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V. Id 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF TOBACCO 
 INTO EUROPE 
 
 BY 
 
 BERTHOLD LAUFER 
 Curator of Anthropology 
 
 Anthropology 
 Leaflet 19 
 
 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 1924 
 
The Anthropological Leaflets of Field Museum are designed to 
 give brief, non-technical accounts of some of the more interesting 
 beliefs, habits and customs of the races whose life is illustrated 
 in the Museum's exhibits. 
 
 LIST OF ANTHROPOLOGY LEAFLETS ISSUED TO DATE 
 
 1. The Chinese Gateway $ .10 
 
 2. The Philippine Forge Group 10 
 
 3. The Japanese Collections 25 
 
 4. New Guinea Masks 25 
 
 5. The Thunder Ceremony of the Pawnee 25 
 
 6. The Sacrifice to the Morning Star bj' the 
 
 Skidi Pawnee 10 
 
 7. Purification of the Sacred Bundles, a Ceremony 
 
 of the Pawnee 10 
 
 8. Annual Ceremony of the PawTiee Medicine Men . .10 
 
 9. The Use of Sago in New Guinea 10 
 
 10. Use of Human Skulls and Bones in Tibet ... .10 
 
 11. The Japanese New Year's Festival, Games 
 
 and Pastimes 25 
 
 12. Japanese Costume 25 
 
 13. Gods and Heroes of Japan 25 
 
 14. Japanese Temples and Houses 25 
 
 15. Use of Tobacco among North American Indians . .25 
 *16. Use of Tobacco in Mexico and South America . . .25 
 *17. Use of Tobacco in New Guinea 10 
 
 18. Tobacco and Its Use in Asia 25 
 
 19. Introduction of Tobacco into Europe 25 
 
 *20. The Japanese Sword and Its Decoration 25 
 
 D. C. DAVIES 
 
 DIRECTOR 
 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 
 CHICAGO, U. S. A. 
 
 •In preparation — November 1924. 
 
\'V:^ I 2 1925 
 
 JNlYtHSlTY OF ItUNOlS 
 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY 
 Chicago. 1924 
 
 Lbafur Number 19 
 
 The Introduction of Tobacco into Europe 
 
 In the four preceding leaflets the history and use 
 of tobacco in the two Americas, in Melanesia, and in 
 Asia have been briefly discussed. It may therefore 
 not be amiss to close this series with a review of the 
 early history of tobacco in Europe, particularly in 
 England, — a subject of general interest. 
 
 The white man learned the use of tobacco from 
 the aborigines of America soon after the discovery, 
 and the European colonists who flocked to America 
 rapidly adopted the habit of smoking. Las Casas was 
 already compelled to admit that the Spaniards on Cuba 
 who had contracted the habit could not be weaned 
 from it. Lescarbot applies a similar remark to the 
 French of Canada. "Our Frenchmen who visited the 
 savages are for the most part infatuated with this in- 
 toxication of petun [tobacco], so much so that they 
 cannot dispense with it, no more than with eating and 
 drinking, and they spend good money on this, for the 
 good petun which comes from Brazil sometimes costs 
 a dollar (ecu) the pound/* John Hawkins observed 
 in 1564 that the French in Florida used tobacco for 
 the same purposes as the natives. A. Thevet, who 
 visited Brazil in 1555-56, noticed the Christians living 
 there as "marvelously eager for this herb and per- 
 fume." Gabriel Soares de Souza (Noticia do Brazil, 
 written in 1587), a Portuguese farmer, who lived in 
 Brazil for seventeen years from about 1570, informs 
 us that tobacco leaves were much esteemed by the 
 
 [97] 
 
2 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 Indians, Negroes (whom he calls Mamelucos), and 
 Portuguese, who "drank" the smoke by placing to- 
 gether many leaves wrapped in a palm-leaf; they 
 used, accordingly, the cigar. The unknown author of 
 the "Treatise of Brazil," written in 1601 and pub- 
 lished by Purchas, also describes the mode of cigar- 
 smoking in Brazil and winds up by sajdng, "The 
 women also doe drinke it, but they are such as are 
 old and sickly, for it is verie medicinable unto them, 
 especially for the cough, the head-ache, and the dis- 
 ease of the stomacke, and hence come a great manie 
 of the Portugals to drinke it, and have taken it for a 
 vice or for idlenesse, imitating the Indians to spend 
 daies and nights about it." 
 
 The Eliglish colonists in Virginia did not hesi- 
 tate to appropriate the aboriginal custom of pipe- 
 smoking. Thomas Hariot (A Brief and True Report 
 of the New Found Land of Virginia, 1588) dwells 
 with enthusiasm on the virtues of the herb, "which 
 is sowed a part by it selfe and is called by the inhabi- 
 tants uppowoc: In the West Indies it hath divers 
 names, according to the severall places and countries 
 where it groweth and is used: The Spaniards gene- 
 rally call it Tobacco." He concludes, "We our selves 
 during the time we were there used to suck it after 
 their maner, as also since our returne, and have 
 found manie rare and wonderful experiments of the 
 vertues thereof; of which the relation woulde require 
 a volume by it selfe : the use of it by so manie of late, 
 men and women of great calling as else, and some 
 learned Phisitions also, is sufficient witnes." "Suck- 
 ing it after their maner" means pipe-smoking which 
 Hariot himself describes as follows: "The leaves 
 thereof being dried and brought into powder: they 
 use to take the fume or smoke thereof by sucking it 
 through pipes made of claie into their stomacke and 
 heade." 
 
 [98] 
 
13 
 
 15 5i 
 
 Introduction of Tobacco into England 
 
 The following passages show that the English 
 settlers soon proceeded to make their own pipes. 
 George Waymouth, who visited Virginia in 1605, has 
 the following notice: "They gave us the best wel- 
 come they could, spreading deere skins for us to sit 
 on the ground by their fire, and gave us of their 
 tobacco in our pipes, which was most excellent, and 
 so generally commended of us all to be as good as any 
 we ever tooke, being the simple leafe without any 
 composition, very strong and of a pleasant sweete 
 taste: they gave us some to carry to our captaine, 
 whom they called our Bashabe, neither did they re- 
 quire any thing for it; but we would receive nothing 
 from them without remuneration." George Percy, 
 who visited southern Virginia in 1606, describes an 
 entertainment given in his honor by the savages. 
 "After we were well satisfied they gave us of their 
 tabacco, which they tooke in a pipe made artificially 
 of earth as ours are, but far bigger, with the bowle 
 fashioned together with a piece of fine copper." 
 
 INTRODUCTION AND EARLY CULTIVATION 
 OF TOBACCO IN ENGLAND 
 
 The four Atlantic states — England, France, Portu- 
 7 gal, and Spain — received tobacco directly from 
 ^America. The subject, as far as England is con- 
 ^>^cerned, forms a chapter independent of the rest of 
 ^Europe. 
 
 ^ In considering the history of tobacco in England, 
 ^'we must distinguish between the introduction of the 
 ^tobacco plant or plants and the custom of smoking 
 tobacco, for it seems that tobacco was known or even 
 '^'planted in England a number of years before smok- 
 Mng was practised. The two earliest English bota- 
 i nists, John Gerard (1597) and John Parkinson (1640), 
 
 [»] 
 
4 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 are familiar with the two principal species, Nicotiana 
 tabacum (in two varieties) and Nicotiana rustica, so 
 that at the outset we should be justified in assuming 
 at least two introductions. Such indeed are upheld 
 by tradition. 
 
 Edmund Howes, in his continuation of John 
 Stow's "Annales or Generall Chronicle of England" 
 (1631, p. 1038), states,— 
 
 "Tobacco was first brought and made known in 
 England by Sir lohn Hawkins, about the yeare 1565, 
 but not used by Englishmen in many yeeres after, 
 though at this day commonly used by most men, and 
 many women." 
 
 Hawkins returned from his second voyage to the 
 West Indies on the 20th of September, 1565, and had 
 become familiar with tobacco and smoking in Florida. 
 John Sparke the Younger, who wrote the account of 
 this voyage (published by Hakluyt in 1589), writes 
 that Hawkins, ranging along the coast of Florida for 
 fresh water in July, 1565, came upon the French settle- 
 ment there under Laudoniere, and continues thus: 
 "The Floridians when they travell have a kind of 
 herbe dryed, which with a cane, and an earthen cup 
 in the end, with fire, and the dried herbs put together, 
 do sucke thoro the cane the smoke thereof, which 
 smoke satisfieth their hunger, and therewith they 
 live foure or five days without meat or drinke, and 
 this all the Frenchmen used for this purpose: yet do 
 they holde opinion withall, that it causeth water and 
 fleame to void from their stomacks." This is the 
 earliest English notice of tobacco. It would be amaz- 
 ing if Hawkins and his companions should not have 
 imitated this custom, and Hawkins may therefore 
 have taken specimens of Nicotiana rustica and its 
 seeds from Florida to England in 1565. It was from 
 
 [100] 
 
Introduction of Tobacco into England 5 
 
 Florida, as will be seen, that the plant was also intro- 
 duced into Portugal and from Portugal into France. 
 It must be borne in mind, however, that Howes' 
 statement is not coeval with the event to which he 
 refers, but was drafted sixty-five years afterwards. 
 In StoVs "Annales" it is entirely absent. It is there- 
 fore not consistent with the facts, as some authors 
 have done, to attribute this and the data that follow 
 below, contained in a book of 1631, to Stow, who died 
 in 1606. Nor is Howes' assertion, as has been argued, 
 corroborated by Taylor, the water-poet, who in a post- 
 script to his versified Life of Thomas Parr says that 
 tobacco was first brought into England in 1565 by 
 Hawkins, adding, "It is a doubtful question whether 
 the devil brought tobacco into England in a coach, for 
 both appeared about the same time." Taylor's work 
 was published in 1635, and his plea for Hawkins is 
 simply copied from Howes. Nevertheless I am under 
 the impression that Howes honestly reproduced a tra- 
 dition which was current in the latter part of the 
 sixteenth century and had come down to his own 
 time. It is far less this tradition itself, however, than 
 the total of the circumstantial evidence which compels 
 us to pin our faith in Hawkins as the introducer of 
 Nicotiana nistica; for this species was grown in 
 England in the latter part of the sixteenth century, 
 so that its presence in English soil must be accounted 
 for in a reasonable manner. Dr. Brushfield, in 1898, 
 formulated his opinion thus: "Tobacco was first im- 
 ported into Europe about the year 1560, but not into 
 England until a few years later. The first English- 
 man to notice it was Sir J. Hawkins in 1565 ; whether, 
 however, he brought any to this country is unknown, 
 most probably he did, the other alternative being its 
 importation from Spain." In this view the botanical 
 side of the question is disregarded, and Spain cannot 
 be called to the witness-stand, as the Spaniards were 
 
 [101] 
 
6 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 exclusive and never took the trouble of propagating 
 tobacco or any other American plant to any country 
 of Europe. 
 
 On the same page of the above worK, Howes 
 makes the further statement, "Apricocks, Mellycatons, 
 Musk-Millions and Tobacco, came into England about 
 the 20 yeare of Queene Elizabeth" [1577], and adds in 
 the margin, "Sir Walter Raleigh was the first that 
 brought Tobacco into use, when all men wondered 
 what it meant." The two different dates are not so in- 
 compatible as it would seem at first sight: in that 
 great age of unprecedented colonial expansion and 
 seafaring enterprise tobacco must assuredly have ar- 
 rested the attention of several navigators, and the fact 
 that different species and varieties of Nicotiana were 
 grown in England at least in the three last decades of 
 the century proves that several introductions at dif- 
 ferent times and presumably from different parts of 
 America must have been effected. 
 
 In February, 1593, William Harrison completed 
 his great work of English Chronology two months 
 before his death (April 24, 1593). The three large 
 folios comprising volumes H-IV of his "Great Chro- 
 nologie," which he says "he had gathered and com- 
 piled with most exquisit diligence," are preserved in 
 manuscript in the Diocesan Library at Derry, Ireland. 
 In the fourth volume the events from A.D. 1066 up 
 to 1593 are chronicled year by year, and in it the data 
 referring to his own time are of particular value. 
 Extracts covering this period are given in Furnivall's 
 edition of Harrison's Description of England (pub- 
 lished for the New Shakspere Society, 1876). Here 
 we meet (p. LV) under the year 1573 the following 
 fundamental document relating to tobacco and smok- 
 ing, which has never been utilized or interpreted 
 correctly and which is calculated to revise all former 
 conceptions of the early history of tobacco in England. 
 
 [102] 
 
Introduction of Tobacco into England 7 
 
 "1573. In these daies the taking-in of the smoke 
 of the Indian herbe called 'Tabaco,' by an instrument 
 formed like a litle ladell, whereby it passeth from the 
 mouth into the hed and stomach, is gretlie taken-up 
 and used in England, against Rewmes and some other 
 diseases ingendred in the longes and inward partes, 
 and not without effect. This herbe as yet is not so 
 comon, but that for want thereof divers do practize 
 for the like purposes with the Nicetian, otherwise 
 called in latine, 'Hyosciamus Luteus,* or the yellow 
 henbane, albeit, not without gret error; for, althoughe 
 that herbe be a soverene healer of old ulcers and sores 
 reputed incurable outwardly, yet is not the smoke or 
 vapour thereof so profitable to be receaued inwardly. 
 The herbe [tobacco] is comonly of the height of a 
 man, garnished with great long leaves like the paciens 
 [Passions or Patience, Rumex patientia L.], bering 
 seede, colloured, etc. of quantity like unto, or rather 
 lesse then, the fine margeronie ; the herbe it self yerely 
 coming up also of the shaking of the seede. The col- 
 lour of the floure is carnation, resembling that of the 
 lemmon in forme : the roote yellow, with many fillettes, 
 and therto very small in comparison, if you respect 
 the substauns of the herbe." 
 
 This is the memorable record of a contemporary 
 eye-witness, who in his fascinating Description of 
 England gives ample proof of his keen power of ob- 
 servation of customs and manners. His notice is based 
 on direct and personal observation, it is not copied 
 from hearsay or books. The botanical description is 
 even unique, almost perfect, considering the fact that 
 the writer was not a botanist, and represents the first 
 English description of the species Nicotiana tabacum: 
 for the herb is commonly of the height of a man, gar- 
 nished with great long leaves and having flowers of 
 carnation color — characteristics of Nicotiana tabacum 
 only. The herb was then planted in England, but was 
 
 [103] 
 
8 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 not yet common, and the henbane served smokers as 
 a substitute; perhaps, however, Harrison's henbane, 
 as suggested by the addition Nicetian (i.e. Nicotian) , is 
 Nicotiana rustica. Hyoscyamus, like Nicotiana, is a 
 solanaceous plant of poisonous narcotic qualities. The 
 first description of the tobacco plant in the botanical 
 literature of Europe is that of the Italian botanist and 
 physician Pierandrea Mattioli (1500-77) in his 
 "Commentarii in Dioscoridem" (1565) under the name 
 Hyoscyamus niger. The botanist Mathias de Lobel, 
 as will be seen presently, affirms tobacco culture in 
 England (prior to 1576) and describes pipe-smoking 
 on the part of sailors who returned from America. 
 Harrison therefore is in good company and upheld by 
 the testimony of a contemporary. The tobacco plant 
 was cultivated in England in 1573, a year before the 
 discovery of Virginia, though not in sufficient quantity 
 to satisfy general demand, and tobacco was smoked 
 by Englishmen at that time from ladle-like instru- 
 ments (perhaps similar to, or even identical with the 
 subsequent pipes consisting of a half walnut, see below, 
 p. 3'5). Harrison is the first English author who 
 uses the word tabaco, the first who records the custom 
 of smoking tobacco in England, and the first who de- 
 scribes its remedial properties and effects, and this 
 independently of Monardes, whose work "Englished" 
 by Frampton became known to the English public only 
 in 1577. 
 
