^ his book has snd is avail a, 00 Pn ns UNIVERSITY OF _ ILLINOIS LIBRARY AX URBANA-CHAMPAIGN AGRICULTURE Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2020 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign https://archive.org/details/seepagedrainagep7619tann Tamcuau R euB^ UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AG 0,r " v Montana Agricultural College Experiment Station. - F\ B. LINF1ELD, Director. Ci •cilia BULLETIN No. 76. Agricultn Seepage and Drainage (PART II) BY E. TAPPAN TANNATT, Irrigation Engineer. R. D. K N E A L E Assistant Engineer. i BOZEMAN, MONTANA FEBRUARY 1909 Montana Agricultural College Experiment Station. BOZEMAN, MONTANA. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION Edwin C. Norris, Governor A. J. Galen, Attorney General W. E. Harmon, Sup’t Public Instruction | Ex-Officio Helena J. M. Evans . • • • Missoula C. R. Leonard . . . . . * • • Butte O. W. McConnell . * • • Helena Q. P. Chisholm . • ® % Bozeman S. D. Largent .... • • • Great Falls G. T. Paul . . , . • Dillon E. 0. Busenburg .... • • • Lewistown Charles R. Kessler .... EXECUTIVE BOARD • Helena 1 Walter S. Hartman, President • • • Bozeman E. B. Lamme, Vice-President . • • • Bozeman John Robinson • • • Bozeman E. Broox Martin • • • Bozeman J. H. Baker ..... Geo. Cox, Secretary • Bozeman STATION STAFF F. B. Linfield, B, $. A., Director. R. A. Cooley, B. Sc., Entomologist R. W. Fisher, B. S. Horticulturist. E. Tappan Tannatt, B. S., Rural Engineer W, J. Elliott, B. S. A., Dairyman Alfred Atkinson, B. S. A., Agronomist Robert W. Clark, B. Agr., Animal Industry. Edmund Burke, B. S., Chemist Deane B. Swingle, M. S., Assistant Botanist. J B. Nelson, Sup’t. Dry Farm Work. H. O. Buckman, M. S., Assistant Agronomist. R. D. Kneale, B. S., Assistant Engineer. Reuben M. Pinckney, B. S., A. M., Assistant Chemist. Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications to the Experiment Station should be addressed to THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Bozeman, Montana NOTICE.—The Bulletins of the Experiment Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana on request. Please state whether all publications are desired as issued or only those specified. Give name and address plainly. Montana Experiment Station. 1908. Peate I. Outlet and Rating flume, Arnold Drain. INTRODUCTION III 1907 the Engineering department of the Experiment Station published Part I. of a series of bulletins upon the subject of Seepage and Drainage. In taking up this work we realized that there were a very large number of irrigation-engineering problems deserving investigation and experimentation at the hands of the department. We also realized that some of these subjects were far more import¬ ant than others. The questions of “Duty, of Water,” in this state, the effect of winter irrigation, and numerous other topics were con¬ sidered. Owing to limited appropriations it became necessary to confine the scope of our work to one or two items. We therefore turned our attention to the subject of this bulletin, believing that under our present laws very little could be accomplished by further work concerning the duty of water, for the reason that the water rights in this state have not as yet reached such a value as to cause the irrigators to even inquire as to how large a crop they are capable of producing with a given amount of water. The practice at the present time being to first secure all of the water possible and then to turn it on to the lands regardless of the question as to whether it is doing good or harm. To advise many of our irrigators that they could produce better crops with a smaller amount of water is largely a waste of energy and useless publication. In some mat¬ ters the public seems to be determined to learn by experience, al¬ though it realizes that “experience is an expensive teacher.” In undertaking a study of the question of seepage and drain¬ age, we realized that there were thousands upon thousands of acres of some of the best agricultural lands of the state, becoming less and less productive, due to the excessive moisture in the soil. We realized that there was a cause for the difficulty and that a remedy must be found sooner or later. Our observations pointed to the possibility that the cause of the trouble was not wholly chargeable to the excessive use of water by the farmers, as has often been claimed, and that we had certain special drainage conditions to which the rules of eastern drainage engineers could not success- 112 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION fully apply. We also realized that in many parts of the state the question of draining the wet lands was being taken up by our citi¬ zens, and that in many cases the practices followed were more ot less on the order of failures. PLAN OF INVESTIGATION The department therefore conceived the plan of studying the matter with three distinct objects in view: ist. To ascertain what the cause of the trouble was, where it originated, and what percentage of the difficulty was chargeable to the farmers and what to other causes; 2nd. To devise some better and more economical method for draining our wet lands; 3rd. To ascertain the relative rates of seepage in different classes of soil, and to devise a more economical method of stopping the seepage losses from our canals and irrigation ditches. In this work we have in some ways been able to secure results; while in others our investigations have developed into correlative questions which will require a longer time to answer. In the study of the means of stopping seepage losses, we have made certain dis¬ coveries pertaining to the action of our soils upon Portland and natural cements, which have been and are being thoroughly in¬ vestigated, and will be treated under our second bulletin upon the subject of the “Effect of Alkali upon Portland Cement ;” This bulle¬ tin will be published in the near future. Our bulletin No. 69, Part I. on Seepage and Drainage, was de¬ signed as a report of progress upon the second topic under consider¬ ation. At the time of the publication of this bulletin the depart¬ ment considered, and so advised, that further investigations were necessary along two divisions of the work: first, to ascertain ex¬ actly the cost of constructing the drainage systems as recommend¬ ed; where the expenses due to the experimental portion of the work were not included; second, during the investigations conducted up to the time of the publication of Bulletin No. 69, certain points had developed which went to indicate that proper stress was not being placed upon some of the causes which make necessary the drainage of our agricultural lands. For a number of years the cry has been raised by engineers and MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 1908 Drainage: a/wo Seepage //vvestj gat ions-Montana Agricultural Experiment Station PLATE II SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 113 irrigators generally that the farmers were almost entirely responsi¬ ble for the destruction of bottom lands, made valueless through sub-irrigation. At the time of the publication of Part I., we had cer^ tain data which seemed to call this statement into question, as also to show where the responsibility rested, and we therefore decided to continue our investigations with the view of learning more about these points. In Bulletin No. 69, after recommending the method of drainage therein described, we made the call for cooperation in further drain¬ age work, in order that more complete information might be there¬ by secured. THE LAMME PROJECT. Mr. E. B. Lamme of Bozeman, had a tract of about eighty acres ot wet land, situated about six miles west of Bozeman. This land had been rendered almost valueless through the rise of the ground- waters, and he entered into negotiations with the station to drain the tract under the plan recommended. These negotiations re¬ sulted in the department undertaking to drain the land, the Station making all necessary surveys, soundings, etc., and making use of such assistance as the department had in its employ; also designing the system and supervising the construction, Mr. Lamme to fur¬ nish all materials and labor necessary for the work, save as above mentioned. The Station was also to obtain such data in connec¬ tion with fhe work as it might desire. In examining the tract in question, the plan was also decided upon, by the owner, of limiting the system so as to enable the turning of the drainage waters into an irrigation ditch which crossed the field and served another portion of Mr. Lamme’s land. This made it necessary to place the drain outlet at a sufficient elevation to per¬ mit the discharge into the ditch and considerably reduce the effic¬ iency of the system, although it gave data of great value to the Station, as will be later pointed out. An exact record of cost was kept of the entire construction, which is also published in this bulletin. In this project we have been able to accomplish two things rot possible in the work described in Bulletin No. 69. In the first place we have been enabled to definitely ascertain the cost of the 114 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION construction, eliminating the expenses of an experimental nature; second, we have been enabled to confirm our conclusions as to the value of the relief system of drainage in comparison with the in¬ tercepting system, in conditions such as we have above described. DESCRIPTION OF TRACT r % The Lamme project included the East half of the North East quarter of Section 19, T. 2 S., R. 4 E., and contained 80 acres more or less according to the U. S. survey. The land is situated near the west bank of Middle creek, and at an elevation of from ten to fifteen feet above the bed of the stream; was originally “dry land," but within the past few years has rapidly become more and more sub- lirigated, until it was too wet for cultivation (except in spots) and was given up to pasture. Along the depressions where moisture was most apparent, willows and other brush had grown, some of which had acquired a diameter of from two to two and one-half inches. Small surface streams had formed channels in several parts of the tract. In many places the ground was too soft to cross ex¬ cept with high topped rubber boots. The topography of the tract is shown by the map Plate No. II. PREVIOUS DRAINS Along the east edge of the tract, from a point where the 107th contour crosses the east boundary to a point near where the 124th contour intersects said east line, Mr. Lamme had constructed an open ditch, with the idea of intercepting the ground waters as the}’ came from the lands above. Although there was water flowing m the ditch at the time the original examination was made, the ground on either side of the ditch and within six feet of the top of bank had standing water on same, and there were many places within five or six feet of the ditch where rubber boots would have been / necessary in order to safely cross. The ditch had no apparent effect in draining the lands either above or below the drain. SURVEYS Immediately upon taking charge of this proposition, the Station completed a contour map of the tract, locating the contours for V SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 115 ■« ' every foot in elevation. One hundred and thirty-five test wells were also bored in different parts of the field, particularly in the sub-irrigated portions of the tract. Beside each well a grade-peg was set and the elevation of the top of same ascertained. Where the soil was particularly wet these pegs were driven down to gravel, or some solid formation. From these pegs a record was kept of the elevation of the surface of the water in the wells, before, during and after the construction of the drainage system. Before the construc¬ tion of the drainage system was commenced several of these wells flowed water continually, having the appearance of living springs. All of the wells were driven with a two-inch auger, and were clean¬ ed from time to time so as to give free flow of the water. In driving these wells several places were noted where the land was appar¬ ently not affected by moisture. In such cases we encountered a stiff clay overlaying the gravel, and no water was en¬ countered until the gravel was reached, when the water would rise to, or nearly to, the surface. In most cases this rise of the ground waters, when encountered, was very rapid. From the above data we were able to obtain a fairly good contour map of the gravel for¬ mation. Our results proved that the gravel, did not lay in a level bed, nor upon a slope resembling the slope of the surface of the ground, but was deposited in ridges. In some cases we found the gravel deposits separated by a dyke of very dense clay, the dyke coming nearly to, or to the surface. In such places we found the ground waters on one side of the obstruction were higher than the waters on the other side. Cutting through these dykes would cause the water to flow from one stratum into the other. CONCLUSIONS FROM SURVEYS Upon the completion of this portion of the investigations, we came to the following conclusions, all of which have been substan¬ tiated by previous and later investigations elsewhere: ist. That the open ditch, used either as an intercepting drain or parallel to the flow of the ground waters, is of little or no value for draining the lands of this or similar valleys where a clay sub¬ soil is underlaid by gravel. Especially is this the case where the slope of the surface is considerable. As an intercepting drain it is valueless for the reasons that it entirely fails to perform the work 116 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION expected of it, silts up, and is an unsightly and inconvenient con¬ struction. 2nd. The use of the open-bottom box, or tile, as an intercept¬ ing drain is of little or no value in gravel formations, especially where the surface slope is considerable. In the relief system the drains must be placed nearly parallel to the direction of flow of the ground waters, and the best results are secured when thus laid. More or less satisfactory results will be secured when the drain runs slightly oblique to the direction of the flow. The more nearly the line of the drain approaches a direction at right angles to the flow of the ground-waters, the less efficient will the drain prove. 3rd. In designing a system of drainage, the usual method of laying the same from surface indications, or in parallel straight lines at some assumed distance between the parallels, will not prove satisfactory. The relief system, intended as it is, to relieve the water pressure on the under side of the soil, and carry the waters from the location, requires that the drains be so laid as to permit the water to reach the same with the least possible resistance, and to not pass over, (in the drain), any portion of the land where the ground water level is lower than that in the drain. This will re¬ quire the making of a contour map of the gravel surface, the same being taken from the test well records. The surface of the ground water level should also be ascertained, and care taken that the level of the drain is in all places below the level of the same. Surface indications will very materially assist in this work, as we have found that generally the most boggy places in the land, and the places where sub-irrigation first appears, are the locations where gravel is nearest the surface. This point we will again refer to later in this bulletin. We are therefore of the opinion that the engineer who undertakes the design of a system of relief drainage as advocated in this bulletin, will require a soil testing auger in his outfit as much as any one instrument, and that no system of drainage of this kind should be designed without first securing a very complete set of records pertaining to the sub-strata and the ground water levels. 4th. We also found in our investigations, that in many places the surface soil was actually in a floating state. In all cases we drove our test pegs either to gravel or some solid formation. In many cases, after the drainage system had been completed, we Montana Experiment Station. 19C8. Pi ,ate III. The Arnold Drain during construction. Montana Experiment Station. 