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 SILENT READING 
 
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 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION: RESIEIE OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 
 
 Since the investion of the art of printing by Johann Gutenberg 
 about 1448, the reading of printed symbols has continued to grow in 
 importance until to-day it constitutes the fundamental subject of the 
 elementary school curriculxim. More than one -fourth of the total time 
 in our grade schools is now devoted to the teaching of reading, accord- 
 mg to a recent investigation of time distribution (1). Indeed in 
 the lower grades , little else but the mastery of the mechanics of 
 reading is attempted. Dramatization, ganies, picture cards, black- 
 board exercises, charts, etc., find their essential raison d'etre in 
 the assistance they render to the child in his attempt to interpret 
 the printed symbols. Probably 70 per cent of the time in the primary 
 grades is devoted to exercises which have as their aim the interpreta- 
 tion of the written word. This is but natural, since reading consti- 
 tutes the basic instrument which enables one to penetrate the mines of 
 information not only in all the branches of the curriculum, but on 
 every topic that has been, at some time or other, the object of human 
 study and investigation. This information remains locked up securely 
 within the printed letters of the alphabet, forever hidden from the 
 illiterate, for it can be reached only through the medium of reading. 
 
 The method of teaching the mechanics of reading which held undis- 
 puted sway throughout the centuries was inherited from the ancients, 
 Tracing with the stylus the various characters of their alphabet upon 
 waxen tablets and on papyrus, the pedagogues of ancient Greece and Rome 
 
 1. Numbers in parentheses refer to the corresponding numbers in 
 the bibliography at the end of the book. 
 

 
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 taught their pupils the names and phonic properties of each letter as 
 the first and indispensable step in the process of learning to read. 
 
 V/hat could appear more logical than to postulate a priori that before a 
 child could read or pronounce any word he must knox-j the names and soxinds 
 of the constituent letters of the word? Hox^r could a whole word, consist- 
 ing, as it does, of several letters, possible be pronounced unless one 
 had first mastered the pronounciation of each of the letters making up 
 the total v;ord? The fact that the word itself might be as simple and as 
 clearly a unit of sound as the letter, seems never to have disturbed their 
 serene acceptance of the above principle. Unchallenged and unquestioned 
 the alphabetic method remained in almost universal use in the schools of 
 the world xintil the last quarter of the nineteenth century. It remained 
 for the new science of experimental psychology to demonstrate conclusive- 
 ly that the mode of procedxire in the learning process which would appear 
 to the adult as the logical order is not de facto always the mode of pro- 
 cedure which the mind of the child actually takes. In other words, there 
 has been shown to be a psychological order of procedxire which is totally 
 distinct and different from the order of procedure deduced by the adult 
 from the laws of formal logic (2), 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL FINDINGS MODIFY METHODS OF TEACHING THE 
 MECHANICS OF READING 
 
 The studies of Cattell ( 3 ) at Leipzig in 1886 on the perceptual 
 process resxilted in producing strong evidence that, as a general rule, 
 reading proceeds not by successive letters, but rather by word-, phrase-, 
 and sentence-wholes. This conclusion was based upon the fact that the 
 time required to perceive a whole word and, in some cases, whole phrases 
 and short sentences, was no greater than the time required to perceive 
 a single letter. Consciousness grasped whole words, phrases, and short 
 sentences as units in the perceptual process, Goldscheider and Mueller's 
 
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investigation (4) showing that an enlargement of the perceptual span 
 resulted when meaningless geometrical lines were arranged in a meaning- 
 ful geometrical figure, such as a rectangle, likewise offered corro- 
 borative evidence. But the convincing confirmation of the above con- 
 clusion was presented when Erdmann and Dodge (5) after many tachisto- 
 scopical exposures , found that "words may be recognized when the in- 
 dividual letters are too small to be identified or when parts of the 
 word are out of the range of clear vision." 
 
 Along with the v/ealth of corroborative data from similar experi- 
 mental investigations, the above studies show that the assumption under- 
 lying the traditional alphabetical method, namely, that the reading 
 process proceeds by successive letters, and not by word-, phrase-, and 
 sentence-wholes, is without scientific foundation. Shovjing directly, 
 therefore, that the word and the sentence methods more closely approxi- 
 mate the perceptual process, these findings are largely responsible 
 for the discard of the time-honored alphabetical method — the result of 
 tradition and crude empiricism — and the adoption of the word and 
 sentence methods \>rith consequent greater fruitfulness by the more pro- 
 gressive schools. These and similar studies, conducted under the 
 strong stimulus of the new science of experimental psychology, have 
 exercised a povxerful influence upon the teaching of reading and are 
 largely responsible for the fundamental and far-reaching changes that 
 have been wrought in the technique of teaching the mechanics of reading 
 during the last forty years, •‘■hey have shown, furthermore, the necessity 
 of submitting all the traditional methods and conventional assumptions 
 underlying the teaching of reading to critical experimental examination. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF THE EYES DURING THE READING PROCESS 
 
 Probably not less rich in promise of supplying valuable data for 
 

 j £ii 
 
 
 
- 4 - 
 
 the development of types or methods of effective training in speed 
 and comprehension in silent reading, in the stages subsequent to the 
 mastery of the mechanics of reading than the above mentioned studies 
 of the perceptual process, are the experimental investigations into 
 the nature of the motor behavior of the eyes during the reading pro- 
 cess. The origin of these investigations, like those concerned with 
 the nature of the perceptual process, dates largely from the rise of 
 the science of experimental psychology in I87O. 
 
 The history of the evolution of the mechanical apparatus neces- 
 sary for the experimental study of eye-movements has been narrated 
 by Huey (6) , who himself became one of the most prominent investigators 
 through devising and perfecting a mechanical apparatus which registered, 
 with some degree of success, the movements of the eyes during the read- 
 ing process. More recently, VI. A. Schmidt (?) has sketched in briefer 
 fashion the evolution of this equipment, supplementing Huey's account 
 with the story of the developments down to 191?. '^he present investi- 
 gation actually utilized the mechanical apparatus that was finally 
 evolved to photograph eye-movements during reading. Since the types 
 of training for the development of efficiency in silent reading, which 
 will be presented in this book, are based very largely upon the find- 
 ings of the experimental investigations of the behavior of the eyes 
 during reading, as well as upon the tachistoscopic studies of the per- 
 ceptual process, it is thought that a brief outline of the chief stages 
 of the development of this apparatus will help to supply the necessary 
 background for any ^^Jho may not be familiar with it, 
 
 Javal (8) of the University of Paris in 1879 , employing direct 
 observation by means of a mirror, in contrast to the after-image method 
 of Volkmann and Lamansky, was the first to discover that the passage 
 of the eyes across a line in reading is not a continuous movement. 
 
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 but is broken into a number of pauses and movements. In 1897 Erdmann 
 and Dodge (5) in their experimentation at the University of "alle, 
 besides the mirror method of observation, introduced to advantage the 
 use of the telescope, Lamare (9), working in conjunction with Javal, 
 fastened a microphone to the upper eyelid, thus enabling him to deter- 
 mine, in a general way, from the sounds, the number of fixations in 
 reading a given line. Doctor Ahrens (10), at the University of Rostock 
 in 1891, fastened a small ivory cup to the oornea of the eye and sought 
 by means of a rod attached to the cup to have the eye movements re- 
 corded on a smoked drum. Though unsuccessful, the attempt was instrumental 
 in suggesting to subsequent investigators, a method which, if perfected, 
 would yield rich results. A plaster of Paris cup was later substituted 
 for the ivory cup by Professor Delabarre (ll) of Hainrard. 
 
 It remained for Huey, however, to perfect this general type of 
 apparatus and to secure permanent records of eye-movements. After con- 
 siderable experimentation in directly photographing the eyes. Dodge (I 3 ) 
 finally succeeded in photographing "the movement of a bright vertical 
 line as it was reflected from the cornea,” thus giving a fairly reliable 
 record of eye -movements undisturbed by the xinnatural condition of a cup 
 or other device pressing upon one of the eyes. Dearborn (14) introduced 
 the use of double lenses, thus enabling him to obtain records of bino- 
 cular reading, Judd (15 ) further improved the apparatus by employing a 
 kinetoscope double camera, thus enabling records of eye-movements in 
 both the horizontal and vertical planes to be secured. Various other 
 refinements have been introduced by Freeman, C, T. Gray, and W. A. Schmidt 
 while experimenting at the University of Chicago, 
 
 The evolution of this mechanical apparatus has rendered possible 
 the carrying out of many investigations which have thrown considerable 
 light on such points as the number of fixations per line, the duration 
 
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 of the fixations, the length of the eye -movement s , and the relative 
 time consiamed in pauses and movements. Only those investigations will 
 be referred to here which have in some way afforded clues for the de- 
 velopment of the types of training that will be described later, or 
 which have presented problems upon which the present study may be 
 expected to yield additional data. Since the total time spent in read- 
 ing consists of the time consumed by the eye -movement s , plus the time 
 required by the fixations , an investigation seeking to economize the 
 length of time required in reading will naturally be concerned in de- 
 termining at which of the constituent time-consuming processes — 
 movements or fixations — the economy can be most satisfactorily effected, 
 
 I. INTERFIXATION MOVEf®NrS 
 
 Using the after-image method, Javal, the discoverer of the dis- 
 continuous movement of the eyes in reading, estimated the velocity of 
 the interfixation movements to be so great as to prevent clear vision. 
 
 On the basis of certain investigations, Erdmann and Dodge (5) calculated 
 that only from one -thirteenth to one -twenty-fourth of the total time 
 required for the eyes to cross a given line was consumed by the inter- 
 fixation movement®. Quite the reverse of the popular conception that 
 had long prevailed that the total time spent in reading was consumed 
 during the passage of the eyes across the printed line, Erdmann and 
 Dodge found that almost the entire time was taken up by the pauses, 
 or fixations of the eyes at various points in their journey across the 
 line. The investigations made by Huey ( 12 ), Dodge and Kline, Dearborn, 
 and more recently by C. T, Gray and W, A. Schmidt, in measuring the 
 rapidity of the interfixation movements, have conclusively confirmed 
 the findings of Erdmann and Dodge. With such lightninglike velocity 
 do the eyes move from fixation-point to fixation-point, that it is 
 
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 now generally agreed that fusion of stimuli occurs, so that, as far as 
 purposes of clear perception are concerned, the eyes are practically 
 "blind" during these movements. 
 
 The experimentation of Holt (l6) , leading him to the conclusion 
 that the movements of the eyes produced "a momentary visual central 
 anaesthesia," confirmed the findings of Dodge, which were again corro- 
 borated by Dearborn (I?)* From these findings, it is evident that the 
 interfixation movements, consuming, as they do, such a small fraction 
 of the total reading time, do not constitute the processes in the read- 
 ing complex wherein any great economy of time can be effected. The 
 question is, hovjever, whether the development of a habit of increased 
 rapidity of silent reading would immeasurably affect the speed of the 
 movement of the eyes from fixation to fixation, as well as the return 
 sweep from the end of one line to the beginning of the following, or 
 whether, in spite of a considerable increase in speed of reading, the 
 rate of these movements would remain unchanged. By measuring the rate 
 of these movements before giving the training which resulted in the 
 establishment of habits of greatly increased speed in silent reading, and 
 then by measiiring the rate of these movements subsequent to the acquisition 
 of this increased rapidity in reading, data have been secured which are of 
 value in the formulation of at least a tentative answer to the above query. 
 
 II. THE FIXATION-PAUSES 
 
 The processes of the reading complex which consume the bulk of the 
 time, in fact from twelve -thirteenths to twenty -three-twenty-fourths of 
 the total reading time, are the fixations or pauses which the eyes 
 make at various points in their journey across the printed line. These 
 pauses, the duration and number of which have been disclosed to us by 
 experimentation, constitute the real "core" of the physiological pro- 
 
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 cess underlying the mental act of reading. Since the eyes while moving 
 are incapable of clear vision, owing to the velocity with which they 
 move from fixation to fixation and sweep back from the end of one line 
 to the beginning of the next, it follows that whatever clear vision 
 occurs must take place during the brief momentary fixation-pauses. 
 
 Upon these fixation-pauses a large nxunber of painstaking invest igamions 
 requiring an elaborate equipment have been focused, with a view to 
 determining chiefly their location, duration, and number per line. 
 
 The investigations of Dodge, of Huey, and especially of Dearborn have 
 shown that fixations occur in every part of a word as well as between 
 words, and are apparently subject to no definite law of occurrence. It is 
 the number and the duration of pauses that are of chief interest in a study 
 that seeks to accelerate the reading rate. For the total reading time may 
 be said to be the product of the number of pauses, multiplied by their 
 average duration, plus, of course, the very slight fraction of the total 
 time — one -thirteenth to one -twenty-fourth — consumed by the eye -movement s . 
 
 (a) NUMBER OF FIXATION PAUSES. Investigations have revealed in 
 this case, as elsewhere in educational psychology, the existence of 
 great individual differences. Dearborn reports that his subjects in 
 reading silently the same selections from a newspaper averaged from 
 3.0 to 7.1 pauses per line. In number of words perceived per fixation, 
 the average ranged from 1.9 to 1.0 words. W. A.. Schmidt reports a range 
 of averages from 4.10 to 10.8 pauses per line in silent reading, and 6.1 
 to 11.5 pauses per line in oral reading. For Schmidt's adult silent 
 readers, the averages ranged from 2.15 to 0.93 words per fixation, and 
 in the case or oral reading the same subjects averaged from 1.52 to 
 0.87 words. It is obvious that the number of pauses per line is dependent 
 upon the n’jmber of words perceived per fixation — the fewer the number 
 

 
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 of pauses the more extensive must be the perceptual span. 
 
 (b) DURATION OF FIXATION-PAUSE. Of equal importance in deter- 
 mining the total amount of time consumed in reading, is the duration 
 of the pauses. The number and the average duration of the pauses 
 form, as it were, the multiplier and the multiplicand of approximately, 
 the total reading time product, which latter cannot, of course, be 
 computed, if either of the preceding are undetermined. Only compara- 
 tively recently has the experimental apparatus been evolved to secure 
 accurate measurements of the duration of pauses. Huey reports that his 
 subjects averaged approximately 1855^.^ Dearborn, with more accurate 
 apparatus, reports a lange in averages for his five subjects from IbO.Sd" 
 to 401.9^ Schmidt (18) reports a range of averages for his silent readers 
 from 214<r to hyOff; his elementary pupils averaging from 2640* to 4380^ 
 
 T 5 rpes of training to develop habits of speed which result in a 
 considerable reduction of the total reading time obviously must either 
 diminish the number of pauses or reduce their duration, or else effect 
 a decrease in both. At the expense of which one of these processes is 
 the economy of time to be secured? 
 
 From his elaborate experimental investigation of eye -mov erne nt s , 
 fixation-pauses, etc., Schmidt concludes "that a momentary silent 
 reading at maximal rather than normal rate involves a shortening of 
 the duration of the pauses rather than a lessening of their number. 
 
 But this leaves unsolved the problem as to what would happen if the 
 subjects were to engage in practice extending over a considerable 
 period of time, gradually forming habits of reading at maximal rate." 
 
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 This he classes as one of the "interesting but as yet unsolved pro- 
 blems" in the psychology of reading. The present study throught its 
 silent reading and through its application of these methods of training 
 to pupils in various grades of the elementary school for a period of 
 two months, has sought to establish just such habits of reading at 
 maximal rates. It is thought that the photographic records of the 
 eye-movements of some of these pupils taken before and after the acqui- 
 sition of this habit or rapid silent reading, will yield some interest- 
 ing and valuable data upon this particular problems, 
 
 COMPARIS05N OF SILENT AND ORAL READING 
 I, BY MEANS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDS OF EYE-MOVEMENTS 
 
 The most important of the recent contributions to the experimental 
 study of the reading process have come from investigators working at 
 the University of Chicago, An elaborate experimental study of the 
 motor behaviour of the eyes during the reading process has been made 
 by V/, A, Schmidt, ( 7 ) His comparison of the photographic records of 
 school pupils is significant and instructive. His records reveal the 
 physiological basis of the superiority of silent over oral reading in 
 point of both speed and comprehension. This, his group of 45 adult 
 persons averaged 1,7 more pauses per line in oral than in silent reading, 
 while the average duration per pause was 72 , 6 <r greater in the former 
 than in the latter. This made the average fixation tLme per line 1119 . Icr 
 longer for the same subjects when reading orally than when reading silently. 
 
 The smaller number of fixations per line and the shorter dura 
 tion of the fixations may be said to constitute, in a general way, the 
 chief physiological basis of the superior soeed of silent over oral 
 reading. The closest index to the physiological basis of the superior 
 comprehension in silent reading may be said to be the smaller number 
 
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 of refixations per line, A refixation is a regression of the eyes to 
 an anterior portion of the line, which portion has been already once 
 fixated but which has evidently not been comprehended. The refixation 
 appears necessary to complete the understanding of the line. The group 
 of adults averaged ?4 per cent more refixations per line in oral than 
 in silent reading; the high school pupils 55 per cent more; and the 
 elementary school pupils 62 per cent more. Schmidt reports that his 
 subjects ’’read 57 per osnt more material silently than orally,” 
 
 On the strength of his investigation ^chmidt draws the following 
 significant conclusion: 
 
 "There is in evidence in connection with silent reading 
 very definite tendency towards positive correlation be- 
 tween the rate and comprehension, rapid readers repre- 
 senting higher quality of comprehension than the slow. 
 
 No such correlation is in evidence in the case of the 
 oral reading. In fact, there are some indications that 
 an increase in rate may be inconsistent with good quality 
 of comprehension. The difference between the two types 
 of reading would undoubtedly have been more marked had 
 the subjects been trained to distinguish between the two. 
 
 As a matter of fact reading has until recently been taught 
 so poorly that it is extremely hazardous to speak of stan- 
 dards for either type of reading as well as standard dif- 
 ferences between the two types. Training in silent read- 
 ing has been almost unthought of and whatever may have 
 been accomplished in the case of ofal reading during the 
 earlier grades has not infrequently been undone because 
 of indifferent practices in connection with the later 
 grades.” 
 
 C, T, Gray (19), in an investigation recently conducted at the 
 University of Chicago, has contributed additional valuable data on 
 the types of reading ability determined through standard tests and 
 laboratory experiments. His findings likewise emphasize the superior 
 efficiency of silent over oral reading. The methods employed by him 
 in the experimental laboratory to increase the speed and compre- 
 hension of two individual subjects have largely furnished the clues 
 for the formulation and development of types of training which 
 

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 hcnro been adapted for olaac-rooa preoed-jro ue^or tbiO ordinary cemditiono of 
 the sebool* In tho oin^eonih yoarbool:, T.* S* Gray (SO) elaborates those 
 and othor faotcars tendii^^ to condition tho e^C^oicnoy of silent readij^. 
 
 Tbou^ tiio types of training to bo presented in this rsemograph had been forcaiu- . 
 Iftted previous to the aj^oaranoe of t!>o yoarbook, it is believed that all of 
 Gray* 8 zadn suggestions been inoorporstod in tlie dovclo^siortt of tli© 
 types of training in the present study. Judd (SI) 3oae .^J.ce greatly stiau- 
 latod ii^tcrcst in the n^urc of the reading process his recent aoaograpli 
 in 'shioJi he interprets tiso rseaning of x^ 2 otogra»M.c recoils of eye-KKJvcr*:'»cnt3, 
 fixation pjmsoE> eto.# and points out thsir diagnostic value to tei?.ohGrG of 
 reading. !The present study has attcsjwtod to utilise rsK^y cf his suggestions 
 for inoroaeing effioioiu^ in silent readiz^. 
 
 II. fy UecKc of Standard Toots. 
 
 rigni-fioart as arc tl-jo findii^s of the psyolwlogioal invoctiyation 
 and the Isiboratory -c:qj€n“ii3ents in disclosing the funotioning of the various 
 oonstitaeat processes of the readiig ooe^Iox, i^iocdng, as they do, the j:jJic 3 ,do« 
 logi<^ basis of the superior effioioncy of silent over oral roadir^, it is 
 cliiefly tI;o rsacs of invostigationc ‘i.hcjwldn tiio effioionc;;’ of eohool products 
 has boon rseasured by the sis^jlc standardized toots that lijnrc ooirvinood aikl 
 are still convinoing practical school rson and iTocien of tlK> oi^riority of 
 ailont over cral poading, both in point of speed and cocprs^ionsion. Tlio ap- 
 plication of a variety of ocientifio stendordisod reading tests to pupils 
 in the elenan'-ary aohool, hic^wsohool, :$nd collogo luic resulted in tlio acous:a« 
 lation of volitdnoua; dato'confirning tlio abervo oonol\islono of the orq^orln^ntol 
 laboratory. 
 
 (u). 3a.:iparlcon of Hatos. In 1013 Plntnor (22) oonductod (\n in- 
 
 ▼ootigaticn ’...I twontywtlaroo pupils in Uio fourtli grade in t/^doh ho found 
 
 

 
 
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-13- 
 
 that the pupils reading silently averaged eight lines more per minute 
 than when reading orally — a superiority of 40 per cent in point of speed. 
 Oberholtzer 's (23) investigation of the rate of silent and oral reading, 
 as shown by testing 1800 elementary school pupils in grades three to eight, 
 yielded superior averages for silent reading in all of the six grades 
 examined. Starting in the third grade with an average superiority of 0,2 
 more words per second when reading silently than when reading orally, the 
 superiority of silent reading in point of speed continued to manifest it- 
 self increasingly through all the grades, until, in the eighth grade, the 
 pupils read approximately one complete word more per second silently than 
 they did orally — the averages being 3*9 and 4,8 respectively. 
 
 The investigation of Meade (24) with 100 sixth grade pupils, and es- 
 pecially the extensive study reported by Judd covering all the grades in 44 
 different schools, prove the grater rapidity of silent over oral reading be- 
 yond all shadow of doubt. This conclusion, after all, is only what one would 
 naturally be led to expect. For vocalization involving rather elaborate move- 
 ments of the lips, tongue, vocal chords, and general throat mechanism is a 
 much slower process than visualization. Consequently, in oral exhibition, the 
 reader is obliged to retard the rate of visualization in order that the more 
 tedious process of vocalization may keep pace with it. Synchronization of the 
 vocal and visual records of oral readers, as secured through an elaborate 
 mechanical equipment is an investigation, the results of which are soon to 
 be published by G. T, Buswell in his dissertation for the doctorate at the 
 University of Chicago, offer corroboration of the above conclusion. 
 
 (b) Comparison of Comprehension , Not only is silent reading more rapid 
 than oral reading but it is also superior in point of comprehension of the 
 matter read. Though oral reading secures more time for the process of com- 
 prehension, yet the division of attention which oral exhibition necessitates. 
 
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-14- 
 
 drawing part to the task of articulation and enunciation, and part to the 
 understanding of the content, seems more than to counter-balance the first 
 apparent advantage. The effort to emmciate correctly, to stress in accor- 
 dance with the laws of the rhetorician, renders difficult that strong con- 
 centration of attention upon the content side which is the sine qua non of 
 effective thought mastery, and which is more readily obtainable in simple 
 visualization. 
 
 The results of testing by means of various forms of reproduction of the 
 matter read serve to reenforce the above conclusion. Meade reports that all 
 the sixth grade classes reproduced more effectively when they read silently 
 than when they read orally. Pintner reports that a greater percentage of 
 points were reproduced by his fourth grade pupils when they read silently. 
 
 As a result of their investigation in 1916, Pintner and Gilliland (25) draw 
 the following conclusion: "the silent reading of the adult is quicker than 
 the oral reading and at the same time the number of ideas remembered is 
 slightly greater, certainly much greater per unit of time," 
 
 (c) Correlation between Speed of Reading and Quality of Comprehension. 
 Besides demonstrating the greater efficiency of silent over oral reading in 
 point of speed and comprehension a number of investigations have shown the 
 existence of a positive correlation between rapidity of reading and quality 
 of comprehension. As far back as 1897? Quantz's (26) study led him to con- 
 clude that the rapid readers average approximately 37 per cent superiority 
 over slow readers in the quality of their work. He observed then, what 
 later researches have confirmed, that the memory in the case of rapid readers 
 seems to be more accurate, introducing in the reproduction of the matter read 
 less extraneous matter than in the case of slower readers. As a result of 
 his study reported in 1911? Hendricks (27) concluded: "in the percentage of 
 thought reproduced the rapid readers excel, giving 91 per cent of the thought 
 as compared with 76 per cent reproduced by slow readers." After an extensive 
 

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-15- 
 
 study of 1831 pupils Judd (28) reports: "These figures serve to emphasize the 
 fact that good readers are usually not slow and poor readers are usually not 
 fast. It will be shown later, in detail, that rate is parallel in a major- 
 ity of cases with general efficiency in reading. For the moment, it is 
 enough to point out the chief reason why ability to read rapidly is a fair 
 measure of the mastery which the reader has of the printed page. The poor 
 reader is one who is unable to pass readily from the printed symbol to the 
 meaning. For the poor reader the mere mechanical processes are obstacles 
 and he loses time in trying to perform the preliminary acts which are neces- 
 sary before he can comprehend the passage. In the case of the good reader, 
 on the other hand, the mechanics of the process are very fluent and rapid, 
 
 Ihe proficient reader has mastered the words and moves on without hesitation 
 to the meaning.” W, S, Gray (20) thus aptly epitomizes the experimental 
 findings on this point: "The rapid reader is usually more efficient than 
 the slow reader.” 
 
 SILENT READING THOUGH MOST IMPORTANT IS NEGLECTED BY THE SCHOOL 
 Though investigations have shown the superior speed of silent reading 
 and its greater efficiency as a basic instrument for the gathering of thought 
 and ideas from the printed symbols , yet one finds that the schools not only teach 
 reading as an oral exercise but stress that side to the almost complete exclusion 
 and disregard of silent reading. There is no place in the curriculum in the 
 overwhelming majority of our schools for silent reading. But may not this ap- 
 parent anomaly find its justification on the grounds of the greater use to which 
 oral reading is put? Frequency or extensiveness of use has come to be considered 
 probably the strongest criterion determining not only the inclusion or exclusion 
 of the various parts of a subject but also the relative stress to be placed up- 
 on on them. This is on the very reasonable ground which finds expression in the 
 

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 ia {wooiaely i«>ro U^t tii« case far cllant Goor<5K itc x>oint# 
 
 ikw? often ilo©;; the awri»/;^o ?«rccfB 'h-'m} oooaalcn for-- or«l -rRhibitlcn? The isrrlt* 
 cr has boon prooonc. in aevor .vX olaasea in tsiiioh fcbo ctndont:.- \wro asked to roo^ill 
 one Inotanco ol* oral reading of tho sohool in the pae^ saontxi# 7bss instance 
 fiOt forthoaair.g* 
 
 Tho plidn :.'acts fs^o tiiot. ti’wa ocoaeiesne royulrinsr oral cx^.ibltion froca 
 eitJror adult or tlie pw)41 are notoriously few in life* Practically all the 
 roodin-^ of Uwi asvera^ person is dcuK;: silently* Im reads tijc nt^wspapor, the xsag* 
 ozliao» tho ooieniifio r-jyml, not far pur|>ooe8 of or«i display, but 
 
 for the sole ^^iifpoee cT gatlierinrt tJie ?snd ideas oontalnod' ti'^ereln* uc»« 
 
 eo ,,uontly tho tralnln-’ in oral readlnf which lasts tlyroar^'iout all the rrades 
 of tho eloraentary ochocl eeldoD, if ev^r, tmiatlGm in aotu-il life* But for th© 
 silent t;. pe of roa<;lng which a porsem is oblicjed to wo'-^ aliaost daily durin?^ bis 
 seliooi o^eer us well m: subsc::^‘iiontl'/, th® school has mdc no atteript to tr^xln* 
 nd thie in spite of Ui© fact tha- the coJiool ie iaxppoocd to train for t?i€? sub* 
 
 - s'i^q^Gnt of actu':U lif®, unc to hasm its am actiwitios approsiimie, 
 
 r> *" 
 
 iih-.«loa«ly as^>podtibIe*>tb>ei’ real <>o?idittcno of life* 
 
 miss CIS CitiL HWis*a maijuffTAt 
 TO rmic’mh. diLBUT ai-AtiBO* 
 
 Palling to I'orcei'TO the aaooesity of proptiring th® pupil for this in* 
 portant activity in whioh zasn ant! in every vocation of life jaust ongare, 
 
 the 8C ool not only fails to train t!io pupil for this kind of vorh, but actual- 
 ly builds up fixed habits of word— pron’.«K>iation and os-tioulation of a slow, 
 plodt!ln<r oharactor Yftiioh man:r Inr/estig itoro filloK® aro alxaost minouc to tlis 
 formation of the oppoeitc habits of rapid, offootivo, silent reading, of tho 
 iseaningful type* ’Tailo it lo true that olotu* and distinct at tioulation and ?.o* 
 ourato protTunoiation ore noooa&ary fc«r corroot apoooh and oro ao'','uire;:) 0 ntc of 
 
17 
 
 no doubtful value, for which the school imist train, yet it is necessary to re 
 oo? 3 iize that correct enunciation is not synonj-TTiWAS with reading, which consists 
 essentially in the gathering of tliought from the printed page. It is quite 
 a distinct process, and should be taJAght as such, in a period set aside for the 
 specif io task of word-pronotmclng, syllabrication, articulation, sand the explan- 
 ation of the phonic properties of the vai'ious letters* 
 
 The distinction between those two typos of work is fimdorxmtal and 
 cannot bo oraphasised too strongly* The failure of man y schools to recognise 
 it , has led then to the confusing assuiaption that in teaching axticulation, 
 the phonic properties of words, and accurate vrord-pronouncing, they are teach- 
 ing reading* The result of this stress on the oral side has been to focus the 
 attention largely upon the pronunciation, with a corresponding loss to the oora- 
 prehension* Indeed, the number of pupils whoso rdnds are to be practically 
 blank when stopped suddenly by tho teacher, and asked to tell what they had 
 just been reading aload,has seldom failed to astonish the teachers who hav© oc- 
 casionally employed this sinple checking device* It shows hOA? detrimental alikt 
 
 to speed and to effective oomprelionsion is the exclusive teaching of the oral 
 as-^ct of reading* 
 
 ‘.^nlle there is every reason to believe that th© teaching of reading 
 has made mny stricos forward since the days of lioraoe Clonn, yot it v/'ould seem 
 that sonsc poi'its of similarity still persist, as is eviden t from the follow- 
 ing description of the resrjlts of tho teaching of reading as reported by him 
 to the ‘..assaohussotts Board of Muoation in 1858* Tho passage is quoted by 
 Judd, as follows: 
 
 have devoted especial pains to learn with soiae degree of 
 noznarical accuracy how far the reading, in our schools, is an ex- 
 ercise of the mind in thinking 8Wid feelinft and hiow far it tis a 
 barren action of the organs of speech upon the atmosphere* ily in- 
 
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 tcmmtion ic , vjrimipall:/ iVo:a ttis ^tUm atutcren^ of 
 
 vho Bohool (^sjnXtttm of tho roapocrti'w 'CK^n ’wI'ho cira 
 
 aert^rily exs&i^t froo all t€ffa|>tation %o disparix^ tiifa ooJ^Xs t-liej/' 
 «up«rlT»tont-. racult ic, tiiat J^oro than eX«'W»*tti©lfU’o i>.f ell th© 
 
 Oi^ltSr<rn in t»h«> peodin?^ olaasoe in o«r eclioolo do not utidorst^ind th© 
 laoanian of tbs ^sords they ro'vdj that Usey do not laostor tlio ©ens© of 
 tbo poadiii'? losocRi* tliat t^:; id^oae and fooXisi^jG ivitondod by th-« 
 seuthor to Ik* oomroyod to, and osxsitod in, tl’aa reader* s riind, ©till 
 r©;.,t is author’s intontios, mvpQT roaohod tlio r>lao>o 
 
 of their cootination* j*jad \yj tbit* is not E»ant that tlio colsolars 
 do no'c. obtain aiK^i a fiill cosnrel'^osisios of thr gabjoot of tho r©adis?? 
 leosoiis, in it® ■rariodjc relations m& boariti^, &£ a eoiostifio or 
 erudite rotvd-sr liferi.tld do, but ta^t they do not a<;<|uiro a roiiijonabie 
 and praotioal undoretandin:^^ of thc^ It ismld hariUy ma^ that ti-jt 
 f30E3>lT»<3 ©ffortc of ail persons ooiild soocfc.plish^d mot'o 
 
 in iJolbatin,^ the t:uo ob;^o«ta of reading* * 
 
 Eot Tor; eifferont is this rospoot frorj th& days ef Ilor-?.cc :ann, 
 or© tf» present cf tbo t©a-.>Mn?“' of rc?,«Jin?; laooordin^ to the oosicltieion 
 
 of Judd, r©nol;od after an eidTmstiTo stud;; of tlie ppfment ctat>s of roadinr in 
 our echoole; 
 
 ” !'«n;/ a pf37>ll loaToc school equipped laith the taeohonioal abllitv 
 to road words, but '»tterly usf,iC 0 u«iint©d with tho possibiHtv of irt©'-- 
 pretafcio:*., ..;ohool roadinr; haa ?>eon a formil oorcarjotsy for tho pupil, 
 lie has forrafK'. tl;© habit of thir^sln^ tha • t!io viorda riaTe boon adoc« 3 at©-» 
 ly do lit with when they hr,To Tjoon eoiandod. The suit is r/ith tbt> 
 aohocl’o s«lootlc>n of reatSin^ miter anti \/ith tbo aoJiool^ oc^hnsia 
 on rjoro t-eohaniota perfection in oral reiiding... Tho pretsent pr.-aotice 
 o~ oontintjinj? drills in the raaobenios cf reading? iJiro'.ir*-. the ©lonontary 
 ooiiool undoubtcHlly rotardo pupils ratlw- tb^m helps Uu.n:u” 
 
 TJiOmdikc (SI) cosaes to a oiriilar conolution after an oxhavictivo mifily* 
 cic of on-ore jciado ijy ohildron conoomin^ tho ! 3 fittor wixjy hud J;;at road; 
 
19 * 
 
 j.n cjo';')©??! practicKi it .ipt^c-ar© lilcrjly 
 
 ?iiat e:Ker6ii3oG in ©ilent 
 
 -to fitx" tf-js? anst^ors to |ti*?on oue:;ti<stis, oz' tc si a;i£E! 3 ry 
 cx ti'oe mtter- read, or to list %lw qoostiona v^ieihj It «(«ie»®re e/owld 
 in lar^ replay oral rcadin?^* 7 ’og t’-icc of Ur. poor roador is 
 
 vO oay the ’ 1 /of‘dc to vitl'out ^iotlv^'ily ooj>» 
 
 ^roiof*: ®liat they rovo?il* oadir!!^ o*" lis’tooij*^ to oiiti..: o«* 
 
 lorn<; loa-Tf^ thio vioo tmaltorct] or rnmn onccytiir^i<u» ?or!‘t-ips it is 
 Ir. their ctitsido roacin'’ o.'' stori 0 ^, an-c? in tho.tr stotl; of f^ograpJny, 
 oietory, an<3 th« iiho, tlmt .laany children really la--irr to road*” 
 
 ^roovoi', vi',e habits oi' ©lov; L-ioa^'iJiis'io-’il reodino, ri&tv.lti::\g frorj a 
 
 i^rocul^/ isiE^liiOoo c^E|jhuols fro--; cofootl'?© jx^tiiOsiSr of tcaci'iin?^ roaci?if!,la.st 
 not CKil;/ thirin,? tlm paniln sohool oaroor, feat to poroist till his dying 
 day* TJhdoufetodi,' aan;/ a reader go no fc«riljer thson his cr.n oas^r to find 
 
 a aonoroto illr.istration oi" oao .yenoraliaatictt mda Irj lim'/i 
 
 '^ivO'notlosc Esai^ of' «s 4bjiv?dlo iilons? in ersr reac'in^? at a plcd-» 
 ding paeo trMoh sc't aa3<3 hardened in Uie cay© of lictleos per** 
 in-;’ OTor uninterostirg tasks or in anltaticn tho .•.la;. readin-=* alo'>d 
 v.'-doh waft so um-iiiy going or. oitF^r xritli ourselvoe or irith ot!ws 
 
 ir. tbo aUioal*” 
 
 Ifev: apehot of praotioaXly all tii© imrcMStigations in tho general 
 field Oi. roadtng has been, Uioret'oro, wo point <mt Uk? snp''riorlty cf client 
 over oral reading as an instnsarrnt f ,r tfso gathering of thof.r^y.t £Vcb the print- 
 od page. la-^orote esp*irirwjntal ssacies, in wdoh the oonetituent prooesces 
 of tl-ic reading -eottiplox have >«5©n oarefully analysec, bavc> dlcolosed the physio- 
 *ogioal basift o.f this miperierity in feeor fixate on-paxisss per line, in' shorter 
 avorti.ge dxxro.sions of thea^io, and in fov^r rogreesiTo znorottssnls of tho o^res* 
 i >2 dlsoovery o ' fet?©r fijrutioa-oausee per line indirootl;, but ocnolasivoly 
 provec tlio funoticnin- of a wider poroeptuai span in ciUtnt U;xn in orali .-'©ading 
 The expoi'irionc.al ’inclnr^s cf th*j psyohologionl. lubr<asory huv ■ :.c vn furt'vor co,r>* 
 flrrscd fey the iToyatb of fate nhlrf-, h-w rosvltoC iVoni tho poz'feotion and appll- 
 oati n of tho roctcntlj/ ct Andurdizod readlui?; toatc trhioh nrov..- ocnolusively the 
 rrrottter offieionoy of clltrit roadiag, 'Otl, in point o" cpcod sne’ cetnpre>:encicn. 
 
30 . 
 
 In vio'." o? tSKs a!>evo t.h© ^11 Ise raifiod: , 
 
 uTiy U»on &00& Uio sobool tT-sa eintire ros'iding pearie*. in pr;.ifjtioesl)y all 
 
 tlie grades to tho oi‘ or.%A oashioitics-?, as it Wr© 'Ui© solo ftn- 
 
 etnuTJorst of valwo, to tho cosplet© es:ol\isic3i f'iiud a|j£«3lut,o ci©r©ffo;s*4 of oilont 
 reading? In otI-i©r t?or<?3 , Mv does the soJvocl do^oto itsoli? alssost 
 ly» ®o far ©a; tho nftji^isvt period is ccnsoOi^sod, to th® ootuing yp of 'wordf 
 ppctio-;mcin-- and tlw? irooalisoticii of tiM# printed leiv'io’i isadito are wry 
 
 oeidcia if ©wr \»co<1 ot-rteid-e of t!i© fonsxl roadint? |»riod of t-io eoijool, said 
 rafflcct ol-roet ©sjtirel;; Ui© fonaa^loft of ^»e kaldts of far ^re-stor T-alno^*- 
 habits of rapid, offaotivc, ail«mt rs idin^, tbs type? is qoiolc to -AsaisW 
 
 late the thought. fpOKi the i^inted s.ta^xsl©, the kirjd that is oalled l^feo fnno* 
 ticn owry dsy of the pupil's ooJiocl rfarser ;aac! during praotioally «m>ry day 
 of hiff *ubsequf>nt lifet 
 
 Tl>s -saew-^r Us Uie aboVf? cpiosticsn is too**£*cld. First, mlority of 
 the iwrestigritlc^is reported abovt are o£ o-irttiparatiwly roo?:?nt diats* TMe is 
 espooicolly tme of tiso saass cf i?w©Sii^tionE rjSsi^rinr the offioi4mcy of 
 roadtn^^ by jaovsas of t^Ks s's^iinuardisod toe ts» llim balk of, haw sooorrsd 
 only ■eithin tile past deoado. ihs pruetimU £i<pQifiof3a50o of the findings ie 
 only no.- bef^iminr* to filter t4srou;i*h %ho i?aet arc:y of pr acUieal aohocl 
 van anc mjperintondon^>s, rrinoipals esu.t tosioh^rs* ^duc-itianal praotiee 
 
 csjst al«sAys la? GO'sepshat behind oduoationai thsoory, as ivn-li .is IsohlBd th© 
 findings o? eolontiflo rostvarori* ..bon th© restjlts of Golontifio otndiee l-so- 
 oor« dlscvTsinatov' «iif.fioicntly broafiaast throri^horst ti^ ri'udis of praotical 
 eo^iool pooplo, the oohoclo, Of'pooiolly tiiAsc dlreoted by pro^^oosiw! «<htoftt.» 
 er?>, will not fall to tsodify t-ssir iK'osoTit praotlc© HfK'1 to iiV 3 orpor-*to Intc 
 ts-oir laode of prooodsii*© the nuv.' rsothcH’s, toohnl<yi€ and relative stro/^e ?ifVleh 
 spring dlrootly frmi the oortaln findinj?© of soicntiflo res ^ i.r-’sh* 
 
 ih© second r-©ason for th© ahaos!; ex sluslvc of oral reading. 
 

 
21 
 
 ■ and the r?e!?lect of silent reading, is the faot that, as vet, no s stenatic 
 Eiethods for the tsaordng of silent re ad ins;, haire been tTorked out. There are 
 as yet, no typos of training:, in rapid silent readin.p, n-Idch haire been devel- 
 oped and adapted to the actual ^orkinv oonditions of the class-roon. The ex- 
 periaents to train in effective silent reading: tiius far have boen'ian^lv' 
 concerned irith one or tr-o, orat laost, a smll s:roup of subjects, and the ©x- 
 periEonters have replied to a larj^e ejrtent upon tho technical appai-&;.?;.s of the 
 psjC.iOiogicai 1 ucrav^ories, such as the tachistosoepe, etc,, to produce the de- 
 sarad results, Koedless to say, the general use of such appai’atus by the 
 schools as tjK5 present tirse, at least, is both iupractical and impossible. 
 Indeed, the bulii of the instruiiiants such as the tachistosoope,tho fall chron- 
 o.ieter, and the various binds of perceptual apparatus have been constructed for 
 the use of biib a single subject, and extensive nodificatiens ^ould be necessary 
 before they trould dc suitable for group usage. 
 
 In sharp contrast to the poucity or rather ooiaplste lack of class- 
 room laethods for the teaching of silent re-ading, nunorous methods and systezris 
 for the teaching of tho ne'chanics o'" oral reading have been most carefully 
 •ffcrkcd oat. Occupying for cent’aries a doroinant place in the olementarj/ cur- 
 riculum it has received the thought and sbud;,^ of many minds. It is but natural 
 that teachers ^11 contiiras to use the present methods of teaching reading un- 
 til other methods have been devised trhich not only shift the emphasis to that 
 phase of the teaching of reading wher© it uill produce the best results, but 
 "BThich arc suitable for class-room use as \ 7 ell, 
 
 Viea'ed in the ligh'c of tie historical genesis, the touching of read- 
 ing ns an oral subject has como doisn into the present curriculum as a heritage 
 fron the ancient days oratory, speech and vocal instructions wore not only 
 
 bno most important buu almost the sole instjroment of thought and knov/ledge. 
 Before ne invention of printin'^, manuscripts involving, as they did, so natch 
 
and mioh tedious labor, wnr© rtoooKe»rily osrtr<r*K'>l fe% in co;.3p<>iriron vrlth the 
 
 products of tho pros^?nt day precc, md nmM not r‘ansUttrto aiv'thin^ Uk© the 
 
 \ 
 
 trportant ?-sodiur.i of instrtjotion tiMeh Kooko c’© al thn present day. "liile 
 prlntio;’ h rovolut ionised t.;ve oon^itlrms for the of Ideas and and the 
 
 general csoims of 6jd?Joation^^et the o©?;o<?l undor tb© &%>ay of oustoss ^mc’ tradition 
 has ^-i*©S€ireod altjost intf.iOt the mrvla^ihm of of conu?rtos past, 
 
 ^yith its sole sUvssti u|5or* oral eKlnibiblcan, in spite of tl:o faot teiat the oh- 
 oootive oanditione of Ufo for ^lioh that ourriouiua \f&a cenetnjoted, no 
 lunger exists I'he subject ci' like all ot^jor branolico of tbo ourric- 
 
 ulm toners, xiilh bho laps.- of tto, to i^osio potril*i©f}^a fossil of ^is;oient 
 praotiooG usiisss it is aubjoctsd to GcnsUmt revieic'n, rxKllfioation and 
 . to S»et the oorrospeedin^ oSiseiges in «» ohieativco eonflltiene of 
 
 =edom lire. ti« ^ «o<«:jueU=cnt. of a oatetantial s!:ift cf «,r.h«ele 
 
 in this portion of the oohool’s ourriouius.to aoot Uie ohan^c oslernnl oon- 
 dltions of tho noOern t^orld is both olnriono «„> aroontli 
 
 -■liirT fhou OktL to ssifi-r m* 
 
 This mwKird, road^iictaont 0!Ui he efiteotoi: Sjy ahimnj t}» erajhasie 
 
 oil to e-lan. roaolnf~ in ether serfs, hy tosohino ollont reaeino. ?hls 
 
 ia the eonolasion roaoi»e by praotioelly ooo,^ j^nstl.-; otor in this field. 
 
 is e re»jlt of their Inoooti.fationB of th., ocEparntnn. offioiono:, of the oral 
 
 end silent rrscinj of tl» p,.pUs in u» olo^o.o-y oot«cls. in the Mfh sohool. 
 
 and in t!.o ooUero. Pintnor and SiUilara; dr®, the follosinc si-3ni£Uo™t 
 elusion: 
 
 Thue it Tfould eppoar that silent rc««;tnr is urK'ouh' e.n-, 
 
 Odopted'-tc «; t-dir.ary 
 
 me thsLn ti .oLt‘^.:cS,TorX!S“‘* ^ ~*>- 
 
 .'Tohobly no on., hir. brou.;h, ou, oBrs sfcroaitl or oonoinoinsly the 
 
23 
 
 pressing need for a radical shift of e:rrphasi5 froE$ oral to silent reading than 
 hac Judd* :\fter pointing out the mss of evidence frora the photographic re- 
 cords of eye-noveraente and froa the Application fo standai'dised reading tests, 
 •srhich shoe; the UTsrdst icaole s'uperiority of silent reading, Judd. concludes; 
 
 '’Enough ’evidence) has been brought together to laaks it certain that 
 in the middle grades there is a change in relation between or.allonguage 
 and reading which ought to be recognised by a radical change in methids 
 of insii'uction* Oral reading should give way to silent residing and 
 phonic analysis should give place to xror. analysis* Meanings shoild 
 be eiaphasized and not the mechanical pronunciation of words* 
 
 a.any schools have not recognized the deraand for a r.ev type of 
 instruction in reading from the foxirth grade on, and as aresult, 
 have seriously in^iured the developaent of pupils. •• The oral laethods 
 which are legitimate in the lower g’-ads bocone inappropriate Tsdth 
 the growth in fluency and range of rreotnition.. . It is a mistake to 
 jeopardise the child’s independent, fluent, silent rearing in the fourth 
 prrade by insisting this period on the usual oral exercises*.. The 
 conscientio 'S teacher supplied eith a reading book anc a period in t 
 the nrograni carries on the r/cll-known reading farce in the vain hope 
 that the effects of unsuccessful teaching will be ovorcomo by liber- 
 al -ipplication of the sattie methods that prodijoed the difficulties* 
 
 Teachers ought to recognize with clearness, the fact, that in the 
 upper gi'ades silent re^icing is the really useful typo of re ding. 
 
 They ought to understand that pxipils outgrow oral training just as 
 infants 0 ’t grow creeping when they loam to stand up and valk.” 
 
 The above quotation from Judd may be said to represent fairly well 
 
 the consensus of opinion of all the investigators and oarefull students of 
 
 this subject* 
 
 Cli/^TF;R II. 
 
 TliE PhOBLili. 
 
 Even after the need for the teaching of effective silent reading has 
 ocme to be gcnerall • recognized by teachers* they will still bo hampered and 
 restrained by the lack of a satisfactory technique, the lack of suitable 
 n»t’ ods for the teaching of rapid reading. Up to the present writing, there 
 has been practically no systematic attempt to utilize the wealth of data af- 
 forded by the experimental investigations and the luborator;* rerearches into 
 the nature and mode of fun cticning of the various constituent processes of 
 
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the readin;r oo2:plex, for the forraalaticn of laetbods of training in effcctiTre 
 rapid silent reading, which are adapted to a whole class under the ordinary 
 conditions of the school-room* This appears to the writer to be the outstand- 
 ing problem, of urgent , practical iiaportanoe in the entire field of the psych- 
 ology and pedagogy of reading. IMless the findings of the psychological 
 laboratory and of the experimental investigations can be adapted to the devel- 
 opment of practical methods of cls.GS-roosi procedure, the teaching of reading 
 will continue ti be in the future, as it has been in the past, the slow, me- 
 chanical, oral type, unbenofited and unirnproved by all the discoveries of 
 scientific research. 
 
 To construct, for the teacher in the elass-ro-in, t;,'pes of training 
 in effective r ipid silent reading, based upon findings of experiiaenbal science 
 constitutes the problom in this imrestigawion. Fmcienoy in silent roadin?r de 
 pends upon both speed and compreliensicn. I^tliile mesms have been taken to safe- 
 g<^ard the oor.iprehension, the chief stress has been placed upon methods of in- 
 creasing the rapidity of silent reading. In an age which the l>est thought 
 is coiarGitted to writing, and in which the printed symbol htis supplanted the 
 spoken word, as the chief instrumentality for the disserdnatien of knowledge, 
 the ability to read with speed and yet with understanding is o flmd ^mental 
 importance . 
 
 cincG the literature in praoticall; e'/ery field is now so voluminous 
 that none but the fastest can hope to cover any considerable portion of its 
 extent, it may be safe to say that, other things being equrOL, a person’s effi- 
 ciency in his profession will bo largely proportional to the rapidity with 
 which ho can gather the thought from the printed page* .In increase of speed 
 im silono reading will, therefore, not only effect an appreciable economy of 
 tine and effort in the work of education, bub it will increase the efficiency 
 of both pupil and the adult. It will moreover satisf^' a keenly felt human 
 
 • For thore are probably few persons who have not as some time or 
 
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 oth'n* , felt a{?let^ with Uws^ irifs‘€sti<ible Idnrin'? to pox\&tneAe cleopei* 
 
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 \ 
 
 by aeeinilatini^ the ^'/rltten thCTifl»ht of the sa&stors ^bo hiive 
 
 crone before# X csBnsldorablo Inoroaoo in jjoeec? of readln*; it i‘^o one offe otlve 
 
 instriraont whicJ; vlll aid thoK in the regAisation of desire# 
 
 The TsTTiter foelc that the ffrobloss* io, therefor®, net Cfuy of aoadec?*’ 
 
 ie Interest, but ie one' of roal, intence, ^?raotiofal iisportsmo® funotional 
 
 veluo# If suooeesful in the ^jcmstruotion of types of tralnin??: which will 
 
 actually inere ics-; tiic spoof; of residing to a ecnslcerabic estent, evendoublinf* 
 or tripjvin^ its rate, the writer foeis that, trie atucy will haw ae!i*v®d as a 
 
 ueefaX liMJtnjfciKr.it in la'injrine reaultc of Of^'er hiSlif a oentury of scientific 
 03Cporii:»n .ation tc h^ear cireetly upon tJi® actual teaching of ro-ading, rendering 
 
 Vi«» latter iKEaonocXy sfciori-s fruitfta ©ffeotiw© f'or the ohildnsii of .twrioa* 
 
 Toe irrreotigaticn sec::« first to detennine the 'faricr-is factors <5on^ 
 
 dltlonin.r; the doveloprsjsst of speed in silent reading, ts a^ioertaln the ook^ • , 
 
 parative Inflwonoo of the difl'cront .fr^torfl in aoaolerating ib- reading rate, 
 
 and to ooBibire the ijf^ortfint faotorr. intc a forsulntion of suooocsfiil type© of 
 
 trainings ir. silent reading# the im^stlgation seeks mlnly to ftirnich 
 
 a pr-OtiO'kl ;tnswor to tlie cuestion, isspllott in the rdndc of thoiieands. Row oan 
 
 1 read Sior© rapidly ssid yet with undf)r®t.'-i33din«'? , there are a niuahei* of rdnor 
 
 problems upon which th^i inrcstiratic^^ is ©srpeotod to ;/icld adeitictial d fta* 
 
 Cp Soae of the cnieationc upon this sUnly fhmir-hoa informtion for the 
 
 derolopv»nt of at least tr'wtative ;m«R«ors ao*e oucl-; es- t!t© folioxdng: rc«,'- does ' 
 
 an inoreace in the spood of reading itff&ot ttao ooiapreljonsion’? In other words. 
 
