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BULXOETJN No. 8, Experiments with Corn, 1889, Is bound \rtth this. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 
 CHAMPAIGN, NOVEMBER, 1889. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 7. 
 
 THE BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE. 
 
 Experiment No. 77. 
 
 These investigations were undertaken with the hope of gaining some 
 new information concerning the changes, due to fermentation, which take 
 place in silos filled with immature Indian corn or other green herbage. 
 It was also hoped that some knowledge could be acquired in regard to 
 the conditions under which the various processes take place, to the end 
 that the management of this important method of preserving fodder 
 might be brought within the control of intelligent action. It is well rec- 
 ognized that great progress has been made in this matter in recent times, 
 by practical experiments and abundant observations; yet all this has been 
 in a tentative, empirical way, modified only by the general facts concern- 
 ing fermentations which have now become common property. Very little 
 has been done in our country, or anywhere else, upon the side of scientific 
 studies of the observed changes in ensilage, though in other arts, notably 
 brewing and wine- making, such studies have rendered vital service to im- 
 portant industries. In fact the modern views in regard to fermentations 
 and decompositions of organic matter have been revolutionary in thought 
 and often in practical procedure, modifying, amending, or overturning 
 former ideas and methods. In multitudes of cases operations which have 
 been empirically performed for ages, perhaps in clumsy or expensive ways, 
 have not only become, in the light of the new knowledge, rational pro- 
 cedures, but have been greatly simplified and vastly improved. One of 
 the oldest arts practiced by man, or rather by woman, is that of bread- 
 making. From the very dawn of history, yeast has been employed as a 
 ferment in moistened flour: it was the leaven of the Hebrew Scriptures. 
 When we consider the long ages of its use, in one of the most common 
 and familiar household procedures, it must seem astonishing, at least to 
 
178 BULLETIN NO. 7. [November, 
 
 those of scientific habits of thought, that a rational explanation of its 
 effects was left to be given by a man now living, one who is still doing 
 preeminently important service for mankind, and, fortunately, one whose 
 labors are fittingly appreciated. The world renowned Pasteur, of Paris, 
 achieved his first great success as an investigator in his studies upon yeast. 
 It is only during the last half of our century that science has rationally 
 contributed to this element of bread-making. The contribution, how- 
 ever, is a notable one, and the way is now fairly open for further help in 
 the same directions; for it can now be clearly understood that while the 
 factors in the problem are known, the problem itself is not fully solved. 
 Wine-making seems to be as old an art as bread-making, and the same 
 story can be told of it as well as of many other familiar operations; while 
 some entirely new industries have arisen directly based upon modern 
 knowledge of fermentation. Among these latter are to be placed several 
 prepared foods and drinks now commonly offered for sale. Ensilage, 
 though recently introduced, does not appear to have been originally sug- 
 gested in this way. It came into use just as sour-krout was made many 
 years or centuries before, from common experience and observation; and 
 both are now where this practical experience has brought them, if indeed 
 we can properly speak of two things in this case; for the main differences 
 between ensilage and sour-krout seem to be that one is made from corn 
 or clover, the other from cabbage; one is usually kept in large bins, the 
 other in barrels. But we shall see further on that an important distinc- 
 tion is to be made. 
 
 We shall be better able to understand the reasons for, and the results 
 of, the special investigations upon ensilage, as hereafter described, by first 
 considering the general facts in regard to fermentation, now universally 
 accepted as true among scientists. In the first place, and of the most 
 importance, it must be unqualifiedly assumed that all degenerative changes 
 occurring in all ordinary organic matter are due to the action of living 
 organisms, which, by the help of the microscope, and other apparatus, 
 can be seen and studied so that one may come to know them and their 
 liabits of life as well as larger plants and animals are known. This is a 
 sweeping generalization, but certainly it is as true as are most other gen- 
 eral statements. To illustrate: when meat putrifies, when milk sours, 
 when butter becomes rancid, when eggs rot, when cider gets " hard " or 
 changes into vinegar, when manure and green herbage in piles heat, when 
 wood decays, when water containing organic matter in solution becomes 
 foul, when anything ordinarily known spoils, rots, sours, putrifies, mil- 
 dews, ferments, molds, we may be absolutely sure that the changes noted 
 are the effects of some living things, whether or not they are discern- 
 able to the unaided eye. Organic matter, contrary to the former con- 
 ception, has within itself no tendency to change on exposure to the air. 
 The freshly drawn blood of an animal will retain indefinitely its original 
 character in warm summer weather, freely exposed to the air, if we take the 
 precaution to keep from it all living organisms, and we now know how this 
 
1889.] BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE. , 179 
 
 maybe easily done. The process of preserving fruits and meats in sealed 
 cans was introduced when it was supposed that the air itself, or some 
 part of it, coupled with the influence of heat, was the destroying agent. 
 According to this idea, fruit was boiled to drive out the air it contained, 
 then the jar into which the hot substance was put was hermetically closed 
 to prevent the access of other air. The process, as we now know, hap- 
 pened to be better than the explanation. The facts are: the material is 
 first boiled to kill all living organisms adhering thereto, and then the jar 
 is closed to keep other living things away from it. Instead of the air- 
 tight sealing, a plug of cotton-wool, through which the air freely passes, 
 may be used with equally favorable results, because this acts as a filter 
 and strains out all floating bodies, large and small. In order, however, to 
 make this experiment successful, the cotton itself must be baked to kill 
 every thing adhering to it, and the vessel must have enough of a neck to 
 allow the sterilized cotton to be used as a cork. In the laboratory where 
 the writer does most of his work, this method of preserving, for days and 
 months, even for years, the most putrescible substances is in constant and 
 abundant use, with uniformily satisfactory results. It is the usual method 
 now in all biological laboratories, hence a matter of abundant practical 
 proof, as well as a theoretical truth. 
 
 Secondly, it may be affirmed that different kinds of micro-organisms 
 act special roles, each after its kind. It is quite probable that no two 
 species, and there are multitudes of them, living upon the same substances, 
 produce identical results. But, however this may be, it is absolutely cer- 
 tain that many kinds which have been carefully studied have peculiarly 
 characteristic physiological properties by which they may be recognized 
 without resort to the microscope. Thus, when sugar in dilute solution 
 changes into alcohol and subsequently the aqueous alcoholic solution is 
 converted into vinegar, we may be positive that yeast was present as the 
 active agent in the first change, and that another well known but quite 
 different organism presided at the second transformation. It would be 
 going much too far to assert that no two species of these minute workers 
 have physiological similarities or identities; or, indeed, that one may not 
 do under some circumstances just what another does under some other 
 conditions. They certainly have much in common; but, in numerous 
 instances, at least, a species has strikingly uniform activities under given 
 conditions, and these are peculiar to itself under these same conditions. 
 The same things, however, may give different results when the condi- 
 tions are different; as when the nutrient medium contains different ele- 
 ments, or when this does or does not contain free oxygen. Yeast may 
 grow upon the surface of sv/eetened water and form no alcohol, but reduce 
 the sugar at once to carbonic acid and water; when it is submerged and 
 other things remain the same, alcohol is produced. As a rule, however, 
 we may say that different chemical changes are brought about by differ- 
 ent organisms; exceptions are known, but they are exceptions rather than 
 contradictions. 
 
180 BULLETIN NO. 7. \_NoTenber, 
 
 Again, thirdly, these silent but potent and ubiquitous agents of fer- 
 mentation and putrefaction are minute plants. It is readily comprehen- 
 sible that all living things are either plants or animals. Everything that 
 absorbs nutriment, grows, and reproduces its kind must have life, hence 
 must be either a plant or an animal. There are indeed some small ani- 
 mals which cause ferment-like or rot-like processes, but we may neglect 
 these entirely and say that all the usual changes of this kind in dead or- 
 ganic matter have as their producing cause living plants of very simple 
 structure, and, for the most part, microscopical dimensions. These lowly 
 organized members of the vegetable kingdom are subject to the same laws 
 of existence and reproduction as the higher plants. There is no such 
 thing as spontaneous generation for the one more than for the other. The 
 ferment workers spring only from parent individuals. Molds, for instance, 
 do not originate in moist bread, but simply grow from seed-like germs, 
 produced by preceeding molds of the same kind. That which sours milk 
 no more arises from the milk than seed potatoes are transformations of 
 soil. The only reason why the ferment organisms seem somehow to arise 
 from the substance of the fermenting material is because they are so small 
 and may so readily be carried by currents or air, etc. 
 
 Lastly, these minute plants may be said to belong to three principal 
 groups, which for our purpose may be called (i) yeasts, (2) bacteria, and 
 (3) fungi. Of the first there are comparatively few well recognized species, 
 although it must be well understood that all yeasts are by no means alike 
 in exact appearance or physiological effect. One that we shall have 
 specially to deal with is widely different in the latter sense from that com- 
 monly employed in bread- and beer-making. Alcohol is the almost unique 
 and very characteristic product of these plants. The second group in- 
 cludes a vast number of kinds, varying much in appearance and still 
 more in function. They are preeminently the change-workers in the sub- 
 stance of plants and animals, livingand dead. Some are " disease germs; " 
 others are harmless or even beneficial to living things, but are active 
 destroyers of dead bodies; some produce fermentations desired by men; 
 others are his enemies from every ordinary point of view. Our silos teem 
 with various kinds of these effective creatures. The third group is like- 
 wise immense numerically and the individuals are wondrously diversified. 
 Mushrooms, toadstools, molds, rusts, smuts, mildews, etc., are examples. 
 We shall have to do only with molds, but even in this subdivision the 
 species are amazingly numerous and the characteristics widely diverse. 
 They may be termed rot or decay agents, and in the silo are always late 
 in appearance and terminal in order of effect. 
 
 OPPORTUNITIES FOR STUDY AND METHODS PURSUED. 
 
 The investigations were begun in September, 1888. This is written 
 January 2, 1890. 
 
 In 1888-89 two s ^ os upon the University farms were carefully exam- 
 ined when the ensilage was in different states, at successive intervals 
 
7889.] BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE. l8l 
 
 during six months, beginning a few days after filling. One of the silos 
 was burned in September, 1889; the other has again been studied as 
 hereafter detailed. Studies were also made upon material secured from 
 Mr. H. K. Vickroy, Normal, 111., and from Mr. H. B. Gurler, DeKalb, 
 111., dated respectively May 17, 1889, and July 29, 1889. This in both 
 cases was well preserved corn ensilage of the preceding season. 
 
 June 18, 1889, four alcohol or oil barrels were closely packed with 
 green wheat, cut when the grain was in the dough. The straw was cut 
 into half-inch lengths and at once placed in the barrels and pounded 
 down. After the barrels had been filled as full as possible, the heads were 
 replaced and the iron hoops driven on, thus inclosing the material in a 
 practically air-tight receptacle. The barrels were then packed in dry 
 straw in the entry compartment of a wooden silo. A glass tube two- 
 thirds of an inch in diameter, closed at its lower end, was inserted by 
 means of a rubber cork through the bung of each barrel and pushed down 
 to the center of the enclosed wheat. A thermometer was placed in the 
 tube, and the latter corked at its upper end. It is well known that glass 
 is a very poor conductor of heat; the outer, exposed end of this tube 
 would remain cool, whatever the temperature inside, while the thermom- 
 eter in its lower end would stand at very nearly the temperature of the 
 surrounding mass. A method was thus provided for knowing the temper- 
 ature of the fermenting material without opening the barrel to the air or 
 exposing its contents to modifications in the process of examination. The 
 thick bed of dry straw outside the barrels was intended to prevent the 
 escape of heat from the comparatively small masses of material. At a 
 later date, September 10, 1889, the same method was tried with corn, and, 
 we shall see, with similar results. 
 
 > July 13, 1889, mixed clover and timothy grass, with the former pre- 
 dominating, was cut and very closely packed in a wooden box, 2^ x 3^ x 6 
 feet. This was covered with boards and well weighted. In all these cases 
 careful observations were made upon the temperature attained and the 
 changes taking place. The barrels were opened one at a time at intervals 
 of some days or weeks. 
 
 In the laboratory, we made use of one-gallon stone jars of cylindrical 
 shape, fitted with wooden covers on which heavy weights were placed; 
 also two-quart "globe" fruit jars with rubber ring and glass top. These 
 vessels were solidly packed with finely cut corn in different stages of ma- 
 turity and were kept in incubators ranging in temperature from 21 C. to 
 55 C. (70 to 131 F.). In some of these jars certain proportions of water 
 and in some cases commercial yeast or fermented ensilage in varying quan- 
 tities were added. These small receptacles were used in considerable 
 number twenty-five to thirty at one time and offered the opportunity of 
 testing many different conditions, while the temperatures maintained by the 
 incubators fairly represented the influence of large masses of material. 
 