1908. Prate IV. SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 117 found that the soil surface had lowered from two-tenths to eight- tenths of a foot. THE INTERCEPTING SYSTEM For the information of those who may not clearly understand the principle upon which an intercepting drainage system is de¬ signed, we will state, that in such a system it is held that the watei comes from some source higher than the affected lands, and that these waters flow over or near the surface, gradually seeking a low¬ er level, being prevented from going into the ground water reservoir on account of some impervious sub-stratum. These waters have an effect of producing excessive moisture in the soil, generally showing at the higher levels first, or at some point where a less Fig 1. slope of the soil, or denser formation causes the water to collect or the obstruction of the soil prevents sufficiently rapid percolation to remove the supply as it is delivered to the land. In such a condi¬ tion the plan is to construct a drain as nearly at right angles to the line of flow as possible, and to convey the waters away before they reach the land in question. This system of drainage, as in fact all systems, has in its inception the thought that the water will follow the line of least resistance in seeking its lowest level. In order to have the drain do good work, the character of the soil must be such that the waters will follow the drain, in preference to continuing to pass through the openings in the soil, or flow over its surface. Should we construct an intercepting drain in an absolutely pervious material, such a drain would prove entirely worthless, and the less pervious the formation the more efficient this system of drainage. This can be better understood by a study of Figure No. i. ci.o ft .V 118 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION If we suppose that the lower bank of the ditch offers no re¬ sistance to the flow of the water, there is every reason to suppose that the water will continue on its way through the gravel, unless we give to the drain a grade in excess of that of the gravel. As the lower bank and bottom of the canal becomes more resistant to the i. flow of the water, the greater the tendency of the water to follow the line of the canal, and the less grade need be employed. The reader will see at a glance that in order to have the least amount of ditch serve the greatest amount of land that it is necessary to have the ditch at right angles to the flow of the water, and gener¬ ally an excessive grade in the canal means service to a very much smaller area of land, and brings the canal more and more parallel to the flow. THE RELIEF SYSTEM The relief system of drainage is designed upon the principle that the ground waters have been permitted to enter a more or less porous stratum at an elevation greater than the lands to be drained. This water passing into and through this porous material, seeking its lowest level, either fills up the ground-water reservoir to a point higher than the level of the surface of the land over the reservoir, or else meeting with increased resistance, or obstruction, finds places in the soil where the line of least resistance leads the water to the surface. This matter can be better understood by reference to Plate No. V. This figure is supposed to represent a vertical section through one of our valleys. The lowest formation being that which is gen¬ erally called “bed rock” and marked (i) ; the second formation, marked (2) being the gravel deposit; the next higher formation marked (3) being clay, while No. 4 is surface soil. The main moun¬ tain range is to the right of the figure, while the lower end of the valley is indicated by the smtaller elevation at (D) through which generally breaks the river, discharging from the water shed. At (A) the water is supposed to enter the formation (2) and seeking its level, passes down the slope of the bed-rock gradually filling the interstices in the gravel until the level of the water reaches an elevation at (G), when we begin to notice signs of sub-irrigation at that point. As the irrigation season closes, or the water is turned SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 119 mw TZ'\_ - _ < jr=a=cr Z\ • o»«f" -2*' o • bWjrtv' :«^vc 4 .5*^4 » 0 .V;v “vijr hZ&iel/ SEEPAGE. AND DRAINAGE /NVES TIG A DIONS I®**® El lm/.r*1111. W-AAw&hA. ROCK MONTANA AGRICULTURAL EX PER! ME NT STATION PLATE Y T PLATE VI SEEPAGE & DR A /PAGE / H VEST/GA T/OZiS MON/ TsA/NAK yAGR/C UL TURA L EXPERIM EN T S 7XT/QA. 120 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION off at (A), the supply being discontinued, the surface of the ground- water reservoir falls to an extent depending upon the size of open- ii g in the ridge (D) through which the river discharges. Had a well been dug at the point (E), it is possible that water would have been encountered somewhere in the lower portions of the No. 2 forma¬ tion, before irrigation was practiced in the valley. As the ground waters filled the reservoir, this well would have shown an increase in dep'th of water during the irrigating season, and if the water in the same failed to fall to its original level during the time the water was shut off at (A), it would stand to reason that the outlet from the val¬ ley was insufficient and that we could annually expect an increase in the drainage difficulties. As the supply was again continued the ground water level would rise and possibly at (B), where clay strata is thin, we would later commence to notice signs of sub-irrigation, the heavy clay formation at (E) preventing the rise of the ground waters until long after lands of much higher elevation had become valueless. At (O) another form of difficulty presents itself. Below this point at (H) the ground waters in passing to the reservoir encount¬ ers partial obstruction which causes a “Banking-up” of the waters in the gravel under (O) until they reach a level higher than the sur¬ face at that point. The clay strata being weak at (O), the water finds its way to the surface, forming one of the long narrow marsh places in the fields high up on the valley benches. From the above figure it can readily be seen that if the gravel stratum (2) is given an outlet sufficient to drain same, either at (C), (D) or any other point in the valley in which sub-irrigation shows, the entire water level would be reduced and sub-irrigation avoided. Such a condition is illustrated along our gravel-banked rivers where we find numerous springs breaking out close to the water surface; these springs not being in existence prior to the com¬ mencement of irrigation in the valley. In such cases the gravel sub¬ stratum is given an outlet and the lands along the river banks do not suffer from sub-irrigation. If, however, these gravel banks receive a deposit of clay or soil along the edge of the river sufficient to re¬ sist the flow of the ground waters, we find the sub-irrigated lands close to the river banks. This condition can be observed in num- SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 121 erous places along the Missouri river in this state and well illus¬ trates, upon a large scale, the value of the open ditch which has become silted up with washings or vegetable growth. In the re¬ lief system the object is to keep down the level of the ground-waters well below the danger limit, thereby reducing the pressure upon the under surface of the soil formation. This method of drainage is backed by the thought that the water bearing stratum offers but slightly more resistance to the flow of the water than the drains themselves, and in order to secure the best results the drains must at all times be kept at least in the ground water level, and as much below the same as possible. INTERCEPTING VS. RELIEF SYSTEM We do not wish to convey the impression that in advocating the use of the relief system for most of the valleys of the state, that we are thereby condemning the intercepting system. Both systems are good when located under the proper conditions. The intercepting system we have found to utterly fail under some of the conditions presented in this state; while the relief system would prove corres¬ pondingly inefficient in some of the other locations. •Where there is no underlying stratum of gravel or other water carrying formation, we would not even consider the relief system. In such cases the water in all probability comes through or flows over the surface soils. The remedy in such a case would be to inter¬ cept the water before it reaches the land in question, and to con¬ vey it away either in open ditches or tile or other conduits, laid rea ■ sonably close to the surface. This same system would prove efficient in draining lands in which the soil was of considerable depth, and underlaid by clay formation ,the waters coming from the upper edge of the tract. This could be illustrated in some of the beaver-dam swamps, where the mountain streams flowing into the swamp forms the source of supply. It would also apply where the source of the difficulty could be traced directly and solely to excessive irrigation of the lands above and where the surface soil is quite dense. The intercepting system, as well as the relief system, has its place, and it is often necessary to combine the two systems in the draining of a single tract of land. In designing any system we 122 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION would recommend that the greatest care be taken to learn exactl where and when we are to make use of either one or the other sys¬ tems, and this cannot be done when we depend upon surface in h- cations only. CAUSE OF SUB-IRRIGATION As stated in Bulletin No. 69, we have found that sub-irrigation in the valleys of the state which we have investigated and which are underlaid with gravel, is caused by the surface waters entering the gravel formations either at points in the fields where the gravel comes to the surface, and where the excess of irrigation waters finds a means of escape, or else from the surface drainage and irrigation ditches and canals where they pass through gravel banks. These waters passing into the gravel, seek the lowest level possible and after filling the ground water reservoirs produce (lower down the valley) a pressure upon the under surface of the overlaying, less pervious formation. This pressure increases as the ground waters rise, with the result that the low lands of the valleys first begin to show moisture where the soil is most shallow, generally indicated by the swales in the fields. As the ground water rises, these places become more and more sub-irrigated, until they become non-produc¬ tive. Sub-irrigation can often be detected even before it is notice¬ able upon the surface, by the death of alfalfa. This plant will not thrive when the water rises too high upon its roots, and when the water reaches a height equal to about three feet from the surface we begin to notice its effect upon the plant; with the continued nse. of the ground-water the plant dies. Where the surface soil is deep, as at (E), Plate V., or a densei clay formation exists, the ground-waters are held down and we thus find portions of the fields where, irrigation is necessary in order to produce crops ,and adjoining the same as at (B) fields hopelessly sub-irrigated. In talking with some of our farmers, I have received the in¬ formation that “the farm was of shallow soil and underlaid by gravel,” and that they had nothing to fear. Our observations are directly contrary to such conclusions. The farmer who owns the farm with shallow soil underlaid with gravel, is the man who should be most careful in the use of his irrigating waters, and the SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 123 man who should be most interested in seeing that the seepage losses of canals and ditches are reduced to a minimum. His land, under excessive irrigation, may be responsible for the more rapid filling ■ f the ground-water reservoirs, and when these reservoirs are filled, Ins land will suffer long before that of his neighbor who may have the heavy clay sub-soil over the gravel. DESIGN OF THE LAMME DRAINAGE SYSTEM From the map, Plate No. II., the reader will note the location of the 165 wells above referred to. A large proportion of these wells are located in the most moisture-affected portion of the tract, some of them, however, are located in portions where the land is ary and not affected by the ground-waters. A portion of the north end of the field, between the two sloughs, was not affected by the ground-waters, although the elevation of the surface was below that of the wet sections. In this place we found the deeper clay suo^ soil above referred to. The water in the test wells was not encount¬ ered until gravel was reached, when it raised to, or nearly to the surface. Had the system been designed for drainage alone the drain should have been brought to the surface in the bottom of the slougii near the point marked “A” and thence located in a southeasterly direction to a point at or near where the “B” lateral enters the mam drain' (.Station 3~b75)- The portion of the main drain between the “IT and “D” laterals could then have taken a more northeasterly direction, intersecting the first drain near well No. 20. The portion of the system marked as “Main Drain,” virtually crosses the line of the ground-water-flow nearly at right angles, and if an intercepting system was of value in such formations should have given satisfac¬ tory results. During the construction of this drain a temporary fall in the water surface of wells Nos. 4 to 20 was noted. This fall was but a few inches, and the water soon returned to its original level, and this portion of the tract in and about the wells above mention¬ ed, being that portion below the main drain, has been but slightly affected by the system. The only appreciable effect was observed after the construction of the laterals. The laterals were designed to, as nearly as possible, parallel the flow of the ground-waters. So well have the laterals done their 124 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION work, that Mr .Lamme contemplates the construction of a drain to the point “A,” and the delivery of the waters into some other irrigac- ing system. It is not necessary, we believe, to publish the rec )rds of the fall of the ground-waters surface during and after the completion of the system. Suffice it to say that the formerly wet and almost valueless tract is now sufficiently reclaimed to warrant cultivation. Also there are some twenty-five inches of steady flow developed for irrigation purposes from this land. TEMPERATURE OF DRAINAGE WATER The temperature of the water from the drains is such as to make the waters especially valuable for stock. Last winter, when the thermometer had for several days remained at or below zero, we visited the tract and found all of the neighboring creeks frozen over except where strong currents existed. The waters from the drains we found to be without ice upon same, until they had passed about 1200 feet below the outlet of the drain. The velocity of the water was much less than in some other places which were frozen over. In the pump-sump at the station, into which are discharged the waters from the drains (taking the same from a formerly wet tract), we have had no ice for two winters, and have not found it necessary to remove our pumps on account of freezing. COST OF LAMME PROJECT In the following figures we have included all cost of labor in surveys, which were not already provided for by the Station in sal¬ aried men. We have also included in same the cost of provisions for the survey parties while in the field, as well as transportation charges for members of the department at times when the station teams were not available. We are of the opinion that these charges which ordinarily would come under the head of engineering assists ance, will about balance the actual charges of an engineer to design a system of drainage of the same size, providing that the farmer as' sumes the transportation and keep of the party during the necessary surveys. The making the trenches, laying and making the boxes,, and back-filling the trenches, was contracted by the linear, foot. SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 125 i \ The contract stipulated that the depth of the trenches should not exceed six feet at the initial price. The hauling of lumber was done by day labor and with teams owned by Mr. Lamme. In back¬ filling the contractor was furnished horses and harness without charge. The following is an itemized statement of the cost of the work: Labor in making surveys and soundings, not including engineer...: . $ 46.00 Provisions for camp . 20.2 D Owenhouse Hardware Co., nails . 8.00 Kenyon-Noble Lumber Co., lumber . 207.05 S. K. Suverly, labor on drains, at 13c per foot . 230.49 S. K. Suverly, hauling lumber . 25.00 S. K. Suverly, extra labor . 27.50 Livery (Fransham and Tudor) . 19. go Total . $583-29 In the above and under the item of ‘‘Extra Labor,” the sum of I S27.50 was expended in order to re-excavate the trenches caused by ! a flooding of the system through turning the water into the irriga¬ tion ditch at a time when the same was open at the crossing of the drains. In the design of this system, we found it necessary to use a very low gradient in the main drain to the junction of the laterals in order to deliver the water into the irrigation system. GRADE OF DRAINS In the design of a system of drainage, we would recommend j against a change of grade except where unavoidable; where a change has to be made a manhole should be placed at the point where the grade changes, so as to afford a means of access to the drain. A change of grade, especially from a higher to a lower grade, has the effect of causing the deposit of silt and the filling of the boxes. We would recommend a minimum grade of one-tenth of a foot to the 100 feet, or a fall of one foot in a thousand for small drains; and that the maximum grade be not allowed to exceed such as will 126' MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION give a velocity of two feet per second. The maximum grade will depend upon the size of the drain box used. DISCHARGE FROM DRAINS In the work thus far done we have found that an average dis¬ charge of about one-half miners’ inch per acre is obtained from drains of this character. This varies somewhat. During the ir¬ rigating season the discharge increases even to as much as one inch per acre, and falls slightly below one-half inch during extreme¬ ly cold weather. In the design of a system of drainage it would be better to select the size of box capable of delivering the larger amount when running full or nearly full, otherwise the ground¬ water-level will rise, producing a static head on the drains and causing excessive velocity and consequent cutting. The rise of th-e ground-water-level also reduces the area served by the drains. GROUND-WATER CURVE In designing a system of drainage, the reader must keep in mmd that the ground-waters do not fall, between the drains, to a perfect level, but that owing to the resistance to the flow of water Fig 2 . in the soil, the surface of the ground waters assumes a curved form, d he more open the material through which the water is passing, the more flat will this curve become; and conversely, the more dense the material the more abrupt will be the curve. This can be better illustrated by an examination of Fig. 2. I he drain at “A’ is supposed to be laid in a comparatively open gravel formation and this formation extending up" to the level ' D-B”. At this level a denser material is encountered. The lower SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 127 curve is quite flat compared with the one above ,and the area be¬ tween the points “C” and “E” will represent the area affected by the drains . It will be noted by the figure that the deeper the drain is set in the gravel, the wider will be the strip between the points E and C, and the