 Consequently the date 1577 given by Howes as 
 that of the first introduction cannot be correct and 
 must be discarded. The question arises. When and by 
 whom was Nicotiana tabacum, ostensibly described by 
 Harrison, introduced into England? At that time this 
 species was widely disseminated from Mexico to the 
 Antilles and South America; it could not have come 
 to England from any point of North America, where 
 Nicotiana 'rustica was the principal tobacco-furnishing 
 
 [104] 
 
Introduction of Tobacco into England 9 
 
 plant. Nicotiana tabacum was introduced into Vir- 
 ginia from Trinidad not earlier than about 1610 (W. 
 Strachey, Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britan- 
 nia, ed. of R. H. Major, p. 31). Now it happened 
 that on the 9th of August, 1573, Francis Drake re- 
 turned to Plymouth from his expedition to the West 
 Indies. In the same year Harrison describes Nicotiamxi 
 tabacum which is the typical Nicotiana species of the 
 West Indies, and records the diffusion of tobacco- 
 smoking in England. There is no accident in history, 
 it is governed by the law of cause and effect. In my 
 estimation, these two events cannot be a fortuitous co- 
 incidence, but are closely interrelated. In my 
 opinion, therefore, it is reasonable to conclude, and 
 there is no escape from the conclusion, that tobacco 
 was brought to England again in 1573 by Sir Francis 
 Drake (whether by himself personally or by a sailor 
 or member of his expedition remains immaterial), and 
 this was Nicotiana tabacum, known to Harrison and 
 subsequently to John Gerard as "the greater sort of 
 Tabaco brought into Europe out of the provinces of 
 America, which we call the West Indies." There are, 
 further, two weighty testimonies to the effect that 
 tobacco was grown in England long before 1586, the 
 date of the return of the Virginian colonists, which in 
 most books is erroneously taken for the year of the 
 first introduction of tobacco and smoking. There are 
 the two botanists, Peter Pena and Mathias de Lobel 
 (Nova stirpium adversaria, Antwerp, 1576, p. 251), 
 who state positively that tobacco was then cultivated 
 in Portugal, France, Belgium, and England; and this 
 is good confirmation of Harrison's account. And there 
 is Richard Hakluyt, who, in his instructions written 
 for an English factor at Constantinople in 1582, states, 
 "The seed of tabacco hath bene brought hither out of 
 the West Indies, it groweth heere, and with the herbe 
 many have bene eased of the reumes," etc. Again, in 
 
 [106] 
 
10 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 this case, the West Indies hint at Nicotiana tabacum 
 and at the exploits of Francis Drake. It may be noted 
 also that H. Phillips (History of Cultivated Vege- 
 tables, 1822, Vol. II, p. 339) states that "tobacco was 
 brought to England by Sir Francis Drake, in 1570, 
 who that year made his first expedition against the 
 Spaniards in South America." 
 
 On the 27th of July, 1586, the colonists settled in 
 Virginia by Ralph Lane returned to England and dis- 
 embarked at Plymouth. They offered their astounded 
 countrymen the queer spectacle of smoking tobacco 
 from pipes, which caused a general sensation. William 
 Camden (1551-1623), the historiographer of Queen 
 Elizabeth and a contemporary witness, reports this 
 event as follows (Annales rerum anglicarum, 1615, 
 p. 408 ; or History of the Most Renowned and Victori- 
 ous Princess Elizabeth, 4th ed., 1688, p. 324) :— 
 
 "And these men who were thus brought back were 
 the first that I know of that brought into England that 
 Indian plant which they call Tabacca and Nicotia, or 
 Tobacco, which they used against crudities being 
 taught it by the Indians. Certainly from that time 
 forward it began to grow into great request, and to be 
 sold at an high rate, whilst in a short time many men 
 every-where, some for wantonness, some for health 
 sake, with insatiable desire and greediness sucked in 
 the stinking smoak thereof through an earthen pipe, 
 which presently they blew out again at their nostrils: 
 insomuch as tobacco-shops are now as ordinary in most 
 towns as tap-houses and taverns. So that the English- 
 mens bodies, (as one said wittily,) which are so 
 delighted with this plant, seem as it were to be degene- 
 rated into the nature of Barbarians, since they are 
 delighted, and think they may be cured, with the same 
 things which the Barbarians use." 
 
 From what has been said above it is clear that the 
 band returning from Virginia was not instrumental in 
 
 [106] 
 
Walter Raleigh and Tobacco U 
 
 introducing tobacco cultivation into England, for this 
 was an established fact long before that time, neither 
 were they the first smokers on British soil. It is solely- 
 popular imagination which has vividly retained this 
 very event and which glorified Ralph Lane, Richard 
 Grenville, or Walter Raleigh as the first smokers. 
 
 King James, in his "Counterblaste to Tobacco" 
 (1604), alludes to the first introduction but vaguely, 
 "Now to the corrupted basenesse of the first use of this 
 Tobacco, doeth very well agree the foolish and ground- 
 lesse first entry thereof into this Kingdome. It is not 
 so long since the first entry of this abuse amongst us 
 here, as this present age cannot yet very well remem- 
 ber, both the first Author, and the forme of the first 
 introduction of it amongst us. It was neither' brought 
 in by King, great Conquerour, nor learned Doctor of 
 Phisicke. With the report of a great discovery for a 
 Conquest, some two or three Savage men, were brought 
 in, together with this Savage custome. But the pitie 
 is, the poore wilde barbarous men died, but that vile 
 barbarous custome is yet alive, yea in fresh vigor: so 
 as it seemes a miracle to me, how a custome springing 
 from so vile a ground, and brought in by a father so 
 generally hated, should be welcomed upon so slender 
 a warrant." This "father" no doubt is Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, but it is not necessary to concur with Edward 
 Arber, who justly denies that Raleigh had anything to 
 do with the introduction of the weed itself or of the 
 habit of smoking, in the conclusion that "the king wil- 
 fully or ignorantly falsified the history of the intro- 
 duction of tobacco, concocting a degrading story for 
 his purpose." The king's remark certainly savors of 
 malice, but he may have honestly been persuaded that 
 Raleigh was the first introducer. 
 
 Henry Buttes (Diets Dry Dinner, 1599) states, 
 "Our English Ulisses, renomed Syr Walter Rawleigh, 
 a man admirably excellent in Navigation, of Natures 
 
 [107] 
 
12 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 privy counsell, and infinitely read in the wide booke of 
 the worlde, hath both farre f etcht it, and deare bought 
 it: the estimate of the treasure I leave to other." It 
 may be perfectly true, of course, that Raleigh laid in 
 a good supply of tobacco or secured it from Hariot, for 
 his own consumption and the use of his friends. A 
 letter of Sir John Stanhope to Sir G. Carew, dated 
 January 26th, 1601, contains this paragraph: "I send 
 you now no Tabacca, because Mr. Secretary, Sir Walter, 
 and your other friends, as they say, have stored you of 
 late; neither have I any proportion of it (that) is good, 
 but only am rich in Aldermans Watses promises of 
 plenty, wherewith you shall be acquainted, God will- 
 ing." Raleigh may have been initiated into the art of 
 smoking by Hariot, who had been sent out by him for 
 the purpose of inquiring into the natural productions 
 of Virginia. As indicated above (p. 2) after Harlot's 
 own report, he smoked in Virginia and continued to 
 smoke on his return to England. 
 
 E. Arber, in his valuable notes on the Introduction 
 of Tobacco into England (1869), thinks that we have 
 but little demonstrative proof of Raleigh's tobacco 
 habit, but there is the testimony of John Parkinson 
 (Theatrum botanicum, 1640, p. 711), who affirms that 
 he knew Raleigh when he was prisoner in the Tower, 
 and that Raleigh chose the "English Tabacco" (Nico- 
 tiana rustica) to make good tobacco of, "which he 
 knew so rightly to cure that it was held almost as good 
 as that which came from the Indies, and fully as good 
 as any other made in England." This tobacco, how- 
 ever, was not thought to be so strong or sweet for the 
 pipe, nor so efficient for diseases. 
 
 It is to Raleigh's merit that he made smoking 
 fashionable and a gentlemanly art; his name became 
 identified with the new national habit so thoroughly 
 that later generations looked upon him as a kind of 
 patron-saint of the smokers. Every one is familiar 
 
 [108] 
 
Walter Raleigh and Tobacco 18 
 
 with the anecdote that Raleigh, sitting one day in a 
 deep meditation, with a pipe between his lips, bade his 
 man to bring him a tankard of small ale. Believing 
 that his master's head was set on fire, he threw the 
 liquor in his face. In fact, however, this story appears 
 for the first time in 1611 in the Jests of Richard Tarle- 
 ton, and as has been shown by G. L. Apperson (Social 
 History of Smoking, 1914), was fastened on Raleigh 
 as late as 1708. The tradition that Raleigh smoked a 
 pipe or two on the morning before his execution (Octo- 
 ber 29th, 1618) appears to be well founded. The Dean 
 of Westminster, who attended him on this morning, 
 testifies that "he eate his breakfast hertily and tooke 
 tobacco." Aubrey thus defends his action: "He took 
 a pipe of tobacco a little before he went to the scaffolde, 
 which some female (other reading: formal) persons 
 were scandalized at ; but I think 'twas well and properly 
 donne to settle his spirits." No mention of tobacco has 
 been discovered in any of Raleigh's printed works. 
 His first testamentary note made shortly before his 
 execution contains, as far as is yet known, his sole 
 mention of tobacco and relates to that which remained 
 on his ship after his ill-fated voyage: "Sir Lewis 
 Stukeley sold all the tobacco at Plimouth of which, for 
 the most part of it, I gave him a fift part of it, as also a 
 role for my Lord Admirall and a role for himself. I 
 desire that hee give his account for the tobacco." 
 
 Raleigh's tobacco-box was preserved at Leeds in 
 Yorkshire, in the Museum of Ralph Thoresby, an anti- 
 quary, who died in 1725. Soon afterwards, William 
 Oldys saw it there, and in his life of Raleigh prefixed 
 to "The History of the World" (1736), describes it 
 thus: "From the best of my memory, I can resemble 
 its outward appearance to nothing more nearly than 
 one of our modern Muff-cases; about the same height 
 and width, cover'd with red leather, and open'd at top 
 (but with a hinge, I think) hke one of those. In the 
 
 [109] 
 
14 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 inside, there was a cavity for a receiver of glass or 
 metal, which might hold half a pound or a pound of 
 tobacco; and from the edge of the receiver at top, to 
 the edge of the box, a circular stay or collar, with holes 
 in it, to plant the tobacco about, with six or eight 
 pipes to smoke it in." R. Thoresby himself (Ducatus 
 Leodiensis, 1715) gives the following, slightly different 
 description: "Sir Walter Ralegh's tobacco-box, as it 
 is called, but is rather the case for the glass wherein 
 it was preserved, which was surrounded with small 
 wax candles of various colours. This is of gilded 
 leather, like a muff-case, about half a foot broad and 
 thirteen inches high, and hath cases for sixteen pipes 
 within it." 
 
 John Gerard (The Herball of Generall Historie of 
 Plantes, 1597) writes that "there be two sorts or kindes 
 of Tabaco, one greater, the other lesser; the greater 
 was brought into Europe out of the provinces of 
 America, which we call the West Indies: the other 
 from Trinidada, an Ilande neere unto the continent of 
 the same Indies. Some have added a third sort, and 
 others making the yellow Henbane [Nicotiana nistica] 
 for a kinde thereof. Being now planted in the gardens 
 of Europe, it prospereth very well, and commeth from 
 seede in one yeare to beare both fioures and seede. 
 The which I take to be better for the constitution of 
 our bodies then that which is brought from India 
 [America] ; and that growing in the Indies better for 
 the people of the same countrey: notwithstanding it 
 is not so thought nor received of our Tabackians; for 
 according to the English proverbe; Far fecht and 
 deere bought is best for Ladies." 
 
 The tobacco of Trinidad is mentioned in 1595 by 
 Robert Dudley (Voyage to the West Indies, p. 22) : 
 "The dale followinge, beinge Sondaie, in the morninge 
 came the salvages with two canowes aborde us, as they 
 had promised our men, bringinge such commodities 
 
 [110] 
 
Eably Cultivation op Tobacco in England 15 
 
 with them as their islande did afforde, saving they 
 brought neither golde nor pearle, of the which theare 
 are great store within the ilande, but tobacco, nutes 
 and such kinde of fruites, the which they exchainged 
 for knives, bugles, beades, fishinge hookes and 
 hatchetts." 
 
 Gerard, accordingly, was of opinion that the 
 tobacco of English growth would best suit English con- 
 stitutions, as that of America would agree with Ameri- 
 cans; but this view was not seconded by the smokers 
 of his day. 
 
 Francis Bacon entertained no illusion as to 
 English-grown tobacco. In his "Sylva Sylvarum: or a 
 Natural History" (IX, 855) he writes, "Tobacco is a 
 thing of great price, if it be in request : for an acre of 
 it will be worth (as is affirmed) two hundred pounds 
 by the year towards charge. The charge of making 
 the ground and otherwise is great, but nothing to the 
 profit. But the English tobacco hath small credit, as 
 being too dull and earthy ; nay, the Virginian tobacco, 
 though that be in a hotter climate, can get no credit 
 for the same cause: so that a trial to make tobacco 
 more aromatical, and better concocted, here in 
 England, were a thing of great profit. Some have 
 gone about to do it by drenching the English tobacco 
 in a decoction or infusion of Indian tobacco; but those 
 are but sophistications and toys; for nothing that is 
 once perfect, and hath run his race, can receive much 
 amendment. You must ever resort to the beginnings 
 of things for melioration." 
 
 William Barclay (Nepenthes, or the Vertues of 
 Tabacco, Edinburgh, 1614) recommends exclusively 
 tobacco of American growth, "Albeit this herbe dis- 
 daines not to be nourished in many gardens in Spaine, 
 in Italie, France, Flanders, Germanie and Brittaine, 
 yet neverthelesse only that which is fostered in India 
 
 [111] 
 
16 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 [America] and brought home by Mariners and Traf- 
 fiquers is to be used. But avarice and greedines of 
 gaine have moved the Marchants to apparell some 
 European plants with Indian coats, and to enstall 
 them in shops as righteous and legittime Tabacco. . . 
 So that the most fine, best and purest is that which is 
 brought to Europe in leaves, and not rolled in pudd- 
 ings, as the English Navigators first brought home." 
 From the book "The Honestie of this Age, Proov- 
 ing by good circumstance that the world was never 
 honest till now, by Barnabee Rych Gentleman, Servant 
 to the Kings most Excellent Maiestie" (1614) we 
 receive a good idea of the increased consumption of 
 tobacco and its sale. "There is not so base a groome, 
 that commes into an Alehouse to call for his pot, but 
 he must have his pipe of tobacco, for it is a commoditie 
 that is nowe as vendible in every Taverne, Inne, and 
 Ale house, as eyther Wine, Ale, or Beare, and for 
 Apothicaries Shops, Grosers Shops, Chaundlers Shops, 
 they are (almost) never without company, that from 
 morning till night are still taking of Tobacco, what a 
 number are there besides, that doe keepe houses, set 
 open shoppes, that have no other trade to live by, but 
 by the selling of Tobacco. I have heard it tolde that 
 now very lately, there hath bin a Cathalogue taken of 
 all those new erected houses that have set uppe that 
 Trade of selling Tobacco, in London and neare about 
 London : and if a man may beleeve what is confidently 
 reported, there are found to be upward of 7000 houses, 
 that doth live by that trade. I cannot say whether 
 they number Apothicaries shoppes, Grosers shops, and 
 Chaundlers shops in this computation, but let it be that 
 these were thrust in to make uppe the number: let 
 us now looke a little into the Vidimits of the matter, 
 and let us cast uppe but a sleight account, what the 
 expence might be that is consumed in this smoakie 
 vapoure. 
 