 In all cases, besides the direct examination of the fermenting material 
 by the aid of the microscope and otherwise, resort has been had to the 
 
182 BULLETIN NO. 7. \Novcmber ^ 
 
 modern methods of bacteriological cultivations in test tubes and plates 
 with various liquid and solid nutrient media. A large number of perma- 
 nent microscopical slides have been preserved, and the full original notes 
 are retained in the laboratory. 
 
 In connection with the microscopical and biological observations, 
 chemical analyses were made by Albert G. Manns, Ph. D., in charge of 
 the chemical laboratory of the Experiment Station. The general results 
 of this part of the work are presented on pp. 190-193, as submitted by the 
 author, to whom the writer is under many obligations for suggestions and 
 aid in the prosecution of the work. 
 
 RESULTS OBTAINED. 
 
 The words, sweet and sour, as applied to ensilage are now commonly 
 used, and much is made of the wide practical difference in the states of 
 the material so designated. Formerly, it is often said, nearly all attempts 
 to preserve fodder in this way gave only the sour quality; but with the 
 recent improvements in the silo itself, and especially in the management 
 of the material, it is claimed that sweet ensilage is obtained. These two 
 states are popularly associated with, respectively, the alcoholic and the 
 acetic fermentations. In French, English, and American literature these 
 two kinds of fermentation are uniformly mentioned in connection with 
 the so-called sweet and sour states of ensilage in all cases where the 
 writer has seen any mention at all of the kinds of changes occurring. In 
 addition, the butyric fermentation is frequently alluded to as an ultimate 
 spoiled condition of the substance, associated perhaps with mold, which 
 is for the most part referred to Penicillium, the common blue mold of 
 damp bread, cheese, etc. As the alcoholic fermentation is known to be 
 due to yeast, this living agent is not unfrequently spoken of, as, at least, 
 the possible cause of the internal change which results in <: sweet " ensil- 
 age. The actual presence of a yeast species in silos, reported in bulletin 
 No. 2, page 22, of this Experiment Station, and mentioned by Mr. H. L. 
 Russell, of Madison, Wis. (Agricultural Science, May, 1889), gave added 
 probability that the desirable ferment in this case was indeed an alcoholic 
 one. Such was the supposition in mind when these inquiries were first 
 made, and with this in view some of the laboratory experiments hereto- 
 fore described, were made by adding certain definite' quantities of tested 
 kinds of commercial yeast with a view of more certainly starting alco- 
 holic rather than some other ferment from the "germs" naturally occur- 
 ring in the material. If wheaten dough may be made to undergo alco- 
 holic fermentation by the use of yeast, it was presumed that the same 
 management might be useful with ensilage, a presumption which we shall 
 see was not well founded in fact. 
 
 The process for making " sweet " ensilage recommended by Fry and 
 by Voelker in England and by Miles in our country, is to fill so slowly that 
 the mass by sufficient exposure to the air may become, to begin with, 
 very hot, in order, it is thought, to kill the included " germs " of the acid 
 
1889.] BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE. 183 
 
 ferments. Practical experience had shown that this method did often 
 give excellent results, but also that quick filling was frequently as satis- 
 factory. No intelligent explanation seems to have been offered for thi3 
 last result, and little or no further knowledge seems to have been ascer- 
 tained from scientific inquiry at the time when the writer began his work. 
 It is not proposed in this paper to give the details of separate exper- 
 iments or observations, partly because to most readers they would be of 
 comparatively little value; but also because we do not feel competent to 
 write up anything like a complete account of the biology of ensilage. 
 The work so far has been interesting and instructive to those engaged in 
 it; but a considerable part of the knowledge attained is negative in char- 
 acter, like that upon the agency of yeast, just noted. The statements 
 made in what follows must be understood to be the expression of apparent 
 results rather than positive and fully demonstrated conclusions. They 
 are made in very general form and with no intention of following the order 
 of the experiments themselves. 
 
 1. The fermentation of ensilage is an exceedingly complex problem. 
 It very rarely happens, if, indeed, it ever does occur, that a single kind of 
 chemical change, due to a single species of living organism, takes place 
 without the association of one or more similar concurrent changes in the 
 same mass due to other species of active agents. This complexity of fer- 
 mentive action is no doubt due in part to the various chemical substances 
 included in the fermenting material. If the action was confined to the 
 sugar of the plant, or to the starch, or to some one nitrogeneous substance, 
 we doubtless should have very different results. Other complexities arise 
 from the various modifications of conditions, as the states of the mate- 
 rial when used, the character of the weather at the time and immediately 
 preceding, the size of the mass, and the construction of the silo. 
 
 2. Ensilage is not, properly speaking, a preserved product. Fermen- 
 tations and decompositions continually take place from the time of stor- 
 age until the material is removed from the silo. These changes are widely 
 different in kind and rapidity in different cases, and vary greatly in regard 
 to the ultimate product as a material for food. 
 
 3. Alcoholic fermentation has little or nothing to do with ensilage. 
 Yeast is at no time found in the silo as a producer of alcohol. The 
 species which does occur, often in considerable quantity, is Saccharomyces 
 mycoderma, Rees, or Mycoderma vini, of Pasteur. This under usual cir- 
 cumstances does not produce alcohol at all, though it does have that 
 function to a limited extent under special conditions not known to be 
 offered in the silo. It is the species which is so often found on the sur- 
 face of vinegar, and especially of that in which cucumber and other pickles 
 are kept, as well as on the juices of fruits of many kinds. Housekeepers 
 frequently meet with it on boiled beets immersed in vinegar. In the silo 
 it appears only after acetic fermentation occurs, and then is often found 
 in quantity upon the exposed surface of the sour material. If a little acid 
 ensilage is placed in a glass or tin vessel where it will be kept moist for a 
 
J 84 BULLETIN NO. 7. [November, 
 
 few days at the ordinary temperature of an occupied room, this white 
 effloresence will be pretty sure to make its appearance on the surface of 
 the cut stalks, etc. Its effect is to reduce the acid to compounds of lower 
 grade, mainly to carbonice acid and water. 
 
 Alcohol is sometimes produced by other organisms than yeast; but 
 if it occur in the silo, the product is quite certainly not ethyl alcohol 
 the compound that in common usage the name alcohol is used to desig- 
 nate but butyl alcohol, or some allied form. It is a product of fermen- 
 tation due to bacteria, if it really exist, as to which there are grave 
 doubts. 
 
 It cannot, therefore, be said that the so-called "sweet" ensilage is 
 the result of an alcoholic fermentation. In the laboratory experiments 
 previously mentioned in which yeast was added to the fresh material, no 
 alcoholic fermentation ensued, though the conditions were made in the 
 several tests considerably different and in some of them, certainly, favor- 
 able to the action of yeast. Undoubtedly, in at least some of the trials, 
 alcohol would have been formed, if sufficient water had been added to 
 submerge the mass; but'this would not have been a close imitation of the 
 conditions in an ordinary silo. In one case some clean acid ensilage, 
 just taken from the central mass of the farm silo, was placed in a glass 
 receiver and allowed to stand a few days until there appeared a consider- 
 able growth of mycoderma yeast; then the vessel was filled with water 
 and the escaping gas collected. This proved to be carbonic acid. No 
 alcohol was subsequently found in the water. No alcohol was found by 
 Dr. Manns in any of his analyses. 
 
 We may be further assured that the hot fermentation which often 
 takes place soon after the silo is filled, and which has been assumed by 
 some to be necessary for " sweet " ensilage, is not due to yeast, because 
 no species of this class of organisms can retain its activity at anything 
 like the temperature attained. The best temperature for brewers' yeast 
 is from 25 to 30 C. (78 to 86 F.), while 60 C. (140 F.) and above, is 
 not uncommon for the hot ensilage. Above 30 C., yeast loses its power 
 of growth and development in an accelerating ratio as the heat increases. 
 It is true that in some liquids its life is not destroyed until the tempera- 
 ture is raised for a short time above 55 C., but under most circumstances 
 this degree of heat is entirely destructive to its vitality, while a much 
 lower temperature prevents its physiological functions. It is plain that a 
 body cannot be raised to a higher temperature through the process of fer- 
 mentation than the organism causing such fermentation is capable of 
 enduring. There seems, indeed, to be no reason for supposing that the 
 heat should be greater than that under which the organism finds its best 
 development; because above this point, the action is retarded, hence less 
 heat is produced. Heat in such cases is not stored so as to raise the 
 degree above the temperature of the operating cause. The initial heat 
 production must be as high as the temperature of the mass ever becomes. 
 This effectually disposes of the yeast question in the hot silo. 
 
1889.] BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE. 185 
 
 4. The term "sweet" as applied to ensilage, is only applicable in the 
 sense of the absence of acid produced by fermentation. Corn stalks, as 
 cut for this purpose, do contain a considerable amount of sugar, but there 
 is also present in the fresh material a considerable amount of acid. This 
 proportion of acidity appears never to decrease in any of the fermentive 
 changes, while the sugar soon undergoes a series of conversions by which 
 various acids are produced. What commonly passes for sweet ensilage is 
 by no means always the same thing; for, besides varying much in degree 
 of acidity, it also differs in regard to the kind of changes which have 
 taken place. When slow filling and consequent high temperature is relied 
 upon, the resulting product is in a widely different state as to fermentive 
 changes from that so-called sweet ensilage obtained without heat. There 
 is much less loss through fermentation in the latter case. By the process 
 of rapid filling and close packing with more mature corn, the mass remains 
 sweet simply because little fermentation of any kind follows. It appears 
 from our tests that in this case the first change that does take place is a 
 conversion of the sugar into lactic and acetic acid, and, with less cer- 
 tainty, first into the former then this into the latter. In our experiments 
 with green wheat and corn in barrels the material was found after six 
 weeks to two months from date of filling, in the very best condition. The 
 temperature of the mass had at no time been appreciably above that of 
 the surroundings. There had been very little fermentation, though more 
 in the case of the wheat than of the corn. Especially true of the latter, 
 the color of the green parts was little changed, while the grain remained 
 very nearly as when it was stored away. From the wheat the lactic ferment 
 organism was easily isolated, indeed appeared to be the only one which 
 had multiplied to any recognizable extent. The same microbe was found 
 in fairly considerable numbers in the corn, but more commonly associated 
 with that of the acetic fermentation. The multiplication of these organ- 
 isms had been very slow, so that, as just stated, their action upon the 
 material was scarcely noticeable, and certainly not sufficient to make the 
 mass essentially different for fodder from the fresh substances. It is, how- 
 ever, important to notice that in these cases the acid ferments were pres- 
 ent, and some degree of activity had been produced. Furthermore, these 
 results entirely agree with those obtained in the laboratory with a large 
 number of experiments, using fruit jars as the storage vessels. Some of 
 these latter, kept throughout the time on a high shelf in a steam heated 
 room, were opened after two to sixteen months and found to contain very 
 satisfactory, though certainly not really sweet ensilage. They were usu- 
 ally still hermetically sealed with the rubber ring at the latter date, and in 
 some cases there was a distinct escape of gas when opened. In testing 
 that in which there was the most evidence of acidity, it was found that the 
 acid was almost wholly volatile, and this, together with the observed pres- 
 ence of the acetic ferment, fairly determined the kind of acid then present. 
 
 The other barrels with wheat were unfortunately burned September 4, 
 1889, so that we had no further opportunity to study their contents. But 
 
i So BULLETIN NO. 7. \Novembcr, 
 
 on opening December i7th one packed with corn September loth, the 
 material was found to be exceedingly sour. During all this time there 
 had been no noticeable rise in temperature due to fermentation, but that 
 there had been a very large quantity of acetic acid developed did not 
 admit of doubt. Examination showed no lactic ferment organism pres- 
 ent, while the acetic ferment was excessively abundant, so that pure cul- 
 tures could easily be made. Upon transferring a " seeding " of this last to 
 test tubes of beef broth, which had been carefully neutralized, at was inter- 
 esting to note that within twenty-four hours the medium became so dis- 
 tinctly acid that litmus paper was conspicuously affected. On heating in 
 a water-bath during some hours, the acid mostly escaped, proving its 
 volatile character. 
 
 With these results before us, tests were carefully made of material 
 taken with antiseptic precaution from the silo. In all cases after the 
 material had become distinctly sour, the acetic ferment was found, and in 
 no case was the lactic ferment organism obtained from ensilage several 
 months old. We were never fortunate enough, however, to get directly 
 pure cultures of anything from any silo except when the trials were made 
 from very hot material, not long subsequent to the filling. It is not diffi- 
 cult to isolate the acetic ferment from mixtures by bacteriological methods, 
 but it seems pretty certain that the ferment does not usually occur in a 
 state of purity in any ensilage as practically made; neither is the admixture 
 likely to be of any special kind or kinds save in a very general sense. The 
 product cannot, therefore, be a uniform one either in the same silo at dif- 
 ferent times or in different silos under varying conditions of the material 
 or surroundings. It is, however, altogether possible that this want of 
 sameness may not seriously affect the practical value of the fodder when 
 the best known methods are used in the construction of the bins and in 
 storing the material. 
 