 Is the ooasproiK^nBlcn ti»oroby dcoroi&ed, unaffbotod, or inarvACvd? to the 
 
 Indlvld'ial difforonoes In rat© tend to deoreano or to hooona riot-e prorsdnont as 
 
 a result of tralnirr in silent roadingl wliat cradee show the groabost suscopt* 
 
 ibility to Inprcnroja- rtt ir. r to of ailonb reading? At what s . i-tee in tlio p^*o» 
 
 «‘oeo through Vno .grodos ohcrild epood of sllont rr«adln,g roooiro b’-je yrentoGt 
 
Z6 
 
 stress? Does speed of readiBg seem to be conditicnefi chiefly by a native netir- 
 ologicil factor Tshose limits of possible variation or BKsdification are rather 
 dofinitel:/ fixed? If sc, siay the rate of the neurological factor functioning 
 in the eye«i®30veaents or the visualisation of the printed page, b© determined 
 by a simple roaceion-tiac test? Does-tbe quality oend to; persist in spite of 
 changed rental attitudes, assumed in reading for different purposes? l^o the 
 present forms for rate of silent reading for the various grades still possess 
 validity after training has been given in rapid silent reading? vdiat are ten- 
 tative standards for rate, for grades in ■wliioh pupils have been trained in 
 rapid silent reading? 
 
 Data Trill also be presented ceneeming some of the problems previous- 
 ly mentioned, such as the effect of habits of increased speed upon the per- 
 ceptual span, upon the duration and number of fixation-pauses per line, and upon 
 the rate of the inter-fixation movements and the return STreope— data -which 
 will bo of interest chiefly to students of the technical psychology of read- 
 ing* Some sugn’estions for the irprovement of the Courtis filent Heading 
 tests, employed in this investigation^ have also resulted from the study* 
 
 The inonogr-’.ph ivill accordingly trea*^ of(I) the factors -affecting 
 
 the development of speed in silent reading, (2) their fonmilation into t^'pes 
 of training, (3) the results of the application of such methods, (4) the 
 
 interpretation of the results, (5) the effect upon the motor behavior of the 
 
 eyes, and (6) the conclusions. 
 
9 P' 
 
- 27- 
 CliAPTSR III. 
 
 FACTORS IRFr.UBIICIKG THE RATE OF SILI^KT RSi\DIHG. 
 
 V/hat are the factors affecting the rate of silent reading? E'ith 
 the single exception of <^luantz*s exiDeriment (E6) during 1897 in the psyoho- 
 logioal laboratory at the University of Visoonsin, there has been no other 
 investigation of an experiiaontal character, to the ■writer’s knovrledge, ■which 
 has mde the ans'v.er to the above query the primary object of researoh* 
 
 There have been, hov/ever, numerous investigations i.hich have ascertained the 
 rate of silent reading of various groups of pupils* Those pupils have often 
 displayed different levels of achievement, as ■well as different methods of 
 procedure and different characteristics in their reading, so tliat deductions 
 have occasionally been dra’wn as to the factors ^diich conditioned the resultant 
 rates of achievement* This has been done oliiefly by the process of correla- 
 tion, rather than by the rigorous isolation of a single factor and then, 
 under controlled conditions, measuring its potency* The latter iiiethod^ t^le 
 most fruitful in the physical sciences, is not possible in the complex type 
 of mental activity required in a single act of reading* 
 
 Correlations have been found sufficiently high, hov/ever, to indi- 
 cate in a general T/ay the influence of certain factors in accelerating or 
 in retarding the reading rate* The factors tjhioh will be enuraerated ore 
 the by-products, as it ■were, of nvaiverous investigations of various phases 
 of reading, conducted both in the psychological laboratory and in the school- 
 room* It is thought that all the factors v,hioh investigations have indicated 
 to be of appreciable consequence in conditioning the rate, have boon included 
 in the subsequent enumeration* The present study thus endeavors to utilize 
 all the data wtiioh previous investigations have afforded on this particular 
 

 
 
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- 28 - 
 
 phase of reading. These factors have been inoorj>orated into various typos 
 of training to increase the rate. By applying these types of training to 
 hundreds of school children in grades three to eight inclusive, the influence 
 of these factors in accelerating the rate vdll thus be experimentally tested. 
 
 The follordng is a list of factors ^dch previous investigations 
 and the general literature on the subject indicate to be of some importance 
 in conditioning the rate of reading. Saoh factor -will be considered sep- 
 arately. 
 
 1. Practice in Rapid Silent Reading. 
 
 That practice in a certain line of activity is aai imfjortant factor 
 in conditioning the quantity and quality of the resultant product, is a fact 
 '.dxich probably no one tdll deny. This principle of tiie influence of prac- 
 tice applies to the reading process as it does to other mental aotivites. 
 Huey*s ovm case is an interesting illustration of the result achieved thru 
 a determination to increase his reading rate by persistent practice. He 
 says; 
 
 have considerably increased iry ovm speed in reading 
 by ^Taking up to the fact that rate was unnecessarily slow, 
 and then persistently reading as fast as possible tilth v/ell 
 concentrated attention, tald.ng care to stop short of fatigue 
 until the nev pace was somev/iiat established. I thus roaohed 
 a speed of a page per mimite for such books as Ellis* *The 
 Criminal’ of the Contemporary Scionoe oeries, maintaining this 
 rate for a half hour or so at a time, and with very good com- 
 prehension of vihat vras read, although after such reading a 
 very hasty review of the leading points ims the most satis- 
 factory procedure. iJy earlier speed v;as not half so groat. ”(d) 
 
 Peters (37) conducted an e:cperiment in 1914-15 to detennine the in- 
 fluence of speed drills on silent reading. Tlio investigation ivas conducted 
 in grades three to six inclusive. The speed drills lasted "ordinarily from 
 five to ten riiinutes". The regular oral reading work was not discontinued, 
 those drills being given in addition, vd.thout ho’>/ovGr, giving a greater 
 
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" 29 " 
 
 total period of tine to the experinontal group than that received by the 
 control group. The exporinent lasted seven nonthc. Peters reports a 
 "gain of 18*7 per cent in speed, but a trifling loss in quality as a result 
 of the speed drills.” The following is a suramry of his results in speed 
 attained by the "drill” and the ”no-drill” control groups. 
 
 Table I. 
 
 Speed in Readir.g. 
 
 
 IIov. Q 
 
 Jan. 20 
 
 Apr. 20 
 
 June 2 
 
 Drill Group 
 
 167*7 
 
 266.5 
 
 219.8 
 
 261.4 
 
 Ko-drill Group 
 
 201.1 
 
 248. 
 
 253.8 
 
 264.9 
 
 The e>qperiment of Peters bears some points of siirdlarity to that 
 part of the present investigation which aims at deternining the influence 
 of Type I - Training in Rapid Silent Reading. This investigation differs 
 very considerably from Peters' study, hovrever, in that this type of train- 
 ing constitutes a method oomploto in itself, to wliioh was devoted the en- 
 tire reading period. The ordinary procedure in the reading period of con- 
 ducting oral reading recitations, phonetic exercises, drills in vrord-pro- 
 nounoing, ©to., \Tac entirely replaced by training in speed and con^rehonsion 
 in silent reading. In the experiment of Peters, the regular oral reading 
 v/ork was continued as usual, vdth the addition of a speed drill lasting 
 "ordinarily from five to ten minutes". 
 
 The length of time assigned for the drill in speed in Peters* ex- 
 periment is thus seen to be quite indefinite. Classes seoiiring the full 
 ten minutes for this drill v/ould thus receive tvdeo as much tine for prac- 
 tice in rapid reading as the classes using only five minutes. Such a con- 
 
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 sideralale variation in the possible eaaount of time to be used in speed drills, 
 vdth apparently no record kept of the amount each class actually used v.'ould 
 seen to render difficult and uncertain any comparison betvirecn the gains 
 made by the different classes. Furthermore, the continuance of the regular 
 Tvork in oral reading, to nhioh most of the period ims devoted, along nith 
 the speed drills of five to ton minutes duration, would seem to render the 
 final result the tangled product of a rather complicated and mixed ooiirse 
 of training, 
 
 C, T, Gray (19) reports the results of training a single fifth- 
 grade pupil in rapid silent reading. The practice period varied from 15 to 
 20 minutes a day and continued for tvrenty days, "Speed was the aim here, 
 at the expense of ooraprohencion, ii’ necessaiy. Nevertheless comprehension 
 was also checked up by oral reproduction, .The material for the training 
 was carefully selected, so as not to bo too difficult and yet to require 
 considerable effort on the part of the reader," Concerning the results 
 of the practice, as determined by the same test v/hich was taken before and 
 aftor the training. Gray says: "in every test there is a decided impro-vre- 
 
 nent in speed. In only two of the tests is there any decrease in compre- 
 hension and in each case this loss is on the most difficult tost of the 
 series". 
 
 Unlike the comparatively small increase reported by Poters tlie 
 gain hero varied from 84 per cent to 217 per cent, l^ile no conclusion 
 can be drawn from the perfornanoe of a single pupil, the large gain reported 
 struck the writer as deserving of note. It raised in his mind the query, 
 “Would it be possible to secure a similar percentage of gain iThen dealing 
 Tdth a much larger group of subject? The investigation of the influence 
 of Type I - Training in Rapid Silent Reading - represents the endeavor to 
 secure an answer to that question. 
 
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- 31- 
 
 Oberholtzer (23) conducted an investigation tvith 1800 pupils in 
 grades one to eight, in the Tulsa public schools to determine the rates of 
 reading* Among the conclusions he drans from this study arc the follow- 
 ing: "The rate of reading in all the grades is relatively lower than it 
 
 should be if the habit of reading had from the beginning been acquired thru 
 conscious effort to improve the rate*" 
 
 "One room shairod an increase of 50 per cent in the rate after two- 
 T/eoks practice in rapid reading* These tests s^iov/ed that oral expression 
 and the power to grasp the content were equally improved*" 
 
 In an unpubli'-^-'ed Master *s Thesis (33) at the University of Chicago, 
 Miss BoT/den, thus reports the results of nractice upon the reading of a 
 number of adults: "The figures show that for these two tyoes of subjects 
 
 the reading rate may be markedly increased by practice*" She also reports 
 the influence of a ten-minute exercise in rapid silent reading upon the 
 rate of a sovon-y^ar old boy* The practice continued for 40 days, the child’s 
 rate v.'as increased from 12 words per minute to 56 words per minute* Miss 
 Bovdon is of th^ opinion that similar exercises in rapid reading would prove 
 beneficial in fincreasing the rate of elementary- school children whose motor 
 habits arc not definitely set* 
 
 That practice in rapid silent reading is therefore a factor of prim© 
 importance in conditioning the rate, the above mentioned investigations 
 abundantly show* It is tnie that many of these studios dealt vdth but a 
 very small number of subjects, vAiile in others the scouring of data on this 
 particular point was but a seoondeury consideration* In fact, the ixrvestiga- 
 tion conducted by Peters seems to have been the only one involving a fairly 
 large number of subjects, which had as its primary aim the discovery of the 
 influence of speed drills upon the rate of reading* 
 
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32 
 
 Those studies are, however, interesting and significant at least 
 in the v.Titer*s judgment, not so much for the bulk or ■'.'seigiit of their findings 
 taken by themselves, as for the corroborative evidence of an experinontal 
 character which they lend to a theory which has intrinsically very strong 
 a priori grounds of credibility* For, as will be pointed out at greater length, 
 in the exposition of this type of training in Chapter IV, practice has a very 
 marked influence in other types of activity, and there appears to be no in- 
 herent reason ^Thy reading should prove to be the solitary exception. Of the 
 three typos of training developed in the present study, and of any other eiib- 
 bryonic ones touched upon in the literature on this subject, this riothod is, 
 in the writer's judgment, the most important one, and the one 'fliiich is pos- 
 sessed of the strongest intrinsic grounds of plausibility. It has accord- 
 ingly been made the basic principle or factor upon which has been constructed 
 a distinct Type, namely. Training in Rapid Silent Reading. 
 
 2* The Decrease of Vocalization in Silent Reading. 
 
 The attention of students -vdio have endeavored to analyze the read- 
 ing complex into its constituent processes has often been attracted by the 
 concomitant movements of the lips, tongue, inner palate, pharynx, vocal cords, 
 6ind the general mechanism of speech • The reader ai^)parently not only visual- 
 izes or perceives the printed v/ords, but says them to himself. This com- 
 bination of motor and auditory elements constitutes the so-called “inner 
 speech” of silent reading. A consideration of the origin of this habit, of 
 the psychological role it plays in reading, of the possibilities of eradicating 
 it, etc. is reserved for a subsequent chapter. The writer wdll present here 
 merely the results of investigations vdiioh indioate that the habit of vocal- 
 ization, involving move;nents of the lips, tongue, etc., is a factor influencing 
 the rate of silent reading. 
 
' * * T* J 
 
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33 
 
 One of the e-irliest attei:^ts to dicoover the iiiflueno© of lip move- 
 ment and of tho general motor tendenoy to vocalize was made by Quant z (26) in 
 1897. Concerning the results of his study. Quanta concludes: 
 
 "This shows that the motor tendency ( as raanifested 
 by lip movement) in any degree has an influence detri- 
 mental to rapidity of reading, and the stronger the tend- 
 ency the greater is the hindrance; the nmbers represent- 
 ing the lip movement regularly decrease as reading rate 
 increases, and vice versa . «o The ten slowest readers slx>w 
 aliaost double tlie* mounV of lip laovement that the ten 
 most rapid do*" 
 
 Quarrtz further sought to ascertain the relationship betweon lip 
 movement and the rate of reading* His conclusion is: 'The ratio of lip 
 
 moveinent to total amoiant of reading" is inverse* The "extent of reading 
 works directly against movement of lips" as evidenced by the fact that "not 
 one of those whose reading is VTidest is a lip mover to any extent Tvfhioh can 
 be observed*" 
 
 C* T* Gfay (19) reports the results upon the rate of silent read- 
 ing of training given to decrease vooeilization* Tho two subjects chosen 
 displayed a pronounced habit of vocalizing* The training consisted in first 
 pointing out the disadvantages of the possession of this habit in a narked 
 degroe* They v.'era then requested to read in their natural manner, but ^vith- 
 otrt vocalizing* Gray writes: 
 
 "6oraprehonsion was tested either with oral 
 questions or iTith oral reproductions. Tliat the 
 practice v/as effective was shoTm by tho fact tloat 
 no vocalization was noted v?hen the subjects took 
 the final tests* Their instructor reported that 
 at first there was considerable distraction caused 
 by the attempts to elirainate the vocalization. 
 
 There was, hovrever, a gradual decrease in this dis- 
 traction, and before tho end of the practice period 
 tho reactions of the children seeiiiod perfectly nomal* 
 
 The practice oontinuod for t'wenty days* The length 
 of tine for each day v/as from twenty to thirty minutes." 
 
 A summary of the res’ilts of the training as determined by having 
 
 tho two subjects take tho same tost before and after the praotioo period is 
 
 presented in Table II* 
 
Itil i- 
 
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3^ 
 
 Table II. 
 
 Record of Two Subjects Deforo a ud /ifter Practice in 
 tKe Decrease o'x Vocalisation. 
 
 Reading to Ans^Tor Questions Roauinf^ to Reproduce the Substance 
 
 of Contents. 
 
 Seleotion 
 
 Hate 
 
 
 Compr chons ion 
 
 Seleotion 
 
 Rate 
 
 
 Comj^rehension 
 
 6th 
 
 A 
 
 Gain 
 
 177 % 
 
 Loss 75^ 
 
 B 
 
 Gain 
 
 
 Loss 0.25^ 
 
 Grade 
 
 Subject 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Gain 
 
 8^ 
 
 Loss 1005^ 
 
 4th 
 
 Grade 
 
 D 
 
 Gain 
 
 60 % 
 
 Loss 115^ 
 
 D 
 
 Gain 
 
 39 % 
 
 Gain 71^ 
 
 Subject 
 
 E 
 
 Loss 
 
 13 % 
 
 Loss 115^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table II is to be read thus; On s?>l.eotion A, 6th grade subject made a 
 gain of l?*^ in rate, but lost 75^^ in ooripr ©hens ion as measured by the answer- 
 ing of questions on the matter read. In reading selection B to reproduce the 
 substance of the contents, the 6th grade subject gained 1605^ in rate, and lost 
 0 * 2 % in comprehension. 
 
 Gray thus sutrenarizes the "positive" results of the above e:<peri- 
 
 ment : 
 
 .1. "Training in reading without vocalization results in a 
 marked decrease in this motor accompaniment of reading. 
 
 2. Training of the type mentioned above results in an in- 
 crease in rate. In considering these results for gain in 
 rate, it should bo remembered that the practice work was 
 done at the normal rate. 
 
 The negative results nay be sui.marized as follows: 
 
 1. In five of the seven tests taken by the two subjects 
 there is a loss in oomprehension; in one of the tests 
 no change is shown in the results for coitrprohensionj and 
 in one test there is a gain.” 
 
 In the case of these two subjects the attempt to decrease vocaliza- 
 tion interfered rather considerably with their oomprohension. Tlio conscious 
 attempt at Inhibition ■was ai)pnrently aomordiat disturbing, drawing off part 
 of tho attention from the assimilation of the content to the manner of read- 
 ing it. This disturbing element would seem to be no more than should be ex- 
 pected dxiring tho initial stages of the brooking dovm of on old habit, and 
 

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35 
 
 the substitution of a new one. The experiaent lasted but such a short 
 period, that it leaves undetermined the effect that v/ould be produced by a 
 longer period of practice, when the decrease in vocalization Tjould have be- 
 come habitual or automatic, and would in consequence have drawn no conscious 
 attention from the comprehension of the content. Furthermore, the small 
 number of subjects in this experiment — there were but t%70 — renders it 
 unsafe to draw any conclusion, save one of a most tentative character, con- 
 oeming the effect this training would produce upon a large number of pupils. 
 
 That part of the present investigation which deals "^dth Type II - 
 Training to Decrease Vocalization - by extending this training to a much 
 larger number of pupils, and by alloting to it the entire reading period of 
 thirty minutes daily for a period of two months, endeavors to throw some 
 light on questions left unanswered by C. T. Gray*s siiqole, but suggestive ex- 
 periment. As 'Till be pointed out in a subsequent chaxjtor the method vrorked 
 out in Typo II, while in principle similar to Gray’s, differs from it in 
 many important respects. It introduces a number of new details, devices in 
 motivation, etc. Furthermore, it imrolves reading not at the ordinary 
 leisurely rate, as in Gray’s experiment, but at as fast a rate of spoed as 
 is consistent with effective oorqprehension. 
 
 Miss Abell (34) reports the results of an early investigation of 
 the reading rates of 41 students at b'cllesley. Concerning the relation of 
 vocalization to rapidity in silent reading. Miss Abell draws the following 
 conclusion; 
 
 '^A characteristic correlate, in the oase of our sub- 
 jects of slow reading, is the aotual pronunciation or 
 the vivid articulatory imagination of the words road. 
 
 This device, which nay assist in the comprehension of a 
 strange word or of an obscure meaning, is certainly a 
 hindrance v/hen it becomes habitual. The disoouragonent 
 of a child’s tendency to accompany reading by articulation 
 is an evident pedagogical r equir oment . " 
 
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36 
 
 Dodge (35) reports that in his o\m silent reading at the ordinary 
 rate, the vocalization of practically every 'word occurs* In his rjost rapid 
 reading of ordinary material, but the beginnings of irords aro vocalized, 
 ■while in his reading of very fomiliar raatter, at top-speed, only some of the 
 words are pronounced* This further confiras the conclusion that a decrease 
 in vocalization is correlated with on increase in speed* 
 
 Huey (6) reports a number of exceptionally fast readers* Among 
 the number cited is the case of a mathematician TTho ”read the 'ivhole of a 
 standard novel of 320 pages in two and one-foxirth hours”* Comenting upon 
 the nature of the reading process at such a rate, Huey says: 
 
 ”l an inclined to think that at any such speed 
 the moaning suggested imediately by the visual forms 
 suffioie for ail but the more important parts, and 
 that these meanings ore felt sufficiently, without 
 inner utterance, to permit selection of what is more 
 iiaportant, the more important places thomselvos having 
 a floeting inner utterance to vivify their aeaning*...* 
 
 The inner speech in such oases must at any rate suffer a 
 foreshortening and atrophy of articulatory details which 
 reduce it to little more than a slight motor tallying 
 as the raoanings are felt or dwelt upon*” 
 
 The results of the investigations above cited suffice to sliow 
 that vocalization as zaanifested by lip movement etc* in silent reading is 
 undoubtedly a factor of some consegaenoe in affecting the rate* Its ef- 
 fect, however, is to retard rather than to accelerate* Consequently, its 
 elimination or at least its decrease v;ould seen to be instrtunental in in- 
 creasing the rate* An attempt to accomplish this result has been made by 
 devising Type II - Training to Doorcase Vocalization -. Though the lessening 
 of inner speooh is the fimdamontal factor and the distinguishing character- 
 istic of this method, there ore also, as will bo soen later, other faotors 
 of scarcely less importance which have been incorporated into this type of 
 training* 
 
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37 
 
 3» Training in Poroeption* 
 
 Photograpliio records of the eye-movements and pauses during read- 
 ing have served to enr)hasize the fact that most of the total reading tine is 
 consumed by the pauses. In fact, the duration of the fixations being equal, 
 the total reading tine t/111 then bear a direct relation to the number of fixa- 
 tions. The feiver the fixations, the shorter T/ill be the reading time, the 
 greater the nmber of fixations, the longer the reading tine required. Con- 
 sequently, if a type of training can be devisee viiich will effect a decrease 
 in the number of fixations, the reading time will be correspondingly decreased. 
 But the number of pauses per line is, generally speal{:ing, conditioned by the 
 width of the perceptual span. Training, therefore, ayhich 'ivill enlarge the 
 perceptual span vdll result in a reduction of the nteabor of fixations per 
 line, with a corresponding increase in the speed of reading. 
 
 Photograpliio records of the behavior of the eye during reading 
 have focused attention upon the fixation paxisos, and have shoxm then to be 
 the crucial points wherein any appreciable ooonony in the length of the read- 
 ing time must be effected. A more detailed study of the nattiro of the fixa- 
 tion pause, its duration, the extent of its visual reach, the psyohio pro- 
 oesses occurring therein, etc., is reserved for a subsequent chapter. It 
 will suffice to indicate here that evidence of an experimental character slows 
 that training in perception is a factor of importance in accelerating the 
 rate in silent reading. 
 
 The experimental evidence showing the influence of this factor 
 is the result of an investigation reported by C. T, Gray (19). T\’/o fourth- 
 
 grade oubjeots, a boy and a girl, trere givon praotioo in quick perception by 
 means of short-oxposuro exorcises. Various kinds of material were exposed 
 by a fall-tachisto scope for a fraction of a second. As the period of ex- 
 posure was so brief that but a single fixation was possible, the material would 
 

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38 
 
 have to be grasped in a single span of attention* The effort to perceive 
 all the aaterial exposed, would thus tend to widen the span of attention, 
 if the latter were at all susceptible to such improvement. Tables III and 
 IV give a sximnary of the results achieved by each pupil as reported by Gray. 
 
 Ti\BLE III 
 
 Record of Fourth-Grade Boy, Before and After Short Exposure Practice. 
 Average on Average on Average on Average on Average on Average on 
 
 
 2 words 
 
 3 Words 
 
 4 V.'ords 
 
 
 5 Words 
 
 6 Words 
 
 7 lords 
 
 Before 
 
 Practice 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 Omitted 
 
 After 
 
 Practice 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 4.3 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.5 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 IV 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Record of 
 
 Fourth- Grade Girl Before and After Short I 
 
 'Xposure Practice 
 
 
 Average on Average on 
 2 V/ords 3 vTords 
 
 Average 
 4 herds 
 
 on 
 
 Average 
 5 Words 
 
 on Average 
 6 Viords 
 
 on Average on 
 7 <ords 
 
 Before 
 
 Practice 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 After 
 
 Practice 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 3.9 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.5 
 
 Table III s'nowu a notable improvoioent in every case, except in 
 the span for the six word-series, where the averages coincide. Table IV 
 is oven more striking. It shows a widening of the perceptual span in every 
 single series. hhile a fall-exposure apparatus wxs used in the practice 
 exercises a different instrument was employed in the original and final tests. 
 
 ”Thls”, says Gray, "eliminates to a large degree 
 the element of adjustment to the apparatus and r^es 
 the marked increase in the perceptual span the more sig- 
 nificant. The imjriortonoo of a v/idc span of attention... 
 makes this result all the more valuable. It seems that 
 positive results oan be obtained as early as the fourth 
 
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39 
 
 year* In the liglit of these facts it be repeated 
 here that rithout doubt the type of training ■which is 
 given in prinar;)’ vrork by rssanB of the flash cards is a 
 very important elenent in the early training in reading. 
 
 It is also clear that the foregoing results indicate 
 the desirability of a better grading and control of 
 such TTork* Incidentally the rosxilt nsakes it clear 
 that trainii^' mst come at the tine in a child’s develop-* 
 roent ‘vhen it can produce results* La-te training is 
 often defective," 
 
 Tray’s conclusion concerning the necessity of giving this traiiaing 
 sufficiently early in the child’s development, i*e* before the sixth grade, 
 is based upon results secured from giving this type of training to tvro sixth- 
 grade pupisl • These results indicated that "no striking change was made in 
 the span of attention”, Y/hipple (36) seoiired similar results \7ith adults* 
 
 It is probable that a distinction has to be made here botvreen 
 the absolute span of perception, as determined by tachistoscopio expoExires, 
 and the relative span of perception Tdiioh actually functions in reading* The 
 taoliistoscoplc exposures may show no v/idening of the absolute span of atten- 
 tion as a result of training in perception, there may nevertheless result 
 the functioning of a vddor span of attention in reading than was the case 
 before the training* In other words, there results the more effective use 
 of the perceptual span in reading, ^ilere it practically never oovors the ex- 
 tent of printed matter, -which tachistoscopio exposures shot/ is possible for it* 
 Consequently, while training in perception may not markedly in- 
 oroase the absolute span of attention for pupils in the sixth grade and ail-iove, 
 nor for adults, the oonolusion that the relative span of attention wiiioh 
 functions in the reading of such persons may not be enlarged as a result of 
 this type of training cannot be drawn* That this \?idening of the perceptual 
 span in reading is not only a possible result of aioh training, but that it is 
 
 the result which actually ooourred in the case of Gray's sixth grade subject 
 
XX ■ I r 
 
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40 
 
 B*R«, the witer thinkB can be clearly decionstrated from Gray’s oim figures* 
 
 This v/ill be siiowi in Chapter VI - Training in Perception. It is sui'fioient 
 to indicate here that training to enlarge the perceptual span iias been shoTsn 
 to be no unimportant factor in accelerating the rate of silent reading* It 
 has accordingly been made the basic principle upon ’.ihich has been constructed 
 the third type of training* 
 
 4# The Charaoter of Sub,ieoW^tter . 
 
 Simple material •will naturally bo read more rapidly than diffi- 
 cult material* Under this head comes also familiarity tdth the subject 
 matter* Thus, the ordinary reader "would probably find a treatise on psychology 
 rather sloi? reading, \ 7 hile a psychologist *vould read and assimlato it rapidly 
 bocause of his greater familiarity with the subject matter and greater ap- 
 poroepbional capacity* 
 
 Dearborn found that by assigning to a mathematician, a teacher in 
 a secondary school, and a psychologist, subject matter unrelated to their 
 respective lines of study, marked difforonoe in the reading rates resulted* 
 Dearborn reports that a reader saved one-third of the total time required 
 for the first reading, upon perusing the same selection a second time* The 
 results secured in the present investigation —results v,ddch v/ill be pre- 
 eentod in a subsequent chapter — prove conclusively that, other things 
 being equal, familiarity vdth the subject matter notably increases the speed 
 of reading* 
 
 5 * Ha bits of Eyo-Lk>veraont* 
 
 Records of the eye-novemonts of many readers as shot/n in the mono- 
 graphs of Dearborn, C, T. Gray, Sclmddt, Huey, and Judd, indicate that aa a 
 general rule, rapid efficient reading is characterized by rather uniform. 
 
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41 
 
 rhythmioal movements of the eyes in contrast vdth the irref^lar move ionts and 
 frequent regressions of the sticobling, halting reader* Dearborn as quoted 
 by V?. S* Gray (38), says; ”It is in the -..Titer's belief clearly indicated by 
 the above experiments that one of the essentials of natural and rapid reading 
 is that the reader's eye should at once be able to acquire a regular and uni- 
 form motor habit of reaction for each line**' 
 
 Huey, in agreement v/ith the above observation of Dearborn, remarked 
 in regard to the eye movements of the 20 graduate students \diom he tested: 
 
 "The readers shov/ed a rhythmic tendency* Each would fall into a reading 
 pace that seemed most natural to him, and would then read page after page in 
 almost exactly the sane time* Quite usually the differences from paf?e to 
 page would not be over three or four seconds*. ...Habits of eye movement are 
 doubtless important factors in setting the pace*" 
 
 It is doubtless true, hovrevor, that the character of the eye move- 
 ments is affected very considerably by other factors, aioh as the size of the 
 visual span, the simple or difficult character of the subject matter, the pur- 
 pose for v/hich it is read, the ability to grasp the meaning quickly, etc* 
 
 Yet over and above all these factors it is probable that there is a habit of 
 eye movement of a fairly definite kind, which functions in the ordinary read- 
 ing of the individual, and which tends to persist to some extent, oven when 
 the character of the subject matter and other factors are somewl-iat changed* 
 
 Of two individuals possessing equal assimilative capacity, reading the some 
 subject matter under similar conditions, the habit of regular rhythmical eye 
 movements would tip the scales in favor of its owner over the unfort\inate in- 
 dividual vjho has never rendered an ocular motor reaction of this type habitual 
 in his reading. 
 
A' 
 
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42 
 
 Dean Fordyoo (39) in a paper read at the Convention of the National 
 Eduoation Association in 1917 seems to regard this as the chief causal factor 
 in accounting for the differences in rate, ”The difference in reading rate”, 
 he says, ”is largely a matter of the rhythmical motor habits into fdiioh the 
 eye is trained in the early atter^ts to read. If the eye falls into the 
 habit of pausing on each ^;ord, the rate is slot? cvnd plodding; if into the 
 habit of taking in the larger units of phrases and clauses, the rate is cor- 
 respondingly rapid and the interpretation even easier. The trained eye grasps 
 the T;ords of a phrase or sentence in a single unitary act; similarly the 
 perceptive power grasps the ideas in their combined form in the thought," 
 
 Dean Fordyoe further relates the rather striking acceleration of 
 his reading rate by gradually replacing his defective ocular motor re- 
 actions vdth regular well-balance cyo-moveraenbs. He says; 
 
 "The writer discovored several years ago that 
 his reading rate was very much below the norci. He 
 sought for months a means of remedying the defect# 
 
 Being convinst that his difficulty was largely a matter 
 of the defect in motor-eye habits, he set about the 
 ludicrous task of learning to read as if ho were a 
 first-grader. The first reader vra,s adopted for the 
 practice# A series of exercises consisting first of 
 a ooluran of two-vrord plirases was used the first month# 
 
 After his eye had fallen into the habit of seizing such 
 phrases as units, another coltaan of three-%7ord phrases 
 and clauses was adopted for praotioo. Later a column 
 of short sentences vfas used. Thru ten minutes of judicious 
 daily practice on these exercises, and on simple easily 
 comprehended prose, the author in a single year doubled 
 his speed in reading, and has boon pleased to note a 
 similar achievement among his students as a result of 
 such practice# By such exercises the eye falls into 
 new motor habits of a regular rhythmical nature, enabling 
 the student to read in large rather than small units# 
 
 The porcBepbtel span increases v/ith the ocular span#" 
 
 ( Itailos ^o mine • ) 
 
 In the exercises above described, however, there was training not 
 only in rhythmical eye-movements, but also training to increase the perceptual 
 span. The widening of the visual span would naturally cause the eye-movements 
 
43 
 
 to cover a greater extenb of tho printed line, thereby necessitating fewer 
 movemerits per line and tending to inhibit the maaorous regressive movements 
 ■which are the usual oonooimltance of a slow, halting, reading pace. Thus 
 the exorcises irith the oolvizan of two-v/ord, and then three-v^rd phrases, etc., 
 would seem to be training 'Vfhioh •\'?Duld have as its immediate specific effect 
 tho enlarging of the perceptual span to grasp these phrases as a unit in a 
 single fixation. That would be trainin.g solely in perception. The vrork "with 
 tho first reader and similar siiaple, easily oon^rehendod prose, hoT/over, would 
 apxiear to be largely training in the formation of rapid, regular, and rhythmi- 
 cal eye-movements. The rapid reading of suoh simple familiar material ■v/hich 
 can be grasped instantly, seems to be especially conducive to the setting up 
 of regular rhythmical eye-movements. These can gradually be orystalized 
 into a habit which functions in almost all the individual’s reading because 
 it has nov; become for him the natui’al manner of reading. 
 
 The entire inrooase in Fordyoo*s speed in reading could not there- 
 fore bo attributed solely to tho formation of a habit of regular rhytiimioaO. 
 eye-movenents. Apparently a considerable shore of the increase must be 
 credited to an enlargement of the perceptual span, or to a raore effective use 
 of it in reading. Some of it is also doubtless due to the setting up of 
 "higher order” habits of eye-movement c. 
 
 The case illustrates ho-w closely and almost inseparately are inter- 
 tvdned those two processes of the reading complex -eye-movements and perceptual 
 span. Thus the functioning of a Td.de perceptual span in reading insures few-er 
 movements per line, thereby affording an extent of area sufficient to permit 
 the eye to fall into a certain regular sweep, or rhythm of raovemont, •wiiioh is 
 praotioally impossible where tho eye must pause onoe or several times on praotl- 
 oally every single v/ord. In the case of tho training described by Fordyco, 
 tho functioning of the vddo perceptual span -would appear to be largely the 
 

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44 
 
 causal factor and the regular rhythmical motor reactions the resultant. 
 
 There is such an intimate interrelation, however, that they probably inter- 
 act upon one another. It is very probable — and the experiroents of 
 Pordyce, Huey and others lend groat v^eight to the assumption — that the 
 training in the regular rhythmical mover^jents of the eyes across the printed 
 line tends to enlarge the perceptual span, or at least to utilize it more 
 effectively by preventing less over-lapping of the perceptual spans in reading. 
 As Fordyce expresses it "the perceptual span increases with the ocular span". 
 
 This regular rhythmical character of the eye-movements is pointed 
 out, as a general cliaractoristio of rapid, efficient reading. It is not al- 
 ways present, hovrever, in such reading. As Dearborn observes "rapidity of 
 reading is not necessarily correlated tdth regularity of moveraent", there 
 being some fairly rapid readers v;ho do not seem to have acquired this habit 
 of eye-movement. They would seem to be fairly rapid, hov/ever, not because 
 of the absence of this habit but rather ^ spite of it. An exaanination of 
 the photographic records of the eye-movements published by C. T. Gray, Dear- 
 born, Huey, and Judd, and of those taken in the present investigation, shoxjs 
 clearly that one of the important characteristios distinguishing the rapid 
 efficient reader from the slov/ plodding or stumbling one is the presence of 
 a certain regular rhytlimioal character of the eye-movements. This rhytlmi 
 is shOT/n on the photographic records by a fair tmiformity in the number of 
 pauses, ^^ich are usually on appreciable distance apart, and by a somevdiat 
 "uniform method of time distribution" in the pauses. The hypothesis ad- 
 vanced by Dearborn (17) in explcamtion of this regular rhythmical character 
 
 -A 
 
 of the eye-movements in fast reading is that "the rapid reader distributes 
 his attention more readily at the initial fixation of the line, and is en- 
 abled on this account to fall more readily into a uniform habit of movement", 
 'klhatever explanation of the fact is finally accepted there can be no doubt 
 

 
 
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45 
 
 that the hulk of existing experinontal evidence points to the habit of regu- 
 lar rhythjnical oye-moveaents as no insignificant factor in affecting the 
 rat© in silent reading. W. S, Gray (20) thus aptly epitomizes the evidence 
 on this point; ”Kegular rhythmical movements of the ©ye are pre-re'quisite to 
 rapid silent reading". 
 
 £• Purpose for V:hioh the Subieot-Llatter is Read. 
 
 The rate of reading is conditioned very largely hy the purpose or 
 object for \^ich one reads. Reading simj^ly to "get the gist" of the story 
 or the selection induces a mental attitude radically different from the at- 
 titude sissumod T.-hen on© roads for the purpose of answering detailed q^iostions 
 on the matter. The Tdiole mental "set", the entire mod© of attack, the de- 
 gree of concentration, the amount of reflective thought and logical associa- 
 tion, all of Thich influence the rate, trill dot^end leirgely upon the end for 
 which the reading is done. 
 
 TVliipplo and Curtis (40) in their investigation of skiming, found 
 that a considerable “slw^ing down” resulted tdien the subjects knew that they 
 would be required to reproduce. Besides ascertaining the differences in 
 rate for both oral and silent reading when the reading was don© for differ- 
 ent purposes, C, T. Gray (ID) took photographs of the eye-^novements for the 
 several different resultant typos of reading. In the first type, the read- 
 ing was simply for the purpose of securing "an intelligent understanding of 
 the rmterlal. Throe other types of records v/ere taken. One of these was 
 of reading which was followed by the answering of questions on prose; oiiothor 
 was a passage of poetry, with the anmToring of questions; and a third was 
 
 the reading of prose for reproduction These results (summarized below) 
 
 indicate clearly that the reader does differentiate between different types 
 of reading and evidently approaches different reading problems with a differ- 
 ent mental ’set*. The results here reported ore typical of all the subjects. 
 

 
 'll . 
 
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It is also interestiiig to know that the length of the pauses does not vary 
 in any large degree, ■i^iile the nunber of pauses varies greatly”. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 Ive^Hoveaent Record of One Subjeot Shov/lng Variatione 
 Aeoording to iKxrpose for VAiich the Matter ^s feadT 
 
 No. of Pauses Per Line. 
 
 Avorc^e Length of Pauses. 
 
 Prose >rose 
 
 ( Simply ( Anm70r- 
 
 to Under- ing 
 stand) Questions) 
 
 Poertry Prose 
 (Answer- (Repro- 
 ing Qua 6- duct ion) 
 tions) 
 
 Prose Prose Poetry Prose 
 
 (Singly (Answer- (Answer- (P.e- 
 
 to Under- ing Ques- ing Cues- pro- 
 
 stond) tiers) tions) duction) 
 
 AV. 8.1 
 
 9.6 
 
 11.0 
 
 8.7 
 
 13.9 
 
 14.0 
 
 14.6 
 
 Table V is to be read thus; The average number of fixation pauses per line 
 in reading prose (simply to understand) is 8.1, in reading prose (to ansv/er 
 qxiestions), 9.6 eto. The average length of the fixation pause in reading pros© 
 (simply to \inder stand) is 13.3 fiftieths of a second, eto. 
 
 TABLI'J VI. 
 
 Variation in Humber of Regressive ^iovements Aocord- 
 "" to^^ for .^iol i tlie li^b'tey 
 
 Prose 
 (Sizaply to 
 Understand) 
 
 Prose 
 
 (Ansv/ering 
 
 Questions) 
 
 Poetry 
 
 (Answering 
 
 Questions) 
 
 Prose 
 
 (Repro- 
 
 duction) 
 
 AVPPAOE 
 
 PER LETS 1.8 2.4 3.3 1.8 
 
 Table VI is to be read thus: The average number of regressive movements 
 
 per line in reading prose (simply to understand) is 1.8, in reading prose (to 
 ans'vver questions) it is 2.4, etc. 
 
 The figures in the sbove table toll the inside storj-' of the differ- 
 ences in rate resulting from the different ends for wiiioh the passage was read. 
 They show that the pliysiological processes are perceptibly different in each 
 type of reading. There is a variation in the nunber of fixations pauses, 
 in the average duration of the pauses, as wll as in the number of regressive 
 

 
 
 
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laoveinentB, Those arc the physiological correlates which reflect the diffor- 
 onoee in the ooncoious eloirients functioning in the changed laental "sets" or 
 attitudes* 
 
 Besides the veirious aims in reading wiiich have already been men- 
 tioned, tiiere ore nimierous others which shade off gradually from one another* 
 The following are illustrations of pvtrposos for Tiiioh a selection may b© read, 
 each of which would affect the reading rate in an appreciably different 
 manner: 
 
 1* Simply to understand a passage, to "get the gist" of it* 
 
 2* To find a few specif ic facts* 
 
 3* To determine the logical consistency of a line of argumentation* 
 
 4* To appreciate the author *s diction and general rhetorical con- 
 structions • 
 
 5# To criticise the thought or language of the soleotion* 
 
 6. To remember so as to retell to others* 
 
 7* To bo able to follow directions of procedure* 
 
 8. To select only the min points* 
 
 These arc but a fer%v of the numorous purposes for wtiioh one actually 
 reads at various tines* They could bo drawn out at greater length* Tlie 
 above, hov/ever, will suffice to illustrate the different attitudes assimied 
 in reading, with consequent differences in both rate and quality of cor^^re- 
 hension* That reading in the grades for one or tT/o siii^le purposes does 
 not develop the ability to read effeotivoly for other ends, is evident from 
 the results reported in 1917 by W. S* Gray (41) in the Survey of the St* 
 
 Louis Schools: 
 
 ''Tho facts presented above point to the conclu- 
 sion that tho various phases of silent reading ability 
 do not always develop in the sane proportion Each 
 phase noods speoial attention, and tho teacher must plan 
 instruction so that pupils rooeivo offeotivo training 
 in all phasoE of silent reading ability. This includes 
 
-■<1 ‘‘■-. ?•■■>' £.1 -(atf £w*|- -ts tits «i gafiWifW’.ft '■**• «o»l*?i'ae. •'•'••»» 
 
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 a;- ■:* ^ 
 
 ; ■JvV-^/'a 
 
 
 rto-mn'i • 'iA-o iicAi:/» ,:'3if-A4e B«ro.s?i«»*a 'iVtt'iS 
 
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 'i , :*•, .u-' i.'.: ‘Of -> ,< t3*t% 
 
 r; M'.? ,/xr.' 
 
 
 / ^ 
 
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 v-'r- -> 7- ,..41 ->-• 
 
 
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 ■1 
 
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 t.iu'o-' • . i,, , -I A';'.ita '-<o »im;--*i’ -.E- t‘i 
 
 ■ A*- ■ ^55Li‘‘* , — J'' 
 
48 
 
 not only ability to reproduce and ability to ans*aer 
 questions, but in addition, ability to seleot pivotal 
 idoas, ability to organize, ability to determine the 
 relative inportanoe of facts, ability to associate nevi 
 idoas T/ith one*s store of lcnoT;lodge, etc# To the ex- 
 tent that a teacher gives specialized training along 
 one or ttro of these lines, just to that extent %dlll her 
 pupils be more lilcely to fail in a situation t/iiioh calls 
 for silent reading ability of a broad character#” 
 
 The character of the purpose for which the reading is done must ac- 
 cordingly be ranked among the factors of prijnary iiaportanoe in conditioning 
 not only the quality of comprehension, but also the rate of reading# 
 
 7# Concentration of Attention# 
 
 ijuoh of the time consumed in apparent reading, is, in reality lost 
 thru xmconscious wanderings of the attention and fruitless day dreaming# 
 
 Tho eyed often remain fixed upon the page while the mind is visiting distant 
 climes and is busy building Castles in Spain# How much of the time spent 
 seemingly in the reading of a book is actually frittered away in listless 
 poring and idle vrool-gathering— especially if the subject matter is rather 
 heavy and somewhat uninteresting~is difficult to detorrainei but that it is 
 considerable, the experience cf most readers leaves no room for doubt# T!'-® 
 introspection of a number of graduate students in education and psychology 
 and two University professors, composing a similar group at wiiich this study 
 was first discussed, strongly confirmed tho writer’s o\m conviction that this 
 was one of tho strategic places in tho reading process wherein could be ef- 
 fected a very considerable iE^rovoment in both rate of reading and quality of 
 ooiiqjrehenBion* If this tendency of the mind to wander exists even in the 
 case of adults, it must be much stronger in the case of children vhoso imagina- 
 tions are usually very strong and active, but Tdiose powers of concentration 
 arc iJuoh less developed# 
 
 Quanta’s study shordng that tho rapid readers not only averaged ap- 
 
r 
 
 -*t,- ■p't-'^V' ~>k‘h 2 t ■•Xao -H-'t 
 
 ^il=; - ■ •' * ^ d<.'/^iiliV 
 
 V . Lij V'* ’■• ••i*’-' ':.' A U ’»••;•» X v- • f 5 4 -Ci'* ' - • 
 
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 * 4 - * 
 
 .\VPt 
 
 V »>'■• 
 
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 * 
 
 ^.'i-i' i'i, 1^’ >‘2 
 
 "C ’ ' 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ■ ... -i. .'I •,>•... .y- ,--s> ,t^./.- . '• •• •— • T ■ • 
 
 r I ‘f ■ i il h 
 
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 -r.o . •'. ■■ ’•■ •'V' r. )r«a -35 4 !-J« vi 
 
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49 
 
 proxixaately 37 percent superiority in the quality of their ■Vi'ork, but also 
 introduced less extraneous mtter in their reproduction, offers corroborative 
 experiiaental evidence of the above conclusion* Conoerning the rapid t^^pe 
 of reader. Quanta ( 26 ) says: "he introduces only tiro-tMrds as roary thoughts 
 
 not found in the original selection.” This doubtless finds its explanation 
 in tho greater concentration of attention necessitated by rapid reading, 
 and the consequent avoidance of day-dreai:iing and 'iiool-gathering \7hioh is un- 
 doubtedly the prolific source of the extraneous imtorial fotind in the repro- 
 duction of a selection. 
 
 Concentration of attention nay be promoted by various moans. Chief 
 among those is tho judicious selection of interesting material, ■vThich makes 
 a strong appeal to the laind of the child. The matter must grip the pupils* 
 attention, especially in the lovror grades, instead of requiring his volatile, 
 fluctuating attention to try to grip it. i^uoh of the slow listless reading 
 obsorvablo in many schools is largely traceable to the unsuitable character 
 of the subject matter, which is not only not closely related to the oliild*s 
 immediate interests, but is also not infrequently beyond tho pale of his 
 actual experience. The consequence is that the concepts and imagery are 
 lacking in vitality; the reading is verbal and hopelessly mechanical ~ ”a 
 sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal." 
 
 Besides tho selection of subject matter that touches off the springs 
 of the child* s irsnediate interests, there are other devices chiefly in the 
 line of motivation ^diioh assist in overooming die Wanderlust of the youtliful 
 imagination and enlist the prompt and vigorous concentration '^f the mind. 
 
 The pressure of a time control, the individual graph, the class chart, etc. 
 Tdiich ^7ill bo described later, are effective in accelerating the reading 
 rate chiefly thru their immodiato effect in enlisting tho strong conoontration 
 of the attention. The continued concentration of tho youthful reader is 
 

 
 a , t' 
 
 .. ,t,.a -o ' . : j fj TUr f S •<{■ ■ 
 
 
 
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 r; UA.'-- . .•.^.i^yn‘^,f■‘>•S; t^-.'. I;. i~ 
 
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 '“i 'y’i’Xr’i 
 
 
 
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 ifcC?'* 'i^VlJiiflOt V. ' T. ^ * 
 
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 ..V.:4.-r;..-. ’ - 
 
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 't-t. 
 
 'I' *; 
 
 .aXi 
 
 ■ : ■ , - - ir* » .. V"' 'W " > ■ ’ ■'' '• ■'■^ '■' ■ 
 
 ^ ‘ ^ .' . * • ;/' . "'V*‘w>' . . •' .* *• 
 
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 '-' 4 -• _ . ... ^ 
 
5-0 
 
 Bcaroely susceptible to direct coercion; it inust be effected largely by 
 indirect ineans, such as those above described. 
 
 The significance of strong concentration of attention in increasing 
 the speed of silent reading seeras to have been too little recognised in the 
 past. Soiae of the neans utilised in the present investigation ov;o their 
 incorporation into the' tyx>es of training, loainly to their imediate influence 
 in enlisting the active attention of the reader*. For even T?ith the other 
 factors present, and a fair degree of conoontration lacking, the reading 
 •will be necessarily inferior in both quality and rate. In the present study, 
 then, this factor is strongly strosced. 
 
 8. Ability to Grasp the Meaning of Contents . 
 
 Since reading is in the last analysis a iriental process, namely, the 
 assimilation of the th.ought from the printed page, it is clear ■bliat the per- 
 ception of the printed symbols is effected to some degree by the speed v/ith 
 which those symbols can be understood. Consequently in the ease of the read- 
 ing of heavy difficult material, the part of the reading process iTliioh de- 
 mands the bulk of the time and effort, is probably not the operation of 
 "getting the material to tho brain, but of assimilating it after it is there". 
 The necessity of znaking tho proper logical associations, of eramining the 
 validity of tho thou^t in the light of tho principles already acquired, etc., 
 involves reasoning and studying of rather a high character. Such a process 
 vfhioh Trvould seem to be more appropriately termed "studying" tlian simple "read- 
 ing", naturally demands additional time. 
 
 But in the oaae of reading of the ordinary type of easily compre- 
 hended material, rather than in the "studying" process above described, the 
 assimilation of the matter seems to occur as coon as the printed symbols are 
 peiT»oived. There appears to bo no appreciable retardation of the rate due 
 

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 to the demands of oomprohension* The reverse of this process vould seem 
 to be true at least in tlie laajority of oases. The rate of oomprohension is 
 slo\;ed up, iTaiting upon the tardier process of visualization, just as the 
 latter is itself impeded in the case of oral reading by the more cumbersoiae 
 process of vocalization. The introspection of many T/orkers in this field 
 such as Huey, Fordyoe, etc., and of a number of persons interested in the 
 present study, showed that their rate of reeding was slo\7, not because they 
 could not assimilate the matter rapidly, but because their perception of it 
 Tfas proceeding at a slow plodding pace. 
 
 Their subsequent determination to increase their reading rate, re- 
 sulted in quicker perception vrithout impairment of the comprehension. These 
 instances ivhioh are typical of hundreds of similar oases, would seem to in- 
 dicate that the reading rate at least in regard to the ordinary type of 
 material, is conditioned more largely by rote of perception than by rate 
 of assimilation. Lfost readers, in other v;ords, proceed at a pace tlmt is 
 w-oll within the limits of their possible rato of assimilation, TThich is seldom 
 given the opportunity of functioning at as rapid a rate as is really possible 
 for it. 
 
