THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 370 
 ie6e 
 
 no.36-47 
 
ssarssssz*' 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN 
 
 Issued Weekly 
 Vol. XXIII June 1, 1926 . No. 39 
 
 [Entered as second-class matter December 11, 1912, at the post office at Urbana, Illinois, under the 
 Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in 
 section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 31, 1918.] 
 
 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH CIRCULAR XO. 4! 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
 
 TEACHERS' OBJECTIVES 
 
 By 
 
 Walter S. Monroe 
 Director? Bureau of Educational Research 
 
 mi UN ::: Of THE 
 
 JUL l < 1926 
 UHWERSffY OF IU11*1 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 URBANA 
 
TEACHERS , OBJECTIVES 
 
 <3 7o 
 
 No argument is needed to prove that in performing the many 
 phases of his task, a teacher should be guided by a clear understanding 
 of the objectives or goals to be attained by the students under his in- 
 struction. However, one who has not made an extensive study of the 
 topic is not likely to comprehend fully the meaning of the phrase, "a 
 clear understanding of objectives." In discussing the aim of education, 
 we frequently use such terms as "health," "wealth," "citizenship," 
 "character," "a well-disciplined mind," "adaptation to environment," 
 "culture," "worthy use of leisure," "social efficiency," "appreciation" 
 and the like. In so far as these words and phrases have meaning, they 
 describe the conduct of persons who have been "educated," and hence 
 are ultimate and final objectives rather than immediate goals to be at- 
 tained by students of arithmetic, algebra, first-year Latin, geography, 
 civics, physics, home economics, English literature, and so forth. For this 
 " reason such "high-sounding" terms cannot be very helpful to a teacher 
 in arriving at a clear understanding of his immediate objectives. 
 
 Typical statements of educational objectives. The statement of 
 educational objectives formulated by the Commission on the Reorgani- 
 zation of Secondary Education has become widely known under the 
 title "Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education." 1 This formulation 
 is epitomized in the statement that the "main objectives of education" 
 are: 
 
 1. Health 5.. Citizenship 
 
 2. Command of fundamental processes 6. Worthy use of leisure 
 
 3. Worthy home membership 7. Ethical character 
 
 4. Vocation 
 
 A committee of the North Central Association of Colleges and 
 Secondary Schools has given us a slightly different statement of ob- 
 jectives. 
 
 The ultimate aims stated in terms of disposition and ability may be sum- 
 marized as follows: 
 
 1. To maintain health and physical fitness. 
 
 2. To use leisure time in right ways. 
 
 3. To engage successfully in vocational activities. 
 
 4. To sustain successfully certain definite relationships such as domestic, com- 
 munity, civic and the like. 2 
 
 lu Report on Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education." (Commission on the 
 reorganization of secondary education.) U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1918, 
 No. 35. Washington, 1918. 32 p. 
 
 2 "Report on Standards for reorganization of secondary school curricula, 1924." 
 North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, March 20. 21, 22, 1924. p. 6. 
 
 [3] 
 
Difficulties in applying such formulations of educational objec- 
 tives. Certain difficulties become apparent when one attempts to apply 
 such formulations of educational objectives in devising and selecting 
 learning exercises. Phrases such as "ethical character," "health," "right 
 habits of conduct," "appreciation," "life activities," and "citizenship" 
 do not express concepts that a teacher is able to apply directly in de- 
 ciding what learning exercises :{ to assign. Most teachers are able to 
 associate only very general and frequently indefinite meanings with 
 such "high-sounding" terms. A much more helpful formulation of edu- 
 cational objectives may be secured by specifying the abilities that stu- 
 dents are expected to acquire as the result of doing the assigned 
 exercises. 
 
 The outcomes of learning activity. Whenever a student engages 
 in mental activity, there is a product or outcome, generally called 
 "ability," which functions as a "control of conduct" on future occasions. 
 Before a child has studied algebra, his response to an algebraic symbol, 
 such as x 2 , is not likely to be the correct one. If asked to read this 
 symbol, he may say, "x with a small 2 above it." After he has studied 
 algebra, that is engaged in certain learning activities, he is "changed." 
 We describe the change by saying he has acquired certain abilities, so 
 that when asked to read this symbol he will say, "x square." One out- 
 come of his participation in certain learning activities in the field of 
 algebra is a "control of conduct" which enables him to respond correctly 
 to a request to read the symbol x 2 . 
 
 If a student who has not studied physics is asked to solve a problem 
 that requires the application of the "law of falling bodies," he will prob- 
 ably be unable to give a satisfactory response. When he masters the 
 law of falling bodies in his study of physics, he is equipped so that he 
 is able to apply it in solving problems. Learning the law of falling 
 bodies means acquiring a control of conduct. 
 
 A person who has not studied music may be equipped with con- 
 trols of conduct so that he is bored or even irritated by listening to the 
 playing of a highly technical musical selection. Such a person may 
 acquire other controls of conduct as a result of studying music so that 
 his response to the rendition of a technical musical selection will be 
 characterized by satisfaction and pleasure rather than by dissatisfaction. 
 
 3 A "learning exercise" is anything students are asked to do as a means of edu- 
 cating themselves. 
 
 [4] 
 
The change which has taken place may be described as the acquiring 
 of the ability to appreciate a certain type of music. 
 
 The illustrations just given suggest that abilities differ. Ability to 
 read "x 2 " provides a type of control of conduct different in certain re- 
 spects from that represented by "ability to apply the law of falling 
 bodies" or by '"ability to appreciate a highly technical musical selec- 
 tion." Certain characteristics of the situations for which responses are 
 provided and the nature of the process of responding furnish a basis 
 for a classification of abilities. 
 
 Types of outcomes considered as controls of conduct. 4 The fol- 
 lowing analysis of the outcomes of learning activity is not perfect. The 
 boundaries between the several rubrics are not well defined and the 
 reader should bear in mind that psychologically all abilities have certain 
 characteristics in common. However, the following classification will be 
 helpful in considering certain problems relating to teaching. 
 
 I. Specific habits; motor skills and fixed associations. Under this 
 head we place all those outcomes of the learning process which function 
 as automatic or largely mechanical controls of conduct. Names, dates, 
 events, and other facts which have been memorized belong to this class. 
 In addition there are many habits which provide automatic motor re- 
 sponses. Examples of these are found in handwriting, the speaking of 
 a foreign language, athletics, music, typewriting, and so forth. Specific 
 habits provide ready-made responses to familiar situations. 
 