 Turning now to the case when the temperature rises within a few days 
 after filling to above 50 C. (122 F.), we must tell quite a different story. 
 It must be true that, whatever the degree of heat attained, the organisms 
 producing the changes by which this heat is generated are capable of 
 withstanding the temperature recorded by the thermometers. It is rare 
 that any living thing can continue to develop above the temperature 
 named, though it does not follow that seeds or spores will be killed by 
 long exposure to this unfavorable condition. Neither lactic nor acetic 
 ferments, as recognized above, can grow in any known medium above 
 47 C. (117 F.). The most favorable temperature for the former seems 
 to be about 38 C. (100 F.), and for the latter not above 33 C. (90 F.). 
 Now, as we have stated, the temperature usually rises in slowly filled silos 
 to 55 C. or 60 C., and our records show in one case the maximum of 
 70 C. (158 F.). The lowest of these degrees is very commonly reached, 
 and the second cannot be considered in the least abnormal. Here, then, 
 it is easy to see no formation of acetic or lactic acid can occur during the 
 hot stage, and abundant examination teaches the same thing. It should 
 
1889.] BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE. 187 
 
 be stated, however, that it is not certain that this high temperature does 
 kill the " germs " of these ferments, as is so commonly asserted. Indeed 
 there is a good deal of evidence that sterilization in this respect is not 
 effected, because these acid ferments are found distributed throughout the 
 mass as soon as the temperature has fallen sufficiently. There is no ap- 
 parent evidence that the organisms must first gain access from without 
 before development in great numbers takes place. The warm undisturbed 
 mass, three, or four, or more feet from the surface is sure to have the acetic 
 fermentation in greater or less amount in active operation within a few 
 days after the temperature becomes suitable to the growth of the organ- 
 ism. Whether lactic fermentation also regularly occurs in the same way 
 has not been made out, though it is probable that some non-volatile acid 
 is thus produced. 
 
 Why, then, it may be asked, does ensilage ever retain the so-called 
 sweet condition during some months after the heat subsides to 33 C. or 
 below? The reply to this is sufficiently given in the well known character 
 of the acetic and lactic ferments in regard to the free oxygen of the air. 
 Both organisms belong to the class called aerobic a term applied to 
 those incapable of growing except in the presence of free oxygen. In 
 vinegar-making, this characteristic is often met by causing the fermentable 
 liquid to trickle down through a quantity of beech-wood shavings, or a 
 substitute of similar kind. In this way. the conversion into vinegar 
 (acetic acid) is very rapid when the most favorable temperature is main- 
 tained. When the same liquid is kept in a tight barrel, the change to vine- 
 gar is very slow, if it occur at all. It is evidently the exclusion of the air, 
 after the preliminary fermentation attended with high heat, which pre- 
 vents the acidification of the compressed mass, and not the destruction of 
 ferment "germs." As, however, the air does slowly penetrate the cooling 
 ensilage, acidification does occur, and, other things being equal, in pro- 
 portion to the facility with which the air is admitted. But the prelimi- 
 nary heating tends to make the mass settle together, as every one knows 
 who has observed the sinking of the surface during the time, thus exclud- 
 ing air and preventing its subsequent penetration in sufficient amount for 
 the rapid development of the acetic ferment. 
 
 5. If we now undertake the explanation of the hot fermentation, we 
 have at the same time the least understood, and, to the biologist, the most 
 interesting part of the subject. It has been stated that plant life is rarely 
 capable of retaining its activities above 50 C. (122 F.). This is just 
 as true of the lower as of the higher forms of vegetation, except in pecu- 
 liar instances, yet here we have the production of heat running up to 
 70 C. through the vital functions of low plants, a most remarkable phe- 
 nomenon. If we may trust the observations which are reported by scien- 
 tific travelers, green algae, low forms of plants forming silky or slimy 
 nasses in water, are found living in certain hot springs having a tempera- 
 ure still higher than the degree just stated. But there is much uncer- 
 tainty as to the trustworthiness of the observations. If they should prove 
 
i88 BULLETIN NO. 7. [November, 
 
 untrue, then a few species of bacteria stand alone in the vegetable king- 
 dom in their ability to withstand degrees of temperature much above 50 
 C. without having their vital activities arrested. None of these are known 
 to continue their development at temperatures higher than have been 
 noted in silos. Examination, however, proves that there are at least two 
 species, and probably more, which do thrive in newly filled silos at tem- 
 peratures varying from 60 C. to 70 C. 
 
 There is much confusion in the specific determinations of Bacilli 
 which have been credited with the production of butyric, succinic, valeric, 
 and similar acids. The names Bacillus butyricus, Bacillus amylobacter, 
 and Clostridium butyricum have been variously applied to the same and 
 to different species. Even Bacillus subtilis has been confused with these 
 allied but clearly distinct kinds. The organisms found in the hot, ferment- 
 ing ensilage, and in equally hot manure piles, are anaerobic; that is, they 
 do not need free oxygen for their life functions, though they seem never 
 to cause the very high temperature without a partial supply of this sub- 
 stance. In liquid cultures they form little or no films upon the surface, 
 but do make a turbid, at length muddy, and characteristic growth in the 
 liquid itself. They do not successfully grow on the surface of solid media, 
 hence cannot be easily separated when mixed in culture. For this reason, 
 among others, our studies upon them have not been so satisfactory as in 
 other cases. One of the species almost constantly found in the very hot 
 ensilage forms an elliptically shaped spore in one end of a rod-like joint. 
 The joints very freely separate, so that long filaments are not usually 
 found; but when the spore-forming joints do remain attached, the spore 
 seems to be always produced in the same end, causing the club-shaped 
 segments to be in the same direction in the filament. The spore-produc- 
 ing end is about twice the diameter of the vegetating rod. In a few cases 
 such jointed filaments were found with a spore in alternate segments with 
 a short, cylindrical, sterile joint intervening. Another species, also rod- 
 like, much like the preceding, is very often found with it in the hot mater- 
 ial. But in this second form the spores, somewhat smaller than the others, 
 are formed in the middle of the cell or joint, which is not swollen so much 
 as in the other case. The culture-characteristics of the two kinds are very 
 similar; and, as before said, it is difficult to separate them when mixed. It 
 is likely that more than two species commonly occur in this hot stage, 
 but nothing definite has been ascertained beyond what has been stated. 
 
 It is certainly contrary to all published accounts that butyric fermen- 
 tation and its allies are first in order of time in the silo; but, notwith- 
 standing the apparent evidence in opposition, the facts heretofore detailed 
 seem strongly to support this idea. We now know that this early fermen- 
 tation, with the evolution of high degrees of heat, is not alcoholic; neither 
 is it anything similar to acetic fermentation. It is not an ammoniacal 
 change, but in all other particulars it is the same as that taking place in 
 hot stable manure. The organisms just described are also found in pro- 
 digious numbers in this last material. Culture tests show them to be the 
 
1889.] . BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE. 189 
 
 same species. This may not be compatible with the prevalent notions in 
 regard to "sweet" ensilage, but it evidently expresses a fact which must 
 be of importance in the practical management of the silo. In hot stable 
 manure, the cellulose or woody substance of the material is attacked and 
 more or less decomposed, and it is well known that Bacillus butyricus 
 under certain conditions is able to cause the phenomena of fermentation 
 in cellulose, and at the same time to form nodules of starch within its own 
 cells. What constituent part of corn fodder is first fermented in the silo 
 cannot now be stated, but it does not seem to be the cellulose fiber. The 
 butyric organisms can directly ferment sugar without the more common 
 intervention of lactic acid production. It may also work directly upon 
 the nitrogenous vegetable substances; and, very likely, this is what is 
 specially done during the high-temperature period. 
 
 There are many interesting problems to be settled in every one of the 
 numerous changes occuring in ensilage, but the hot fermentations espe- 
 cially deserve, and should receive, very thorough investigation. 
 
 6. The destructive changes occurring in ensilage after the fermenta- 
 tions described above are of numerous kinds, but are roughly divisible 
 into two general classes, based upon the destroying agents. 
 
 Numerous kinds of bacteria, different from those already mentioned, 
 and producing decompositions rather than fermentations, are found. 
 Prominent among them is Bacillus subtilis the so-called hay Bacillus. It 
 is hardly possible to make a culture from old but still edible ensilage, 
 whether it has been through the stage of very high temperature or not, with- 
 out finding this readily recognized organism. In form and size the vegetat- 
 ing rods resemble Bacillus butyricus, but can be very easily distinguished in 
 cultures, because of the aerobic character, growing luxuriantly on sur- 
 faces exposed to the air. On nutrient liquids it forms a tough, wrinkled, 
 pellicle upon the surface. The growth is most abuudant at about 38 C. 
 and entirely ceases at a temperature above 50 C. Various other kinds 
 of bacteria are found, but by no means always the same species. No doubt 
 some of them aid in producing the semi-putrid decompositions accom- 
 panied by the bad oder which so often occurs in old ensilage. It is worthy 
 of remark that the very sour material is slowest to undergo these last men- 
 tioned unfavorable changes. 
 
 The second class of destroying agents is mold-fungi. Prominent 
 among these is a species of Mucor, which forms an abundant white felt- 
 like growth in streaks and layers of the closely pressed material, and is in 
 all cases noted as the first to develop after the excessive heat production 
 has ceased. Penicillium mold follows at a much later stage, and then often 
 makes a grayish blue crust from which the spores arise in clouds of dust 
 on disturbance. 
 
 Not only does this blue mold grow on rather dry material, but on the 
 warm, moist substance a black mold seems to be a constant destroyer. 
 Under the influence of the latter the material sinks down into a homogene- 
 ous, pasty, rotten condition, has a bad odor, and is certainly of no value. 
 
19 BULLETIN NO. 7. [November, 
 
 7. The principal results of Dr. Manns' chemical investigations upon 
 this subject are embodied in the subjoined paper, kindly furnished by him 
 for this publication. 
 
 "CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF ENSILAGE." 
 
 "In glancing over the published reports of the analyses of ensilage, 
 we usually find the volatile acids designated acetic, and the non-volatile, 
 lactic. 
 
 "In conjunction with Professor Burrill's studies on the biology of 
 ensilage it seemed desirable to determine the nature of the acids present, 
 in order to furnish additional evidence of the kind of fermentation prev- 
 alent in the silo. 
 
 "The material was taken from the two silos at the University farm, 
 and was in a poor condition, having passed through the earlier stages of 
 fermentation. While it would have been better to have worked with well 
 preserved ensilage, still the study of the diseases to which the substance 
 is liable and its condition in an abnormal state is fully as desirable as 
 investigations relating to the normal fodder. Samples were taken from 
 the center and bottom of the silo, where the ensilage was in its best state 
 of preservation, having been but slightly affected by the rotting ferment. 
 
 "The chemical analysis of this ensilage showed wide variations in 
 the results. The amount of dry matter ranging from 13 to 40 parts in too. 
 However, this lack of uniformity was due mainly to the varied nature and 
 condition of the material with which the silo had been filled. The mass, 
 likewise, lacked uniformity in the degree of acidity as shown in the fol- 
 lowing table: 
 
 TABLE SHOWING DEGREE OF ACIDITY. 
 
 Lab. No. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Percent. *volatile acids. 
 
 Percent. *non-volatile acids. 
 
 129 b. . . 
 130 b... 
 131 b... 
 
 Burr's white (Exp't No. 2.) 
 "B. & W." (Exp't No. 2.) 
 "B. & W." (Exp't No. 5.) 
 
 0.686 
 
 . I.T.I . 
 
 
 0.679 
 0.397 
 
 i-59 
 2.05 
 
 
 
 "'Calculated as acetic and lactic acids. 
 
 "It will be seen that the acidity was due largely to the non-volatile 
 acids. Ordinarily the volatile acids predominate. 
 
 "The Volatile Acids. The ensilage was put into large flasks and suf- 
 ficient water was added to cover it. The flasks were then connected with 
 Liebig condensers and their contents boiled until nearly all the water had 
 passed over. This operation was repeated until the water dripping from 
 the condenser no longer reddened litmus paper. 
 