 Ruediger (42), however, apparently considers the assimilative factor 
 the determining or "essential” one. As a result of sozae experimentation he 
 concludes; "After having eliminated the physiological qualities pertaining 
 to tho mechanism of vision ww saw that neither visual acuity, retinal sensi- 
 tivity, nor tho horlzontcLL extent of acute vision had any significant corre- 
 lation Vilth reading rate. The essential factors that determine reading r.iust 
 bo looked upon as central rather than peripheral". This conclusion is tm- 
 doubtedly true in regard to the rate at iThioh difficult material can bo in- 
 telligently read and possibly it is true in regard to the upper limit of speed 
 
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52 
 
 at •vviiioh raoro easily oomprehended material can be perused* In other words 
 an individual’s speed of reading oan never actually exceed the rate at which 
 it is assisnilatod* Otheriwse it would be simple visualization, not reading 
 in the intelligent sense* But are there many individuals ■v^'ho have attained 
 a rate of reading %fnioh is the upper limit at which the process of assimilation 
 can occur? The bulk of available evidence demands a strong negative answer* 
 
 On the contrary it is probable that there are extremely few who have reached 
 the upper limit in thoir rate of reading, i*e*, the highest rate of reading 
 at which the matter can be oomprehended* There ];as beon so iraACh dead-level 
 plodding, and so little recognition of the possibility of increasing the rate, 
 and so few systematic attempts to do so, that it is safe to say that the rate 
 at which most individuals read can be considerably increased by the proper 
 type of training without decreasing the comprehension of the matter read* 
 
 The results of previous studies as ^/ell as those to be presented in tloe present 
 investigation showing marked improvement in rate of reading with no Impair- 
 ment of comprehension, constitute the basis for the above statement* 
 
 TBhile admitting that the correlation that has been found to exist 
 between the number of pauses and the reading rate does not apparently square 
 with his conclusion as to the determining role played by the assimilative factor, 
 Ruodiger maintains that the number of printed symbols perceived during a fixa- 
 tion nay be attributed to the central factor of comprehension just as well as 
 to effective perception* But the fact tliat simple exercises, such, for 
 example, as those which Doan Fordyce describes, with a first grade reader exnd 
 with columns of two- word, and tliroe-T/'ord phrases, and such as Imvo been worked 
 out in the present study, have notably increased the speed, not infrequently 
 doubling it, proves oonslusively tliat there are inany factors bosidos the ability 
 to assimilate which condition the rate of reading. Such simple exercises 
 

 
 
 
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 oanriot preoijinably have doubled the ability to coaiprehend, but they have 
 increased the size of the visual span ftmctioning in reading and have i«iproved 
 the character of the habits of eye-niovenients and other perspheral factors thus 
 producing a saarked Increase in rate of reading. This conclusion is further 
 
 f 
 
 corroborated by the results of Quaatz’s investigation of the relation of 
 visual perception to rate of reading. After pointing out the mrked correlation 
 existing between these, Qtiant* draws the following oonclusion: "This shows that 
 
 mere quickness of perception with its large physiological element is an 
 laiportant factor In deciding one's rate of readli^." Consequently while the 
 ability to assimilate Is not unimportant, there are other factors, peripheral 
 
 » 
 
 in character, whose influence in conditioning the rate of reading is of un- 
 questionable significance. 
 
 9* Seoognition Of The Value of the !^blt 
 Of .^apld Silent Reading . 
 
 Probably the chief reason why comparatively few readers have acquired 
 the habit of rapid silent reading is because of the general failure to recognize, 
 first the possibility of greatly increasing one's rate, and secondly consciously 
 to advert to the value of such a habit. The discovery of the possibility of 
 appreciably accelerating the rate is the result of investigations of compara- 
 tively recent date. It is only beginning the filter thru into educational 
 praetice and to reach the popular mind. The recognition of the possibility of 
 establishing imrosasurably more effective and econcwnical habits of rapid silent 
 reading, and the appreciation of their value, are the first and necessary stops 
 in their acquisition. Once these facts have been clearly perceived, the effort 
 necessary to substitute "higher order" habits of reading for slow dawdling ones, 
 will be readily forthcoming. 
 
 Accordingly, in the present investigation considerable care was taken 
 to point out not only to the teacher the possibility and the value of establish- 
 

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ir^ such habits, but also to get this lodged clearly in the minds of the 
 pupils* Unless they perceive the value of such habits, and are made to feel 
 the need of acquiring thoa, the work is apt to be rnechanical and lackir^ that 
 earnestness which is the sine qua non of effective habit formation, and, in 
 fact, of all successful work. On the other hand, if the value of such habits 
 Is perceived and the need felt, the successful outc<Mae is already half asstired. 
 For from such an attitude there springs concentration of mind, enthusiasm, and 
 sustained interest. Consequently this rmist be considered no unlmptM’tant factor 
 in the acquirement of habits of rapid silent reading. 
 
 10. Too Will To Read i Rapidly. 
 
 Closely related to the preceding factor, and grofrii^ logically out 
 of it is the will or determination to read rapidly. The writer believes it 
 important enough however, to deserve separate emraeration. The general 
 literature on the subject of reading records several Instances of persons 
 suddenly awakening to the realization that their rate was urmeoessarlly slow. 
 ^Vccordii^gly they resolved rather simply and naturally to b'“ing it up to a 
 higher level. Marked success was achieved. Thus Huey (6) owed the doubling 
 of his rate largely to his simple determination to "speed up." The results of 
 this study and the observations of teachers show that as a general rule those 
 pupils who really displayed a determination to improve their rate did so to a 
 notable degree. The pupils who secured the slightest Increases vrere largely 
 those who failed to "warm up" to tiie experiment and who were lacking in the 
 strong determination to succeed. Indifference to improvement in their habits 
 of reading on the part of individuals may bo justly expected to produce indiff- 
 erent results . The observations of the teachers in this experiment offer 
 sufficient corroboration of this conclusion. 
 

 
 
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5'5 
 
 When first reading Huoy*s "Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading" the 
 writer beoams ontrinced of the fundamental importance of this factor. The 
 writer’s rate in reading Huey at triat time was about 35 pages per hour. 
 Realising that it was unnecessarily alow, he deterruined to bring it up to a 
 higher level, and before finishing Huey, succeeded in reaching a speed of 
 50 pages per hour without any noticeable impairment of comprehension. It is 
 thought that the incident la but typical of an Improvarsent which can be 
 effected by practically every reader who becomes determined to bring It about. 
 Wuoh of the ordinary reading is of the lacbsdaiscal, dead-level, plodding 
 tyoe broken by many gaps of attention and much unconscious day-dreaming. A 
 sudden determination to "speed up" effects a change in the whole mental 
 attitude; it shoots the attention rapidly over the subject matter, and replaces 
 listlessness with spirit and dyrwtmic energy. In fact the statement can 
 probably be made— and the results of the present investigation largely bear it 
 out— that practically every reader who stroi^ly wills to increaso his rate, 
 can actually do so — provided, of course, he employs some sjitable means. The 
 oases of Huey, of a number of graduate students, of Rordyce, ©to., the last 
 of whom also eaoloyed supplementary exercise, are so a«ny iastancos in point. 
 
 While the powerful influence exerted \r/ a strong dotorralnatlon in 
 acceleratlr^ the recuiing rate la perhaps rather obvious, the writer believes 
 that this factor has not been sufficiently stressed, at least explicitly, in 
 most of the literature on the subject. It cannot always bo presumed to bo 
 present In the pupils. It must be aroused and enlisted In the enterprise. 
 Otherwise, the undertaking In spite of endless technique and elaborately 
 worked-out metho'is. Is f'M*edooned to failure. 
 
 11 . ^e Pressure ’Df A Time Control . 
 
 This Is a factor which the present investigation found to be of 
 

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56 
 
 value in stimulating and nsaintaining a high rate of speed, ^^han the pupil 
 realises that there is no check upon his performance, no means of determining 
 his rate, there is the tendency tar day-dreaming and unconscious wanderings 
 of the attention to occur. Not that these disturbing elements are wilfully 
 invited, but the mental attitxide is such as to offer no strong barrier to 
 their entrance. The conscimienesa that a clock or watch is accurately measuring 
 the pupil’s rate of reading induces a mental "set” , which focuses the attention 
 directly upon the task at hand, and which is inccMnpatible both with lackadaisical 
 poring and leisurely dawdling. 
 
 In other words ^he pressiiro of a time check serves to ”k©i'’ up" 
 the mind to a superior level of attention, 'sdiich enables it to devote its Thole 
 conscious energy to the gathering of the thought from the printed page and 
 saves it from the necessity of struggling against irrelevant ideas which tend 
 to draw the attention away from the context. This is a device which, as will 
 be pointed out later, is applicable to the t>iree types of training which have 
 been devised to accelerate the reading rate. An ordinary clock will suffice, 
 tho a stop-wntoh Is nor© convenient. In any typo of training where speed Is 
 on© of the <?ualities aimed at, it would seem that this factor cannot well bo 
 omitted. 
 
 12 . Individual Granh . 
 
 effective presentation of the story told by the clock in 
 measuring the pupil's speed made be secured by drawing the result on a chart. 
 
 The single lino ascending or descending tells the pupil the story of his success 
 or failure. It Is simple, laprosslve, and ooraprehended at a glance. There is 
 no need for t^e comparing of arlthwetloal figures. Tho direction or slant of 
 the line tells the whole story. The ascent of the line becoraas a source of joy; 
 its decline a source of grief. Tho latter tells moreover in a convincing nannor 
 

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57 
 
 ih® necessity for greater effort on the next occasion# The zest of a game, 
 the spirit of a combat is aroused. The pupil beccxries determined to "make 
 that line go up.” As will be indicated later on, in the exposition of the 
 effectiveness of the various devices employed In the present investigation, 
 the Individual graph saids one of the strongest appeals to the pupils and 
 proved one of the most effective instruments in stimulating their speed In 
 readily. 
 
 IZ - Tne Class Chart . 
 
 T’lls served as a supplement to the individual graph. It consisted 
 essentially in portraying the average or median of the class. Besides this 
 the highest and lowest individual record for each day was traced on each 
 chart. This showed the amount of variation and the room for possible improve- 
 ment open for many meirbors of the class. It liad a stimulating effect upon the 
 slowest menbers of tho class causing each one of them to strive not to be the 
 last, which meant representation at the bottom of the class chart for that 
 day. A similar effect was produced upon the faster ones, causing each one of 
 them to strive for the honor of achieving the best record with the consequent 
 representation at the top of the chart for that day. 
 
 The class chart did not admit however of the possibilities of 
 the extensive comparison between Individual members of the class which were 
 afforded by the Individual graph. The consequence was that it did not secure 
 the rather Intense motivation effected by the latter. It enabled comparisons 
 to be made however between the different classes in the schools. The 
 character of the motive which It engendered differed from that pranpted by the 
 Individual graph. It fostered Interest and loyalty to tho class as a whole . 
 
 It created the desire to see the class as a whole excell, instead of centuring 
 the attention solely upon the individual's own perfor?fvance. It was a tjnoe of 
 
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 motivation worth developing. It served furthermore to hold the interest of 
 the class as a unit in the progress of tiie experiment. 
 
 To secure the best effect the class chart should be large ajid should 
 be placod conspiouotisly in the class roan vhere pupils can easily see it. They 
 should also be eaco\a*ag®d to look at the chart of tlie other grade or grades, 
 and see where their class stands in comparison vltb the others. In Uiis 
 study most of the class charts were kept by the teacher, who computed the 
 class average of a^diaa. 3ho also ascertained the highest a-id lowest individual 
 rates each day and recorded them on the class chart. In the upper grades 
 the keeping of the class chart may be assigned to one of the more capable 
 pupils If the teacher so desires. It entails but a minimum of labor mvi 
 exercises a stimulating influence In pr<Mioting a ooaimandable esprit de corps 
 which In turn helps to maintain the contl»ied Interest of the class as a unit 
 in the progress of the experiment. It is one of those factors which strengthen 
 directly the morale of the group as a whole a»i axeroise a reflex reinforcing 
 influence upon the individual attitude as well. 
 
 14. .Seural Heaction Tiiae . 
 
 The perceptual span, the fixation-pause, the Interflxatlon moverrsent, 
 the return sweep, etc., have all a largo physiological core. The reaction 
 time of the neural factorr functioning in the reading complex Is doubtless one 
 of the elements conditioning the speed of reading. The senaery data ;<iust be 
 transmitted over the afferent optic nerves to the visual and thoun;ht centers 
 In the brain; the oonplox response transmitted over the errerant neural paths 
 involves as a rule not only the motor aspects of perception but usually those 
 of vocalisation as well. This Is evidoncod by the usual presence of Inter 
 speech in silent reading. it is true that the interfixation lEovemonts 
 
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59 
 
 tisoo, it is probable that the nsural factor infl’iences the d>jration of the 
 fixation-pauses as well as the subsequent mo'ire’nont . 
 
 Here, however, as in the case of the central factor, it is doubtless 
 true that the speed of the reading habits of most individuals is veil within 
 the upper limit of their neural reaction time. Huey reports the visual react- 
 ion time to bo 20S • 30 (r\, k, D , 20.7<C» while Dodge quotas averages ranging from 
 151 .Q^«^,ifi.V . 9«9<)‘ 1*0 131. GOff'. These appear to bo shorter than the average 
 duration of a fixation-pause in reading. After a study of the comparative 
 length of the fixtition- pause and the visual reaction time, Schmidt concltides: 
 
 ** It is not probable that the average of the pauses in a given selection would 
 be shorter in duration than the reaction time of the e^/es.” 
 
 Fartheriiaore, Schmidt, whoso technique was well adapted to secure 
 acctirste measurement, reports that the rate of the interfixation movements 
 and of **the return sweep is not absolutely constant In the case of any one 
 individual, variations from time to time being by no means uncommon.'* Here 
 again there is an upper physiological limit to speed of reading, but the rate 
 of an individual’s ordinary reading seldom approaches within even striking 
 distance of this maximal neural limit fixed by the rats of the ocular neural 
 conductivity. iTliether this neural reaction time Is itself subject to Improve- 
 ment tliru training is an interesting question upon which the present study 
 seeks to throw some light. 
 
 13. Ths Visual Type of Imagery . 
 
 In the literature of the psychology of reading there are found 
 some writers who think that the speed of reading Is largely determined by the 
 subject’s dominant type of imagery. Quants (26) interprets the results of 
 some of his exoerlments to Indicate the superior rapidity of readers employing 
 the visual type of imageiY over those using the auditory type. Ouante further 
 
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60 
 
 oonol'idea that "the motor tendency in any daj^rae has an influence detrimental 
 to the rapidity of reading, and the stronger the tendency, the greater the 
 hindrance." Sohaidt states quite definitely that the speed of reading is 
 conditioned hy the dominant mode of imaging. The visual type constitutes the 
 rapid readers, the motor type the s longest, while the "auditory type ranges 
 between the taro." As the whole question of Imagery in reading is closely tied 
 up with the problem of speed In reading, a jnore detailed cotis id oration of the 
 Influence of the various types of liiagery upon the reading rate, and an exam- 
 ination of the evidence on this point will fini its logical place in Chapter 
 VI- Training In Perception. 
 
 V'.lsce ligneous , 
 
 Besides the factors just eiiuinerated there are others whose influence 
 upon the rats of reading has engaged the attention of various investigators. 
 Beer, Messmer (45) and Dearborn Investigated the influence of the length of 
 words upon the rate. Both Beer and Vassjner foi.utid that a passage In which 
 monosyllabic words predominated required more time. This was ascribed to t?ie 
 relatively greater number of ideas contained therein. Dearborn however 
 maintains: "It is not the short words as such, but the words \vhich cannot be 
 easily be grouped with others which necessitate separate fixation." 
 
 The Investigation conducted by Kuey to deteriaino the effect upon 
 the rate of changes in the siae of the type, shows t^iat the unit of recognition 
 of reading la but very slightly effected by clianges in the sensory content, 
 e.g., changes in the size of the type do not cause proportionate changes in 
 the number and length of the pauses. Consequently the rate of reading is but 
 very slightly effected. These last mentioned investigations and others 
 Involving relative ligibility of letters, etc. have not, in the judgirient of the 
 writer, disclosed factors of any appreciable influe:ice upon the rata which 
 
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could be incorporated into types of training to increase the speed in silent 
 reading. It is thought that every factor which experimental investigation or 
 strong ^ priori reasons have indicated to be of consequence in conditioning the 
 rate of reading has been enumerated above. The attempt has been made to blend 
 the factors into various methods of training to accelerate the rate in silent 
 reading. Three distinct methods have been formulated. Tliey possess many 
 factors in common. They differ from one another chiefly because each method 
 is based upon a distinct principle of training. Oatside of this difference 
 in the basic principles, the remainder of the technique is common to ell the 
 types. 
 
 By applying these methods of training to hundreds of pupils in 
 various grades of the elementary schools, three to eight inclusive, evidence 
 of an empirical nature will be secured to ascertain how speed can be developed 
 and to determine some of the factors conditioning its development. The applica- 
 tion of these types of training to pupils in the school room serves therefore 
 as an actual test of the efficacy of the above mentioned factors and renders 
 possible the valuation of their effectiveness. The formulation of the three 
 types of training which have been developed will accordingly be presented in 
 the f ollcving chapters . 
 
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62 
 
 CHAT^Sa XV . 
 
 TYP?: I. THAI 51 SG 15 RAPID SILS^fT R3ADI5G. 
 
 On the general principle of psychology that one loarna to<?o 
 a thing by act’»ally doing it, it would seen logical to assuiae that on© 
 could learn to read rapidly by practice in rapid reading. In contrast 
 with methods which analyze the reading complex into its main processes, 
 and then devise types of training adapted to improve each of these specific 
 processes ae^»rately, this may be said to be the direct synthetic mode of 
 attack— training in the whole organized process of reading itself. This 
 would seem to be the simplest and, at the same tia», the most indispensable 
 type of training. 
 
 In the case of the specialized type of training adapted to 
 secure the improvement of a single specific process, such as visual span, 
 eye-movements, etc. in the reading ecsaplex, there is alleys the possibility 
 that the improvement effected under controlled circumstances may not be 
 carried over into the actual reading situation, where the circumstances 
 affecting the functioning of a single isolated process can no longer be 
 controlled. This may be due, among other causes, to the change in the 
 reading situation which produces a corresponding modification in the response 
 or It m&y be due to the alnwltaneous functioning of other processes in the 
 complex which tend more or less inhibit or otherwise to affect the mode of 
 operation of the specific factor sub.lected to the specialized training. 
 
 Thus, for example, training to increase the perceptual span by moans of 
 taohistosoopic exposures of single disconnected phrases, may actually- - 
 at least in the case of children-- succeed in enlarging the visual span 
 for such a type of reading. But whether the visual span enlarged for that 
 

 
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63 
 
 speeiflo type of perception Kroiild carry over into a difforont situation, 
 such as obtains in the reading of a selection of oontlmioua closely related 
 subject-natter^ is uncertain. 
 
 For in the latter case, the situation differs considerably from 
 the formar. The subject-naatter Is no longer divided into phrases adapted 
 for perception in a single fixation, but has all the words closely following 
 one another in the printed line. There is furtherraore, a central thread 
 of thought running thru the various phrases and sentences of the context, 
 which furnishes meaning premonitions of the ccMaiag words sjid phrases, thus 
 enabling them to be grasped in much less than the normal perception time. 
 Their meanings are more or less anticipated and peripheral vision seems 
 sufficient to confirm the correctness of the conjecture, without requiring 
 direct fixation In the fov^l area. The well-nigh complete absence of these 
 meaning premonitions in the reading of discrete words, phrases, etc. exposed 
 serially by means of the taohistoscope, shows how radically one reading 
 situation a»y differ from another. It illustrates, moreover, the difference 
 both in the factors which are called into play, as well as in their mode of 
 functioning In the Interpretation of the printed symbols, according as the 
 reading situation varies. 
 
 Considerations such as the above serve to emphasize the value 
 of the direct method of attacking the problem of accelerating the rate in 
 silent reading. They show the need of training in various reading situa- 
 tions by supplying different types of material and presenting different 
 alms or purposes for which the reading la to be done. They Indicate 
 likewise the necessity of employing certain precautionary devices to effect 
 the transfer of the improvement in the functioning of a single specific 
 process in the reading complex which was secured under controlled conditions. 
 

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64 
 
 ovor into th® ordinary typo of reading. In the proaent investigation tho 
 speolalizod typos of training have, in every case, been aupplopjonted with 
 practice in actual rapid reading in order that tho iaaproveuaent effected 
 in a single factor may be rendered more likely to persist in ordinary 
 reading. 
 
 The general question of tho transfer of specialised training 
 over into totally distinct and different jsvsntal operations Is not raised hero. 
 All the specific processes that have been singled out for training in the 
 present Investigation have not only a close kinship but mar^ elements Iden- 
 tical with the ordinary reading compleat. The means of effecting a persistence 
 of the Improved functioning of a single process becomes largely a n»tter of 
 adapting the supplementary reading situation so as to evoke the desired type 
 of functioning of the factor subjected to the previous specialised training, 
 ^is will be exemplified in the subsequent exposition of the specialized 
 types of training Ho. II and III. These considerations are niantloned here 
 to differentiate clearly tho typos of training developed in this study, and 
 to point out the characteristic of this first type of training, namely, 
 its direct synthetic rnode of attack. 
 
 The present habits of reading are largely the result of 
 indifferent practices. Up until the last few /ears there has been little 
 or no recognition of the val^le of spaed in reading and consequently but 
 little or no systematic attempt to acquire It. The schools stress upon 
 oral exhibition has excluded such an attempt. The first step in tho develop- 
 ment of habits of speed is the breaking up of the present slow, plodding 
 habits of reading. Habit, as James has pointed out in his classic treatcaent 
 of this subject, la best overcane by a contrary habit. So in reading, slow, 
 dawdling habits are best destroyed by practice in the opposite type of 
 

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65 
 
 activity— rapid, alert reading — until that type becosass habitual. 
 
 To hasten the establishment of such habits and the breaking up of 
 the defective ones, the reading should be done at top speed. This will 
 probably cause some difficulty at first and be somewhat trying. The latter 
 seems to be the inevitable accompaniment of the substitution of one type of 
 habit for its opposite. Reading at maxioRim speed, however, seems to be more 
 effective and more prompt la the establishment of the desired type of ocular 
 motor reactions, regular rhythmical movements etc. than the “gradual tapering 
 off" of the slow dead-level plodding pace. 
 
 To secure the highest speed and to prevent a relapse into the 
 slower eye-movement habits, certain devises are essential. First the reading 
 stretch should be brief. Preliminary experimentation showed that it was very 
 difficult to maintain the highest pitch of speed for more than three or four 
 minutes. Ti^e element of fatigue quickly sets in where the effort is of the 
 most intensive sort and causes a decline in the rate of speed. Accordingly, 
 in the present investigation, the reading period was divided into stretches 
 lasting usually two or three minutes with an occasional variation of a four- 
 minute period. The Instructions stated that a reading stretch should seldom, 
 if ever, exceed four minutes. The pressure of a time-control, the individual 
 graph and the olass chart, etc. were likewise helpful in maintaining the 
 speed at the highest rate of which the readers were capable at the time. 
 
 All the factors enumerated in Chapter III, wit?i the exception of 
 Ho. 2- Training to Decrease Vocalization, and No. 3* Training la Perception, 
 have been incorporated into this type of training in rapid, silent reading. 
 The inclusion of all these factors, and the presentation In brief outline of 
 the resultant method proved a rather difficult task. ?J'hile the adequate 
 
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66 
 
 60 t?o 8 ition of aauay of the factors involved, of their relative lis^ortance, 
 oto. would have required considerable space, it was felt that the state^nt 
 of the laethod, ii^ich was to serve the teachers also as a set of ^directions 
 for procedure" should be brief. It Is, at best, a soa^w^mt difficult arri 
 delicate undertaking to translate a set of written directions into the 
 correct mode of procedure. If the directions are involved and complicated 
 the difficulty is enhanced, and the chances for confusion a»l divergences 
 of procedure are correspondingly increased. Accordingly, an attempt was 
 made to present the essentials of the method in the following brief outline 
 or statement of Type I - Training la Rapid Silent Reading. A copy of these 
 directions was sent to each teacher using Isethod I. 
 
 TYPS I - TRAiigga la rapid si.um rsadihg . 
 
 For the Teacher . The purpose of this investigation is to 
 determine the extent to which speed in silent readljv? can be Increased by 
 training the pupils in this practice for a specified length of time. The 
 jwraotical value of a type of training which will accelerate the rate of 
 silent reading is obvious. Your cooperation la this stvAy will aid In 
 definitely ascertaining means of aocoaplishing this end. The results of 
 this investigation will be sent to every teacher participating in the work. 
 
 The period of training in rapid silent reading should last fro« 
 April 8 until Miy 29. It should replace the regular work in reading and no 
 other class-room time should be devoted to reading. Thirty minutes per day 
 should be allowei for the work. Since the time element enters into all the 
 work, a clock should be placed in the front of the class-room so that It can 
 be seen by all the pupils. The method should consist essentially of 
 alternate reading and reproduction. The reading should be timed and a 
 measure of the amount read in the time allowed should bo regularly taken. 
 Pupils should be kept informed of their speed of reading. Roproduotion should 
 consist both of free paraphrase-- orally, or In writing— and of answers to 
 specific questions based on the text. The length of the reading period and 
 of the reproduction period should vary with the grade of the pupils and with 
 the subject matter. In general, however, the reproduction should not occupy 
 more than one quarter of the total time allowed for the exercise. 
 
 Only interesting malarial should bo selected. It should also 
 be easily within the understanding of the pupils. Since the ob.lect Is to 
 set up habits of rapid reading, emphasis upon the simplicity of the selec- 
 tion is necessary. 
 
 In order to assist the pupils in covering as much reading matter 
 
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as po3«lbl®, a definite preparation aay be nadle consisting: (a) of thought 
 preparation, or (b) of yiord preparation, or (c) of both. The thought 
 preparation should consist of such an introduction eoasaentary or by the 
 question-answer process as will arouse interest and enlist the attention 
 of the pupils. This preparation should in no case be long. For the word 
 preparation, the teacher should select such words as in her judgment would 
 be unfamiliar to the pupils, and should present them briefly, explaining 
 their meaning. The preparation— both thought and word— may be abridged 
 or ewen omitted when the material is such as to give no difficulty. In 
 no case should the preparation occupy more than five minutes of the 30 
 assigned to the exercise. 
 
 5Iach pupil should keep a chart of his daily performance and a 
 ooeaplete chart of the dally class perforsMinoe should bo conspicuously dis- 
 played in the class-ro<XB. 
 
 It is desirable that the directions to pupils given by each 
 teacher concerned in this investigation be substantially the sanjo. The 
 following points are suggested indicating the mture of the direction. 
 Literal adherence to them is not requested. Their spirit, however, should 
 be maintained. 
 
 Point out the advantage of a rapid rate of readlii^. Try to 
 get the children to see this in ierswa of an addition to their own Interests 
 and pleasure. Carefully direct them where to begin the assignment of the 
 day. See that they all begin at the same time and at the same place in the 
 
 text. Say in substance: "Read it as fast as you can. I want to see how 
 much you can read in two (or three) minutes. But remember that I am going 
 to ask you to tell ae about what you have read so do not skip anything. Try 
 to read faster today than you did yesterday." See that the pupils have a 
 pencil at hand and direct them to stop reading at once as soon as you say 
 "stop". Direct them then to mark the end of the line ■^Ich they are reading 
 when told to stop. Pupils may now reproduce what they have read as indicated 
 above. In a similar manner, reading and reproduction are to be continued 
 till the end of the 50 minutes assigned. Have the pupils then report the 
 number of pages eind lines beyond the last full page which they read. 
 
 As part of your preparation for the exercise you will be expected 
 to know the average mimber of words per line In the matter which is being 
 read and the number of lines per page (if ?«ge8 are broken by illustrations, 
 or for other reasons, special account of these pages will have to be taken.) 
 From the pupils’ reports as to pages and lines road, on this and subseqtient 
 assigments for the day, estimate the mnfcer of words read that day and 
 divide by the total number of minutes used in reading. This will give the 
 number of words read per minute. Taoh pupil should figure out his own 
 score, and should innodlately enter it upon the chart, which will thus serve 
 as a record of his daily progress in silent reading. 
 
 On Alay 1st and May 28th, besides the record of the average 
 number of words read per minute by each pupil during the total reading time, 
 a record of the average number of words read per minute by each pupil during 
 each of the various reading periods constituting the total time devoted to 
 reading on each of the above mentioned da'^ should also be kept. 
 
V. 
 
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On Sfaiy 2nd and 29th, the pupils should be test ad with 
 the Courtis Silent Heeding Tests, Forms II and III respectively. As soon 
 as possible after 32ay 29th, a copy (or the originals) of the Individual 
 charts, the class chart, ard a record of results and observations should be 
 mailed to the Bureau of Educational Research, TJniversity of Illinois, 
 
 Urbasa, Illinois. 
 
 To clear away an:/ uiis concept ions in regard to the various 
 points in the statetaent of the method, and to Insure uniformity la all the 
 important steps in the procedure, a representative from each of the school 
 s:/steas participating In the experiment was invited to a conference at the 
 University of Illinois. Hers the application of the method was demonstrated 
 to the visiting delegates by a teacher and her pupils from one of the 
 Champaign public schools. Miss Davis, the teacher demonstrating the method, 
 had previously been instructed in its application by Dr. Buc3cingham and the 
 writer. Besides the ocular demonstration queries from the delegates con- 
 cerning various details of the method wore answered, aiai its adjusttaent to 
 particular class-room conditions was explained. 
 
 As a result of the qusstloias which arose at this conference, 
 and partly based on the answers there given, the following topics seem to 
 require additional discussion: (l) Length of Reading Period, (2) Alternate 
 
 Reading and Reproduction, (3) Thought Preparation, (4) Word Preparation, 
 
 (5) Directions to Pupils. 
 
 I<ength of Reading Period . 
 
 30 minutes was specified as the length of the reading period 
 for all the grades participating in the experiment. This amount was 
 decided upon after investigations showed a range from approximately 120 
 minutes devoted to reading in soma third grades to only about 15 minutes 
 alloted to reading in the seventh and eighth grades in some schools. 
 Furthermore, considerable variation in the amount of time devoted to readir^ 
 
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69 
 
 in 9 V«R th« saa® grades aas found to exist auK>ng school systems in difforont 
 cities* Since the inYestigation extended to all the grades froa the third 
 to the eighth, a reading period that was to obtain thniout these six grades 
 would necessarily have to be somewhat of a comproslse between the extreaes. 
 
 The heavy curriculum of an eighth grade precluded the possibility of devoting 
 an hour and a half dally to r€»ding. On the other hand, the teachers in 
 the third grade felt that the abbreviation of the reading time Into a single 
 15 minute period could not be dona without causing a rather serious impairment 
 
 j 
 
 of the progress of the pupils. Accordingly, a 30 minute period was decided 
 upon as representing an approximate average of the amount of tiBM» devoted to 
 reading by the six upper grades in the elaaentary schools. 
 
 The allotment of this specific amount of time, carries with it, 
 therefore, no implication of a r.oriaative character. It does not pretend to 
 represent the proper length of the reading period for all the six grades men- 
 tioned. The amount of time assigned to reading will naturally vary from 
 grade to grade, less time being alloted to the formal reading period in the 
 upper than in the lower grades. A reading period of 30 miautsa was decided 
 upon in the present iiivestigatioa solely for the sake of uniformity. For 
 obviously the amount of time devoted to the training must be uniform if 
 comparisons are to be made between the amounts of progress inade by the 
 different grades. This uniformity in the allotment of time renders possible, 
 a comparison of the extent of gain registered by the third grade pupils with 
 that made by, say, the fifth or eighth grade pupils. Without this uniformity 
 In the length of the reading period thruout all the grades a common basis 
 of comparison wo*jld be wanting. 
 
 Comparisons, such as the above, may be expected to throw some 
 light on the interesting question. In what grades do the pupils show the 
 

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greatest suseeptlbllity to iaprovaaeat in reading rats? From the answer 
 to the above question there flows a oorrelery of praotioal value to the 
 school concerning the relative strees to bo placed upon the formation of 
 habits of rapid silent reading in the different grades of the elementary 
 school. 
 
 II . Alternate heading and Reproduction. 
 
 ■ssbile this study is interested chiefly in the acceleration of 
 the rate. It recognizes that the developGient of speed at the expense of 
 comprehension doss not a^fca for efficiency in reading. Accordingly, means 
 were adopted not only to safeguard the comprehension and to prevent its 
 impairment, but also to effect, if possible, a development in assimilative 
 capacity that should advance pari passu with the grcsrth in speed. For this 
 purpose after each reading stretch of two or three mifflttes the pupils were 
 called upon to reproduce. Recognizing that reading in actual life situations 
 is done not for one constant adeunaatlne purpose, but for a great varieties 
 of esxda, such as to "get the gist", to aiiswer certain specific questions, to 
 get the central thought, to sect-ure a certain point of information, etc. the 
 reproduction in the present study was wade to assume a like variety of forum. 
 Sometimes a pupil wmild be called upon to. reproduce the main thought of the 
 selection; at other times specific Itefas of information. Important facts, 
 names, causes, etc. would be requested. Thus the development of a single, 
 narrow type of reading ability was guarded against, and a rather well- 
 rounded, many-sided reading activity was brought into play. 
 
 The teacher was advised to have her questions and her other methods 
 of testing the coapreheiMion formulated, at least to some degree, in advance. 
 Preliminary experimentation showed that no small amotint of time was lost by 
 
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71 
 
 the teacher in decldinj^ what to ask about the passage just read by the 
 
 pupils* This heeitaooy and Ixidecision slowed up the whole procedure, 
 
 \ 
 
 eonausaed a considerable share of the time, and reacted unfavorably upon the 
 "keyed-up" mental set of the pupils. By having the questions or at least 
 the cues to them written in the margin of the book, this source of wastage 
 was eliminated . 
 
 Ihe teachers were advised to scatter the questions promiscuously 
 among the class, so that every pupil would feel himself constantly exposed 
 to a call. This would tend to prevent skipping or skimming and ensure 
 perusal. If a pupil were found unable to answer a simple question on the 
 matter he purported to have read, the teacher was encouraged to test him in 
 the subsequent reproductions to show him the need for greater comprehension 
 in his reading as well as to prevent cheating. 
 
 Because of the largo element of guess-work which they invite, 
 questions of a simple "Yes" or "Ho" variety were not encouraged. Sometimes 
 the reproduction ireis in writing— this ensured the tasting of each pupil— 
 but usually oral reproduction was called for. Since the develojaient of habits 
 of speed was especially aimed at, the suggestion was offered that the repro- 
 duction should not, as a rule, be too detailed-- demanding non-essential 
 particulars and points which a reader in an actual life situation would seldcm 
 be expected to remember. S»ich a procedure would naturally militate against 
 the formation of habits of rapid assimilation by Its disproportionate and 
 unnatural stress upon the minutiae of unimportant detail. It would tend to 
 eliminate the function of extra -foveal vision, by necessitating the careful 
 and even the scrupulous fixation of each word. A slow, plodding type of 
 reading, devoting as much time to the fixation of a mere preposition or 
 article as to the subject of the sentence would be the not unlikely result of 
 

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72 
 
 sueh a procedure. 
 
 Preliainary experioentatioR disclosed the lurking of another 
 danger in the application of the method, ^en the method was flret tested 
 out, a tendency was observed for the teacher to consume the bulk of the 
 period with the mechanical details getting the class ready to read, reprodu- 
 cing the material road, and computing how much was read etc. Under these 
 circumstances, oomparatiwely sr 2 »ll portion of the total time was devoted to 
 actual practice in rapid reading. thus, in the preliminary experimentation, 
 a teacher was found to consume four minutes in preparing the class to begin 
 reading, and ten minutes in each of the two reproductions which consisted of 
 halting questions and slower answers. The result was that she secured but two 
 reading stretches of three minutes each. Thus, out of a 30 minute period, 
 but six minutes were devoted to actual reading. This was distinctly contrary 
 to what was intended. Accordingly, the instructions stressed the necessity 
 of pr<xapt, rapid reproduction. 
 
 The reproduction should bo short and brisk— .just sufficient 
 to convince the teacher that the pupils had grasped what they had read, thile 
 no iron-clad rule was laid down specifying the amount of time to be used for 
 each reproduction, the general direction was given that the reproductions 
 altogether should not consume more than one-quarter of the total reading 
 period. The short periods for reproduction following each reading stretch, 
 afforded the pupils an opportunity for temporary relaxation, thus preventing 
 the onset of fatigue and rendering It possible for the® to asaintain the 
 reading rate at its highest pitch. 
 
 Ill Thought Preparation. 
 
 The introspection of trained students as well as casual 
 observation show that most readers are slow in getting started. There 
 
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73 
 
 usually oocura what psyohologiats call tha ""^arming 13^" ( Anregung ) period, 
 bafora tha indiwldual gate iato "tha swing" of it ( Gowohnuu^ ) . Tha length 
 of this warming up period varies with different individuals and with different 
 caatarials* That such a warming up process is not necessary, however, was 
 taade evident by preliminary experimentation on this point. The pressure of 
 a time-control proved instrumental in replacing the listless attitude with 
 one of prompt, concentrated attention. At the sound of the word "Go", the 
 reader started at a high rate of spaed. A record of the number of words 
 read during each of the minutea la a five-minute period, shows that it is 
 possible for a reader to strike practically his highest level of speed In 
 the initial minute. The reason why the reading often starts at a slow 
 dawdling pace is because the interest Is not yet aroused. In the present 
 study, the pressure of a time-control was chiefly instrumental in securing 
 prompt concentration of attention. 
 
 As an auxiliary to this devise, however, the thoi^ht 
 preparation was utilised to enlist the imedlate interest of the reader in 
 the selection. The thought preparation was of different kinds, varying 
 largely with the character of the subject-matter. Thus in a narrative 
 selection sometimes It was found advisable to trace In a few deft sentences, 
 the outline of the story leading up to the climax and then suddenly stopping. 
 The children In taany such cases could hardly wait for the signal to begin, 
 so anxious were they to "find how the story came out." Sometimes the end 
 could be attained by saying a few words about one of the main characters, by 
 akotching the back-ground of the story, by briefly outlining the life of the 
 author, etc. The c^varacter of the thought preparation was found furthermore 
 to depend upon the general interest manifested by the pupils in the training 
 to Increase speed. In many classes, where the pupils entered whole-heartedly 
 
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74 
 
 into the experl-aent, no suoh derioe •was needed to enlist the already keen 
 interest of the pupils* The setter yr&s left rather flexible to enable the 
 toaoher to adapt it to suit the different types of subjeet-iaatter and the 
 varying needs and interests of the class. 
 
 ly Word Preparation . 
 
 In the lower grades especially, it was found advisable to devote 
 a few minutes to a cons tdervat ion of the meaning and the pronunciation of 8oa» 
 of the more difficult or unusual v;ords which the pu'pils wo?ild enoouJiter in 
 the selection. 3y -writing them on the blackboard along with their meanings, 
 before the pupils ccsmoenced their reading, the obstacles which might have 
 retarded their progress were eliminated in advance. In the upper grades but 
 little of this word preparation was found necessary. As a rule. It occupied 
 but a few minutes. In no case was the preparation— both thought and word- 
 permitted to consume more than five minutes of the 50 assigned to the 
 exercise. 
 
 X Piraotlons to ?uplls . 
 
 Considerable care was taken to point out to the pupils the advan- 
 tages of rapid, efficient reading. They were mad® to feel the need for such 
 training by awakening In them the consciousness of their present slowness and 
 inefficiency. From this need triers sprang the earnest d«Hre to eecure such 
 training. They were given plainly to understand that In the measure in which 
 they entered earnestly and enthusiastically Into the undertaklaag, ;}ust in 
 that measure would they reap the results. 
 
 In an endeavor to establish regular, rhythmical habits of eye- 
 movements and to utilize to some extent peripheral vision the pupils were 
 
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75 
 
 advised to "run their eyes a Ions the line" as fast as they could grasp its 
 {Beaning. The pupils irere urged to put forth their best efforts to read as 
 fast as possible* The Board of Sduoation of New York advises that pupils 
 be tirged to read rapidly, but not to hurry. This distinction without a 
 difference found no application in the present set of instructions* The 
 pupils were frankly urged to "speed up" their reading. The reaervatiori 
 adopted here, however, was that they understood what they read* They were 
 free to hurry as amch as they could, provided they grasped the meaning. The 
 highest possible rate of speed consistent with an assimilation of the sub,iect- 
 matter, was the ideal placed before each pupil* This direction had its basis 
 in the conviction that such a procedure would be the moat prompt and 
 efficacious in breaking up the existing, slow, plodding habits of reading and 
 in establishing in their stead, the opposite type of reading habits. 
 
 It is thought that the above statement contains the essentials 
 of Type I. The results of the application of this method will be presented 
 in a subsequent chapter. 
 
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76 
 
 CHAPTER 7, 
 
 TYPE II.— TRAirJISG TO DSCR.^i: 70C ALT 7, ATI OK. 
 
 4hat is the nature of the so-called "inner speech" of silent 
 reading? Is it always present in such reading? ’Thy is there such a process 
 as vocalization in silent reading at all? ??hat is its origin? Tnat role 
 does It play in the gatherine of thought from the printed page? Is It 
 necessary in reading, or ?aay it be eliminated, or at least abbreviated? If 
 so, how? While these questions are of interest, especially to the psycol- 
 ogist, a brief treatment of them here will enable the general reader to 
 appreciate the significance of this fact<M* on silent reading, and to under- 
 stand the raison d* etre of this second of Training in a study that aims 
 
 at the acceleration of the reading rate. 3feny of the above questions cannot, 
 it is true, be answered as yet with certainty; but recent investigations have 
 served to throw some Interesting light \ipon this rather strange and Tsysterious 
 accompaniment of silent reading. 
 
 DISiriNlTIQN . 
 
 Huey’s definition of inner speech In silent reading as "a combina- 
 tion of auditory and raotor eleisents, with one or the other predominating 
 according to the reader’s habitual mode of Imaging’* my be said to reflect 
 fairly well the general view of students who have investigated this process. 
 
 In other words, reading is not confined to the visualization of the printed 
 symbols. Concomitant with this visualization t'-'ere occur raovements, more 
 or loss incipient in character, of the tongue, lips, vocal chords, larynx, 
 loner palate, throat, and the general physiological mechanism that functions 
 in oral sneech. The reader goes thru the form of saying the words to him- 
 self. The difference between the inner speech of silent reading and the 
 
oral speech of conversation is thus seen to be one, not of kind, but of de- 
 gree-- degree of aovement of the vocal organs, and degree of sound produced. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF ”IN??5-R SPB5CH." 
 
 While this habit of vocalization in silent reading and even in 
 thinking seems to have been always with us, its existence does not seem to 
 have been consciously adverted to and commented upon until the second half 
 of the last century. Ribot (44) seems to have been one of the first to have 
 called attention to this phanoaaenoa. Writing in the Revue Fhilosophique in 
 1879i Ribot observes "L^homme fait, qui lit silencieusement, accompagner 
 chaque perception visuelle d*un mouvsraent secret d 'articulation," This ob- 
 servation occurs as an obiter dictu.-a , as Ribot was primarily interested in 
 demonstrating the general ifaportance of movement in connection with psychi- 
 cal processes. The case of iimer speech in, reading is cited merely as a 
 specific illustration of the general law of psycho-physics, by which every 
 sensory stimulus terminates in a motor reaction. In the literature in English 
 the first clear reference to the existence of this habit appears to be the 
 statement of Bain (45) in 1863: "A suppressed articulation is, in fact, the 
 material of our recollection, the intellectual manifestation, the idea of 
 speech." In the statements of these psycologists one can see the fore- 
 shadowing of the present pragmatic theory of consciousness, in which the 
 incipient motor tendencies, of the type .just mentioned, are made to play 
 stellar roles in explaining the functioning of the various types of thought 
 and ideation. 
 
 The first systematic treatment accorded this process seems to have 
 come from the pens of the French psycologists, Egger (46) and Ballet (47)» 
 Relying on Introspection, Sgger notes the constant persistence of this inner 
 speech in both his thinking and reading. The latter he thus aptly describes. 
 

 
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ft8 quoted by Pintner (48); "Lira, en offet, c*aet tradulra l*acrit»ira en 
 parolai" and af thinking, ha says, "A tomt instant, l*ara» par Is Inieriaureittent 
 60 pease©." Ballet calls attention to th© additional factor of audition in 
 reading, pointing out the intimate connection bet;?e9n th© articulation of 
 words and the hearing of then. Vhether or not audition always follows on the 
 articulation of words. Ballet does not state. 
 
 Sc«Mwhat more positive and dogiaatic was the conclusion reached by 
 the Gsraan psychologist Strieker (49) that It was impossible to have an idea 
 of a word without ©xperienelng the sensations of innervation arising from the 
 stimulation of the articulatory muscles in inner speech. For example, it is 
 impossible to have an idea of the sound of the letter B without feeling an 
 incipient muscular movement in the lips. As he himself expresses its "Bio 
 Vorstellung dea Lautes B und des Gofuhl in der Lippen sind also in reeinea 
 Hewusstsein unzertrennlich assoziert. . . .Dies© Gefuhle sitzen in don ’-^uskeln." 
 Indeed not only are sensations of aiovementa In th© articulatory muscles 
 inseparate ly connected with the letter or word, but the consciousness of these 
 muscular movements really constitutes th© idea of the word. Since Strlckor 
 supplemented the results of his own introspection by questioning a hundred 
 othor observers, and finding similar results, his conclusions aasume<i the 
 nature of generalizations of a rather universal character. To the qtiestlon 
 then. Is Inner speech necessary in silent reading and even in thinking?, 
 Strieker answers unequivocably in the affirmative. 
 
 Stuapf , Paulhan, and Baldwin agree with Strieker that abridged ar- 
 ticulatory move-ments are usually present; but that they necessary, or 
 even, ^ faeto , always present, they deny. Pushing Strieker s theory 
 
 concerning th© necessity of articulatory raovements to secure the idea of a 
 word to its logical conclusion, that the idea of a tone imist likewls© be 
 
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79 
 
 lapoaalbl© without th© corresponding articulatory ajovoaents, Stumpf (50 ) 
 endeavors to refute it by citing his own ability and that of other nusicians 
 to recall a tone without caovooioni of the articulatory imsoles. *’0hne lautas, 
 leises Oder atillea Singenkann ioh versohiedene Tone voratsllen*’* Paulhsn 
 instances his ability to have an a^iditory iaage of one vowel while pronouncing 
 a different one aloud — an Impossible perforsnanee according to Strieker’s 
 conclusion. Paulhan points out that Strieker’s conscio»ss advertence to the 
 articulatory movement was probably instrumental In causing the movement. 
 
 While previous writers had called attention to the close connection between 
 the motor and the audlt<Mry elements in inner speech, but had given no definite 
 answer as to whether the one could exist without the other, we find Paulhan 
 { 51 ) stating that the auditory m.y be present even tho the motor bo lackit^. 
 Whether the motor element may exist without arousing the auditory, Paulhan 
 does not decide. Differing somewhat from Sgger, he maintaine that thought 
 is an inner lanjtuage which need not necessarily be converted into words or 
 verbal imagery— ”la pensee est un langage, non une parole, «t, si la re- 
 presentation des mots lul est utile, elle parait, da son c6te, faoillter 
 boauooup oette representation." 
 
 In general consonance with the conclusions of ^ulhan, Baldwin 
 ( 52 ) cites his abllHy to image a note while in the very act of uttering 
 another vocal sound in a different pitch. ?fo does not find the movement of 
 the articulatory Jipjacles a necessary condition for the imaging of the word-- 
 the latter being produced even when the articulatory muscles are hold rigidly 
 motionlesa. Baldwin states that when his attention is withdrawn from the 
 larynx and directed to the ear, the movement of the former disapoears. In 
 view of the faint vestigial character of the move'seot, however, the question 
 might well be raised here, whether the movement really disappeared, or whether 
 
8o 
 
 it was merely not perceived because the attention was withdrawn from it. 
 
 In the writers judgment, the latter is only too probably the case. Bastian 
 (55) Collins (54) oppose the theory of Strieker and Bain on more purely 
 anatomical evidence. The latter instances a case of cortical motor aphasia 
 in which articulatory movement was entirely lacing tho the patient was 
 nevertheless able to read. 
 
 In an introspective study of his own silent thinking. Dodge ( 55 ) 
 found inner speech was clearly present. Reproductions of movement sensations 
 from the various organs that function in actual speech— the tongue, lips, 
 throat, thorax, etc. — seem to constitTita the essential elements of the words. 
 An interesting distinction is drawn by Dodge between the sensations coming 
 from the actual movements of the organs of speech and the ideas of those 
 movements. The latter Dodge maintains are indispensable; the former are not. 
 Bawden ( 56 ) supports this conclusion also maintaining that kinaesthetic or 
 motor ideas suffice to constitute the meaning of words, even when actual 
 articulation or movement of the muscles is absent. 
 
 Thus far the psychologists had relied solely upon introspectivon 
 to detect the presence of articulatory movement. An effort was made by Curtis 
 (57) to remove this matter from its complete dependence upon the subjective 
 factor of the subject's own introspection and place it upon an objective 
 basis. Accordingly he placed a large tambour on the larynx of tho subject. 
 
 A record of the movements made while the subject was thinking or reading 
 silently was compared with the movements made when the subject was relaxed, 
 thinking of nothing in particular. The curves of the former were much 
 larger than those of the latter. Following this same mode of attach, 
 
 Courten (58) at the University of Yale, employed a Rousselot exploratory 
 bulb which rested upon the tongue, and was connected with a U&T&y tambour. 
 
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 Sines tha tongue is one of the important organs called into play "by articula- 
 tion, 8 record of the movenient or non-raorement of the tongue vould throw 
 scKaa light on the question: Does a suppressed vestigial articulation always 
 
 accompany silent readljsg? Courten found that the curve of moveinent varied 
 both with the individual and with the degree of concentration in thinking 
 and in reading. In every case, however, movenient of some sort was clearly 
 recorded. 
 
 From the above mentioned objective findings two inferences would 
 see® to follow, (l) Too much weight should not be placed upon the report of 
 a subject whose introspection Is umble to detect a alight trjovement of the 
 articulatory auaclea. (2) The absence of articulatory movement In so!ae 
 degree or other does not seem to be conclusively demonstrated In any indiv- 
 idual case. 
 
 ^Thile the articulatory movofnents that occur in thinking and in 
 silent reading are usually of a faint vestigial character, there are occasions 
 when the articulation becomes very pronounced. Hansen and Lehmann (59) have 
 shown that when the subject is thinking very intently of some name or number 
 an unconscious whispering usually occurs. Tho accompanied by no perceptabla 
 movement of the lips, the sound can nevertheless be distinctly heard by 
 observers when the subject is placed In especially favorable acoustic condi- 
 tions. These experimental findings of Hansen and Lehmann offer corroborative 
 experimental evidence to the observation made by *gger, in 1331, that there 
 are certain mental states during which the Inner speech is especially vigorous 
 despite one *8 best efforts to cheek it— occasions when It Is impossible to 
 * fa ire talre notre pensee." 
 
 A^ter reviewing the literature on this subject rather 
 exhaustively, Pi ntner conelutdes: "The general result from all these experiments 
 can be summed up by saying that silent reading Is aocanpanled by articulation 
 
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 In «o«9 d«gr«« or oth-sr. Thla activity of articulation is, bo far as m 
 know, a universal habit. Aether it is a necessary habit is another question." 
 
 ORIGIN JiiBIT ^ INNSR SPEIICI! . 
 
 Before investigating the latter question it would seefji advisable 
 to consider: ‘^Hiat is the origin of this habit? The answer to this query may 
 throw soine light upon the former. Is articulation In silent reading the result 
 of a habit of associating the sound of words with their visual appearance, 
 which habit has been acquired thru the process of edxicatlon? Or is it more 
 largely an inherited tendency? To this question Quants (26) gives a very 
 definite answer : 
 
 "Lip movement in silent reading is not an acquired habit, 
 but a reflex action, the physiological tendency to which is 
 inherited. It is not ^second nature’ but essentially first 
 nature; not something to be unlearned but to be outgrown . 
 
