THE NORMAL School Quarterly Series 2 January, 1904 Number p JERS^ 9-\S4fc Of ^ ANOe Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades By HENRY McCORMICK Entered August 18, 1902, Normal, Illinois, as second class matter under Act of Congress of July 16, 1894 PUBLISHED BY THE ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILLINOIS NORMAL SCHOOL QUARTERLY Published by the Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois Series 2 JANUARY, 1904 No. 9 Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades Teachers of history are not agreed as to the point in the child's school life at which the teaching of the subject should begin. Some contend that it should begin on his first entering school ; others are fully as earnest in their belief that it should not begin before the third or fourth year. Neither is there entire unanimity concerning the material with which it is best to begin. Some of those who believe that it should begin the first year advocate beginning with fairy tales, and passing on to Bible stories, ancient myths, biographies, etc.; the others insist that the proper material is a well-rounded-out history of the ancient peoples, be- ginning with Arya and his sons, and passing in order to the Egyp- tians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and Carthaginians; that then should come a study of the Teutons in connection with whom there should be a discussion of the Crusades and of the Pro- testant Reformation; these topics to be followed by a study of the development of Spanish, French and English ideas in America. By this plan the study of what is usually termed American history be- gins in the seventh grade. Those teachers who claim that it is not profitable to begin the teaching of history before the third or fourth year of the child's school life, admit that fairy tales, Bible stories, myths, etc., may be taught to advantage in the first three grades, but that the work should be termed literature, not history. And they claim that the children in the primary and intermediate grades are not qualified to take a systematic survey of the history of the world, even if the teacher is careful to compare the conditions which surrounded the ancient races with those which surround the children. Some very successful teachers of history begin with biographies of eminent men both in our own history and in that of other na- The Normal School Quarterly. tions, leaving the study of environment to the class in geography. But while no hard and fast line should be drawn between history and geography in the lower grades, yet it is true that much of what is usually known as political geography belongs with history, and should be so regarded. This paper considers the beginning of the fourth year as the best time to begin the study of history, altho it concedes that the work may begin with the third year, or be deferred until the fifth without serious loss to the pupils. It does not regard the time of beginning of so much importance as it does the material with which the beginning is made, the manner in which the material is used, and the sequence of topics observed in the using. The teaching of history like the teaching of all other subjects should begin with material found in the environment of the chil- dren. It should begin with that which is present in time and space, and with which they are most familiar, so as to utilize their experi- ence and observation. Before arriving at the age of nine or ten years they have learned considerable history. They have witnessed it being made, and, perhaps have participated in the making. They have been learning from experience, if not from books, and there should be an intelligent effort on the part of the teacher to conduct her teaching, at first, along the lines indicated by the experience of her pupils. And their experience is limited at this time, being confined largely to their homes and vicinity. Consequently the institution of the home, or family, may profitably be made the ini- tial topic of a course in history. The home is the institution with which the pupil is most fa- milar, consequently it is the one which will furnish him with the largest stock of concrete ideas. At an early age he learns to differ- entiate it from other homes, and to differentiate his own family from other families in the neighborhood. His home belongs to him, and he belongs to his home. Here dwells his father who plans and toils to furnish the home with all things necessary to make it a pleasant and happy place. He provides not only food and clothing, books and pictures, music and other means of culture, but also schools in which his children are educated and fitted for usefulness and enjoyment. If they are sick the father obtains for them the best medical care. If they are in trouble he helps them out of it. And if they are disposed to give up reaching after excel- lence, he encourages them by word and act to keep on in the right path. Here, too, dwell the brothers and sisters with whom the Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades, 3 pupil plays and quarrels, laughs and cries. But most important of all, here dwells the mother whose love for her children never fails or falters, whose Christlike sympathy and self-denial consecrate the home and make it the most sacred spot on earth. In order that the home may be such a desirable place each of the children must do what he can to make it so. Each must recog- nize the right of his parents to direct his conduct. He must yield a cheerful obedience to their requests. Otherwise the home will be a place of confusion and turmoil, and no one in it will be happy. The study of the home may be followed by that of the church. Children should know the purpose of the church and how it seeks to accomplish this purpose. They should be led to see its influ- ence upon the homes in the community. Its efforts to help people live clean, honorable, helpful lives should be dwelt upon, as this is the chief