorn, now the Duke's engineer at Walbottlc ; and old Ste- phenson went to work it as fireman, his son George acting as the engineman or plugman. At this time he was about seventeen years old — a very youthful age for occupying so responsible a post. He had thus already got ahead of his father in his station as a workman ; for the plugman holds a higher grade than the fireman, requiring more practical knowledge and skill, and usu- ally receiving higher wages. Tlie duty of the plugman was to watch the engine and to see that it kept well in work, smd that the pumps wei-e efficient in drawing the water. When the water-level in the pit was lowered, and the suction became incomplete through the exposure of the suction holes, then his business was to proceed to the bottom of the shaft, and plug the tube so that the pump should draw ; STEAM-ENGINE. 13 lience the designation of Plugman. If a stoppage in the engine took place through any defect in it which he was incapable of remedying, then it was his duty to call in the aid of the chief engineer of the colliery to set the engine to rights. But from the time when George Stephenson was appointed fireman, and more particularly afterwards as engine-man, he ap- plied himself so assiduously and so successfully to the study of the engine and its gearing — taking the machine to pieces in his leisure hours for the purpose of cleaning and mastering its various parts — that he very soon acquired a thorough practical knowledge of its construction and mode of working, and thus he very rarely needed to call to his aid the engineer of the colliery. His engine became a sort of pet with him, and he was never wearied of watching and inspecting it with devoted admiration. There is indeed a peculiar fascination about an engine, to the intelligent workman who watches and feeds it. It is almost sublime in its untiring industry and quiet power ; capable of performing the most gigantic work, yet so docile that a child's hand may guide it. No wonder, therefore, that the workman, who is the daily companion of this life-like machine, and is con- stantly watching it with anxious care, at length comes to regard it with a degree of personal interest and regard, speaking of it often in terms of glowing admiration. This daily contemplation of the steam-engine, and the sight of its steady action, is an edu- cation of itself to the ingenious and thoughtful workman. It is certainly a striking and remarkable fact, that nearly all that has been done for the improvement of the steam-engine has been accomplished, not by philosophers and scientific men, but by laborers, mechanics, and engine-men. It would appear as if this were one of the departments of practical science in which the higher powers of the human mind must bend to mechanical in- stinct. The steam-engine was but a mere toy, until it was taken in hand by workmen. Savery was originally a working miner, Newcomen a blacksmith, and his partner Cawley a glazier. In 14 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the hands of "Watt, the instrument maker, who devoted almost a life to the subject, the condensing engine acquired gigantic strength ; and George Stephenson, the colliery engine-man, was certainly not the least of those who have assisted to bring the high-pressure engine to its present power. While studying to master the details of his engine, to know its weaknesses, and to quicken its powers, George Stephenson gradually acquired the character of a clever and improving work- man. Whatever he was set to do, that he endeavored to do well and thoroughly ; never neglecting small matters, but aiming at being a complete workman at all points ; thus gradually perfect- ing his own mechanical capacity, and securing at the same time the respect of his fellow-workmen and the increased confidence and esteem of liis employers. CHAPTER III. ENGINEMAN AT NEWBUKN — SELF-CULTURE. George Stephexsox was eighteen years old before he learnt to read. He was now almost a full-grown workman, earning his twelve shillings a week, and having the charge of an engine, which occupied his time to the extent of twelve hours every day. He had thus very few leisure moments that he could call his owji. But the busiest man will find them if he watch for them ; and if he be careful in turning these moments to useful account, he will prove them to be the very " gold-dust of time," as Young has so beautifully described them. To his poor parents George Stephenson owed a sound consti- tution and vigorous health. They had also set before him an example of sobriety, economy, and patient industry — habits winch are in themselves equivalent to principles. For habits are the most inflexible of all things ; and principles are, in fact, but the names which we assign to them. If his parents, out of their small earnings and scanty knowledge, were unable to give their son any literary culture, at all events they had trained him Avell, and furnished him with an excellent substratum of character. Unquestionably, however, he labored under a very serious dis- advantage in having to master, at a comparatively advanced age, those simple rudiments of elementary instruction, which all children in a country calling itself civilized ought to have im- (15) 16 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPUENSOX. parted to them at school. The youth who reaches manhood, and enters, by necessity, upon a career of daily toil, without being able to read his native language, does not start on equal terms with others who have received the benefits of such instruction. It is true that he who, by his own voluntary and determined efforts, overcomes the diificulties early thrown in his way, and succeeds in eventually teaching himself, will value the education thus acquired much more than he to whom it has been imparted as a mere matter of duty, on the part of parents or of society. What the self-educated man learns, becomes more thoroughly his own, makes a more vivid impression upon his mind, and fixes itself more enduringly there. It usually also exercises a more powerful influence in the formation of his character, by disciplin- ing his spirit of self-help, and accustoming him to patient encoun- ter with, and triumph over, difficulties. We have seen how Stephenson's play-hours were occasionally occupied — in a friendly rivalry with his fellows in feats of strength. Much also of his spare time, when he was not actually employed in working the engine, was devoted to cleaning it and taking it to pieces, for the purpose of mastering its details. At this time he was also paying some attention to the art of brak- ing, which he had expressed to Coe liis desire to learn, in order that he might improve his position, and be advanced to higher wages. Not many of his fellow-workmen had learnt to read ; but those who could do so, were placed under frequent contribution by George and the other laborers at the pit. It was one of their greatest treats to induce some one to read to them by the engine- fire, out of any book or stray newspaper which might find its way into the village of Newbuni. Bonaparte was then over- running Italy, and astounding Europe by his brilliant succession of victories ; and there was no more eager auditor of these ex- ploits, when read from the newspaper accounts, than the young engineman at the Water-row Pit. SELF- CULTURE. 17 There were also numerous stray bits of information and in- telligence contained in these papers, which excited Stephenson's interest. One of these related to the Egyptian art of hatching birds' eggs by means of artificial heat. Carious about everything relating to birds, he determined to test the art by experiment. It was spring time, and he forthwith went a bird-nesting in the adjoining woods and liedges, where there were few birds' nests of which he did not know. He brought a collection of eggs of all kinds mto the engine-house, set tliem in flour in a warm place, covering the whole over with wool, and then waited the issue of his experiment. But tliough the heat was kept as steady as possible, and the eggs wex'e carefully turned every twelve hours, they never hatched. The eggs chipped, and some of them ex- hibited well-grown chicks ; but none of the birds came forth alive, and thus the experiment failed. This incident, however, shows that the inquiring mind of the youth was now fairly at work. Another of his favorite occupations continued to be the model- ing of clay engines. He not only tried to model engines which he had himself seen, but he also attempted to form models in clay of engines which Avere described to him as being in existence ; and doubtless his modeling at this time, imperfect though his knowledge was, exhibited considerable improvement upon his first attempts in the art when a herd-boy in the bog at Dewley Burn. He was told, however, that all the wonderful engines of Watt and Boulton, about which he was so anxious to know, were to be found described in books, and that he must satisfy his curiosity by searching the publications of the day for a more complete description of them. But, alas ! Stephenson could not read ; he had not yet learnt even his letters. Thus he shortly found, when gazing wistfully in the direction of knowledge, that to advance further as a skilled workman, he must master this wonderful art of reading — the key to so many other arts. He would thus be enabled to gain an access to books, 9 18 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the depositories of the experience and wisdom of all times. Although now a grown man, and doing the work of a man, he was not ashamed to confess his ignorance and go to school, big as he was, to learn his letters. Perhaps, too, he foresaw that in laying out a little of his spare earnings for this purpose, he was investing money judiciously, and that every hour he spent at school, he was really working for better wages. At all events, he detei'mined to make a beginning — a small beginning, it is true, but still a right one, and a pledge and assurance that he was in earnest in the work of self-culture. He desired to find a road into knowledge ; and no man can sincerely desire this but he will eventually succeed. He possessed that will and purpose which are the invariable forerunners of success. His first schoolmaster was Robin Cowens, a poor teacher in the village of Walbottle. He kept a night-school, which was attended by a few of the colliers and laborers' sons in the neigh- borhood. George took lessons in spelling and reading three nights in the week. Tommy Musgrove, the lad who "sled out" the engine at the Water-row Pit, usually went with him to the evening lesson. This teaching of Robin Cowens cost three-pence a week ; and though it was not very good, yet George, being hungry for knowledge, and eager to acquire it, soon learnt to read. He also practiced " pot-hooks," and at the age of nineteen he was proud to be able to write his own name. A Scotch dominie, named Andrew Robertson, set up a night school in the village of Newbuni, in the winter of 1799. It was more convenient for George Stephenson to attend this school, as it was nearer to his work, and not more than a few minutes' walk from Jolly's Close. Besides, Andrew had the reputation o&Jbeine: a skilled arithmetician ; and this was a branch of knowl- edge that Stephenson was now desirous of acquiring. He accord- ingly began taking lessons from him, paying four jience a week. Andrew Gray, the junior fireman at the Water-row Pit, began aritlimetic at the same time ; and he has since told the writer, LEARNS READING AND ARITHMETIC. 19 that George learnt " figuring " so much faster than he did, that he could not make out how it was — "■ he took to figures so won- derful." Although the two started together from the same point, at the end of the winter George had mastered " reduction," while Andrew Gray was still grappling with the difficulties of simple division. But George's secret was his perseverance. He worked out the sums in his by -hours, improving every minute of his spare time by the engine fire, there solving the arithmetical problems set for him upon his slate by his master. Li the evenings, he took to Andi'ew Eobertson the sums which he had thus "worked," and new ones were " set " for him to study out the following day. Thus his progress was rapid, and, with a willing heart and mind, he soon became well advanced in arithmetic. Indeed, Andrew Robertson became somewhat proud of his pupil; and shortly afterwards, when the Water-row Pit was closed, and George removed to Black Callerton to work there, the poor schoolmaster, not having a very extensive connection in Newburn, went with his pupils, and set up his night school at Black Callerton, where they continued their instructions under him as before. George still found time to attend to his favorite animals while working at the Water-row Pit. He kept up his breed of rabbits, and even drove a small trade in them, selling portions of his stock from time to time. Like his father, he used to tempt the robin- redbreast to hop and fly about him at the engine fire, by the bait of bread-crumbs saved from his dinner. But his favorite animal was liis dog — so sagacious that he performed the office of a ser- vant, in almost daily carrying his dinner to him at the pit. The tin containing the meal was suspended from the dog's neck ; and thus laden he proudly walked the road from Jolly's Close to Water-row Pit, quite through the village of Newburn. He turned neither to the left nor right, nor minded for the time the barking of curs at his heels. But his course was not unattended with perils. One day the big strange dog of a passing butcher espied the engine-man's messenger, ran after him, and fell ujDon 20 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. him with the tin can about his neck. There was a terrible tussle and worrying between the dogs, which lasted for a brief while, and shortly after, the dog's master, anxious for his dinner, saw his faithful servant approaching, bleeding but triumphant. The tin can was still round his neck, but the dinner had escaped in the struggle. Though George went without his dinner that day, yet when the circumstances of the combat were related to him by the villagers who had seen it, he was prouder of his dog than ever. It was while working at the Water-row Pit that Stephenson first learnt the art of braking an engine. This being one of the higher departments of colliery labor, and amongst the best paid, George was very anxious to learn it. A small winding engine having been put up for the purpose of drawing the coals from the pit. Bill Coe, his friend and fellow-workman, was appointed the brakesman. He frequently allowed George to try his hand at the brake, and instructed liim how to proceed. But in this course Coe was opposed by several of the other workmen — one of whom, a brakesman named William Locke,* went so far as to stop the working of the pit because Stephenson had been called in to the brake. But one day as Mr. Charles Nixon, the manager of the pit, was observed approaching, Coe adopted an experiment which had the effect of putting a stop to the opposition. He forthwith called upon George Stephenson to " come into the brake-house, and take hold of the machine." No sooner had he done this, than Locke, as usual, sat down, and the working of the pit was stopped. " What's the meaning of this ?" asked Mr. Nixon ; " what's wrong that the pit is standing ?" Coe's answer was that Locke had refused to take the corf. " And why ?" asked Nixon. " Because Locke objects to my learning George there (pointing to Stephenson) to bralce." Locke, when requested to give an explanation, said that " young Stephenson couldn't brake, and, what was more, never would learn to brake : he was so clumsy * He afterwards romoTcd to Bamsley in Yorkshire ; iio was the father of Mr. Locke, the celebrated engineer. LEARNS ENGINE-BRAKING. 21 that he was like to rive his arms off." Mr. Nixon, however, ordered Locke to go on with the work, which he did ; and Ste- phenson, after some further practice, acquired the art of braking. After working at the "Water-row Pit, and in tlie neighborhood of Newburn, for about three years, George, with liis companion Coe, was removed to Black Callerton Collier j, in the year 1801. The pit there belonged to the same masters, Nixon and Cram- Ungton, and George was regulaily appointed brakesman at the DoUy Pit. CHAPTER IV. BRAKESMAN AT BLACK CALLERTO\. George Stephenson was now a young man of twenty years of age — a well knit, healthy fellow — a sober, steady, and expert workman. Beyond this, and his diligence and perseverance, and the occasional odd turns which his curiosity took, there was noth- ing remarkable about him. He was no precocious genius. As yet he was comparatively untaught, and had but mastered the mere beginnings of knowledge. But his observant faculties were active, and he diligently turned to profitable account every oppor- tunity of exercising them. He had still only the tastes and am- bitions of an ordinary workman, and perhaps looked not beyond that condition. His duties as a brakesman may be briefly described. The work was somewhat monotonous, and consisted in superintending the working of the engine and machinery by means of which the coals were drawn out of the pit. Brakesmen are almost invari- ably selected from those who have had considerable experience as engine firemen, and borne a good character for steadiness, punctuality, watchfulness, and " mother wit," In George Ste- phenson's day, the coals were drawn out of the pit in corves, or large baskets made of hazel rods. The corves were placed two together in a cage, between which and the pit ropes there was usually from fifteen to twenty feet of chain. The approach of (22) ExMPLOYMENT OF NIGIIT HOURS. 23 the corves towards the pit mouth was signaled by a bell, brought into action by a piece of mechanism worked from the shall of the engine. AVhen the bell sounded, the brakesman checked the speed, by taking hold of the hand-gear connected with the steam valves, which were so arranged that by their means he could reg- ulate the speed of the engine, and stop or set it in motion when required. Connected with the fly-wheel was a powerful wooden brake, acting by pressure against its rim, something like the brake of a railway carriage against its wheels, and the brakesman was enabled, by applying his foot to a foot-step near him, on catching sight of the chain attached to the ascending corve cage, at once, and with great precision, to stop its revolutions, and arrest the ascent of the corves at the pit mouth, when they were foilhwith landed on the " settle board." On the full corves being replaced by empty ones, it was then the duty of the brakesman to reverse the engine, and send the corves down the pit to be filled again. The monotony of George Stephenson's occupation as a brakes- man was somewhat varied by the change which he made, in his turn, from the day to the night shift. This duty, during the lat- ter stage, chiefly consisted in sending the men and materials into the mine, and in drawing other men and materials out. Most of the workmen enter the pit during the night shift, and leave it in the latter part of the day, whilst coal-drawing is proceeding. The requirements of the work at night are such, that the brakesman has a good deal of spare time on his hands, which he is at liberty to employ in his own way. From an early period, Stephenson was accuptomed to employ those vacant night hours in working the sums set for him by Andrew Robertson upon his slate, in practicing wi'iting in his copy-book, and also in mending the shoes of his fellow-workmen. His wages while working at the Dolly Pit amounted to from 11. 15s. to 21. in the fortnight;* but he * William Coe has furnished me with an abstract of the wages book of Black Callerton, from which it appears that George Stephenson's earnings for the fortnight were as follows : On June 18th, ISOl, he was paid 11. 195. id., and a ticket for two shillings worth of rye ; 24 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. gradually added to them as he became more expert at shoe-mend- ing, and afterwards at shoemaking. Probably he was stimulated to take in hand this extra work, by the attachment which he had at this time formed for a respectable young woman of the village, named Fanny Henderson. Fanny was a servant in a neighbor- ing farm house ; and George, having found her a high principled young woman of excellent character, courted her with the inten- tion of making her his wife and setting up in a house of his own. The {personal attractions of P'anny Henderson, though these were considerable, were the least of her charms. Her temper was of the sweetest ; and those who knew her speak of the charming modesty of her demeanor, her kindness of disposition, and withal her sound good sense. Amongst his various mendings of old shoes at Callerton, George Stephenson was on one occasion favored with the shoes of his sweetheart, Fanny Henderson, to sole. One can imagine the pleasure with which he would linger over such a piece of work, and the pride with wliich he would execute it. A friend of his, still living, relates that, after he had finished the shoes, he carried them about with him in his pocket on the Sunday after- noon, and that from time to time he would whip them out and hold them up to sight — the tiny little shoes that they were — ex- hibiting them with exultation to his friend, and exclaiming, " what a capital job he had made of them!" Other lovers have carried about with them a lock of their fair one's hair, a glove, or a handkerchief; but none could have been prouder of their cher- ished love-token than was George Stephenson of his Fanny's shoes, which he had just soled, and of which he had made such a " capital job." Out of his earnings from shoe-mending at Callerton, George contrived to save his first guinea. The first guinea saved by a on June 17th, 1802, he was paid 1/. 15.«. But bread was so dear in those days, that the wages paid to workmen were not real!}- so high as they appear : in 1801, wheat was selling at tl. 18s. Sd., and rye at 31. 19s. 9rf. the quarter. • AN EXAMPLE TO OTHER WORKMEN. 25 working man is no trivial thing. If, as in Stephenson's ease, it has been the result of prudent self-denial, of extra labor at by- hours, and of sound resolutions to save and economize for worthy purposes, the first guinea saved is an earnest of better things. It is a nest-egg — a token of increase — the beginning, it may be, of prosperity and wealth. When Steplienson had saved this guinea, he was somewhat proud of the achievement, and express- ed the opinion to a friend, who many years after reminded him. of it, that he was " now a rich man." At Callerton, Stephenson — habitually sober and steady — was a standing example of character to the other workmen. He never missed a day's wages by being off work in consequence of a drinking-bout, as many others did. William Coe says of him, that, though he knew Stephenson intimately, he never saw him " the worse for drink " in his life. On pay Saturday afternoons, when the workmen at the pit kept their fortnightly holiday, some spending their afternoon and evening in the public house, and others in the adjoining fields, cock-fighting and dog-fighting, Ste- phenson, instead of either drinking or playing, used to take his engine to pieces for the purpose of obtaining "insight" and prac- tical acquaintance with its details ; and he invariably cleaned all the parts and put the machine in thorougli working order before leaving her. Thus his engine was always clean and in excellent condition, and his knowledge of its powers and its mechanism became almost complete. In the winter evenings Stephenson proceeded with his lessons in arithmetic under Andrew Robertson. But Robertson had soon taught his pupil all that he himself knew, which probably did not amount to much. He even admitted that he could carry Stephenson no further in arithmetic, the pupil having outstripped the master. He went on, however, with his writing lessons ; and by the year following, when he signed his name in the par- ish registry of Newburu, on the occasion of his marriage to 26 LIFE or GEORGE STEPHENSON. Fanny Henderson, he was able to write a good, legible round hand. Not long after he began to work at Black Callerton as brakes- man, he had a quarrel with a pitman named Ned Nelson, a roistering bully, who was the terror of the village. Nelson was a gi'oat fighter ; and it was therefore considered dangerous to quarrel with him. Stephenson was so unfortunate as not to be able to please this pitman by the way in which, as brakesman, he drew him out of the pit ; and Nelson swore at him grossly because of his alleged clumsiness. George defended himself, and appealed to the testimony of the other workmen as to his brak- ing. But Nelson had not been accustomed to George's style of self-assertion ; and after a great deal of abuse, he threatened to kick the brakesman, who defied him to do so. Nelson ended by challenging Stephenson to a pitched battle ; and the latter accepted the challenge, when a day was fixed on which the fight was to come off. Great was the excitement at Black Callerton when it was known that George Stephenson had accepted Nelson's challenge. Everybody said that he would be killed. The villagers — the young men, and especially the boys of the place, with whom George was an especial favorite — all wished that he might beat Nelson, but they scarcely dared to say so. They came about hira while he was to work in the engine-house, to inquire if it was really true that he was "goin' to feight Nelson?" "Ay; never fear for me ; Til feight him." And "feight" him he did. For some days previous to the appointed day of battle. Nelson went entirely off work for the purpose of keeping himself fresh and strong, whereas Stephenson went on doing his daily work, as usual, and appeared not in the least disconcerted by the pros- pect of the affair. So, on the evening appointed, after George had done his day's labor, he Avent into the Dolly Pit field, where his already exulting rival was ready to meet him. George stripped, and "went in" like a practiced pugilist — though it was HIS COURAGE. 2T his first and last fight. After a few rounds, George's wiry muscles and practiced strength enabled him severely to punish his adversary, and to secure for himself an easy victory. This circumstance is related in illustration of Stephenson's personal pluck and courage ; and it was thoroughly characteristic of the man. He was no pugilist, and the very reverse of quarrel- some. But he would not be put down by the bully of the col- liery, and he fought him. There his pugilism ended; they afterwards shook hands, and continued good friends. In after life, Stephenson's mettle was often as hardly tried, though in a different way ; and he did not fail to exhibit the same resolute courage, in contending with the bullies of the railway world, as he had thus early sho^vn in his encounter with Ned Nelson the fighting pitman of Black Callerton. CHAPTER V. MARRIAGE AND HOUSEKEEPING AT WILLINGTON QUAY. By dint of thrift, sobriety and industry, George Stephenson managed to save as much money at Black Callerton as enabled him, on leaving it for AYillington Ballast Quay, to take a house and furnish it in a very humble style, for the reception of his young bride, Fanny Henderson. Willington Quay, whither Stephenson now Avent to act as brakesman at the Ballast Hill, lies on the north bank of the Tyne, about six miles below Newcastle. It consists of a line of houses straggling along the river side ; and high behind it towers up the huge mound of ballast emptied out of the ships which resort to the quay for their cargoes of coal for the London mar- ket. The ballast is thrown out of the ship's hold into wagons laid alongside. When filled, a train of these is dragged up the steep incline which leads to the summit of the Ballast Hill, where the wagons are run out and their contents emptied to swell the monstrous accumulation of earth, chalk and Thames mud already laid there, probably to form a puzzle for future antiquaries and geologists, when the origin of these immense hills along the Tyne has been forgotten. On the summit of the Willington Ballast Hill was a fixed engine, which drew the trains of laden wagons up the incline ; and of this engine George Stephenson now acted as brakesman. (28) HIS MARRIAGE. 29 The cottage ia which he took up his abode is a small two- storied dwelling, standing a little back from the quay, witli a bit of garden ground in front. The Stephenson family occupied the upper room in the west end of the cottage. Close behind rises the Ballast Hill. When the cottage dwelling had been made snug, and prepared for the young wife's reception, the marriage took place. It was celebrated in Newburn Church, on the 28th of November, 1802. George Stephenson's signature, as it stands in tlie books, is that of a person who seems to have just learned to write. Yet it is the signature of a man, written slowly and deliberately, in strong round hand. "With all this care, however, he had not been able to avoid a blotch; the word "Stephenson" has been brushed over before the ink was dry. After the ceremony, George and his newly wedded wife pro- ceeded to the house of old Robert Stephenson and his wife Mabel, at Jolly's Close. The old man was now becoming infirm, though he still worked as an engine fireman, and contrived with ditficulty "to keep his head above water." When the visit had been paid, the bridal party prepared to set out for their new home at Wil- Ungton Quay. They went in a homely old-fashioned style, though one quite usual in those days, before macadamized roads had been adopted, or traveling by railway so much as dreamt of. Two stout farm horses were borrowed from JMr. Burn, of the Eed House farm, Wolsingham, where Anne Henderson, the bride's sister, lived as servant. The two horses were each pro- vided with a saddle and a pillion ; and George having mounted one, his wife seated herself on the pillion behind him, holding on by her arms round his waist. Robert Gray and Anne Hender- son in like manner mounted the other horse ; and in this wise the wedding party rode across the country, passing through the old streets of Newcastle, and then by Wallsend to their home at Willington Quay — a long ride of about fifteen miles. We may here mention that ]\Ii". Burn, the farmer at Wolsing- 30 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. ham, shortly after married Anne Henderson ; and a good wife she proved. In those times the farmer and his senant did not stand so far apart, in point of social position, as they do now. Household servants were themselves generally the daughters of small farmers, and there was no great condescension in the master taking to wife one who had proved herself a clever and thrifty housekeeper. Paterson, the small farmer of Black Cal- lerton, with whom George Stephenson had lodged while working at the Dolly Pit, in like manner married another sister, Betty ; and she too, like her sisters, proved a valuable and worthy helpmate. George Stephenson's daily life at Willington was that of a regular, steady workman. By the manner, however, in which he continued to improve his spare hours in the evening, he was silently and surely pa\Tng the way for being sometliing more than a mere workman. While other men of his class were idling in public-houses, he set himself down to study the principles of mechanics, and to master the laws by which his engine worked. For a workman, he was even at that time more than ordinarily speculative — often taking up strange theories, and trying to sift out the truth that was in them. While sitting by the side of his young wife in his cottage dwelling, in the winter evenings, he was usually occupied in making mechanical experiments, or in modeling experimental machines. Amongst his various specula^ tions while at Willington, he occupied himself a good deal in endeavoring to discover perpetual motion. Although he failed, as so many others had done before him, the very efforts he made tended to whet his inventive faculties, and to call forth his dor- mant powers. He actually went so far as to construct the model of a machine by which he thought he would secure perpetual motion. It consisted of a wooden wheel, the periphery of which was furnished with glass tubes filled with quicksilver; as the wheel rotated, the quicksilver poured itself down into the lower tubes, and thus a sort of self-acting motion was kept up in the MAKING SHOES AND SHOE-LASTS. 31 apparatus, which, however, did not prove to be perpetual. Where he had first obtained the idea of this machine — whether from conversation, or reading, or his own thoughts, is not now remembered ; but possibly he may have heai-d of an apparatus of a similar kind which is described in the "History of Inren- tions." As he had then no access to books, and indeed could barely read with ease, it is possible that he may have been told of the invention, and then set about testing its value according to his own methods. Much of his spare time continued to be occupied by labor more immediately profitable, regarded in a pecuniary point of view. From mending shoes he proceeded to making them, and he also drove a good trade in making shoe-lasts, in which he was ad- mitted to be very expert. William Coe, who continued to live at Willington in 1851, informed the writer that he bought a pair of shoes from George Stephenson for 7s. Gd., and he remembered that they were a capital fit, and wore well. But an accident occurred in his household about this time, which had the effect of directing his industry into a new and still more profitable channel. The cottage chimney took fire one day in his absence ; the alarmed neighbors rushuig in, threw bucket sfull of Avater upon the fire ; some in their zeal mounted on the ridge of the house and poured volumes of water down the chimney. The fire was soon put out, but the house was thoroughly soaked. When George came home he found the water running out of the door, everything in disorder, and his new fui-niture covered with soot. The eight-day clock, which hung against the wall — one of the most highly prized articles in the house — was grievously injured by the steam with which the room had been filled. Its wheels were so clogged by the dust and soot, that it was brought to a complete stand-still. George was always ready to turn his hand to anything, and his ingenuity never at fault, immediately set to work for the repair of the unfortunate clock. He was advised to send it to the clockmaker, but that would have cost money ; 32 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. and he declared that he would repair it himself — at least he would try. The clock was accoi'dingly taken to pieces and cleaned ; the tools which he had been accumulating by him for the purpose of constructing the perpetual motion machine, enabled him to do this ; and he succeeded so well that, sliortly after, the neighbors sent him their clocks to clean, and he soon became one of the most famous clock-doctors in the neighborhood. It was Avhile living at Willington Quay that George Stephen- son's only son Robert was born, on the 16th of December, 1803. The child was fi'om his earliest years familiarized with the steady industry of his parents ; for there were few, if any, idle moments spent in that cottage. "Wlien his father was not busy in making or mending shoes, cutting out shoe-lasts, or cleaning clocks, he was occupied with some drawing or model, in constructing which he sought to improve himself. The child was from the first, as may well be imagined, a great favorite with his father, whose evening hours were made happier by his presence. George Stephenson's strong "philoprogenitiveness," as phrenologists call it, had in his boyhood expended itself on birds, and dogs, and rabbits, and even on the poor old gin-horses which he had driven at the Callerton Pit; and now he found in his child a more genial object on which to expend the warmth of his affection. The christening of the child took place in the school-house at Wallsend, the old parish church being at the time in so dilap- idated a condition from the "creepmg"* of the ground under- neath, consequent upon the excavation of the coal, that it was considered dangerous to enter it. On this occasion, Robert Gray and Anne Henderson, who had officiated as bridesman and brides- maid at the wedding, came over again to Willington, and stood as * The congregation in a church near Newcastle were one Sunday morning plentifully powdered with chips from the white ceiling of the church, which had been crept under, being above an old mine. " It's only the pit a-creeping," said the parish clerk, by way of encouragement to the people to remain. But it would not do ; for there was a sudden creep out of the congregation. The clerk went at last, with a powdered head, crying out, " It's only a creep." — Our Coal Fidds and our Coal Pics. LEAVES HIS SITUATION. 33 godfathei and godmother to little Robert, as the child was named, after his grandfather. After working for about three years as a brakesman at the Willington machine, George Stephenson was induced to leave his situation there for a similar one at the "West Moor Colliery, Killingworth. It was while residing at KilHngworth that his remarkable practical qualities as a workman were first recog- nized by his employers, and that he slowly but surely acquired that reputation as an Engineer and Inventor by which he after- wards became so extensively known and honored. CHAPTER VI. BRAKESMAN AT WEST MOOR, KILLINGWORTH. The village of Killingworth lies about seven miles north of Newcastle, and is one of the best known collieries in that neigh- borhood. The workings of the coal are of vast extent, giving employment to a large number of work-people. The colliery stands high and commands an extensive view of the adjacent country ; it overlooks the valley of the Tyne on the south, and the pinnacles of the Newcastle spires may be discerned in the distance, when not obscured by the clouds of smoke which rise up from that vast hive of manufacturing industry. To this place George Stephenson first came as a brakesman in the year 1804. He had scarcely settled down in his new home, ere he sustained a heavy loss in the death of his wife, for whom he cherished the sincerest affection. Their married life had been happy, sweetened as it was by daily successful toil. The hus- band was sober and hard-working, and his young wife made his hearth so bright and his home so snug, that no attraction could draw him from her side in the evening hours. But this domestic happiness was all to pass away ; and the twinkling feet, for which the lover had made those tiny shoes at Callerton, were now to be hidden for evermore from his eyes. It was a terrible blow, but he bore it as he best could. There was work before him to do — work, which Stephenson, like many more, found to be a balm (34) JOURNEY TO SCOTLAND. 35 for even the heaviest sorrow. But he long lamented his bereave- ment, and continued tenderly to cherish his dear wife's memory. Shortly after this event, while his grief was still fresh, he received an invitation from some gentlemen concerned in large works near Montrose, in Scotland, to proceed thither and super- intend the working of one of Boulton and Watt's engines. He accepted the offer, and made arrangements to leave Killingworth for a time. Having left his boy in charge of a worthy neighbor, he set out upon his long journey to Scotland, on foot, with his kit upon his back. While in Scotland, he was paid good wages, and contrived to save 281., which he brought back to Killingworth with him, after an absence of about a year. His friend Coe states that while in the North, George Stephenson had tried to make some alterations in the engine which he worked, but without success, and that this led to a disagreement between him and the colliery owners. Longing to get back to his own kindred — his heart yeai-ning for the son he had left behind, Stephenson took leave of his IMontrose employers, and trudged back to Killingworth on foot, as he had gone. He related to his friend, on his return, that when on the borders of Northumberland, late one evening, foot- sore and wearied with his long day's journey, he knocked at a small farmer's cottage door, and requested shelter for the night. It was refused, and then he entreated that, being sore, tired, and unable to proceed any further, they would permit him to lie down in the outhouse, for that a little clean straw would serve him. The farmer's wife appeared at the door, looked at the traveler, then retiring with her husband, the two confabulated a little apart, and finally they invited Stephenson into the cottage. Always full of conversation and anecdote, he soon made himself at home in the farmer's family, and spent with them a few pleasant hours. He was hospitably entertained for the night, and when he left the cottage in the morning, he pressed them to make some charge for his lodging, but they would not hear of such a thing. They asked ^& LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. him to remember them kindly, and if he ever came that way, to be sure and call again. Many years after, when Stephenson had become a thriving man, he did not forget the humble pair who had thus succored and entertained him on his way ; he sought their cottage again, when age had silvered their hair ; and when he left the aged couple, on that occasion, they may have been re- minded of the old saying that we may sometimes " entertain an- gels unawares." Reaching home, Stephenson found that his father had met with a serious accident at the Blucher Pit, which had reduced him to great distress and poverty. While engaged in the inside of an engine, making some repairs, a fellow-workman accidentally let in the steam upon him. The blast struck him full in the face — he was terribly scorched, and his eyesight was irretrievably lost. The helpless and infirm man had sti-uggled for a time with pov- erty ; his sons who were at home, poor as himself, were little able to help him, while George was at a distance in Scotland. On his return, however, with his savings in his pocket, his first step was to pay off his father's debts, amounting to about 151. ; soon afterwards he removed the aged pair from Jolly's Close to a com- fortable cottage adjoining the tram-road near the West Moor at Killingworth, where the old man lived for many years, supported entirely by his son. He was quite blind, but cheerful to the last. One of his greatest pleasures, towards the close of his hfe, was to receive a visit from his grandson Robert, who would ride straight into the cottage mounted on his " cvdy," and call upon his grandfather to admire the points of the animal. The old man would then dilate upon the ears, fetlocks, and quarters of the donkey, and generally conclude by pronouncing him to be a " real blood." Stephenson was agaui taken on as a brakesman at the West Moor Pit. He does not seem to have been very hopeful as to his prospects in life about the time (1807-8). Indeed, the con- dition of the workmg class generally was then very discom-aging. ENGLAND ENGAGED IN WAR. 37 England WcOS engaged in a great war, which pressed heavily upon the industry, and severely tried the resources of the country. Heavy taxes were imposed upon all the articles of consumption that would bear them. Incomes of oOl. a year and upwards were taxed 10 per cent. There was a constant demand for men to fill the army, navy, and militia. Never before had England heard such drumming and fifing for recruits. In 1805, the gross forces of the United Kingdom amounted to nearly 700,000 men, and early in 1808 Lord Castlereagh carried a measure for the estab- lishment of a local miUtia of 200,000 men. These measures produced great and general distress amongst the laboring classes. There were serious riots in Manchester, Newcastle, and elsewhere, through scarcity of work and lowness of wages. Every seventh person in England was a pauper, maintained out of the poor- rates — there being, in 1807, 1,234,000 paupers to 7,036,000 per- sons who were not paupers. Those laborers who succeeded in finding employment were regularly mulcted of a large portion of their earnings to maintain the unemployed, and at the same time to carry on the ten-ible war in which Britain contended single- handed against Napoleon, then everywhere victorious. The working people were also liable to be pressed for the navy, or drawn for the militia ; and though men could not fail to be dis- contented under such circumstances, they scarcely dared, in those perilous times, even to mutter their discontent to their neighbors. George Stephenson was one of those drawn at that time for the militia. He must therefore either quit his work and go a soldiering, or find a substitute. He adopted the latter course, and paid a considerable sum of money to a militia-man to serve in his stead. Thus nearly the whole of his hard won earnings were swept away at a stroke. He was almost in despair, and contemplated the idea of leaving the country, and emigrating to the United States. A voyage thither was then a more formidable thing for a working man to accomphsh than a voyage to Australia is now. But he seriously entertained the project, and had all but 38 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. made up his mind. His sister Ann, with her husband, emigrated about that time, but George could not raise the requisite money, and they departed witliout him. After all, it went sore against his heart to leave his home and his kindred — the scenes of his youth and the friends of his boyhood ; but he struggled long with the idea, brooding over it in sorrow. Speaking afterwards to a friend of his thoughts at the time, he said : " You know the road ft'om my house at the West Moor to Killingworth ? I remember when I went along that road I wept bitterly, for I knew not where my lot would be cast." But Providence had better and greater things in store for George Stephenson than the lot of a settler in the wilds of America. It was well that his poverty prevented him from prosecuting further the idea of emigration, and rooted him to the place where he afterwards worked out his great career so manfully and victoriously. JNIany years after, when addressing a society of young men at Belper, in Derbyshire, on the necessity of Perseverance — his favorite text — he said: " Well do I remember the beginning of my career as an engineer, and the great perseverance that was required for me to get on. Not having served an apprenticeship, I had made up my mind to go to Amei'ica, considering that no one in England would trust me to act as engineer. However, I was trusted in some small matters, and succeeded in giving satis- faction. Greater trusts were reposed in me, in which I also suc- ceeded. Soon after, I commenced making the locomotive engine ; and the results of my perseverance you have this day witnessed."* In 1808, Stephenson, with two other brakesmen, named Robert Wedderburn and George Dodds, took a small contract under the colliery lessees, for braking the engines at the West Moor Pit, The brakesmen found the oil and tallow ; they divided the work amongst them, and were paid so much per score for their labor. * Speech to Mechanics' Institute at Belper, July 6th, 1841, the members of the Ches- terfield Institute haying traveled thither by railway train over the line constructed by Mr. Stephenson. MENDS CLOCKS AND WATCHES. 39 There being two engines working night and day, two of the three men were always at work ; the average earnings of each amount- ing to from 18s. to 20s. a week. But Stephenson resorted to hi:s usual mode of ekeing out his earnings. His sou Robert would soon be of an age to be sent to school ; and the father, being but too conscious, from his own experience, of the disadvantages aris- ing from the want of instruction, determined that his boy should at least receive the elements of a good education. Stinted as he was for means at the time, maintaining his parents, and struggling with difficulties, this early resolution to afford his son proper cul- ture, must be regarded as a noble feature in his character, and strikingly illustrative of his thoughtfulness and conscientiousness. Many years after, speaking of the resolution which he thus early formed, he said : " In the earlier period of my career, when Robert was a little boy, I saw how deficient I was in education, and I made up my mind that he should not labor under the same defect, but that I would put him to a good school, and give him a liberal training. I was, however, a poor man ; and how do )'ou think I managed ? I betook myself to mending my neighbors' clocks and watches at nights, after my daily labor was done, and thus I procured the means of educating my son."* Besides mending clocks and watches at this time, he also con- tinued to make and mend shoes, and to manufacture shoe-lasts for the shoemakers of the neighborhood. He even cut out the pit- men's clothes for their wives to make up ; and it is said that to this day there are clothes worn at Killingworth which have been made after " Geordy Steevie's cut." Perhaps the secret of every man's best success in life is the readiness with which he takes advantage of opportunities. George Stephenson was an eminent illustration of this readiness in turning all his time to profit, and everything that he knew to useful account. Every spare minute was laid under contribution, * Speech at Newcastle, on the 18th June, 1844, on the occasion of celebrating the open- ing of the Newcastle and Darlington Railway. 40 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. eitlier for the purpose of adding to his earnings or to his knowl- edge. The smallest fragments of his time were regarded by him as precious ; and he was never so happy as when improving them. He missed no opportunity of extending his observations, more especially in his own immediate department ; he was always ac- quiring new facts, and aiming at improvements in his own calling. Sometimes he failed, but his very failures only served to strengthen his hardy nature, and they eventually conducted him to success. The "small matters" intrusted to George Stephenson, in which he succeeded, as referred to in his t^peech at Belper, were these : Soon after he became a brakesman at the West ]Moor, he observ- ed that the ropes with wliich the coal was drawn out of the pit by the winding-engine were badly arranged, as he thought, and he suggested an improvement. The ropes " glued," and wore each other to tatters by perpetual friction. There was thus great wear and tear, and a serious increase in the expenses of the pit. George found that the ropes which, at other pits in the neighbor- hood, lasted about three months, at the West Moor Pit became worn out in about a month. As there was at that time an inter- ruption of the trade with Russia in consequence of the war, and ropes were exceedingly dear, (about Is. bd. the pound,) it was obvious to him that any improvement by which a saving in the wear of ropes could be effected, would be of considerable advan- tage to the owners. His suggestions were approved by the head engineer of the pit, and he was encouraged to carry them into effect. He accordingly did so, and by shifting the pulley-wheels so that they worked immediately over the centre of the pit, and by an entire rearrangement of the gearing of the machine, he shortly succeeded in greatly lessening the wear and tear of the ropes, much to the advantage of the owners as well as of the workmen, who were thus enabled to labor more continuously and profitably. He also, about the same time, attempted to effect an improve- ment in the wmding-engine, which he worked, by placing a valve ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE THE AVINDIXG-ENGINE. 41 between the air-pump and condenser. This expedient, although it led to no practical results, showed that his mind was actively at work in mechanical adaptations. It continued to be his reg- ular habit, on Saturdays, to take the engine to pieces, for the purpose, at the same time, of familiarizing himself with its action, and of placing it in a state of thorough working order. And by thus diligently mastering the details of the engine, he was enabled, as opportunity occurred, to turn to practical account the knowl- edge thus patiently acquired. Such an opportunity was not long in presenting itself. In the year 1810, a pit was sunk by the " Grand Allies," (the lessees of the pit,) at the village of Killingworth, now known as the Kil- lingworth High Pit. An atmospheric or Newcomen engine, orig- inally made by Smeaton, was fixed there for the purpose of pump- ing out the water from the shaft ; but somehow or other the engine failed to clear the pit. As one of the workmen has since described the circumstance — "She couldn't keep her jack-head in water; all the enginemen in the neighborhood were tried, as Avell as Crow- ther of the Ouscburn, but they were clean bet." Good working engineers were then rarely to be met with; and many even of those who were most in repute, worked very much in the dark, without any knowledge of the principles of mechan- ics. The tools used in the construction of engines were of the rudest description, the fabrication of the parts being, for the most part, done by hand. A few iU-constructed lathes, with di'Uls and boring-machines of rude construction, constituted the principal tools. The mechanics were also very clumsy, and for the most part, ill-trained. Indeed, there were only three or four establish ments at that time in the kingdom that could tuni out a respecta- ble steam engine. It is not, therefore, surprising that this engine should have proved a failure, and that neither the master engin- eer nor any of the workmen in the neighborhood could set her to rights. The engine went on fruitlessly pumping for nearly twelve 42 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. months, and began to be looked on as a total failure. Stephen- son had gone to look at it when in course of erection, and then observed to the over-man that he thought it was defective ; he also gave it as his opinion that, if there were much water in the mine, the engine would never keep it under. Of course, as he was only a brakesman, his opinion was considered to be worth very little on such a point, and no more was thought about it. He continued, however, to make frequent visits to the engine, to see "how she was getting on." From the bank-head where he worked his brake he could see the chimney smoking at the High Pit ; and as the workmen were passing to and from their work, he would call out and inquire "if they had gotten to the bottom yet?" And the reply was always to the same effect — the pump- ing made no progress, and the workmen were still " drowned out." One Saturday afternoon he went over to the High Pit to ex- amine the engine more carefully than he had yet done. He had been turning the subject over in his mind ; and after a long ex- amination, he seemed to satisfy himself as to the cause of the failure. Kit Heppel, who was a sinker at the mine, said to him: "Weel, George, what do you mak' o' her? Do you think you could do anything to improve her?" "Man," said George in reply, " I could alter her and make her draw ; in a week's time from this I could send you to the bottom." Forthwith Heppel reported this conversation to Ralph Dodds, the head viewer; and Dodds being now quite in despair, and hopeless of succeeding with the engine, determined to give George's skill a trial. George had already acquired the char- acter of a very clever and ingenious workman ; and at the worst he could only fail, as the rest had done. In the evening, Mr. Dodds went towards Stephenson's cottage in search of him. He met him on the road, dressed in his Sunday's suit, about to j^ro- ceed to "the preachings" in the Methodist Chapel, which he at that time attended. " Well, George," said Mr. Dodds, accosting him, " they tell me you think you can put the engine at the High CURES THE PUMPING-ENGINE. 43 Pit to rights." "Yes sir," said George, "I think I could." "If that's the case, I'll give you a fair trial, and you must set to work immediately. We are clean drowned out, and cannot get a step further. The engineers hereabout are all bet ; and if you really succeed in accomplishing what they cannot do, you may depend upon it I will make you a man for life." It is said that George, the same evening, borrowed the "how- die horse," * and rode over to Duke's Hall, near Walbottle, where his old friend Hawthorn, the engineer to the Duke of Northumberland, then resided, and consulted him as to the im- provements which he proposed to make in the pumping-engine. And next morning, Sunday though it was, (for the work must be commenced forthwith,) Stephenson entered upon his labors. The only condition that he made, before setting to work, was that he should select his own woi'kmen. There was, as he knew, a good deal of jealousy amongst the "regular" men that a colliery brakes- man should pretend to know more about their engine than they themselves did, and attempt to remedy defects which the most skilled men of their craft, including the engineer of the colliery, had failed to do. But George made the condition a sine qua non. "The workmen," said he, "must neither be all Wliigs or all To- ries." There was no help for it, so Dodds ordered the old hands to stand aside. The men grumbled, but gave way ; and George and his party went in. The engine was taken entirely to pieces. The injection cap, being considei'ed too small, was enlarged to nearly double its former size, the opening being increased to about twice the area. The cylinder having been found too long, was packed at the bot- tom with pieces of timber ; these and other alterations were ne- cessarily performed in a rough way, but, as the result proved, on true principles. The repairs occupied about four days, and by the following Wednesday the engine was carefully put together * One of the pit horses generally employed in case of emergency in bringing the mid- wife to the rescue. 44 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. again and set to work. It was kept pumping all Thursday, and by the Friday afternoon the pit was cleared of water, and the workmen were "sent to the bottom," as Stephenson had prom- ised. The alterations thus effected in the engine and in the pumping apparatus proved completely successful, and Stephen- son's skill as a pump-curer became the marvel of the neighbor- hood. Mr. Dodds was particularly gratified with the manner in which the job had been done, and he made Stephenson a present of ten pounds, which, though very inadequate when compared with the value of the work performed, was accepted by him with gratitude. He was proud of the gift as the first marked recog- nition of his skill as a workman ; and he used afterwards to say that it was the biggest sum of money he had up to that time earned in one lump. Ralph Dodds, however, did more than this. He appointed Stephenson engineman at High Pit, at good wages, during the time the pit was sinking — the job lasting for about a year ; and he also kept him in mind for further advancement. Stephenson's skill as an engine-doctor soon became noised abroad, and he was called upon to prescribe remedies for all the old, wheezy, and ineffective pumping machines in the neighbor- hood. In this capacity he soon left the "regular" men far be- hind, though they in their turn were very much disposed to treat the Killingworth brakesman as no better than a quack. Never- theless, his practice was really founded upon a close study of the principles of mechanics, and on an intimate practical acquaint- ance with the details of the pumping-engine. Another of his smaller achievements in the same line is still told by the people of the district. While passing to and from his work at High Pit, he observed that the workmen in the quarry in the corner of the road leading to Long Benton, were considerably interrupted by the accumulation of water. A wind- mill was put up for the purpose of driving a pumping apparatus, but it failed to draw the water. Stephenson was asked what HIS LOCAL CELEBRITY. 46 they were to do in order to clear the quarry. He said "he would set up for them an engine no bigger than a kail-pot that would clear them out in a week." And he did so. A little en- gine was speedily erected by him, and by its means the quarry was pumped dry in the course of a few days. Thus his local celebrity very soon became considerable. CHAPTER VII. COLLIERY ENGINE- WEIGHT AT KILLING WORTH. While thus daily engaged in the curing and working of pumping-engines, George Stephenson continued diligently to employ his evenings in self-improvement. When not occupied in cleaning clocks and watches, he was busy contriving models of steam-engines and pumping-engines, or attempting to master the mysteries of perpetual motion (which he had not yet given up), or endeavoring to embody in a tangible shape the mechanical in- ventions which he found described in the odd volumes on me- chanics which came in his way. Many of those evenings were spent in the society of John Wigham, whose father occupied the Glebe farm at Benton, close at hand. John was a good penman and a good arithmetician, and Stephenson frequented his society cliiefiy for the pm-pose of improving himself in these points. Under Andi'ew Eobertson, he had never thoroughly mastered the rule of three, and it was only when Wigham took him in hand that he made any decided progress towards the higher branches of arithmetic. He gen- erally took his slate with him to Wigham's cottage, when he had his sums set, that he might work them out while tending the en- gine on the following day. When too busy with other work to be able to call upon Wigham in person, he sent the slate by a fellow-workman to have the former sums corrected and new ones set. So much patient persevei'ance could not but eventually sue- (46) ASSISTANCE DERIVED FROM WIGHAM. 47 ceed ; and by dint of practice and study, Steiihenson was enabled successively to master the various rules of arithmetic. John Wigham was of great use to his pupil in many ways. He was a good talker, fond of argument, an extensive reader, as country reading went in those days, and a very suggestive thinker. Though his store of information might be compara- tively small when measured with that of more highly cultivated minds, much of it was entirely new to Stephenson, who regarded him as a very clever and extraordinary person. Young as John Wigham was, he could give much useful assistance to Stephen- son at that time, and his neighborly services were worth un- told gold to the eager pupil. Wigham taught him to draw plans and sections ; though in this branch Stephenson proved so apt that he soon surpassed his master. Wigham was also a little versed in Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, and a volume of Ferguson's Lectures on Mechanics which he possessed was a great treasure to both the students. One who remembers their evening occupations, says he used to wonder what they meant by weighing the air and water in their odd way. They were trying the specific gravities of objects ; and the devices which they em- ployed, the mechanical shifts to which they were put, were often of the rudest kind. In these evening entertainments, the me- chanical contrivances were supplied by Stephenson, whilst Wig- ham found the scientific rationale. The opportunity thus affoixled to the former of cultivating his mind by contact v/ith one wiser than himself proved of great value, and in after-life Stephenson gratefully remembered the assistance which, when an humble workman, he had derived from John Wigham, the farmer's son. His leisure moments thus carefully improved, it will be in- ferred that Stephenson was necessarily a sober man. Though his notions were never extreme on this point, he was systemat- ically temperate. It appears that on the invitation of his master, Ralph Dodds — and an invitation from a master to a workman is not easy to resist — he had on one or two occasions, been induced 48 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. to join him in a forenoon glass of ale in the pubhc-house of the village. But one day, about noon, when Mr. Dodds had got him aa far as the public-house door, on his invitation to " come and take a glass o' yiil," Stephenson made a dead stop, and said firmly, " No, sir, you must excuse me ; I have made a resolution to drink no more at this time of day." And he went back. He desired to retain the character of a steady workman ; and the instances of men about him who had made shipwreck of their character through intemperance, were then, as now, unhappily, but too frequent. Perhaps, too, he was sober with an eye to thrift. He still steadily kept in mind the resolution which he had formed to give his son a good education, and Eobert was now of an age to be sent to a better school than that which the neighboring village of Long Benton provided. There he had been some time under the charge of Eutter, the parish clerk, who kept a road-side school, where the instruction was of a very limited kind — scarcely extending beyond the child's primer and "pot-hooks." About the year 1814, Eobert was accordingly sent to Bruce's academy at Newcastle, where he commenced a course of sound elementary instruction. By dint of extra labor during his by-hours, with this object, George Stephenson had managed to save a sum of £100, which he accumulated in guineas, each of which he afterwards sold to Jews, who went about buying up gold coins (then dearer than silver), at twenty-six shillings a piece ; and he lent out the pro- ceeds at good interest. He was now, therefore, a comparatively thriving man. The first guinea which he had saved with so much difficulty at Black Callerton, had proved the nest-egg of future guineas ; and the habits of economy and sobriety which he had so early cultivated, now enabled him to secure a firmer foothold in the world, and to command the increased esteem and respect of his fellow-workmen and employers. At this time, and for many years after, Stephenson dwelt in a cottage standing by the side of the road leading from the "West HIS COTTAGE, ETC. 49 Moor Pit to Killingworth. The railway from the West Moor Pit crosses this road close by the easternmost end of the cottage. The dwelling originally consisted of but one apartment on the ground floor, with a garret overhead, to which access was obtained by means of a step-ladder. But with his own hands Stephenson built an oven ; and in course of time he added rooms to the cottage, until it grew into a comfortable four-roomed dwelling, in which he continued to live as long as he resided at KillingAvortli. There was a little garden attached to the cottage, in which, while a workman, Stephenson took a pride in growing gigantic leeks and astounding cabbages. There was great competition amongst the villagers in the growth of vegetables, all of whom he excelled, excepting one of his neighbors, whose cabbages sometimes outshone his. In the protection of his garden crops from the ravages of the birds, he invented a strange sort of " fley-craw," which moved its arms with the wind ; and he fastened his garden door by means of a piece of ingenious mechanism, so that no one but himself could enter it. Indeed, his odd and eccentric contrivan- ces excited much marvel amongst the Killingworth villagers. Thus, he won the women's admiration by connecting their cradles with the smoke-jack, and making them self-acting! Then he astonished the pitmen by attaching an alarm to the clock of the watchman, whose duty it was to call them betimes in the morning. The cottage of Stephenson was a sort of curiosity shop of models, engines, self-acting planes, and perpetual motion machines — which last contrivance, however, baffled him as effectually as it had done hundreds of preceding inventors. He also contrived a wonderful lamp which burned under water, with which he was afterwards wont to amuse the Brandling family at Gosfoith — going into the fish-pond at night, lamp in hand, attracting and catching the fish, which rushed wildly towards the subaqueous flame. Dr. Bruce tells of a competition which Stephenson had with 4 50 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the joiner at Killingworth, as to wliich of them could make the best shoe-last ; and when the former had done his work, either for the humor of the thing, or to secure fair play from the ap- pointed judge, he took it to the Morrisons in Newcastle, and got them to put their stamp upon it. So that it is possible the Kil- lingworth brakesman, afterwards the inventor of the safety-lamp and the originator of the railway system, and John Morrison, the la&t-maker, afterwards the translator of the Scriptures into the Chinese language, may have confronted each other in solenm contemplation over the successful last, which won the verdict coveted by its maker. Sometimes he would endeavor to impart to his fellow-workmen the results of his scientific reading. Every thing that he learnt from books was so new and so wonderful to him, that he regarded the facts he drew from them in the light of discoveries, as if thev had been made but yesterday. Once he tried to explain to some of the pitmen how the earth was round, and kept turning round. But his auditors flatly declared the thing to be impossible, as it was clear that " at the bottom side they must fall off!" " Ah !" said George, " you don't quite understand it yet." In elastic muscular vigor, George Stephenson was now in his prime, and he still continued to be zealous in measuring his strength and agility with his fellow-workmen. The competitive element in his nature was strong ; and liis success was remark- able in these feats of rivalry. Few, if any, could lift such weights, throw the hammer and put the stone so far, or cover so gi-eat a space at a standing or running leap. One day, between the engine hour and the rope-rolling hour, Kit Heppel challenged him to leap from one high wall to another, with a deep gap between them. To Heppel's surprise and dismay, George took the standing leap, and cleared the eleven feet at a bound. Had his eye been less accurate, or his limbs less agile and sure, the feat must have cost him his life. But so full of redundant muscular vigor was he, that leaping, PEDESTRIANISM. 51 putting and throwing the hammer, were not enough for him. He was also ambitious of riding on horseback, and as he had not yet been promoted to the honor of keeping a riding horse of his own, (which, however, he was shortly afterwards,) he sometimes con- trived to ride for " the howdie," when the services of that official Avere required in the village. He would volunteer his services on such occasions, when the fleetest of the gin-horses were usually put in requisition. Sometimes, also, he borrowed the animal for a pleasure ride. On one of these latter occasions, he brought the horse back reeking ; on which Tommy Mitcheson, the bank horse- keeper, a rough-spoken fellow, exclaimed to him : — " Set such fellows as you on horseback, and you'll soon ride to the de'il." But Tommy Mitcheson lived to tell the joke, and confess that, after all, there had been a better issue to George's horsemanship than that which he so hastily predicted. Old Cree, the engine-wright at Killingworth, having been killed by an accident, George Stephenson was, in 1812, appointed engine-wright of the colliery, at the salary of £100 a year. He was also allowed the use of a galloway to ride upon, in his visits of inspection to the collieries leased by the "Grand Allies" in that neighborhood. The "Grand Allies" were a company of gentlemen, consisting of Sir Thomas Liddell (afterwards Lord Ravensworth), the Earl of Strathmore, and Mr. Stuart Wortley (afterwards Lord WharnclifFe), the lessees of the Killingworth collieries. Having been informed of the merits of Stephenson, of his indefatigable industry, and the skill which he had displayed in the repairs of the pumping-engines, they readily acceded to Mr. Dodd's recommendation, that he should be ai)pointed the colliery engineer ; and, as we shall see, they continued to honor him by distinguished marks of their approval. He was now in a measure relieved from the daily routine of manual labor, and advanced to the grade of a higher class Avork- man. He was no less a worker, but only in a different way. It might be inferred that he had now the command of greater 62 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. leisure ; but his leisure hours were more than ever given to work, either necessary or self-imposed. Wlien the High Pit had been sunk, and the coal was ready for working, Stephenson erected his first winding-engine, to di-aw the coals out of the pit, and also a pumpmg-engine for Long Benton colliery, both of which proved quite successful. Amongst other works of this time, he projected and laid down a self-acting incline, along the declivity which fell towards the coal-loading place near Willington, where he had formerly officiated as brakes- man ; and he so arranged it, that the fuU wagons descending drew the empty wagons up the incline. This was one of the fii-st self-acthig inclines laid down in that district. Afterwards, in describing his occupations at this period of his life before a Committee of the House of Commons,* he said : " After making some improvements in tlie steam-engines above ground, I was then requested by the manager of the colliery to go under ground along with him, to see if any improvements could be made in the mines, by employing machinery as a sub- stitute for manual labor and horse-power, in bringing the coals out of the deeper workings of the mine. On my first going down tlie KiUingworth Pit, there was a steam-engine under ground for the purpose of drawing water from a pit that was sunk at some distance from the first shaft. The KiUingworth coal-field is con- siderably dislocated. After the colliery was opened, at a very short distance from the shaft, one of those dislocations, or dykes as they are called, was met with. The coal was thrown down about forty yards. Considerable time was spent in sinking another pit to this depth. And on my going down to examine the work, I proposed making the engine (which had been erected some time previously) to draw the coals up an inclined plane, which descended immediately from the place where it was fixed. A considerable change was accordingly made in the mode of working the colliery, not only in applying the machinery, but * Evidence giren before the Select Committee on Accidents in Mines, 1835. EDUCATION OF HIS SON. 53 employing putters instead of horses in bringing the coals from the hewers ; and by those changes, the number of horses in the pit was reduced fi-om about one hundred to fifteen or sixteen. During the time I was engaged in making these important alter- ations, I went round the workings in the pit with the viewer, almost every time that he went into the mine — not only at Kil- lingworth, but at Mountmoor, Derwentcrook, Southmoor, all of which collieries belonged to Lord Ravensvt'orth and liis partners ; and the whole of the machinery in all these colUeries was put under my charge." ]Mr. Stephenson had now many more opportunities for improv- ing himself in mechanics than he had hitherto possessed. His familiar acquaintance with the steam-engine proved of great value to him. The practical study wliich he had given to it when a workman, and the patient manner in which he had groped his way through all the details of the machine, gave him the power of a master in dealing with it, as applied to colliery purposes. His shrewd insight, together with his intimate practical acquaint- ance with its mechanism, enabled him to apprehend, as if by intuition, its most abstruse and difficult combinations. Sir Thomas Liddeli was frequently about the w^orks, and he encouraged Stephenson greatly in his efforts after improvement. The subject of the locomotive engine was already closely occupy- ing his attention ; although as yet it was regarded very much in the light of a curious and costly toy, of comparatively small practical use. But Stephenson from the first detected the value of the machine, and foraied an adequate conception of the gigan- tic might which as yet slumbered within it, and he was not slow in bending the whole faculties of his mind to the development of its extraordinary powers. Meanwhile, the education of his son Robert at the Newcastle school proceeded apace, and the father contrived to make his progress instrumental in promoting his own improvement. The youth was entered a member of the Newcastle Literary and 54 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. Philosophical Institution, the subscription to which was 3/. 3s. a yeai\ He spent much of his leisure time there, reading and studying ; and on Saturday afternoons, when he went home to his father's at Killingworth, he usually carried with him a volume of the Repertory of Arts and Sciences, or of the Edinburgh En- cyclopaedia, which furnished abundant subjects for interesting and instructive converse during the evening hours. Then John "Wigham would come over from the Glebe farm to join the party, and enter into the lively scientific discussions which occurred on the subjects of their mutual reading. But many of the most valuable works belonging to the Newcastle Library were not permitted to be removed from the room ; these Robert was in- structed to read and study, and bring away with him descriptions and sketches for his father's information. His father also prac- ticed him in the reading of plans and drawings, without at all referring to the written descriptions. He used to observe to his son, "A good drawing or plan should always explain itself;" and, placmg a drawing of an engine or machine before the youth, he would say, "There, now, describe that to me — the arrange- ment and the action." Thus he taught him to read a drawing as easily as he would read a page of a book. This practice soon gave to both the greatest facility in apprehending the details of even the most difficult and complicated mechanical drawing. The son, like his father, was very fond of reducing his scientific reading to practice. On one occasion, after reading Franklin's description of the lightning experiment, he expended aU his hoarded Saturday's pennies in purchasing about half a mile of copper wire, at a brazier's shop in Newcastle. After privily preparing his kite, he sent it up at the cottage door, insulating the wire by means of a silk handkerchief. His father's pony was standing near, waiting for the master to mount. Bringing the end of the wire just over the pony's crupper, so smart an electric shock was given it, that the brute was almost knocked down. At this juncture the father issued from the door with riding-whip in THE REV. MR. TURNER. 56 hand, and was witness to the scientific trick just played off upon his galloway. "'Ah! you mischievous scoundrel!" cried he to the boy, who ran off. But he inwai-dly chuckled with pride, nevertheless, at his son's successful experiment. The connection of Robert with the Philosophical and Litei-ary Society of Newcastle brought him into communication with the Rev. William Turner, one of the seci-etaries of the institution. That gentleman was always ready to assist the inquirer after knowledge, and took an early interest in the studious youth from Killingworth, with whose father also he soon became acquainted. Mr. Turner cheerfully and even zealously helped them in their joint inquiries, and excited, while he endeavored to satisfy, their eager thirst for scientific information. Many years afterwards, towards the close of his life, Mr. Stephenson expressed most warmly the gratitude and esteem he felt towards his revered in- structor. "Mr. Turner," he said, "was always ready to assist me with books, with instruments and with counsel, gratuitously and cheerfully. He gave me the most valuable assistance and instruction, and to my dying day I can never forget the obhga- tions which I owe to my venerable friend." Mr. Turner's conduct towards George Stephenson was all the more worthy of admiration, because at that time the object of his friendly instruction and counsel occupied but the position of a comparatively obscure workman, of no means or influence, who had become known to him only through his anxious desire for information on scientific subjects. He could little have dreamt that the object of his almost fatherly attention would achieve a reputation so distinguished as that to which he afterwards reached, and that he would revolutionize by his inventions and improvements the internal communications of the civilized world The circumstance is encouraging to those who, like Mr. Turner, are still daily devoting themselves with equal disinterestedness to the education of the working-classes in our schools and me- j 56 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. I i chanics' institutes. Though the opportuiiity of lending a helping ' hand to such men as George Stephenson may but rarely occur, yet the labors of such teachers are never without excellent , results. ' CHAPTER VIII. THE BEGINNINGS OF RAILWAYS AND LOCOMOTIVES. Railways, like most other important inventions, had very humble beginnings. The first railway, properly so called, con- sisted of a rude line of wooden or iron rails, laid down for the easier guidance of wagons in which coal was hauled from the pit to the shipping place. This germ of the modern railroad, planted by some unknown hand, grew to maturity gradually and slowly. Progress, in this as in almost all branches of mechanics, was effected through the exertions of many ; one generation entering upon the labors of that which preceded it, and carrying onward their improvements. There is, doubtless, a vast difference between the old road track, on which pack-horses carried the main traffic of the country down to a comparatively recent date, and the modern railroad worked by powerful locomotives : yet the change was effected by comparatively easy stages. From an early period the growing trade and commerce of the country demanded con- stantly increased facilities for the transport of heavy articles. This was especially necessary in the mining districts, where it is to be observed that nearly all the modern improvements in road- making have had their origin.* The prime object of all the * " We owe," said Captain Laws, " all our railways to the collieries in the North ; and the difiSculty which their industry overcame, taught us to make railways, and to make locomotives to work them."' — Evidence upon the Gauge Commission, 1845. Co7) 58 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. improvements made in the road was, so to diminish friction by increasing the smoothness of the surface, that the liaulage of the coal-wagons by horses should be rendered as easy as possible* With this object, wooden rails were first laid down by one Master Beaumont * between his coal pits near Newcastle, and the staithes by the river side, probably about the year 1G30. On these rails a large loaded wagon could be drawn by one horse. The same mode of transport was shortly after generally em- ployed in the principal colliery districts. Old Roger North thus describes the railroads as they were laid down in the neighbor- hood of the Tyne, in 1676: "Another remarkable thing is their way-leaves; for when men have pieces of ground between the colliery and the river, they sell the leave to lead coal over their gi-ound, and so dear that the owner of a rood of ground will expect 20/. per annum for this leave. The manner of the carriage is, by laying rails of timber from the colliery down to the river exactly straight and pai-allel, and bulkv cai'ts are made with four rowlets fitting these rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will draw down some four or five chaldron of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants." f A century later (in 1770-1772) the same roads were found in general use by Arthur Young. The roadway was little im- proved, but the works on which the road was formed were some- times of a formidable character. Speaking of wagon roads near Newcastle, Mr. Young observes : "The coal-wagon roads, from the pits to the water, are great works, carried over all sorts of inequalities of ground, so far as the distance of nine or ten miles. The tracks of the wheels are marked with pieces of wood let into * Thja enterprising gentleman expended not less than 30,000/. in his mining spccula- ti'-na, the result of which is described by a local chrouiclcr, one Mr. Gray, writing in 1649, who quaintly observes, that "within a few years he consumed aU his money, and rode home upon his light horse''' 1 Roger North's Life of Lord Keeper Guilford, a. d. 1676. THE COLLIERY WAGON WAYS. 69 the road for the wheels of the wagons to run on, by which means one horse is enabled to draw, and that with ease, fifty or sixty bushels of coals." * An intelligent French traveler, named Saint-Fond, who vis- ited Newcastle in 1791, speaks in tei-ms of high admiration of the colliery wagon ways, as superior to everything of the kind that he had seen. Pie describes the wooden rails as formed with a rounded upper surface, like a projecting moulding, and the wagon wheels as being " made of cast-iron, and hollowed in the manner of a metal pulley," that they might fit the rounded surface of the rails. The economy with which the coal was thus hauled to the shipping places was strongly urged upon his own coun- trymen, as an inducement to them to adopt a similar mode of transit.f Similar wagon roads were laid down in the colliery districts of Scotland at a comparatively early period. At the time of the Scotch rebellion, in 1745, a railway existed between the Tranent coal pits and the small harbor of Cockenzie in East Lothian ; and a portion of the line had the honor of being selected as a position for General Cope's cannon at the battle of Prestonpans. In these rude wooden tracks we find the germ of the modern railroad. Improvements were gradually made in them. Thus at some collieries, thin plates of ii'on were nailed upon their up- per surface, for the purpose of protecting the parts most exposed to friction. Cast-iron rails were also tried, the wooden rails hav- ing been found liable to rot. The first iron raUs are supposed to have been laid do^Ti at Whitehaven as early as 1738. This cast-iron road was denominated a "plate-way," from the plate- like form in which the rails were cast. In 1767, as appears from the books of the Coal-brookdale Ii-on Works, in Shropshire, five or six tons of rails were cast as an experiment, on the suggestion of * Six Months' Tour, vol. iii, p. 9. t Travels in England, Scotland and the Hebrides, translated from the French, vol. i, pp. 142-6. 60 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. Mr. Reynolds, one of the partners ; and they were shortly after laid down to form a road. In 1776, a cast-iron railway, nailed to wooden sleepers, was laid down at the Duke of Norfolk's col- liery near Shefheld. The person who designed and constructed this coal line was Mr. John Curr, whose son has erroneously claimed for him the invention of the cast-iron railway. He cer- tainly adopted it eai'ly, and thereby met the fate of men before their age ; for his plan was opposed by the laboring people of the colliery, who got up a riot in which they tore up the road and burnt the coal staith, whilst Mr. Curr fled into a neighboring wood for concealment, and lay there 'perdu for tlu-ee days and nights, to escape the fury of the populace.* In 1789, Mr. Wm. Jessop constructed a railway at Loughborough, in Leicestershire, and there introduced the cast-iron edge-rail, with flanches cast upon the tire of the wagon wheels to keep them on the track, in- stead of having the margin or flanch cast upon the rail itself; and this plan was shortly after adopted in other places. In 1800, IVIr. Benjamin Outram, of Little Eaton in Derbyshire, used stone props instead of timber for supporting the ends and joinings of the rails. As this plan was pretty generally adopted, the roads became known as "Outram roads," and subsequently, for brev- ity's sake, "tram-roads." From this time the use of tram-roads rapidly extended, until at length they were generally adopted in the mining districts. The progress of railways was, indeed, such that the canal in- terests became somewhat uneasy respecting them. The Duke of Bridgewater, when congratulated by Lord Kenyon on the suc- cessful issue of his scheme, made answer, Avith far-sighted shrewdness — "Yes, we shall do well enough if we can keep clear of these d — d tram-roads — there's mischief in them!" It * Railway Locomotion and Steam Navigation, their principles and practice, by John Curr, of New South Wales. London, Williams & Co., 1847. The author of this book was son of the John Curr of Sheffield, who laid down the above railway, and who also ■wrote a book, which was printed in 1797, entitled " The Coal Viewer and Engine Builder's Practi::al Companion." APPLICATION OF STEAM POWER. 61 will be observed, however, that the improvements thus far effected had been confined almost entirely to the road. The railway wagons still continued to be drawn by horses. The gradual improvements made in the rail, by improving the firm- ness and smoothness of the track, had, indeed, effected consider- able economy in horse-power; but that was all. What was further wanted was, the adoption of some mechanical agency applicable to the purpose of railway traction. Unless some such agency could be invented, it was clear that railway improvement had almost reached its limits. Inventors and projectors, how- ever, presented themselves in numbers, and various schemes were proposed. One suggested the adoption of sails, supposing that the wagons might be impelled along the tram-ways like ships before the wind. * But the most favorite scheme was the appUcation of steam power on the high-pressure principle, for the purpose of railway traction. Solomon de Caus, who was shut up for his supposed madness in the Bicetre at Paris, seems to have been the first to conceive the idea of employing steam for moving cai'riages on land, as well as ships at sea. Marion de Lorme, in a letter to the Marquis de Cinq-Mars, dated Paris, February, 1641, thus describes a visit paid to this celebrated mad-house, in the company of the English Marquis of Worcester : — " We were crossing the court, and I, more dead than alive with fright, kept close to my companion's side, when a frightful face appeared behind some immense bars, and a hoarse voice exclaimed, ' I am not mad ! I am not mad ! I have made a discovery that would enrich the country that adopted it.' ' What has he discovered ?' asked our guide. ' Oh !' * " Upon a long extent of iron railway, in an open country, carriages properly con- structed might make profitable voyages from time to time with sails instead of horses ; for though a constant or regular intercourse could not be thus carried on, yet goods of a certain sort, that are saleable at any time, might be staid till wind and weather were favorable. " — Memoirs of R. L. Edgeivorth, vol. i, p. 153. Mr. Edgeworth made several experimements with a sailing carriage of his invention on Hare Hatch Common, but the fixperiments were abandoned in consequence of the dangerous results which threatened to attend them. 62 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. answered the keeper, shrugging his shoulders, ' something trifling enough : you would never guess it ; it is the use of the stoam of boiling water.' I began to laugh. * This man,' continued the keeper, ' is named Solomon de Caus ; he came from Normandy four years ago, to present to the king a statement of the wonder- ful effects that might be produced from his invention. To listen to him, you would imagine that with steam you could navigate ships, move carriages ; in fact, there is no end to the miracles which, he insists upon it, could be performed. The Cardinal sent the madman away without listening to him. Solomon de Caus, far from being discouraged, followed the Cardinal wherever he went, with the most determined perseverance, who, tired of finding him forever in his path, and annoyed at his folly, shut him up in the Bicetre. He has even written a book about it, which I have here.'"