 [112] 
 
Early Cultivation op Tobacco in England 17 
 
 "If it be true that there be 7000 shops, in and 
 about London, that doth vent Tobacco, as it is credibly 
 reported that there be over and above that number : it 
 may well bee supposed, to be but an ill customed shoppe, 
 that taketh not five shillings a day, one day with 
 another, throughout the whole yeare, or if one doth 
 take lesse, two other may take more: but let us make 
 our account, but after 2 shillings sixe pence a day, for 
 he that taketh lesse than that, would be ill able to pay 
 his rent, or to keepe open his Shop Windowes, neither 
 would Tobacco houses make such a muster as they 
 doe, and that almost in every Lane, and in every by- 
 corner round about London. Let us then reckon thus, 
 7000 halfe Crowns a day, amounteth just to 319,375 
 poundes a yeare. Summa totalis, All spent in 
 smoake." 
 
 Tobacco then was an expensive pleasure. Aubrey 
 informs us, "It was sold then for its wayte in silver, 
 I have heard some of our old yeomen neighbours say, 
 that when they went to Malmesbury or Chippenham 
 Market, they culled out their biggest shillings to lay 
 in the scales against the tobacco; now, the customes 
 of it are the greatest his majestie hath." Compare 
 the similar experience of the Koreans (Leaflet 18, 
 p. 10). 
 
 C. T. published in 1615 "An Advice how to plant 
 Tobacco in England : and how to bring it to colour and 
 perfection, to whom it may be profitable, and to whom 
 harmfull. The vertues of the Hearbe in generall, as 
 well in the outward application as taken in Fume. 
 With the danger of the Spanish Tobacco." The 
 author's object is to instruct his countrymen in sowing, 
 planting and perfecting this drug, as he viewed with 
 alarm the vast sums annually spent on imported 
 tobacco. He heard it reported by men of good judg- 
 ment that there is paid out of England and Ireland 
 near the value of 200,000 pounds every year for 
 
 [113] 
 
18 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 tobacco, and that the greatest part thereof is bought 
 for ready money. It was sold for ten times the value 
 of pepper, and the best of it, weight for weight, for 
 the finest silver; it was hard to find one pound weight 
 in five hundred that was not sophisticated. We learn 
 that tobacco was then imported into England from the 
 coast of Guiana, from St. Vincents, St. Lucia, 
 Dominica, and other places, where it was directly 
 bought of the natives. All these sorts were clean, and 
 so was that of St. Domingo, where the Spaniards had 
 not yet learned the art of sophistication. There was 
 also a sort of Caraccas tobacco, which the Indians 
 made up and sold to the Spaniards, and which was 
 wholesome enough, but little of it came to England. 
 This tobacco is mentioned in 1595 by Robert Dudley 
 (Voyage to the West Indies, p. 48) , who speaks of "the 
 coast of Cracos, called the high land of Paria, one of 
 the fruitf ullest places in the worlde for excellent good 
 tobacco, which is called for his worthiness cane to- 
 bacco." 
 
 Under Queen Elizabeth there was an import duty 
 of 2d. a pound on tobacco, raised by James in 1604 to 
 6s. lOd. (equal to 25s. present value), an advance of 
 4000 per cent. This heavy tax nearly ruined Virginia 
 whose economic life was based on the cultivation of the 
 plant. In 1611 the imports of tobacco from Virginia 
 were reduced to 142,085 pounds, one-sixth of the quan- 
 tity previously exported to England. Aside from Vir- 
 ginia, tobacco was supplied to England from the Ber- 
 mudas, where it had first been planted in St. George's 
 Island under the first governor, Moore (1612-15), but 
 unsuccessfully (Historye of the Bermudaes, p. 29). 
 Under the third governor. Tucker (1616-19), some 
 thirty thousand weight of tobacco could be despatched 
 into the mother-country; this "proveinge good, and 
 comeinge to a luckye markett, gave great contentment 
 and incouragement to the undertakers to proceede 
 
 [114] 
 
Importation of Tobacco into England 19 
 
 lustely in their plantation." Fraudulent practices, 
 however, were committed, and the Virginia Company 
 of London complained bitterly to the governor, 
 Nathaniel Butler (1619-22), anent its failure to sell 
 a shipment of very vile conditioned tobacco, neither 
 well cured, nor well made up. The governor, there- 
 upon, appointed "triers of tobacco" under oath, whose 
 duty it was to examine the crops, so that much false 
 and bad ware was burned at the owners' doors. 
 According to an order issued by Butler in 1621, better 
 and poorer qualities had to be distinguished and packed 
 separately, instead of being mixed with one another, 
 as it had formerly been done. 
 
 In 1624 the importation of tobacco from Spain 
 and Portugal was prohibited, and that from Virginia 
 only allowed, so that the colony prospered again. James 
 attempted to limit the supply at both ends by ordain- 
 ing that no planter should export more than a hundred 
 pounds a year and by creating a monopoly. Tobacco 
 could be sold only by persons holding royal warrants 
 of permission. These were granted for life on pay- 
 ment of fifteen pounds and an annual rent of the same 
 amount. 
 
 The tobacco imported from Spanish America was 
 called "Varinaes" up to 1639, and after that date 
 "Spanish." It was obtained from Varina, near the 
 foot of the range of mountains forming the west 
 boundary of Venezuela, and watered by a branch of the 
 Orinoco River. It was known in France as Verine or 
 petum musque, and was introduced into Holland and 
 Germany under the name canaster or knaster (from 
 the Spanish canastro, "basket"), as it was rolled in 
 cords and packed in baskets. 
 
 Coles wrote in 1657, "Tobacco prospers well about 
 Winscomb, in Glocestershire, where I think the plant- 
 ing of it is now discontinued, because the store that 
 came from thence was an hinderance to the publick 
 
 [lis] 
 
20 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 revenue coming in for the custome of that which is 
 brought from beyond seas." 
 
 By various acts passed in the reign of Charles II 
 (1660-85), the planting of tobacco was forbidden in 
 England in favor of the colonies, on forfeiture of forty 
 shillings for every rod of ground thus cultivated, 
 excepting in physic gardens, where it was allowed in 
 quantities not exceeding half a pole of ground. Justices 
 of peace were empowered to issue warrants to con- 
 stables to search after and destroy the plants. It 
 appears that walnut-tree leaves were used as a substi- 
 tute for tobacco ; for the cutting of such leaves, or any 
 other leaves (not being tobacco leaves) or coloring 
 them so as to resemble tobacco or selling these mixed 
 or unmixed for tobacco was forbidden under a penalty 
 of forfeiting five shillings a pound. 
 
 J. W. Gent (Systema Agriculturae ; the Mystery of 
 Husbandry Discovered, 2d ed., 1675, p. 156) gives the 
 following interesting information: — 
 
 "I thought to have omitted this plant, by reason 
 the Statute-Laws are so severe against the planters of 
 it, but that it is a plant so much improving land, and 
 imploying so many hands, that in time it may gain 
 footing in the good opinion of the landlord, as well as 
 of the tenant, which may prove a means to obtain some 
 liberty for its growth here, and not to be totally 
 excluded out of the husbandmans farm. The great 
 objection is the prejudice it would bring to navigation, 
 the fewer ships being imployed; and the lessening his 
 Majesties revenue. To which may be answered, that 
 there are but few ships imployed to Virginia; and if 
 many, yet there would be but few the less ; for it's not 
 to be imagined, that we should plant enough to furnish 
 our whole nation, and maintain a trade abroad also: 
 And in case it should lessen the number of ships for 
 the present, they would soon encrease again, as the 
 trade of Virginia would alter into other commodities, 
 
 [116] 
 
End op Tobacco Cultivation in England 21 
 
 as silR, wine and oyl, which would be a much better 
 trade for them and us. And as to the lessening his 
 Majesties revenue, the like imposition may be laid on 
 the same commodity growing at home, as if imported 
 from abroad, or some other of like value in lieu of it. 
 Certain it is, that the planting of it would imploy 
 abundance of people in tilling, planting, weeding, dress- 
 ing and curing of it. And the improvement of land is 
 very great, from ten shillings per acre, to thirty or 
 forty pound per acre, all charges paid: before the last 
 severe laws, many plantations were in Gloucestershire, 
 Devonshire, Somersetshire, and Oxfordshire, to the 
 quantity of many hundreds of acres. 
 
 "Some object, that our English-tobacco is not so 
 good as the f orreign ; but if it be as well respected by 
 the vulgar, let the more curious take the other that's 
 dearer. Although many are of opinion that it's better 
 than forreign, having a more haut-gust, which pleas- 
 eth some ; if others like it not, they may in the curing 
 of it make it milder, and by that means alter or change 
 it as they please: It hath been often sold in London 
 for Spanish tobacco. The best way and manner of 
 planting and curing it, would be easily obtained by 
 experience: many attempting it, some would be sure 
 to discover the right way of ordering of it, and what 
 ground or places it best affects. But that which hath 
 been observed is, that it affects a rich, deep and warm 
 soil well dressed in the spring before planting time: 
 The young plants raised from seed in February or 
 March, on a hot bed, and then planted abroad in your 
 prepared ground, from whence you may expect a very 
 good crop, and sometimes two crops in a year. The 
 leaves, when gathered, are first laid together on heaps 
 for some time, and then hang*d up (by threads run 
 through them) in the shade, until they are through 
 dry, and then put up and kept, the longer the better. 
 In this, experience is the best master." 
 
 [m] 
 
22 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 THE GREAT TOBACCO CONTROVERSY IN 
 ENGLAND 
 
 As no other nation, the English had to fight for 
 their tobacco, no less than for their liberty, and they 
 put up a gallant and heroic fight for it. The struggle 
 opened soon after the introduction of the plant and, 
 producing a considerable literature, persisted with 
 varying fortunes throughout the seventeenth century. 
 
 The first detailed account of tobacco was given the 
 English public in John Frampton's "Joyf ull Newes oute 
 of the Newe Founde Worlde" (London, 1577; other 
 editions in 1580 and 1596), which is a translation from 
 the Spanish of Nicolas Monardes' (1493-1588) Three 
 books on the drugs of America (Sevilla, 1574). The 
 whole catalogue of diseases and their treatment with 
 various preparations of tobacco thus became accessible 
 to English practitioners, and English literature on the 
 subject is visibly imbued by this influence. Physi- 
 cians were busily engaged in analyzing the properties 
 of the herb and discovering its use in all diseases; it 
 was recommended as an infallible cure for nearly every 
 ill and as a preventive of many ailments. In all these 
 discussions the work of the doctor of Sevilla remained 
 the fundamental source. The reader of Frampton 
 should bear in mind that the notice entitled "A further 
 addition of the Hearbe called Tabaco" (fols. 42-45) is 
 not translated from Monardes, but from the French 
 work "La Maison rustique" of Liebault (see below, 
 p. 50) in which an account of Nicot's introduction of 
 tobacco into France is rendered. Dr. Brushfield errs 
 in making Monardes acknowledge the assistance he 
 received from Nicot; not a word is said about Nicot 
 in the Spanish original of Monardes. 
 
 The curative virtues of the tobacco plant are noted 
 by two poets. E. Spenser, in his Fairy Queen (1590), 
 
 [118] 
 
The Tobacco Controversy in England 23 
 
 makes Belphoebe include it with other medicinal herbs 
 gathered to heal Timais (Book III, Canto VI, 32) :— 
 
 Into the woods thenceforth in haste shee went, 
 
 To seeke for hearbes that mote him remedy; 
 
 For she of hearbes had great intendiment, 
 
 Taught of the Nymphe which from her infancy 
 
 Her nourced had in trew nobility: 
 
 There, whether yt divine Tobacco were, 
 
 Or Panachaea, or Polygeny, 
 
 She fownd, and brought it to her patient deare. 
 
 Who al this while lay bleding out his hart-blood neare. 
 
 This is the earliest poetical allusion to tobacco in 
 English literature. William Lilly, the Euphuist and 
 court-poet to Queen Elizabeth, a great smoker him- 
 self, wrote a play The Woman in the Moone (1597), 
 in which Pandora wounds a lover with a spear and 
 sends her servant for herbs to cure him : — 
 
 Gather me balme and cooling violets. 
 
 And of our holy herb nicotian. 
 
 And bring withall pure honey from the hive, 
 
 To heale the wound of my unhappy hand. 
 
 Raphael Holinshed (The First and Second Vol- 
 umes of Chronicles, now newlie augmented and con- 
 tinued to the yeare 1586 by lohn Hooker alias Vowell 
 and others, 1587, fol. 209) appears to have been with- 
 out enthusiasm for the weed, for he writes, "How doe 
 men extoll the use of Tabacco in my time, whereas in 
 truth (whether the cause be in the repugnancie of our 
 constitution unto the operation thereof, or that the 
 ground doeth alter hir force, I cannot tell) it is not 
 found of so great efficacie as they write." 
 
 The praise of the healing powers of tobacco was 
 sung in an epigram by John Davies in 1598 (Works 
 of Marlowe, ed. of F. Cunningham, p. 268) . It begins 
 thus : — 
 
 Homer of Moly, and Nepenthe sings, 
 
 Moly the gods' most sovereign herb divine; 
 
 Nepenthe, Helen's drink, most gladness brings, 
 
 Heart's grief expels, and doth the wits refine. 
 
 But this our age another world hath found, 
 
 From whence an herb of heavenly power is brought; 
 
 Moly is not so sovereign for a wound, 
 
 [119] 
 
24 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 Nor hath Nepenthe so great wonders wrought. 
 It is tobacco, whose sweet subtle fume, 
 The hellish torment of the teeth doth ease. 
 By drawing down, and drying up the rheum, 
 The mother and the nurse of each disease. 
 
 Both sides of the controversy are skilfully repre- 
 sented in Ben Jonson's Every Man in His Humor (Act 
 III, Scene 2), acted on the 25th of November, 1596, 
 and printed in 1601. Bobadilla pleads thus in favor 
 of the case: "Signior beleeve me, (upon my relation) 
 for what I tel you, the world shall not improve. I have 
 been in the Indies (where this herbe growes) where 
 neither my selfe, nor a dozen Gentlemen more (of my 
 knowledge) have received the taste of any other nu- 
 triment, in the world, for the space of one and twentie 
 weekes, but Tabacco onely. Therefore it cannot be but 
 'tis most divine. Further, take it in the nature, in 
 the true kinde so, it makes an Antidote, that (had you 
 taken the most deadly poysonous simple in all Flor- 
 ence, it should expell it, and clarifie you with as much 
 ease, as I speak. And for your greene wound, your 
 Balsamwn, and your — are all meere gulleries, and 
 trash to it, especially your Trinidado: your Newcotian 
 is good too : I could say that I know of the vertue of 
 it, for the exposing of rewmes, raw humors, crudities, 
 obstructions, with a thousand of this kind ; but I pro- 
 fesse my selfe no quack-salver: only thus much: by 
 Hercules I doe holde it, and will affirme it (before any 
 Prince in Europe) to be the most soveraigne, and 
 pretious herbe that ever the earth tendred to the use 
 of man." Then Cob represents the other side as fol- 
 lows: "By gods deynes: I marie what pleasure or 
 f elicitie they have in taking this roguish Tabacco ; it's 
 good for nothing but to choake a man, and fill him 
 full of smoake and imbers : there were f oure died out 
 of one house last weeke with taking of it, and two 
 more the bell went for yester-night, one of them (they 
 say) will ne're scape it, he voyded a bushell of soote 
 
 [120] 
 
The Tobacco Controversy in England 25 
 
 yester-day, upward and downeward. By the stockes; 
 and there were no wiser men then I, I'M have it present 
 death, man or woman that should but deale with a 
 Tabacco pipe ; why, it will stifle them all in the 'nd as 
 many as use it; it's little better than rats bane." 
 
 It is a matter of profound regret that Shakes- 
 peare has never alluded to tobacco and smoking. 
 