purpose of its existence. The helpfulness of the minis- ter to the community in cheering the despondent, comforting the sick, encouraging right conduct, and in rebuking wrong should be pointed out. All good people respect him, and even bad people are ashamed to be bad in his presence. But it costs money to build a church and furnish it. And as (fortunately) there is no law in this country to compel people to pay for the building and support of churches, some of the people furnish the money volun- tarily, and invite all to partake of the benefits. There may^be sev- eral churches in the community, owned by different denominations, but the children should be led to see that the purpose of all is the same — the betterment of the community ; and the manner in which they accomplish this may be dwelt upon. Care should be taken, however, that no denominational peculiarities be referred to. Next after the church should come the school. It is not meant by this arrangement that the school is second in importance to the church. The question of their relative importance is not under consideration at this time. The order followed is that in which the children come in contact with these institutions. It costs money to build a schoolhouse and furnish it, and to pay the teacher. Why do the people go to all of this expense ? Why send their children to school instead of keeping them at home to work? It is evident that they expect something valuable in return. What is it? If the pupils are disorderly, rude, and disobedient, will the expecta- tions of their parents be realized ? It can be shown that obedience to the requests of the teacher in school are as necessary as obedience to the requests of the parents at home. The thoughtful teacher The Normal School Quarterly. will ever bear it in mind that the school has other purposes besides the imparting of information and the acquiring of knowledge. She will not engage in preachments, and yet she will constantly be preaching sermons on kindness, politeness, and truthfulness by her conduct, as she herself is an embodiment of all these virtues. The institution of the state as represented by the home town (urban or rural) should follow that of the school. By this time the children have learned considerable about politics. They know the names of the principal political parties and have some notions in regard to the principles which each party advocates. They have witnessed political rallies, and heard political speeches. They know something about what is meant by government, and how men get into office. They have attended a town meeting and there learned considerable about the manner in which governmental af- fairs are transacted. In short they have a good foundation for a political, or civic education, on which the teachers should help ihem build a creditable superstructure. If they live in the coun- try, they may be acquainted with the supervisor and the other town officers, and may know the duties of each. If their homes are in a Tillage, the children may know the trustees, or council, and the president of the council or mayor, and have some knowledge of their duties. The same is true in regard to the policemen, firemen, and street commissioners. They should not be left to think, however, that political purposes are the only ones served by the town. The rural town builds roads and bridges, makes sanitary laws, de- stroys noxious weeds, etc. The urban town, or village, in addition to doing what the rural town does, paves streets and lights them, furnishes the people abundance of pure water, builds sewers, pre- serves order, and does what it can to protect the lives and property of the people from destruction by fire. The town officials must have money with which to do all of these things, and this money they obtain by taxing the people. Here elementary notions of tax- ation may be given to the children, and they can be led to see that the tax should be just and equitable, and that it should be expended for the purposes for which it was raised. They should be led to see that the town promotes the welfare of the family, the church, and the school ; and that they, in turn, are helpful to the town. Industrial institutions may well be treated next after the town. This is the age of industry. The stone age, the bronze age, and the iron age have passed, and we are now in the industrial age. Commerce, manufacturing, etc., are affecting the family, the Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades. 5 church, the school, and the state. They are invading every com- munity and giving rise to new problems. It is highly proper, therefore, that the children should be introduced to these subjects through the forms existing in their own neighborhood. Did the prescribed length of this pamphlet permit, the correct- ness of beginning and continuing the earlier steps in the study of history as here indicated could be shown more satisfactorily. The sequence of topics is such that each leads to the one that follows, and helps to a proper understanding of it. And certain great prin- ciples, such as organization, obedience, and respect for the rights of others run through them all and bind them into a unity. Besides, the study of these home institutions prepares the pupils to under- stand and appreciate the institutions of other lands and of other peoples. Having studied the conditions that now exist in the home neighborhood, the children should be led to study the conditions that prevailed there formerly. Life among the early pioneers should be dwelt upon. Where did they come from ? How did they come ? When they came here the country was uncultivated. There were no well-tilled fields, or farmhouses; no wagon roads, no bridges, and no railroads. For some time there were no mills for grinding grain, and the people had to resort to the grater and to the mortar and pestle to prepare the corn for food, while they ground the wheat with little hand mills, or querns. And later when wind- mills