 "The distillate has a strong, characteristic, ethereal odor. A white 
 crystaline substance, together with a small quantity of oil, floats on top 
 of the liquid. These crystals were collected on a filter and reserved for 
 subsequent examination. The filterate was treated repeatedly with ether, 
 
1889.] BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE IQI 
 
 neutralized with sodium hydroxide and evaporated to dryness. The salt 
 obtained was recrystalized and proved to be chiefly sodium acetate. The 
 first three crops of crystals were dried, fused, and finally carefully distilled 
 with concentrated sulphuric acid, and yielded an acid which boiled con- 
 stant at 118 C. The mother liquor similarly treated yielded a further 
 quantity of acetate acid, together with a fraction which boiled above 
 118 C. This latter fraction was added to an oil which was obtained 
 from the ether washings. 
 
 "On evaporating the ether from the solution obtained in agitating 
 the above filterate with ether, a thick oily liquid was obtained which had a 
 strong acid reaction and a very disagreeable odor. Treatment with 
 water readily dissolved the greater portion of the oil, while the portion 
 left undissolved was nearly insoluable even in large volumes of water. 
 The oil was neutralized with a 10 per cent, solution of caustic soda, and a 
 small quantity of flaky matter, which separated on standing, was collected 
 on a filter, purified by pressing between sheets of bibulous paper, and 
 then decomposed with an acid. The acid separated from this proved to 
 be indentical with that found floating with the oil on the surface of the 
 original distillate. The acid was purified by removing the adhering oil, 
 and crystallization from alcohol. The crystals melt at 62 -63 C., are 
 insoluble in water, readily soluable in ether. The silver salt contains 
 29.45 per cent, of silver corresponding with the salt of a fatty acid of the 
 formula C 16 H 31 O 3 Ag. 
 
 " The melting point, the general appearance of the crystals, together 
 with the percentage of silver in the salt, would indicate that the substance 
 is palmetic acid. Owing to the small amount of material obtained it was 
 found impracticable to make a determination of carbon and hydrogen. 
 Fractional crystallization of the remaining sodium salts obtained in neu- 
 tralizing the oil having failed to give satisfactory results, the acids were 
 recovered by distilling the sulphuric acid. Upon repeating distillation, 
 10 per cent, of the oil was found to distil at 130 -145 C.; about 70 per 
 cent. 145 to 170 C.; 15 per cent, at 170 -195 C.; and the remainder 
 at i95-205 C. 
 
 " Each of these fractions was converted into the barium or the sodi- 
 um salt; the salt recrystallized, decomposed by sulphuric acid, and the oil 
 thus obtained redistilled. 
 
 "The product obtained from the first fraction boiled at 140 to 
 145 C., was converted into the basic lead salt by evaporation of the 
 aqueous solution with an excess of litharge. The mass was extracted with 
 cold water, filtered and heated to boiling, whereupon the characteris- 
 tic crystalline salt of basic lead propionate separated. The barium salt 
 contained 48.92 per cent, of barium, while theory requires 48.41 per cent, 
 for barium propionate. 
 
 " The product from the second fraction distilled at 163 C. It was 
 converted into the barium salt This, upon analysis, gave results closely 
 
192 BULLETIN NO. -j . [November, 
 
 corresponding to barium butyrate. Theory, 44 .05 per cent, of barium; 
 found, 43.65 per cent. 
 
 "The product from the fraction collected from 170 to 195 C. pos- 
 sessed the offensive odor of valeric acid. Its barium salt yielded 40.01 
 per cent, of barium; barium valerate contains 40.41 per cent. 
 
 " The product from the last portion was a solid at the ordinary tem- 
 perature. It boiled at 198 to 205 C., and while it could not be com- 
 pletely purified, because of its limited quantity, still the general physical 
 properties together with the results obtained in the analysis of the barium 
 salt would leave no doubt as to its being one of the caproic acids. This 
 salt contained 37.19 per cent, of barium, while barium caproate requires 
 37.33 per cent. 
 
 "The relative proportion in which these acids were present was 
 roughly determined. About 79 per cent, of the volatile acids, consisted 
 of acetic acid; 18 per cent, was butyric; and 2 per cent, valeric acid. 
 Propionic and caproic acids were present in small quantities as was also 
 the crystalline acid which collected on the surface of the distillate in dis- 
 tilling the ensilage with water. 
 
 " The non-volatile acids. The non-volatile acids were easily extracted 
 from ensilage, but great difficulty was encountered in isolating and identi- 
 fying them. Ensilage was extracted with boiling water and this extract 
 evaporated on the water-bath to the consistence of thick syrup. From 
 this residue ether extracts an oily substance of bitter taste, which reduces 
 Fehling's solution. On standing, this oil deposited crystals of succinic 
 acid. They were purified by removing the adhering oil with petroleum 
 spirits, drying between filter paper, and recrystalizing. The crystals melt 
 at 179 C. 
 
 " In a subsequent examination of ensilage, small quantities of lactic 
 acid were found. Other acids were present in considerable quantity, but 
 their nature could not be determined. 
 
 " Mannite. Ether proved to be a poor solvent for the non-volatile 
 acids in the residue from the aqueous extracts of ensilage. The mass was 
 thereupon treated with boiling alcohol, as this removed the acid, leaving 
 a considerable portion of the extracted matter undissolved. On concen- 
 trating this alcoholic solution to about one-tenth its original volume, and 
 allowing the liquid to cool, a mass of crystals separated which were col- 
 lected and purified by crystalizing from alcohol. They proved to be 
 crystals of mannite, an alcohol closely allied to the sugars. 
 
 "Mannite is C 6 Hi 4 O: the difference between the composition of 
 the crystals, as shown by the analysis and the theory, is as follows: 
 
 Carbon, found, 39.78 per cent.; theory, 39.56 per cent. 
 Hydrogen, found, 8.04 per cent. ; theory, 7.69 per cent. 
 Oxygen, found, 52.18 per cent; theory, 52.75 per cent. 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
1889.] BIOLOGY OF ENSILAGE. 193 
 
 " Gates in the Silo. A long iron tube, open at both ends, was driven 
 to the center of the silo, and air was drawn from that point by connect- 
 ing the exterior opening of the tube with an aspirator. The apparatus 
 was so arranged that cylinders filled with water could be introduced into 
 the circuit. As soon as the air in the iron tube had been displaced, the 
 gases were caused to pass into these cylinders, three in number, displac- 
 ing the water. On determination there were found 
 
 Carbonic acid (i) 15.55 per cent. ; ( 2 ) 15-14 per cent. ; (3) 14.98 per cent. 
 Oxygen (i) 2.56 per cent. ; (2) 2.24 per cent. ; (3) 2. 12 per cent. 
 
 The remainder was supposed to be principally nitrogen, but was not further deter- 
 mined. 
 
 On passing 48 gallons of the silo gases through 500 gm. of water, the 
 latter was found to contain 16 gm. of acid. 
 
 "In addition to these complete analyses, sufficient work was done 
 upon the following samples to give the information tabulated below. For 
 the sake of comparison, volatile and non-volatile acids of three samples 
 from the farm silos are inserted. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING PER CENT. OF ACIDS IN ENSILAGE. 
 
 
 Volatile acids. 
 
 Non-volatile acids. 
 
 From University silos (i) 
 
 0.686 
 
 i. no 
 
 From University silos (2) 
 
 0.670 
 
 I.CQO 
 
 
 O.7Q7 
 
 2 050 
 
 From Mr. Gurler, July 29, 1889 
 
 O.Q7Q 
 
 1.767 
 
 Fresh green clover, July I5 1889 
 
 O.O24 
 
 O.65O 
 
 Hot clover 3 days after storage, July 18, 1889 
 Hot clover 15 days after storage 
 
 O.O6O 
 O.O^S 
 
 0330 
 
 Green wheat 28 days after storaee . . 
 
 0.^8 
 
 1.208 
 
 " ALBERT G. MANNS, PH.D., Chemist" 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Ensilage is a very variable product. The variations are due to so 
 many factors, including differences in the original material, in the states 
 and conditions of the weather, and in the construction of the storage 
 bins, that great care and much knowledge must be required to secure 
 reasonably uniform results. 
 
 Ensilage is never truly preserved fodder, but is more nearly such 
 when the mass has been very hot for a time and then has the air most 
 thoroughly excluded by the proper construction of the silo and the densest 
 attainable condition of the material. The initial high temperature is 
 probably mostly serviceable by causing this closer packing of the mass 
 rather than by killing the germs of other ferments. 
 
 No appreciable alcoholic fermentation occurs. The very high tem- 
 perature often attained is due to two or more species of rod-like Bacilli 
 which appear to cause butyric fermentation and its allies. 
 
 Lactic fermentation is most abundant in the earlier transformations 
 of ensilage not originally rising to a high temperature. 
 
 Acetic fermentation only occurs when the temperature sinks below 
 35 C. (95 F.). A large proportion of water is favorable to this change, 
 
i 9 4 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 7. 
 
 \November, 
 
 and the sharply acid material is much less likely to be attacked by decom- 
 posing agents (other bacteria and mold fungi). Except for the difference 
 in density of the material, that originally hot subsequently sours nearly as 
 rapidly as that less heated at first. 
 
 The best results are obtained by the most nearly perfect exclusion of 
 air. For this purpose, uniform distribution upon filling the silo is of 
 more importance than persistent tramping, because the pressure of the 
 mass must be mostly relied upon. 
 
 THOMAS J. BURRILL, Ph.D., 
 
 Horticulturist and Botanist. 
 
 FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 
 
 Experiment No. 12. Oats, Quantity of Seed per Acre. 
 
 Seven contiguous plats, each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast at the 
 rate of from one to four bushels per acre, April 5, 1888, and again March 
 27, 1889. In both cases welcome oats were sown on fall-plowed land, 
 and covered with a disk harrow and twice harrowing. 
 
 In 1888 the oats came up evenly and well; headed evenly June i8th 
 to 2ist; were blown flat by a storm July loth; July i8th and ipth were 
 mowed and bound. At this time the straw, leaves, and glumes were mostly 
 yellow and dry. On plats i and 2, on which the least seed was sown, 
 they were slightly greener than on the others. These plats also, especially 
 plat i, had more weeds. The crop was threshed July 26th and 27th, that 
 from plats 5, 6, and 7 after a slight shower and when somewhat damp. 
 
 In 1889 the oats came up evenly and well; were blown down by a 
 storm on the night of June 2oth, five days before they were fully headed, 
 and were harvested July i8th to 2oth, being mostly mown on account of 
 being down so badly. As in 1888, plats i and 2 had more weeds, but the 
 oats on these plats were not materially greener. August loth to i2th the 
 oats were threshed. The variations in the weight of straw, especially 
 noticeable in 1889, were probably due to the oats being so badly down 
 that it was impossible to harvest the straw equally from the several plats. 
 
 The following table gives results for the two years: 
 TABLE SHOWING SEED SOWN; YIELD OF GRAIN AND STRAW; WEIGHT PER BUSHEL. 
 
 Plat. 
 
 Seed per 
 
 Gfrain per acre, bu. 
 
 Straw per acre, Ib. 
 
 Pounds per bu. 
 
 
 acre, bushels. 
 
 1888. 
 
 1889. 
 
 1888. 
 
 1889. 
 
 1889. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 52-5 
 
 36.3 
 
 3,820 
 
 4,600 
 
 25-5 
 
 2 
 
 i-5 
 
 59-4 
 
 33-i 
 
 4,400 
 
 3,800 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 61.4 
 
 42.5 4,540 
 
 4,000 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 2-5 
 
 63-8 
 
 43.8 4,860 
 
 3,000 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 61.9 
 
 47.2 
 
 5,220 4,400 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 3-5 
 
 62.5 
 
 52.1 
 
 4,400 4, 100 
 
 29.5 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 60.6 
 
 50.6 
 
 4,260 3,200 
 
 29.5 
 
 
i88 9 .] 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 
 
 Experiment No. 13. Oats, Compact or Loose Seed-Bed. 
 
 Three plats, each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast April 6, 1888, at 
 the rate of two and one-half bushels per acre. 
 
 In plat i, the oats were sown on fall-plowed land, and lightly cov- 
 ered with a disk harrow. The land was then rolled with a heavy garden 
 roller and afterwards harrowed. 
 
 Plat 2 was cultivated with a disk harrow before sowing; the oats were 
 covered by disking once and once harrowing. 
 
 Plat 3 was disked three times before sowing, once afterward, and then 
 harrowed. 
 
 The oats came up evenly and ripened at the same time. They were 
 harvested July ipth and threshed July 27th to 28th. 
 
 March 27, 1889, four plats, each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast with 
 welcome oats at the rate of two and one-half bushels per acre. 
 
 In plat i, the oats were sown on fall-plowed land, and were covered 
 by disking once and harrowing twice. 
 