 In 1602 appeared a pamphlet entitled "Work for 
 Chimny-sweepers : or a warning for Tabacconists. 
 Describing the pernicious use of Tabacco, no lesse 
 pleasant than profitable for all sorts to reade. Fumus 
 patriae, Igne alieno Luculentior. As much as to say, 
 
 Better be chokt with English hemp, 
 then poisoned with Indian Tabacco. 
 
 Imprinted at London by T. Este, for Thomas Bushell, 
 and are to be sould at the great North dore of Powles 
 1602." The anonymous author, who calls himself 
 Philaretes, is said to have been ordered or compelled 
 to write this invective, presumably by James I. He 
 alleges eight reasons against tobacco, one of which is 
 that the first author and finder hereof was the devil, 
 and the first practisers were the devil's priests, and 
 therefore not to be used of us Christians. The idea is 
 not original, for it looms up in Monardes (in Framp- 
 ton's translation, fol. 38) : "And as the Devil is a 
 deceaver, and hath the knowledge of the vertue of 
 hearbes, so he did shew the vertue of this Hearb [to 
 the Indians], that by the meanes thereof, they might 
 see their imaginations, and visions, that he hath rep- 
 resented to them, and by that meanes deceive them." 
 Ben Jonson also (Gipsies Metamorphosis) calls to- 
 bacco "the Devil's own weed," and according to Joshua 
 Sylvester, "hell hath smoke impenitent tobaccanists to 
 choake." 
 
 Dekker, in his The Gull's Horn-Book (1602), thus 
 apostrophizes tobacco: "Make me thine adopted heir, 
 that inheriting the virtues of thy whiffes, I may dis- 
 
 [121] 
 
26 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 tribute them amongst all nations, and make the fan- 
 tastic Englishman, above the rest, more cunning in the 
 distinction of thy roll Trinidado, leaf, and pudding, 
 than the whitest-toothed black-a-moor in all Asia." 
 
 In 1604 appeared King James' famed "A Coun- 
 terblaste to Tobacco. Imprinted at London by R. B. 
 Anno 1604." The king's name does not appear on 
 the title-page, nor at the end of the preface To the 
 Reader. He simply speaks of himself as the King. 
 The royal pamphlet has met with almost universal 
 condemnation, and W. Bragge (Bibliotheca Nicotiana, 
 1880) even says that "he most Quixotically broke his 
 lance against one of the great appetites of man." 
 To condemn is easier ^than to understand. In my 
 opinion the Counterblaste is a remarkable document 
 of considerable culture-historical interest, which must 
 be understood and interpreted from the spirit of the 
 time; and there is no doubt that James was actuated 
 by good intentions and by a solicitous care for the 
 welfare of his subjects, even though his blind hatred 
 of tobacco carries him too far. He condemns its use 
 primarily out of motives of racial and national pride: 
 "And now good Countrey men let us (I pray you) 
 consider, what honour or policie can move us to imitate 
 the barbarous and beastly maners of the wild, god- 
 lesse, and slavish Indians, especially in so vile and 
 stinking a custome? Shall wee that disdaine to imi- 
 tate the maners of our neighbour France (having the 
 stile of the first Christian Kingdom) and that cannot 
 endure the spirit of the Spaniards (their King being 
 now comparable in largenes of Dominions, to the 
 great Emperor of Turkie) Shall wee, I say, that have 
 bene so long civill and wealthy in Peace, famous and 
 invincible in Warre, fortunate in both, we that have 
 bene ever able to aide any of our neighbours (but 
 never deafed any of their eares with any of our sup- 
 plications for assistance) shall we, I say, without 
 
 [122] 
 
King James' Counterblaste 27 
 
 blushing, abase our selves so farre, as to imitate these 
 beastly Indians, slaves to the Spaniards, refuse to the 
 world, and as yet aliens from the holy Covenant of 
 God? Why doe we not as well imitate them in walk- 
 ing naked as they doe? in preferring glasses, feathers, 
 and such toyes, to gold and precious stones, as they 
 do? yea why do we not denie God and adore the Devill, 
 as they doe ?" 
 
 He goes on to refute, in the physiological terms 
 of his time, the medicinal virtues of the drug, and 
 after all the absurdities previously written in praise 
 of its alleged healing powers, his arguments make 
 rather refreshing reading. To the argument "that 
 the whole people would not have taken so generall a 
 good liking thereof, if they had not by experience 
 found it verie soveraigne and good for them," he 
 responds justly that this custom is merely based on 
 imitation and fashion. "For such is the force of that 
 naturall Selfe-love in every one of us, and such is the 
 corruption of envie bred in the brest of every one, as 
 we cannot be content unlesse we imitate every thing 
 that our fellowes doe, and so proove our selves capable 
 of every thing whereof they are capable, like Apes, 
 counterfeiting the maners of others, to our owne des- 
 truction." The argument that people have been cured 
 of diverse diseases by taking tobacco is fallacious and 
 rests on a confusion of cause and effect; the disease 
 takes its natural course and declines, but it is not 
 tobacco that wrought this miracle. If a man smoke 
 himself to death with it (and many have done) , O then 
 some other disease must beare the blame for that 
 fault. He justly rejects the idea that tobacco could 
 act as a panacea, a cure for all diseases in all persons 
 and at all times. "0 omnipotent power of Tobacco!" 
 he exclaims, "And if it could by the smoke thereof 
 chace out devils, as the smoke of Tobias fish did (which 
 I am sure could smel no stronglier) it would serve for 
 
 [123] 
 
28 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 a precious Relicke, but for the superstitious Priests, 
 and the insolent Puritanes, to cast out devils withall." 
 
 As to the moral evaluation of smoking, the king 
 holds that smokers are guilty of sinful and shameful 
 lust, that its use or rather abuse is a branch of the sin 
 of drunkenness, which is the root of all sins, and that 
 it disables men for military service. "In the times of 
 the many glorious and victorious battailes fought by 
 this Nation, there was no word of Tobacco. But now 
 if it were time of warres, and that you were to make 
 some sudden Cavalcado upon your enemies, if any of 
 you should seeke leisure to stay behinde his fellows 
 for taking of Tobacco, for my part I should never bee 
 sorie for any evill chance that might befall him. To 
 take a custome in any thing that cannot bee left 
 againe, is most harmefull to the people of any land." 
 Finally, it is a waste of national wealth: "Now how 
 you are by this custome disabled in your goods, let the 
 Gentry of this land beare witnesse, some of them be- 
 stowing three, some foure hundred pounds a yeere 
 upon this precious stinke, which I am sure might be 
 bestowed upon many farre better uses." 
 
 He condemns the prevailing custom of smoking 
 at the dinner-table when very often men that abhor it 
 are present. Smoking in public had increased to such 
 a degree that men sound in judgment were at last 
 forced to take it also without desire, "partly because 
 they were ashamed to seeme singular, and partly, to 
 be as one that was content to eate Garlicke (which 
 hee did not love) that he might not be troubled with 
 the smell of it, in the breath of his fellowes." It was 
 accordingly an act of self-defence. A man could not 
 heartily welcome his friend now, but straight they 
 must be in hand with tobacco. It was a point of 
 good fellowship, and he who would refuse to take a 
 pipe among his fellows was accounted peevish and no 
 good company. "Yea the Mistresse cannot in a more 
 
 [124] 
 
King James' Counterblaste 29 
 
 manerly kinde, entertaine her servant, then by giving 
 him out of her faire hand a pipe of Tobacco." It is a 
 great contempt of God's good gifts that the sweetness 
 of man's breath, being a gift of God, should be willfully 
 corrupted by this stinking smoke. "Moreover, which 
 is a great iniquitie, and against all humanitie, the 
 husband shall not bee ashamed, to reduce thereby his 
 delicate, wholesome and cleane complexioned wife, to 
 that extremitie, that either shee must also corrupt her 
 sweete breath therewith, or else resolve to live in a 
 perpetuall stinking torment." 
 
 He winds up his sermon as follows: "Have you 
 not reason then to bee ashamed, and to forbeare this 
 filthie noveltie, so basely grounded, so foolishly re- 
 ceived and so grossely mistaken in the right use there- 
 of? In your abuse thereof sinning against God, harm- 
 ing your selves both in persons and goods, and rak- 
 ing also thereby the markes and notes of vanitie upon 
 you : by the custome thereof making your selves to be 
 wondered at by all forraine civil Nations, and by all 
 strangers that come among you, to be scorned and 
 contemned. A custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull 
 to the Nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the 
 Lungs, and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, 
 neerest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the 
 pit that is bottomelesse." 
 
 In 1616 the Counterblaste was reprinted in 
 Bishop Montagu's collected edition of James' 
 "Workes," and in 1619 the Bishop published a Latin 
 translation of the King's works in which the Counter- 
 blaste appears as "Misocapnus ['Smoke-hater'], sive 
 de Abusu Tobacci Lusus Regius." While the royal 
 diatribe is sizzling, of course, with misstatements, ex- 
 aggerations, and outbursts of gloomy pessimism and 
 unrestrained animosity, it was a natural reaction 
 against the many exorbitant claims made by the 
 
 [126] 
 
30 Field Museum op Natural History 
 
 friends and defenders of the narcotic, and in his scath- 
 ing denunciation of the tobacco excesses of his time 
 the king was presumably nearly right. In our own 
 days his phraseology has been echoed by Eliah the 
 Prophet, and the Jameses we shall always have with 
 us. 
 
 Nor did the king stop at purely platonic exhorta- 
 tions. Under the 17th day of October, 1604, he ad- 
 dressed at Westminster a Commissio pro Tabacco to 
 the right Trustie and right Welbeloved Cousen and 
 Counsellor, Thomas Earle of Dorset, high treasourer 
 of England, who is commanded "to give order to all 
 Customers, Comptrollers, Searchers, Surveyors, and 
 all other Officers of our Portes, that they shall de- 
 maunde and take to our use of all Merchauntes, as 
 well Englishe as Strangers, and of all others whoe 
 shall bringe in anye Tabacco into this Realme, within 
 any Porte Haven or Creek belonging to any theire 
 severall Charges, the Somme of Six Shillinges and 
 eighte Pence uppon everye Pound Waight thereof, 
 over and above the Custome of Twoo Pence uppon the 
 Pounde Waighte usuallye paide heretofore." In- 
 fractors were threatened with confiscation and blows. 
 "If anye Merchaunte Englishe or Straunger, or other 
 whatsoever, shall presume to bringe in anye of the 
 saide Tabacco, before suche Payemente and Satis- 
 factione first made. That then he shall not onelie for- 
 feite the saide Tabacco, but alsoe shall undergoe suche 
 furthere Penalties and corporall Punishmente as the 
 Qualitie of suche soe highe a Contempte against our 
 Royall and expresse Commaundemente in this mannere 
 published shall deserve." 
 
 As stated in the introductory paragraph of this 
 order, the object of this measure was to restrain the 
 heavy importations of tobacco, "whereby it is likelie 
 that a lesse Quantitie of Tabacco will hereafter be 
 broughte into this our Realm of England, Dominion 
 
 [126] 
 
King James and Tobacco 81 
 
 of Wales and Town of Barwick then in former tjnmes, 
 and yet sufficient store to serve for their necessarie 
 use who are of the better sort, and have and will use 
 the same with Moderation to preserve their Healthe." 
 The latter point is of great interest, for it does not crop 
 up in the "Counterblaste." The king discriminates be- 
 tween a better and baser sort of people, and gra- 
 ciously concedes to the former a moderate use of the 
 herb. By way of introduction he comments that to- 
 bacco was used and taken by the better sort both then 
 and now only as physic to preserve health, "and is now 
 at this Day, through evell Custome and the Toleration 
 thereof, excessivelie taken by a nomber of ryotous 
 and disordered Persons of meane and base Condition, 
 whoe, contrarie to the use which Persons of good 
 Callinge and Qualitye make thereof, doe spend most 
 of there tyme in that idle Vanitie, to the evill example 
 and corrupting of others, and also do consume that 
 Wages whiche manye of them gett by theire Labour, 
 and wherewith there Families should be releived, not 
 caring at what Price they buye that Drugge, but 
 rather devisinge how to add to it other Mixture, 
 therebye to make it the more delightfull to their 
 Taste, though so much the more costly to there Purse ; 
 by which great and imoderate takinge of Tabacco the 
 Health of a great nomber of our People is impayred, 
 and theire Bodies weakened and made unfit for Labor, 
 the Estates of many mean Persons soe decayed and 
 consumed as they are thereby dryven to unthriftie 
 Shifts onelie to maynteyne their gluttonous exercise 
 thereof, besides that also a great part of the Treasure 
 of our Lande is spent and exhausted by this onely 
 Drugge so licentiously abused by the meaner sorte, 
 all which enormous Inconveniences ensuinge there- 
 uppon." The king's solicitude, accordingly, centered 
 around the misera plebs, while the nobility is dis- 
 missed with a patronizing pat on the shoulders. 
 
 [127] 
 
32 Field Museum op Natural History 
 
 Edmund Gardiner, Gentleman and Practicioner 
 in Physicke, wrote a medical defence in 1610 under 
 the title, "The Triall of Tabacco. Wherein, his worth 
 is most worthily expressed; as, in the name, nature, 
 and qualitie of the sayd herb; his speciall use in all 
 Physicke, with the true and right use of taking it, as 
 well for the Seasons, and times, as also the Com- 
 plexions, Dispositions, and Constitutions, of such 
 Bodies, and Persons, as are fittest: and to whom it is 
 most profitable to take it." A new edition appeared 
 in 1650. 
 
 Joshua Sylvester published in 1614 in folio a 
 poem under the title "Tabacco battered ; and the Pipes 
 shattered (About their Eeares that idlely Idolize so 
 base and barbarous a Weed ; or at least-wise over-love 
 so loathsome Vanitie) : by a Volley of Holy Shot 
 thundered from Mount Helicon. Du Bartas his Divine 
 Weekes and Workes with a Compleate Collection of 
 all the other most delight-full Workes Translated and 
 written by yt famous Philomusus, losvah Sylvester 
 gent : London, printed by Robert Young." The poem, 
 like its title, is bombastic and dull: it threatens pun- 
 ishment with infernal rod in hell's dark furnace, with 
 black fumes to choke, to those who on earth offended 
 in smoke. 
 
 William Barclay's "Nepenthes, or the Vertues of 
 Tabacco" (Edinburgh, 1614) is a vindication of to- 
 bacco, and is directed straight against the Counter- 
 blaste. He recommends tobacco either green or dry 
 for the cure of many maladies, either as a ball made 
 from the fresh leaves big enough to fill the patient's 
 mouth, or as a smoke on an empty stomach ("not as 
 the English abusers do, which make a smoke-boxe 
 of their skull"). In his dedication to the Bishop of 
 Murray he calls on him to defend "this sacred herb." 
 
 A stranger plant, shipwracked on our coast, 
 Is come to helpe this cold phlegmatic soyle. 
 
 [128] 
 
The Tobacco Controversy in England 33 
 
 He defends tobacco as having "much heavenlie vertue 
 in store" and describes America as "the countrie which 
 God hath honoured and blessed with this happie and 
 holy herb." 
 
 John Deacon followed in the footsteps of James I 
 and dedicated to him in 1616 "Tobacco tortured; or 
 the filthie fume of Tobacco refined." This work is 
 couched in the form of a dialogue between Capnistus 
 and Hydrophorus. It is divided into two parts, (1) 
 The Fume of Tobacco taken inward, is very pernicious 
 unto the Body. (2) The Fume of Tobacco taken in- 
 ward, is too too profluvious for many of our Tobac- 
 conists purses, and most pernicious to the publike 
 State. One of the most curious attempts to prevent 
 smoking in a family is contained in a will, dated Oc- 
 tober 20th, 1616, wherein P. Campbell leaves to his 
 son all his household goods, "on this condition, that yf 
 at any time hereafter, any of his brothers or sisters 
 shall fynd him takeing of tobacco, that then he or 
 she so f jTiding him, shall have the said goods." 
 