and watermills were built they were so far apart in some in- stances, that it required two days to take a grist to the nearest and get back home with it. Even after towns and villages were estab- lished, they were so few in number and the merchants kept so few articles for sale that the settlers were compelled to get along with- out many things that we regard as prime necessities. There were no schoolhouses or churches; but as many of the people felt the need of divine services, and were determined that their children should have, at least, the rudiments of an education, the settler's cabin was converted, at times, into schoolhouse and church, and the peripatetic schoolmaster and itinerant preacher did what they could for both young and old. Newspapers from the older settlements reached these pioneers but rarely, magazines not at all, and books were scarce. Letters from the old homes required weeks to reach their destination, and their arrival marked an epoch in the lives of the recipients. Besides laboring under these disadvantages and enduring so The Normal School Quarterly. many privations these pioneers were surrounded by Indians who were often hostile and whose friendship was always uncertain. The intercourse of the whites with the red men forms an interesting chapter in the early history of the Middle West. This chapter should be made known to the children before it is too late. The Indians have removed farther west and it is rare that any of them are seen by the pupils. Descriptions of their homes, clothing, weapons, and manner of life will be very fascinating to the youth- ful learners, and will form an excellent background to the picture of pioneer life. The study of the pioneer life of the home neighborhood will naturally lead to a study of pioneer conditions in the states from which the pioneers came. It is not necessary to study all of the states in detail. A study of early Massachusetts will reveal pioneer conditions in all of the New England states with sufficient accu- racy; and Virginia may be taken as typical of the southern states. The early New England home, with its sanded floor, cavernous fireplace, and dish-laden dresser will be an object of interest. The rifle, powder-horn, and bullet-pouch are within easy reach, as they may be needed at any moment. The festoons of golden pumpkins which grace the ceiling, and the iiaunches of venison that hang against the walls show that the creature comforts are not neglected. Our pupils will delight to sit by the fire on a winter evening and listen to the "gude man" of the house, as he smokes his pipe and sips his mug of mulled cider, tell of his adventures with the French and Indians, or of his narrow escapes from the storms and fogs of the Grand Banks. And his "gude wife" who sits on the opposite side of the fire, knitting diligently and smiling serenely upon her visitors, is able to tell them many a thrilling tale of the hardships and dangers thru which the women had to pass when their men- folk were away from home. The pupils will watch Charity and Patience as they card and spin the wool which is to be made into clothing for the family. Or it may be those modest maidens are spinning flax which is to be made into linen for their sister, Mercy, who is to be married in the spring. Mercy herself is not idle. She is busily winding yarn which Ezekiel is holding on extended arms. The couple are earn- estly engaged in conversation, probably discussing the weather, the roads, or last Sunday's sermon. And that reminds him that he intended to ask her to go to meeting with him on the following Sabbath. Will she be kind enough to do so? Yes, she will go. Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades. 7 And the answer makes the godly young man's heart swell with joy. Let the children notice him as on Sabbath morning he starts from home dressed in his best suit. Low shoes adorned with his grandfather's large silver buckles, knee breeches, store coat, and conical hat show his manly form to the best advantage. With what interest they watch him gallop to the horse block, and see Mercy spring lightly on the pillion, and to keep from falling put her arm around her escort. In the meeting house they have to sit apart; she, on the wo- men's side; he, on the men's. The teacher and his pupils also sep- arate as they must sit by themselves so one of the church officials can keep them in order. Who is that dignified-looking man who walks up and down the aisle, and why does he carry such a long staff? That is the tithing-man; and if we watch him closely we shall see the use he makes of his staff. Observe that in one end of it a sharpened spike is driven, and that to the other is fastened a fox's tail. Yonder is a woman nodding her head. See how gently he tickles her nose with the fox's tail, thus admonishing her that the sermon is not finished. On the back seat sits a man who, weary with the week's toil, finds it difficult to keep awake. At length he, too, succumbs to the soothing influence of the sermon and falls into a troubled sleep from which he is piously awakened by a prod from the spike-end of the staff. The pupils will sympathize with the unfortunate sleepers when they learn that the average length of a sermon in those days was from sixty to ninety minutes. This is a picture of the people of New England and of some of their customs at one stage of its history. Equally vivid and in- teresting pictures may be given of other periods and of other sec- tions of the country. Life on the Virginia plantation lends itself readily to such treatment. It may be advisable in this instance to treat of life among the wealthy planters, but the children must not be led to think that in colonial days all Virginians were wealthy. In Virginia, as in the other colonies, could be found rich and poor, and fairly well-to-do people. Because of the great extent of many of the plantations, their owners lived semi-isolated lives. This was especially true of their