 II. Knowledge; adaptive controls of conduct. Under the head of 
 knowledge we group those controls of conduct (abilities) that function 
 in overcoming difficulties presented by new situations. We commonly 
 refer to them as ideas, concepts, meanings, principles, and laws. The 
 distinction between specific habits and knowledge is primarily on the 
 basis of the type of situation for which a response is provided. If the 
 situation is familiar and the person possesses a ready-made response, 
 the control of conduct is called a specific habit. If the situation is new, 
 that is if it presents a problem to be solved and a response is manu- 
 factured by reflective thinking, knowledge is the name given to the 
 controls of conduct that function. 
 
 *The rubrics of abilities given here are similar to those given by: 
 
 Bagley, W. C. Educational Values. New York: The Macmillan Company, 
 
 1911, Chapters II, III, IV and V. 
 
 Bagley, W. C, and Keith, J. A. H. An Introduction to Teaching. New York: 
 
 The Macmillan Company, 1924, Chapter IX. 
 
 [5] 
 
III. General patterns of conduct. An ideal may be thought of as 
 a general pattern to which conduct will conform in a variety of situa- 
 tions. Ideals have been described as "master ideas." In addition to the 
 intellectual element, the idea, there is an emotional element which adds 
 power in controlling conduct. Neatness, honesty, patriotism, loyalty, 
 altruism, and accuracy are names for certain common ideals. 
 
 Attitudes represent a number of less tangible but very important 
 controls of conduct which furnish general patterns of conduct or "mind 
 sets." When we describe a person as being "conservative," we mean 
 that his thinking is characterized by caution and also by reluctance to 
 accept new ideas. The word "radical" is used to designate the opposite 
 type of mind or attitude. Other words which designate certain attitudes 
 are scholarly, open-minded, prejudiced, independent, and judicial. 
 
 A similar kind of controls of conduct is commonly designated as 
 "interests" or "tastes." An interest in or a preference for "Jazz" causes 
 one to seek that type of music and to avoid other kinds. An interest 
 in outdoor sports directs one's leisure activities. What is called "good 
 taste" controls one in furnishing his home or in buying his clothes. 
 
 Determination of educational objectives. An approach to the de- 
 termination of the immediate objectives is furnished by the principle 
 that a teacher's immediate purpose is to cause his students to acquire 
 certain abilities. "Formulating immediate objectives" means "determ- 
 ining the abilities they are to acquire." A number of workers in the 
 field of curriculum construction have made a beginning in the identi- 
 fication of the particular abilities which our schools are expected to 
 engender. For example, Bobbitt in his recent volume, "How to Make a 
 Curriculum," lists a large number of abilities as objectives for the high 
 school. Other workers, accepting the thesis that the general aim of edu- 
 cation is to prepare children for efficient participation in the activities 
 of adult life, have attempted to analyze the activities that adults now 
 perform for the purpose of ascertaining what abilities are necessary for 
 satisfactory participation. Thousands of pages of the writings of adults 
 have been analyzed in order to determine what words children should 
 be asked to learn to spell during their study of this subject in the ele- 
 mentary school. Masses of data have been collected and analyzed for 
 the purpose of determining the types of arithmetical problems which 
 adults find it necessary to solve. Hundreds of periodicals have been 
 read for the purpose of determing the frequency of occurrence of allu- 
 sions to geographical and historical facts. Elaborate investigations have 
 been conducted in other fields for the purpose of determining the abil- 
 ities which children should be asked to acquire in school. 
 
 [6] 
 
Such curriculum studies are helpful but they provide only limited 
 assistance to the teacher who is endeavoring to arrive at a clear under- 
 standing of the objectives to be attained by his students. They do not 
 reveal the nature of the abilities to be acquired by them. For example, 
 the determination of the words which adults use most frequently in 
 written expression does not yield complete specifications of the abilities 
 that students should acquire in the field of spelling. One way to spell 
 words correctly is to consult the dictionary and copy the letters in the 
 order given there. In this case "ability to spell" would mean "ability 
 to find a word in the dictionary plus ability to copy the letters in the 
 proper order." Of course such a definition of spelling ability is absurd 
 for commonly used words but it is possible to define various degrees 
 of fluency in the spelling of words used in written expression. Hence a 
 list of the most commonly used words only partially specifies the abili- 
 ties to be acquired by a study of spelling. The determination of the 
 frequency of allusions to historical facts in periodical literature cannot 
 reveal the precise nature of the historical abilities required for efficient 
 reading of such material. In addition to determining what dates, per- 
 sons, events and other historical facts should be learned, it is necessary 
 to define what it means to knozv a. fact. The job-analysis method of 
 curriculum construction does not furnish this definition. 
 
 A hierarchy of educational objectives. The aim of education may 
 be considered from several points of view which tend to form a se- 
 quence. The immediate objective of the teacher is to stimulate and 
 direct his students so that they will acquire certain abilities such as, 
 ability to multiply one integer by another, ability to solve quadratic 
 equations of a specified type, ability to type from copy a specified 
 number of words per minute, ability to translate certain passages of a 
 foreign language, ability to apply principles of physics in solving 
 problems, ability to plan and construct a table or chair in the shop, 
 ability to organize information relating to a topic and present it effect- 
 ively, and the like. Sometimes the teacher shifts his objective from 
 abilities to be acquired to the learning activities in which he asks his 
 students to engage. In such cases his efforts are focused on getting his 
 students to do certain problems or laboratory exercises, to write themes 
 or book reviews, and the like. This type of immediate objective has 
 been described as "ground-to-be-covered" and frequently is thought of 
 in terms of the pages of a textbook to be read, or a list of topics (usually 
 expressed as an outline) to be studied. 
 