 Tobias Venner, Doctor of Physicke in Bath, pub- 
 lished in 1621 "A Briefe and accurate treatise, con- 
 cerning, The taking of the fume of Tobacco, which 
 very many, in these dayes, doe too licentiously use. In 
 which, the immoderate, irregular, and unseasonable 
 use thereof is reprehended, and the true nature and 
 best manner of using it, perspicuously demonstrated." 
 
 In this manner the struggle for or against the 
 herb was continued, but ultimately ended in a com- 
 plete triumph of tobacco, as an examination of the 
 various manners in which it was consumed will show. 
 
 USE OF TOBACCO IN ENGLAND 
 
 It appears from Harrison's account (above, 
 p. 7) that Englishmen took up tobacco-smoking from 
 ladle-like pipes in 1573. From 1586 pipes were in full 
 blast, and smoking during that early period was es- 
 
 [129] 
 
34 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 sentially fashionable. One of the characteristics of 
 the gallant, the dandy of the time, was his devotion 
 to tobacco. "To take tobacco with a grace" was one 
 of a gentleman's accomplishments. Clusius, the bota- 
 nist (Exotica, 1601, p. 310), speaks of the clay pipes 
 made by the colonists in Virginia, and adds that from 
 1585 the use of tobacco increased throughout England 
 to such a degree, particularly among the courtiers, 
 that they had many similar tubes made after the 
 model of those brought back from Virginia for to- 
 bacco-smoking. 
 
 John Gerard was familiar with the custom of 
 smoking. "The drie leaves," he writes in his Herball 
 (1597), "are used to be taken in a pipe set on fire and 
 suckt into the stomacke, and thrust foorth again at 
 the nosthrils against the paines of the head, rheumes, 
 aches in any part of the bodie, whereof soever the 
 original doth proceed, whether from Fraunce, Italy, 
 Spaine, Indies, or from our familiar and best knowne 
 diseases." 
 
 All the early accounts agree in stating that the 
 smoke was expelled through the nostrils, — an imita- 
 tion of Indian custom. In a play by Field (1618), a 
 foolish nobleman is asked by some boon companions in 
 a tavern, "Will your lordship take any tobacco ?" when 
 another sneers, " 'Sheart ! he cannot put it through 
 his nose!" There were professors of the art of smok- 
 ing who taught pupils the "slights," as tricks with 
 the pipe were called. These included exhaling the 
 smoke in globes and rings. Ben Jonson describes one 
 Sogliardo as "an essential clown, yet so enamored of 
 the name of a gentleman that he will have it though 
 he buys it; he comes up every term to learn to take 
 tobacco and see new motions." Hence Marston could 
 make the joke, "Her love is just like a whiff e of Ta- 
 bacco, no sooner in at the mouth, but out at the nose." 
 This practice, it is said, died out after the death of 
 
 [lao] 
 
Pipe-smoking IN England 86 
 
 James I (1625), and from that time onward the fumes 
 were plainly discharged from the mouth. Smoking then 
 lost its medical aspect and developed into an honest, 
 every-day pastime and pleasure. 
 
 In 1660 Winstanley declared, "Tobacco it self is 
 by few taken now as medicinal, it is grown a good- 
 fellow, and fallen from a Physician to a Complement. 
 He's no good-fellow that's without burnt Pipes, To- 
 bacco, and His Tinder Box." 
 
 Silver pipes are mentioned by Sir William 
 Vaughan (Naturall and Artificial! Directions for 
 Health, 1602, p. 22) : "Cane Tabacco well dryed, and 
 taken in a silver pipe fasting in the morning, cureth 
 the megrim, the tooth ache, obstructions proceeding 
 of cold, and helpeth the fits of the mother. After 
 meales it doth much hurt, for it infecteth the braine 
 and the liver." 
 
 In John Aubrey's Letters written by Eminent 
 Persons we read, "They had first silver pipes. The 
 ordinary sort made use of a walnut shell and a strawe. 
 I have heard my grandfather Lyte say, that one pipe 
 was handed from man to man round the table." This 
 was done because the cost of a pipe was considerable. 
 
 Paul Hentzner (Itinerarium), a German lawyer, 
 who visited England in 1598, has recorded the fol- 
 lowing observation: "At these spectacles [in the 
 London theatres] and everywhere else, the English are 
 constantly smoking Tobacco, and in this manner : they 
 have pipes on purpose made of clay, into the farther 
 end of which they put the herb, so dry that it may be 
 rubbed into powder, and lighting it, they draw the 
 smoake into their mouths, which they puff out again 
 through their nostrils like funnels, along with it plenty 
 of phlegm and defluxion from the head." 
 
 The clay pipe first made about 1590 soon became 
 fashionable and the typical English pipe. It achieved 
 fame all over Europe and was imitated in Holland and 
 
 [181] 
 
36 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 Germany. The English became the adepts of the pipe- 
 cult and the initiators and propagators of pipe-smok- 
 ing in Europe. The first pipes had small, pear-shaped 
 bowls and short stems, from three to six inches in 
 length. Under the bowl was a flat heel, enabling the 
 pipe to stand upright on a table. In 1619 the pipe- 
 makers received their charter of incorporation from 
 James I. The Company of Pipe-makers consisted of 
 a master, four wardens, and twenty-four assistants. 
 Their escutcheon bore a tobacco plant in full blossom, 
 and their motto was "Let brotherly love continue." 
 All pipes then were made of clay, though occasion- 
 ally some were made of iron or brass. Under the 
 reign of William III (1689-1702) the Dutch style with 
 larger bowls and long, straight stems was adopted. 
 Wooden pipes and briars appeared only from the latter 
 half of the nineteenth century; briar (from the French 
 bruyere, "heath") is the root of the tree heath (Erica 
 arhorea), a native of southern France. The English 
 are still masters of the pipe, turning out the best 
 pipes and the best smoking mixtures ; a good English 
 pipe makes a man feel that life is still worth living. 
 The pipe is the emblem of strength and manliness, of 
 peace and brotherhood, of liberty and democratic gov- 
 ernment. "The pipe," says Thackeray, "draws wis- 
 dom from the lips of the philosopher, and shuts up 
 the mouth of the foolish ; it generates a style of con- 
 versation, contemplative, thoughtful, benevolent and 
 unaffected. May I die if I abuse that kindly weed 
 which has given me. so much pleasure." As the 
 English had preceded all other European nations in 
 the struggle for liberty and human rights and had set 
 the model for constitutional and parliamentary govern- 
 ment, history justly assigned to them the distinction 
 of carrying this emblem all over the world. 
 
 Maple blocks were used in the old days for cut- 
 ting or shredding the tobacco upon. The pipes were 
 
 [182] 
 
Pipe-smoking in England 87 
 
 formerly lighted by means of live charcoal from juni- 
 per wood. King James says in his Counterblaste 
 (1604), "In your persons having by this continuall 
 vile custome brought your selves to this shameful im- 
 becilitie, that you are not able to ride or walke the 
 iourney of a lewes Sabboth, but you must have a reekie 
 cole brought you from the next poore house to kindle 
 your Tobacco with?" William Barclay (Nepenthes, 
 or the Vertues of Tabacco, Edinburgh, 1614) tells this 
 story: "I chanced in company on a tyme with an 
 English merchant in Normandie betweene Rowen and 
 New-haven. This fellow was a merrie man, but at 
 every house he must have a Cole to kindle his Tabacco : 
 the Frenchman wondered, and I laughed at his in- 
 temperancie." Silver tongs, called ember-tongs or 
 brand-tongs, were used in lifting the hot charcoal to 
 light the pipe. 
 
 Many old English "clays" are provided with the 
 maker's initials. Monograms and designs were 
 stamped or moulded upon the bowls and stems, but 
 more generally upon the spur or flat heel of the pipe. 
 During the latter half of the seventeenth century 
 English pipes were presented by colonists in America 
 to the Indians. They subsequently became valuable 
 as objects of barter or part purchase price in exchange 
 for land. In 1677, one hundred and twenty pipes and 
 one hundred Jew's harps were given for a strip of land 
 near Timber Creek in New Jersey. When William 
 Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, purchased a tract 
 of land, three hundred pipes were included in the 
 articles given in the exchange. 
 
 It was customary for a man to carry a case of 
 pipes about with him. In Everie Woman in Her 
 Humour, a play written in 1609, there is an inventory 
 of the contents of a gentleman's pocket, with a value 
 given for each item. A case of tobacco-pipes is 
 appraised at fourpence; half an ounce of tobacco, at 
 
 [US] 
 
88 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 sixpence, and three pence in coin, or, as it is quaintly 
 worded, "in money and golde." Satirists poked fun 
 at the smoker's pocketful of apparatus. A pamphleteer 
 of 1609 says, "I behelde pipes in his pocket; now he 
 draweth forth his tinder-box and his touchwood, and 
 falleth to his tacklings; sure his throat is on fire, the 
 smoke flyeth so fast from his mouth." In his "Epi- 
 grammata religiosa, officiosa, iocosa" (privately 
 printed, London, 1627), John Pyne of Bearferres, of 
 whose life no details are known, has left the following 
 Epitaph of a certaine Tobacchonist : — 
 
 Loe heere I lye roll'd up like th' Indian Weed, 
 My Pipes I have pack'd up, for Breath I need. 
 Mans Breath's a vapour, Hee himself e is Grasse; 
 My Breath but of a Weed the vapour was. 
 When I shall turne to Earth, Good Friends beware. 
 Lest it evaporate and infect the Aire. * 
 
 Besides the instruments mentioned, a tobacco-box 
 (pouches were then unknown) was indispensable to the 
 rich young gallant. The boxes were made of silver, 
 iron, copper, brass, ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise- 
 shell, bone, or wood, curiously and artistically carved. 
 They were usually small enough to be carried in the 
 pocket, and contained, in addition to the weed, a pipe, 
 the ember-tongs, flint and steel, and a priming-iron. 
 Occasionally a looking-glass was set in the box. 
 Tobacco-boxes were given and exchanged as tokens of 
 friendship. In those days, when tobacco was eight or 
 ten shillings a pound, smokers were economic and 
 burned their tobacco to the very bottom of the bowl, 
 pressing the ashes down by means of a stopper. The 
 stoppers were made of wood, bone, ivory, mother-of- 
 pearl, brass, silver, or gold, of various shapes, and 
 adorned with figures of national heroes or heads of 
 animals. Some smokers wore rings provided with a 
 stud for ramming down the contents of the pipe. 
 
 During the Elizabethan period and after women 
 smoked as well as men (cf. Howes, above, p. 4). In 
 
 [ 134 ] 
 
Snuff in England 89 
 
 Dekker's Satiromastix (1602) Asinius Babo, offering 
 his pipe, observes, "*Tis at your service, gallants, and 
 the tobacco too: 'tis right pudding, I can tell you; a 
 lady or two took a pipe full or two at my hands, and 
 praised it, fore the heavens." In Heywood's Fair Maid 
 of the Exchange (1607), one of the characters is 
 advised to court a girl by "asking her if she'll take a 
 pipe of tobacco." William Prynne, the famous Puri- 
 tanic inveigher against stage-plays, informs us that in 
 his time ladies at the theatre were sometimes offered 
 the tobacco-pipe as a refreshment instead of apples. 
 On the title-page of Middleton's comedy. The Roaring 
 Girle (1611), is a picture of the heroine in man's 
 apparel, smoking a pipe from which a cloud of smoke 
 is issuing. The portrait of a woman, painted about 
 1651, holding in her right hand a tobacco-box and 
 gracefully wielding in her left a pipe, is reproduced in 
 Fairholt's book "Tobacco" (p. 69) . 
 
 In the British Apollo (Vol. I, 1708) it is stated, 
 "Snuff, tho' the use of it has been long known to such, 
 as were by merchandizing or other means, familiar 
 with the Spanish customes, has been till lately, a per- 
 fect stranger to the practice of the British nation, and 
 like our other fashions came to us from France." In 
 the Oxford English Dictionary we are informed, "The 
 practice of taking snuff appears to have become 
 fashionable about 1680, but prevailed earlier in Ireland 
 and Scotland." In general this certainly is correct, but 
 snuff was not entirely foreign to the Elizabethan age. 
 The following two references may serve as evidence. 
 
 Henry Buttes (Diets Dry Dinner, 1599), in his 
 discourse of tobacco, writes, "Translated out of India 
 in the seed or roote ; Native or sative in our own fruit- 
 fullest soiles: Dried in the shade, and compiled very 
 close: of a tawny colour, somwhat inclining to red: 
 most perspicuous and cleare: which the Nose soonest 
 taketh in snuffe." 
 
 [186] 
 
40 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 Dekker, in his "The Gull's Horn-book" (1602), 
 thus describes the approved fashion in his day : "Before 
 the meat come smoking to the board, our gallant must 
 draw out his tobacco-box, the ladle for the cold snuff 
 into the nostril, the tongs, and priming-iron ; all which 
 artillery may be of gold or silver, if he can reach the 
 price of it; it will be a reasonable useful pawn at all 
 times, when the amount of his money falls out to run 
 low. And here you must observe to know in what 
 tobacco is in town, better than the merchants, and to 
 discourse of the apothecaries where it is to be sold; 
 then let him show his several tricks in taking it, as the 
 whiff, the ring, etc., for these are compliments that 
 gain gentlemen no mean respect." As Englishmen 
 always preferred the pipe, we hear little of snuff in 
 the first part of the sixteenth century. Irish and 
 Scotch preferred snuff, formerly also called sneeshing, 
 sneezing, and smutchin (from Irish smuitedn, "pow- 
 der" ; Scotch and Gaelic smuidean, "a mote, a particle 
 of dust"). Howell (1650) writes in his Letters, "The 
 Spaniards and Irish take tobacco in powder or 
 smutchin, and it mightily refreshes the brain. I believe 
 there is as much taken this way in Ireland as there 
 is in pipes in England. One shall see the serving-mai4 
 upon the washing-block and the swain upon the plough- 
 share, when they are tired with their labour, take out 
 their boxes of smutchin and draw into their nostrils 
 with a quill ; and it will beget new spirits in them and 
 fresh vigour to fall to their work again." 
 
 The plague of 1665 first brought snuff into promi- 
 nence in England on account of its disinfectant prop- 
 erties. It developed into a fashion under the reign of 
 Queen Anne (1702-14), when French ideas and man- 
 ners conquered English society and inaugurated a veri- 
 table age of snuff, which completely displaced smoking 
 in society. To take snuff was then as essential a part of 
 gallantry as to drink tobacco had been a century before. 
 
 E136] 
 
Snuff in England 41 
 
 A gentleman was then known by his snuff and snuff- 
 box, and snuff-taking was universal in the fashionable 
 world among both men and women. Alexander Pope 
 (1688-1744), in The Rape of the Lock, wrote: — 
 
 Sir Plume, of amber snuff-box justly vain, 
 And the nice conduct of a clouded cane. 
 With earnest eyes and round, unthinking face 
 He first the snuff-box opened, then the case. 
 
 And Oliver Goldsmith (1728-74), in Retaliation: — 
 
 When they talk'd of their Raphaels, Correggios, and stuff. 
 He shifted his trumpet and only took snuff. 
 
 The snuff-box was the fetish of the eighteenth century, 
 an object of luxury, a tribute of friendship and admira- 
 tion, a gift to kings and ambassadors. There was an 
 infinite number of snuffs, and there were morning, 
 afternoon, and evening snuffs. 
 