* It appears that the Marquis of Worces- ter was greatly struck by the appearance of De Caus, and after- wards studied his book, portions of which he embodied in his " Century of Inventions." The Marquis is also said to have entertained the idea of moving carriages by steam power, but never embodied it in any practical form. Savery, the Cornish miner and engineer, who did so much to develop the powers of the high-pressure engine, also proposed it as a method of propelling carriages along ordinary roads. But he took no practical measures with the view of carrying out his suggestion. The subject was shortly after, in 1759, introduced to the powerful mind of James "Watt, by Dr. Robinson, then a young man studying at Glasgow College. " He threw out," says Watt, " the idea of applying the power of the steam-engine to the moving of wheel-carriages, and to other purposes ; but the scheme was not matured, and was soon abandoned, on his going abroad." f * The book is entitled " Les Eaisons dcs Forces Mouvantes, avec direrses machines tant utiles que puissautes." Paris, 1615. t Narrative of James Watts's Invention, in Robinson's Mechanical Philosophy, Tol. ii art. SteaTn-Engine. JAMES WATT'S PLAN. 63 Watt however afterwards, in the specification of his patent of 1769, gave a description of an engine of the kind suggested by his friend Robinson, in which the expansive force of steam was proposed as the motive power. It also appears that other invent- ors were in the field about the same time ; for in a letter written by Dr. Small to Mr. Watt, on the 18th of April, 1769, it is stated that " one Moore, a linen-draper of London, had taken out a patent for moving wheel-carriages by steam ; " * but no steps were taken to reduce the invention to practice. Watt again, in his patent of 1784, described a similar engine to that indicated in his first patent, specifying the mode of applying steam to the moving of wheel-carriages. The plan proposed by Watt, although a curiosity at the present day, bears the impress of his original mind. The boiler was to be of wooden staves, hooped together with iron ; the iron furnace inside the boiler, and almost entirely surrounded with water ; the whole being placed on a carriage, the wheels of which were to be worked by a piston, the recipro- catory action being converted into a rotary one by toothed wheels and a sun and planet motion. The cylinder was to be seven inches in diameter, the number of strokes sixty per minute, and their length one foot. The carriage was to carry two persons. But no such carriage was ever built. Watt being too busily occu- pied with the perfecting of his condensing engine to proceed further with his proposed locomotive. The fii'st actual model of a steam-carriage, of which we have any written account, was constructed by a Frenchman named Cugnot, who exhibited it before the Marshal de Saxe in 1763.t He afterwards built an engine on the same model, at the cost of the French monarch. But when set in motion, it projected itself onward with such force, that it knocked down a wall which stood in its way ; and its power being considered too great for ordinary • The Mechanical Inventions of James Watt, by J. P. Muirhead, M.A. t Stuart's Historical and Descriptive Anecdotes of Steam-Engines, and of their Invent- ors and Improvers, pp. 208, 209. 64 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. use, it was put aside as being a dangerous machine, and was stowed away in the Arsenal Museum at Paris.* An American inventor, named Oliver Evans, was also occupied with the same idea ; for, in 1772, he invented a steam-carriage to travel on common roads ; and in 1787 he obtained from the State of Maryland the exclusive right to make and use steam-carriages. His invention, however, never came into practical use. It also appears that, in 1784, "WiUiam Symington, the inventor of the steam-boat, conceived the idea of employing steam power in the propulsion of carriages; and in 1786 he had a working model of a steam-carriage constructed, which he submitted to the professors and other scientific gentlemen of Edinburgh. But the state of the Scotch roads was at that time so horrible, that he considered it impracticable to proceed further with his scheme, and he shortly gave it up in favor of his project of steam-navi- gation.f The first English model of a steam-carriage was made in 1784, by William Murdoch, the friend and assistant of Watt. It was on the high-pressure principle, and ran on three wheels. The boiler was heated by a spirit-lamp ; and the whole machine was of very diminutive dimensions, standing little more than a foot high. Yet, on one occasion, the little engine went so fast that it outran the speed of its inventor. Mr. Buckle J says, that one night, after returning from his duties in the mine at Redruth, in Cornwall, Murdoch determined to try the working of his model locomotive. For this purpose, he had recourse to the walk lead- ing to the church, about a mile from the town. The walk was rather narrow, and was bounded on either side by high edges. It * It is now preserved in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. t See a pamphlet entitled "A Brief Narrative, proving the Right of the late William Symington, Civil Engineer, to be considered the Inventor of Steam Land Carriage Loco- motion ; and also the Inventor and Introducer of Steam Navigation. " By Robert Bowie. London : Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper, 1833. t Biographical paper on William Murdoch, read by Mr. William Buckle, of Soho, before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, October, 1850. . THOMAS ALhEN's PLAN. 65 was a dark night, and Murdoch set out alone to try his experi- ment. Having lit his lamp, the water shortly began to boil, and off started the engine with the inventor after it. He soon heard distant shouts of despair. It was too dark to perceive objects ; but he shortly found, on following up the machine, that the cries for assistance proceeded from the worthy pastor of the parish, who, going towards the town on business, was met on this lonely road by the hissing and fiery little monster, which he subsequent- ly declaimed he had taken to be the Evil One in propria persona. No further steps, however, were taken by Murdoch to embody his idea of a locomotive carriage in a more practical form. A few years later, in 1789, one Thomas Allen, of London, published " A Plan of a new-invented Machine to convey goods, merchandise, passengers, etc., from one place to another, without horses, and by the power or force of steam only." Mr. Allen proceeded upon the idea, that if steam could be applied to the turning of wheels for one purpose, such as grinding corn, it could for another, such as the haulage of cai'riages. From liis Plan, which is in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries of New- castle-upon-Tyne,* it appeal's that he intended the wheels of his machine to be cogged, and that he anticipated a speed upon a common road of " somewhat better than ten miles an hour." The plan, however, was a very crude one, and not even a model of the machine seems to have been made. Towards the end of the last century, the adoption of rail and tram-roads, worked by horses, had become general in the colliery and mining districts. There could be no doubt as to the great economy secured by this mode of moving heavy loads, as com- pared with the ordinary method of haulage on common roads. As trade and manufactures were extending with great rapidity — Watt's 'invention of the steam-engine having given an immense impetus to industry in all its branches — it was proposed to extend * Presented by Lord Ravensworth, August 6th, 1S56. — Proceedings of Society of An- tiquaries of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, toI. i, p. 152. 66 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the application of railroads to the transit of merchandise and goods from town to town, especially in those districts where caDals were not considered practicable. The first suggestion to this effect was published by a Northumbrian gentleman, who was daily familiar with the working of the extensive coal traffic over the railways in the neighborhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. On the 11th of February, 1800, Mr. Thomas, of Denton, read a paper on the subject before the Literary and Philosophical Soci- ety of Newcastle, entitled " Observations on the propriety of introducing Roads on the principle of the Coal Wagon Ways, for the general carriage of Goods, Merchandise, etc." * In the course of the following year, the same idea was taken up by Dr. James Anderson, of Edinburgh, who proposed, in his " Recreations of Agriculture," the general adoption of railways, Avorked by horse-power, to be carried along the existing turnpike roads. Dr. Anderson dilated upon his idea with glowing enthu- siasm. " Diminish carriage expense but one farthing," said he, " and you widen the circle of intercourse ; you form, as it were, a new creation, not only of stones and earth, and trees and plants, but of men also, and, what is more, of industry, happiness, and joy." The cost of all articles of human consumption would, he alleged, be thus reduced, agriculture promoted, distances dimin- ished, the country bi'ought nearer to the tow^l, and the to'mi to the country. The number of horses required to carry on the traffic of the kingdom would be greatly diminished, and a general prosperity would, he msisted, be the result of the adoption of his system. " Indeed," said he, " it is scarcely possible to contem- plate an institution from which would result a greater quantity of harmony, peace, and comfort, to persons living in the country, than would naturally result from the introduction of railroads." That the same idea was taking hold of the more advanced minds of the country, is further evident from the fact, that in the following year (1802) Mr. Edgeworth urged the adoption of a * Minute Books of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Xewcastle, 1800. TREVETHICK AND YIVIAN'S PATENT. 67 similar plan for the transit of passengers. " Stage-coaches," he said, " might be made to go at six miles an hour, and post-chaises and gentlemen's traveling carriages at eight — both with one horse; and small stationary steam-engines, placed from distance to dis- tance, might be made, by means of circulating (^lains, to draw the carriages, with a great diminution of horse-labor and expense." While this discussion was going forward, Richard Trevethick, a captain in a Cornish tin mine, and a pupil of William Mur- doch's — influenced, no doubt, by the successful action of the model engine which the latter had constructed — determined to build a steam-carriage adapted for use on common roads. He took out a patent, to secure the right of his invention, in the year 1802. Andrew Vivian, his cousin, joined with him in the patent — Vivian finding the money, and Trevethick the brains. The patent was dated the 24th March, 1802, and described as "A grant unto Richard Trevethick and Andrew Vivian, of the parish of Cran- bourne, in the county of Cornwall, engineers and miners, for their invented methods of improving the construction of steam-engines, and the application thereof for driving cai-riages, and for other purposes." * The steam-carriage built by Trevethick on this patent presented the appearance of an ordinary stage-coach on four wheels. It had one horizontal cylinder, which, together with the boiler and the furnace-box, was placed in the rear of the hind axle. The motion of the piston was transmitted to a sepai-ate crank-axle, from which, through the medium of spur-gear, the axle of the driving-wheel (which was mounted with a fly-wheel) derived its motion. It is also worthy of note, that the steam- cocks and the force-pump, as also the bellows used for the pur- pose of quickening combustion in the fm-nace, were worked off the same crank-axle. This was the first successful high-pressure engine constructed on the principle of moving a piston by the elasticity of steam against the pressure only of the atmosphere. Such an engine ♦ The number of the patent in the Record of Patents Office is 2599. 68 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. had been described by Leopold, though in his apparatus the pressure acted only on one side of the piston. In Trevethick and Vivian's engine, the piston was not only raised, but was also depressed by the action of the steam, being in this respect an entirely original invention, and of great raerit. The steam was admitted from the boiler under the piston moving in a cylinder, impelling it upward. When the motion had reached its limit, the communication between the piston and the under side was shut off, and the steam allowed to escape into the atmosphere. A passage was then opened between the boiler and the upper side of the piston, which was pressed downwards, and the steam again allowed to escape into the atmosphere. Thus the power of the engine was equal to the difference between the pressure of the atmosphere and the elasticity of the steam in the boiler. This first steam-carriage adapted for actual use on common roads, was, on the whole, tolerably successful. It excited con- siderable interest in the remote district, near to the Land's End, where it had been constructed. Being so far removed from the great movements and enterprise of the commercial world, Treve- thick and Vivian determined upon exhibiting then- machine in the metropolis, with a view, if possible, to its practical adoption for the purpose intended. In furtherance of this object, they set out Avith the locomotive to Plymouth, whence a sea-captain, named Vivian, was to convey it in his vessel to town. Cole- ridge relates, that whilst the vehicle was proceeding along the road towards the port, at the top of its speed, and had just car- ried away a portion of the rails of a gentleman's garden, Andrew Vivian descried ahead of them a closed toll-gate, and called out to Trevethick, who was behind, to slacken speed. He imme- diately shut off the steam ; but the momentum was go great, that the carriage proceeded some distance, coming dead up, however, just on the right side of the gate, which was opened Uke light- ning by the toll-keeper. "What have us got to pay here?" asked Vivian. The poor toU-man, trembling in every limb, his TRIAL OF TREVETHICK S LOCOMOTIVE. 69 teeth chattering in his head, essayed a reply — "Na-na-na-na" — "What have us got to pay, I say ?" " No-noth-nothing to pay! My de-dear Mr. Devil, do drive on as fast as you can ! nothing to pay ! " The carriage safely reached the metropolis, and was there j^ublicly exhibited in an Jinclosed piece of ground near Euston Square, where the London and Northwestern Station now stands ; and it dragged behind it a wheel-carriage full of pas- sengers. On the second day of the performance, crowds flocked to see the machine ; but Trevethick, in one of his odd freaks, shut up the place, and shortly after removed the engine. While in the metropolis he secured the support of Lord Stanhope, Davies Gilbert, and other distinguished men. Sir Humphry Davy took much interest in the invention of his countryman, and, writing to his friend David Giddy, in Cornwall, shortly after the machine had reached town, he said — "I shall hope soon to hear that the roads of England are the haunts of Captain Trevethick's dragons — a characteristic name." It was felt, however, that the badness of the English roads at the time rendered it next to im- possible to bring the steam-carriage into general use ; so that, after having been successfully exhibited as a curiosity, it was abandoned by Trevethick as a practical failure. Li the year following the exhibition of the steam-carriage, a gentleman was laying heavy wagers as to the weight which could be hauled by a single horse on the Wadsworth and Croydon iron tram-way ; and the number and weight of wagons drawn by the horse were something surprising. Trevetluck very probably put the two tlihigs together — the steam-horse and the iron-way — and proceeded to construct his second or railway locomotive. The idea, however, was not entirely new to him ; for although his first steam-carriage had been constructed with a view to its employment on common roads, the specification of his patent dis- tinctly alludes to the application of his engine to traveling on raih-oads. In 1804 he proceeded to construct a locomotive after TO LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. an improved plan for this special purpose ; and in the course of the same year it was completed, and tried on the Merthyr Tydvil Eailway in South Wales. On the occasion of its first trial, the engine succeeded in dragging after it several wagons containing ten tons of bar-iron, at the rate of about five miles an hour. The boiler of this engine was cylindrical, flat at the ends, and constructed of cast-iron. The fui'nace and flue were inside the boiler, within which the single cylinder, of eight inches in diameter and four feet six inches stroke, was immersed upright. As in the first engine, the motion of the wheels was produced by spur-gear, to which was also added a fly-wheel on one side. The waste steam was thrown into the chimney through a tube into it at right angles ; but it will be obvious that this arrange- ment was not calculated to produce any result in the way of a steam-blast in the chimney. In fact, the waste steam seems to have been turned into the chimney in order to get rid of the nuisance caused by throwing the jet directly mto the air. Treve- thick was here hovering on the verge of a great discovery ; but that he was not aware of the action of the blast in contributing to increase the draught, and thus quicken combustion, is clear, from the fact that he employed bellows for this sjiecial purpose ; and at a much later date (in 1815) he took out a patent which included a method of urging the fire by means of fanners. Although the locomotive tried upon the Merthyr Tydvil Rail- way succeeded in drawing a considerable weight, and traveled at a fair speed, it nevertheless proved, like the first steam-carriage, a practical failure. It was never employed to do'regular work, but was abandoned after a few experiments. Its jolting motion champed up the cast-iron road, which was little calculated to bear so heavy a weight — though it was very light as compared with modern engines — and it was consequently dismounted from its wheels, and the engine was subsequently fixed and used to pump one of the largest pumps on the mine, for which work it was found well adapted. THE TOOTHED-RAIL. 71 Trevethick was satisfied witli merely making a few experi- ments with his steam carriage and engine ; and being a volatile geniifs, fond of new projects, he seems to have thought no more of the locomotive, but left it to take care of itself Yet his ma- chine, although unfitted for actual work, was a highly meritorious production, and its invention may be said to constitute an import- ant link in the history of the mechanism of the steam-engine. Trevethick having abandoned the locomotive for more promis- ing schemes, no further progress was made with it for some years. An imaginary difficulty seems to have tended, amongst other obstacles, to prevent its adoption and impi-ovement. Tliis was the supposition that, if any heavy weight were placed be- hind the engine, the "grip" or "bite" of the smooth wheels of the locomotive upon the equally smooth iron rail, must neces- sarily be so slight that the wheels would slip round upon the rail, and, consequently, that the machine would not make any progress. Hence Trevethick, in his patent, recommended that the periphery of the driving-Avheels should be made rough by the projection of bolts or cross-grooves, so that the adhesion of the wheels to the road might be secured. This plan was adopted in Trevethick's engine tried on the Merthyr Tydvil Railway, and its progress must therefore necessarily have been a succession of jolts, very trying to the cast-iron plates of the colliery tram-road. Following up the presumed necessity for a more effectual ad- hesion between the wheels and the rails than that presented by their mere smooth contact, Mr. Blenkinsop, of Leeds, in 1811, took out a patent for a racked or tooth-rail laid along one side of the road, into which the toothed- wheel of his locomotive worked as pinions work into a rack. The boiler of his engine was sup- ported by a carriage with four wheels without teeth, and rested immediately upon the axles. These wheels were entirely inde- pendent of the working parts of the engine, and therefore merely supported its weight on the rails, the progress being effected by means of the cogged wheel working into the cogged rail. The 72 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. engine had two cylinders instead of one, as in Trevethiek's en- gine. The invention of the double cylinder was due to Matthew Murray, of Leeds, one of the best mechanical engineers of his time, Mr. Blenkinsop, who was not himself a meclianic, having consulted him as to all the practical arrangements of his locomo- tive. The connecting-rods gave the motion to two pinions by cranks at right-angles to each other ; these pinions communicat- ing the motion to the wheel which worked into the toothed-rail. Mr. Blenkinsop's engines began running on the railway ex- tending from the Middleton collieries to the town of Leeds, a dis- tance of about three miles and a half, on the 12th of August, 1812.* They continued for many years to be one of the principal curiosities of the neighborhood, and were visited by strangers from all parts. Li the year 1816, the Grand Duke Nicholas (afterwards Emperor) of Russia observed the working of Blenkinsop's locomotive with curious interest and expressions of no slight admiration. An engine dragged behind it as many as thirty coal-wagons at a speed of about three miles and a quarter per hour. These engines continued for many years to be thus employed in the haulage of coal, and furnish the first instance of the regular employment of locomotive power for com- mercial purposes. The Messrs. Chapman, of Newcastle, in 1812, endeavored to overcome the same fictitious difficulty of the want of adhesion be- tween the wheel and the rail, by patenting a locomotive to work along the road by means of a chain stretched from one end of it tc the other. This chain was passed once round a grooved bar- rel-wheel under the centre of the engine: so that, when the wheel turned, the locomotive, as it were, dragged itself along the railway. An engine, constructed after this plan, was tried on the Heaton Railway, near Newcastle ; but it was so clumsy in its action, there was so great a loss of power by friction, and it was found to be so expensive and difficult to keep in repair, that * Annals of Leeds, toI. ii, p. 222. THE WYLAM WAGON WAY. 73 it was veiy soon abandoned. Another remarkable expedient was adopted by Mr. Brunton of the Butterly Works, Derbysliire, who, in 1813, patented his Mechanical Traveler to go upon legs, working alternately like those of a horse ! * But the engine never got beyond the experimental state, for, in one of its trials, it unhappily blew up and killed several of the bystanders. These, and other similar contrivances with the same object, pro- jected about the same time, show that invention was actively at work, and that many minds were now anxiously laboring to solve the important problem of locomotive traction upon railways. But the difficulties contended with by these early inventors, and the step-by-step progress which they made, will probably be best illusti'ated by the experiments conducted by Mr. Blackett, of AYylam, whose persevering efforts in some measure paved the way for the labors of George Stephenson, who, shortly after him, took up the question of steam locomotion, and brought it to a suc- cessful issue. The "NVylam wagon-way is one of the oldest in the north of England. Down to the year 1807, it was formed of wooden spars or rails, laid down between the colliery at Wylam — where old Robert Stephenson had worked — and the village of Leming- ton, some four miles down the Tyne, where the coals were loaded in keels or barges, and floated down the river past Newcastle, thence to be shipped for the London market. Each chaldron wagon was originally drawn by one horse, Avith a man to each horse and wagon. The rate at which the journey was performed was so slow that only two journeys were performed by each man and horse in one day, and three on the day following, the driver being allowed Id. for each journey. This primitive wagon-way passed, as before stated, close in front of the cottage in which George Stephenson was born ; and one of the earliest sights * A description of Mr. Brunton's locomotiye is given by Dr. Lardner in his work on ' The Steam Engine," 7th edition, p. 338. 74 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. which met his infant eyes was this wooden tram-road worked by horses. Mr. Blackett was the first colliery o^vner in the North who took an interest in the locomotive engine. He went so far as to order one direct from Trevethick to work his wagon-way, about the year 1811. The engine came down to Newcastle; but for some reason or other, perhaps because of the imperfect construc- tion of the wagon-way as compared with the weight of the engine, it was never put upon the road. Mr. Blackett eventually sold it to a Mr. Winfield, of Gateshead, by whom it was employed for many years in blowing the cupola of his iron-foundry. jMi". Blackett had taken up the wooden road in 1808, and laid down a "plate way" of cast-iron — a single line, with sidings. The wagons continued to be drawn by horses ; but the new iron road proved so much smoother than the former wooden one, that one horse, instead of drawing one chaldron wagon was now en- abled to draw two. Still determined to make the experiment of working his plate-way by locomotive power, Mr. Blackett, in 1812, ordered another engine, after Trevethick's patent, which had yet two years to run. He also resolved to employ the rack- rail and toothed driving-wheel, like Blenkinsop's, and he had the road altered accordingly. The locomotive was constructed by Thomas Waters, of Gateshead, Avho executed the work for Trevethick on commission. This engine was of the most awk- ward construction imaginable. It had a single cylinder six inches in diameter, with a tly-wheel working at one side to carry the cranks over the dead points. The boiler was of cast-iron. Jonathan Foster, the Wylan engine-wright, who superintended its construction, described the machine to the writer as havino- " lots of pumps, cog-wheels and plugs, requiring constant atten- tion while at work." The weight of the whole was about six tons. When completed it was conveyed to Wjlam on a wagon, and there mounted upon the wooden frame supported by four pau's of wheels, which had previously been constructed for it. MR. BLACKETT's locomotive EXPERIMENTS. 75 A barrel of water placed on a rude frame supported by other two pairs of wheels, served as a tender. After a gi'eat deal of labor, the cumbrous and unsightly machine was got upon the road. But the engine would not move an inch ! When the machinery was set in motion, Jonathan Foster says, " She flew all to pieces, and it was the biggest wonder i' the world that we were not all blewn up." The useless engine was taken oflf the road and sold ; and Mr. Blackett's efforts were thus far in vain. He was still, however, desirous of testing the practicability of employing locomotive power in railway traction, and he deter- mined upon making yet another trial. Accordingly, he proceeded to build another engine, under his own and Jonathan Foster's immediate inspection, in the Wylam work-shops. The new engine had a single eight-inch cylinder, and was fitted with a fly-wheel ; the driving-wheel on one side being cogged, in order to enable it to travel in the rack-rail. This engine proved more successful than its predecessors. Although it was clumsy and unsightly, it was found capable of dragging eight or nine loaded wagons down to the shipping-place at Lemington. Its weight was, however, too great for the road, and the cast-iron plates were constantly breaking. Although this new locomotive was considered by ]Mr. Blackett to be an improvement upon horse traction, its working was by no means satisfactory. It crept along at a snail's pace, sometimes taking; six hours to travel the five miles dovm. to the loading- place. It was also very apt to get off the rack-rail, and then it stuck. On these occasions, the horses had to be sent out to di-ag on the wagons, as before. The engine itself, constructed by in- competent workmen, often broke down ; its plugs, pumps, or cranks got wrong ; and then the horses were sent out to drag it back to the shop. Indeed, it became so cranky, that the horses were very frequently sent out following the engine, to be in readiness to draw it along when it gave up ; and at length the workmen declared it to be "a perfect plague." 76 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. Mr. Blackett did not obtain any credit amongst his neighbors for these expensive experiments. Many laughed at his machines, regarding them only in the light of costly crotchets — frequently quoting the proverb of " A fool and his money." Others regarded them as absurd innovations on the established method of hauling coal ; and j^ronounced that they would " never answer." To some, indeed, they were the cause of considerable apprehension and alarm. A story is still current at Wylam, of a stranger who was pro- ceeding one dark evening down the High Street Road, as the "Black Billy" (for so the locomotive was called) was seen advancing, puffing and snorting its painful and laborious way up from Newburn. The stranger had never heard of the new engine, and was almost frightened out of his senses at its approach. An uncouth monster it must have looked, coming flaming on in the dark, working its piston up and down like a huge arm, snorting out loud blasts of steam from either nostril, and throwing out smoke and fire as it panted along. No wonder that the stranger rushed terrified through the hedge, fled across the fields, and called out to the first person he met that he had just encountered " a terrible deevil on the High Street Road." Notwithstanding the comparative failure of his locomotive thus far, Mr. Blackett persevered with his experiments. About 1813 he took out a patent, in the name of William Iledley, his viewer, for a frame on four wheels, on which to mount the locomotive engine. One of the first experiments which he made with this frame was, to test the adhesion of the smooth wheels of a carriage, properly weighted, upon the smooth rails of the road. Six men were placed upon the frame, which was fitted up with windlasses, attached by gearing to the several wheels. When the men were set to work the windlasses, Mr. Blackett found that the adhesion of the wheels on the smooth rails w^as sufficient to enable them to propel the machine without slipping. Having then found the proportion which the power bore to the weight, he demonstrated, MR. BLACKETT's locomotive EXPERIMENTS. 77 by successive experiments, that the -weight of the engine would of itself produce sufficient adhesion to enable it to drag after it, on a smooth tram-road, the requisite number of wagons in all kinds of weathei*. Thus was the fallacy which had heretofore prevailed on this subject completely dissipated, and it was satis- factorily proved that rack-rails, toothed-wheels, endless chains, and legs, were alike unnecessary for the efficient traction of loaded wagons upon a moderately level road. As may readily be imagined, the jets of steam from the piston, blowing off into the air at high pressure while the engine was in motion, caused considerable annoyance to horses passing along the Wylam road, at that time a public highway. The nuisance was felt to be almost intolerable, and a neighboring gentleman threatened to have it put down. To diminish the nuisance as much as possible, Mr. Blackett gave orders that so soon as any horse, or vehicle drawn by horses, came in sight, the locomotive was to be stopped, and the frightful blast of the engine thus sus- pended until the passing animals had got out of sight. Much interruption was caused to the working of the railway by this measure ; and it excited considerable dissatisfaction amongst the workmen. The following plan was adopted to abate the nuis- ance : A reservoir was provided immediately behind the cliimney, into which the waste steam was thrown after it had performed its office in the cylinder ; and from this reservoir, the steam gradu- ally escaped into the atmosphere without noise.* This arrange- ment was devised expressly for the purpose of preventing any blast in the chimney, the value of which was not detected until George Stephenson, adopting it with a preconceived design and purpose, demonstrated its importance and value — as beiag, in fact, tbe very life-breath of the locomotive engine. * A drawing of the Wj'lam engine is giyen in the first edition of Nicholas Wood's Trea- tise on Railroads, 1825. The engine was placed on eight wheels, having seven rack-wheels working inside them, distributing the motion ; while a barrel fixed behind the engine on two other wheels, contained the water — an exceedingly clumsy, uncouth-looking machine. CHAPTER IX. GEORGE STEPHENSON'S FIRST LOCOMOTIVES. While Mr. Blackett was thus experimenting and building locomotives at Wylam, George Stej)henson was anxiously bi*ood- ing over the same subject at Killingworth. He was no sooner appointed engine-wright of the collieries, than his attention was directed to the more economical haulage of the coal from the pits to the river side. We have seen that one of the first impoi-tant improvements which he made, after being placed in charge of the colliery machinery, was to apply the surplus power of a pumping steam-engine, fixed under ground, for the purpose of drawing the coals out of the deeper workings of the Killingworth mmes — by which he succeeded in effecting a large reduction in the expenditure on manual and horse labor. The coals, when brought above ground, had next to be labori- ously dragged by means of horses to the shipping staiths on the Tyne, several miles distant. The adoption of a tram-road, it is true, had tended to facilitate their transit ; nevertheless, the haul- age was both tedious and expensive. With the view of econo- mizing labor, inclined planes were laid down by Mr. Stephenson, where the nature of the ground would admit of this expedient being adopted. Thus, a train of fuU wagons let down the incline by means of a rope running over wheels laid along the tram-road, the other end of which was attached to a train of empty wagons placed at the bottom of the parallel road on the same incline, (78) BLENKINSOP'S LEEDS ENGINE. 79 dragged them up by the simple power of gravity — an exceedingly economical mode of working the traffic. But this applied only to a comparatively small portion of the entire length of road. An economical method of working the coal trains, instead of by means of horses — the keep of which was at the time very costly in con- sequence of the high price of corn — was still a great desideratum ; and the best practical minds in the collieries were actively en- gaged in the attempt to solve the problem. Although Mr. Stephenson from an early period entertained and gave utterance to his sanguine speculations as to the " traveling engine," this was his first practical object in studying it, and endeavoring to make it an effective power ; and he now proceeded to devote the entire energy of his strong practical intellect to the subject. First, he endeavored to make himself thoroughly acquainted with what had already been done. Mr. Blackett's engines were working daily at Wylam, past the cottage in which he had been born ; and thitlier he frequently went, sometimes in the company of Nicholas Wood, to inspect Trevethick's patent engine, and observe the improvements which were from to time made by Mr. Blackett, both in the locomotive and in the plate-way along which it worked. He carefully inspected the " Black Billy," with its single cylinder and fly-wheel, its pumps, plugs, and spur gear. After mastering its arrangements and observing the working of the machine, he did not hesitate to declare to Jonathan Foster, on the spot, his firm conviction that he could make a much better engine than Trevethick's — one that would draw steadier and work more cheaply and effectively. In the meantime, he had also the advantage of seeing one of Blenkinsop's Leeds engines, constructed by Fenton Murray and Wood, of that town. The engine was a very excellent piece of workmanship, and a great improvement upon the clumsy ma- chines which Mr. Stephenson had inspected at Wylam. It was placed on the tram-way, leading from the collieries of Kenton and Coxlodge, on the second of September, 1813 ; and a large 80 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. concourse of spectators assembled to witness its first performan- ces. This locomotive di'ew sixteen chaldron wagons, containing an aggregate weight of seventy tons, at the rate of about three miles an hour. George Stephenson and several of the Kilhng- worth men were amongst the crowd of spectators that day ; and after examining the engine and observing its performances, he observed to his companions, as related by Ileppel, who was present, that " he thought he could make a better engine than that to go upon legs." Probably he had heard of the invention of Brunton, whose patent had by this time been published, and proved the subject of much curious speculation in the colliery districts. Certain it is that, shortly after the inspection of the Coxlodge engine, Stephenson contemplated the construction of a new locomotive, which was to surpass all which had preceded it. He observed that those engines which had been constructed up to this time, however ingenious in their aiTangements, had proved practical failures. Mr. Blackett's were both clumsy and expen- sive. Chapman's had been removed from the Heaton tram-way in 1812, and was regarded as a total failure. And the Blenkin- sop engine at Coxlodge was found very unsteady and costly in its working ; besides, it pulled the rails to pieces, the entire strain being upon the rack-rail, on one side of the road. The boUer, however, having shortly blown up, there was an end of the engine ; and the colUery owners did not feel encouraged to try any further experiment. An efficient and economical working locomotive engine, there- fore, still remained to be invented ; and to accomplish this object ISIr. Stephenson now applied himself. Profiting by what hia predecessors had done, warned by their failures, and encouraged by their partial successes, he commenced his important labors. There was still wanting the man who should accomplish for the locomotive what James Watt had done for the steam-engine, and combine in a complete form the separate plans of others, embody- ing with them such original inventions and adaptations of his own HIS FIRST LOCOMOTIVE. 81 as to entitle him to the merit of invexiting tlie working locomotive, in the Scarae manner as James Watt is regarded as the inventor of the working condensing engine. This was the great work upon which George Stephenson now entered, probably without any adequate idea of the immense consequences of his labors to society and civilization. He proceeded to bring the subject of constructing a "Traveling Engine," as he then denominated the locomotive, under the notice of the lessees of the Killingworth colliery, in the year 1813. Lord Eavensworth, the principal partner, had ah-eady formed a very favorable opinion of Stephenson, from the important im- provements which he had effected in the colliery engines, both above and below ground ; and, after considering the matter, and hearing Stephenson's statements, he authorized him to proceed with the construction of a locomotive — though his lordship was, by some, called a fool for advancing money for such a purpose. " The first locomotive that I made," said Mr. Stephenson, many years after,* when speaking of his early career, at a public meeting in Newcastle, " was at Killingworth colhery, and with Lord Ravensworth's money. Yes, Lord Eavensworth and part- ners were the first to entrust me with money to make a locomo- tive engine. That engine was made thirty-two years ago, and we called it ' My Lord.' I said to my friends, there was no limit to the speed of such an engine, if the works could be made to stand it." Mr. Stephenson had, however, many serious difiiculties to encounter before he could get fairly to work with the erection of his locomotive. His chief difficulty was in finding mechanics sufficiently skilled in the knowledge of machinery, and in the use of tools, to follow his instructions and embody his designs, in a practical shape. Skilled mechanics were few in number in those days, and were for the most part confined to Birmingham, Man- chester, Leeds, and London. The tools in use about the collieries • Speech at the opening of the Newcastle and Darlington Railway, June 18th, 1844. 6 82 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPIIENSOX. were rude and clumsy ; and there were then no such facilities as now exist for turning out machinery of an entirely new character. Mr. Stephenson was thus under the necessity of working with such men and tools as were at his command ; and lie had in a great measure to train and instruct his workmen himself. The engine was built in the w^orkshops at the West Moor, the leading mechanic being John Thirlwall, the colliery blacksmith, an excel- lent Avorkman in his way, though quite new to the work now entrusted to him. In this first locomotive constructed at Killingworth, Mr. Ste- phenson to some extent followed the plan of Blenkinsop's enghie. The boiler was cylindrical, eight feet in length, and thirty-four inches in diameter, with an internal flue-tube twenty inches wide passing through the boiler. The engine had two vertical cylin- ders of eight inches diameter and two feet stroke let into the boiler, working the propelling gear with cross-heads and connect- ing rods The power of the two cylinders was continued by means of spur-wheels, which communicated the motive power to the wheels supporting the engine on the rail, instead of, as in Blenkinsop's engine, to cog-wheels which acted on the cogged rail, independent of the four supporting wheels. This adoption of spur-gear was the chief peculiarity of the new engine : it worked upon what is termed the second motion. The chimney was of wrought iron, around which was a chamber extending back to the feed-pumps, for the purpose of heating the water previous to its injection into the boiler. The engine had no springs whatever, and was mounted on a wooden frame supported on four wheels. In order, however, to neutralize as much as possible the jolts and shocks which such an engine v.ould neces- sarily encounter from the obstacles and inequalities of the then very imperfect plate-way, the water barrel which served for a tender was fixed to the end of a lever and weighted, the other end of the lever being connected with the frame of the locomotive carriage. By this means the weight of the two was more equally DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGINE. 83 distributed, though the contrivance did not by any means com- pensate for the total absence of springs. The wheels of the new locomotive were all smooth — and it was the first engine that had been so constructed. From the first, Mr. Stephenson was convinced that the adhesion between a smooth wheel and an edgerail would be as efficient as Mr. Blackett had proved it to be between the wheel and the tram- road. And, although every one at that time argued that the adhesion upon a tramrail was by no means a criterion of what the adhesion would be upon an edgerail, Mr. Stephenson felt con- fident that there was no essential difference between the one and the other. Before, however, constructing the smooth wheels for his locomotive, he had the adhesion between the wheels of a car- riage, properly loaded, and the rails, tested and satisfactorily proved by experiment. He made a number of workmen mount upon the wheels of a wagon moderately loaded, resting their entire weight upon the spokes on one side, and found that the wagon could thus be easily propelled forward without the wheels slipping. He then determined to fix smooth wheels upon his locomotive, in the firm belief that the weight of the engine would of itself be of sufficient adhesion for the purpose of traction. The engine was, after much labor and anxiety, and frequent alterations of parts, at length brought to completion, having been about ten months in hand. It was first placed upon the Killing- worth Railway on the 25th of July, 1814 ; and its powers were tried on the same day. On an ascending gradient of 1 in 450, the engine succeeded in drawing after it eight loaded carriages of thirty tons weight at about four miles an hour ; and for some time after, it continued regular at work. It was indeed the most successful working engine that had yet been constructed. Although a considerable advance upon all previous locomo- tives, "Blucher" (as the engine was popularly called) was nevertheless a somewhat cumbrous and clumsy machine. The parts were huddled together. The boiler constituted the prin- 84 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. cipal feature ; and being the foundation of the other parts, it was made to do duty not only as a generator of steam, but also as a basis for the fixings of the machinery and for the bearings of the wheels and axles. The want of springs was seriously felt ; and the progress of the engine was a succession of jolts, causing con- siderable derangement of the machinery. The mode of commu- nicating the motive power to the wheels by means of the spur gear also caused frequent jerks, each cylinder alternately propel- ling or becoming propelled by the other, as the pressure of the one upon the wheels became greater or less than the pressure of the other ; and when the teeth of the cogwheel became at all worn, a rattling noise was produced during the traveling of the engine. As the principal test of the success of the locomotive was its economy as compared with horse power, careful calculations were made with the view of ascertaining this important point. The result was, that it was found the working of the engine was at first barely economical ; and at the end of the year the steam power and the horse power were ascertained to be as neai'ly as possible upon a par in point of cost. The fate of the locomotive in a great measure depended on this very engine. Its speed was not beyond that of a horse's walk, and the heating surface pre- sented to the fire being comparatively small, sufficient steam could not be raised to enable it to accomplish more on an average than about tliree miles an hour. The result wa^ any- thmg but decisive ; and the locomotive might have been con- demned as useless, had not Mr. Stephenson at this juncture applied the steam-blast, and at once more than doubled the power of the engine. Although Trevethick, in the engine constructed by him in 1804, allowed the waste steam to escape into the chimney, there was no object in the arrangement except to get rid of a nuisance and to avoid the unsightliness of the escape steam blowing off in iets into the open air. The exit pipe adopted by JNIr. Trevethick, INVENTION OF THE STEAM BLAST. 85 as "we have already observed, was not contrived with the view of producing any effect ; nor does any seem to have been produced, for it is certain that he afterwards abandoned the arrangement. It is remarkable that a man so ingenious as Trevethick should not have discerned its advantages ; but it is clear that he could not have done so, for as late as 1815, after George Stephenson had discovered and successfully adopted the steam-blast, Treve- thick took out a patent, the principal object of which was to " produce a current of air in the manner of a winnowing machine, to blow the fire." " Flat plates or leaves," revolving in a case, were the means adopted by him for this purpose ; and in the same patent he proposed to " place in the flue a screw or set of vanes, somewhat similar to a smoke-jack," which were "to re- volve by connection with, the steam-engme, for the purpose of creating an artificial draught in the chimney." This contrivance was, however, a useless one, as Mr. Stephenson's mode of apply- ing the blast already threw it far into the shade as a means of stimulating combustion by artificial means. It is remarkable how little Trevethick really accomplished for railway progress, notwithstanding his ingenuity and skill as an inventor and mechanician. Instructed by Murdoch and assisted by Vivian, he was enabled to erect his first steam carriage, after which he constructed his first railway locomotive. But Treve- thick was one of those men who are satisfied with making a beginning. He was not endowed with the gift of continuance — the quality of perseverance. With half the cleverness and double the application he might have successfully worked out the problem of railway locomotion, and kept ahead of all com- petitors. George Stephenson was a man of an entirely different fibre. His patience was never baffled by failure ; his faith was never shaken by opposition. When he became fully possessed by a conviction, he held to it with dogged tenacity, and braved the shafts of ridicule, the arguments of opponents, and the shrugs and 8G LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the sneers of the utterly indifferent. Above all, he was an accu- rate and careful observer ; and the improvements which he was enabled to effect in the locomotive were mainly due to the care with which he noted facts, and the patient reflection which he bestowed upon them, with the object of turning them to useful account. Thus, his adoption of the steam-blast in the chimney was in no way the issue of accident ; but it was an invention the result of careful observation and patient reflection. In his first locomo- tive the eduction steam was allowed to escape into the open atmosphere, with a hissing blast, which was the terror of horses and cattle, and was generally complained of as a nuisance. A neighboring squire even threatened an action against the colliery lessees if it were not put an end to. But Mr. Stephenson's at- tention had already been drawn to the circumstance of the much greater velocity with which the steam issued from the exit pipe, compared with that at which the smoke escaped from the chim- ney of the engine. He then thought that, by conveying the eduction steam into the chimney, by means of a small pipe, after it had performed its office in the cylinders, and allowing it to es- cape in a vertical direction, its velocity would be imparted to the smoke from the fire, or to the ascending current of air in the chimney,* thereby increasing the draught, and consequently the intensity of combustion in the furnace. * Mr. Nicholas Wood gives the following account of the circumstances which led to the invention of the steam-blast by Mr. Stephenson: "When the engines were first made, the steam escaped into the atmosphere, and made comparatively little noise. It was found difficult thus to produce steam in sufficient quantity to keep the engine constantly working, or rather to obtain an adequate rapidity of current in the chimney to give suf- ficient intensity to the fire. To eCFcct a greater rapidity or to increase the draught of the chimney, Mr. Stephenson thought that, by causing the steam to escape into the chim- ney through a pipe with its end turned upwards, the velocity of the current would be accelerated; and such was the effect." {Practical Treatise on Railroads, by Nicholas Wood, C.E. Ed. 1825, p. 292.) This passage clearly shows the preconceived design and purpose of Mr. Stephenson in inventing the steam-blast. A claim has, nevertheless, been set up in behalf of Timothy Hackworth, as its inventor in 1829, although the design, mechanism and rationale of the invention, as effected by Mr. Stephenson in 1815, and INVENTION OF THE STEAM BLAST. 87 TLe experiment was no soonei* made than the powei' of the engine was at once more than doubled : combustion was stimu- lated by the blast ; consequently the capability of tlie boiler to generate steam was greatly increased, and the effective power of the engine augmented in precisely the same proportion, without in any way adding to its weight. This simple but beautiful expedient, though it has hitherto received but slight notice as an original idea on the part of its author, was really fraught with the most important consequences to railway communication ; and it is not too much to say that the success of the locomotive depended upon its adoption. With- out the steam-blast, the advantages of the "multitubular boiler" could never have been fairly tested ; and it was these two im- provements, working together, which afterwards secured the triumph of the locomotive on the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Kailvvay. "Without the steam-blast, by which the intensity of combustion was kept up to the highest point, and the evolution of steam thus rapidly efiected, high rates of speed by means of the combustion of coke could not have been attained, and locomotives might still have been dragging themselves un- wieldily along at a little more than live or six miles an hour. The steam-blast had scarcely been adopted, with so decided a success, when Mr. Stephenson, observing the numerous defects in his engine, and profiting by the experience Avhich he had already acquired, determined to construct a second engine, in which to embody his improvements in their best form. Careful and cautious observation of the working of his locomotive had convinced him that the complication arising out of the action of the two cylinders being combined by spui'-wheels would prevent its coming into practical use. He accordingly directed his atten- tion to an entire change in the construction and mechanical arrangements of the machine ; and in the following year, con- adopted by him in all the Killingworth engines from that year downwards, were clearly described by Mr. Wood in 1825 1 88 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. jointly with Mr. Dodds, who provided the necessary funds, he took out a patent, dated the 28th of February, 1815,* for an en- gine which combined in a remarkable degree the essential requi- sites of an economical locomotive; that is to say, few parts, simplicity in their action, and directness m the mode by which the power was communicated to the wheels supporting the engine. This locomotive, like the fii-st, had two vertical cylinders, which communicated directly with each pair of the four wheels that supported the engine, by means of a cross head and a pair of connecting-rods. But m attempting to establisli a direct commu- nication between the cylinders and the wheels that rolled upon the rails, considerable difficulties presented themselves. The ordinary joints could not be employed to unite the parts of the engine, which was a rigid mass, ^v'ith the wheels rolling upon the irregular surface of the rails ; for it was evident that the two rails of the line of way — more especially in those early days of im- perfect construction of the permanent road — could not always be maintained at the same level — that the wheel at one end of the axle might be depressed into one jiart of the line which had sub- sided, whilst the other wheel would be comparatively elevated ; and, in such a position of the axles and the wheels, it was ob- vious that a rigid communication between the cross head and the wheels was impracticable. Hence it became necessary to form a joint at the top of the piston-rod where it united with the cross head, so as to permit the cross heaxi to preserve complete paral- lelism with the axles of the wheels with which it was in commu- nication. In order to obtain that degree of flexibility, combined with direct action, which was essential for insuring power and avoid- ing needless friction and jars from irregularities in the road, ]VIr. * A grant to Ralph Dodds and George StephenKon, both of Killingworth, enRinecrs, for their Tarious Improvements in the Construction- of Locomotive Engines I'atent Office, No. 3887. HIS SECOXD LOCOMOTIVE. 89 Stephenson made use of the "ball and socket" joint (so called from its resemblance to th6 hip-joint of the human body) for eifecting a union between the ends of the cross heads where they united with the connecting rods, and between the ends of the connecting rods where they were united with the crank-pins at- tached to each driving wheel. By this arrangement the paral- lelism between the cross head and the axle was at all times maintained and preserved, without producing any serious jar or friction on any part of the machine. The next important point was to combine each pair of wheels by means of some simple mechanism, instead of by the cog- wheels which had formei-ly been used. And, with this object, Mr. Stephenson began by inserting each axle into two cranks at right angles to each other, with rods communicating horizontally between them. A locomotive was accordingly constructed upon this plan in the year 1815, and it was found to answer extremely well. But at that period the mechanical skill of the country was not equal to the task of forging crank axles of the soundness and strength necessary to stand the jars incident to locomotive work. Mr. Stephenson was accordingly compelled to fall back upon a sub- stitute, which, although less simple and efficient, was within the mechanical capabilities of the workmen of that day, in respect of construction as well as repair. He adopted a chain which rolled over indented wheels placed on the centre of each axle, and so arranged that the two pairs of wheels were effectually coupled and made to keep pace with each other. The chain, however, after a few years use, became stretched ; and then the engines were liable to irregularity in their working, especially in changing from working back to working forward again. Eventually, the chain was laid aside, and the front and hind wheels were united by rods on the outside, instead of by rods and crank axles inside, as specified in the original patent. This expedient completely 90 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. answered the puqjose required, without involving any exjiensive or difRcuU workmanship. Thus, in the year 1815, Mr. Stephenson, by dint of patient and persevering labor — by careful observation of the works of others, and never neglecting to avail himself of their suggestions — had succeeded in manufacturing an engine which included the follow- ing important improvements on all previous attempts in the same direction — viz : simple and direct communication between the cylinder and the wheels rolling upon the rails ; joint adhesion of all the wheels, attained by the use of horizontal connecting rods ; and finally, a beautiful method of exciting the combustion of the fuel by employing the waste steam, which had formerly been allowed uselessly to escape into the air. Although many im- provements in detail were afterwards introduced in the locomotive by Mr. Stephenson himself, as well as by his equally distinguished son, it is perhaps not too much to say that this engine, as a me- chanical contrivance, contained the genn of all that has since been effected. It may, in fact, be regarded as the type of the present locomotive engine. CHAPTER X. INVENTS TKE " GEORDY " SAFETY LAMP. Explosions of fire-damp were unusually frequent in the coal mines of Northumberland and Durham about the time when George Stephenson was engaged in the construction of his first locomotives. These explosions were frequently attended with fearful loss of life and dreadful suffering to the colliery workers- Killingworth Colliery was not free from such deplorable calami- ties; and during the time that Stephenson was employed as a brakesman at the West Moor, several " blasts " took place in the pit, by which many Avorkmen were scorched and killed, and the owners of the colHery sustained heavy losses. One of the most serious of these accidents occurred in 1806, not long after he had been appointed brakesman, by which ten persons were killed. Stephenson was working at the mouth of the pit at the time, and the circumstances connected Avith the accident seem to have made a deep impression on his mind, as will appear from the following graphic account, which he gave to a committee of the House of Commons, some thirty years after the event : * " The pit had just ceased drawing coals, and nearly all the men had got out. It was sometime in the afternoon, a little after mid- day. There were five men that went down the pit ; four of them for the purpose of preparing a place for the furnace. The fifth *ETidence given before the Select Committee on Acciaents in Mines, 26th June, 1835. (91) 92 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPUENSON. was a person who went down to set them to work. I sent this man down myself, and he had just got to the bottom of the shaft about two or three minutes, when the explosion took place. I had left the mouth of the pit, and had gone about fifty or sixty yards away, when I heax-d a tremendous noise, looked round, and saw the discharge come out of the pit like the discharge of a cannon. It continued to blow, I think, for a quarter of an hour, discharging everything that had come into the current. There was wood came up, stones came up, and trusses of hay that went up into the air like balloons. Those trusses had been sent down during the day, and I think they had in some measure injured the ventilation of the mine. The ground all round the top of the pit was in a trembling state. I went as near as I durst go ; everything appeared cracking and rending about me. Part of the brattice, which was very strong, was blown aAvay at the bottom of the pits. Very large pumps were lifted from their places, so that the engine could not work. The pit was divided into four by partitions ; it was a large pit, fourteen feet in diameter, and par- titions were put down at right angles, which made four compart- ments. The explosion took place in one of those four quarters, but it broke through into all the others at the bottom, and the brattice or partitions were set on fire at the first explosion. After it had continued to blow for a quarter of an hour the discharge ceased, and the atmosphere all round poured into the pit to fill up the vacant place that must have been formerly occupied by the flame. In one of the other pits, that was connected by some doors in a drift with that in which the explosion took place, were several men, some of whom succeeded in getting up safe. The ropes in the first pit were shattered to pieces by the force of the blasts, but the ropes in the other pits were still left comparatively uninjured. Nobody durst go near the shafts for some time, for fear of another explosion taking place. At last we considered it neces- sary to run the rope backwards and forwards, and give the miners, if there were any at the bottom of the shaft, an opportunity of BLAST IN THE KILLINGWORTH PIT. 93 catching the rope as it came to the bottom. "Wlienever the rope went to the bottom it was allowed to remain a short time, till we considered the men had time to cling to it. Several were safely got up in this way ; and another man had got hold of the rope, and was being drawn up, when a further explosion took place at the time he was in the shaft, but it was merely like the discharge of a gun, and it did not continue like the former blast. This man, it appeared, had been helped up so far by the increased current which came about him, that, the rope running up at a great velocity, he was projected up the shaft, yet he was landed without injury ; it was a singular case. Four out of the five men who had been sent down just before the explosion took place, were not seen again for three or four-and-twenty weeks, when they were found buried amongst the corves, or baskets and little carriages, at the bottom of the shafts. The overlooker, who had gone to set these men to work, knew the situation they were likely to be placed in ; and, hearing the noise of the explosion before it reached the shaft, he threw himself behind some pillars near the pits, so that the current went past him ; but the flame came about him, and nearly all his clothes were burnt off his back, though he laid himself down flat upon his face for safety." After the blast ceased, this person got up and found his way round to the other pit, when he got up by the rope in the manner stated. The pit continued to blast every two or three hours for about two days. It appears that the coal had taken fire, and as soon as the cai'buretted hydi'ogen gas collected in sufficient quantity to reach the part where it was burning, it ignited again ; but none of the explosions were equal to the first, on account of many parts of the mine having become filled with azotic gas, or the after-damp of the mine. All the ditches in the country-side were stopped to get water to pour into the pit. We had extinguishing or fire- engines brought from Newcastle, and the water was poured in till it came above the fire, and then it was extinguished. The 94 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. loss to the owners of the colliery by this accident must have been about £20,000." Another explosion of a similar kind occurred in the same pit in 1809, by wliich twelve persons lost their lives. George Stephenson was working at the pit when the accident occurred, but the blast did not reach the shaft as in the former case ; the unfortunate persons in the pit havmg been suffocated by the after-damp. But more calamitous explosions than these occurred in the neighboring collieries ; one of the worst being that which took place in May, 1812, in the Felling Pit, near Gateshead, a mine belonging to Mr. Brandling, by wliich no fewer than ninety men and boys were suffocated or burnt to death. And a similar accident occurred in the same pit in the year following, by which twenty-two men and boys perished. It was natural that George Stephenson, when appointed to the responsible office of coUiery engine-wright, should devote his attention to the causes of these deplorable accidents, mid to the means by which they might if possible be prevented. His daily occupation led liim to think much and deeply on the subject. As the engineer of a colliery so extensive as that of Kilhngworth, where there were nearly 160 miles of gallery excavation, and in which he personally superintended the formation of inclined planes for the conveyance of the coal to the pit entrance, he was necessarily very often rmder ground, and brought face to face with the dangers of fire-damp. From fissures in the roofs of the galleries, carburetted hydrogen gas was constantly flowing ; in some of the more dmigerous places it might be heard escaping from the crevices of the coal with a hissing noise. Ventilation, firing, and all conceivable modes of drawing out the foul air had been adopted, and the more dangerous parts of the galleries were built up. StiU the danger could not be wholly prevented. The miners must necessarily guide their steps tln-ough the extensive underground pathways with lighted lamps or candles, the naked flame of wliich, coming in contact with the inflammable air, daily EXPLOSIONS OP FIRE-DAMP. 95 exposed tliem, and their fellow-workers in the pit, to the risk of death in one of its most dreadful forms. Oae day, in the year 1814, a workman hurried into Mr. Ste- phenson's cottage with the startling infonnation that the deepest main of the colliery was on fire ! He immediately hastened to the pit-mouth, about a hundred yards off, whither the women and children of the colliery were fast running, Avith wildness and terror depicted in every face. In an energetic voice, Stephenson ordered the engineman to lower him down the shaft in the corve. There was danger, it might be death, before him — l)ut he must go. As those about the pit-mouth saw him descend rapidly out of sight, and heard from the gloomy depths of the shaft the mingled cries of despair and agony rising from the work people below, they gazed on the heroic man with bi-eathless amazement. He was soon at the bottom, and in the midst of his workmen, who were paralyzed at the danger which threatened the lives of all in the pit. Leaping from the corve on its touching the ground, he called out, " Stand back ! Are there six men among you who have courage enough to follow me? If so, come, and we will put the fire out." The Killingworth men always had the most perfect confidence in George Stephenson, and instantly they volunteered to follow him. Silence succeeded to the frantic tumult of the previous minute, and the men set to work. In every mine, bricks, mortar and tools enough are at hand, and by Stephenson's direction materials were forthwith carried to the required spot, where, in a very short time the wall was raised at the entrance to the main, he himself taking the most active part in the work. The atmos- pheric air was by this means excluded, the fire was extinguished, the people were saved from death, and the mine was preserved. This anecdote of Mr. Stephenson was related to the writer, near the pit-mouth, by one of the men. Kit Heppel, who had been an eye-witness to it, and helped to build up the brick wall by which the fire was stayed, though several workmen were suf- 96 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. focated in the pit. Heppel relates that, when down the pit some days after, seeking out the dead bodies, the cause of the accident was the subject of some conversation between himself and Ste- phenson, and Heppel then asked him, " Can nothing be done to prevent such awful occurrences?" Stephenson replied that he thouglit something might be done. "Then," said Heppel, "the sooner you start the better ; for the price of coal-mining now is pitmen^ s lives." The chief object to be attained was, to devise a lamp that would bum and give forth sufficient light to guide the miner in his underground labors, without communicating flame to the inflammable gas which accumulated in certain parts of the pit.* Something had already been attempted towards the invention of a colliery lamp by Dr. Clanny, of Sunderland, who, in 1813, contrived an apparatus to which he gave air from the mine through water, by means of bellows. This lamp went out of itself in inflammable gas. It was found, however, too unwieldy to be used by the miners for the purposes of their work. A com- mittee of gentlemen was formed at Sunderland to investigate the causes of the explosions, and to devise, if possible, some means of preventing them. At the invitation of that committee, Sir Humphry Davy, then in the full zenith of his reputation, was requested to turn his attention to the subject. He accordingly visited the collieries near Newcastle on the 24:th of August, 1815 ;t and at the close of that year, on the 9th of November, 1815, he read his celebrated paper "On the Fire-Damp of Coal Mines, and on methods of lighting the IVIines so as to prevent its Explosion," before the Royal Society of London. J * The common means employed by the miners for lighting those parts of the mine where clanger was apprehended from the fire-damp, was by a steel wheel, which, being made to rerolTC in contact with flint, aCforded a succession of sparks ; but the apparatus always required a person to work it ; and though much less liable to explode the fire- damp than a common candle, yet its use was not altogether free from danger, and the light which it gare forth was very inefficient. t Paris's Life of Davy, 4to ed., p. 310. • J Ibid., p. 315. DAVY'S SAFETY LAMP. STEPHENSON'S SAFEIT LAMP- 'i HIS SAFETY LAMP. 97 But an humbler, though not less diligent and original thinker, had been to work before him, and had already practically solved the problem of the Safety Lamp. Stephenson was of course well aware of the anxiety which prevailed in the colliery dis- tricts as to the invention of a lamp which should give light enough for the miner's work without exploding the fire-damp. The painful incidents above described only served to quicken his eagerness to master the difficulty. Let the reader bear in mind the comparative obscurity of Stephenson's position, for he was as yet but one step removed from the grade of a manual laborer — the meagreness of his scientific knowledge, all of which he had himself gathered, bit by bit, during his leisure moments, which were but few — his almost entire lack of teachers, excepting liis own keen and observant eye, and his shrewd and penetrating judgment; let these things be remembered, and the invention of the Geordy Safety Lamp by Stephenson, will be regarded as an achievement of the highest merit. For several years he had been engaged, in his own rude way, in making experiments with the fire-damp in the Killingworth mine. The pitmen used to expostulate with him on these occa- sions, believing that the experiments were fraught with danger. One of the sinkers, called M'Crie, observing him holding up lighted candles to the windward of the "blower" or fissure from which the inflammable gas escaped, entreated him to desist ; but Stephenson's answer was, that " he was busy with a plan by which he could make his experiments useful for preserving men's lives." * On these occasions the miners usually got out of the way before he lit the gas. In 1815, although he was very much occupied with the busi- ness of the collieries and with the improvements in his new locomotive engine, he was also busily engaged in making experi- * Evidence given before the Committee appointed to report upon the claims of George Steplienson, relative to the invention of his Safety Lamp. Hodgson : Newcastle, 1817, p. 21 7 98 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. ments on inflammable gas in the Killingworth pit. As he him- self afterwards related to the Committee of the House of Com- mon!?,* which sat on the subject of Accidents in Mines in 1835, the nature and object of those experiments, we cannot do better than cite his own words : " I will give the Committee," said he, " my idea mechanically, because I knew nothing of chemistry at the time. Seeing the gas lighted up, and observing the velocity with which the flame passed along tiie roof, my attention was drawn to the contriving of a lamp, seeing it required a given time to pass over a given distance. My idea of making a lamp was entirely on mechani- cal principles ; and I think I shall be found quite correct in my views, from mechanical reasoning. I knew well that the heated air from the fire di'ove round a smoke-jack, and that caused me to know that I could have a power from it. I also knew very well that a steam-engine chimney was built for the purpose of causing a strong current of air through the fire. Having these facts before me, and knowing the properties of heated air, I amused myself with lighting one of the blowers in the neighbor- hood of where I had to erect machinery. I had it on fire ; the volume of flame was coming out the size of my two hands, but was not so large but that I could approach close to it. Holding my candle to the windward of the flame, I observed that it changed its color. I then got two candles, and again placed them to the windward of the flame ; it changed color still more, and became duller. I got a number of candles, and placing them all to the windward, the blower ceased to burn. This then gave me the idea, that if I could construct my lamp so as, with a chimney at the top, to cause a current, it would never fire at the top of the chimney ; and by seeing the velocity with which the ignited fire-damp passed along the roof, I considered that, if I could produce a current through tubes in a lamp equal to the •Report. — Accidents in Mines, with Evidence. (Parliamentar- Paper, 603. Session 1835.) DESCRIPTION OF THE LAMP. 99 current that I saw passing along the roof, I should make a lamp that could be taken into an explosive mixture Avithout exploding externally." Such was Mr. Stephenson's theory, when he proceeded to em- body his idea of a miner's safety lamp in a practical form. In the month of August, 1815, he requested his friend Mr. Nicholas Wood, the head viewer of the colliery, to prepare a drawing of a lamp, according to the description which he gave him. After several evenings' careful deliberations, the drawing was prepared, and it was shown to several of the head men about the works. "My first lamp," said Mr. Stephenson, describing it to the Com- mittee above referred to, "had a chimney at the top of the lamp, and a tube at the bottom, to admit the atmospheric air, or fire- damp and air, to feed the burner or combustion of the lamp. I was not aware of the precise quantity required to feed the com- bustion ; but to know what quantity was necessary, I had a slide at the bottom of the first tube in my lamp, to admit such a quan- tity of air as might eventually be found necessary to keep up the combustion." Stephenson then, accompanied by his friend Wood, went to Newcastle, and ordered a lamp to be made according to the prepared plan, by Messrs. Hogg, tinmen, at the head of the Side — a well known street in Newcastle. At the same time, they ordered a glass to be made for the lamp, at the Northum- berland Glass House, in the same town. This lamp was re- ceived from the makers on the 21st of October, and was taken to Killingworth for the purpose of immediate experiment. George Stephenson arrived home about dusk, and found Moodie, the under viewer, all anxiety, waiting for him at the cottage. The lamp was immediately filled with oil, trimmed and lighted ; and all was now ready for its trial in the jDit. But Mr. Wood had not yet arrived, and it was thought necessary that he should be present. He was known to be at Benton, about a mile distant. "Robert," said George, turning to his son, "you must go over for Wood, and tell him to come directly." It was 100 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. a dark night ; but the boy had learned implicitly to obey hia father, and he set out forthwith. On his way he had to pass through Benton churchyard, and as he cautiously approached the wicket-gate and opened it, he thought he saw a white figure standing amongst the tombs ! He started back, his heart flutter- ing, and, making the circuit of the wall of the burying-ground, he came round on the other side ; and then he saw that the sup- posed white figure had been caused by a lanthorn flashing its light upon the grave-digger, who was busy plying his vocation at that late hour. Mr. Wood was soon found, and, mounting his horse, he rode over to Killingworth at once. When Robert reached the cottage, he found his father had just left, (it was then near eleven o'clock,) and gone doAvn the shaft for the pur- pose of trying the lamp in one of the most dangerous parts of the mine! Arrived at the bottom of the shaft with the lamp, the party directed their steps towards one of the foulest galleries in the pit, where the explosive gas was issuing through a blower in the roof of the mine with a loud hissing noise. By erecting some deal boarding around that part of the gallery into which the gas was escaping, the air was thus made more foul for the purpose of the experiment. After waiting for about an hour, Moodie, whose practical experience of fire-damp in pits was greater than that of either Stephenson or Wood, was requested by them to go into the place which had thus been made foul ; and, having done so, he returned, and told them that the smell of the air was such, that if a lighted candle were now introduced an explosion must inevitably take place. He cautioned Stephenson as to the danger, both to themselves and to the pit, if the gas took fire. But Stephenson declared his confidence in the safety of his lamp, and, having lit the wick, he boldly proceeded with it towards the explosive air. The others, more timid and doubtful, hung back when they came within hearing of the blower ; and, apprehensive of the danger, they retired into a safe place, out of sight of the TRIAL OF THE LAMP. 101 lamp, which gradually disappeared with its bearer, in the re- cesses of the mine. It waa a critical moment ; and the danger was such as w'ould have tried the stoutest heart. Stephenson advancing alone, with his yet untried lamp, in the depths of those undergi'ound workings — calmly venturing his own life in the de- termination to discover a mode by which the lives ofi many might be saved and death disarmed in these fatal caverns — presented an example of intrepid nerve and manly courage, more noble even than that which, in the excitement of battle and the collec- tive impetuosity of a charge, carries a man up to the cannon's mouth. Advancing to the place of danger, and entering within the fouled air, his lighted lamp in hand, Stephenson held it firmly out, in the full current of the blower, and within a few inches of its mouth ! Thus exposed, the flame of the lamp at first in- creased, and then flickered and went out; but there was no explosion of the gas. Stephenson returned to his companions, who were still at a distance, and told them what had occurred. Having now acquired somewhat more confidence, they advanced with him to a point from which they could observe him repeat his experiment — but still at a safe distance. They saw that w4ien the lighted lamp was held within the explosive mixture, there was a great flame ; the lamp was almost full of fire ; and then it smothered out. Again returning to his companions, he relighted the lamp, and repeated the experiment. This he did several times, with the same result. At length "Wood and Moodie ventured to advance close to the fouled part of the pit ; and, in making some of the later trials, Mr. Wood himself held up the lighted lamp to the blower. Such was the result of the first experiments with the Jirst practical Miner's Safety Lamp ; and such the daring resolution of its inventor in testing its valu- able qualities. Before leaving the pit, Stephenson expressed his opinion that, by an alteration of the lamp, which he then contemplated, he 102 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. could make it bum better. This was by a change in the slide througli which the air was admitted into the lower part of the lamp, under the flame. After making some experiments on the air collected at the blower, by means of bladders which were mounted Avith tubes of various diameters, he satisfied himself that, when the tube was reduced to a certain diameter, the ex- plosion would not pass through; and he fashioned his slide accordingly, reducing the diameter of the tube until he conceived it was quite safe. In the course of about a fortnight the experi- ments were repeated in the pit, in a place purposely made foul as before. On this occasion, a large number of persons ventured to witness the experiments, which again proved perfectly success- ful. The lamp was not yet, however, so efficient as he desired. It required, he observed, to be kept very steady when burning in the inflammable gas, otherwise it was very liable to go out, in consequence, as he imagined, of the contact of the burnt air, (as he then called it,) or azotic gas, that lodged round the exterior of the flame. If the lamp was moved backwards and forwards, the azote came in contact with the flame and extinguished it. "It struck me," said he, "that if I put more tubes in, I should discharge the poisonous matter that hung round the flame, by admitting the air to its exterior part." Although, as he after- wards explained to the committee,* he had no access to scientific works, nor intercourse with scientific men, nor anything that could assist him in his inquiries on the subject, besides his own indefatigable spirit of inquiry, he contrived a rude apparatus by means of which he proceeded to test the explosive properties of the gas, and the velocity of current (for this was the direction of his inquiries) required to permit the explosion to pass through tubes of difi"erent diameters. His own description of these ex- periments, in the course of which he had several "blows up," is interesting : " I made several experiments (and Mr. Wood was with me at * House of Commons' Report and Evidence, already quoted, p. 97. TRIAL OF THE LAMP. 103 the time) as to the velocity required in tubes of different diame- ters, to prevent explosion from fire-damp. We made the mixtures in all proportions of light carburetted hydrogen with atmospheric air, in the receiver ; and we found by the expei'iments, that when a current of the most explosive mixture that we could make was forced up a tube four-tenths of an inch in diameter, the necessary current was nine inches in a second to prevent its coming down that tube. These experiments were repeated several times. We had two or three blows up in making the experiments, by the flame getting down into the receiver, though we had a piece of very fine wire gauze put at the bottom of the pipe, between the receiver and the pipe through which we were forcing the current. In one of these experiments I was watching the flame in the tube, my son was tidving the vibrations of the pendulum of the clock, and Mr. Wood was attending to give me the column of water as I called for it, to keep the current up to a certain point. As I saw the flame descending in the tube, I called for more water, and he unfortunately turned the cock the wrong way ; the current ceased, the flame went down the tube, and all our imple- ments were blown to pieces, whicli at the time we were not very well able to rejjlace." The explosion of this glass receiver, which had been borrowed from the stores of the Philosophical Society at Newcastle, for the purpose of making the experiments, caused the greatest possible dismay amongst the party ; and they dreaded to inform ]Mr. Turner, the Secretary, of the calamity which had occurred. Fortunately none of the experimenters were injured by the explosion. Mr. Stephenson followed up those exi^eriments by others of a similar kind, with the view of ascertaining whether oi-dinary flame would pass through tubes of a small diameter ; and with this object he filed off the barrels of several small keys. Placing these together, he held them perpendicularly over a strong flame, and ascertained that it did not pass upward. This served as 104 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. further proof to his mind of the soundness of the principle he was pursuing. In order to correct the defect of his first lamp, Mr. Stephenson accordingly resolved to alter it so as to admit the air to the flame by several tubes of reduced diameter, instead of by one tube. He inferred that a sufficient quantity of air would thus be intro- duced into the lamp for the purposes of combustion, whilst the smallness of the apertures would still prevent the explosion passing downwards — and at the same time, the " burnt air" (the cause, in his opinion, of the lamp going out) would be more effectually dislodged. He accordingly took the lamp to the shop of Mr. Matthews, a tinman in Newcastle, and had it altered so that the air was admitted by three small tubes inserted in the bottom of the lamp, the openings of which were placed on the outside of the burner, instead of having (as in the original lamp) one tube opening directly under the flame. This second or altered lamp was tried in the Killingworth pit on the fourth of November, and was found to burn better than the first lamp, and to be perfectly safe. But as it did not yet come up entirely to the inventor's expectations, he jjroceeded to contrive a third lamp, in which he proposed to surround the oil vessel with a number of capillary tubes. Then it struck him, that if he cut off the middle of the tubes, or made holes in metal plates, placed at a distance from each other equal to the length of the tubes, the air would get in better, and the effect in pre- venting the communication of explosion would be the same. " I thought," he says, " that the air would have easier access, and the effect might be the same if I cut away the middle of the tubes ; and that the flame, if it passed through the apertures at top, would not communicate the explosion to the hydrogen beyond the plate below. I constructed a lamp upon this principle, and found that, the holes having been punched very small, the flame never passed even through the first plate." * * A Description of the Safety Lamp, invented by George Stephenson, and now in U8« In the Killingworth Colliery. London : Baldwin, Craddoek and Joy, 1817, p. 8. * HIS THIRD LAMP. 105 Stephenson was encouraged to persevere in the completion of his safety lamp, by the occurrence of several fatal accidents about this time in the Killingworth pit. On the 9th of November, a boy was killed by a blast in the A pit, at the very place where Stephenson had made the experiments with his first lamp ; and, when told of the accident, he observed that if the boy had been provided with his lamp, his life would have been saved. The third safety lamp, as finally designed by Stephenson, was in the hands of the manufacturer on the 24tli of November, before he had heard of Sir Humphry Davy's expei'iments, or of the lamp which that gentleman proposed to construct. And this third lamp was finished, and tried in the Killingworth pit, on the 30th of the same month. On the 5th of December, Stephenson exhibited it before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle ; and shortly after it came into practical use in the Killingworth collieries. To this day it is in regular use there, under the name of the " Geordy Lamp," as contradistinguished from the " Davy ; " and the Killingworth pitmen have expressed to the writer their decided preference for the " Geordy." It is certainly a strong testimony in its favor, that no accident is known to have arisen from its use, since it was first introduced into the Killingworth mines. With the addition of the wire-gauze over the glass cylinder, Mr. Stephenson expressed his conviction, before the committee above referred to, that, so altered, his lamp is thefulness and mental vigor of a man in his prime. Hale and hearty, full of interesting reminiscences of the past, he yet entered with 154 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. interest into the life of the present, and displayed a warm sym- pathy for all current projects calculated to render the lives of men happier. Still sound in health, his eye had not lost its bril- liancy, nor his cheek its color; and tliere was an elasticity in his step which younger men might have envied. His vigorous judg- ment and genuine native shrewdness, together with that coura- geous strength and tenacity of purpose which made him, when once convinced, stand by the railway project upon which he had set his heart, when all the world called him schemer and fool, had not yet departed from him ; and he could now afford to crack a lively joke at the prejudiced blindness of those who had so long made him the subject of their ridicule. Pointing to a fine prospect from his drawing-room window, extending to the wooded knolls on the further side of the valley, the numerous full-grown trees within sight, gay in all the gorgeous livery of autumn, Mr. Pease observed: — "What changes happen in a single lifetime ! Look at those fine old trees ; every one of them has been planted by m)' own hand. When I was a boy I was fond of planting, and my father indulged me in my pastime. I went about with a spade in my hand, planting trees everywhere as far as you can see : they grew wliilst I slept ; and now see what a goodly array they make! Ay," continued he, "but Railways are a far more extraordinary growth even than these. They have grown up not only since I was a boy, but since I became a man. When I started the Stockton and Dar- lington Railway, some five and thirty years since, I was already fifty years old. Nobody could then have dreamt what railways would have grown to, within one man's lifetime." In projecting a railway from Witton Colliery, a few miles above Darlington, to Stockton, in the year 1817, Edward Pease at first stood almost alone. Long before this railway was pro- jected — as early as the year 1768 — the scheme of a canal had been discussed, and Brindley, the engineer, who had at one period of his life worked in the neighborhood as a laborer, was THE STOCKTON AND DARLINGTON LINE. 155 consulted. The project, however, proceeded no further, prob- ably from want of support. In 1812, Mr. Rennie, the engineer, was employed to make a survey of a tramroad. But the com- mercial distress which then prevailed in the county of Durham prevented the project from ripening to maturity. The necessity for finding an outlet and new markets for the Bishop Aukland coals continued, however, to be felt. What was at first contem- plated by Mr. Pease, was merely the means of effecting land sales of coal at the stations along the proposed railway. The shipment of coal from the Tees was not taken into account as a source of profit. It was not expected that coals could be led there to advantage, or that more than 10,000 tons could be dis- posed of at Stockton, and those merely for the purpose of bal- lasting ships disembarking goods at that port. The conveyance of passengers was not even dreamt of. In getting up a company for the purpose of surveying and forming a railway, Mr. Pease had great difficulties to contend with. The people of the neighborhood spoke of it as a ridicu- lous undertaking, and predicted that it would be the ruin of all who had to do with it. Even those who were most interested in the opening out of new markets for the vend of their coals, were indifferent, if not actually hostile. The Stockton merchants and ship-owners, whom the formation of a railway was calculated to benefit so greatly, gave the project no support ; and not twenty shares were subscribed for in the whole town. Mr. Pease never- theless persevered Avith the formation of a company ; and he induced many of his friends and relations to subscribe for shares. The Richardsons and Backhouses, members, like himselfj of the Society of Friends, influenced by his persuasion, united them- selves with him ; and so many of the same denomination (hav- ing great confidence in these influential Darlington names) followed their example and subscribed for shares, that the rail- way subsequently obtained the designation, which it still enjoys, of " The Quakers' Line." 156 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. The engineer first employed to make a survey of the tramroad, was a Mr. Overton, who had had considerable experience in the formation of similar roads in Wales. The necessary preliminary steps were taken in the year 1818 to apply for an Act to author- ize the construction of a tramroad from Witton to Stockton. The measure was, however, strongly opposed by the Duke of Cleveland, because the proposed line passed near to one of his fox covers ; and, having considerable parliamentary influence, he succeeded in throwing out the bill by a majority of only thirteen — above one hundred members voting in support of the measure. A nobleman said, when he heard of the division, "Well, if the Quakers in these times, when nobody knows anything about rail- ways, can raise up such a phalanx as they have done on this occasion, I should recommend the county gentlemen to be very wary how they oppose them." A new survey was then made, avoiding the Duke's fox cover ; and in 1819 a renewed application was made to Parliament for an Act. But George III dying in January, 1820, while Parlia- ment was still sitting, there was a dissolution, and the bill was necessarily suspended. The promoters, however, did not lose sight of their project. They had now spent a considerable sum of money in surveys and legal and parliamentary expenses, and were determined to proceed, though they were still unable to en- list the active support of the inhabitants of the districts proposed to be served by the railway. As an instance of the opposition on the part of the local author- ities, which the promoters had to encounter, we may mention that, in 1819, while the bill Avas before Parliament, the road trustees, perhaps secretly fearing the success of the railway, which openly they denied, got up an alarm, predicting the total and immediate ruin of the turnpike road trusts in event of the bill becoming law. On this Mr. Pease published a notice inti- mating that if any of the creditors or mortgagees of the road between Darhngton and West Aukland Were apprehensive that MODEST ANTICIPATIONS. 