 Abilities are engendered by the school in order that the students 
 may be equipped with controls of conduct for performing the duties of 
 
 [7] 
 
adult life. Hence the future behavior or conduct of students may be 
 considered as the ultimate objectives of education and has been defined 
 in two ways; first by describing its general character or quality using 
 such terms as socially efficient, good citizen, honest, trained mind, and 
 the like, and second, by specifying the duties to be performeed or the 
 occasions for the functioning of controls of conduct. An illustration of 
 stating ultimate educational objectives from the second point of view 
 is furnished by the following enumeration of the classes of activities in 
 which adults engage: 
 
 1. Language activities; social intercommunication. 
 
 2. Health activities. 
 
 3. Citizenship activities. 
 
 4. General social activities — meeting and mingling with others. 
 
 5. Spare-time activities, amusements, recreations. 
 
 6. Keeping one's self mentally fit — analagous to the health activities of keeping 
 one's self physically fit. 
 
 7. Religious activities. 
 
 8. Parental activities, the upbringing of children, the maintenance of a proper 
 home life. 
 
 9. Unspecialized or non-vocational practical activities. 
 10. The labors of one's calling. 5 
 
 The four classes or orders of objectives described in the preceding 
 
 discussion may be summarized as follows: 
 
 1. Learning activities to be engaged in. This type of ob- 
 jective is usually described in terms of learning exercises 
 to be done or a ground-to-be-covered." 
 
 Immediate 
 Objectives 
 
 Ultimate 
 Objectives 
 
 2. Abilities to be engendered. When objectives are 
 thought of in terms of "abilities to be engendered," the 
 doing of exercises becomes a means to this end. 
 
 3. Future behavior described in general terms. 6 Using 
 such words as citizenship, character, culture, and so forth. 
 
 4. Duties or occasions for the use of abilities. The rela- 
 tion between duties and "future behavior" may be de- 
 scribed by saying that the terms, such as character, cit- 
 izenship, social efficiency, and so forth used in describing 
 future behavior specify in a general way how the duties 
 of adult life are to be performed. 7 
 
 5 Bobbitt, Franklin. How to Make a Curriculum. New York: Houghton Mifflin 
 Company, 1924, p. 8-9. 
 
 •Objectives of this order may describe the behavior of an individual or the con- 
 duct of groups. 
 
 7 The technique employed in determining the duties of adult life has been called 
 "job analysis" or "activity analysis/' The purpose of such analyses is to determine 
 
 [8] 
 
This hierarchy of objectives provides a basis for classifying state- 
 ments of aim and hence a means for indicating their merits for teachers. 
 The "Cardinal Principles of Education" clearly come under the third 
 order of objectives. Bobbin's list of activities belongs under the fourth. 
 Teachers should focus their attention upon the "abilities to be engend- 
 ered" and they should always consider learning activity (the doing of 
 assigned exercises) as a means to that end. The teacher, however, 
 should not forget that the ultimate purpose of the school is to contribute 
 to equipping students for socially efficient performance of the duties of 
 adult life. 
 
 How to state immediate objectives. It is comparatively easy to 
 state some immediate objectives in definite terms of ability to do. 
 For example, in the case of silent reading the desired achievement may 
 be described in terms of the rate of reading (words per minute) and 
 the degree of comprehension as measured by some standardized test. 
 In handwriting we have standards of achievement in terms of the rate 
 of handwriting (letters per minute) and the quality as measured on 
 some handwriting scale. The immediate objectives in stenography and 
 typewriting may be stated in terms of rate and accuracy of perform- 
 ance. 
 
 In most high-school subjects it is not yet possible to describe the 
 abilities to be engendered in such objective terms but the teacher will 
 find it helpful to classify according to the following plan the abilities 
 he is attempting to engender. 
 
 I. Fixed controls of conduct (specific habits) 
 
 A. Motor skills 
 
 B. Fixed associations 
 
 II. Adaptive controls of conduct (knowledge) 
 
 A. Perceptual or relatively concrete meanings 
 
 B. Abstract and general meanings or concepts 
 
 C. Principles 
 
 III. General patterns of conduct (generalized controls) 
 
 A. Ideals 
 
 B. Attitudes 
 
 C. Interests and tastes 
 
 the duties that adults perform. After this has been done it remains to determine 
 the relative importance of the duties revealed and also the behavior that is desirable 
 in connection with each duty. For an account of the technique of job analysis see: 
 
 Charters, W. W. Curriculum Construction. New York: The Macmillan Com- 
 pany, 1923, p. 352. 
 
 [9] 
 
In addition to failing to distinguish between the different types of 
 abilities, teachers frequently lack a clear understanding of other aspects 
 of the abilities they are attempting to engender. For example, in arith- 
 metic it is generally agreed that teachers are to engender the abilities 
 necessary for making calculations with integers and, when requested, 
 they state their objectives as being to engender ability to do column 
 addition, ability to do addition with carrying, and so forth. Such 
 analytical statements of objectives are good so far as they go but recent 
 psychological studies indicate that the specific habits which students 
 must acquire in order to be proficient in calculation are much more 
 highly specialized than such statements imply. For example, ability to 
 respond to 7 + 5 does not insure the ability to respond to 17 + 5, 
 21 -f- 5, and so forth. If this is true, it is necessary that the teacher 
 recognize not fifty nor even one hundred addition combinations but 
 some three or four hundred different combinations. It now appears 
 that there are several thousand specific habits (fixed associations) to 
 be learned in the field of arithmetic and the teacher cannot be said to 
 have a clear understanding of the objectives in this field until he knows 
 what constitutes a specific habit and also the general classes of specific, 
 habits to be learned. 
 
 Relative importance of the rubrics of abilities. Although it is not 
 possible to give a definite answer to the question implied in the para- 
 graph heading, certain considerations may be noted. The elementary 
 school is responsible for engendering a large number of specific habits 
 in reading (both oral and silent), arithmetic, handwriting, spelling, and 
 language. This may be considered the chief responsibility of the ele- 
 mentary school, at least up until the end of the sixth grade, but it is 
 also expected to contribute to the engendering of knowledge and general 
 patterns of conduct. 
 
 In the high school the number of specific habits to be engendered 
 is relatively small except in algebra, foreign language, typewriting, 
 stenography, practical and fine arts, and athletics. In the other subjects 
 of instruction knowledge represents an important rubric of objectives. 
 The engendering of ideals and attitudes is also an important respon- 
 sibility of the high school. In fact it may be argued that this constitutes 
 its chief responsibility. However, the acceptance of this thesis would 
 not mean that high-school teachers should limit their objectives to the 
 engendering of general patterns of conduct. 
 