 At first, snuff was not sold ready-made, but every 
 one prepared it himself. It was scraped with a rasp 
 made from the dry root of the tobacco plant ; the pow- 
 der was then placed on the back of the hand and thus 
 snuffed up. Hence the name rape ("rasped, grated") 
 for a coarse kind of snuff made from the darker and 
 ranker tobacco leaves. The rasps were carried in the 
 waistcoat pocket, and became articles of luxury, being 
 carved in ivory and variously enriched. The tobac- 
 conist's shop-sign, in the early days, was the figure of 
 a Virginian or Negro or a combination of both ; in the 
 eighteenth century and until a few years ago it was 
 replaced with the figure of a Highlander, usually with 
 a snuff mull in his hand, credited as he was with a 
 great fondness and capacity for snuff-taking. Walter 
 Scott said that a Scotchman in London would walk 
 half a mile farther to purchase his ounce of snuff where 
 the sign of the Highlander announced a North Briton. 
 After the suppression of the Jacobite uprising of 1745, 
 when the wearing of the highland costume was for- 
 bidden by Parliament, the following paragraph 
 appeared in the newspapers of the time: "We hear 
 
 tl37] 
 
42 Field Museum op Natural History 
 
 that the dapper wooden Highlanders, who guard so 
 heroically the doors of snuff-shops, intend to petition 
 the Legislature, in order that they may be excused 
 from complying with the Act of Parliament with 
 regard to their change of dress: alledging that they 
 have ever been faithful subjects to his Majesty, having 
 constantly supplied his Guards with a pinch out of 
 their Mulls when they marched by them, and so far 
 from engaging in any Rebellion, that they have never 
 entertained a rebellious thought ; whence they humbly 
 hope that they shall not be put to the expense of buying 
 new cloaths." 
 
 It has often been stated that snuff -taking is prac- 
 tically extinct. The latest news from London (June 
 12th, 1924) indicates that there is a definite increase 
 in the consumption of snuff among women and that 
 jewellers find a ready sale for daintily jewelled snuff- 
 boxes. 
 
 Of the manifold forms in which tobacco is con- 
 sumed the custom of chewing it is the most striking 
 and perhaps even the most primitive. The aborigines 
 of Australia, we now know for certain, were in the 
 habit of chewing the leaves of Nicotiana suaveolens, a 
 species native to Australia, in times prior to their con- 
 tact with the whites, but they were totally ignorant 
 of smoking the leaves. This example demonstrates well 
 that primitive man, in testing the properties of a 
 vegetable product, will first exercise his senses of 
 touch, smell, and taste. The Spanish conquerors came 
 into contact with the habit of chewing tobacco in the 
 West Indies (account of Amerigo Vespucci) and 
 Mexico (early accounts of B. de Sahagun and F. Her- 
 nandez). Monardes (1571) describes it as follows: 
 "The Indians use tobacco to remove thirst which in 
 this case they will not suffer, and likewise to stand 
 hunger and to be able to pass days without being com- 
 pelled to eat or drink. When they have to travel 
 
 [138] 
 
Tobacco-chewing in England 48 
 
 across a desert or unpopulous region, where neither 
 water nor food is to be found, they avail themselves 
 of some pills made of tobacco in this manner : they take 
 the leaves of the plant and chew them, and while chew- 
 ing, they mix them with a powder prepared from burnt 
 river-mussels; this they mix in their mouth together 
 till it forms a mass which they shape into pills a bit 
 larger than peas; these are placed in the shadow to 
 dry, are then preserved, and used in this form. When- 
 ever they travel through territories where they believe 
 not to find water or victuals, they take one of these 
 pills, placing it between their under lips and teeth, and 
 keep on chewing it continually during their journey, 
 and thus they go along for three or four days without 
 having to eat or drink or feeling the pinch of hunger 
 or thirst or fatigue." 
 
 As Monardes was translated into Latin, French, 
 Italian, and English, Europeans might easily have 
 copied his prescription, but the fact remains that they 
 did not. Leaves may occasionally have been chewed 
 for medicinal purposes, but no habit of chewing for 
 pastime or pleasure was developed. Gerard (The 
 Herball, 1597, p. 286) observes, "The leaves likewise 
 being chewed draw fporth flegme and water" . . . 
 Edmund Gardiner, in his "Triall of Tobacco" (first 
 published in 1610, new ed. 1650), says that "a sirup 
 made of the decoction of this herbe, with sufficient 
 sugar, and so taken in a very small quantitie, dis- 
 chargeth the breast from phlegmatic matter." John 
 Parkinson (Theatrum botanicum, 1640, p. 712) writes 
 also that in his time the juice from the leaves of Nico- 
 tiana mstica was made into a syrup, or that the dis- 
 tilled water of the herb was taken with or without 
 sugar, or the smoke was inhaled from a pipe, as usual. 
 Obviously Parkinson here opposes to the common habit 
 of pipe-smoking another less usual practice, that of 
 taking a syrupy substance extracted from the leaf. At 
 
 [ 139] 
 
44 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 best, however, we are here confronted with a distant 
 forerunner of chewing, not with chewing properly. 
 
 As far as I am able to make out, it seems that 
 tobacco-chewing was taken up as a prophylactic 
 against the plague which was epidemic in 1665. 
 Samuel Pepys writes in his Diary under 7th June, 
 1665, "This day, much against my will, I did in Drury 
 Lane see two or three houses marked with a red cross 
 upon the doors, and 'Lord have mercy upon us' writ 
 there ; which was a sad sight to me, being the first of 
 the kind that, to my remembrance, I ever saw. It put 
 me into an ill conception of myself and my smell, so 
 that I was forced to buy some roll-tobacco to smell to 
 and chaw, which took away the apprehension." In the 
 year of the plague appeared a quarto tract, entitled 
 "A Brief Treatise of the Nature, Causes, Signs, Pre- 
 servation from and Cure of the Pestilence," by W. 
 Kemp, "Mr. of Arts," who says in regard to tobacco, 
 "It corrects the air by Fumigation, and it avoids cor- 
 rupt humours by Salivation; for when one takes it 
 either by Chewing it in the leaf, or Smoaking it in the 
 pipe, the humours are drawn and brought from all 
 parts of the body, to the stomach, and from thence 
 rising up to the mouth of the Tobacconist, as to the 
 helme of a Sublimatory, are voided and spitten out." 
 Derby was visited by the plague in the same year, and 
 at the "Headless-cross the market-people, having their 
 mouths primed with tobacco as a preservative, brought 
 their provisions. It was observed that this cruel afflic- 
 tion never attempted the premises of a tobacconist, a 
 tanner, or a shoemaker" (W. Hutton, History of Derby, 
 1817, p. 194). 
 
 The belief in the efficacy of tobacco as warding off 
 the plague acted also as a new incentive to the increase 
 of smoking. Thomas Hearne (1721), the antiquary, 
 gives the following curious information : "I have been 
 told that in the last great plague at London none that 
 
 [140] 
 
Tobacco-chewing in England 46 
 
 kept tobaconist's shops had the plague. It is certain, 
 that smoaking it was looked upon as a most excellent 
 preservative, in so much, that even children were 
 obliged to smoak. And I remember, that I heard 
 formerly Tom Rogers, who was yeoman beadle, say, 
 that when he was that year, when the plague raged, 
 a schoolboy at Eaton, all the boys at that school were 
 obliged to smoak in the school every morning, and 
 that he was never whipped so much in his life as he 
 was one morning for not smoaking." Thomas Pope 
 Blount (A Natural History; containing many not 
 common observations, 1693, p. 127) writes, "Diemer- 
 brockins, in his book De Peste, very much commends 
 the use of tobacco in the time of plague; he says, it 
 absolutely cured him when he had it ; he also observes, 
 that almost all those houses, where tobacco was sold, 
 both in Spires (a city in the Palatinate) and likewise 
 in London, were never infected, whereas the houses 
 round about them were." 
 
 According to Penn, the chewing of tobacco was 
 common in the reign of James, when gentlemen car- 
 ried about with them small silver basins as spittoons, 
 and Monk, the principal factor in the restoration of the 
 monarchy, brought it into fashion ; but no documentary 
 evidence is produced by him. Apperson comments, 
 "General Monk, to whom Charles II owed so much, is 
 said to have indulged in the unpleasant habit of chew- 
 ing tobacco, and to have been imitated by others ; but 
 the practice can never have been common." 
 
 In 1689, W. Bullock speaks of "two rowles of 
 chawing tobacco." The London Gazette of 1725 men- 
 tions a fellow who "commonly has a chew of tobacco in 
 his under lip"; and Smollett, in Roderick Random 
 (1748), has a sailor putting a large chew of tobacco 
 in his mouth. The World of 1754 pokes fun at the 
 "pretty" young men who "take pains to appear manly; 
 their chewing not only offends, but makes us appre- 
 
 [ 141 ] 
 
46 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 hensive at the same time that the poor things will 
 be sick." E. Baillard (Discours du tabac, 1693, p. 92) 
 refers to chewing tobacco (tabac machicatoire) as 
 relieving hunger and thirst, but does not say that 
 it was actually used in France. In the eighteenth 
 century a common device of tobacconists was three 
 figures representing a Dutchman, a Scotchman, and 
 a sailor, explained by the accompanying rhyme: 
 
 We three are engaged in one cause, 
 I snuffs, I smokes, and I chaws! 
 
 Another tobacconist had the three men on his sign, 
 but with a different legend : 
 
 This Indian weed is good indeed, 
 Puff on, keep up the joke. 
 'Tis the best, 'twill stand the test, 
 Either to chew or smoke. 
 
 The promoters of the cigar in Europe were the 
 Spaniards, but they were exceedingly slow in making 
 their product known to the other nations of Europe. 
 The cigar spread in Europe only in the first part of 
 last century. English authors of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, when using the word, feel obliged to explain to 
 their readers what it means. Thus J. Cockburn, speak- 
 ing in 1735 of three friars at Nicaragua, says, "These 
 gentlemen gave us some Seegars to smoke. These are 
 leaves of tobacco rolled up in such manner that they 
 serve both for a pipe and tobacco itself; they know 
 no other way here, for there is no such thing as a 
 tobacco-pipe throughout New Spain." Victor Hugo 
 (Les Miserables) describes a fellow "carrying in his 
 hand a powerful cane worth two hundred francs, and 
 as he could afford everjrthing, carrying in his mouth 
 a strange thing, called cigar." The first cigar-factory 
 after Spanish model was established at Hamburg in 
 1788 by H. H. Schlottmann, and the cigar came into 
 general use in Germany about 1793. ICant (Anthro- 
 pologie, 1798) still uses the Spanish form zigarro. The 
 Peninsular War was the occasion for both French and 
 
 [142] 
 
Cigar and Cigarette in England 47 
 
 English adopting the cigar from the Spaniards. The 
 importation of cigars into England was at first pro- 
 hibited; after the peace of 1815, they were admitted 
 at the duty of 18 shillings a pound. When the duty 
 was reduced to 9 shillings, the import reached the 
 figure of 253,882 pounds in 1830. Cigars then were 
 strictly an aristocratic luxury. Lord Byron (The 
 Island, 1823, Canto II, 19) has sung the praise of 
 the cigar, and has simultaneously furnished the only 
 eulogy of tobacco that can lay claim to real poetry. 
 
 Sublime tobacco! which from east to west 
 Cheers the tar's labour or the Turkman's rest; 
 Which on the Moslem's ottoman divides 
 His hours, and rivals opium and his brides; 
 Magnificent in Stamboul, but less grand, 
 Though not less loved, in Wapping or the Strand; 
 Divine in hookas, glorious in a pipe, 
 When tipp'd with amber, mellow, rich, and ripe; 
 Like other charmers, wooing the caress. 
 More dazzingly when daring in full dress; 
 Yet thy true lovers more admire by far 
 Thy naked beauties — Give me a cigar! 
 
 J. W. Croker, in 1831, observed, "The taste for 
 smoking has revived, probably from the military habits 
 of Europe during the French wars ; but instead of the 
 sober sedentary pipe, the ambulatory cigar is chiefly 
 used." 
 
 The cigarette was introduced into England by 
 British officers who had served in the Crimean Cam- 
 paign of 1854-56 and had taken to the cigarette smoked 
 by their French and Turkish allies. It first became 
 fashionable among club-men and in high social circles. 
 Laurence Oliphant, both a man of letters and a man 
 of fashion, is generally credited with the introduction 
 into English society of the cigarette. At that time 
 smokers made their own cigarettes as they needed 
 them. About 1865 or 1866 their use had so spread 
 that manufacturers began to cater for cigarette 
 smokers. Even then they employed only a single man, 
 usually a Pole or Russian, to make up cigarettes 
 
48 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 occasionally. They were perhaps in fashion by 1870, 
 and the social history of smoking in later Victorian 
 days is marked by the triumph of the cigarette. 
 
 TOBACCO IN FRANCE, PORTUGAL, SPAIN, AND 
 
 ITALY 
 
 There were two introductions of the tobacco plant 
 into France during the sixteenth century, due to Andre 
 Thevet and Jean Nicot, respectively. Thevet was bom 
 at Angouleme in 1502, joined the Franciscan order, 
 and studied theology without acquiring a taste for 
 scholasticism. Though not equipped with a critical 
 spirit and lacking solid knowledge, he was fond of 
 travel, being stimulated by a passion for inquiring into 
 curiosities, extraordinary or little known objects. In 
 1555 he accompanied N. Duardo Villegaignon as chap- 
 lain on an expedition to Brazil, which had as its object 
 to found a French settlement on the river Ganabra or 
 Santo Januario (the present Rio de Janeiro). He 
 spent three months in Brazil from November 1555 to 
 January 1556, taking part in an expedition to La 
 Plata, where he had a narrow escape from hostile 
 Patagonians; a Scotchman saved his life. On his 
 return to France he published in 1557 a book on his 
 experiences under the title "Les Singularitez de la 
 France antarctique, autrement nommee Amerique: et 
 de plusieurs terres et isles decouvertes de nostre 
 temps." An English translation was printed in London, 
 1568, under the title "The New Found Worlde, or Ant- 
 arctike, wherin is contained wonderful and strange 
 things." This book, somewhat bizarre and poorly 
 organized, contains a number of interesting observa- 
 tions concerning the country and the life of the natives 
 of Brazil, but two thirds of the volume deal with 
 Africa, Peru, the Antilles, Florida, and Canada, and are 
 compiled from oral reports or printed accounts. In 
 this work (fol. 60) Thevet describes the use of tobacco 
 
 [144] 
 
Introduction op Tobacco into France 49 
 
 under the name petun (the Tupi-Guarani word pitwna 
 or pitima) on the part of the aborigines, who rolled 
 the leaf and wrapped it in a large palm-leaf to the 
 length of a candle. As is well known, the natives of 
 Brazil never availed themselves of the pipe, but only 
 used tobacco in the form of the cigar. Thevet's descrip- 
 tion is perfectly correct; he says also that he himself 
 tried the novel herb with some bad effects. In another 
 passage of his work (fol. 153) he records the habit of 
 pipe-smoking in Canada, but he does not mention that 
 he took the plant or its seeds along to France. As 
 late as 1575, in his "Cosmographie universelle," he 
 advanced the claim, "I can boast of having been the 
 first in France who brought the seed of this plant, who 
 sowed it and named the plant in question herbe 
 Angoulmoisine [after the place of his birth]. Since 
 then, a certain individual (un quidam) who never 
 made any voyage has given it his name, some ten years 
 after my return." 
 
 This quidam was Jean Nicot, born at Nimes in 
 1530 as the son of a notary public and educated in 
 Paris. He was French ambassador to Portugal from 
 1559 to 1561. One day he went to see the prisons of 
 the king of Portugal, and the keeper of the prisons 
 presented him with an herb as a strange plant brought 
 from Florida. According to another version, it was 
 a Flemish gentleman, Damian de Goes, who in 1558 
 had first cultivated tobacco in the royal garden of 
 Lisbon, the seeds having been imported from Florida. 
 Nicot cultivated the herb in his garden in 1559, being 
 primarily interested in its medicinal properties, and 
 accomplished several marvelous cures. When the 
 success of his experirnents was assured, he forwarded 
 specimens, seeds and leaves, to King Francois II and 
 Catherine de Medici, the queen-mother, with proper 
 directions as to how to apply the drug. From 1560 
 tobacco cultivation began to spread in France. On 
 
 [146] 
 
60 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 his return to France in 1561 Nicot offered the queen 
 a box of powdered tobacco which she employed as a 
 remedy for headaches. 
 