families. Towns were few and far apart, as the prevailing condi- tions w r ere unfavorable to their growth. Even the seats of justice were, in many instances, located at country crossroads. The plan- tation bordered usually on a navigable stream and the planter The Normal School Quarterly. shipped most of his produce directly to England and received in return such articles as he needed. The "great house/' with the slave quarters, stables, and shops had the appearance of a village. Here the proprietor lorded it over his dusky chattels, provided them with food and clothing, and made some provisions for their spiritual welfare. Here, too, the planter's wife, like an angel of mercy, visited the cabins of the lowly, carrying delicacies and medicines to the sick, and speaking soothing words to those whose spirits were angered by the lash of the overseer. The quarter sessions held at the county seat were events of importance in the social life of Virginia. They brought together lawyers and judges from the larger towns, and others who were in- terested in legal matters. And as many of these were supposed to be conversant with the usages of good society, the planter was de- sirous that his family should come in contact with them. On such occasions all were hospitably entertained by the wealthy residents of the town or by the planters in the vicinity. Winter was the gayest season of the year. The colonial legis- lature was then in session, and many of the planters brought their wives and grown sons and daughters to the capital. Here they spent their money freely, received and gave invitations to dinners and balls, and mingled with the distinguished sons and daughters of the Old Dominion. Such mingling was an education in itself; but it must not be supposed that it was the only education which the planter gave his children. On the contrary, he had northern, or foreign governesses to teach his daughters and perfect them in the accomplishments of polite society, and tutors to prepare his sons for college, at which many of them distinguished themselves. Visitors were always welcome on the plantations. Travelers, especially, were gladly entertained, as they brought news of the out- side world; and this was no small matter, as it was rare that a newspaper was received. Visiting among the planters' families was carried on in a very elaborate manner. When one family visited another at a distance of fifteen or twenty miles, the women and children rode in the coach, a great lumbering affair drawn by two or four fat, sleek horses, and driven by a pompous coachman, who considered himself next in importance to "Marse." The men rode on horseback, and the servants and baggage followed in a wagon. There was always a large retinue of servants, especially of maid- servants. On arriving at its destination, the party was received Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades, 9 with profuse and hearty demonstrations of joy; even the dogs barked a noisy welcome. Early the next morning, the planters for miles around, with their grown sons, and sometimes with their daughters, gathered for a fox chase. Fearlessly they rode across fields, thru woods, and over fences and streams, risking life and limb to keep within hear- ing of the baying of the hounds ; and yet the risk was not so very great, as all Virginians were expert riders. After the chase their host detained them for supper, and for the, dance which usually fol- lowed. The table was laden with choice meats from the barnyard and from the forest, and with the most costly liquors from sunny Prance. The festivities continued sometimes for several days, and when they were brought to a close, and the visitors prepared to de- part for their homes, they received many urgent invitations to re- turn soon. In these brief outlines of the social conditions of the people, their progress from one stage to another should be pointed out and commented upon. The people are worthy of it, whether they be- longed to the wealthy planter class of the South or to the hillside farmers of New England. They are the men and women who made this country what it is — the joy of all the earth, the poor man's paradise. These are the men who, when oppression would blight the work of their hands, placed themselves in front of the oppressor, saying, "Thus far and no farther shalt thou come." And these are the women who bravely encouraged their brothers, sons, and husbands in their manly resolve, being willing to suffer all privations and make all sacrifices, so that freedom should live. They are worthy of being held up as an example to our children; and the teacher who fails to do this is recreant to her trust and un- worthy of her vocation. At this early stage of the children's progress, much attention should be given to the biographies of some of the leading characters in American history. Some excellent teachers believe that this work should begin with the biographies of men whom they are pleased to term, world characters, such as Cyrus the Great, Alex- ander, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, etc. The writer, however, does not believe so, altho he has great respect for the achievements of these worthies and of others whose deeds form such a large part of the history of ancient and mediaeval times. With all due respect for their memories, however, he believes that Amer- ican history furnishes men and women who, because of what they 10 The Normal School Quarterly. have done for humanity, are better entitled to be known as world characters. Besides, there is this advantage that they touch the interests of the children more closely than do the others. The in- fluence of their lives and works upon existing conditions can be seen more readily. Washington, Lincoln, Scott, Grant, Sherman, Farragut, and Dewey mean far more to American boys and girls than do Alexander, Caesar, Charlemagne, Napoleon, Blake, and Nelson. And Lewis and Clark's expedition is of more consequence than the