157 the proposed rail or tramway would be prejudicial to their in- terests, the promoters would, through their solicitors, (Raisbeck and Mewburn,) purchase their securities at the price originally paid for them. This measure had the salutary effect of quieting the road interests for a season, though they afterwards displayed an active hostility to the railway when it came to be formed. The energy of Edward Pease, backed by the support of his Quaker friends, enabled him to hold the company together, to raise the requisite preliminary funds from time to time for the purpose of prosecuting the undertaking, and eventually to over- come the opposition raised against the measure in Parhament. The bill at length passed ; and the royal assent was given to the first Stockton and DarUngton Railway act, on the 19th of April, 1821. The preamble of this Act recites, that "the making and main- taining of a Railway or Tramroad, for the passage of wagons and other carriages" from Stockton to Witton Park Colliery (by DarUngton), "will be of great public utility, by faciUtating the conveyance of coal, iron, lime, corn, and other commodities," between the places mentioned. The projectors of the hne did not originally contemplate the employment of locomotives ; for in the Act they provide for the making and maintaining of the tramroads for the passage upon them "of wagons and other car- riao-es," '■^with men and horses or otherwise," and a further clause made provision as to the damages which might be done in the course of traffic by the "wagoners." The public were to be free "to use, with horses, cattle and carriages," the roads formed by the company, on payment of the authorized rates, "between the hours of seven in the morning and six in the evening," during the winter months ; "between six in the morning and eight in the evening," in two of the spring and autumn months each ; and "between five in the morning and ten in the evening," in the high summer months of INIay, June, July and August. 158 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPIIENSOISr. From this it Avill be obvious that the projectors of this line had themselves at first no very large conceptions as to the scope of their project. A public locomotive railway was as yet a new and untried thing ; and the Darlington men merely proposed, by means of their intended road, to provide a more facile mode of transporting their coals and merchandise to market. Although the locomotive had been working for years success- %lly at Killingworth, its merits do not seem to have been fairly estimated, even in the locality itself; and it was still regarded rather in the light of a mechanical curiositj^, than as the vital force of the railway system. Thomas Gray, of Nottingham, was a much more sanguine and speculative man. He was not a mechanic nor an inventor, nor a coal owner, but an enthusiastic believer in the wonderful powers of the railroad system. Being a native of Leeds, he had, when a boy, seen Blenkinsop's locomotive at work on the Middle- ton cogged railroad ; and from an early period he seems to have entertained almost as sanguine views on the subject as Sir Rich- ard Phillips himself. It would appear that Gray was residing in Brussels in 1816, when the project of a canal from Charleroi, for the purpose of connecting Holland with the mining districts of Belgium, was the subject of discussion ; and, in conversation with Mr. John Cockerill and others, he took the opportunity of advocating the superior advantages of a railway. For some years after, he pondered the subject more carefully, and at length became fully possessed by the grand idea on which other minds Were now at work. He occupied himself for some time with the preparation of a pamphlet on the subject. He shut himself up in his room secluded from his wife and relations, declining to give them any information on the subject of his mysterious studies, beyond the assurance that his scheme " would revolution- ize the whole face of the material world, and of society." * * The Railway System and its Author, Thomas Gray, now of Exeter. A Letter to Sir Robert Peel. By Thomas Wilson. 1845. In this very eloquent and generous tribute to THOMAS GRAY. 159 In 1820, Mr. Gray published the result of his studies in liis " Observations on a General Iron Railway,"! iu which, Avith great cogency, he urged the superiority of a locomotive railway over common roads and canals, pointing out, at the same time, the advantages of this mode of conveyance for merchandise and persons, to all classes of the community. That Mr. Gray had obtained his idea from Blenkinsop's engine and road, is obvious from the accurate engraving which he gives in his book of the cog-wheeled engine then traveling upon the Middleton cogged raih'oad. The treatise seems to have met with a ready sale ; for we find that, two years after, it had already passed into a fourth edition. In 1822, Mi-. Gray added to the book a diagram, showing a number of suggested lines of railway, connecting the principal towns of England, and another in like manner connect- ing the principal towns of Ireland. In his first edition, Mr. Gray suggested the propriety of making a railway between Manchester and Liverpool, "which," he observed, "Avould employ many thou- sands of the distressed population" of Lancashire. The publication of this essay must have had the effect of bringing the subject of railway extension more prominently under the notice of the public than it had been brought before. Although little able to afford it. Gray also pressed his favorite project of a general iron road on the attention of public men — the memory of his friend, Mr. Wilson has endeavored to make it appear that Thomas Gray was the inventor, originator, creator and founder of the Railway Locomotive Sys- tem, forgetting that railways had been at work before Mr. Gray was born, and that the locomotive had been invented while he was yet a boy. The " true founder of the railway system " certainly was not Thomas Gray, though he wrote a clever and far-seeing treat- ise about railways. The true founder of the railway system was the man who invented such a locomotive as made railway locomotion practicable and profitable. And this had been done long before Mr. Gray turned his attention to the subject. t Observations on a General Iron Railway (with Plates and Maps illustrative of the plan), showing its great superiority, by the general introduction of mechanic power, over aU the present methods of conveyance by turnpike roads and canals ; and claiming the particular attention of merchants, manufacturers, farmers, and indeed every class of society. London : Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, 1820. 160 LIFE OF GEOKGE STEPHENSOX. mayors, members of Parliament and prime ministers. He sent memorials to Lord Sidmouth in 1820, and to the Lord Mayor and Corporation of London in 1821. In 1822, he addressed the Earl of Liverpool, Sir Robert Peel, and others, urging the great national importance of his system. La the year following, he petitioned the ministers of state to the same effect. He was so pertinacious, that public men pronounced him to be a " bore," and in the town of Nottingham, where he then hved, those who knew him declared him to be "cracked." William Howitt, who frequently met Gray at that time, has published a Hvely portraiture* of this indefatigable and enthusi- astic projector, who seized all men by the button, and would not let them go until he had unraveled to them liis wonderful scheme. With Thomas Gray, "begin where you would, on whatever sub- ject — the weather, the news, the political movement or event of the day — it would not be many minutes before you would be enveloped with steam, and listening to a harangue on the prac- ticability and immense advantages, to the nation and to every man in it, of ' a general iron railway.' "f While Thomas Gray was thus agitating the general adoption of railways, George Stephenson was doing much more — he was making railways, and building efficient locomotives with which * People's Journal, August 1st, 1846. Art. "A word for Thomas Gray, the Author of the General Railway System." t Thomas Gray never got beyond his idea of Blenkinsop's cogged wheel and cogged rail. Probably he was not aware that Blackctt and Stephenson had both, as early as 1814, demonstrated the cogs to be not only unnecessarj*, but positive impediments to the work- ing of the locomotive engine through the jolting and friction which they caused. Not- withstanding the triumphant success of the smooth-wheeled locomotive, and the smooth rail, on the Liverpool and Manchester line, in 1830, we find Thomas Gray in the follow- ing year (Mechanics' Magazine, May 14th, 1831), declaring it to be an expensive blunder, lie urged the adoption of a greased road, with his favorite device of cog-rails and racks placed outside the smooth rails. Had the advice of this '• founder of the railway system," as his friends have styled him, been adopted, the modern railway system would have been simply impracticable. But Thomas Gr.ay himself never claimed to be the inventor or discoverer of railways. He labored under the disadvantage of not being a mechanic. His engraving of a railway train, prefixed to his book, shows that, if once set in motion, it could not have been pulled up without going to pieces. THE HETTON RAILWAY. 161 to work them. Although he had not lost faith in the powers of the locomotive, he had now waited for so many years without observing any prospect of their extended use, that his old idea of removing his skill and small capital to the United States seems for a time to have revived. Before becoming a sleeping partner in a small foundry at Forth Banks in Newcastle, managed by Mr. John Burrell, he had thrown out the suggestion that it would be a good speculation for them to emigrate to North America, and introduce steam-boats upon the great inland lakes. The first steamers were then plying upon the Tyne before his eyes : and he saw in them the germ of a great revolution in navigation. It occurred to him that North America presented the finest field on which to try their wonderful powers. He was an engineer, and Mr. Burrell was an ii-on-founder ; and, between them, he thought they could strike out a path to success in the mighty West. Fortunately, this remained a mere speculation, so far as Mr. Stephenson was concerned ; and it was left to others to do what he had dreamt of achievmg. After all his patient waiting, his skill, industry, and perseverance were at length about to beai- fruit. In 1819, the owners of the Hetton Colliery, in the county of Durham, determined to have their wagon-way altered into a locomotive railroad. The result of the working of the Killing- worth Railway had been so satisfactory that they resolved to adopt the same system. One reason why an experiment so long continued and so successfully as that at Killingworth should have been so slow in producing results, perhaps was, that to lay down a railway and furnish it with locomotives, or fixed engines where necessary, required a very large capital, beyond the means of ordinary coal-owners, whilst the small amount of interest felt in railways by the general public, and the supposed impracticability of working them to a profit, as yet prevented the ordinary capi- talists from venturing their money in the promotion of such undertakings. The Hetton Coal Company was, however, pos- 11 162 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPUENSOX. sessed of adequate means ; and the local reputation of the Kil- lingworth engine-wright pointed him out as the man best calcu- lated to lay out their line and suj^erintend their works. They accordingly invited him to act as the engineer of tlie proposed railway. Being in the service of the Killingworth Company, Mr. Stephenson felt it necessary to obtain their permission to enter upon this new work. This was at once granted. The best feeling existed between him and his employers ; and they regarded it as a compliment that their colliery engineer should be selected for a work so important as the laying down of the Hetton Railway, which was to be the longest locomotive line that had, up to that time, been constructed in the neighborhood. !Mr. Stephenson accepted the appointment, his brother Robert acting as resident engineer, and personally superintending the execution of the works. The Hetton Railway extended from the Hetton Collieiy, sit- uated about two miles south of Houghton-le-Spring, in the county of Durham, to the shipping-place on the banks of the Wear, near Sunderland. Its length was about eight miles ; and in its com-se it crossed "Wai'den Law, one of the highest hills in the district. The character of the country forbade the construction of a flat line, or one of comparatively easy gradients, except by the ex- penditure of a much larger capital than was placed at JNIr. Ste- phenson's command. Heavy works could not be executed : it was, therefore, necessary to form the line with but little deviation from the natural conformation of the district which it traversed, and also to adapt the mechanical methods employed for the work- ing of the railway to the character of the gi'adients, which in some places were necessarily heavy. Although Mr. Stephenson had, with every step made towards its increased utility, become more and more identified with the success of the locomotive engine, he did not allow his enthusiasm to carry him away into costly mistakes. He carefully drew the line between the cases in which tho locomotive could be usefully OPENING OF THE HETTON RAILWAY. 163 employed, and those in which stationary engines were calculated to be more economical. This led him, as in the instance of the Hetton Railway, to execute lines tlu'ough and over rough coun- tries, where gradients within the powers of the locomotive en- gine of that day could not be secured, employing in their stead stationaiy engines where locomotives were not jDracticable. In the present case, this course was adopted by him most success- fully. On the origmal Hetton line, there were five self-acting inclines — the full wagons drawing the empty ones up — and two inclines worked by fixed reciprocating engines of sixty-horse power each. The locomotive traveling engine, or "the iron- horse," as the people of the neighborhood then styled it, did the rest. On the day of the opening of the Hetton Railway, the 18th of November, 1822, crowds of spectators assembled from all parts to witness the first operations of this ingenious and powerful machinery, which was entirely successful. On that day, five of Stephenson's locomotives were at work upon the railway, under the direction of his brother Robert ; and the first shipment of coal was then made by the Hetton Company, at their new staiths on the Wear. The speed at wliich the locomotives traveled was about four miles an hour, and each engine dragged after it a train of seventeen wagons, weighing about sixty-four tons. Thus another important practical step was effected towards the more general adoption of the railway system. CHAPTER XV. FIRST SURVEY OF THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY. Mr. James's business as a land-agent led liim into the neigh- borhood of Liverpool in the year 1821. The formation of a tramroad between Liverpool and Manchester was at that time the subject of some speculation in both toAvns, but especially at Liverpool. ]Mr. James, who was quick to hear of all such pro- jects, went over to Liverpool to have an interview with the pro- moters. Day by day the necessity was becoming more urgent for some improved mode of transporting goods inland to the manufac- turing districts. The rapidity of increase in the trade, between Liverpool and Manchester especially, was something marvelous. In nine years, the quantity of raw cotton sent from one town to the other had increased by 50,000,000 pounds weight ; and all other raw materials had increased in proportion. Around Man- chester, hamlets had expanded into towns, and towns had as- sumed the dimensions of cities, the inhabitants of which were for the most part dependent for their means of subsistence upon the regularity of the supply of cotton from Liverpool. Up to this time the Duke of Bridgewater's Canal and the Irwell and Mer- sey navigation had principally supplied the means of transport ; but the enormously increasing demands of the trade outstripped their tardy efforts. Possessing a monopoly of the traffic, and having no rivals to fear, the canal managers were most dictatorial in the treatment of their customers. Perhaps, however, the (164) A TRAMROAD PROJECTED. 165 canal comijanles did all that could be done under the circum- stances, and had already fully taxed the resources of the naviga- tion. The immense mass of goods to be conveyed had simply outgrown all their a2ipliances of wharves, boats and horses. Cotton lay at Liverpool for weeks together, waiting to be re- moved ; and it occupied a longer time to transport the cargoes from Liverpool to Manchester than it had done to bring them across the Atlantic from the United States to England. Carts and wagons were tried ; but these proved altogether insufficient. Sometimes manufacturing operations had to be suspended alto- gether ; and durmg a frost, when the canals were frozen up, the communication was entirely stopped. The consequences were often disastrous, alike to operatives, merchants and manufactur- ers. The same difficulty was experienced in the conveyance of manufactured goods from Manchester to Liverpool for export. Mr. Huskisson, in the House of Commons, referring to these ruinous delays, truly observed that "cotton was detained a fort- night at Liverpool, while the Manchester manufacturers were obliged to suspend their labors, and goods manufactured at Man- chester, for foreign markets, could not be transmitted in time, in consequence of the tardy conveyance." The Liverpool merchants and the Manchester manufacturers were therefore prepared to welcome any new mode of transit which would relieve them of the losses arising from these con- stant interruptions to their commercial operations. The scheme of a tramroad was, however, so new to them, that it is not sur- prising they should have hesitated before committing themselves fiilly to it. Mr. Sandars, an influential Liverpool merchant, was amongst the first to broach the subject of a tramroad or railway. He himself had suffered in his business, in common with many other merchants, from the insufficiency of the existing modes of communication, and was ready to give due consideration to any plan presenting elements of practical efficiency, which proposed a remedy for the generally admitted grievance. The first idea 166 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. •was a tramroad, to be worked by horses, though this gradually gave way to a larger and more efficient plan. Mr. James met INIi-. Sandars frequently to discuss the subject ; and about the month of June, 1821, a party, consisting of Mr. Sandars, Mr. James, IMr. Francis Giles and ]\Ii-. Padley, (Mr. James's brother- in-law, a sui-yeyor,) went out and inspected the ground in the neighborhood of Liverpool, in order to ascertain at what point a tramroad could be best brought into the town. They first exam- ined the land about Easton Hill with tliis object. Mr. James then intrusted his brother-in-law (Padley) to proceed with a trial survey. Robert Stephenson came over from Newcastle to assist him, and at the same time to obtain some experience in railway leveling. The people in the neighborhood of Easton HiU observing the extraordinary proceedings going on with chains and theodolite, having also heard the rumor which was now abroad, and fearinor that their farms and gai'dens would be damaged by the intended tramroad, rose against the surveyors, and compelled them to de- sist. IMr. Padley's assistant was apprehended, forcibly dragged off the ground, and was only liberated on giving his solemn promise never to return there on a similar business. Finding it impossible to proceed with any survey in the neighborhood of Liverpool, in consequence of this opposition on the jiart of. the inhabitants, Mr. Sandars suggested that the party should proceed to Prescot, and make a trial survey there. He was under the impression that the Mersey might be connected by tramway with Manchester without at all touching the town of Liverpool ; and the surveyors w^ere directed to ascertain by the levels whether this could be done. Li order to carry out this survey in a proper manner, he and JMi". Moss guaranteed to pay IMr. James, who was to superintend it, at the rate of 10/. a mile, or about 300/. for the entire survey between the Mersey and Manchestei. They proceeded accordingly with the survey near Prescot, meet- ing with great opposition from the land-owners and farmers TKAMROAD SURVEY. 167 along the proposed line of road, who di'ove them off their grounds, and subjected them to all manner of insults. The next surveying station was at Newton-in-the- Willows, where the surveyors took a temporary oflice in the Horse and Jockey public-house. While they were proceeding with their survey at this place, Mr. Legh, of Legh Park, a large land- owner, made himself acquainted with their proceedings. He was the first land-owner of the neighborhood who declared him- self favorable to the promotion of a tramroad, or who gave the projectors the slightest encouragement to proceed. All the rest were indifferent or hostile. Justice Bourne ordered his men to be constantly on the Avatch to turn back the surveyors wherever met with in the fields. The farmers and laborers were only too ready to follow up his instructions. Men were stationed at the field gates with pitchforks, and sometimes with guns, to drive them back. At St. Helen's, one of the chainmen was laid hold of by a mob of colliers, and threatened to be hurled down a coal- pit. A number of men, women and children, collected and ran after the surveyors wherever they made their appearance, bawl- ino; nicknames and throwing stones at them. As one of the chain- men was climbing over a gate one day, a laborer made at him with a pitchfork, and ran it through his clothes into his back ; other watchers running up, the chainman, who was more stunned than hurt, took to his heels and fled. But the theodolite most excited the fury of the natives, who concentrated on the man who carried it, their fiercest execrations and their most offensive nicknames. A powerful fellow, a noted bruiser, was hired by the surveyors to carry the instrument, with a view to its protection against all assailants ; but one day an equally powerful fellow, a St. Helen's collier, who was the cock of the walk in his neighborhood, made up to the theodolite can'ier to wrest it from him by sheer force. A battle took place, the collier was soundly pummeled, the na- 168 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHEXSOX. fives poured in volleys of stones upon the surveyors and their instruments, and the theodolite was smashed to pieces. It may readily be conceived that a survey made in the face of such opposition would necessarily be very incomplete ; but the surveyors did their best, and when they found they could proceed no further at St. Helen's, they proceeded round Chat Moss to Hiliffe to try the ground there. Their proceedings at that place excited the same degree of surprise amongst the villagers, who turned out in a body to watch them, and appeared perfectly be^dldered. The Moss was so soft, in consequence of the wet- ness of the season, that it was impossible to enter upon it ; and the party very shortly retraced their steps, and stationed them- selves for a short time at the Three Swans, at Eardley. There they began an intermediate sui'vey of a branch tramroad be- tween St. Helen's and the Mersey ; and after about a month's labor, when the wet weather set in, the survey was suspended until the following spring. In the meantime public meetings had been got up by Mr. Sandars in several of the principal towns of the district, on the subject of the proposed tramway. One was held in the Ex- change at Liverpool, and another in the George Hotel, "Warring- ton, at which ^Mi". Sandars, JMr. Moss and Mr. James appeared as the advocates of the measure, which, however, did not as yet meet with any degree of general support. But the subject was thus brought prominently under notice, and only wanted time to enable it to work its way into public estimation. About the middle of the year 1821, Mr. James, having heard of Stephenson's engines, which were reported to him as being more efficient than any locomotives that had yet been constructed, determined to go down to Killingworth to inspect them in person. He was not so fortunate as to meet Mr. Stephenson on that occa- sion ; but he examined his locomotive at work, and was very much struck by its power and efficiency. He saw at a glance the magnificent uses to which it might be applied. '■ Here," said he, MR. JAMES VISITS KILLINQWORTH. 169 "is an engine that will, before long, effect a complete revolution in society." Returning to Moreton-in-the-Marsli, he wrote to Mr. Losh, (Stephenson's partner in the patent,) expressing his admiration of the Killingworth engine. "It is," said he, "the greatest wonder of the age, and the forerunner, as I firmly be- lieve, of the most important changes in the internal communica- tions of the kingdom." Mr. Losh invited him again to visit Kil- lingworth, for the purpose of having an interview with Mr. Stephenson on the subject of the locomotive. Accordingly, in September of the same year, accompanied by his two sons, he met Mr. Losh at Newcastle ; they proceeded together to Killing- worth, where Mr. Stephenson met them ; and taking them to where the locomotive was working, he invited them to mount. The uncouth and extraordinary appearance of the machine, as it came snorting along, was somewhat alarming to the youths, who expressed their fears lest it should burst ; and they were with some difficulty induced to mount. The locomotive went through its usual performances, dragging a heavy load of coal wagons at about six miles an hour with ap- parent ease, at which Mi-. James expressed his extreme satis- faction, and declared to Mr. Losh his opinion that Stephenson "was the greatest practical genius of the age," and that "if he developed the full powers of that engine, (the locomotive,) his fame in the world would rank equal to that of Watt." Mr. James, who had long been an advocate of the locomotive sys- tem, was confirmed in his views by the performances of the Kil- lingworth engine ; and informing Stephenson and Losh of the survey of the proposed tramroad between Livei-pool and Man- chester, upon which he had been engaged, he did not hesitate to state that he would henceforward advocate the adoption of a loco- motive railroad instead of the tramroad which had originally been proposed. As ]\Ir. James's influence amongst persons of influence was considerable, and he was paiticulai'ly identified with the more 170 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. important railway projects of the clay, Steplienson and Losli were naturally desirous of enlisting his good services on behalf of their patent locomotive. As yet it had proved comparatively unproductive. The Iletton Railway was the only line, in addi- tion to the Killingworth, on which they had then a prospect of getting their engines inti'oduced. Although Stephenson had vir- tually solved the problem of the locomotive, and demonstrated its profitable employment as a tractive power on railroads, neither he nor ]\Ii\ Losh were able to write up and advocate the inven- tion so as to insure its more extensive adoption. This they be- lieved Mr. James might be able effectually to do for them. AVith this object they proposed to give him an interest in their patent, in exchange for his services in this way ; and accordingly, by a deed, dated 1st September, 1821, they assigned to Mr. James one fourth of the profits which might be derived from the use of their patent locomotive for railroads on any line which might be constructed south of a line drawn across England from Liverpool to Hull, the deed setting forth that this assignment of profits was made in consideration of Mr. James giving "his recommendation and best assistance" towards the use of the patent locomotive on all such railways. Mr. James's first recommendation did not prove successful. He endeavored to introduce the locomotive upon the Moreton- on-jNIarsh Railway ; but Mr. Rastrick, who was the engineer of the line, was so much opposed to its use that Mr. James failed in carrying his point, and he consequently gave up all further connection wath that company. In the following year (1822) he wrote to Mr. Losh from Boswell Court, as to a locomotive which he wished to get from Mr. Stephenson for the working of the Croydon and Merstham Railroad, but against which Mr. Ste- phenson had dissuaded him, as the cast-iron plates were not cal- culated to bear the weight of the engine, and the result could only bring the locomotive into disrepute. Mr. James was, how- ever, very anxious to have the engine introduced on some rail- SUKVEY CONTINUED. 171 way in the south of England. "I can appreciate," he said, "IMr. Stephenson's objections to use his engine on this defective road ; but years will elapse, and the patent may expire, before we can get a new road in the south for his engine if this plan is not em- braced." Mr. James at the same time intimated that he was busy with the plans and sections of the Liverpool line, which would furnish a proper opportunity for the introduction of the engine "for the conveyance of passengers and light goods with the utmost dispatch" between that town and Manchester. By the following year, he added, he hoped to have four bills before Parliament for railroads 150 miles in length, the surveys of which were completed. The survey of the Liverpool and INIanchester line was pro- ceeded with early in 1822, Mr. Padley conducting the work under the superintendence of Mi-. Francis Giles. The people of the locality still offered every possible resistance to their pro- ceedings ; and the surveyors were, on several occasions, driven off the ground by force. They were under the necessity of pro- ceeding Avith their work in the early dawn, before the inhabitants were astir. Chat Moss was surveyed by placing hurdles on the bog ; and thus, with great difficulty, a very imperfect survey of the proposed line was at length effected. Mv. James, however, failed to produce the plans and estimates for the session of 1823 ; but he sent in to the promoters of the line his preliminary report on the survey of investigation, in which he stated " that from their commencement the works may be completed in eighteen months, on a capital not exceeding 100,000/., but the parliamentary survey and estimates will state the sums at which contractors will be found to execute the work." Mr. James was repeatedly pressed to supply the necessary plans and estimates ; but though he made many promises, he failed to perform any of them. And thus the parhamentary session of 1824 was also lost. Indeed, the tune seems to have been not yet fully come for 172 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the adoption of the railway. The projectors found that the line, as laid out, would provoke a powerful opposition in Parliament ; and the local support which they had received was not such as to justify them in proceeding in the face of such opposition. The project therefore slept for a time, but it was not lost sight of. Mr. Sandars continued to agitate the question, and he shortly found the number of his supporters was such as to enable him again to take the field with a better prospect of success. CHAPTER XVI. MR. STEPHENSON APPOINTED ENGINEER OF TILE STOCKTON AND DARLINGTON RAILWAY. Some time elapsed after the passing of the Act authorizing the construction of the Stockton and Darlington Raihvay, before anj active steps were taken to carry it into effect. Doubts had been raised whether the line was the best that could be adopted for the district ; and the subscribers generally were not so san- guine about their undertaking as to induce them to press on the formation of the railway. One day, about the end of the year 1821, two strangers knocked at the door of ]Mi\ Pease's house in Darlington ; and the message was brought to him that some persons from Killing- worth wanted to speak with him. They wei-e invited in, on which one of the visitors introduced himself as Nicholas Wood, viewer at Killingworth, and then, turnmg to his companion, he introduced him to Mr. Pease as George Stephenson, of the same place. Mr. Stephenson came forward and handed to Mr. Pease a letter from ISIr. Lambert, the manager at Killingworth, in which it was stated that the bearer was the engine-wright at the pits, that he had had experience in the laying out of rail- ways and had given satisfaction to his employers, and that he would therefore recommend him to the notice of 'Mr. Pease if he stood in need of the services of such a person. Mr. Pease entered into conversation with hi^ visitors, and soon (173) 174 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. ascertained the object of their errand. Steplienson had heard of the passing of the Stockton and Darlington Act, and desiring to increase his railway experience, and also to employ in some larger field the pi-actical knowledge he had already gained, he determined to visit JVIr. Pease, the known projector of the under- taking, with the view of being employed to carry it out. He had brought with him his friend Nicholas Wood, for the purpose at the same time of relieving his diffidence and supporting his application. ]VIr. Pease liked the appearance of his visitors. " There was," as he afterwards remarked in speaking of Stephenson, "such an honest, sensible look about him, and he seemed so modest and unpretending. He spoke in the strong Northumbrian dialect of his district, and described himself as 'only the engine- wright at KiUingworth ; that's what he was.' " Mr. Pease very soon saw that his visitor was the man for his purpose. The whole plans of the railway being still in an unde- termined state, IMi-. Pease was glad to have the opportunity of gathering from Mr. Stephenson the results of his experience. The latter strongly recommended a railway in preference to a tramroad, in which JMr. Pease was disposed to concur with him. The conversation next turned on the tractive power which the company intended to employ, and Mr. Pease said that they had based their whole calculations on the employment of horse power. "I was so satisfied," said he afterwards, "that a horse upon an iron road would draw ten tons for one ton on a common road, that I felt sure that before long the railway would become the King's Highway." But Mr. Pease was scarcely prepared for the bold assertion made by his visitor, that the locomotive engine with which he had been working the KilUng worth Railway for many years past, was worth fifty horses, and that engines made after a sim- ilar plan would yet entirely supersede all horse power upon rail- roads. ]VIi\ Stephenson was daily becoming more positive as to VISIT TO MR. PEASE. 175 the superiority of his locomotive ; and on this, as on all subse- quent occasions, he strongly urged Mr. Pease to adopt it. "Come over to Killingworth," said he, "and see Avhat my Blutcher can do ; seeing is believing, sir." And Mr. Pease promised that on some early day he would go over to Killing- worth with his friend Thomas Richardson, and take a look at this wonderful machine that was to supersede horses. On Mr. Pease referring to the difficulties and the opposition which the projectors of the railway had had to encounter, and the obstacles which still lay in their way, Stepheiison said to him, "I think, sir, I have some knowledge of craniology, and from what I see of your head, I feel sure that if you will fairly buckle to this railway, you are the man successfully to carry it through." "I think so too," rejoined Mr. Pease; "and I may observe to thee, that if thou succeed in making this a good rail- way, thou may consider thy fortune as good as made." He added that all they Avould require at present was an estimate of the cost of resurveying the line, with the direction of which the company was not quite satisfied ; and as they had already paid away several hundred pounds, and found themselves very little advanced, Mr. Pease asked that this new survey should be done at as little expense as possible. This Stephenson readily assented to ; and after Mr. Pease had pledged himself to bring his appli- cation for the appointment of engineer before the Directors on an early day, and to support it with his influence, the two visitors prepared to take their leave, informing Mr. Pease that they in- tended to return as they had come, "by nip ;" that is, they would obtain a sort of smuggled lift on the stage coach, by tipping Jehu — for in those days the stage coachmen were wont to regai'd all casual roadside passengers as their special perquisite. And thus the two contrived io make a cheap journey of it between Dai'- lington and Killingworth. Mr. Pease having made further inquiries respecting the char- acter and qualifications of George Stephenson, and having re- 176 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. ceived, from John Grimshaw — also a Friend, the inventor of endless spinning — a very strong recommendation of him as the right man for the intended work, he brought the subject of his ap- plication before the directors of the Stockton and Darlington Com- pany. They resolved to adopt his recommendation that a rail- way be formed instead of a tramroad ; and they further requested Mr. Pease to write to ]VIr. Stephenson, which he accordingly did, requesting him to report as to the practicability, or otherwise, of the line as laid out by IVIr. Overton, and to state his recommend- ations as to any deviations or improvements in its course, to- gether with estimates of comparative expenses. "In short," said Mr. Pease, "we wish thee to proceed in all thy levels, estimates and calculations, with that care and economy which would influ- ence thee if the whole of the work were thy own." Mr. Stephenson replied (August 2d, 1821) that the reeurvey of the line would occupy at 'least four weeks, and that his charge would include all necessary assistance for the accomplishment of the survey, estimates of the expense of cuts and batteries (since called cuttings and embankments) on the different pro- jected lines, together with all remarks, reports, etc., on the same; also the comparative cost of malleable and cast-iron rails, laying the same, winning and preparing the blocks of stone, and all other materials wanted to complete the line. "I could not do this," said he, "for less than 140/., allowing me to be moderately paid. Such a survey would of course have to be made before the work could be begun, as it is impossible to form any idea of contracting for the cuts and batteries by the former one ; and I assure you I shall, in completing the undertaking, act with that economy which would influence me if the whole of the work was my own." About the end of September INIr. Stephenson went over the line of the proposed railway, for the purpose of suggesting such improvements and deviations as he might consider desirable. He went over every foot of the ground himself, accompanied by LAYING THE FIRST RAIL. 177 an assistant and a chaiuman — his son Robert, who had recently returned from college, entering the figures while his father took the sights. After being engaged in the work at intervals for about six weeks, Mr. Stephenson reported the result of his sur- vey to the Board of Directors, and showed that by certain de- viations, a line shorter by about three miles might be constructed at a considerable saving in expense, while at the same time more favorable gradients — an important consideration — would be secured. The directors of the company, being satisfied that the improve- ments suggested in the line, and the saving which would thus be effected in mileage and in money, fully warranted them in in- curring the trouble, delay and expense of making a further appli- cation to Parliament for an amended Act, took the requisite steps with this object. And in the meantime they directed Mr. Ste- phenson to prepare the specifications for the rails and chairs, and make arrangements to enter into contracts for the supply of the stone and wooden blocks on which the rails and chairs were to be laid. It was determined in the first place to proceed with the works at those parts of the line where no de\aation was proposed ; and the first rail of the Stockton and Darlington Railway was laid with considerable ceremony, by Thomas Meynell, Esq., of Yarm, at a point near St. John's Well, Stockton, on the 23d of May, 1822. It is worthy of note, that Mr. Stephenson, in making his first estimate of the cost of forming the railway, according to the in- structions of the directoi's, set down, as part of the cost, 6,200/., for stationary engines, not mentioning locomotives at all. The directors as yet confined their views to the employment only of horses for the haulage of the coals, and of fixed engines and ropes where horse power was not applicable. The whole ques- tion of steam locomotive power was, in the estimation of the public, as well as of practical and scientific men, as yet in doubt. The confident anticipations of Mr. Stephenson, as to the eventual "19 178 LIFE or GEORGE STEPHENSON. success of locomotive engines, were regarded as mere specula- tions ; and when he gave utterance to his views, as he frequently took the opportunity of doing, it had the effect of shaking the confidence of some of liis friends in the solidity of his judgment and his practical qualities as an engineer. When Mr. Pease discussed the question with Stephenson, his remark was, " Come over and see my engines at Killingworth, and satisfy yourself as to the efficiency of the locomotive. I will show you the colliery books, that you may ascertain for yourself the actual cost of working. And I must tell you that the econ- omy of the locomotive engine is no longer a matter of theory, but a matter of fact." So confident was the tone in which Stephen- son spoke of the success of his engines, and so important were the consequences involved in arriving at a coi-rect conclusion on the subject, that Mr. Pease at length resolved upon paying a visit to Killingworth ; and accordingly he proceeded thither, in com- l)any with his friend ]Mr. Thomas Richardson,* a considerable subscriber to the Stockton and Darlington project, in the summer of 1822. When Sir. Pease arrived at Killingworth village, he inquired for George Stephenson, and was told that he must go over to the West Moor, and seek for a cottage by the roadside, with a dial over the door — that was where George Stephenson lived. They soon found the house with the dial ; and on knocking, the door was opened by Mrs. Stephenson — his second wife, (EHzabeth Hindmarsh,) the daughter of a farmer at Black Callerton, whom he had married in 1819. Her husband, she said, was not in the house at present, but she would send for him to the colliery. And in a short time Stephenson appeared before them in his working dress, just out of the pit. He very soon had his locomotive brought up to the crossing close by the end of the cottage — made the gentlemen mount it, * Mr. Richardaon Tvas the founder of the celebrated discount house of Richardson, Overend and Uourney, in Lombard Street AVORKS PROCEEDED WITH. 179 and showed them its paces. Harnessing it to a train of loaded wagons, he ran it along the railroad, and so thoroughly satisfied his visitors of its powers and capabilities, that from that day Ed- ward Pease was a declared supporter of the locomotive engine. In preparing, in 1823, the Amended Stockton and Darlington Act, at Mr. Stephenson's urgent request, Mr. Pease had a clause inserted, taking power to work the railway by means of locomo- tive engines, and to canploy them for the haulage of passengers as well as of merchandise ;* and Mr. Pease gave a further and still stronger proof of his conviction as to the practical value of the locomotive, by entering into a partnership with Mr. Stephen- son, in the following year, for the establishment of a locomotive foundry and manufactory in the town of Newcastle — the north- ern centre of the Enghsh railroad system. The second Stockton and Darlington Act was obtained in the session of 1823, not, however, without opposition, the Duke of Cleveland and the road trustees still appearing as the determined opponents of the bill. Nevertheless, the measure passed into law, and the works were now vigorously proceeded with, Mr. Stephenson having been appointed the company's engineer, at a salaiy of 300/. per annum. * The first clause in any railway act, empowering the employment of locomotive en- gines for the working of passenger traffic. CHAPTER XVII. COMPLETION AXD OPENTNG OF THE STOCKTON AND DARLINGTON RAILWAY. Mr. Stephenson now proceeded with the working survey of the improved line of the Stockton and Darhngton Eailway, laying out every foot of the ground himself, accompanied by his assistants. Railway surveying w^as as yet in its infancy, and was very slow and deliberate work. Afterwards it became a separate branch of railway business, and was left to a special staff of surveyors. Indeed on no subsequent line did Mr. Ste- phenson take the sights through the spmt level with his own hands and eyes, as he did on this railway. He would start very oarly in the morning, and survey until dusk. !Mr. John Dixon, who assisted in the survey, mentions that he remembers on one occasion, after a long day's work near Aycliffe, when the light had completely failed them, the party separated — some to walk to Darlington, four miles off, Mr. Stephenson himself to the Sim- pasture farmhouse, where he had arranged to stay for the night ; and his last stringent injunction was, that they must aU be on the ground to resume leveling as soon as there was light enough for the purpose. "You must not," said he, "set off from Darlington by daybreak, for then we shall lose an hour ; but you must be here, ready to begin work as soon as it is daylight." Mr. Stephenson performed the survey in top boots and breeches — a usual dress at the time. He was not at any time particular aso) TEACIIIXG EMBROIDERY. 181 as to liis living ; and during the survey, he took his chance of getting a drink of milk and a bit of brea. house, (a poet's house, who may be supposed in the habit of building castles even in the air,) story after story, as fast as one is ad led, the lower one sinks ! There is nothing, it appears, excej-t long sedgy grass, and a little soil, to prevent its sinking into t^ie shades of eternal night. I have now done, sir, with Chat Mors, and there I leave this railroad." * Mr. Alderson, of course, called upon the Committee to reject the bill ; and he protested "afj'^inst the * Report and Evidence, p. 478. EYIDEA^CE AGAINST LOCOMOTIVES. 227 despotism of the Exchange at Liverpool striding across the land of this country. I do protest," he concluded, "against a measure like this, supported as it is by such evidence, and founded upon such calculations." * The case, however, was not yet concluded. IMr. Stephenson (another of the counsel on the same side) declined addressing the Committee, after the speech of Mr. Alderson, "in which he had so clearly, so ably, and so fully shown the utter impracticability of the scheme;" but the case of the other numerous petitioners against the biU still remained to be gone into. "Witnesses were called to prove the residential injuiy which would be caused by the "intolerable nuisance" of the smoke and fire from the loco- motives ; and others to pi'ove that the price of coals and iron would "infallibly" be greatly raised throughout the country. This was part of the case of the Duke of Bridgewater's trustees, whose witnesses "proved" many very extraordinary things. The Leeds and Liverpool Coal Company were so fortunate as to pick up a witness from Hetton, who was ready to furnish some dam- aging evidence as to the use of Mr. Stephenson's locomotives on that railway. This was Mr. Thomas Wood, one of the Hetton company's clerks, whose evidence was to the effect that the loco- motives, having been found ineffective, were about to be dis- continued in favor of fixed engines. The locomotives, he said, were greatly affected by the weather, and the wagons had then to be drawn on by horses. The engines were also frequently getting off the road, and were liable to accident. The evidence of this witness, incompetent though he was to give an opinion on the subject, and exaggerated as his statements were afterwards proved to be, was made the most of by Mr. Harrison, when sum- ming up the case of the canal companies. "At length," he said, "we have come to this — having first set out at twelve miles an hour, the speed of these locomotives is reduced to six, and now comes down to two or two and a-half. They must be content to ♦ Keport and Evidence, p. 485. 228 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. be pulled along by horses and donkeys ; and all those fine prom- ises of galloping along at the rate of twelve miles an hour are melted down to a total failure — the foundation on which their case stood is cut from under them completely ; for the Act of Parliament, the Committee will recollect, prohibits any person using any animal power, of any sort, kind or description, except the projectors of the railway themselves ; therefore, I say, that the whole foundation on which this project exists is gone." After further personal abuse of Mr. Stephenson, whose evidence he spoke of as "trash and confusion," he closed the case of the canal companies on the 30th of May. Afterwards Mr. Adam replied for the promoters, recapitulating the principal points of their case, and vindicating Mr. Stephenson and the evidence which he had given before the Committee. Even Mr. Adam himself, how- ever, seemed to have fears of the railway formation across Chat Moss, after the positive evidence given by Mr. Giles. " Suppos- ing that Mr. Stephenson is rash," said he, "and I do not deny it, I say his error is an error from want of caution, and not from want of knowledge ; and he ought not to be reproached with his want of knowledge of railways, being a man of great practical experience" — which Mr. Giles was not, as respected railways. "Will you now," he said to the Committee, in winding up his speech, "will you now — when this experiment is brought before you and discussed so fully for the first time, while we are in the infancy of the application of this most powerful agent for the purpose of forming a communication for goods throughout the country — will you reject it because my learned friend, by some ingenious objections, has endeavored to throw discredit upon it ? All I ask you is, not to crush it in its infancy. Let not this country have the disgrace of putting a stop to that which, if cherished, may ultimately prove of the greatest advantage to our trade and commerce, and which, if we do not adojit it, will be adopted by our rivals. . . . My learned friends appeal to the Committee on the ground of private rights, all of which will THE BILL WITHDRAWN. 229 be recognized. I appeal to you in the name of the two largest towns in England, the one as a commercial port and the other as a commercial town ; I appeal to you in the name of the coun- try at large ; and I implore you not to blast the hopes that this powerful agent — steam — may be called in aid for the pui-pose of land communication ; only let it have a fjxir trial, and these little objections and private prejudices will, I am quite sure, be instantly dispelled." The Committee then divided on the preamble, which was carried by a majority of only one — thirty-seven voting for it, and thirty-six against it. The clauses were next considered ; and on a division, the first clause, empowering the company to make the railway, was lost by a majority of nineteen to thirteen. In like manner the next clause, empowering the company to take land, was lost ; on which IMr. Adam, on the part of the promoters, withdrew the bill. Thus ended this memorable contest, which had extended over two months — carried on throughout with great pertinacity and skill, especially on the part of the opposition, who left no stone unturned to defeat the measure. The want of a third line of communication between Liverpool and Manchester had been clearly proved ; but the engineering evidence in support of the proposed railway, having been thrown almost entirely upon Mr. Stephenson, who fought this, the most important part of the battle, single-handed, was not brought out so clearly as it would have been had he secured more efficient engineering assistance — which he was not able to do, as all the engineers of eminence of that day were against the locomotive railway. The obstacles thrown in the way of the survey by the land-owners and canal companies also in a great measure tended to defeat the bill. From this temporary failure, however, the projectors drew a valuable lesson for the future ; and when they next appeared before Parliament, they were better prepared to meet the obsti- nate opposition both of the canal companies and the land-owners. CHAPTER XX. THE LIVERPOOL AXD MANCHESTER RAILWAY BILL CARRIED, AND MR. STEPHENSON APPOINTED ENGINEER. The result of this first application to Parliament was so far discouraging. Mr. Stephenson had been so terribly abused by the leading counsel for the opposition in the course of the pro- ceedings before the Committee — stigmatized by them as an ignoramus, a fool, and a maniac — that even his friends seem for a time to have lost faith in him and in the locomotive system, whose efficiency he continued to u2)hold. Things never looked blacker for the success of the railway system than at the close of this great parliamentary struggle. And yet it was on the very eve of its triumph. The absolute necessity for a new line of communication between Liverpool and Manchester had been proved beyond all doubt; and the Committee of Directors ap- pointed to watch the measure in Parliament were so determined to press on the project of a railway, even though it should have to be worked merely by horse power, that the bill had scarcely been defeated, ere they met, in London, to consider their next step. They called their parliamentary friends together to consult as to their future proceedings. Among those who attended the meeting of gentlemen with this object, in the Royal Hotel, St. James Street, on the 4th of June, were Mr. Huskisson, Mr. Spring Rice, and General Gascoyne. Mr. Huskisson urged the (230) THE NEW SURVEY. 231 promoters to renew their application to Parliament. They had secured the first step hy the passing of their preamble ; the measure was of great public importance ; and whatever tempo- rary opposition it might meet with, he conceived that Parliament must ultimately give its sanction to the undertaking. Similar views wei-e expressed by other speakers; and the deputation went back to Liverpool determined to renew their application to Parliament in the ensuing session. It was not considered desirable to employ Mr. Stephenson in making the new survey. He had not as yet established his repu- tation as an engineer beyond the boundaries of his own county ; and the promoters of the bill had doubtless felt the disadvantages of this in the coarse of their parliamentary struggle. They there- fore resolved now to employ engineers of the highest established reputation, as well as the best surveyors that could be obtained. In accordance with these views, they engaged Messrs. George and John Rennie to be the engineers of the railway ; and Mr. Ciiai-les VignoUes, on their behalf, was appointed to prepare the plans and sections. The line which was eventually adopted difi'ered somewhat from that surveyed by Mr. James and Mr. Stephenson — entirely avoiding Lord Sefton's property, and passing through only a fcAv detached fields of Lord Derby's at a considerable distance from the Knowsley domain. The principal game preserves of the district were carefully avoided. Tlie pro- moters thus hoped to get rid of the opposition of the most influ- ential of the resident land-owners. The crossing of certain of the streets of Liverpool was also avoided, and the entrance contrived by means of a tunnel and inclined plane. The new line stopped short of the river Irwell at the Manchester end, and thus in some measure removed the objections grounded on an illegal interrup- tion to the canal or river traffic. With reference to the use of the locomotive engine, the promoters, remembering with what effect the objections to it had been urged by the opi^onents of the measure, intimated, in their second prospectus, that " as a guar- 232 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPIIEXSON. antee of their good faith towards the public they will not require any clause empowering them to use it ; or they will submit to such restrictions in the employment of it as Parliament may impose, for the satisfaction and ample protection both of proprie- tors on the line of road and of the public at huge." * It was found that the capital required to form the line of rail- way, as laid out by the JNIessrs. Rennie, was considerably beyond the amount of Mr. Stephenson's estimate ; and it became a ques- tion with the Committee in what way the new capital should be raised. A proposal was made to the Marquis of StaiFord, who was principally interested in the Duke of Bridgewater's Canal, to become a shareholder in the railway. A similar proposal, it will be remembered, had at an earlier period been made to Mr. Bradshaw, the trustee for the property ; but his answer was " all or none," and the negotiation was broken off. The Marquis of Stafford, however, now met the projectors of the railway in a more conciliatory spirit ; and it was ultimately agreed that he should become a subscriber to the extent of 1000 shares. The survey of the new line having been completed, the plans were deposited, the standing orders duly complied with, and the bill went into Committee. The same counsel appeared for the promoters ; but the examination of witnesses was not nearly so protracted as on the previous occasion. Mr. Erie and Mr. Harrison led the case of the opposition. The bill went into Committee on the 6th of March; and on the IGth the preamble Avas declared proved by a majority of forty-three to eighteen. On the third reading in the House of Commons, an animated, and what now appears a very amusing, discussion took place. The Hon. Edward Stanley moved that the bill be read that day six months ; and in the course of his speech he undertook to prove that the railway trains would take ten hours on the journey, and that they could only be worked by horses. Sir Isaac Coffin * An Account of the Liverpool an and Mr. Telford, in common with the leading professional men of his day, studiously kept aloof from him. Indeed, had the es- tablishment of the locomotive system depended upon the leading engineers, it would have been swamped at the beginning. In the meantime it was absolutely necessary that the directors of the Liverpool Railway should come to a decision whether fixed or locomotive engines were to be employed. Mr. Stephenson urged, as usual, the superiority of the latter, in point of efficiency, con- venience and economy, over any other mode of traction. The directors, who were no engineers, could not disregard the adverse opinions of professional men, and they dechned to indorse his re- commendation. But Mr. Stephenson had so repeatedly and earnestly urged upon them the propriety of making a trial of the locomotive befoi-e coming to any decision against it, that they at length authorized him to proceed with the construction of one of his engines by way of experiment. In their report to the pro- prietors at their annual meeting on the 27th March, 1828, they state that they had, after due consideration, authorized the engi- neer " to prepare a locomotive engine, which, from the nature of its construction and from the experiments already made, he is of opinion will be efiective for the purposes of the company, without provmg an annoyance to the public." In the same report the directors express their confidence in Mr. Stephenson, whose abil- ity and unwearied activity they are glad to take the opportunity of acknowledging. The locomotive thus ordered, was placed 254 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. upon the line in 1829, and was found of great service in drawing the wagons full of marl from the two great cuttings. In the meantime the discussion proceeded as to the kind of power to be permanently employed for the working of the rail- way. The directors were innundated with schemes of all sorts for facilitating locomotion. The projectors of England, France and America, seemed to be let loose upon them. There were plans for Avorking the wagons along the line by water power. Some proposed hydrogen, and others carbonic acid gas. Atmos- pheric pressure had its eager advocates. And various kinds of fixed and locomotive steam power were suggested. Thomas Gray urged his plan of a greased road with cog rails ; and Messrs. Vignolles and Ericsson recommended the adoption of a central friction rail, against which two horizontal rollers under the locomotive, pressing upon the sides of this rail, were to afford the means of ascending the inclined planes. The directors felt themselves quite unable to choose from amidst this multitude of projects. Their engineer expressed himself as decided as here- tofore in favor of smooth rails and locomotive engines, which he was confident would be found the most economical and by far the most convenient moving power that could be employed.* The Stockton and Darlington Railway being now at work, another deputation went down personally to inspect the fixed and locomo- tive engines on that line, as well as at Hetton and Killingworth. They returned to Liverpool with much information ; but their testimony as to the relative merits of the two kinds of engines was so contradictory, that the directors were as far from a deci- sion as ever. They then resolved to call to their aid two professional en- gineers of high standing, who should visit the Darlington and Newcastle railways, carefully examine both modes of working — the fixed and locomotive — and report to them fully on the subject. The gentlemen selected were Mr. Walker of Limehouse, and * Booth's Account, p. 71. THE LOCOMOTIVE REPORTED AGAINST, 255 Mr. Eastrick of Stourbridge. After carefully examining the modes of working the northern railways, they made their report to the directors in the spring of 1829. These engineers concurred in recommending the employment of fixed engines in preference to locomotive power ! Mr. Walker considered stationary engines, working on the low-pressure system, to be safer than high pres- sui'e locomotive engines which accompanied the passengers and goods on their way. Even Mr. Stephenson's early friend, Nicholas Wood, seems to have agreed with the other engineers in their report against the use of locomotives. Mr. Wood's evidence before the Committee on the Liverpool and Manchester Bill was by no means cordial in support of the locomotive. lie did not seem to have any faith in the efficiency of Stephenson's favorite steam blast. Speaking of the Killingworth engines, he then said : " Those engines puff very much, and the cause is to get an increased draught in the chimney ; now we have got a sufficiency of steam without it. I have no doubt that by allowing the steam to exhaust itself in a reservoir, it Avould pass quietly into the chimney without that noise." * And now, it seems, he had been depreciating the power and speed of the locomotive engine to the reporting engineers. Mr. Eastrick said, " It was the decided opinion of Mx*. Nicholas Wood, when he saw him at Killingworth, that no locomotive engine could travel more than eight miles an hour." f He quoted Mr. Wood's opinion against Stephenson's locomotive, the " Lancashire Witch," then working on the Bolton and Leigh Eailway, which he held to be an expe- riment of no value. Mr. Wood had even gone so far as hint to liim that Chat Moss must sink under the weight of the loco- motive. Although admitting with apparent candor that improvements were to be anticipated in the locomotive engine, the reporting engineers clearly had no faith in its power, nor belief in its eventual success ; and the united conclusion of the two was, that * Evidence, p. 216. t Mr. Rastrick's Report, p. 49. 256 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. " considering the question in every point of view — taking the two lines of road as now forming — and having reference to econ- omy, dispatch, safety, and convenience — our opinion is, tliat, if it be resolved to make tlie Liverpool and Manchester Eailway complete at once, so as to accommodate the traffic, or a quantity approaching to it, the stationary reciprocating system is the best."* And in order to carry the system recommended by them into effect, they proposed to divide the railroad between Liverpool and Manchester into nineteen stages of about a mile and a half each, with twenty-one engines fixed at the different points to work the trains forward. Here was the result of all George Stephenson's labors ! The two best practical engineers of the day concurred in reporting against the employment of his locomotive ! Not a single profes- sional man of eminence could be found to coincide with him in his preference for locomotive over fixed engine power. He had scarcely a supporter ; and the locomotive system seemed on the eve of being abandoned. Still he did not despair. With the profession against him, and public opinion against him — for the most frightful stories were abroad respecting the dangers, the unsightliness, and the nuisance which the locomotive would create — Mr. Stephenson lield to his purpose. Even in this, apparently the darkest hour of the locomotive, he did not hesitate to declare that locomotive railroads would, before many years had passed, be " the great highways of the world." At the meetings of the directors, and in his numei'ous reports, he combated in detail the reports of the consulting engineers — urged that the simplicity of the locomotive engine power, and its application to any quantity of trade, would best answer the pur- pose of the railway — pointed out that the Messrs. Walker and Rastrick had under-estimated the working expense of fixed en- * Report to the Directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, on the comparatiTC Merits of Locomotive and Fixed Engines. By James Walker and J. U. Rastrick, Civil Engineers. 1829. MR. walker's report. 257 gines, while they had overstated that of locomotives ; but, above all, he insisted that the adoption of fixed engines and ropes — au accident to any of which would involve the stoppage of the entire arrangements — would render the Liverpool and . Manchester line altogether unfitted for the purposes of a public railway. The convenience of locomotives, which could be increased in powiu- and number according to the requirements of the traffic, appeared to him one of their chief advantages ; they would form a series of short unconnected chains, any one of which could be removed and another at once substituted, in event of an accident, without interruption to the traffic ; whereas, according to the admission of Mr. "Walker himself, the fixed engine system would constitute a continuous chain, extending from Liverpool to Manchester, " the failure of one link of which would derange the whole." This, in Mr. Stephenson's view, constituted a capital objection to the adoption of the latter plan. Besides, he did not hesitate to express his decided conviction that, in reporting against the loco- motive, the consulting engineers had not made themselves fully acquainted Avith its powers, and especially that they had not taken into account the value of the steam blast. They had obviously overlooked the most important property of this beauti- ful contrivance, by which it increases the production of steam exactly in proportion to the velocity of the engine. The quicker the strokes of the piston, the stronger the draught in the chimney, the more intense the combustion of fuel in the furnace, and the more rapid the production of steam, on which the power of the engine depends. Mr. Walker, in his report, assumed that the power of the engine Avas in an inverse ratio to its velocity ; but Mr. Stephenson held, what has since been clearly established, that, instead of the steam becoming exhausted, and the working power of the locomotive lessened, in proportion to its speed, the result was the very reverse, and that the expenditure of steam was, by means of the important contrivance of the blast, made 17 258 LIFE OF. GEORGE STEPUEN30X. subservient, through the more intense combustion of fuel which it excited, to the increased production of power in the engine.* The directors could not fail to have been influenced by these arguments. But the fixed-engine party was very strong at the board, and, led by Mr. James Cropper, they urged the propriety of forthwith adopting the report of Messrs. Walker and Rastrick. j\Ir. Sandars and Mr. William Eathbone, on the other hand, desired that a fair trial should be given to the locomotive ; and they with reason objected to the expenditure of the large capital necessary to construct the proposed engine-houses, with their * This principle was afterwards clearly illustrated by Mr. Robert Stephenson, in the joint essay entitled " Observations on the Comparative Merits of Locomotive and Fixed Engines," published by himself and Mr. Locke (as compiled from the Reports of Mr. George Stephenson), in reply to the Report of Mr. James Walker, C. E. The pamphlet was published in February, 1830. Mr. Robert Stephenson there observes : " In locomotive engines hitherto constructed, the area of the surface in the boiler acted upon by the fire is much less than that generally employed in stationary engines ; and hence it is that the consumption has been much greater to produce equal effects. This inconvenience has been submitted to, in order that simplicity and compactness might be achieved. " To compensate for the loss of heating surface, it was necessary to augment the tem- perature of the fire. This was effected, shortly after the first locomotive engine was tried on the Killingworth Colliery Railway, by conveying the steam into the chimney, where it escaped in a perpendicular direction up the centre, after it had performed its office in the cylinders. The velocity of the steam on entering the chimney being much greater than that due to the ascending current of air from the natural draft of the furnace, the effect was to increase the draught, and consequently the temperature of tlie fire Since it has been shown that the power of these engines, under similar circumstances, is chiefly dependent on the quantity of fuel consumed, it is evident that, by this application ol the waste steam to accelerate combustion, the power of the engine actually varies under different velocities. This curious fact, connected with the construction of loco- motive engines on the principle of the ' Rocket,' has not hitherto, wa believe, been represented in this manner ; and it is so important, that any calculation neglecting its consideration, at high velocities, must be regarded as futile and absolutely false. '• Mr. Walker takes tbe power of a locomotive engine, of the size anJ construction of those used upon the Darlington Railway, equal to 10 horses, at 2}i miles an hour. Pre- suming that the effect is inversely as the velocities, he reduces the power of the engine at 10 miles an hour to 2fj horses' power, or = 375 lbs. This conclusion would have been perfectly correct if the quantity of steam generated in the boiler in equal times were the same at all velocities ; but the fallacy of this assumption, in reference to locomotive engines, has been sufficiently explained in the foregoing remarks." — Obsirvations, etc, pp.&S. PRIZE FOR THE BEST LOCOMOTIVE. 259 fixed engines, ropes, and machinery, until they had tested the powers of the locomotive, -as recommended by their own engineer. Mr. Stephenson continued to urge upon them that the locomotive was yet capable of gi-eat improvements, if proper inducements were held out to inventors and macliinists to make them ; and he pledged himself that, if time were given liim, he would construct an engine that should satisfy their requirements, and prove itself capable of working heavy loads along the railway with speed, regularity, and safety. The directors were more bewildered than ever. Yet they had confidence in their engineer, and had but recently borne public testimony to his practical efficiency. They had seen him form a road which other engineers of high reputation had repeatedly declared to be impracticable ; and it might be the same with the locomotive. At length, influenced by his persistent earnestness not less than by his arguments, the directors, at the suggestion of Mr. Harrison, determined to offer a prize of 500/. for the best locomotive engine which, on a certain day, should be produced on the railway, and perform certain specified conditions iia the most satisfactory manner. The conditions were these — 1. The engine must efiectually consume its own smoke. 2. The engme, if of six tons weight, must be able to draw after it, day by day, twenty tons weight (including the tender and water-tank), at ten miles an hour, with a pressure of steam on the boiler not exceeding fifty pounds to the square inch. 3. The boiler must have two safety valves, neither of which must be fastened down, and one of them be completely out of the control of the engineman. 4. The engine and boiler must be supported on springs, and rest on six wheels, the height of the whole not exceeding fifteen feet to the top of the chimney. 5L The engine, with water, must not weigh more than six tons ; but an engine of less weight would be preferred on its drawing a 260 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. proportionate load behind it ; if of only four and a half tons, then it might be put on only four wheels. The Company to be at liberty to test the boiler, etc., by a pressure of one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch. 6. A mercurial gauge must be affixed to the machine, showing the steam pressure above forty-five pounds per square inch. 7. The engine must be delivered, complete and ready for trial, at the Liverpool end of the railway, not later than the first of October, 1829. 8. The price of the engine must not exceed 550?. It will be observed that the requirements of the directors as to speed were not excessive. All that they asked for was, that a speed of ten miles an hour should be maintained. Perhaps they had in mind the severe animadversions of the Quarterly Review- er on the absurdity of traveling at a greater velocity, and also the remarks published by Mr. Nicholas Wood, whom they selected to be one of the judges of the competition, in conjunction with Mr. Rastrick of Stourbridge, and INIr. Kennedy of Manchester.* It was now generally felt that the fate of railways in a great measure depended upon the issue of this appeal to the mechanical genius of England. When the advertisement of the prize for the best locomotive was published, scientific men began more partic- ularly to direct their attention to the new power which was thus struggling into existence. In the meantime public opinion on the subject of railway working remained suspended, and the progress of the undertaking was watched with the most intense interest. * Many persons of influence declared the conditions published by the directors of the railway chimerical in the extreme. One gentleman of some eminence in Liverpool, Mr. P. Ewart, who afterwards filled the office of government inspector of post-oSice steam packets, declared that only a parcel of charlatans wo'".ld ever have issued such a set of conditions ; that it had been proved to be impossible *m Grainger and Buchanan, in the Scotsman newspaper 288 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. senger traffic, that it engrossed the whole of the Company's small stock engines. Although the bulk of the heavy goods continued to go by the canal, yet the opening of the railway immediately caused a large reduction in the price of coals, and in the rates for the carriage of merchandise. The annual saving to the public in money, not to speak of the gi-eat saving of its equivalent — time — was about 250,000/. a year. The net profit had been estimated by the pro- jectors at G 2,5 00/. a year, whereas the net profit actually realized during the first five years exceeded this by about 20,000/. The expense of executing the works had, however, been exceeded — the estimate having been 800,000/., and the actual expenditure about 1,200,000/. One of the curious results of the opening of the railway was its effect on the value of the adjoining land. Instead of the pop- ulation being frightened away by the noise, fii"e and smoke of the locomotives, as had been predicted, there was a sudden demand for land in the neighborhood of the stations, and the price of property rose rapidly. One witness, who was examined before the Committee on the bill, painted in very black colors the hor- rors of the steam-engine — that it would destroy the grass on the neighboring estate, and ruin the owner by rendering the land worthless for building purposes ; that " no man in his sober senses would build houses there, each to have a level line with locomo- tive engines running before them ; " * and yet the land in ques- tion was shortly after covered with villas, and its value was enor- mously enhanced. Mr. Hardman Earle, who had opposed the line, afterwards declared before the Committee on the London and Birmingham Bill, that his fears on account of residential injury had been entirely unfounded ; and that the passing of the loco- motives, instead of being regarded as a nuisance, was actually regarded as an object of interest. The landlords who had driven * Evidence of Sir. Thomas Dickenson before the Committee on the Liverpool and Man- chester Eailway Bill, p. 3G3 LAND IMPROVED IN VALUE. 289 the surveyors from their grounds, and compelled the promoters of the railway to divert it from its original route, were shortly found complaining of the grievance of being deprived of the ad- vantages of railway communication ; * while those who were so fortunate as to have had the railway forced through their lands, were observed, when letting their farms, to advertise that the railway passed through the estate, or near it ; and it was found that there was a quicker competition for farms so situated, and higher rents were obtained for them. When the Railway Com- pany came again to these land owners to purchase additional land from them, they had invariably to " pay through the nose " — the improved value of the land, in consequence of its prox- imity to their own stations, being quoted against them. Even the most barren and unproductive land became of value. Chat Moss itself, which could scarcely, previous to the formation of the railway, afford footing for a strayed cow, promised soon to be- come covered with valuable farms. Mr. Baines, of Leeds, in conjunction with several other spirited gentlemen, bought a por- tion of the bog, near the Manchester end, laid down a private railway into it connected with the main line, and in the course of a few yeai's, a comfortable farm-stead, surrounded with belts of wood and patches of arable land, stood smihng on the verge of the Moss. Since that time, cultivation has extended into it in all directions, and especially along the line of the railway. * The following CTidence was giyen by Mr. Moss, one of the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, before the Committee on the London and Birmingham Bill in 1833: " Have you found owners, on the line between Liverpool and Birmingham, consent to the railroad there, who, nevertheless, opposed the Liverpool and Manchester line?" '' Yes, several ; among others, Lords Derby and Scfton." " Did Mr. Ileywood, of Manchester, oppose the Manchester Railroad? " " Yes." " Did he afterwards complain of its not passing through his lands ? " " Yes ; he com- plained very much of it." Lords Derby and Sefton, who, by their opposition, forced the line from their estate.'^ and compelled Mr. Stephenson to take it over the worst part of Chat Moss, were after- wards found patronizing a second and rival line between Liverpool and Manchester, on condition that the line should paas through their property. 19 290 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPUENSON. ]\Ir. Stephenson did not rest satisfied with the success he had achieved in the construction of the " Rocket." He regai'ded it only in the light of a successful experiment ; and every succeed- ing engine which he placed upon the line exhibited some im- provement upon its predecessors. The engines were varied in their form, in their arrangement, in their weight and proportions, as the experience of each successive day, or week, or month sug- gested. No sooner were defects made apparent, than steps were taken to remedy them ; and each quarter produced engines of such increased power and efficiency, that their predecessors were abandoned ; not because they were woi*n out, but because they had been outstripped in the rapid march of improvement. The "Planet" engine embodied most of the improvements made by Mr. Stephenson and his son between the construction of the "Rocket" and the opening of the railway on the loth of September. The " Planet " was in the Mersey, but not landed, on that day. This engine exhibited in one combination nearly all the improvements which the inventors had by this time effect- ed — the blast pipe, the tubular boiler, the horizontal cylinders inside the smoke-box, (a great impi-ovement on the " Rocket,") and the cranked axle, together with a fire-box firmly fixed to the boiler. In the " Rocket " the fire-box was only screwed against the boiler, allowing a considerable leakage of air which had not passed through the fire. The tubes and furnace of the " Planet " gave a heating surface of 407|^ feet. The cylinder was 11 inches in diameter, with a 16 inch stroke; the boiler was 6s feet long, by 3 feet in diameter ; the four wheels were 5 and 3 feet in di- ameter, respectively. On the 4th of December, the "Planet" took the first load of merchandise from Liverpool to Manchester, consisting of 18 wagon-loads of cotton, 200 barrels of flour, 63 sacks of oatmeal, and 34 sacks of malt. The total load, exclusive of the engine, was 80 tons, and it was taken to Manchester, in the face of a strong, adverse wind, in two hours and thirty-nine minuter, IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVES. 291 which was considered an exceedingly successful trip. Previous to this, however, the speed of the "Planet" had been tested in bringing up a cargo of voters from Manchester to Liverpool, on the occasion of the contested election there, when she perfonned the journey between the two places in sixty minutes. The next important improvement in the locomotive was made in the " Samson," which was placed upon the line about the be- ginning of 1831. In this engine the plan of coxipliny the fore and hind wheels of the engine was adopted ; by which means the adhesion of the wheels on the rails was more effectually secured, and thus the hauling force of the locomotive was made more available. This mode of coupling the wheels was found to be a great improvement, and it has since been adopted in all engines constructed for drawing heavy loads, where power is of greater consequence than speed. On the 25th of February, the " Sam- son" drew a train of thirty wagons, weighing 151 tons exclusive of the weight of the tender, between Liverpool and Manchester, at the rate of about twenty miles an hour on the level parts of the railway. In this engine the blast, the tubes and furnace were so contrived, that the consumption of coke was reduced to only about one-third of a pound per ton per mile. The rapid progress thus made will show that Mr. Stephenson's inventive faculties were kept fully on the stretch ; but his labors were amply repaid by the result. He was, doubtless, to some extent stimulated by the number of competitors who about the same time appeared as improvers of the locomotive engine. Of these the most prominent were the Messrs. Braithwaite and Ericsson, whose engine, the "Novelty," had excited such high expectations at the Rainhill competition. The directors of the railway, desirous of giving all parties a fair chance, ordered from those makers two engines on the same model ; but their perform- ances not proving satisfactory, they were finally withdrawn. One of them slipped off the rails near the Sankey viaduct, and was nearly thi'own over the embankment. Their chief defect 292 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. consisted in their inability to keep up a sufficient supply of steam for regular work ; the steam-blast not being adopted in the en- gines. Indeed, the supei'iority of Mr. Stephenson's locomotives over all others that had yet been tried, induced the directors of the railway to require that the engines supplied to them by other builders should be constructed after the same model. It is now an invariable practice with I'ailway companies to determine the kind of locomotive with which they are to be supplied by con- tractors ; but in those days it was positively made a ground of complaint, against both the company and the engineer, that this salutary precaution was adopted. The Liverpool directors had given every opportunity for trials, from Dr. Booth's "Veloci- pede" (which knocked itself to pieces on the line) to the "Rocket;" and having ascertained by actual experience the best kind of engine for their purpose, they could not, amidst the bustle and responsibilities of a large and increasing traffic, allow their railway to be used as a practicing ground for the host of experimenters and inventors who were springing up on all sides. They therefore closed the line against further trials of new in- ventions. It was afterwards made a ground of complaint against ]Mr. Stephenson in an influential publication,* that he had obtained a monopoly of the engines supplied to the Liverpool and Manches- ter Railway, as well as of the appointments of the workmen em- ployed on the line. At the same time the writer admitted the rapidity of the improvements made in the locomotives, notwith- standing the alleged monopoly ; for he stated that during the year and a half which followed the opening, " the engines have been constantly varied in their weight and proportions, in their magnitude and form, as the experience of each successive month has indicated : as defects became manifest they were remedied ; improvements suggested were adopted ; and each quarter pro- duced engines of such increased power and efficiency, that their * Edinburgh Review for October, 1832. Art. by Dr. Lardner. ALLEGED MONOPOLY. 