 In 1573 Nicot pubHshed in collaboration with sev- 
 eral scholars a French-Latin Dictionary a copy of 
 which may be seen in the Newberry Library, Chicago. 
 Here we meet (p. 478) the word Nicotiane with the 
 following definition: "This is an herb of marvelous 
 virtue against all wounds, ulcers, Noli me tangere 
 [lupus or other eroding ulcer of the face] , herpes, and 
 other such like things, which Master Jehan Nicot, be- 
 ing ambassador to the king of Portugal, sent to France, 
 and from whom it has derived its name. See La Mai- 
 son rustique, book chap. " The blank spaces af- 
 ter "book" and "chap." are not filled out. The book 
 in question is a work on agriculture published in 
 Paris, 1570, by Charles Estienne and Jean Liebault or 
 Liebaut, who gave the first directions for the cultiva- 
 tion of tobacco ; they also point out its medicinal vir- 
 tues and refer to the Indians of Florida as smoking 
 the leaf from tubes (cornets). Their information, ac- 
 cordingly, is based on Nicot, not on Thevet. Indeed 
 Liebaut admits that he received oral and written ac- 
 counts directly from Nicot, which are embodied in his 
 work, and which were introduced to the English pub- 
 lic in John Frampton's "Joyfull Newes out of the 
 Newe Founde Worlde" (1577). He consecrates the 
 name nicotiane in preference to petum, in order to 
 honor him who first sent the herb to France. 
 
 Olivier de Serres, whose "Theatre d'agriculture" 
 was first published in 1600, gives credit solely to Nicot, 
 although, as will be shown below, he must have been 
 acquainted with Thevet's work. Official France has 
 always been prejudiced against the latter, and has 
 heralded Nicot as the only genuine introducer of the 
 plant. In the "Biographie universelle" it is stated 
 under Nicot, "The Franciscan Thevet has contested 
 
 [146] 
 
Introduction of Tobacco into France 51 
 
 to Nicot the glory of having enriched France with to- 
 bacco; but his pretention has not been favorably re- 
 ceived, and the name Nicotiane first conferred upon to- 
 bacco has persisted, at least in scientific speech. It 
 is not probable, however, that Nicot was conscious of 
 the importance of the gift which he offered to the 
 queen-mother, and that he foresaw that this gift would 
 some day be thirty millions of revenue worth to the 
 state." In Thevet's biography in the same collection, 
 his claim is not even mentioned, while a latent animus 
 crops up here and there : he is characterized as "known 
 for his credulity," yet he is acquitted of ignorance and 
 lying, and is credited at least with knowledge of lan- 
 guages and geography. 
 
 On the other hand, Paul Gaffarel, in his introduc- 
 tion to a re-edition of Thevet's "Singularitez" (1878), 
 makes this strong plea on behalf of his hero, "The 
 legitimate vindication of Thevet has never found a 
 hearing. The designation herbe angovlmoisine which 
 he had the right to impose on tobacco was denied ac- 
 ceptance, and oblivious posterity continued and con- 
 tinues to thank Nicot for a benefit for which it is not 
 indebted to him. We may be permitted at least to 
 brand this iniquitous judgment as false and to pro- 
 claim loudly that to Thevet and solely to Thevet the 
 public treasury owes its most magnificent revenue 
 and the majority of our readers a daily enjoyment." 
 This panegyric is biased and overshoots the mark, for 
 Nicot cannot be ruled out of court completely. The 
 plain truth in the matter is that France owes her to- 
 bacco to Thevet and Nicot equally ; but the division into 
 the two camps of the Nicotophiles and Thevetophiles 
 demonstrates sufficiently that the subject is not cor- 
 rectly understood. 
 
 It is perfectly clear that Thevet and Nicot intro- 
 duced different plants : the species introduced by Thevet 
 from Brazil can but have been Nicotiana tabacum (of 
 
 [147] 
 
62 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 some Brazilian variety), and what Nicot introduced 
 must have been N. rustica, which flourished in Florida, 
 where A^. tabacum was at that time unknown. This 
 condition of affairs is plainly reflected by the work of 
 Olivier de Serres referred to above, who distinguishes 
 two species (wrongly taken by him as the male and 
 female plants), one with large leaves, another with 
 small ones, the former being A^. tabacum, the latter N. 
 rustica. De Serres says, "One holds that it is the Pe- 
 tum of the Americans" (the term "America" at that 
 time referred to South America) , and he speaks of the 
 "male Petum, also called tabac," — indications that he 
 was familiar with Thevet's work, although he avoids 
 his name. The fact that N. tabacum was cultivated in 
 France in the latter part of the sixteenth century 
 goes to prove that Thevet's claim is correct. This 
 settles the Nicot-Thevet controversy in favor of an 
 equal share of honor for both. But as N. tabacum is the 
 more valuable of the two species and as a commercial 
 type is now exclusively used in France as well as else- 
 where, Gaffarel is right in linking the tobacco revenue 
 with Thevet's name. 
 
 Nicot's influence at court appears to have been 
 overwhelming in view of the cures which the new drug 
 accomplished in the royal family. It is curious that 
 Thevet never made the attempt to influence the court 
 in his favor, although he was at a time chaplain of 
 the queen-mother and historiographer and cosmo- 
 grapher of the king, subsequently curator of the 
 king's curiosities ("garde des curiosities du roi"). 
 
 The Tupi word petun (also spelled petum) intro- 
 duced by Thevet from Brazil was still widely used in 
 France during the seventeenth century, as expressly 
 stated by Neander in his Tabacologia (1626), and still 
 survives in Brittany and some other Departements as 
 betum, betun, or butun. Paul Scarron (who died in 
 1660) even formed a verb petuner. In Edward Sharp- 
 
 [148] 
 
Tobacco in France 53 
 
 ham's comedy The Fleire (1615) appears Signior Pe- 
 toune, "a traveller and a great tobacconist," a char- 
 acter introduced as the type of the fashionable smoker 
 of the time. In honor of Nicot, tobacco was called 
 "herb of Nicot, herb of the ambassador." As Cather- 
 ine of Medici, queen of France, used tobacco powder 
 for headaches and was instrumental in propagating 
 the cultivation, such names as "herbe de la reine, herbe 
 medicee, and catherinaire" were temporarily in vogue. 
 The Scotch poet, George Buchanan (1506-82), fired a 
 sarcastic epigram in Latin at the queen for her attempt 
 "to adulterate the Nicotian plant with the name of 
 Medici." Unfortunately, worse adulterations of to- 
 bacco than that have since been perpetrated on this 
 world. The designation "herbe du grand Prieur" is 
 traced to the Great Prior of France and duke of Lor- 
 raine, who made the acquaintance of the plant as guest 
 of Nicot at Lisbon and cultivated it in his garden at 
 home in 1560 ; he delighted in taking snuff to the ex- 
 tent of three ounces daily, and as Liebaut states, pro- 
 pagated it in France more than any one else because of 
 the great reverence he entertained for the divine effects 
 of the herb. 
 
 The first French pamphlet on tobacco is entitled 
 "Instruction sur I'herbe petun ditte en France I'herbe 
 de la Royne ou Medicee: et sur la racine Mechiocan. 
 Par I. G. P. Envie, d'envie, en vie. Paris, par Galiot 
 du Pre Libraire iure: rue S. laques k I'enseigne de la 
 Galere d'or, 1572." The author's name is J. Gohorry, 
 and his booklet of 32 pages is entirely copied from 
 Monardes. 
 
 Moliere, in his comedy Don Juan, ou Le Festin 
 de Pierre, written in 1665, places the following eulogy 
 of tobacco in the mouth of Sganarelle (Act I, Scene 1) : 
 "Whatever Aristotle and the whole philosophy may say, 
 there is nothing equal to tobacco; it is the passion of 
 the gentlemen, and he who lives without tobacco is 
 
 [149] 
 
54 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 not worthy of living. Not only does it exhilarate and 
 purify the human brain, but also it instructs the soul 
 in virtue, and with it one learns to become a gentle- 
 man. Don't you know, as soon as one partakes of it, 
 in what obliging manner one uses it with everybody 
 and how delighted one is to give it away right and left 
 wherever one may be? One does not even wait till it 
 is requested, but one hastens to anticipate the wish of 
 people, which shows how true it is that tobacco inspires 
 sentiments of honor and virtue in all those who take 
 it." The thought is similar to that expressed by Bul- 
 wer Lj^ton (Night and Morning, 1841) , who says with 
 reference to the pipe, "It ripens the brain, it opens 
 the heart ; and the man who smokes thinks like a sage 
 and acts like a Samaritan." 
 
 In France tobacco first assumed the form of snuff. 
 The king, Frangois II, was treated with snuff against 
 severe headaches by the queen-mother, and the cour- 
 tiers hastened to imitate the practice. Snuff remained 
 the only mode of taking tobacco on the part of gentle- 
 men until the nineteenth century. In 1635, the free 
 sale of tobacco was interdicted by Louis XIII. Only 
 pharmacists were permitted to sell it for medical pur- 
 poses on the prescription of a physician. In 1674 the 
 cultivation, preparation, and sale of tobacco became a 
 state monopoly. 
 
 The cultivation is now authorized in twenty-five 
 Departements, but the cultivators are obliged either to 
 sell their crops to the State or to export them. Who- 
 ever desires to cultivate tobacco must file an applica- 
 tion to the Administration of Indirect Taxes, which 
 furnishes the seeds and supervises the whole business. 
 No one has the right to grow it without authorization ; 
 the prohibition is absolute, and even extends to flower- 
 pots. The annual production amounts to 25 millions 
 of kilograms. The preparation and manufacture are 
 superintended by the General Direction of the Manu- 
 
 [150] 
 
Tobacco in Portugal and Spain 66 
 
 factures of the State (under the Ministry of Finance). 
 The sale is directed by the Administration of the In- 
 direct Taxes. 
 
 In Portugal, as stated (p. 49), tobacco was grown 
 in 1558. Clusius travelled in Spain and Portugal for 
 floristic investigations during 1560 and 1564-65, and 
 reports (Exotica, 1601, p. 310) that he saw in Portugal 
 the plant in blossom throughout the winter. 
 
 Nicotiana was first introduced into Spain as an 
 ornamental garden-plant owing to its beauty, subse- 
 quently as a medicinal plant on account of its real or 
 alleged virtues. This is clearly expressed by Doctor 
 Monardes of Sevilla (1571) in the introduction to his 
 brief treatise on tobacco, which has served as a model 
 to many contemporaneous and later writers in all coun- 
 tries of Europe. "This herb commonly called Tabaco 
 is a very ancient herb known among the Indians, chiefly 
 those of New Spain. After taking possession of these 
 countries, our Spaniards, being instructed by the In- 
 dians, availed themselves of this herb in the wounds 
 which they received in war, healing themselves with 
 it to the great benefit of all. A few years ago it was 
 brought over to Spain, to adorn gardens so that with 
 its beauty it would afford a pleasing sight, rather than 
 that its marvelous medicinal virtues were taken into 
 consideration. Now we use it to a greater extent for 
 the sake of its virtues than for its beauty; and those 
 certainly are such to evoke admiration." 
 
 The species described by Monardes is Nicotiana 
 tabacum. The date of its first introduction into Spain 
 is not exactly ascertained, various names and dates are 
 suggested, but these accounts are not well authenti- 
 cated ; the exact date, moreover, is of no consequence, 
 as Spain contributed nothing to the diffusion of the 
 plant over Europe. Spain gave Europe only two 
 things — the tobacco gospel of Monardes and the cigar. 
 Monardes, it should be remembered, never was in 
 
 [151] 
 
66 Field Museum op Natural History 
 
 America, but gathered his information from the lips 
 of voyagers and adventurers, who returned from the 
 newly discovered land to Sevilla. The Spaniards never 
 took to the pipe, but in accordance with the practice 
 of the aborigines of the Antilles and Mexico adopted 
 the cigar and cigarette. Monardes also describes the 
 tubular pipes of Mexico, but these were used in the 
 Spain of his time only for the purpose of obtaining re- 
 lief from asthma. 
 
 Tobacco made its debut in Italy under the spon- 
 sorship of two churchmen. It was first introduced 
 into Italy in 1561 by Prospero Santa Croce from Lis- 
 bon in Portugal, where he was engaged on a diplomatic 
 mission as nuncio of the Pope. He was made cardinal 
 by Pius IV and died in Rome in 1589, at the age of 
 seventy-six years. It is due to this early introduction 
 that Mattioli in 1565 was able to describe the plant, 
 which is Nicotiana mstica (above, p. 8). It then be- 
 came known in Italy under the name herba Santa 
 Croce. Castore Durante (Herbario novo, Rome, 1585, 
 p. 227) writes, "At present it is found here in Rome 
 in abundant quantity thanks to the illustrious and 
 reverend Signor, the Cardinal Santa Croce, who 
 brought it from Portugal to Italy." He devotes a 
 lengthy notice to the virtues of the plant, but does not 
 say that in his time the leaves were smoked in Italy. 
 
 Another introduction into Italy is due to Nicolo 
 Tornabuoni, a great lover of plants. When he was 
 papal nuncio and ambassador of Toscana at the court 
 of France, he observed there the medicinal employ- 
 ment of tobacco and sent seeds to his uncle, the Bishop 
 Alfonso Tornabuoni, at Florence. This was prior to 
 1574, as Cosimo I of Medici, who took a deep interest 
 in the cultivation of the plant in Toscana, died in that 
 year. In honor of its godfather, it was then christened 
 erba tornabuona. This was Nicotiana tabacum. A 
 dried specimen from this early period is preserved in 
 
 [152] 
 
Tobacco in Italy 57 
 
 the Herbarium of Ferrara (1585-98), labeled tabacho 
 over Herba Regina ("tobacco or herb of the queen"). 
 While Italy thus received the plant from Portugal 
 and France, it took an Englishman to teach Italians 
 how to smoke. This distinction falls on the shoulders 
 of the Cardinal Crescenzio, who about 1610 acquired 
 the gentle art of smoking in England or, according to 
 another version, from an Englishman, which prac- 
 tically amounts to the same. In accordance with this 
 precedent smoking and snuffing were readily adopted 
 by the clergy and laity as well. When complaints 
 reached the holy see from Sevilla that both ecclesias- 
 tics and seculars smoked and snuffed in the churches 
 during service, Urban VIII issued a bull excommuni- 
 cating all who would take tobacco in any form in the 
 porches or interior of the churches. The Catholic 
 Church, however, has always been wisely tolerant to- 
 ward the use of tobacco. An Italian proverb says: 
 Bacco, tobacco e Venere riducon I'uomo in cenere 
 ("Bacchus, tobacco, and Venus reduce man to ashes"). 
 As in France and Spain, the manufacture and sale of 
 tobacco are a government monopoly in Italy. Cigars 
 are served in the Italian army as part of the daily 
 rations. According to Penn, Italian cigars are "in- 
 credibly vile," and bad as are the cigars sold to the 
 public by the Regie, the military ones are worse. 
 