 It is a specific ’nanlfestati on of the general psycho-physical 
 law of ’dynamogenesls ’ by which every mental state terjris to 
 express itself in jaascular noveraent." 
 
 ^ong the considerations which Qusntz adduces to support the 
 above statement are the following: 
 
 (l) "The child in learning to read does not learn to move his lips. 
 
 Th-9 lip move’sent Is most decided at the very beginning, and grows less 
 so, as be becocaes conscious of it and controls it voluntarily. In 
 learning to write, also, the child moves hie tongue and the museloa 
 of his face; sometimes even hie feet or his whole body. But ho 
 afterwards finds that this expenditure of energy is unnecessary. 
 
 It Is brought under control when the writing Itself becomes 
 partially reflex, leaving the higher conscious processes ntore 
 free to attend to the Inhibition of these lower useless ones. The 
 same act is then perfor-oed more exactly, more quickly, and with 
 less exhaustion. Similarly, lip movement is an unnecessary expense 
 of energy-- not only useless but detrimental, 
 
 "(2) In the answers to the ’personal sheet' tnany persona say that 
 tho not habitual lip-movers they do move their lips when giving 
 very close attention, or when reading natter which Is very difficult, 
 absorbingly interesting, or highly emotional. This neana simply 
 that we regularly Inhibit these vocal reflexes, bit that when our 
 whole attention is given to the thought under consideration the 
 watchfulness over these motor tendencies Is relaxed, and they find 
 
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flrxpreaslon. t«a’3 to ’think when pra-occupled— 
 
 not only llp-^ioveaont but actual speech is unintentional. 
 
 It Is true also that these iapulses to ttocsI aowement are 
 stronger, and hence more likely to find an outlet, when the 
 corresponding mental processes are raore vivid. This follows 
 from the general principle, sot per ia^ntally demonstrated by 
 Fere, that ’the enerjiy of a moveiaeat is proportional to the 
 intensity of the mental representation of that movement,’ 
 
 "(3) The stateaient that lip-aiovement is ’natural’, ajid 
 reading without lip-movefnent an acquired habit, is entirely 
 in accord with mental laws. The development of mind is not 
 only in handing over processes, once conscious to the control 
 of the reflex mechanism — as in walking or playing a familiar 
 tune on the piano— thus leaving consciousness free for the 
 acquisition of higher powers and the performance of tasks more 
 difficult; but the interc’iange is also In the opposite direction— 
 originally reflex processes are frequently brought under the 
 control of the higher consciousness, and inhibited if they are 
 considered useless or detrimental,'' 
 
 The explanation of Qtiantz and the considerations advanced In its support 
 seem to possess a certain amount of plausibility. On the general psycho- 
 physical theory of dynaoogenesis, one would naturally be led to expect some 
 fora of motor reaction to the aeatal processes involved ia silent reading. 
 
 The question might be raised here why this reaction should always take the 
 specific fora of movement of the musculature of articulation. The nexus 
 between the mental processes involved in the assimilation of thought from 
 the printed page and the move:nent of the larynx, tongue, vocal chords, lips, 
 and the general physiological mechanism of articulation does not seem to be 
 per ae an obviously natural or necessary one. Why does not the motor ro- 
 aotlon take soma other form of outlet - the movement 6f musculature other than 
 the articulatory? The theory of dynaaogenesis might explain the presence 
 of some fora of motor reaction to the mental processes involved in the 
 interpretation of printed symbols, but taken by Itself, it does not seem 
 sufficient to explain why the reaction should always take the form of articu- 
 latory moveme.it. 
 
 In the writer’s Judgment, it would seem that to explain this latter 
 

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 oonnaotion between tb« interpretation of printed symbols and the irmer-vocal- 
 liation of the symbols, recourse must be had to the acquired habits of speeoh 
 and oral reading. The pronunciation of words is learned by the child either 
 thru unconscious Imitation, or thru express formal instruction. In either 
 event it must be acquired thru practice. Tho the physiological capacity 
 or tejviency to speech is inherited, the actual pronunciation of words must be 
 learned . Since speeoh is acquired before reading, words have meaning to the 
 child, at first only as sounds. The school ties on to these sounds certain 
 visual symbols in the form of printed letters or words. T)ie latter gradually 
 become enriched with leaning thru their evoking the proper sounds which 
 arouse the corresponding meaning. The association between the visual for® of 
 a word and its so^ind ia stressed by the school in the primary grades until the 
 association becomes very intimate and, apparently, inseparable.. Heading then 
 consists of the stimulation of the visual Imagery which In turn arouses the 
 auditory and articulatory elements, whence only the meaning is reached. 
 
 The point laide here is that the association of the printed word 
 with its corresponding sound and articulation is consciously and purposely 
 built up bv the school . The synaptical connections between the visual, the 
 auditory and the articulatory centers In the nervous system are thus ntade 
 deeper and deeper. The mental asaociatlons and the sjoiaptlcal connections 
 are not inherited, however, but are acquired as the result of practice and 
 training— be it conscious or unconscious in character. 
 
 There Is no intrinsic reason why the visual form of words must 
 necessarily be associated with their sound in order to convey meaning. It is 
 simply a matter of econooy of effort. Since ordinarily the average person 
 deals with words first as sounds, and continues later to use them, to a great 
 degree, in actual speech, etc., the school simply capitalises the stock of 
 
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 n'^Anln^s already attached to the sounds by assooiatinj!^ the sound of words with 
 their visual fora. It would still be possible, however, to link the steaning 
 of words to their printed form, thru the direct raedlua of the visual inwigery, 
 or thru the tactile channel without waployin^ the intercessory assistance 
 of the auditory element. In teachin?; the deaf and dx^b to road by the annual 
 method, this appears to be precisely what is done. The auditory Is naturally 
 entirely laoklnj;, the visual imaf,ery aloa^ with the kinaesthetic being 
 employed to convey directly the JBeaning of the visual S5rmbols. 
 
 SSoreover Quants *s statement that" lip-movement is ’natural^ and 
 reading without lip-movement is an acquired habit, is entirely in accord with 
 mental laws* needs to be examined rather carefully. It is undoubtedly true 
 that the musculature of the lips as well as all the other muscles of the body 
 are gradually called Into play as the physical organism develops from Infancy 
 to rmturlty. But the movement of the lips and other articulatory organs that 
 accompanies silent reading Is not s imply noveiaent of a gener ic character. 
 
 It is the definite spec If Ic fora of movement that occurs when the words that 
 are being read, are actually pronounced. As Huey well observes, “while the 
 Inner speech is but an abbreviated and reduced form of the speech of every day 
 life, a shadowy copy as it were, it nevertheless retains the essential charac- 
 teristics of the original," Now, while it is to bo admitted that the movement 
 of the lips and of the motor organs is natural as the organism develops, and 
 while some form of motor reaction to the various mental processes is to be 
 expected on the psycho-ph'v'wlcal theory of dynamogenesie, the peculiar specif- 
 ic form of the lip and other articulatory movement— such as occurs in actual 
 speech— la still left unexplained. 
 
 The explanation is to be found not in the list of inherited 
 tendencies or connate reflexes, but in the acquired habits of the individual. 
 

 
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 The oeatery of th© phonetic properties of words, azKl their correct prontmci- 
 
 ation— requiring, as th^ do, particular types of lip inaneirrers, the careful 
 
 \ 
 
 manipulation of the tongue, and other delicate and *unnatural^ articulatory 
 movements—* have not alas been inherited, but are the result of conscious 
 training and much practice, as every primary teacher realizes only too 
 plainly. The kind of articulatory movement that accompanies silent reading 
 cannot therefore be said to be natural In the sense that it has not been 
 learned or 'acquired. It has been acquired. 3ut the coratant association 
 between the visual S'.nnbol of the word and its phonetic properties has become 
 so deeply engrained in the synaptlcal fibres of the neurones, thru both the 
 conscious linkage of these two by the school, and thru the constant usage 
 of a word in both its visual and auditox^ for® In daily life, tlxat the sight 
 of a word comes to arouse its appropriate sound and its corresponding 
 articulatory movements. Thus inner speech becomes an automatic reflex 
 accoapaaiiaent of silent reading. But the point never-to-be-forgotten is 
 that It has been acquired - not inherited * ready made.^ 
 
 H S?SSCH XXSSHARY O SILOT 
 
 The answer to this question is really implicit in the conclusion 
 reached in the discussion of its origin, namely, that it is an acquired habit, 
 not an inborn characteristic. Consequently it wo^ild seem theoretically pos- 
 sible to learn at the start to read thru the sole raadi\i» of the visual 
 o** i^he habit of inner speech has been already acquired, to 
 
 inhibit the habit. By inner speech is here rrveant that definite specific 
 type of suppressed articulatory movement which is similar in contour and 
 general outline to the larger movements of the gross musculature of 
 articulation which functions in oral speech. The mere uaiconscious quiverings 
 

 
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 of an organ which hav« boon detected by delicate inatruaents during silent 
 reading, when the tongue, lips, etc., are held, for all practical purposes, 
 rigidly motionless, would not therefore constitute inner speech as the term 
 is used In this paragraph. 
 
 As a result of his experiraent at the t&ii varsity of Chicago, in 
 inhibiting articulatory raovenjents in silent reading, PlntJier (43) draws the 
 following conclusions: 
 
 "(1) That articulation during the reading process Is a habit 
 which is not necessary for that process. 
 
 (2) That practice in reading without articulation can make 
 such reading as good as the ordinary reading of the sar^ subject. 
 
 (5) That practice in reading without articulation tends 
 to aid ordinary reading, most probably by shortening the habitual 
 practice of articulation." 
 
 Similar to the above is the ooncluaioa reached by Secor (60) after 
 his experiment on this subject at Cornell, namely that "articulation and 
 audition" are not to be regarded as "absolutely necessary elements." 
 
 The conclusion reached by Pininer and Secor is further confirmed 
 by the observation of W. A, Schmidt (?)j 
 
 "It Ic quite possible too, that If training in oral 
 reading were discontimied at an early stage, and training in 
 rapid silent reading were stressed, the tendencies toward inner 
 speech might be greatly reduced and visualization cultivated, 
 at least In part. As a matter of fact, we appear to have the 
 ability to take in all kinds of situations visually without 
 speech accoapaniajents. This is true even in the case of the 
 interpretation of many printed symbols." 
 
 ^ SPSSCH . 
 
 Prom the conclusion that articulatory movements are not necessary 
 in silent reading to the devising of means of Inhibiting them is rather a 
 far cry. Their Inhibition is another matter. And the validity of the 
 former conclusion does not depend upon the successful execution of the latter. 
 
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Various dovicas have been eznployed to Inhibit articulation. Socor reports 
 that whistling and the uttering o? the alphabet aloud "ccwaoletely reaoved 
 all traces of articulatory movement, so far as the possibility of discovering 
 this by introspection is concerned,’* Tho the sayin?; aloud of a letter or word 
 would apparently engage the nusculatura of articulation during the moment of 
 actual utterance, there would still remain the possibility of inner move'^sent 
 during the intervals between the words which would be likely to escape 
 introspection. To guard against such interstitial movesfcsnts, the sub.iect3 
 were requeste*.! to read while prolonging a letter as much as possible. This 
 served but to verify the results of the previous introspection — that no 
 movement occurred. In the writer *s judgment, however, ever, this last method 
 does not necessarily remove the possibility of a faint, subtle, vestigial 
 aoveme.nt of some of the Sfsaller articulatory muscles which are obviously not 
 employed in the simple prolongation of a letter. 
 
 Plntner had his subjects count aloud the series 13, 14, 15, 16; 13, 
 l4, 15, l6; etc., while reading silently. The pronunciation of these numbers 
 requires a more elaborate arisculature of articulation than the simple letters 
 of the alphabet as in Secor’s experiment. The Introspection of Plntner *s two 
 subjects reported a complete absence of articulatory movement, tho audition 
 still reasalned in the case of one of the subjects. Incidentally the introspec- 
 tion of the latter observer casts an interesting ray of light upon the 
 relationship between the motor and the auditory elements in inner speech. If 
 the introspection reflects his actual mental experience, it shows that the 
 union between the motor or articulatory element and the auditory is not 
 nearly so inseparable as many writers have supposed. It lewis no corroboration 
 to the generalization made by Huey (6): "The fact is that what we say is 
 
 always heard as well, and there comes to be an indissuluable union of the 
 auditory and motor elements." 
 
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89 
 
 Aa a result of this phase of his experlsient, Pintnor cocoludes: "I 
 think W9 are justified in saying that reading without articulation can take 
 place, .';.and that practice in reading without articulation Increases the ordi- 
 nary rate of reading no doubt due to the fact that after such practice the 
 amount of articulation made us® of la not so great as formerly.” 
 
 ^ So satisfactory jaethod has yet been defs-isad of excluding audition 
 in silent reading. Secor found that the playing of a xylophone near the ob- 
 servers quite %« often as not left the inner hearing undisturbed. Similarly 
 loud noises aeeaied ineffective in suppreesiag the inner auditory accompaniment 
 la the silent reading of most people. 
 
 In ooncludiag this brief discussion of the history, origin, nature, 
 relationship, etc., of inner speech, it Is only fair to say that when due 
 allowance has been made for the findings of all the investigations on this 
 subject, there still remains too much speculation and too few solentif ically 
 established facts; too much conjectui*® and too little certainty. The problem 
 of inner speech — why we persist in vocalizing In silent reading — is still 
 with us, shrouded in some of the mystery which It presented to its first 
 syatetaatic investigators— 5gger and ballot. 
 
 It is hoped that this review of the Investigations of inner 
 speech has served to show at least the significance and importance of this 
 factor in silent reading. It will give the reader a better and more intelli- 
 gent insight Into Type II - Training to Decrease focallzation. The validity 
 of this method does not dej>snd, however, upon any of the tentative conclusions 
 as to its origin, the relationship between the motor and auditory elements, 
 etc., presented above. Neither does it hinge upon the correctness of the 
 answer to the theoretical question. Can every vestige of articulatory movement 
 be Inhibited? Prescinding from such theoretical considerations, this method 
 

 
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90 
 
 endaftTors to decroftso lip-movoavent and that form of articulation which notably 
 hindars spaed in slleni reading. 'Tbathar or not a slight Tastiglal quivering 
 of the larynx, barely detectable by a teuabour, exercises any effect upon the 
 rate is a theoretical question which does not concern us here. Certainly 
 its effect, at most, is but negligible. But the more or less elaborate laove- 
 nent of the gross musculature of articulation, the tongue, lips, etc., has a 
 very pronounced effect upon the rate, as every Investigation of this aub.lect 
 
 ' V ' 
 
 has clearly shown. 
 
 A summary of the findings on this point showing the retarding 
 
 Influence of a marked habit of vocalization was presented in Chapter III. It 
 
 was this evidence that showed the advisability' of decreasing vocalization to 
 
 increase speed, and was thus directly responsible for the formulation of this 
 
 Type of training. The evidence presented there is well epitomized in the 
 
 « 
 
 conclusion of Huey: "The direct linking of visual fora to Ideas, cutting out 
 
 of the circuit the somewhat cumbrous and doubtless fatigtiing audito-motorizlng 
 mechanism, would seem to be a consummation to be wished for." Similar in 
 effect is the cone Ivis ion of Dearborn: "The effect of articulating is to 
 
 decrease ordinarily the span of attention* asid consequently to retard the rat® 
 of reading. 
 
 The following is a statement of the second method, a copy of 
 which was sent to every teacher using this method. 
 

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91 
 
 TYPS II - YPAINIHa W D^R^AS^ YOCALIZATIOK 
 IK SILi;?JT RS.\3nNG. 
 
 Raference: Typaa of Reading Ability Exhibited thru Tests 
 
 and Laboratory Experiaonts, pp. 162-3 
 C. T. Gray, Supplementary Sdu. ’^on. U, of C, 1917* 
 
 To the Teacher * The purpose of this investigation is to determine 
 the extent to srhich speed in silent reading can be increased by attempting to 
 decrease vocalization. The practical value of a type of training which will 
 accelerate the rats of silent reading is obvious. Your cooperation In this 
 study will aid in definitely ascertaining means of accomplishing this er^. 
 
 The results of this Investigation will be sent to ©very teacher participating 
 In the work. 
 
 Vocalization nay show itself In rather extrema form by elaborate 
 lip-movement, or In Its usual form, by incipient raoveaents of the lips, tongue, 
 pharynx, vocal chords and the general mechanism of the throat. The reader feels 
 or hears himself pronouncing the words. This constitutes the so-called 
 "inner speech" of silent reading. Inner speech is present in some form in 
 the reading of moat pupils. 
 
 Inner speech has the effect of slowing up the rate of reading, 
 causing the Individual to read no faster than he can actually pronounce the 
 words to himself. Hence, perception must wait upon pronunciation. The rate 
 of reading, in other words, is made dependent upon the rate of inner speech. 
 
 If this process of vocalization be gradually lessened and finally eliminated, 
 the rate of silent reading may be greatly accelerated. The period of training 
 to decrease vocalization should last from April S until Vky 29. It should 
 replace the regular work in reading and no other class-room time shotild bo 
 devoted to reading. Thirty minutes per day should bo allowed for the work. 
 
 The method should consist eesentially of alternate reading and reproduction. 
 
 The reading should be timed and the place in the selection reached at the end 
 of each of the various periods should be regularly marked. Since the time 
 element enters into all the work, a cTook should bo plac€>d in the front of 
 the class-room so that it can be seen by all the pupils. Pupils should be 
 ^ kept informed of their speed of reading. 
 
 Reproduction shwald consist both of free paraphrase— orally or 
 In writing— and of answers to specific questions based on the text. The 
 length of the reading period and of the reproduction period should vary with 
 the grade of the pupils and with the sub.iect matter. In general, however, 
 the reprod>»ctlon sho’jld not occupy taore than one quarter of the total time 
 allowed for the exercise. 
 
 Only Interesting material should be selected. It should also be 
 easily within the understanding of the pupils. Since the object is to set 
 up habits of rapid reading, emphasis upon the simplicity of the selection Is 
 
 necessary. 
 
 In order to assist the pupils In covering as much reading matter 
 
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 as jx>8slbl«, a definite preparation may be a«de consisting: (a) of thought 
 preparation, or (b) of word preparation, or (c) of both. The thought pre- 
 paration should consist of such an introduction by cdameatary or by the 
 question-answer process as will arouse interest and enlist the attention 
 of the pupils. This preparation should in no case be long. For the word 
 preparation the teacher should select such words as in her judgiaent would 
 b© unfa*aillar to the pupils, and should present the® briefly, explaining 
 their xeaning. The preparation— both thought and word— aay bo abridged or 
 oren oaitted when the material Is such as to give no difficulty. In no case 
 should the preparation occupy more than five miaites of the 30 assigned to 
 the exercise. 
 
 Saoh pupil should keep & chart of his dally performance and a 
 complete chart of the dally class performance should be conspicuously 
 displayed in the class-room. 
 
 It is desirable that the directions to pupils given by each teacher 
 concerned in this investigation be substantially the same. The following 
 adherence to them is not required. Their spirit, however, should be maintained. 
 
 ”olnt out the advantage of a rapid rate of reading. Tell them that 
 their effort to read rapidly will be more successful if they avoid movis^ 
 the it* lips, tongue, etc., and do not attempt to pron»ounce each word to thaa- 
 selves. For it is precisely this attempt to pronounce-each word, which slows 
 up the rate of reading. Articulation of words in silent reading, therefore, 
 is a serious hindrance to rapid silent reading, which should be eliminated 
 in the interests of efflcieiwy. Try to get the children to see that their 
 speed and efficiency in silent reading will depeoi largely upon their elimina- 
 tion of ijaner speech. 
 
 Say to them in substance: *8ead this selection as fast as you can. 
 
 While reading, dp npt,move your lips or. tongue.. Dp pronousace the worda.to 
 yourself as %at will cause you €o read more slowly than you o^erwise woula. 
 
 I want to see how lauch you can read i n * minutes. But do not skip 
 
 anything as I am going to ask you to tell me alxmt the story you have read. 
 
 Try to read faster today than you did yesterday.* 
 
 See that the pupils have a pencil at hand and direct them to stop 
 reading at once as soon as you say "stop.*. Direct them then to mark the 
 end of the line which they are reading when told to stop. Pupils may now 
 reproduce what they have read as indicated above. In a similar maiiner, 
 reading aad reproduction are to be continued until the end of the 30 minutes 
 assigned. Have the pupils then report the number of pages and lines beyond 
 the last full page which they read. 
 
 As part of your preparation for the exercise you will be expected 
 to know the average number of words par line in the matter which Is being 
 read and the number of lines per page {If pages are broken by Illustrations 
 or for other reasons, special account of these pages will have to be taken). 
 
 * Immber of minutes to be varied by the teacher, as two min»jtes for one 
 reading stretch, three minutes for another, etc. 
 
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93 
 
 From the pupila* reports as to pages and lines read each day, astlmite the 
 namber of words read that day and divide by the total nao^er of miautes 
 used In reading. This will give the mmber of words read per mimt© by 
 each pupil* Sach student should figure oirt his score, and should immediately 
 enter it upon the chart, which will thus serve as a record of the pupil’s 
 daily progress in silent reading. The teacher Is also requested to keep a 
 diary in which she will dally record notes and observations concerning the 
 progress of the experiment. 
 
 Cta ?lay 1st and Say 23th, besides the record of the average tmaiber 
 of w<Mrds read per minute by each pupil, during the total reading time, a 
 record of the average number of words read per minute by each pupil during 
 each of the variouc reading periods constituting the total time devoted to 
 reading on each of the above raentioned days should also be kept. 
 
 On may 2nd and Siay 29th the pupils should be tested with the 
 Courtis Silent Reading Tests. As soon as fsossibl© after the last Friday in 
 May a copy { or the originals ) of the individual charts, the class chart, 
 and a record of results and observations should be mailed to the Bureau of 
 Educational Sesearch, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. 
 
 It will be noticed that this method employs all the auxiliary de- 
 vices, the time control, the technique, etc., of Type I. The difference 
 lies In the Inclusion on the second method of the additional factor or 
 principle— decreasing the vocalization. The two principles, practice In 
 rapid silent reading, and decrease of vocalization are both fundamental in 
 this latter Type. The stress is now placed upon the lessening of the inner 
 speech, the emphasis upon rapid reading still remirm. In order to determine 
 the comparative efficacy of these two factors in accelerating the rate it was 
 originally planned to exclude the latter principle and to construct this 
 method directly upon the decreasing of the vocalization as the sole basic 
 principle. Preliminary investigation showed, however, that the effort to 
 lessen Inner articulation was far more successful when the individual not 
 only consciously endeavored to inhibit such movements but also read rapidly 
 at the same time. The comfortable, lels»jrsly rate of reading to which the 
 average individual is accustomed eaeras particularly favorable to the arousal 
 of the usual articulatory movements. 
 

 
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 It was foiin^ that whan to tha conscious attampt at inhibition 
 was jolnsd rapid raading, tha daoroase of inner articulation was affected 
 acre promptly and more tlioroly. Apparently these two factors are so closely 
 interrelated that a autual causal relationship exists between them. The 
 exclusion of rapid reading fro® the training to decrease vocalisation wotild 
 hare deprived the latter of one of its most effective aids. Accordingly the 
 
 t 
 
 basic position in the second method is s’mrad coordiaately by these two 
 principles, which work hand-in-hand. The coordinate stress thus placed upon 
 rapid reading while the subject la trying to check the articulatory moveiaent 
 is one of the ia^^ortant particulars n^lch differentliates this type of 
 training from that received by the two subjects in Gray’s experiiaent which 
 was discussed in Chapter III. 
 
 It will still be possible, moreover, to deteraiiae to some 
 extent, the amount of influence exerted upon the acceleration of the rate 
 by the decrease of vocalisation. Since this latter factor is the only one 
 possessed by Type II which is not also iaaoluded in Type I, the dlfferetiee In 
 the aafeount of gain effected by these two Types can be largely attributed 
 to the only factor not cosaaon to both - the conscious decrease of vocalization 
 in silent reeding. 
 

 
 
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9'5 
 
 CHAPTSR VI. 
 
 TaAIKI?^ IJ3 mCEPTIOH. 
 
 Th« core of the reading complex is the process of perception. The 
 moreioent of the eyes fr<» pause to pause, their convergence and divergence 
 in fixation, the nuaerous and varied play of the aetiral-auscular raechanisa 
 Involved in the ocular adjustment to the printed symbols, are all subsidiary 
 to the main process of perception. The latter constitutes the actual seeing 
 or visualization of the printed words. The results of numerous investigations, 
 as stated in the earlier chapters, have shown that the overwhelming bulk of 
 the reading tia». In fact from 12/13 to 23/24, Is consumed by the fixation 
 pauses. The total reading time, therefore, may be said to be practically 
 the nuaiber of the pauses multiplied by their average duration. But the mxrtiber 
 of pauses per line is dependent upon the size of the perceptual span— the 
 wider the span the fewer the pauses, and vice versa . Hence a type of train- 
 ing that is to effect aiy appreciable econoay in the reading time must. In 
 some way or other, influence the perceptual process that occurs in the fixa- 
 tion pause. The Improve-aant may be secured either ly widening the visual 
 span, causing fewer fixations, or ly aooeleratlng the perceptual process 
 thus lessening the duration of the fixation pauses, or by a combination of 
 both these results. 
 
 F5Ri?H.mL vigion . 
 
 Upon the fixation pause, during which all vision or perception 
 occurs, has been focused the attention of many investigators. The perception 
 that occurs therein is of two kinds, foveal and peripheral. The area that 
 can be grasped by foveal vision in any one fixation is relatively small. 
 
 Only about five letters (6l) will be "unequivocally clear" when the eyes 
 
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ftr 9 held quits statloaary. The adjoining letters will not be so sharply 
 defined, but will shade off gradually into a hasy outline growing fainter 
 and fainter as they recede from the* foveal area. These letters are grasped 
 only by peripheral vision. The area of peripheral vision is consequently 
 aauoh larger than that of clear vision. The nunber and duration of. ^Mi^jses ner 
 line and the speed of reading in general are thus seen to be conditioned to a 
 considerable degree by the effective utilization of extra-foveal vision. 
 
 The laportance of this phase of the reading complex seems to have been rather 
 generally overlooked. Practically no conscious attempt is aoad© in the 
 present teaching of reading in the schools to develop peripheral vision or to 
 enlarge its area. Heading which is w*iolly or chiefly dependent upon foveal 
 vision will be slow and halting, marred by too frequent pauses which inhibit 
 the development of a regular rhythmical swing of the e'/ss in traversing the 
 printed line. 
 
 Dodge (6l) who has analyzed the functioning of the various elements 
 in the reading coa^lex with laarked acuteness, thus describes the work of 
 extra-foveal vision: 
 
 "Some times the peripheral vision of words when they 
 are indistinctly seen in the hazy part of a line, is suf- 
 ficient for reading. It is always useful furnishi»5g an 
 important premonition of coming words and phrases, as well 
 as a conaciofusness of the relation of the Iran ediately fixated 
 symbols to the larger groups of phrase and sentence. "STlth- 
 out this premonition of coming words and the outlines of 
 larger gro*ips, the process of reading would be slow and dif- 
 ficult. 
 
 "In normal reading there is abundant evidence that 
 the word forms, indistinctly seen in peripheral vision 
 begin the reading process well In advance of direct fixation 
 and the consequent clearing up of the letters. 
 
 "It is this prwKjnltlon of coming words and phrases, 
 sentence breaks, and paragraphs, that determines the position 
 of future fixations, and reduces the duration of individual 
 fixations sometimes to pauses one-quarter the normal perception 
 time. They are often less than the simple reaction time of 
 the eye." 
 

 
 
 
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Not only is peripheral vision effective in decreasing the number 
 €md diirati<» of the fixation patises per line and consequently accelerating 
 the rate, but it la also instruaental in fostering and 3tiwulftti*Hg moaning 
 premonitions, thereby in^roving comprehension as well. Hand in !mnd with the 
 reaching out of perception beyond the inwediate field of clear vision seems 
 to go the reaching a^vsad of the assimilative factor beyond the moaning 
 grasped in direct fixation to those dimly felt la the extra-foveal area. 
 L2eanlng premonitions made more numerous and more vigorous by the functioning 
 of a wide peripheral vision, play an important role in the rapid interpreta- 
 tion of the printed page. Just as extra-foveal vision frequently suffices 
 for the reading of a word without the agency of direct fixation, so meaning 
 premonitions not infrequently carry the reader over raany a word without the 
 laanediate apprehension of the word in direct fixation. This is evidenced 
 by the fact that a person in reading a selection aloud In which the meaning 
 premonitions stream thick and fast into his consciousness will unwittingly 
 substitute a synonym for the word actually occurring in the passage. 
 
 Concerning the importance of these meaning premonitions. Bodge (6l) 
 
 says: 
 
 ■Adequate premonitions are as conspicuously lacking 
 In the stumbling reading of childhood as in our reading of 
 a foreign language. Their developrsent is a most important 
 part of the training In rapid reading. The very rapid 
 reader who makes two or three steps in a line can see 
 no more distinctly than the plodder with ten. His main 
 advantage Is Itf the way he grasps what he sees only 
 indistinctly in the extra-f Ixatlonal vision.” 
 
 (Italics are mine) 
 
 The Type of Training which will be outlined in this chapter has 
 aimed to develop the more generous utilisation of peripheral vision, and of 
 its mental correlate — meaning premonitions . The direction to the pupils in 
 the exposure exercises, requesting them to read the sentence “as a whole” 
 

 
 
 
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alloving tiae suffiolent for but a single fixation vas oa^eulated to call 
 the peripheral vision into play, irtiile the suggestion to occasionally look 
 up and tell "how much they saw ahead** how much of the rejnainlng meaning 
 of the sentence they could give, was designed to develop meaning premoni- 
 tions along with the extra-foveal vision. 
 
 FOVSAL Vision 
 
 However important a factor peripheral vision may be in developing 
 rapid, effective reading, direct or foveal vision still constitutes the 
 core of the perceptual process— perception per ae . In the field of clear 
 vinioa it is not a satter of conjectural Interpretation or laferencos from 
 previously perceived premises, but a matter of direct fixation axid lanediate 
 apprehension. The functioning of direct fixation in connection with extra- 
 foveal vision. Dodge (6l) thus describes: 
 
 ** In adult reading the mo-oent of actual fixation 
 seems to be an Incident scxnewhere in the middle of the reading 
 process. Coming between the premonition and the after echo, 
 its effect is to correct, confirm, and to intensify the 
 premonltl<Mi. Psychologically its function Is selective and 
 definitive. It emphasises the excitation of suitable residua 
 and inhibits t^e misfits. The pedagogical la^rtanc® of word 
 forms is clear. It is possible that special training in 
 peripheral vision would be worth while, but It Is equally 
 evident that no training is adequate which does not provide 
 for the corrective cooperation of direct fixation.** 
 
 The of Training to be o»jt lined in this chapter, alms de- 
 
 finitely at the enlarging of the perceptual span functioning in reading. 
 
 The work In exposure exercises attaujka this problem directly. It endeavors 
 to widen the span of attention so as to grasp, three, four, five, six, and 
 even more words If possible. In a single fixation. C. T. Gray (19) showed 
 that a marked increase in the visual span resulted in the case of two 
 fourth-grade subjects after training In perception by means of tachlstoseopic 
 exposures. In the oase of the two sixth-grade subjects, however, similar 
 

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short exposures exercises did not seem to effect any aporeciable widening 
 of the perceptual span as deteraiaed by the miatber of wCTrds grasped in ja 
 tachietoscopic exposure . However, an socanination of the data afforded by 
 the photographic record of the eye laovesaenta in the reading of one of the 
 two subjects, B.H., taicen before and after the training in perception 
 yields a rather striking result. The following Is a statenaent of the record 
 as reported by Gray (19)» 
 
 Eye-Movement Record of B, R. Before and After Practice. 
 
 Average iSo. Average Average No. 
 
 of Pauses Length of of Regressive 
 
 Pauses -^v«aents . 
 
 Before 
 
 Practice 15.5 I5.4 • 4.5 
 
 After 
 
 Practice 6.1 12.6 1.2 
 
 After 3 
 
 Months 8.4 — 1.2 
 
 Interval 
 
 An examination of these records clearly demonatratea a striking 
 enlargement of the perceptual span which functions in actual reading . This 
 is evidenced by the reduotion In the average number of pauses per line from 
 15,5 in the first reading to 6.1 in the reading after the practice in 
 p>eroeptlon. This irrficates that the size of the perceptual span was more 
 than doubled since its width bears an inverse proportion to the raiabor of 
 fixation- pauses per line. Sven the average duration of the perceptual 
 process In the fixation-pauses was decreased from 15»4 to 12.6 showing 
 iaprovwBsnt in this phase of the process also. A notable decrease in the 
 
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 average number of regressive movementa per line Is likewise noticeable* S. R.'s 
 rate of reading as determined by careful tests had increased from 1.0 word 
 per second before the practice tc 5*0 wcarda per second after the training— 
 an iaproven»nt of 400 per cent. 
 
 Consequently while B.R.'s span of attention showed no notable 
 increase in grasping aiafoers of words exposed by a tachistoscope, it showed 
 a S'^iking enlargement in reading an actual context. In alluding to this 
 point in Chapter III, the writer tensed the latter the relative span of 
 attention , the span which functions in readir^ a context material, in 
 contradistinction to the absolute span which functions in tachistoscopic 
 exposure work. Exercises of this latter character have shown that the 
 perceptual span which they call into play, grasping, as it does, five and 
 six words in a single fixation, is seld«»a fully utilised la ordinary reading 
 whwe the span rarely exceeds two or three words. Consequently, while the 
 absolute span of perception may show no Increase as a result of training in 
 perception, the relative span which functions la ordinary reading may reveal 
 a striking Increase as in the present Instance. In other words, the percep- 
 tual span is utilized more effectively in reading. The point f»ade here is 
 that this is true not only of fourth-grade subjects, but also of older 
 subjects as 3. R.*s case well illustrates. The eye-movement records of B. R. 
 certainly lend no support to the tentative conclusion of Cray that training in 
 perception. If It is to produce results, shosld come before the fourth-grade. 
 For, the perceptual span as it functions, not In the grasping of isolated 
 words or phrases, but as it is used in the reading of connected laaterial Is 
 the important factor. That this latter is susceptible to improvement has 
 been clearly shown by the record of Gray’s subject, B.R. 
 
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?l«lation of Speed of Reading to Typea of Imagery. 
 
 What is the effect of the different typea of mental i^gery upon 
 the rate of reading? In other words, la the reading rate largely conditioned 
 by the mode of imaging? If so, what types are conducive to rapidity and what 
 ones tend to retard? These are some of the interesting questions which 
 have been touched upon in recent studies in the psychology of r^MwIing. 
 
 To the above queries W, A, Schmidt (7) gives no uncertain answer: 
 
 "Individuals of this (visual) type" says he, "sure by mture 
 rapid readers, other conditions being equal. Their speed is 
 not due to scanning, however, for they have no occasion to resort 
 to this, since there is almost no limit to the rate df visuali- 
 zation. The motor type, on the other hand, tends to represent 
 the slowest readers, the dependence upon the physiological 
 mechanism being in this ctfse quite marked. The auditory type 
 ranks between the two, the hearing of the wcsrds being in this 
 case often quite vestigial. This type appears to be much more 
 eoosaoa than either of the other tw4 types. Jfest of the evidence 
 which the writer has been able to gather thru Interviews with a 
 large number of individuals seems to support the oonoluslon that 
 the auditory-motor type of reader can compete with the visual 
 only when he is able to resort to scanning. There can be 
 little doubt that rapid readers fall almost exclusively into 
 these two classes— those on the one hand who are good vlsualizers 
 and those on the other hand who have acquired the ability to 
 gather meaning from the printed page without definitely reading 
 all the words and sentences." 
 
 The above conclusion of Schmidt’s appears to the writer, to 
 possess a certain amount of plausibility. It seetas at least a priori logical 
 to assume that reading which involves merely, or at least chiefly, visuali- 
 zation, requires less functioning of the physiological raechanism than the 
 auditory or motor type with their more or less elaborate movement of the 
 wjsoulature of articulation. Involving a less elaborate functioning, 
 visualization wo>jld seem to be a more direct and more rapid mode of reading. 
 Schmidt appears to go rather far, however, in maintaining that "good readers 
 fall almost exclusively into two classes"— good vlsualizers and those able 
 
to aoan; that the ayditory or motor reader* can coapete ^ith ^isyalizers 
 only when they resort to scanning. 
 
 In the first place« the data which throw any light upon the 
 influence of the various types of iaaagery upon the readit^ rate are exceed- 
 ingly meagre. The scanty evldenod that is available, however, does not seem 
 to warrant so positive a statement as to the conditioning, determining 
 influence of the mode of Imaging upon reading rate. There are mtmroua 
 iastanoes in the literature of very rapid readers who are decidedly " audltares* 
 
 and " motaires* b»it who can compete very successfully with the visuals. 
 
 * 
 
 Moreover, it is to be remembered that the audition nay be of the faint, 
 vestigial psychical character involving, according to the Introspection of 
 some psychologists, no movement whatsoever of the musculature of articulation. 
 In the writer *8 judgment, it is In the latter factor— the elaborate functi<m- 
 ing of the physiological mechanism of vocalization— that the retarding 
 
 f 
 
 influence is largely to be located. If the latter be eliminated, a high rate 
 of speed may be reached regardless of the type of imagery, as the results of 
 the present investigation indicate. 
 
 "Most of the evidence which the writer has been able to gather thru 
 interviews" is mentioned by •Schmidt as the data ♦ from which he generalizes 
 
 • After the above had been written, the writer received a oommunicatloa 
 from Dr. Schmidt, in which the latter mentions Quantz*s experiment as corrobor- 
 ative of his generalization. As the writer had already analyzed the results 
 of Quantz*s experiment In this Chapter, it is felt that all of the essential 
 data upon which Dr. Schmidt's conclusion rests, have been considered. Dr. 
 Schmidt also states that he adults whom he interviewed "wore, for the most part, 
 individuals who had studied psychology rather extensively. In consequence they 
 ware, as a rule, able to attempt (whether they succeeded la quite another ques- 
 tion) to classify themselves as auditory, motor, or visual in type." In the 
 writer's jtidgment, the attempt to classify oneself in regard to imagery type, 
 without using any psychological test, is rather precarious. Dr. Schmidt has 
 the gratitude of the writer for his additional information. 
 

 
 
 
 
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102 > 
 
 ooncerning the conditioning influonoa of the various types of iiaagory upon 
 the reading rata. A grave difficulty ifhioh coiufrontad the writer in hla 
 endeavor to secure data on this point by questioning readc»r8 as to their mod© 
 of ianging and their reading rate, was their Inability in the overwhelming 
 majority of oases to determine with anything approfichlng certainty, what is 
 their daalnant type of Imagery. ??or is that strange. For, practically all 
 the recent investigations (62-C7) of Imagery types have shown that, as a 
 general rule, individuals e«pl<^ not a single, constant type, but many types 
 of Imagery. Netschajeff (63) has conolualvely demonstrated the existence of 
 such combinations of imagery types, for example, as the visual-motor, the 
 audltory-mCtor, the audltory-vtsual-motor, etc. Indeed, even a single 
 of mental work, individuals are found using now one, now another mode of 
 imaging. There is a confusing compleoclty of modes of imaging la a sli^le 
 individual. 
 
 In view of this fact it is not surprising that an individual 
 when Interviewed can scarcely state off-hand what is his precise type of 
 imagery. ^«n when subjected to psychological tests in the laboratory, the 
 doairmiat type of imagery is not always established with certainty. Indeed 
 there is no single, psychological test, that can be relied upon to discover 
 with certainty the dominant mode of imaging in the case of a ” mixed” type. 
 
 It la in the latter case, moreover, that most Individuals are found to belong. 
 Meumann ( 69 ) epitomizes the results of his own extensive investigations and 
 those of other Investigators when he states: " Investigation has shown, how- 
 ever, that the great majority of people belong not to pure, but to mixed or 
 balanced ideational types. In these oases, we have a compromise between 
 ideatloml type and sense-modality.” Illustrating the complexity of modes of 
 Imaging in a single Individual, he says; "For Instance, the concrete visual 
 

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type of ideatioo my co-exist in any individual with verbal ideation of 
 another source,— with vocal-motor or with verbal auditory imgery,“ 
 
 Consequently the question might well bo raised as to the accuracy 
 and the general value to be attached to information derived from Interviews 
 upon a question that is notoriously difficult to answer, even when fortified 
 with the results of a psychological teat, let alone when answered off-hand 
 without such a basis for a reply. 
 
 The only express attempt, to the writer’s knowledge, to attach the 
 
 probl«n of the Influence of imagery types upon reading rets was the experiment 
 
 of Quants (26) at Wisconsin. Quanta sought to determine the relative 
 
 Influence of the visual and the aural bias upon the reading rate In three ways: 
 
 "(1) by testing the visual and auditory span; that is, the 
 limit of power to repeat correctly words read or heard onoej 
 (2) by detection of differences between two variant 
 readings of the same passage; (3) by the ability to 
 reproduce the thoughts of two selections, one of which 
 was read to the subject, the other read silenty by him, 
 at the same time." 
 
 Whether a«r/ of these three tests actually determined the dominant 
 type, or even the relative strengtli of the visual and auditory imagery In 
 the individual, is very doubtful. Underlying the three methods employed by 
 Quantz Is the assumption that the capacity to grasp and remaraber or reproduce 
 words presented orally, or visually constitutes an Inrlex of the relative 
 strength of the auditory or visual type of imagery. That words presented 
 orally and reproduced in the same manner do not necessarily tap solely the 
 audit^y type of Imagery is evident froma the fact that there is always the 
 possibility of transforming the auditory impression Into another more favored 
 type of Imagery. The same Is true of the possibility of transforming the 
 visual Impression into an auditory Image. The existence of such s substitute 
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typ««, vhloh has bean socperloantally demojasirated by l^umann servos to 
 rondor the fundamontal assumption underlying Quanta’s throe tests very 
 doubtful, and the conclusions based upon such tests, of similar questionable 
 validity. 
 
 Indeed afe’imann (69) cites as an illustration of a process where- 
 in substitutive imagery m.y be employed, practically the same task as Quants *s 
 test of the span of prehension— "the limit of power to repeat correctly 
 words read or heard once." 
 
 "Let ua take", says ^fetraann," the case of an individual 
 who has read a list of words or to whom such a list has been 
 dictated, with a view to having them reproduced Immediately 
 In vocal fora. The mixed type is always able to adapt Itself 
 to this task.... In recalling auditory words iaasediately after 
 hearing them, the vlsualiser may empl<^ auditory images 
 chiefly, but may make a secondary use of the visual imagery 
 into which he has transformed the auditory material; but in 
 recalling a conversation with a friend after a long interval, 
 
 . . .he has recourse chiefly to visual images of expressions 
 employed by his friend during the conversation. The indivi- 
 dual who belongs to a pure type, on the other hand, endeavors 
 in immediate retention to transform into his own favored 
 imagery the sensory in^)re8slon8 which he receives." 
 
 The results obtained from the three tests applied by Quantz 
 are by no means uniform. The evidence from the first test (span of pre- 
 hension) Quantz construes to indicate "a gradual increase in the rate of 
 reading as the subject moves away from the auditory type and toward the 
 visual." The results of the second test (detection of differences) are 
 just the reverse, showing that the auditory typo is decidedly more conductive 
 to rapidity in reading than the visual type; while the third tost (comparison 
 by simultaneous processes) seems to show a correlation between eye-mlndodness 
 and rapid reading. The conflicting character of the results obtained tends 
 strongly to corroborate the writer's conclusion that not one of Quanta 's 
 throe tests are really capable of determining whether the subject was 
 

 
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doialnantly, of the visual or of the auditory type. Not having dotorndnod 
 that first essential fact for a comparison of the relative advantage of the 
 visual or auditory bias upon the reading rate, conclusions based upon 
 correlations of reading rate with prehension span or similar exercises are 
 quite lacking in validity. But even If it were ass^aaed that the isagery types 
 were established with precision, a oonclualon as to the decided advantage of 
 the visual over the audlt<»ry would scarcely be warranted in view of the 
 conflicting character of the results obtained. 
 
 Thus the results— meagre a»i conflicting as they are— of the only 
 direct experimental investigation of this probl®» would hardly seem to support 
 so positive a coholuslon as Schmidt s that "the auditory-motor type of reader 
 can c<»pete with the visual only when he is able to resort to scanning." 
 
 Meuaann does not treat speoifioally of the effect of the iimg&ry types 
 upon rate of reading, but he does discuss their inf luenoe- upon rate of 
 associative learning. In this connection, he states that "the auditory-motor 
 individual always seems to possess a lass reliable, but a more rapid memory'* 
 than the Individual of the visual type. The auditory-motor type seems to 
 function more rapidly In associative learning. 
 
 To the question then. Is the visual or the auditory bias more 
 conducive to rapidity in reading, no positive, definite answer. In the writer *s 
 judgment, can as yet be given. The paucity of experimental evidence on this 
 point is such as to render any conclusion but tentative and highly conjectural. 
 The conclusion of Schmidt’s ranking the visual type as the most advantageous, 
 the motor type, the least, and the auditory as Intermediate, while theoretic- 
 ally very plausible, is as yet, without sufficient experimental corroboration. 
 But the meagre evidence that does exist warrants no srach fatalistic attitude 
 as Schmidt’s ooneernlng the all-powerful, conditioning influence of the 
 
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imagery typo upon reading rate. Rapid readers have been found among all 
 types of imagery. la the present study the vast increase in speed reported 
 of all the experimental pupils in certain grades,**- in s^ieh there were 
 beyond doubt different types of imagery— Indicates that marked improvement 
 in rate may be secured regardless of the pupil’s mode of imaging. 
 
 Training in Pereeptlon . 
 
 The third l^fpe of Training has been based directly upon the findings 
 of the psychological laboratory as to the fimotioning of the eyes during 
 reading, showing the crucial Importance of developing and •widening the 
 perceptual span, or at least of making more effective use of it in reading, 
 of decreasing the duration of the fixation pauses, and cultivating a regular, 
 rhythmical s'wing of the eyes in the iaterfixation movements. The laethod was 
 worked out carefully in Its entirety. It was found, however, that none of 
 the present types of tachlstoscope ccnild be used satisfactorily for groups 
 of pupils. In class exercises the word or phrase exposed should bo legible 
 equally, (or approx inately) toesrery pupil. An apparatus which would espose 
 cards, containing words and phrases of varying length, suitably to a whole 
 class, for intervals ranging from about 1/12 of a second to two seconds, and 
 which would moreover, be easily manipulated hy the teacher was found necessary 
 if the work was to be done with the scientific accuracy necessary for the 
 purposes of this experiment. 
 
 Such an instrument could not be devised in the time at the 
 writer’s disposal before the launching of the experiment on the scheduled 
 date. C. H. Stoeltiiv: of Chicago, with -whom the plaris were carefully dis- 
 cussed, has given the writer the assurance that an Instrument of this type 
 suitable for class-room purposes can be devised. Superintendent Taylor of 
 Oregon has also worked out plans for Its construction. The proper Instru- 
 
oant afliy b« available shortly. Tho this type of training was not aetnally 
 applied In the present investigation because of tho lack of proper technical 
 apparatus, it is thought that the presentation of an outline of the method 
 nay be worth while. This would seem to be so In view of the probable 
 appearance of the necessary mechanical device In the near future and because 
 there is considerable evidence which points to a method of this kind as 
 capable of greatly accelerating the reading rate. It is the hope of the 
 promoters of this experiment to submit this type of training to an actual 
 test when the necessary mechanical facilities are at hand. 
 

 
 
 
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 TYPE III. 
 
 THAI NX 3G IN )1A?IPITY OF t^EADUKS BY .«SA!S OF P^^CSPTION C/v’^.DS 
 
 Baferences: Types of Reading Ability as -ibchibltad Thro Tests 
 
 and Laboratory Experiawnts, C, T. Gray, Supplementary 
 Monographs, Yol. I, No. 3t Ghiversity of Chicago Press, 
 pages I49ff and 157 ff. 
 
 The purpose of this investigation is to determine the extent to 
 vhieh spaed in silent reading can be increased by training pupils in rapid 
 reading thro the use of perception cards. The practical value of a typo 
 of training which will accelerate the rate of silent reading ia obvious. 
 
 Your cooperation in this study will aid in definitely ascertaining means of 
 aoooatpllshlng this end. The results of this investigation will be sent to 
 every teacher participating in the work. 
 
 The cards used should be four inches wide and of varying lengths 
 to contain words, phrases, or sentences. 
 
 The use of these cards is analogous to that of the exposure of 
 material in laboratory work by means of an exposure ap;?aratus or tachistoscope. 
 In both cases, the subject is required to peroelve the jmterial exposed in as 
 short a time as possible. There is experiraental evldenoo tending to show that 
 the amount of verbal 3»terial which a person can perceive in a given time can 
 be Increased— in other words, that perception aay be improved. Probably it 
 is not true that perception as a native endowment may be iB^roved, but the 
 method of using the native eniowiient— i»e. the performance, — ia susceptible 
 of extensive improvement. 
 
 The rate at which children can perceive words, phrases and sentences 
 has a rather obvious bearing on their speed of reading. Residing consists 
 of a sv’coessive series of perceptions. The eye does not move regularly 
 along the printed line but jumps from one point to another, pausing at each 
 point. It is during the pause that perception takas place. In a very real 
 sense, therefore, the printed line consists of a series of flashes or expos- 
 ures . 
 
 To improve the rate of reading, therefore, wo need to reduce the 
 number of mcposures per line by Increasing the amount of material presented 
 at each exposure and to shorten the length of sagjx exposure. This suggests 
 that we may directly attack the probl®.m of increasing the speed of reading 
 (a) by training the pupil to "see more at a glance", and (b; by training 
 him to see the material more quickly. 
 
 Obviously we cannot control either the amount seen at a glance or 
 the time of the exposure by using the printed page. If, however, we can 
 present, by means of peroeption cards, portions of the text in the fcarra of 
 words, phrases, and sentences, we may gradually lengthen the amount of 
 material on the cards as the pupil*8 ability to perceive it Increases, and we 
 may also reduce the time during which it Is placed In view. 
 
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 This l3 the fTsindamental idea io the aethod we are now proposing* 
 
 The readlr^j period should be 3^ aiiautes long. Half the period 
 should be devoted to the presentation of material by means of the perooption 
 cards. The remainder of the period should be devoted to reading tram the 
 book in which, as far as possible, the same words, phrases and senteaees are 
 met. 
 
 During the first half of the period the attempt should always be 
 to make the period of exposure of the cards as short as possible. Day by day 
 the length of the laaterlal should be increased. In fact, either one of two 
 methods may be used and both should be used during the cmirso of the experlraont 
 (a) the time of exposure may be kept constant and the length the material 
 may be iricreased; (b) the length of the raaterial my be kept constant and 
 the time decreased. 
 
 In order to obviate as far as possible airy interference with the 
 ^ perceptive processes due to the presence of unfamiliar words, the teacher 
 should drill on single words which she Ms reason to believe are unknown 
 to a number of the children. These words may be placed on the board or 
 presented in the usual manasr. 
 
 It is desirable that the mtarial be printed on the perception 
 cards rather than written. For this purpose a stamping outfit should be 
 provided. It is recognized also that a great deal of work will be involved 
 in preparation for the class period. The pr<»BOt«r6 of the experiment are 
 willing to cooperate with the teachers in securing help for this work. 
 
 The second part of the period should be devoted to a conscious 
 attempt on the part of the teacher to secure a transfer of the perception 
 processes from the cards to the printed page, iVhen a phrase or sentence Is 
 encountered, children should be told that the phrase or sentence is to be 
 "seen altogether". Such directions as "do not look at every word", "See It 
 as a whole", "read it altogether" and the like, aaiy serve to ©arry over from 
 the work with the cards to the work in the book something of the same 
 attitude. 
 