293 predecessors were abandoned, not because they were worn out, but because they had been outstripped in the rapid march of im- provement." What more than this could have been done? Granting, for a moment, that the alleged "monopoly" had any existence in point of fact — if it tended in any way to stimulate that rapidity in the improvement of the locomotive, which the reviewer so distinctly admitted to have been effected, its tempo- rary adoption in favor of the indefatigable and industrious Ste- phensons would have been amply justified. But the simple truth was, that the Newcastle factory was at that time the only source from which efficient engines could be obtained. The directors were fully alive to the importance of inducing competition in this new branch of manufacture ; and they offered every inducement to mechanical engineers, with the view of enlarging the sources from which they could draw their supplies of engines. And so soon as they could rely upon the quality of the article supplied to them by other firms, they distributed their orders indiscrimi- nately and impartially. Mr. Thomas Gray* also proclaimed his opposition to the Ste- phenson "monopoly," but on another ground. The Stephenson rails wex'e smooth, and consequently the engines were adapted for traveling on them at high speeds ; whereas Mr. Gray was still an adherent of the long-exploded cog-rail of Blenkinsop. He urged that the railroad should be gi*eased, and cog-rails placed outside the smooth rails — the propulsive agency working in the former, while the burden of the engine traveled on the latter. "It will certainly," said he, "answer the private views of engineers, mechanics and others employed in manufacturing rails, steam-engines, etc., to recommend the application of numer- ous engines and the most costly machinery." And he added: "Had the recent grand feat, accomplished by the two new pon- * Mechanics' Magazine, 1831, vol. xv, p. 167. The " Mechanics' Magazine " supported the cog-rail as opposed to the smooth rail, probably because the smooth rail was adopted bj Stephenson. See vol. xv, p. 190. 294 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. derous engines, been performed by means of cog-rails, I do not hesitate to assert that the veiy same engines would have effected Jive times more;" which assertion serves further to prove, that the founding of the modern railway system could not have been effected by Thomas Gray. The charge brought against Mr. Stephenson, as engineer of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, of employing men under him to carry out his instructions, whom he knew, in preference to persons belonging to the parishes through which the line passed, whom he did not know, was of a piece with many other charges gravely advanced against him at the time. Even the drivers of stage-coaches were not then selected by the proprietors because they belonged to the respective parishes through which the coaches ran, but because they knew something of stage-coach driving. But in the case of the Liverpool and Manchester Rail- way, it was insisted that the local population had the first claim to be employed ; * and the engineer was strongly censured "for introducing into the country a numerous body of workmen in various capacities, strangers to the soil and to the surrounding population, thus wresting from the hands of those to whom they had naturally belonged, all the benefits which the enterprise and capital of the district in this case conferred." But the charge was grossly exaggerated, and, for the most part, unfounded. As respected the working of the engines, it was natural and proper that Mr. Stephenson, who was responsible for their efficiency, should employ men to work them who knew something about their construction and mode of action. And as the only locomo- tive railways previously at woi-k in England were those in the neighborhood of Newcastle, he of course sought there for engine drivers, stokers and other workmen of practical experience on railways, to work the Liverpool and Manchester line. But it was from the first one of Mr. Stephenson's greatest difficulties to find able workmen enough to make his engines as well as to con- * EOiaburgh Review for October, 1832, p. 130. SELECTION OF WORKMEN. 295 Struct his roads. It was a saying of his that "he could engineer matter very well, and make it bend to his purpose, but his great- est difficulty was in engineering men." Of the 600 persons employed in the working of the Liverpool line, not more than sixty had been recommended by him in his capacity of engineer, and of these a considerable proportion were personally unknown to him. Some of them, indeed, had been brought up under his own eye, and were men whose character and qualifications he could vouch for. But these were not enough for his purpose ; and he often wished he could procure heads and hands on which he could rely, as easily as he could manufacture locomotives. As it was, Stephenson's engine-men were in request all over England, and they never were in want of remunerative employ- ment. Indeed, for many years after, the Newcastle school of engineers, of which he was the head, continued to furnish the chief part of the locomotive superintendents and drivers on rail- ways, not only in this country, but all over Europe ; preference being given to them by the directors of these undertakings, in consequence of their previous practical experience, as well as their general excellent qualities as steady and industi-ious work- men. Mr. Stephenson had, no doubt, a warm heart for North- umberland men ; and who will blame him for it ? But that he ever permitted his love for canny Newcastle to bias his judgment or stand in the way of his duty to his employers in recommend- ing the best men for appointment to the offices under him, those who knew him best most confidently deny. Before leaving the subject of the Liverpool and Manchester railway, we may briefly mention that Mr. Stephenson's ingenuity continued for some time to be employed in perfecting the work- ing arrangements of the line. The springs of the carriages were improved : buffisrs were contrived to prevent that hard bumping of the carriage ends, which was felt to be a very objectionable feature in the first passenger trains ; and everything was done that Avas calculated to diminish friction or jerking, and make 296 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. traveling comfortable and easy. Amongst Mr. Stephenson's other inventions of tliis time were his method of lubricating carriage axles, his spring frames for the carriages, his buffers and his railway breaks. Like the engine power and the carriage arrangements, the road was for some time in an experimental state, and was grad- ually brought into a condition of practical efficiency. As the power and weight of the locomotives were increased, and the speed at which the trains traveled steadily advanced, it soon be- came clear to Mr. Stephenson that a considerable modification in the road was absolutely necessary. The fish-bellied rails, first laid down, were of the weight of only thirty-five pounds to the yard, and calculated only for horse traffic, or at most for engines like the " Rocket," of very light weight. In the course of a short time it was found necessary to have the road relaid with stronger rails of greater weight and improved form, though at a very con- siderable expense to the Company. Mr. Stephenson was de- termined, however, to the best of his power, to fulfill his promise to the Committee of the House of Commons, that he would make his railway as perfect as possible. CHAPTER XXV. EXTENSION OF THE RAILWAY SYSTEM —THE LONDON AND BIRMrNQHAM LINE. When Mr. Stephenson had completed the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and brought the locomotive engine, by means of which it was to be worked, into a state of practical efficiency, he may be said to have accomplished the great work of his life. By persevering study and observation — by treasuring up carefully the results of experience, neglecting no fact or sugges- tion howsoever insignificant it might at first sight appear — hold- ing fast to his purpose, with a conviction that was never shaken, and a determination that was never baffled — he had established with but small assistance or encouragement, and in the face ©f every kind of difficulty and opposition, the superiority of the Locomotive system of railways. And it is perhaps not saying too much to aver, that in accomplishing this, Mr. Stephenson did more to advance the civilization of the world than any single individual of his age. Excepting only the discovery of Printing, no other invention will bear a comparison with that of Railway Locomotion, as affecting the destinies of mankind. In former times, the builder of a bridge, and the maker of a road, which brought towns and villages into communication with each other, were regarded as public benefactors. But how much greater a benefactor of his species was the man who invented the Locomo- tive Railway system, which unites nation with nation, and is now rapidly drawing the ends of the earth together ! (297) 298 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. It may be humiliating to our schools of science and learning to confess, that the men who brought the locomotive to perfection — George Stephenson above all — were comparatively unlettered and uneducated, possessing none of the advantages of scholastic or scientific culture. The educated men, and even the scientific engineers, were wholly opposed to the locomotive system, declar- ing it to be absurd and impracticable. The general public, where not actively hostile, were indifferent. With the performances of the " Rocket," however, all doubts upon the subject were in a great measure set at rest. What had been ridiculed as an im- possibility, was now recognized as a fact. The " Rocket" showed that a new power had been born into the world, full of activity and strength, with boundless capability of work. It was the simple but admirable contrivance of the steam-blast, and its combination with the multitubular boiler with its large heating surface, that at once gave the high-pressure locomotive its vigor- ous life, and secured the triumph of the railway system. As has been well observed, this wonderful ability to increase and multiply its powers of performance with the emergency that demands them, has made this giant engine the noblest creation of human wit, the very lion among machines. The practicability of Railway Locomotion being now proved, its extension was merely a question of time, money, and labor. A fine opportunity presented itself for the wise and judicious action of government in the matter. The improvement of the internal communications of a country seems to fall peculiarly within its province. The government was indeed at this very time directing its attention to the improvement of the old turn- pike roads, and voting large sums of money to Mr. Macadam, for his so-called " discovery." But here Avas a new system of internal communication invent- ed, which was destined entirely to supersede the old macadamized roads. What was the action of the le<;islature in regard to it ? They took no part except to retard and obstruct it ; until at NEW LINES PROJECTED, 299 length their shiggish resistance was overborne, and the railway system was established, by the perseverance of private individu- als. The opposition raised by the governing classes to the progress of railway bills in Parliament, would have damped the energy of any people less resolute than the English. But the leading men of industry throughout the kingdom had grasped a great idea, and would not let it go. They had the sagacity to perceive the value of railways, though the government had not ; and when tlie legislature failed to enter, at this juncture, upon the grand enterprise of planning and executing railways upon a national system, there was a sutficient amount of active public spirit in the country to undertake the work on private risk, and to carry it into practical effect in the face of every opposition. The mode of action was characteristic and national. The execution of the new lines was undertaken entirely by joint-stock associations of proprietors, after the manner of the Stockton and Darlington, and Liverpool and Manchester Companies. These associations are conformable to our national habits, and fit well into our system of laws. They combine the power of vast re- sources with individual watchfulness and motives of self-interest ; and by their means gigantic enterprises, which elsewhere would be impossible to any but kings and emperors with great national resources at command, were carried out by associations of private persons. And the results of this combination of means and of enterprise have been truly marvelous. Within the life of the present generation, the private citizens of England engaged in railway enterprises, have, in the face of government obstructions, and without taking a penny out of the public purse, executed a system of railways, involving works of the most gigantic kind, Avhich, in their total mass, their cost, and their eminent public utility, far exceed the most famous national constructions of any age or country. Mr. Stephenson was of course actively engaged in the con- struction of the numerous railways now projected by the joint- 300 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. stock companies. During the formation of the Manchester and Liverpool line," he had been consulted respecting many projects of a similar kind. One of these was a short railway, between Canterbury and AVhitstable, about six miles in length. He was too much occupied with the works at Liverpool to give this scheme much of his personal attention. But he sent his assistant, Mr. John Dixon, to survey the line ; and afterwards Mr. Locke to superintend the execution of the principal works. The act was obtained in 1826, and the line was opened for traffic in 1830. It was partly worked by fixed-engine power, and partly by Stephenson's locomotives, similar to the engines used upon the Stockton and Darlington Railway. But the desire for railway extension principally pervaded the manufacturing districts, especially after the successful opening of the Liverpool and Manchester line. The commercial classes of the larger towns soon became eager for a participation in the good which they had so recently derided. Railway projects were set on foot in great numbers, and Manchester became a centre from which main lines and branches were started in all directions. The interest, however, which attaches to these later schemes is of a much less absorbing kind than that which belongs to the earlier history of the English railway, and the steps by which George Stephenson secured its eventual establishment. We naturally sympatliize more with the early struggles of a great principle, its trials and its difficulties, than with its after stages of success ; and, however gratified and astonished we may be at its permanent results, the secret charm of the interest is gone, and the excitement has ceased, when its ultimate triumph has become a matter of certainty. The commercial results of the Liverpool and Manchester line were so satisfactory, and indeed so greatly exceeded the expec- tations of its projectors, that many of the abandoned projects of the speculative year 1825 were forthwith revived. An abundant crop of engineers sprang up, ready to execute railways of any NEW LINES PROJECTED. 301 extent. Now that the Liverpool and Manchester line had been made, and the practicability of working it by locomotive power had been proved, it was as easy for engineers to make railways and to work them, as it was for navigators to find America after Columbus had made the first voyage. George Stephenson had shown the way, and engineers forthwith crowded after him full of great projects. Mr. Francis Giles himself took the field as a locomotive railway engineer, attaching himself to the Newcastle and Carlisle, and London and Southampton projects. Mr. Brunei appeared, in like manner, as the engineer of the line projected between London and Bristol ; and Mr. Braithwaite, the builder of the " Novelty" engine, as the engineer of a line from London to Colchester. The first lines, however, which were actually constructed, subsequent to the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Rail- way, were in connection with it, and principally in the county of Lancaster. Thus a branch was formed from Bolton to Leigh, and another from Leigh to Kenyon, where it formed a junction with the main line between Liverpool and Manchester. Branches to Wigan on the north, and to Runcorn Gap and Warrington on the south of the same line, were also formed. A continuation of the latter, as far south as Birmingham, was shortly after project- ed under the name of the Grand Junction Railway. The scheme of a line from Birmingham to London was also brought forward anew, and it was thus contemplated to bring the populous districts of Lancashire and the northwestern counties into direct railway communication with the metropolis. At the same time an im- portant cross country railway was projected from Manchester to Leeds, traversing the populous manufacturing districts of East Lancashire and West Yorkshire, and bringing the chief towns of the two great northern counties into direct communication with each other. Of the principal lines projected in these districts, Mr. George Stephenson was appointed engineer ; in some cases, in conjunction with his son. He was the engineer of the Grand 302 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. Junction, of the Manchester and Leeds, and other new lines, so that his hands were full of work. The number of railway schemes which were thus projected by companies of private individuals, principally resident in the manufacturing districts, created considerable alarm in the minds of the country gentlemen, who were found everywhere up in arms against these " new-fongled roads." The farmers were thrown into a state of consternation at the idea of "fire-horses" running through their quiet fields and frightening their sheep and cattle while grazing. In remote country places the most extraordinary stories were propagated and believed respecting railway locomo- tives. On one occasion, Mr. Stephenson and some directors of the line projected from Chester to Birmingham, on coming into the neighborhood of Nantwich to obtain the consent of some land-owners, were told that the canal proprietors had been before them, and had told the farmers and land-owners that if a bird flew over the district when the locomotive passed, it would drop down dead ! The inhabitants of even some of the large towns were thrown into a state of consternation by the proposal to provide them with the accommodation of a railway. The line from London to Bir- mingham would naturally have passed close to the handsome town of Northampton, and was so projected. But the inhabit- ants, urged on by the local press, and excited by men of influence and education, opposed the project, and succeeded in forcing the promoters, in their resurvey of the line, to pass the town at a distance. The necessity was thus involved of distorting the line, which incurred the enormous expense of constructing the Kilsby Tunnel. Not many years elapsed before the very same inhabit- ants of Northampton became clamorous for railway accommoda- tion, and a special branch was constructed for them. The additional cost involved by this forced deviation of the line could not have amounted to less than half a million sterling ; a loss falling, not upon the shareholders only, but also upon the public LONDON AND BIKMINGHAM RAILWAY. 303 at large, -^vho are the eventual sufferers from all railway waste and extravagance. But the most formidable opponents of the London and Bir- mingham Railway were the land-owners, whose position in the legislature gave them an overwhelming influence in determining the direction of railways, and the terms on which they were to be conceded. And as the history of the progress of the London and Birmingham scheme differs but little, in the main, from that of similar projects of the time, a brief statement of the leading facts in connection with it may not be out of place here. Surveys of a line of railway from London to Birmingham had been made as early as the great speculative year, 1825, but the commercial crash which occurred stopped its further progress. It was, however, revived in 1830, when tAvo committees were formed at Birmingham. One had for their consulting engineers the Messrs. Rennie, and the other Mr. Francis Giles. The line of the former was projected to pass by Oxford to London ; and that of the latter by way of Coventry. There was at that early date less of the fighting spirit amongst rival railway projectors than unhappily prevailed at a subsequent period. The promoters were desirous of obtaining a good railroad to London, rather than of carrying on a costly warfare for the benefit of rival lawyers, surveyors, and engineers. So the two committees wisely deter- mined to unite, and call to their aid the matured experience and judgment of Mr. George Stephenson, in adjudicating upon the merits of the respective lines. After a careful examination of the country, Mr. Stephenson reported in favor of the Coventry route ; and the Lancashire gentlemen, having great confidence in his judgment, supported his decision, on which the line recommended by him was adopted. At the meeting of gentlemen held at Birmingham to determine upon the appointment of the engineer for the railway, there was a strong party in favor of appointing as Mr. Ste])henson's associ- ate a gentleman with whom he had been brought into serious 304 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. collision in the course of the Liverpool and Manchester under- taking. When the offer was made to him that he should be joint engineer with the other, he requested leave to retire and consider the proposal with his son. The two walked into St. Philip's churchyard, which adjoined the place of meeting, and debated the proposal. The father was in favor of accepting it : his struggle heretofore had been so hard, that he could not bear the idea of missing an opportunity of advancing himself. But the son, fore- seeing the jealousies and heart-burnings which the joint engineer- ship would most probably create, recommended to his father the answer which Mr. Bradshaw gave, when shares were offered to the Duke of Bridgewater's Trustees in the Liverpool and Man- cliester line — " All or none !" " Well, I believe you are right," said Mr. Stephenson; and, returning to the Committee, he announced to them his decision. " Then 'all' be it !" replied the Chairman ; and he was at once appointed the engineer of the London and Birmingham Railway, in conjunction with his son. The line, as originally laid out, was to have had its London terminus at Maiden Lane, King's Cross, the site of the present Great Northern Station: it passed through Cashiobury and Grove Parks, the seats of Lord Essex and Lord Clarendon, and along the Hemel Hempstead and Little Goddesden valleys, in Hertfordshire. This latter poi-tion of the project excited a vehe- ment opposition on the part of the land-owners, who formed a powerful confederacy against the bill. The principal parties who took an active part in the opposition were Lady Bridgewater and her trustees. Lord Essex and Sir Astley Cooper, supported by the Grand Junction Canal Company. By their influence the land-owners throughout the counties of Hertford and Bucking- ham were completely organized in opposition to the measure. The time for preparing the plans to be deposited with the several clerks of the peace, as required by the standing orders of Parliament, being very limited, the necessary documents were prepared in great haste, and were deposited in such an imperfect OPPOSITION TO THE BILL. 305 State as to give just grounds for presuming that they would not pass the oi-deal of the Standing Orders Committee. It was also thought that alterations might be made in some parts of the railway which would remove the objections of the principal land- owners, and it was therefore determined to postpone the applica- tion to Parliament until the following session. In the meantime the opponents of the bill out of doors were not idle. Public meetings were held in most of the districts through wliich the line was projected to pass, under the presi- dency of the nobility and gentry, when it was unanimously determined that railways were wholly unnecessary. Numerous pamphlets were published, calling on the public to " beware of the bubbles," and holding up the promoters of railways to ridicule. They were compared to Sir John Long, and similar quacks, and pronounced fitter for Bedlam than to be left at large. The canal proprietors, land-owners, and road trustees, made common cause in decrying and opposing the projected line. The failure of rail- ways was still confidently predicted, notwithstanding the success of the Liverpool Railway; and it was industriously spread abroad that the locomotive engines, having proved a failure there, were immediately to be abandoned ! — a rumor which the directox's of the Liverpool and Manchester Company considered it necessaiy publicly to contradict. The feeling of opposition excited in the districts through which the line was intended to pass, was so great that it was with diffi- culty the surveys could be made. At one point the vigilance of the land-owners and their servants was such, that the surveyors were effectually prevented making the surveys by the light of day ; and it was only at length accomplished at night by means of dark lanthorns. Mr. Lecount mentions another instance of a clergyman, who made such alarming demonstrations of his oppo- sition, that the extraordinary expedient was resorted to of survey- ing his pi'operty during the time he was engaged in the pulpit. This was accomplished by having a strong force of surveyors in 20 306 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. readiness to commence their operations, and entering the clergy- man's grounds on the one side at the same moment that they saw him fairly off them on the other ; by a well-organized and systematic arrangement, each man concluded his allotted task just as the reverend gentleman concluded his sermon ; so that, before he left the church, the deed was done, and the sinners had all decaraiied. Similar opposition was offered at many other points, but ineffectually. The perseverance of Mr. R. Stephenson (who, in examining the country to ascertain the best line, walked over the whole intervening districts between London and Birmingham upwards of twenty times), and the patient industry of his survey- ors, under the direction of Mr. Gooch, overcame all obstacles ; and by the end of 1831, the requisite plans were deposited pre- paratory to an application being made to Parliament iu the ensuing session. The principal alterations made in the new line were at the London end ; the terminus being changed from Maiden Lane to a large piece of open land adjoining the Regent's Canal — the site of the present London and Northwestern Goods Station ; and also at Watford, where the direction of the line was altered so as entirely to avoid the parks of Lords Essex and Clarendon. This diversion, however, inflicted upon the public the inconven- ience of the Watford Tunnel, about a mile in length, and upon the company a largely increased outlay for its construction. The Herael Hempstead and Goddesden vallej^s were also avoided, and the line proceeded by the towns of Berkhampstead and Tring. It was expected that these alterations would have the effect of mitigating, if not of entirely averting, the powerful opposition of the land owners ; but it was found that, on the contrary, it was now more violent than ever, although all grounds of complaint in regard to their parks and residences had been entirely remov- ed. The most exaggerated alarms continued to be entertained, especially by those who had never seen a railway ; and, although there were a few country gentlemen who took a different view of THE BILL IN COMMITTEE. 307 the subject, when the bill for the altered line was introduced into Parliament in the session of 1832, the owners of nearly seven- eighths of the land required for the railway were returned as dissentients. It was, however, a noticeable fact, that Lords Der- by and Sefton, who had so vehemently opposed the Liverpool Railway in all its stages, were found amongst the assentients to the London and Birmingham line. The scheme had, it is true, many warm friends and supporters, but these were principally confined to classes possessing more intelligence than influence. Indeed, the change which was rapidly taking place in public opinion on the subject of railways, induced the promoters to an- ticipate a favorable issue to their application, notwithstanding the hostility of the land owners. They drew a favorable augury from the fact that the Grand Junction Canal Company, although still opposing the measure as strenuously as ever, so far as the influence of its proprietors collectively and individually extended, and watching all the proceedings of the bill with a jealous eye, did not openly appear in the ranks of its opponents, and, what was of still greater significance, did not open their purse-strings to supply funds for the opposition. When the bill went before the Committee of the Commons, a formidable array of evidence was produced ; all the railway ex- perience of the day was brought to bear in support of the meas- ure, and all that interested opposition could do was set against it The necessity for an improved mode of communication between London and Birmingham was clearly demonstrated ; and the en- gineering evidence was regarded as quite satisfactory. So strong an impression was made upon the Committee, that the result was no longer doubtful so far as the Commons were concerned ; but it was considered very desirable that the case should be fully brought out in evidence for the information of the public, and the whole of the witnesses in support of the bill, about a hundred in number, were examined at great length. The opponents confined themselves principally to cross-examination, without producino- 808 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPUENSON. direct evidence of their own ; reserving their main opposition for the House of Lords, where they knew that their strength lay. Not a single fact was proved against the great utility of the meas- ure, and the bill passed the Committee, and afterwards, the third reading, in the Commons, by large majorities. It was then sent to the House of Lords, and went into Committee, when a similar mass of testimony was again gone through during seven days. An overwhelming case was made out as before ; though an attempt was made to break down the evidence of the witnesses on cross-examination. The feasibility of the route was doubted, and the gi-eatest conceivable difficulties were sug- gested. Their lordships seemed to take quite a paternal interest in the protection of the public against possible loss by the forma- tion of the line. The Committee required that the promoters should prove the traffic to be brought upon the railway, and that the profits derived from the working, would pay a dividend of from six to eight per cent, upon the money invested. A few years after, the policy of Parliament completely changed in this respect. When the landed interest found railway companies paying from six to ten times the marketable value of the land taken, they were ready to grant duplicate lines through the same districts, without proving any traffic whatever ! It soon became evident, after the proceedings had been opened before the Committee, that the fate of the biU had been deter- mined before a word of the evidence had been heard. At that time the committees of the Lords were open to all peers ; and the promoters of the biU found, to their dismay, many of the peers who were avowed opponents of the measure as land owners, sitting as judges to decide its fate. Their principal object seemed to be, to bring the proceedings to a termination as quickly as possible. An attempt at negotiation was made in the course of the proceedings in committee, but failed. One party offered to the promoters to withdraw their opposition on payment to them of 10,000^. This disgraceful proposal was scouted ; the direc- THE BILL LOST IN COMMITTEE. 309 tors would not bribe high enough ; and the bill was lost, on the motion of Earl Brownlow — " That the case for the promoters of the bill having been concluded, it does not appear to the Commit- tee tliat they have made out such a case as would warrant the forcing of the proposed railway through the land and property of so great a proportion of dissentient land OAvners and proprietors." The vote of the Committee confirming the resolution, though carried by a large majority, was far from unanimous ; and, as the result had been foreseen, measures were immediately taken to neutralize its effect as regarded future operations. Not less than 32,000/. had been expended in preliminary and parliamentary expenses up to this stage ; but the promoters determined not to look back, and forthwith made arrangements for prosecuting the bill in a future session. A meeting of the friends of the meas- ure was held in London, attended by members of both Houses of Parliament, and by leading bankers and merchants ; and a series of resolutions was passed, declaring their conviction of the necessity for the railway, and deprecating the opposition by which it had been encountered. Lord Wharncliffe, who had acted as the chairman of the Lords Committee, attributed the failure of the bill entirely to the land owners ; and JMr. Glynn subsequently declared that they had tried to smother the bill by the high price which they demanded for their property. The result proved that the opposition had been really got up mainly for the purpose of being bought off; for the same bill, when brought before Parlia- ment in the following session, passed silently and almost without opposition. The mystery was solved by the appearance of a cir- cular issued by the directors of the company, in which it was stated, that they had opened " negotiations " with the most influ- ential of their opponents ; that " these measures had been suc- cessful to a greater extent than they had ventured to anticipate ; and the most active and formidable had been conciliated." An instructive commentary on the mode by which these noble lords and influential landed proprietors had been " conciliated," is pre- 310 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. sented by the simple fact that the estimate for land was nearly trebled, and that the owners were paid about 750,000?. for what had been originally estimated at 250,000/. The total expenses of carrying the bill through Parliament amounted to the frightful sum of 72,808/. The land owners having thus been " conciliated," the promoters of the measure were at length permitted to proceed with the for- mation of their great highway, and allowed to benefit the country by establishing one of the grandest public works that has ever been achieved in England, the utility of which may almost be pronounced unparalleled. Eighty miles of the railway were shortly under construction ; the works were let (within the esti- mates) to contractors, who were necessarily, for the most part, new to such work. The business of railway contractors was not then so well understood as it has since become. There were no leviathans among them, as there are now, able to contract for the formation of a line of railway hundreds of miles in length ; they were for the most part men of small capital and slender experi- ence. Their tools and machinery were imperfect ; they did not understand the economy of time and piece labor ; the workmen, as well as their masters, had stiU to learn their trade ; and every movement of an engineer was attended with outlays, which were the inevitable result of a new system of things, but which eacli succeeding day's experience tended to diminish. The difficulties encountered by the Messrs. Stephenson, in the execution of the London and Birmingham Railway, were thus very great ; but the most formidable of them originated in the character of the works themselves. Extensive tunnels had to be driven through unknown strata, and miles of underground exca- vation accomplished in order to form a level road from valley to valley under the intervening ridges. This kind of work was the newest of all to the contractors of that day. The experience of the Messrs. Stephenson in the collieries of the North, made them, of all living engineers, the best fitted to grapple with such diffi- THE KILSBY TUNNEL. 311 culties ; but even they, with all their practical knowledge, could not have foreseen or anticipated the formidable obstacles which were encountered in the execution of the Kilsby Tunnel. It will be remembered that the opposition to the railway on the part of the inhabitants of Northampton had compelled the engineer to avoid that town, and to carry the line through the Kilsby ridge. A tunnel was thus rendered necessary of about 2400 yai-ds in length, penetrating about 160 feet below the sur- face. The exact nature of the strata throughout could not be ascertained with precision, except by the expenditure of vast sums in boring. Before the contract was let, however, trial shafts were honestly sunk at different points, to enable the contractor to judge of the nature of the ground through which the excavation was to be carried. On this being, as it was supposed, sufficiently ascertained, advertisements for tenders were issued, and the work was let to a contractor for 90,000Z. The result cannot be better described than in the words of Sir F. Head, in his interesting account of the London and Northwestern Railway : * " The work was in busy progress, wlien, all of a sudden, it was ascertained that, at about 200 yards from the south end of the tunnel, there existed, ovei-laid by a bed of clay forty feet thick, a hidden quicksand, which extended 400 yards into the j^roposed tunnel, and which the trial shafts on each side of it had, almost miraculously, just passed without touching. " The traveler in Lidia could scarcely be more alai-med at 'he sudden sight of a crouching ti";er before him, than the contractor was at the unexpected appearance of this invincible enemy. Overwhelmed at the discovery, he instantly took his bed, and though he was liberally, or, to speak more correctly, justly re- lieved by the company from his engagement, the reprieve came too late, for he actually died ! " The question then arose, whether, in the face of this tremen- dous difficulty, the execution of the Kilsby Tunnel should be * "Stokei? and Pokers." London : Murray, pp. 19-21. 312 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. continued or abandoned. The general opinion of the several eminent engineers wlio were consulted, was against proceeding, and certainly the amount of the difficulties which were subse- quently incurred justified the verdict. But in science, as well as in war, the word ' mpossible ' can occasionally, by cool and extra- ordinary exertions, be divested of its first syllable ; and, accord- ingly, Mr. Robert Stephenson offering, after mature reflection, to undertake the responsibility of proceeding, he was duly author- ized to do so. " His first operation was, of course, to endeavor, by the power of steam-engines — the comrades of his life — to lower the w-ater with which he had to contend ; and although, to a certain degree, this attempt succeeded, yet by the di-aining of remote springs, and by the sinking of the water in wells at considerable distan- ces, it was soon ascertained that the quicksand in question cover- ed several square miles. " The tunnel, thirty feet high by thirty feet broad, arched at tlie top as well as the bottom, was formed of bricks laid in ce- ment, and the bricklayers were progressing in ' lengths ' averag- ing twelve feet, when those who were nearest the quicksand, on driving into the roof, were suddenly almost overwhelmed by a deluge of water which burst in upon them. As it was evident that no time was to be lost, a gang of workmen, pi'otected by the extreme power of the engines, were, w'ith their materials, placed on a raft ; and while, with the utmost celerity, they were complet- ing the walls of that short length, the water, in spite of every effort to keep it down, rose with such rapidity that, at the conclu- sion of the work, the men were so near being jammed against the roof, that the assistant engineer, Mr. Charles Lean, in charge of the party, jumped overboard, and then, swimming with a rope in his mouth, he towed the raft to the foot of the nearest working shaft, through which he and his men were safely lifted up into daylight, or, as it is termed by the miners, ' to grass.' '• The water now rose in the shaft, and, as it is called, ' drowned EXTORTIONS OF THE LAND OWNERS. 313 out ' the works. For a considerable time all the pumping appa- ratus appeared to be insufficient. Indeed, the effort threatened to be so hopeless, that the directors of the company almost deter- mined to abandon it ; but the engineer-in-chief, relying on the power of his engines, prayed for one fortnight more. Before that period expired, science triumphed over her subterranean foe, and — thanks to the inventors of the steam-engine — the water gradually lowered. " By the main strength of 1250 men, 200 horses, and thirteen steam-engines, not only was the work gradually completed, but during night and day, for eight months, the astonishing and almost incredible quantity of 1800 gallons per minute from the quick- sand alone was raised by Mr. Robert Stephenson, and conducted away ! " The time occupied, from the laying of the first brick to the completion of the work, was thirty months. The number of bricks used was 36,000,000 — sufficient to make a good footpath from London to Aberdeen (missing the Forth) a yard broad ! " The cost of executing the Kilsby Tunnel was, in consequence of these formidable and unforeseen difficulties, increased from 90,000/. (the amount of the original estimate) to about SoOjOOO/. Enormous sums were paid for land and compensation — far be- yond the amounts originally estimated. Thus, 3000/. were given for one piece of land, and 10,000/. for consequential damages, when it was afterwards made clear that the land had been greatly impi'oved in value by the formation of the railway. After com- pensation had been paid for land alleged to have been thus dete- riorated, the company, on purchasing any further quantity, had almost invariably to pay a higher price, on the ground of its in- creased value ! All sorts of payments were demanded on the most frivolous pretexts. The land owners discovered that they could demand accommodation bridges, whicli they did in large numbers. One originally demanded five, but afterwards came down to four, with an equivalent in the price of the bridge given 814 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. np. Then lie found he could do with three bridges, provided the company Avould pay him a further sum in hard cash, which they were ready to do ; and, in like manner, he gave up the remain- ing bridges, on being paid a further round sum : in fact, the bridges were wholly unnecessary, and had only been insisted on as a means of extorting money from the company. To these causes of increased expense must be added the rise in the prices of labor and materials, which took place shortly after the letting of the works, by which many of the contractors were ruined, no fewer than seven of the contracts having been thrown upon the company's hands. The directors had then to purchase all kinds of implements and materials at gi'eat expense, in order to carry on the works and avoid heavier loss. But the energy of the en- gineers, cordially supported by the directory and proprietors, en- abled them at length, after many years' anxiety, to bring the stu- pendous undertaking to a successful completion, though at a cost far beyond that which had been originally estimated. The estimates laid by Mr. Robert Stephenson before Parlia- ment amounted to 2,750,000/.; and it was then confidently ex- pected that the works would have been completed within this sum. The most eminent engineers of the day were brought forward to give evidence on the subject, and those of the greatest experience stated their opinion to be that the estimates were altogether too high. Mr. Walker said the prices allowed were 30 per cent, higher than any he could remember. JNlr. Locke considered them too high ; and Mr. Rastrick objected to support the estimates for the same reason. Yet the result proved them to have been much too low. The works were, it is ti'ue, let to the contractors under the sum estimated, but in consequence of the adverse circumstan- ces which occurred in the course of their execution, the expendi- ture had reached the immense amount of 5,000,000/., or about double the original estimate, before the line was opened for pub- lic traffic. Strong animadversions were made at the time upon tliis ex- COST OF THE "WORKS. 315 cessive expenditure ; but the circumstances -which we have stated — the obstacles encountered in the Kilsby and other tunnels, the rapid rise in the price of labor and materials, the extortions of the land owners (which it was impossible accurately to estimate), were sufficient, in a considerable degree, to account for the excess : in addition to which, it was a matter of the greatest difficulty for men of the very highest talent and experience then to form accu- rate estimates of the labor attending works of so stupendous a character, in the absence of the data since furnished by experi- ence. Mr. Eobert Stephenson, in his evidence before a Commit- , tee of the House of Commons in 1839, gave this further expla- nation : " The principal excess, or at least a very large item of the excess, arose from the stations on the line. The public required much larger accommodation at the stations than was originally contemplated. Li feet, at the time the estimate of the London and Birmingham Eailway was made, it was appre- hended that somethmg like 25,000/. or 30,000/. for a station at each end of the line was ample ; but they have exceeded 100,000/. I have no hesitation in saying that the expense of stations has been eight or ten-fold beyond the parliamentary esti- mate. The plans Avere on much too small a scale in the stations originally contemplated." " But," he remarked on another occa- sion,* " let individuals who make observations as to the excess- ive cost of the works as compai'ed with the estimates, look not at the commencement, but at their close. Let them recollect that those great works now spreading irresistibly, like network, all over the country, are exciting commercial enterprise, augmenting the national wealth, increasing our social comforts, and raising the nation in the scale of civilization. It is the end, therefore, that ought to be looked at, and not the beginning ; and you, con- tractors, have all contributed your mite, as well as myself, to pro- duce those glorious results." * Speech of Mr. Robert Stephenson at the dinner given to him by the contrattors for the London and Birmingham Railway, on the occasion of presenting him with a testimo- nial, November IGth, 1839. 316 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. It is i^robable, indeed, that had the projectors of the undertak- ing foreseen that it would cost as much as five millions sterling, they would have been deterred from entering upon it. As it was, however, the expenditure, though immense, was justified by the result ; for the excess in the traffic beyond the estimates, was even greater in proportion than the excess in the capital expen- diture. The line, of 112 miles in length, was opened on the 17th of September, 1838, and in the following year the receipts from passenger traffic alone amounted to 608,5 G4/. The company was enabled to pay its proprietors a large dividend ; and the results of the working were cited as sufficient grounds for pushing rail- ways in all directions. The magnitude of the works, which Avere unprecedented in England, was one of the most remarkable features in the under- taking. The following striking comparison has been made be- tween this railway and one of the greatest works of ancient times. The great Pyramid of Egypt was, according to Diodorus Siculus, constructed by three hundred thousand — according to Heroditus, by one hundred thousand — men. It required for its execution twenty years, and the labor expended upon it has been estimated as equivalent to lifting 15,733,000,000 of cubic feet of stone one foot high. "Whereas, if in the same manner the labor expended in constructing the London and Birmingham Railway be reduced to one common denomination, the result is 25,000,000,000 of cubic feet more than was lifted for the Great Pyramid ; and yet the English work was performed by about 20,000 men in less than five years. And whilst the Egyptian Avork was executed by a powerful monarch, concentrating upon it the labor and capital of a great nation, the English railway was constructed, in the face of every conceivable obstruction and difficulty, by a company of private individuals, out of their own resources, without the aid of government or the contribution of one farthing of the pub- lic money. CHAPTER XXVI. ADVANCE OF PUBLIC OPINION IN PAYOR OF RAILWAYS. NoTwiTHSTAKDiNG the decisive success of the Liverpool and Manchester project, the prejudices against railways and railway- traveling continued very strong. Their advantages were already fully known to the inhabitants of those districts through which they passed, for they had experienced their practical benefits in substantial reductions in the price of coal, in the carriage of mer chandise of all kinds, and in the cheap and rapid transit of their persons from place to place. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was regarded as a national wonder from the first ; and strangers resorted to Lancashire from all quarters, to witness the trains, and to travel in the wake of the locomotive. To witness a railway train some five and twenty years ago, was an event in one's life. But people at a distance did not see railways and railway trav- eling in the same light. The farther off, and the greater the ignorance which prevailed as to their modes of working, the greater, of course, was the popular alai-m. The towns of the South only followed the example of Northampton when they howled down the railways. It was proposed to carry a line through Kent, by the populous county town of Maidstone. But a public meeting was held to oppose the project ; and the railway had not a single supporter amongst the townspeople. The rail- way, when at length formed through Kent, passed Maidstone at (317) 318 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. a distance ; but in a few years the Maidstone burgesses, like those of Northampton, became clamorous for a railway ; and a branch was formed for their accommodation. Again, in a few years, they complained that the route was circuitous, as they had com- pelled it to be ; consequently another and shorter line was formed, to bring Maidstone into more direct communication with the me- tropolis. In like manner, the London and Bristol (afterwards the Great Western) Railway was vehemently opposed by the people of the towns through which the line Avas projected to pass ; and Avhen the bill was thrown out by the Lords — after 30,000Z. had been expended by the promoters — the inhabitants of Eton assembled, under the presidency of the Marquis of Chandos, to rejoice and congratulate themselves and the country on the defeat of the measure. When Colonel Sibthorpe openly declared his hatred of "those infernal railroads," he only expressed in a strong manner the feeling which then pervaded the country gentry and many of the middle classes in the southern districts. That respectable noble- man, the late Eai'l of Harewood, when it was urged by the gen- tleman Avho waited upon him on behalf of the Liverpool and Manchester Company, that great advantages to trade and com- merce were to be anticipated from the facilities Avhich would be afforded by railways, refused to admit the force of the argument, as he doubted whether any new impetus to manufactures would be advantageous to the country. And Mr. H. Berkley, the intel- ligent member for Cheltenham, in hke manner, strongly expressed the views of his class, when, at a public meeting held in that town, he declared his utter detestation of railways, and wished that the concoctors of every such scheme, with their solicitors and engin- eers, were at rest in Paradise ! " Nothing," said he, " is more distasteful to me than to hear the echo of our hills reverberating with the noise of hissing railroad engines running tlu-ough the heart of our hunting country, and destroying that noble sport to which I have been accustomed from my childhood," Colonel SANITARY OBJECTIONS TO RAILWAYS. 319 Sibthorpe even went so far as to declare that he " would rather meet a highwayman, or see a burglar on his premises, than an engineer ; he should be much more safe, and, of the two classes, he thought the former more respectable ! " Railways had thus, like most other great social improvements, to force their way against the fierce antagonism of united igno- rance and prejudice. Public-spirited obstructives were ready to choke the invention at its birth, on the ground of tlie general good. The forcible invasion of property — the intrusion of public roads into private domains — the noise and nuisance caused by locomotives, and the danger of fire to the adjoining property, were dwelt upon ad nauseam. Then the breed of liorses would DC destroyed ; counh-y innkeepers would be ruined ; })osting towns would become depopulated ; the turnpike roads would be deserted; and the institution of the English stage-coach, with its rosy-gilled coachman and guard, known to every buxom landlady at roadside country inns, would be destroyed forever. Fox-covers and game- preserves would be interfered with ; agricultural communication destroyed ; land thrown out of cultivation ; land owners and farmei's alike reduced to beggary ; the poor-rates increased in consequence of the numbers of laborers thrown out of employ- ment by the railways ; and all this in order that Liverpool, Man- chester and Birmingham manufacturers, merchants, and cotton- spinners, might establish a monstrous monopoly in railroads ! However, tliei*e was always this consolation to wind uj) with — that the canals would beat the railroads, and that, even if the latter were made, the public would not use them, nor trust either their persons or their goods to the risks of railway accidents and explosions. They would thus prove only monuments of the folly of their projectors, whom they must inevitably involve in ruin and disaster. Sanitary objections were also urged in opposition to railways ; and many wise doctors strongly inveighed against tunnels. Sir Anthony Carlisle insisted that " tunnels would expose healthy 320 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. people to- colds, catarrhs, and consumption." The noise, the darkness, and the dangers of tunnel traveling were depicted in all their horrors. Worst of all, however, was " the destruction of the atmospheric air," as Dr. Lardner termed it. Elaborate calculations were made by that gentleman to prove that the pro- vision of ventilating shafts would be altogether insufficient to prevent the dangers arising fi-om the combustion of coke, pro- ducing carbonic acid gas, which, in large quantities, was fatal to life. He showed, for instance, that in the proposed Box Tunnel, on the Great Western Railway, the passage of a load of 100 tons would deposit about 3090 lbs. of noxious gases, incapable of sup- porting life ! Here was an uncomfortable prospect of suffocation for passengers between London and Bristol. But steps were adopted to allay these formidable sources of terror. Solemn documents, in the form of certificates, were got up and published, signed by several of the most distinguished physicians of the day, attesting the perfect wholesomeness of tunnels, and the purity of the air in them.* Perhaps they went further than was necessary, in alleging, what certainly subsequent experience has not verified, that the atmosphere of the tunnel was " dry, of an agreeable tem- perature, and free from smell." Mr. Stephenson declared his conviction that a tunnel twenty miles long could be worked safely, and without more danger to life than a railway in the open air ; but at the same time, he admitted that tunnels were nuisan- ces, which he endeavored to avoid wherever practicable. Meanwhile the extension of railways in various directions con- tinued to be discussed ; but the legislature took no directing part in the matter. Their vis inertice was indeed at length overcome ; and by dint of repeated pressure from without, carried on at great cost, the railway system was gradually extended. Parhament * See Report of Experiments made in the Primrose Hill Tunnel of the London and Bir- mingham Railway, signed by Drs. Paris and Watson, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Phillips, and Mr. 0. Lucas ; and Report on the Leeds and Selby Tunnel, signed by Drs. Dayy, Roth- man, and Williamson. THE LOCOMOTIVE ON COMMON ROADS. 821 could not disregard the urgent and repeated petitions of the com- mercial towns of the North for improved postal communication. But the legislature was dragged on ; it did not by any means aspire to guide or direct. Whilst associations of private persons, mostly belonging to the trading classes, were endeavoring to force on the adoption of railways, the English Lords and Commons — unlike the government of Belgium, which early adopted the rail- way system — occupied themselves in discussing the improvement of the turnpike roads. The country gentlemen determined to mend and patch up the old highways as well as they could. Their motto was stare super antiquas vias. The macadamized system was becoming effete, but they did not know it. The sur- prising performances of the "Eockct" at Rainhill opened their eyes to the significance of the locomotive engine ; but they could not yet rise above the idea of a macadamized road, and hence they hailed the proposal to apply the locomotive to turnpikes. In the year 1831 the House of Commons appointed a Committee to inquire into, and report upon — not the railway system — but the applicability of the steam-carriage to traveling on common roads. Before this Committee, Mr. Trevethick, Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, Nathaniel Ogle, and others, were examined ; and the Committee were so satisfied with their evidence, that they reported decidedly in favor of the road-locomotive system. Though rail- ways were ignored, yet the steam-carriage was recognized. But there are limits to the wisdom even of a parliamentary committee. Although many trials of steam-carriages were made by Sir Charles Dance, Mr. Hancock, Mr. Gurney, Sir James Anderson, and others, and though the House of Commons had reported in their favor, Mr. Stephenson's first verdict, pronounced upon them many years before — that they could never successfully compete with locomotive engines on railroads, nor even with horses on common roads — was fully borne out by the result ; for the steam-carriage projects, after ruining many speculators and experimenters, were at length abandoned in favor of railways, 21 322 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. which extended in all directions. Another attempt was, how- ever, made in 1836, in favor of the common-road locomotive system ; when a bill was passed through the House of Commons to repeal the acts imposing prohibitory tolls on steam-carriages. When the bill went into the Lords, it was referred to a commit- tee, who took evidence on the subject at great length. Many witnesses were examined in support of steam-carriages, including Mr. Gurney, Mr. Hancock, and others, who strongly testified to their economy and efficiency. Their lordships then called before them Mr. Stephenson, whose experience as a locomotive engineer entitled him to be heard on such a subject. " The steam-carriages," he said, " will never do any good on a common road : I do not see the slightest possibility of it." The principal difficulty, in his opinion, was the friction between the wheel and the road — so great, that it was as much as the road-engine could do to drag its own weight. Then, from the inevitable inequalities in common roads, the machinery of the road-engine would be liable to constantly-recurring accidents, which no springs yet invented would enable it to avoid. But even admitting that the road-engine could be made to go regulai- ly, he was quite confident that it could not be made to go so as to pay, even though all the tolls were taken off. Besides these objections, there was the element of danger in the road locomo- tive ; for its boiler could not be constructed so small and so light as to enable it to do any heavy work without risk of bursting. He then contrasted it with the railway locomotive. " Our engines," he said, " are from twenty to thirty horse power, whilst those on the common roads are not more than three or four horse power. Tiie road locomotive must necessarily be limited, whereas the power of the railway locomotive can be increased to almost any extent. We have engines now constructed that can haul 400 tons on a level railway, taking a large ship-load of goods in one train, at fifteen miles an hour. I will engage to make a locomo- tive of a hundred horse power to run upon a railway. I have THE UNDERTAKING REPORTED AGAINST. 323 already made some of fifty horse power for Belgium and the United States." His evidence was so strong and conclusive, that it could not fail to have gi'eat weight with their lordships ; and in their report to the House, they said : " It appeal's that some experienced engineers, after a careful examination of the expense attendant upon it (the common-road steam-carriage), have been induced to abandon all hopes of its success as a profitable undertaking. It is probable, therefore, that any encouragement on the part of the legislature would only give rise to wild speculations, ruinous to those engaging in them, and to experiments dangerous to the public." * However unjust the prohibitory tolls on steam- carriages might be, there is no doubt that the decision of the committee as to the impracticability of the steam-carriage system was correct, and that there was no hope of its ever competing successfully on common roads with the locomotive railway. The highest speed which the promoters promised was ten miles an hour ; but this would no longer satisfy the public requirements, now that the Liverpool and Manchester Railway had demonstra- ted the practicability and the safety of regular traveling at thirty and forty miles an hour. The House of Commons prophecy, that " a railway could never enter into successful competition with a canal, and that, even with the best locomotive engine, the average rate would be but three miles and a half per hour," f was now laughed at, because so ludicrously at variance with every-day facts. The opening of the great main line of railroad commimication between London, Liverpool, and Manchester, in 1838, shortly proved the fallaciousness of the rash prophecies promulgated by the opponents of railways. The proprietors of the canals were * Report of the Lords' Committee appointed to consider the Bill, entitled " An Act to repeal such Portions of all Acts as impose prohibitory Tolls on Steam-Carriages, and to substitute other Tolls on an equitable Footing with Horse-Carriages."' Session 1836. t Hansard. 2d series, vol. iv, p. 853. 324 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. astounded by the fact that, notwithstanding the immense traffic conveyed by rail, their own traffic and receipts continued to in- crease ; and that, in common with other interests, they fully shared in the expansion of trade and commerce which had been so elFectually promoted by the extension of the railway system. The cattle-owners were equally amazed to find the price of horse- flesh increasing with the extension of railways, and that the number of coaches running to and from the new railway stations gave employment to a greater number of horses than under the old stage-coach system. Those Avho had prophesied the decay of the metropolis, and the ruin of the suburban cabbage-growers, in consequence of the approach of railways to London,* were also disappointed. For, whilst the new roads let citizens out of London, they let country people in. Their action, in this respect, was centripetal as well as centrifugal. Tens of thousands who had never seen the metropolis could now visit it expeditiously and cheaply. And Londoners who had never visited the country, or but rarely, were enabled, at little cost of time or money, to see green fields and clear blue skies, far from the smoke and bustle of town. If the dear suburban-grown cabbages became depre- ciated in value, there were truck-loads of fresh-grown country cabbages to make amends for the loss : in this case, the " partial evil" was a far more general good. The food of the metropolis became rapidly improved, especially in the supply of wholesome meat and vegetables. And then the price of coals — an article which, in this country, is as indispensable as daily food to all classes — was greatly reduced. What a blessing to the metro- * " The first practical effect," said the John Bull, in September, 1838, " of these unnat- ural forcings of humanity will be, the reduction in value of all property near London, and the proportionate increase of value in property more remote. All the delicate pro- duce of the garden and the field, which round town is cultivated with the most assiduous care, and consequently sold at a high and remunerating price, will be excluded from our markets : fine fruit, fine vegetables, raised and produced at half, or less than half the cost, will be brought into competition with those which have hitherto been raised and ripened by a great expenditure in high wages, and carried to the place of sale by teams of horses kept at a considerable expense. AU this must end." UNFULFILLED PROPHECIES OF EVIL. 325 politan poor is described in this single fact ! And George Ste- phenson was not only the inventor of the system of internal communication by which coals were made cheaper in London, but he was also the originator of the now gigantic trade in coal conveyed to the metropolis by railway. The prophecies of ruin and disaster to landlords and farmers were equally confounded by the opening of the London and Bir- mingham Railway. The agricultural communications, so far from being " destroyed," as had been predicted, were immensely improved. The farmers were enabled to buy their coals, lime, and manure for less money, whilst they obtained a readier access to the best markets for their stock and farm-produce. Notwithstanding the predictions to the contrary, their cows gave milk as before, their sheep fed and fattened, and even skit- tish horses ceased to shy at the passing locomotive. The smoke of the engines did not obscure the sky, nor were fju-m-yards burnt up by the fire thrown from the locomotives. The forming classes were not reduced to beggary ; on the contrary, they soon felt that, far from having any thing to dread, they had very much good to expect from the extension of railways. Landlords also found that they could get higher rents for farms situated near a railway, than at a distance from one. Hence they became clamorous for " sidings." They felt it to be a griev- ance to be placed at a distance from a station. After a railway had been once opened, not a landlord would consent to have the line taken from him. Owners who had fought the promoters before Parliament, and compelled them to pass their domains at a distance, at a vastly-increased expense in tunnels and devia- tions, now petitioned for branches and nearer station accommoda- tion.* Those who held property near towns, and had extorted ♦ Some landlords were slow in learning the advantages of railways. When, many years later, an important railway bill was before Parliament, a noble marquis compelled the company to pass his mansion at a distance of at least fiye miles, to do which it was neces- sary to construct two expensive tunnels When the line was opened, his lordship felt the exceeding inconvenience of being so far distant from a railway station, and requested 326 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. large sums as compensation for the anticipated deterioration in the value of their building land, found a new demand for it springing up at greatly advanced prices. Land was now adver- tised for sale, with the attraction of being "near a railway station." The prediction that, even if railways were made, the public would not use them, was also completely falsified by the results. The ordinary mode of fast traveling for the middle classes had heretofore been by mail-coach and stage-coach. Those who could not afford to pay the high prices charged for such conveyances went by wagon, and the poorer classes trudged on foot. George Stephenson was wont to say that he hoped to sec the day when it would be cheaper for a poor man to travel by railway than to walk ; and not many years passed before his expectation was fulfilled. In no country in the world is time worth more money than in England ; and by saving time — the critei'ion of distance — the railway proved a great benefactor to men of industry in all classes. Many deplored the inevitable downfall of the old stage- coach system. There was to be an end of that delightful variety of incident usually attendant on a journey by road. The rapid scamper across a fine country on the outside of the four-horse "Express," or "Highflyer;" the seat on the box beside Jehu, or the equally coveted place near the facetious guard behind ; the journey amid open green fields, through smiling villages and fine old towns, where the stage stopped to change horses and the passengers to dine — was all very delightful in its way; and many regretted that tliis old-fashioned and pleasant style of traveling was about to pass away. But it had its dark side also. Any one who remembers the journey by stage from Manchester to London will associate it with recollections and sensations of not unmixed delight. To be perched for twenty-four hours, exposed to all the company to provide a branch for his accommodation. As he had already put them to enormous and unnecessary expense, they respectfully declined doing so, and he ha* since been under the necessity of himself constructing a branch at a cost of 160,000/. ■which he has requested the parent company to do him the favor of working for him. STAGE-COACH AND RAILWAY TRAVELING. 327 weathers, on the outside of a coach, trying in vain to find a soft seat — sitting now with the face to the wind, rain, or sun, and now with the back — without any shelter such as the commonest penny-a-mile parliamentary train now daily provides — was a miserable undertaking, looked forward to with horror by many whose business called upon them to travel frequently between the provinces and the metropolis. Nor were the inside passengers more agreeably accommodated. To be closely packed up in a little inconvenient, straight-backed vehicle, where the cramped limbs could not be in the least extended, nor the wearied frame indulge in any change of posture, was felt by many to be a ter- rible thing. Then there were the constantly-recurring demands, not always couched in the politest terms, for an allowance to the driver every two or three stages, and to the guard every six or eight ; and if the gratuity did not equal their expectations, growl- ing and open abuse were not unusual. These desagremens, together with the exactions practiced on travelers by inn-keepers, seriously detracted from the romance of stage-coach traveling ; and there was a general disposition on the part of the public to change the system for a better. The avidity with which the public at once availed themselves of the railways proved that this better system had been discover- ed. Notwithstanding the reduction of the coach fares between London and Birmingham to one-third of their previous rate, the public preferred traveling by the railway. They saved in time ; and they saved in money, taking the whole expense into account. In point of comfort there could be no doubt as to the infinite superiority of the railway carriage. But there remained the question of safety, which had been a great bug-bear witli the early opponents of railways, and was made the most of by the coach proprietors to deter the public from using them. It was predicted that trains of passengers would be blown to pieces, and that none but fools would entrust their persons to the conduct of an explosive machine such as the locomotive. It appeared, how- 328 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. ever, that during the first eight years not fewer than five millions of passengers had been conveyed along the Liverpool and Man- chester Railway, and of this vast number only two persons had lost their lives by accident. During the same period, the loss of life by the upsetting of stage-coaches had been immensely greater in proportion. The public were not slow, therefore, to detect the fact, that traveling by railways was greatly safer than traveling by common road ; and in all districts penetrated by railways the coaches were very shortly taken off from want of support. Mr. Stephenson himself had a narrow escape in one of the stage-coach accidents so common twenty years ago, but which are already almost forgotten. While the Birmingham line was under construction, he had occasion to travel from Ashby-de-la- Zouche to London by coach. He was an inside passenger with several others; and the outsides wei'e pretty numerous. When within ten miles of Dunstable, he felt, from the rolling of the coach, that one of the linch-pins securing the wheels had given way, and that the vehicle must upset. He endeavored so to fix himself in his seat, holding on firmly by the arm-straps, that he might save himself on whichever side the coach fell. The coach soon toppled over, and fell crash upon the road, amidst the shrieks of his fellow passengers and the smashing of glass. He imme- diately pulled himself up by the arm-strap above him, let down the coach window, and climbed out. The coachman and pas- sengers lay scattered about on the road, stunned, and some of them bleeding, whilst the horses were plunging in their harness. Taking out his pocket knife, he at once cut the traces and set the horses free. He then went to the help of the passengers, who were all more or less hurt. The guard had his arm broken ; and the driver was seriously cut and contused. A scream from one of his fellow-passenger "insides" here attracted his attention: it proceeded from an elderly lady, whom he had before observed to be decorated with one of the enormous bonnets in fashion at that time. Opening the coach door he lifted the lady out ; and ARISTOCRATIC PREJUDICES OVERCOME. 329 her principal lamentation was that her large bonnet had been crushed beyond remedy ! Mr. Stephenson then proceeded to the nearest village for help, and saw the passengers i^rovided with proper assistance before he himself went foi'ward on his journey. It was some time before the more opulent classes, who could afford to post to town in aristocratic style, became reconciled to railway traveling. The old families did not relish the idea of being conveyed in a train of passengers of all ranks and condi- tions, in which the shopkeeper and the peasant were carried along at the same speed as the duke and the baron — the only difference being in price. It was another deplorable illustration of the leveling tendencies of the age.* It put an end to that gradation of rank in traveling, which was one of the few things left by which the nobleman could be distinguished from the Manchester manufiicturer and bagman. So, for a time, many of the old families sent forward their servants and luggage by railway, and condemned themselves to jog along the old highway in the ac- customed family chariot, dragged by country post-horses. But the superior comfort of the railway shortly recommended itself to even the oldest families ; posting went out of date ; post-horses wei'e with difficulty to be had along even the great highroads ; and nobles and servants, manufacturers and peasants, alike shared in the comfort, the convenience and the dispatch of railway traveling. The late Dr. Arnold of Rugby regarded the opening of the London and Birmingham line as but another step accom- * At a meeting of the Chesterfield Mechanics' Institute, at which Mr. Stephenson was present, one of the speakers said of him, " Known as he is wherever steam and iron have opened the swift lines of communication to our countrjmen, and regarded by all as the Father of Railways, he might he called, in the most honorable acceptation of the term, the first and greatest leveler of the age." Mr. Stephenson joined heartily in the laugh which followed this description of himself. Sir Humphry Davy was once similarly char- acterized; but the remark was somewhat differently appreciated. When traveling on the Continent, a distinguished person about a foreign court inquired who and what he was, never having heard of his scientific fame. Upon being told that his discoveries had '^revolutionized chemistry," the courtier promptly replied, "I hate all revolutionists; his presence wiU not be acceptable here." 330 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. plished in the great march of civilization. "I rejoice to see it," he said, as he stood on one of the bridges, and watched the train flashing along, and away through the distant hedge-rows — "I rejoice to see it, and think that feudality is gone forever. It is so great a blessing to think that any one evil is really extinct." It was long before the late Duke of Wellington would trust liimself behind a locomotive. The fatal accident to Mr. Huskis- son, which had happened before his eyes, contributed to prejudice him strongly against railways ; and it was not until the year 1843 that he performed his first trip on the Southwestern Railway, in attendance upon Her Majesty. Prince Albert had for some time been accustomed to travel by railway alone ; but in 1842, the Queen began to make use of the same mode of conveyance between "Windsor and London, after which the antipathies of even the most prejudiced were eifectually set at rest. CHAPTER XXVII, MIDLAND RAILWAYS. Mr. Stephexsox resided in Livei'iDool until after the com- pletion and opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. He then removed to Alton Grange, near Ashby-de-la-Zouche, in Leicestershire, where he lived for several years. Whilst his son Robert was engaged as engineer in superintending the construc- tion of the Leicester and Swannington Railway in 1830, his ex- perience as a coal-viewer and practical geologist suggested to him that coal was to be found in the estate of Snibston, near Ashby, then advertised for sale, and lying in the immediate neighborhood of the line of railway. He mentioned the circum- stance to his father, who inspected the ground, and came to the same conclusion. The large manufacturing town of Leicester, about fourteen miles distant, had up to that time been exclusively supplied with coal brought by canal from Derbyshire ; and Mr. Stephenson was quick to perceive that the railway under construction, from Swannington to Leicester, would furnish him with a ready mar- ket for any coals which he might find at Snibston. Having induced two of his Liverpool friends to join him in the venture, the Snibston estate was purchased in 1831 ; and Mr. Stephenson removed liis home from Liverpool to Alton Grange, for the pur- pose of superintending the sinking of the pit. He traveled by (331) 332 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. gig with his wife — his fjivorite horse "Bobby" performing the journey by easy stages. Sinking operations were immediately commenced, and proceed- ed satisfactorily until the old enemy, water, burst in upon the workmen, and threatened to drown them out. But by means of efficient pumping engines, and the skillful casing of the shaft with segments of cast iron — a process called "tubbing," which Mr. Stephenson was the first to adopt in the Midland counties — it was eventually made water-tight, and the sinking proceeded. When a depth of 166 feet had been reached, a still more formi- dable difficulty presented itself — one which had baffled former sinkers, and deterred them from further operations. This was a dyke of fused granite, which had been brought down by vol- canic dction from the adjacent Charnwood Forest range, and here overlapped the coal-bed of the district. Mi*. Stephenson fell backu|v^n his old motto, "Persevere:" he determined to go on boring; and down through the solid granite he went until, twen- ty-two f(-et lower, he came upon the coal measures. In the meantiTixe, however, lest the boring at this point should prove unsuccessful, he had commenced sinking another pair of shafts about a quarter of a mile west of the "fault;" and after about nine months' labor he reached the principal seam, called the "main coal." The works were then opened out on a large scale, and Mr. Stephenson had the pleasure and good fortune to send the first train of main coal to Leicester by railway. The price was im- mediately reduced there to about 8s. a ton, effecting a pecuniary saving to the inhabitants of the town of about 40,000/. per an- num, or equivalent to the whole amount then collected in govern- ment taxes and local rates, besides giving an impetus to the man- ufacturing prosperity of the place, which has continued down to the present day. The correct and scientific principles upon which he conducted his mining operations at Snibston, offered a salutary example to the neighboring colliery owners. The nu- PROMOTES LOCAL IMPROVEMENTS. 333 merous improvements which he introduced were freely exhibited to all, find thej were afterwards reproduced in many forms all over the Midland Counties, greatly to the advantage of the min- ing interests. At the same time Mr. Stephenson endeavored to extend the benefit of railways throughout the district in which he now re- sided. He suggested to Lord Stamford the importance of con- structing a branch line from the Leicester and Swannington Railway through his property, principally for the purpose of opening out his fine granite quarries at Groby. The valuable advice was taken by Lord Stamford, and Mr. Stephenson laid out the line for him and superintended the works gratuitously. Another improvement which he effected for Lord Talbot proved of even greater pecuniaiy value. He contrived for his lordship, with no slight difficulty, a plan for "tubbing off" the fresh water from the salt at his mines near Tamworth, which enabled the salt works there to be subsequently carried on to a great profit, which had not before been practicable. Mr. Stephenson was less successful in his endeavors to induce the late Marquis of Hastings to consent to the Birmingham and Derby Railway, of which he was the engineer, passing through the mineral district of Ashby- de-la-Zouche. The Marquis was the principal owner of the col- liery property in the neighborhood, and Mr. Stephenson calcu- lated upon his lordship's influence in support of a scheme so certain to increase the value of his estate. But the marquis, like many others of his class, did not yet detect the great advant- ages of railways, and he threatened his determined opposition if the Derby line were attempted to be brought through his coal- field. The line was consequently taken further to the west, by way of Burton ; and thus Ashby for a time lost the benefits of railway communication. Twenty years elapsed before Mr. Ste- phenson's designs for its accommodation were carried into effect. Nor was Mr. Stephenson less attentive to the comfort and well-being of those immediately dependent upon him — the work- 834 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. people of the Snibston colliery and their families. Unlike many of those large employers who have "sprung from the ranks," he was one of the kindest and most indulgent of masters. He would have a fair day's work for a fair day's wages ; but he never for- got that the employer had his duties as well as his rights. First of all, he attended to the proper home accommodation of his work-people. He erected a village of comfortable cottages, each provided with a snug little garden. He was also instrumental in erecting a church adjacent to the works, as well as church schools for the education of the colliers' children ; and with that broad catholicity of sentiment which distinguished him, he further provided a chapel and a school-house for the use of the Dissent- ing portion of the colliers and their families — an example of benevolent liberality which was not without its salutary influence on the neighboring employers. When at home, in the intervals of his now extensive business as a railway engineer, Mr. Stephenson delighted to snatch an occasional hour to indulge his love of rural life. When he could, he went bird-nesting in spring, and nutting in autumn ; occasion- ally he did a little gardening, or took a rural ride on his favorite " Bobby," now growing old.* His uniform kindness and good temper, and his communicative intelligent disposition, made him a great favorite with the neighboring farmers, to whom he would volunteer much valuable advice on agricultural operations, drain- age, ploughing, and labor-saving processes. Shortly after ]Mr. Stephenson had settled down at Alton Grange, railway projects of gi-eat magnitude began to spring up all over England, and he was often called away for the purpose of making surveys, and conferring with committees of directors as to their parliamentary procedure. For several years he spent most of his time in traveling about on such business, besides fre- quently going down to Lancashire to watch over the working of * " Bobby " was about twenty years old when he died, in 18i5. During the last few years of his life he was a pensioner, living in clover and doing no work. HIS BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 335 the Liverpool and Manchester line. His correspondence increas- ed so much that he found it necessary to engage a private secre- tary, who accompanied him on his journeys. He was himself exceedingly averse to writing letters. The comparatively ad- vanced age at which he learnt the art of Avriting, and the nature of his duties while engaged at the Killingworth colliery, pre- cluded that facility in correspondence which only constant prac- tice can give. He possessed, however, great facility in dictation, and was very particular and precise as to the terms in which his letters must be written. He also had the power of laboring con- tinuously at dictation ; the gentleman who acted as his secretary, in the year 1835, stating that during his busy season, he one day dictated not fewer than thirty-seven letters, several of them em- bodying the results of much close thinking and calculation. On another occasion, he dictated reports and letters for twelve con- tinuous hours, until his secretary was ready to drop off his chair from sheer exhaustion, and at length he pleaded for a suspension of the labor. This great mass of correspondence, although closely bearing upon the subjects under discussion, was not, how- ever, of a kind to supply the biographer with matter for quota- tion, or to give that insight into the Hfe and character of the writer which the letters of literary men so often furnish. They were, for the most part, letters of mere business, relating to works in progress, parliamentary contests, new surveys, estimates of cost, and railway policy — curt, and to the point ; in short, the letters of a man, every moment of whose time was precious. Hence, also, there is very little record of Mr. Stephenson's private life during this busy period. For he had scarcely a mo- ment that he could call his own. What with the business of his colliery, his locomotive manufactory, and the various railways of which he was the principal engineer, there was little time left for private intercourse. During the three years ending in 1837 — perhaps the busiest years of his life — his secretary traveled with him by post-chaise alone upwards of twenty thousand miles, 336 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. and yet six months of the whole time were spent in London. During this period, he was engaged in the survey of the North Midland, extending from Derby to Leeds ; the York and North Midland, from Normanton to York ; the Manchester and Leeds ; the Birmingham and Derby, and the Sheffield and Rotherham Railways ; the whole of these, of which he was principal engi- neer, having been authorized in 183G. Fortunately, Mr. Stephen- son i^ossessed a facility of sleeping, which enabled him to pass through this enormous amount of fatigue and labor without in- jury to his health. Pie had been trained in a hard school, and could bear with ease conditions which, to men more softly nur- tured, would have been the extreme of physical discomfort. Many, many nights he snatched his sleep while traveling in his chaise ; and at break of day he would be at work, surveying until dark, and this for weeks in succession. His Avhole powers seemed to be under the control of his will, for he could wake at any hour, and go to work at once. It was difficult for secretaries and assistants to keep up with such a man. As an example of the nature of Mr. Stephenson's labors about this period, we give the following epitome of two of his journeys, upon which he entered immediately after the conclusion of the lieavy pai'liamentary session of 1836 : First Journey. August 4th. — Traveled from Alton Grange to Burton, and on to the Foxhall summit on the Birmingham and Derby Railway ; then to Ingestre Hall, to examine Lord Talbot's saltworks, and thence to Lichfield. August 5th. — Lichfield to Birmingham, to examine the ground for the terminal station of the Birmingham and Derby Railway ; then on to Derby with Mr. Glynn (director), and Mr. Carter, (solicitor.) August 6tli. Engaged at Derby all day with the corporation, conferring with them as to the site of the station for the Birmingham and Derby and Midland Railways ; then examining the Holmes, and jour- ney home by Burton. Second Journey. August 9th. — Alton Grange to Derby and HARD WORK. 337 Matlock ; and forward by mail to Manchester, to meet the com- mittee of the South Union Railway. August 10th. — Manchester to Stockport, to meet committees of the Manchester and Leeds Railway ; then to Livei'pool, to meet directors of the Chester and Birkenhead, and Chester and Crewe Railways. August 11th. — Liverpool to AVoodside, to meet committee of the Chester and Birkenhead line ; journey with them along the proposed railway to Chester; then back to Liverpool. August 12th. — Liverpool to Manchester, to meet directors of the Manchester and Leeds railway, and traveling with them over the works then in progress. August 13th. — Continued journey over the works, and arrival at Wakefield ; thence to York. August 14th. — Meeting with ]Mr. Hudson at York, and journey from York to Newcastle. August loth. — At Newcastle, working up arrears of correspondence. August 16th. — Meeting with ]Mr. Brandling as to the station for the Brandling Junction at Gateshead, and stations at other parts of the line. August 17th. — Newcastle to Carlisle, to inspect the Mary port line. August 18 th. — Carlisle to Wigton and Mary- port, examining the railway. August 19th. — Maiyport to Car- lisle, continuing the inspection. August 20th. — At Carlisle, ex- amining the ground for a station ; and working up correspondence. August 21st, — Carlisle to Dumfries by mail; forward to Ayr by chaise, proceeding up the valley of the Nith, through Thomhill, Sanquhar and Cumnock. August 2 2d. — Meeting with promo- ters of the Glasgow, Kilmarnock and Ayr railway, and journey along the proposed line ; meeting with the magistrates of Kil- marnock at Beith, and journey with them over Mr. Gale's pro- posed line to Kilmarnock. August 23d. — From Kilmarnock along Mr. Miller's proposed line, to Beith, Paisley and Glasgow. August 24th. — Examination of site of proposed station at Glas- gow ; meeting wdth the directors ; then from Glasgow, by Falkirk and Linlithgow, to Edinburgh, meeting there with Mr. Grainger, engineer, and several of the committee of the proposed Edin- burgh and Dunbar Railway. August 25th. — Examining the site 22 338 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. of the proposed station at Edinburgh ; then to Dunbar, by Por- tobello and Haddington, examining the proposed line of railway. August 26th. — Dunbar to Tommy Grant's, to examine the sum- mit of the country towards Berwick, with a view to a through line to Newcastle ; then return to Edinburjirh. August 27th. — ' CO At Edinburgh, meeting the provisional committee of the pro- posed Edinburgh and Dunbar Railway. August 28th. — Journey from Edinburgh through INIelrose and Jedbui'gh to Horsley, along the route of Mr. Richardson's proposed railway across Carter Fell. August 29th. — From Horsley to Mr. Brandling's, then on to Newcastle ; engaged on the Brandling Junction Rail- way. August 30th. — Engaged with Mr. Brandling ; after which, meeting a deputation from Maryport. August 31. — Meeting with Mr. Brandling and others as to the direction of the Brand- ling Junction in connection with the Great North of England line, and the course of the railway through Newcastle ; then on to York. September 1st. — At York ; meeting Avith York and North Midland directors ; then journeying over Lord Howden's property, to arrange for a deviation ; examining the proposed site of the station at York. September 2d. — At York, giving in- structions as to the survey ; then to Manchester, by Leeds. September 3d. — At Manchester ; journey to Stockport Avith Mr. Bidder and Mr. Bourne, examining the line to Stockport, and fixing the crossing of the river there ; attending to the surveys ; then journey back to Manchester, to meet the directors of the Manchester and Leeds Railway. September 4th. — Sunday at Manchester. September 5th. — Journey along part of the Man- chester and Leeds railway. September 6th. — At Manchester, examining and laying doAvn the section of the South Union line to Stockport ; afterwards engaged on the Manchester and Leeds Avorking plans, in endeavoring to giA^e a greater radius to the curves ; seeing Mr. Seddon about the Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds Junction Raihvay. September 7th. — Journey along the Manchester and Leeds line, then on to Derby. September 8 th. EXTENSIVE RAILWAY INSPECTIONS. 