 In plat 2 the oats were sown on fall-plowed land and were covered by 
 harrowing twice. Plats 3 and 4 were treated as were plats 2 and 3 in 1888. 
 
 The oats came up and ripened evenly. They were down rather badly 
 on plat i, less on plat 2, still less on plat 3, and were standing fairly on 
 plat 4, this condition being due probably, to differences in the soil. They 
 were harvested July i9th and threshed August loth. 
 
 The following table gives the results for the two years: 
 
 TABLE SHOWING CONDITION OF SEED-BED; YIELD OF GRAIN AND STRAW; WEIGHT 
 
 PER BUSHEL. 
 
 
 
 1888. 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 88 9 . 
 
 
 Seed-bed. 
 
 Plat. 
 
 Grain pel- 
 acre, bu. 
 
 Straw per 
 acre, Ib. 
 
 Plat. 
 
 Grain per 
 acre, bu. 
 
 Straw per 
 acre, Ib. 
 
 Pounds 
 per bu. 
 
 Very compact . . . 
 Compact 
 
 i 
 
 60 
 
 4 180 
 
 2' 
 i 
 
 40 
 
 AA J. 
 
 3,100 
 i 200 
 
 25-5 
 
 27 
 
 Medium loose. . . 
 Very loose . . 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 66.3 
 60.6 
 
 5,38o 
 
 A.Afio 
 
 3 
 
 A 
 
 47-8 
 
 AA. I 
 
 2,900 
 
 2. 1OO 
 
 27-5 
 T.O 
 
 Experiment No. 14. Oats, Time of Sowing. 
 
 Four adjacent plats each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast, at the rate 
 of two and one-half bushels per acre, at intervals of one week, from 
 April 6 to April 27, 1888. In each case the oats were sown on fall-plowed 
 land, and were covered by use of a disk harrow and the common tooth 
 harrow. 
 
 The plants fairly covered the ground on plat i in nineteen days after 
 sowing; on plat 2, in fourteen days; on plat 3, in ten to twelve days; and 
 on plat 4, in ten days. 
 
 The oats on plat i headed three days earlier than those on plat 2, and 
 eleven days earlier than those on plats 3 and 4. The oats on plats i and 
 
196 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 7. 
 
 [November, 
 
 2 ripened nearly at the same time. They were mowed and bound July 
 2oth, plat i being a little the riper. Plats 3 and 4 were harvested three 
 days later, when at about the same stage of ripeness as plat i was when 
 cut. 
 
 In 1889 this experiment was repeated, except that seven plats instead 
 of four were used, and the seeding extended from March i4th to April 25th. 
 
 On plats i and 2 the ground was fairly covered with growing oats at 
 the end of three weeks; on plat 6 in somewhat less time; while on plat 7, 
 owing to dry weather, the oats were only partly up at the end of three 
 weeks. 
 
 Plat i was harvested July i5th; plats 2 and 6, July 22d. Plats 2 to 
 5 were about equally ripe; plat 6 was a trifle greener. Plat 7 was harvested 
 July 3Oth. All were down badly. 
 
 The following table gives the results for the two years : 
 
 TABLE SHOWING DATE OF SOWING; YIELD OF GRAIN AND STRAW; WEIGHT PER 
 
 BUSHEL. 
 
 1888. 
 
 1889. 
 
 Plat. 
 
 Date of 
 Sowing. 
 
 Grain per 
 acre, bu. 
 
 Straw per 
 acre, Ib. 
 
 5,080 
 5,020 
 5.040 
 5,020 
 
 Plat. 
 
 Date of 
 Sowing. 
 
 Grain per 
 acre, bu. 
 
 Straw per 
 acre, Ib. 
 
 Weight 
 per bu.,lb. 
 
 i 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 April 6 . . 
 
 13- 
 20. 
 
 27. . 
 
 66.3 
 
 56.9 
 48.8 
 
 49-4 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 March 14. 
 
 22. 
 28. 
 
 April 4. 
 II. 
 18. 
 
 25- 
 
 48.1 
 41-5 
 41-3 
 36.3 
 33- r 
 25 
 9-4 
 
 3,6oo 
 4,600 
 
 5,200 
 
 4,000 
 4,000 
 4,100 
 3-700 
 
 28.5 
 28 
 28.5 
 26.5 
 
 25 
 22 
 21 
 
 Experiment No. 15. Oats, Depth of Sowing. 
 
 April 25, 1888, sixty selected kernels were sown in each of twelve 
 TOWS, ten feet long. The first two rows were covered one inch deep; and 
 each succeeding two rows one inch deeper, rows n and 12 being covered 
 with six inches of earth. 
 
 The size and the apparent vigor of the plants in the rows was in the 
 following order : First, rows 5 and 6; second, rows 3, 4, 7, and 8; third, 
 rows i and 2; fourth, rows 9 and 10; fifth, rows n and 12. The oats in 
 rows i to 8, inclusive, were fully headed July 6th; those in rows 9 and 10, 
 less fully; and those in rows n and 12, still less. 
 
 The number of plants growing in each row at various dates and the 
 results of the harvest are shown by the following table. 
 
 In 1889 this experiment was repeated, an extra row being sown at 
 each side so that the twelve rows in the test would be under similar con- 
 ditions. The failure to do this in 1888 obviously caused an increased 
 number of heads per stool and a relatively increased yield in the outside 
 rows, as shown in the last column of the first table on the opposite page. 
 
i88 9 .] 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 
 
 I 9 7 
 
 TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF PLANTS GROWING AT GIVEN DATES; YIELD OF GRAIN 
 AND STRAW; NUMBER OF STOOLS AND HEADS.- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;> 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 pa 
 
 5jJ 
 
 5* 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 s 
 
 * H 
 
 c 
 
 N 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 en J* 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vj 
 
 4s 
 
 p 
 
 5 
 
 *< 
 
 3 
 ft 
 
 1 
 
 *( 
 
 . ^ 
 
 M 
 
 
 Is* 
 
 
 N 
 
 yi 
 
 ^J 
 
 \P 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 8. 
 
 *3 
 
 p . 
 
 | 
 
 n 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 Bu 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 P 
 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 35 
 
 41 
 
 341 
 
 8.3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 51 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 51 
 
 225 
 
 4.4 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 25 
 
 39 
 
 53 ' 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 46 
 
 4-5 
 
 26 
 
 46 
 
 265 
 
 5.8 
 
 4 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 15 
 
 55 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 53 
 
 35 
 
 2O 
 
 53 
 
 230 
 
 4-3 
 
 5 
 
 O 
 
 25 
 
 43 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 22 
 
 4 6 
 
 217 
 
 4-7 
 
 6 
 
 O 
 
 33 
 
 45 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 48 
 
 5-5 
 
 26 
 
 48 
 
 248 
 
 5-2 
 
 7 
 
 O 
 
 27 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 52 
 
 46 
 
 4-5 
 
 24 
 
 46 
 
 239 
 
 5-2 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 2 4 
 
 46 
 
 230 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 4-5 
 
 22 
 
 38 
 
 222 
 
 5-3 
 
 10 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 3-5 
 
 23-5 
 
 31 
 
 259 
 
 8.4 
 
 ii 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 
 3 
 
 2-5 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 240 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 2O 
 
 20 
 
 205 
 
 10.3 
 
 The seeding was done March 28th. Rows 9 to 12 were disturbed by 
 some underground animal and are not reported. The deeper seeded rows 
 were slower coming up, as shown by the table below. The subsequent 
 growth and vigor of the rows was very much alike. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF PLANTS GROWING AT GIVEN DATES; YIELD OF GRAIN 
 AND STRAW; NUMBER OF STOOLS AND HEADS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 y. 
 
 
 
 jj. 
 
 jj>. 
 
 jj>. 
 
 <-H 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 p 
 
 O 
 
 ffi 
 
 70 
 
 "O 
 
 T3 
 
 *a 
 
 
 N 
 
 iyq 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 w n 
 
 o 
 
 n. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 vj" 
 
 (n 
 
 p p 
 
 
 
 0- 
 
 ^ 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 . 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 
 B* 
 
 O, en 
 
 
 
 po 
 
 
 to 
 
 3* 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 | 
 p 
 
 I 
 
 y> 
 
 ft 
 
 I 
 
 47 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 49 
 
 6-75 
 
 2Q-5 
 
 49 
 
 208 
 
 4.2 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 54 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 54 
 
 199 
 
 3-7 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 54 
 
 4-5 
 
 27 
 
 54 
 
 201 
 
 3-7 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 46 
 
 5-5 
 
 29 5 
 
 46 
 
 223 
 
 4.8 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 38 
 
 4-5 
 
 26.5 
 
 38 
 
 175 
 
 4.6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 45 
 
 6-5 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 259 
 
 58 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 52 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 42 
 
 221 
 
 5-3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 42 
 
 7-5 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 218 
 
 5-2 
 
 Experiment No. 84. Oats, Test of Varieties. 
 
 The attempt was made in this test to secure all the distinct varieties 
 of oats offered by the leading seedsmen of the United states, and to grow 
 them in comparison with some well-tried varieties. Where two or more 
 firms offered the same variety, it was usually obtained from the firm 
 endorsing it in the strongest terms. 
 
 Most persons familiar with seedsmens' catalogues have doubtless 
 noticed that no class of farm seeds receives such abundant praise, or has 
 its merits set forth in such glowing terms as the varieties of oats. It 
 would seem, therefore, that no other farm crop would so well repay a care- 
 ful test of the varieties. 
 
198 BULLETIN NO. 7. [November, 
 
 Twenty-nine varieties were obtained from seedsmen named in the table 
 page 204. These-, with two varieties,welcome oats and common mixed oats, 
 grown for some years with good results on the University farms, were 
 sown broadcast March 28, 1889, on plats 2x4 rods, at the rate of two and 
 one-half bushels per acre. The tract had been in corn several years, and, 
 although an even piece of land excellently adapted to a comparative test of 
 varieties, its fertility was low. Large yields could not be expected. The 
 tract was plowed and rolled just previous to the seeding and twice har- 
 rowed afterwards. 
 
 NOTES ON VARIETIES. 
 
 The varieties are arbitrarily divided, according to their dates of 
 ripening, into very early, early, medium, late, and very late maturing 
 varieties. These are somewhat definite characteristics for a particular 
 locality, a knowledge of which is of importance to the farmer in planning 
 his season's work. 
 
 VERY EARLY MATURING VARIETIES. 
 
 This class includes four varieties which were ripe July 1 5th. 
 
 White bonanza and white wonder are handsome varieties resembling each other 
 closely. Measurements indicate that the straw of white wonder is slightly smaller, while 
 the proportion of grain to straw by weight is smaller in white bonanza as grown this 
 year. The resemblances between these two varieties, if they are distinct varieties, are 
 much closer than would have been supposed from the seed sown. For, while there was 
 a difference in favor of white bonanza of nearly one gram in the weight of one hundred 
 berries as sown, there was a difference of only about one-tenth of a gram in one hundred 
 berries of the resulting crop, and that in favor of white wonder. Similar differences may 
 be noted in the proportion of kernels to berries. In the seed sown, white bonanza con- 
 tained 71.3 and white wonder 59.7 per cent of kernel; while in the resulting crop the per 
 cent, of kernel was 61.5 and 62.7 per cent., respectively. 
 
 The berries are white, large, plump, and short; culms or straw, 3.5 to 4 feet high, of 
 medium size, straight and moderately strong; panicles, or head, open, 9 to 10 inches long. 
 
 White bonanza was standing well when harvested, but white wonder stood only 
 fairly. 
 
 Texas rust proof, and new red rust proof resemble each other closely, but the latter 
 is distinctly the larger growing variety. 
 
 The berries are of a reddish dun color, long and slender, with the awn usually re- 
 maining attached; culms, 2.5 to 3 feet high, small, fine, straight, and stiff; panicles, open, 
 6 to 8 inches long. 
 
 Both varieties rusted as badly as the average of the other varieties planted. While 
 several observers report them desirable for states further south, they do not seem to be 
 adapted to central Illinois. Indeed, this was not to be expected, for they are essentially 
 varieties of the south, where they are usually sown in the fall. 
 
 EARLY MATURING VARIETIES. 
 
 This division includes those varieties which were ripe July 1 7th and i8th. 
 
 Welcome, prize cluster, Badger queen, white Belgian, and Hopetown resemble each 
 other closely. The table on opposite page will show the points of resemblance and dif- 
 ference more clearly and briefly than a description. 
 
1889.] EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING VARIETIES NAMED, IN COMPARISON. 
 