 This method should jontinue frosa the first Monday in April to the 
 last Friday in May. An accurate record of the progress of the pupils should 
 be kept so that the increase in perceptual span and in rapidity of perception 
 may be noted. A simple form will be provided for this purpose. The teacher 
 is also requested to keep a diary in which she will daily record notes and 
 observations concerning the progress of the experiment. 
 
 The teacher should select easy reading material for use during this 
 experiment In order that the difficulty due to xinfamiliar words may be 
 reduced. In all the reading otMr than that done in the half hours set aside 
 for the experiment, the teacher should seek by admonition, encouragement and 
 example to Inculcate the idea of increasing the span of perception— e.g. 
 reading by phrases— and to decrease the tinie required to "look at" a group 
 of w(xrds. An interesting exercise may be devised in which pupils may be re- 
 quested to glance at the first words of a paragraph and iseaediately raise 
 their eyes, whereupon they may tell "how much th^ saw" 
 

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The following auggeations are offered indioatlng the natrire of 
 the directions to bo given to the pupils. Litoral adheroneo to them is not 
 roquoBtod. Point out the advantage of a rapid rate of reading. Try to 
 got then to see this in terms of an addition to their own interests and 
 pleasure. Say to f tem in substance; shall show you soiae carda containing 
 words, phrases and sentences. They will be shown for only a fraction of a 
 second. So you will have to read them vary oulokly, with a single glance of 
 the eyes. Try to read all that is printed on each card. You will have to 
 pay very close attention when I show you the card, as otherwise you will 
 not be able to read all that is on the oard. This practice in reading a 
 number of words at a glance will help you to read more rapidly. Try to do 
 better than you did yesterday." 
 
 Spend about 15 minutes in perception card training. After each 
 exposure ask scms of the pupils what was printed on the card. Toward the end 
 of the training in perception, have all the pupils reproduce In writing what 
 was on each of the five last cards exposed. The percentage of words correctly 
 reproduced will constitute the pupil’s score in perception. State the total 
 number of words exposed on the five cards and It will then be easy for each 
 pupil to figture out his own score. Direct each pupil to enter his score 
 innediately upon the chart that each pupil will keep for that purpose. 
 
 The second half of the period should now be devoted to rapid 
 silent reading. The pupils should be encouraged to carry over the habit 
 of "seeing many words at a glance", gained by their training In perception, 
 into the actual work of silent reading. They should be directed to *rim 
 their ey« across a line of words" as rapidly as they can, consistently of 
 course, with- an understanding of what they see. Thruout this reading period 
 there should be a conscious effort to utilize the habit acquired thru training 
 in perception, by perceiving several words at each fixation, instead of but 
 a single ward. This should result in an increased rate of speed In silent 
 reading. 
 
 Gay to the pupils In substances "Head this selection as fast as 
 
 you can. I want to see ho’? i^ch yo\t can read i n ♦ minutes. Try 
 
 to see as much as you can read in a single glance, running your eyes rapidly 
 across the lines. A fast, regular, rhythmical movement of the eyes will help 
 you to read rapidly. But remember that X am going to ask you to tell m 
 about the matter you have read so do not skip anything. Try to read faster 
 today than you did yesterday." 
 
 See that the pupils have a pencil at hand and direct them to stop 
 reading at once as soon as you say "stop". Direct them then to mark the end 
 of the line which they are reading when told to stop. Pupils may now 
 reprodtice what they have read. Reproduction sho»jld consist both of free 
 paraphrase-- orally, or in writing— and of answers to specific questions 
 based on the test. The length of the reading period and of the reproduction 
 period should vary with the grade of the pupils and with the sub.iect matter. 
 
 • Number of minutes, say two, three or four, to be determined by the 
 teacher . 
 

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 In general, hcwever, the reproduction should not occupy aoro than on© 
 quarter of the total time allowed for the exercise, -heading and reproduction 
 are to bo continued till the end of the 15 aainutes assigned. Have the 
 pupils then report the number of pages and lines beyond the last full page 
 which they read. 
 
 As part of your preparation for the exercise you will be expected 
 to know the average number of words per line in the matter which is being 
 read and the number of lines per page (if pages are broken by illustrations 
 or for other reasons, special account of these pages will have to be taken). 
 From the pupils* reports as to pages and lines '•ead on this and subsequent 
 assignroenta for the day, estimate the number of words read that day and 
 divide by the total number of min'ites used In reading. This will give the 
 number of words read per minute by each pupil. 3ach student should figure 
 out his own score, and should enter it immediately on the chart on which 
 he has already writton his perception score. This chart will thus serve 
 as a record of the pupil’s daily progress. It is also suggested that a 
 complete chart of the daily class performance might be conspicuously 
 displayed in the class-roas. 
 
 On May 1st. and May 23th, besides the record of the average number 
 of words read per mln*jte by each pupil during the total reading time, a 
 record of the average number of words read per raimte by each pupil dtirlng 
 each of the various reading periods constituting the total time devoted to 
 reading on each of the above raentioned days should also be kept. 
 
 Chi aay 2nd. and ^y 29th, tlKi pupils sho»ild be tested with the 
 Courtis Silent Reading Tests Forms II and III. As soon as possible aftor 
 the last Friday In ^^ay, a copy (or the originals) of the ii^ividual charts, 
 the class chart and a record of results and observations should be mailed 
 to the Bureau of Educational Research, TJniverslty of Illinois, Hrbana, 
 Illinois* 
 
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 ‘i-X® 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 STATE^iSST 0? PROCSDT3RS. 
 
 After having -levlsed the preceding types of training the next 
 step was to apply them to a sufficiently large mjcaber of pupils 
 in the different grades of the elementary school. This would serve 
 to test the efficacy of the factors included therein. Altho these 
 factors had been selected because psychological experimentation, 
 pedagogical Investigations, and a priori evidence had suggested 
 their special significance in accelerating the reading rate, their 
 value as constituents of an organised and usable method of training 
 to Increase speed could be determined only by subiaoting those 
 methods to art actiial test under ordinary school-room conditions. 
 
 Fortunately at this time the 'lewly established Bureau 
 of Sduoatlonal Research at the tlteivarsity of Illinois as one 
 phase of its activities in stimulating the interest of the 
 schools of the state In the scientific study of education, had 
 secured the names of the superintendents and teachers who were 
 Interested in the problem of reading. From this number and from 
 others who graciously offered to participate in this study, the 
 following selection was tsade. It comprises 41 grades in 18 schools 
 located in nine cities in Illinois. 
 
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11 
 
 CITY 
 
 SCHOOL 
 
 GRADE MSTHOD 
 
 TiSACHSR 
 
 Bloomington, 111* 
 
 St* ffery*s 
 St. yfeiry’s 
 
 5 
 
 Sister Bernadine 
 
 Bloomington* 
 
 6 
 
 Sister Mary 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 Goodrich 
 
 4 
 
 Clara S, Klaas 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 Goodrich 
 
 5 
 
 Virginia Lee 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 5 
 
 Rose McCcwaskoy 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 7 
 
 Bridget MoElherno 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 
 Ida U, Stodder 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 4 
 
 Gertrude Tighe 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 5 
 
 Ruth Wimmer 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 S?annierre 
 
 3 
 
 .^%krgaret Dougherty 
 
 Chicago, 
 
 .^nierra 
 
 5 
 
 5.&TS. IJellie Hahn, 
 
 LaSalle* 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 7 
 
 "lilary Y. Duncan 
 
 LaSalle, 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 4 
 
 Margaret Flanagan 
 
 LaSalle, 
 
 ■Jefferson 
 
 7 
 
 Slizabeth I^nley 
 
 LaSalle, 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 4 
 
 Marcella Mull in 
 
 Oregon, 
 
 Oregon 
 
 7 
 
 Elizabeth Joiner 
 
 Oregon, 
 
 Oregon 
 
 4 
 
 Marlon >'>etiger 
 
 Rushville, 
 
 i^ebster 
 
 
 Minnie B. Thomas 
 
 Rushville, 
 
 ;»ebstar 
 
 3 
 
 Dena Tutt 
 
 Streator, 
 
 Garfield 
 
 3 
 
 Minnie Shinn 
 
 Streator, 
 
 Grant 
 
 $ 
 
 I^ilu Inland, 
 
 Streator, 
 
 Grant 
 
 3 
 
 Frances C.Linskey 
 
 Streator, 
 
 Grant 
 
 3 
 
 J. S. Mather 
 
 Streator, 
 
 Greeley 
 
 
 Rose M, Boyd 
 
 Streator, 
 
 Greeley 
 
 7 
 
 Gertrude Soanlan 
 
 Streator, 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 If 
 
 lalla Roberts 
 
 Streator , 
 
 Fl»jmb 
 
 ' 5 
 
 Lillian SeCora 
 
 Streator, 
 
 Sherman 
 
 6 
 
 Ruth Kelley 
 
 ^urgo. 
 
 Argo 
 
 4 
 
 Marie McCartV^ 
 
 Argo, 
 
 Argo 
 
 5 
 
 ^ry L. i^cGuire 
 
 Sycamore, 
 
 Central 
 
 4 
 
 ^lazel 3, lUkson 
 
 Sycamore, 
 
 Central 
 
 7 
 
 Florence WolhensacV; 
 
 Taylonrille, 
 
 ^3t 
 
 4 
 
 ^3. i'^nes Abrams 
 
 Tayloryille, 
 
 Gast 
 
 7 
 
 Leonora Drennen 
 
 Taylorrille, 
 
 Hewitt 
 
 7 
 
 i^ude Law 
 
 Tayloryille, 
 
 HewJtt 
 
 4 
 
 Bosai© Leigh 
 
 Tayloryille, 
 
 Oak St. 
 
 4 
 
 Leona Peek 
 
 Tayloryille, 
 
 Oak St. 
 
 7 
 
 Florence Layzell 
 
 Tayloryille, 
 
 West 
 
 4 
 
 Mrs. Laura Huff 
 
 . Tayloryille, 
 
 West 
 
 7 
 
 ?lrs . L.P .Anderson 
 
 Among the number la a Parochial School, St* SSary’s in Bloomington; 
 the rest are ;mblio schools. The cities are fairly well scattered thmout 
 the state. They range from the metropolis Chicago, down to the smaller 
 cities of the state, such as Sycamore. The constituency of these 13 
 different schools largely reflects the cosmopolitan character of our school 
 
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 population. The pupils of the Goodrich School in Chicago are almost 
 exclusively of Italian parentage; those in the Argo School are dominantly 
 of Polish extraction. The off -spring of Bohemians, Slavs, Austrians, and 
 Hungarians, are found in goodly numbers. in the Streator schools; while 
 children of native-born Americans, predominate in the remaining schools. 
 
 The subjects of this experijment were drawn moreover from oractically every 
 social strata of our heterogeneous population. This wide range in the 
 character of the subjects would seem to render any appreciable gains in 
 readir.g rat© all the more interesting and significant. It would give to 
 them a broader basis, and would illustrate the wide applicability of the 
 methods of training to different types of subjects. 
 
 The training was extended thruout grades, three to eight 
 inclusive. Since reading in the primary grades is so largely devoted to the 
 mastery of the mechanics of reading-- the distinguishing . of the different 
 letter-forms, their phonetic properties, taken singly and in various combina- 
 tions, the recognition of simple word-forms, etc.-- it was not practicable 
 to apply the methods to the first and second grades. Indeed, in the writer’s 
 .judgment, it is not possible to devise a type of training which is suitable 
 alike to pupils in the first grade and to those in the eighth. The former 
 are taken up almost entirely with the mechanics of reading, the latter have 
 passed that stage completely. From the third grade on, however, the method 
 is applicable since the formation of habits of rapid efficient silent 
 reading, becomes in these grades, a matter of paramount importance. 
 
 Length of Training. 
 
 The total period of training extended from April 8, 1919# to 'lay 
 29, 1919 — a period of 39 school-days. On April 8, iVfeiy 2, and May 29, the 
 reading period was devoted to the administration of the Courtis Silent 
 

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Reading Teat was adainlatered, to asoartain how much improvement In speed 
 and comprehenaion was effected in the first half of the training period, 
 and how much in the latter half. The teste were also given to the control 
 groups at the same time in order to secure a check for each half of the 
 training period. In smny of the schools, the period of 39 school'-'.iays 
 frcMs April 3 to ifiay 29* was interrupted an occasional tree day, or 
 vacation periods of one kind or another. In every such case the date set 
 for the administration of the final Courtis test ms extended beyong ‘My 29, 
 so that the uniform number of reading periods might be devoted to the 
 training, 
 
 sfethod of Control, 
 
 In order to determine how much of the increase In speed and 
 comprehension could justly be atributed to the particular type of training 
 which the pupils received and not to their regular school work, each of the 
 41 classes was divided into two groups, approximately equal in rate of 
 reading. The obtaining of a group whose aggregate ability In the particular 
 
 activity that is being investigated is approximately equal to the aggregate 
 
 ability of the experimental group, is the ordinary method of ” control" in 
 experiroentatlon of this character. An attempt was made la the present 
 
 investigation to secu"® In addition a more refilled type of control. Besides 
 
 dividing the class into two groups, the sjjms of whose aggregate scores were 
 approximately equal, the class was further subdivided Into pairs of pupils 
 of approximately equal speed in reading. One member of each of the pairs 
 was placed in the experimental group, the other in the control group. This 
 afforded a control not only for the experimehtal group as a whole, but also 
 for each Irrflvldual member In the group. 
 
 The advantages of the inethod of individual control are unmistakable. 
 

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Chief aaiong tbora is the securing of a basis of comparison vhich rests 
 directly and intiraatoly upon the detailed specific facts ratlier than upon 
 specious statistical group totals and averages. The equality between the 
 Goristituent monbers of the two groups apoarently reflected in the equality 
 of the group totals is oftentimes more apparent than real. Tho the totals 
 of two groups may be approximately equal, the individual members in the two 
 groups may not be at all comparable. 
 
 The following case served to illustrate the application of this 
 point in connection with the method of control in the present study. Before 
 receiving Instructions as to the method of procedure, a prirK;ipal had 
 contemplated dividing his class into four sections, rangl*^ from the highest 
 to the lowest in reading rate. The sum of the scores of the upper and lower 
 quantiles would be approxiimtely equal to the atm of the scores of the two 
 middle sections. The former were intended to serve as the control group 
 for the latter. Tho the total number of points scored by each group would 
 be approximately equal, the absolute lack of equality in the scores of all 
 the individual members of the axperimantal group with the scores of the 
 individual pupils In the control group, would be not less real. Consequently, 
 a common basis of ctwiparison between the individual members of the two 
 groups would be utterly lacking. The eqtiality between the Individual members 
 which the group totals would apparently reflect would be a statistical 
 fiction, sine fu^riaaento in re . 
 
 The method of individual control serves moreover to eliminate 
 the vexing question. How are improvafaeats in different levels of ability 
 to be compared?— a question that is always with us in the loose, sllp-shod 
 method of group control. Take the case already cited of the upper and lower 
 quartiles seizing as the control group for the experimental section consisting 
 
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 of iho two middlo qyartiles. Th© losmbors of the lowor quartiles hare op«n 
 to th®a a much groat«r room for possibl® improvoiaont before reaching!: either 
 the standard rates or the highest phyaiologiosl limen, than say the pupils 
 of the second quartlle. Is an increase of 50 words per minute in speed to 
 be evaluated no mo’^e highly in the latter than in the former? If it should 
 receive a higher proportional credit, 'hat will be the correct proportion? 
 These are some of the questions which, tho not frequently expressly raised 
 by investigators* and less frequently answered, are nevertheless always 
 implicit in the method of group control. 
 
 To obviate them and to secure a more refined type of cheeking 
 device— one that is based more directly and Intimately upon the detailed 
 facts in the case— the method of ii^iivldual control has been used In the 
 present investigation. It has cost much in the way of additional pains, 
 time, and labor. The writer believes, however, that the more incisive and 
 clear-cut basis of caaparison which resulted, was worth the price. 
 
 The following extracts from a circular letter sent to all the 
 schools participating, will show the method employed by the teachers in 
 securir^ both the group and the Individual control. The explicit character 
 of the directions indicates the pains taken to Insure uniformity of procedure 
 In this in^ortant phase of the experiraeat. 
 
 Direetio>iis for Division of C lass . 
 
 "^e are mailing you * copies of the Courtis 
 
 Silent Heading Test. Kindly have the teachers 
 you have selected administer these tests to 
 their pupils on Friday, April 4th. 
 
 On the basis of the results of these tests have 
 them divide each of the above mentioned grades 
 into two groups of approximately equal apeed in 
 silent reading. In this division only the score 
 in speed (or words road) shoiild bo regarded. 
 
 ♦ Humber inserted 
 
Il"l 
 
 The score in c<xnproh©nsion (questions answered) 
 should be marked, but should not be taken into 
 consideration In the question of dividing? the 
 grade into two groups. These groups should 
 be built up as follows ; 
 
 Rank the pupils in each entire class on the 
 basis of speed from the best to the poorest. 
 N*wab9r then In order, beginning with the best 
 etc.) assigning them a rank. Put all 
 the odd n’lmbered children in Group A, and all 
 the even nusnbered children in Group B. You 
 will then have two groups of approximately 
 the 3a!.<e scores. iTrite in the scores of the 
 pupils. The tendency will be for the scores 
 of Group A to run higher. Now raatos minor 
 ad.^ust^ients by shifting pupils from one group 
 to the other itntil you have (a) pairs of pupils 
 
 of as nearly the same 
 
 score as possible, and 
 
 (b), as a result, the 
 the same. 
 
 total group 
 
 scores nearly 
 
 Illustration 
 
 for class of 
 
 twenty ; 
 
 
 Group A 
 
 Group 8. 
 
 Pair 1 
 
 190 
 
 13d 
 
 Pair 2 
 
 185 
 
 185 
 
 P»lr 5 
 
 179 
 
 ISO 
 
 Pair 9 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 
 Pair 10 
 
 
 
 Total 145^ 
 
 Orpup A pill be called the Experimental Group and 
 Group B the Control Group. This means that the 
 method of instructions sat forth in the enclosed 
 directions is to be followed for Group A only , 
 and that Group B is to be taught in the usual 
 way. If there is an odd nwinber of pupils in 
 a class, put the odd pupil In Group A, 
 
 After having scored the papers and used them to 
 divide the classes into two groups, kindly send 
 the papers to us for purposes of diagnosis and 
 further st>idy. Also kindly enclose the test 
 blanks which were not used. Ship by express 
 collect, 
 
 Ye are also sanding you a sample form of chart 
 for the individual pupil, and a sufficient 
 number of sheets, so that each pupil can make 
 his own individual chart under the direction of 
 
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 th^ teacher. It is sug«;asted that this may be 
 4one In a drawing or aritlsnetic period on Friday, 
 
 April 4th. Actoal work oa the reading pro.leat 
 should begin on Tricaday, April 3th. The teatii:^ 
 and dirislon of the olaseas into two groups, 
 as well as the preparation of charts, should 
 therefore be finished before Tuesday, April 8th.” 
 
 In the Co'jrtis Silent Reading Test, the results of the perfor- 
 mance are divided into the score for speed ard the score for comprehension. 
 Ihilike the Kansas Silent Reading Test, there is no compound score serving as 
 the sir^le Index of the efficiency of the caablned qualities of speed and 
 comprehension. In the above set of directions, it will be noticed that the 
 score in speed, and not the score in coraprehensloa, constituted the basis for 
 the division of the class into groups and pairs. This was because the 
 investigator being primarily interested in the development of speed, was 
 thereby enabled to compare the progress of the two groups in this particular 
 phase of reading more satisfactorily, than if either the score ^or c«ynpre- 
 hension or the score for the combined qualities of speed and comprehension, 
 ware used as the basis for the division. 
 
 The Individual Chart » 
 
 Every pupil In the axporioental groups was requested to keep an 
 individual chart. Since uniformity in the c<xiputation of the ohart was 
 necessary In order that the graphs of the pupils in the different grades 
 night be readily comparable, a set of directions was sent to every teacher 
 to insure uniformity of procedure on the part of the pupils. As many of the 
 pupils were in the third a.nd fo’jrth g-’ades, and had had no previous oxoerieuoe 
 in graphing, it was foind necessary to make the direotlona very explicit and 
 detailed. Besides the following set of directions, a sample copy of the 
 individual chart was sent to each teacher. 
 
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 DI3SCTI0HS TO T5AG!T5RS FOR MXISS I^fDIVIOmL CHARTS. 
 
 On Friday, April 4, have aach child make a blank form like the 
 sample submitted. On account of the capacity of the sheet, the diagram is 
 arranged so as to record the number of words per Ha If -minute. 
 
 Observe that the dates during which the special instruction takes 
 place are arranged fr^i left to right along the base ll*» and that the speed 
 In words per ha If -mirntt® is expressed along the vertical line. The Idea is 
 this: If a child reads on a given day at an average speed of 220 wc«"ds per 
 ralnpite, divide 220 by 2 giviiig 110 as the average number of words per half- 
 raiwite. Sucpose that this record was made by the pupil in question on April 
 3. Have the pupil put a dot above the date and at 110. He will .make no other 
 entjy on that day. Suppose, however, that on the next day (April 9) he reads 
 at the rate of 240 words per slnuto or 120 words per half-minute. He will 
 then put a dot over April 9 opposite 120, at the same time drawing a line 
 between the dot he entered the day before and the one he has .lust entered. 
 
 On subsequent days he will record his speed in the same way, each 
 time putting a dot over the date and opp^ita the number of words he read per 
 ha If -minute, and drawing a line to connect this dot with the last one ha has 
 made. If the average number of words per half -minute for a given child on a 
 certain day lies between two numbers written at the left side of the diagram, 
 let him estimate how high to place the dot. Suppose, for example, that he has 
 read 268 words per minute or 134 words per half-minute. The dot will then bo 
 not quite half way up from I30 to 140. 
 
 It has been found not only that children rather readily understand 
 the making of such a chart but that they enjoy watching their curves grow. 
 
 Of co'orse, the Interest lies in seeing the extent to which the slopes upward 
 Indicate improvement. 
 
 If there Is a break in the record-- due for example, to the 
 absence of a child — the dot should be entered above the date of the day when 
 the record is resumed, and a line should be drawn from the last dot to the 
 one just made. This line will cross over the intervening day or days and to 
 Indicate that a break has occurred, the line should be dotted . 
 
 Observe that two school days are (yaitted along the base line, 
 namely itoy 2 and Sftay 29. These are the days on which you are requested to test 
 your pupils with the Courtis Silent Reading Tests, You will not be expected 
 to conduct a reading recitation In either group A or group R on those days. 
 
 It is suggested that added Interest may be given to the work if you 
 have a class chart on which you will enter the average speeds of reading for 
 the class in precisely the same way that the children will enter their 
 Individual results. If yo’j have sufficient black board space, a chart may be 
 drawn on the board. A large sheet of mounting paper will, however, be fully 
 as satisfactory. 
 

 
 
 
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1 OfT 
 
 Reading Conference . 
 
 Despite the pains taken to formulate directions that would guide 
 the teachers in every important step in the procedure. It was recognized that 
 differences In the application of the method \yy the various teachers might 
 still result. Tnese differences might mar or at least weaken the accuracy of 
 the conclusions that would be drawn from the study. If the teachers could 
 witness the concrete application of tlia method, the mode of computation, etc., 
 besides having an opportunity to present orally any difficulties which occurred 
 to them, and have them cleared away, a greater guarantee for uniformity of 
 procedure would be secured. Accordingly, a representative of each school 
 system^ participating in the experiment was invited to attend a ooiiferanoe at 
 the University of Illinois, where the method was demonstrated and explained in 
 detail. 
 
 The conference lasted an entire day. In order that all the 
 teachers might benefit fr<»a the conference, a stenographic report of the denon- 
 stration class and of the discussions by the delegates and the promoters of the 
 experiment was sent to every teacher. This served to supplement the report 
 which each delegate brought back to her colleagues. The following extracts from 
 the circularized report of the conference will convey sotos idea as to the nature 
 
 of the meeting and the points discussed. 
 
 "On Saturday, April 12th, representatives of the various 
 school systems engaged in the Silent Heading Project assembled 
 
 for a conference at the University 
 Is the list of those present: 
 
 Mr. D. 3. McCracken, Principal 
 Mr. ?. R. Klchols, Principal 
 Miss Clara F, JClass, Teacher 4 
 Miss M. 0. Wheaton, Teacher 3 
 Mr. C. 3. Smith, Superintendent 
 D. L. O’Sullivan, Principal 
 
 of Illinois. The following 
 
 Manierre School, Chicago 
 Hendricks School, Chicago 
 Goodrich School, Chicago 
 
 Goodrich School, Chicago 
 
 Rushville 
 
 Argo 
 
 (l) There was no delegate from Bloomington. The writer went there personally 
 to explain the method, its application, otc. to the teachers. 
 
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1 CLrt 
 
 Mr. F, G. Taylor, Superiatandont 
 Miss ?^ary T. Dtjncan, Principal 
 Vlas F, C. Lanskoy, Teacher 5 
 Kies Rose M, Boyd Teacher 6 
 Mias /Maude Law Teacher 7 
 
 Miss Haeel B. Mason Teacher 4 
 
 Grant School 
 Greeley School 
 Hewitt School 
 Central School 
 
 Oregon 
 
 LaSalle 
 
 Streator 
 
 S tree tor 
 
 Taylorville 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Kiss Davis bro'jfjht her 5'^^ grade class from the 
 Lincoln School, ChaTipaigniand demons tra ted the method 
 of training the pupils in rapid silent reading. The 
 total time allowed for the period was minutes. The 
 teacher secured seven reading stretches consisting of 
 3>4,2,4,3#3 j minute periods, making a total of 22 mimtes 
 spent In eetnal reading. The instructions, questions, 
 and answers on the matter read occupied only eight minutes." 
 
 There was considerable discussion by the delegates as to the 
 
 technique of procedure in computing the average number of words per minute, 
 
 of graphing, etc. The following extracts from the conference report will 
 
 serve as a resume of the chief points discussed and of the conclusions finally 
 
 agreed upon. 
 
 "1. There was a discussion as to the expediency 
 of computing the n’vnber of words read oer minute 
 from only one of the reading stretches of (say) 
 two or three minutes duration, or of comoutlng 
 the average number of words read per miTwte from 
 the sum t^al of all the readir^ stretches during 
 the 50 minute period. The representatives decided 
 to adopt the latter method. Consequently, If 
 there have been eight readir^ stretches of two and 
 three minutes duration, so that, say the sura of 20 
 minutes were spent in actual reading, it would ?Eean 
 that the total number of words read, say 5jDD0 is to 
 be divided by 20, giving 25c as the average n’jtmber 
 of words road per min>ite. 
 
 2, The question as to whether or not the teacher 
 should take down the irtmber of the page reached by 
 the pupil after each reading stretch or merely at 
 the end of the total reading time, was discussed 
 at length. It was agreed to leave that point to 
 the discretion of each teacher— whichever method 
 she fo’jnd the more effective she sho’jld be free 
 to adopt. Miss Davis reported that after trying it 
 both ways, she preferred to take the number of the 
 
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 page reached hy aach pupil only at the 
 end of the period, as this allowed aore 
 time to be spent in actual reading than was 
 possible under the other method. 
 
 3 . In making the class chart, the delegates 
 decided to use the median rather than the 
 average. The median is simply the score of 
 the pupil middlemost in the order of rank. 
 
 In a class of 21 pupils, the score of the 
 11th pupil would constitute the median for 
 the class. If there are an even number of 
 pupils, the ;median is the score midway between 
 the scores of the two middle pupils. In a 
 class of 20* therefore, the sum of the scores 
 of the tenth and eleventh pupils when divided 
 by 2 gives the median. 
 
 4. Suitable reading material for the different 
 grades was discussed. It is Important that the 
 material chosen be not too difficult for the 
 grade, ^asy material is to be preferred to 
 make possible the setting up of habits of rapid 
 eye-movenents ." 
 
 Inasmuch, as the pupils in the experimental groups were covering 
 two, three, four, etc. times the usual amount of reading matter the problem 
 of supplying them with sufficient, suitable, material, soon became a pressing 
 one. The reading material that was on hand for the particular grade was 
 exhausted by the experimental pupils In the oo<»rse of a few weeks' practice. 
 
 A list of selections suitable for the different grades was submitted by the 
 delegates. This list was incorporated into the Report of the Reading 
 Conference. In addition to this, Ur, James F, Hoslo of the Chicago t^omal 
 School kindly selected a list of books, especially suitable for the purposes of 
 the experiment from a much larger mraber which he had prepared for use in 
 certain Chicago schools designated for the time as ” English canters" . A copy 
 of this list was also sent to each teacher. Tloth of these lists will be fojind 
 in the appeiviiz to this study. 
 

 
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 The l^ork Curve for One heading Period ♦ 
 
 The reading period is divided into five, six, seven, etc. stretches 
 of two, three, and occasionally of four minutes duration. The method of 
 computation which the teachers decided to adopt secures the average number 
 of words read per minute by each pupil d»arlng the total reeding period. It 
 does not determine, however, the average number of words read per minute 
 during each of the reading stretches. It left unanswered the questions: 
 
 In which of the stretches do the pupils obtain the highest speed? Does the 
 intensive nature of the work cause a marked decline towards the end of the 
 period? Does the c\irve for this type of activity bear much similarity to 
 the work curve described hy Offner (70), Rivers and J&*aepelln (71) and others? 
 To throw some light upon these interesting queries, a miaiber of teachers in 
 different grades ’were requested to secure a record of the average number of 
 words read by each pupil during each of the varioiis stretches on a particular 
 day. 
 
 At the conclusion of the experiment, the test papers, the individ- 
 ual graph, the class charts, teachers* notes and observations, etc. were 
 sent to the writer. A careful examinatloK of the scoring of the Courtis 
 especially in computing the index of comprehension, revealed too large a 
 peroentAge of error. Most of the computation of the scores had been done by 
 the pupils, as Co’irtls suggests. For the sake of accuracy, all of the Courtis 
 tests including the throe forms I, II and III were re-examined and re-scored 
 by trained clerks unde** the writer’s supervision. The tremendous amount of 
 labor involved in re-correcting approximately 4,000 test papers, determining 
 the score in speed per mlmte for each o>ie, computing the index of compre- 
 hension, making the necessary re-ad justments in the matching of the pairs of 
 pupils, etc. has been chiefly responsible for preventing the publication of this 
 investigation at an earlier date; 
 

 VIII. 
 
 mmiim or? 
 
 Tlw oJiief SjnwrtarijeEJont need In this iirvoBtigation to iroaauro tlie 
 ^owfch in o|socd of r^tdinc wus tli© Gourtift nilorit l^oodiiv" Boot Ilo* 2. TTiero 
 nr© tlsroo diffierorjt foma of thie teet, ©adi of w'doh oro ap roxiriatol:^*' oqual 
 in dlffioulty. trlplioat© clwsraotop of tins toot -..lad© it poociblo to toot 
 tJio pupils at til© bogiminf^, nlddlo, and ©nd of tli® training with tl» gspo 
 I dnd of a noaoiTrlsig doolo©, and yot awaid tl^ cwciplloating' f^MStor of ispooial 
 faniliarity tTith tlio opoolfic oubjoct riattor of tbo tost. 2iio unifom ohar- 
 aot«r of the tl jree feme of t!io toot lilrotvlse ro^dero foaoiblo oooparison 
 of the eooreo raade In the beginning with, tiae eooroe node at tlie riddle and at 
 tiie end of tl)o training* ?be ssaploynsent of different etandturised teste on 
 the two latter oooasiono would iy»v© destroyed tliis unifor ity in the olioraotor 
 of tlie ciooeuring denrioe ond would hewe rendered suol^i oaapixiaon Imzairdous* 
 .\not!ier odvanta^ arising iVotn t!ie seleotlon of Uie Gourtis test io tliat its 
 division into two porta—a DOfisuronont of rate and a :»acur®:»nt of ootipre- 
 lionsion*— « enables the investigator to asoortaln tiio speed of a pupil’s reading 
 as distinct froci his ociapi’^^iension. It disontstngleo thea© tisro factors and 
 volrbs tluxo sepcu*ately* 
 
 The Courtis Test io mot, however, ^Titliout its sliortooiaings* TMle 
 it is lK)lpful to know the tlio ooore of the two faotore— speed and oociprolvsn- 
 cion— soparatoly, it is not loss Iielpful to knovf tlie sooro fdr tliOB© two 
 faotore v/hen functioning otmjolnfely on tli© sane passage. Tliis tlio Couzrtie 
 Toot tliro its sooro of rat© and indoac of ooqproSionsion does not dotoraine. 
 
 At the tine tlio score for rate of receding is dotemined, thes'o is no noosur© 
 talsen of the ooraprolwnslon tliot aoo<».ipanied suoli rooding. lioroin lies tlio 
 
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chief -weakness of the Courtis Test. 
 
 By supplementing the index of oaapreheneion— which reflects only 
 the proportion of the correct to the incorrect anmTers, independently of 
 the absolute number atteiap-bed«*« by the number of correct ansTvTero^ tliis 
 difficulty is in a large measure olnriated* For the rorndjer of correct anoners 
 reflects not only the ability to coc^rohend the matter but the speed with 
 •which the pupil reads and ocxaprehends* 
 
 According to the method of computing the index of ctKr^reliension as 
 stated by Courtis, a pupil -who attempts only five ruestions in tli© five 
 minutes allowed and ansT-ers them correctly sectires a mark of 100 percent in 
 caaprehension* So likewise does the pupil viho attempts GO questions and 
 ans-wers them all correctly receive a nark of 100 percent. Yet it is 
 obvious that there is a groat difference in the performance of -the two pupils— 
 the latter is naioh superior. This difference is not reflected in Courtis* 
 
 Index of Comprehension. Accordingly, in this investigation, the number of 
 questions correctly ansxTered was used as a score of the pupil’s comprehension 
 to supple: ant Courtis’ index, and to express actual differences in the per- 
 formances of the pupils— differences in levels of aohievment. This device 
 enables one to determine -whether the training -was effective in increasing 
 the rate of radinn: -when the ocanprehonsion is employed oon;3ointly and is 
 being tested simultaneously. In fact, in many respects the number of questions 
 correctly onsuered is a bettor measure of the efficiency of comprehension on 
 the part of the reader than the index as devised by Courtis. 
 
 Standarized tests aro all open to the criticism that they tost but 
 one porfor-:.anoe of the subject. The performance of the pupil on the par- 
 ticular day on which he v/as tested may have boon normal or it may not have 
 
beoti* IXi© to oiiy oi:iio of o tSwuaaiid oa sea V: ;loh af foot tho variability of 
 tiiO £\«wti«riin,:’ of a laioan xiersoi^ity, tii© oubjocft raay not hove boon tnaj 
 to fom on that partioul ’o* oooooion; i» jaoy not liecv® boon able to cispley 
 Ills hl^ioBt ability# In oUMr vordo, tlio toot sivee but om sar;$jlinG; of 
 a voriabl® funotioning* r.iotiior thet partioular eaiaplinc.' s^ally roprooenta 
 tlio pupil ’o ablHty ia a raottor ishioh can bo dotonainod <ai!3y by ropoatod 
 teeting# 
 
 In t^i© prooont inveotig^ctlcsi tli© att«.:i|>t iiaa boon oemJc to obtain a 
 pioturo of tlw pupil’s daily growth in speed of readii^;;, by ooourii^: a rooord 
 of hia daily porfonmioo for a period of two sohool ^^ontlia# Tliis was aocos>» 
 pliol«d by i:»ana of tiio individual oliart, v/hioli cliowed tl» average nudb&r of 
 \Tordo rood per i:dnute by each pujjil on oaoh of Ujo 3d daya of tiio U’aining 
 period# It ropresento the reeults of SO matmrmmrtB of rote# As cuoli* it liaa 
 tlio advantage of a oertedn dogroo of roliobility aftiioli ocoruos fraz ropoated 
 testing# Tlio diattirbing factors of vcariability or© prootioalli?^ oquolisod in 
 aueh a large nutibor of neosursoonta# 
 
 \liile the individual gro{^i haa the advantage of a iMdh larger ttixdber 
 of noaaurerx>nts over tlio stajidariaed test# it ia inferior to tlio latter in tlie 
 unatandariaed oliorooter of tlio eubgoot-snatter on widoSi tlie reoord \r^xQ i]ade# 
 
 The individual ol^ort ropreooi^e ratoe of speed in reading tbso ordinary typo 
 of ranter ial viiioh io found in the graded i*oadm*s# In tlie najorlty of oases 
 it is saf'e to oay tlmt t'le raottor is fairly ^»11 adapted to tlio roadinc 
 oapaclty of tlie pupils# But it ic r.ot uniform for all tho pupils# OtM fourtla* 
 
 grade for oxauple^ uses one reeidor, miotlier fourth jTade uses a different one# 
 
 Tills is true for alnost all tlio r'?*ad®e# tliilo all tlie reeding laoolce for one 
 
 grode may be on tho carse general levels tnoro ore doul^locs loinoi* difaorenoes 
 

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 uiiifom for oil th© pupils* 
 
 ay usinjr & fairly largo nuti>«r of dlfferonb graded readers, as tlae 
 pupils did in this oocporineni, tiie sooros nay be sedd to ropresont tl>e rates 
 an tl» averac!® "^ypo reading mtorial for tiie portioulnr grade* It ie true 
 that in any one olass tlie rate of speed would fluctuate soaiDr.'liet on 
 
 aooount of differences in degree of difficulty in different selections in tjie 
 8o:» reader, asid also m aooount of clwsgia^ reodors* Tlj® largo eaaunt of 
 Liaterial w!deh ti^e training required to road jiado tiw using of rmry readers 
 Inevitable* In soao instoiioec tJio olasa-oSiru'ts give t!ie nceses of tij© reading 
 seleotlcsns idiioxx were eriployDd on t!i© deys in nhioh the clasa-avorngoe in 
 rate vroro nade* This servos os a sort of oliooil!: on the rate* It cx*plains, in a 
 nudbor of oases, considerable variations idiioh apr>ear In the o ass average froa 
 day to day* 
 
 Clianges in the degree of difficulty of different reading oelootions 
 are coGwwJint of a distxirbiag factor in iraoosuring the gradual growth In speed 
 for a single oloss* T!iey or© moh loea of a disturbing faotes’, Iimsevor, \shen 
 tlie average represeixts not the luean of a single olasG but tlas oentrol tendenoy 
 of a fairly large nunber of olaoces* In otVM&r v/ords, incroases and dooreaoes 
 In degree of difficulty ox 0 ( lections tend in a go’^erol Tiay, to ©cfualis© eooh 
 otlier eiien the ocvev&c^ refloots the perfortionoe ::ade on a large nunlxer of 
 different seleotions* An illustration of this point rioy b© readily?’ liad by 
 oaaporinr*. tlie ourvo of progrosB, say, of a single fourth-gi'ado olasc, vrlth tli© 
 curve of pro-rose of all tlie fourtlx-grodo oloaeos, as shown in tlie oce3jx>Bite 
 Orof^ 3CII* The latter la aeon to be laioh »i 0 otlior and nor© rerpilar In its 
 
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 KFTHJT OP TI2S TRAIKHIO UPOR TSIE ?MV. mi OO^tPreiinGSiOII AB DPOTi- 
 
 BY TilB COTI/T2S YKSTC. 
 
 1» Tldi-tl»Ctri3tde I\iplX8» 
 
 Tabl© VIII ehows tt rsxtlior r<»ml5ablo sain in ratio for tlie o:cpwdrJontal 
 tTuplXe in btro third grad© olaeeoc* '•'rcK.i id overaf^ x*at© of 1S2#X per 
 
 at t’/w beginning of tlio ©acpoririont# the amrag© riao» to 239 • 5 'mr&s 
 after cno uonth of the exierliaeatal training* At tlic otid of th& tnjo raontlys; 
 of training tl« hi^ ctVGroQe of 238.0 t/ordo par rdnnte ie . oocl:iod* i’bo 
 avorac© rote of tie ^oontrol** pupils rdvanoea 137 ’mrdM per rdnute to 
 133«8 after a nsonth of tie eaivontional t»<ark: in roodi:^. la tise oourao of 
 the nert laonth tie rate liae advanoetl but eix pel' niauto» reaching a 
 
 final f(v«ra-go rat© or 109#3 per xaimoo# Tlie awerage gain of tise oxporiaentol 
 puplla in rat© ie r.«r© t2«sn tvdo© tlie overage gain of tlie ^control” group— 
 100*5 'wordB per rdnut© no oontraated tdtli 52*7 Terds per rjimte* 
 
 V/hat ’was tie effoot of this acoeXoratlon of tbs reading: pace upon tho 
 oceoprebension? Beginning vdth an average indoK of cCKjprehoneion of 7o#4 
 peroent tlie scoro of the eoqperiiio^tal puplle riaos to 70*o poroent after on© 
 raonth'e training* At the ond of th© cooowtl OiOntii, it has rsountod to 02*8 
 peroent— a gain of 6*4 percent* Th© increase in rate hae*bliereforo* boon 
 acoo::^;>a7iied by an IncroaB© In ocsaproher.elon* Tho "oontrol” pupils began ulth 
 an evez-age index of 76*7 pereont caacl at tlv© ©nd of t'^o iuontlis oorn'cntioaol 
 
 e 
 
 work In roadlz;^ liad dropped to 74*S pm'oent— a docreaoe of 1*1 poroorit*, 
 Ooneoque itly* the final eRrci’a^^e gain of t!io exiseriiaental pupils over tli© 
 control group 1© 33*G 'words per indUiute iii rate* fond 7*5 percent in oociprolien- 
 8 Ion* 
 
 A oloaroi’ undor«tanding of the way in tdiloh reoords ivor© oesoDblod 
 and ooriparod norliapo r© ulreo tlmt I aJzould again refer to tlvo uyeton of 
 
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CT. 
 
 XoT 
 
 tabu: IX. Cn»tT OF T!»E KUWBFH OF PUPILS IK TflE KXPSRI- 
 MENTAL (A) GROUP ^0 SURPAnSED TPSIR OORHESPOM»1KC PUPILS IN 
 
 nm CONTROL (B) GROUP 
 
 GHAOE III 
 
 
 Test 1 
 
 Teat n 
 
 Test III 
 
 
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 Com. 
 
 Rate 
 
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 Rate 
 
 Com. 
 
 Number of A equal to B 
 
 - 
 
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 1 
 
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 Number of B eurpassing A 
 
 7. 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 Number of A surpassing B 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 Croup Superiority A over 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 ea 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 ee 
 
 Croup Superiority B over 
 A 
 
 
 2 
 
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 m 
 
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 2 
 
 Final Superiority A over 
 B In per oent 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 L_ 
 
 
 
 To illustrate tPe rofidinj? of Table IX, the fourth line 
 shovinfc the Croup Superiority A over 3 la rear! thus: In the 
 
 first Courtie Teat, the gmup superiority of the experiwontal 
 (A) pupils over the control (B) pupila in r^^te is 2 pupils; in 
 comprehension, the ’’control'* group oxocIb the ©xporimental by 
 2 pupils. In the aooond Courtis Test the ejtpcriraontal’s 
 superiority in rate is 9 pupils, in coi^prohenaion 2 pupils. At 
 the end of the training, there are 12 experimental pupils sur- 
 passing their respects vo individual control pupila, ’•Jlle fj^ir 
 members of the control group surpass their corresponding pupils 
 In the exporinental oliiao. This loaves a final no+ group 
 superiority of eight for the exporimentals in rate, as against 
 a final net group superiority of two for the control section 
 in comprehension. 
 

 N'.' 
 
 
 
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 130 
 
 X>airlr^« It la tc ba uaderetood tht^ tlia 52 children ctmetitutin^ tlai two 
 tliird-grade wore arrtuvjed in eiacteen isaire# oaoCi pair oonoiatii^^ of 
 
 on pupil tmd a "B* pupil® T!i© clstofm "A” paplle tolaen togotim* ooiisti- 
 tuted tii© ”a” tiio Rlactoon "B** |Mpile talom togotlior oonetitirtod 
 
 the ”B” (proup* ”A" ip'oup tau^lit Ijy tlio exporisacR'tal riothod, tb© 
 gro«p by tlw uouol laifUiotl® The pupils were paired on a basic of t!^ir rate 
 scores in tlio firct Courtis tost® /vftor tao second saisfl third Courtis teste 
 !*ad t)oon applied, all reowds of pupil* ware rejected if t^ioy wore :'ot 
 present at all tliree of the tests, stnd no pupil's rooord was li-icludod ’onlos# 
 the odapoiiiim in th© ”poir” was also preso'.^t at all the tests* 
 
 In Table IX tli© resolte of tli© riotlsod of individual otM"*i.rol ate 
 shown® liero Uie «voraj;;o8 are reploood by ti» nuefiior of pupils in on© sr®«P 
 \dio surpass tiioir oorroepondinG pupils In t5^e otlnor ^jroup# Tho results of 
 tids saoihod o£ oontrol arc Ifirgely corroborative of tli© roeults aa cheswn 
 the avoraf’o eooree in Table VIII® Tilien rochiood to a poroonta^e basis Table 
 n eh*orfs a firuU. not superiority of 00 percent in rote for the esporiraontal 
 over the control group. Tlio ap; erent s^iporlorlty of ISj poroent in oottEaro- 
 honeion for tlie control oeotlons over the catporijaontal pupils is disoc.intod 
 by t*no foot that tlioy ctarted with an initial f^rcup eaper-iorlty of two pupils 
 or 12-i' poroent# 
 
 Tl» ntanber of tliird gsad© pupils wiio \vcro mtohod into pairs, 
 one boing in tJio oxporlmntal olass, the otl»r in tljo control olaco, is too 
 '.•agro to justify any init tb© most tentative IdLnd of cmiolusions® T!i© pupils 
 wiio ourxlved the natcHing pvooosa wore evidently tli® recrc oajmblo on©c, t\nd 
 oonsefTUontly their porfon.ie:io© oan ooarooly be sfdd to bo typical of tliird 
 grade rupilc® TIio rswilte do h.cmievor, tliat third fTodo ox{ 3 orii.iental 
 
 pup.^18 profited notioeaoxy by tl» training® TJio ocvorcig© rate ox' opood wiiloh 
 

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TABU5 X. CW'PARISON OF THE RESULTS OF TIffl TRAINING IN RAPID 
 SILENT READING WITH T»’E RESULTS OF THE CONVBJJTIONAL WORK IN 
 
 READING 
 
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 o o 
 
 •H *rl 
 
 P P 
 O P 
 P P 
 
 5 3 
 to to 
 
 P r-! 
 3 OS 
 O C 
 
 O C *0 
 
 Table XI is to be read in the same manner as Table IX 
 
I 
 
Me 
 
 135 
 
 thoy finally o'bl.ainodl io far in axooes of tii© stasKlai'd rat>o reported for t!iat 
 grade tsy any of tlia autl^ore of the vai'louo eteuidarlKed readlnr teats* Oiring 
 to the eesall nuiahor of third grado pupils pm^loipatii^ tiie ©xperinait, t!» 
 writer will rofraln ftroa oocporlng tiiose results with tl^oee obtaijv5d In the 
 c?ther grade* tdth a !smoIi larger ra&jbor of pupil*. 
 
 Z* r-Vntrth CJrado rHiolla* 
 
 In Table X aro ehown the enrora’To esoKnree of 11 foterth gmlo oloeooo. 
 The total n«al)er of pupile is 23G# The avorew^ r«t€;s of 155.7 ^^srdu per 
 rdnute for the expertoe-Atal group. «nd of 1&6.1 for tlio oc^rtrol pupils, slicw 
 tliat the two eeotlone start the oxf5orl»iertt with praotienlli*' ©t^iel trofioienoy 
 in rate* In ooiw. rehonaion. the two groups are alao olosely mteciod. Uso 
 oontrol pupil* leering on enroroc'o Inde* of 78.6 poroent aa o<js'i|J«u*ed?dth 77.4 
 percent for tiie eaqjoriiaorrtals. 
 
 fter on* xaonth of training in rapid reodltig. tlt& ex^jeriTjeTtcl* 
 have rocioliod on £Evoraf?o rat© of 241.9 &» ooRSf^red v4th for tl^ oojstrole* 
 
 In oorspre' cnslon t}*^ iiave noro tlwn Iwld tholr wm, to an averagjD 
 
 index of 81.2 ae oodpared with 78.0 for tlie oontrol*. At the end of t2?e 
 eeoo:id zaonth of training, the nverogo I'ato for tlio coeparlsien^.ftl io 258.4 tsortl* 
 per n:.nute as oont,r noted ^!^ith 108.2 for tl» oontrolo. The wrorogo gain in rate 
 for tJjo two nontli* i* 80.7 wordn per rilnuto for the experloiontale- ao agalnet 
 33.1 for the oontrolo— an avorago eujxMriosrity in gain of 47.G fos’ U» oxporl- 
 nentel puiiile. 
 
 The Btory told in Table X i* very largely ref looted l;y Table XI. 
 