 The fact that knowledge is an adaptive control of conduct gives it 
 importance. Obviously it is not possible to anticipate all of the situa- 
 tions to which the adults of the future will be called upon to respond 
 
 [10] 
 
and to equip children for meeting them by engendering only fixed 
 controls of conduct. Even if all the possible situations of the future 
 were known, some of them would occur so infrequently in the lives of 
 most persons that it would be inadvisable to attempt to engender 
 ready-made responses for them. However, the possession of knowledge 
 is not sufficient to insure satisfactory conduct when confronted with 
 novel situations. The functioning of knowledge is governed by ideals 
 and attitudes. These constitute "mindsets" that form the basis of satis- 
 faction or annoyance in the functioning of knowledge elements in the 
 solving of problems. A person who is grossly lacking in ideals and 
 attitudes would be likely to respond to novel situations in a very erratic 
 manner even though he possessed much knowledge. 
 
 Achievement versus the activity of doing learning exercises. The 
 reader's attention has already been called to the distinction between 
 "learning activity" and "achievement," or the changes produced in the 
 learner by the activity. The material product of a student's learning 
 activity usually has little or no direct value. The themes written in 
 English classes, the solutions obtained to problems in mathematics, the 
 manipulations of apparatus in the laboratory, the answers given to 
 questions in the classroom, and other performances required of students 
 seldom contribute directly to the welfare of those giving them or to the 
 welfare of the community. The themes seldom contain anything orig- 
 inal; the problems usually have already been solved by others; the 
 answers to the questions are generally known; "experimenting" in 
 the laboratory seldom results in discoveries. In the shop, and some- 
 times in the laboratory, the product of learning activities may have a 
 value but in general the doing of learning exercises is merely a means 
 to an end, the education of students. 
 
 The outcomes of the learning process are subjective. One cannot 
 tell by looking at a student what changes have been made in his mind. 
 His knowledge cannot be measured directly by means of a yard stick 
 or other instruments similar to those used in making physical measure- 
 ments. We can know his abilities only through his conduct or perform- 
 ance. Consequently, in evaluating achievement the teacher necessarily 
 deals with performances. 
 
 In seeking to learn about a student's achievements, teachers fre- 
 quently ask, "How many problems have you solved?" "Have you read 
 the number of pages assigned?" "Did you find answers to all of the 
 questions which I dictated?" "Have you written up the experiment 
 that you performed in the laboratory?" "Have you translated all of 
 the sentences assigned?" The unfortunate thing about such inquiries 
 
 [11] 
 
is that they tend to be interpreted literally by both teachers and 
 students. The teacher should think of a student's response to such 
 questions as a convenient though very inaccurate way of telling what 
 he has learned. The number of problems which a student has solved 
 is in itself unimportant. One student may obtain correct answers for 
 all of the problems and learn little or nothing about how to solve 
 problems, while another student may solve only a few of the problems 
 but learn much about problem solving. A student who reads the entire 
 number of pages assigned may have learned much less than one who 
 has read only half of the lesson. 
 
 It is not intended to imply that the teacher should not ask his 
 students about the number and magnitude of their learning activities, 
 but he should consider this procedure only as a means for ascertaining 
 what they have learned. Many teachers keep an elaborate record of 
 student performances which show the number of exercises completed 
 by each student and a description of the quality of the performance. 
 Such records may be convenient but they tend to place the emphasis 
 where it should not be. A record of "ability to do" would be much 
 more significant. 
 
 Specifications of the quality of abilities. A classified list of abili- 
 ties to be engendered does not constitute a complete statement of the 
 teacher's immediate objectives. It remains to describe the desired 
 quality of the abilities enumerated. The bond between a situation 
 (stimulus) and a response may be formed in several degrees of strength. 
 Ability to operate a typewriter may vary from that represented by 
 typing only a few words per minute to the degree of skill possessed 
 by an expert typist. "Knowledge of a principle" varies from a hazy 
 understanding of it plus ability to repeat it orally or in writing to the 
 ability to apply it in solving problems. Hence, the enumeration of the 
 abilities to be engendered should be supplemented by the specifications 
 of the quality of each. 
 
 "Mastery" of knowledge as an objective. There are several de- 
 grees of the acquisition of knowledge. A person who merely memorizes 
 a statement has acquired the symbols of knowledge. He does not un- 
 derstand their meaning or at least only to a slight extent. A somewhat 
 higher level of learning is attained by one who "understands" the state- 
 ments which he is able to repeat. He has acquired ideas, not merely 
 symbols. A still higher level is attained when a learner associates his 
 "new ideas" with other knowledge and becomes conscious of their rela- 
 tionships. He is able to explain and to illustrate his statements. He is 
 not dependent upon the language of the author but can express his 
 
 [12] 
 
ideas in his own words. "Mastery" has been used to designate a still 
 more advanced stage of learning which is characterized by "ability to 
 use knowledge." 
 
 "Mastery" as an objective means that the teacher emphasizes the 
 application or use of knowledge rather than merely its acquisition. It is 
 a common observation that students frequently fail to apply what they 
 know or do so very unsatisfactorily. In many cases a truer statement 
 of existing conditions would be that the students have only memorized 
 symbols of knowledge and consequently have no real knowledge to 
 apply. One cause of this condition is the failure of teachers to set ob- 
 jectives that emphasize use of knowledge. The concept of "mastery" 
 as an objective emphasizes the distinction between performance and 
 achievement which we have already pointed out. "Mastery" focuses 
 attention upon the outcomes of learning activity rather than upon the 
 doing of learning exercises. 
 
 Permanency of controls of conduct. The education of a child looks 
 to his future. Although his school experience may constitute an impor- 
 tant phase of his present life and thereby add to his present happiness 
 and well-being, the fundamental justification for our schools, particu- 
 larly our high schools, must be derived from the preparation which 
 students receive for participation in the activities of adult life. This 
 means that the teacher must endeavor to engender controls of conduct 
 which possess sufficient permanency to be effective five, ten or twenty 
 years after the period of the child's education. Specific habits tend to 
 deteriorate when not used. Ideas, concepts, facts, and principles which 
 are not mastered and well organized are usually quickly forgotten. 
 Ideals and particularly attitudes, interests and tastes tend to be more 
 permanent. Religious beliefs, political affiliations, hobbies, interest in 
 music, a fondness for out-of-door sports, an attitude of fair-mindedness 
 and the like are frequently acquired in childhood and persist as effective 
 controls of conduct throughout life. Hence, when knowledge is the 
 objective, "mastery" and organization should be emphasized. Further- 
 more, ideals, attitudes, interests and tastes should occupy a prominent 
 place in the objectives of high-school teachers. Otherwise the school 
 will fail to fulfill its function because the outcomes engendered will 
 deteriorate and atrophy so that they will not be effective in controlling 
 conduct in adult life. 
 