339 — At Derby ; seeing Mr. Carter and Mr. Beale about the Tam- worth deviation ; then home to Alton Grange. September 10th. — At Alton Grange, preparing report to the committee of the Edinburgh and Dunbar Railway. Such is a specimen of the enormous amount of physical and mental labor undergone by Mr. Stephenson during the busy years above referred to. He was no sooner home, than he was called away again by some other railway or business engagement. Thus, in four days after his arrival at Alton Grange from the above journey into Scotland, we find him going over the whole of the North Midland line as far as Leeds ; then by Halifax to Manchester, where he stayed for several days on the business of the South Union line ; then to Birmingham and London ; back to Alton Grange, and next day to Congleton and Leek ; thence to Leeds and Goole, and home again by the Sheffield and Roth- erham and the Midland works. And early in the following month (October) he was engaged in the north of L-eland, examining the line, and reporting upon the plans, of the projected Ulster railway. Then he was called upon to inspect and report upon colliery works, salt works, brass and copper works, and such like, in addition to his own colliery and railway business. He usually also staked out himself the lines for which he M^as engineer, and which involved a good deal of labor since undertaken by assist- ants. And occasionally he would run up to London, to attend in person to the preparation and depositing of the plans and sections of the projected undertakings for which he was engaged as en- gineer. It is pleasant to record that, in the midst of these engrossing occupations, his heart remained as soft and loving as ever. Thus, during one of his brief sojourns at Alton Grange, he found time to wi'ite to his son a touching account of a pair of robins that had built their nest within one of the empty upper cliambers of the house. One day he observed a robin fluttering outside the win- dows, and beating its wings against the panes, as if eager to gain 340 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. admission. He went up stairs, and there found, in a retired part of one of the rooms, a robin's nest, with one of the parent birds sitting over three or four young — all dead. The excluded bird outside still beat against the panes ; and on the window-sill being let down, it flew into the room, but so exhausted that it dropped upon the floor. Mr. Stephenson took up the bird, carried it down stairs, and had it warmed and fed. The poor robin revived, and for a time was one of his pets. But it shortly died, too, as if unable to recover from the privations it had endured during its three days fluttering and beating at the windows. It appeared that the room had been unoccupied, and the window having been let down for some time, the robins had taken the opportunity of building their nest within it ; but the servant having accidentally closed the window, the calamity befell them which so strongly excited Mr, Stephenson's sympathies. An incident such as this, trifling though it may seem, gives the true key to the heart of the man. The amount of his parliamentary business having greatly in- creased with the projection of new lines of railway, Mr. Stephen- son found it necessary to take an office in London during the session of 1836.* This office was the busy scene of railway politics for many years. There consultations were held, schemes were matured, deputations were received, and many projectors called upon our engineer for the purpose of submitting their plans of railway working. But Mr. Stephenson's principal business was in carrying through the projects for which he was profes- sionally concerned as engineer-in-chief. He was also called upon to give evidence in support of many lines, such as the Great Western, with which he was not immediately connected. " In fact," as he said to the House of Commons' Committee, in 1841, " there is hardly a railway in England that I have not had to do with." In the session of 1836 alone, powers were obtained to * His first ofiSce was at No. 9 Duke Street, Westminster, from which he removed to 30>2 George Street, Westminster, in 1837. RAPID EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS. 341 construct 214 miles of" new railway after Mr. Stephenson's de- signs, at an expenditure of upwards of five millions sterling. Numerous other companies obtained their acts during the same session. The Midland Counties Act authorized the formation of a line from Rugby (on the London and Birmingham line) to Derby, there to join the North Midland, which, in conjunction with the Great North of England Railway, from York to Dar- lington, and the Durham Junction, and Branding Junction, already authorized, would complete the line of railway commu- nication from London to Newcastle. At the same time, powers had been obtained to construct lines from London to Bristol, to Southampton, to Dover, and to Colchester ; so that already meas- ures had been adopted to place the metropolis in direct commu- nication with the most important districts of the kingdom. The rapidity with which railways were carried out, when the spirit of the country was fairly up, was indeed remarkable. This was, doubtless, in some measure owing to the increased force of the current of speculation, but chiefly to the desire which the public now entertained for the general extension of the system. Railways became the topic of conversation in all circles ; they were felt to give a new value to time ; their vast capabilities for " business " peculiarly recommended them to the trading classes ; whilst the friends of " progress " dilated on the great benefits they would eventually confer upon mankind at large. It began to be seen that Mr. Edward Pease had not been exaggerating when he said, " Let the country but make the railroads, and the railroads will make the country ! " They also came to be regard- ed as inviting objects of investment to the thrifty, and a safe out- let for the accumulations of inert men of capital. Thus new avenues of iron road Avere soon in course of construction in all directions, branching north, south, east, and west, so that the country promised in a wonderfully short space of time to become wrapped in one vast network of iron. Although occasionally employed to survey lines and give evi- 342 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. dence in favor of railways projected in the south of England, Mr. Stephenson's principal attention was directed to the devel- opment of the system in the northern counties, leaving the south to the energy of his son. Besides the Grand Junction, he was, shortly after the completion of the Liverpool and Manchester line, engaged in surveying and laying out a railway from Man- chester to Leeds, with the object of forming a connection between the principal towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire. An attempt had been made to obtain an act for this purpose as early as the year 1831 ; but having been met by the powerful opposition of the land owners, aided by the canal companies, it was defeated, and was not revived until several years later. Mr. Stephenson, however, having carefully examined the entii'e district, had al- ready determined in his own mind the route of the Manchester and Leeds line, and decided that no other was practicable, with- out the objectionable expedient of a tunnel tlu-ee and a half miles in length under Blackstone Edge, and the additional disadvantage of heavy gradients. This line, as projected by him, and after- wards considerably improved, was somewhat circuitous, and the works were heavy ; but on the whole the gradients were favorable, and it had the advantage of passing through a district full of manufacturing towns and villages, the teeming hives of popula- lation, industry and enterprise. The act authoi'izing the con- struction of the railway, was finally obtained in the session of 183G: it was greatly amended in the succeeding year ; and the first ground was broken on the 18th of August, 1837. An incident occurred while the second Manchester and Leeds bill was before the Committee of the Lords, which is worthy of passing notice in this place, as illustrative of Mr. Stephenson's character. The line which was authorized by Parliament in 183G, had been hastily surveyed within a period of less than six Aveeks ; and before it received the Royal assent, Mr. Stephenson became convinced that many important improvements might be made in it, and conmauuicated his views to the directors. They MANCHESTER AND LEEDS LINE. 343 cletermined, however, to obtain the act, although conscious at the time that they Avould have to go foi' a second and improved line in the following year. Tlie second bill passed the Commons in 1837, without difficulty, and promised in like manner to receive the sanction of the Lords' Committee. Quite unexiicctedly, how- ever, Lord WharnclifFe, who was interested in the Manchester and Sheffield line, which passed through his colliery property, in the South of Yorkshire, and conceived that the new Manchester and Leeds line might have some damaging effect, appeared as a strenuous opponent of the bill. He was himself a member of the Committee, and adopted the unusual course of rising to his feet, and making a set speech against the bill, while Mr. Stephenson was under examination. After pointing out that the bill applied for and obtained in the preceding session was one that the pro- moters had no intention of carrying out, that they had secured it only for the purpose of obtaining possession of the ground, and reducing the number of the opponents to their present application, and that in fact they had been practicing a deception upon the House, his lordship turned full upon the witness, and addressing him, said : " I ask you, sir, do you call that conduct honest ? " Mr. Stephenson, his voice trembling with emotion, replied : " Yes, my lord, I do call it honest. And I Avill ask your lordship, whom I served for many years as your enginewright at the Killingworth collieries, when did you ever know me to do any thing that was not honest and honorable ? You know what the collieries were when I went there, and you know what they were when I left them. Did you ever hear that 1 was found wanting when honest services were wanted, or when duty called me ? Let your lord- ship but fairly consider the circumstances of the case, and I feel persuaded you will admit that my conduct has been equally hon- est throughout in this matter." He then briefly but clearl}' stated the history of the application to Parliament for the act, which was so satisfactory to the Committee that they passed the pream- ble of the bill without further objection. Lord Wharncliffe 844 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. requested that the Committee would permit his observations, together with Mr. Stephenson's reply, to be erased from the rec- ord of the evidence, which, as an acknowledgment of his error, was permitted; Lord Kenyon and several other members of the Committee, afterwards came up to Mr. Stephenson, shook him by the hand, and congratulated him on the manly way in which he had vindicated himself in the course of the inquiry. In conducting this project to a successful issue, Mr. Stephen- son had much opposition and many strong prejudices to encounter. Predictions were confidently made in many quarters, that the line could never succeed. It was declared, that the utmost engineering skill could not construct a railway through such a country of hills and hard rocks ; and it was maintained that, even if the railway were practicable, it could only be formed at so enormous a cost as to prevent it from ever remunerating the proprietors. The croaking of all the prophets ©f evil and disaster reached its height in December, 1840, as the Summit Tunnel, near Lit- tleborough, was fast approaching completion, when the alarming rumor was spread abroad in Manchester that the tunnel had fallen in and buried a number of workmen in the ruins. The last arch had been keyed in, and the work was all but finished, when the accident occurred which was thus exaggerated by the lying tongue of rumor. An invert had given way through the irregular pressure of the surrounding earth and rock at a part of the tunnel where a "fault" had occurred in the strata. A party of the directors accompanied the engineer to inspect the scene of the accident. They entered the tunnel's mouth preceded by upwards of fifty navvies, each bearing a torch. This extraor- dinary subterranean viaduct had occupied the labors of above a thousand men during nearly four years. Besides excavating the arch out of the solid rock, they had used 23,000,000 of bricks, and 8000 tons of Roman cement. Thirteen stationary engines, and about 100 horses, had also been employed in drawing the ACCIDENT TO LITTLEBOROUGH TUNNEL. 345 earth and stone out of the shafts. The entire length of the tnnnel was 2869 yards, or nearly a mile and three-quarters — exceeding the famous Kilsby Tunnel by 471 yards. After walking a distance of about half a mile, the inspecting party arrived at the scene of the " frightful accident," about which so much alarm had been spread in Manchester. All that was visible was a certain unevenness of the ground, which had been forced up by the invert under it giving way ; thus the ballast had been loosened, the drain running along the centre of the road had been displaced, and small pools of water stood about. But the whole of the walls and the roof were as perfect there as in any other part of the tunnel. Mr. Stephenson explained the cause of the accident: The blue shale, he said, through which the excavation passed at that point, was considered so hard and firm, as to render it unnecessary to build the invert very strong there. But shale is always a deceptive material. Subjected to the influence of the atmosphere, it gives but a treacherous support. In this case, falling away like quicklime, it had left the lip of the invert alone to support the pressure of the arch above, and hence its springing inwards and upwards. Mr. Stephenson directed the attention of the visitors to the completeness of the arch overhead, where not the slightest fracture or yielding could be detected. Speaking of the work, in the course of the same day, he said, " I will stake my character, my head, if that tunnel ever gives way, so as to cause danger to any of the public passing through it. The fracture that has taken place must, doubtless, be a disap- pointment to the directors, by delaying the opening of the line ; but the fact is, that the invert is covered with material, so that we could not find it out till that material was taken away, so as to make the culvert through to carry the water from end to end ; but I believe that if the invert were taken away altogether, the tunnel would stand firm. It is a question now with me, whether we ought to put the invert in again, or to strengthen the foot of the side walls. However, it being a work of such magnitude, it 346 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. is perhaps safer to take a little more time to it, and make it perfect. Witli respect to the tunnel, taking it as a whole, I don't think there is such another piece of work in the world. It is the greatest work that has yet been done of this kind, and there has been less repairing than is usual. Indeed, no tunnel of such magnitude have I known with so little re-doing of the work. It is a great work — though one where an engineer might be beaten in his calculations, for he cannot befoi'ehand see into those little fractured parts of the earth he may meet with. This is a dislo- cated part of a very high country, where the debris has come off at a time and in a place where we could have no chance of examining it, except by excavation. But this is the only weak part we have met with. It runs diagonally across the tunnel. It begins at one end of the fractured part and runs to its other end. It is a part that has chipped off from its neighbors, and not being so firmly fixed as the adjoining rocks on each side, when we took off the bottom it eased a little, and that has been the cause of the upper part throwing a little more pressure upon the invert." As Mr. Stephenson had promised, the invert was put in ; the tunnel was made perfectly safe ; and the traffic began to be carried over the entire length of the line early in the year 1841, and has continued without interruption ever since. In 1838, Mr. Stephenson was acting as engineer for the Black- wall Railway, in conjunction with Mr. Bidder. In their united report of that year avc find them recommending stationary engines for the working of that line, as being the more safe and econom- ical, principally on the ground of the sharpness of the curves, the steepness of the gi-adients, and the shortness of the railway. Subsequent experience, however, of the powers of the locomotive, and of its economy in working as compared with fixed engines, induced the eventual abandonment of the latter power in favor of the former. It is worthy of notice that Mr. Stephenson, who was always ready to adopt improved modes of working railways, employed the electric telegraph at a very early period to regulate THE NORTH MIDLAND RAIL\YAT. 347 the working of that line ; indeed, he was one of the first of the railway engineers wlio recognized its advantages for this purpose. The North Midland Railway was a favorite line of Mr. Ste- phenson's for many reasons. Its works were of a formidable character ; it passed through a rich mining district, in which it opened up many valuable coal-fields, and it formed part of the great main line of communication between London and Edin- burgh, on the completion of which, by the East Coast line through Newcastle, Mr. Stephenson had anxiously set his heart. The North Midland Railway was originally projected by gentlemen interested in the London and Birmingham line. The intention was to carry the latter railway from Rugby to Leeds ; but, finding themselves anticipated in part by the projection of the Midland Counties line from Rugby to Derby, they confined themselves to the district between Derby and Leeds. The projectors appointed Mr. Stephenson to examine the country, and lay out the best line ; and after a careful and laborious investigation, in which he was ably assisted by his pupil Mr. Swanwick, he reported the result to a public meeting held at Leeds, in September, 1835 ; and the result was the approval of the line as laid out by him. A sub- scription list was at once opened, and Mr. John Marshall, one of the most public-spirited and influential manufacturers of Leeds, having put his name down for 35,000/., the shares were soon taken, and the project was fairly launched. The act w'as obtained in 1836, and the first ground was broken in February, 1837. The execution of the works extended over a period of above three years, and the line was opened throughout in July, 1840. Although the North Midland Railway was only one of the many great works of the same kind executed at that time, it was enough of itself to be the achievement of a life. Compai'e it, for example, with Napoleon's much-vaunted military road over the Simplon, and it will at once be seen how greatly it excels that work, not only in the constructive skill displayed in it, but also in its cost and magnitude, and the amount of labor employed in 348 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSOX. its formation. The road of the Simplon is 45 miles in length ; the North Midland Railway 72^ miles. The former has 50 bridges and 5 tunnels, measuring together 1,338 feet in length; the latter has 200 bridges and 7 tunnels, measuring together 11,400 feet, or about 2^ miles. The former cost about 720.000/. sterling, the latter above 3,000,000/. Napoleon's grand military road was constructed in six years, at the public cost of the two great kingdoms of France and Italy ; while Stephenson's much more magnificent railway was formed in about three years, by a company of private merchants and capitalists out of their own funds, and under their own superintendence.* And if the name of the Chevalier Fabbroni has been honored for the design and construction of the military road across the Simplon, how much higher ought the name of George Stephenson to rank as the engineer and architect of the North Midland, the Manchester and Leeds, the Liverpool and Manchester, and many other equally gigantic works of great public utility ! Mr. Stephenson's strong sagacity, assisted by the experience he had gained in the northern coal districts, early detected the importance of the Midland Railway as opening up new markets for the vend of coal which abounded in the district through which it passed. At a time when everybody else was skei)tical as to the possibility of coals being carried from the midland counties, and sold in London at a price to compete with sea-borne coals, he declared his firm conviction that the time was fast approaching when the London market would be regularly supplied with north- country coals led by railway. One of the greatest advantages of railways, in his opinion, was that they would bring coal and iron, the staple products of the country, to the doors of all England. "The strength of Britain," he would say, "lies in her coal-beds ; and the locomotive is destined, above all other * The number of men employed on the line, while the works were in full operation, was between 9000 and 10,000, assisted by eighteen stationary and several locomotiTe engines. The quantity of earthwork on the line amounted to 9,500,000 cubic yards. ANTICIPATIONS AS TO THE COAL TRAFFIC. 349 agencies, to bring it forth. The Lord Chancellor now sits upon a bag of wool ; but avooI has long ceased to be emblematical of the staple commodity of England. He ought rather to sit upon a bag of coals, though it might not prove quite so comfortable a seat. Then think of the Lord Chancellor being addressed as the noble and learned lord on the coal-sack ! I am afraid it wouldn't answer, after all." To one gentleman he said : " "We want from the coal-mining, the iron-producing, and manufacturing districts, a great railway for the carriage of these valuable products. We want, if I may so say, a stream of steam running directly through the country, from the North to London, and from other similar districts to London ; speed is not so much an object as utility and cheapness." And at a meeting of railway proprietors at York, in 1840, he told them " there was little doubt in his mind that coals would in a very short time be supplied to the London market from that county by means of their line." * He proved his conviction by acting upon it, taking a lease of the Clay Cross Colliery, in antic- ipation of the demand for railway-led coals. Li this, as in some other matters, ^Ix. Stephenson was rather ahead of his time ; and though the Clay Cx'oss Colliery did not prove a very successful venture, and he did not live to see his anticipations as to the supply of the London coal market fully realized, yet he was the first to point out, and, to some extent, to prove the practicability of establishing a profitable coal trade by railway between the northern counties and the metropolis. Since his time, his predic- tion has to a great extent been fulfilled, both on the Midland and the Great Northern Railways. The quantity of coal brought by railways to London, in 1855, from the Durham, Yorkshire, and other northern collieries, amounting to upwards of a million of tons. The Great Northern carried 547,602 ; the Midland and Northwestern, 339,656 ; the Eastern Counties, 145,327; and the Great Western, 80,950 tons. * Meeting of the York and North Midland Company, 19th July, 1840. 350 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. About the same time that Mr. Stephenson entered upon his lease of the colliery at Clay Cross, he took up his abode at Tapton House, near Cliesterfield, which continued his home until the close of his life. It was a central point on the Midland Railway, from which he could proceed north, south, and west, in his super- intendence of the four important lines which wei'e in progress of construction at the same time — the Midland, the York and North Midland, the Birmingham and Derby, and the Manchester and Leeds Railways. Tlie York and North Midland line extended from Normanton — a point on the Midland Railway — to York ; it was a line of easy formation, traversing a comparatively level country. The inhabitants of Whitby, as well as York, were busy projecting railways as early as 1832; and in the year following, Whitby succeeded in obtaining a horse line of twenty-four miles, connect- ing it with the small market town of Pickerino:. The York citizens were more ambitious, and agitated the question of a loco- motive line to connect them with the town of Leeds. A company was formed in 1833, and Mr. George Rennie was called upon to survey the line. About the same time, however, other engineers — Mr. Walker, Mr. Cundy, and Mr. Gibbs — were severally engaged in getting up the surveys of a direct main line from London to York. The local committee were perplexed by the conflicting views of the engineers, and at length called to their assistance Mr. George Stephenson, who had already been con- sulted by the provisional committee of the Midland Company as to the best line from Derby to Leeds. He recommended the York gentlemen to adopt their railway to that proposed line of communication, and they embraced his views. The company was formed, the shares were at once subscribed for, and Mr. Stephenson appointed his pupil and assistant, Mr. Swanwick, to lay out the line in October, 1835. The act was obtained in the following year, and the works were constructed without any difficulty under the superintendence of Ush: Cabrey, another of YORK AND NORTH MIDLAND LINE. 351 Mr. Stephenson's pupils and assistants, brought up under his own eyes in the KilHngvvorth workshops. As the best proof of his conviction tliat the York and North Midland would prove a good investment, Mr. Stephenson invested in it a considerable portion of his savings, being a subscriber for 420 shares ; and he also took some trouble in persuading several wealthy gentlemen in London and elsewhere to purchase shares in tlie concern. The interest thus taken in tlie line by the engineer was on more than one occasion specially mentioned by Mr. Hudson, then Lord Mayor of York, as an inducement to other persons of capital to join the undertaking ; and had it not afterwards been encumbered and ovei'laid by comparatively use- less, and therefore profitless branches, in the projection of which Mr. Stephenson had no part, the sanguine expectations which he early formed of the paying qualities of the line would have been even more than realized. There was one branch, however, of the York and North Mid- land line in which he took an anxious interest, and of which he may be pronounced the projector — the branch to Scarborough ; wliich proved to be one of the most pi'ofitable parts of the rail- way. He was so satisfied of its value, that, at a meeting of the York and North IMidland proprietors,* he volunteered his gi'a- tuitous services as engineer until the company was formed, in addition to subscribing largely to the undertaking. At that meeting he took an opportunity of referring to the charges brought against engineers of so greatly exceeding the estimates : " He had had a good deal to do Avith making out the estimates of the North INIidland Railway, and he believed there never was a more honest one. He had always endeavored to state the truth as far as was in his power. He had known a director who, when he (Mr. Stephenson) had sent in an estimate, came forward and said, ' I can do it for half the money.' The director's esti- mate went into Parliament, but it came out his. He could go * Held at York in July, 1840. 352 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. thi-ou"h the whole list of the undertakings in which he had been engaged, and show that he had never had any thing to do with stock-jobbing concerns. He would say that he would not be concerned in any scheme, unless he was satisfied that it would pay the proprietors ; and in bringing forward the proposed line to Scarborough, he was satisfied that it would pay, or he would have had nothing to do with it." About this time, numerous lines, constructed under Mr. Ste- phenson's direction, were completed and opened for public traffic. The Sheffield and Rotherham Railway was opened on the 1st of November, 1838 ; the Birmingham and Derby in August, 1839, having been constructed in about two years, within the parlia- mentary estimates ; and in the course of the year 1840, the Mid- land, the York and North Midland, the Chester and Crewe, the Chester and Birkenhead,* the Manchester and Birmingham, the Manchester and Leeds, and the Maryport and Carlisle Railways, were all publicly opened in whole or in part. Thus 321 miles of railway constructed under Mr. Stephenson's superintendence, at a cost of upwards of eleven millions sterling, were, in the * At a meeting of the Chester and Birkenhead Company, held at Liverpool in October, 1845, the following circumstance, highly honorable to Mr. Stephenson, was related by W. Jackson, Esq., the chairman of the Company : '• AVhen this railway was first projected, or rather when a railway was first projected between Chester and Birkenhead, the Com- pany failed in their efforts to get a bill. Mr. George Stephenson was the engineer. When the second measure was taken up, he was also the Company's engineer, as it was under- stood that the same engineer and the same surveyors should be employed, and that in the event of the bill being carried, they should receive their costs for the defeated meas- ure. To several parties, their costs were paid. Mr. George Stephenson's amounted to 800/., and he very nobly said : '' You have had an expensive career in Parliament ; you have had a great struggle ; you are a young Company ; you cannot afford to pay me this amount of money ; I will reduce it to 200/., and I will not ask you for that 200/. until your shares are at 20/. premium : for, whatever may be the reverses you will go through, I am satisfied I shall live to see the day when I can legally and honorably claim that 200/. ■when your .shares will be at 20/. premium." The time had now arrived wheii Mr. Ste- phenson's foreboding proved true. The shares were selling at CO in the market, and the new ones were at a high premium, and he (the chairman) thought, that in asking for a vote of 500/. for conduct so noble, he w.as asking only for what was amply due. He left the matter in the hands of the proprietors. The proprietors immediately voted the full amount of 800/. stated by the chairman :is due to Mr. Stephenson. SPEECH AT A PUBLIC DINNER. 353 course of about two years, added to the traffic accommodation of the country. The ceremonies which accompanied the public opening of these lines were often of an interesting character. The adjoining pop- ulation held general holiday ; bands played, banners waved, and assembled thousands cheered the passing trains amidst the occa- sional booming of cannon. The proceedings were usually wound up by a public dinner ; and on such occasions, ]\Ir. Stephenson would often revert to his favorite topic — the difficulties which he had early encountered in the establishment of the railway system, and in proving, to the satisfaction of the public, the superiority of the locomotive. At the dinner which followed the opening of the Sheffield and Rotherham line, the Earl Fitzwilliam presided, and most of the notable personages of the district, including the Master Cutler, were present, and made speeches. When Mr. Stephenson's turn came to speak, he could not resist the oppor- tunity of contrasting the recent success of railways with the ob- stacles which had early beset them, and the now proved efficiency of the locomotive with the former dismal prophecies of its fail- ure. " He ventured to say that he might lay claim to some credit for what he had done with respect to locomotive engines. He had now fought their battles for twenty-five years, and for more than twenty years of that time single-handed. Though all other engineers had been against him, he still persevered. The most severe trials which he had to go through were in going to Parliament, where he had the barristers to encounter. When they put him into the witness-box, they generally looked about to measure their man. He was quite aware that they had certain tools to work with if he was not a good witness. They did not care a pin about a locomotive engine ; their object was to put him off his guard, and then they could bring him down. He must say, that he had gone into the witness-box many and many a time with the utmost possible reluctance. The only thing which gave him courage was, that he knew he had nothing but truth to 23 354 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. state. He knew enough of mechanics to know where to stop. He knew that a pound would weigh a pound, and that more should not be put upon a line than it would bear. He never was an advocate for unfavorable gradients — he wanted low levels. They had been passing that day upon a beautiful low level, and it was in a situation where no low level line would ever be brought to compete with it." Mr. Stephenson always took great pleasure in alluding to the services rendered to himself and the public by the young men brought up under his eye — his pupils at first, and afterwards his assistants. No great master ever possessed a more devoted band of assistants and fellow-workers than he did. And, indeed, it was one of the most marked evidences of his own admirable tact and judgment that he selected, with such undeviating correctness, the men best fitted to carry out his plans. The ability to accom- plish great things, to carry grand ideas into practical effect, de- pends in no small measure on an intuitive knowledge of charac- ter, which Mr. Stephenson possessed in a remarkable degree. Thus, on the Liverpool and Manchester line, he secured the able sendees of Messrs. Vignolles and Locke ; the latter had been his pupil, and had laid down for him several coal-lines in the north.* John Dixon, trained by him on the Stockton and Darlington Railway, afterwards ably carried out his views on the Canterbury * An unhappy difference afterwards occurred between Mr. Stephenson and Mr. Locke, on. the latter being appointed the principal engineer of the Grani Junction Railway, during the progress of the works. Considerable personal feeling was thrown into the affair, which had no small influence upon the railway politics (so to speak) of the time : and in determining the direction of the new lines of railway between Manchester and tb« South. The projectors of the Manchester and Birmingham Railway — a rival line to the Grand Junction — at once inrited Mr Stephenson to act as their engineer ; and it was alleged that a personal feeling actuated him in the professional support which he gave to the undertaking. The declared object of the promoters, however, was to secure a more direct communication between Manchester and London than was afforded by the circuit ous route via Warrington. Mr. Crawshay, at one of their meetings, asserted, that he for one would never cease going to Parliament until they had got the nearest and best way to the metropolis. In like manner, the Trent Valley line, projected with the same ob- ject, had the strong support of the Manchester men ; indeed, the project originated almost entirely with them. HIS PUPILS. 355 and Whitstable, the Liverpool and Manchester, aiid the Chester Railways. Thomas Gooch was his able representative in super- intending the execution of the formidable works of the Manches- ter and Leeds line. Swanwick on the North Midland, Birken- shaw on the Birmingham and Derby, and Cabrey on the York and North Midland, seconded him well and ably, and established their own reputation while they increased the engineering fame of their master. All these men, then comparatively young, be- came, in course of time, engineers of distinction, and were em- ployed to conduct, on their own account, numerous railway enter- prises of great magnitude. At the dinner at York, which followed the partial opening of the York and North Midland Railway, Mr. Stephenson, as was his wont, prominently acknowledged the merit of his engineering pupils and assistants, and accompanied the recognition with many encouragements drawn from his own life and experience. On this occasion, he said " he was sure they would appreciate his feelings when he told them, that when he first began railway bus- iness, liis hair was black, although it was now gray ; and that he began his life's labor as but a poor ploughboy. He was only eight years old when he went to work, and he had been laboring hard ever since. About thirty years since, he had applied himself to the study of how to generate high velocities by mechanical means. He thought he had solved that problem. But when he afterwards appeared before a Committee of Parliament, and stated that, in his opinion, a locomotive machine might, with safety, travel upon a railway at a speed of ten miles an hour, he was told that his evidence was not worth listening to. That, however, did not prevent him going forward with his plans, and they had for them- selves seen, that day, what perseverance had brought him to. He was, on that occasion, only too happy to have an opportunity of acknowledging that he had, in the later portion of his career, received much most valuable assistance, particularly from young men brought up in his manufactory. Whenever talent showed 356 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. itself in a young man, he had always given that talent encour- agement where he could, and he would continue to do so." That this was no exaggerated statement, is amply proved by facts which redound to Mr. Stephenson's credit. He was no nig- gard of encouragement and praise when he saw honest industry struggling for a footing. Many were the young men whom, in the course of his useful career, he took by the hand and led steadily up to honor and emolument, simply because he had noted their zeal, diligence and integrity. One youth excited his inter- est while working as a common carpenter on the Liverpool and Manchester line ; and before many years had passed, he was re- cognized as an engineer of distinction. Another young man he found industriously working away at his bye-hours, and, admiring his diligence, engaged him for his private secretary ; the gentle- man shortly after rising to a position of eminent influence and usefulness. Indeed, nothing gave Mr. Stephenson greater pleas- ure than in this way to help on any deserving youth who came under his observation, and, in his OAvn expressive phrase, to " make a man of him." CHAPTER XXVIII. SURVEYS OF LINES TO SCOTLAND AND HOLYIIEAD. Having now supplied the more important districts of York- shire and Lancashire with efficient railway communication, con- nected with the metropolis by means of the London and Bir- mingham Railway, and the Midland lines, which radiated from it, Mr. Stephenson's attention was next directed to the comple- tion of the system, so as to embrace Scotland on the north, and Ireland on the west, and place the capitals of those divisions of the United Kingdom in more direct communication with the great heart of the nation — the city of London. He had already, with the assistance of his son, been instru- mental in carrying the great main line of road as far northward as Newcastle-on-Tyne ; and his advice was from time to time anxiously solicited as the best mode of completing the remaining links. As early as 1836, he had been called upon, by the com- mittee of a proposed railway between Edinburgh and Dunbar, to inspect the route, and report thereon, with a view to the line being afterwards connected with Newcastle. He proceeded to comply with this request, and, at the same time, he personally examined the other routes by which such a line could pass from Edinburgh to the south — traversing the vale of the Gala, and the mountainous district of Carter Fell — while he also carefully inspected the coast route, by way of Berwick-upon-Tweed. In his report to the directors of the projected line, he stated his (357) 358 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. opinion to be in favor of the latter route, on account both of the more favorable nature of the gradients, and the less expensive character of the works.* The project, however, slept until August, 1838, when Mr. Ste- phenson was requested to make a further careful inspection of the country between Newcastle and Edinburgh, and " report his opinion on the best line of railway between those places, upon levels to which locomotive steam power can be advantageously applied, pi-eparatory to such line being more minutely surveyed, and ultimately adopted." After again making a careful inspec- tion of the country, he sent in his rcport.f He went at great length into the comparative merits of the routes by Carter Fell and by Berwick, and expressed a decided opinion, as before, on the superiority of the latter route. As the report presented by him on this subject contains many points of interest, and may be taken as a fair specimen of the character of his railway reports, we venture to give the following extract : " In laying out a line of railway from England to the two prin- cipal cities in Scotland, and as a great thoroughfare between the two countries, there are many circumstances to be taken into con- sideration. The first and most important of all, considering it as a great national work, and desirable for the convenience and ad- vantage of the whole community, is to endeavor to obtain a rail- way with such inclinations as will secure a certain, speedy, and safe conveyance between the two countries, not merely for the conveyance of passengers, but more especially for the mails. We should endeavor to obtain a railway on which the engines should at all times be enabled to perform the duties required of them, without having to encounter steep inclined planes totally unfit for the profitable employment of the locomotive engine, and also without having to depend in a great measure upon the pecu- * Report to the Directors of the Edinburgh and Dunbai- Railway, dated Alton Grange, September 11th, 1836. t Report, September 13th, 1838. REPORT ON THE EAST COAST LINE. 359 liar state of the atmosphere, in order to enable the engines to sunnount such inclined planes at all. " It is exti'emely desirable, in laying out a main line of rail- way like this, to avoid as much as possible passing through a high country, as in so doing you not only invariably meet with difficulties in the form of extensive works to be executed, and inclined planes to be overcome, but you also traverse a country much more subject to the inclemency of the weather, especially in winter, where in high countries the snow, a great impeder to railway travehng, remains so long a time upon the ground. " In consequence of the line I propose to you running so near the coast, it is entirely free from those great disadvantages. It passes through a low country ; it possesses levels of a most favor- able nature ; and in the neighborhood of the sea-coast the snow remains a very short time upon the ground. The line itself runs so near the coast, that it may be found of great advantage in conveying troops from station to station, and, in case of war, in conveying dispatches from the seat of government to any part of the North, and also for keeping up a communication with the sea. If it should be found necessary, the whole line, from Newcastle to Edinburgh, might be formed into one continuous battery, by erecting a mound in exposed places to protect the engines from any attack from the sea. The whole troops of the country might also by its means be concentrated in one spot on the shortest notice. " The line of railway which I am proposing will constitute the last link in the great chain of railway communication from Lon- don to Edinburgh and Glasgow : in the whole of this chain there will not be between London and Edinburgh one inclination ex- ceeding 20 feet a mile (except at the London and Birmingham station), and the characteristic inclination will be 16 feet a mile. The same description of engine will be enabled to work the whole of the lines included in this chain, so that, if it should be necessary, either from necessity or dispatch being requisite, or 860 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSOX. in case of accident, an engine may be transferred from one line to another, capable of performing the work. But, as I stated before, it appears to me that, both in a national and commercial point of view, the most important consideration in procuring easy inclinations is, that it insures a certain, speedy and punctual per- formance of the duties required from the engines. '• In looking at the subject in a local point of view, I may state that it has always been my practice to lay out main lines of rail- way through the lowest country, unless some important consider- ation, such as a large and populous toAvn, induced me to diverge into a higher country. I consider that by adopting the low coun- try I have many advantages which are lost by taking a high one. Considering the subject locally, I afford great facilities in procur- ing cheap branches from the main line into the interior of the country, and up the various valleys which run nearly at right angles to the main line ; for instance, as regards the present rail- way, those productions, both agricultural and mineral, which are found in Northumberland and Scotland, may be conveyed on branch railways running up the valleys of the Blyth, the Wans- beck, the Coquet, and the Tweed, on declining railways from the places where they are produced to the main line of railway, when they can be carried north or south, as may be requii'ed. " It is a very important consideration indeed, that branch rail- ways should possess a falling inclination towards the main line, as the productions of the country are invariably conveyed either to the coast for shipment, or to populous towns through which the main railways of the kingdom are carried ; and the traffic conveyed from populous towns and the coast into the interior of the country is generally of a light description, consisting of gro- ceries, and what may be called the luxuries of life. There is, however, in this case, an exception, and that is the river Tweed. It will be a great advantage to the valley of the Tweed, inasmuch as the inhabitants will procure both lime and coal from Berwick at a cheap rate, and as that river is crossed at the: height of 90 KEPORT ON THE EAST COAST LINE. 361 feet, and being a sluggish stream near its mouth, you will be enabled to have a level branch along the valley for many miles. " The towns of Morpeth, Belford, Alnwick and Kelso may be easily accommodated by branches up the different valleys in which they are situated. " I will now conclude this Report, congratulating you upon the favorable nature of the country, and the great facilities which exist for constructing the works on the coast line, with a firm conviction on my own mind that it is the only feasible and desira- ble line of railway, with levels to which locomotive steam power can be advantageously applied, between the town of Newcastle- upon-Tyne and the cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow." The recommendations contained in this able Report were eventually adopted, although several years elapsed before the line was actually constructed. This delay was caused by una- voidable circumstances, to which we shall afterwards recur. In the meantime, the alternative route to Edinburgh by Carter Fell was not without its advocates, Mi\ Nicholas Wood heading the opposition to Mr. Stephenson, and alleging that the east coast route by Berwick " could neither answer the purpose of the public in general nor the subscribers."* Mr. Stephenson was also consulted with reference to the for- mation of a main line from Chester to Holyhead, with the view of improving the railway communication with Dublin, and Ireland generally. Mr. Giles and Mr. VignoUes were both engaged in surveying lines of railway to Holyhead in 1838, and they pre- sented reports on the subject to their respective promoters. About the same time the directors of the Chester and Crewe Company called upon Mr. Stephenson to make a preliminary survey of the country between Chester and Holyhead, and inquire into the practicability of forming the line by Shrewsbury to Port Dynllaen, which had been suggested by the Irish Railway Com- missioners in their published report, as compared with a line to * Railway Times, 1839, p 372. 362 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. Holyhead passing through Chester. After a careful examination, Mr. Stephenson reported in very strong terms against the line adopted by the Irish Railway Commissioners, and by Mr. Vig- nolles, and in favor of the route by Chester, which, he alleged, could be formed for less money, and would be a shorter line, with much more favorable gradients.* A public meeting was held at Chester on the 10th of January, 1839, in support of Mr. Stephenson's line, at which the Marquis of Westminster, j\Ir. Wilbraham, the member for the county, and other influential gentlemen, were present. Mr. Uniacke, the Mayoi', in opening the proceedings, observed that it clearly appeared that the rival line through Shrewsbury was quite im- practicable. " Mr. Stephenson, the first railway authority in the kingdom — in fact, the father of railways — had so characterized it ; and, after that opinion, he did not think that any one could be found who would risk money in such a speculation. Their object was, to advance and carry the really practicable project ; and he would take the opportunity of saying, that the dissemina- tion of Mr. Stephenson's admirable report had satisfied the people of Ireland, not only that the project was practicable, but that it was the only one that was practicable, and worthy of general support." Mr. Stephenson, he added, was present in the room, ready to answer any questions which might be put to him on the subject ; and " it would be better that he should be asked ques- tions than required to make a speech ; for, though a very good engineer, he was a bad speaker." One of the questions then put to Mr. Stephenson related to the mode by which he proposed to haul the passenger carriages over the Menai Bridge by horse power ; and he was asked whether he knew the pressure the bridge was capable of sustaining. His answer was, that " he had not yet made any calculations ; but he proposed getting data * Report upon the proposed Railway Communications with Ireland, addressed to the Directors of the Chester and Crewe Railway Company, dated Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Dec 19th, 1838. LINE TO HOLYHEAD. 363 which would enable him to arrive at an accurate calculation of the actual strain upon the bridge during the late gale. But he had no hesitation in saying that it was more than twenty times as much as the strain of a train of carriages and a locomotive engine. The only reason why he proposed to convey the car- riages over by horses, was in order that he might, by distributing the weight, not increase the waving motion. All the train would be on at once ; but distributed. This he thought better than passing them linked together by a locomotive engine." Mr. Vignolles, in the course of the same month, published a defense of his mode of effecting a communication between London and Dublin, although he confessed that to impugn Mr. Stephen- son's statements in reference to his measure, or to enter into a professional contest with such high authority, was almost " beard- ing the lion in his den." The Dublin Chamber of Commerce decided in favor of Mr. Stephenson's plan ; and at a meeting of members of Parliament held in London in May, 1839, a series of resolutions was adopted in favor of the scheme. At that meeting Mr. Stephenson was present, and gave explanations on many of its essential points. Notwithstanding, however, these important demonstrations of opinion in its favor, Mr. Stephenson's plan of a railway from Chester to Holyhead, like many others projected about the same time, was allowed to drop ; and it was not resumed until several years after, when it was taken up by his son, and brought to a successful completion, with certain modifications, including the grand original feature of the tubular bridge across the Menai Straits.* The completion of a main line of railway communication between London and Glasgow by the western side of the island, was another of the great projects on which Mr. Stephenson was now engaged. In 1837, he was requested by the Caledonian Railway Committee, and also by the Whitehaven, Workington, and Maryport Railway Committee, to make an examination of * The Chester and Holyhead Act was obtained in the session of 1844. o 64 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the country, and report to them as to the best line that could be formed. With this object, he made a careful survey of the entire country between Lancaster and Carlisle, by Ulverstone and Whitehaven, and also by Kirby, Lonsdale, and Penrith. As on the eastern coast, here also he reported in favor of the coast route. Besides the flatness of such a line, and the consequent superiority of the gradients — a point to which he always attached the greatest importance — the coast line could, be formed at com- paratively small expense ; valuable iron mines would be opened out, from which a large traffic might be anticipated, while, as a collateral advantage, an extensive tract of valuable land would be reclaimed by the formation of his proposed embankment across Ulverston sands, at the head of Morecombe Bay. There would also be fifteen miles less of new railway to be constructed by the coast line than by the more direct inland route across Shap Fell. The latter route — planned by Mr. Locke — was twenty miles shorter between Lancaster and Carlisle ; but the gradients were much heavier, and the works fiir more difficult and costly. It was, however, eventually preferred to the west coast line of Mr. Stephenson, which was, for a time, lost sight of. Nevertheless it has since been formed ; the large traffic in iron oz*e which he anticipated has been obtained ; and his favorite scheme of re- claiming the immense tract of land at the head of Morcombe Bay — from forty to fifty thousand acres in extent — by means of the railway embankment necessary to complete the connection with the Lancaster and Carhsle line, has recently been carried into effect in a modified form, and to some extent after his plans.* The Leeds and Bradford Railway, surveyed by Mr. Stephen- son in 1838, was a line of comparatively small extent, but of considerable importance in a local point of view, as connecting the two principal manufacturing towns of Yorkshire. The scheme was brought out in the following year, under very favorable * See Reports by Mr. Stephenson on the subject, dated October 12th, 1833; March 13th, 1837 ; and August 16th, 1837. NUMEROUS RAILWAYS AUTHORIZED. 365 auspices ; but like most of the railway projects of the same period, it was suspended in consequence of the financial embar- rassment of the country, which was to some extent caused by the large investments of capital in railways during the few preceding years. The rapidity with which railways had been extended between the years 1836 and 1839 was extraordinary, although not to be compared with the railway mania of a subsequent peiiod. There was quite a rush for railway acts in the sessions of 1836 and 1837. In the former yeai*, thirty-four bills passed the legislature, authorizing the formation of 994 miles of new railway, at an estimated cost of 17,595,000/. The traffic cases got up by the promoters of some of the bills, were very strong. Traific-taking had become a lucrative trade ; and ingenious arithmeticians who devoted themselves to the art of getting up traffic, soon became able to "prove" whatever the promoters of railways wanted. Thus, the traffic case of the Eastern Counties Railway showed that there would be a clear profit on the outlay of 23|^ per cent. ! The Xorth Midland "proved" a traffic which would yield them a profit of 10|^ per cent. ; the York and North Midland, of 13^ ; and the London and Cambi'idge, of 14^ per cent. Other com- panies made out equally "strong" traffic cases. In the following session of 1837, not fewer than 118 notices of new railway bills were given. Seventy-nine of these were actually introduced to Parliament ; and forty-two acts were obtained, the principal of which, however, were extensions of previous acts. Fourteen new companies were incorporated, and authorized to construct 464 miles of railway, at a cost of 8,087,- 000/. During this session the traffic-takers grew bolder, and reached their highest flights. Thus, the promoters of the Sheffield and Manchester Bill "proved" a traffic which was to yield a net profit of 18^ per cent, on the outlay. One of the fortunate share- holders in the company, in a letter to the " Railway Magazine," 366 LIFE OP GEOKGE STEPHENSON. even went so far beyond the traffic-taker, as to calcalate on a dividend of 80 per cent. ! But the prodigious extent of railway works already authorized was not enough to satisfy the rage for railway extension which still prevailed; for, by the end of 1837, notices were given of seventy-five new bills, to authorize the construction of some 1230 miles of additional railway, at an estimated cost of above nineteen millions sterling. By this time, thirty millions had actually been expended, and nearly 1500 miles of railway constructed and opened, in the course of a very few years ; and several hundred thousand laborers and mechanics were still occupied in the making of railways and the manufacture of railway stock. It was estimated that the railways in course of construction would cost twenty-two millions more before they were ready for traffic. Heavy calls were made from time to time upon the holders of the shares to enable the works to proceed. The monetary press- ure which had already set in, was thereby increased ; shares fell in price ; and the railway interest began to be severely discour- aged. Railway extension was thus effectually checked for a time ; and a sort of collapse ensued, which, together with the restrictions imposed by Parliament on the obtaining of new acts, placed a severe and indeed wholesome restraint upon speculation ; and many of the most recent railway projects were consequently abandoned, or for a time lay dormant. Amongst this latter class, were Mr. Stephenson's East and West Coast lines to Scotland, the Chester and Holyhead Railway, and the line from Leeds to Bradford. During the two sessions of 1838 and 1839 only five new railway companies obtained acts of incorporation. In 1840, not a single railway act was obtained; and in 1841 only the Hertford and Ware branch, 5| miles in length, was authorized; and even that was not constructed. Li 1842 the Newcastle and Darlington Railway (part of the original Great North of England, which could not be completed for want of capital) was authorized under this new name ; and in the same session, the Yai'mouth RAILWAY SPECULATION. 367 and Norwich and Warwick and Leamington branches were authorized. The year 1843 was also a quiet railway session, only a few new branches of established lines having been then authorized; and it was not until 1844 that the tide of railway enterprise suddenly rose again, and in the following year fairly burst all bounds, breakuig out in the wildest fury of speculation. CHAPTER XXIX. MR. STEPHENSON AND THE NEW SCHOOL OF FAST ENGINEERS. The general demand for railways which sprang up shortly after the successful opening of the Liverpool and Manchester line, brought into existence a large number of engineers of great ability, distinguished by their practical skill and their high stand- ing as scientific men. In this country of free industrial compe- tition, no sooner does the demand for a particular class of talent arise, than it is supplied as if by magic. The laissez faire course of action adopted by the government with reference to railways, though it led to much bungling and enormous expense, neverthe- less gave fuU scope to the genius and enterprise of English en- gineers. So long as the pi-ospect of dividends ranging from 8 to 15 per cent, was held out, there was to be found a numerous class of private capitalists ready to invest money in iron roads, and to find capital for the construction of new lines. Much rivalry thus arose, the engineers usually appearing as the leaders of the battle on opposing sides, when two or more lines were started between the same points. A considerable amount of personal feeling was occasionally evoked in these engineering contests, which were as often trials of individual ambition as of professional skill. Aspiring juniors sought to supplant their elder brethren at boards of directors, or to defeat theu* schemes before parliamentary committees ; and many new men labored (368) NOTIONS OF FAST ENGINEERS. 369 to mature and bring out railway projects more striking and oinginal than anytliing that had before been proposed. Whilst continental governments, early recognizing the great national advantages of railways, Avere appointing state engineers for the purpose of determining by preliminary surveys the most eligible lines of communication, leaving only the execution of the requisite Avorks open to competition, the English government left it to joint-stock companies to project and construct our national highways. The first step usually taken was the forma- tion of a provisional committee, which at once proceeded to ap- point an engineer to lay out the line, and a solicitor to constitute the company and agitate public opinion on behalf of the scheme. But the chief responsibility unquestionably rested Avith the en- gineer, Avho had to find a practicable road, to survey the line, to plan the necessary work — tunnels, viaducts, bridges, cuttings and embankmants — to form estimates of the cost, and, above all, to be prepared to stand the cross-examination of his opponents before Parliament. This keen competition of professional ability tended rapidly to develop the peculiar qualities of the English Railway Engineer. His experience, it will be observed, must necessarily be of an exceedingly varied character, to enable him to stand the test of the parliamentary crucible. He must be conversant with land- surveying and leveling, and have considerable practical knowl- edge of the strength and qualities of materials — of iron work, masonry, tunneling and earth Avorks. He must be something of an architect, a mathematician and a geologist. He must also be familiar Avith the structure of the steam-engine and its application to the purposes of locomotion ; and he must have studied the principles of mechanical science, more especially the laws of gravity, friction and momentum. Thus, the practical education of the English Engineer included almost the entire field of natural science. Being often called upon to act in emergencies, he acquired a promptitude of action, and a facility in inventin"^ 370 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. expedients to meet clifTiculties as they arose, which gave him a commanding superiority over the engineers of the continent. The works on foreign railways being for the most part under the control of Government, their engineers, though possessing the advantages of a much more scientific training, were trammeled raid fettered in all that they did ; and in cases of gi'eat practical difficulty, which required boldness and skill of contrivance, the English engineers — though they might, like Greorge Stephenson, be entirely self-educated — were found greatly their superiors. With all the wholesome rivalry and competition to which we have referred, and which tended to stimulate and strengthen their practical ability, there w^as a considerable admixture of jealousy and heartburning. It was long before Mr. Stephenson, notwith- standing the immense engineering works he had planned and executed, was recognized by the "regular" professional men as entitled to the status of a Civil Engineer. He had served no apprenticeship, and could show no indentui'es. Even the me- chanical engineers connected with the manufacture of steam-en- gines regarded him as an interloper, denied him all merit, and pursued him with detraction in the pages of their "Mechanics' Magazine," long after the world had recognized his claims to dis- tinction. This bittei'ness of spirit produced a similar spirit in himself; and he occasionally entertained a resentment towards his detractors which he could not and would not conceal. The railway system, as established by Mr. Stephenson, was too new as yet to command that prestige which belongs to older insti- tutions. It was but in its infancy ; and the many able engineers who rose up, naturally supposed it to be imperfect, and capable of vast improvement. The scientific professional men employed to survey the numerous new lines of railway which radiated in all dii'ections from the metropolis, exerted themselves to improve upon JMr. Stephenson's plans, and thereby to enhance their own reputation. Indeed, they were sometimes twitted by the press for following so closely in the footsteps of the comparatively un- THE UNDULATING SYSTEM. 371 educated men avIio had gathered their experience in the New- castle coal-pits. Several of the new engineers therefore determ- ined to be original. About the year 1838, they began to strike out many new lights, and to propound new plans, by way of im- provement upon the Stephenson system. These aspiring engineers did not want followers enough amongst railway speculators. In answer to the objections ad- vanced against their plans^ they cited the numerous predictions which had so recently been uttered against the practicability of working the locomotive itself upon railways. Give them an opportunity, and they would prove even the locomotive to be clumsy, and the existing system quite inferior to their own. And, indeed, so many "impracticable" and "impossible" things had within a very few years been proved to be both practicable and possible on railways, that the public became much less skep- tical as to the plans of new projectors, and many were found ready to subscribe their capital for the purpose of bringing them into practical use. Among the many novelties in railway engineering originated by the new school, the proposal of a pneumatic apparatus to supei'sede entirely the locomotive engine, Avas probably the most important. It was also proposed to adopt uneven railways, with- out much regard to gi'adients, as an improvement upon the flat lines so much insisted upon by Mr. Stephenson : this was scientific- ally designated "the undulating system." And some engineers, whilst retaining the locomotive as the tractive power, proposed to propel it at speeds which even Mr. Stephenson himself, san- guine and impracticable as he had so often been pronounced, had never di-eampt of. Another improvement which was much discussed for many years, and of which, unhappily, we have not yet heard the last, was the alteration of the gauge of railways from 4 feet 8^ inches to a greater width. As already stated, the original width of the coal tramroads in 372 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. the North had virtually determined the British gauge. It was the width of the ordinary road-track — not fixed after any scien- tific theory, but adopted simply from general use. Mr. Stephen- son introduced it without alteration on the Liverpool and Man- chester Railway ; and the several lines subsequently formed in the same districts were laid down on the same system. ]Mr. Stephenson from the first anticipated the general adoption of rail- ways throughout England ; and one of the principles with which he started was, the essential importance of preserving such a uniformity as would admit of perfect communication between them. All the railways, therefore, laid down by himself and his assistants in the neighborhood of Manchester, extending from thence to London on the south and to Leeds on the east, were constructed on the Liverpool and Manchester or narrow gauge. While others were declaring that railroads Avould be effective only for passenger trafiic and for the local accommodation of the largest to^vns, Mr. Stephenson foresaw and foretold that universal adoption of them in all places for the conveyance both of goods and passengers which the iron-road system has since attained ; and he accordingly prepared the railways under his control for the eventual receipt of traffic from the cross roads and the by roads, as well as from the main roads of the kingdom. When Mr. Brunei projected the Great Western line, he fixed upon a broader gauge ; but he adopted a narrower view of the subject of railway extension than Mr. Stephenson had done. He assumed that the country would be divided into railway districts, under a sort of railway Heptarchy, each having little intercourse with the other, and adopting its own gauge according to circum- stances. Mr. Brunei was an ingenious designer, and fond of doing things on a large scale, whether in forming railways or building a steam-ship. Unlike Mr. Stephenson, who, though no less bold in his original conceptions, adhered to opinions once formed with remarkable tenacity, and even seemed to acquire a certain fixity of ideas which precluded the consideration of plans ALTERATION OF THE GAUGE. 373 at variance with his own — Mr. Brunei was ever looking forward to indefinite and continual improvement ; he was restive under any restraint on invention, and could brook no limit to change. His railways were to be broader, his locomotives larger, and the speeds to be attained by them were to surpass those on all other railways. But even the speed of locomotives would not satisfy ^is ambition ; and in their stead he would have a system of gi- gantic pneumatic tubes, along which trains of travelers were to be flashed with the speed of lightning. Mr. Stephenson was not so venturous, but, as events proved, he was wiser. His locomo- tives and his railways had alike been carefully designed ; and he had so well adapted them to the practical purposes for which they were intended, that they held their ground amidst the brilliant inventions and improvements of the new school of engineers ; and to this day they remain in all respects very much as he left them. Mr. Stephenson was examined as a witness in favor of the Great Western Railway Bill ; but the subject of an alteration in the gauge of the line had not then been mooted. It was in pre- pai'ing the working plans, that Mr. Brunei conceived the idea of increasing the width of his gauge to seven feet. At that time, the directors of the London and Birmingham Railway had under their consideration a plan for joining the Great Western line at Oxford, and uniting with them in a joint metropolitan terminus. The proposed alteration of the gauge was referred by them to their engineer, Mr. Robert Stephenson, who reported decidedly against it. The Great Western directors, however, supported their own engineer ; and the broad gauge was eventually adopted by them, but not without a lengthened discussion. In his report of 1838, Mr. Brunei represented to the proprietors, that the po- sition of the Great Western line was such, that it could have no connection with any other of the main lines of railway, now that the London and Birmingham had obtained an independent access to the metropolis ; that it held the exclusive command of its 374 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHEXSON. special district ; that no inconvenience would result from the di- versity of gauge, as that district was entirely isolated from the others ; and, further, that no extension of the line towards the north would be required. It was even anticipated by Mr. Brunei that if other railways were formed, their exclusion from a con- nection with the Great Western line by the difference of gauge, would be of advantage to the company, by securing for it a mo- nopoly of the traffic to and from South Wales and the West of England for all time to come. The Great Western Railway was thus to be independent of all other railways, and to stand apart from them in solitary grandeur. The engineer received the warm encomiums of the directors and proprietors, who considered it a bold and original thing to plan a railway which was to be more than two feet broader than any other, requiring works and plant on a corresponding scale, without regard to past example and experience. Provincial patriotism was also evoked in favor of the measure ; and it was anticipated that Bristol would rival, if not far outstrip Liverpool, in its railway accommodation and facilities. Mr. Stephenson was, from the first, opposed to the adoption of the broad gauge. He held that the gauge which had already been adopted on the northern lines was amply sufficient for the public accommodation ; that it was wide enough to admit of the most effective arrangement of the machinery of the locomotive ; that it was much safer to work over where the curves of the railway were at all sharp ; that it was far more economical, tak- ing into consideration the paying weight carried, in proportion to the dead weight in the shape of rolling stock ; that it would cost considerably less to maintain, in consequence of the less weight to bear, and the smaller tear and wear of materials — not to men- tion the much smaller capital that was required to form a line upon the narrow gauge than upon the broad — the latter requiring more land, wider bridges and tunnels, broader embankments and viaducts, heavier rails, chairs and sleepers, and more expensive IMPORTANCE OF A UNIFORM GAUGE. 375 engines and carriages. But liis principal objection was, that by forming the Great Western line on an exceptional gauge, the proprietors of the undertaking were virtually closing it against the public traffic from other parts of the kingdom, and rendering it a mere provincial railway or by-way, instead of part of a great national system. He would not believe, with Mr. Brunei, that railways were to be confined to particular districts, but he held that, before long, they must become the universal high-roads as well as by-roads for both goods and passengers ; and that any break m the continuity of the system by a difterence of gauge, would seriously detract from those great public adA^antages which their general adoption might reasonably be expected to confer. The contrary views, advocated with so much persuasiveness by Mr. Brunei, unhappily prevailed with his directors ; and a sub- ject fruitful in contentions and controversies was thus introduced into the railway woi'ld. AVhen the proprietors, however, observed the enormous ex- pense that was involved in carrying out INIr. Brunei's designs, they became alarmed, and at length dissatisfied ; and they invited Mr. Robert Stephenson to examine and report upon the new gauge. He declined, on the ground that his opinion was already known to be strongly unfavorable, on which Mr. Nicholas Wood and Mr. Hawkshaw were called upon to make an investigation into the subject. This they did in a very able manner, Mr. Hawkshaw's report being particularly clear and decisive. Their opinion was against the new gauge. Nevertheless, the majority of the proprietors determined to support Mr. Brunei, and to carry out his experiment to an issue. The Great Western road was formed, and set to work with the aid of George Stephenson's locomotives ; and the public waited the result of the new system. Its inconvenience was not felt so long as the Great Western line remained in the position anticipated by Mr. Brunei ; but when, after the lapse of a few years, railways on the narrow gauge mot it at various points, and a break of continuity occur- 376 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. red, involving the change of carnages both for passengers and goods, it was felt to be a great public nuisance, loudly calling for a remedy. The same mistake was committed on the Eastern Counties Railway, on which a gauge of five feet had been adopted, Mr. Braithwaite, the engineer, being of opinion that an increase of three and a half inches in the width of his line, would give him better space for the machinery of his locomotive. But when the northern and eastern extension of the same line was formed, which was to work into the narrow gauge system of the Midland Railway, Mr. Robert Stephenson, its new engineer, strongly re- commended the directors of the Eastern Counties line to alter their gauge accordingly, for the purpose of securing uniformity ; and they wisely adopted his recommendation. Mr. Braithwaite himself afterwards justified the wisdom of this step, and stated that he considered the narrow gauge " infinitely superior to any other," more especially for passenger traffic* The Great Western Company, however, would not adopt a similar step ; they held by the superiority of their gauge. The Company had invested a vast sum of money in constructing then- line, and perhaps thought it was too late to remedy the admitted inconvenience of the want of continuity. The Birmingham manufacturers were the first to experience its evils, in conse- quence of the break of gauge at Gloucester, which involved great delay and loss from the transfer of goods. In 1844 they held a public meeting on the subject, and protested against it '' as a commercial evil of the first magnitude." This formed the com- mencement of " The Battle of the Gauges." In the following Eession of Parliament, the London and Birmingham and Great Western Companies were competitors for the supply of railroad accommodation to the country between Oxford and Wolverhamp- ton. The Board of Trade reported against the Great Western extensions, on account of the break of gauge. The House of * Evidence before the Gauge Commission, 1845. North- Western Rail'wasr Train. BATTLE OF THE GAUGES. 377 Commons, however, stepped in and reversed the decision, deter- mining nothing. Mr. Cobden then moved for a roj^al commission to ascertain " whether, in future private acts for the construction of railways, provision ought to be made for securing a uniform gauge ; and whether it would be expedient and practicable to take measures to bring railways already constructed, or in pro- gress of construction, into uniformity of gauge." The address was unanimously voted ; and a commission was accordingly ap- pointed, before which the principal engineers and railway men of the day were examined at great length. In 1846, they reported substantially against the broad, and in favor of the narrow, as the futui'e national gauge of British railways. They also ex- pressed their opinion as to the desirableness of adopting some equitable means of producing an entire uniformity of gauge on the lines already constructed. Mr. George Stephenson was not examined before the Gauge Commission, having by that time (1845) in a great measure retii-ed from the active pursuit of his profession ; but he was ably represented by his son, whose evi- dence in favor of the superiority of the gauge of railways which had been virtually settled by his father, was complete and con- clusive. Eveiy day's successive experience has proved that the Ste- phenson gauge is sufficient for all purposes of public traffic, while it is, unquestionably, the most economical. Foreign engineers, who were not in the slightest degree trammeled by existing lines, laid down the narrow gauge in Belgium, in France, in Germany, and in Italy. Mr. Brunei was the engineer of the Genoa to Turin Railway ; and there he had adopted the narrow gauge, with a view to the public convenience, as well as the interests of the undertaking itself. And the same considerations wiU, doubtless, sooner or later, induce the Great Western Company to place itself m connection with the national railway system of 378 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. England, instead of remaining, as at present, comparatively iso- lated.* Another favorite idea of the Fast School of Engineers, was, as already mentioned, the substitution of atmospheric pressure for locomotive steam power in the ■working of railways. The idea of obtaining motion by atmospheric pressure originated with Pa- pin, the French engineer ; but it slept until revived by Mr. Med- hurst, in 1810, who published a pamphlet to prove the practica- bility of conveying letters and goods by air. Li 1824, Mr. Yal- lance of Brighton, took out a patent for projecting passengers through a tube large enough to contain a train of carriages ; the tube being previously exhausted of its atmospheric air. The same idea was afterwards taken up, in 1835, by Mr. Pinkus, an ingenious American. Scientific gentlemen. Dr. Lardner and Mr. Clegg, amongst others, advocated the plan, and an association was formed to carry it into effect. Shares were created, and 18,000?. raised; and a model apparatus was exhibited in London. Mr. Vignolles took his friend Mr. Stephenson to see the model ; and after carefully examining it, he observed emphatically, " It wonH do : it is only the fixed engines and ropes over again, in another form." lie did not think the principle would stand the test of practice, and he objected to the mode of applying the principle. "Would it pay? He thought not. After all, it was only a modification of the stationary-engine plan ; and every day's experience was proving that fixed engines could not com- pete with locomotives in point of efficiency and economy. He * In Ireland, a peculiar gauge of five feet three inches has been adopted. The Irish Railway Commission did some remarkable things in its day. Amongst others, it recom- mended a gauge of sis feet two inches ; how they arrived at that precise width, no one can tell. The Ulster Railway was laid down for twenty -five miles on this gauge, whilst the Drogheda line, which ran from Dublin into the Ulster Railway, was laid down five feet two inches in width. General Paslcy was appealed to, and after consulting all the leading authorities as to the proper gauge, he struck an act rage, and arrived at five feet three inches, which is now the Irish gauge. THE ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. 379 stood by the locomotive engine ; and subsequent experience proved that he was right. Messrs. Clegg and Samuda afterwards, in 1840, patented their jilan of an atmospheric railway ; and they publicly tested its working on an unfinished portion of the West London Railway. The results of the experiment were so satisfactory that the direc- tors of the Dublin and Kingstown line adopted it between Kings- town and Dalkey. The London and Croydon Company also adopted the atmospheric principle ; and their line was opened in 1845. Great was the popularity of the atmospheric system ; and still George Stephenson said, " It won't do ; its only a giracrack." Engineers of distinction said he was prejudiced, and that he looked upon the locomotive as a pet child of his own. " Wait a little," he replied, " and you will see that I am right." Mr. Brunei approved of the atmospheric system ; and had not his invention of the broad gauge proved him to be a man of genius ? Mr. Cubitt, Mr. Vignolles, and Mr. James Walker, also men of great eminence, Dr. Lardner, and many others equally distinguished, as well as the Council of the Institute of Civil En- gineers, approved of the atmospheric railway ; and therefore it was becoming pretty clear that the locomotive system was about to be snuffed out. " Not so fast," said Mr. Stephenson. " Let us wait to see if it will pay." He never believed it would. It was ingenious, clever, scientific, and all that ; but railways wei-e commercial enterprises, not toys ; and if the atmospheric railway could not work to a profit, it would not do. Considered in this light, he even went so far as to call it " a great humbug." No one can say that the atmospheric railway had not a fair trial. The government engineer. General Pasley, did for it what had never been done for the locomotive — he reported in its favor, whereas a former government engineer, Mr. Telford, had infer- entially reported against the use of locomotive power on railways. The House of Commons had reported in favor of the use of the steam-engine on common roads ; and yet the railway locomotive 380 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. had vitality enough in it to live through all. " Nothing will beat it," said George Stephenson, " for efficiency in all weathers, for economy in drawing loads of average weight, and for power and speed as occasion may require." The atmospheric system was fairly and fully tried, and it was found wanting. It was admitted to be an exceedingly elegant mode of applying power ; its devices were very skillful, and its mechanism was most ingenious. But it was costly, irregular in action, and, consequently, not to be depended upon. At best, it was but a modification of the stationary-engine system, which experience had proved to be so expensive that it was gradually being abandoned in favor of locomotive power. In fact, Mr. Stephenson's first verdict, "It won't do," proved correct ; and, by the end of 1848, the whole of the atmospheric tubes were pulled up — including Mr. Brunei's immense tube on the South Devon Railway* — to make room for the locomotive engine. About the year 1840, the fast school propounded another set of views respecting railways, which were entirely opposed to the practice and experience of Mr. Stephenson. They promulgated the idea that undulating railways of uneven, and even severe gradients, were as favorable for working as flat lines. Mr. Ste- phenson, throughout his professional career, was the unvarying advocate of level railways, in preference to more direct but un- even lines. His practice was to secure a road as nearly as possible on a level, following the course of the valleys when he could do so, and preferring to go round a difficulty rather than to tunnel through it or run over it — often making a considerable circuit in order to obtain good workable gradients. He studied so to lay out his lines, that minerals and merchandise, as well as passengers, could be hauled along them in heavy loads, at a comparatively small expenditure of locomotive power. He saw clearly that the longer flat line would eventually beat the shorter line of steep * During the last half year of the atmospheric experiment on this line, there waa an expenditure of 2,487i. beyond the gross income of 26.782/., or about 9Ji per cent. THE FAST ENGINEERS 381 gradients, as respected paying qualities. It was perfectly clear to him that there must necessarily be a great waste of power in overcoming the irregularities of a heavy line. Thus, Mr. Ste- phenson had ascertained, by exjieriraents made at Killingworth many years before, that the locomotive works at only half its power whei'e it has a rising gradient of 1 in 260 to overcome; and when the gradient is so high as 1 in 100, not less than three- fourths of the propelling power of the engine is sacrificed in as- cending the acclivity. JVIi'. Stephenson urged that, after all, the power of the locomotive Avas but limited ; and, although he had done more to increase its working qualities than any other engi- neer, it provoked him to find that every improvement which he made in it was neutralized by the steep gradients Avhich the fast school of engineers were setting it to overcome. On one occa- sion, when Mr. Robert Stephenson stated before a Parliamentary Committee that every improvement which they were making in the locomotive was being rendered virtually nugatoiy by the difii- cult and almost impracticable gradients proposed upon so many of the new lines, his father, on his leaving the witness box, went up to him and said, " Robert, you never spoke truer words than those in all your life." In the case of passenger lines, where the load is light, and time an object of importance, short hues of comparatively heavy gi-adients are practicable — thanks to the great power which Mr. Stephenson and his son have given to the engine ; but when the traffic consists, in any considerable proportion, of minerals or merchandise, experience has amply proved the wisdom of Mr. Stephenson's preference for level lines, though of greater length. But engineers Avere growing bolder, and ambitious to do greater things. Among others. Dr. Lardner, Avho had originally been somewhat skeptical about the powers of the locomotive, now pro- mulgated the idea that a railway constructed with rising and fall- ing gradients would be practically as easy to work as a line per- fectly level. Mr. Badnell Avent beyond him, for he held that an 382 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. undulating railway was even much better than a level one for purposes of working.* For a time, this theory found favor, and the " undulating system " was extensively adopted ; but Mr. Ste- phenson never ceased to inveigh against it ; and experience has amply proved that his judgment was correct. The engineers of the fast school were also becoming increas- ingly sanguine about the speed of railway traveling. Dr. Lard- ner considered that an average rate of a hundred miles an hour might be attained by the locomotive upon a railway, though he afterwards found cause to alter his opinion. Mr. Stephenson, who only a few years before was considered insane for suggesting a speed of twelve miles an hour, was now thought behind the age when he recommended that the rate of railway traveling should not exceed forty miles an hour. He said, " I do not like either forty or fifty miles an hour upon any line ; I think it is an unnecessary speed ; and if there is danger upon a railway, it is high velocity that creates it." f He had, indeed, constructed for the Great Western Railway an engine capable of i-unning fifty miles an hour with a load, and eighty miles without one. But he never was in favor of a hurricane speed of this sort, believing it could only be accomplished at an unnecessary increase both of danger and expense. On this subject, he afterwards observed, " The first time I went to Parliament to give evidence on the locomotive engine, when I stated that I would make that machine travel at twelve miles an hour, I was thought to be mad. You will be surprised when I tell you that, during my recent examin- ation before a Committee of the House of Commons on the management of railways, I stated, in my opinion, that the speed of the locomotive should not exceed forty miles an hour. I have been censured by many for giving that opinion. It is true that I have said the engine might be made to travel 100 miles an hour ; but I always put a qualification on this, namely, as to what * Treatise on Railway Improvements. By Mr. Ricliard Badnell, C. E. t Evivlence before the Select Committee on Railways, 27th May, 18il. SELF-ACTING BRAKES. 