 At t:o beginning of Ui© exporinent, the two groujxi displayed pra(?tioally ocjoal 
 ability In road5.ne. Tiile la notiooably *o in regard to rate. Out of 110 rxiir* 
 of pupils, tliere aro 0 ^ viilob tJw :?<jofoo of tiio two pupils are oxaotly 
 
 the csaT*, D7 pairs In whtoli t!;e ©X]X)rln»o?Tiiol pupil is a triflo faster tiian 111* 
 

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oheo!c».:>ate« srid 5G piilre in the rarwrao le tn*D« At t!» evxl o;? the 
 
 ejcperlsientj the acsp^rlawntal grofup chcwc a eaporiority of 50 noroonfe In rato* 
 and 4 poroont In ocsiprohoncion* Thooo porc«nrtftf:c9 of euporiwlty of tl^o 
 oxporloimtr.l groc.ip crvor tlio <»rstrol ooivioid® ■wi.tii ih*j siiporiosv 
 
 ity ln<UoKte<i hy Tehle X# The tiw rsothcK’i? of oositroJ, tlAis corre to oorrobor- 
 ato tho »sct© geiserftl oonolneione and imitnalXy to roinforo© eaoli oUier* 
 
 5» j.^fU>*Crfedo FHi;7XXc# 
 
 !Th® efOeot of t3i© training upon the pufdl® in tl3« 
 
 grade lo (Hycrm In Table Xlle* Xi inol'odc^s r<nmn olsusseo canprlaiag a 
 
 total of 154 pit^le* ifaro &{?€dn It tvIH bo noted that both the A u«d 3 
 
 grcp^v^ csflciTer-ood tlx? eoqperlnont \sith egmal Initial proficienoy^ li'i rate, 
 
 1D0*7 for U>o ajCTorlmiifcrd. a» ootipai'od lErtth an of 101*0 per 
 
 rilnute for t«5o oontroXs* thCi latt«p Imro oocastlict of an odrsntE^go in ccc^re- 
 
 ’loneiozv- ^*3 ae arainat 82*5 for tiio <»^x;rl[r»»''vtsil»* 
 
 At the end of t^i;© first rior^i the avorago cf the A graup I'aiS 
 
 rreantod to 985*4 or o«’q^rod wltSi 2" 5*6 for the 3 grciip* /iter anotiw suonth 
 
 of training, the eT^orlraentols ’iovo inoroasod tJ^olr load ovor t’uoir choo!:->imt 08 
 
 by reaohlng sn aeerag© of 277*8 oe 2:12*X for t]io ooihtrol®* The flrtal 
 
 nvoragoa for oocforr/tonalon wo 86*C for the A group and 86*C for t^io B jToup* 
 
 Tills rofloote an ovorago gaiji of n#f uo ocri^jwrcd vdth 2*3 for t'm oo:itvol&*»- 
 
 an borage suporlority In gain fo*' tlio cWi’erim.TtGla of 0*C« Ik»ro oodurploume 
 
 la tho average superiority of galji inrato of tlu> tss^rlr^ba^.s cn/er t?io 
 
 ooTArols, 37.1 as .K^ainat 30*2^« mi averaj^ cupf»riority of 58*0 • 
 
 A ocnpnrioon of Tablo liCX idltli TaJjle X aIun?D that tli© ci-iount of 
 
 gain tii rote i:ade by 'joth tlu> o^portnontol mid control cootiono In fprrdo 4 or© 
 
 ♦ Ooii^ ¥o tSie Tj^ t^' lbsr“tiwr ux iprcji 4riBioTi of the puplXc in tlie fiftli 
 grade in tlie Pluab Soleol, tlio nuriier of pairs a(?!oso soorea in oor^prelisension 
 i/ore recorded ie not quite tlie scLje as the raax'jor of rjoirs triios© ratos of 
 epood aro oot^Tared* 
 

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NCTE: Table XIII is to ba read in the srsne mrumer as Table IX 
 
 
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 very elni lar to tJie gains i}«vdo ty tii* experirM?nt«l aj^d ocRii.ro! ?;ro^ip» 
 
 1 ‘oapootivoly in &• The sraiora^ gain In rate for tiio A group in grade 
 
 5 is 67*1 ■wcarde por idUa^ as ooEi^Jured -di,-Ui cO*7 for the- ocorrefij^tsding group 
 in 4— m average suvic^rlorlty ii* gain of t>»4 'aorda per ;?Anat6 Tea* ti-io 
 
 riftli grado* Tlie o&ntrolii in gx’tide 5 ©ocrod a gain of 3fD*8 ac agaXnat m 
 
 a- 7 «rn(^ gain of 53.1 j;<^r for tl-jo oor.trolo in grade 4-«-a diff©i'^noe 
 
 of 2»3 in fsr/or of gradfc -»♦ Oaa tho '^’4iolo4^ the anrorsige gain in rat© of tli© 
 fifth grade Is »^*perior to tliat of tlio fourtii gra<i^5i go also Ic the final 
 storage rata to i%hio!c tlia fiftii ;;?asi» attains*** 277>»8 "am'da por rdrjito jxs 
 agfdnot 230«'i foa' the «S|Xsrliioa'ii^ls in t!'<e fourth gi»aido» 
 
 Ilw filial iiet 8U|iori<n*lt.y in rate of Uwa ij^iiariaontalfi in giado 
 S error Uieir o’/io<fe>>mto« ao ilotci*3sirjod tii© jssothod cf' individuaX oontrol* 
 as slioen in Tatlo XII 2 in 42 pupils, -his S34i4.0 out of 6C p^irs of 
 \:«upii« trtio uero cloaely mtoliod at the bogiicdai; of tlJe csqjoriiiont, 34 
 eacporlriental pupils ma'paRrocl tiioxr o>?o4I>5 yatoe in rate of rottdii;g at tlie ond 
 of tbo training, fxs 12 oontroX pupils t.1io snarpiyssed tisolr cox'rimix^ndiji^ 
 
 excrortniantal pupils in rate* 'fliio loaroo a rthal euperim'ity af 42 iTupils 
 In fhx'w of t3ie A grrup, or a eupariorlty of Q3| poi*ocnt. In oosapre liorisicm, 
 ratio X22X allows a eupt^rioa^lty cf C popiXe or poro4»nt Irv favoi' of tho B 
 group. This latter is dteoountod, 1iotxn*er, Isy tlie foot that tlio h station 
 ntarted uith m Initial euporlority of eight cr/er the A gimip* 'Hio traii'ilng 
 roccivod hy the «3q>sri2jesTrt£ilE rediuxod thia lead to clac. 
 
 4 . SlxtI>»Qracio hiplla. 
 
 Tho r©s::lt« of t/io tralrJLng u/jon 5 ftlxth«*{ySido elasGeo liaving a 
 total of 128 pupils are sfl^icfwn in Table XIV« The average rate of li»7.8 twde 
 por iTiinuto for the cxpertiisntals ucuntod to 28‘i.7 after *i nonth*c trointngj 
 by the ond of t!ie training period tlioy tiod attadned an asrerage of 202 #G 
 

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H'lTB: Table XV is to be read in the ooKe nnnner as Table IX 
 
 
 
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 o 
 
 ^b44- 
 
 13^ 
 
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 ►"1 
 
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 M 
 
 a 
 
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 o 
 
 3 
 
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 H- 
 
 3 
 
 1+ 
 
 e 
 
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 c 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 Tl 
 
 9 
 
 es 
 
 » 
 
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 9 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 
 5? 
 
 k 
 
 w 
 
 
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 k-* 
 
 M 
 
 
 1 3 
 
 o 
 
 Cm 
 
 o 
 
 1C 
 
 k-k 
 
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 oc 
 
 
 Jk o 
 
 3a 
 
 o 
 
 *4 
 
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 V3 
 
 Ck 
 
 kO 
 
 » 
 
 • • 
 
 • 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 ft 
 
 ft 
 
 44- 
 
 ijv O 
 
 4k 
 
 
 k-* 4k 
 
 Cu 
 
 CO 
 
 Co 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 kjo 
 
 tn 
 
 00 
 
 «3 
 
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 <S3 
 
 UJ 
 
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 41 
 
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 CO »-* •<3 C* »£» CO u>|9 
 
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 43 
 
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 on 
 
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 TAPIJi XIV. CdPARISOH OF TBK HIISULTS OF THE TEAIKIHO IN RAPID SIIaEKT 
 REAni!:C ^TF! RJjGUTTS OF THE CnRV3NTlOKAL ’-!0HK IN 
 
 READING 
 
•\ A C 
 
 STords per xainute# The oontroX sefrfclone st,cvrted vritli cm evers^'© rfct© of 
 204*7 •• an average initial superiority of M rmr s-dnut© over the 
 
 orperiinental puplle* .‘ifter a Eionth of tli® oonventicnal reoding laorl:, the oon«* 
 trolo csreraged 235*4^ during tl'!© sooond tlseir rate m'^inod praotiosdly 
 
 stationary as choon tbclr average of 23c*0 at the end of ilie ox erir?«mt* 
 
 The final STerage gain in rate for ti ;0 A f^rcsip is 04*8 vords per ;:iinf.rte os 
 ooL-^pared ^dth 50*6 for the B group, m wmeriority In c.f 04*2 for tlTe 
 •xporirantel pupils t 
 
 In point of ooe^rehensior. Table TW tfrmm a «15.ght deoroR.eo far both 
 the A «j^d the B groups* TJie average in^ of oorpro^iensim of the A group at 
 t!>e beginning of Vx9 traj.nlng Is 91*0 m apai^nst iS*0 at tlTJ® ®rsd.* T!ie 
 for t :«9 oontrol mpiX® drops froci 82*6 to 03*5 -«* a deoroase of 4*1 at against 
 2*8 for the exporiaentals* This '5?otild seer> to IMioat^e th«^ %tm docroas©, 
 bH^ oc It is, oainmt b® attrit'jijtod to t?:wlr aooeloration in resding rate* 
 for tiTS oontrol pupil© uhoso gedn in rate ie less tlimi one-third the gate of 
 tlie experiiaeental pupils, decreased about cm> md & hstlf thnes os sMoh in oerv- 
 prehenaion as the exper lraonto.le* T!ie dooreas© in Uw ©as© of the es;wris«5ntal* 
 is so slight as to bo of no sr«wlal signlfioai'oe* 
 
 Table XV tells vei^^ tiuob t>» sene etoarj as Table XXV* T?i^e oonolus- 
 ions issuing fTora ti» tvTO jaethods of oositrol — .grotw m& individxjal— * isorve 
 to rolnforoo each other* The outstiwiding fact.® n]wm Table XV ore 
 Oit of a total of 64 pair© of wplXs, S3 oontrol© e?«rpe4»ted their oorj'ospondlng: 
 experlnentnlSf as against 23 «3p>oriEwr»tal^ sorpeoted tl^elr ©'’'lech-rrttes* 
 
 At the end of the e^iorlment., csjt of a tot-al of 82 pairs, 44 o:p-'«rlrK>ntol8 
 excelled t’lelr oh©ok«<int«>Se an oontraRted yrith t!ie el^bt oontroln p?^o 
 passed tliolr oxperirientals* deduced to a percentage T>asl», tiw A group mu*- 
 peoood tlio D group by 69 percent in rate and ^>eroent in oOBprolionsion* 
 

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TABLE XVIII, OOl.'PARISnN OF THB RKSDT.rg oF TBK TRAINIHO IN RAPID SILENT 
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 "TAOijj XX. TA-nu sHonm liAti; or a^AOim sxPiiiiiMiiNfAi. (a) 
 
 AKD ’♦COhTRiOL" ( 3 ) PUPILS aT BSiaiNHIKl, HIDUU: AND KNO OF 'm.UNINa PLSUOD A 3 
 DKmMlNLD BY COUiTlS SILiiN’T HKADXH.^ TSST rod 3 ADS 3 iV-VUI, 
 
 
 Te»i 
 
 t 1 
 
 ; fast 11 
 
 Teat 111 
 
 Qi 
 
 |a*o Superior** 
 iXn lity in Gain 
 
 Grad* 
 
 Ko« of 
 
 Puplla 
 
 7^ 
 
 I'5 
 
 A 
 
 . 
 
 '3 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 L Vj.l.... 
 
 T^T"^ 
 
 B i ! 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 liiL. 
 
 236 
 
 154 
 
 128 
 
 306 
 
 ^ 
 
 155.’? 
 
 19C.7 
 
 197.3 
 
 205.6 
 
 220.8 
 
 155.1 
 
 191.9 
 
 204.4 
 
 202.5 
 211.7 
 
 241.9 
 
 265*4 
 
 284.7 
 
 293.5 
 
 361.2 
 
 139.5 
 
 225.6 
 
 ?35.4 
 
 237.2 
 
 236.4 183.2 
 
 277.8 222,1 
 
 292.6 1235. 
 
 321.6 1249.7 
 393,0 1 301.8 
 
 ao.7 
 
 87.1 
 
 74.8 
 
 ^110,0 
 
 33.1 I47.6 
 
 30.2 156.9 
 
 30.6 i64c2 
 
 ,47.2 163.8 
 90.1 1 o2 ,1 
 
 31'^ 
 30 i 
 33^ 
 33:^ 
 
 Lk’i 
 
 Average gain of A for all gradas » 56 ^; of B» 25 :ij A*s guporiority over E a 31 /{. 
 
 TABUS XXX. TA3i,i: 3HQ4XKa 
 AJsrrrAii (a) and **CuNt:^ol” (b) pupiu 
 P iiJaOD AS DiSmUlKiiD fiV OOliiTXS SIL^ 
 
 AViS^AOiS COJXi^iP-^i^NSXQN XI^ HEADING FCE EXPi^U« 
 At ?iE(UNNlNG, 4im)US AND END OF mAXNl^^ 
 
 ^;t heading test. 
 
 
 
 feot 
 
 1 
 
 i 1 
 
 .. . ..L .. 
 
 Test 11 
 
 sprsf=ss« 
 
 ! -'©sit 
 
 ( 
 
 1 
 
 m 1 Gain 
 
 s;3aE:x^--:.:r.a:a-SE3g 
 
 |A *8 Super- 
 liority in 
 1 lain 
 
 Grade 
 
 iNumUei* 
 
 of 
 
 A 
 
 f 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 ' 1 
 ! 
 
 P i 
 
 f 
 
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 . . .*• . . . J _ 
 
 
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 j 
 
 < ^ 
 
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 .±^A L_B 
 
 i 
 
 j 
 
 IV 
 
 236 
 
 77.4 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 78,6 i 
 
 II . .1 1 ij . 5 . 
 
 81 ,3 ! 
 
 76.0 
 
 Ilf 1 n 1 J 
 
 i 8 l ,6 
 
 i 
 
 1?9.1 
 
 1 4.2 
 
 .5 
 
 1 3.7 
 
 V 
 
 154 
 
 82.5 
 
 
 86,3 I 
 
 87.0 i 
 
 87.9 
 
 185.6 
 
 180,6 
 
 2,9 
 
 2,3 
 
 I 0.6 
 
 VI 
 
 128 
 
 91.0 
 
 
 92.6 j 
 
 7C.8 
 
 70.4 
 
 j88.2 
 
 108.5 
 
 -2.0 
 
 -4.1 
 
 : 1.3 
 
 VIJ 
 
 206 
 
 71.2 
 
 i 
 
 71.3 j 
 
 94.1 I 
 
 9C.5 
 
 j 72.3 
 
 j7i.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 ; 1.0 
 
 : 1.4 
 
 mjL. 
 
 92 
 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 
 94,3 i 
 
 96.3 
 
 
 174 . 1 . 
 
 -2.4 
 
 Avara?;e gain of A far all grndeg a 0 . 9 'J; of 3 A* a B«poriority over B aX, 6 t. 
 
*i43- 
 
 about half the [i;aln mad© hy the ©xporiri»ntals -- 90*1 as af^ainst 172*2 for 
 the experimental group* The averages for oociprchenGicn have varied hut 
 little in the case of both groups— a decrease of 2.4 for the controls as 
 against a decrease of 1*0 for the exporiaentals* 
 
 SUMLl/iRY OF EFFECTS OF THE TRAIEIEG Ui'*0E />LL THE C-RADJ:23. 
 
 The results of the preceding tables in regal'd to the average rates 
 of the different grades are suir^d up in Table XX* The advaiaceinent in rate 
 of reading as shown in the tliree tests is fairly uniform as the grade in- 
 creases* Froan an average in the first Coturtis Test of 155*7 v/ordc per minute 
 for the experlmeritals in the fourth grade, the average corltim^©s to advance 
 until in tlie eiglith it reaches 220*8* At trae end of the training, the a-serage 
 for the A groups rises freon 256*4 •words per minute in -the fourth grade inrtil 
 it reaches 393*0 in the ei^th grade* Redaoing the average gairzs in nurol-jer 
 of xrords read per rrdnute bo a x>®roentage basis, it becomes possible to 
 express t!ie amount of Improvement for tlz© experinontol pupils in all the 
 grades in a single term— 56 percent* The average gain for the control pupils 
 in all the grades is 25 percent* This shows a final a-verag© superiority in 
 gain for the experimo-ntal pupils over their oheck-matos of 31 percoiit* In 
 terms of the number of xrords read per minute the average gain of the A group 
 is 110*2 as against 46*2 for the B group — an average superiority in gain of 
 64 \7ords per minute in fovor of the experimental or A gi’oup* 
 
 A sutxncry of tl»e scores of tho different grades in comprehension is 
 presented in Table XXI* The gains or losses for neitlior group are eepeoially 
 
 signifioant* Tlie only gains •wiiioh ap-jTear at all appreciable occur in the 
 oxporimontcl sections in the fourth and fifth grades— gains of 4.2 and 2.9 
 
 respootively. The final a\’-©rage gain of the experimental groups in all the 
 grades is 0*9 percent as against an average loss of 0*7 percent for the 
 

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TABIiS XXII. COJ/TARATIVB SrTECTIVTKKSS OF SXJ^SRIMISNTAI. AND CONVENTIONAL 
 TYPE OF rUSADIJ^T. troRK UPON TPS HATS OF GRADKS III TO VIII^ AS BY THE 
 
 METHOD OF INDIVIDUAL CONTROL 
 
 
 t 
 
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 Nuffiber of A eoua^ to B I 
 
 Number of B aurpessing A 
 Number of A surpaasing B 
 
 Group !^periority A 1 
 
 over B ] 
 
 Croup Superiority B 
 
 over A 1 
 
4 
 

 oontrol pupils* This gives tiie experiirtexit-al gi'oups an average tsupericrity 
 in gain in oomprelxension of 1*3 percexit over the control group©# The rioasuro 
 of comprehension here used is the index computed according to tvje dirooticna 
 of Courtis# The results of the application of a sosuoiirhat different ijoasur© 
 of the efficiency of ocEspreheneion, nauisly the nuasiber of c|iestione correctly 
 answered in five Esinutos will bo presented later* 
 
 A sumary of the results of t'>« ©xporliaental training upon the 
 rate and ocHt^i-ehension in all the grades as shovm by tiJO raotliod of individual 
 CO trol is presentedin Tables XXII a.id XXIII# Table XX.II shofws that at the 
 beginning of the experiioent there \/ere 401 pairs of pupils 3 one of each peir 
 being in the experiiaentai and the other in control group* The pupils 
 constituting each pair were approxiciately evenly Eiatohed, the at txmse the 
 variation between the pupil in a pair was not inapr>reciable » Th© snount 
 of variation to be found %n the rates of jmy class of pupils is such as to 
 render the nmaber of pupils wiio scored exactly* tlio smvB rate, very saall# 
 
 Out of the 401 pairs in the present investigation tliere were 23 experir.entals 
 ■sdios© scores were identical with those of their ch©ck*>mt© 8 | vdiil© 165 con-" 
 trols were superior to their corresporsding experiroentals as against 213 erperi- 
 E»ntals wiio wore aWre their controls# In both the latter cases the differen- 
 ces as a rule were slig}Tb, as was evidenced by the close Bicdlarities of their 
 averages* 
 
 At tlie end of the training the results were: one pair identically 
 equal; 86 controls superior to their correspondents in the ©xpericiental group 
 as contrasted with 314 experinentals ■sdio were superior to tlieir controls— » a 
 final net superiority of 228 pairs for the oxperiiiientals* Subtracting from 
 this total the arciAnt of A*s initial superiority of 48 j tlao results cl ow a 
 final superiority in gain of the A group over the B group of 180 pupils, or 
 
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 4b percent# 
 
 Table iCXIII shotis that the B group stsirts the experiinent rith soino- 
 ■what of a superiority over the A group in comprehension* Out of a total of 
 389* pairs, 41 pairs have the same scores for each of the rmabors of the pair, 
 w*aile 180 controls surpassed their experimentals as against 168 ©3cporiai©ntals 
 ■who surpassed their check-mates, — an initial superiority of 12 in f avor of 
 tile B group* At tho end of the treining there vmvQ 20 pairs •Rhose rneiabers 
 ^lave equal scores, •s^ilo 180 controls surpassed their experinentals as against 
 201 experimentols ■who are superior to their colstrols— a superiority of 21 
 in favor of the expertnentals* This number is to be augmented by 12, the 
 handicap under trhich the A group started, giving & final superiority in gain in 
 oomprehensinn of 32 pairs or 8 percent for the experimental pupils over their 
 control pupils* 
 
 The results of t::e motliod. of individiial control serve as a 
 powerful reinforcement of a refined t;,rpe of the conclusions issuing from a com- 
 parison of the average scores of the two groups* This method of control shows 
 furthermore -that the superiority of the eiq^eriiaontal group over the control 
 group is not due to a very marked siiperiority of a rather smll numbor of 
 pupils, but that tii® superiority is spread very largely -thruout the tdiol© 
 group* 
 
 * Reduced from 401 pairs because, as indicated, 12 pairs in the fifth grade 
 ■were not rated in comprehension* 
 

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 CIIAFTSR U. 
 
 I NTER PRETATIO?? Of RBSUlfS . 
 
 The Effect of the Training Upon Reading Hate. 
 
 Graph I Illustrates the data contained in Table XX, It presents 
 ▼ery clearly the differences in amount of improvement In reading rate achieved 
 by the experimental pupils and the controls. ??hile in every grade the two 
 groups start at practically the same level of reading rate, yet in every 
 grade the experimental pupils far outstrip the controls. The bulk of im- 
 provement, it will be noticed, is effected in the first month of the training. 
 With the exception, however, of the fourth grade, in which there occurs a very 
 slight decrease, improvement of a lesser character continues during the 
 second month. 
 
 The large improvement made by the pupils as a result of the first 
 month of the training would seem to indicate that the customary reading rate 
 of pupils was far below the rate at which they could read intelligently and 
 efficiently. In other words, they were not working on the maximum plane of 
 efficiency. Thus the pupils in the seventh grade are able to increase their 
 rate Il6 words per minute, while the eighth grade pupils succeed in almost 
 doubling their rate — without in either case experiehclng any appreciable 
 decrease in comprehension. In fact. In one case, a slight improvement is 
 effected. This result gives some point to the query: Is not the reading 
 
 of most Individuals dona at slow, plodding rates which are far below the 
 levels attainable by a little training? The results portrayed in Graph I 
 point strongly in that direction. 
 
• ^ I 
 
 • 't 
 
 1 
 
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 ftlO 
 
 
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 .ism 
 
The ilfTect Upon Comprehension. 
 
 That the comprehension has not been greatly affected either favor- 
 ably or adversely is shown by Graph II. The COTiprehension reaialned con- 
 stant to a large extent in both the experimental and control groups. The 
 slight superiority in gain that does exist, however, is in each grade in 
 favor of the experimental pupils. The conclusions that would seem to fol- 
 low from the performances of the pupils in comprehension in this study are: 
 
 1. Marked increases in speed of reading may be effected without aity imoair- 
 ment of the comprehension. 2, The setting up of habits of rapid reading 
 does not per se increase the accuracy of the comprehension. 5» To secure 
 marked improvement in accuracy of comprehension special stress must be 
 placed upon training designed specifically to increase the accuracy of the 
 comprehension. 
 
 While the experimental training outlined in this study succeeded 
 in safeguarding and even slightly improving the accuracy of the comprehension, 
 yet its predominant effect was the marked aoc deration of the reading rate. 
 
 To produce such an effect upon the rate was precisely the end for which the 
 training was devised. 
 
 The Relative Amount of Gain Made bv Different Grades. 
 
 A comparison of the amount of gain in rate made by the experimental 
 and control pupils in each of the grades is given in Graph III. The Graph 
 brings out clearly the fact that the amount of gain increases as the grade 
 advances . In every case in the experimental groups the gain made by the 
 higher grade is superior to that made by the lower. With the single excep- 
 tion of the sixth grade, this is true likewise of the control groups. 
 
 This superiority in gain in rate by the upper grades over the lower 
 
 is quite the opposite of what has usually been reported concerning the relative 
 

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 At/eraA^ (Aa/// //7 C7on;/:^^'eAe/^s/oA7 for 
 fo v/u as c/e/erm//7e<A /?y A~oor''//s A^av//7^ /e 
 
 £xf>en me /?//:> / C^rouy:^. O' 12 ^ Co rj //^o / C/rocy^. 
 
 OrapJy JJ?ouj//7^ Auera^e Ga/x? /r/ A!a/e a/ /^a<//hy for- A/r^ Ars // 
 io ]//// as <fe/er/7J//7e</ />y Goor//s G/Ze/j/ feac///p^ Z^es C 
 
 GooZro/ Grcc'^. 
 

 gains mad« by th« different grades. The third and fourth grades have been 
 of late generally regarded as the crucial school periods during which the 
 appreciable increases In rate of reading are to be effected. The resttlts 
 reported by S. Gray, Judd, Courtis, and ^aldo, have shown that de facto 
 the important gains are made in the lower grades, especially in the third 
 and fourth. !?hat is the explanation of the difference of the relative 
 amount of gain made by the different grades as reported by other investigators 
 and those reported in the present study? In the writer *a judgTient the 
 explanation is not far too seek. 
 
 The gains reported other Investigators were the results of the 
 conventional type of training In reading with almost the entire emphasis 
 upon the oral phase. The matter of rapidity in silent reading has not as 
 yet becoa» a problem In the minds of the itB.iorlty of upper grade teachers 
 much less In the minds of their pupils. During the third a»i fourth grades, 
 great stress is placed by the teachers upon the mastery of the mechanics of 
 reading. Generous portions of time are devoted to this task. After 
 this has been accomplished, the pupils are allowed to sltimber along at the 
 slow, dead-level plodding rates which became fixed for them In the days 
 of unending seraplternal drill In oral reading. Heading from the fourth 
 grade on continues largely an exhibition of word pronouncing, articulation, 
 etc. As Judd aptly phrases it, "The conscientious teacher supplied with 
 a reading book and a period In the program carries on the well known reading 
 farce In the vain hope that the effects of unsuccessful teaching will be 
 overcome by a liberal application of the same methods that produced the 
 difficulties" . 
 
 The value of an acceleration of the rate in silent reading never 
 seems to dawn upon them. It is no wonder that the rate does not notably 
 rise as the grade advances. The wonder rather is, that the rate does not 
 
'^1 
 
 rttrtr 
 
 decrease as a result of the grotesquely misplaced emphasis on oral reading 
 and the school’s utter neglect of reading in the true sense of the term— 
 the silent interpretation of the printed symbols. 
 
 The increases in reading rate in the different grades as reported 
 by Oberholtzer are shown in Table XXIV . The increases effected in the upper 
 grades as a result of almost a year*s teaching of reading are so meagre as 
 to be scarcely perceptible — 2.1 and 11. 7 words in the sixth and eighth grades 
 respectively. The rate is practically at a stand-still from the fotirth grade 
 on. A condition such as this, is in the writer's judgment nothing less 
 than pathological. It is a serious indictment of the present school regime 
 in the teaching of reading. 
 
 In the present investigation rapidity in silent reading was made 
 a problem. It tsbs recognized as a value to be striven for and to be 
 achieved thru training. Graph III shows the results of the pupil's effort. 
 They secured that for which they strove. 
 
 Prom these results three conclusions would seem to follows: 
 
 1, Jterked Increases in rats can be effected in the upper grades when speed 
 in reading is made a problem in the minds of the pupils. 2. The accelera- 
 tion in rate tends in a general way to advance pari passu with the advance 
 in the grade — the higher the grade, the greater being the increase in rate. 
 
 3. The present average rates in the upper grades are unnecessarily slow, 
 due to the absence on the part of the school of any organized effort to ac- 
 celerate them. 
 
 The data concerning the gains in comprehension contained in Table 
 XXI are shown in Graph IV. It is to be noted that no grade in either the 
 experimental or the control group varies more than about four points from 
 its initial average. 
 
I 
 
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15^ 
 
 Av-srage Rates Attained by "^olls After Training 
 Compared ytth ^r'gsent ??ora8 » 
 
 A ocwaparison of the averages of the experimental pupils in Grades 
 4 to 3, with the norms reported by Courtis* Brovm, Gray, ^tarch, Oberholtzer 
 Is presented in Table XXV, There is a common basis of canparlson between 
 the averages of the experimental pupils and the norms reported by Courtis. 
 
 Both were achieved on the Courtis test and the directions to the pupils in 
 both cases were identical. The norms reported by Courtis represent the 
 smoothed averages, the norms presented by the writer are the actual averages, 
 
 A comparison of these two norms is shown in Graph V, It brings out striking- 
 ly the difference in superiority in reading rate of pupils who have received 
 training in rapid effective silent reading and pupils who have been nurtured 
 on the conventional pabulum of drill in oral reading. The superiority of 
 the experimental pupils in every grade Is very marked. Sot less noticeable 
 is the superiority over the norms reported by ^ , S, Gray and by Gberholtzer, 
 as shown in Graph VI. The norms reported by Gray for the three different 
 selections in his reading test, have been ad, 'Ousted here to the basis of the 
 easiest selection, "Tiny Tad", 
 
 The highest norma reported are tho-je by Brown. They represent, 
 however, not the averages of all the pupils tested in the different grades, 
 as in the case of the other investigators, but the highest averages reached 
 by various single classes tested by Brown. Consequently they are offered 
 as norms or standards to be striven after rather than indices of the present 
 average attainment of the different grades. These standards mentioned by 
 Brown come closer to the averages actually reached by the experimental 
 classes than those of any of the other investigatore. ^hey are still, how- 
 ever, very considerably below them, as shown in Graph VII, 
 
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 The pras^nt norms for reading rate have all been derived from the 
 performances of pupils who have been trained in the conventional type of 
 oral reading. In the vast majority of oases they have received no training 
 in rapid silent reading. What the norms will be after the schools begin 
 to train in rapid silent reading is an Interesting question which the future 
 alone can answer. As the result of a pioneering effort in a virgin field, 
 the averages attained by the experimental pupils in the different grades in 
 the present investigation are suggested as tentative norms. The degree of 
 reliability of the averages for the different grades has been computed in 
 terms of the F.S. which are presented in Table XXVI, It is noted that the 
 P.E, is relatively small indicating a rather high degree of reliability for 
 the averages. 
 
 Variability in the Amount of Gain in Rate . 
 
 To show the range or variability in amount of gain in rate of the 
 experimental pupils compared with the control pupils. Graph VIII is offered. 
 A hundred pairs of pupils, each pair consisting of one experimental and 
 one control pupil, were selected at random from a much larger list contain- 
 ing the pairs of pupils whose initial scores in rate ’were approximately 
 equal. To facilitate comparison, the gain of each pupil was expressed a« 
 a percent of his initial score. Graph VIII shows that the gains of the ex- 
 perimental pupils are grouped much more closely to the ordinate than the 
 gains of the experimentals . The larger gains are made almost entirely by 
 the latter group. 
 
 ft 
 
 Measurement of the Comprehenslon by tlie N umber of 
 Quftitions Correc tly Answe red, 
 
 As mentioned previously the Courtis Index of Comprehension is a 
 measure merely of accuracy. It does not reflect in arty way the number of 
 
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 questions answered. Wow obviously efficiency in comprehension consists 
 not only in accuracy but the in the number of actions correctly performed. 
 
 To measure this latter phase of ccxaprehension, which entirely escapes the 
 Courtis Index, the number of questions correctly answered was employed as 
 a supplementary measuring device. Indeed, unpublished data at the ^ureau 
 of Educational Research at the University of Illinois, shows that a higher 
 correlation exists between the scores in comprehension as determined by 
 other standard reading tests and the number of questions correctly answered, 
 than between the comprehension scores in other tests and Courtis ’ Index 
 of Comprehension. 
 
 The increase in the ntunber of correct answers reflects furthermore 
 the Increase in the rate of reading of a passage in which the comprehension 
 is required and on which it is tested. This device makes it possible, more 
 over, to determine whether or not the increased speed of reading effected 
 by the training persisted in different situations. For the mental attitude 
 assumed in reading a passage to answer questions on it Immediately, is con- 
 siderably different from that assumed in reading a passage rapidly simply 
 "to get the gist" of it. It is thought that the employment of this device 
 in the present study obviates the one serious weakness Inherent in the 
 Courtis Reading Test. The performances of 247 experimental pupils selected 
 at random from different grades were subjected to this sort of analysis. 
 
 The results are presented in Table XXVII, 
 
 A very marked increase is shown in the number of questions correct 
 ly answered by the experimental pupils in all the grades. In fact, the 
 number of questions correctly answered by the pupils after receiving the 
 training in rapid reading, is greater than the norms or average number of 
 questions attempted as reported by Courtis . The average number of correct 
 
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 answers for the fourth grade as shown in Table XXVII, is 34.8 as against 
 Courtis’ norm of 30 questions attempted; for the fifth grade it is 42,1 
 as against 37 J for the sixth grade, 43.4 as against 40, No norms have 
 been suggested by Courtis for the seventh and eighth grades. The average 
 number of questions correctly answered by the different experimental classes 
 at the beginning and end of the training are compared in Graph IX with the 
 norms reported by Courtis for the number of questions attempted, whether 
 answered correctly or not. 
 
 The conclusions that would seem to follow from this phase of the in- 
 vestigation are these: 1. Marked improvement in the efficiency of the com- 
 
 prehension resulted from the training as shown by the gain in the man' er of 
 questions correctly answered, 2. This phase of the efficiency of compre- 
 hension Is measured in no way by Courtis’ Index of comprehension which is 
 more strictly speaking, an index of accuracy. 3* The marked gain in the 
 number of questions correctly answered demonstrates the persistence of the 
 improvement in reading rate in a changed situation and Involving a differ- 
 ent mental attitude -- i.e. in careful reading, reading to answer written 
 questions etc. 
 
 Comparison of the Results of Method I and method II, 
 
 Which type of training — No. I - Training In i^apld Silent heading 
 or No. II - Training to Decrease Vocalisation in Silent R ending — proved 
 the more effective? As was stated in the previous chapters these methods 
 are substantially the same - the chief difference being a difference of 
 stress. In the latter method the attempt to decrease vocalization in order 
 to improve the rate of reading is made a conscious problem. In Method II 
 the suppressing of the elaborate vocalization is accomplished indirectly, 
 by directly emphasizing speed in reading. Not much difference in the re- 
 sults was expected. The results show even leas than was expected. 
 

 
 
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 In the fourth ^rade Type I shows a slight superiority in average 
 gain-- 4.1 words per minute; in grade 5 advantage 15 »9 words per minute 
 rests with Type II* A canparison between the gains made by a number of sixth 
 grade pupils using Type II with the gains made by a number of seventh grade 
 pupils employing T:;p« I shows that in point of absolute gain. Type I has a 
 slight superiority — 11*6 words per minute. In the amount gain made over 
 the corresponding control groups, however, the advantage 14*9 words per 
 minute rests with Type II. These results would seem to indicate that the two 
 types of training, because substantially the same, are practically equal in 
 effectiveness « 
 
 The Growth of Speed in Silent ^leading as Shown 
 the Class Charts . 
 
 The measurement of the increase in rate in this study was based not 
 only upon the results of the Courtis Silent Heading Test, but also upon the 
 daily class charts. The daily progress of each experimental pupil was recor- 
 ded on his individual graph by showing the average number of words read per 
 minute during the total reading period on each day of the training period. The 
 median rate of reading for each day was placed on the class-chart which thus 
 reflected the progress of the whole class. The fact that the class-chart 
 records the progress for each day, enables it to reflect the character of the 
 growth in speed, gradual or otherwise, which the three Courtis Tests naturally 
 could not show. 
 
 A number of class charts showing the kinds of growth in speed are 
 presented for each grade. Graph X showing the progress of the experimental 
 group in the fourth grade in the Lincoln School at LaSalle, reflects a fairly 
 regular growth. The only appreciable break in the continuity of advancement 
 occurs during approximately the middle of the training period. The curve of 
 

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 improvement shown in Graph XI reveals considerably more f luctuations. ^ny 
 of the irregularities in the curve can be explained by the changes in the 
 subject matter to be read. The reading books on idilch the rates of speed 
 were made are indicated in the Graph. The median growth in speed for the 
 seven fourth-grade classes comprising 11? pupils is shown in the composite 
 Graph XII, The curves are smoothed in all the Graphs. The dots represent 
 the actual averages from which the cxirves were smoothed. The median growth 
 in speed for the fourth-grade classes is on the whole quite regular. The 
 median increase is from I 63 words per minute to 310 * 
 
 The curves of progress for two fifth-grade classes are shown in 
 Graphs XIII and XIV, The markedly irregular curve of progress in the latter 
 Graph contrasts with the general smoothness of the composite chart shown in 
 Graph XV. The increase is somewhat more .marked than in the fourth grade- 
 being from 133 to approximately 373 words per minute. 
 
 In the curve of progress at St. Mary's School as shown In Graph 
 XVI it is to be noted that the growth in speed is much more marked in the 
 latter than in the first half of the training period. The median growth of 
 three sixth-grade classes is shown in the composite Graph XVIII, The curve 
 is not so regular as in the previous composite Graphs. 
 
 The curves in Graphs XIX and XX manifest minor fluctuations tho the 
 central tendency of progress is strongly in evidence. The composite Graph 
 XXI showing tho growth of seven seventh-grade classes comprising II 9 pupils 
 displays more smoothness. The increase is from 220 words per minute to 
 approximately 490. In the composite Graph XXIII of the three eighth-grade 
 classes, the steep upward elope of the curve is more marked than in any of the 
 previous composite graphs. Moreover, the increase is consistent, and there is 
 no indication that in this the highest grade improvement might not continue to 
 

 
 
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 TABLE XXVIl. GAIN IN COMPHSHENSION OF THE EXPmiMENTAJ^ FUt'^lLS AS 
 DSTKRiilNSD BY TliE NUMBEB OF QUESTIONS IN COUBTIS TESTS COSSasGTLY ANS.SimS’J. 
 
 ... 
 
 Grade 
 
 Number of Pupila 
 
 r I 1 . j 1 
 
 \ 
 
 Beginning ! 
 
 , . ,11 , t... r 
 
 End 
 
 Gain 
 
 IV 
 
 9? 
 
 23.9 1 
 
 34.8 
 
 
 10.9 
 
 V 
 
 •47 
 
 29.6 1 
 
 42.1 
 
 
 12.5 
 
 VI 
 
 5? 
 
 33.7 j 
 
 4o«4 
 
 
 14.5 
 
 VII 
 
 50 
 
 45.3 
 
 L J 
 
 58.0 
 
 
 12.7 
 
 VIII 
 
 46 
 
 57. s 
 
 L.— 
 
 „ i-Q-7 
 
 / 
 
 TABLE XXVin . C0MP/tf\I3OM OF (FiOiSTfri OF SFEEO IN SILENT AEAHNO OF 23 
 GLASSES IN DiFFSftENT OA/OJES, A3 DEmSalNED BY 'HiS COmTiS TESTS mm THAT 
 COtlDED Oii THE GLASS CH.iRTS . 
 
 
 1 Beginning J 
 
 End 
 
 
 Gain 
 
 Per cent, of Gai» 
 
 Courtis Teats 
 
 j ] 
 
 i 189*6 ! 
 
 295.9 
 
 
 109*3 
 
 62;^ 
 
 Olees charts 
 
 i 228 1 
 
 4ii 
 
 
 -Jii 
 
 ■ .-...m 
 
 Table 26 is to be read thus: At the be.^iimins of the training the 
 
 median rate of speed of the 23 classes as determined by the Courtis Tests was 
 189*6 words per minut^ 295*9 words at the end of the training. The median gain 
 in number of words per lainute was 109*3, the median gain in per cent, ms 62;, A. 
 
 TASIdi XXIX, THE AVER AOS READING R ATE OF BOYS AND GBLD AT THE BSaiNNlNO 
 AITD END OF THE EXFEIim'HT AND T*L?. RilTFaATIYl? AMOUNT OF GAIN. 
 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Average Gain 
 
 Girls’ 
 
 iority 
 
 Super- 
 
 in 
 
 Grade 
 
 So, of 
 
 Begin- j 
 
 End 
 
 No* of 
 
 j Begin- 
 
 End 
 
 ;joys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Final 
 
 Gain 
 
 
 Boys 
 
 ning ! 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 ining .. 
 
 
 
 
 live* 
 
 
 III 
 
 12 
 
 J 
 
 137 i 
 
 231 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 152 
 
 254 
 
 94 
 
 102 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 IV 
 
 49 
 
 144 j 
 
 220 
 
 53 
 
 157 
 
 234 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 27 
 
 154 1 
 
 276 
 
 22 
 
 1 170 
 
 266 
 
 122 
 
 96 
 
 -10 
 
 -26 
 
 VI 
 
 19 
 
 192 j 
 
 288 
 
 32 
 
 1 196 
 
 289 
 
 96 
 
 93 
 
 1 
 
 -3 
 
 VII 
 
 38 
 
 195 i 
 
 315 
 
 64 
 
 1 210 
 
 326 
 
 120 
 
 116 
 
 11 
 
 -4 
 
 VIII 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 .Ml 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 .. . -14 
 
 rlL 
 
 Table 29 is to be read for grade 3 as follows; 12 boys had an avaruge 
 rate of 137 words per minute at the beginning of the training, 231 words at the 
 end; 11 girls averaged 152 at beginning, 254 nt ond; boys gain was 94 words per 
 minute, the girls’ was 102; the superiority of the girls’ final average over the 
 boye’ final average was 23, the girls superiority in gedn over the boys was 8 words 
 per minute. 
 

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 \» •.- ■■ i-^ V‘ 
 
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 ■ ':' c . -,£ ft :• .* y.f*-- : I o ; ■■•< 
 
 F 
 
 
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 ■ .t 
 
 f '. ' 
 
 
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 4pf; 
 
 an indefinite extent if the practice period had "been Idnger* 
 
 Table XXVTI oomparec the redian rate of speed of 23 classes in 
 various grades os detemined by the Courtis Reading Test tdth that shown by 
 the class charts* The table sherwe that the aniount of increase in speed as 
 recorded on the claBc-ohortB for the different grades is greater than that 
 manifested by the Courtis Tests* This is d\ie to the greater st>imilction, tlie 
 greater pressure, that was brov.^t to bear upon the pupils in the regular daily 
 training in rapid reading* The individual record, of the class chart etc* was 
 not applied to the reading of the Courtie Test* 
 
 In Graph XXIV are shown the rates of all the grades at the beginning 
 and end of the experimental tredning as recorded kki tiio clast chart* The 
 shaded blocks in the Graph call attention to tlie anount of gai,n in rate r»de 
 by the different grades. 
 
 In short the results of the claes obai’ts offer a rather striking 
 corroboration of the general conclusions drawn from the data afforded by the 
 Courtis Test* 
 
 Correla tion of Fate of Reading with Slir yl e Reaction 
 Tirg aiff M^sor i^n’^ iw. Re ^otlTon Time . 
 
 The atten^t was made in the precent investigation to ascertain the 
 correlation between iiie rate of tiie neurological factor funotionir^ the 
 reading complex and the rates of simple motor reaction and discriraination 
 reaction* The test for simple reaction was the cancellation test A- 4 descri- 
 bed by Whipple in his Llanual of Llerrbol and Physical Teste* It oonsistB of the 
 simple crossing out of gooEactrical figures* The disoriioination reaction test 
 called for the cancelling of only the numeral 9 in lines containing various 
 digits* These tests were administered to the pupils in the fovirth aid fifth 
 Trades in the Goodrich Sohool, wiiose rates of reading had been previously 
 

 
 
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 inoaBured by the Courtis Test* 
 
 The oorrolation betwen tlie rate of readinr?; and simple motor reaction 
 Tsras found to be quite low-r being *214 for the fourth grade and *2?8 for the 
 fifth* The ooeffioient of correlation between the rat© of reading and the 
 rate of disorinination reaction wae oomputed for the pupils of the fourth 
 grade* The correlation In this case was found to be somewiiat higlier - r being 
 •435* On the \diole, the oocffioience are too low to indicate the exisbenoe 
 of ary very significant positive correlation between the rate of the neural 
 factor functioning in reading and the rate of either simple Biotor or discrim- 
 inatory reaction, tho the correlation is soivewhat more in evidence in the 
 latter ease* 
 
 The Factor of Seg * 
 
 Table XXIX shows that the average rate of the girls is slightly 
 higher than that of the boj’’s* At the beginning of the training, the average rate 
 for the girls was higher in every grade except the eighth; at the end of the 
 training in every grade save the eighth and the fifth* In amount of gsdn as a 
 result of the training the boys, somewhat surpassed the girls* The training 
 in rapid reading was rather intensive and somewhat strenuous and it is possible 
 that the neuro-iausouiar system of the boys enabled tliem to profit by it slightly 
 more than the girls* Both sexes, however, showed very marked gains in rate in 
 all the grades and the differences in the amount of gain made by tho two sexes 
 are too slight to be of any special slgnifioonoo* 
 

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 PK}’rOORAPHIC RiSCORDS OF i35f)M:omiiS!rr3 DURTJG RiSADIlia. 
 
 A artandardized ailoaat reading teat is doubtless ©:^ablo of laoasuring 
 the rate of reading satisfactorily. It can detomine the increase or decrease 
 in speed offeetod in a given time. Behind that sirtplo factual stat cement, how- 
 ever, a reading teat does not poaetmte. It telle nothing about the factors 
 which 1 x 0 back of that incresiss or doer case in rote — nothing about the causes, 
 approximate or remota. In the present investigation an effort was mde to 
 penetrate behind the siisple dotenaination of increase in spoed as sho^m by the 
 Courtis Silent Heading Test and the individual ciiarts, into the nature of the 
 modifications of the ptiyaiological factors which accospamiod the incroaso in 
 rato. In other words, ixnv is an increase in speed to be explained in teruis of 
 the physiological processes constituting the reading coit^jlox ? 
 
 le the habit of incroaoed speed achieved chiefly by tho shortening of 
 the duration of tho fixation pauses ? Or by a lessening of thoir number ? Or 
 by a ccaabination of both those results T TMs Sciicaidt (18) charactorisos as 
 one of tho **int cresting, but as yet , tmaolved problams'* in the psycliology of 
 reading, ifliat, sioroovor, aro the changes in tho clr^ractor of tho eyo-rnovemerrts 
 of an individual who has developed froia a slow to a rapid roador ! Havo the 
 novaciGitts become more regular and rj^tiaaicai, or tho opposite ? lias the acquiro- 
 joent of tho Jiabit of increased speed rooultod in an increase in tho nianber of 
 regressive aoveiaents — which aro signs of raontol confusion — or have they 
 docroasod ? Is tho rate of tho intorfixation movemonts and the interlinear 
 ** sweeps’* affected by the habit of increased speed in reading ? 
 
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 Theao are soma of the interesting <|uastioa3 which have been broached 
 in recent studios in the tociiaical psycliology of reading. In the present invoa- 
 tigation tho attempt ms made to secure somo data for the fojrmlation of at 
 le iat tontativo ansvyers to tho above ofuarios. 
 
 For this purj^so, photograpliic records ware tahen of tho oyo-movononts 
 of ton pupils whilo they wore engaged in silent reading* Hieso ten pupils* five 
 boys and five girls, reproscmting various dogreas of silent reading ability, 
 wore selected iron tho classes in tho C^odrich, IloniiricJcs, and Ii'anierro schools 
 in Chicago, which wore receivix^ training in rapid reading as outlined in '%pe I 
 and Type II in this mono^^h. ‘ihs elabor<ato photographic apparatus, the evolu- 
 tion of which vmo mentioned in Chapter I, and which has beon rocently improTad 
 upon by Judd, G. T, Gray, Freesan, IcJiraidt , and others at tho University of 
 
 X 
 
 Chicago, was usod in this connection . Records wore taken both before and after 
 the training in mpid reading. 
 
 In order th?it coisparisons might paroperly bo uade betwoem the oye- 
 Eiovononte records of pupils in difforont grades, it was necessary to secure 
 sub joct -matter which was adjusted to t’«o coiaprohonsion of tho different cpradea, 
 and wliich was of approximately equal difficulty for tho pupils in each grade* 
 
 Tho selections in Gray’s Silent Roading Tost, — Tiny Tad, Tiie Grasshoppers, 
 Anciont Ships, — having been carefully evaluated as to their degroa of diffi- 
 culty, proved well s^^ited for this r«|»poso. Difforont passages in tho various 
 selections were usod at tho beginning and at the end of tho training, so tliat , 
 in no case, vras the complicating factor of special fardliority with tho specific 
 subject-matter introduced. The instructions given to the mpils before rociding 
 
 X The writer acknowlodgos wit* gratitude ti.o court osy of tho University of Chi- 
 cago in pon:dtting tho uno of this photographic apparatus. Ida cordial thanks 
 arc lifce.viso duo to ’ r. C. T. Buswoll, who did tho work on tho p>iotographic 
 records tl.o l-rbomtory at the Univoroity of Giiicago. 
 

 
 
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Plate I 
 
 ’’vvhen I have thea all, ”he said, ”1*11 leave this 
 
 dirty mter and go up into the orchard# "ffhat 
 
 fun it 'Bill be to hop and hop and hop# If only I 
 
 had a little brother to hop vrxth ne, I should be 
 
 sc happy#” 
 
 Silent reading by A.P# a fourth grade subject— before trainii^. x 
 indicates that it was idpoosible to deteriiune with accuracy tlie duration of the 
 fixation-pause • 
 
 The vertical lines indicate tlie position of the eyes* fixation, the 
 numbers at the top of tlae line shovr the order in Bhich the fixations occurred# 
 The numbers at the bottom of the line give tlie duration of each fixation in 
 fiftieths of a second# Thus Plate I is to be read: The first fixation occurred 
 
 on the quotation mark ( * ) before the xvord ”wlien”; its duration ^ras 8/50 of a 
 second; the second fixation was on the letter ”e” in the word ’Sdien”; its 
 duration was 8/50 of a second; etc# 
 
 Plate n. 
 
 ”The sun was hardly up the next noming when a 
 
 little toad jumped out of the water and hopped 
 
 out on the bank# He was very snail, but none 
 
 too Sinall for his little legs that wobbled under 
 
 him# It XTHB Tiny, t'^e young toad#” 
 
 Siler.t reading by A.P. a fourth grade subject— after training# x indicates that 
 it was impossible to determine -sath aocuracy the duration of tlie fixation-pause# 
 

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Gray’s test at the ber^inainf; and at tho end of the training, period were substan- 
 tially the ones which pr'ofaco ©very staMardized silent rending tost — "Read 
 only as rapidly as you can understand wJ-sat you a.rQ reading". 
 
 Tho situation 5» which the pu:?.1.1s read while their oye-^r’i0\'‘(^ont3 were 
 being photographed was naturally ooisidorably different from the one to which 
 they were accustonod in tho classroom, liie room was darkonod, the selection 
 alono being illiBJiiaod. A ray of light refloctod into the mib|ect*s eyes 
 thence into the lenses of the cnj^fora. Tho head of the oubject was prevented 
 fron jsoviag by r:eans of a head rest. Tho latter !^ad foiir polnto of contact — 
 one at the forehead, one at the back, and two at the cheeks. After it was 
 adjusted, the subjects did not find it eepecially disturbing. A few of the 
 younger subjects seemed to find the situation <|uito apuaing, as shown by their 
 st'dlos* 
 
 I Uye-iiovsneEit Records of S’ourtli Grade Gubjoets - Before and After 
 
 Training. 
 
 1, A Slow Fourth-Grade Reader. 
 
 Plate Z sriown the record of A. P. beforo roceiving the oxi-’earimeirtal 
 training. A. P, is a ten year old boy in the fourth grade in the Goodrich 
 school^ His general class average is rated by tho toaclior as "fair", his oral 
 reading as "poor". Hie rate in silent reading waa only 7G words per Kdnute as 
 measurod by the Courtis Gilent Reading Teat; his cramprohonsion was very low. i'o 
 ranked among tho lowest in his class in both rate and comprohension. Ho is of 
 foreign bom parentago. Itis father doo;s not spe^k iinglioh, though his irothor 
 does. 
 
 Th9 record in Plato I reflects vory cloarly the physiological fiictors 
 back of tho pupil’s deficiency in reading. Hie nunbor of fixations ia oxceasive- 
 ly large; regrossiv© wove:. onto are too nvunorous. Hot a single lino is without 
 than. They show traces of umaiirtakablo confusion in tho interpretation of tho 
 
sTir 7 ;^s j 
 
 
 
 - ■ -. ^ .. )*r;'-^ \.. ' r ) ' .» ' *r >1 • -i 
 
 , ,.>■ . *-!»!>•,..? • \X - 1 ;• * 1 •■/• v'v . •. f. ... t .’f • •' *ic^ \- 
 
 .' “4.V..O-' ^•'{■- '• . -■• ■ 'V' ' ;• 
 
 •-iMwy'' .. ' ^>v i;.:, rt >’v).U{-' o*rr’ - 
 
 ■ f. ’.'»' V?' ; tr'* *./i :',^ 
 •• '•'■■-*•■• -i , 
 
 - J, j’. ^ 
 
 
 ■" •*■1 ;■: I • N 
 
 , . fT.'! 'J- 
 
 ^ Tti *•■■ *iV ■ ' X*'’ • 
 
 ' V ;i^- *• o y 
 
 *1 
 
 , ■ j *’ ■:' ' ■ ' ' *' •y(ii' '. ' V 
 
 4- t •; * •; •. . '•'•V 
 
 1'!... ■' , ■*«■!•,'* I ' !! !■' .iiy:' 
 
 .it'': ,: v '<a 
 
 riS ti^z-yn'*..''. .- , ...t .5'^ H',';.'- •• K “'-i- 
 
 •{£«.'.' •‘.'4 ,, (It 
 
 I* , 
 
 V*4 - - 
 
 r'' ' • ; ■ 
 
 ^t'5V4 
 
 _ I.-*\ 
 
 1. J 
 
 S_ mf'- -■‘' ,;■ 
 
 i/f 
 
 .'■ r if- . . . 
 