more efficient the system will become. Just how far apart the drains should be placed in the relief system, in order to produce the best results, is a matter which requires judgment and a knowledge of the sub-strata formation. In our investigations thus far conducted we are lead to believe that drains set in the char¬ acter of gravel we have encountered in the valleys of the state and [ to a depth of six feet, will safely reduce the level of the ground waters sufficient for grain production to a width of 400 feet on either s:de of the drain, or a total width drained of 800 feet. Better re^ suits will accrue by closer spacing. Additional depth materially adds to the value of the drains, and increases the drained area, as will be noted by Figure 2. We feel that it is poor economy to keep the drains close to the surface in order to avoid excavation, and would advise using a depth of not less than six feet, except where coming to an outlet. VALUE OF TILE DRAINAGE 1 The writer has had occasion to meet a large number of persons who were advocates of the tile system of drainage, although the system has not been generally tried in this state. This, we believe, is largely the result of knowledge of the use of the same in the lands of the Mississippi valley, where that system is most success¬ ful. Some years since the Station had occasion to attempt to drain a small portion of the station farm. The land drained had a very 1 considerable fall, averaging over seven feet to the hundred. This land was drained by the tile method of drainage usually employed in the eastern states and seemed at first to be giving good results, j Today this same tract is becoming too moist for even garden pro¬ ducts, and will beyond doubt have to be drained within a few years at best. A portion of the field has already been found too wet for cultivation and was included in the work of Bulletin No. 69, and some of the original tile removed at the time. Upon the removal °- the tile we found that the joints between the same had become 128 MON! ANA EXPERIMENT STATION sealed with a very fine silt, and that this silt had slight hydraulic properties. In some cases this silt was sufficiently hard as to cause the breaking of the tile before it would give. The effect of this ac¬ tion was to make of the line of the tile a sealed tube, into which very little, if any, of the ground-water could find its way. Similar diffi¬ culties have been encountered in the Yellowstone and other val¬ leys where tile has been used. In some of these cases the tile has been replaced with the open-bottom box. The finding of this silt and its action was very largely,the cause which influenced our making use of the open bottom box, in order to cause the water to enter the drain from! below. We went upon the assumption that if this 'material was in the gravel and soil formations, and that it could “set” and stop the drains, it was neces¬ sary to keep it in motion in the drains until it had passed out of the same. Our attempt was to cause the water to keep the silt in motion vertically and at the same time cause it to wash out of the drain. The result is that at the mouth of mlost of our present » drains there is more or less of this deposit of fine silt. Although the tile system of drains may be of advantage where the intercept¬ ing system is used, we would caution the reader against its use in the relief system. The semi-circular or half tile might be employed to advantage in such a system. ANOTHER APPLICATION OF THE RELIEF SYSTEM At one place on the Station farm we had a comparatively small tract of land suffering from sub-irrigation. This wet tract was located upon the edge of a considerable slope, Avhile immediate¬ ly below was an adjoining field which required much water to pro¬ duce a crop. Investigations disclosed the fact that along the line between the dry and wet fields a clay dike extended, reaching to an indefinite depth below the surface. Plate VI. gives a sectional elevation of the tract. The portion marked “A” being a very dense blue clay; the portion on the left of the dike being the wet field, and that on the right being dry. Investigation with the soil testing augers disclosed the fact that we had two distinctly unlike forma¬ tions, one adjoining the other. At “C” the gravel formation was nine feet below the surface and test wells driven in or around this point would flow over the surface, the amount of flow from a four SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 129 inch well being about one-half miner’s inch. These wells continued to flow for one entire year, after which time they were destroyed. At “B” we found a depth of 19 feet to gravel and the water rose, when gravel was encountered, to within 10 feet of the surface. The elevation of the surface of the ground at “B” was eleven feet below that at “C”, making a difference in elevation of the two ground- water surfaces of about twenty feet. The distance between “B” and “C” was about 300 feet. A large number of test wells were driven in both tracts. Well No. 3 as shown in Plate VI. was two feet distant from well No. 2. No. 3 was in the clay dike, while No. 2 touched the edge of the gravel forma¬ tion. The water in well No. 2 rose to and flowed over the surface, while well No. 3 (driven to a depth greater than No. 2) remained dry during all of the time the investigations were being carried on. It became evident to the writer that at this point we had two water carrying strata of gravel receiving their supplies from entirely different sources, and subject to entirely different subsurface pres¬ sures. The ground water level in the upper stratum had reached a point above the surface of the soil at “C”, causing the wet land. As the wet land was at a sufficient elevation above the dry tract, the plan was conceived of relieving the pressure upon the lower sur¬ face of the soil stratum by excavating a fair sized well to gravel, and laying a line of pipe so as to bring the ground waters to the surface at ‘‘B”. The soil at “B” contained less clay than at “C.” A well five feet in diameter was excavated to gravel at test- well No. 2, and the same cased with a concrete tube six inches thick and the tube covered with concrete cover about three feet below the surface, leaving a manhole through which to reach the interior T the well. From a point close to the surface of the gravel stratum a two-inch water pipe 325 feet long was laid with a slight grade so as to deliver the water at “B”. At “D” a watering trough was there placed for the benefit of the stock, later the pipe was extended to the poultry houses and stock barns, situated at a lower elevation. This well developed more water than had been anticipated, mak¬ ing it impossible for the two inch pipe to carry the water until a head of four feet had been reached by the water in the well. The tend was drained by the well, although not as satisfactorily as had been expected, owing to the amount of water encountered. It is now proposed to drive the well deeper into the gravel and develop 130' MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION even more water than at present and very materially enlarge the discharge pipe, as the water is of value on the farm. The water from this well flows during the entire year, and does not freeze un¬ til after it has passed several hundred feet in open drain. The reader will recognize that this method of drainage is but another application of the relief system, in which the well with its increased area performs the same office as the drains, the pipe line simply serving as a conduit. We have noted a number of places in this state where we are of the opinion that this method of developing water could be em¬ ployed to excellent advantage, and prove a means of .furnishing a water supply and also a benefit to the lands at the same time. INVESTIGATIONS IN THE YELLOWSTONE VALLEY. For several years the Experiment Station has been conducting investigations in the Yellowstone valley with the view of learning more about the seepage and drainage problems in that section. Most of these investigations have been conducted in the vicinity of Billings. The conditions in this valley are somewhat different from many of the other valleys of the state. Although the sub-formation contains a stratum of gravel, this stratum is remarkably irregular in surface; at some points located at a considerable depth, while at others it forms ridges which come to the surface or form the divid¬ ing lines between the bench and bottom lands. The large deposits of quicksand which underlie the surface soil and are in and through the gravel also makes the drainage problems of the valley addition¬ ally difficult for solution. At first the work of the station was confined to the bottom lands along the river, but later it was found that the question of drainage was of equal importance to the bench and bottom lands. The first system of drainage supervised by the station was con¬ structed on the lands of Mr. Ed. O’Donnell on the bottom about two miles west of Billings. In the design of this system the drains were all placed comparatively close to the surface, and although some of the drains actually served as relief system drains, the work was designed upon the intercepting plan. The open bottom box was used, and a number of wet places were drained by directly tapping the same. The drains were not designed to follow SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 131 1 I* gravel, although in many places they did so. This system, although it has certainly very much improved the lands in question, has not been as satisfactory as it might have been. The ground watei level has been reduced, but more or less trouble is experienced i through the filling of the drains by the fine silt carried by the water. CASING TEST WELLS In this project, test wells were also driven in the soil to a depth | ^ about six feet, and in order to avoid the filling of same by fine silf, ; the wells were cased with one and one-half inch water pipe, per¬ forated with one-eight inch holes. A record of the rise and fall of 1 ground waters as indicated by these wells was kept for several years. The records were taken by a gentleman living in the neigh¬ borhood, and who was not specially posted in the subject of drain¬ age, and were not tabulated until after the present head of the En¬ gineering department had taken office. When this compilation was undertaken it was discovered that there was no apparent relation m ithe water levels of the several wells, and that the records refused to I bear any information which would lead to conclusions which would I enable one to judge of the effect of the drains upon the ground water level. We accordingly investigated the wells themselves and :ound that the deposit of silt had hermetically sealed the holes and jottom of the tubes, so that we were simply measuring the rain- all, surface drainage and evaporation, and that the water in the k u bes stood at an elevation wholly independent of the exterior ground waters. In some cases when we pulled the pipes from the barth, the water remained in the tubes as nicely as if they had been lesigned for buckets. The only data which we derived from the \ ells was to the effect that the casing of test wells in this valley vas a mistake, and second,, that the effect of the fine material of the I oil was such as to make it inadvisable to design any system of drainage where the water was expected to find its way through | mal1 openings into the drains. Subsequent wells driven in this j alley for test purposes by this department, have been left uncased I n d have been cleaned out from time to time as the character of ; be formation required. THE ARNOLD DRAIN In 1895 the Arnold Drainage District, located about three miles IS2 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION west of Billings, and largely upon the bench lands, was created under the laws of the state. This district extended over an area of about 5280 acres, and included the large part of some twelve sec¬ tions of land. (See Plate VII.) In 1896 construction was conw mencecl upon what is known as the “Arnold Drain .” This dram has its outlet in a slough in the NE. quarter of section 6, T. 1 S., P. 26 E. extends in a general westerly direction to the northwest corner of Sec. 1, T. 1 S., R 25 E. and thence in a southwesterly di¬ rection to a point a little south of the one-half section corner on the east line of Sec. 2, T. I .S., R. 25 E. This drain has since been ex¬ tended to a point (its present head) about one and one-quartei miles further west. In the distance between the east line of Sec. 2 and the outlet, the drain has a total fall of 37.7 feet and a total length of 16300 feet. The drain box, having internal dimensions of 12x24 inches, was constructed of lumber, 3 inch plank sides and cover-boards. The ccver-boards were laid at right angles to the line of the drain anc well spiked to the edge of the side planks. The bottom was left open except where cross pieces were spiked to support the sides against lateral pressure. The boxes were similar to those used k the Experiment Station drains. (See Plate XI.) The depth latj which the drains were laid varied from the surface outlet to in thv neighborhood of 18 feet. Beginning at the outlet, the drain was located to follow ^ swampy swale in Sec. 6, T. 1 S., R. 26 E.; thence to follow the coun tv wagon road along the north line of said section, and to again en ter and follow the swamp in the NE. quarter Sec. 1 T. 1 S., R. 25 E. returning to the township line near the one-half section corner 01 the north side of said section, continuing along the county wagoi road for something over one-half of a mile, it again penetrated an other series of swamps in Section 2. So far as we have been enabled to learn, the drain was not lo rated from soundings, or from an investigation of the sub-strata in fact, our investigations point to the fact that a moje advantageou location could have been secured if such had been the method 0 location. In Section 1, the drain passed under the irrigation cana cf the Billings Land and Irrigation Company. When the construction of the Arnold Drain was commenced this department conceived the idea of making a study of the dr an SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 117 found that the soil surface had lowered from two-tenths to eight- tenths of a foot. ~ r THE INTERCEPTING SYSTEM i 3 * For the information of those who may not clearly understand the principle upon which an intercepting drainage system is de¬ signed, we will state, that in such a system it is held that the watei comes from some source higher than the affected lands, and that these waters flow over or near the surface, gradually seeking a low¬ er level, being prevented from going into the ground water reservoir on account of some impervious sub-stratum. These waters have an effect of producing: excessive moisture in the soil, generally Fig 1. slope of the soil, or denser formation causes the water to collect or the obstruction of the soil prevents sufficiently rapid percolation to remove the supply as it is delivered to the land. In such a condi¬ tion the plan is to construct a drain as nearly at right angles to the line of flow as possible, and to convey the waters away before they reach the land in question. This system of drainage, as in fact all systems, has in its inception the thought that the water will follow the line of least resistance in seeking its lowest level. In order to have the drain do good work, the character of the soil must be such that the waters will follow the drain, in preference to continuing to pass through the openings in the soil, or flow over its surface. Should we construct an intercepting drain in an absolutely pervious material, such a drain would prove entirely worthless, and the less pervious the formation the more efficient this system of drainage. This can be better understood by a study of Figure No. i. ft 118 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION If we suppose that the lower bank of the ditch offers no re¬ sistance to the flow of the water, there is every reason to suppose that the water will continue on its way through the gravel, unless we give to the drain a grade in excess of that of the gravel. As the lower bank and bottom of the canal becomes more resistant to the i flow of the water, the greater the tendency of the water to follow the line of the canal, and the less grade need be employed. The reader will see at a glance that in order to have the least amount of ditch serve the greatest amount of land that it is necessary to have the ditch at right angles to the flow of the water, and gener¬ ally an excessive grade in the canal means service to a very much smaller area of land, and brings the canal more and more parallel to the flow. THE RELIEF SYSTEM The relief system of drainage is designed upon the principle that the ground waters have been permitted to enter a more or less porous stratum at an elevation greater than the lands to be • drained. This water passing into and through this porous material, seeking its lowest level, either fills up the ground-water reservoir to a point higher than the level of the surface of the land over the reservoir, or else meeting with increased resistance, or obstruction, finds places in the soil where the line of least resistance leads the water to the surface. This matter can be better understood bv reference to Plate No. V. This figure is supposed to represent a vertical section through one of our valleys. The lowest formation being that which is gen¬ erally called “bed rock” and marked (i) ; the second formation, marked (2) being the gravel deposit; the next higher formation marked (3) being clay, while No. 4 is surface soil. The main moun¬ tain range is to the right of the figure, while the lower end of the valley is indicated by the smialler elevation at (D) through which generally breaks the river, discharging from the water shed. At (A) the water is supposed to enter the formation (2) and seeking its level, passes down the slope of the bed-rock gradually filling the interstices in the gravel until the level of the water reaches an elevation at (G), when we begin to notice signs of sub-irrigation at that point. As the irrigation season closes, or the water is turned SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE II $ 0 ?