 An illustration of immediate objectives in algebra. Dalman 8 has 
 described a set of objective standards of attainment in first-year algebra 
 
 8 Dalman, Murray A. "Hurdles, a series of calibrated objective tests in first 
 year algebra." Journal of Educational Research, 1:46-62, January, 1920. 
 
 [13] 
 
for addition, subtraction, factoring, simultaneous equations and quad- 
 ratic equations. For each topic four lists of exercises were assembled 
 and labeled C, B, A, and A-J-, in accordance with the system of school 
 marks employed. The exercises in any one list were judged to be ap- 
 proximately equal in difficulty, but as suggested by their labels the suc- 
 cessive lists for any topic increased in difficulty. 
 
 These lists of exercises define standards of achievement for the 
 topics of first-year algebra. The goal set for a student is not the doing 
 of so many exercises but the attainment of the ability to do exercises 
 of a certain kind and difficulty. When a student thought he had ac- 
 quired sufficient habits and knowledge to do the C list of exercises on a 
 certain topic, he was given an apportunity to do so. If he failed to do 
 these exercises correctly, he knew that he had not yet attained the goal 
 set for him and was directed to engage in doing learning exercises in 
 order to acquire sufficient ability to pass the first hurdle. After he had 
 demonstrated that he possessed the ability to do the C list of exercises, 
 he was assigned other learning exercises to engender the additional 
 ability required for the B list and so on. 
 
 An illustration of immediate objectives in terms of exercises to 
 be done. In a class in Ancient and Medieval History the instructor 
 divided his assignment of topics for notebook work into four lists. For 
 example, on the "Downfall of the Republic," the assignment was as 
 follows : 
 
 LIST I 
 
 1. List the classes of society during this period. 
 
 2. Name the leaders of this century and designate the most important 
 services of each. 
 
 3. Summarize the wars of Rome and show what was gained or lost by each. 
 
 4. List the triumvirates of the period and show why each was formed. 
 
 5. What Latin writers made this century famous? Show how. 
 
 6. Prepare a three page biography of Julius Caesar. 
 
 LIST II 
 
 7. Prepare a biography of Cicero. (3 pages) 
 
 8. Outline Section 83 in Breasted, "Ancient Times." 
 
 LIST III 
 
 9. Outline Section 84 in Breasted, "Ancient Times." 
 
 10. Write biographical sketches of Marcus and Sulla. 
 
 LIST IV 
 
 11. Outline Section 85 in Breasted, "Ancient Times." 
 
 12. Outline ten pages from Davis Readings, p. 103-42. 
 
 13. Outline ten pages from Monroe's Source Book. 
 
 14. See your teacher for a special project. 
 
 [14] 
 
In order to receive a grade of D, the lowest grade recognized by 
 the school as passing, the student was required to do satisfactorily all 
 of the exercises in List I; for a grade of C, all in List II in addition to 
 those of List I; for a grade of B, List I plus List II plus List III and so 
 forth. This illustration for history, unlike that given for algebra, does 
 not define standards of achievement in terms of ability to do. The 
 explicit objective is to do certain exercises rather than to acquire certain 
 abilities. However, the acquisition of knowledge objectives is implicit 
 and could easily be called to the attention of the students. The topics 
 in List IV, required for a grade of A, are not materially different in 
 kind nor in difficulty from those in List I. However, in history the 
 amount of information obtained increases one's understanding of the 
 subject, and the students who completed all four lists undoubtedly 
 acquired more knowledge than those who did only a few of the exercises. 
 
 An illustration of general objectives. Although the teacher should 
 formulate his immediate objectives in terms of the abilities to be engen- 
 dered, he may properly make certain explicit specifications in regard 
 to the character of learning performances. The following formulation 9 
 was worked out by the faculty of one high school and printed on 
 placards which were posted in the various rooms of the building. One 
 feature of these objectives is their organization. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR A GRADE OF C 
 
 1. All the work asked of all the class, such as laboratory notebooks, themes, oral 
 and written tests, exercises, map-books, book reviews, notebooks, translations, and so 
 forth must be handed to the instructor before any credit will be given. 
 
 2. This work must be reasonably neat and accurate. Poorly spelled and illegible 
 work cannot be accepted for credit. 
 
 3. Good attention and steady employment during the class hours are required of 
 all pupils who are given credit for a course. 
 
 The quality of the work for a grade of C should be 75 percent perfect. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR A GRADE OF B 
 
 1, 2, 3 as previously given. 
 
 4. The average of all test grades must be 85 percent perfect. 
 
 5. Pupils securing this grade must show some initiative in attacking new work, 
 that is, they should, by consulting such aids as a dictionary, indexes, collateral texts, 
 and so forth, by reviewing what they have already learned, and by paying careful 
 attention to the assignment, be able to get the advanced work without much help 
 from the teacher. 
 
 6. In every particular the quality of the work for a grade of B should be superior 
 to the quality of the work for a grade of C. 
 
 "Bailey, W. W. ''The administration of quantitative and qualitative credit for 
 high-school work," The School Review, 25:309-10, May, 1917. 
 
 A few minor changes have been made in the wording of the following statements 
 in order to assist the reader in understanding them when removed from the original 
 context. 
 
 [15] 
 
7. Recitations should be well made without the aid of the teacher. 
 
 The quality of the work for a grade of B should be 85 -percent -perfect. . 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR A GRADE OF A 
 
 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 as previously given. 
 
 8. The a\ r erage of test grades must be 95 percent perfect. 
 
 9. Persistent daily preparation of assignments with but little urging and with but 
 little help on the part of the teacher. 
 
 10. Accuracy, neatness, legibility, correct spelling must be the distinguishing char- 
 acteristics of the work graded A. 
 
 11. The quantity of work done by a pupil receiving grade A should exceed that 
 done by a pupil receiving grade B or C. 
 
 The quality of the work for a grade of A should be 95 percent perfect. 
 