 ■y ,, 
 
 '4^ 
 
 V X 
 
 i^: 
 
 . »il,v 
 
 r. 
 
 V. 4/- , . • . 
 
 ^4 • >' 
 
 ri,-, ISL . •*^, 
 
 4ilijL 
 
 
 <■ , .'."T rc..t„ ' 
 
 ^ .' . ^ ^ *> 
 
 
 Jh *V I. « 
 
 . -r. 
 
 :*' •< •■'4-c.y ■ • . f *:V~ ;•' < J 
 
 '"’f 
 
 ■! ■': '• •, 'i:! 
 
 
 I .. . !■ 
 
 
 
 (X' 
 
 1 of 
 
 r:^‘ • I T ttjf V fc ’ ‘ >. v-' * ’* ^ 
 
 < i*> 'T^ J'\ f 
 
 21 r 
 
 i.^^.. ■«•'•■ • '» .* i' ’ ’. J J : ./■’i \X 
 
 ' aJ 
 
 iff Vi ■ 
 
 . /,.y > 
 
 ' '* ■ r i i..j , : . ‘- I "ir 
 
 
 r£.ij 
 
 ' ‘fir- # 
 
 U^. 
 
printed a^bol'5. They indicate that tho render waa obliged to go bach fro<|uQntly 
 to previous words in order to get tiio meaning of the present word or phrase. 
 Regular r^rtfr-dcai aye-etovoraont habits are consl^uous by their absence. The 
 visual span is varj narrow. 'Ihua, in line 2 tho short -mrd ™v/ater*' received 
 three fixations. In line 3 there are four backward or regressive mvmonto. 
 
 'Tho record in Plate II for A. ?. aftesr -fraining shows eonsidorablo 
 ijjsprovoEJont over tho csibject’o previous perfonsKsnes* ‘Bsfo Ejonthn of the oxpar- 
 iaental training of iype II had effected a laarked increase in speed. His record, 
 on tJts Courtis Test sI':oued that he bad rcore than doirblod his rate, vdiil© his 
 coitijarehonsSen had likewise improved. Tim saaount of prmmr<3 th.o.t was brought to 
 bear upon the pupils to increase their rate in the ref^iljer reading poriod in 
 the school was naturtilly not applied to their reading boforo tli© cou-^era. Under 
 the novel circicnstan cos undox- which tli© lattor was done, and the very brief 
 iatervil allowed, it is doubtless true that the subjects did not reach as ropid 
 a pace as they did in reading the Courtis Tost under aonsal class-root; conditions. 
 Hovertholoss , the oocond record of A. F.*a reading shews that the trfoining hfod 
 produced a marked decrease in the nui.ibca* of fixation pauses per line* as v/ell 
 as a docroas© in tho n’.aaber of ragressiva jsov«»aants .frcri 17 to S — a docroMSo 
 of aiiaost 50 %, 
 
 Table 30 gives a datailod coEiparison of th.e two complete rocc-rds of 
 A. P.’s roadin,;. Only samplos of tho cor^plote record wore preso'-ted in Plates 
 
 I and II 
 

 4 »■ 
 
 ) Vi 
 
 .1 ^ r- 
 
 r.vo 'v'tsOrWWff'; 
 
 mf- 
 
 [ ■ 1 \ -K’ 
 
 
 S - 
 J 
 
 l.-l.i'-TC 6>'l> 
 
 h , 
 
 .•’'■i'jr'r . • - " 
 
 T.. v^. y,^.^ ' " --y'*' 
 
 •.''-?■■ w.; > V ■.'^ ' 4 ',^' 
 
 't tfV . ’, 
 
 
 <! r- 
 
 ^ “ t ; •’ 'trG ' 
 
 _»iA' 
 
 j«. 
 
 ' H 
 
 * 1 
 
 '■> 
 
 'i .! ■■c ’I'/. t •■' r'H* 
 
 
 
 V^* '" •! '-vi,. ■,■<. v' ...■.'' 'I? -1 
 
 / 
 
 «.•.'. "t. -'. ■ 
 
 ■‘f,? , ■t'.J-v 
 
 
 
 
 -■■V v'Vf!, 
 
 ' It 
 
 ^ v)* ' i r '■ 
 
 "is. ••.■'- 
 
 t 
 
 I • r ,.i^ 
 
 V -W -*. 
 
 - ‘^- ■: ir-f^ ■ . ■ 
 
 t *a^' «■• 
 
 I 
 
 r'; Of 
 
 ! .J-v ■• •«* 
 
 *; 
 
 ... .'!> 
 
 ■ ) I'i ' * 1 : C 
 
 i- v.'. ' I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i*~ u 
 
 ... ..^i- 
 
J-QO. 
 
 no 
 
 Table xxx 
 
 Corqparison of the Sye-Iioveiient Hecords of a Fourtli Grade Subject A*P» 
 —Before and After Training in Rapid Reading* 
 
 
 1 
 
 IJunber 
 
 Pauses 
 
 of 
 
 'Average 
 tion of 
 
 dura- 
 
 paixse 
 
 Aggregate dura- 
 tion of pause 
 
 'Ihsnber of progress- 
 ive laovesjonts 
 
 
 Record 
 
 Record 
 
 
 Record 
 
 Recor<i 
 
 Line 
 
 X 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 tl 
 
 
 II 
 
 — 
 
 
 § 
 
 lO 
 
 16.^ 
 
 104 
 
 ' 98 
 
 1 ' 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 14.4 
 
 12.5 
 
 130 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 12*3 
 
 15.8 
 
 185 
 
 126 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11.7 
 
 12.8 
 
 152 
 
 153 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 16.0 
 
 13.3 
 
 176 
 
 1^ 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 12.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 175 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 12.9 
 
 11.3 
 
 155 
 
 79 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 17.0 
 
 
 68 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 15.3 
 
 
 92 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Total 
 
 82 
 
 70 
 
 92.8 : 
 
 118.9 
 
 1077 
 
 909 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 Average 
 
 11.7 
 
 7.8 
 
 13*1 
 
 13.0 
 
 13.3 
 
 L 13.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 Table X should be read for line 1 as follotrs: In the first record 
 
 there trere 8 fixations, in tlie second 9, The average duration of tlie fixation- 
 pauses in tlie first record was 15 fiftieths of a second, in the second record, 
 
 10*9 fiftieths; the aggregate duration was 104 '’iftiethB of a second in the 
 first record, 98 fiftieths in the second record* There was one regressive 
 laoveiaent in the first record, none in the second record* 
 
 The decrease in the average number of fixation pauses fresa 11*7 to 
 7*8 per line— a decrease of alrsost 4 j»r line— is probabl;/ the most striking 
 modifioation in the ssotor behavior of the eyes wiiich the photographio records 
 evince. It shows clearly that the experioental training was effective in 
 widening tlie visiial span which functioned in the pupil's reading* The teaolier 
 reports that tlie interest displayed by this subject in the training -oas "intense”* 
 At the beginning of the training, his silent reading was aocoiapanied by elabor- 
 ate lip-noverjent • After about one month's training, the lip-movenent dis- 
 appeared* Throat noveiaents persisted for abovrt two weeks longer, after which 
 time they could no longer be detected by the teacher* The data from the 
 photographic records, the Courtis Test, the individual chart, and the teacher's 
 
A 
 
 V' ^ 
 
 ’! ’ 
 
 I* 
 
 
 
 ■' 1 -?.- 
 
 'rr *jyL V 
 
 / 
 
 r,- 
 
 > .; ' 
 
 
 If- ■ 
 
 
 X • u*' 
 
 'i V I ^ 
 
 
 ‘■\ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 T' 
 
 )• ‘ .* '* 
 
 n 
 
 iJ 
 
 'J -3 
 
 )•. 
 
 
 t 
 
 \ : '■> 
 
 J 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 ) 
 
 ( 
 
 r 
 
 A 
 
 , . * > 
 
 :i 
 
•X J U 
 111 
 
 Plate III . 
 
 Tiny Tad vm.s a queer little fello'R^ vrith only 
 
 t^ legs emd a short tail* He ^ms nearly black* 
 
 too, and naioh smller than isost tadpoles in the 
 
 big pond* He could hardly T^ait for his front legs 
 
 to grow* 
 
 "•^.hen I ha:g^e them all, ”he said, "1*11 leave this 
 
 dirty frater and go up into the orcliard* Tihat 
 
 fun it td.ll bo to hop and hop and hop* If only I 
 
 had a little brother to hop vdth me, I should b© 
 
 so happy*" 
 
 SUent Reading by fourth grade subject N.C.— before training* Only 
 the fixation positions are raarked* The subject was not in the exact 
 focus so the duration of the fixation-pauses could not be determined. 
 

 r* '*>r r 
 
 
 
 
 cr? 
 
 4 
 
 O “ k'' i T ■' i.O‘*'^>.’ * *■*.’*’ fVl.il •'■ >XX ’■!► '■''» ; ‘ .*' iff ^ «. 
 
 :v ‘sl ; ; i ?.i‘- •f’>- — 
 
 M.-. a--. ■■■»:■' 
 
 /viT'-ty; '>»- 
 
 f • » 
 
 ,‘' t . .73 
 
 £“ . ■ '’'• ©r&'f i riv'sii’'.^ 
 
 5'17 
 
 '■ 
 
 M IV ct to T'J-'--* .i^SSI..'^ 
 
 . * 
 
 
 
 tkik 't.L' 
 
 4 -' 
 
 ■ .'Ji < ■^■f nXiiit .;. fi«d 
 
 W 1 
 
 
 01 ^ 
 
 J;; 
 
 .. - .-•-J. 0 . ' - 4' 
 
 0 r-:r ,r.f- '''i’.i, 
 
 ■•'if i » 
 
 ^‘'l.fw, ''.t^v 
 
 ftiV, ' ■ * 
 
 
 a#T* - 
 

 Plate IV. 
 
 It wasn’t long l->efor© his legs began to grow. 
 
 He juaiped about and kiclced around until his 
 
 legs grew quite strong. ”l an going out on the 
 
 banl: to see if I can hop" he said one night when 
 
 he was just six weelcs old* 
 
 The sun was hardly up the next morning t^en a 
 
 little toad junped out of the imter and hopped 
 
 out on the baric. He was very small, but none 
 
 too snail for his little legs that wobbled under 
 
 him. It TTas Tiny, the young toad. 
 
 Silent Reading by fourth grade subject II. C. after training, x indicates 
 that it was impossible to determine with accuracy the dixration of the fixation- 
 pause. 
 

 
 - iV 
 
 
 . ,r, H ’‘i- '.-I r,J , 
 
 • *• <! * » 
 "'>1^ t' 
 
 fc,^ -^t ;< 4» 
 
 
 l'-.-: ’.I... f*.' ’'.^ ^H"' 
 
 ■-•.j? JaJaS- 
 
 iU,."., ■ 
 
 ’ j, 0 
 
 ... ^.,,v- - J. 
 
 -n 
 
 
 t' . ' • 
 
 * . (*4 . ■ 4 
 
 < 1 ' 
 T '• 
 
 , ”;:-£.ri lilrri t*? 
 
 r%.. 
 
 *,‘i * ‘ ■ "f. V/ * 1/,'? 0 vj I 
 
 iV'^* ■ ' i ■* '^ .‘ -•■, y ’■ 
 
 V.':;’ ffLicri- i'H A*,»'T 
 
 :-r '■• 
 
 .4*., cU.'- . 
 
 ' 'iK'» 
 
 . ^ -J ,s ■■ * p! '■ • >r i ^j: 5 ' ^ ^.v ■ ; 
 
 ■X,. 
 
 ■’' . ;C; 
 
 ■{If *' '* • 
 
 !t. 
 
 
 .J: 
 
 _ > •, ;'.i' ,■■■ .Jf 
 
 ■,•/♦’■ *' . *''' , ■ ‘ ' 
 
 
 *v *■ ' ’ 'f ' ' ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ . f* :<)j' '. ^ '■•' . ^ 
 
 
 * ’. ’’"U-s . 1 -. i t \ ' ' 
 
 ..•■ *■“ '^*V‘ )■■ 
 
 f , ' . *'* 11 ‘ ’ ' ' , ' '■ 
 
 . /■■«i n >A vvt'lv-ll •?/,' Tj-.* il/r-^ra “■■'■■'■5^'/ ' 
 
 ■* - ■ • ‘ ^ ■■-■ \% 
 
 
 
 - • ■'. -xv.; 
 
 
 -,i.. » 
 
 ' 'r ) , 
 
 a^-?'‘‘ .fJt \ .:«i^ ‘V’. 
 
 Wm‘- iL> 
 
 
 l>. 
 
 •. v-'.-.r-i ■■'.• 
 
 - •■ f jf)\: .< T 
 
 .' . ■ *.r-.' ■ . '5 <•>'», J 
 ' •*'■' ■"■ ■ ■ ■ ^ ' ' ■'■ , *'■■:' src 
 
 b*Kt^:. /'V. Vi>’, 
 
 . ; T ■> 
 
 ■■ '<:,r.,: 
 
 l' ‘a 
 
 
 .'.I 
 
 M . ■ 
 
 Vk: 
 
 
 I A 
 
\^ 3 > 
 
 observations— all oonibin© to show that the training of Typo II proved very 
 effective in iinproving the reading ability of this subject to a :Tarhed degree* 
 
 2* Record of ^ Rapid Fourth (h*ade Reader* 
 
 Plate III shows the record of R*C. before training* H*G* is a nine 
 year old girl in the fourth grade in tlie Goodrich School* The teach.er reports 
 that her general class avera^ and her reading ability are ^excellent”* Her 
 rate of reading as neasiired by the Courtis Test was 267 words per nirrate; 
 her coaprehension score v;as 75 per cent. Tli© test confirioed the teacher’s 
 judgoont and showed triat the subject was, by far, the fastest reader in her 
 class* She is of foreign-bom parentage; her father spea3cs Englisli but her 
 □other does not* Her advanceanent thro the grades has been norinal* The subject 
 raanifested great interest in the experimental training* 
 
 The record in Plate III shows that H.C. is a superior type of 
 reader for a fourth grade pupil* The subject averages but 7*1 fixation- 
 pauses per line* The regressive novenents are not nusaerous, averaging but 1*1 
 per line* There is a fair degree of regularity and rhythm to the eye-novecients 
 indicating a rapid rate on the part of the reader* Contrast Plate III triLth 
 Plate I and the superiority of H. C. over A.P* in practically every aspect of 
 tlie reading process is made strikingly manifest* 
 
 Plate IV shows that H.C. despite her high initial ability also 
 profited by the training in Type II. There is a decrease in the total number 
 of fixation pauses for the eight ccnaplex lines in both records, from 57 to 41 — 
 on average decrease of 2 fixation-pauses per line* The perceptual span has 
 been widened so that it grasps a larger number of printed symbols in a single 
 fixation* Thus, lines 2 and 6 are each grasx>ed in 4 fixations, while tlie best 
 performance on the previous record (plate III) was the perception of line 2 
 in 5 fixations* The ninimum for tlae other lines is 6, wiiioh is the naxiiaum 
 
Table XXXI 
 
 CoEEipiirison of the Sye-Morweiaent Records of a Fourth Grade 
 
 ject n.c 
 
 J. Before smd After Training 
 
 in Rapid 1 
 
 ceading. 
 
 
 
 Hunber of 
 Pauses 
 
 IXiration of 
 Pauses 
 Record II 
 
 Euaber of Regress- 
 ive Mbverients 
 
 
 Record 
 
 Average 
 
 Ag,grogate 
 
 ^iecord 
 
 Line 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 13.2 
 
 79 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 9.3 
 
 37 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 8.7 
 
 52 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 9.2 
 
 46 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 11.0 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 9.4 
 
 47 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 11.2 
 
 67 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 12.0 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Total 
 
 57 
 
 41 
 
 84 
 
 432 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Avoreige 
 
 “ 7.y 
 
 *rrE 
 
 LO 
 
 . 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 yo.o 
 
 — rn — ■ 
 
 1.1 
 

 Piste V. 
 
 Tiny Tad "was a quo^r little fellow with only 
 
 two legs and a short tail* He ims nearly blaclc* 
 
 too, and auch snaller than r»st tadpoles in tlie 
 
 big pond* He oould hardly wait for his front legs 
 
 to grow* 
 
 I Imve thaca all, ''he said,” 1*11 leave this 
 
 dirty v.ater and go up into the orcb.ard* T/hat 
 
 fun it will be to ixop and hop and hop* If only I 
 
 ! ad a little brotlier to hop with lae, I should bo 
 
 so happy*” 
 
 Silent readinp; by fourth grade subject It.L.-- before training* 
 

 
 Ali' 
 
 i ri ^ 
 
 L't' I" ''n 
 
 • , »-.;•.« . )•- -'t • 
 
 '•-♦M 
 
 « iwCi' X'irj 
 
 ...» 
 
 
 
 
 jr 
 
 
TQO 
 
 xvtu 
 
 Plate VI. 
 
 It -imsn’t long ‘before liis legs began to grow. 
 
 He ixjnped about and 2dLc!red around until his 
 
 legs grow cuite strong. ”I am going out on the 
 
 bank to see if I can luop” he said one night when 
 
 he was ^ust six weeks old. 
 
 The sun Tius hardly up the next moroing xirhon a 
 
 r 
 
 little toad jumped cwxb of t^ie xmter and hopped 
 
 out on the bank. He was very small, but none 
 
 too sioall for his little legs that wobbled under 
 
 him. It was Tiny, th.o young toad. 
 
 Silent reading by fourth grade subject K.L. after training. Only the 
 fixation positions are marked. The subject was not in the exact focus, so 
 the duration of the pauses oo’.ild not bo determined. 
 

 '• 1 Vj 
 
 ■f.i" ■ 
 
 • » *A ' . H V *■ 
 
 
 A_i. ’V ' ifi.- ^O.l ’ ■■•.A'' iX 
 
 I . 
 
 ■ ' f * 
 
 
 it, "iC.- 
 
 .‘’nv ^ , ' iV 
 
 
 
 t-,<r 
 
 t- I •;■ rf,' jti:.- . frtTvn-^ix/? WT^-.-s.-t f 
 
 . •^■; i 1 .,. jnS--.. 
 
 •.•V -, ■ 
 
 ^ .- 1 . .:vo i ■-^>-‘.4 df:^. .. 
 
 • -Vac' 7' ’ •'.•••'• :!, >■ .S' *) ,v^ ^v.|iv; 
 
 ’■■ , V■''‘.■' . ' V. < . N 
 
 .•w ;.?}-.',..-7 ■; • f-- 
 
 
 "• ' -W ' it: 
 
 Sfn . 
 
 C m’> S ' iti ' K -iif' 
 
 fS " 
 
 17 
 
 •.s* 
 
 ■• - 75 -'/v 
 
 
 
 '■ 
 
 ■'• '. ;'s- ' V' ■ ■ '■ 
 
 ■>■ '■ : fo ’■■■. " T‘ ■;. •■■ •■'^■* i “T ir' 
 
 <' *.'l 
 
 ^ .s*- *.«> ,.,>.v ,« •/•tv.n .W :.lt;, 
 
 
 -: i •• jr 
 
 .V V 4 o ' 
 
 V ’. "■ ■ „ .' ■%• ::' -J ••' ■ ■ •, 
 
 
 ( , 
 
 • 4 '^^ * f ^ ^ "i 
 
 -i; 3 ai(» ^VCrf- ‘Vyl. .(." ;“:v^ ff? li-. ; 
 
 .V>i:7'-^-:, .iv'jrf/ 7-. .’I sjc'i I L»- .c^i, 
 
 
 
 V,- . 
 
 
 
 
 V <e 
 
 ■ ■ ■::;. 
 
 A'#' f‘*J« 
 
 /s . • 
 
 “^#'’. , i' V -' 
 
 • V— ;i - '. 
 
 ■:.: ro'l . • :.! vt . '-.i i.'. s :-iifX:ru s ■iC'J.ry' tt.xU^tiJ:^ 
 
 -Ci' 
 
 j O 'l' 7 '') {v< V - • ^ J ^ crtw‘ 
 
 
 'll 
 
19 &- 
 
 I'll 
 
 nuniber of fixations roquired to read any line in Plate IV* An in^roveiaent in 
 regularity and rhythia of e'/e-noveiaeitt liabits is also clearly noticeable* The 
 Coxirtis test liketsd.se shot?ed an increase in speed and a gain of 7 per-cent 
 in ooaaprehension* 
 
 Table 3 / presents the figures for a detailed comparison of tlie ttro 
 records of H*C* 
 
 3* Record of a Fourth Grade Sub,^eot of 
 IlediuE Abiliiy" in Sile^ Reading'* ' 
 
 Plate V shows the record of M*L. before training* Ii*L* is a nine- 
 year old girl in the fourth grade in the Hendricks School* He reading ability 
 is "fairly good*" She stands apparently nidiray between the two previous fourth 
 grade subjects* Her rate in the Ccrurtis Test is 136 trords per ninute; her 
 oonprehension is good* Her parents are native-born* She luanifested very great 
 interest in the training — Type I* 
 
 The record in Plate ¥ shows a tyx>e of fourth grade reader tliat might 
 be classed as "fair"* It is not nearly os poor as the initial record of A*P* 
 (Plate I) nor nearly as good as the initial record of H.C* (Plate III)* There 
 is an average of 9*5 fixations per line, rrith an average duration of 11*3 
 fiftieths of a second per fixation-pause* Considering tlie number of fixations 
 per line, the number of regressive movements are not numerous, averaging but 
 1 per line* Compare this record (Plate V) with either of H.C.*s records, smd 
 tlie excessively large number of fixation-pauses in M.L. *s reading becomes 
 plainly evident. Improvement in reading rate •would obviously seem to lie in 
 tlie direction of a reduction of the number of fixations per line* There is 
 room for improvement also in the irregular, unrhythmical character of the eye- 
 
 movement habits 
 
•'•1 
 
 
 >.x 
 
 .* * ' 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 1.1 
 
r> ^ ^ 
 
 The record in Plat© VI shows that this is precisely wiiat happened 
 in the previous record. The red ot ion in the number of fixation-pauses is 
 rather striking, i?Vom a total of 7d fixations for the 8 full lines on record 
 V the number for the 8 full lines on record VI is reduced to 58, This means 
 an average reduction of 2,3 fixation-pauses per line, T?lth the exception of 
 line 1 on record VI, in "whi-oh the subject evidently suffered from a poor 
 start, the maximum numter of fixations for any line is 8, idiich is tlie minimum 
 number of fixations for ar^r line in the subject’s previous record* 
 
 The reduction in the niimbor of regressive movements is not less 
 noticeable than the reduction in the number of fixation-pauses* From a total 
 of 8, the nianber of regressive movements drops to 3, Hecord VI shows lilcewise 
 tlie developrent of a habit of greater uniformity and rhythm in the character 
 of t':ie eye-inovei3ents, Tiie results of the Courtis Test, in which t}^e subject 
 reached a rate of 284 words per minute, with very good comprehension, hamonize 
 with the story told by the photographic record— a "higher order of eye-movement 
 habits’® was built up by the training to replace the lower order Iiabits of 
 eyo-nove-ments with which tl^ subject began* 
 
 Table 3^^- presents the data contained in Plates V and VI in 
 
 tabular form* 
 

 
 J'Vj 
 
 
 
 O' 
 
 ♦vt'-f '■» . • *' I.':"'*'"-;, * 
 
 U'j .iv- -* m'j'.V:4.XS^>-':*--x:r'r' H ,:^-*v^^-i . 
 
 •. ', } ^. '‘ ■*^t' 
 
 1 ^ ' i -v * 
 
 ••V 
 
 ■:„»"» ft. f.r -■'•■■' •>••?■; £jrt»lx ' ' r’^rd 
 
 s«t, ■; • :1'\ b':yrJ^y'^ry,u_ If .y^’-'^>>t ijo 'i'-ii *' 
 
 
 ‘.'/v' 
 
 V'. . '. > ' 
 
 .V;V'j.7^ ?i' i;?r*i:r/'‘f--'il!cl\*!^jzi: i ' • c*' '• '.'{f ;>av4^g* ^ 
 
 '•<».. 
 
 f' ' . 
 
 ; l •■.«•'■• .1'A- 'I ^.-Ji.vft; '> '•*' •'^ ' 
 
 .' c’f ri^ 
 
 
 ;,i -;‘'i :•■ tv QW . ic ^ .' , ,s 
 
 ‘ * 
 
 A. « 
 
 “ "'. • ti ^ 'i.'c ■' i',' vi ^ ':T '^.i ~ IvJ.'Ti.T.*! i '! 
 
 ■‘, FI V ' ,■ ’ 
 
 .- • ■•'? >i.i . • •r.,-’*f ' ■*’*■' fl!i' x-i? T ' 
 
 hkr; v;'.^ ni «7''i •?«- 
 
 , ^1. V fl*)'' ^'»- 
 
 ► 'i n' * . 
 
 ■; J.:..' vt 
 
 ’j 
 
 « '■•r’^" ,;5- _ -:.^i;-V.:r' : aS- 
 
 i^fL- ' 
 
 ^.'.t ■ '".i'" V.^.- ■ * 
 
 -I '.. 0 '•: -v. . ■: .» “•. -...U- ■••:»• • '-V ri' 
 
 J:-'j’ jf ;* 1 . -f ■•* T ’.. •*'>•’- - ■ '-r^ ■' ,'>^' ^ 
 
 c. X'.'* T. , ■' ■ '■' " ' ’ ’' ’'• 
 
 i -u;b- -i**' ■ r/ iifVu* 7 ••■•’•■ «'•-•'} ^ J.‘.t ' 
 
 
 f ,:*J , ‘•t i>v; 4 ,V -ft-'vOi 
 
 •i> '.f ’i$f ' 
 
 ,. .J-. - ,* . ^ 
 
 -: S.. 
 
 .r , -, ;, , -tr , ■■ lo-w/kiK v# •■tC'i''..t/5’r.? *C'f -'i 
 
 
 •<.■ vcv 'U/:v 1 XV ‘ 
 
 • 'V/ f| 
 
 
 ? f,.^. 
 
 r^-.* *.<^.':-lv- ■ 
 
 5 - 
 
 
 '■■,1 
 
 '■•‘v 
 
 ' -'itJ 
 
 'm 
 
 • :. > • » 
 .-J 
 
 - y / 
 
 f cs- ? ■' '■* , ’ -•'* ''V ^ 
 
 ■ \ V V 
 
 /' 
 
 
 • • ^ ^ ' * t^aJuB 
 
 J 
 
 "Lf 
 
 V' 
 
150 T 
 
 Table XXXII i 
 
 CoE^)arison of the Eye-Mov©iaent Records of a Fovirth Grade 
 Subject M.L. — Before and After Training in Rapid Reading* 
 
 
 liunber of 
 Pauses 
 
 Euration 
 
 Pauses 
 
 of 
 
 Hua'tjers of Regress- 
 ive Keveaents. 
 
 
 Record 
 
 
 Recor<i 
 
 I 
 
 Record 
 
 
 Line 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 Average Aggregate 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 8.5 
 
 85 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 8.7 
 
 78 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 12.1 
 
 121 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 10.3 
 
 93 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 15.5 
 
 124 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 10.9 
 
 109 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 13.S 
 
 138 
 
 1 ’ 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 11.1 
 
 111 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Total 
 
 76 
 
 58 
 
 90.9 
 
 859 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 Average 
 
 9.5 
 
 7.2 
 
 11.3 
 
 11.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.4 
 
OrvO 
 
 •UUU" 
 
 xob 
 
 Plate VII. 
 
 The grasshoppers \rere eraong the VTorst 
 
 oncnies of the early settlors of Ilehras’m. 
 
 Tiveir homes trere on the high plains and 
 
 among the liills at the foot of the great moun- 
 
 tains in the host. Here th«ey lived and raised 
 
 their fsaailies. 
 
 In dry seasons there ^re more children and 
 
 less food at home. Tlien they assembled and 
 
 flew away in great svrvirrtiB to the east and to 
 
 the south. They traveled hurdreds of miles. 
 
 Sometimes on clear warm moonlight niglits 
 
 they traveled all night. ITorc often thej*' settled 
 
 down late in the afternoon and fed, and then 
 
 continued their way the next day, 
 
oo.c 
 
 ■ ' y.H 
 
 
 vli - tv' 
 
 • .' ..'N 'I' 
 
 • ■ ■ f. -*,H " ■ . - —V 
 
 . ';C ItrlJ'Cf iTji v'*’, “Lo r5r ..;’-#u'; 
 
 
 
 j v\ 7 ‘ . I ' 
 
 ^ J »<• W • w, , ' 
 
 W* v.^ '.^rr, .1 4i‘ 
 
 :.'r,’ . ... 
 
 
 \ Uri -V :.i .v'.' 0! -iirv !ti4' t.f 
 
 . ■ 
 
 
 ,■ - ,, V •,.. ,• . ■: •?'. ».*v»iic'!iSril 
 
 '•‘tSiy.'l! 
 
 I . I 
 >^; : 
 
 
 
 » 4.' 
 
 ■ £>,.zs .4 ;o t«vir .rs iuv' ii 
 
 r. ^WBPt V . 
 
 * t r 
 
 ,.;.;,ii f,3v;.' '> ilwO. f]-nr ■ Hliu' .«'*^ i*? .X50^-.t-f* 
 
 • ft ’ 
 
 
 
 ■’ !•<'’ ' 
 
 I'S -iJ-;,r( .; Tvt' 4 ffi 
 
 *•" ♦ 
 
 ■ ■fij ; 
 
 ; '^iv it- A t.'» ■■M :^-"Zy . 
 
 mrl 
 
 
 
 ,V1„=J • ■ 
 
 
 , ^I^^' A>i 'fi^Xo K--:- Hi-.i-cj-' ?M ^ 
 
 r>',' ,f.'-. '• "o;!./ . T :• . 
 
 A.t;' -^.tr \'jia' 
 
 
 
 ^ ••• ‘ wa 
 
 '•Vl'it' V.f 'k.V-.t p.-c'i 
 
 '■' X'- V. '>- i \,"i ■ ' -i V'.' V'*/'-’ lJ..t.i'- ■ 
 
 '•<IA 
 
 
 IT3t'> 
 
 
a® I 
 
 Silent reading by fifth grade subject G*B* before training* x indicatoB 
 that it Tfas inpossibl© to detemino ■arith accuracy the duration of the fixation 
 pause* 
 
 Plate Till * 
 
 All the corn nas eaten in a single day* 
 
 "iilicre conifields stood at siuu’ise nothing re- 
 
 nained at night but stunps of stalks s'varcdng 
 
 Tdth hungry hoppers struggling for the last 
 
 bite* Tliey stripped the garden patoiies bare* 
 
 They gnafred great holes in the rugs and car- 
 
 pets put out to save favorite plants* The buds 
 
 and fruit of trees Vvore consutied* They fol- 
 
 lo*;:7od tl^e potatoes and onions into the ground* 
 
 Silent reading by fifth grade subjedt G*B* after training* x indicates 
 that it •was ijapossible to deterainc ■with accuracy the duration of the fixation 
 pause* 
 

 
 y < 
 
 . ') - ; 
 
 
 ■ ..f “ ■ 
 
 , ■ oi r • i 
 
 ■' i 3 t f;. 
 
 J.- i ; ■> 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 • i 
 
 
 c 
 
 X . s P. « 
 
xt>^ 
 
 ' 204 '^ 
 
 Table XXXIII 
 
 Cocjpar-lson of tho Tlyo-Movenentr Records of a Fifth-Grade Subject 
 G*B*- fefore and ilfter training# 
 
 
 IhHber or 
 Pauses 
 
 Average 
 tion of 
 
 dura- 
 
 pans© 
 
 Aggregate 
 dtiration of 
 
 Pause 
 
 Uuriber of 
 
 Regressive 
 
 '^ioveixnta 
 
 
 record 
 
 Record 
 
 Record 
 
 Ftecord 
 
 Line 
 
 1 -II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 7 6 
 
 
 12.1 
 
 
 73 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 6 
 
 19.5 
 
 16.3 
 
 78 
 
 98 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 8 9 
 
 13*4 
 
 10.7 
 
 107 
 
 96 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4- 
 
 8 . 6 
 
 9*4 
 
 13.3 
 
 75 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 7 8 
 
 11.9 
 
 12.9 
 
 83 
 
 103 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 5 5 
 
 10.2 
 
 19.0 
 
 61 
 
 95 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 6 3 
 
 13.3 
 
 14.3 
 
 80 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 8 5 
 
 11.8 
 
 14.2 
 
 94 
 
 71 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 5 6 
 
 15.6 
 
 19.2 
 
 78 
 
 115 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 10.1 
 
 
 71 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 11 
 
 rj 
 
 i 
 
 12.1 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 12.0 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 iotal 
 
 T7 S3T~ 
 
 IM* ^ ‘ 
 
 
 
 775 
 
 l9 
 
 lo 
 
 Average 
 
 6.4 C.O 
 
 12*5 
 
 14.3 
 
 12.3 
 
 14.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.1 
 
 II Eye-lloveraent Records of Fifth Grade Subjects - Before 
 and /ifter Trairdng* 
 
 !• Hecord of Fifth Grade Subject of 
 Ilediun Ability in Silent Reading* 
 
 Plato VII shersrs the record of G*B. before training. G*B* is a ten 
 year old girl in the fifth grade in the f.!anierre School* Her general class 
 average -cas reported as 92 percent by the teacher* Her reading ability ims 
 classified as 'Vaodiun*" She is of foreign born parent«Lge, but soae English 
 is spoken in tlxe home* She is described as doing but little reading outside of 
 school* Her rate in the Cw^rtis Reading Tos-b t;as 150 li-ords per :.iinute; her 
 comprehension vas good* 
 
 The record in Plate VII reflects a modiun grade of reading ability* 
 The record shows a fair degree of unifomity in the eyo-noveaent habits. The 
 average number of the fixations per line for the whole record is 6*4 wiiich is 
 
1 
 
■xC>3 
 
 considerably better than the average of 9«3 reported by C« T* Gray (19) for 
 his fourth grade aiibjects* The regressive iicver^rts arc too fre<]uent, hot/ever, 
 averaging 1#C per line* The average duration of the fixation pauses is 12*3 
 Tdiich is less than the average of 14.3 reported by Gray for his fil*th grade 
 subjects. 
 
 The record in Plate VTII shows ec&oes^’at of areduction in the average 
 nunber of tlie fixation pauses per line — 6*4 to 6.0. The average duration 
 of the pause has increai?ed, I.owever, from 12*3 fiftieths of a second to 14*3 
 fiftictiis* The average msaber of regressive movenents per line is reduced fraa 
 1.6 to 1.1. On ti:e whole, Plate Till shows scarcely aiv appreciable inprove- 
 nertt in tl'io reading habits of the subject G.B. It is quite possible that tli© 
 subject did not do her best when reading before the oaxnera. i'x was pointed 
 oxit before, the situation %7as quite an unusual one and may have exercised some- 
 what of a disturbing influence on this girl subject. 
 
 ;\fter the training in Type I the subject scored a rate of 278 words 
 per minute on the Courtis Heading Test, with a compreheTasion nark of 94 percent. 
 This shows a considerable gain over her first score of 150 words per ninute 
 on the Courtis Test— a gain that is scarcely reflected at all in hor photo- 
 graphic records. Lines 6,7 and 8 towards tJie end of the record give evidence, 
 however, that the subject is capable of rapid reading. The record for line 7 
 is much superior to the record of any line ‘in the subject’s previous perfor- 
 nanoe. 
 
 2. Record of a Very Rapid Fifth Grade Header . 
 
 Plate DC shows tlio record of L.C. before training. L.C. is a nine 
 year old boy in the fifth grade in tiie blanierre School. The teacher reports 
 that his general class average is 98 percent; his reading ability is "excellent". 
 He is described by the tecusher as a very rapid reader who is able to retain 
 
■what he reads* Ke is ”fond of reading and reads extensively outside of 
 school”* His lips do ijot L^ove in silent reading; he gives all the evidenise of 
 splendid concent i^at ion* Eis parents are native 'bom* The school records and 
 the teacher’s report indicate that L.C* is a "gifted” pupil* Eis progress 
 tliro the grades has been accelerated* 
 
 Plate IX* 
 
 In dry seasons there trere nore cliildren and 
 loss food at hone* Then they assembled and 
 
 flevr axra;^; in ^zreat stmnas to tlie east and to 
 
 the south* They traveled hundreds of rales* 
 
 Sometiraes on clear -warn moonlight nights 
 
 they traveled all night. More often they settled 
 
 doTjn late in the afternoon and fed, and then 
 
 continued their "VTay the next day* 
 
 Silent reading by fifth grade subject L.C.- before training 
 

 
 
 J «,»«r 
 
 t » r , 
 
 r 
 
 t , 
 
 • ¥ 
 
 :j. ■■■ ■>: 
 
 [ ■ •■■'r‘ ■} 
 
 j 
 
 '’ " . 'r 
 
 t 
 
 ,. » ^ , '■ 
 
 ' 'I' 
 
 */'''■ 
 
 • - •{■-''■ 
 
 ■' 'uj'\ 
 
 
 k>’ 
 
 ^»'.> i '■? "i 
 
 •’ ,1, :':i« .’’I-'.’OJ 
 
 
 vr’* *.?. ■■ . .' J-J-.'i l.' ’.L-% jihrra^ ■ ’. 
 
 ., "' , , - ■’, '"' ■"•'"'itt C’V'^ 
 
 ■ ' ■. ^.r. : ■ ' , r, ; t 4^.'v‘ , oi ■»•. i.c. J n ' 'i T ■ic-T.>.f 
 
 f 
 
 '■f n.-)', »! ■ 
 
 ■ 4 , '., , 1 ' i/!" ' ■■'?'} '-**-, 
 
 " ^ '*■ . ^■^• T^JVr J y'!* 'J O 
 
 'J *: ■r.1*cc,'^.^ ’ ■*t->-i.T ' ' ■ V ' . 
 
 'Xt- . • f V.i, 
 
 ‘i ' 
 
 ^ ui- 
 
 1 ; yy 
 
 .v^ 
 
 4 'Ti*. 6 cv*'t < -S'-C ■ ^ 
 
 t 
 
 
 ■ '' V/>,'.V 
 . . ^ . 
 
 . . ^ ' . ’■ ,r''‘ ‘ ^ ^ ' 
 
 ^ ^ < 1 1 # 
 
 t'i* 'H'f. tVt.'T'' , . tr..a v-U..- , 
 
 M : 
 
 I ' 
 
 
 . 'iV 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 “•.f 
 
 >.i 
 
 ' I ' « Ifi * • 
 
 ^ '> III'"-'-. 'm 
 
 ■f i-f ' '• . " (T-aBBI 
 
 - fif •-‘^■3 ' v‘’’ti; i>i' i ir:Jt rtf?^.,,t. ;,„;, ’ ,, 
 
 Y - ■ ■ ■' ''f< ■ ' 
 
 Ai 
 
 
 yfi ^itfT -j"4 ~: :a J > > *» "■-•.•> ;’<I 
 
 ■! 
 
 * ' , 
 
 \'1<' 
 
 
 ■ ' I ' ^ " I ; ' . i. ' 
 
 y'^rr: /M/iH 'y 
 
 '>!•' ■ ' ’wmr*- ^ ■ 
 
 3« ' 
 
 
 i'fh’ 
 
 
 ' ^ fl 
 
 . i' 
 
 ■ . • * • J'P ^ 
 
 1 4 A f ifl* l^iAlT^ Ai j' mJql 
 
2oS 
 
 U\J I 
 
 The record on Plate IX tjh'rra that L.C. is an exceptionally able 
 reader, Tlie errera^ nunher of fixation pauses per line is Txjt 5, i9!iich is 
 practioally but one-half of the average of S*3 reported by Cray for his fiftli- 
 grede subiects. There are but 2 regressive novemonts in the whole record. The 
 regularity and rhythm of eye-move lent habits displtured by t>iis record easily 
 excel those of any of the previous records. The average duration of the fixa- 
 tion-pause is 12.8 as conpored rrith tlie average of 14.3 reported by Cray. The 
 record shows very clearly how L.C. Tms able to score 270 T:ords per minute on tli® 
 Courtis Reading Test and secure a mark of 100 percent in comprehension by 
 a-icv.ering 47 questions correctly in the 5 rdniites allo'ved. 
 
 Plate X. 
 
 TShere cornfields stood at sunrise nothing rs- 
 mained at nigiit but stumps of stall :s siiaming 
 with Jiungrj'’ h*oppcrs straggling for the last 
 bite. They stripped the garden pa.bches bare. 
 
 They gnawed great holes in the rags a;'id car- 
 pets put cut to save favorite plar;ts. The buds 
 and fruit of trees xjero consurird. They fol- 
 
 Silent reading by fifth grade subject L.C. after training 
 

 
 
 
 >, • I- •». V -f ■ ’TfV 
 
 
 . t* m* 
 
 V * ’ -* *f 
 .S'' 
 
 i 'i'-'.' l-.iy 
 
 ' < ''. t 
 
 N. '• ,f' 
 
 
 ». ■ ..- s, *-.••.»• • . . ; % »» 
 
 .,.,v ’.'I 'r'f' ’>• '-^v- ^ 
 
 ■ \ v ’*. j f. r-'": t:^' *, 
 
 '(.} - ’)'■*; <f. sJ*. 
 
 /, j , ' .•...■ -j . . . ■ f} .7 ' * 
 
 
 ■ “tc ■?:•’•'■ " .^■ jl:‘r '■ "■■ ' 
 
 '5 :«['ji,'r.-v. ■ S''.' . 
 
 ■., -..m , h . J’. nr; • . :•• ■ 0 ^ . ■ '’••*<■ 
 
 • ’ <., 
 
 ,oi- ■: t 
 
 % ' fc.' J rr: 
 
 5) 
 
 :i .»«'•■■■ "'f •■5 '-'V 
 
 , , f. . 
 
 i f ■' ' >' J I 0 ' 
 
 -■■ ■ z( 
 
 -.r-^ > -A 
 
 ■.15 if!' rj r’ii*' 
 
 ? r'v r,S; 
 
 *; ■ *1 ■ •, / . >' ‘ * * ■' ‘ 
 
 •. • . Vi r,/v ■ . 
 
 .no ' ' 
 
 , • . '-'j i 
 
 • ■ *dl- 
 
 I ' ^ 
 
 
 
 ■y. zc yc 
 
 
 . ? '. ■ I ' 
 
 '*■ ■' *t v'*'-' if-’i ‘ i ' itv. ’ i « , ’ *■*; />. - V- 
 
 *.■' ■■ ''■v^■/^\^v^^iv^• ■ ■■ •■. ' - "' ■ . 
 
 ■ ! ' '• ■ ■ - t 
 
 * i 1V_ • . • : ^ 
 
 ■ ^ : 
 
 
 • ;•„.;„•■ -.r.- -Ac •'•• -.‘'n ;v-, , 
 
 . , k ...W k '1 »• • k ^ r . > . ,.j . . ., ^ i,. ■• k| 
 
 
 ,1 
 
 ,i>- ' ■ > 5 . f ■' '/'■■•■ '' 
 
 1 '., ■ ■ V! ■ -.' ■ (»■.''«'■■ 
 
 
 , A r ! ■ I '' :■ 
 
 >■:■ V<f; 
 
 
 i 
 
 .’,r ;v . ' '•• 
 
 T’^rJ ^ .. 
 
 
 ... V 
 
 ,v 4 ' V - ^-V :r!^■■' ■ 
 
 L '•• v' 
 
 ^ > ' 
 
 
 ;, ■' -k-' V.lBf ’■■‘■f ■ 
 
 ‘ '■■ ' ' ■' ' . . 
 
 . 4 '' . 4 ,i 5 «r;' -J 
 
 >’" t if! . . .r .i.; '-;i.r irrzi -'y^u n4 i '•■- -'f’: i. 
 
 
 
 .t..‘ ‘ i 
 
 
 
 ^ ,t I ■ * ■ .“'' ' y 1 •' ■ 4'’ ' * *' ■ ■ ' - ■ ^.1 * . 
 
 J S ,y,'/." 
 
 k?, •} 
 
 yi . » ... 
 
 
 
 ,.^-t.' rWic . . r. -v:'* ■" 
 
 X ‘ 
 i A 
 
 
 r.' A ... 
 
orvo 
 
 "TwUw 
 
 The record in Plat© IX rd^t "be thouj^ht to represent alraoet the 
 pJ^siological limit of reading prowess for a nine year old fifth 'rrstd^ sab:^ect. 
 Plato X shews, hoTTover, that L,C. tnrprovcd very noticeably as a resv.lt of the 
 trainir- 5 <» There lias been a reduction in the total nirsiber of flration-pai:.ses 
 for the first 6 full lines in each record fr<n 30 to 21; the averay,© number per 
 line has been lotroredflrom 5*0 to 3*5* The average duration of the pauses has 
 ncnxnted but slightly — froa 12*4 to 12*3* There occurs but on© re'^ressiv© 
 r^oveii 2 ©nt in the second record* 
 
 There is a balance, a string, a rhytlxa to tlie eye-v.ovmr.ents of this 
 subject ■ws">.ich no previous record has evidenced# The grasping of line 3 in t"wo 
 fixations is rather striking* It shoT/s the wide visual r-xian ■ffihicb the subject 
 utilizes in his reading* The average of 3*5 fixation pauses per line ic lotrer 
 than any of the averages reported by Gray* In t!\e hiercirchy of eye-inox^enerrt 
 liabits tdiich these photographic records have ovider.ced, Plate X stands as the 
 reflex of the highest and nost efficient t^rpe* There is a coordination, a 
 lianaoni cation of tli© constituent neurological processes of the reading coiaplex 
 ovide 'ced in Plate X, tdiich stamps the reader as one of exceptional ability* 
 
 This conclusion is furthered corroborated by L*C.*s record in the 
 Courtis Test given at the end of the training* Ills rate 'eras 3G5 trords per 
 ninute, as against 270 on his first record* His indrac of eexaprehension ms 
 97 percent* He answered 66 questions out of a possible 70* Only 2 of his 
 ansT?ers wer© incorrect* His record of 64 correct ansr/crs^considerable iinprove- 
 nent over his previous record of 47* The increase in speed of L.C.'s reading 
 as shown by tlte ©ye-noverient records is frocn 48 lines per tdnute to 66~ an 
 increase of 18 lines or 38 percent* This harmonises fairly closely vdth the 
 increase as shown by the Courtis Test of 125 words per rdnute, or 4G percent* 
 
 All in all, Plato X rives a record of tlio highest type of eye-no\’eacnt b.abits 
 photograplied in this investigation* To facilitate a closer coaparison of the 
 
P^)5- 
 
 ••I-': -'! 
 
 - 'ei 
 
 -run 
 
 ' r-.i." •' i ■’ '■•■. 
 
 * '* * • ' 
 
 ( .K,**: -o 7’»iJ f .f,*/.'' 
 
 *. r ■ .M 
 
 
 -,r/l I- ■' 
 
 -'I' 
 
 r « 
 
 
 v.»r. . 
 
 * 'fu «' i ■ 
 • . • ' 
 
 .N-,;;; -,J • ‘, r ^ 
 
 r - ' i v.^; i '■'■■>;• 
 
 tfl ' 
 
 . fV*t 
 
 -.1-1 ,yi(f ; 
 
 Y 
 
 •, ^ < t; 
 
 
 
 - -. •<(■ y ■. , ■ 
 
 •; 4r-'^ '• 
 
 ■' 7 ' 
 
 '■'e/‘;^. r' -i '.^’.:<.I >»-£*-'' ‘•’T*—' ■ ' ■ • ■ 
 
 . ; ■; - '■. '1- ;.,3J,1 0 ^ 
 
 •-Sri/urr -■- 
 
 . ■ . t> t- n*‘C r.i ,naK-i>r- 
 
 . •. . 70 aL.m? 
 
 'tj -i%C ^‘fO:**J-.‘ V --Jl.)^ 7*TrT ' *• »•' '■f'^^>..'' 
 
 y. 
 
 ^ - r - » ; 'r .'?!'' ' ■> - ^ "i 1 I ’ 
 
 , , .^. ,7 t ■ n, .. -4< fl.<' v ^ >».“'■* w .^ » . 
 
 .' ■ y ^ ..f- 
 
 "Tv.ai ,! ■: ■ari'f •’% ■ yM*;Ki^ ■.“ '- ■ 
 
 .)■' _ (; l', , . ■ : ' ■ ' 
 
 .J \.-4 ’i fi! 4>». - «• ’ J ‘5 
 
 .' i:X '■ auiX 'ic- ' *r' 
 
 1 1 
 
 ■- ■ .-.r' 
 
 ■ .. '"c • ♦ , ?-4 -; 
 
 / •. \r3'r-f-.v - ... ‘^■-‘•''V .1 ^ ^ 
 
 •?«»:..•. nsf*.. •■ " '■ '■ '■ .-.?* ' O' '**, 
 
 •v.:if A.- .-.-4- t! ofr- 
 
 ’ v' :.'0 -. ? 'I 
 
 • •'. '• ^ .\ --■ ' ' 
 
 "' JF ^ ' - ' ’ ^ 
 
 ttlirf 
 
 <«.: to r^Tin | 
 
 :'. 1?-;^V0Q "f 
 
 . "^LKr: C 
 
 I j ji-iti 
 
 •; /i ,rxa;; ' ‘i". 
 
 » “ , t' 
 
 'i S ' 
 
 
 
 ..t. 
 
 olf ■• 
 
 5:"s'. 7 ..-■■t}. 
 
 •■ Ciui “ ’Ol' 
 
 
 
 ,: .-via ■"■ ■ 
 
 / ?-i 
 
 
 J'-' 
 
 
 £cr:eb u.t^B 
 
 • 
 
 
 ■f .' 
 
 f^:-. '■'■'■ •* •*"• 
 
 
 
 
 
 -' '-'vJ .• ’ 
 
 a. 11 ■■■^^. 
 
 
 
 ' .^3 r V,’ 
 
 , -•.• *'v »'«'i 
 
 , r 
 
 T of"* ^ 
 
 
 , ‘'•«a*5C-y \ ^ 
 
 
 .*7(V: -J-^. ■ .^■ ' .V - : ■ ■ ^ j: ^ -i ••’ - i'v ■"" 3‘.Tb Jli 
 
 . ‘ .jv -■>?t-;. 
 
 
 / ‘ f • ' ' ' 
 
 r- ;.i/.- ••"! '• a... }■■ V- • . -ym? /'■: *?■? •'. ■ "^ • 
 
 8.' 
 
 '.4_i 
 
 ft - "-T 
 
 .'I". 
 
 u »4n 
 
 : vr II., 
 
 f 
 
 . V'l. i' 'i 4 •;^ 
 
0.^7 7 
 
 -nr\r\ 
 
 tyro records of L*C* the data on each perfon;ianoe is presented in :;4tfcRilar form 
 (Table 3^0 
 
 Table XXXIV 
 
 Conparison Of tlve Eye-LIOTeiaent Records of a Fifth Gi-ade J3ub,ject, 
 L.C.- Before a:id /ifter Training in Rapid Reading* 
 
 
 Runber of 
 Pauses 
 
 Average 
 tion of 
 
 Dura- 
 
 Pause 
 
 Aggregate Dura- 
 tion of Pause 
 
 Ilunber of 
 Regressive 
 '"ovose:;ts 
 
 
 Record 
 
 
 Itocord 
 
 Reoor<Sl 
 
 Record 
 
 
 Line 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 12.8 
 
 10.8 
 
 64 
 
 43 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 12.7 
 
 14.7 
 
 51 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 12.6 
 
 16.5 
 
 63 
 
 33 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 13.8 
 
 15.3 
 
 69 
 
 46 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 10.8 
 
 13.0 
 
 65 
 
 52 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Q 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 12.0 
 
 10.2 
 
 60 
 
 51 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 w 
 
 2i 
 
 70 
 
 30.¥ 
 
 ~o72 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Average 
 
 1 5 
 
 3.E 
 
 i 12.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 12.4 
 
 12.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.2 
 
 Plate XI. 
 