*• •. • ^^ORAVfLL, ,6v©-< o?,#5r ' // fcV (Ji ££T?. ■ v& » • * ® 0 fo "*» # r • *b/•»'. 4 V.{v lllfepilp^^ t>A S-o a f.o. ,VXK SEEPAGE. A ED DRA /PA GE /NVES TIG A TIP NS ROCK MONTANA AGRICULTURAL EX REGIMENT S TAT ION PLATE Y PLATE VI SEEPAGE & DRA/NAGE / HVEST/G.A T/O/VS A7Q/V TyANAK A\GR!CUL TURA L EXPERIMENT STATION. 120 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION oft at (A), the supply being discontinued, the surface of the ground- water reservoir falls to an extent depending upon the size of open- ii g in the ridge (D) through which the river discharges. Had a well been dug at the point (E), it is possible that water would have been encountered somewhere in the lower portions of the No. 2 forma¬ tion, before irrigation was practiced in the valley. As the ground waters filled the reservoir, this well would have shown an increase in depth of water during the irrigating season, and if the water in the same failed to fall to its original level during the time the water was shut off at (A), it would stand to reason that the outlet from the val¬ ley was insufficient and that we could annually expect an increase in the drainage difficulties. As the supply was again continued the ground water level would rise and possibly at (B), where clay strata is thin, we would later commence to notice signs of sub-irrigation, the heavy clay formation at (E) preventing the rise of the ground waters until long after lands of much higher elevation had become valueless. At (O) another form of difficulty presents itself. Below this point at (H) the ground waters in passing to the reservoir encount¬ ers partial obstruction which causes a '‘Banking-up” of the waters in the gravel under (O) until they reach a level higher than the sur¬ face at that point. The clay strata being weak at (O), the water finds its way to the surface, forming one of the long narrow marsh places in the fields high up on the valley benches. From the above figure it can readily be seen that if the gravel stratum (2) is given an outlet sufficient to drain same, either at (C), (D) or any other point in the valley in which sub-irrigation shows, the entire water level would be reduced and sub-irrigation avoided. Such a condition is illustrated along our gravel-banked rivers where we find numerous springs breaking out close to the water surface; these springs not being in existence prior to the com¬ mencement of irrigation in the valley. In such cases the gravel sub¬ stratum is given an outlet and the lands along the river banks do not suffer from sub-irrigation. If, however, these gravel banks receive a deposit of clay or soil along the edge of the river sufficient to re¬ sist the flow of the ground waters, we find the sub-irrigated lands close to the river banks. This condition can be observed in num- SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 121 1 erous places along the Missouri river in this state and well illus¬ trates, upon a large scale, the value of the open ditch which has become silted up with washings or vegetable growth. In the re¬ lief system the object is to keep down the level of the ground-waters well below the danger limit, thereby reducing the pressure upon the under surface of the soil formation. This method of drainage is backed by the thought that the water bearing stratum offers but slightly more resistance to the flow of the water than the drains themselves, and in order to secure the best results the drains must at all times be kept at least in the ground water level, and as much below the same as possible. . INTERCEPTING VS. RELIEF SYSTEM 11 We do not wish to convey the impression that in advocating the use of the relief system for most of the valleys of the state, that we are thereby condemning the intercepting system. Both systems are good when located under the proper conditions. The intercepting system we have found to utterly fail under some of the conditions presented in this state; while the relief system would prove corres¬ pondingly inefficient in some of the other locations. Where there is no underlying stratum of gravel or other water carrying formation, we would not even consider the relief system. In such cases the water in all probability comes through or flows over the surface soils. The renyedy in such a case would be to inter¬ cept the water before it reaches the land in question, and to con¬ vey it away either in open ditches or tile or other conduits, laid rea ■ sonably • close to the surface. This same system would prove efficient in draining lands in which the soil was of considerable depth, and underlaid by clay formation ,the waters coming from the upper edge of the tract. | This could be illustrated in some of the beaver-dam swamps, where the mountain streams flowing into the swamp forms the source of I supply. It would also apply where the source of the difficulty could be traced directly and solely to excessive irrigation of the lands above and where the surface soil is quite dense. The intercepting system, as well as the relief system, has its place, and it is often necessary to combine the two systems in the draining of a single tract of land. In designing any system we 122 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION would recommend that the greatest care be taken to learn exactly where and when we are to make use of either one or the other sys¬ tems, and this cannot be done when we depend upon surface in h- cations only.' CAUSE OF SUB-IRRIGATION As stated in Bulletin No. 69, we have found that sub-irrigation in the valleys of the state which we have investigated and which are underlaid with gravel, is caused by the surface waters entering the gravel formations either at points in the fields where the gravel C- mes to the surface, and where the excess of irrigation waters finds a means of escape, or else from the surface drainage and irrigation ditches and canals where they pass through gravel banks. These waters passing into the gravel, seek the lowest level possible and after filling the ground water reservoirs produce (lower down the valley) a pressure upon the under surface of the overlaying, less pervious formation. This pressure increases as the ground waters rise, with the result that the low lands of the valleys first begin to show moisture where the soil is most shallow, generally indicated by the swales in the fields. As the ground water rises, these places become more and more sub-irrigated, until they become non-produc¬ tive. Sub-irrigation can often be detected even before it is notice¬ able upon the surface, by the death of alfalfa. This plant will not thrive when the water rises too high upon its roots, and when the water reaches a height equal to about three feet from the surface we begin to notice its effect upon the plant; with the continued rise of the ground-water the plant dies. Where the surface soil is deep, as at (E), Plate V., or a densei -viay formation exists, the ground-waters are held down and we tnus find portions of the fields where irrigation is necessary in order to produce crops ,and adjoining the same as at (B) fields hopelessly sub-irrigated. In talking with some of our farmers, I have received the in- iQimation that the farm was of shallow soil and underlaid by giavel, and that they had nothing to fear. Our observations are directly contrary to such conclusions. The farmer who owns the farm with shallow soil underlaid with gravel, is the man who should be most careful in the use of his irrigating waters, and the SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 123 man who should be most interested in seeing that the seepage losses of canals and ditches are reduced to a minimum. His land, under excessive irrigation, may be responsible for the more rapid filling . f the ground-water reservoirs, and when these reservoirs are filled, his land will suffer long before that of his neighbor who may have the heavy clay sub-soil over the gravel. DESIGN OF THE LAMME DRAINAGE SYSTEM From the map, Plate No. II., the reader will note the location of the 165 wells above referred to. A large proportion of these wells are located in the most moisture-affected portion of the tract, some of them, however, are located in portions where the land is Giy and not affected by the ground-waters. A portion of the north end of the field, between the two sloughs, was not affected by the ground-waters, although the elevation of the surface was below that Oi the wet sections. In this place we found the deeper clay sub' soil above referred to. The water in the test wells was not encount¬ ered until gravel was reached, when it raised to, or nearly to the surface. Had the system been designed for drainage alone the drain should have been brought to the surface in the bottom of the slougti near the point marked A and thence located in a southeasterly direction to a point at or near where the “B” lateral enters the main drain (Station 3 + 75 )- The portion of the main drain between the B and D laterals could then have taken a more northeasterly direction, intersecting the first drain near well No. 20. The portion of the system maiked as Main Drain,” virtually crosses the line of the ground-watei -flow nearly at right angles, and if an intercepting system was of value in such formations should have given satisfac¬ tory results. During the construction of this drain a temporary fall m the water surface of wells Nos. 4 to 20 was noted. This fall was but a few inches, and the water soon returned to its original level, and this portion of the tract in and about the wells above mention¬ ed, being that portion below the main drain, has been but slightly ahected by the system. The only appreciable effect was observed •after the construction of the laterals. The laterals were designed to, as nearly as possible, parallel the flow of the ground-waters. So well have the laterals done their 124 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION work, that Mr .Lamme contemplates the construction of a drain to the point “A,” and the delivery of the waters into some other irrigat¬ ing system. It is not necessary, we believe, to publish the rec )rds of the fall of the ground-waters surface during and after the completion of the system. Suffice it to say that the formerly wet acid almost valueless tract is now sufficiently reclaimed to warrant cultivation. Also there are some twenty-five inches of steady flow developed for irrigation purposes from this land. I TEMPERATURE OF DRAINAGE WATER The temperature of the water from the drains is such as :o make the waters especially valuable for stock. Last winter, when the thermometer had for several days remained at or below zero,, we visited the tract and found all of the neighboring creeks frozen over except where strong currents existed. The waters from the drains we found to be without ice upon same, until they had passed about 1200 feet below the outlet of the drain. The velocity of the water was much less than in some other places which were frozen over. In the pump-sump at the station, into which are discharged the waters from the drains (taking the same from a formerly wet tract), we have had no ice for two winters, and have not found it necessary to remove our pumps on account of freezing. COST OF LAMME PROJECT In the following figures we have included all cost of labor in surveys, which were not already provided for by the Station in sal¬ aried men. We have also included in same the cost of provisions for the survey parties while in the field, as well as transportation charges for members of the department at times when the station teams were not available. We are of the opinion that these charges which ordinarily would come under the head of engineering assist ance, will about balance the actual charges of an engineer to design a system of drainage of the same size, providing that the farmer as^ somes the transportation and keep of the party during the necessary surveys. The making the trenches, laying and making the boxes,, and back-filling the trenches, was contracted by the linear fool. SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 125 The contract stipulated that the depth of the trenches should not exceed six feet at the initial price. The hauling of lumber was done by day labor and with teams owned by Mr. Lamme. In back¬ filling the contractor was furnished horses and harness without ! charge. The following is an itemized statement of the cost of the work: j Labor in making surveys and soundings, not including engineer.$ 4O.00 Provisions for camp . 20.2 D Owenhouse Hardware Co., nails . 8.00 Kenyon-Noble Lumber Co., lumber .. 207.05 S. K. Suverly, labor on drains, at 13c per foot . 230.49 IS. K. Suverly, hauling lumber . 25.00 S. Iv. Suverly, extra labor . 27.50 I Livery (Fransham and Tudor). 19. go Total. $583.29 In the above and under the item of “Extra Labor,’’ the sum of I $27.50 was expended in order to re-excavate the trenches caused by 1 a flooding of the system through turning the Avater into the irriga¬ tion ditch at a timje when the same was open at the crossing of the drains. In the design of this system, Ave found it necessary to use a very low gradient in the main drain to the junction of the laterals in order to deliver the water into the irrigation system. GRADE OF DRAINS In the design of a system of drainage, we would recommend against a change of grade except where unavoidable; where a change has to be made a manhole should be placed at the point ' where the grade changes, so as to afford a means of acces's to the j drain. A change of grade, especially from a higher to a lower grade, has the effect of causing the deposit of silt and the filling of the boxes. We would recommend a minimum grade of one-tenth of a foot to the 100 feet, or a fall of one foot in a thousand for small drains; and that the maximum grade be not allowed to exceed such as will 12ff MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION give a velocity of two feet per second. The maximum grade will depend upon the size of the drain box used. DISCHARGE FROM DRAINS In the work thus far done we have found that an average dis¬ charge of about one-half miners’ inch per acre is obtained from drains of this character. This varies somewhat. During the ir¬ rigating season the discharge increases even to as much as one inch pei acre, and falls slightly below one-half inch during extreme¬ ly cold weather. In the design of a system of drainage it would be better to select the size of box capable of delivering the larger amount when running full or nearly full, otherwise the ground¬ water-level will rise, producing a static head on the drains and causing excessive velocity and consequent cutting. The rise of the ground-water-level also reduces the area served by the drains. GROUND-WATER CURVE In designing a system of drainage, the reader must keep in nvnd that the ground-waters do not fall, between the drains, to a perfect level, but that owing to the resistance to the flow of water Fig 2. m the soil, the surface of the ground waters assumes a curved form. 1 he more open the material through which the water is passing, the more flat will this curve become; and conversely, the more dense the material the more abrupt will be the curve. This can be better illustrated by an examination of Fig. 2. 