 Adjustment of objectives to individual differences. When we re- 
 member that usually the students grouped together for instruction will 
 vary greatly with reference to their capacity to do school work, a num- 
 ber of questions arise relative to the adjustment of immediate objectives 
 to individual differences. Should a teacher set the same objectives for 
 all students? If he attempts to secure "mastery," what is to be done 
 with the very bright? Should the standards of achievement be such 
 that no student will fail? 
 
 The usual practice is to set the same objectives for all students 
 taking a given subject and then to describe the degree of their attain- 
 ments by the grades awarded them. The best students in the class are 
 given a grade of A, signifying a degree of achievement which in some 
 cases approaches "mastery." Others are given a grade of B, signifying 
 a somewhat lower degree of achievement on the same topics. Grades 
 of C and D signify still lower degrees of achievement. All students, 
 however, have studied the same topics and to a considerable extent 
 have attempted the same learning exercises. Their performances on 
 these exercises may approach equivalence in quantity but it is obvious 
 that all have not acquired the same controls of conduct. 
 
 The practice described in the preceding paragraph has been 
 severely criticized because under it few if any students other than those 
 receiving a grade of A or B, approach the level of achievement which 
 we have described as "mastery." The result is that those who fall short 
 of "mastery" do not learn anything well. It has been asserted that 
 "half-learning" predominates in our schools. A habit or an item of 
 knowledge which is not learned well enough to be used has little or no 
 value. Therefore, it is contended that we should adjust our objectives 
 to individual differences so that the less capable of our students will 
 approach "mastery" of the topics which they undertake. This would 
 necessitate that the number of topics studied be adjusted to suit the 
 student's capacity to learn or that the time be appropriately varied. 
 
 [16] 
 
Some "mastery" enthusiasts assert that under an appropriate formula- 
 tion of immedate objectives no student should "fail," although some 
 students might require a much longer time than others to complete the 
 minimum list of topics. 
 
 In the illustration of objective standards of achievement in first- 
 year algebra, an adjustment of objectives to individuals might be 
 secured by requiring all students to acquire ability to do the exercises 
 of the C lists. When a student had attained this objective on a given 
 topic, he should be advised to continue his learning and attempt to 
 attain the higher levels of achievement, unless it appeared that he might 
 employ his time more profitably by beginning on a new topic. In the 
 illustration of general objectives it was implied that an adjustment 
 would be secured by assigning additional topics for study to the more 
 capable students. 
 
 Training in the art of learning as an objective. Prior to about 
 1900 "general training," commonly referred to as "formal discipline," 
 was regarded as the paramount objective of education, particularly 
 of that given in the intermediate and high schools. It was contended 
 that the study of certain highly organized school subjects, such as 
 mental arithmetic, English grammar, algebra, geometry and Latin 
 grammar would result in training the mind so that one would be more 
 efficient in doing other types of work. Beginning about 1890 this point 
 of view was vigorously attacked with the result that there was a general 
 reaction from the doctrine of formal discipline. 10 Since 1900 there has 
 been a definite tendency to emphasize the character of content 11 of the 
 subject-matter of our schools and to make it practical. In recent years 
 it has been considered highly important in formulating a course of 
 study, or in writing a textbook, to limit the content to subject-matter 
 that could be shown to be directly useful in certain adult activities. 
 
 The movement on the whole has been very beneficial to our schools, 
 but it has been accompanied by an attempt to minimize or even to 
 neglect certain important by-products of learning of which "training 
 in the art of learning" is one. A student learns by doing. We ask him 
 to answer questions, to read textbooks, to solve problems, to prepare 
 
 "For discussion of formal discipline see: 
 
 Bagley, W. C. Educational Values. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1911, 
 Chapter XII. 
 
 Freeman, F. N. How Children Learn. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 
 1917, Chapter XIII. 
 
 Judd, Charles Hubbard. Psychology of High School Subjects. Boston: Ginn 
 and Company, 1915, Chapter XVII. 
 
 "Except for a few subjects this content is largely knowledge. 
 
 [17] 
 
written reports and to do other school exercises. If he is to be efficient 
 as a learner, he must be trained in the art of learning, that is, he must 
 be trained in the art of answering questions, in the art of reading a 
 textbook, in the art of solving problems and in the art of preparing a 
 written report, and so on. Some pupils seem to grasp this art easily 
 and with little or no specific training by the teacher and gradually 
 develop an effective technique, but the great majority of students fail 
 to acquire a technique that enables them to be efficient in doing the 
 learning exercises that the teacher assigns. 
 
 A teacher's efficiency depends upon the effectiveness of his stu- 
 dents as learners. For this reason, if for no other, 12 the teacher should 
 recognize training in the art of learning as one of his important objec- 
 tives. He should teach his students to read the text book in the way 
 it should be read. If in a particular course the textbook is to be read 
 carefully with attention given to concisely formulated sentences and 
 paragraphs, the student should be trained in this type of reading. If 
 the textbook is to be read merely for the purpose of finding answers to 
 assigned questions, then the teacher should train his students to do this 
 kind of reading well. If the teacher asks his students to prepare themes 
 or other written exercises, he should train them in the art of doing these 
 things. Each teacher should assume the responsibility for making cer- 
 tain that his students become skillful in doing the particular types of 
 learning exercises which he assigns. 
 
 One's success in meeting any situation in adult life frequently de- 
 pends upon his ability to acquire new habits and new knowledge. 
 Hence, if he is skillful in the art of learning, he has at his command a 
 means for meeting his responsibilities. Unlike habits and knowledge, 
 the art of learning when once acquired tends to be permanent. In this 
 respect it resembles an attitude. 
 
 A teacher's real objectives implied in the learning exercises 
 assigned and his tests of achievement. The formal statement of imme- 
 diate objectives or aim to which a teacher subscribes does not neces- 
 sarily specify the goal toward which he directs his students. His real 
 objectives are implied in the learning exercises he assigns and in his 
 tests of achievement. This statement means that the goals toward which 
 a teacher is directing his students are determined by the exercises he 
 asks them to do, including the questions asked during the recitation 
 period and the tests which he administers. The teacher who asks ques- 
 tions calling for mere factual answers, implies the objective of memoriz- 
 
 2 Training in the art of learning can be justified as an objective on other grounds. 
 
 [18] 
 
ing isolated facts. The teacher who quizzes students on the text implies 
 the objective of learning the textbook which is usually interpreted to 
 mean "memorizing the language of the author." The teacher who em- 
 phasizes reasons why, cause and effect, comparison, and organization 
 of information implies very different objectives. The teacher of math- 
 ematics who stresses correct answers and neglects the procedures by 
 which the answers are obtained implies objectives different from those 
 implied by another teacher who emphasizes the methods by which the 
 student arrives at his answers. 
 