 I 99 
 
 
 
 td 
 
 
 
 ffi 
 
 P 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 W.V 
 
 a'n 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 P w* 
 
 
 
 "i 
 
 Z. 
 
 era' 
 
 tn 
 B 'o 
 
 -t S 
 
 3 
 
 ft) en 
 in . 
 
 3.r 
 
 o o 
 
 3.B 
 
 2 
 
 Name. 
 
 tra 
 
 ** AM 
 
 p 79 
 5= 3. 
 
 en 3 
 n vi 
 
 la, 
 
 s-j. 
 
 
 S 
 
 f 2, 
 
 rt 
 
 fa, 
 
 p 
 
 
 5" 
 
 5 
 
 "" 
 
 * 
 
 O 
 
 ' 5. 
 
 3 
 
 |8 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 ft 
 
 o 
 
 
 3" 
 
 jyi 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 g* 
 
 ii 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 Welcome 
 
 48.1 
 
 75 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 2.21 
 
 2.13 
 
 7O.i; 
 
 66 
 
 17 
 
 Welcome 
 
 *T V- " * 
 
 43.8 
 
 .71 
 
 32 C 
 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / J 
 
 
 
 Welcome 
 
 
 .66 
 
 , 
 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 
 2.OI 
 
 
 65 
 
 16 
 
 Welcome 
 
 43.1 
 
 
 \2 
 
 ^ 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.20 
 
 65.8 
 
 60.7 
 
 10 
 
 Prize cluster. . 
 
 428 
 
 75 
 
 3 
 
 3-75 
 
 10 
 
 2.32 
 
 .7 
 
 2.47 
 
 66.7 
 
 63-5 
 
 12 
 
 Badger queen. 
 
 40.6 
 
 53 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 2.77 
 
 2-39 
 
 6 7 .I 
 
 63 
 
 '3 
 
 White Belgian 
 
 31-9 
 
 2.25 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 2.71 
 
 2.21 
 
 69 
 
 61 
 
 4 
 
 Hopetown .... 
 
 42.1 
 
 2.23 
 
 295 
 
 3-25 
 
 10 
 
 3-97 
 
 2-43 
 
 74.1 
 
 63 
 
 The most striking differences are found in the weight and the per cent, of kernel in 
 the berries of Hopetown as compared to the other varieties; but these differences were 
 not sustained in the crop. 
 
 These varieties have a white, short, plump, medium sized berry; culms, mostly 4 feet 
 high, medium size, and rather weak; panicles, open, about n inches long. 
 
 Any of the above varieties are to be commended for general seeding. 
 
 Clydesdale differs slightly from these in having larger, coarser straw and rather 
 plumper berries. Here, again, the difference in the berries of the seed and resulting crop 
 is striking, as an inspection of the table, page 208, will show. 
 
 Fringes progress, although not harvested until July i8th, might have been classed 
 with the very early maturing varieties. It has a long white berry of moderate size; culms, 
 3 feet high, small and strong; panicles, open, 7 to 8 inches long. 
 
 May prove desirable on strong land. 
 
 MEDIUM MATURING VARIETIES. 
 
 In this division are classed those varieties which ripened July 2Oth. 
 
 Wide awake and centennial agree in having a white, moderately short, plump berry; 
 culms, 4 feet high, large, appearing weak, although wide awake stood well when har- 
 vested; panicles, open, 10 to 12 inches long, being rather the longer in centennial. 
 
 American banner resembles wide awake and centennial in the sheaf, but has a some- 
 what larger berry, and shorter, smaller, and stronger straw, and shorter panicle. 
 
 Probsteir and Japan differ from these in having a closed panicle and medium sized 
 straw. 
 
 Egyptian and improved American are somewhat smaller growing than wide awake or 
 centennial; culms, 3.5 feet high, of medium size, strong; panicles from 8 to 9 inches long. 
 
 Improved American stood third in regard to yield. 
 
 Hargetfs white has a little longer straw than the last named varieties; otherwise it 
 resembles them closely. 
 
 Early Dakota white has a long, slender, rather small, white berry; culms, 3.75 feet 
 high, rather small; panicle, full, open, about 10 inches long. 
 
 It is a fine appearing variety in the sheaf, and gave the second best yield. 
 
 LATE MATURING VARIETIES. 
 
 In this division are classed those varieties which were ripe July 24th. 
 
 Black Russian and black prolific appear identical. They have a long, slender, 
 rather small, mostly black berry; culms, 3.75 feet high, large; panicles, closed, 10 inches 
 long. 
 
200 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 7. 
 
 \November t 
 
 New Dakota gray, although having in the seed lighter colored berries, had in the 
 resulting crop berries as black as black Russian or black prolific. It differs otherwise in 
 having a larger, coarser straw. 
 
 Black Tartarian differs from the first named in having open panicles and medium 
 sized straw. 
 
 Virginia winter has a long, slender, small, reddish, dun-colored berry; culms, 3.75 
 feet long, small; panicles, open, 10 inches long. 
 
 This is apparently a southern variety. 
 
 American triumph has a long, slender, small, white berry; culms, 4 feet high, me- 
 dium size; panicles, open, n inches long. 
 
 VERY LATE MATURING VARIETIES. 
 
 In this division are classed those varieties that were ripe July 27th. 
 
 White Russian has along, slender, medium sized, white berry; culms, 3.5 feet high, 
 medium size; panicles, closed, 4 to 10 inches long. 
 
 Common mixed is merely white Russian mixed slightly with some black variety. 
 
 Giant yellow French is a long, slender, medium sized, yellowish-white variety; 
 culms, 3.75 feet high; panicles, closed, 10 to 12 inches long. 
 
 In the above description the term white is used to describe the color of the so-called 
 white varieties. The color is really yellowish-white. In giant yellow French, the yellow 
 color is very pronounced, distinguishing it from all other varieties in this respect. The 
 seed is said to have been imported from France. It yielded the best of any of the 
 varieties tested. 
 
 Canadian black'hzs, a long, slender, rather small, blackish to black berry; culms, 3.25 
 feet high, small; panicles, open, 8 to 10 inches long. The berry is the most nearly black 
 of any of the varieties tested. 
 
 The following synopsis may help the reader to a clearer comprehension of the rela- 
 tionship of the several varieties. 
 
 f Dun . . \ Berry long. . 
 
 Extra early . . { Open panicle . 
 
 [ White. \ Berry short. . 
 
 Oat 
 
 
 (" Berry short. . 
 
 J \X7l*!-M 
 
 
 i White. J 
 I Berry long. . 
 
 
 f Berry long. . 
 
 r Open panicle . . 
 
 1 
 Medium j 
 
 1 
 * Closed panicle 
 
 {.White.] 
 I Berry short. . 
 
 -{ White. ^ Berry s hort.. 
 
 r Open panicle . . 
 Late J 
 
 C White, -j Berry long . 
 i Black. ^ Berry long . 
 "^^^ * * i Bcrrv loner* 
 
 1 Closed panicle 
 
 -( Black . ] Berry long. . 
 
 fOpen panicle 
 , Very late.... ^ 
 1 Closed panicle. 
 
 <| Black. ^ Berry long.. 
 \ White, -j Berry long. . 
 
 j Texas rust proof. 
 
 j New red rust proof. 
 
 j White bonanza. 
 
 j White wonder. 
 
 i Welcome. 
 
 I Prize cluster. 
 
 j Badger queen. 
 
 "j White Belgian. 
 
 ] Hopetown. 
 
 [ Clydesdale. 
 
 -{ Pringle's progress. 
 
 American banner. 
 
 Early Dakota. 
 f Wide awake. 
 | Centennial. 
 <j Egyptian. 
 I Improved American. 
 [ Hargett's white. 
 j Probsteir. 
 j Japan. 
 
 -[ American triumph. 
 -J Black Tartarian. 
 -{ Virginia winter. 
 f New black Russian. 
 { Black prolific. 
 [ New Dakota gray. 
 i Canadian black, 
 f White Russian. 
 1 Common mixed. 
 (_ Giant yellow French 
 
1889.] EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 2OI 
 
 VITALITY OF SEED. 
 
 Of the berries of 28 varieties tested in the Geneva apparatus for 18 
 days at the mean temperature of 66.5 F., 93 per cent, sprouted. In 15 
 varieties 95 or more per cent, sprouted, while in 3 varieties less than 80 per 
 cent, sprouted. 
 
 There is no established standard per cent, of vitality for oats, or, in- 
 deed, for any other class of seeds in this country; but it is probably not 
 too much to expect 95 per cent, of a good sample of oats to sprout under 
 favorable conditions. 
 
 The variations in germination undoubtedly affected the yield to a cer- 
 tain extent. But if two and one-half bushels are sown, as in this experi- 
 ment, and 80 per cent, sprout, it is equal to sowing two bushels of seed 
 that will all sprout, assuming the same strength in the plants; and in 
 experiment No. 12, as to quantity of seed, it appeared in 1888 that 
 there were but 2.4 bushels (3.7 per cent), in 1889 but 1.3 bushels (3 per 
 cent.) less per acre from two than from two and one-half bushels of seed. 
 It is fair to assume, therefore, that the variations in the vitality of the 
 seed, with two or three exceptions, had but little effect upon the yield as 
 compared with other causes. 
 
 PURITY OF SEED. 
 
 The berries in ten grams of the seed as received from the seedsmen 
 were counted. Having, in counting, freed the berries from all foreign 
 matter, the pure berries were put on the scales and berries enough added 
 to replace the foreign matter. The ratio between the number added and 
 the number in ten grams gives the per cent, of foreign matter, with suffi- 
 cient accuracy for our purpose. 
 
 As one berry constitutes from about one-fourth to one-third of one per 
 cent, of the ten grams, it will be seen from the table on page 208 that of the 
 twenty-nine varieties sent to this Station twenty-four varieties contained 
 less than one-third of one per cent, of foreign matter. The remaining 
 five contained an average of only two-thirds of one per cent. One 
 variety only, obtained from the University farms and not especially pre- 
 pared for seed, contained one per cent, of foreign matter. The impurites 
 usually were of the most harmless nature, such as bits of straw, chaff, etc. 
 
 Similar data were obtained in the resulting crop. The oats were 
 threshed by means of a cylinder and riddle which separated the oats and 
 chaff from the straw. The first fanning removed most of the chaff, after 
 which the oats were fanned twice. Samples were then taken and the 
 number of berries in ten grams and the per cent, of foreign matter ascer- 
 tained. Twenty-one varieties contained less than one-third of one per 
 cent, of impurity, while the remaining eleven contained less than two- 
 thirds of one per cent. 
 
 It will be seen that not only was the per cent, of impurity of the 
 varieties sent to this Station for sowing trifling, but it was even less than 
 the amount left in the oats as grown, after more than ordinary care was 
 
202 BULLETIN NO. 7. [November, 
 
 taken to clean them; and it may be assumed that the oats offered for sale 
 during 1889 by leading seedsmen of the United States, were substantially 
 free from impurities. Of course in getting seeds from a distance a farmer 
 may introduce upon his farm a new and troublesome weed, even if there 
 is but one foreign seed in the whole consignment. Such a matter, how- 
 ever, is beyond the control of seedsmen. 
 
 YIELD. 
 
 Thirty-three plats, including varieties under thirty names, gave the 
 rather low average of 41 bushels per acre. The largest yield, a little less 
 than 54 bushels, was given by giant yellow French, the seed of which, it 
 is claimed, was imported. Two other varieties, early Dakota white and 
 improved American, yielded above 50 bushels. Four varieties, Japan, 
 common mixed (white Russian), white bonanza, and American banner, 
 yielded between 45 and 50 bushels; while five varieties, Canadian black, 
 Virginia winter, white Belgian, black Tartarian, and Texas rust proof, 
 yielded less than thirty-five bushels per acre. 
 
 The average yield of straw per acre was about 2,400 pounds; the 
 largest 3,200 pounds, by early Dakota white, and the least 1,600 pounds, 
 or one-half the former amount, by Texas rust proof. 
 
 The average yield was 1.84 pounds of straw for each pound of grain. 
 It was the lowest for Pringle's progress 1.32 pounds; nearly the same 
 for white bonanza; and largest for black Tartarian 2.83 pounds. 
 
 The oats were light, averaging but 30 pounds per bushel. White 
 wonder oats were the heaviest, weighing 35.5 pounds per bushel; the 
 American triumph the lightest, weighing but 26 pounds. 
 
 Even considerable differences in yield do not necessarily indicate 
 corresponding differences in merit. Three plats were sown with welcome 
 oats under conditions similar, as far as possible. The yield from the 
 three plats was 48.1, 43.8, and 35.6 bushels respectively, a difference in 
 yield of 12.5 bushels per acre. The greatest difference in yield between 
 any two varieties sown was but 23.8 bushels per acre. Possibly, there- 
 fore, half the difference in yield of the several varieties was due to circum- 
 stances not related to the merit of the varieties. 
 