1 he drain at A is supposed to be laid in a comparatively open gravel formation and this formation extending up to the level “D-B”. At this level a denser material is encountered. The lower SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 127 curve is quite flat compared with the one above ,and the area be¬ tween the points “C” and “E” will represent the area affected by the drains . It will be noted by the figure that the deeper the drain is set- in the gravel, the wider will be the strip between the points E and C, and the more efficient the system will become. Just how far apart the drains should be placed in the relief system,- in order to produce the best results, is a matter which requires judgment and a knowledge of the sub-strata formation. In our investigations thus far conducted we are lead to believe that drains set in the char¬ acter of gravel we have encountered in the valleys of the state and to a depth of six feet, will safely reduce the level of the ground waters sufficient for grain production to a width of 400 feet on either s:de of the drain, or a total width drained of 800 feet. Better re^ suits will accrue by closer spacing. Additional depth materially adds to the value of the drains, and increases the drained area, as will be noted by Figure 2. We feel that it is poor economy to keep the drains close to the surface in order to avoid excavation, and would advise using a depth of not less than six feet, except where coming to an outlet. VALUE OF TILE DRAINAGE The writer has had occasion to meet a large number of persons who were advocates of the tile system 1 of drainage, although the system has not been generally tried in this state. This, we believe, is largely the result of knowledge of the use of the same in the lands of the Mississippi valley, where that system is most success¬ ful. Some years since the Station had occasion to attempt to drain a small portion of the station farm. The land drained had a very considerable fall, averaging over seven feet to the hundred. This land was drained by the tile method of drainage usually employed in the eastern states and seemed at first to be giving good results. Today this same tract is becoming too moist for even garden pro¬ ducts, and will beyond doubt have to be drained within a few years at best. A portion of the field has already been found too wet for cultivation and was included in the work of Bulletin No. 69, and some of the original tile removed at the time. Upon the removal of the tile we found that the joints between the same had become 128 MON 1 ANA EXPERIMENT STATION sealed with a very fine silt, and that this silt had slight hydraulic properties. In some cases this silt was sufficiently hard as to cause the breaking of the tile before it would give. The effect of this ac¬ tion was to make of the line of the tile a sealed tube, into which very little, if any, of the ground-water could find its way. Similar diffi¬ culties have been encountered in the Yellowstone and other val¬ leys where tile has been used. In some of these cases the tile has been replaced with the open-bottom box. The finding of this silt and its action was very largely the cause which influenced our making use of the open bottom box, in order to cause the water to enter the drain from below. We went upon the assumption that if this material was in the gravel and soil formations, and that it could “set” and stop the drains, it was neces¬ sary to keep it in motion in the drains until it had passed out of the same. Our attempt was to cause the water to keep the silt in motion vertically and at the same time cause it to wash out of the drain. The result is that at the mouth of miost of our present drains there is more or less of this deposit of fine silt. Although the tile system of drains may be of advantage where the intercept¬ ing system is used, we would caution the reader against its use in the relief system. The semi-circular or half tile might be employed to advantage in such a system. ANOTHER APPLICATION OF THE RELIEF SYSTEM At one place on the Station farm we had a comparatively small tract of land suffering from sub-irrigation. This wet tract was located upon the edge of a considerable slope, while immediate¬ ly below was an adjoining field which required much water to pro¬ duce a crop. Investigations disclosed the fact that along the line between the dry and wet fields a clay dike extended, reaching ro an indefinite depth below the surface. Plate VI. gives a sectional elevation of the tract. The portion marked “A” being a very dense blue clay; the portion on the left of the dike being the wet field, and that on the right being dry. Investigation with the soil testing augers disclosed the fact that we had two distinctly unlike forma¬ tions, one adjoining the other. At “C” the gravel formation was nine feet below-the surface and test wells driven in or around this point would flow over the surface, the amount of flow from a four SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 129 i inch well being about one-half miner’s inch. These wells continued to flow for one entire year, after which time they were destroyed. At “B” we found a depth of 19 feet to gravel and the water rose, when gravel was encountered, to within 10 feet of the surface. The elevation of the surface of the ground at “B” was eleven feet below that at “C”, making a difference in elevation of the two ground- water surfaces of about twenty feet. The distance between “B” and “C” was about 300 feet. A large number of test wells were driven in both tracts. Well No. 3 as shown in Plate VI. was two ■ feet distant from well No. 2. No. 3 was in the clay dike, while No. 2 touched the edge of the gravel forma¬ tion. The water in well No. 2 rose to and flowed over the surface, while well No. 3 (driven to a depth greater than No. 2) remained dry during all of the time the investigations were being carried on. It became evident to the writer that at this point we had two • water carrying strata of gravel receiving their supplies from entirely different sources, and subject to entirely different subsurface pres¬ sures. The ground water level in the upper stratum had reached a point above the surface of the soil at “C”, causing the wet land, j As the wet land was at a sufficient elevation above the dry tract, the plan was conceived of relieving the pressure upon the lower sur¬ face of the soil stratum by excavating a fair sized well to gravel, and laying a line of pipe so as to bring the ground waters to the surface at “B”. The soil at “B” contained less clay than at “C.” A well five feet in diameter was excavated to gravel at test- well No. 2, and the same cased with a concrete tube six inches thick j and the tube covered with concrete cover about three feet below the surface, leaving a manhole through which to reach the interior T the well. From a point close to the surface of the gravel stratum a two-inch water pipe 325 feet long was laid with a slight grade so as to deliver the water at “B”. At “D” a watering trough was there placed for the benefit of the stock, later the pipe was extended to the poultry houses and stock barns, situated at a lower elevation. This well developed more water than had been anticipated, mak¬ ing it impossible for the two inch pipe to carry the water until a I head of four feet had been reached by the water in the well. The fond was drained by the well, although not as satisfactorily as had been expected, owing to the amount of water encountered. It is now proposed to drive the well deeper into the gravel and develop 130 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION even more water than at present and very materially enlarge the discharge pipe, as the water is of value on the farm. The water from this well flows during the entire year, and does not freeze un¬ til after it has passed several hundred feet in open drain. The reader will recognize that this method of drainage is but another application of the relief system, in which the well with its increased area performs the same office as the drains, the pipe line simply serving as a conduit. We have noted a number of places in this state where we are of the opinion that this method of developing water could be em¬ ployed to excellent advantage, and prove a means of furnishing a water supply and also a benefit to the lands at the same time. INVESTIGATIONS IN THE YELLOWSTONE VALLEY. For several years the Experiment Station has been conducting investigations in the Yellowstone valley with the view of learning more about the seepage and drainage problems in that section. Most of these investigations have been conducted in the vicinity of Billings. The conditions in this valley are somewhat different from many of the other valleys of the state. Although the sub-formation contains a stratum of gravel, this stratum is remarkably irregular in surface; at some points located at a considerable depth, while at others it forms ridges which come to the surface or form the divid¬ ing lines between the bench and bottom lands. The large deposits of quicksand which underlie the surface soil and are in and through the gravel also makes the drainage problems of the valley addition¬ ally difficult for solution. At first the work of the station was confined to the bottom lands along the river, but later it was found that the question of drainage was of equal importance to the bench and bottom lands. The first system of drainage supervised by the station was con¬ structed on the lands of Mr. Ed. O’Donnell on the bottom about two miles west of Billings. In the design of this system the drains were all placed comparatively close to the surface, and although some of the drains actually served as relief system drains, the work was designed upon the intercepting plan. The open bottom box was used, and a number of wet places were drained by directly tapping the same. The drains were not designed to follow SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 131 g-avel, although in many places they did so. This system, although j ^ ^ as cer t a mly very much improved the lands in question, has not been as satisfactory as it might have been. The ground watei level has been reduced, but more or less trouble is experienced through the filling of the drains by the fine silt carried by the water. CASING TEST WELLS In this project, test wells were also driven m the soil to a depth of about six feet, and in order to avoid the filling of same by fine siff, the wells were cased with one and one-half inch water pipe, per¬ forated with one-eight inch holes. A record of the rise and fall of j the ground waters as indicated by these wells was kept for several l^ears. The records were taken by a gentleman living in the neigh¬ borhood, and who was not specially posted in the subject of drain- ige, and were not tabulated until after the present head of the En¬ gineering department had taken office. When this compilation was undertaken it was discovered that there was no apparent relation m he water levels of the several wells, and that the records refused to ■ear any information which would lead to conclusions which would Lnable one to judge of the effect of the drains upon the ground vater level. We accordingly investigated the wells themselves and ound that the deposit of silt had hermetically sealed the holes and jiottom of the tubes, so that we were simply measuring the rain- i surface drainage and evaporation, and that the water in the , ubes stood at an elevation wholly independent of the exterior I .round waters. In some cases when we pulled the pipes from the firth, the water remained in the tubes as nicely as if they had been 'esigned for buckets. The only data which we derived from the veils was to the effect that the casing of test wells in this valley ' as a mistake, and second,, that the effect of the fine material of the oil was such as to make it inadvisable to design any system of I min age where the water was expected to find its way through I mall openings into the drains. Subsequent wells driven in this j alle Y for test purposes by this department, have been left uncased j rid have been cleaned out from time to time as the character of i ie formation required. THE ARNOLD DRAIN In 1895 the Arnold Drainage District, located about three miles 1 1S2 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION west of Billings, and largely upon the bench lands, was created under the laws of the state. This district extended over an area of about ^280 acres, and included the large part of some twelve sec¬ tions of land. (See Plate VII.) In 1896 construction was com> menced upon what is known as the Arnold Drain. This drain has its outlet in a slough in the NE. quarter of section 6, P. 1 S., P. 26 E. extends in a general westerly direction to the northwest corner of Sec. 1, T, 1 S, R 25 E. and thence in a southwesterly di¬ rection to a point a little south of the one-half section corner on the east line of Sec. 2, T. 1 .S., R. 25 E. This drain has since been ex¬ tended to a point (its present head) about one and one-quarter miles further west. In the distance between the east line of Sec. 2 and the-outlet, the drain has a total fall of 37.7 feet and a total length of 16300 feet. The drain box, having internal dimensions of 12x24 inches, was constructed of lumber, 3 inch plank sides and cover-boards. The ecver-boards were laid at right angles to the line of the drain and well spiked to the edge of the side planks. The bottom was left open except where cross pieces were spiked to support the sides against lateral pressure. The boxes were similar to those used 21 the Experiment Station drains. (See Plate XI.) The depth dt which the drains were laid varied from the surface outlet to in tin neighborhood of 18 feet. Beginning at the outlet, Aht drain was located to follow 2 swampy swale in Sec. 6, T. 1 S., R. 26 E.; thence to follow the conn- tv wagon road along the north line of said section, and to again en¬ ter and follow the swamp in the NE. quarter Sec. 1 T. 1 S., R. 25 E. returning to the township line near the one-half section cornei 01 the north side of said section, continuing along the county wagor road for something over one-half of a mile, it again penetrated an other series of swamps in Section 2. So far as we have been enabled to learn, the drain was not lo rated from soundings, or from an investigation of the sub-strata in fact, our investigations point to the fact that a more advantageou location could have been secured if such had been the method c location. In Section 1, the drain passed under the irrigation cana ef the Billings Land and Irrigation Company. When the construction of the Arnold Drain was commencec this department conceived the idea of making a study of the drai N MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 1908 MA P OF THE ARNOLD DRAINAGE QJbUTBJ^JC - INVEO 77 G A T/Q/yS - MONTANA A C RJC ULTURA L t vV>r'»,/v r ' ^5 c ct'/e "/ /i if ?//>■ w %" V 9At'' Vw > Wells of /?0£ Wells of 1907\ Montana Experiment Station 1908 Plate VIII Montana Experiment Station 1908. Plate IX SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 132 and its operation, from a seepage and drainage standpoint. In this work we received the hearty cooperation and assistance of the of¬ ficers of the company. As soon after the commencement of the work as conditions would permit, we sent to Billings, Mr. C. W. Penwell, then a member of the Senior class of the Engineering di¬ vision of the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, to¬ gether with camp outfit and complete equipment necessary to carry- on the investigations. The head of the department also gave as much of his time to the investigations as possible. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION Lines of test wells were driven along the drain and extending on either side of the same to beyond any observed effect noted m the ground-water level. A daily record was kept of the progress of the work, classification of material, discharge from drain, turpi- dity of water, rainfall, evaporation, and rise and fall of the ground water level in the several wells. Automatic measuring machines were placed at the outlet of the drain and a daily, continuous record kept for each hour of the day. These records were taken through¬ out the summer and fall and well into the rainy season, after the irrigation waters had been turned off of the canals. The following season (1907) Ass’t. Prof. R. D. Kneale of this department took a party of three and spent the larger part of the summer continuing the inestigations of the previous year, making further investigations as to the flow of water in the several canals, v seepage losses, etc. Part of these investigations were continued through the winter to early the following spring. The work done in drainage investigation in this valley covers a period commencing with the spring of 1903 to the spring of 1908. The early portion of the investigations were conducted in cooperation with the U. S. Department of Irrigation and Drainage Investigations. The worn which is largely covered by this bulletin has been purely that of the Engineering department of this station. The investigations first above mentioned were started by Prof. Fortier, then Director of the Station, continued by the late Ass’t. Prof. J. S. Baker, and later taken up by the present officers of the department in the spring of 1906. In this bulletin we shall include only such results as have en- 134 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION abled us to arrive at definite and well defined conclusions. Many records have been obtained from these investigations, not published herewith, which will undoubtedly prove of great value in future investigations in the state. Space will not permit our publishing the vast amount of data taken, and we shall only include such a-^ will enable the reader to form some idea of the correctness of our conclusions. FORMATIONS In the construction of this drain, work was commenced at the outlet. The formations encountered consisted of layers of dense day, a sandy clay, quicksand, sand, gravel and soil. The forma¬ tions were not in parallel or horizontal layers, but varied much in thickness and slope. The gravel formation in places came to or near the surface, while in other sections it was located at a depth of twenty or more feet. The surface of the gravel stratum was found to be extremely irregular and undulating. The clay, refer¬ red to as “dense clay,” we found to be very resistant to the pass¬ age of water. In our laboratories it was found necessary to treat the clay before sufficient water could be made to pass through the same to remove the soluble salts. TEST WELLS As before stated, during and before the construction, we drove a large number of test wells along the line of the surveyed drain. Numbers of these wells were driven with a specially designed four- inch auger capable of reaching a depth of 45 feet or more. (See Plate VIII.) Other wells were driven with a two inch extension auger. (See Plate IX.) All of these wells were driven at least to gravel; some of them were twenty or more feet in depth. Gener¬ ally, under the surface soil, the dense clay was encountered down to the gravel stratum. No moisture of any amount was noticeable in the clay until within from six inches to one foot of the gravel. When this depth was reached the moisture rapidly increased and when gravel was struck the water would rise to or within a few feet of, the surface. In many cases the water would rush into the wells with sufficient velocity to be heard by a person standing fifteen or SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 135 twenty feet distant. In some of the wells, and at a point in the clay several feet above the gravel, we encountered a stratum of sand. In this formation we found water, but not sufficient to prevent the re¬ moval of same by the work of further excavation. Plate VII. shows a map of the Arnold drainage district and the location of all of the test wells. In some places, and overlaying the gravel stratum, we encount¬ ered deposits of quicksand. Generally the quicksand was in basins, cr depressions, found in the gravel stratum. This material proved to be a source of annoyance in the construction of the drain and also in the test wells. After passing through this sand and into the gravel, the water there encountered would force the quicksand into the well, making the taking of the well records a difficult matter. In some cases these wells proved almost impossible to free, and would fill with the sand nearly to the top. The efifect of these sand deposits upon the drain will be touched upon later. EFFECT OF THE ARNOLD DRAIN The construction of the Arnold drain has, beyond doubt, proven a benefit to the immediately adjoining lands. Whether the drain has fully met the expectations of the builders we are not in a posi¬ tion to state. The drain has undoubtedly very materially improv¬ ed many of the more marshy fields close to the drain, and also re¬ moved alkali. Our records show that it has also reduced the imme¬ diate ground water level to a greater or less extent, especially dur¬ ing the non-irrigating season. The drain has also been a very decided assistance to the Ex¬ periment Station, as much of the data derived from this construction would have been difficult to secure under any other circumstances. T- hat the drain does not give to the people the very best results which could have been secured for an equal expenditure of money* and labor is, in our minds, beyond question. We are, however, free to state that many of the facts which have lead us to this conclusion have been derived from our Billings investigations and were not known to the drain company or ourselves at the time of the com¬ mencement of the construction of the Arnold drain. Plate No. I shows the outlet of the drain and the rating flume used in measuring the discharge. This flume was originally de- MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 12b signed for weir measurement, but owing to the unexpected volume which passed this point the weir was removed and the flume used as a rating flume. During the greater part of July and August 1906 this flume was running full and at times was entirely submerged. Plate No. III. shows the drain under construction and the method used in supporting the banks of the ditch. The drain box is also shown in position in foreground. The photograph was taken in the county road near where the “C” line of wells crosses same. Plate No. IV. shows the Arnold drain during the construction, and near the same location as in Plate III. Tire timbering has been removed from the drain excavation, and the character of the soil is disclosed by the condition of the trench, which had not been back¬ filled at the time the photograph was taken. The manhole near the “C” line of wells is shown in the foreground. CONCLUSIONS DERIVED FROM THE ARNOLD DRAIN After more than two years study of the Arnold drain and other drains and ditches in the Yellowstone valley and other parts of the state, this department has reached the following conclusions: 1st. A very large percentage of the damage to land caused by sub-irrigation and its subsequent alkali difficulties, is due to seep¬ age losses from the large canals of the valley. This condition ap¬ plies to all of the irrigated portions of the state thus far examined. 