 The general principle expressed in the preceding paragraph is one 
 of major importance in considering the immediate objectives of teachers. 
 The formulation of objectives has received emphasis in the activities 
 of educational associations. Several pretentious investigations have been 
 devoted largely or wholly to the determination of the "best" objectives. 
 Such endeavors are commendable but it is necessary to bear in mind 
 that mere "paper" objectives will not affect the work of our schools. 
 When teachers are asked, they are frequently able to state approved 
 objectives. In some school systems they are required to keep a "plan 
 book" and one of the- specified items of the plan is the "aim of the 
 lesson." However, observers of actual teaching report that in many 
 instances the objectives implied in the learning exercises, particularly 
 the questions asked, and the evalution of student performances are very 
 different from those stated by the teacher. 
 
 Comparison of "paper objectives" and the objectives implied in 
 learning exercises. In a recitation in English literature, which the ob- 
 server 13 states is not an extreme case, the teacher began the work of the 
 hour by making the assignment for the next day as follows: "Next 
 time please outline the life of Macauley and read all of Macauley in 
 this book." Following this statement an ode composed by a member 
 of the class was read. Then the teacher began a rapid-fire questioning 
 which may be illustrated by the following samples: 
 
 As a romanticist, what qualities do you think Wordsworth possessed? 
 
 What other romantic element besides power of description? 
 
 What other poet wrote on nature? 
 
 What differences? 
 
 Does any other element enter in? 
 
 How does Coleridge introduce the supernatural? 
 
 Describe the "Phantom Ship." 
 
 Who was "Life in Death?" 
 
 In what poem did she appear? 
 
 "The writer is indebted to Chas. W. Knudsen for this and the other reports re- 
 produced in the following pages. 
 
 [19] 
 
Will you describe her for us? 
 
 What feature was so particularly striking? 
 
 What color words did he use? 
 
 How did he express his ideas on red? 
 
 What else? 
 
 Lillian, did you have any other color in mind? 
 
 When? 
 
 In the story of the "Ancient Mariner," did he tell the story so that the reader 
 
 felt he had been on a journey? 
 How did he hold the wedding guest? 
 How did he first hold him? 
 How many guests were walking in this path? 
 Now coming to Keats, was Keats a nature poet? 
 To what extent? 
 If you were to compare Coleridge, W T ordsworth, Shelley and Keats, which one has 
 
 keenest insight into nature? 
 Why do you think so? 
 How about Shelley? 
 
 A total of seventy-eight such questions were asked and answered be- 
 fore the gong was sounded at the end of the period, that is, within less 
 than forty minutes or at the rate of about two per minute. One may 
 properly ask, what kind of learning exercises did this teacher ask her 
 students to do? What kinds of mental activity did they engage in? 
 What did they learn? A study of the complete list of questions sug- 
 gests a classification under three general types. A number of them 
 explicitly call for factual answers which a student would learn by read- 
 ing his text. The following are samples of this type of question: 
 
 In what poem does "Life in Death" appear? 
 Was Keats a nature poet? 
 Did Shelley use flowery words? 
 Who had a morbid outlook on life? 
 
 Other questions required students to make inferences but the answers 
 
 which the teacher accepted were essentially factual. Samples of these 
 
 are: 
 
 As a romanticist what qualities does Wordsworth possess? 
 
 What elements of the romantic movements do we find in the poem of St. Agnes? 
 
 What do you suppose Wordsworth believed regarding religion? 
 
 A third class of questions is composed of those that required students to 
 
 explain, such as: 
 
 How does he (the poet) express his ideas on red? 
 How did the Ancient Mariner hold the wedding guest? 
 What does "like a star of Heaven" mean? 
 Who are "the heavy-winged thieves?" 
 
 The first of these three types of questions implied the objective of 
 memorizing specific facts with little or no attention to their relation to 
 other facts. The second and third types of questions imply the objec- 
 
 [20] 
 
tive of understanding certain aspects of the poems to which they refer, 
 but it is likely that the knowledge resulting from answering such ques- 
 tions would be lacking in richness of association and organization. 
 
 In response to the request of the observer this teacher of English 
 literature stated her aim as being to engender "the ability to recognize 
 good literature and understand and appreciate it." Although this aim 
 is stated in general terms, the lack of agreement between it and the 
 objectives implied in the questions asked and the assignment for the 
 next day's lesson is obvious. The report of this observer furnishes a 
 good illustration of the failure of a teacher to recognize that his real 
 objectives are implied in the exercises which he asks his students to 
 do. Apparently this teacher was unaware that she was stimulating her 
 students to work toward objectives which are incompatible with the 
 general aim that she stated. 
 
 A teacher of general science stated his aims as follows: 
 
 1. To interest pupils in other sciences, especially chemistry. 
 
 2. To stress the practical applications of facts and principles from the textbook. 
 
 3. To cultivate an attitude in the minds of the students that problems do exist and 
 to suggest some methods of attacking these problems. 
 
 During the first part of the recitation period this teacher asked thirty- 
 three questions such as the following: 
 
 What topic are we discussing today? 
 
 What is the first thing that we take up in the discussion of heat? 
 
 How do we get our heat? 
 
 What are some of the different fuels? 
 
 Some others? 
 
 Chester, discuss the formation of coal. 
 
 Are we having much coal formed today? 
 
 Can you explain? 
 
 With what did formation of coal start? 
 
 Do you think our vegetation is so luxurious? 
 
 Would this make any difference? 
 
 Kenneth, can you give us something on this? 
 
 What name do we have for the first coal? 
 
 The next? 
 
 The next? 
 
 How do we distinguish between anthracite and bituminous coal? 
 
 If you were making illuminating gas, what coal would you use? 
 
 What are three methods for distributing heat? 
 
 Irene, what is conduction? 
 
 Can you think of any examples? 
 
 Gladys, can you think of any? 
 
 Think over this and see if you can think what is happening to the molecules. 
 
 James, how is heat distributed by convection? 
 
 Harold, can you add anything? 
 