 Although the yield of individual varieties, where the differences are 
 not large, is not positive indication of merit, by taking the average of 
 several varieties possessing like characteristics, some idea may be ob- 
 tained, as far as one year's experience goes, as to the qualities most desir- 
 able in a variety of oats. But even here we must be careful of our con- 
 clusions. Figures, unless properly interpreted, are worse than worthless. 
 For example, an inspection of the table on page 204, will show that nine 
 medium maturing varieties yielded at the rate of 44 bushels per acre; six 
 late maturing varieties yielded 36.5 bushels, while four very late varieties 
 yielded 44.6 bushels per acre. Now, it happens that the six late maturing 
 varieties are composed of four black varieties and one dun variety, while 
 in the medium maturing varieties all are white, and in the very late varie- 
 
1889-] EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 18^9. 203 
 
 ties three of the four are white. An inspection of the table again will 
 show that twenty-five white varieties yielded, on an average, 6 bushels 
 more than the black varieties and 10 bushels more than the dun varie- 
 ties. Hence, it appears, that the yield was related to the color rather 
 than the date of ripening. Further, three of the four very late varie- 
 ties are not only white but have closed panicles. The table shows 
 that eight varieties with closed panicles yielded about 4 bushels more than 
 the twenty-five with open panicles. Hence the increased yield was due 
 rather to the fact that they were mostly white ^varieties with closed pani- 
 cles than to the lateness of ripening. At least, if there was any relation 
 between maturity and yield, is is so masked beneath the other character- 
 istics as not to be determinable. Other less striking illustrations might be 
 drawn, but enough has been given to show that conclusions must be 
 ventured cautiously. With these difficulties clearly before the reader, 
 some of the relationships existing between certain characteristics of the 
 varieties and the results as obtained this season will be pointed out. 
 
 Date of Ripening. The extreme difference in ripening of the several 
 varieties was but twelve days. As just stated, there was no determinable 
 relationship between the date of ripening and the yield of grain. There 
 was, however, a somewhat regular increase in the yield of straw with the 
 lateness of ripening. In general, the weight per bushel decreased. The 
 weight per bushel was 32 pounds in the extra early varieties, decreas- 
 ing to 27.5 pounds in the late varieties and increasing again to nearly 30 
 pounds in the very late varieties. It should be noted that if two rust 
 proof varieties, so-called, which are not adapted to this climate were 
 omitted, the yield of the two remaining extra early varieties would be in- 
 creased to 44.2 bushels per acre, the ratio of straw to grain considerably 
 decreased and the weight per bushel increased to 34.5 pounds. 
 
 Although there are marked exceptions, the earlier varieties, having, 
 as they do, a smaller proportion of straw, generally stood somewhat bet- 
 ter at time of harvesting. Not unfrequently storms occur in many 
 localities during July, which the earlier ripening varieties miss by being 
 already in shock, but which cause some loss, often considerable, and 
 much difficulty in harvesting the later maturing varieties. May it not, 
 therefore, be concluded that, as grown in this test, the earlier maturing 
 varieties were, all things considered, the better ? 
 
 Plumpness of berry. The number of varieties* with short, plump 
 berries and of those with long, slender berries was about equal in this 
 test. The average yield of the former was about two bushels more grain 
 and 100 pounds less straw per acre, and the weight per bushel was three 
 pounds more. 
 
 Here again the result is affected by a second cause. All the varieties 
 with short, plump berries, are white. Eight of the fifteen with long, 
 
 *To avoid confusion in the discussion that follows, variety is sometimes used for plat. It will be noted 
 that three plats were sown with similar seed. 
 
204 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 7. 
 
 \_November, 
 
 j>. 
 
 c';s 
 
 a c 
 o o 
 
 
 O "3 f > ^3 ~ "U ri 2 " ' 'rt "' Ts ri 
 
 * .S . ^ J5\ . . J5*"f ^.s" S .E J . > . 1 .5 .STf J '^.l^ff.!'^ " 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 iipe and cut. July I * *-> o o 6^/vu-To o oo t- t^oo~ x ~o "*>. t-. o~o~o~t-- rj- u^ >> TJ- TJ- r- ^j- 
 
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 Headed week NNNNNNN NN 
 
 ending S c >> e e c c^^ c > c c S> S S JJ >N ^ >>^ 
 
 33*333333333333 
 
 t >> i .'.'>>>> >' > 
 
 irjio uivou^ 10 x^> in in 10 10 
 
 Pounds per . . . 
 
 U-.-Upl ONOONONromON-oOrONOOONNONON'-''-' ON ON OM^OO ONSO 
 
 Mlclt mfOmN N fOfOrQrOfON f<NfQN COrpfON N rQ CO N N N N N C4 N 
 
 Lb Straw for "^^O ro ro m mvO t>. t>. m N ro m n ON T- mw roON vO t>.^O 'OOO vo 
 
 each Ib. grain. J w ' J J J J J ' ' J N ' ' ' ' N N - N - -' N - 
 
 8OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 WI.LU.T. M.I*. OOOOQOOOOOOOO5OOOOOOO5OO"3OO 
 
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 T tititi'uMtititititiMtitiwiutitititi'uMbficJcwbiibict/ibi) 
 
 Long, short. oopocqoo P C PP C P?PPPP55S5S5S 
 
 S" c c c g c Cuo, 
 
 .OOO _t* ii-^^-_'-5Jl> _c*_ci 
 
 btw 5^-5m cccccc rtCQ 5'S 
 
 Seedsmen. >S<uuo .. .<oc252325 > -rt <uw 
 
 "i ' 
 _________ i-J i 
 
 iflljl sliis 
 
 441 Iflls Is ifll 111 illiU 
 
 ^5au^^^^c5a^<M^^>gyu^>H^55u5 
 
 No. of plat. 
 
 r^OO ON O - N rO * io\O r-.iO ON O N 
 
88 9 ] 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 
 
 205 
 
 33 
 tioM 2 to 
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 varieties. 
 
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206 BULLETIN NO. 7. [November, 
 
 slender berries, are black. The seven white varieties with long, slender 
 berries gave an average yield of 45.4 bushels of grain with 2,550 pounds 
 of straw per acre. The weight per bushel was 28.5 pounds. Among the 
 white varieties, therefore, those with long, slender berries gave a larger 
 yield of grain and straw with a less weight per bushel than those with 
 short, plump berries. 
 
 Color. The white varieties gave an average yield of 43 bushels per 
 acre, while the smaller number of black varieties yielded 6 bushels less, 
 and the dun varieties yielded 10 bushels less. 
 
 As heretofore mentioned the dun varieties are of southern origin and 
 are, usually, sown in the fall, and hence are not adapted to the conditions 
 of oat raising in this state. It may be said, therefore, that the color in 
 itself is not a bad quality, but an indication of characteristics that are 
 undesirable. So it may be with the black varieties. Thus much is true, 
 however, that the black and dun colored varieties sold by the leading 
 seedsmen of the United States did not equal the white varieties, in the 
 yield of grain or in the weight per bushel. This is contrary, no doubt, to 
 the opinion of many farmers based upon years of practice. 
 
 Panicles. Eight varieties with closed panicles (sometimes called side 
 oats), yielded 44 bushels of grain and 2,475 pounds of straw. The 
 varieties with open panicles yielded about 4 bushels of grain and 100 
 pounds of straw less per acre. The weight per bushel was slightly in 
 favor of the varieties with open panicles. 
 
 If the white varieties alone are compared, this relation will not be 
 materially changed, except that the comparative yield of straw will be 
 somewhat increased in the varieties with closed panicles. 
 
 Weight per Bushel. Eight varieties weighing 32 or more pounds per 
 bushel yielded almost exactly the same as nine varieties weighing between 
 30 and 32 pounds per bushel, although the yield of straw was a little 
 greater in the latter division. Sixteen varieties weighing less than 30 
 pounds per bushel yielded two bushels less of grain and 150 pounds more 
 straw per acre than the seventeen varieties whose weight per bushel was 30 
 or more pounds. In this case, therefore, there was little relation between 
 the weight per bushel and the yield. 
 
 Weight of berries. The varieties were divided according to the size 
 of the seed sown into those in which 100 berries weighed 3 or more grams; 
 these in which 100 weighed 2^ to 3 grams; and those which weighed less 
 than 2^ grams. The middle class yielded less than either of the others; 
 and the fourteen varieties in which 100 berries weighed 2^ or more grams 
 yielded less by 1.7 bushels than those varieties in which 100 berries 
 weighed less than 2^ grams, and they had but a slightly heavier weight 
 per bushel. The relation, if any, between the size of the seed and the 
 yield was very slight. 
 
1889-] EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 207 
 
 Summary. Giant yellow French, early Dakota white, improved 
 American, Japan, white bonanza, and American banner gave the largest 
 yields of grain in the order named, and Canadian black, Virginia winter, 
 white Belgian, black Tartarian, and Texas rust proof gave the lowest. 
 
 Although there was no direct relation between the yield and the 
 date of ripening, all things considered, it may probably be concluded 
 that the earlier ripening varieties were the more desirable. 
 
 The yield was not appreciably affected by the length and plumpness 
 of the berry. 
 
 The white varieties were considerably superior in yield and weight 
 per bushel to the black and dun-colored varieties. 
 
 The varieties with closed panicles yielded somewhat better than those 
 with open panicles. 
 
 Neither the weight per bushel nor the size, by weight, of the berries 
 affected appreciably the yield. 
 
 QUALITY. 
 
 The quality of the several varieties, as indicated by the ratio of the 
 kernel to the berry, both in the seed sown and the resulting crop, has 
 been the subject of study, and is shown in the table on page 208. There 
 was on an average 69.6 per cent, of the kernel in the seed, and 65.1 per 
 cent, in the resulting crop, a decrease of 4^ per cent. Inasmuch as all 
 the varieties, except three, decreased more or less, this decrease probably 
 indicates that the conditions under which the oats were grown, soil, sea- 
 son, attack by insect enemies, such as the grain plant louse {Aphis 
 avenae), etc., were not favorable to their best development. It may, per- 
 haps, be reasonably assumed that those which decreased the most were 
 the farthest removed from the best conditions for their full development. 
 
 The largest percentage of kernel of any variety in the seed sown 
 was 78.1, in Canadian black; the least per cent, was 58.8, in new Dakota 
 gray, a difference of 19.3 per cent, or nearly one-fifth. 
 
 This difference is of greater importance than appears at first glance. 
 No one will deny that a decrease of 19.3 per cent, in the annual yield of 
 oats in this country would be a very important matter. But a difference 
 of 19.3 per cent, in the kernel of the berries of oats in the annual crop 
 of the United States is an even more important consideration, for the 
 value of kernel alone is 40 per cent, greater than that of whole berry, 
 hull and kernel combined. The average annual yield of oats in the 
 United States during the years 1880-1887, inclusive, has been about 
 550,000,000 bushels*, or 8.8 million tons, valued at about thirty-two cents 
 bushel or twenty dollars a ton. Assuming the value of the hulls to be a 
 $5 per ton, on the basis of 65.1 per cent, of kernel, the value of the 
 kernel becomes $28 per ton. An increase or decrease of the kernel, 
 therefore, would increase or decrease the value of the crop on the basis 
 of $23 instead of $20 per ton. On this basis a decrease or increase of 19.3 
 
 *J. R. Dodge, report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1887, p. 544. 
 
208 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 7. 
 
 [November, 
 
 Per cent, berries 
 sprouting. 
 
 OO CO N t~- LO O Q LOOO ON ^ O coX) n t- 
 OX) ON t"" ON O O ON ON ON ON ON ON ONOO 
 
 ONI--OO ON O-OO 
 
 Percent, of kernel 
 in berries. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 LO Nil OO LO N N NO w N n 
 
 CO <! N ^f LO n NO 
 
 T^- <NI t^ n CO ON co LONO ^ "*00 N NO LO 
 
 - M * 
 
 CO t O CONO 1^ n 
 
 In crop. 
 
 LO N LO I^ LO n LO LO LO 
 
 r~ t~- LONO LO LOOO 
 
 In seed. 
 
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 Decrease. 
 
 ( 8SP;3;jrKS5-U}^5'ftS,S; < 8= N^fo^^S^L?;^ 
 
 N, * # _, 
 
 In crop. 
 
 n CO 1-1 'J-OO NOX!LONTfNCON-"ON 
 
 ON ONOO roO t-00 
 
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 In seed. 
 
 N^^-o^S-^^^^^^^^K^^ 
 
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 N N N N N N N 
 
 Weight of kernels. 
 
 NO-" COO Nt^iocoONCOi-iOONO 
 
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 2 Weight of bulls. 
 