383 speed would best suit the public. I assure you I have been buf- feted about in Parliament not a little on this question of railway speed."* Although Mr. Stephenson occasionally ''girded" at Mr. Bmnel and his high velocities, there is no doubt that the determination of the latter had the effect of spurring on the Ste- phensons to exert their ingenuity to the utmost in peifecting the narrow-gauge locomotive, and bringing it to tlie highest possible rate of speed. By the year 1845, Mr. Robert Stephenson had been enabled to construct the fastest locomotive that had yet run upon any railway — the celebrated " A " engine — which perform- ed the forty-five miles between York and Darlington, with a train of seven carriages behind it, in about forty-seven minutes ! Mr. Stephenson's evidence before the Select Committee of 1841 bore chiefly upon the safer working of railways, and the means by which they might be improved. One of his suggest tions was to the effect that a system of self-acting brakes should be adopted, so that a train might be more speedily and effectually stopped than by the ordinary system. He himself, he stated, had invented for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway a carriage- brake, which he had not patented, althougli, he understood, a patent for a similar machine had since been taken out. He pro- posed to fix to every carriage a brake so constructed that, on the moving power of the engine being taken off, every carriage should be brought into a state of sledge, and the rolling motion of the wheels thus interrupted. Mr. Stephenson would also have these brakes worked by the guard, by means of a connecting lever running along the whole of the carriages, by which they should at one and the same time be thrown out of gear. He also suggested, as an additional means of safety, that the signals should be self-acting, and worked by the engines as they passed along the line. In opposing the views of the fast school of engineers, as to the alteration of the gauge, the employment of atmospheric pressure, * Speech at Bclper Mechanics' Institute, 6th July, 1S41. 384 LIFE or GEORGE STEPHENSON. the formation of "undulating" lines, and the increase of speed, IVIr. Stephenson was actuated by a just regard to the commercial part of the question. He had no desire to build up a reputation at the expense of railway shareholders, nor to obtain engineering eclat by making "ducks and drakes" of their money. He was persuaded that, in order to secure the practical success of rail- ways, they must be so laid out as not only to prove of decided public utility, but also to be worked economically and to the ad- vantage of their proprietors. They were not Government roads, but private ventures — in foct, commercial speculations. He therefore endeavored to render them commercially profitable ; and he repeatedly declared that if he did not believe they could be " made to pay," he would have nothing to do with them. He frequently refused to act as the engineer for lines which he thought would not prove remunerative, or when he considered the estimates too low.* He was not ambitious to be thought a railway genius, but rather to be regarded as the engineer of use- ful and profitable railways ; and the success which attended his arrangements fully proved the solidity of his judgment in this respect. * In his evidence on the Great Western Bill, Mr. Stephenson said : "I made out an estimate for the Hartlepool Railway, -which they returned on account of its being too high, but I declined going to Parliament with a lower estimate." Another engineer was employed. Then again: "I was consulted about a line from Edinburgh to Glasgow. The directors challied out a line and sent it to me, and I told them I could not support it in that case." Another engineer was consequently employed to carry out the line which Mr. Stephenson could not conscientiously advocate. CHAPTER XXX. MR. STEPHENSON'S PARTIAL RETIREMENT FROM THE PROFESSION— PUBLIC RECOGNITION OF HIS SERVICES— AUTO-BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. The more laborious part of Mr. Steplienson's career in con- nectioa with railways was now over ; and he frequently expressed a desire to retire from its troubles and anxieties into private life. At Blackburn, in 1840, he publicly intimated his intention of retiring from the more active pursuit of his profession ; and, shortly after, he proceeded to resign the charge of several of the railways of which he was the chief engineer. He was succeeded, on the Midland and York systems, by his son Robert ; on the Chester lines, by ]\Ir. John Dixon ; on the Manchester and Leeds lines, by Mr. Hawkshaw ; and on the other railways, chiefly by his own pupils — all of whom, from his son downwards, did him honor. He had removed his home from Alton Grange to Tapton House, in August, 1838 ; but the extent of his railway engage- ments had, up to this time, prevented his enjoyment of its com- forts and retirement. Tapton House is a large, roomy brick mansion, beautifully situated amidst woods, upon a commanding eminence, about a mile to the northeast of the town of Chester- field. Green fields dotted with fine trees slope away from the house in all directions. The suri'ounding country is exceedingly varied and undulating. North and south the eye ranges over a vast extent of lovely scenery ; and on the west, looking over the 25 (385) 386 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSOX. tovrn of Chesterfield, with its fine church and crooked spire, the extensive range of the Derbyshire hills bounds the distance. The IVIidland Railway skirts the western edge of the park in a deep rock cutting, and the shrill whistle of the locomotive sounds near at hand as the trains speed past. The gardens and pleasure grounds adjoining the house were in a very neglected state when Mr. Stephenson first went to Tapton ; and he promised himself, when he had secured rest and leisure from business, that he would put a new lace upon both. The first improvement he made, was in cutting a woodland footpath up the hillside, by which he at the same time added a beautiful feature to the park, and secured a shorter road to the Chesterfield station. But it was some years before he found time to carry into effect his contemplated im- provements in the adjoining gardens and pleasure grounds. He was a man of so active a temperament, had so long been accustomed to laborious pursuits, and felt himself still so full of work, that he could not at once settle down into the habit of quietly enjoying the fruits of his industry. There was, as we have seen, almost a complete lull in the railway world towards the end of 1837, principally caused by the monetary pressure ; and this continued for several years. He had, for some time previously, been turning over in his mind the best mode of em- ploying the facilities which railways afforded for the transport of coals to profitable markets ; and, after careful consideration, he determined to enter as a master miner into the trade with which he had been familiar from his boyhood. Accordingly, early in 1838, conjointly with other parties, he had entered on a lease of the Clay Cross estate, for the purpose of working the coal which was known to exist there. He had an impression that a ready sale might be found for this coal at the stations of the Midland and London and Birmingham Railways, as far even as London itself. He invited, one day, to his house at Tapton a small party of gentlemen, consisting of Mr. Glyn, Sir Joshua Walmsley, Mr. Hudson, and Mr. Sandars, to take their opinion as to the qualities TAPTON AND CLAY CROSS. 387 of the Derbyshire coal for household purposes. The- coals were heaped upon the fire, and they burned so well, that all the gen- tlemen concurred in the opinion that a ready sale might be expected for coals of such a quality. Thus encouraged, sinking operations were commenced, a rich bed of coal was found, and the mineral was sent to market. The article, however, would not sell in the districts of the Midland Counties, where the people had been accustomed to use the Staffordshire coal — which is a much freer burning coal — though of this the above gentlemen, who had been accustomed only to the use of bituminous coal, such as that of the Clay Cross colliery, were not aware when they so decidedly pronounced their opinion as to the salable qualities of the latter. Then, the heavy tolls imposed upon coal by the IVIid- land Railway Companies, at that early period, so enhanced the price of the article when conveyed to any considerable distance, that its sale in the metropolis, on which Mr. Stephenson had in a great measure relied, also proved a comparative failure. For some years, therefore, the Clay Cross inidertaking did not prove successful ; and it was not until new lines of railway had been made between the north and the south, and the tolls on coal were considerably reduced, that the owners of the colliery reaped the fraits of their enterprise. Mr. Stephenson was not merely satisfied with the Clay Cross venture; but in 1841, he entered into a contract with the owners of lands in the townships of Tapton, Brimington and Newbold for the purchase of the whole of the coal thereunder, and com- menced mining operations there also on an extensive scale. At the same time, he erected great lime-works close to tlie Amber- gate station of the INIidland Railway, from which, when in full operation, he was able to turn out upwards of 200 tons a day. The limestone was brought on a tramway from the viUage of Crich, about two or three miles distant from the kilns, the coal wherewith to burn it being supplied from his adjoining Clay Cross colliery. The works were on a scale such as had not before been 388 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. attempted by any private individual engaged in a similar trade ; and their success amply compensated the projector. Mr. Stephenson's comparative retirement from the profession of railway engineer, led many persons interested in railways to moot the subject of presenting him with a testimonial, in consid- eration of the eminent services which he had rendered to the public, by contributing so greatly to the establishment of this new power. Railways had now been in full work for ten years, and, having struggled through trials and difficulties almost unparal- leled, were now established as the chief mode of internal commu- nication throughout Great Britain ; they had also been largely adopted by Belgium, France, and the United States. Twenty- five hundred miles of railway, almost all of them double lines, had been laid down in these islands alone, connecting all the principal towns and provinces with the capital ; joining in a more close and intimate union the various branches of the body politic, commercial and literary, with that great centre. Many new and important branches of industry had been entirely created by this new agency ; and a stimulus had been given to all the existing departments of trade, as well as to the development of the boun- tiful resources of the soil, by which largely increased employment had been secured to the laboring classes. Some sixty millions of money had already been expended in forming railways ; and this large investment was now returning about five millions yearly to the capitalists, for re-investment and further extension of the system. This vast iron revolution had been accomplished in a period of about ten years. So extraordinaiy a movement, pow- erfully affecting as it did all our social and commercial relations, and coming so closely home to the interests of every member of the community, had never before been experienced in our nation's history. George Stephenson, above all others, had been the zealous propagandist of this great change. His ingenuity and persever- ance had made the railway system practicable. His zeal and KECOGNITION OF HIS SERVICES. 389 devotion had secured its success. What more natural than that some public mark of honor should be conferred upon him in recognition of his wonderful discoveiy ? for such, in point of fact, it was. Had he been a Frenchman or a Belgian, the honors of the State would have been showered upon him. Had he invented a shell or a bullet to the satisfaction of the Board of Ordnance, the British Government might have recognized him. Perhaps, had he pointed out to the country gentlemen some improved mode of patching up the old common roads and preserving turnpike trusts, he might have been honored and rewarded as Macadam was. But who would noAV venture to compare the improver of turnpikes with the inventor of railroads, looking at the public benefits conferred by the respective systems ? Yet Mr. Stephenson, though he had solved the great social problem of rapid and easy transit from place to place — the subject of so much parliamentary inquiry — not only remained without any parliamentary recognition of his distinguished public services, but almost the whole of his professional career was a prolonged struggle against the obstructiveness of the legislature. Certain it is, that he never contemplated receiving any reward or recogni- tion from that quarter. Amidst all his labors, it was the last thing that would have crossed his mind ; and it is well that our greatest men in England can undertake questions of public utility, and carry them to a successful issue in the face of stupendous difficulties, without the stimulus of an expected medal or riband, or any Government reward or recognition whatsoever. Mr. Stephenson was, however, on one occasion, offered a piece of Government patronage, thus recorded by his son : — " I remember my father once refusing to accept from the Government what they thought a piece of valuable patronage ; and it was almost, if not absolutely, the only piece of patronage they ever offered him. It was the appointment of a walking postman between Chester- field and Chatsworth, who was to walk eight miles there and 390 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. eight miles back every day with the letter-bags, and who was to receive the immense stipend of twelve shillings a week!"* A movement was made by some leading railway men, in February, 1839, under the presidency of Alderman Thompson, M. P., to offer to Mr. Stephenson some public testimonial in recognition of his distinguished services. A committee was formed, and an appeal was made to the public for subscriptions. A list was opened, but filled slowly. Many other engineers, who had been his pupils, and numerous resident engineers, ivho had superintended the execution of the works planned by him, had received public recognition of their services in many forms. But it was, perhaps, felt, that Avhile these were generally of a local character, it was fitting that the testimonial to Mr. Stephen- son, if offered at all, should express, in some measux-e, the grati- tude of the British nation. No active effort was, however, made by the committee calculated to evoke any such result. The scheme then dropped, and the Stephenson Testimonial was not resumed for several years. But although no testimonial was presented to him, Mr. Ste- phenson was not without honor amongst his fellow citizens. His name was everywhere mentioned with admiration and respect. Thus Sir Robert Peel, in the address delivered by him on open- ing the public library and reading-room at Tamworth, promi- nently alluded to him as one of the most striking proofs that the heights of science are not inaccessible to even the humblest mechanic. "Look around," said he, "at this neighborhood. Look in this very town, and who is the man that is now engaged in extensive works, for the purpose of bringing coal and lime under your immmediate command ? Mr. Stei^henson, the engi- neer. Mr. Stephenson, I am assured, worked three years as a boy in the meanest capacity in a colliery at Newcastle. He saved 100/. by mending the watches of his fellow workmen for * Reply of Robert Stephenson, Esq., M. P., President of the Institution of Ciyil Engi- neers, to Observations in the Second Report of the Postmaster-General, May 20th, 1856. VISITS TO mechanics' INSTITUTES. 391 half-a-crown apiece; and he devoted that 100/. to provision for his indigent parents,* and set out with a light heart and con- science for the purpose of accumulating more. The result has been, that he presents a daily example of encouragement to our eyes, and is brought within our immediate contemplation in this very town." From an early period Mr. Stephenson manifested a lively in- terest in the cause of Mechanics' Institutes. He could not but remember the difficulties which he had early encountered in gathering together his own scientific knowledge — the want of books from which he had suffered, and the miserable character of the only instruction then within the reach of the working classes in the smaller towns and villages. Since his youth, how- ever, a new spirit had arisen on the subject of popular education. The exertions of Bell and Lancaster had led to the establishment of greatly improved agencies for the education of the children of the poor ; and earnest effoi-ts were also being made to admit the adult working classes to the benefits of elementary and scientific instruction by means of Mechanics' Institutes. There were thus few manufacturing towns into which the spirit of Birkbeck and Brougham had not, to some extent, penetrated, exhibiting itself in the establishment of Working Men's Institutions, with theii' organization of classes, lectures and libraries. While residing at Newcastle in 1824, shortly after he had commenced his locomo- tive foundry in Forth Street, Mr. Stephenson was requested to preside at a public meeting held in that town for the purpose of establishing a Mechanics' Institute. The meeting was held ; but George Stephenson was a man comparatively unknown even in Newcastle at that time, and his name failed to summon an "in- fluential" attendance. The local papers scarcely noticed the pro- * This is not quite correct. Although Mr. Stephenson was not sparing in pecuniary- assistance to his parents, the reason for his early thrift and industry in watch-cleaning was, an he himself stated, that he might be able to send his son to school, and furnish him with the elements of a sound education. 392 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. ceedingg ; yet the Mechanics' Institute was founded, and struggled into existence. Years passed, and George Stephenson had become a famous name. He had estabhshed a new power in the world, which the greatest were ready to I'ecognizc. Beyond the bounds of his own country, his genius was acknowledged. Belgium had given him a national welcome, and King Leopold had invested him with the Order of Knighthood of that kingdom. It was now, therefore, felt to be no small honor to secure Mr. Stephen- son's presence at any public meetings held for the promotion of popular education. Amongst the Mechanics' Institutes in his immediate neighborhood at Tapton, were those of Belper and Chesterfield ; and at their soirees he was a frequent, and always a highly welcome, visitoi*. On those occasions he loved to tell them of the difficulties which had early beset him through want of knowledge, and of the means by which he had overcome them — always placing in the first rank perseverance. This was his grand text — persevere. There was manhood in the very word. And he would remind them of their unspeakable advan- tages as mechanics, compared with the workmen of his early days. They had books ; but he remembered the time "when a good library of books would have been woi-th worlds to him." A new stimulus was given to the Mechanics' Institutes of Der- byshire in 1841, by the adoption of visits to each other by rail- way. The civilizing and educating influences of this great machine were thus carried on under Mr. Stephenson's own aus- pices, and almost at his very door. The Mechanics' Institution of Belper paid a visit, three hundred strong, to that of Chester- field ; and in a few weeks the latter returned the visit with interest. On both occasions Mr. Stephenson was the hero of the day. One after another the speakers acknowledged that to him, the most distinguished mechanic living, they had been indebted for the improved means of transit, which enabled them thus to hold intercourse with each other. Mr. Stephenson was, of course, a speaker on both occasions, and threw out many shrewd re- ADVICE TO YOUNG MECHANICS. 393 marks and suggestions for the consideration of his friends, the young mechanics present. After describing the great difficulties which he had to encounter in connection with the locomotive, he said, " but that has been little, compared with the difficulty I have had in the management of man. I have found the engineering of railways to be light work, compared with the engineering of men." A favorite object of his observations at those mechanics' meetings was, the properties of the crank, and the mistakes which mechanics had so often made with respect to it. At Ches- terfield he concluded with a piece of sound practical advice : "As an encouragement to young mechanics, I may state to them, that I commenced my mechanical career Avith very scanty means ; and by close ajiplication and study, I have succeeded in establish- ing a manufactory which sends machinery to almost every king- dom in Europe. I may add, that nothing conduces, in my opin- ion, so much to the success in life of a thinking mechanic as sobriety, coupled with a steady and persevering application to his employment ; never, however, in the midst of all his engagements, forgetting to contribute, by every means in his power, to the com- fort of his wife and family." At both Belper and Chesterfield, Mr. Stephenson invited the members, at any time when they thought they had found out any new invention, to bring their dis- covery to him, and he would always be ready to give them his opinion and assistance. This invitation got into the newspapers, and the consequence was, that he was very shortly flooded with letters, soliciting his opinion as to inventions which his corres- pondents thought they had made. He soon found that he had set himself a formidable task, and had roused the speculative and inventive faculties of the working men of nearly all England. He was, however, ready on all occasions to give his advice ; and he frequently subscribed sums of money to enable struggling in- ventors to bring their schemes to a fair trial, when he considered them to be useful and feasible. Though Mr. Stephenson had retired from the more active pur- 394 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. suit of Lis profession, he was, in 18-44, appointed engineer to the Whitehaven and Maryport Railway, in conjunction with his friend and former assistant, Mr. John Dixon. The hne was actively promoted by Lord Lowther and the members for the county, and ]Mr. Stephenson consented to act — his name being regarded as a tower of strength in that district. This, however, was the only new project with which he was connected in that year. He Avas also, about the same time, elected chairman of the Yarmouth and Norwich Railway, a line in which he took much interest, and had invested a good deal of money. At the meet- ings of the Company, he confessed that he felt he was more in his place as a railway engineer than as a railway chairman ; but as he and his friends held about three-fourths of the shares in the concern, he felt bound to stand by it until its completion, which was effected in April, 1844. This line, like most others, was greatly fleeced by the land owners of the district, who sought to extort the most exorbitant pi'ices for their land. One instance may be cited. A Mr. Tuck claimed 9000/. as compensation for severance, in addition to the very high price allowed for the land itself. After a careful investigation had been made by a jury, they awarded 850/., or less than one-tenth of the amount claimed. One of the witnesses examined on the part of the land owners, was Mr. R. H. Guniey, the banker of Norwich, who exhibited a hatred of railways equalled only by that of Colonel Sibthorpe. On his cross-examination he said : '' I have never traveled by rails ; I am an enemy to them ; I have opposed the Norwich Railway ; I have left a sum of money in my will to oppose rail- roads ! " Another witness, a Mr. Driver, admitted that, on a previous occasion, he had estimated the value of certain land re- quired for a railway at from 35,000/. to 40,000/., for which a jury had awarded only 2,000/. Such was the extortion to which those early railways were subjected, and which, in one way or another, has fallen ultimately upon the public. Mr. Stephenson had been looking forward with much interest MR. liddell's complimentary speech. 395 to the completion of the East Coast route to Scotland as far as his native town of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He had done much to form that route, both hj constructing the lines from Derby to York, and by bringing before the public his plan for carrying the main line noi-thward to Edinburgh. A bill with this object was again brought before Parliament in 1844. On the 18th of June, in that year, the Newcastle and Darlington line — an important link of the great main highway to tlie north — was completed and publicly opened — thus connecting tlie Thames and the Tyne by a continuous line of railway. On that day, Mr. Stephenson, Mr. Hudson, and a distinguished party of railway men, traveled by express train from London to Newcastle m about nine hours. It was a great event, and was worthily celebrated. The popula- tion of Newcastle held holiday ; and a banquet held in the As- sembly Rooms the same evening assumed the form of an ovation to Mr. Stephenson and his son. Thirty years before, George Stephenson, in the capacity of a workman, had been laboring at the construction of his first locomotive in the immediate neigh- borhood. By slow and laborious steps, he had worked his way on, dragging the locomotive into notice, and raising himself in public estimation. He had now, at length, established the great railway system, and came back amongst his townsmen to receive their greeting. The Honorable Mr. Liddell, M. P., whose father. Lord Ra- vensworth, had helped and encouraged George Stephenson to make his first locomotive at Killingworth, aj^proiDriately occupied the chair, and, in introducing Mr. Stephenson to the meeting, alluded to the recent rapid progress of railroads, and especially to the last great event in their history — the opening of an unin- terrupted railway communication from the Thames to the Tyne — whereby " he had been enabled to take part in the proceedings of the House of Commons at a late hour in the night, and to arrive at Newcastle in time for an early dinner on the following day. This wonderful achievement was the result of the capital, 396 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. skill and enterprise of England ; and if he (^fr. Liddell) felt proud of this new triumph of his country, what must be the feel- ings of that illustrious individual now sitting amongst them, who, though born in humble circumstances, had, by the force of his genius and industry, so distinguished himself as to hand down the name of Stephenson to everlasting fame ! He would not have referred to the position from which Mr. Stephenson had sprung, were it not that he himself, so far from being ashamed of his origin, was in the habit of alluding to it ; and if Mr. Stephenson took a pride in the humility of his birth, surely his countrymen might be proud of the obscurity of his youth, as compared with the prominence of his present position ! He was happy to add, that, distinguished as he was by his genius and his deeds, his sterling honesty reflected higher honor upon George Stephenson than even those rare abilities with which he was endowed by the Almighty." Referring to the speech of Prebendary Townsend, Mr. Liddell stated that, " by the construction of a railway from London to Folkestone and Dover, thousands of persons had been enabled to spend their last Whitsuntide holidays at Calais and Boulogne, among their ' natural enemies;' and when such was the case, the two nations would in time be purged of their sense- less antipathies, and learn to look upon each other, not as for- eigners and foes, but members in common of the great human family. Mr. Stephenson, therefore, might be looked upon as the great pacificator of the age. And yet, a few years ago, he was but a working engineman at a colliery ! But he was a man not only of talent, but of genius. Happily, also, he was a man of industry and of character. He constructed the first successful engine that traveled by its own spontaneous power over an iron railroad ; and on such a road, and by such an engine, a communi- cation had now been established between London and Newcastle. The author of this system of traveling had lived long enough for his fame, but not long enough for his country. He had reared to himself a monument more durable than brass or marble, and AUTOBIOGRAPHIC SKETCH. 397 based it on a foundation whereon it would rest unshaken by the storms of time." Mr. Stephenson, in replying to Mr. Liddell's complimentary speech, took occasion to deliver that memorable autobiography to which we have already referred ; and, at the risk of repetition, we venture to insert it here in a more complete form, botli on account of its extreme mterest, and because of the valuable prac- tical lessons it contains. " As the honorable member," said he, " has referred to the engineering efforts of my early days, it may not be amiss if I say a few words to you on that subject, more especially for the encouragement of my younger friends. Mr. Liddell has told you that in my early days I worked at an en- gine at a coal-pit. I had then to work early and late, and my emi)loyment was a most laborious one. For about twenty years I had often to rise to my labor at one and two o'clock in the morning, and worked until late at night. Time rolled on, and I had the happiness to make some improvements in engine work. The company will be gratified when I tell them that the first locomotive that I made was at Killingworth colliery. The own- ers were pleased Avith what I had done in the collieries ; and I then proposed to make an engine to work upon the smooth rails. It was with Lord Ravensworth's money that my first locomotive was built. Yes, Lord Eavensworth and his partners were the first gentlemen to entrust me with money to make a locomotive. That was more than thirty years ago ; and we first called it ' My Lord.' I then stated to some of my friends, now living, that those high velocities with which we are now so familiar, would, sooner or later, be attained, and that there was no limit to the speed of such an engine, provided the works could be made to stand ; but nobody would believe me at that time. The engines could not perform the high velocities now reached, when they wei-e first invented ; but, by their superior construction, an im- mense speed is now capable of being obtained. Li what has been done under my management, the merit is only in part my 398 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSOX. own. Throughout, I have been most ably seconded and assisted by my son. In the early period of my career, and when he Avas a little boy, I felt how deficient I was in education, and made up my mind that I would put him to a good school. I determined that he should have as liberal a training as I could afford to give him. I was, however, a poor man ; and how do you think I managed ? I betook myself to mending my neighbors' clocks and watches at night, after my daily labor was done. By this means I saved money, which I put by ; and, in course of time, I was thus enabled to give my son a good education. While quite a boy he assisted me, and became a companion to me. He got an appointment as under-viewer at Killingworth ; and at nights, when we came home, we worked together at our engineer- ing. I got leave from my employers to go from Killingworth to lay down a railway at Hetton, and next to Darlington for a like purpose ; and I finished both railways. After that, I went to Lirei'pool to plan a line to Manchester. The directors of that undertaking thought ten miles an hour Avould be a maximum speed for the locomotive engine ; and I pledged myself to attain that speed. I said I had no doubt the locomotive might be made to go much faster, but we had better be moderate at the begin- ning. The directors said I was quite right ; for if, when they went to Parliament, I talked of going at a greater rate than ten miles an hour, I should put a cross on the concern ! It was not an easy task for me to keep the engine down to ten miles an hour ; but it must be done, and I did my best. I had to place myself in the most unpleasant of all positions — the witness-box of a parliamentary committee. I was not long in it, I assure you, before I began to wish for a hole to creep out at. I could not find words to satisfy either the committee or myself; or even to make them understand my meaning. Some said, ' He's a for- eigner.' ' No,' others replied ; ' he's mad.' But I put up with every rebuff, and went on with my plans, determined not to be put down. Assistance gradually increased ; gi'eat improvements THE EAST COAST LINE REVIVED. 399 were made in the locomotive ; until to-day, a train Arliich started from London in the morning, has brought me in the afternoon to my native soil, and enabled me to meet again many fiices with which I am familiar, and which I am exceedingly pleased to see once more." After the opening of this railway, the completion of the East Coast line, by effecting a connection between Newcastle and Ber- wick, was again revived ; and Mr. Stephenson, wlio had already identified himself with the question, and was intimately acquainted with every foot of the ground, Avas called upon to assist the pro- moters with his judgment and experience. By this time a strong popular opinion had arisen in favor of atmospheric railways. Many engineers avowedly supported them in preference to locomotive lines, and Mr. Brunei had considera- ble influence in determining the vieAvs of many members of Par- liament on the subject. Amongst others. Lord Howick took up the question of atmospheric as opposed to locomotive railways, and, possessing great local influence, he succeeded, in 1844, in forming a powerful combination of the landed gentry of North- umberland in favor of an atmospheric line tlirough that county. Mr. Stephenson could not brook the idea of seeing the locomo- tive, for which he had fought so many stout battles, pushed to one side by the atmospheric system, and that in the very county in which its great powers had been first developed. Nor did he relish the appearance of Mr. Brunei as the engineer of Lord Howick's atmospheric railway, in opposition to the line which had occupied his thoughts and been the object of his strenuous advo- cacy for so many years. When Mr. Stephenson first met Mr. Brunei in Newcastle, he good-naturedly shook him by the collar, and asked " what business he had north of the Tyne ? " Mr. Stephenson gave him to understand that they were to have a fair stand-up fight for the ground, and shaking hands before the bat- tle, like Englishmen, they parted in good humor. A public meet- ing was held at Newcastle in the following December, when, 400 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. after a full discussion of the merits of the respective plans, Mr. Stephenson's line was almost unanimously adopted as the best. The rival projects went before Parliament in 1845, and a severe contest ensued. The display of ability and tactics on both sides was great. Mr. Hudson and the Messrs. Stephenson were the soul of the movement in support of the locomotive, and Lord Howick and Mr. Brunei in behalf of the atmospheric system. The locomotive* again triumphed: Mr. Stephenson's coast line secured the approval of Parliament, and the shareholders in the atmospheric company were happily saved from expending theii' capital in the perpetration of an egregious blunder ; for, only a few years later, the atmospheric system was everywhere aban- doned. This was one of the very few projects in which Mr. Stephen- son was professedly concerned in the mad railway session of 1845 ; and it was the last great parliamentary contest in which he took a prominent part. So closely was Mr. Stephenson iden- tified with this measure, and so great was the personal interest which he was known to take in its success, that on the news of the triumph of the bill reaching Newcastle, a sort of general holiday took place, and the workmen belonging to the Stephenson Loco- motive Factory, upwards of 800 in number, walked in procession through the principal streets of the town, accompanied by music and banners. There was still another great work connected with Newcastle and the East Coast route, which Mr. Stephenson projected, but which he did not live to see completed — the High Level Bridge over the Tyne, of which his son Robert was the principal engi- neer. Mr. R. W. Brandling — to the public spirit and enterprise of whose family the prosperity of Newcastle has been in no small degree indebted, and who first brought to light the strong orig- inal genius of George Stephenson in connection with the safety lamp — is entitled to the merit of originating the idea of the High Level Bridge as it was eventually carried out, with a central ter- THE HIGH LEVEL BRIDGE. 401 minus for the northern railways in the Castle Garth at Newcastle. He first promulgated the plan in 1841 ; and in the following year it was resolved that Mr. George Stephenson should be con- sulted as to the most advisable site for the proposed bridge. A prospectus of a High Level Bridge Company was issued in 1843, the names of George Stephenson and George Hudson appearing on the committee of management, Mr. Robert Stephenson being the consulting engineer. The project was eventually taken up by the Newcastle and Darlington Railway Company, and an act for the construction of the bridge was obtained in the session of 1845. The designs of the bridge were Mr. Robert Stephenson's; and the works were executed under the superintendence of Mr. Thomas Harrison, one of Mr. Stephenson's many able assistants. The High Level Bridge is certainly the most magnificent and striking of all the erections to which railways have given birth — more picturesque as an object than the tubular bridge over the Menai Straits, and even more important as a great public work. It has been worthily styled " the King of Railway Structures." 26 1 CHAPTER XXXI, XnE RAILWAY MANIA. The extension of railways had, up to the yeai' 1844, been effected principally by men of the commercial classes, interested in opening up improved communications between particular towns and districts. The first lines had been bold experiments — many thought them exceedingly rash and unwarranted ; they had been reluctantly conceded by the legislature, and were carried out in the face of great opposition and difficulties. At length the loco- motive vindicated its power ; railways were recognized by men of all classes, as works of great utility ; and their vast social as well as commercial advantages forced themselves on the public recognition. What had been regarded as but doubtful specula- tions, and by many as certain failures, were now ascertained to be beneficial investments, the most successful of them paying from eight to ten per cent, on the share capital expended. The first railways were, on the whole, well managed. The best men that could be got were appointed to work them. It is true, mistakes were made, and accidents happened ; but men did not become perfect because railways had been invented. The men who constructed, and the men who worked the lines, were selected from the general community, consisting of its usual pro- portion of honest, practical, and tolerably stupid persons. Had it been possible to create a class of perfect men, a sort of railway guardian-angels, directors would only have been top glad to appoint (402) THE STOCK EXCHANGE. 403 them at good salaries. For with all the mistakes that may have been committed by directors, the jobbing of railway appointments, or the misuse of patronage in selecting the persons to work their lines, has not been charged against them. We have never yet seen a Railway Living advertised for sale ; nor have railway sit- uations of an important character been obtainable through " inter- est." From the first, directors chose the best men they could find for their pui'pose ; and, on the whole, the system, considering the extent of its operations, worked satisfactorily, though admitted to be capable of considerable improvement. The first boards of directors were composed of men of the highest character and integrity that could be found ; and they almost invariably held a large stake in their respective undertak- ings, sufficient to give them a lively personal interest in their successful management. They were also men who had not taken up the business of railway direction as a trade, but who entered upon railway enterprise for its own sake, looking to its eventual success for an adequate return on their large investments. The first shareholders were principally confined to the manu- facturing districts — the capitalists of the metropolis as yet hold- ing aloof, and prophesying disaster to all concerned in railway projects.* The stock exchange looked askance upon them, and it was with difficulty that respectable brokers could be found to do business in the shares. But when the lugubrious anticipa- tions of the city men were found to be so completely falsified by the results, when, after the lapse of j^ears, it was ascertained that railway traffic rapidly increased and dividends steadily improved, a change came over the spirit of the London capitalists : they then invested largely in railways, and the shares became a lead- ing branch of business on the stock exchange. Speculation fairly * The leading "city men" looked ■(vith great suspicion on the first railway projects, haying no faith in their success. In 1835, the solicitorship of the Brighton Railway (then projected) was offered to a city firm of high standing, and refused — one of the part- ners assigning as a reason that " the coaches would drive the railway trains off the road in a month 1 " 404: LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. set in ; brokers prominently called the attention of investors to railway stock ; and the prices of shares in the principal lines rose to nearly double their original value. The national wealth soon poured into this new channel. A stimulus was given to the projection of further lines, the shares in the most favorite of which came out at a premium, and became the subject of immediate traffic on 'change. The premiums con- stituted their sole worth in the estimation of the speculators. As titles to a future profitable investment, the tens of thousands of shares created and issued in 1844 and 1845 were not in the slightest degree valued. What were they worth to hold for a time, and then to sell ? what profit could be made by the ven- ture? — that was the sole consideration. A share-dealing spirit was thus evoked ; and a reckless gam- bling for premiums set in, which completely changed the char- acter and objects of railway enterprise. The public outside the stock exchange shortly became infected with the same spirit, and many people, utterly ignorant of railways, knowing and caring nothing about their great national uses, but hungering and thirst- ing after premiums, rushed eagerly into the vortex of speculation. They applied for allotments, and subscribed for shares in lines, of the engineering character or probable traffic of which they knew nothing. " Shares ! shares ! " became the general cry. The ultimate issue of the projects themselves was a matter of no moment. The multitude were bitten by the universal rage for acquiring sudden fortunes without the labor of earning them. Provided they could but obtain allotments which they could sell at a premium, and put the profit — often the only capital they possessed* — into their pockets, it was enough for them. The mania was not confined to the precincts of the stock exchange, *■ The Marquis of Clanricarde brought under the notice of the House of Lords in 1845, that one Charles Guernsey, the son of a charwoman, and a clerk in a broker's office at 12s. a week, had his name down as a subscriber for shares in the London and York line, for 52,000J Doubtless, he had been made useful for the purpose by the brokers, hi* smployers. SPECULATION RUN MAD. 405 but infected all ranks throughout the country. Share markets were estabUslied in the provincial towns, where people might play their stakes as on a roulette table. Tlie game was open to all — to the workman, who drew his accumulation of small earn- ings out of the savings' bank to try a venture in shares ; to the widow and spinster of small means, Avho had up to that time blessed God that their lot had lain between poverty and riches, but were now seized by the infatuation of becoming suddenly rich ; to the professional man, who, watching the success of others, at length scorned the moderate gains of his calling, and rushed into speculation. The madness spread everywhere. It embraced merchants and manufacturers, gentry and shopkeepers, clerks in public offices and loungers at the clubs. Noble lords were pointed out as "stags;" there were even clergymen who were characterized as "bulls;" and amiable ladies who had the reputation of "bears," in the share markets. The few quiet men who remained uninfluenced by the speculation of the time, were, in not a few cases, even reproached for doing injustice to their families, in declining to help themselves from the stores of wealth that were poured out all around. Folly and knavery were, for a time, completely in the ascend- ant. The sharpers of society were let loose, and jobbers and schemers became more and more plentiful. They threw out railway schemes as mere lures to catch the unwary. They fed the mania with a constant succession of new projects. The rail- way papers became loaded with their advertisements. The post- office was scarcely able to distribute the multitude of prospectuses and circulars which they issued. For the time their popularity was immense. They rose like froth into the upper heights of society, and the flunky Fitz Plushe, by virtue of his supposed wealth, sat amongst peers and was idolized. Then was the har- vest-time for scheming lawyers, parliamentary agents, engineers, surveyors and traffic-takers, who were ahke ready to take up any railway scheme however desperate, and to prove any f^mount of 406 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. traffic even where none existed. The traffic in the credulity of their dupes was, however, the great feet that mainly concerned them, and of the profitable character of which there could be no doubt. Many of them saw well enough the crash that was com- ing, and diligently made use of the madness while it served their turn. Even men of reputed sagacity in commercial undertakings, who had accumulated their wealth patiently and honestly, and who seemed most unlikely to risk their capital in such a mania, were drawn into the irresistible vortex, and invested in the new schemes in the hope of realizing profits more rapidly, or obtain ing a higher interest for their money. Parliament, whose previous conduct in connection Avith rail- way legislation was so open to reprehension, interposed no check — attempted no remedy. On the contrary, it helped to intensify the evils arising from this unseemly state of things. Many of its members were themselves involved in the mania, and as much interested in its continuance as were the vulgar herd of money- grubbers. The railway prospectuses now issued — unlike the original Liverpool and Manchester, and London and Birmingham schemes — were headed by peers, baronets, landed proprietors, and strings of M. Ps. Thus, it was found in 1845, that not fewer than 157 members of Parliament were on the list of new companies as subscribers for sums ranging from 291,000/. down- wards ! The projectors of new lines even came to boast of their parliamentary strength, and of the number of votes which they could command in "the House." The influence which land- owners liad formerly brought to bear upon Parliament in resist- ing railways when called for by the public necessities, was now employed to carry measures of a far different kind, originated by cupidity, knavery and folly. But these gentlemen had discov- ered by this time that railways were as a golden mine to them. They sat at railway boards, sometimes selling to themselves their own land at their own price, and paying themselves with the DISCOURAGES RAILWAY SPECULATION. 407 money of the unfortunate shareholders. Others used the rail- ^vay mania as a convenient, and, to themselves, comparatively in- expensive mode of purchasing constituencies. It was strongly suspected that honorable members adopted what Yankee legis- lators call '"log-rolling," that is, "You help me to roll my log, and I help you to roll yours." At all events, it is matter of fa(;t, that, through parliamentary influence, many utterly ruinous branches and extensions projected during the mania, calculated only to benefit the inhabitants of a iew miserable old boroughs accidentally omitted from schedule A, were authorized in the memorable sessions of 1844 and 1845. This boundless speculation of course gave abundant employ- ment to the engineers. They were found ready to attach their names to the most daring and foolish projects — railways through hills, across arms of the sea, over or under great rivers, spanning valleys at great heights or boring their way under the ground, across barren moors, along precipices, over bogs, and through miles of London streets. One line was projected direct from Leeds to Liverpool, which, if constructed, would involve a tun- nel, or a deep rock cutting through the hills, twenty miles long. No scheme was so mad that it did not find an engineer, so called, ready to indorse it, and give it currency. Many of these, even men of distinction, sold the use of their names to the projectors. A thousand guineas was the price charged by one gentleman for the use of his name ; and fortunate were the solicitors considered who succeeded in bagging an engineer of reputation for their prospectus. Mr. Stephenson was anxiously entreated to lend his name in this way, but he invariably refused. Had he been less scrupu- lous, he might, without any trouble, have thus earned an enor- mous income ; but he had no desire to accumulate a fortune without labor and without honor. He himself never speculated in shares. When he was satisfied as to the merits of any line, he subscribed for so much capital in the undertaking, and held 408 ■ LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. on, neither buying nor selling. At a time when the shares in most of the lines in which he held, were selling at high premiums, some sagacious friends, foreseeing the inevitable j^anic, urged him to realize. His answer was, " No : I subscribed for those shares to hold during my lifetime, not to speculate with." Thus, all the railway stock that he had subscribed for, continued in his possession until his death, although much of it by that time had become greatly depreciated in value in consequence of over-spec- ulation in railways. In 1844 and 1845 he conscientiously stood aloof, and endeavored, but in vain, to deter those who were im- periling the system which he had so laboriously worked out, from engaging in these rash and worthless schemes. Deputa- tions, headed by lords and members of Parliament, waited upon him, and entreated him to act as consulting engineer for their lines. Instead of complying, he entreated them to desist, point- ing out the ruinous consequences of their procedure. During 1845, his son's offices in George Street, Westminster, were crowded with persons of various conditions seeking inter- views, and presented very much the appearance of the levee of a minister of state. The Railway King, suiTounded by an admir- ing group of followers, was often a prominent feature there ; and a still more interesting person, in the estimation of many, was George Stephenson, dressed in black, his coat of somewhat old- fashioned cut, with square pockets in the tails. He wore a white neckcloth, and a lax'ge bunch of seals was suspended from his watch-ribbon. Altogether, he presented an appearance of health, intelligence and good humor, that rejoiced one to look upon in that sordid, selfish and eventually ruinous saturnalia of railway speculation. Being still the consulting engineer for several of the older companies, he necessarily appeared before Parliament in support of their branches and extensions. In 1845, his name was asso- ciated with that of his son as the engineer for the Southport and Preston Junction. In the same session he gave evidence in favor WANT OP FORESIGHT IN PARLIAMENT. 409 of the Syston and Peterborough bi-anch of the Midland Railway; but his pi-incijial attention was confined to the promotion of the line from Newcastle to Berwick, in which he had never ceased to take the deepest interest. At the same time he was engaged in examining and reporting upon certain foreign lines of consider- able importance. Powers were granted by Parliament, in 1845, to construct not less than 2883 miles of new railways in Britain, at an expendi- ture of about forty-four millions sterling ! Yet the mania was not appeased ; for in the following session of 184G applications were made to Parliament for powers to raise 389,000,000/. ster- ling for the construction of further lines ; and powers were actually conceded for forming 4790 miles (including 60 miles of tunnels), at a cost of about 120,000,000/. sterling ! * During this session, Mr. Stephenson appeared as engineer for only one new line — the Buxton, Macclesfield, Congleton and Crewe Railway; and for three branch lines in connection with existing companies, for which he had long acted as engineer. During the same ses- sion, all the leading professional men were fully occupied, some of them appearing as consulting engineers for upwards of thirty lines each ! The course adopted by Parliament in dealing with the multi- tude of railway bills applied for during the prevalence of the mania, was as irrational as it proved to be unfortunate. The want of foresight displayed by both houses in obstructing the railway system so long as it was based upon sound commercial principles, was only equalled by the fatal facility Avith which they subsequently granted railway projects based on the wildest speculation. Parliament interposed no check, laid down no prin- ciple, furnished n(f guidance, for the conduct of railway project- ors, but left every company to select its own locality, determine * On the 17th November, 1845, Mr Spackman published a list of the lines projected, f many of which were not afterwards prosecuted), from which it appeared that there were then 620 new railway projects before the public, requiring a capital of 56-3,203,000/. 410 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. its own line and fix its own gauge. No regard was paid to the claims of existing companies, which had ah'eady expended so large an amount in the formation of useful railways. Speculators were left at full liberty to project and carry out lines almost parallel with theirs. In 1844, Lord Dalhousie, who then pre- sided at the Board of Trade, endeavored, in a series of able reports, to give a proper direction to legislation on the subject of railways ; but in vain. Both houses viewed with jealousy any interference with the powers of the committees ; Lord Dal- housie's recommendations were entii'ely disregarded, and an un- limited scope was afforded to competition for railway bills. A powerful stimulus was thus given to the existing spirit of specu- lation, which rose to a fearful height, in 1845, turning nearly the whole nation into gamblers. The House of Commons became thoroughly influenced by the prevailing excitement ; and even the Board of Trade itself be- gan to favor the views of the flist school of engineers. In the "Report on the Lines projected in the Manchester and Leeds District," * they promulgated some remarkable views respecting gradients, declaring themselves in favor of the "undulating sys- tem." Thus they cited the case of the Lickey incline on the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway, as "a conclusive proof that a gradient of 1 in 37^ for a length of two miles may be worked by the aid of an engine constructed for the purpose, without serious inconvenience to an extensive traffic;" — that "gradients of from 1 in 50 to 1 in 100 are perfectly practicable to the ordi- nary locomotive engine, with moderate loads; — that lines of an undulating character "which have gradients of 1 in 70 or 1 in 80 distributed over them in short lengths, may be positively better lines, i. e., more susceptible of cheap and expeditious working, than others which have nothing steeper than 1 in 100 or 1 in 1201" They concluded by reporting in favor of the line which exhibited » Dated the 4th February, 1845. SIR ROBERT PEEL ON GRADIENTS. 411 the most gradients and the sharpest curves, chiefly on the ground that it could be constructed for less money. Sir Robert Peel took occasion, when speaking in favor of the continuance of the Railways Department of the Board of Trade, to advert to this Report in the House of Commons on the 4th of March following, as containing "a novel and highly important view on the subject of gradients, which, he Avas certain, never could have been taken by any Committee of the House of Com- mons, however intelligent ;" and he might have added that the more intelligent, the less likely they were to arrive at any such conclusions. When Mr. Stephenson saw this report of the prem- ier's speech in the newspapers of the following morning, he went forthwith to his son, and asked him to write a letter to Sir Robert Peel on the subject. He saw clearly that if these views were adopted, the utility and economy of railways would be seriously curtailed. "These members of Parliament," said he, "are now as much disposed to exaggerate the powers of the locomotive, as they were to under-estimate them but a few years ago." Mr. Robert Stephenson wrote a letter for his father's signature, embodying the views which he so strongly entertained as to the importance of flat gradients, and referring to the experiments conducted by him many years before, in proof of the great loss of working power which was incurred on a line of steep as com- pared with easy gradients. It was clear, from the tone of Sir Robert Peel's speech in a subsequent debate,* that he had care- fully read and considered Mr. Stephenson's practicable observa- tions on the subject ; for he then took the opportunity of observ- ing that "he thought there was too great a tendency to adopt the shortest lines without I'eference to gradients. Though, in recent instances, unfavorable gradients had been overcome by the con- struction of new engines, he doubted whether there was not an unprofitable expenditure of power in such cases — whether the * Debate on Mr. Morison's resolutions, March 20th, 1845 412 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. mechanical action of locomotive engines was not materially inter- fered with by unfavorable gradients — and whether the exertions made to diminish the gradients, and to run as nearly as possil)le on a level, would not be amply repaid. He was alluding, not to the shortest Hues merely with regard to distance, but to the short- est lines in point of timey On the whole, however, he declared himself favorable to direct lines, and cited the case of the Trent Valley Railway (which placed Tamworth on a main line) as one that "was about to be established by universal consent." Sir Robert's conclusions were not very decisive on the question ; and it was not quite clear whether he was in favor of direct lines of unfavorable gradients, or somewhat longer lines of flat gradients. There was doubtless "much to be said on both sides;" and the committees were left to decide as they thought proper. Direct lines were very much in vogue at the time. There were "Di- rect Manchester," " Direct Exeter," " Direct York," and, indeed, new direct lines between most of the large towns. The Marquis of Bristol, speaking in favor of the " Direct Norwich and Lon- don" project, at a public meeting at Haverhill, said, "if necessary, they might make a tunnel beneath his very drawing-room, rather than be defeated in their undertaking!" How different was the spirit which influenced these noble lords but a few years before ! The Board of Trade, seeing clearly the disadvantages of the difference of gauge between the Great Western and the adjacent lines, recommended uniformity, and that the narrow gauge should be adopted as the national one. Again the House of Commons disregarded their advice. The Committee passed both broad and narrow gauge bills indiscriminately. The Board also reported against the atmosphei'ic system of working. But Sir Robert F<;el and other amateur railway men declared themselves strongly in it^ favor ; * and numerous acts empowering the construction * Irv the debate on Mr. Shaw's motion for a committee to inquire into the practicability of the atmospheric Fystem, Sir Robert Peel, in supporting the resolution, said : " You will observe that my impression is strongly in favor of the atmospheric system. I Seeply LEGISLATIVE BUNGLING. 413 of atmospheric lines were passed during the session. The result of the whole was, a tissue of legislative bungling, involving enor- mous loss to the public. Railway bills were granted in heaps. Two hundred and seventy-two additional acts were passed in 1846.* Some authorized the construction of lines running almost parallel to existing railways, in order to afford the public " the benefits of unrestricted competition." Locomotive and atmos- pheric lines, broad-gauge and narrow-gauge lines, were granted without hesitation. One of the grand points with the red-tapists, was compliance with standing orders. The real merits of the lines applied for, were of comparatively little moment. Commit- tees decided without judgment, and without discrimination ; it was a scramble for bills in which the most unscrupulous were the most successful. As an illustration of the legislative folly of the period, Mr. Robert Stephenson, speaking at Toronto, in Upper Canada, some years later, adduced the following instances : '" There was one district through which it was proposed to run two lines, and there was no other difficulty between them than the simple rivalry that, if one got a charter, the other might also. But here, where the Committee might have given both, they gave neither. In another instance, two lines were projected through a lament the loss of one of the gentlemen (Mr. Jacob Samada) who were the patentees of this system, for his great acuteness tended much to the success of this very ingenious invention." March 14th, 1845. * The following is a summary of the railway acts passed in the three sessions of 1844, 1S46, and 18-16 : Years. Number of Acts passed. Length of New Railways author- ized. 1 New Railway Capital authorized 1844 1845 1846 48 120 272 Miles. 797 2,883 , 4,790 £ 14,793,994 43,844,907 121,500,000 Total, 440 8,470 180,138,901 414 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. barren country, and the Committee gave the one which afforded the least accommodation to the public. In another, where two lines were projected to run, merely to shorten the time by a few minutes, leading through a mountainous country, the Committee gave both. So that, where the Committee might have given both, they gave neither, and where they should have given neither, they gave both." The frightful waste of money in conducting railway proceed- ings, before and after they reached the parliamentary committees, was matter of notoriety. An instance has been mentioned of an utterly impracticable line, which never got so far as the House of Commons, where the solicitor's bill for projecting and conduct- ing the scheme amounted to 82,000Z. It was estimated by Mr. Laing of the Board of Trade, and the estimate was confirmed by Mr. Stephenson, that the competition for new lines, many of which were sanctioned by Parliament under the delusion that railway traveling would be thereby cheapened, had led to the expenditure of about three hundred millions sterling, of which seventy millions had been completely thrown away in construct- ing unnecessary duplicate lines. But Mr. Stephenson further expressed himself of opinion, that this loss of seventy millions very inadequately represented the actual loss in point of conven- ience, economy, and other circumstances connected with traffic, which the public has sustained from the carelessness of Parlia- ment in railway legislation. The total cost of obtaining one act amounted to 436,223/. Another company expended 480,000/. on parliamentary contests in nine years. In another case, 57,000/. was expended in one session upon six counsel and twenty solicitors. One barrister, in good practice before the committees, pocketed 38,000/. in a single session. Amongst the many ill effects of the mania, one of the worst was that it introduced a low tone of morality into railway trans- actions. The bad spirit which had been evoked by it unhappily THE RAILWAY NAVVY. 415 extended to the commercial classes ; and many of the most flagrant swindles of recent times had their origin in the year 18-15. Those who had suddenly gained large sums without labor, and also without honor, were too ready to enter upon courses of the wildest extravagance; and a false style of living shortly arose, the poisonous influence of which extended through all classes. Men began to look upon railways as instruments to job with ; and they soon became as overrun with jobbers as London cliarities. Persons, sometimes possessing information respecting railways, but more frequently possessing none, got upon boards for the purpose of promoting their individual objects, often in a very unscrupulous manner ; land-owners, to promote branch lines through their property ; speculators in shares, to trade upon the exclusive information which they obtained ; whilst some directors were appointed through the influence mainly of solicitors, con- tractors, or engineers, who used them as tools to serve their own ends. In this way the unfortunate proprietors were, in many cases, betrayed, and their jwopcrty was shamefully squandered, to the further discredit of the railway system. Among the characters brought prominently into notice by the mania, was the railway navvy. The navvy was now a great man. He had grown rich, was a land-owner, a railway share- holder, sometimes even a member of Parliament ; but he was a navvy still. He had imported the characteristics of his class into his new social position. He was always strong, rough, and ready ; but withal he was unscrupulous. If there was a stout piece of work to be done, none could carry it out with greater energy, or execute it in better style according to contract — pro- vided he was watched. But the navvy contractor was greatly given to " scamping." He was up to all sorts of disreputable tricks of the trade. In building a tunnel, he would, if he could, use half-baked clay instead of bricks, and put in two courses in- stead of four. He would scamp the foundations of bridges, use rubble instead of stone sets, and Canadian timber instead of 416 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. Memel for his viaducts ; but he was greatest of all, perhaps, in the "scamping" of ballast. He had therefore — especially the leviathan navvy — to be very closely watched ; and this was gen- erally entrusted to railway inspectors at comparatively small salaries. The consequences were such as might have been antici- pated. More bad and dishonest work was executed on the railways constructed in any single year subsequent to the mania, than Avas to be found on all the Stephenson lines during the preceding twenty years. The mode of executing railway works, first adopted by Mr. Stephenson on the Stockton and Darlington Railway, and after- wards continued by himself and his son on the other lines with which they were connected, was this : The railway was divided into lengths of from ten to twenty miles, and an assistant engineer, usually an experienced man, on whom rehance could be placed, was appointed to the charge of each length. Under these were sub-engineers, generally young gentlemen who were Mr. Ste- phenson's apprentices or pupils, gathering valuable experience in his engineering school. Under them again were inspectors, generally of tunneling and masonry ; these were, in most cases, experienced workmen. The contracts were let, in the lengths above mentioned, to the best contractors that could be found, according to a schedule of prices — the materials requisite to form the road, including girder bridges, etc., being provided by the company. The detailed plans of the works were prepared after consultation with the assistant engineer, under whose immediate superintendence they were to be executed. The levels were taken and the works set out by the sub-engineers ; the greatest pains being taken to secure accuracy. The centres of bridges, and the moulds of difficult masonry, were struck out or tested by them and the inspectors. It was not considered correct, under this system, for the engineers to be on intimate terms with the contractors. They held an entirely independent position, and were free to reject and condemn inferior materials or bad work- RAILWAY " SCAMPING." 417 mansliip, which they did not hesitate to do for their own credit's sake. In short, the most vigilant superintendence was maintained, and a high standard of perfection, both in design and execution, was aimed at. And the results were perceptible in the excellent character of the work executed under this system. The other mode of forming railways became more general after the mania ; and under that system the ingenuity of the navvy had full play. The line was let in much larger contracts ; sometimes one of the leviathans undertook to construct an entire line of a hundred miles in length, or more. The projecting engineer, in such cases, retained in his own hands a greater share of nominal responsibility — he, himself, however, as well as the resident engineer, beinfj free to engage in other undertakings. The assistant engineers were generally young and inexperienced men of inferior standing. The contractor was left more to himself, both as respected the quality of the materials and the workman- ship. The navvy's great object was to execute the work so that it should pass muster, and be well paid for. The contractor in such cases was generally a large capitalist — a man looked up to even by the chief engineer himself. But the worst feature of this system was, that the pi'incipal engineer himself was occasion- ally interested as a partner, and shared in the profits of the contract. In passing the contractor's work, he was virtually passing his own ; and in certifying the monthly pay bills, he was a party to the paying of himself. What secui-ity was there, under such a system, for either honest work or honest accounts ? And what probability was there, that the small sub-engineer — even though cognizant of the facts — would cai-efully examine the works, or critically scrutinize the accounts which passed under his notice ? The consequence was, that a great deal of slop-work was thus executed, the results of which, to some extent, have already appeared in the falling in of tunnels, and the premature decay and failure of viaducts and bridges. Mr. Stephenson would never tolerate such a system ; he put 27 418 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHEKSON. his own character into his work ; he would permit no dishonest scamping of a contractor to escape him ; and he could point to his Midland, Manchester, and Leeds, and other great works, and honestly say that he was proud of them. He would even " oflFer his head," as he did to the Manchester directors, that his tunnel would stand ; and he could honestly and without hesitation vouch for the soundness of all his structures. CHAPTER XXXII. MR. STEPHENSON'S CONNECTION IVITH MR. HUDSON. Amongst the most prominent railway men of the day with whom Ml'. Stephenson was necessarily brought into frequent and close connection — more especially with reference to the comple- tion of the East Coast route from London to Edinburgh — was Mr. George Hudson of York, afterwards known to the public as " The Railway King." Mr. Stephenson, at the dinner which followed the opening of the York and Scarborough line, in June, 1845, thus described his first introduction to Mr. Hudson: "I happened," said he, " to be visiting Whitby ; and whilst I was conversing with a gentleman of that town as to what might be done with regai'd to the formation of a line from Leeds to York, a few of the Whitby gentlemen came up to introduce me to Mr. Hudson and several York gentlemen. At that time Mr. Hudson was not to be led into a rapid movement with respect to railway speculations. He then looked very coolly at those undertakings ; but in time he became so thoroughly convinced of the certainty of great results from improved railway communication, that he stretched out his gigantic arms, and was prepared to go north, south, east or west, wherever a line could be pointed out as being calculated to confer benefit upon the public and the proprietors of railways." When the first line from Leeds to York was projected, Mr. Hudson was a respectable draper in the latter place. He was (419) 420 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. esteemed as a shrewd, practical man of business, had accumulated property, was a member of the corporation, and an active politi- cian. As one of the managing directors of the Union Bank, he exercised considerable influence on the commercial affairs of his district. When a provisional committee was formed at York to promote a Leeds line, Mr. Hudson was requested to act as the deputy chairman, Mi-. Alderman Meek being the chairman. The reputation which Mr. Stephenson had by this time acquired as a successful railway engineer induced the committee to invite him to act as their engineer. His report in favor of the line connect- ing York with the Midland system was adopted, and the act was obtained in 1835. When the railway was opened, in 1839, Mr. Hudson had become Lord Mayor of York, and was shortly after elected the chairman of the Company. Mr. Hudson's views with respect to railways were, at first, ex- tremely moderate, and his intentions were most honorable and praiseworthy. The York and North Midland line was only about thirty miles long ; and he interested himself in it chiefly for the purpose of securing for York the advantages of the new system of communication which Mr. Stephenson had devised, and plac- ing it in the most favorable position with reference to any future extension of the main line of railway, north and south. Viewed in this light, Mr. Hudson was one of the greatest local benefac- tors that the city of York had ever known, and entitled to the gratitude and respect of his fellow citizens. The railway was not very prosperous at first ; and during the years 1840 and 1841 its shares had greatly sunk in value. But Mr. Hudson, when chairman of the Company, somehow contrived to pay improved dividends to the proprietors, who asked no ques- tions. He very soon exhibited a desire to extend the field of his operations, and proceeded to lease the Leeds and Selby Railway at five per cent. That line had been a losing concern ; so its owners struck a bargain with Mr. Hudson and sounded his praises in all directions. He increased the dividends on the York and MR. Hudson's railway career. 421 North Midland shares to ten per cent., and began to be cited as the model of a railway chairman. He next interested himself in the North Midland Railway, where he appeared in the character of a reformer of abuses. By this time he had secured the friendship of Mr. Stephenson, who had a high opinion of his practical qualities — his indefatigable industry and shrewdness in matters of business. He had abun- dance of pluck, and was exceedingly self-reliant. The North Midland shares had also gone to a great discount ; and the share- holders were very willing to give Mr. Hudson an opportunity of reforming their railway. They elected him a director. His bustling, pushing, persevering character soon gave him an influ- ential position at the board ; and he shortly pushed the old direc- tors from their stools. He labored hard, at much personal incon- venience, to help the concern out of its difficulties ; and he suc- ceeded. The new directors recognized his power, and elected him their chairman. He had thus conquered an important and influential position as a railway man. Railway affairs generally revived in 1842 ; and public confi- dence in them as profitable investments steadily increased. Mr. Hudson had the benefit of this growing prosperity. The divi- dends in his lines improved, and the shares rose in value. The Lord INIayor of York began to be quoted as one of the most ca- pable of railway directors. Stimulated by his success and en- couraged by his followers, he struck out or supported many new projects — a line to Scarborough, a line to Bradford, lines in the Midland districts, and lines to connect York with Newcastle and Edinburgh. He was elected chairman of the Newcastle and Darlington Railway ; and when — in order to complete the conti- nuity of the main line of communication — it was found necessary to secure the Durham Junction, which was an impoi'tant link in the chain, he and Mr. Stephenson boldly purchased that railway between them, at the price of 88,500^. It was an exceedingly fortunate purchase ; the liability was afterwards undertaken by 422 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPnEXSON. the parent Company, to whom it was worth double the money. This act was a successful stroke of policy, and was lauded as it deserved to be. 'Mr. Hudson, thus encouraged, purchased the Brandling Junction line for 500,000/., in his own name — an ope- ration at the time regarded as equally favorable, though he was afterwards charged with appi'opriating IGOO of the new shares created for the purchase, when worth 21?. premium each. The Great North of England hue being completed, Mr. Hudson had thus secured the entire line of communication from York to New- castle ; and the route was opened to the public in June, 1844. On that occasion, Newcastle eulogized Mr. Hudson in its choicest local eloquence ; and he was pronounced to be the greatest bene- factor the district had ever known. The adulation which now followed Mr. Hudson would have intoxicated a stronger and more self-denying man. He was pro- nounced to be the man of the age, and was hailed as The Rail- way KiXG. The grand test by which the shareholders judged him was the dividends that he paid, although subsequent events proved that these dividends were in many cases delusive, intended only " to make things pleasant." The policy, however, had its effect. The shares in all the lines of which he was chairman, went to a premium ; and then arose the temptation to create new shares in branch and extension lines, often worthless, which were issued also at a premium. Thus he shortly found himself chair- man of nearly 600 miles of railways, extending from Rugby to Newcastle, and at the head of numerous new projects, by means of which paper wealth could be created, as it were, at pleasure. He held in his own hands almost the entire administrative power of the companies over which he presided: he was chairman, board, manager, and all. His devoted admirers, for the time, inspired sometunes by gi-atitude for past favors, but oftener by the expectation of favors to come, supported him in all his meas- ures. At the meetings of the companies, if any suspicious share- holder ventured to put a question about the accounts, he was EULOGY OF MR. STEPHENSON. 423 summarily put down by the cbair, and hissed by the proprietors. Mr, Hudson was voted praises, testimonials, and surplus shares, alike liberally ; and scarcely a word against him could find a hearing. He was equally popular outside the circle of railway proprietors. His entertainments at Albert Gate were crowded ; and he went his round of visits among the peerage like any prince. Of course Mr. Hudson was a great authority on railway ques- tions in Parliament, to which the burgesses of Sunderland had sent him. His experience of railways, still little understood, though the subject of so much legislation, gave value and weight to his opinions ; and in many respects he was a useful member. During the first years of his membership, he was chiefly occupied in passing the railway bills in which he was more particularly interested. And in the session of 1845, when he was at the height of his power, it was triumphantly said of him, that " he walked quietly through Parliament with some sixteen railway bills under his arm." One of these bills, however, was the sub- ject of a very severe contest — we mean that empowering the construction of the railway from Newcastle to Berwick. It was almost the only bill in which Mr. Stephenson was that year con- cerned. Mr. Hudson displayed great energy in support of the measure, and he worked hard to insure its success both in and out of Parliament ; but he himself attributed the chief merit to Mr. Stephenson. Lord Howick, the leading supporter of the rival atmospheric line, proposed a compromise ; but Mr. Stephen- son urged its decided rejection. At a meeting of the York, New- castle and Berwick Company, held shortly after the passing of the bill, Mr. Hudson thus acknowledsed the services rendered to them by their consulting engineer : " This Company," said he, " is indeed under great obligations to Mr. Stephenson. Every shareholder, who is about to get his additional share, is almost entirely indebted to him for it. I know, and my brother direc- tors know full well, the resolute and energetic manner in which 424 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPILENSON. he held us from any compromise in reference to the Berwick bill. He felt so strong in the integrity of his case, that whenever com- promise was named, he always resisted the offer, and urged us to fight the battle on principle. By his indomitable perseverance and high tone of feeling, we were induced to do so, and thus at length we have so successfully accomplished our object." Mr. Hudson accordingly suggested to the proprietors that they should present some fitting testimonial to Mr. Stephenson, as a recognition of the important services which he had rendered to them, as well as to the railway interest generally. With the same object, he appealed to the proprietors in the Midland, the York and North Midland, and the Newcastle and Darlington Companies, of which he was chairman, and they unanimously adopted resolutions, voting 2,000?. each for the erection of a statue of George Stephenson on the High Level Bridge at Newcastle, and the presentation to him of a service of plate, " in testimony of the deep obligations under which the above-mentioned Com- panies, in common with the whole country, feel themselves placed towards that eminent person." * Mr. Ellis, M. P., then deputy chairman of the Midland, in seconding the resolution voting 2,000?. for the purpose indicated by Mr. Hudson, said, " it might appear to many strange that he should do so [statues not being recognized objects amongst the Society of Friends] ; but he did so with all his heart. He be- lieved he had the distinguished honor of having known George Stephenson longer than any one then present. Perhaps he could not say more of him than that he had always found in him an uj)right, honorable and honest man."t At the meeting of the York and North Midland Company, the great benefits which Mr. Stephenson had conferred on the public, ♦ Resolution of the York, Newcastle and Berwick Company, unanimously adopted 3l8t August, 1845. t Report of proceedings at the meeting of the Midland Railway Company, 25th July, 1845. TESTIMONIAL TO MR, HUDSON. 425 by opening up to them cheap and abundant supplies of fuel by means of railways, were strongly expressed ; and Mr. Hudson, in concluding his observations, said : " By adopting this step, we shall show tliat we are not the sordid persons whom some have represented us to be — merely looking for our own pecuniary ben- efit ; but that we are a body of men who know how to appreciate and admire genius and talent, and that we are not unmindful of the benefits which that talent has conferred upon us and upon mankind."* The resolution, like those passed by the other Companies, was adopted unanimously, and with " loud applause." But there ended the shai'eholders' appreciation of Mr. Stephen- son's genius and talent ; and Mr. Hudson's repudiation of sordid motives, on his part and theirs, thus proved somewhat premature. The contribution of subscriptions to present a testimonial to Mr. Hudson himself went on apace, and railway shareholders in all parts of the country, subscribed large sums of money to pre- sent him with a fortune for having already made one. But Mr. Stephenson pretended to fill no man's pocket with premiums. He was no creator of shares ; he could not, therefore, work upon shareholders' gratitude for " favors to come ; " and their testimo- nial accordingly ended with resolutions and speeches. Mr. Ste- phenson never asked for nor expected a testimonial. He had done the work of his life, and had retired from the field of rail- way enterprise, reposing upon his own sturdy independence. Mr. Stephenson was afterwards somewhat indignant to find that, notwithstanding the " great obligations " which the chaii-man of the York, Newcastle and Bei'wick Company, had informed the proprietors they were under to their engineer for the labor and energy which he had devoted in their service, so much to their pecuniary advantage, the only issue of their fine resolutions and speeches was an allotment made to him of some thirty of the shares issued under the powers of the act which he had been mainly instrumental in obtaining. The chairman himself, it * Report of proceedings at the York and North Midland Company, 29th June, 1845. 426 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. afterwards appeared, had at the same time appropriated not fewer than 10,894 of the same shares, the premiums on which were then worth, in the market, about 145,000/. The manner in which the gratitude of the Company and their chairman was thus expressed to their engineer, was strongly resented by Mr. Stephenson at the time, and a coohiess took ph'ice between him and Mr. Hudson which was never wholly removed — though they afterwards shook hands, and Mr. Stephenson declared that all was forgotten. INIi-. Hudson's brief reign was now drawing rapidly to a close. The saturnalia of 1845 was followed by a sudden reaction. Shares went down faster than they had gone up ; the holders of them hastened to sell, in order to avoid payment of the calls ; and the fortunes of many were utterly wrecked. Then came sudden repentance, and professed return to virtue. The betting man, who, temporarily abandoning the turf for the share-market, had played his heaviest stakes and lost — the merchant who had left his business, and the doctor who had neglected his patients, to gamble in railway stock, and been ruined — the penniless knaves and schemers, who had speculated so recklessly, and gained so little — the titled and fashionable people, who had bowed them- selves so low before the idol of the day, and found themselves so deceived and "done" — the credulous small capitalists, who, dazzled by premiums, had invested their all in railway shares, and now saw themselves stripped of everything — the Average Directors, who " never knew what was going on and thought all was right," but now found that all was wrong — the tradesmen who had sold their business to become sharebrokers, and had now reached the Gazette — were all grievously enraged, and looked about them for a victim. In this temper were shareholders, when, at a railway meeting in York, some pertinent questions were put to the Railway King. His replies were not satisfactory; and the questions were pushed home. Mr. Hudson became con- fused. Angry voices rose in the meeting. Tlie monarch was RESULT OF THE SATURNALIA. 427 even denounced. A committee of investigation was appointed, and the gilt idol of the railway wox'ld was straightway dethi'oned. A howl of execration rose from his deluded worshipers ; and those who had bowed the lowest before him during his brief reign, hissed the loudest when he fell. The gold which he had put in their pockets might still be heard chinking there ; but no one had yet found them out, and they joined in the chorus of popular indignation. Then committees of investigation were appointed on nearly all the railways ; able reports by patriotic candidates for seats at boards were successively published ; and, railways having been exorcised, and one of their evil spirits cast out, rail- way virtue was again supposed to be in the ascendant. CHAPTER XXXIII. MK. STEPHENSON'S CONNECTION WITH FOREIGN RAILWAYS — JOURNEYS INTO BELGIUM AND SPAIN. Leopold, King of the Belgians, was the first European mon- arch who discovered the powerful instrumentality of railways in developing the industrial resources of a nation. Having resided in England during the infancy of our railway enterprises, he had personally inspected the lines in operation, and satisfied himself of their decided superiority over all known modes of transit. He therefore determined at the earliest possible period to adopt them as the great high roads of his new kingdom. Belgium had scarcely escaped from the throes of her revolu- tion, and Leopold had only been a short time called to the throne, when by his command the first project of a Belgian railway was laid before him. It was a modest project it is true, a single line from Antwerp to Liege, requiring a capital of only 400,000/. But small though it was, his ministers even feared that the project was too ambitious, and that the king was about to embark his government in an enterprise beyond his strength. There was as yet only the experiment of the Liverpool and Manchester passenger railway to justify him ; but in his opinion that had been complete and decisive. The bill for the Antwerp and Liege line struggled with difii- culty through the Chambers, and it became law in 1834. Before the measure received legislative sanction, the plan had been (428) JOURNEY TO BELGIUM. 