 By what method is heat distributed by the sun? 
 
 Would you say it moves in currents? 
 
 Is the space through which the rays pass hot or cold? 
 
 [21] 
 
Do you agree with that, Harold: 
 
 Do you remember when we discussed the color of radiators? 
 
 Why did we decide on a dark colored radiator? 
 
 Will anything be warm unless it absorbs heat: 
 
 Does this space absorb heat? 
 
 Following this questioning, the class was divided into five groups 
 
 and directed to write the discussions of certain topics on the board. The 
 
 following is a sample: 
 
 Heating by means of stoves: Fifty years before the War we had an ordinary 
 stove which was round and it was made of iron and had a door at the bottom 
 and one at the top for the smoke to go out. Then Franklin invented a stove 
 which was a fireplace and it was a fireplace with another iron fireplace inside it. 
 To have the heat the ways you wanted it. there was a damper used to regulate 
 the temperature. 
 
 After the students had finished writing on the topics assigned, cer- 
 tain ones were called upon to read the discussions they had written. 
 After the reading of a discussion the teacher asked questions relative 
 to the topic. The following are representative of those asked on the 
 topic, "Heating by means of stoves." 
 
 What was the purpose of the door at the top? 
 
 What was the purpose of the door at the bottom? 
 
 Why was Franklin's invention better than the old method of fireplace? 
 
 By what means was the heat distributed by the fireplace? 
 
 Where did at lot of the heat go? 
 
 How was Franklin's stove an advantage? 
 
 How did it keep the heat inside? 
 
 (Teacher then read a description of Franklin's stove). 
 
 Tell me more about the stoves of today. 
 
 Can you see any reason for letting the oxygen in at the top instead of the bottom? 
 
 How many agree? 
 
 Does anyone see a reason for having the draft at the top? 
 
 The assignment which was given just before the bell sounded was: 
 "Tomorrow the assignment will be in Fall, page 247, and exercises 8, 9, 
 10, 11 to 'radiant heat.' Pay particular attention to the questions and 
 be sure you know what to do when you come to class." 
 
 It is difficult to identify the particular objectives which the ques- 
 tions and other exercises of this recitation imply, but there appears to 
 be considerable emphasis upon memorization of the text. Some of the 
 questions asked might have furnished a basis for reflective thinking but 
 the total number asked is so great that much reflective thinking was 
 not possible. This case furnished another illustration of a conspicuous 
 disagreement between a teacher's "paper" objectives and those implied 
 in the exercises he asked his students to do. 
 
 Objectives implied in tests of achievement. A teacher also reveals 
 his objectives in the tests and examinations which he gives. In some 
 
 [22] 
 
schools it is the policy that only questions and exercises which the stu- 
 dents have explicitly studied during the term shall be included in the 
 final examination. Some teachers are accustomed to give their students 
 a long list of questions a few days prior to the final examination with 
 the understanding that the examination will consist of questions taken 
 from this list. Where such policies prevail, students feel that they have 
 demonstrated the unfairness of an examination when they show that 
 it includes new exercises. 
 
 The policy that no new questions are to "be asked on a final ex- 
 amination and particularly the practice of furnishing students with a 
 list of questions implies that the objectives of the course are to be ob- 
 tained by memorizing the responses to be given to particular ques- 
 tions. Although memorization is involved in acquiring knowledge, evi- 
 dence of the possession of knowledge is furnished by responding to new 
 situations, by overcoming difficulties, and by solving problems. When 
 a student answers a question by remembering how he answered it on 
 some previous occasion or how the author or the teacher answered it, 
 his performance possesses little value as evidence of his knowledge. In 
 fact it merely constitutes evidence that he has memorized certain re- 
 sponses. Hence tests and examinations which do not include some new 
 questions imply specific habit objectives rather than knowledge objec- 
 tives. If a teacher wishes to measure the knowledge achievements of 
 his students he should include at least some "new" questions in the 
 examination he gives. 
 
 What is commonly called the "new examination" is becoming widely 
 used in our schools. This type of examination has merits but when a 
 teacher uses it he implies that he expects his students to learn to do 
 the types of exercises which it includes and it seems probable that the 
 ability to respond correctly to true-false exercises, completion exer- 
 cises and the like is not the same as the ability that functions in meet- 
 ing problematic situations requiring reflective thinking. Of course when 
 a new examination is given for the first time the implication is slight 
 and probably will not be detected by the students but if this type or 
 measuring instrument is used regularly students will begin to direct 
 their efforts towards learning to respond to such exercises. Some of 
 the enthusiasts for the new examinations are compiling lists of suitable 
 exercises with the idea that by accumulating a large number they will 
 relieve themselves of the burden of constructing exercises when they 
 wish to measure the achievement of their students. Such a practice 
 is likely to increase the influence of this type of examination upon the 
 immediate objectives of a teacher. 
 
 [23] 
 
Value of clearly defined objectives. "A clear understanding of 
 immediate objectives" will not insure efficient teaching but it constitutes 
 one essential requirement. A teacher who does not know very definitely 
 what abilities he wishes his students to acquire is»not likely to be very 
 successful. One reason, perhaps,.themain,f^1fcoh. .^'fSy_so many teachers 
 fail to engender dynamic kh^^'dg^iideds^a^lg^dS^, interests, tastes, 
 and so forth, is that they have^nly .the^vag^S^rt of notions concern- 
 ing the nature of these abilities.^ v_ \ > ^J^S** •- 
 
 This discussion as the title implre^^gygb^^J^5^}*e. objectives of 
 teachers but it contains import^jit . S^^ J ions If 4r.sii per visors. It is 
 the policy in many schools to require. t^Qjteg^-t3§iprep.are lesson plans, 
 one item of which is a statement ojjjgW^r-^jjectiyes. Considerable im- 
 portance is attachd to these "paper" objectives. Although the cases 
 of classroom instruction cited may not be entirely typical, they do dem- 
 onstrate that frequently there is considerable divergence between the 
 "paper" objectives of a teacher and his real objectives which are im- 
 plied in the learning exercises that he assigns and the tests that he 
 gives to measure the achievements of his students. This being the case 
 a supervisor who visits classes may render a valuable service by identi- 
 fying the implied objectives and then calling the teacher's attention to 
 any discrepancies which exist between them and the "paper" objectives 
 given in the lesson plan. 
 
 [24]