Eetreat of the Ten Thousand. The biographies of these foreign heroes should be taught to European boys and girls at an early age because the history of their countries was influenced by the works of those great men. But their influence upon American history is too remote to awaken interest in this connection, and had better be deferred to a later period. This does not mean that American children should not be in- troduced to some of the great characters of ancient times and of other countries. It is simply suggesting that the great names con- nected with our own history should receive attention first ; those of other times and places later. It will be well for the teacher to bear in mind, however, that she cannot teach everything in the time allotted to her. If she at- tempts to teach about many of the famous characters of history, and to trace quite a number of events in American history to their causes in European history ,^ as the children go along, she will ac- complish but little in American history, which should be the bur- den of her work. A better way is to defer tracing most of the allu- sions to European history, and most of the biographies of Old World worthies to the last term of the eighth grade. The work can be done more satisfactorily then because the pupils will be bet- ter prepared for it, and it will give an excellent opportunity to re- view some of the leading points in American history. Great care should be taken in selecting biographical material. The selection should not be confined to one or two classes — more particularly to pioneers and military heroes. "Peace hath its vic- tories as well as war," consequently explorers, inventors, and men of letters should find a place in the list. And as every lesson, when properly taught, leaves the pupils different persons from what they were before the teaching, none but characters of moral worth should be made objects of study. And the purest and most help- ful should receive the preference. The work should be given orally by the teacher, and she should Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades. 11 know it thoroly before coming into the presence of her class. Many of the failures in teaching are due to the teacher's lack of knowl- edge of the subject rather than to a lack of knowledge of methods. And no amount of knowledge of methods and principles of peda- gogy can atone for ignorance or vague knowledge of the subject. The teacher's knowledge of that which she is to teach must be thoro and clear to be effective. She should cultivate the art of narrating simply, clearly, and fluently, so that the pupils may be able to re- cite the substance of the lesson next day in their own language. Later they should be required occasionally to write the lesson. But the oral recitation should be the prevailing form, as the ability to think and speak connectedly, standing before the teacher and class is of great value to the children; and they should be required to stand, and not be permitted to wriggle and twist and lean against the desks, as so many are inclined to do. If Columbus is the subject of the lesson, with what interest the children will listen, if the teacher is prepared to enter into the spirit of the work. They see the little Genoese as day by day he helps his father earn bread for the family ; and when the day's work is done, they enter heartily into his sports. They go down with him to the wharves where he loves to linger listening to the marvel- ous tales told by the bronzed and weather-beaten mariners of the Mediterranean. Their "yarns" are far more interesting to him than is the yarn in his father's little shop. And when he goes to Pavia they accompany him and try to console him in the lonely hours that come to boys and girls on their first leaving home for school. In his maturer years when he is elaborating those strange theories in regard to the shape of the earth and the shortest route to India, they look with awe upon his lowering brow and piercing eye. They believe in the man. They believe in his theories, and are angry at the rulers of Europe for doubting his ability to do that which he proposes. And as he sorrowfully turns his back upon the Court of Spain, they trudge by his side, as despondent and hungry he plods wearily on his way to France. They try to encourage him by manifestations of sympathy, even sharing their luncheons with his little boy whom he leads by the hand. And they are heartily glad when the Father Superior of the Convent of Our Lady of the Madness receives him cordially and furnishes him with food and lodging. Later when Isabella thru the influence, of the good father grants his request and furnishes him with a pitiful fleet they are as happy as he, and pace the deck of the Santa Maria 12 The Normal School Quarterly, as proudly as he does. And on that memorable October 12 with feelings as exalted as his own they help him plant the banner of Castile and Aragon on the virgin soil of the New World. And so the teacher might follow this man on his other voyages. She could dwell on his reception at Barcelona, his efforts to con- trol the turbulent spirits at San Domingo, his voyage home in chains, and his death on a hired bed in a rented hovel. Each of these events is capable of being so presented as to make a perma- nent impression upon the pupils. Enough has been said of Columbus to suggest what should be said of Champlain, Hudson, John Smith, etc., as well as the man- ner in which it should be presented to the class. It will be readily understood that in order to be most effective the presentation must not only be clear and simple, as has already been said, but it must also be very vivid. But any teacher can acquire these qualities in a reasonable measure if she makes due effort. The period of settlement affords the skillful teacher opportuni- ties for doing pleasing and profitable work. Notice how she treats the Pilgrim Fathers and their settlement. She calls attention to these people