2nd. Drains in this valley, located along sub-division lines and entirely from surface indications, will not give the-greatest efficiency for the money expended. 3rd, All sub-surface drains should be located by means of bor¬ ings, and the drains should follow as closely as possible the graVel ridges. The grade line of the ditch should be so located as to keep the drain entirely on or in gravel. 4th, Where the lands are low, or situated upon the river bot¬ toms, in order to obtain the best results, it may prove to be neces¬ sary to keep the drains down and deliver the waters of same into a common sump, front which the waters are to be lifted by power into surface ditches to carry the water into the river. 5th, Where quicksand is encountered, the open bottom box should not be used but the same substituted by the closed bottom box. It is better to extend these bottom boards to the edge of the SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 137 excavation on either side of the box, thus affording as much founda¬ tion as possible. Additional security can be obtained by driving s.de stakes to gravel and securely fastening the same to the side cf the drainbox. 6th, Grades should not be established from surface conditions, but the engineer should be largely governed by the character f material through which the drain passes. Changes of grade should be as small and infrequent as possible. 7th, To a very large extent the character of the sub-soil of the Yellowstone valley is such that water placed upon the surface will not penetrate beyond a comparatively _ small depth (not to exceed a few inches.) Excessive irrigation water can be safely removed by means of surface drains. Surface water does not seriously affect the ground water level of this valley, except where the same is turned into the sloughs or gravel deposits. 8th, That waters from the large canals and the sloughs where gravel is close to the surface, are the principle causes for the rise of the ground waters of the valley. Surface water should not be turned into the sloughs, even if on the line of drainage ditches. 9th, Wherever the irrigation canals follow along the surface of, or through gravel deposits, provision should be made to protect against seepage losses. ioth, The state irrigation laws should be so revised as to re quire, within a reasonable time, or during construction, the proper cement lining (or otherwise providing against seepage losses) all cf the irrigation and drainage canals of the state when passing over the surface of or through gravel, or other pervious material. This law should be made to apply to all parts of the canals, except when it can be clearly shown that the gravel deposits do not form a part of or lead to ground-water reservoirs under agricultural lands. nth, In some irrigated lands it is impossible to ascertain the seepage losses by measuring the flow of the canal, no matter what degree of accuracy is employed; this is especially the case where the canal receives sub-surface drainage from canals and lands locat¬ ed at higher elevations. 12th, The experiment stations of the United States should try and discover some more economical material to prevent seepage from irrigation canals. At the present price of cement in Montana the cost of cement lining of irrigation canals is excessive. 138 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 13th, That it is to the interests of the state to encourage the manufacture of cement within our borders.- That our Railway Commsision could well consider the securing of rates on cement to the east which would encourage the development of cement de¬ posits and enable our manufacturers to compete with eastern and southern firms. 14th, If the seepage losses of our canals are permitted to con¬ tinue without greater effort on the part of our citizens to prevent same, they will result in millions of dollars of loss to the state and iequire the expenditure of vast amounts to reclaim from water the very lands we have reclaimed from the desert. The damage already done will add up to no small amount. 15th, The open ditch, except as a canal to carry away surface waters, is of very little value for draining the wet lands of this valley. 16th, In most cases the magnitude of the work to be done is such that it will require machinery to properly execute. Gener¬ ally it is better to combine the work upon a large scale and cover¬ ing a considerable section, rather than to divide the work into a number of small projects. These several points will be dealt with in the iollowing pages,, and as much data given concerning the same as our limited space will permit. SOME SEEPAGE INVESTIGATIONS OF LITTLE VALUE Another point which our investigations have indicated is the lack of value of seepage investigations which cover sections of canals regardless as to the character of the material in which the canal is constructed. The statement that the average seepage losses from canals is “so and so”, we find has very little value in arriving ai any conclusion, either as to the seepage losses of canals in gen¬ eral, or in estimating the damage due through such losses. In fact we find that such statements are misleading rather than oi general value. We have been advised by promoters and design¬ ers of canals that the government reports the average seepage losses from ditches as about two per cent of the flow per mile. From this statement the probable seepage loss of the canal has been estimated, while in reality the actual seepage loss in the new canal as constructed would exceed several times that percentage,. SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 139 even for short sections of the canal. What we require at the pres¬ ent time is not a compilation of the average seepage losses in a canal or canals per mile, but rather to ascertain what are the seepage losses in canals constructed in the several classes of materials at the time of construction and for successive years after same. Such data would enable the engineer and irrigator to intelligently calcu¬ late where and how to expend money in sealing up the canals, and very materially assist in arriving at the actual losses from canals suspected of causing damage to lower lands. NEEDED SEEPAGE INVESTIGATIONS This class of information we have obtained to a very limited extent in connection with our investigations, and find the seepage losses in some of the gravel cuts is very great indeed, in fact far in excess of our expectations. 1 his especially applies to new canals, and in continuing our I investigations we shall attempt to secure sufficient information along this line to enable our tabulations to be of some value. In many cases, especially where other irrigation canals are at higher ■ elevations than the one under investigation, we have found it very difficult to prevent the seepage losses from the higher ditches be¬ ing taken up by and included in the calculations of the lower ditch. In some cases we have actually found the flow in a given section of canal greater than the flow of the adjoining section above, although ; no additional water had apparently entered the canal. We should therefore be glad to co-operate with ditch companies in ascertain¬ ing the seepage losses from their new canals where the material j classification can be definitely ascertained, and the annual decrease j seepage losses for the different sections and materials noted. Our continued work upon this problem will be to ascertain the rela¬ tive seepage losses in the several classes of materials and the effect of silting, and to find some material, or means, whereby we may he able to permanently reduce the seepage losses from canals at a I less expense than by the use of cement. I SEEPAGE LOSSES The author has found it to be a very difficult matter to ascer¬ tain the seepage losses from some of the canals of the state, and es- 140 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION pecially those of the Yellowstone valley. It has been found that very large number of the canals, located in gravel, not only lose a portion of their flow in the form of seepage, but also receive water, through the sub-strata, from lands and canals above. It has also been found that in order to produce this effect it is not necessary to have irrigated lands, or irrigation ditches above the canal in question, as we have noted places where temporary in¬ crease in flow could be charged, so far as we could discover, only to the rains which occurred two or three days before. In this case the rain water must have entered the gravel stratum on the slopes above the canal, requiring the time mentioned in which to reach the canal. In Table I. we give the result of fifty-one measurements made on one of the large irrigation canals of the state. This canal has no ditches, or irrigated lands above its line, and has a total length of about 28 miles. The ratings were not taken with reference to any particular distance between same, or in reference to the character of the formation. It was designed that at least one rating should be taken in each section, through which the ditch passed. During the progress of the work the flow at the headgates was maintained as nearly as possible at a constant. All water taken out in the several laterals, or leakage observed at the headgates was measured and recorded under the heading of ‘finches withdrawn by irriga> tors.” The second column of the table gives the actual measure¬ ment of the canal as obtained by repeated measurements of the same with a Price Electric Current meter. The fourth column gives the amount of water which should be in the canal after deduct¬ ing amounts actually taken from the canal by the laterals and other observed means. The fifth column gives the difference between rated and calculated discharge, indicates losses due to evaporation and seepage. 1 /Pi'OOSS' LJ / dy O S"/^7 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION 1908 PLATE X. TABLE NO. I. 4 rpk e (—) indicates amount of seepage recorded. 142 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION We find from an examination of this table, that there were 8n "lets inches, or 20.3 second feet, of water lost in the length of the canal from seepage; while the canal actually acquired 142 miners' inches, or 3.5 second feet, of water from the lands above. Takin r the flow at the headgates as 3004 miners’ inches, we find that the seepage loss in this canal amounts to 27 per cent of the amount receive at the intake. The ditch in question is about 28 miles long and is one of the oldest,in the state.- It is also one of the best constructed. If we will examine Table I. we will find that the percentage of the flow lost in seepage very materially changes in the several sections as is shown in Table II. TABLE II. Rating No 2 A Flow 3100 2938 2875 2770 2620 2472 2108 1995 Loss —96 Per Cent 3.02 Remarks 4 cr +90 3.06 0 c\ + 153 5.3 0 Q + 105 3.8 0 11 + 129 4.9 15 1 Q —4 + 113 0.16 5.3 lo 1 Q 0 0.0 ±«7 O A 1968 1690 1 1553 1012 330 338 112 54 + 27 1.3 Z4 97 + 53 3.1 Z { op: + 24 1.5 0 0 A 0 + 66 6.5 4o A A —54 16.4 44 AQ —8 2.3 4o CO +2 1.8 DZ + 18 33.3 In the loss. above, evaporation is included as a part of the seepage VOLUME OF SEEPAGE LOSSES As this canal is one of the oldest and best constructed in the S ate ’ ln aI1 Probability the losses above recorded are close to a mini¬ mum as compared with other newer and more poorly constructed canals. It may be difficult for some of our readers to realize jun what volume of water 20.3 second feet of seepage represents. In order to assist m this matter, we will suppose that it were possible to collect all of this seepage into one channel and to deliver it into one reservoir without evaporation. If we consider the area of the SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 143 floor of our reservoir as covering ioo acres and that the side wahs of the reservoir were vertical, this amount of water would, in one yearns time, fill the reservoir to a depth of 147 feet. In other words, we would have filled a reservoir 2087 feet square and over 147 feet deep. If we consider only the irrigation season of three months, and made a like reservoir to cover ten acres, we would yet fill this smaller reservoir to a depth of 367.5 feet. And with all we must . keep in mind that the above figures must (even under the most favorable considerations) represent the minimum seepage loss from this canal; for, if we could eliminate the drainage effect from the canal, the seepage losses would exceed the 20.3 second feet by an unknown and possibly large amount. VALUE OF SEEPAGE LOSSES It may be of interest to note that these losses, if they could be avoided, would represent a gain to the company (taking the value of the water as low as we have been able to learn of its sale in the state, $2.00 per inch per season) of $1626, being equal to an invest¬ ment of $20,325 with interest at eight per cent. It must be evident to the reader that it would be impossible to absolutely save all of the water included in the seepage losses. It is also evident that some portions of the canal require greater attention than other por¬ tions, and that there are certain portions of the canal which would pay the company to actually cement line. Also, that m certain poi- tions of the canal the seepage effect is a distinct gain to the com¬ pany, unless these waters are of an unhealthy character. The water in this canal is used for drinking purposes. As before stated, we have found that the removal of one-half of a miners’ inch of water per acre from the ground-water reservoir, was in most cases sufficient to drain the lands we have investigated. With this allowance, the seepage from the above mentioned canal would be sufficient to annually sub-irrigate and eventually destroy 1626 acres of land. If we value the lands of the Yellowstone valley under irrigation at $100 per acre, we find that this ditch is capable (without artificial drainage to oppose same) of annually destroying at least $162,600 worth of valuable land in the state. It does not follow fiom the ’above that this amount of damage is actually chargeable 144 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION to this 01 any canal, as in many cases the waters find outlet in natu¬ ral channels, drains and in other irrigation canals. It is, however, possible that conditions do exist in the state where these figures do not come far from representing the actual conditions. DAMAGE BY SEEPAGE Where drains are not provided the passing off of the ground- Yvateis through natural channels and evaporation, may be so slow u ‘ at ^ ie following season finds the ground water reservoir virtually full, and the seepage losses of the following seasons annually cause greater damage to the formerly sub-irrigated lands, and the area of the wet tract annually increases. Like creeping paralysis, the giound waters first appear in one or two spots and extend over and destroy the whole body. ^ 1C cana l °f the Billings Land & Irrigation Company, we find a yet more peculiar condition. Although this canal passes over a country formerly arid, it now acts as a drain for almost its entire length, or at least until after it passes east of Billings. From measurements taken at the headgates and at a point 15 or 16 miles from same, we found as much as 32 second feet more water in the canal at the lower point of measurement than at the headgates. Wt the canal is subject to even more seepage losses than the can? 1 mentioned in the above table. In cases we traced the water from this canal