 TOBACCO IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN 
 EUROPE 
 
 The English were the most active propagators of 
 tobacco-smoking over many parts of Europe. We 
 noticed their influence in Italy, but it was much 
 stronger in Scandinavia, Holland, Germany, and Rus- 
 sia. English sailors and soldiers, students and mer- 
 chants carried the pipe victoriously wherever they 
 went. English students at the University of Leiden 
 appear to have been responsible for the initiation of 
 
 [153] 
 
58 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 smoking in Holland. William van der Meer, physician 
 at Delft, who cultivated three species of Nicotiana in 
 his garden, wrote in 1621 to Dr. J. Neander at Bremen 
 that he did not become acquainted with pipe-smoking 
 until the year 1590 when he studied medicine at Leiden 
 and noticed the practice among English and French 
 students ; he tried to imitate them, but the experiment 
 did not agree with him. At Hamburg which had com- 
 mercial relations with England and Holland smoking 
 was known at the end of the sixteenth century, and 
 about 1650 the peasants smoked all over Germany. 
 During the Thirty Years' War English soldiers pro- 
 pagated the habit as far as into Bohemia, whence it 
 spread to Austria and Hungary. The older German 
 form toback (in dialects still tuback) and Low German 
 smoken (slang schmockstock, "smoking-stick," for a 
 cigar) are witnesses of this early English influence. 
 The plant itself was known at a much earlier date, 
 probably through Huguenots emigrating from France, 
 and is referred to in the correspondence of Konrad 
 Gesner of Ziirich in 1565. During the sixteenth cen- 
 tury tobacco was cultivated in many parts of Germany, 
 chiefly around Nuremberg, in Saxonia, Thuringia, Hes- 
 sen, the Palatinate, and Mecklenburg. Tobacco was 
 first introduced into Norway in 1616 when the country 
 was ruled by Denmark and treated as a province of this 
 state. Christian IV of Denmark prohibited the im- 
 portation of tobacco into Norway in 1632, as he had 
 learned that its use would do great harm to the sub- 
 jects of his kingdom Norway. In 1643 he rescinded 
 this order and levied a duty on tobacco imports. Dur- 
 ing the war period 1807-14 attempts were made to 
 grow tobacco in various districts of the country. At 
 present a few farmers along the west coast cultivate 
 tobacco. In Sweden it was first planted in 1724 by 
 Jonas Alstromer; at present it is but cultivated to a 
 small extent in the neighborhood of Stockholm. 
 
 [154] 
 
Tobacco in Russia and Turkey 59 
 
 TOBACCO IN RUSSIA AND TURKEY 
 
 The story of the early fate of tobacco in Russia 
 is well told by J. Crull (Ancient and Present State of 
 Muscovy, 1698, p. 145) :— 
 
 "Formerly tobacco was so extravagantly taken, as 
 the aqua vitae, and was the occasion of frequent mis- 
 chiefs; forasmuch as not only the poorer sort, would 
 rather lay out their money upon tobacco than bread, 
 but also, when drunk, did set their houses on fire 
 through their negligence. Besides (which made the 
 Patriarch take a particular disgust at it) they used to 
 appear before their images with their stinking and in- 
 fectious breath ; all which obliged the Great Duke, ab- 
 solutely to forbid both the use and sale of tobacco, in 
 the year 1634, under very rigorous punishments; to 
 wit : For the transgressors to have their nostrils slit, 
 or else to be severely whipt. Nevertheless, it is of 
 late years more frequently used, than ever it was be- 
 fore since the time of the edict, the search being not 
 now so strict against the takers, nor the punishment so 
 rigorously executed. Foreigners having the liberty to 
 use it, makes the Muscovites often venture upon it in 
 their Company ; they being so eager of tobacco, that the 
 most ordinary sort, which formerly cost not above 9 or 
 10 pence per pound in England, they will buy at the 
 rate of 14 and 15 shillings; and if they want money, 
 they will struck their cloaths for it, to the very shirt. 
 They take it after a most beastly manner, instead of 
 pipes, they have an engine made of a cows-horn, in 
 the middle of which, there is a hole, where they place 
 the vessel that holds the tobacco. The vessel is com- 
 monly made of wood, pretty wide, and indifferently 
 deep ; which, when they have filled with tobacco, they 
 put water into the horn to temper the smoak. They 
 commonly light their pipe with a firebrand, sucking 
 the smoak through the horn with so much greediness, 
 that they empty the pipe at two or three sucks; when 
 
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60 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 they whiff it out of the mouth, there rises such a cloud, 
 that it hides both their faces and the standers by. 
 Being debarr'd from the constant use of it, they fall 
 down drunk, and insensible immediately after, for 
 half a quarter of an hour, when the tobacco having 
 had its operation, they lep up in an instant, more brisk 
 and lively than before, when their first discourse com- 
 monly tends to the praise of tobacco, and especially of 
 its noble quality in purging the head." 
 
 It is curious to note in this account that the Rus- 
 sians of the seventeenth century availed themselves of 
 the water-pipe the history of which is given in Leaf- 
 let 18. Presumably they derived it from Turkey. The 
 Turkish word for tobacco, tutun ("smoke"), is en- 
 countered in all Slavic languages, as well as in Ruman- 
 ian and Neo-Greek. It seems that at the same time the 
 water-pipe was also fashionable in Germany. At least 
 Georg Meister (Der orientalische Kunstgartner, Dres- 
 den, 1692, p. 59), when he observed on his travels the 
 hooka along the Arabian coast, remarks, "As is also 
 done in our German lands by some tobacco-fellows a 
 la mode." 
 
 Better days came for Russian smokers under Peter 
 the Great (1689-1725) , who during his sojourn in Eng- 
 land and on the continent became an adept of smoking. 
 He determined to introduce tobacco into his country 
 for the sake of the revenue it would yield. The Mar- 
 quis of Carmarthen on behalf of an English company 
 offered £28,000 for the monopoly of the sale of tobacco 
 in Russia. For this sum the syndicate was allowed to 
 import one million and a half pounds of tobacco a year, 
 and the czar agreed to permit its free use among his 
 subjects, revoking all previous edicts and laws. 
 
 In 1698 Lefort and Golovin signed in London with 
 Sir Thomas Osborne (1631-1712) a commercial treaty 
 by virtue of which the latter was to receive the ex- 
 clusive right to import tobacco into Siberia : up to 1699 
 
 [156] 
 
Tobacco in Russia and Turkey 61 
 
 he was to import three thousand tons, the following 
 year five thousand, and from the third year onward six 
 thousand and more, with the obligations to pay £12,000 
 on the first importation and to supply the court with a 
 thousand pounds of tobacco of first quality annually. 
 The English Consul, Charles Goodfellow, in Moscow 
 was Osborne's agent. In 1705 this privilege was ab- 
 rogated (cf. Leaflet 18, pp. 16-17). English tobacco 
 was then prohibited in Russia, not, however, Turkish 
 or Russian tobacco. 
 
 It is generally asserted that tobacco was intro- 
 duced into Turkey in 1605 under the reign of Sultan 
 Akhmed I (1603-17) ; but I have found a reference in 
 J. T. Bent's "Early Voyages in the Levant" (p. 49) 
 from which it follows that tobacco and smoking, at 
 least from hearsay, must have been known to the Os- 
 mans several years before that time, at the end of the 
 sixteenth century. John Dallam, the organ-builder, 
 when he travelled to Constantinople in 1599, tells a 
 curious incident which happened at the time his ship 
 met the Turkish navy not far from the Dardanelles. 
 The Turkish captain of a galley boarded his ship and 
 desired to receive as a present some tobacco and 
 tobacco-pipes which were promptly granted to him. 
 The Turk accordingly anticipated to find tobacco on an 
 English vessel, and must have had some previous ex- 
 perience with the weed, which in all probability had 
 reached Constantinople through the trade of the Le- 
 vant Company of London. Indeed it was from England 
 that tobacco was first introduced into Turkey, as we 
 learn from George Sandys (Relation of a Journey be- 
 gun A.D. 1610. Foure Bookes containing a Description 
 of the Turkish Empire, 1615, p. 66) . Sandys visited 
 Constantinople in 1610 and writes thus: "The Turkes 
 are also incredible takers of Opium, whereof the lesser 
 Asia affordeth them plenty: carrying it about them 
 
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62 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 both in peace and in warre; which they say expelleth 
 all feare, and makes them couragious: but I rather 
 thinke giddy headed, and turbulent dreamers ; by them, 
 as should seeme by what hath bene said, religiously 
 affected. And perhaps for the selfe same cause they 
 also delight in Tobacco ; they take it through reeds that 
 have ioyned unto them great heads of wood to containe 
 it: I doubt not but lately taught them, as brought 
 them by the English : and were it not sometimes lookt 
 into (for Morat Bassa not long since commanded a 
 pipe to be thrust through the nose of a Turke, and so 
 to be led in derision through the Citie,) no question 
 but it would prove a principall commodity. Neverthe- 
 lesse they will take it in corners, and are so ignorant 
 therein, that that which in England is not saleable, 
 doth pass here amongst them for most excellent." The 
 English, accordingly, besides introducing tobacco, 
 taught the Turks also how to smoke it from pipes. In 
 1615 Pietro della Valle observed the use of tobacco at 
 Constantinople. At first it met with violent opposition 
 on the part of the Sultans, and the most cruel punish- 
 ments were meted out to smokers. 
 
 De Thevenot (Travels into the Levant, pt. 1, 1687, 
 p. 60) tells how at the time of his sojourn in Constan- 
 tinople the Sultan used to walk through the city in dis- 
 guise to see if his orders be punctually observed. "It 
 was chiefly for tobacco that he made many heads fly. 
 He caused two men in one day to be beheaded in the 
 streets of Constantinople, because they were smoking 
 tobacco. He had prohibited it some days before, be- 
 cause, as it was said, when he was passing along the 
 street where Turks were smoking tobacco, the smoke 
 had got up into his nose. But I rather think that it 
 was in imitation of his uncle Sultan Amurat [Murad 
 IV, 1623-40] , who did all he could to hinder it so long 
 as he lived. He caused some to be hanged with a pipe 
 through their nose, others with tobacco hanging about 
 
 [168] 
 
Tobacco in Turkey 63 
 
 their neck, and never pardoned any for that. I believe 
 that the chief reason why Sultan Amurath prohibited 
 tobacco, was because of the fires, that do so much mis- 
 chiefe in Constantinople when they happen, which 
 most commonly are occasioned by people that fall 
 asleep with a pipe in their mouth, that sets fire to the 
 bed, or any combustible matter, as I said before. He 
 used all the arts he could to discover those who sold 
 tobacco, and went to those places where he was in- 
 formed they did, where having offered several chequins 
 for a pound of tobacco, made great entreaty, and prom- 
 ised secrecy, if they let him have it; he drew out a 
 cimeter under his vest, and cut off the shopkeeper's 
 head." From about 1655 the prohibition was relaxed, 
 and smoking both from the dry pipe and water-pipe 
 became a general custom. In 1883 a government to- 
 bacco monopoly was introduced : the cultivation is free, 
 but the crops must be sold to the government, which 
 conducts the sale. 
 
 Dr. Covel, while on a journey to Adrianople, 
 writes in his Diary under May 2d, 1675, "Here in som- 
 mer many come to take their spasso and recreation in 
 the shade, sitting upon carpet with tobacco, coffee, and 
 pure water," etc. In Bourgas (modern Lule-Bourgas) 
 he mentions shopkeepers selling the finest tobacco- 
 pipe heads that are to be found in Turkey (Bent, Early 
 Voyages in the Levant, p. 173) . 
 
 The following interesting account is taken from H. 
 Phillips (History of Cultivated Vegetables, 1822, an 
 undeservedly forgotten book) : — 
 
 "The smoking of tobacco is carried to such an ex- 
 cess by the Turks, that they are rarely to be seen with- 
 out a pipe, and never enter into business without smok- 
 ing, which often gives them an advantage over the 
 Christians with whom they have either commercial or 
 political transactions, as they smoke a considerable 
 time and reflect before giving a reply to any question. 
 
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64 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 To visit them on business previously to their morning 
 pipe, would only subject the intruder to their caprice 
 and ill-humor. An ingenious friend, who has resided 
 several years in Constantinople, and had opportunities 
 of associating with the higher classes of that city, as- 
 sures us that two thousand pounds is no uncommon 
 price for a Turk to give for the amber mouth-piece of a 
 tobacco-pipe, exclusive of the bowl or the pipe, the lat- 
 ter of which is made of a branch of the jasmine tree, 
 for the summer use, while those for winter smoking 
 are uniformly made of the branches of the cherry tree. 
 In order to obtain them of a regular size without being 
 tapering, the young shoots of these trees have a weight 
 affixed at their extremities to bend them downwards, 
 which prevents the sap from returning to the body of 
 the tree, and causes them to swell equally in all parts. 
 The rind or bark is carefully preserved to prevent the 
 escape of the fumes through the pores of the wood. The 
 wealthy Turks pride themselves on the beauty and 
 number of their pipes; and the principal servant in 
 their establishment has no other charge than that of 
 attending to the pipes and tobacco, which are presented 
 to the master or his guests by a servant of an inferior 
 rank. These pipes are so regularly and effectually 
 cleaned, as always to have the delicacy of a new tube, 
 while the German pipe, on the contrary, is enhanced 
 in value by the length of time it has been in use. We 
 are told by the same friend that he has seen among the 
 lower class of Armenians and Jews in Turkey, some 
 smokers who could consume the whole tobacco of a 
 bowl twice the size of those used in England, and draw 
 the entire fumes into their bodies at one breath, which 
 they discharge from their ears as well as the mouth and 
 nostrils." 
 
 [160] 
 
Conclusion 65 
 
 The world-wide diffusion of tobacco is one of the 
 most interesting phenomena in the recent history of 
 mankind and one that furnishes food for many reflec- 
 tions. Within the short span of three centuries tobacco 
 has firmly established itself as a universal necessity 
 without which mankind is unwilling to live. It has de- 
 veloped into one of the greatest industries of modern 
 times, resulting in statistical figures which almost stag- 
 ger imagination. Let us consider also that during the 
 same brief period coffee, tea, and chocolate obtained 
 a strong footing in European and American society, 
 and likewise are now articles of international industry 
 and commerce. None of these stimulants was known 
 to our ancestors of three centuries ago, and now they 
 form an integral part of world economy. The associ- 
 ation of coffee with tobacco is very close, and their 
 alliance has stimulated and promoted thought, scholar- 
 ship, literature and art; it profoundly affected social 
 customs, intensified sociability, and paved the way to 
 the era of humanism. 
 
 Of all the gifts of nature, tobacco has been the 
 most potent social factor, the most efficient peace- 
 maker, and a great benefactor of mankind. It has 
 made the whole world akin and united it into a common 
 bond. Of all luxuries it is the most democratic and 
 the most universal; it has contributed a large share 
 toward democratizing the world. The very word has 
 penetrated into all languages of the globe, and is under- 
 stood everywhere. 
 
 B. Laufer. 
 
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66 Field Museum of Natural History 
 
 BOOKS RECOMMENDED 
 
 Arber, E. — English Reprints. James VI of Scotland, I of Eng- 
 land. The Essayes of a Prentise, in the Divine Art of 
 Poesie. A Counterblaste to Tobacco. London, 1869. 
 
 This booklet contains the complete text of the Counterblaste 
 and valuable documentary material relating to the early use of 
 tobacco in England and France. 
 
 Brushfield, T. N. — Raleghana, Part II. The Introduction of 
 the Potato and of Tobacco into England and Ireland. Re- 
 port and Transactions of the Devonshire Association for 
 the Advancement of Science, Literature, and Art, 
 Vol. XXX, Plymouth, 1898 (Tobacco: pp. 178-197). 
 
 Fairholt, F. W. — Tobacco: Its History and Associations. 
 London, 1859, 1876. 
 
 Penn, W. a. — The Soverane Herbe, a History of Tobacco. 
 London (Grant Richards) and New York (E. P. Dutton), 
 1902. 
 
 Apperson, G. L. — The Social History of Smoking. London 
 (Martin Seeker), 1914. 
 An excellent book, both critical and entertaining. 
 
 Brodigan, T. — A Botanical, Historical and Practical Treatise 
 
 on the Tobacco Plant. London, 1830. 
 
 Written from an Irish viewpoint and interesting for the his- 
 tory of tobacco in Ireland. 
 
 [162] 
 
X 
 
UNIVERSmr Of ILUNOtS^nBANA 
 
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