429 enlarofed, and powers were taken to construct an almost entire system of lines, embracing the principal districts of Belgium ; connecting Brussels with all the chief cities, and extending from Ostend eastward to the Prussian frontier, and from Antwerp southward to the French frontier. The total extent of railway thus authorized was 246 miles. The eventual success of this measure was mainly due to the energy and sagacious enterprise of the king. He foresaw the immense advantages of the railway system, and its applicability to the wants of such a state as Bel- gium. The country being rich in coal and minerals, had great manufacturing capabilities. It had good ports, fine navigable rivers, abundant canals, and a teeming, industrious population. He perceived railways were, of all things, the best calculated to bring the industry of the country into full play, and to render the riches of his provinces available to all the rest of the kingdom. King Leopold therefore openly declared himself the promoter of public railways throughout Belgium. The execution of the works was immediately commenced, the money being provided by the state. Every official influence was called into active exertion for the development of these great enterprises. And, in oi'der to prevent the Belgian enterprise becoming in any sort converted into a stock-jobbing speculation, it was wisely provided that the shares were not to be quoted on the Exchange at Antwerp or Brussels, until the railway was actually completed. Mr. George Stephenson and his son, as the leading railway engineers of England, were consulted by the King of the Bel- gians, as to the formation of the most efficient system of lines throughout his kingdom, as early as 1835. In the course of that year, Mi". Stephenson visited Belgium, and had some interesting conferences with King Leopold and his ministers on the subject of the proposed railways. On that occasion the king appointed him by royal ordinance a Knight of the Order of Leopold. Im- provements of the system were recommended and adopted ; and in 1837, a law was passed, authorizing the construction of addi- 430 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. tional lines — from Ghent to Mouscron on the French frontier — ■ from Courtray to Tournai — from Brain-le-Comte to Namur — with several smaller branches. These, with the lines previously authorized, made a total length of 341 English miles. Much diligence was displayed by the government in pushing on the works ; the representatives of the people in the Chambers now surpassing even the king himself in their anticipation of the great public benefits to be derived from railways. The first twelve miles between Brussels and Malines were opened in 1835, a year after the passing of the law ; and successive portions were opened from time to time, until the year 1844, when the entire national system was completed and opened, after a total outlay on works, stations, and plant, of about six and a half millions sterling. Never did any legislature expend public money in a wiser manner for the promotion of the common good. As the Belgian lines were executed as an entire system by the state, there was no wasteful parliamentary expenditure, and no con- struction of unnecessary duplicate lines ; the whole capital invest- ed was remunerative ; and the Belgian people thus obtained the full advantages of railways at less than one half the average cost of those in England. At the invitation of the king, Mr. Stephenson made a visit to Belgium in 1837, on the occasion of the public opening of the line from Brussels to Ghent. The event was celebrated with great ceremony. At Brussels there was a public procession, and another at Ghent on the arrival of the train. Mr. Stephenson and his party accompanied it to the Public Hall, there to dine with the chief ministers of state, the municipal authorities, and about five hundred of the principal inhabitants of the city ; the English ambassador being also present. After the king's health and a few others had been drank, that of Mr. Stephenson was proposed ; on which the whole assembly rose up, amidst great excitement and loud applause, and made their way to where he Bat, in order to jingle glasses with him, greatly to his own amaze- THE SAMBRE AND MEUSE LINE. 431 ment. On the day following, Mr. Stephenson dined with the king and queen at their own table at Laaken, by special invita- tion ; afterwards accompanying his majesty and suite to a public ball given by the municipality of Brussels, in honor of the open- ing of the line to Ghent, as well as of their distinguished English guest. On entering the room, the general and excited inquiry was, " Which is Stephenson?" The English engineer had never before known that he was esteemed so great a man. When the success of railways in Belgium was no longer matter of conjecture, capitalists were ready to come forward and under- take their formation, Avithout aid from the government ; and several independent companies were fox*med in England for the construction of new lines in the country. Mr. Stephenson was professionally consulted respecting several of these in the year 1845. The Sambre and Meuse Company having obtained the concession of a line from the legislature,* Mr. Steplienson pro- ceeded to Belgium for the purpose of examining in person the district through which the proposed line was to pass. He was accompanied on this occasion by Mr. Sopwith and Mr. Starbuck : the former gentleman a highly distinguished Northumberland geologist, intimately conversant with the coal-bearing strata, who had already published an elaborate report on the nature and extent of the coal and minei'al disti'icts of the Sambre Meuse. Mr. Stephenson went carefully over the whole length of the pi'oposed line, as far as Couvin, the Forest of Ardennes, and Rocroi, aci'oss the French frontier. He examined the bearings of the coal-field, the slate and marble quarries, and the numerous * The king, in his speech to the Chambers, in opening the session of 1845, said : " Ever since the National Railways hare reached the French and German frontiers, the convey- ance of goods and passengers, and the amount of the receipts, have rapidly and unceas- ingly advanced. The results obtained this year have surpassed my expectations. Your last session was distinguished, towards its close, by the vote of several projects of railways and canals. The favorable reception given to foreign capitalists has led to many demands for the concession of lines. Some of these demands, after being examined, will be sub- mitted to your deliberation." 432 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. iron mines in existence between the Sambre and the Meuse, care- fully exploring the ravines which extended through the district, in order to satisfy himself that the best possible route had been selected. He was delighted with the novelty of the journey, the beauty of the scenery, and the industry of the population. His companions were entertained by his ample and varied stores of practical information on all subjects ; and his conversation was full of reminiscences of his youth, on which he always delighted to dwell when in the society of his more intimate friends and associates. The journey was varied by a visit to the coal-mines near Jemappe, where 'Mr. Stephenson examined with interest the mode adopted by the Belgian miners of draining the pits, their engines and brakeing machines, so familiar to him in his early life. At intervals of their journey, Mr. Stephenson prepared, in conjunction with Mr. Sopwith, the draft of a report embodying the result of their investigations, Avhich was presented to the Sambre and Meuse Company, and afterwards published. The engineers of Belgium took the opportunity of Mr. Ste- phenson's visit to their country to invite him to a magnificent banquet at Brussels. The Public Hall, in which they entertained him, was gaily decorated with flags, prominent amongst which was the Union Jack, in honor of their distinguished guest. A handsome marble pedestal, ornamented with his bust, crowned with laurels, occupied one end of the room. The chair was occu- pied by M. Massui, the Chief Director of the National Railways of Belgium ; and the most eminent scientific men in the kingdom were present. Their reception of "the father of railways" was of the most enthusiastic description. Mr. Stephenson was greatly pleased with the entertainment. Not the least interesting incident of the evening was his observing, when the dinner was about half over, a model of a locomotive engine placed upon the centre table, under a triumjohal arch. Turning suddenly to his friend Sopwith, he exclaimed, "Do you see the 'Rocket?'" It was indeed the model of that celebrated engine ; and Mr. Stephenson PRIVATE INTERVIEW WITH THE KING. 433 prized the compliment thus paid him, perhaps more than all the encomiums of the evening. The next day (April 5 th) King Leopold invited him to a pri- vate interview at the palace. Accompanied by Mr. Sopwith, he proceeded to Laaken, and was very cordially received by his majesty. Nothing was more remarkable in Mr. Stephenson than his extreme ease and self-possession in the presence of distin- guished and highly-educated persons. The king immediately entered into familiar conversation with him, discussing the rail- way project Avhicli had been the object of Mr. Stephenson's visit to Belgium, and then the structure of the Belgian coal-fields^ the king expressing his sense of the great importance of economy in a fuel which had become indispensable to the comfort and well-being of society, which was the basis of all manufactures, and the vital power of railway locomotion. The subject was always a favorite one with Mr. Stephenson, and, encoui-aged by the king, he proceeded to describe to him the geological structure of Belgium, the original formation of coal, its subsequent eleva- tion by volcanic forces, and the vast amount of denudation. In describing the coal-beds, he used his hat as a sort of model to illustrate his meaning ; and the eyes of the king were fixed upon it as he proceeded with liis interesting description. The conver- sation then passed to the rise and progress of ti'ade and manufac- tures — Mr. Stephenson pointing out how closely they everywhere followed the coal, being mainly dependent upon it, as it were, for their very existence. The king seemed greatly pleased with the interview, and at its close expressed himself obliged by the interesting information which Mr. Stephenson had given him. Shaking hands cordially with both the gentlemen, and wishing them success in all their important undertakings, he bade them adieu. As they were leaving the palace, Mr. Stephenson, bethinking him of the model by which he had just been illustrating the Belgian coal-fields, said to his friend : " By-the-bye, Sopwith, I was afraid the king 28 434 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. would see the inside of my hat; it's such a shocking bad one!" Little could George Stephenson, when brakesman at a coal-pit, have dreampt that, in the course of his life, he should be admitted to an interview with a monarch, and describe to him the manner in which the geological foundations of his kingdom had been laid ! In the course of the same year Mr. Stephenson paid a second visit to Belgium, for the purpose of examining the direction of the proposed West Flanders Railway, and of suggesting any alterations which his judgment might point out. The results of his investigations were set forth in his report of August, 1845, in which he recommended several important alterations, with a view to facilitate the execution of the works, and to increase the traffic of the line. The inspection of the country lasted ten days. After the concession of this railway had been made to the English Company, other parties appeared in the field, and projected lines which, if carried out, would seriously affect the success of the West Flanders project. The government of King Leopold, how- ever, on a representation to this effect having been made to them, at once distinctly stated that the lines already conceded would always be protected, and that no new lines would be granted, however little they might affect those already existing, without the proprietors of the latter being fully heard. Mr. Stephenson had scarcely returned from this second visit to Belgium, before he was requested to proceed to Spain, for the purpose of examining and reporting upon a scheme then on foot for constructing " the Royal North of Spain Railway." He set out from London in the middle of September, accompanied by Sir Joshua Walmsley and several other gentlemen interested in the. project. A concession had been made by the Spanish gov- ernment of a line of railway from Madrid to the Bay of Biscay, and a numerous staff of engineers was engaged in surveying the proposed line. The directors of the Company had declined mak- ing the necessary deposits until more favorable terms had been secured, and the object of Sir Joshua Walmsley's journey was to JOURNEY TO SPAIN. 435 press the Spanish government on the subject. Mr. Stephenson whom he consulted, was alive to the difficulties of the office which Sir Josliua was requested to undertake, and offered to be his companion and adviser on the occasion — declining to receive any" recompense beyond the simple expenses of the journey. The railway mania was then at its height ; and though Mr. Stephen- son was not concerned in the multitude of new schemes which were daily coming out, he was engaged on some important meas- ures, and, besides, had his own extensive collieries at Clay Cross to look after. He could, therefore, only arrange to be absent for six weeks, and he set out for England about the middle of Sep- tember, 1845. The party was joined at Paris by ]\Ir. Mackenzie, the con- tractor for the Orleans and Tours Railway, then in course of con- struction, who took them over the works, and accompanied them as far as Tours. Sir Joshua "Walmsley was struck during the journey by Mr. Stephenson's close and accurate observation. Nothing escaped his keen eye. The external features of the dis- trict passed through, every fissure or disruption in the mountain ridges, the direction of the rivers, the stratification and geological formation of' the country, were carefully, though rapidly noted. The modes of farming were also observed ; and he compared the herds of cattle, the horses and mules, with those which he had observed in his own and other countries. Nor did he fail to ob- serve closely the agricultural products, and /he fruits and flowers grown in the gardens of the villages through which they passed. Of course he was fully alive to any important engineering works which came in his way. Thus, in crossing the river Dordogne, on the road to Bordeaux, he was struck with the construction of the stupendous chain bridge which had recently been erected there. Not satisfied with his first inspection, he walked back, and again crossed the bridge. On reaching the shore, he said : " This bridge cannot stand ; it is impossible that it can sustain the necessary pressure. Supposing a large body of troops to march 436 LIFE OF GEORGE PTEPHENSO^T. over it, there would be so much oscillation as to cause the great- est danger ; in fact, it could not stand." And he determined to write to the public authorities, warning them on the subject ; which he did. His judgment proved to be quite correct, for only a few years after, no improvement having been made in the bridge, a body of troops marching over it under the precise cir- cumstances which he had imagined, the chains broke, the men were precipitated into the river, and many lives were lost. They soon reached the great chain of the Pyrenees, and cross- ed over into Spain. It was on Sunday evening, after a long day's toilsome journey through the mountains, that the party suddenly found themselves in one of those beautiful secluded valleys lying amongst the Western Pyrenees. A small hamlet lay before them, consisting of some thirty or forty houses and a fine old church. The sun was low on the horizon, and, under the wide porch, be- neath the shadow of the church, were seated nearly all the inhab- itants of the place. They were dressed in their holiday attire. The delightful bits of red and rich amber color of the women, and the gay sashes of the men, formed a striking picture, on which the travelers gazed in silent admiration. It was something entirely novel and unexpected. Beside the villagers sat two venerable old men, whose canonical hats indicated their quality of village pastors. Two groups of young women and children were dancing outside the porch to the accompaniment of a simple pipe ; and within a hundred yards of them, some of the youths of the village were disporting themselves in athletic exercises ; the whole being carried on beneath the fostering care of the old church, and with the sanction of its ministers. It was a beautiful scene, and deeply moved the travelers as they approached the principal group. The villagers greeted them courteously, sup- plied their present wants, and pressed upon them some fine melons, brought from their adjoining gardens. Mr. Stephenson used afterwards to look back upon that simple scene, and speak of it as one of the most charming pastorals he had ever witnessed. MADRID AND BAY OF BISCAY SCHEME. 437 They shortly reached the site of the proposed railway, passing through Irun, St. Sebastian, St. Andero, and Bilbao, at which places they met deputations of the principal inhabitants who were interested in the subject of their journey. At Raynosa, Mr Stephenson carefully examined the mountain passes and ravines through which a railway could he formed. He rose at break of day, and surveyed until the darkness set in ; and frequently his resting-place at night was the floor of some miserable hovel. He was thus laboriously occupied for ten days, after which he proceeded across the province of Old Castile towards Madrid, surveying as he went. The proposed plan included the purchase of the Castile canal ; and that property was also surveyed. He next proceeded to El Escorial, situated at the foot of the Gua- darrama mountains, through which he found that it would be necessary to construct two formidable tunnels ; added to which he ascertained that the country between El Escorial and Madrid was of a very ditlicult and expensive character to work through. Taking these circumstances into account, and looking to the ex- pected traffic on the proposed line, Sir Joshua Walmsley, acting under the ad^•ice of Mr. Stephenson, offered to construct the line from Madrid to the Bay of Biscay, only on condition that the requisite land was given to the Company for the purpose ; that they should be allowed every facility for cutting such timber be- longing to the Crown as might be required for the purposes of the railway ; and also that the materials required from abroad for the construction of the line should be admitted free of duty. In return for these concessions, the Company offered to clothe and feed several thousands of convicts while engaged in the execution of the earthworks. General Narvaez, afterwards Duke of Va- lencia, received Sir Joshua Walmsley and Mr. Stephenson on the subject of then- proposition, and expressed his willingness to close with them ; but it was necessary that other influential parties should give their concurrence before the scheme could be carried into effect. The deputation waited ten days to receive the answer 438 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. of the Spanish government; but no answer of any kind was vouchsafed. Mr. Stephenson accordingly dissuaded his friend from making the necessary deposit at Madrid. Besides, he had by this time formed an unfavorable opinion of the entire project, and considered that the traffic would not amount to one-eighth of the estimate. Mr. Stephenson was now anxious to be in England. During the journey from Madrid, he often spoke with affection of friends and relatives ; and, when apparently absorbed by other matters, he would revert to what he thought might then be psissing at home. Few incidents worthy of notice occurred on the journey homeward, but one may be mentioned. AVhile traveling in an open conveyance between Madrid and Vittoria, the driver was urging his mules down hill at a dangerous pace. He was re- quested to slacken speed ; but suspecting his passengers to be afraid, he only flogged the brutes into a still more furious gallop. Observing this, Mr. Stephenson coolly said, " Let us try him on the other tack ; tell him to show us the fastest pace at which Spanish mules can go." The rogue of a driver, when he found his tricks of no avail, pulled up and proceeded at a moderate rate for the rest of his journey. Urgent business required Mr. Stephenson's presence in Lon- don on the last day of November. They traveled, therefore, almost continuously, day and night ; and the fatigue consequent on the journey, added to the privations voluntarily endured by the engineer while carrying on the survey among the Spanish mountains, began to tell seriously on his health. By the time he reached Paris, he was evidently ill ; but he nevertheless de- termined on proceeding. He reached Plavre in time for the Southampton boat ; but when on board, pleurisy developed itself, and it was necessary to bleed him freely. During the voyage, he spent his time chiefly in dictating letters and reports to Sir Joshua Walmsley, who never left him, and whose kindness on the occasion he gratefully remembered. His friend was struck by MADRID AND BAY OF BISCAY SCHEME. 439 the clearness of his dictated composition, which exhibited a vigor and condensation wliich to him seemed marvelous. After a few weeks' rest at home, Mr. Stephenson gradually recovered, though his health remained severely shaken. On his report being presented to the shareholders in the pro- jected " Royal North of Spain Railway," in the course of the following month, it was so decidedly unfavorable, that the project was abandoned and the Company forthwith dissolved. CHAPTER XXXIV, RESIDENCE AT TAPTON. Towards the close of his life, Mr. Stephenson almost entirely withdrew from the active pursuit of his profession as a railway engineer. He devoted himself chiefly to his extensive collieries and lime-works, taking a local interest only in such projected railways as were calculated to open up new markets for their products. At home he lived the life of a country gentleman, enjoying his garden and his grounds, and indulging his love of nature, which, through all his busy life, had never left him. It was not until the year 1845, that he took an active interest in horticultu- ral pursuits. Then he began to build new melon-houses, pineries, and vineries of great extent ; and he now seemed as eager to excel all other growers of exotic plants in the neighborhood as he had been to surpass the villagers of Killingworth in the pro- duction of gigantic cabbages and cauliflowers some thirty years before. He had a pine-house built sixty-eight feet in length, and a pinery one hundred and forty feet. The workmen were never idle about the garden, and the additions to the forcing-houses pro- ceeded until at length he had no fewer than ten glass forcing- houses, heated with hot water, which he was one of the first to introduce in that neighborhood. He did not take so much pleas- ure in flowers as in fruits. At one of the county agricultural meetings, he said that he intended yet to grow pineapples at Tap- (440) GARDENING AT TAPTON. 441 ton as big as pumpkins. The only man to whom he would " knock under " was his friend Paxton, the gardener to the Duke of Devonshire ; and he was so old in the service, and so skillful, that he could scarcely hope to beat him. Yet his " Queen " pines did take the first prize at a competition with the duke — though this was not until shortly after his death, when the plants had become more fully grown. His grapes also recently took the first prize at Rotherliam, at a competition open to all P^ngland. He was extremely successful in producing melons, having invented a method of suspending them in baskets of wire gauze, which, by relieving the stalk from tension, allowed nutrition to proceed more freely, and better enabled the fruit to grow and ripen. Amongst his other erections, he built a joiner's shop, where he kept a workman regularly employed in carrying out his many ingenious contrivances of this sort. He took much pride also in his growth of cucumbers. He raised them very fine and large, but he could not make them grow straight. Place them as he would, notwithstanding all his propping of them, and humoring them by modifying the applica- tion of heat, and the admission of light for the purpose of effect- ing his object, they would still insist on growing crooked in their own way. At last he had a number of glass cylinders made at Newcastle, for the purpose of an experiment ; into these the growing cucumbers were inserted, and then he succeeded in grow- ing them perfectly straight. Carrying one of the new products into his house one day, and exhibiting it to a party of visitors, he told them of the expedient he had adopted, and added glee- fully, " I think I have bothered them noo ! " Mr. Stephenson also carried on farming operations with some success. He experimented on manure, and fed cattle after meth- ods of his own. He was very particular as to breed and build in stock-breeding. " You see, sir," he said to one gentleman, " I like to see the coo's back at a gradient something like this," (drawing an imaginary line with his hand,) " and then the ribs 442 LIFE or GEORGE STEPHENSON. or girders will carry more flesh than if they were so, or so." "When he attended the county agricultural meetings, which he frequently did, he was accustomed to take part in the discussions, and he brought the same vigorous practical mind to bear upon questions of tillage, drainage, and fai'm economy, which he had been accustomed to exercise on mechanical and engineering mat- ters. At one of the meetings of the North Derbyshire Agricul- tural Society, he favored the assembled farmers with an explana- tion of his theory of vegetation. The practical conclusion to which it led was, that the agriculturist ought to give as much light and heat to the soil as possible. At the same time, he stated his opinion that, in some cold soils, water contributed to promote veg- etation, rather than to impede it, as was generally believed ; for the water, being exposed to the sun and atmosphere, became spe- cifically warmer than the earth it covered, and when it afterwards irrigated the fields, it communicated this additional heat to the soil which it permeated. All his early affection for birds and animals revived. He had favorite dogs, and cows, and horses ; and again he began to keep rabbits, and to pride himself on the beauty of his breed. There was not a bird's nest upon the grounds that he did not know of; and from day to day he went round watching the progress which the birds made with their building, carefully guarding them from injury. No one was more minutely acquainted with the habits of British birds, the result of a long, loving, and close observa- tion of nature. At Tapton he remembered the failure of his early experiment in hatching birds' eggs by heat, and he now performed it success- fully, being able to secure a proper apparatus for maintaining a uniform temperature. He was also curious about the breeding and fattening of fowls ; and when his friend Edward Pease of Darlington visited him at Tapton, he explained a method which he had invented for fattening chickens in half the usual time. The chickens were shut up in boxes, which were so made as to RAISING BEES. 443 exclude the light. Dividing the day into two or three parts, the birds were shut up at each period after a heavy feed, and went to sleep. The plan proved very successftil, and Mr. Stephenson jocularly said that if he Avere to devote himself to chickens he could soon make a little fortune. Mrs. Stephenson tried to keep bees, but found they would not thrive at Tapton. Many hives perished, and there was no case of success. The cause of failure was a puzzle to Mr. Stephen- son ; but one day his acute powers of observation enabled him to unravel it. At the foot of the hill on which Tapton House stands, he saw some bees trying to rise up from amongst the grass, laden with honey and wax. They were already exhausted, as if with long flying ; and then it occurred to him that the height at which the house stood above the bees' feeding ground rendered it difficult for them to reach their hives when heavy laden, and hence they sank exhausted. Mr. Stephenson afterwards stated the case to Mr. Jesse the naturalist, who concurred in his view as to the cause of failure, and was much struck by the keen obser- vation Avhich had led to its solution. Mr. Stephenson had none of the in-door habits of the student. He read very little ; for reading is a habit which is generally acquired in youth ; and his youth and manhood had been for tha most part spent in hard work. Books wearied him, and sent him to sleep. Novels excited his feelings too much, and he avoided them, though he would occasionally read through a philosophical book on a subject in which he felt particularly interested. He wrote very few letters with his own hand ; nearly all his letters were dictated, and he avoided even dictation when he could. His greatest pleasure was in conversation, from which he gathered most of his imparted information ; hence he was always glad in the society of intelligent conversable persons. It was his practice, when about to set out on a journey by rail- way, to walk along the train before it started, and look into the carriages to see if he could find " a conversable face." On one of 444 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. these occasions, at the Euston Station, he discovered in a carriage a very handsome, manly, and intelligent face, which he shortly found belonged to the late Lord Denman. He was on his way down to his seat at Stony Middleton, in Derbyshire. Mr. Ste- phenson entered the carriage, and the two were shortly engaged in interesting conversation. It turned upon chronometry and horology, and Mr. Stephenson amazed his lordship by the extent of his knowledge on the subject, in which he displayed as much minute information, even down to the latest improvements in watchmaking, as if he had been bred a watchmaker and lived by the trade. Lord Denman was curious to know how a man whose time must have been mainly engrossed by engineering, had gathered so much knowledge on a subject quite out of his ovm. line, and he asked the question. " I learnt clockmaking and watchmaking," was the answer, '' while a working man at Kil- lingworth, when I made a little money in my spare hours by cleaning the pitmen's clocks and watches ; and since then I have kept up my information on the subject." This led to further questions, and then Mr. Stephenson told Lord Denman the inter- esting story of his life, which held him entranced during the remainder of the journey. Many of his friends readily accepted invitations to Tapton House to enjoy his hospitality, which never failed. With them he would " fight his battles o'er again," reverting often to his battle for the locomotive ; and he was never tired of telling, nor wez-e his auditors of listening to, the lively anecdotes with which he was accustomed to illustrate the struggles of his early career. Whilst walking in the woods or through the grounds, he would arrest his friends' attention by allusion to some simple object — such as a leaf, a blade of grass, a bit of bark, a nest of birds, or an ant carrying its eggs across the path — and descant in glowing terms upon the creative power of the Divine ]\Iechanician, whose contrivances were so exhaustless and so wonderful. This was a theme upon which he was often accustomed to dwell in THE MICROSCOPE. 445 reverential admiration, when in the society of his more intimate fnends. One night, when walking under the stars, and gazing up into the field of suns, each the pi'obable centre of a system, forming the Milky Way, a friend said to him : " What an insignificant creature is man in sight of so immense a creation as that !" "Yes!" was his reply, "but how wonderful a creature also is man, to be able to think and reason, and even in some measure to comprehend works so infinite ! " A microscope, which he had brought down to Tapton, was a source of immense enjoyment to him ; and he was never tired of contemplating the minute wonders which it revealed. One eve- ning, when some friends were visiting him, he induced each of them to puncture his skin so as to draw blood, in order that he might examine the globules through the microscope. One of the gentlemen present was a teetotaler, and Mr. Stephenson pro- nounced his blood to be the most lively of the whole. He had a theory of his own about the movement of the globules in the blood, which has since become familiar. It was, that they were respectively charged with electricity, positive at one end and negative at the other, and that thus they attracted and repelled each other, causing a circulation. No sooner did he observe any thing new, than he immediately set about devising a reason for it. His training in mechanics, his practical familiarity with matter in all its forms, and the strong bent of his mind, led him first of all to seek for a mechanical explanation. And yet he was ready to admit that there was a something in the principle of life — so mysterious and inexplicable — which bafiled mechanics, and seemed to dominate over and control them. He did not care much, either, for abstruse mechanics, but only for the experi- mental and practical, as is usually the case with those whose knowledge has been self-acquired. Even at this advanced age, his spirit of frolic had not left him. When proceeding from Chesterfield Station to Tapton House 446 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHEXSON. with his friends, he would almost invariably challenge them to a race up the steep path, partly formed of stone steps, along the hill-side. And he would struggle, as of old, to keep the front place, though by this time his " wind" had greatly failed. He would even invite an old friend to take a quiet wrestle with him on the lawn, in memory of former times. In the evening, he would sometimes indulge his visitors by reciting the old pastoral of " Damon and Phyllis," or singing his favorite song of " John Anderson my Joe." But his greatest glory amongst those with whom he was most intimate, was " a crowdie ! " " Let's have a crowdie night," he would say ; and forthwith a kettle of boiling water was ordered in, with a basin of oatmeal. Taking a large bowl, containing a sufficiency of hot water, and placing it between his knees, he then poured in oatmeal with one hand, and stirred the mixture vigorously with the other. When enough meal had been added, and the stirring was completed, the crowdie was made. It was then supped with new milk, and Mr. Stephenson generally pronounced it " capital ! " It was the diet to which he had been accustomed when a w^orking man, and all the dainties with which he had been familiar in recent years had not spoiled his simple tastes. To enjoy crowdie at his years, besides, indica- ted that he still possessed that quality on which no doubt much of his practical success in life had depended — a strong and healthy digestion. He would also frequently invite to his house the humbler com- panions of his early life, and take pleasure in talking over old times wdth them. He never assumed any of the bearings of a great man on these occasions, but treated such visitors with the same friendliness and respect as if they had been his equals, sending them away pleased with themselves and dehghted with him. At other times, needy men who had known him in youth, would knock at his door, and they were never refused access. But if he had heard of any misconduct on their part, he would rate them soundly. One who knew him intimately in private HIS DISLIKE OF FOPPERY. 447 life has seen him exhorting such backslider?, and denouncing their misconduct and imprudence, with the tears streaming down his cheeks. And he would generally conclude by opening his purse, and giving them the help which they needed '" to make a fresh start in the world." Young men would call upon him for advice or assistance in commencing a ^professional career. When lie noted their indus- try, prudence, and good sense, he was always ready. But, hating foppery and frippery above all things, he would reprove any tendency to this weakness which he observed in the applicants. One day, a youth, desirous of becoming an engineer, called upon him, flourishing a gold-headed cane. Mi*. Stephenson said: "Put by that stick, my man,, and then I will speak to you." To another extensively-decorated young man, he one day said : " You will, I hope, Mr. , excuse me ; I am a plain-spoken person, and am sorry to sec a nice-looking and rather clever young man like you disfigured with that fine-patterned waistcoat, and all these chains and fang-dangs. If I, sir, had bothered my head with such things when at your age, I would not have been where I am now." Mr. Stephenson's life at Tapton during his later years was occasionally diversified with a visit to London. His engineering business having become limited, he generally went there for the purpose of visiting friends, or " to see v.'hat there was new going on." He found a new race of engineers springing up on all hands — men who knew him not ; and his London journeys gradu ally ceased to yield him real pleasure. A friend used to taka liim to the opera, but by the end of the first act, he was generally observed in a profound slumber. Yet on one occasion he enjoyed a visit to the Haymarket, with a party of friends, on his birth-day, to see T. P. Cooke, in " Black-eyed Susan;" — if that can be called enjoyment which kept him in a state of tears during half the performance. At other times he visited Newcastle, which always gave him great pleasure. He would, on such occasions, 448 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPKENSON. go out to Killingworth and seek up old friends, and if the people whom he knew were too retiring and shrunk into their cottages, he went and sought them there. Striking the floor with his stick, and holding his noble person upright, he would say in his own kind way, " Well, and how's all here to-day?" To the last Mr. Stephenson had always a warm heart for Newcastle and its neighborhood. Sir Robert Peel, on more than one occasion, invited Mr. Ste- phenson to his mansion at Drayton, where he was accustomed to assemble round him men of the greatest distinction in art, science, and legislation, during the intervals of his parliamentary life. The first invitation, Mr. Stephenson declined. Sir Robert invited him a second time, and a second time he declined : " I have no great ambition," he said, " to mix in fine company, and perhaps should feel out of my proper place among such high folks." But Sir Robert a third time pressed him to come down to Tamworth early in January, 1845, when he would meet Buckland, FoUett, and others well known to both. " Well, Sir Robert," said he, " I feel your kindness very much, and can no longer refuse : I will come down and join your party." Mr. Stephenson's strong powers of observation, together with his native humor and shrewdness, impaired to his conversation at all times much vigor and originality, and made him, to young and old, a delightful companion. Though mainly an engineer, he was also a profound thinker on many scientific questions ; and there was scarcely a subject of speculation, or a department of recondite science, on which he had not employed his faculties in such a way as to have formed large and original views. At Drayton, the conversation often turned upon such topics, and ]Mr. Stephenson freely joined in it. On one occasion an animated discussion took place between himself and Dr. Buckland on one of his favorite theories as to the formation of coal. But the result was, that Dr. Buckland, a much greater master of tongue- fence than Stephenson, completely silenced him. Next moraing HIS CONVERSATION. 449 before breakfast, when he was walking in the grounds deeply pondering, Sir William Follett came up and asked what he was thinking about ? " Why, Sir William, I am thinking over that argument I had with Buckland last night. I know I am right, and that if I had only the command of words which he has, I'd have beaten him." " Let me know all about it," said Sir William " and I'll see what I can do for you." The two sat down in an arbor, where the astute lawyer made himself thoroughly acquaint- ed with the points of the case ; entering into it with all the zeal of an advocate about to plead the dearest interests of his client. After he had mastered the subject, Sir William rose up, rubbing his hands with glee, and said, " Now I am ready for him." Sir Robert Peel w^as made acquainted with the plot, and adroitly introduced the subject of the controversy after dinner. The result was, that in the argument w'hich followed, the man of science was overcome by the man of law ; and Sir Wilham Fol- lett had at all points the mastery over Dr. Buckland. " What do you say, Mr. Stephenson?" asked Sir Robert, laughing. " Why," said he, " I will only say this, that of all the powers above and under the earth, there seems to me to be no power so great as the gift of the gab." One day, at dinner, during the same visit, a scientific lady asked him the question : " Mr. Stephenson, what do you consider the most powerful force in nature ?" " Oh !" said he, in a gallant spirit, " I Avill soon answer that question : it is the eye of a woman for the man who loves her ; for if a woman look with affection on a young man, and he should go to the uttermost ends of the earth, the recollection of that look will bring him back : there is no other force in nature which could do that." One Sunday, when the party had just returned from church, they were standing together on the terrace near the Hall, and observed in the distance a railway train flashing along, throwing behind it a long line of white steam. " Now, Buckland," said Mr. Stephenson, " I have a poser for you. Can you tell me what 29 450 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. is the power that is driving that train ?" " "Well," said the other, " I suppose it is one of your big engines." " But what drives the engine?" " Oh, very hkely a canny Newcastle driver." " AYhat do you say to the light of the sun ?" " How can that be ?" asked the doctor. " It is nothing else," said the engineer : " it is light bottled up in the earth for tens of thousands of years — light, absorbed by plants and vegetables, being necessary for the con- densation of carbon during the process of their growth, if it be not carbon in another form — and now, after being buried in the earth for long ages in fields of coal, that latent light is again brought forth and liberated, made to work, as in that locomotive, for great human purposes." The idea was certainly a most striking and original one : like a flash of light, it illuminated in an instant an entire field of science. During the same visit, Mr. Stephenson one evening repeated his experiment with blood drawn from the finger, submitting it to the microscope in order to show the curious circulation of the globules. He set the example by pricking his own thumb ; and the other guests, by turns, in like manner gave up a small por- tion of their blood for the purpose of ascertaining the compara- tive liveliness of their circulation. When Sir Robert Peel's turn came, Mr. St'^phenson said he was curious to know "how the blood globules of a great politician would conduct them- selves." Sir Robert held forth his finger for the purpose of being pricked ; but once, and again, he sensitively shrunk back, and at length the experiment, so far as he was concerned, was abandoned. Sir Robert Peel's sensitiveness to pain was ex- treme, and yet he was destined, a few years after, to die a death of the most distressing agony. From these visits to distinguished persons, Mr. Stephenson went back to Tapton with an increased love for home and its pleasures. He must see after his garden, his birds, and his favorite animals. There were also his thousand workpeople to be looked after, at Tapton and Clay Cross ; and Mechanics' In- EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE AT CLAY CROSS. 451 stitutes to be visited, and many other things to be attended to. One of the subjects that gave him most pleasure during tlie later years of his life was, the encouragement of educational institutes for the working classes, in which he took the deepest interest. He had many discussions on the subject with his intimate friend Mr. Binns, the manager of the extensive works at Glay Cross. A large population had now settled down at that place, and the original hamlet, consisting of about twelve cottages, had assumed the dimensions of a town. Iron smelting furnaces had been added to tlie colliery, and decided prosperity at length promised to attend Mr. Stephenson's original enterprise. How were these workpeople to be morally and intellectually improved, and their children efficiently educated ? Such was the question which oc- cupied the attention of Mr. Stephenson and his friend. Small beginnings were made, educational institutes of all kinds growing but slowly ; but at length a system was established, so admirable and calculated to be so beneficial to all parties concerned, em- ployers and workpeople alike, that we think the institution at Clay Cross may be cited as a model for general imitation by large employers of labor in all districts. It is briefly as follows : It is made a condition of employment at the works that every man and boy shall pay a fortniglitly rate for educational and other purposes. Every married man pays a shilling a fortnight, every single man eight pence, every boy five pence. Of these respective contributions, two pence a fortnight from each is ap- propriated exclusively for education. It is further made a con- dition, that the funds shall be administered by the manager of the works ; the concentration of the power in his hands insuring efficiency to the system. In return for these contributions, the following important ben- efits are conferred: 1. Free education in day schools for all the children of the workpeople. 2. Free education in night schools for all the boys and young men desiring instruction. 3. Free access to a "Workmen's Institute, with its lectures, reading room 452 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON.., supplied with daily and weekly newspapers, and library of 1600 volumes. 4. Free medical and surgical attendance to all the workpeople and their families. 5. Relief at the rate of 4s. a week during sickness, and ^s. a week during disablement by ac- cident, to all the workpeople, 6. Free access to a fortnightly dance in the large hall, attended by the workpeople and their families. 7. A band of instrumental music, a drum and fife band, a choral society, and a cricket club, are maintained out of the rate. 8. Between thirty and forty pounds are yearly grant- ed out of the rate as prizes for the best cottage garden vegetables ; the competion for which is held three times a year in the Public Hall. Such is the admirable institution now existing at Clay Cross. The number of persons employed on the works is about fifteen hundred ; and the amount of good daily effected by agencies of the character thus briefly stated can be better imagined than de- scribed. Schools, with a fine public hall, and a handsome church, have been erected at a cost of many thousand pounds, towards the expenses of which the Clay Cross Company have munificently contributed ; but the main element of success in the Institution unquestionably consists in the truly philanthropic action of the manager, Mr. Binns, who was for so many years the private secretary of George Stephenson, and in whom his spirit strongly lives and nobly works. "The good men do, lives after them," happily holds true quite as often as the converse maxim embodied in Shakspeare's well- known couplet.* The example and influence exercised by a good man upon his fellows, as by George Stephenson at Clay Cross during his life, is never lost ; but goes on fructifying into good, long after his body has mouldered into dust. * " The evil that men do, Uvea after them ; The good is often interred with their bones." JULIDS CiESAE. • CHAPTER XXXV. CLOSING YEARS. While thus occupied in his country house at Tapton, many persons continued to seek Mr. Stephenson's advice on subjects connected Avith mechanical engineering. Inventors sent their plans to him, and his approval was regarded as a passport to success. He was always ready to consider the plans thus sub- mitted. Sometimes it was a paddle-boat for canals, or a new break for railway trains, or a steam-gauge, or a patent axle. If his reply proved favorable, the inventor occasionally seized the opportunity of circulating or advertising it, often without asking his permission. One gentleman requested his opinion respecting his "anti-fric- tion wheeled carriages," to which a very civil letter was sent ia reply containing some useful hints, and offering to subscribe towards having a carriage properly constructed after a carefully prepared model, but cautioning the inventor against being over- sanguine. "If I can be the means of helping you," said he, "I shall be glad to do so ; but I should not be justified in leading you or any other person to spend money without any chance of getting it back again." This letter was immediately published in the railway papers, by the happy inventor, with a quantity of doggerel appended ; but if the proposed wheel ran no smoother than the rhymes, it could not have been worth much.* * Take the following specimen ; "I saw your son Robert, oh fie! oh fie I lie looked Upon me with disdain ; (453) 454 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. Another inventor induced a mutual friend to write requesting his opinion respecting an improved steamboat for the -working of canals. He wrote in reply, commending the plan of the boat, but at the same time expressing his belief that " no boat can be made now to work against the locomotive." When Beale's Rota- tory Engine came out, although entertaining a strong opinion against it, he nevertheless subscribed a sum of money for the purpose of having it fairly tried. A boat was fitted up with the engine, and the trial came off at Yarmouth. After describino- the experiment at a meeting of the Mechanical Engineers, he said : " When the engine was put to work, we could not get the boat to move forward, and the experiment failed. We mana"-ed, indeed, to get the boat to sea, but it cost me and the party 40Z. to bring her back again." While Mr. Stephenson was in the full tide of railway business in London, these frequent applications of inventors to submit their plans for his consideration had not always been so favorably received. They broke in upon him at a time when every moment was precious, preengaged by railway companies with large inter- ests at stake. Absorbed by work, and his mind full of the busi- ness in hand, it was scarcely to be expected that he should listen with patience to plans fifty times before proposed and rejected — to crude and wild theories believed in only by their projectors. But when he had secured leisure, and could call his time liis own, he was always ready to give an ear to those who consulted him upon such subjects. Thus, when Mr. Smith of Nottingham, an ingenious person in humble life, waited upon him with his inven- tion of a steam-gauge, for the purpose of obtaining his patronage Ilis father could see, with half an eye, Far more than I could explain. "He wouldn't allow me to leare him my models, Or a drawing, nor yet read my rhyme; For many came to hhn with crack'd nod'lUs, Which occupied half of his tiine." CORRESPO^'DEXCE WITH INVENTORS. 455 and assistance, Mr. Stephenson at once saw its uses, and said : " Oh ! I understand it aUogether ; it will do very well." Over- joyed with this approval, and with the practical suggestions with which it was accompanied, the inventor said : " Before I leave, will you be pleased to tell me what is your charge ? " " Charge ! " replied Mr. Stephenson, "oh, nonsense, I make no charge; but I'll tell you what you must do.* Send your instrument down to my works, and I'll attach it to one of my boilers and prove it. I will do more ; I will put it in the papers for you, and invite the public to come and examine it at work, and afterwards purchase it myself, if it answers as I expect it will do." He was as good as his woi'd ; for he shortly after published the following letter in the daily papers, dated Tapton House, Chesterfield, Oct. 15th, 1817: "A most important invention has been submitted to me for my approval, patented by a Mr. Smith of Nottingham, and intended to indicate the strength of steam in steam-engine boilers. It is particularly adapted for steamboats, and can be placed in the cabin, on deck, or on any other part of the vessel, where it may be seen by every passenger on boai'd. It may also be fixed in the office of every manufactory where a steam-engine is used, at a considerable distance from the boiler. I am so much pleased with it that I have put one up at one of my own collieries ; it is some distance from the boiler, in another house, and works most beautifully, showing the rise and fall of the steam in the most delicate manner. The indicator is like the face of a clock, with a pointer, making one revolution in measuring from 1 lb. to 100 lbs. upon the square inch of the pressure of steam ; it is quite f»'om under the control of the engineer, or any other person, so that its indications may be relied upon ; and the construction is so simple, that it is scarcely possible for it to get out of order. I might give a full explanation of the machine, but I think it * The last two lines state a fact beyond dispute. The number of inventions in connec- tion with railways thrust upon the Messrs. Stephenson for their opinion during the rail- way mania, was almost beyond computation. 456 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. best to leave that to the inventor himself. The numerous and appalling accidents which have occurred from the bursting of steamboat boilers have induced me to give you these observations, which I think desirable to be laid before the public. I maj state that I have no pecuniary interest in the scheme ; but being the first pei"son to whom it has been shown, and the first to make use of it. I feel it a duty I owe to the inventor, as well as the public, to make it as universally known as possible. The indicator is put up at Tapton colliery, near Chestei'field, and may be seen any day, by any respectable person." Mr. Stephenson also occupied some of his spare time, while at Tapton, in devising improvements in locomotive engines and rail- way carriages, still aiming at perfecting the great system which he had originated. Thus, in 1846, he brought out his design of a three-cylinder locomotive — the two outside cylinders acting together in the same plane, the third cylinder, with a crank in the middle of the axle, acting at right angles to the plane and crank pins of the two other cylinders. The middle cylinder was double the diameter of the others ; and its compensating action neutral- ized the tendency to oscillate, which was a defect in the long-boiler outside-cylinder engines as originally constructed. Although this new engine was very ingenious, and acted with great power, it has not come into general use, in consequence of the somewhat greater expense of its construction and working. Tlie oscillation, also, of the outside-cylinder engines, which this invention was de- signed to correct, has since been obviated by an improvement in their design and structure. A three-cylinder engine was, how- ever, constructed by way of experiment for the Xortheastena Railway, on which line it still continues in efficient work. Shortly after, !Mr. Stephenson invented a new self-acting brake, after a plan which had occupied his attention for many years, and which had been partially adopted on tlie Liverpool and Man- chester Railway during the time that he was its acting engineer. He now communicated a paper on the subject, accompanied by a OPEXIXG OF THE TRENT VALLEY RAILWAY. 457 beautiful model, to the Institute of Mechanical Engineers at Bir- mingham, of which he was president. The great recommendation of the plan was its simplicity and cheapness. " Any effectual plan," he said, " for increasing the safety of railway traveling is, in my mind, of such vital importance, that I prefer laying my scheme open to the world to taking out a patent for it ; and it will be a source of great pleasure to me to know that it has been the means of saving even one human life from destruction, or that it has prevented one serious concussion."* In 1847, the year before his death, Mr. Stephenson was invited to join a distinguished party at Sir Robert Peel's mansion at Drayton Manor, and to assist in the ceremony of formally open- ing the Trent Valley Railway, which had been originally designed and laid out by him many years before. The first sod of the railway was cut by the Prime Minister himself, in November, 1845, during the time when Mr. Stephenson was abroad on the business of the Spanish railway. The formal opening took place on the 26th of June, 1847, the line having thus been constructed in less than two years. What a change had come over the spirit of the landed gentry since the time when George Stephenson had first projected a railway through that district ! Then they were up in arms against him, characterizing him as a devastator and spoiler of their estates; now he was hailed as one of the greatest benefactors of the age. Sir Robert Peel, the chief political personage in England, wel- comed him as a guest and a friend, and spoke of him as the chief of our practical philosophers. A dozen members of Parliament, seven baronets, with all the landed magnates of the district, assembled to celebrate the opening of the railway. The clergy were there to bless the enterprise, and to bid all hail to railway progress, as " enabling them to carry on with greater facility those operations in connection with religion which were calculated to * See the " Practical Mechanic's Journal," Vol. 1, p. 53, for a description of the Self- acting Brake. 458 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPIIEXSON. be SO beneficial to tlie country,"* The army, speaking tlirough the mouth of General A' Court, acknowledged the vast importance of railways, as tending to improve the military defenses of the country. And representatives from eight corporations were there to acknowledge the great benefits which railways had conferred upon the merchants, tradesmen, and working classes of their re- spective towns and cities. Amongst those present Avho could not fail to contrast the now triumphant success of railways with the dismal forebodings uttei'ed twenty years before, was Mr. William Yates Peel, one of the earliest supporters of the Liverpool and Manchester Eailway. Sir Kobert Peel made a capital speech on the occasion, point- ing out that, at a remote period in the history of British high roads, 2000 years ago, Julius Agricola, who united in his person both engineer and contractor — being the Stephenson and Brassey of his day — had formed a direct line of communication between London and Chester, though with unfavorable gradients. As to the immense advantages of railways, there could be no manner of doubt ; they were, in his judgment, " destined to effect a gi'eater social revolution than any invention since the art of print- ing was discovered;" tending, as they did, to promote the moral and social welfare, and to advance the political security of the kingdom, to establish new bonds of connection between En";land and Ireland, and to develop the industrial energies and resources of both countries. Sir Robert, in the course of his speech, in- vited " the lions of the broad and narrow gauge " to forget the memory of all former grievances for that day, even if, unfortu- nately, they were doomed to be revived again on the morrow. Mr. Stephenson, however, was so strongly convinced of the great mistakes which had been committed of late years — mistakes which had, in no small measure, been encouraged by Sir Robert Peel himself, greatly to the damage of railway property — that he would not omit the opportunity, as he said, of " giving him a * Speech of Archdeacon Hodson at the opening of the Trent Valley Kailway. REPLY TO SIR ROBERT PEEL's SPEECH. 459 rub " on the occasion, and speaking out his mind freelj on the subject of direct lines, steep gradients, and the atmospheric " humbug," all of which had at one time been patronized by Sir Robert, when Premier. In the course of his reply, he said: " When I look back to the time when I first projected a locomo- tive railway in this neighborhood, I cannot but feel astonished at the opinions which then prevailed. We were told, even by cele- brated engineei'S, that it would be impossible ever to establish railways. Judge, then, how proud must now be the feelings of one who, foreseeing the results of railways, has risen from the lower ranks on their success ! I may venture to make a refer- ence to what the right honorable baronet said relative to Julius Agricola and a direct line. If Julius Agricola laid down the most direct lines, it must be recollected that he had no heavy goods trains to provide for, and gradients were of no consequence. The line that general took was probably very good for his troops, where the hills would serve to establish his watches ; but such lines would be in no way applicable at the present day, where the road is covered with long goods trains propelled by the loco- motive. What we require now is a road with such gradients that locomotives shall be able to carry the heaviest loads at the least expense. The right honorable baronet will excuse me if I say that to have a line that is direct is not the main thing. Had he studied the laws of practical mechanics as I have done, he would, doubtless, have regarded good gradients as one of the most im- portant considerations in a railway. I will also venture to say a word as to the broad gauge. I am afraid that this is another misconception, almost as great as the atmospheric railway ; only they have had the advantage of my engines to drag them through. The Great Western commenced operations by endeavoring to have everything diiferent from us — a different gauge and differ- ent engines. They put the boiler on one carriage and the engine on another, and they used ten feet wheels, which were to go at a hundred miles an hour. But what became of those engines ? 460 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. They required porters to help them out of the station ; and then they would not work. Luckily, however, we had sent them one engine from Newcastle, called the ' North Star,' to carry on the trafBc ; and though, like a horse, an engine requires rest, yet it was continually being called out to bring in the trains, thereby doing double duty in conducting the traffic for which the original broad gauge engines were found incapable." Nothing had occurred to weaken his confidence in the locomo- tive ; it had gone on increasing in power and efficiency, perfected by the labors of a succession of eminent engineers, chief amongst whom was his son ; and he regarded it as more than ever the king of machines. Doubtless, he had a strong bias in favor of his own engine — his mind having, like all others, become almost exclusively impressed with the idea which it had exclusively pur- sued. Nevertheless, continued experience only served to confirm the soundness of his opinion as to the superiority of the locomo- tive. That his views on the subject of gauge and gradients were equally sound, is now, we believe, generally admitted by railway managers and engineers. Shortly after the triumphant celebration of the success of the railway system at Tamworth, Mr. Stephenson was invited to be present at an interesting assemblage of railway men in Manches- ter, at which a testimonial was presented to Mr. J. P. Westhead, the former chairman of the Manchester and Birmingham Rail- way. The original Liverpool and Manchester line had swelled into gigantic proportions. It formed the original nucleus of the vast system now known as the London and Northwestern Rail- way. First one line, and then another, of which Mr. Stephen- son had been engineer, became amalgamated with it, until the main line extended from London to Lancaster, stretching out its great arms to Leeds in one direction and Holyhead in the other, and exercising an influence over other northern lines as far as Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen. On the occasion to which we refer, IVIi-. Stephenson, the father of railways, was not forgot- HIS MEETING WITH EMERSON. 461 ten. It was mainly his ingenuity, energy and perseverance that had called forth the commercial enterprise which issued in this mao^nificent system of internal communication ; and the railway men who assembled to do honor to Mr. Westhead, did not fail to recognize the great practical genius through whose labors it had been established. He was " the rock from which they had been hewn," observed Mr. Westhead — the father of railway enterprise — and the forerunner of all that had been done to extend the locomotive system throughout England and throughout the world. This was the last railway meeting that Mr. Stephenson attend- ed, and the last occasion on which he appeared in public, with the exception of a soiree of the Leeds Mechanics' Listitute, in December, 1847. The words which he then addressed to the young men at Leeds were highly characteristic. Though crowned with honors, the architect of the railway system, and the con- structor of some of the greatest works of his time, " he stood before them," he said, " but as an humble mechanic. He had risen from a lower standing than the meanest person there ; and all that he had been enabled to accomplish in the course of his life had been done through perseverance. He said this for the purpose of encouraging youthful mechanics to do as he had done — to persevere." The words were simple, but forcible and preg- nant with life and instruction for all men. Lq the spring of 1848, Mr. Stephenson was invited to Whit- tington House, near Chesterfield, the residence of his friend and former pupil, Mr. Swanwick, to meet the distinguished American, Emerson. It was interesting to see those two remarkable men, so dilFerent in most respects, and whose lines of thought and action lay in such widely different directions, yet so quick to re- cognize each other's merits. Mr. Stephenson was not, of course, acquainted with Mr. Emerson as an author ; and the contempla- tive American might not be supposed to be particularly interested beforehand in the English engineer, whom he knew by reputation only as a giant in the material world. But there was in both an 462 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSOX. equal aspiration after excellence, each in his own sphere — the {esthetic and abstract tendencies of the one complimenting the keen and accurate perceptions of the material of the other. Upon being introduced, they did not immediately engage in con- versation ; but presently Mr. Stephenson jumped up, took Emer- son by the collar, and giving him one of his friendly shakes, asked how it was that in England we could always tell an American ? This led to an interesting conversation, in the course of which Emerson said how much he had everywhere been struck by the haleness and comeliness of the English men and women ; and this diverged into a further discussion of tlie influences which air, climate, moisture, soil, and other conditions exercised upon the physical and moral development of a people. From this the conversation Avas directed upon the subject of electricity, upon whicli Mr. Stephenson launched out enthusiastically, explaining his views by several simple and striking illustrations. From thence it diverged into the events of his own life, which he re- lated in so graphic a manner as completely to rivet the attention of the American. Afterwards, Emerson said, " that it was worth crossing the Atlantic to have seen Stephenson alone ; he had such native force of character and vigor of intellect." Although Emei'son does not particularly refer to this interview in the in- teresting essay afterwards published by him, entitled " English Traits,'* embodying the results of the observations made by him in his journeys through England, one cannot help feeling that his interview Avith such a man as Stephenson must have tended to fix in his mind those sterling qualities of pluck, bottom, persever- ance, energy, shrewdness, bravery, and freedom, Avhich he so viv- idly depicts in his book as the prominent characteristics of the modern Englishman. The rest of his days were spent quietly at Tapton, amongst his dogs, his rabbits, and his birds. When not attending to the extensive works connected Avith his collieries, he Avas engaged in horticulture and farming. He continued proud of his flowers, HIS DEATH — STATUES. 463 his fruits and his crops ; and the old spirit of competition still lived strons within him. Although he had for some time been in delicate health, and his hand shook from nervous affection, he appeared to possess a sound constitution. Emerson had observed of him that he had the lives of many men in him. But perhaps the American spoke figuratively, in reference to his vast stores of experience. It appeared that he had never completely recov- ered from the attack of pleurisy which seized him shortly after his return from Spain. As late however as the 26th of July, 1848, he felt himself sufficiently well to be able to attend a meet- insr of the Birminirham Institute, and to read to the members his paper " On the Fallacies of the Rotary Engine." It was his last appearance before them. Shortly after his return to Tapton, he had an attack of intermittent fever, from which he seemed to be recovering, when a sudden effusion of blood from the lungs carried him off, on the 12th of August, 1848, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. His remains were followed to the grave by a large body of his workpeople, by whom he was greatly admired and beloved. They remembered him as a kind master, who was ever ready actively to promote all measures for their moral, physical, and mental improvement. The inhabitants of Chesterfield evinced their respect for the deceased by suspending business, closing their shops, and joining in the funeral procession, which was headed by the corporation of the town. Many of the surrounding gentry also attended the funeral. The body was interred in Trinity Church, Chesterfield, where a simple tablet marks the great engineer's last resting-place. The statue of George Stephenson, which the Liverpool and Manchester and Grand Junction Companies had commissioned, was on its Avay to England Avhen his death occurred ; and the statue served for a monument, though his best monument will always be his works. The Liverpool Board placed a minute ou their books, embodying also the graceful tribute of their secretary, 464 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. Mr. Henry Booth, in which they recorded their admiration of the life, and their esteem for the character of the deceased. " The directors," they say, " on the present occasion look back with peculiar interest to their first connection with Mr. Stephenson, in the construction of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway ; to a period now twenty years past, when he floated their new line over Chat Moss, and cut his Avay through the rock-cutting at Olive Mount. Tracing the progress of railways from the first beginning to the present time, they find Mr. Stephenson foremost in urging forward the great railway movement ; earning and maintaining his title to be considered, before any other man, the author of that universal system of locomotion which has effected such mighty results — commercial, social, and political — through- out the civilized world. Two years ago, the directors entrusted to Mr. Gibson, of Rome, the duty and the privilege of producing a statue that might do honor to their friend, then living amongst them. They did not anticipate that on the completion of this work of art the great original would be no more — that they should be constrained to accept the marble effigy of the engineer in lieu of the living presence of the man." * The statue here referred to was placed in St. George's Hall, Liverpool. A full- length statue of the deceased, by Bailey, was also erected a few years later, in the noble vestibule of the London and Northwestern Station, in Euston Square. A subscription for the purpose was set on foot by the Society of Mechanical Engineers, of which he had been the founder and president. A few advertisements were inserted in the newspapers, inviting subscriptions ; and it is a notable fact that the voluntary offerings shortly received included an average of two shillings each from 3,150 working men, who embraced this opportunity of doing honor to their distinguished fellow-workman. George Stephenson had a shrewd, kind, honest, manly face. * Minutes of the Lirerpool Board of the London and Northwestern Railway Company, 6th Sept., 1848. Statue of Stepliensoix at Evistoii Square. i HIS PORTRAIT. 465 His fair, clear countenance was ruddy, and seemingly glowed with health. The forehead was large and high, projecting over the eyes ; and there was that massive breadth across the lower part, which is usually observed in men of eminent constructive skill. The mouth was firmly marked ; and shrewdness and humor lurked there as well as in the keen gray eye. His frame was compact, well-knit, and rather spare. His hair became gray at an early age, and towards the close of his life it was of a pure silky whiteness. He dressed neatly in black, wearing a white neck- cloth ; and his face, his person, and his deportment at once arrested attention, and marked the gentleman. 30 CHAPTER XXXVI. HIS CHARACTER. The life of George Stephenson, though imperfectly portrayed in the preceding pages, will be found to contain many valuable lessons. His was the life of a true man, and presented a striking combination of those sterling qualities which we are proud to regard as essentially English. Doubtless he owed much to his birth, belonging as he did to the hardy and persevering race of the north — a race less supple, soft, and polished than the people of the more southern districts of England, but, like their Danish progenitors, full of courage, vigor, ingenuity, and persevering industry. Tlieir strong, gut- tural speech, which sounds so harsh and unmusical in southern ears, is indeed but a type of their nature. When Mr. Stephenson was struggling to give utterance to his views upon the locomotive before the Committee of the House of Commons, those who did not know him supposed he was " a foreigner." Before long the world saw in him an Englishman, stout-hearted and true — one of those master minds who, by energetic action in new fields of industry, impress their character from time to time upon the age and nation to which they belong. The poverty of his parents being such that they could not give him any, even the very simplest education, beyond the good example of integrity and industry, he Avas early left to shift for himself, and compelled to be self-reliant. Having the will to C4GG) PERSEVERANCE THOROUGHNESS. 467 learn, he soon forced for himself a way. No beginning could have been more humble than his ; but he persevered : he had determined to learn, and he did leam. To such a resolution as his, nothing really beneficial in life is denied. He might have said, hke Sebastian Bach, " I was industrious ; and whoever is equally sedulous will be equally successful." The whole secret of Mr. Stephenson's success in life was his careful improvement of time, which is the rock out of which fortunes are carved and great characters formed. He believed in genius to the extent that Buffon did when he said that " patience is genius;" or as some other thinker put it, when he defined genius to be the power of making efforts. But he never would have it that he was a genius, or that he had done any thing which other men, equally laborious and persevering as himself, could not have accomplished. He repeatedly said to the young men about him : " Do as I have done — persevere !" He perfected the locomotive by always working at it and always thinking about it. Every step of advance which he made was conquered by patient labor. When an engineman, he systematically took his engine to pieces on Saturday afternoons, while the works were at a stand, for the purpose of cleaning it thoroughly, and "gaining insight." He thus gradually mastered the mechanism of the steam-engine, so that, when opportunity offered, he was enabled to improve it, and to make it work even when its own maker was baffled. He practically studied hydraulics in the same plodding way, when acting as plugman ; and when all the local pump doctors at Killingworth were in despair, he stepped in, and successfully applied the knowledge which he had so laboriously gained. A man of such a temper and purpose could not but succeed in life. His long labor to invent the perpetual motion was not lost. The attempt did him good, stimulating his inventiveness and mechanical ingenuity. He afterwards used to lament this loss of time, and said that if he had enjoyed the opportunity which 468 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. young men of this day have, of knowing li'om books what others had done before them, he would have been spared much labor and mortification. Sometimes he thought he had hit upon dis- coveries, which he afterwards found were but old fallacies long since exploded. Yet the very effort to overcome difficulty was of itself an education. By wrestling with it, he strengthened his judgment and sharpened his skill. Being in earnest in his struggle, he was compelled to consider the subject in all its rela- tions ; and this would not suffer him to be superficial. He thus acquired practical ability through his steadfast efforts even after the impracticable ; and, like other inventors, he gained his knowl- edge of what will do, by successive trials of what will not do. Wliether working as a brakesman or an engineer, his mind was always full of the work in hand. He gave himself thor- oughly up to it. Like the painter, he might say that he had become great "by neglecting nothing." Whatever he was engaged upon, he was as careful of the details as if each Avere itself the whole. He did all thoroughly and honestly. There was no " scamping" with him. When a workman, he put his brains and labor into his work ; and when a master, he put his conscience and character into it. He would have no slop-work executed merely for the sake of profit. The materials must be as genuine as the workmanship was skillful. The structures which he designed and executed were distinguished for their thoroughness and solidity ; his locomotives were famous for their durability and excellent working qualities. The engines which he sent to the United States in 1832 are still in good condition ;* and even the engines built by him for the Ivillingworth colliery, upwards of thirty years ago, are working steadily there to this day. All his work was honest, representing the actual character of the man. * In 1852, Major-General MacNeil (U. S.) said : " Their best engines were imported from England Those supplied in 1832, by Stephenson & Co., were still in excellent working order." — Discussion at the Institution 0/ Ciml Engineirs, April 21th, 1852. ENERGY AND DETERMINATION. 469 The battle which Mr. Stephenson fought for the locomotive — and he himself always spoke of it as a "battle" — would have discouraged most other men ; but it only served to bring into prominence that energy and determination which formed the back-bone of his character. " I have fought," said he, " for the locomotive single-handed for nearly twenty years, having no engineer to help me until I had reared engineers under my own care." The leading engineers of the day were against him, with- out exception ; yet he did not despair. He had laid hold of a great idea, and he stuck by it ; his mind was locked and bolted to the results. " I put up," he says, " with every rebuff, deter- viined not to be put down." "When the use of his locomotive on the Livei'pool and Manchester line was reported against, and the employment of fixed engines recommended instead, Mr. Stephen- son implored the directors, who were no engineers, only to afford a fair opportunity for a trial of the locomotive. Their common sense came to his rescue. They had immense confidence in that Newcastle engine-wright. He had already made steadfast friends of several of the most influential men amongst them, who valued his manly uprightness and integrity, and were strongly disposed to believe in him, though all the engineering world stood on the one side, and he alone on the other. His patient purpose, not less than his intense earnestness, carried them away. They adopted his recommendation, and oflfered a prize of 500^. for the best locomotive. Though many proclaimed the Liverpool men to be as great maniacs as Stephenson, yet the result proved the practical sagacity of the directors and the skill of their engineer ; but it was the determined purpose of the latter which secured the triumph of the locomotive. His resolution, founded on sound convictions, was the precurser of what he eventually achieved ; and his intense anticipation was but the true presentiment of what he was afterwards found capable of accomplishing. He was ready to turn his hand to anythmg — shoes and clocks, railways and locomotives. He contrived his safety-lamp with the 470 LIFE OP GEORGE STEPHENSON. object of saving pitmen's lives, and periled his own life in testing it. Whatever work was nearest him, he turned to and did it. With him, to resolve was to do. Many men knew far more than he ; but none was more ready forthwith to apply what he did know to practical purposes. Sir Joshua Walmsley mentions, that when examining the works of the Orleans and Tours Railway, Mr. Stephenson, see- ing a large number of excavators filling and wheeling sand in a cutting, at a great waste of time and labor, after the manner of foreign navvies, he went up to the men and said he would show them how to fill their barrows in half the time. He showed them the proper position in which to stand so as to exercise the gi'eatest amount of power with the least waste of strength ; and he filled the barrow with comparative ease again and again in their presence, to the great delight of the workmen. When pass- ing through his own workshops, he would point out to his men how to save labor and to get through their work skillfully and with ease. His energy imparted itself to others, quickening aiid influencing them as strong characters always do — flowing down into theirs, and bringing out their best powers. He was the zealous friend of Mechanics' Institutes, and often addressed them in his homely but always interesting style — cheering young men on by the recital of his own difficulties, which he had overcome through perseverance. His deportment towards the workmen employed under him was familiar, yet firm and consistent. As he respected then- manhood, so did they respect his masterhood. Although he com- ported himself towards his men as if they occupied very much the same level as himself, he yet pos^sessed that peculiar capacity for governing others which enabled him always to preserve amongst them the strictest discipline, and to secure their cheerful and hearty services. One of the most beautiful features of Mr. Stephenson's char- acter, was the afl^ectionate interest which he took in the education GENEROSITY OF IIIS SON. 471 of his son, stinting himself when only a poor working man in order to provide his hoy with useful learning. He was not satis- fied till he had obtained for him the advantages of a University course. Then he found him a most valuable fellow-worker. From the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Eailway, the woi-ks of the father and the son can scarcely be separated. In their great engineering enterprises, and in the successive im- provements effected by them in the arrangement and construction of the locomotive, their names are indissolubly united. Of the distinguished works of the son, it would be out of place to speak at length. But the London and Birmingham Railway, the Tu- bular Bridge over the Menai Straits, and the High Level Bridge at Newcastle, are works which future generations will point to as worthy of the greatest engineer of his day, and as noble results of George Stephenson's self-denying determination to educate liis son to the fullest extent of his ability. We cannot, however, refrain from mentioning the manner in which Mr. Stephenson's son has repaid the obligations which both were under to the Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Institute, when working together as humble experimenters in their cottage at Killingworth. The Institute was, until quite recently, struggling under a debt of 6,200^., which seriously im- paired its usefulness as an educational agency. Mr. Robert Ste- phenson offered to pay one half of the entire sum, provided the local supporters of the Institute would raise the remainder ; and conditional also on the annual subscription being reduced from two guineas to one, in order that the usefulness of the institution might be extended. The generous offer was accepted, and the debt extinguished. Probably no military chiefs were ever more beloved by their soldiers than were both father and son by the array of men who, under their guidance, worked at labors of profit, made labors of love by their earnest will and purpose. True leaders of men and lords of industry, they were always ready to recognize and en- 472 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. courage talent in those who worked for and with them. It was pleasant at the openings of the Stephenson lines, to hear the chief engineers attributing the successful completion of the works to their able assistants ; whilst the assistants, on the other hand, ascribed the entire glory to their chiefs. A fine trait in Mr. Stephenson's character was his generosity, which would not permit an attack to be made upon the absent or the weak. He would never sanction any injustice of act or opinion towards those associated with himself. On one occasion, during the progress of the Liverpool and Manchester works, while he had a strong party to contend with at the Board, the conduct of one of his assistants was called in question, as he thought unjustly, and a censure was threatened. Rather than submit to this injustice to his assistant, Mr. Stephenson tendered his resignation ; but it was not accepted, and the censure was not voted. The same chivalrous protection was on many occasions extended by him to the weaker against the stronger. Even if he were himself displeased with any one engaged about him, any attack from another quarter would rouse him in defense, not in the spirit of opposition, but from a kind and generous impulse to succor those in difficulty. Mr. Stephenson, though a thrifty and frugal man, was essen- tially unsordid. His rugged path in eai'ly life made him careful of his resources. He never saved to hoard, but saved for a pur- pose, such as the maintenance of his parents or the education of his son. In latter years, he became a prosperous and even a wealthy man ; but riches never closed his heart, nor stole away the elasticity of his soul. He enjoyed life cheerfully, because hopefully. When he entered upon a commercial enterprise, whether for others or for himself, he looked carefully at the ways and means. Unless they would "pay," he held back. "He would have nothing to do," he declared, "with stock-jobbing speculations." His refusal to sell his name to the schemes of the railway mania — his survey of the Spanish lines without COMPARISON WITH WATT. 473 remuneration — his offer to postpone his claim for payment from a poor company until their affairs became more prosperous — are instances of the unsordid spirit in which he acted. "No mere pecuniary interest," it has been well said, "could have led George Stephenson to persevere in his onward course from boyhood, when he toiled as a slave to the great steam-engine of the mine, up to the period when he had forced his way through all the dif- ficulties, natural and artificial, of the Manchester and Liverpool way. No mere calculation of percentages and dividends wrought this work. It was the high heroic soul, the strong English spirit, the magnificent will, the indomitable energy, that accomplished this world-enduring labor." * Another marked feature in Mr. Stephenson's character was his patience. NotAvithstanding the strength of his convictions as to the great uses to which the locomotive might be applied, he waited long and patiently for the opportunity of bringing it into notice ; and for years after he had completed an efficient engine he went on quietly devoting himself to the ordinary work of the colliery. He made no noise nor stir about his locomotive, but allowed another to take credit for the experiments on velocity and friction made with it by liimself upon the Killingworth rail- road. By patient industry and laborious contrivance, he was enabled to do for the locomotive what James Watt had done for the con- densing engine. He found it clumsy and inefficient ; and he made it powerful, efficient and useful. Both have been described as the improvers of their respective engines ; but, as to all that is admirable in their structure or vast in their utility, they are rather entitled to be described as their inventors. While the invention of Watt increased the power, and at the same time so regulated the action, of the steam-engine, as to make it capable of being applied alike to the hardest work and to the finest man- ufactures, the invention of Stephenson gave an effective power * Westminster Review, Sept. 1844. 474 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. to the locomotive, which enabled it to perform the work of teams of the most powerful horses, and to outstrip the speed of the fleetest. "Watt's invention exercised a wonderfully quickening influence on every branch of industry, and multiplied a thousand fold the amount of manufactured productions ; and Stephenson's enabled these to be distributed with an economy and dispatch such as had never before been thought possible. They have both tended to increase indefinitely the mass of human comforts and enjoyments, and to render them cheap and accessible to all. But Stephenson's invention, by the influence which it is daily exercising upon the civilization of the world, is even more re- markable than that of Watt, and is calculated to have still more important consequences. In this respect, it is to be regarded as the grandest application of steam power that has yet been dis- covered. The locomotive, like the condensing engine, exhibits the realization of various capital, but wholly distmct, ideas, pro- mulgated by many ingenious inventors. Stephenson, like Watt, exliibited a power of selection, combination and invention of his own, by which — while availing himself of all that had been done before him, and superadding the many skillful contrivances de- vised by himself — he was at length enabled to bring his engine into a condition of marvelous power and efficiency. He gathered together the scattered threads of ingenuity which already existed, and combined them into one firm and complete fabric of his own. He realized the plans which others had imperfectly formed ; and was the first to construct, what so many others had unsuccessfully attempted, the practical working locomotive. In his deportment, Mr. Stephenson was simple, modest and unassuming, but always manly. He was frank and social in spirit. When an humble workman, he had carefully preserved his sense of self-respect. His companions looked up to him, and his example was worth even more to many of them than books or schools. His devoted love of knowledge made his poverty respectable, and adorned his humble calling. When he rose to CLOSE OBSERVATION OF NATURE. 