diiectly to other ditches or the river. The seepage losses from canals we found to be seriously dam¬ aging lands in the Gallatin, Yellowstone, Beaverhead, Bitter Root, Deer Lodge and Missouri River valleys. In some cases we have traced these waters from the canals directly to the lands injured. In some cases the source of the difficulty was evident from surface indications, while in others it was necessary to use fluoresein to trace the flow of the ground waters. In one case we found in a shoit distance of about 400 feet, about 20 per cent of the water of the ditch passing into the gravel, while about a mile below, the land owners were seriously suffering from the rise of the around waters. PREVENTING SEEPAGE LOSSES We are convinced that if the farmers of the valleys and in fact SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 145 cf the state would turn their attentions to preventing seepage losses from their canals and ditches, that a very large percentage of the damage caused by the rise of the ground waters would be avoided, and much expensive drain construction prevented, They should be more careful about dumping their waste irrigation waters into the sloughs, and gravel deposits of the valleys, either by making use of the same as actual sumps or in passing the dram waters through same. We are further of the opinion that our citizens should pass a law requiring the canal companies and irrigators in general to either cement line their canals where passing through gravel or other per¬ vious material, or else puddle the same. That this is a matter of mutual benefit both to the irrigators and the canal companies, is pointed out in the foregoing and is beyond question. RESPONSIBILITY FOR AND EFFECT OF SEEPAGE Another very interesting study of the effect of seepage from the canals can be noted in Plate X. This plate gives the discharge curves from the Arnold drain from June to November 1906, or dur¬ ing the time of construction. The upper, irregular, heavy line rep¬ resents the maximum discharge for each day, while the dot-and- dash line gives the minimum flow. The dotted line at the bottom of the plate is the probable mean drainage flow when not affected by other than ground water conditions. The construction of the drain was commenced at a point a lit¬ tle over one mile from the crossing of the canal of the Billings Land & Irrigation Company. (See Map, Plate VII.) The construction advanced to the west until in the early part of August the workman were ready to cross under the canal. A record of the rate of pro¬ gress was kept and the same compared with the increase in dis¬ charge. As soon as gravel was encountered, in the early part of July, the discharge rapidly increased as the work advanced, reaching a maximum about the middle of that month, when a stream of \*ater in the gravel was tapped. This stream was well described b> the workmen as being “about the size of one’s arm close to the shoulder.” In the early part of August the water was turned off from the canal, and almost immediately the discharge curve dropped to the 146 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION line of the probable drainage flow. (Note drop in both the maxi¬ mum and minimum curve and how abrupt it is.) A few days_ later the water was turned into the canal and the discharge curve imme¬ diately ‘rose to a greater height than ever before. This increase was considered chargeable to the backfilling at the crossing. A few days later the water was turned off of the canal and the crossing repaired. The discharge curve returning to near its former eleva¬ tion when the water was off, less only that which would be expected on account of the extended drain. When the water was again turn¬ ed on the discharge curve returned to about the same point as be¬ fore the cutting through the canal, confirming the impression of the workmen that the increase flow was due to the crossing. Near the last of August, the water was turned off for the season, and the discharge curve almost immediately drops, being again raised by the rains of the season immediately following. From later investiga¬ tions we are lead to the conclusion that much of the effect due to rains was on account of the condition of the back-filling at the time the records were taken. The rains of the following year did not produce an equal effect. It is also interesting to note the rapid in¬ crease in flow during the time when wash gravel was encounter¬ ed, and the lesser increase when in quicksand. From a study of Plate X. the following points become evident: ist, The gravel strata discharges larger quantities of water per lineal foot than any other of the formations; 2nd, The discharge from quicksand formation is less per lineal foot than in either wash gravel or sand; 3rd, A very considerable percentage of the discharge from the Arnold drain either comes directly from the canal of the Billings Land & Irrigation Company and other canals above this drain, or else is intimately associated with the flow of same. The above points were developed by our investigations of 1906 and the following season effort was made to definitely settle these points and to ascertain the effect upon the ground water level. The dis¬ charge from the drain was recorded for the season of 1907, not by continuous daily records, but by ratings made every few days. No data was found to change the above conclusions. As the canal of the B. L. & I. Co. had been called into use prior to the commencement of the season’s investigations, we were not able to note its first effect upon the ground waters. During this SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 14T season a careful study was made with the view of ascertaining what conditions affected the ground water level, not only at the drain, but at points considerably removed from same. No opportunity was presented for noting the effect of turning the waters off of the canal. The investigations we specially centralized to the territory covered the previous season, and represented by the Arnold Drain¬ age District. It was found that the ground waters virtually stood at the same level throughout the entire tract, except for twenty or thirty feet on either side of the Arnold drain. Along this line the surface rapidly fell, but remained at an elevation of several feet above the top of the drain box. This can be observed by examin¬ ation of Plate XIV, and noting the position of the summer curve in relation to the drain. . The water in the manhole near the “C” line of wells stood at a depth of about 4.4 feet during the entire sum¬ mer. This clearly indicated that the size of the drain was insuffi¬ cient to handle the tributary ground waters. Although the investi¬ gations were continued throughout the summer, no change in these conditions were noted, even during the periods when the farmers were haying or when irrigation w r as being practiced to the limit. A very considerable increase in the discharge from the surface drains was noted during the irrigation season. In order to ascertam what the effect would be upon the turning off of the canals, the in¬ vestigations were continued during the winter, representatives go¬ ing to Billings to make the required measurements. After the canal of the B. L. & I. Co. was turned off the ground water curve in the neighborhood of the Arnold drain very materially fell, giving what is shown in Plate XIV as the “Winter curve;” The head of water over the Arnold drain entirely disappeared. This drop was in spite of the fact that the rainy season had set in and that the country as a whole was in a very moist condition. Although we have in the above statements indicated that the canal of the B. L. & I. Co. is responsible for a percentage of the damage caused by the- rise of the ground waters, we do not wish to be understood as claim¬ ing that this company is solely responsible. The reader must bear in mind that our work was very largely in the immediate neighbor¬ hood of the said canal, and that if this canal was responsible for a portion of the water, it was also so located in respect to our investi¬ gations as to produce an almost immediate effect whenever the cause was discontinued. There is no question from our investigations 148 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION but that all of the big canals of the valley are responsible for this condition, and that even in the section under consideration the high line and big ditches are, without question, furnishing a part of the waters which eventually reach the Arnold .drain and aid to maintain the level of the ground waters in the immediate vicinity. Had our investigations been nearer to a source of supply from either of the big canals, we would have, beyond doubt, brought equal judgment against that canal. It will be recognized that the flow of water in soil and gravel is comparatively slow, and that it might take a considerable period to lower the level of the ground water surface considerably removed from the outlet. We cannot expect to draw the water down in the same manner as we would in removing the water from a surface reservoir. EFFECT OF GRAVEL RIDGES It may also be of interest to specially examine Plate XIV. This plate represents a vertical section taken along the “C” line of wells as shown in Plate VII, the same being nearly at right angles to the line of, and crossing, the Arnold drain. At the point where the line crosses the Arnold drain, the drain is located in gravel, while a few feet higher up, the drain passes through a quicksand deposit; the gravel surface being depressed from two to four feet below the grade line of the drain. The “C” line of wells was also located near the canal of the Billings Land & Irrigation Co. as will be noted by Plate VII; the right hand end of the line being at the foot of the waste-bank of the said canal. In this plate the surface of the ground is shown as ascertained m July, 1907; the slight depression over the drain being due to the st ttlement of the back-filling. The basin thus formed served to re¬ tain the rain-watei s and doubtless assisted in causing the change in flow in the drain immediately following a rain. This effect was especially noticeable the first year of the investigations. In Plate XIV. the wells are indicated by heavy vertical lines. Along this line of wells the clay encountered, was of a very dense character, impervious to water to a very marked degree; and with the exception of the point marked ^slough,” no water was encount¬ ered in driving the wells until gravel was reached. When gravel SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 149 WOODEN DRAIN BOX Bill of Material per Rod of Brain Materia/. Size //mt Cost Rough Planking ZX/2 33 R M s @ !8P?rfr1 2*6" 35 •• •• ' • r« *• '• •• Zx 4" J •• • •f ♦' •• Nails ZOd 73P @ JCrer/k Total *!■JO Section SU7 DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS WOKTANA EEPrniMEnT STJVTXOISJ HOVEMBEH IOOC PLATE XI. 150 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION was encountered the water rapidly rose to the line indicated by the “summer curve.” The level of the ground-water-surface in none of these wells reached the surface. The reader will notice that whenever the gravel sub-strata was at a higher elevation than the average, that at such points the ground water curve was depressed and when the gravel strata was depress¬ ed the ground water curve, as indicated by the wells, was corres¬ pondingly elevated. This condition we found to be general, except when near some sources of supply, in which case the ground water curve would rise toward such source. The canal above referred to, near the end of the line of wells was located in the same clay encountered in the wells. The canal runs at this point in a diagonal direction to the line of wells, and passes through gravel at a point almost due east of the slough. This rise and fall of the ground water surface, in relation to the level of the gravel, we carefully studied, and believe that it indicates that these elevated banks of gravel were acting as blind drains, and ass'sting in the removal of the water, and the corresponding lower¬ ing u, the ground-water-level. We also found that where these 'devoted gravel banks came to, or near, the surface at points below the ground-water level, that invariably sloughs existed, wherever irrigation had been practiced sufficiently long to fill the ground- water reservoir. Adjoining lands, where the gravel was deeper,, were not affected, even where considerably below the ground-water level. In Plate XIV the line “A” represents the surface of the ground as surveyed; “B” the ground-water level July, 1907, also the level of the water surface during the summer of 1908; “C” the ground- water level Nov. 15, 1907 and also the winter surface of the ground- waters; “D” the gravel surface where water was encountered. The reader will note that the “B” line passes above the top of the Arnold drain, showing a static head of water over the drain during the summer months, also indicated in adjoining manhole, ao above referred to. The “winter curve” drops to, or near the the grade line of the drain, at crossing. The distance on either side of the drain to which the ground-water level is affected will be noted as very small; although there is a continuous and consider¬ able flow from the drain during all seasons of the year. We have reached the conclusion that the elevated banks of Montana Experiment Station. 1908. Peate XII. Experiment Station drain during construction. SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 151 gravel were largely responsible for the reduction of the ground water levels, and that the large flows encountered in places in the con¬ struction of the Arnold drain, are chargeable to the cutting of these gravel banks, and intercepting- the flow in same. We have attempted to ascertain if any difference exists as to the character of the lower and higher banks of gravel, and are lead to believe that these ridges are composed of less dense wash-gravel than the lower and more level strata. We have not been able to examine suffic¬ ient locations to establish this as a fact, but believe that it is reason¬ able, and is born out by our investigations to date. If such is the case this more open gravel undoubtedly acts as a blind-drain and offers less resistance to the flow of the ground waters than the other formations. In such an event drains located in and along these ridges, or arranged to drain same, will doubtless prove less expen¬ sive of construction and more efficient than those located in the level gravel deposits. LOCATING DRAINS In relation to the statement that “drains in the valley, located along subdivision lines and entirely from surface indications, will not give the greatest efficiencies,” Plates X. and VII., also XIV. confirm. Plate X. shows that the greatest increase in drainage wat¬ ers was found when encountering gravel (as shown during the month of August.) A study of the sub-formation indicates that after crossing the line of the canal of the B.L. & I. C., the drain should have taken an almost due easterly course, slightly to the south if anything, along which line the gravel is much closer to the surface. This line was indicated during the summer by increased signs of sub-irrigation. The line of the drain should have crossed the NW. quarter of Sec. I, instead of following the county road. A branch j extending into the slough in Sec. 2 would also follow a gravel ridge. The necessity for so locating the drain is further evidenced by the washing out of the quicksand and the settlement of the drain box at a point in theArnold drain previously referred to, which later necessitated the re-excavation and the placing of supports on side of drain box driven to gravel. In 1907 an examination of the man¬ holes disclosed the fact that further trouble could be expected on account of the filling of the drain-box with quicksand. 