as they stand on the shores of the North Sea waiting to be carried from merry England to phlegmatic Holland. She pictures the sacrifices they are making in leaving their rose-embow- ered cottages in which their ancestors had lived for several genera- tions ; the ivy-clad church in which they had been wont to worship, and in which they were married and their children baptized; and the graveyard in which rested all that was mortal of their parents and other dear ones. The teacher points to their quaint attire, the closely cropped hair of the men, and the solemn mien of all. She commends their piety and purity, and praises their loyalty to their convictions of right. She dwells with them in their new homes, notices their dis- content, and embarks with them on the Mayflower to lay the foun- dations of a new empire. She describes the noble compact made in the cabin, pictures the cheerless landing on Plymouth Eock ; and to add to the vividness of her description she reads Mrs. Hemans > "Landing of the Pilgrims." She enables the children to look into the comfortless homes built by feeble hands. Within they see want, distress and sickness, but also a beautiful resignation. Death is busily at work. He enters all the hovels, and lays his icy fingers on all classes alike, from the menial to the governor, and wrings the Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades. 13 heart of the brave captain of Plymouth by taking his beautiful Eose. The attention of the class is directed to the change in the fortunes of the colony when spring comes bringing flowers and the songs of birds. Joy takes the place of sorrow, hope the place of gloom, and liberty is planted firmly in the New World. More, the pupils are made to feel it. The men with hoary heads and the wo- men with fearless eyes are real men and women to them. They sympathize with them in their sorrows and rejoice with them in their joys. They are amused at the archness of Priscilla, puzzled at the self-abasement of John Alden, and shocked at the anger of Miles Standish. History is to them a pleasure because it has been presented in a natural manner. The teacher herself was interested in the story, and forgot for the time being that she was a large interrogation mark whose only duty was to ask questions. And war, grim war, which is said to have in it no nutriment ioi boys and girls, is used effectively by the thoughtful teacher in moving the pupils into a healthy activity without which the im- pressions formed will lack in permanency. Much has been said against teaching children about wars and battles; some of it wise and some otherwise. Much depends upon the war, its purpose, and the manner in which it was carried on. Wars that were waged to gratify the vanity of some ruler, or to satisfy the greed of an avari- cious people whose highest purpose was to obtain the possessions of their neighbors, simply because they were powerful enough to do so, are not worthy of much time or attention on the part of the grade teacher. The American w^ars, however, with one exception, were not of that character. If there can be such things as holy wars, the American Eevolution, the Civil War, and the Spanish- American War may justly be placed in that category, if their pur- poses and results are duly considered. It would be a mistake to confine their results to the United States, or even to the western hemisphere. There is not a village or hamlet in Europe in which the beneficent results of the Eevolution and Civil War have not been felt, even if they have not always been appreciated. And the Span- ish-American war, let people say what they will to the contrary, was entered upon by this country from the most humane motives. Neither of these wars was for American aggrandizement. They were wars that opened and preserved an asylum for the poor and oppressed of all lands — wars that resulted in the betterment of hu- manity. Therefore the motives that prompted them and the re- 14 The Normal School Quarterly. suits that followed, with some of the principal events in each, should be taught in all our schools. However, here, as elsewhere, much depends on how the subject is taught. The teacher who is properly prepared for her work, will teach the battle of Bunker Hill, and other battles, in a manner never to be forgotten. She so describes Prescott and his men that they become living, active beings to the pupils who accompany them on the silent, night-march from Cambridge to Breed's Hill. And after the engineer has marked the lines of the redoubt, they en- courage the men who, with picks and shovels, are at work on the embankment. The teacher goes on with her description, and the children hear the "All is well" from the ships in the harbor. They see Prescott walking leisurely on the parapet to encourage his troops, and are alarmed for his safety. But ah ! Yonder come the redcoats. How brave the officers and men look, and how the sun flashes from swords and bayonets ! The children become excited. Those swords and bayonets are to be used in maiming and killing their friends who after hours of weary toil are resting behind the breastworks. The British come nearer, still nearer. Why does not Prescott order his men to fire ? See, they come nearer and nearer yet! The pupils are watching them earnestly. How cruel they look ! They come nearer still. Now the whites of their eyes may be seen. Why does not Prescott order his men to stop them ? Fire ! A sheet of flame, a deafening noise, a cloud of smoke, which on being blown away reveals a wind- row of killed and disabled British, and the rest flying in disorder towards the Charles River. Notice the children as they listen to the teacher's descriptions. Every word of hers reaches them and finds a response in their breasts. Her every motion is closely watched, and their firm-set teeth, dilated nostrils, and flashing eyes show that they are in full sympathy with her. Such a recitation is not tiresome. The pu- pils will not go to their