475 a more elevated station, and associated with men of the highest position and influence in Britain, he took his place amongst them with perfect self-possession. They wonflered at the quiet ease and simple dignity of his deportment ; and men in the best ranks of life have said of him that " He was one of Nature's gentlemen." If he was occasionally impatient of the opposition of profes- sional brethren, it is scarcely to be wondered at when we look at the simple earnestness of his character, and consider that his sole aim was the establishment of his own well-founded convic- tions. Ko wonder that he should have been intolerant of that professional gladiatoi'ship against which his life had been one prolonged struggle. Nor could he forget that the engineering class had been arrayed against him during his arduous battle for the locomotive, and that, but for his own pluck and persistency, they would have strangled it in its cradle. Mr. Stephenson's close observation of nature provided him with a fullness of information on many subjects, which often appeared surprising to those who had devoted to them a special study. In passing through a country, nothing escaped his attention — the trees, the crops, the birds, the farmers' stock — in short, every- thing in nature afforded him an opportunity for making some striking observation, or propounding some ingenious theory. This rendered him a highly mstructive and amusing companion at all times. On one occasion the accuracy of his knowledge of birds came out in a curious way at a convivial meeting of rail- way men in London. The engineers and railway directors present knew each other as railway men and nothing more. The talk had been all of railways and railway politics, Mr. Stephenson was a great talker on these subjects, and was gener- ally allowed, from the interest of his conversation and the extent of his experience, to take the lead. At length, one of the party broke in with " Come now, Stephenson, we have had nothing but railways ; can not we have a change, and try if we can talk a little about something else ?" "Well," said Mr. Stephenson, "I'll 476 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON". give you a Avide range of subjects — what shall it be about?'* "Say birds' nests!" rejoined the other, who prided himself on his special knowledge of tins subject. "Then birds' nests be it." A long and animated conversation ensued ; the bird-nesting of his boyhood, the blackbird's nest which his father had held him up in his arms to look at when a child at Wylam, the hedges in which he had found the thrush's and the linnet's nests, the mossy bank where the robin built, the cleft in the branch of the young tree where the chaffinch had reared its dwelHng — all rose up clear in his mind's eye, and led him back to the scenes of his boyhood at Callerton and Dewley Burn. The color and number of the bird's eggs, the period of their incubation, the materials employed by them for the walls and linings of their nests — were described by him so vividly, and illustrated by such gi-aphic anecdotes, that one of the party remarked that, if George Ste- phenson had not been the greatest engineer of his day, he might have been one of the greatest naturalists. It is Goethe, we believe, who has said that no man ever re- ceives a new idea, at variance with his preconceived notions, after forty. But this observation, though it may be generally, is not invariably true. There are many great minds which never close. Mr. Stephenson, to the last, was open to the reception of new ideas, new facts, new theories. He was a late learner ; but he went on learning to the end. He shut his mind, however, against what he considered humbugs — especially mechanical humbugs. Thus, he said at Tamworth, that he had not been to see the at- mospheric railway because it was a great humbug. He had gone to see Pinkus's model of it, and that had determined him on the subject. He then declared the atmospheric system to be " a rope of sand ; " it could never hold together, and he would not coun- tenance it. When he heard of Perkins's celebrated machine, which was said to work at a tremendous pressure, without steam, but with water in the boiler almost at red heat, he went with his son to HIS BENEVOLENCE. 477 see it. The engine exhibited was of six-horse power, and the pressure was said to be not less than 15001bs. to the square inch. Mr. Stephenson said he thouglit it humbug ; but he would test its power. Taking up a little oakum, and wrapping some round each, hand, he firmly seized hold of the piston rod and held it down with all his strength. The machine was at once brought to a stand, very much to ]Mr. Perkins's annoyance. But the humbug had been exploded to 'Mr. Stephenson's satisfaction. Towards the close of his life he frequently went down to New- castle, and visited the scenes of his boyhood. " I have been to Callerton," said he one day to a friend, " and seen the fields in which I used to puU turnips at twopence a day ; and many a cold fijiger, I can tell you, I had." His hand was open to his former fellow-workmen whom old age had left in poverty. He would slip a five-pound note into the hand of a poor man or a widow in such a way as not to offend their delicacy, but to make them feel as if the obligation were aU on his side. To poor Robert Gray, of Newburn, who acted as his bridesman, on his marriage to Fanny Henderson, he left a pension for life, which continues to be paid him. About the beginning of 1847, Mr. Stephenson was requested to state what were his " ornamental initials," in order that they might be added to his name in the title of a work proposed to be dedicated to him. His reply was characteristic. " I have to state," said Mr. Stephenson, " that I have no flourishes to my name, either before or after ; and I think it will be as well if you merely say ' George Stephenson.' It is true that I am a Belgian knight, but I do not wish to have any use made of it. I have had the offer of knighthood of my own country made to me sev- eral times, but would not have it. I have been invited to become a Fellow of the Royal Society, and also of the Civil Engineers' Society, but objected to the empty additions to my name. I am a member of the Geological Society ; and I have consented to 478 LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON. become President of, I believe, a highly respectable Mechanics* Institution at Birmingham." As the founder of the school of modern engineers, it might have been expected that Mr. Stephenson would have been invited to join the Civil Engineers' Institute ; and, indeed, he himself desired to do so. But there were two obstacles to his beinsr ad- mitted to membership. The fii-st was, that Mr. Stephenson had served no regular apprenticeship to the profession ; and the sec- ond was the composition of a probationary essay in proof of his capacity as an engineer. Mr. Stephenson could not comply with the first condition, and he would not comply with the second. The council of the institute were willing to waive the former, but not the latter point. But Mr. Stephenson said, if he went in at all, he would go in upright, not stooping one inch ; and he did think it was too much to ask of him, that he should undergo the pi'obationary test required from comparatively unknown juniors, and write an essay in proof of his knowledge of engineering, for the approval or criticism of a society, many of whose members had been his own pupils or assistants. He therefore turned his back, though reluctantly, on the Institute of Civil Engineers, and accepted the office of President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers at Birmingham, which he held until his death. Sir Robert Peel made him the offer of knighthood more than once ; but Mr. Stephenson had no desire to hang on the outskirts of the titled class, or to get perched into high places of any kind. Arago, in his Eloge, complained that "Watt was not made a baron. But what lustre would such a title have added to the name of either Watt or Stephenson ? Thank Heaven, the strongest and best men of England do their work without hope of any such reward. Never were men less the creatures of government or of patronage than James Watt and George Stephenson ; and, as representing the genius of the people from whom they sprang, we would rather have their simple names descend to posterity ADVANTAGES OF RAILWAYS. 479 unadorned, than disguised and hidden under any unmeaning title borrowed from the middle ages. As respects the immense advantages of railways to mankind, there cannot be two opinions. They exhibit, probably, the grand- est organization of capital and labor that the world has yet seen. Although they have unhappily occasioned great loss to many, the loss has been that of individuals ; whilst, as a national system, the gain has already been enormous. As tending to multiply and spread abroad the conveniences of life, opening up new fields of industry, bringing nations nearer to each other, and thus promo- ting the great ends of civilization, the founding of the railway system by George Stephenson must be regarded as one of the most important events, if not the very greatest event, in the first half of this nineteenth century. To quote his own modest words, in conclusion, as expressed at a meeting of engineers in Birmingham towards the close of his carcei-, " I may say," he observed, " without being egotistical, that I have mixed with a greater variety of society than perhaps any man living. I have dined in mines among miners, and I have dined with kings and queens, and with all grades of the nobility, and have seen enough to inspire me with the hope that my exer- tions have not been without their beneficial results — that my labors have not been in vain." ri5sum£ OF THE RAILWAT SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS, 31 RESUME OP THE RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. By ROBERT STEPHENSON, Esq., M. P. [As a fitting conclusion to the life of George Stephenson, we append the following resume, of the Railway System and its Re- sults, as delivered by his distinguished son before the Institution of Civil Engineers, on taking the chair after his election as their President, in January, 1856, and which we republish from the Minutes of Proceedings of that Institution, by permission of the Council.] Our British Railways present a fertile theme for observation, and in considering them, in their varied relations, my chief object will be to sug- gest topics for communications and discussion at the meetings over which I hope to have the honor of presiding. The general extent and scheme of the network of railways stretching from beyond Aberdeen in the north, to Portsmouth in the south ; and be- tween Yarmouth and Milford Haven on the east and west of the United Kingdom, are well known to you. To these must be added the Irish lines, now becoming very extensive and exercising the most beneficial influence on that portion of the Empire. (483) 484 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. Let us look, in the first instance, to the length of these railways. At the end of 185i, the total length of the lines authorized by Parliament was 13,983 miles ; but as 1,177 miles had been abandoned, and there still re- mained about 4,752 miles to be constructed, the aggregate length of rail- ways opened in Great Britain and L-eland at that time measured about 8,05-i miles— about the diameter of the globe, and nearly 500 miles more than the united lengths of the Thames, the Seine, the Rhone, the Ebro, the Tagus, the Ehine, the Elbe, the Vistula, the Dneiper, and the Danube, or the ten chief rivers of Europe. Of these 8,054 miles completed, 1,962 miles are single lines. Taking double and single lines together, the total length of railway in the kingdom is, therefore, 14,146 miles. To this must be added the very considerable extent of rails laid for sid- ings, which, on an average, may be said to be equal in length to one-third of the total mileage. Add, then, say 4,000 miles for sidings, there is a total of 18,000 miles of railway in Great Britain and Ireland. These 18,000 miles have been the work of only twenty-five years, and in that short space of time there have been laid rails, within these islands, far more than are sufiBcient to " put a girdle round about the earth ! " It will naturally be asked, what amount of capital has been required for the construction of these vast works? The amount authorized by Parlia- ment to be raised for railway works, amounted, at the end of 1854, to £368,000,000. Of that amount £286,000,000 has absolutely been raised. It is diflScult to realize to the imagination what is £286,000,000 sterling. Let us try to test the importance of the amount by some familiar compar- isons. It is more than four times the amount of the annual value of all the real property of Great Britain. It is more than one-third of the entire amount of the national debt. We have, indeed, already spent nearly a third of this sum, in two years, in the prosecution of the war in which this countiy is engaged ; but it is impossible not to reflect that if nearly £100,- 000,000 expended by the State has only gained for us the advantage of occupying one side of the city, which the valor of England and France has doomed to destruction, the expenditure of £286,000,000 by the people has secm-ed to us the advantages of internal communication all but perfect— of progress in science and arts unexampled at any period of the history of the world- of national progress almost unchecked, and of prosperity and hap- piness increased beyond all precedent. In considering the results produced, it is impossible to pass over the mag- nitude of the works. Our tunnels have traversed hills and penetrated beneath mountains to the extent of nearly seventy miles. Of our viaducts, RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 485 I am not able, at present, to give the precise extent ; but some estimate may be formed from the fact of tlicre being, in London and the suburbs, nearly eleven miles of viaduct, passing through the streets. Of railway bridges there must have been built at least twenty-five thousand ; far more than all the bridges ever previously known in England. But perhaps the magnitude of the railway works undertaken in this country will be still more clearly exhibited, if you consider the extent of the earth-works. Taking them at an average of 70,000 cubic yards to a mile, they will meas- m-e 550,000,000 cubic yards. What docs this represent ? We are accus- tomed to regard St. Paul's as a test for height and space ; but by the side of the pyramid of earth these works would rear, St. Paul's would be but as a pigmy by a giant. Imagine a mountain half a mile in diameter at its base, and soaring into the clouds one mile and a half in height ; that would be the size of the mountain of earth which these earth-works would form ; while St. James' Park, from the Horse Guards to Buckingham Palace, would scarcely afford space for its base. It is computed, that no less than 80,000,000 miles are annually traversed on our railways. Now, to run 80,000,000 miles per annum, 2k miles of railway, at least, must be covered by trains, during every second of time, throughout the entire year. To work our railways, even to their present extent, there must be at least 5,000 locomotive engines ; and supposing an engine with its tender to measure only 35 feet, it will be seen, that the whole number required to work our railway system would extend, in one straight line, over 30 miles, or the whole distance from London to Chatham. But these are only the engines and tenders. The number of vehicles of every sort employed can- not be much less than 150,000. Taking the length of each vehicle at 20 feet, you will find that, could 150,000 be linked together in one train, they would reach from London to Aberdeen, or a distance of 500 miles. Has any one present «onsidered the value of this railway stock ? Take the cost of each engine and tender at £2,000, and the average cost of each carriage, truck and wagon at £100, and you have a total exceeding £25,000,000 invested in rolling stock alone. But these are far from being all the startling facts connected with rail- way enterprise. There are as many as 2,416 railway stations in the United Kingdom — one at least for every 45,000 passengers. The various Com- panies have, in their direct employment, not less than 90,409 officers and servants. The consumption of coke by railway engines amounts to not less than 1,300,000 tons of that fuel, representing upwards of 2,000,000 tons of coals ; so that in every minute of time, thi-oughout the year, 4 tons 486 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. of coals are consumed, and 20 tons of water are flashed into steam of high elasticity. What does this represent ? The water would afford a supply to the population of Liverpool at the rate of 22 gallons per head per diem, and the steam evolved is adequate to the maintenance of stationary engines of more than 130,000 horse power. The consumption of fuel is almost equal to the amount of coal exported from Great Britain to foreign coun- tries, and is more than one half the whole consumption of the Metropolis. If to this be added the amount that must be used in producing the rails and other iron required for the whole system, the value of railways to the coal-owner must be evident. Ten years ago, in 1845, the entu'e number of passengers carried upon railways was 33,791,000 in the year. The railway system was, at that time, thought to be pretty well developed, at least as regarded the main channels of communication. Five years afterwards, in 1850, the number of passengers conveyed was 72,854,000, and in 1854, the number conveyed was 111,206,000. Thus the number of passengers has been more than trebled in ten years ; and assuming an average of 14 persons to a ton, there would be a gross weight of upwards of 8,000,000 tons of passengers conveyed annually. The average distance which these passengers are conveyed appears to be about 12 miles. The average number carried per day is about 300,000. Under the old coach system it was assumed, that on an average 10 pas- sengers could be earned by each coach ; therefore, to carry 300,000 pas- sengers a day, 12 miles each, at least 10,000 coaches and 120,000 horses would be necessary. The national saving will be forcibly illustrated, if you consider the cost of running these coaches and maintaining these horses, against the fact that locomotive expenses on railways do not, ou an average, exceed dkd. per mile. The railway receipts for passengers have been in the following pro- portions : ^ In 1845 £3,976,000 1850 6,827,000 1854 9,174,000 The total receipts for goods, passengers, and from all other sources, were for the same years : In 1845 £6,209,000 1850 13,204.000 1854 20,215,0.00 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 487 There has been no instance in the annals of any railway, where the an- nual traflBc has not been of continuous growth. Some remarkable facts illustrate this truth. At one period the Midland Railway had the mo- nopoly of the whole traffic to the North ; that line being " the route " to the North of England and to Scotland. When the Caledonian was opened, some years ago, the Northwestern Railway, working in conjunction with it, was able to abstract the bulk of the Scotch traffic from the Midland line. Nevertheless, the Midland traffic continued to increase. At a later period the Great Northern was opened, affording almost a direct route to Nottingham, to Leeds, to York and to Edinburgh. The Scotch traffic of the Midland was thereby annihilated, and its trade to the large towns named almost entirely abstracted ; yet, with all this, the Midland receipts continued to increase largely, chiefly in consequence of its local growth and the derelopment of its mineral traffic. This is one only of the many illustrations that mis- lished a charge as the salaries of officers or the cost of fuel. If there is to be a Renewal Fund, the true principle would seem to be, to set aside a con- siderable sum in the earlier years of a railway, until the period when the average is reached, after which time the repairs should be a regular charge upon receipts. The argument by which a Renewal Fund is supported, is the assumed desirability of equalizing dividends ; but it has been already stated, that there has never been a case whei'c the gross annual receipts of a railway have diminished. The growth of a railway is, and must be, progressive, save under very exceptional circumstances. Not only does the very exist- ence of a railway furnish excitement for trade and create tasle for travel, but oui population increases at the rate of 15 per cent, in every decade, which of itself affords assurance that, apart from transitory causes of dis- turbance, the trafiBc of railways must increase. The ground for a Renewal RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 489 Fund is removed by these considerations ; and if Railway Companies would only honestly and fairly keep their roads in sound and substantial condi- tion, the better system, probably, would be to make the annual costs of repairs a charge on revenue, and to entirely dispense with such a Renewal Fund. Let it be observed, that the arguments which apply to the permanent way, apply equally to the rolling stock of railways. Accountants and Committees of Investigation have been in the habit of calling for annual valuations of rolling stock, as if such valuations threw any light upon the real state of the aflairs of a Company. The truth would seem to be, that a valuation of rolling stock is a fallacy. Suppose a Railway Company com- mences with one hundred engines, costing £2,500 a piece, its locomotive stock will be of the value of £250,000. At starting, these one hundred engines are, of course, in complete order ; but from the day they begin running, deterioration commences. At the end of four or five years, prob- ably twenty or twenty-five of them are always in the workshop. If the traffic of a line requires one hundred engines to do its work, it is obvious that the Company must at that time provide twenty or twenty-five new en- gines, to supply the place of those which are undergoing repairs. But having done this, they are only just in the same position as they were in at start- ing ; that is to say, they have one hundred effective engines at work. Let them continue to keep this number of engines in good working order, as a current expenditure for a like amount of traffic, and it is clear that the ma- chinery of the railway requires nothing more. As for a money valuation, such a proceeding must obviously be unproductive of beneficial results. Not only do engines depreciate, like everything else, but their price varies ■with the supply and the demand, with invention and its application, and from many other causes. "Within the last ten years, the market value of engines has fluctuated about twenty-five per cent.; so that a railway which had engines valued at £100,000 in January, 1850, might have found those same engines valued at £75,000 in January, 1851, even although they had not worked an hour. Or, to put the case the other way : a stock valued at £75,000 in 1851, might have been revalued at £100,000 in 1852. In either case, it is obvious that, for any practical purjiose, the valuation must be fallacious, and that to allow it to affect the dividends, with M-hich it has no concern, must be >vrong in principle. The truth would appear to be, that the only useful valuation is that of the condition of the engines for working purposes, in order to show the extent to which they may have deteriorated by working within a given length of time. But it may be urged, that this argument presupposes the same class of 490 RAILWAY SYSTEM AIS^D ITS RESULTS. engines and the same weight of rails to be continued forever on a railway ; whereas, owing to the demands of increasing traffic, and for high rates of speed, heavy rails are obliged to be substituted for light, and engines of greater for those of less power. The real question then is, what portion of the cost of such improvements should be charged to capital ? In respect to these improvements many fallacies have undoubtedly crept into railway accounts. The only sound and rational princijDle seems to be, not to charge the whole sum to capital, but simply the difference. If, for example, a rail weighing 100 lbs. per yard be substituted for one weighing 70 lbs., the fair proportion to charge the capital would be, not the entire cost of the 100 lbs. of iron, but the cost of the 30 lbs. additional weight. The same with the engines. If an engine of improved construction be purchased to replace a less effective one, or for the purposes of increased trafBc, capital should bear the proportion of cost which is due to its future efiSciency, or to the accom- modation of increased traffic, and that proportion only. It may bo further urged, that there are extraordinary circumstances under which the average repairs of permanent way and works will be disturbed ; and, no doubt, in- evitable fluctuations must occui* over which the greatest experience and foresight cannot exercise control. But here, again, the question arises, is a Renewal Fund, in the form it is now made to assume, necessary to meet such cases ? Surely, perfect secui'ity might be attained with respect to such causes of disturbance, by setting aside an Equalizing or Differential Fund, of small amount, whence the casual excess of expenditure required might be drawn. Whatever system may be devised, by the most skillful account- ant, to place this question upon an unexceptional basis, it must be borne in mind, that the feelings of shareholders and the opinions of directors will %lways practically control the effect of any such suggestions. Influenced, ♦herefore, by the recollection of what has so repeatedly occurred in board 'ooms and at meetings of shareholders, I have amved at the conviction that the only sound policy will be to adhere rigidly to the suggestions here made respecting Renewal Funds. But whatever may be determined on this point, gndoubtedly, the only method of keeping railway accounts on a proper oasis, must be to make them show whether the annual revenue is made to bear its fair charge of upholding the permanent way and rolling stock in complete efficiency ; and it would appear that this would be most effectually accomplished when Renewal Funds were almost entirely dispensed with, and the charges for repairs and improvements were treated as standing charges against revenue. It may be thought that, with respect to fares, the interests of Railway Com- panies and of the public are antagonistic. Regarding the question, how- RAILWAr SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 491 ever, with a more enlarged view, it will be readily seen that, so far from those interests being opposed, they are iu all respects identical. Fares should be regulated by dh-ectorates exclusively by a consideration of the circumstances which produce the largest revenue to the Companies ; and the circumstances which produce the largest revenue, are those which most induce travelers to avail themselves of railway facilities. As regards the public, it may be easily shown, that nothing is so desirable, for theli' inter- ests, as to take advantage of all the opportunities afforded by railways. As regards railways, it is certain, that nothing is so profitable, because nothing is so cheaply transported, as passenger traffic. Goods traffic, of whatsoever description, must be more or less costly. Every article con- veyed by railway requires handling and conveyance beyond the limit of the railway station ; but passengers take care of themselves, and find their own way, at then' own cost, from the terminus at which they are set down. It is true, that passengers requu'e carriages somewhat more expensive in their construction than those prepared for goods ; but this expense is com-, pensatcd for by the cu'cumstance that they are capable of running, and do run, a much greater number of miles — that the weight of passengers is small in proportion to the weight of goods — and that consequently the cost for locomotive power is less. It has been shown that 111,000,000 passen- gers, weighing 8,000,000 tons, have been conveyed, during the past year, over an average distance of twelve miles ; yielding a revenue of more than £9,000,000 sterling. This gives, at the least, 2s. per ton per mile for the weight of passengers conveyed. Coals are conveyed, in some instances, at one halfpenny per ton per mile. It is to be recollected thai trains are usu- ally capable of transporting at least two or three times the number of pas- sengers ordinarily traveling by them, and that the weight of the passengers, in all cases, is in extremely small proportion to the gross weight of a train, as, on an average, there will be fourteen passengers to every ton, and each train will readily convey two hundred passengers. The cost of run- ning a train may be assumed, in most cases, to be about 15c?. per mile , therefore one hundred passengers, at five-eighths of a penny per mile pei passenger, would give 5s. 2Ac7. per train per mile, which may be taken as about the average of train earnings throughout the year. It is obvious, therefore, that any thing beyond five-eighths of a penny per mile per pas- ^^enger may be rendered profitable, even if the passenger train is only half filled. Hence all directorates should look to the maximum amount of gross revenue to be derived from large passenger traffic, which maximum amount is only to be obtained by affording enlarged public facilities and temptations 492 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. to travcL It results, then, that the interests of the public and of the Com- panies are identical, and not antagonistic. It is not necessary to this argument to conclude, that in all eases fai«8 should be fixed at a minimum rate. On the contrary, they fr^jould be regu- lated by local circumstances and considerations of public convenience and facility. In London and other parts of the kingdom where the population is dense, and where millions desire conveyance over short distances, say of from two to ten miles, low fares are indispensable, and wherever they have been tried, have proved thoroughly successful. As the average rail- way fare throughout the kingdom does not exceed Is. 6(7. per passenger, or the cost of conveyance in a first-class carriage from London to Wimbledon, a distance of seven miles and a half. It will be seen how preponderating a proportion of railway receipts arises entirely from local traffic ; that local traffic can be most completely developed, wherever there are centers of pub- lic attraction and interest ; and that whether to a crystal palace, or to a country fair, or market, a low fare for a short distance, on the return-ticket principle, or otherwise, is sure to pay. It is the lowness of price, in these cases, which is the real temptation to the population, and the fare should be regulated by that consideration. But there are other cases in which the lowness of price will not be the consideration. In a journey, for instance, from London to Edinburgh, or to Aberdeen, the amount of time consumed is necessarily so large, that, however low the fare, the great bulk of the public could not abandon other avocations for a sufficient interval to under- take the iourney. No mere inducement of low fare, therefore, would be likely greatly to increase the traffic on so long a route. The public who have to perform so long a journey, want, in such cases, high rates of speed, together with those increased comforts and conveniences which are the more needed by travelers in proportion to the length of their journey. Provided these are afforded, liberal fares may be demanded from the public for these longer routes. And from this argument it may be deduced, that an invari- able policy of either high or low fares is equally vicious, if applied to all cases ; that every case ought to be treated upon consideration of its local circumstances ; and that a system which, under one condition of things would be fatal, may, under another state of circumstances, be developed with success. The facilities afforded by railways to the post-office are, no doubt, of the highest public consequence. The speed which is attained in the transmission would appear at first to be the greatest item in the catalogue of those facil- ities ; but it may be doubted if it is the most important. WTiat is really of the greatest value to the post-office, is the facility afibrded for conveying RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 493 bulk. It is not too much to say that, without railway facilities, the excel- lent plans of Mr. Rowland Hill, for the reduction of the rates of postage, could not have been carried out to their full extent. The first essential to the success of those plans would have been wanting ; for there would have been no sufficient means of conveying the greatly increased mass of corres- pondence necessary to be carried, in order to render the reduced rates of postage profitable. The old mail coaches were never planned for bulk, which would, indeed, have been fatal to that regularity and speed upon which the post-office could alone rely, as the means of securing to the gov- ernment the monopoly of the letter-carriage of the nation. The aggregate weight of the evening mails dispatched from London in 1838, in twenty- eight mail-coaches, amounted, as was shown by the Report of the Select Committee on Postage, to only four tons six cwt., or an average of about thi"ee and one-fourth cwt. per coach. But now, on a Friday night, when so many thousands of weekly papers are sent into the country, the post-office requires, on the London and Northwestern Railway, not only the use of the traveling post-office, which is provided for its convenience, but it occupies also six or eight additional vans. It is obvious, therefore, that if the exist- ing system of the post-office had been in operation, with the present results, in the days of mail-coach communication, not one mail alone, but fourteen or fifteen mails, such as were used in those days, would have been needed to carry on, with regularity, the post-office traffic between (say) London and Birmingham. Nearly every coach that ran in 1830, between Birmingham and London, would now have been needed for post-office purposes, if the London and Northwestern Railway had not been brought into existence. The expenses would, consequently, have been so large, that a universal penny postage would have entailed a certain loss. For the great blessing, therefore, derived from -cheap postal communication, the nation is, in a great degree, indebted to the facilities offered by railways. It must be borne in mind, here, that the boon conferred upon the public is not limited to written correspondence. Viewed in reference to the postal facilities they afford, the railways are the great public instructors and edu- cators of the day. Contrast the size of "The Times" in 1830 and 185C. Do you suppose that the huge mass of paper, which you are permitted to forward by to-night's post, would have been conveyed upon the same terms, if the means of conveyance had remained limited to the mail and its four horses ? Look at the immense mass of Parliamentary reports and docu- ments, now distributed every session amongst all the constituencies of the empire, at almost a nominal charge. To what do the public owe the valua- ble information embodied in those documents, but to railways? Kxcept aa 494 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. parcels by wagons, or by canal boats, they never could have been conveyed, prior to the existence of the railway system ; and if they never could have been distributed, we may rely upon it that they never would have been printed. The reasoning which applies to " The Times " and to State papers, applies to newspapers generally, and to the distribution of the Prices Cur- rent of merchants, and of magazines, monthly publications, and bulky par- cels of every description. Without railway facilities they would probably never have been circulated at all — certainly they never could have been circulated to the extent necessary to make them profitable. Hence, the railway, as before observed, is the great engine for the diffusion of knowl- edge. Bearing these things in mind, it is obviously the duty of the government and of the Legislature to deal with railways upon an enlarged and liberal basis, in respect to all matters relating to postal communication. It is, no doubt, of the highest importance to the public, that the advantages railways are capable of affording to the post-ofiBce should be secured. Looking to the public interest, it is diflBcult, if not altogether impossible, to contend against any act of Parliament that peremptorily insists upon postal facili- ties being afforded, to the full extent they may be required for the public interest. At the same time whilst we may admit that railways have a duty to i^erform to the nation, in facilitating postal communication, it is clear that the peculiar and extraordinary advantages they afford in that respect, entitle them to a large share of consideration and to very liberal compensa- tion for the work which they perform. It does not, however, altogether appear that the Companies have, hitherto, always been met by the post- oflSce in the way in which they conceive themselves entitled to be treated. No fault, on this account, attaches to the post-ofBce officials, who execute their arduous and important labors with very commendable zeal and with all possible courtesy ; but the system of the government has been to require heavy service, and to allow the Companies little or no profit for its perform- ance. A rent is paid, amounting to a fair rate of interest upon cost, for the carriages and vans which are employed upon a line ; with, in addition, the exact amount of haulage and other special current expenses, which can be proved to be entailed by the conveyance of the mails ; but should it chance, that upon any line the ordinary trains do not suit post-office purpo- ses, the Companies may be compelled to put on trains at suitable hours for the mails, for which, ordinarily, very little remuneration is allowed, beyond the absolute outlay which the runrung of such trains can be proved to have entailed. The effect of this must naturally be to make Railway Companies indlf- RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 495 ferent to postal traffic. It is needless to point out bow seriously tliis must be to the public disadvantage. If Railway Companies had an interest in developing postal as well as passenger communication, what facilities might not be afforded to the people ! It is beginning to be found, from the gi-eat bulk of correspondence requiring delivery, especially in London, that un- certainty, irregularity and delay, are" becoming more and more frequent at the post-office. If Railway Companies were interested in postal intercourse, nothing would be easier for them than to make arrangements, whereby the deliveries, being rendered much more frequent, might entail much less duty at one given hour. Increased rapidity, certainty and regularity, would be thereby obtained ; advantages which, with the means now at the dispo- sal of the post-office, and with its vastly and rapidly increasing business, there seems but little prospect of the government alone being able to secm-e. The post-office has recently absolutely entered into competition with the Railway Companies. As carriers, the Companies derived considerable profit from parcels. The post-office, finding that railways afibrd the means of carrying any quantity of bulk, has seen fit to undertake the conveyance of books and other parcels at very reduced postal rates. If the post-office should extend its operations a little further, it must be brought into abso- lute antagonism with the Companies. Books are heavier articles than laces or muslins, or many other fabrics, the conveyance of which enter largely into railway receipts. The post-office having made book parcels profitable, may try to turn to account the conveyance of other, whether lighter or heavier, articles of trade. It might be thought advisable to carry a small valuable parcel to Aberdeen for 2c?., a rate at which railway Companies, having to pay interest on capital, certainly cannot hope to compete with a department which insists on the right of traveling on their roads at the mere actual cost. You will not, therefore, tail to see, that the post-office an-angements may be carried to a point at which gi-eat injustice would be done to Railway Companies. Little more than a quarter of a century has elapsed, since Parliament first began to legislate for railways. In that period a multitude of laws have been placed upon the statute-book, which will certainly excite the won- der, if they fail to be the admiration, of future generations. The London and Northwestern Railway alone is regulated, as is shown by a return of Mr. Hadfield's, by no less than one hundred and eighty-six different acts ! Of these the greater part were passed in the present reign. But it is not so much the number of the statutes regarding railways, that excites surprise. The extraordinary feature of the parliamentary legisla- 496 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. tioa and practice consists id tlie anomalies, incongruities, irreconcilabilities, and absurdities, which pervade this mass of legislation. A commission waa appointed a few years since for the consolidation of the statute law. If ever that commission should have to deal with railway law it will indeed find itself in a dilemma. It will find, that the legislation for railways, both in principle and in detail, is uttei'ly iiTeconcilable ; and that the only way of escaping the diflficulties of the position would be to sweep the whole from the statute-book and legislate afresh. Not only is the legislation iiTeconcilable, but throughout the quarter of a century during which attention has been given to this branch of legislation, the acts of the Parliament have been wholly at variance with its own prin- ciples. To illustrate this : Several different select committees have, at various times, deliberately reported against the possibility of maintaining competition between railways, and to this principle Parliament has as often assented. Y'et the practical operation of the laws, which have received legislative sanction, has been throughout and at the same time directly to negative this principle, by almost invariably allowing competition to be ob- tained, wherever it has been sought ! Parliament, therefore, has been adding to the capital of Railway Companies, whilst it has been sanctioning measures to subdivide the traffic. The decline of dividends was an inevit- able consequence. Again, in 1836, the House of Commons required its Committees upon Railway Bills specially to report as to the probability of railways paying. This principle has, however, been gradually departed from, until such in- quuy is now considered and treated as utterly unimportant. Legislative sanction having been given to a line, it might be supposed that Parliament would also grant adequate protection, exacting from the railway certain public facilities and advantages, in return for the rights afforded to it. But, instead of doing this, the practice has been precisely the reverse. Whilsi (be legislature and the government have exacted facilities and advantages even beyond what they had a fair right to demand, so far from protecting the interests of those to whom they conceded the right of making the line, they have allowed — nay, they have encouraged — every description of com- petition ! "What has been the result ? As regards the completeness and perfectness of the line first made, obviously it must have been most injuri- ous ; as regards the profits of shareholders, no doubt, it has been, in many cases, most disastrous. But how does the case stand as regards the public ? Why, whatever may have been the effect for the time, the competition, which Parliament has permitted, has invariably been terminated by combi nation — so that the public have been left precisely where they were. RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 497 Bat the incongruities are by no means the worst feature of the parlia- mentary legislation now under consideration. Mr. Iladfield's return has been spoken of. That return, in itself exceedingly incomplete, and afford- ing no information of any sort respecting forty-five Railway Companies, for which acts have been obtained, shows that the amount expended by existing Railway Companies, in obtaining the Acts of Parliament by which they are empowered, has been no less, in parliamentary, legal, and engineering costs, than Fourteen Millions sterling! No sooner was that fact placed on record, than a universal outcry burst from the alarmists. '•See,'"' it was said, " how shareholders have been plundered; see how their money has been squandered ; look at this vast amount of waste, and consider how much better it would have been in your own pockets!" But, in no one case did those who made these bitter comments attribute the monstrous result to the proper cause. Railway directors and officials have been held responsible for what has been the fault, solely and exclu- sively, of Parliament itself. What interest can directors and officers have in Group Committees, wherein counsel must be feed for attendance during, perhaps, ten or twenty days, when they are never heard nor wanted? What interest can directors or officers have in keeping crowds of witnesses in London, at great expense, awaiting the pleasure of a Committee, which is engaged upon another measure, and which can rarely foresee or indi- cate when those witnesses will be required ? The ingenuity of man could scarcely devise a system more costly, than that of getting a Railway Bill through the legislature. But who devised that system? Parliament itself. Who have begged, and prayed, and implored for alteration unavailingly ? Directors and officers of Companies. An illustration may show more graphically how Parliament has entailed expense upon Railway Compa- nies, by the system it has set up. Here is a striking one. The Ti'eut Valley Railway was, under other titles, originally proposed in the year 1836. It Mas, however, thrown out by the Standing Orders Committee, in consequence of a barn, of the value of about £10, which was shown upon the general plan, not having been exhibited upon an enlarged sheet. In 1840 the line again went before Parliament. It was proposed by the Grand Junction Railway (now part of the Northwestern). No less than four hundred and fifty allegations were made against it before the Stand- ing Orders sub-Committee. That sub-Committee was engaged twenty-two days in considering those objections ; they ultimately reported that four or five of the allegations were proved ; but the Standing Orders Commit- tee, nevertheless, allowed the bill to be proceeded with. Upon the second reading it was supported by Sir Robert Peel, and had a large majority in 32 498 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. its favor. It thea went into Committee. The Committee took sixty-three days to consider it, and ultimately Parliament was prorogued, before the Report could be made. Such were the delays and consequent expenses which the forms of the House occasioned in this case, that it may be doubted if the ultimate cost of constructing the whole line was very mu^h more than the amount expended in obtaining permission from Parliament to make it. This example will show the delays and difficulties with which Parlia- ment surrounds railway legislation. Another instance will illustrate the tendency of its proceedings to encourage competition. In 1815 a bill for a line now existing went before Parliament with no less than eighteen competitors, each party relying on the wisdom of Parliament to allow their bill at least to pass a second reading ! Judged by such a case, the policy of Parliament really would seem to be to put the public to expense, and to make costs for lawyers, and fees for ofiBcers. Is it possible to conceive any thing more monstrous, than to condemn nineteen different parties to one scene of contentious litigation? Bear in mind that every additional bill received by Parliament entailed additional expense, not only on the promoters of that one bill, but on all the other eighteen com- petitors. They each and all had to bear the costs, not of parliamentary proceedings upon one bill, but of the parliamentary proceedings upon nineteen bills. They had to pay not only the costs of promoting their own line, but also the costs of oj^posing eighteen other lines ! And yet, conscious as Government must have been of this fact. Parliament deliber- ately abandoned the only step it ever took, on any occasion, of subjecting railway projects to Investigation by a preliminary tribunal. Railways have suffered by parliamentary legislation from other causes. Daring every one of the twenty-five years that Parliament has legislated on the subject, it has always had a crotchet. One of these will be remem- bered by every civil engineer under the name of the " Datum point,"' which, for many years, offered a fatal objoction to scores of projects. Perhaps some of the best proposals ever made for the bcnelit of the public fell through, because Parliament insisted on Its '• Datum point." Y'et there is not an engineer in the kingdom who does not laugh at the idea. The " Datum point" is the crotchet of some theoretical red-tapist. Every practical man knows that it is not of the ."slightest real value In checking levels, or for any other practical purpose. The consequence of these crotchets is, tliat the Standing Orders are loaded with a number of useless forms which are not now rigidly enforced : aud recording, as they do, the RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 499 exploded crotchets of the House of Commons, they are become almost a nullity, except in so far as they occasionally involve expense or trouble. But having passed a bill, how does Parliament treat the railway on which it has conferred powers? In the first place, it affords extraordinary facilities to land owners to make extraordinary demands for compensation. Having given them these facilities, it then makes the legal steps by which such demands can be resisted so expensive, that, in a money point of view, it is frequently difficult to decide whether, if all the desired reduction can be made, the cost of obtaining the saving will not exceed the whole amount that can be saved. This is so well understood, that acute survey- ors and solicitors, after making fair estimates of value, always add an amount to their estimate, for charges which may be entailed by resisting claims. Of the £286,000,000 of railway capital expended, it is believed that nearly one-fourth has been paid solely for land and conveyancing ; and yet it is well known that, except in regard to the houses which have been actually demolished, nearly every piece of property which is intersected, undergoes improvement in value, in consequence of the construction of the lines. In towns and villages, the land abutting on the railway becomes frontage ; and even in the country, land near stations becomes available for building purposes. The millions which have been paid by Railway Companies to land owners for their property, may therefore be said to be so much absolutely put into their pockets. Considering, in addition to this profit upon the land taken, the increased value of the land left, it is clear that the gain to the land owners by railways must, in the aggregate, have been enormous. Now here again the one-sided character of parliamentary legislation is exhibited. Parliament has never, on any occasion, permitted improvement to be considered as an element in favor of a railway ; but it has always been ready to tax the Railway Company, on account of possible deprecia- tion. The extent to which claims on account of depreciation have been carried, is well known. Great was the ingenuity of the agent who discov- ered the use of the word "severance." To Railway Companies constant repetition has made that term but too familiar. In every case in which the line passes through an estate, a claim is set up for compensation, on account of " severance ;" which means simply, that the property having previously been in what is called a ring-fence, it becomes, by the passage of a railway through it, less convenient for purposes of cultivation. Let it be observed, that the depreciation upon which this claim is based, is ordinarily imaginary and ideal. It is utterly untrue, that an estate is necessarily rendered less 500 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. convenient for cultivation, by the passage through it of a railway ; indeed, in the majority of cases, it is capable of proof that the result is the reverse. The Railway Companies are therefore mulcted for an idea. No agent has yet been able to reduce to figures the practical value of this alleged incon- venience. Care is always taken that a railway shall supply facilities of communication ; and when bridges and crossings are constructed, severance ceases in reality to exist. No one has ever been able to show, arithmetic- ally, that, by the mere passage of a railway through an estate, loss is sus- tained ; yet the practical result of the legislation of Parliament is this, that whereas a railway takes land from a laud owner of the value of some £500 or £600, a claim for severance is often made and allowed to the extent of nearly as many thousands. Agents of the highest respectability make the claim, on the ground that it is customary, admitting that there is no substan- tial reason whatever for it. In one recent case, a claim for compensation for severance was made by the owner of some marsh laud in Essex, whose whole estate was taken by a Company, but who claimed for " severance," on the ground that the loss of his marsh land on the Thames was injurious to an arable farm which he possessed many miles distant ! This illustration will show the extent to which this doctrine is carried, and how this system of spoliation, permitted by Parliament, has become legalized by custom. It may be asked. What is the proper remedy for the state of things which has been thus described ? The remedy which has suggested itself to some practical minds, is one which, it is to be feared, the government of our day is unlikely to grant. K, instead of leaving the decision of these subjects to inexperienced tribunals, a mixed commission could be organized, of prac- tical men, of acknowledged legal, commercial, and mechanical ability, there might be hope for us. What we want is a tribunal upon these subjects competent to judge, and willing to devote its attention to railway subjects only. We do not impute to Parliament that it is dishonest ; but we impute that it is incompetent. Neither its practical experience, nor its time, nor its system of procedure, are adapted for railway legislation. Both Houses, indeed, admit their incompetency, by referring the consideration of every question to Select Committees. But go into a Select Committee, and observe how it is composed. Observe the list of subjects committed to it for investigation— including, as it does, not only railway bills, but gas bills, water bills, canal bills, navigation bills, drainage bills, and burial bills It is most unnatural to suppose that such tribunals can be satisfactory to those who have embarked hundreds of millions of money in the greatest enterprises of the age. What we ask is knowledge. '■ Give us," we say, " a tribunal competent RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 501 to form a sound opinion. Commit to that tribunal, with any rcBtrictions you think necessary, the whole of the great questions appertaining to our system. Let it protect private interests apart from railways ; let it judge of the desirability of all initiatory measures, of all proposals for pm-chases, amalgamations, or other railway arrangements : delegate to it the power of enforcing such regulations and restrictions as may be thought needful to secure the rights of private persons, or of the public ; devolve on it the duty of consolidating, if possible, the Railway Laws, and of making such amendments therein as the public interests, and the property now depend- ing upon the system, may require ; give it full delegated authority over us in an}^ way you please ; all wo ask is, that it shall be a tribunal that is impartial, and that is thoroughly informed ; and if impartiality and intel- ligence are secured, we do not fear for the result." It is to be apprehended that there is no probability of a government of routine, such as wo have in England, conceding this, or any other departure from their system, however badly that system may be found to work. If a concession were made in any form, it is to be still further apprehended, that neither in the selection of the persons presumed to be competent for the fulfillment of such functions, nor in the remuneration the government would consent to award to them, would there be adequate security for the proper fulfillment of the high duties which they would have to perform. But it is not too much to insist that, in some shape or other, a new tribunal of this sort must be created, if the railway system of England is to work with advantage to those who have undertaken its development, without risk to the public, and without prospect of further legislative interference to its disadvantage. From the very circumstances of the position in which they are placed by Parliament, Railway Managements are, and must be, anomalous in their character. Parliament has legislated for railways simply as public high- ways, to be passed over by the whole world, upon payment of a certain toll. It has placed managements, therefore, in the position of mere toll- takers ; and mere toll-takers they would be, if the practical and actual necessities of their system did not compel them to become traders and car- riers — to distribute goods, and to possess wagons, horses, and warehouses, for the purpose of carrying on their traffic. Every energetic railway direction, controlled by men of business, em- barks in enteqiriscs which are, apparently, wholly foreign to the parlia- mentary objects of the railway itself But then, unfortunately for all parties, this very necessity of doing an act, in itself irreconcilable with th» intention of Parliament, produces serious dilemmas. So long as dividends 502 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. are kept up, a directorate, however illegal may be its acts, or however inefficient its management, is certain to enjoy, with its shareholders, the highest meed of popularity ; but only let the dividends fall, and however wise, however energetic, however prudent may have been the direction, it is immediately found that it has exceeded the limits of the duty devolved upon it by the Acts of Parliament ; that it has embarked the Company in rash and unwise speculations ; and that its members, collectively and in- dividually, deserve to be impeached. Even one-half per cent, has been known to make all the difference in the popularity of the management. Let that popularity fall, and Committees of Investigation are forthwith appointed, charges are raked up and bandied about, affecting the character of the individuals who have got into disfavor, no matter how high those individuals may be in station, how honorable they may be known to be in principle, or how much soever their direction may have been hitherto advantageous to the Company. And, as it is with shareholders, so it is with the public. Local circumstances necessitate some alteration in the times of a train, or the rates of fares. The convenience, or the caprice, or the pocket of some contentious individual is thereby interfered with. Rejoicing that he has a grievance — in the phraseology of the day ^ he " writes to the Times."' The press, necessarily ill-informed as to the actual facts, receives, as correct, the ex parte statement. Leading articles depict, in powerful language, the errors and abuses of management. Columns are filled with letters from all who have a petty grievance to complain of, or a private pique to gi'atify ; and Companies are instructed as to all the minutiae of management, by those who, except as travelers, are probably wholly uninformed as to railway affairs. The consequence of all this is, great injustice, and frequently great injury, to the Railway Companies ; for no directorate feels itself safe, at least as to character, that does not restrict itself within the closest interpretation of the law, and that does not make concessions to the, presumed, public demands ; but, in so doing, the certain result is, that the interests of the Company are lost sight of. The period has arrived when these things, pressing heavily upon the mos4, enlightened and enterprising railway managers, have caused serious reflections as to the way in which such difficulties are to be avoided. Many right-minded shareholders, also, feeling the force of the errors which are too often committed to their detriment, have attentively considered in what way the present system of management may be altered, so as to avoid these evils. Various suggestions have been made, some of which, undoubtedly, seem only calculated to increase the difficulty ; whilst others in no degree alleviate it. Looking at the question in a broad point of RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 503 view, the consideration occurs, whether it might not be possible, by some operation analogous to that of a trading company under the Limited Lia- bility Act, to give an entirely new and greatly improved character to the relations between shareholders and managers. Suppose a limited number of men of business, varying, say, from ten to twenty, and capable of giving good security, agreed together to take a line from the shareholders, at a fixed rental. They might depute their management to two or three of their own body ; or, even if the line was short, to one ge'rant. Under such circumstances, there would be no clamor from shareholders at half-yearly meetings — no sudden changes of directorates, involving ruinous alterations of policy— no cabals between one set of directors against another — and no mischievous interferences witli the development of the system. The managers, free from the apprehension of being saddled, personally, with all the responsibility and liability, would be able to embark in enterprises, not comprehended in the terms of the Act of Parliament, but essential to the prosperity of their line. They might undertake business which, under the existing systems, the most enterprising directors would not dare to (*bntemplate, however lucrative it might be. The managers of the line would have something more to look to than their position as directors. They would be free from apprehensions as to the liabilities they incurred ; and whilst they would not be turned from their course of policy by the outcry of any discontented individual able to make his voice heard through any public channel, they would give practical security tliat the public in- terests would be consulted, because the interests of the public and those of the managers would be, in every respect, identical. No doubt any system of this sort must be subject to restrictions, both for the interest of the public and the secm'ity of shareholders. Those restric- tions are, however, matters of detail which it is needless at present to dis- cuss. Presuming that leases were taken on good terms, and regarding the saving usually accruing from individual as compai'ed with general manage- ment, it seems probable that an arrangement of this sort would be valua- ble alike to owners and to lessees, a large profit would accrue to those who took the line on safe and well considered terms, and who managed it with enterprise, vigor and economy. On the other hand, the shareholders would derive great advantages from the certainty of receiving fixed dividend.s, and from the present and prospective enhancement of the value of their property. Upon other points of management, it is only needful here to say, that no railway can be efiBciently or well conducted without thorough unity amongst the heads of all the great departments. Upon the superintendents of ways 504 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. and workf, of the locomotive department, of the out-door arrangements, and of traffic, devolve the most onerous and responsible duties. Where they fail to act together, or when any one of them ceases to enjoy the full confidence of the board, everything must go wrong. Having selected men of the best class, confiding in their integrity and assured of their compe- tency, one of the principal duties of a railvv ay direction is to support its officers. Any directoral interference with details must weaken their effi- ciency, upon which must mainly depend the ultimate success of the Com- pany they serve. No paper on railway subjects could be regarded as complete which did not offer some observations on the Electric Telegraph. The telegraph was, doubtless, an offspring of railways, and continues to be their indispensable companion. The first really practical application of the telegraph was to enable the stationary engine system on the Blackwall Railway to be worked with certainty and disj^atch ; but at this moment there are few lines of rail- way which do not employ the telegraph for every possible purpose. The total length of telegraph laid down in Great Britain is now about 7,200 miles ; and the average number of wires being five, there is a total of 36,000 miles of wire, weighing 7,200 tons, and having cost upwards of £200,000. No less than three thousand people are constantly emi)loyed in transmitting messages and maintaining the works ; and upwards of a mil- lion of public messages flow annually along this " silent highway." Great as is the value of the electric telegraph to the public, there can be no doubt that it is far greater to the Railway Companies. On the Eastern Counties Line, three years ago, the number of messages transmitted on the special business of the Company was no less than 120,000 in one year. On that portion of the Northwestern Line where the traffic is largely concen- trated, the progress of every train is now regulated, throughout its whole journey, by the operation of the telegraph. The system there employed may be thus described : The line is divided into convenient lengths of (say) from three to five miles. At each station there is a telegraph instrument in connection with a semaphore, which gives two signals only. If the needle of the instrument inclines to the right, it means that the line is clear ; if it inclines to the left, it indicates that the line is blocked. Should it be observed that the needle rests upon the card vertically, this, though not a signal in the ordinary sense, is the most important indication of all, for it shows that the wire has been brokci\, either by some accident, which may possibly affect the line itself, or by some engine-driver or guard. Whose train has met with a serious casualty, and whose first duty, in such au event, is to cut the wire. RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 505 Now, the great value of this system is, that whenever the needle rests vertically, or inclines to the left, the officers at the stations are immediately informed that something is wrong upon the line, and that no train must be allowed to pass, until the line is cleared. A collision, with such precau- tions, is all but physically impossible. And so far ftom this arrangement operating to delay the progress of a train, as might be supposed, experience 2)roves that the traffic of a railway is immensely facilitated by it. The automatic working of the telegraph shows the officers at every sta- tion, that for a considerable number of miles in advance of the station, whether up or down, the line of way is clear. This knowledge, imparted instantaneously, and comprehended by a glance, enables the officers to aug- ment very materially the traffic over the portion of the line to which their duty may apply. The telegraph, in fact, does the work of an additional line of rails to every Company that uses it, and does it at a cost perfectly infinitesimal in comparison with the cost of constructing another line. At one period of its history, the Northwestern Railway appeared to be so overcrowded with traffic, that additional lines for its relief were believed to be indispensable ; but at the very moment when the demands upon the system were beginning to outgi'ow the machinery for safety, this remarka- ble invention came to its relief, and the capacity of the line for traffic has consequently been immensely increased. The very first use made of the telegraph was to enable the Company to meet the difficulty of a strike among the artisans. During the Great Exhibition of ISol, when 750,000 passengers were conveyed to London by the Northwestern excursion trains alone, the whole of the extraordinary traffic of the line was conducted by means of the electric telegraph. At the present moment, the ordinaiy traffic is double what it was when the telegraph was invented, and there is a greater capacity for increase than at any period since the line was opened. Moreover, it must be observed that, great as is this saving to a Railway Company, it is not the only economy effected by the use of the electric telegi-aph. On every line where it is thoroughly employed, it effects a very material saving in the expensive element of rolling stock. The officers of a Company are enabled, the first thing every morning, to consider the wants and requirements of the day. They find that on one portion of their line there is likely to be extra traffic, whilst at some other station, during the previous day or night, there has been an accumulation of passenger carria- ges or vans. By the use of the electric telegraph, nothing is so easy as to supply the wants of one station from the surplus stock at the other, whilst the probabilities are, that without the facility afforded by the telegraph 506 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. the stock at one place ■nould have been lying idle, although it was urgently needed at another. Probably most lines would require fully twenty per cent, more carriage stock than they now possess, if it were not i'or the telegraph. Whilst the value of the electric telegraph is very little understood, the means of working it are, probably, still less properly comprehended. It is generally supposed, that by some action of a handle at one station, the electric current is sent through a wire to another. But the fact is, that the success which the telegraph has obtained has been owing to the adop- tion of an opposite principle. Signals are now made, not by sending a cur- rent through a wire, but by the interception of the current which is contin- uously maintained ; and this application is especially valuable, not only on account of the increased facility, but also on account of the increased secu- rity afforded. To signal, without a current through the M'ire, requires a machine in the hands of a skilled pci'son ; but to signal with a constant current through the wire, only requires that the wire should be broken, which can be accomplished on any spot by the most uninformed. The most unskillful, therefore, in case of accident, are fully able to use the electric telegraph, so as to give notice of difficulty or danger, and so as to receive immediate aid and assistance from the nearest stations, in both directions. Nor can there be any doubt, in such case, as to the indications of the tele- graph. Alarm, misinterpretation, or other causes, might prevent a message from traveling or lieing read correctly, if it were dependent upon the use of a machine and the skill of both the sender and the interpreter ; but where nothing more is needed than to intercejit the flow of the current, by the rudest method, there can be no doubt either as to the operation or as to its effect. Of com-se this cutting of the wire applies solely to that which is called the " train wire," so that the messages of the public are in no way interrupted. Recent projects gave promise of another, and not an unimportant im- provement in the telegraph. Great, it might be supposed, Mould be Uie confusion, if two opposite currents of electricity met in one wire; but by a new adaptation, it is contemplated, that messages shall pass in opposite directions without the smallest interference with each other. The means employed are simply mechanical. The system would have been some time since in operation in England, but for the difficulty to be overcome from the variableness of the insulation of the wires, occasioned by the humidity af our climate. But already several beautiful modifications have been de- vised, in order to overcome this difficulty, and there is daily hope that the improvement will be perfected. RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 507 So much as regards railways. As regards the public, the electric tele- gi-aphs of England have been rapidly growing in importance, although, comparatively, we are still very backward in taking advantage of the facil- ities they afford. It is only a little more than eight years since the tele- graph was first worked in this country. During the fu'st quarter of 1848, the receipts of the Electric Telegraph Company wore only £1G0 ; in the second quarter they increased to £240 ; in the third to £320 ; in the fourth to £400 ; and the receipts, despite the fact that other companies have grown up, and that the charges are now only one third of the amount originally demanded, have now reached £3,000 per week ! The growth has thus been fifty fold in seven years ; a progress unexampled in commercial annals, except in association with railway intercourse. One of the original grounds of opposition to railways was the dangerous character of the traffic. A writer in one of our most popular reviews thus expressed, some years ago, the common opinion upon the danger of railway traveling : *' It is certainly some consolation to those who are to be whirled at the rate of eighteen or twenty miles an hour, by means of a high-pressure en- gine, to be told that there is no danger of being sea-sick while on shore ; that they are not to be scalded to death, nor drowned,, nor dashed to pieces by the bursting of a boiler ; and that they need not mind being struck by the scattered fragments, or dashed in pieces by the flying off or breaking of a wheel. But, with all these assui'ances, we should as soon expect the people of Woolwich to suffer themselves to be fired off upon one of Con- greve's ricochet rockets as to trust themselves to the mercy of such a ma- chine, going at such a rate." It is curious, occasionally, to contrast prediction and event. The last return of the Government Railway Department shows that the number of passengers killed, in proportion to the number conveyed upon railways in the United Kingdom, was, for the first half year of 1854, one in 7,195,343 ! Can it be assumed — would any life insurance company in the world assume — that to English gentlemen and ladies sitting at home at their ease by their firesides, fatal accidents would only occur, during half a year, in the proportion of one in seven millions ? In the active performance of the duties of life, it is impossible to find a case in which the proportion of fatal accidents is so small. But nevertheless, whenever an accident does occur upon a railway, the public are sure to find it regarded as " Another Fatal Railway Accident," just as if such accidents were constant, instead of being, as the government statistics prove, most rare and extraordinary. In comparison with deaths by railway accidents, how many are the acci- 508 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. dents to persons walking in the streets ! How fearful are the misadven- tures met with by those " who go down to the sea in ships ! "'■ Yet Parlia- ment saw fit to provide, specially, for the smallest class of accidents arising from locomotion, and to afford only scanty redi-ess for the greatest. Such has been the character of legislation for railways. The Merchant Shipping Law Consolidation Act, 1854, (17 and 18 Vict., c. 104,) recognizes in some sort the liability of shipowners in cases of loss of life, or of personal dam- age to passengers. But this act only exemplifies still more strongly the partial character of legislation as against the Railway Companies. For, whilst the damages in the case of accident upon a railway are unlimited, this act expressly limits the amount, which can be recovered under its ope- ration, to £30 per head. Still further, if a crowded emigrant ship should be wrecked, and all the lives on board lost, the liability of the shipowner would be limited to the value of the ship and the amount due or accruing to him on account of freight in the voyage during which the accident occurred, so that, practically, the deodand amounts to nothing more than a first chai'ge upon the insurance effected by the shipowner upon the ship and cargo. A shipowner might thus send his vessel to sea, her condition unsea- worthy, her compasses ill-adjusted, inefBciently commanded, and with a disorderly or incapable crew. The ship might be wrecked the same night, or be ran down, for want of proper vigilance, by some steamer in the chan- nel. In such cases there would be only very partial redress against the shipowner, whatever might be his culpability. But let a railway carriage be thrown off a line in a dark night by a stone, or a log of wood carelessly or willfully plnced upon it— let a fatal accident occur in consequence of some wanton act, not of the Railway Company, but of all that public who ought to guard and protect one another — and the Railway Company, although suffering severe loss of property, without having any pecuniary redress, even on the legal conviction of the perpetrator of the deed, which may have been prompted either by a diabolical desire to wreak a petty ven- geance, or for the gratification of a malicious disposition, is liable to be mulcted in the heaviest penalties, for the accidental loss of life the misfor- tune may occasion. Can it be said that this is equitable legislation, or that it is calculated to protect the public from the class of accidents against which protection is most required ? Lord Campbell's Act not only creates a new and ill-adjusted liability, but it is also an exceedingly unfair act, in its application to different classes of society. The value of life is measured under this act by a class standard. A high public functionary may take a ticket for a journey of six miles at the cost of one shilling. In the same train there may be a RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 509 •\vorking-man, who intends to travel one hundred miles, and who has paid ten shillings. The train meets with an accident, and both are killed. It is shown that, being a rich man, in the enjoyment of high posts, honors, and emoluments, his life was worth £20,000 to his family. The jury give the full amount claimed. But what do the family of the poor man get ? The widow, not being able to establish any pecuniary loss, by reason of the accident which befel her husband, has charitably awarded to her, by the jury, £10, as a matter of feeling ; and the attorney probably applies that amount to the payment of his costs. As regards the railway, therefore, this law is unequal ; and it is still more so as regards the public. The practical effect of this law is to retard the full adoption of low fares on railways. The Railway Companies, driven to become insurers of the lives of the public traveling on their lines, obviously must, in one form or another, have premiums to meet compensation. Hence, proposals to reduce fares to their minimum are constantly met by the consideration that the larger the number of passengers, the greater the liability to accident, and to the pecuniary loss incidental to it. It is, indeed, fortunate for the public that the proportion of accidents is so small. If the proportion was large, fares must no doubt be raised. And let it be observed that the Com- panies, thus driven to insure their passengers, are obliged to do so apart from all proper apportionment of premium to the risk incurred. A man traveling one hundred miles obviously incurs more risk than a man travel- ing six miles ; yet, as we have seen, the family of the latter may get enormous compensation from the Company, whilst that of the former gets nothing. Nothing can be less equitable, or more opposed to every sound commercial principle. If Railway Companies are to be taxed in this way at all, the proper course would be, that each passenger should declare the value of his life, when he takes his ticket, and be charged in proportion to the distance he is traveling. But no consideration can be expected from those who have thought themselves justified in applying special legislation to a case in which that law applies only m the proportion of I to every 7,195,343! Having now directed attention to the principal and more important topics of this great subject, it is desirable, before bringing this address to a clise, to endeavor to lay before you some of the general results of the system. You have heard that there are more than 90,000 men directly employed by the railways of the United Kingdom. Collaterally, in the manufacture of iron, the felling and transport of timber, the production of stores, the erection and improvement of buildings, etc., these lines give employment 510 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. to at least 50,000 more men. Now, 140,000 men represent, with their wives and children, a population of more than half a million of souls. The result therefore is, that no less than 1 in 50, of the total population of these realms, is directly dependent on its railways ! Having regard to this most startling fact, you will not be disposed to think that this is an interest which should be neglected, or be harshly treated by the legislature, or which should be the subject of imperfect and unsatisfactory legislation. The financial results of railways will occasion no less surprise, when they are considered. In the gross, £20,000,000 of revenue are now realized annually by the Railway Companies of the United Kingdom — an amount nearly equal to one half the ordinary revenue of the state. Now, consider how the national wealth is affected by this large amount received from the people by the Railway Companies. Suppose that to-morrow there was a stoppage of all the railways — a cessation of the existing railway means of transporting human beings, merchandise, and animals. In the first place, it is certain that the traffic, represented by £20,000,000, could not be ac- commodated at all. But assume that it could be, it is certain that the accommodation could only be ofl'ered at more than three times the charge now made by the railways. The result then is, that upon the existing traffic of the nation, railways are effecting a direct saving to the people of not less than £40,000,000 per annum ; and that sum exceeds by about 50 per cent, the entire interest of our National Debt. It may be said, there- fore, that the railway system neutralizes to the people the bad eff'ects of the debt with which the state is encumbered. It places us in as good a position as if the debt did not exist. And here the doubt arises as to which would be the most advantageous condition — a nation without a national debt and also without a railway system ; or a nation hampered by a national debt, but having the advantage of cheap internal intercourse by railway. Again, " Time is money." At least 111,000,000 passengers travel every year by our railways an average of 12 miles each. They perform the jour- ney in half an hour. At the average rate of speed of the stage-coach, a journey of 12 miles would have occupied an hour and a half. Here is a direct saving of one hour upon every average journey performed by 111,- 000,000 of persons annually. These 111,000,000 hours saved are equal to 14,000,000 days, or 38,000 years, supposing the working man to labor eight hours a day ; and allowing at the rate of 3s. a day for his labor, the annual saving to the nation, on this low average scale, is not less than £2,000,000 per annum. Regard some of the moral results of the railway system. Observe how it operates in equalizing the value of land. Railways enable the farmer RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 511 in Scotland to send his beasts to Smithfield, and gardeners in the west of England to send their early fruits to Covent Garden. Distant properties, therefore, become as valuable as those ncai'cr to the centers of consumption. Xor is this all. Railways, by facilitating the transit of artiflcial manures, enable the farmers of poor land to compete with those who till superior soils ; thus tending still further to equalize the value of the land, and thereby giving increased employment to, and improving the condition of, all classes of the population. People are too apt to think and talk of railways as mere machines, whereby the speed of conveyance from one point to another is increased. You have seen them to-night in other and more important points of view. Let us look at them in other phases. As stimulating national industry, perhaps the most familiar illustration will be the hard-metal trade. Look at the boiler-plate manufacture — com- paratively insignificant before iron vessels and steam locomotion came into existence, and now one of the most important elements of the trade to which it appertains. Such is the extent of this branch of manufacture, that, extensive as they are, the iron-woi'ks are not even yet able to render the supply equal to the demand. Again, before railways existed, the inland counties of England were unsupplied with fish from the coast. Now, fresh sea-fish enters into the consumption of almost every family of the middle class, in every consider- able town. In the fish trade, indeed, railways have caused and are causing a prodigious revolution. Large fishing establishments have been formed at difierent parts of the east coast. Before the Norfolk Railway was con- structed, the conveyance of fish from Y'armouth to London was entirely conducted in light vans with post-horses, and was represented by a bulk of aJjout 2,000 tons a year. At present 2,000 tons of fish are, not unfre- qucntly, carried on the Norfolk Railway, not in a year, but in a fortnight. But perhaps there is no respect in which railways contribute so greatly to the public advantage as in the inland coal traffic ; still in its infancy, but becoming most rapidly developed. The wagons which caiTy chalk from one county, return home laden with coals from another. Large reductions are being etfectcd in the price of this prime necessary of life. Districts in which the peasantry, only a few years since, made their fires with a few scanty sticks gathered fi'om a hedge, are now abundantly and cheaply supplied with the fuel which is so important to comfort and civili- zation. Railways have been already presented to you as public educators ; here you have them as agents of benevolence and ameliorators of the con- dition of the human race ; for it may be safely said that there is no contri- 512 RAILWAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. bution to the social comfort of society equal to warmth. Comfort, indeed, implies warmth ; and warmth, chemically considered, is an addition to the supply of food. Before railways were brought into existence, the internal communication of this country was restricted by its physical circumstances. Canals, apparently, allow an infinite series of boats to pass along them ; but it must be borne in mind, that Nature opposes a practical limit to that description of transit. Every canal-boat has to pass a summit more or less abundantly supplied with water. Without a steam-engine at every lock, the extent of the trafSc by this inland navigation must, therefore, be de- pendent upon the supply of water which can be commanded at the summits to be traversed. But, more than tliis, all canals are subject to the vicissi- tudes of dry seasons, which may occur at periods when the traffic is at a maximum, and to the frost of severe seasons, during which Nature may compel a total cessation of traffic for several weeks. In comparison with these difficulties, railway communication has none ; and hitherto, whatever barriers Nature has opposed. Science has entirely surmounted. Before concluding this addi'ess, I am desirous of adding a few words by way of practical application of the great subject we have been considering. I have directed attention to our railway system as it is. I have endeav- ored to show you the importance of that system, as regards the works which have been executed, the capital invested, and the multitudes to whom it gives employment. I have endeavored to point out some of the defects of the system, and to indicate the causes from which those defects arise. I have shown you the magnitude and importance of the results attained, and that the system under which they have been achieved must inevitably be progressive. There is, however, a great duty still unperformed, which devolves less upon myself than upon you. It should be one of the most earnest efforts of civil engineers to improve and perfect this vast and com- prehensive system. It is not merely upon woi"ks of magnitude that your attention should be fixed ; the railway system is so vast, that every item, however minute in itself, becomes of the greatest importance, when multiplied by the extent of work performed. You must consider that every farthing saved upon the train mileage of our country represents to the railways no less an ag- gregate than £80,000 per annum. This fact may help to realize to you how important it is that your attention should be directed carefully to every department of the railway system. The perfection of the permanent way, its maintenance in sound condition, the durability of materials of construc- tion, the simplification and improvement of locomotives, the economy of KAIL WAY SYSTEM AND ITS RESULTS. 513 fuel — even the consumption of grease and cotton waste — all these are items in which economical an-angements may be turned to the highest advantage. There are other points which will, doubtless, suggest themselves to many who are present ; and I can only say, for my own part, that nothing will afford me higher satisfaction, than to feel that any observations I have addressed to you may elicit practical suggestions for the improvement of the system with which my name, chiefly in consequence of my father's works, is so intimately associated. For it is my gi-eat pride to remember, that whatever may have been done, and however extensive may have been my own connection with railway development, all I know and all I have done is primarily due to the parent whose memoiy I cherish and revere. When I consider how intimately associated is the railway system with the profession to which I have the honor to belong — when I reflect, not only how much that system owes to the profession, but also how much the profession owes to railways, I cannot doubt that the civil engineers of Eng- land will fulfill their duty. For, looking around to-night, who can doubt that, whilst railways owe their construction to civil engineers, they, in return, owe to railways a large proportion of that improved position, that increased intelligence, and that familiar knowledge of abstract science, which, within the last twenty years, has so largely developed itself, both within and without these walls? Our business from a craft, has become a profession ; and that profession, I rejoice to say, is daily exhibiting itself, not only as one of increased importance, but also as one of increasing cor- diality and cooperation. There was a time, amid the many exciting competitions occasioned by railway enterprise, when the spirit of rivalry amongst the civil engineers of England was carried so far as to occasion some feelings of estrangement. I am happy to tliink that those feelings have given way to more friendly and confidential relations amongst us all ; that our intercourse is now characterized by mutual forbearance and con- ciliation ; and that, if rivalry does exist, it is no longer entertained in an unbecoming spirit, but is an honorable competition in the path of enter- prise, and for the fair rewards of successful skill. To this Institution, and to the opportunities afforded by these meetings, we are mainly indebted for this improved spirit. 33 THE END. 4