152 MONTANA EXPERIMENT oTATION SEEPAGE AMD DRAINAGE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION PLATE XIII SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 153 We recognize the fact that (especially on the river bottoms) it will be difficult to keep the drains down upon or into gravel. In some portions of the Galley it may be necessary to design a system of drains sufficiently deep as to rest on gravel and discharge into a common sump, this sump to be drained by pumps. The winds of the ellowstone valley could be well harnessed for the purpose and the quantity to be discharged need not be large. The line of drains could be spaced with manholes or sumps in which are operated pumps actuated by wind mills and the waters (if not too strongly impregnated with alkali) could be used for irrigation purposes. SEEPAGE IN CLAY In relation to the surface soil and clay formations, we have al¬ ready referred to the fact that moisture was not observed in the clay beyond a limit of one foot from the gravel, even when the clay was under a pressure-head of 15 to 18 feet. Some of the surface drainage ditches were also investigated. Two-inch auger holes were driven diagonally under the ditch and so as to pass a few inches under the bottom of the same. The clay taken from a depth of one foot under the water showed little or no trace of moisture, more than similar samples taken from points considerably removed from the ditch. It therefore becomes evident that ditches and canals construct¬ ed in this clay would show little or no seepage loss, and that the seepage losses from canals must be charged almost entirely to places where the canal passes through less dense material. This fact is further confirmed by the measurements in the canal above referred to, where in one section no seepage losses were discovered. It is also evident that this material offers a possible means of aiding to overcome the seepage losses from our canals. In Plate XIII. Fig. 1 shows proposed section of canal before construction, the surface soil overlaying gravel. In Fig. 2 the shaded section shows addi¬ tional excavation beyond that originally contemplated. This space should be filled with the stiff clay already referred to. A small amount of water should be added after the clay is in place and a band of cattle or sheep repeatedly driven through the canal. This method we believe, will prove to be an economical means of over¬ coming seepage to a very large extent. If the gravel is well cov. 154 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION ered with one foot of this clay and thoroughly puddled we believe that seepage will almost entirely cease . formation of sloughs The reason for the formation of the sloughs in the Yellowstone valley, especially upon the benches, and where not directly charge¬ able Vo the deposit of surface water from the ditches, comes from the fact that the gravel is either close to the surface or overlaid by a soil liberally impregnated with sand. In many cases this soil after being saturated with water, will almost pass for quicksand. The pressure in the gravel below, forces the water through this sandy soil to the surface, and to a level corresponding to the actual ground water level. So long as water is not turned into the sloughs the pressure supplies only sufficient water to equal evaporation. When water is turned into the slough, the level of the surface is raised above the normal level of the ground-waters, and the direc¬ tion of flow is reversed. Thus these waters deposited in the sloughs either raise the actual ground-water level or passing into the reservoir furnish an additional supply for the drains and natural channels to remove. It at once becomes evident that if we are deal¬ ing with a question of drainage that it is inadvisable to turn surface waters into the sloughs. NEEDED LEGISLATION It is evident to one who has studied the situation in the state, that it will be impossible to control these matters without proper legislation. Mr. A. has a field, near the lower corner of which is located a small depression in gravel, into which he finds that he can cause his surplus water to disappear. Without this he wouid be compelled to construct a drain to prevent his extra waters pas'^ mg into the county roads or down upon his neighbor s fields, it would be a hard matter to convince Mr. A. that he is not justified in making use of this condition, although it might not be a difficult undertaking to convince him that his neighbors lands were suf¬ fering from the rise of the ground waters. We have also found instances where water users have turned from 60 to 200 inches of water upom their pastures, and given the SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 155 Seme no attention for weeks at a time. In some cases the water as found its way to some low spot in the field and disappeared and the owner has congratulated himself that he has a tract verJ easy to attend to. Such a citizen should be compelled by law 10 either properly attend to the distribution of his water or forfeit his light, as beyond doubt he is a source of damage to the farms of the vcdley situated at a lower elevation, and he is in a position where it is very difficult to lay the responsibility, or the proper proportion ot same, at his door. e can understand how the “dog in the manger” spirit of some men lead them to waste what they cannot use rather than benefit their neighbors; but we fail to realize why our canal companies can- no be made to realize that every inch of seepage from their canals means a loss of income, or an unnecessary expenditure in the first place, and that it is a matter of business economy to conserve their waters for the consumers. TRACING SEEPAGE WATERS If It is possible that many do not realize that it is not an impossi¬ ble matter for the irrigation engineers to directly trace the seepage water of canals to the lands below, and where so done we question 'f the canal owners cannot be held responsible for damages sus- tained. If our laws do not permit us to require that the ditches of the country are properly secure against seepage losses, we should pro¬ vide a law which would clearly make the ditch owners responsible for damage from seepage waters turned onto and injuring lower lands. Under present engineering practice, it is not impossible to di¬ rectly trace the passage of seepage waters by means of fluorescein Water supply paper No. 160, as published by the United States i geological Survey gives the following interesting data concerning the use of this material. “ With the fluorescope one part of fluorescein can be detected in io billion parts of water. “Fluorescein is a particularly valuable flow indicator for fis¬ sured or cavernized rocks. It is also available in gravels, where it 156 / MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION has been used with success. Its progress is slightly lower rate than the water in which it is suspended. /‘It is not decolorized by passage through sand, gravel, or ma¬ nure; it is slightly decomposed by calcarious soils. It has-been used with much success for several years by the city of Paris. The bulletin above referred to gives the following interesting acocunt of an experiment at Auxerre, France: “An especially noteworthy ’experiment was conducted at Aux¬ erre to demonstrate the passage of pointed water from a ditc 1 through alluvial deposits of sand and gravel into a collecting ga ery from which the city supply was taken. Two and two-tenths pounds of fluorescein were put into the brook 2C.4 feet in a straight line from the gallery, and samples were taken of the water pumped from the galleries. Fluorescein was shown two and one-fourth hours after the dye was put into the broo.c, and an intense discoloration was clearly visible to the naked eye m about ten hours, lasting thirteen hours. By examining samples from many sources throughout the city and estimating the amount of fluorescein present, it was found that the city water was colored for thirteen hours at an average of one part of fluorescein in 30,- Experiments are also recorded in the same publication where the distance passed over by the fluorescein was over three miles. There are places in this state where, beyond doubt, the dam¬ age to certain lands could be traced entirely to the seepage waters of a canal above. Where there are a number of canals above the land the task becomes more difficult. In new canals, located above lands hitherto not subject to irrigation this matter would be more simple, and we are inclined to believe that if this possibility was more thoroughly appreciated it would result in better construction and more attention being paid to proper protection against seepage. That the matter of preventing seepage losses is a decided benefit to both the ditch and the land owners has already been pointed out. A law which would result in lessening the losses by seepage from our canals and ditches would prove a mutual benefit to all concern ed, and might result in less construction designed to last only until the lands are sold. SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 157 EXPERIMENTS TO PREVENT SEEPAGE LOSSES The twelfth conclusion, pointing out the necessity for the Ex¬ periment Stations to discover some more economical means, or ma- tenal, by which seepage losses may be prevented, has been taken up by some of the stations of the west, particularly by California and Montana. The question we believe is of sufficient importance to warrant more general investigation. Montana has a specially dif¬ ficult problem on account of the action of frost, which necessitates extra heavy concrete construction. A natural, more or less plastic and yet impervious material for preventing seepage would be ideal if made practicable. We have noted the effect of alkali to turn the soil into a densei and less pervious material, and it is possible that this thought could be turned to advantage. Those who are familiar with the alkali spots, commonly called “Buffalo wallows” will recognize the possi¬ bility referred to. It is possible that as alkali will destroy Port¬ land cement, as already demonstrated by this station, that its ac¬ tion upon the humus of the soil may also be of a nature to produce a more water-resistant material. Our investigations thus far con¬ ducted point to this conclusion, although no definite results have been obtained. • WHERE THE RAILWAYS MAY ASSIST As to the suggestion that possibly our Railway Commission could come to the aid of the cement industry of the state, we feel that it is hardly necessary to call the attention of our citizens to the fact that immense deposits of both natural and Portland cement producing materials can be found in this state. Abundant water power is within reach of many of these deposits, sufficient to make use of the Edison miethod of manufacture, and there are thousands of acres of undeveloped coal fields. At the present time we receive all of our cement from the south and east, and pay more freight per barrel than the initial cost of the cement. If we could secure local freight rates and rates to the east which would favor Montana, it would be but a short time before our cemient industries in this state would add to our wealth and prosperity. 158 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION THE OPEN DITCH In a number of the valleys of the state we have noted the con ¬ struction of the open ditch designed to overcome the troubles inci¬ dent to the ground-water rise. We have already touched upon this subject, but we feel that it is important to emphasize the fact that such constructions have repeatedly been proven failures in this state. We could enumerate a number of instances where such fail¬ ures have occurred. The open ditch designed to carry off surface Vater has its place, and in such constructions (in this state) should be made as shallow as reasonably possible, in order to avoid the possible reaching of some pervious material. When the open ditch is designed as a sub-surface drain, it it first gives limited results, and gradually diminishes its flow until it becomes valueless. A surface ditch in clay, thus designed, fails entirely to do the work expected of it. A surface ditch in gravel, if all the way in wet ground, does work until, through the growth of plant life and the deposit of silt, a sufficient obstruction is plac¬ ed over the gravel to cause the water to continue on its way in that material. Generally these open ditches are tramped and filled in by stock, producing in time the identical effect shown in Figure 2, Plate XIII. We would caution our readers against the use of such construction and if they desire we can give them addresses of citi¬ zens in this state who years since proved to their own satisfaction the correctness of these statements, or we can point them to loca¬ tions which they can investigate for themselves. DRAIN CONSTRUCTING MACHINERY The 16th conclusion, relating to the use of machinery in drain construction, is one which we believe should be carefully considered by those owning lands requiring drainage. * The relief system of drainage necessitates deeply laid drains, and we have found that such work done by hand is expensive, and that it is difficult to ob¬ tain labor for same. There are a number of machines in the market designed es¬ pecially for this class of work, some of which are sold upon an abso¬ lute guarantee and skilled mechanics sent out with each machine to t*ach its use. Although these machines are expensive, they will SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 159 very much reduce the cost of drain construction. All of our inves¬ tigations have pointed to the fact that the drainage problems of our valleys should be solved upon a large scale. DRAINAGE DISTRICTS . The present drainage district law is a good one, but our people should make sure in locating these districts that the same are so selected as not to make the design of the drainage system unneces-* sarily expensive. In fact, our drainage districts should be largely located by the most practicable and economical drainage system capable of serving a given area. The multiplication of small and possibly overlapping drainage districts we believe to be a mistake. THE DRAINAGE ENGINEER In the drainage of such a valley as the Yellowstone west of Billings, we can state without hesitation that we believe it to the interests of the county to secure the services of some drainage en- gineer, have him make a careful study of the entire problem and design a complete general system for the portions of the valley suf¬ fering from sub-irrigation. After this is done, the County Commis¬ sioners should see to it that the drainage districts and drainage sys¬ tems are made to harmonize with these designs. Under present practice money spent by “A” in draining his lands may in the course of a very few years unnecessarily cause “B” to drain his lands. 1 his could be thus avoided. The people of the valleys before mentioned, and I imagine a great many of the valleys which have not come under my personal observation, must awaken to the fact that they all have drainage problems to face. Beaverhead, Gallatin, Yellowstone and Deer Lodge valleys are already “up against” this problem. Bitter Root valley is beginning to read the signs, and if I am not mistaken, with tiie completion of other canals in this valley, and a year or two m time, will see hundreds of acres submerged. The question of drain¬ age in these valleys is inevitable, and the people will save thous¬ ands of dollars if they will awake to the fact, face the difficulty squarely, do what they can to delay the evil day, or narrow the limits of its area, and plan to meet the question as a people, and not individually. 160 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION Individual effort will prove a material benefit, but it will prove- a far less tax and far more beneficial if the question is handled by the county or community. STATE AID ADVISABLE After several years study of the irrigation and drainage condi¬ tions in this and other states, the writer is convinced that the state would make no mistake by creating the office of State Drainage and Irrigation Engineer. This office should not be made a servant of the State Engineer, or if it is made a part of his duties, the law should distinctly specify that the said engineer shall be an expert along the lines of drainage and irrigation. In recommending such action by our legislators the author wishes to be distinctly placed on record in the statement that if such work is entrusted to an en gineer who has not made a special study of the same, that it wdl be far better to leave the work for the several communities to set¬ tle their difficulties as best they may. ALKALI In most of the valleys of the state alkali exists to a greater or less extent. The ground-waters passing through the lower forma¬ tions take up these soluble salts and hold them in solution. When the ground water reaches a point near the surface, capillary attrac¬ tion assisting brings these alkali waters to the surface. Evapor¬ ation takes place, removing the water and leaving the alkali deposit¬ ed upon the surface in the form of a white powder. The operation is continued daily, and crops yield less and less until the soil becomes absolutely non-productive. To remove this alkali re¬ quires time and labor, even after a drainage system has been es¬ tablished, and our ground waters not only destroy the crop produc¬ ing power of the soil by excessie moisture and the shutting out the air, but in many cases leaves the soil so impregnated with alkali as te require years of labor to reclaim. EFFECT OF ALKALI We have already called attention to the fact that alkali is des- SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE 161 tructive to plant life. Not only is this the case, but this department has for the past year or two been investigating its effiect upon Port¬ land cement. Already we have published Bulletin No. 69, upon this subject, and since the publication of same we have been able to prove in our laboratories that the alkali of our soils is an extremely active agent in destroying Portland cement. We would therefore specially caution our readers against the use of cement in drain con¬ struction, in any form in which it may be avoided. Cement tile diains and culverts made of concrete are all destined to failure when placed in alkali soils. The second bulletin upon the effect of alkali will soon be in the hands of the printer and will be sent to any of our readers applying for sarnie. DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATERS We believe that it is well to call the attention of our readers to the possibilities in developing the ground waters of the valleys and making use of the same for irrigation purposes. Where alkali is not too abundant, these waters may be made of great value, sufficient, possibly, to offset the expense of constructing a drainage system. Take, for instance, the waters from the Lamme project. This 25 inches of water would represent a rental charge of not less than $50 per annum, during the irrigation season alone and the actual value to the farmer must be in excess of that amount; and it is safe to say that for stock purposes it is well worth an additional $10 per annum, making a total of $60. Taking interest at the legal rate of 8 per cent, we find that this amount would equal the interest on $750. The waters in this case are annually worth more than the cost of the drain construction, and the land has been drained as well. There is no reason why a number of farmers could not combine and construct drainage systems, which would give them undisputed water rights at less expense than is often-times neces¬ sary to defend their present stream rights. At the present time there is a case in our courts involving a large number of claimants, the expense of which litigation will run far into the thousands of dollars. This same money expended in drainage would undoubtedly give some of these farmers better farms and better and more satisfactory water rights, and leave more water for the other claimants, giving to all of these farmers more 162 MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION water than the courts can ever award them. What many of the farmers of this valley need is not more water, but rather less water properly distributed.