seats glad that the hour is over. Neither will they have much to say about the dryness of history. The work in the intermediate grades has been thus dwelt upon, because it is generally felt that it is here that the poorest teaching is done, altho it is where the teacher should be most thoughtful and painstaking. The children are forming habits of study that will stay by them and influence them thruout their school life. If proper habits are formed here, and a keen historical interest be awakened, the work in the other grades will be comparatively easy, Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades. 15 and the study of history will be a source of delight. All subjects, when properly taught, become sources of delight ; but history, espe- cialy, is well-suited to awaken pleasurable emotions in the learners ; and it is only when such emotions are awakened that pupils are in condition to do their best work. The methods of the intermediate grades should be followed to some extent in the grammar grades. The vivid portraying of men and events should be continued. The pageantry of history should still be emphasized. And the children should be helped to see with the "mind's eye" the great pageaTit passing before them. Each pupil should now be supplied with a good text-book and it will be all the better if he has access to several. It may be that a text was used the last year of the intermediate course. There is no good reason why it should not be used there, but the pupils do not necessarily lose anything by having its use deferred until the be- ginning of the grammar course. The time of beginning the use of the text-book, however, is not of as much importance as is the manner in which it is used. Books are the repositories of knowl- edge, and to be able to get the most out of them, at the least ex- pense of time and labor, is a great accomplishment; and this ac- complishment the teacher should aid her pupils in acquiring. The manner of assigning the lesson is very important, as it determines, in a large measure, the quality of the recitation. If it is assigned by hurriedly giving so many paragraphs or pages to be learned, the boys and girls will get but little for their time and labor, as they do not know how to study. They will try to com- mit the exact words of the lesson to memory, and will have no time to give to the thought ; consequently the recitation will, in all prob- ability be a fragmentary and incoherent jumble of words and phrases that tell nothing and mean about as little. They get the husks, if anything, and leave the kernels. The teacher can well afford to spend a quarter of the recitation period in assigning the lesson for the next day, altho she can usually assign it in less time. Here she can do her best work as a teacher, as it is here that she can best lead her pupils to think. Besides all topics in history are not of equal importance. The historic landscape is not a plain across whose dead level the learner must plod monotonously month after month and term after term. On the contrary it is beautifuly di- versified with mountain and valley, hill and dale, silvery lake and sparkling stream. In other words some events are very important, while the value of others is comparatively slight. In assigning the 16 Ihe Normal School Quarterly. lesson the teacher points out the most important ones and shows why they are most important, thus giving her pupils a valuable les- son in the art of discrimination, an art which must be carefully cul- tivated by every successful student of history. The teacher of history should pay much attention to geog- raphy. The two subjects are so closely related that to divorce them is to place each at a disadvantage. The physical features of a coun- try largely determine its history. How far it is wise to attempt to get grammar grade pupils to see this, the teacher must determine for herself. There is no doubt, however, that the pupils are prepared to study and appreciate the spatial phase of geography. It is true they are supposed to have studied the geography of their own country before entering upon the study of its history. But experience has shown that it is not safe to conclude that they now have a working knowledge of the subject, no matter how faithfully the teacher of geography did her work. And unless they can locate, in space, the principal events, they will fail to derive from the study of history the benefit which they should. The pupils must be made to see and feel that history is made upon the earth and must rest upon it. Much of the poor work in history is due to the fact that it is not placed upon any firm foundation, but is left hanging in the air. There should be a good wall map hanging before the class, and the pupils should be expected to point to the places at which the principal events occurred. They should also be held respon- sible for the making of simple, free-hand sketch maps, from memory; sometimes on the blackboard, and sometimes on paper. These sketches should be made in the class, as the greatest benefit is derived from the work, if the sketching and oral reciting are tak- ing place at the same time. In order that the pupils may do this work satisfactorily, the teacher must be prepared to do it herself. Pictures, also, are very helpful in teaching history, especially in the lower grades. They assist the children in making correct mental pictures of men, places, and events, and restrain the image- making power from indulging in wild flights of fancy. There is no scarcity of good pictures. The leading magazines are well sup- plied with them, and so are the illustrated weeklies; and even the daily newspaper sometimes contains pictures that may be used to advantage in the history class. And there are several publishing houses that print pictures of considerable artistic merit, which may be purchased for a very little money. Every teacher of history Suggestions on the Teaching of History in the Grades. 