 &. 
 
 LOTJ-NNO ONO ONO LOO t^rO COO "* 
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 t^X) O LO O O 
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 COCOCOCON COCOCOCOCON cococococo 
 
 CO COCO N CO CO CO 
 
 o Per cent, foreign 
 
 mat'.er. 
 
 a 
 
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 ododdoooddddoodo 
 
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 d d d d o d o 
 
 No. berries in pure 
 M seed. 
 
 N O N O N T}- LOOO CNl^Nt--"Tj-LO 
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 vo LOOO OO " OO 
 CO O O NO NO N CO 
 * LO LO If LO Tj- Tj- 
 
 No. berries as re- 
 ceived. 
 
 N ON N ON N LOOO CO O LO n CO LO 
 
 Tj- Tj- LO Tf- LO t * 
 
 Weight of kernels. 
 
 O COOO ^ CO ON CO NO n t^^ ON O OO LO 
 
 N OO LO *4-NO " OO 
 
 
 t-NO NO t^ r- I-^NO 
 
 Weight of hulls. 
 
 I 
 
 ON LO -< LONO OO ONNO 00 N OO n ONOO n CO 
 
 r^ <i $ LO COOO * 
 
 tNiNCONNNCONNCONCONNCOCO 
 
 N CO CON N N CO 
 
 Per cent, foreign 
 g matter. 
 
 V - 
 
 oooooooooooooooo 
 
 CO ** LO ^ 
 CNJ LON CON 
 
 oooooooo 
 
 2 No. berries in pure 
 M seed. 
 
 if) if) O ^-OO O^ O vO Q* ro *^ "O *O *O ^O ^^ 
 ^W ^cs ^-N ^coro^'^'cOfOco^'^' 
 
 Tf COOO O LO ro 
 
 No. berries as re- 
 ceived. 
 
 iH&lffMllH^S 
 
 Tj- COOO O LO CO "" 
 
 1 
 
 cd 
 
 o u - 
 
 :| i i ': : . i-3 
 
 
 No. of plat. 
 
 N co ^" LONO l^OO ON O N CO ^" LONO 
 
 t^OO ON O N CO <* 
 
 . z 
 
1889] 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 
 
 209 
 
 O O~~ 
 O CO 
 
 oo rr> Tj- 
 N 06 >o 
 
 00 m 1-1 rOOO i OOO 
 
 
 
 ON to N ^ to 
 
 MNOOO "-i\ 
 
 00 tOOO 
 
 10 't'O t^O 
 
 Q \O Q 
 vO O 00 
 
 o'o'ddoodod 
 
 fxOO N 
 
 o d d o d 
 
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 "ssSrtJjiiUiJi; 
 V M M g 48 . .^H . ._ _ 
 
 3 - 
 
210 BULLETIN NO. 7. {November, 
 
 per cent, of kernel would decrease or increase the annual value of the 
 crop during the past ten years, approximately, $39,000,000. To take a 
 less extreme case, the fifteen varieties in which there was 70 per cent, of 
 kernel in the seed yielded in the crop 67.3 per cent. The sixteen varieties 
 in which there was less than 70 per cent, of kernel in the seed yielded 
 3.1 of kernel in the crop. This would make a difference of between 
 eight and nine million dollars in the average yield of the crop in the 
 United States during the past ten years, a difference which it would seem 
 might be controlled. A difference of 19.3 per cent, in the kernel would 
 'make a difference of $70 in the value of a thousand bushel of oats under 
 Jthe conditions named. 
 
 Although an inspection will show marked individual exceptions, it 
 has just been shown that there was a difference of 4.2 per cent, in the 
 crop owing to whether the seed contained more or less than 70 per cent, of 
 kernel. The difference of kernel in the seed of these two divisions was 6 
 per cent. In other words, while the circumstances under which the crop 
 was grown, as season, soil, cultivation, etc., affected it to a certain extent, 
 in general there was a direct relation between the quality of the seed 
 sown and that of the crop produced. Other things being equal, therefore, it 
 pays better to sow varieties whose berries contain a large percentage of 
 kernel. 
 
 The other chief consideration is yield. The fifteen varieties in which 
 the seed contained 70 or more per cent, of kernel yielded 44 bushels 
 while the sixteen varieties containing less than 70 per cent, of kernel 
 yielded less than 39 bushels per acre, the ratio of straw to- grain being 
 about the same in both. The seed of the better quality gave an appreci- 
 ably better yield. As usual, there are some individual exceptions, the 
 most striking of which are in the southern varieties, which yielded poorly 
 for reasons already explained. In no case, however, was the yield much 
 above the average where the seed had less than 70 per cent, of kernel. 
 
 If a series of investigations confirm these results; viz., that high 
 quality was largely reproduced and was accompanied by larger yields, it 
 will be important to know by what characteristics seed may be known to 
 contain a high percentage of kernel. Is it by the plumpness, size, or 
 color of berry, the weight per bushel, date of ripening, or other character- 
 istics? 
 
 Fifteen varieties with long, slender berries contained, in the seed 
 sown, 1.3 per cent, and in the crop 3.5 per cent, more kernel than the 
 sixteen varieties with short plump berries. This is a slight advantage in 
 favor of the long, slender berries in the seed sown and a more decided 
 advantage in the crop. 
 
 It should be explained that this division into short, plump berries, 
 and long, slender ones, as in all such classifications, is somewhat arbi- 
 trary, it being in some cases difficult to decide in which division to place 
 a variety. The classification was made, however, without any knowledge 
 of what the results would lead to and is, therefore, entirely free from bias. 
 
.] EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 211 
 
 Referring again to the table on page 208, it will be seen that with 
 the seven varieties in which the weight per bushel was 32 or more pounds, 
 the per cent, of kernel in the crop was between three and four per cent. 
 lower than in those in which the weight was less than 32 pounds per bushel; 
 while there was no appreciable difference in this respect between the 
 nine varieties in which the weight per bushel was between 30 and 32 
 pounds per bushel, and the sixteen varieties in which the weight per 
 bushel was less than thirty pounds. 
 
 A similar relationship exists between the weight of the berries in the 
 seed and the per cent, of kernel in the crop. The three varieties having 
 remarkably large berries contained in the crop more than three per cent, 
 less kernel than those varieties with lighter berries, while there was but a 
 slight difference between those in which 100 berries weighed between 2^ 
 and 3 grams, and those that weighed less than 2^ grams per 100 berries. 
 So far as there was any difference, the varieties having the least weight 
 per bushel and the lightest berries had the largest per cent, of kernel. This 
 is in accordance with the fact that the varieties with long, slender berries 
 contained the larger per cent, of kernel; for this class had the smaller 
 weight per bushel and the lighter berries. 
 
 It will be observed that in the seed of the heavy berries, the per cent, 
 of kernel was larger than that of the lighter berries; thit is, when 
 divided according to weight, the high per cent, of kernel was not repro- 
 duced, while it has been heretofore shown that when the varieties were 
 divided strictly according to quality without, regard to the weight of the 
 berries, high quality was reproduced. This may seem like a contradic- 
 tion. May it not rather be assumed in explanation that the varieties 
 with especially heavy berries were unsuited for the conditions under 
 which they were grown, and hence, failed to reach their normal develop- 
 ment, and so contained a less per cent, of kernel in the resulting crop ? 
 In support of this explanation, it may be mentioned that the three vari- 
 eties with very heavy berries decreased in weight between the seed and 
 the crop nearly 35 per cent., the eleven varieties with medium heavy 
 berries decreased 18 per cent., and the seventeen varieties with light ber- 
 ries but about 8 per cent. 
 
 If it is true that those varieties with heavy berries were particularly 
 unadapted to the circumstances under which they were grown, it sup- 
 ports the proposition that seed containing a high per cent, of kernel, will 
 produce a crop of similar quality; for if those varieties were omitted 
 from the division containing berries with more than 70 per cent of kernel 
 in the seed. There was a decrease of n per cent, of kernel between the 
 seed crop of the three varieties mentioned, while in the twelve remaining 
 varieties of this division the decrease was but 4^ per cent. 
 
 When classified as to color the dun varieties stand first, the white 
 varieties second, and the black varieties last. The difference between the 
 first two is not great but is appreciable, while between the last two the 
 difference is slight. 
 
212 BULLETIN NO. "j . \_November, 
 
 In the seed there was no material difference between the quality of 
 the varieties with open and closed panicles, while in the resulting crop 
 it was slightly in favor of the closed panicles. 
 
 There appears to be no general relation between the per cent, of 
 kernel in the berry and the date of ripening; although, in general, the 
 medium to very late maturing varieties were of better quality than the 
 early to extra early varieties. 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY. 
 
 1. In 1888, the largest yield was produced when the two and one-half 
 bushels per acre was sown; in 1889, when three and one-half bushels 
 was sown. Both years considered the yield was related to the quantity 
 of seed sown from most to least as follows: Three and one-half, four, 
 three, two and one-half, two, one and one-half, and one. 
 
 2. A medium loose seed-bed gave a larger yield in both seasons than 
 a compact or very loose seed-bed. 
 
 3. Almost without exception, the earlier the seeding the larger the 
 yield and the greater the weight per bushel. Oats sown March 14, 1889, 
 yielded one-half more than those sown April 4th, and nearly twice as much 
 as those sown April i8th. 
 
 4. Between one and four inches in depth, the differences in yield do 
 not indicate with certainty that the depth of sowing affected the results. 
 
 5. In many cases varieties of oats under distinct names resemble 
 each other so closely as to be practically identical. 
 
 6. Thirty-three plats, including varieties under 30 names, gave the 
 rather low average of 41 bushels per acre. The largest yield was 54 and 
 the least 30 bushels per acre. 
 
 7. There was an average of somewhat less than two pounds (1.84 
 Ib.) of straw for each pound of grain. The variation in the yield of 
 straw was a little less than that of the grain. 
 
 8. The following varieties gave the largest yields, in the order named: 
 Giant yellow French, early-Dakota white, improved American, Japan, 
 white bonanza, and American banner; while Canadian black, Virginia 
 winter, white Belgian, black Tartarian, and Texas rust proof gave the 
 poorest yields. 
 
 9. All things considered, it may probably be fairly concluded that 
 the earlier ripening varieties were the more desirable. 
 
 10. Neither the length, plumpness, or weight of berry, nor the weight 
 per bushel appreciably influenced the yield. 
 
 11. The white varieties were considerably superior in yield and 
 weight per bushel to the black and dun-colored varieties. 
 
 12. The varieties with closed panicles yielded somewhat better than 
 those with open panicles. 
 
 13. The average per cent, of kernel in the berries as sown was 69.6 per 
 cent, and 65.1 per cent, in the crop. The largest individual difference be- 
 tween two varieties was 19 3 per cent, in the seed and 12.7 in the crop. 
 
1889.] EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1889. 213 
 
 This extreme difference between two varieties would make a difference of 
 $39,000,000 if applied to the annual crop of the United States. Differ- 
 ences, apparently not beyond the control of the farmer, would make a 
 difference of eight to nine millions in the annual value of the crop. 
 
 14. Those varieties which contained the higher per cent, of kernel in 
 the berry of the seed sown, contained, on an average, the higher per cent, 
 in the crop and gave the larger yields. 
 
 15. On the whole, it is doubtful whether there was any relation be- 
 tweeen the per cent, of kernel in the berry and the weight per bushel, the 
 color, weight, or plumpness of the berry. If any such relation existed, 
 those varieties with long, slender berries, with lighter berries, and with the 
 less weight per bushel yielded the highest per cent, of kernel. 
 
 1 6. While it appears from the data obtained that it is especially 
 desirable to sow varieties of oats whose berries contain a large per cent. 
 of kernel, this quality, with our present knowledge, can only be known 
 by direct determination. 
 
 17. The twenty-nine varieties of oats procured by the Station for 
 seed from the leading seedsmen of the United States were practically 
 free from foreign seeds and other impurities. 
 
 1 8. On an average, 93 per cent, of the berries sprouted. In fifteen 
 varieties 95 or more per cent, sprouted, while in three varieties less than 
 80 per cent, sprouted. 
 
 19. If future investigation confirms the experiments just recorded, 
 the practical lesson will be to sow as early as practicable, in a medium 
 loose seed-bed; to cover well, but not necessarily deep; to use two and 
 one-half to three and one-half bushels of seed per acre; to ascertain the 
 power of sprouting of the seed, and, if low and it is necessary to sow it, 
 to sow proportionately more; to sow white varieties which have been found 
 through a series of years to produce a good yield with a high percentage 
 
 of kernel to berry. 
 
 THOMAS F. HUNT, B. S., 
 
 Assistant Agriculturist. 
 
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