17 should, early in her career, begin making a collection of pictures and mounting them on cardboard. If she does, she will soon have material enough to aid her considerably in her work, and in form convenient for use. As history rests largely upon geography, so literature rests in a measure upon history. Consequently the brammar grade teacher should open the door leading from one to the other, — not very wide, but wide enough to enable her pupils to see the tempting viands that await them. The sight will not only cause them to in- crease their diligence that they may the sooner partake of the feast ; it will also bring them present enjoyment. A short poem read in the class, a brief excerpt from the newspaper, or a well-written mag- azine article will often make alive with interest the lesson which otherwise would be dry and lifeless. Besides there is always a great advantage in connecting the work in history with current literature wherever it can be done readily, as each enriches the other. Care should be taken, however, that in sending the pupils to the reference table or the library to find these articles, the volume and page be designated. While the so-called philosophy of history should find no place in the grades, there are certain relations that may be pointed out and dwelt upon with profit. The relation of cause and effect, and those of place and time are not too difficult for grammar grade pu- pils to comprehend. But even in dealing with these simple rela- tions there is need of care on the part of the teacher. Some have been known to err by seeking to find the causal relation where it did not exist; or if it did exist it was too remote to be grasped by the young learners. There may be a cause for every event in his- tory, but man being a free moral agent, it is sometimes difficult to find the motives that prompted him to do certain acts. Conse- quently there is danger that conclusions may be reached which the premises do not warrant. By doing this the teacher injures her pupils by leading them into wrong habits of study. There are instances, however, in which the causal relation may be easily traced. The surrender of Burgoyne's army in 1777, with its consequences, is a good illustration. This event led to the open alliance of Prance with the United States and the recognition of American independence. These in turn led to the sending of Brit- ish commissioners to America with power to offer the States all for which they contended, excepting independence. The French alliance led to the sending of a French fleet to America, and this caused the 18 Ihe Normal School Quarterly : evacuation of Philadelphia by the British, which movement was followed by the battle of Monmouth. Place relation is valuable in dealing with large topics and may be used to advantage in reviews. Lake Champlain and vicin- ity may be used to unite many events, as well as the principal ac- tors in those events. Champlain and his explorations, the battle at the head of Lake George, the massacre at Fort William Henry, the building of Fort Ticonderoga by Montcalm, the efforts of the English to capture it, its capture by Ethan Allen, recapture by Burgoyne, the battle of Bennington, the two battles of Stillwater or Saratogo, with the surrender of Burgoyne, and MacDonough's brilliant naval victory, can be connected with the lake. Time relation, also, is valuable in reviews. It serves to bind together events that may have taken place far apart in space. It enables the pupils to hold many events by the use of a few dates. While the mastery of some dates is necessary in the study of his- tory, the number that need be mastered is comparatively small, if properly used. In 1837, a serious monetary panic prevailed in this country, the Independent Treasury Bill was brought before Con- gress, the patriot war threatened to endanger peaceful relations be- tween this country and Great Britain, the legislature of Illinois passed an act to establish and maintain a system of internal im- provements to cost about $12,230,000, Elijah P. Lovejoy was killed by a mob at Alton, Chicago was incorporated as a city, and Queen Victoria ascended the throne of England. These are but a few of the illustrations that might be given showing the usefulness of the relations of cause and effect, place, and time. The Illinois State Normal University Affords superior advantages to all who wish to pre- pare for teaching. Its faculty numbers 32. Its training department of nearly five hundred pupils includes all grades from the kindergarten thru the high school. Its library numbers 18,000 volumes and pamph lets. Its laboratories are well equipped for work in biology, physics, chemistry, and geography. Its facilities for physical training are unsurpassed at any similar institution in the West. Besides the regular courses in the ordinary branches of the elementary school and high school, instruction is given by trained specialists in art, vocal music, manual training, physical culture, and the elements of agricultural science. Three courses are provided : 1. For graduates of superior high schools. 2. For graduates of village high schools. 3. For students without high school preparation. For catalog, address David Felmley, President, Normal, Illinois. Calendar for 1903-1904. WINTER TERM. December 16 — Semi-annual meeting of the Board of Edu- cation. December 18 — Annual contest of literary societies. December 19 — Eecess of two weeks. January 4, 1904 — Winter term resumes. February 27 — Annual contest in oratory. March 4 — End of winter term. Vacation of nine days. SPRING TERM, 1904. March 14 — Spring term begins. June 1 — Annual meeting of Board of Education. June 1 — Annual meeting of the Alumni Association. June 2 — Annual commencement exercises. SUMMER SESSION, 1904. June 6 — First summer term begins. July 18 — Second summer term begins. August 26 — Second summer term ends. September 5 — Beginning of fall term of year 1904-5. PANTAGRAPH Printing and Stationery Co. Bloomington^ ///,