 Triere is iio uore interesting study to oarine 
 
 arcliiteccs than that of tlio groB-th of modem ships 
 
 from trioii* earliest fom. Ancient ships of vtbt 
 
 and of coomeroe equally interest then; but as 
 
 they study tlie sculptures and ivritings of the 
 
 ancients, they find records of \yar ships far out- 
 nuirft:«ring ships of Conner co. 
 

 I'i.A .iCV-?». 3 
 
 /' < „' K . ^ . ,- 
 
 
 . . 1 . 
 
 ' , ,’■ 
 
 "i i 
 
 »- 
 
 ff rj -rH. 
 
 f 'f i' 
 
 
 
 '"i"‘ 
 
 f . 
 
 • 4 i 
 
 ,1 * . 
 
 : L-.Jr ^ 
 
 A : y 
 
 
 ■I ,-' ' . '■ 't 
 
 ■iij.' •: j 
 
 
 ;il 
 
 .V<‘ 
 
 ■•■ ; I 
 
 '■: i • |- 
 
 . , ' I 
 
 \ \ ^ " 
 
 **;■ 
 
 rj 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 'a' 
 
 (• ■ 
 
 ■ ■_ ^ • ' ..;h . 
 ' i i ‘il.il ' ' 
 
' 2 , 0 '^ 
 
 O 1 /-v 
 
 J.U 
 
 Silent reading of aoventh grade subject M*C#- before training* 
 
 III. Sye-Movement Record of a Slow Seventh Grade Reader. 
 
 Plate XI shows the record of M.C. before training. M.G. is a 
 twelve year old girl in the seventh grade in the Hendricks Scliool* At the 
 beginning of the training she was a slow, plodding reader. Her comprehension 
 was good. Her rate on the Courtis Test was 170 trords per minute. Her index 
 of coiaprohension was 100 per-cent tho she succeeded in answering only 28 
 questions as contrasted witli the 47 correctly ans5/ered by the fifth grade 
 subject L.C. before training. Her parents are native born. The subject mani- 
 fested great interest in the training. 
 
 The record in Plate XI would seer, to indicate that the subject was 
 of the over-careful type— painstakingly fixatii^ practically evei^’- woi*d— some 
 of them twice. For a seventh grade pupil such siiaple words as are contained 
 in lines 1 and 6 should not require 11 and 12 fixations respectively. The 
 average number of fixation paxises per line for tiie complete record is 8.4 as 
 compared with an average of 7.7 reported by Gray for his seven seventh grade 
 subjects. The total number of regressive movements for the 12 complete lines 
 is 30; the average number per line is 2.5. The miniber is excessive. It 
 indi'^ates an over-cautiousness, a mjsticulousness, a dawdling over the \Tords 
 which would appear to be qtiite unnecessary for a subject whose comprelTonsion is 
 8UB good as M.C.’s. It is not unlikely the result of a slow, plodding, leisurely 
 reading habit, which as Huey says, tras probably ”set and hardened in the days 
 of listless poring over uninteresting tasks, or in imitation of the slow reading 
 aloud, which was so usually going on.” An average of 2.5 regressive novements 
 to a line shows very clearly that tho subject has not formed efficient habits 
 of regular, systematic, rhythmical eyo-mevements , but suffers from inefficient, 
 wasteful, time-consuming, repetitive ocular motor reactions, 'odiich !iave become 
 
 Imbituad 
 
.V 
 
 .r<-- r 
 
 •;f ••?■'> .1 '•■ h 'i,o r*‘t . *■ 
 
 
 . . r; 3<.‘i • 
 
 
 ' 
 
 • , ' • ■ .•'" 
 
 
 * 0 ^ 
 
 
 ■)'>'•• ,4 
 
 T‘v/> . 
 
 .1 4» '-V’ .<'}> >': 
 
 
 
 ■j j '■• : -- "’wT I ■> • 
 
 
 
 
 VX ^l-'C • 
 
 o' 
 
 
 ' •* . 1 , ■' V '■; 
 
 
 m 
 
 . J - V- .. 
 
 4T ',.>t ♦ 4, ''. -jy 
 
 
 
 r > -/f;)iv n ’* of,, ;...r’sy • ,s 
 
 
 
 - K^’ ‘ ii. T 1 • J .'■ 4 ^ ; 
 
 .•■ J. '‘j.; 
 
 
 v-4 < x-44.-. X'- 
 
 -' .r .,1 
 
 j 
 
 y “ r?;-nr ' ■ '. ^ i 
 
 ■J 7 O . ; ; 
 
 ^ ' .w' 
 
 
 • . . :sX;. - '..J -■ y 
 
 
 - * • * 
 
 ■•J'ff’’ :i:;« ■ .1 6f»5 ■•!=:>' ;; y.v. 
 
 
 
 4 . . .' “ ?: ;r : 
 
 i?d? • . ♦ 
 
 r 
 
 
 v.< 
 
 ,rx. 
 
 •; > ». 'C-.r '; 
 
 
 >■ .' 1 c-n -i'-.., ViJ .‘v v.'i .i 
 
 f.f, 
 
 y -• 
 
 . t<»*.’C .• ' 
 
 . • 4. . .•’>'■ ■> y.' 
 
 
 m ■ 
 
 ' • - y.’ ;. » ;» ' 
 
 :-''t #0 ‘..0 r.X ' 
 
 . ' '■. n , 4 , • 1 ' 
 
 , J 
 
 <j,44 ^ 
 
 -I'fl ■ <. • 
 
 S» r • 
 
 
 M , 
 
 .iL"'' 1® X iv y 
 
 
 I ^ ’ 
 
 4 ’ ..‘i-ii ■ , 
 
 *■• ■ • "T ' 
 
 
 «i 0 : > 1 : 
 
 . J - OrfiW. 
 
 
 Y * 
 
 
 
 .' '<*r -'I »XX >,-■»- 
 
 r.f.r„ 
 
 > 4’, , 
 
 '•W 
 
 r»f 
 
 
 •,ui 1 / • '(! .•> / c'ct, n 
 
 K>m 
 
 rr! 
 
 >v-: x«vi * 
 
 '/f. 
 
 
 ; ^■■•>'*.5 4ie6 - av~^l 1.1 
 : I ;i 2 .tir- 5 
 
 ■-■•:• ;. '•4-v V, V '4,-J' 'f,_, t 2 'f’ rji iijlist fTiitt-pc;; 
 
 •M Ll^oJ . ; I't**- ■.!■,. 
 
 
 ^ «;■ 
 
 
 i J' 
 
 ti,* : :?a v^».? o.) 
 
 xi*- '*'*- 
 
 s :V-'7 ‘J f < ..ifjy-ir'f'-*'. ■ 
 
 . i'':, ■ '•■ 
 
 4. 
 
 
 /Y • ■■ I 
 
 j<. •: • - j .jY'ii.r “ r,’vi./j'.i' \ni:Jr’>' /9vari*»r--ij viftfS j» '■►-.■f 
 
 v>Vv 
 
 ■,/■.: . ... x,«w . . . ' ., .^ 
 
 < %' 
 
 ■rx.»:s-.r,;. -* y.'. 
 
 ■'>- ♦ r*. 
 
 Cl : :> ■ •.'■■xr 
 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
Plate XII 
 
 There is no question noffr that the ships of the 
 
 ancients nade extended Toyages urged by oars 
 
 alone* A thousai^ oarsiaen trere scanetines re- 
 
 quired to mn the sueeps besides a orev of five 
 
 hundred soldiers and sailors* TJritten descrip- 
 
 tions give us splendid pictures of fleets of these 
 
 ancient ships noving swiftly along the villa-dotted 
 
 shores of Greece, or majestically sweeping into 
 
 some lairror-lilce harbor, and \rith sounding truia- 
 
 pets saluting the setting of the low, \^estern sun* 
 
 Silent reading by cjeventli grade subject M.C.- after training* 
 the fixation positions are narked. It v;as impossible to determine tiie 
 of the fixation pauses on tliis film. 
 
 Only 
 
 duration 
 
I' - ■, ■■ 
 
 I . 
 
 
 
 ••• " V'.-! 
 
 ’ 4 J^ 
 
 tvttlr ci'j v •’> rr * 
 
 •t . , I 
 
 
 * . : ,'i- i 
 
 
 ■ -isr. ' 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 ■' ■-'. •?;>!< "7 V,4r"t7' •?(»»;. 
 
 
 '. ' < 
 
 ■ 
 
 ■■A V .W. J' ^ •‘3*5 '* ;r ' • t “v-..- • ; .!<:•" •*; :»• : rf v*' ^ . ■*' v- 
 
 .4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'i '\ ' ',. 5 r*-'> 
 
 
 
 
 1 t 
 
 ’, . i ' j '- 1: 1 i.' - ■ -'• ' - J ’- '■> ' ■ ’ 
 
 :? ■'■'i ■ •’ 
 
 (.;■ 
 
 ^ L;,tv -X.J ;. 
 
 ■. *" * ‘ * I,* i 
 
 f ,\ '.■•'■ J ■ '■' • - ; • '■■ 
 
 '• vcV: -i 
 
 S ’■ ' . ' ’-1 ■ 
 
 rJ 
 
 ■ . ,^, > 
 
 /f ., .V-.’ 
 
 
 
 - >t'; '?^ 
 
 Tt r.;‘ 'J ^ 
 
 ■■^4. cV v-''*' ■v’’ 
 ■ 
 
 1'.;. 
 
 ‘S 
 
 ' ^ <h '. * ^ 
 
 ...T) .,rj 
 
 
 
 V ■•' ■ ■; !* 
 
 •> -i-fO .1 ■! . • -JjIt ' 
 
 ' . -^ '< • '• - 
 'it. . ,- 
 
 _ ‘••, S'.;/ 
 
 tJ .r’'.'^'"- 0" 
 
 ''.' *’*' ’ 4v.-oa 
 
 
 •i. '/ 
 
 
 
 Vf't 
 
 . fr^-C i •’ -t' c./ii • n?®:^ 
 
 ' ', ' . '^iy" 
 
 '■ »V <-l 
 
 •■V- ./ 
 
 . * ' 
 'I- . 
 
 .- r 
 
 V * c *^ . * ' , 
 
 .•>'• t 
 
 • J ' 6.^‘. --fsipjov-j . *?»Xi8' 
 
 •;"0;;-;;.. "AJf' J: , :.«:*• 3'132 .' i T* h'Nr'n '7(. 
 
 ■X 'rf' 
 
 :,ui: "0 fxiiiiK* . • *i0 
 
 i^''. 
 
 ■'.irf 
 
 ‘■J’ 
 
 ' I 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 ■d 
 
The record in Plato XII shows a considerable iraprovonent# The 
 average number of fixations per line has been reduced from 8*4 to 6*5«Vd.th 
 the exception of line 1, no line required nore than 8 fixations# The function- 
 of a wider perceptual span is clearly evident. Line 8 is grasped in 3 
 fixations, while the sioallest number on any complete line in the subject’s 
 previous record was 6# The regressive novei^ients dropped from an average of 
 2.5 to 1.6 per line, cKJst of i^ich occijirred in the initial fixation in each 
 line. 
 
 The subject is evidently finding some of her nuriierous fixation- 
 pauses unnecessary and is setting up raore efficient Iiabits of regular 
 rhythmioal eye-novoments. The improvement effected in tlie reading habits of 
 this subject by training in Type I, Thich is reflected in the photographic 
 records, is further shown by the data froa thse Courtis Test administered at the 
 end of the experiment. The subject scored a rate of 368 words per minute as 
 contrasted with Iier previous score of 170. her index of comprehension is 96 
 percent, but she answered 67 questions, of which 65 were correct as compared 
 witli her previous record of 28 correct answers. 
 
 The data from the two e. e-nwvernent records of subject 15. C. are 
 
 presented in Tabled a 
 
■ip ='-^. 
 
 mf. 
 
 
 .’>y' > 
 
 i.'^ )'- K^!S« v.'iiX 5r{;v,v»:;xi i,, j'-' 
 
 ■ . ■• t - : ■ ■ ^• ■ ’ ‘ ' ■:*' 
 
 ■ ^riv - ;::•■■., 1 •j'y.A &v-Si^T'’^ 
 
 ■ ■' ’■ »/ ' •■ ' .. •.■'•■•■ S '' ■=: ■'■•'i':' 
 
 J JT ,J it . « K >' • ,£>!.. T 
 
 ■:-#■, i- 
 
 
 :< " j 
 
 <■' ■ i r. •'. 
 
 '•TMt:-.; , , 
 
 
 '. •f- 
 
 >■ . : - ,••/' nt; < -c 
 > . - ^!’ -li''. UX 
 
 )•; S.'t ''J •‘ ■^. •( 
 
 ' I , •*- 
 
 
 : <P 
 
 J li. . •« ?’ 
 
 ,1 
 
 < f \ ' 
 • ^ ^ 
 
 s. • *' ' 
 
 ■r " : :' 
 
 n ■ 1 ^ 
 
 r?V '' v;I.vt i' 'J 
 
 • 'o, 
 
 M ' 
 
 r: 
 
 • . £■ :j' . 
 
 ,:'j. ■ 
 
 'ir^- 
 
 j« . V-'C>. ^ 
 
 
 ' >. 
 .vJ'\ 
 
 ;>i . 'V; 
 
 , r. -•'■• 
 
 V r 
 
 .» . ' ’. 6 
 
 • - , 
 
 
 :• O'; ■ ;; 
 
 '■'' • i 
 
 ) • ■ 
 
 ' t 
 
 • f 
 
 ■'ll; - » . 
 
 i • 
 
 > 
 
 , ' 
 
 . V « f 
 
 
 , ■ 
 
 ', 1 . * 
 
 
 .*• '‘POT. HJ 
 
 5'»1 • 
 
 
 
 r •• 
 
 ,- , (i ■ 
 
 
 ^ JiJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 .rr •• ' 'j j:\uiX -Asivv 1 '-Jr'.'y^ ‘i 
 
 
 
 ■* ; * ^ 
 
 . ‘i ./ :r-t I n.' ''?:'’' I •' 
 
 (^'Xo?xi ' ^ • ’ ’ .-V '.’’,' ^■ 
 
 y. .■ - 
 
 j ',zl no.:*.? av . ’ > 
 
 
 -sv, ; ■ • ' ^<. ■ .f ■ 
 
 ‘ 1 ' ■ ■ .’^ J’ .'-V ■ . , * . rl' 
 
 - : , . .. J oa’ 
 
 jj- -;.-y . •***X ■’•Tor ? : T'v^ ;^JJ-'.v-' irat- ’.^. 
 
 ’. ■' . "•' •’ ' ,'i •'' ■■.•.£' .■ -it’ - ""!r i'ir 
 
 .■C^r'"»v . *r:.. -V’.*' t 
 
 V-- ; ''■ .' ■ ■■ , •■'..> 
 
 . M - ' : ' H , c > ;. 'i CT,. T^rr^Ui;? 
 
 ,*>• U' t' i» w '• . * 1 ^ ^ • J V-i/t’*' ' 4 .* C' ’ 
 
 r v,*i .*7 Oii/i 
 
 
 
 ’ ■ '•■ '■’ t 'i 
 
 *% > 
 
 
 td€ - X tu. it9i\rr-nrr 
 
 ;>< I'. !.■%;■ r-V 
 
 i 
 
 Vfl •.'* 1 ^ 1 ' ** . 4 ' 
 
Table XXXY 
 
 Cosaparison of the Eye-Movenent records of a Seventh 
 Grade Subject M*C, Before aaid After Training# 
 
 Line 
 
 Iftaaber of 
 Pauses 
 
 Duration of 
 Pauses 
 
 Iftcaber of Regress- 
 ive Llovements. 
 
 I^ecord 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 Pocord 
 
 Average 
 
 I 
 
 Agr^egate 
 
 Record 
 I II 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 13.2 
 
 145 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 10.6 
 
 74 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 10.9 
 
 76 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 10.4 
 
 73 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 10.1 
 
 81 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 12.0 
 
 144 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 11.7 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 8.1 
 
 73 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8.0 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10.8 
 
 65 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 
 9.2 
 
 83 
 
 4 
 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 8.8 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Average 
 
 101 
 
 8.4 
 
 6^ 
 
 6.5 
 
 KfSVfii 
 
 10.3 
 
 1557 
 
 10.3 
 
 “ SS” ■ ■ 
 
 2.5 
 
 l6 
 
 1.6 
 
 A few other photographic records were taken of el®33entary pupils, 
 
 :“ut it is thought that the records shown above reflect sufficiently well the 
 important - Lodifications in the eye-movexnent Ixabits, i*e* in the nunber ajid 
 duration of fixation-pauses, number of regressi-ve movements, regularity of tlie 
 eye-mover3ents, etc. which vrere effected by the experimental training 
 
o.\>' 
 
 O 1 >1 
 
 Eye-Movraaent Records of an A^lt in Oral and Silent lieading# 
 
 Plate XIII > 
 
 There is no nore interesting study to isarine 
 architects than that of the groresth of irsodem ships 
 froen their earliest fora* Ancient ships of •crar 
 and of oorrraerce equally interest thera; hut as 
 they study the sculptures and vnritings of the 
 ancients, they find records of ■warships fax out- 
 nunhering ships of oasa.nerce« 
 
 Among ancient nations, the Greeks and Ro- 
 
 Silent Heading by adult subject J.A* 
 
 Plate XIII shows the record of an adult J.A* in silent reading* 
 The subject is a graduate student at the University of Illinois who had read 
 quite extensively* He liad received some training in Type I. It was thought 
 that a oonparison of the eyo-iiovernent record of a trained adult reader tdth 
 tlie records of clenentary school pupils "would yield soarxi interesting results* 
 

Til© record bogus to reflect a greater degree of rvaturity than any of the 
 previous records, iTith the single exception of the record of L,G, after train- 
 ing, as shcwi in Plate X« With tlie exception of the latter record, the average 
 nunber of fixation pauses per line, 4.3 in J.A. *s reading is less than tlie 
 average achieved by any of the grade pupils. The anrerage duration of the fixa- 
 tion pauses in J. A**s record is 11.3 ■which is 1.5 less than the average dura- 
 tion of the fixations in L.C.*s record. There is a greater regularity and laore 
 of a rhythmical character to the ocular motor reaction in J.A.’s record than 
 appears in most of the previous records. The average nunber of regressive 
 movements per line is very small— hut 0.4. Tli© perceptual span is t^ider than 
 that reflected in most of "the records of the elementar^^ pupils. 
 
 Plate XIV . 
 
 There is no more interesting study to marine 
 
 architects than that of the gro' ih of modem ships 
 from their earliest form, .hncient siiips of -'.■ar 
 and of conr-icrco equally interest them; hut as 
 
 they study the sculptures and ■enritings of the 
 
 ancients, they find records of -warships far out- 
 
 numbering ships of oonmerce. 
 
 Among ancient nations, the Creeks and Ro- 
 
 Oral reading by adult subject J.A. 
 
f 
 
21 ^ 
 
 After the subject J*A* liad reeid t)ye selection silently before tl^e 
 caraera, he "vyas requested to read it orally to see hocr the t-eo records mould 
 cocaparo* Tlio the subject hod the adrai-rtar*© of bein^ rsor© farriLliar mith tiie 
 passage mhen he mas called to read orally* Yet the record in Plat© XI7 shows 
 that oral reading occasions raich nore curabrous and a^emrd ocular motor 
 adjustments than its silent protot;'/pe. The anrerag© nuEiber of fixation pauses 
 per line iiarjediately rises froci 4*3 to 6*1, showing that the perceptual 
 process is forced to wait upon the slower process of vocalization* 
 
 It is significant also tlxat the average duration of t; e pauses 
 nounts from 11*3 to 14*6* The total number of regressive movements jumps fresa 
 5 to 9* The uniformity of the ocular motor reaction habits is disturbed by the 
 attezpt to S'/Tioroniso the perceptual process Trith the slower and more unwieldy 
 process of articulation with the latter’s jsore ccaiplet© dej^ndence upon an 
 elaborate physiological meclianiGia* In short, the record of silent reading shows 
 a marked and miinistakabie superiority over the oral reading in practically eveiy 
 i-'.portant phase of the eye-rnovornents, i*e* tlie number of fixations, the length 
 of fixations, the rtuiaber of regressive novenents, regularity of ©yo-movement 
 habits, etc. It shows clearly the physiological basis for the unmistakable 
 superiority of silent over oral reading, both in point of time and energy 
 expended* 
 
 The data from the complete records of J* A*‘s silent and oral 
 reading are thrown into tabular fom to facilitate comparison of the two 
 records* (Table ZC)* 
 
' '^1 1 
 
 > • ' -,vx - \ p ' r >-,‘ i ■'* •-■ r # 
 
 f . J . 
 
 *"i ‘ 'ivn 9 ' , 
 
 
 
 , r 
 
 . > .. 
 
 
 
 U; 
 
 •, fV' ■ y v l"; 1 . ■!* 2 i» • ■ .rr\^ C ' 
 
 
 • : 1 w-i.i ^ ,. '»♦ V 7 •r.iar' ' 
 
 ^h.-. ' ' r- 
 
 
 
 '..C' 7 O'' • ■ vv. 
 
 'v.rj'*! -•'ov 
 
 (; 
 
 1 » 
 
 ■-•\r 
 
 w* r • I 
 
 ^ ' ■ '?s 
 
 
 1 .. 
 
 
 ■r: ..»•'- zc 'r (iM 
 
 , '. ■■ J ■'. .:.o‘f! jv.'U*? vi*’-*-' SIX 
 
 •:" D -'7 f.cr.f 1 " ? r- V)' ";'- 
 
 ; [f y '•''■■ Ja:... >y -L.'.,i- S »/I 
 
 ■jt 3 s 't >. ■ r . . . ' '’ 
 
 ^ ■ ' •• '.t>^ "ti »rf»^ '•> tt;t- ‘'' 
 
 >-. • • ^3iO*’, .'! fi'ij o : /** '.T>i .7 ocf- 'C'jt <a4 *3'' 
 
 Klt -1 G '■■■''^ 
 
 'M' 
 
 v:;noc :v.V v'/j ' 
 
 
 , 'v>'e ^- 
 
 •C::i 
 
 r/ 
 
 i -4 ? ’-* tvv. ;> ' ■ •■ IB". jwfsA-J 
 
 
 .‘I 
 
 *» ij'x'.- ' o » » j-"'; -vyvi'i ’i-<vv* fJt'Jv 5.5*5*^ ^-, ^ 
 
 ■,■•'>- •• irf.-.-nyj 
 
 - 3".’0 ' O ' it,. £jt: f*'; t jVi.iij 'T^Ji'f ’It? *T 3- -.'jJ/ ;! a 
 
 
 -xo..; :Aa^:ac>t» , 
 
 ’■ 
 
 »»,>♦ (Oi.'r V) ,.i;>7 »c Srf2t>n itX ' <■ • . i:*u* 's 'H - iO 
 
 , . ', <^J 1 ,< ■ -y ..;■.! ,4 ,■ T , 
 
 • *V '' ' - ' ►. ’ _ -V ' *i* n» 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ! j'C-, ' ‘•: OsT'Jx.o. 30 
 
 3 -i’. j.-^v 
 
 
 . 'V. 
 
 v Wi' '■ ■ ov - ':>..i ’i.aJUvfaJ’ 
 
 . . . «■■ • • 
 y*V,. ‘ ■■' r ' ' 
 
 V 
 
 ■‘■TT 
 
 » / % r » ' . Zi ' ' 
 
 f. 4-' 
 
 .,M 
 
 ' .. .i*yi,t -I’fitt ii.y.v'. .'/?• 
 
 • t 
 
 . y,-- , , •• ...ti,('"t;.. 4 .,,..r,^-..> 
 
 ■yi.,yp 
 
 ■V' 
 
 . • ■ 
 
 ’’ '( k 
 
 / '■ ■ ■'• ■'O/'r; I'J ' , 
 
 . J-r 
 
 
 
 .■'A'SKa 
 
 ( i i . :. .. 4 
 
 / 
 
 Jkflc 
 
 ■' • t 'nf' K 
 
 ,kl 
 
 
 , I 
 
 '>^ 'A •* i fi 
 
Table XXXVI 
 
 Conparison of Eye-I^overi©nt Records of Sileiit and Oral 
 Aeadinr; Adult Sub^Ject, J.A« 
 
 
 Number of 
 Pauses 
 
 Avei age IXiration 
 of Pause 
 
 Aggregate IXira- 
 tion of Pauses 
 
 rhi' ’^er of iie- 
 gressive jtove 
 monts. 
 
 tine 
 
 
 Silent 
 
 
 Silent 
 
 Oral 
 
 Silent 
 
 Oral 
 
 snehtr 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 13,5 
 
 14.3 
 
 81 
 
 43 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 13.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 106 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 14.8 
 
 9.8 
 
 89 
 
 49 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 15.2 
 
 11.0 
 
 76 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 12.6 
 
 10.0 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 11.7 
 
 10.6 
 
 70 
 
 43 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 16.9 
 
 12.3 
 
 128 
 
 37 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 21.0 
 
 10.7 
 
 106 
 
 64 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 r* 
 
 13.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 76 
 
 54 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 16.4 
 
 14.0 
 
 
 56 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 14.8 
 
 15.3 
 
 94 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 12.4 
 
 11.5 
 
 87 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 14.4 
 
 10.0 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 Average 
 
 ■ 7S“" 
 5*1 
 
 56 
 
 4.3 
 
 i9b.r 
 
 14.6 
 
 Tsllb 
 
 11.3 
 
 11 ^ 
 
 14.6 
 
 S9l” 
 
 11.3 
 
 § 
 
 0.? 
 
 — g— 
 
 0.4 
 
 Ti\BLE XXXVII 
 
 Co'.rpj’trison of tlio Biriber of Fixation Pattses and Rer.Tes8ivc 
 iiovenents of 5 olemontary school pupils* — Before and /ifter 
 Train ins in Po.;.:td Peeking* 
 
 
 Average I^iaiber 
 
 Average Ilunber of 
 
 
 of 
 
 Pauses 
 
 Regres 
 
 Give l.'orcr:3o;:ts 
 
 
 Record 
 
 
 Record 
 
 Pupils 
 
 I 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 n 
 
 L.C. 
 
 o.O 
 
 3.6 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.2 
 
 M.C. 
 
 8.4 
 
 6.5 
 
 2.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 A.P. 
 
 11.7 
 
 7.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 N.C. 
 
 7.1 
 
 5.1 
 
 1,1 
 
 1.1 
 
 Li.L. 
 
 9.5 
 
 7.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 Total 
 
 41.7 
 
 30.1 
 
 7.3 
 
 4.3 
 
 Averago 
 
 3.3 
 
 6.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.8 
 
 Table ^ opibaaizes tl»© offoct of the experimental training upon 
 the number of the fixation pauses and the number of regresBivo riovenenta in the 
 
'X\h 
 
 •CTTT 
 
 reading of five elenontary school pupils* The records of their eye-novoitionts 
 Imvo been presented in this chapter* The subject G*B* is ociitted from the 
 table because tiie improvement, if any, in this case is less clearly discernible 
 than in the others* In an endeavor to determine whether the increase in 
 speed of reading is due to the lessening of tiie nuiriber of pauses, or to tlie 
 shortening of the duration of the pauses, his record shoviing no increase in 
 speed, obviously could not be used* The table shows that the acquisition of 
 a habit of rapid readir^g siioh as triese subjects achieved, results in a 
 noticeable reduction in the number of fixat ion<"pau8es * Tlie average number of 
 fixations per line for the five subjects before training is 8*3; after 
 training in rapid reading is reduced to C*0— a decrease of 2*3 per line * 
 
 The reduction in the number of regressive movements is also quite narked* 
 
 From an average of 1*5 per lino for the first reading it drops to the snail 
 average of 0*8* 
 
 An effort t.'as also made to con^pare tlie rate of tlie interfixation and 
 the interlinear movonents of tiie eyes in the first and second reading records 
 of thxee of the subjects* The rate was measured in (l/lOOO of a second)* 
 
 The apparatus was scarcely delicate enougji, liowever, to measure with 
 perfect accuracy* The average tijme per line consumed by the interfixation 
 movements in the first reading record ims 122 as compared with 101 in tlie 
 record taken after training* The average for tlie interlinear movements in the 
 first record ims 42 as oempared TTith 57 for the second record* The results 
 to not point to any significant change in tlie rate of the inter fixation or 
 interlinear movements* 
 
 Unfortunately the duration of the fixation-pauses for both the first 
 and second records could bo determined for but t].roe of the six subjects iihose 
 records are shov/n* In tx70 of these, tlie duration of the pauses is slightly 
 
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 lon(^r in the second record; in the other or» it rej;iains approxiiaatoly the 
 setae* It is very probable that a raarlced reduction in tlie nuinber of fixations 
 results in an increase « inore or less, in the average duration of the fixation* 
 Vtihile tile average duration of the fixation beooiaes sligiitly larger, the 
 aggregate duration ol the pauses per line is ranch less than before the 
 reduction in the moaber of fixations* The records of L*C* in Table 
 and of A*P* in Table , are good illustratioi^ of tliis* Tho the average 
 duration per pause for L*C.*s second record is 12*8 as ooii^pared TTith 12*4 
 for his first record, yet the aggregate duration of tiie pauses per line in 
 the second record is less for ©very line than in tlie first record* Tiie 
 reduction in the number of fixations laeans that tlie fixations must ^braoe 
 a “Wider area* Tiie grasping of more material in a single fixation 7/ould 
 naturediy seen to be acooairpanied by a slight increase in the duration of the 
 pause* 
 
 Considering the limited number of subjects v/iiose ey©«aove:'.»rts “were 
 jdiotographed in this iiT7estigation, the conclusion tdiioh an analysis of 
 these records would clearly so®a to justify are t.eso: (1) A Iiabit of speed 
 
 in silent reading acquired thro persistent training is accocrpcuiied pliysiologi- 
 cally by a reduction in tho nunber of f ixation*-pauses* (2) The ti'pos of 
 
 training utilized in this investigation effected a noticeable reduction in 
 the number of regressive movements as shown by the records T;iiioh wore 
 photograp'. ed* 
 
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 CHAPTER XI, 
 
 SmiUAIiY OF COHCLUSIONS. 
 
 It v/as not the purpose of this experiment to isolate and Tireigh 
 separately the effect of different single factors upon tlie rate iii silent 
 reading. That is one of the interesting and faBoinating prohleias in tlio 
 exporiraontal psyci-ology of reading idiioh yet awaits the hand of tli© imresti- 
 gator. The purpose of this investigation Tias to determine the effectiveness 
 of a group of faotors synthesised into an organised laothod or type of training 
 upon the rate in silent reading. The query of praotioal pedagogical conse- 
 quence back of the investigation Tvas: How can speed in silent reading be 
 
 developed -^thoirt impairing the cauif^re’nension of tlie matter read? 
 
 Practically all of the conclusions issuing froaa the present 
 investigation are contained in the two previous chapters. For the salce of 
 convenience, SOTie of tiie nore important generalisations are expressed here. 
 
 This investigation has shown that rate in silent reading may he 
 aooelerated to a marked degree by training in rapid silent readi'-ig. This was 
 demonstrated for all the grades investigated, namely ^ grades tliree to oigJit, 
 
 In the course of two months training in rapid residing, an average gain for the 
 oxperixaental pupils In the five grades of 110 vrords per rnirn't© was effected, 
 as compared with an average gain of 64 words per nimite for the control pupils. 
 Reducing the average gain in number of words read per minute to a percentage 
 basis, the mount of improvement for the experimental pupils in all the 
 grades was 56 percent, as against 25 percent for the controls— an average 
 superiority of 31 percent for the experimental pupils. 
 
 Inasmuch as tlie control pupils were taught by the sane teaoI\er in 
 the same class room with the experimental, t’/iey wore not entirely unaffected 
 by tile experimental training. Their increase in speed was consequently greater 
 

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 than that of pupils receiving only the oonvontional traitiing in reading in 
 class roaac where no iKspcrisaoiital training ms in evidence# Tliis is nhomi 
 by a cocapariGon of tlieir firaal averages in rate with the present norr'.a* 
 Consequently, t}:«. superiority of the average gain in rate of the escperiiasntal 
 pupils over t?ie control pupils— great as it is— does not fully refloot the 
 degree of superiority of th^ rates of the ejqperiirbsntal pipils over ths present 
 norms for tli© different grades* This is shown by a direct conparison of tine 
 final averages of the expori^rffintal pupils ’tfith the noirie reported by Courtis, 
 ftaroh, Cray, etc* for t!ie different grades • This oCRaparisan chows also that 
 the proaent reading rates of pupils in tji© different grades ar© unnocossarily 
 slow and inefficient* A ootaparatively brief porlod of training can increase 
 then more than 50 perooxit* 
 
 ConccB::dtant with the mrlced increase in speed tliere resulted n 
 slight improvffi^ient in the accuracy of the coEiaprehonsion* The average gain of 
 the experimontals was 0*9 percent as Oi^oinst a loss of 0*7 percent for the 
 controls— a final average superiority in gain over the controls of 1*6 
 percent in ooanprehension* This is tlie improvement os imeasured by the Courtis 
 Index tdiloh is chiefly an ind®c of aomiracy. Aa faeasxu’ed by the nuaber of 
 questions correctly answered, the improveicent in ooraprel^ejision is notably 
 greater— an average increase of 12*5 q^^o3tione correctly aiswerod, or 29 
 percent* In fact the number of questions correctly answered by the experimen- 
 tal pupils in each grade after training, is greater than the norxiis for the 
 total nxrmbor of questions attempted , wliotiier answered correotly or 'wrongly , 
 as reported by Cotirtis* 
 
 This increase indlcatos furtliomoro a persistence of the improve- 
 ment effected in rate in dii’feront situations and different mental attitudes. 
 
, i • 
 
 
 
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 as in careful reading, etc* 
 
 The eye-moveinent records show t'nai the improvement is effected 
 physilogioally chiefly by a lessening of the number of fixations ratlier than 
 by a shortening of the average duration of the fixations. The in^rove’nent is 
 also accompanied by a decrease in tlie number of regressive moveiaenbs and bjr 
 the "setting up" of habits of regular rhythmical eye-moveinents. The 
 pedagogical implication of this finding, is that short exposure excrcis©3,in 
 which the amount of material ©xcosed is gradually increased, rather than the 
 amount of exposure time being decreased, tend to develop speed in reading. It 
 demonstrates that the directions in the t^mes of training, outlined in this 
 study, to "see more at a glance”, etc. are well based. It shows that the 
 developaaent of speed in silent roadi?^; is, in reality, reduooable to the 
 
 more effective utiligati on the peroept^ial gpan in reading. 
 

 
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 V r 4- '■■ 
 
 
 
 
 C>' 
 
 - ,• 
 
 
 
 > V, , *-i3w ■■• ' 
 
 ,-y. •/ ' ■ - 
 
 X"^ 
 
 *. * / . . 
 
 I I , ’l'- 
 
 . ■ V ' ' ■■'' 
 
 
 fj._ 
 
 
 ('; r’ 
 
 ■ ••■^ ! "->.;• ■ 
 V ■ > * ■ ■ 
 
 .t 
 
 
 -v^ . : 
 
 ■,r'v>-.i 
 
 ,i.i£.. 
 
 ^ . .} 
 
 •'k : 
 
 . 
 
 .. ,• ••?' 1' , ' ' , Jci . 
 
 ' . ■ * .' ■ >-.i 
 
 1 ', „ . • .’ t .U’ * ;•■ ? 
 
 is., ‘ ,- 
 
 I. V 
 
 . 'V •• J- • • 
 
 -yK.in ..>’•> 
 
 . 0 « ♦VpiTOf;’-- . . 
 
 
 j . 
 
 
 
 fj 
 
 I 
 
AiU X 
 
 Ahrens, August. Id© Bev^gung der Augen heia Sshrsiban, Rostock, 
 
 1891. 
 
 Delabarre, S. B, "A Method of Recording 3^e Movaiaeats,” ^QTism 
 Journal of Psychology. 9;5?2-?4, July, I898. 
 
 Huey, S, B. ”Pralijainary Sxperiaents in the physiology and Psychol- 
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 July. 1898. 
 
 Ihiey, S. B. ”0n ih© PsyeSxology and Physiology of Reading,” Merlcan 
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 Judd, C. H., McAllistar. C. H., and Steele, W. M, "Introduction to 
 a Series of Studies of Ey$ Movements by i^ans of Kinetoscopie 
 Photographs," Psycholoidc-al Review. Moaos;r&oh Sunolesient . 
 
 V* 7, no, 1, pp» 1-lb, March, 19C5» 
 
 Judd, C, H. ’*?hotogr.aprJLe Heaords of Convergence and Qiver^nca," 
 Psychological Review. Monograph Suonle^^ieni . v* 8, no. 3, 
 pp. 370^423~j^@; l§6fr 
 
 Boli, E. B, "Eye Movement and Central Anaesthesia,''’ Psychological 
 Review, Monograph Supplement, v. 4, January, 1903. 
 
 Doaitjorn, Walter F. ”^e Psychology of Reading," ColuEabia Univer- 
 sity Contributi .ns to Philosophy and Psychology, v. 14, 
 no. 1, 1906, 
 
 Schmidt, WilHaia A. An -Sxuorimeatal Study la the psychology of 
 Reading . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917* 
 
 12^ pp* {p. 79. ) 
 
 Gray, Clarence T. Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited througd h 
 
 Tests and Lab^atorv Experiments. " “tSupp^ Sducational 
 
 Monograph, v. 1, no. 5, otgusi, 1917*) Chicago: University 
 of Chicago Press, 1917« 198 pp^ 
 
 Gray, 7/illiaia S, "Principles of Me*thod in Teaching Reading as 
 
 Derived from Scientific Investigation," Sighteenth Year- 
 book of the National Society for the Study of Education , 
 part 2, pp. 28-51 (p* 40, 41, ). ~ Bloonington, Illinois: 
 
 Public Scho 1 publishing Co*, 1919* 
 
r 
 
 V 
 
21 
 
 2 -^ 
 
 S22r 
 
 Judd, Gli&rles H, Reading; Its Nature and Devslo-paeat . (Supplanen- 
 tary Bducational l!onograr>!i , v# 2, no. 4, July, 19lS.) Chicago; 
 university of Chicaso press, 1913* 192 pp, 
 
 22. Pintrfer, Rudolf. ’•Coral and Silent Reading of Fourth Grad© Pupils," 
 
 Journal of iSducational Psyci^iolr^.^ . 4:333-37 » Juno, 1913. 
 
 23. Oberho It zer, B. ji, "Testing the Efficiency of Reading in the Grades," 
 
 BloiaentarY School Journal . 15:313-22, February, 1915* 
 
 24. Mead, Cyrus D. "Silent versus Oral Reading «dth One Hiaadred Sixth 
 
 Grade Childran," Journal of Sdueational ^Psychology . 6:546-48, 
 June, 1915. 
 
 25. Pintner, Rudolf and Gilliland, A. R. "Oral and Silent Reading," 
 
 JuuTnal Ctf aduca,tionaI Psyc>u>logy « 7:201-12, April, 1916. 
 
 26. Quanta, J. 0* "Problems in the psychology of Reading," Psvcho- 
 
 Iggiegl Review, aonojsrapk.^pploiaent . v. 2, no. 1, Oeceiaber, 
 
 xS?T. 
 
 27. Hendricks, Side L* A, Prell’dlnarv* Renort of a Study of Heading . 
 
 Boston: Silver, Burdstt & Co., 1911. 32 pp. 
 
 28. Judd, Charles H. Measuring the \'?brk of the Public Schools. Cleve- 
 
 land, 0.: *nie Survey SAranittoe of the Cleveland Foundation, 
 
 1916, 290 pp. 
 
 29. Ifcum, fferaoe. "Second >inaual Reoort ©f tl® Secretary of the Board 
 
 of Sducation, 1838" Xiife and T^rke ot Horace I.Iann« 2;53l-32. 
 Boston; Lee and Shepard, I891. 5 v. 
 
 30. J\tdd, Charles H. Reading; Its nature and Develonaent. Chicago: 
 
 Itol veraity of Giicago Press, 1918. 192 pp. (p. l84. ) 
 
 31. Thorndike, Sdward L. "Reading as Reasoning; A Study of llistakea 
 
 in p?*ragraT>h Reading," Journal of Educational Psvcholo?^ . 
 
 C:32>32, June, W7. (p. 332) 
 
 32. Judd, Charles H. Reading; Its Nature and Sevelota^nt. Chicago: 
 
 University of Chicago press, 1913. 192 pp. {^7 150, 151» 
 
 155, 146.) 
 
 33. Bowden, Josephine. Seaming to Head. (Master’s thesis. Univer- 
 
 sity of Chicago, 1911. ) 
 
 34. AbuU, Adelaide M. "Rapid Reading; Advantages and Methods," 
 
 3duoational Roviev . 6:283-86, October, 1894. 
 
 35» Dodge, Raymond, Pie Motorischen ’10rtvor3tellun;cen . Halle: H, Hie- 
 i#eyor, 1896. 78 pp. fp. 65) 
 

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 36. 
 
 3^. 
 
 36^ 
 
 39* 
 
 40« 
 
 Guy H. **Tlh0 of Pi^otlco upon the Rzm^ of Visual 
 
 Attention o«d of Vlntiatl Apjmn^im&ioa^’* |^w|P)aal of 
 Pcyo!\plegy, ll«r-afh„ 1^10 
 
 Pot®re» (Siarlee C. Xnf •>!20pc0 of ^pee41 upon. tH^d ;iute 
 
 . BffartlTOMiat: ot SiXaat RoaOing," feignal af a jiioati oaal P»yehol>. 
 o®-» 8i350-6S. J'lae, IflU 
 
 fOpdye©^ Charlee# "testing tM in aoiidi.ng," aa^ 
 
 mrnm-^. .AmaciaUc-n . 
 
 JWy 7**14, 1917* 
 
 \P* 
 
 laiT 
 
 aji-jpla,. a. «. sn 4 Cwtle, Joss-.Mae Ji, ":'i»U>!datxy 2av*sti3atloii 
 of 3 fci^ In Road^S.” JaSBi&ALB'&ElAioa^P.aiaS-ito 
 OS333-49, to3c» 1917, 
 
 SiiliflBJ S. '‘fteadSJiig,’* Purvey at tbo St. L r»5..? ’.in School®,, 
 
 V* 2. St, l^uie# Board of W7. 
 
 42, ftao'ili^or, ’nauian C, "Wold of DifltiniJt Weicm," f^tefolc 
 
 tfr iLqaBy^lOigy , r* l6, no, I, 
 
 43* Wosawr, Ookar, Pisjfchologia dea Looens boi SOndor imd ;lr>va<^»#nen," 
 
 Mi &UzJnr Ais. f^m^P. PfiyiKho2£M&. nmd n, mn 3-3» pp, X9o* 
 
 398; V:rleouj'n’^«> B. 3*>. r^^oorsbor, 1$03, 
 
 44. Ribot, Th, "Los mxm'r&rtst -3t lour irjportai'joo poyoholoslrfue," E^ima. 
 
 Bill« te.(^^a ffl» t f'otobor, 3379, 
 
 45. a^dxi, Alojsfeaider, tH»_Sjogeso. .7a!. 3^, 1868, p, 336 
 
 46. i^sgar, Viotor, Paris* a. Bcdllloro at Cie, 
 
 23aa, 
 
 47. 
 
 4U, 
 
 49. 
 
 50. 
 
 51* 
 
 5J?. 
 
 Bailot* Gilbert, ' 1^ Lun j ^r^e i i ytori 
 
 Paries J', iUesan, 
 
 l^intnor, ^^dolf. "Innar "recoh during Siltmst F6ee,ding," 
 lteiilaXg-^.9 129-53, J anuary, 1915 
 
 Otriokor* S. 5r mtth»rgtoliui^ Vlsnnai 
 
 in>ecdae, XSoO, I06 pp, 
 
 Stupipf, Ciirl. 7^.np^yc(hpl?fiio, Hirzol, 1583, 42? w, 
 
 (p, 154 ff“ 
 
 PauUian 
 
 rqJiviue, 
 
 n, FJf, **I^ Lof^age interiour et la ponaeo," rtpvuo (fixil^Q:* 
 jtJisaji, 21 s 26»59, J^uj.iy$ 1U56, 
 
 Baldvifi, JaDos, UontAl P avgAoiyiont i» the Child imi l the IlaoCT . 
 1895* P* 442. 
 
•i-^5 
 
 •:> ■? ' ? Qor? 
 
 -j -V ; CLZ f 
 
 53* Bastian, Henry C* Brain as an Organ of Mind . I 891 . p, 595 ff, 
 
 54, Collins, J, TliO Genesis and Hissolution of the Fg.c«l,'^y of 
 Sijeegh^ a Gli^iio^l and p.syo hol^.dcal Study of Anhasis^ 
 lie!? York! liacsMilian, lo93, 432 pp* (p, 195 
 
 55* Dodge, Raymond, ”Die »notoriechen Ti'ortvoreteiiungea,** 
 Pf iyaholonieal Bevies , 4: 326-27, May, l897« 
 
 56 . Bawdea, H, tl, *A Study of Lapses," Psychological Review. 
 
 Monograph Supplsnant, v, 3» no* 4, ISOO. p* 1S4 ff, 
 
 57* Curtis, K. S, "Autwaatic MOTaseni of the Larynx," Marican 
 Jonmal of Psychclory . 11:237-39 » January, 1900, 
 
 58* Courten, H, C, "Involuntary Movaaents of the Tongue Studies 
 from the Yalo rs^*clioXogical Laborutcr.-, v. XO, pp. 93-95* 
 1902 * 
 
 59* Hansaa, F, C. C. and Lehnann, Alfreds "tjber imwilllcurliches 
 Flttstem," Wndt*s Philo soaisohe Studies , 11:471-530, 
 
 1895. 
 
 60 . Socor, W. B, "Tisual Reading; A Study in Mental loagsry," 
 
 ■ j-eriegg Journal of Psychology . 11:225-36, Jrinuary, 1900. 
 
 61 * Dodge, Rayiioad. "Tlie psychology of Reading," Cyclopedia of 
 Sducati , 1917* v. 5* P* H7* 
 
 62 , Pfeiffer, lAidwig, Ijba r Y ortieUmKstypon. Leipzig: 0. limmziah, 
 1907 . 129 pp. 
 
 Pfeiffer, Ludwig* Xxporiaentolle T 7 ntersuchtci,^Gn ubor aualitative 
 Arbeitct'r ^dn, Leipzig: 0. Jlamnich, 1907* 281 pp, 
 
 63 * Segal, J. "Uber den Reprodt;drfcion9typUi- \md das Reproduirtion von 
 Vor ste llungen , " ^irehiv fur die '"^sagte F sycholOj-d Le , 
 12:124-235, 1908 * 
 
 64 . Lobsien, M'lTX, Uber den Vorstdlungstvous der Schulkindor * 
 
 19U. 457 pp. 
 
 65 . Cohn, Jonas, "Experiiiiantcllo Untoreuchungen abar dao zusjuti- 
 
 msnwirker. des akustisch-notorischen ♦md das visuellen 
 Gedachtniasos," Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 15:l6l-83, 
 1397. 
 
 66. Baade, Walter. .Sxp trimentelle un kritische B eitrage zur Frage 
 
 nadi der seXwn dar en .'^jrktmgan dea l^terrichts . Loip’;ig: 
 
 0, wSiiTiicii, 1907 . 124 pp, 
 
 67 . Storring, Gustnv. Wer<taX Pathol o^.. Trnn slated by Thomas 
 
 Loveday. london, 19<^7* pp. 
 
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 1900 . 
 
 N«tacliajef£» A, tfogr alggi^'fiarviu und Qg<iiacht?'ii&« BorXla: Rautijgr 
 and R^iiTd, 1503, 39 
 
 69. LlauBaasi, Bmeai, Tha pgvcholt>gv of Leuaming. Translated from 
 
 3 d dd. of **Thd Boonffiuy and T9chni.(]ud ^ of Loonxing,” 
 
 John W, Baird. Rev? York: B, Appleton & CJo., 1913« 393 pp* 
 (p. 193) 
 
 70. Offner, Max. Mental Tremelated fras tke GansaB by 
 
 G. M, '^hippla. Boston: l^arwiok and York, 1911. 133 pp« 
 
 71. Ri vara, W, H. and Kraepelin, B, ’*Uber Brsnxdnng und ^rholimg,” 
 Psydiologistilio . Arboiten, i;627’-?8, 1396. 
 
 I ' 
 
 Ctmrtis, S. -t, ’’Standard Testa in Saglish,” 
 
 Joamal. 14:374-9ii» April# 1914. 
 
 72 
 
 iSloi;ter<t.:Ary Sobooj. 
 

Appsrroix 
 
 List of Books for Silsnt Reading 
 
 The following list of books has been selected by Mr, Jaaesp!** Hoaic 
 of the Ghieago Nonoal School from a macih larger list which he had preoarod 
 for use in certain Chica^ schools designated for the tima as !*£J^,gv.ii3h Center©? 
 
 The present list is prepared especially for use in certain schools of 
 the st ite \ehere a method of improving silent reading is being tented out by 
 John A. O'Brien under the direction of Br^ B. R, Buckinghan ef the Lbiiversity 
 of Illinois. The last few titles under each grade are from the Supplementary 
 Reading List adopted February 13 » 1$19 by the Chicago Board of i:iduoation. 
 
 Second Orade 
 
 Dutton m Field and Pasture 
 
 Schaffner or Our Cat Tails 
 
 i^erican Book Co. 
 Atkinson ' 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 Bighau 
 
 Craik 
 
 Gale 
 
 Mcliurr/ 
 
 Ifulock 
 
 Sindelar 
 
 Sindelor 
 
 Stevenson 
 
 Holbrool: 
 
 Burgees 
 
 Segur 
 
 Third Ch*ade 
 
 Fifty Famous Stories 
 Merry Animal Tales 
 Adventures of a Brownie 
 Achilles and Hector 
 Story of Robinson cirasoe 
 Little Lame Prince 
 Father Thrift and His Animal 
 Friends 
 
 Nixy-Bunny in Far Away Lands 
 Children's Classics in Dramatic 
 Form, Book 2 
 
 Amorican Book Co. 
 Little Brown & Go. 
 Educational Pub. Cee. 
 Public School Pub. Co 
 Public ‘School Pub. Co 
 Heath 
 
 Beckley-Cardy Co'. 
 
 Hou^cm Mifflin Co; 
 
 Fables aad Fo3J: Stories Hou^bion 
 
 A nra^tic Reader, Book 3 Berry 
 
 A Bramatic Reader for Lower Grades American Book Co. 
 
 Old Llother ^rt T/ind Little Bro«sa Go, 
 
 Story of a Donkey D. C. Heath 
 
 Aanrud 
 
 Baker A Thorndike 
 Carroll 
 
 PourtJ (hrade 
 
 Lisbeth Longrook 
 
 Everyday Classice, Book 4 
 Fanciful Flower T^as 
 Alice in ';?onderiand 
 
 Ginn d Co. 
 
 Macmillan 
 Little Brown & Co. 
 Rand, McNally )!( Co. 
 


 
 ColXodi 
 
 Adventures of Pinocchio 
 
 Ginn & Co* 
 
 Uit09h 
 
 'bonders of the Jungle 
 
 D. C* Heath 
 
 Harris 
 
 Little Mr* Thicibolfinger 
 
 Houston Mifflin Co* 
 
 Lar^ 
 
 A Visit to the Faxtt 
 
 MacmillaB 
 
 Mirick k Holmss 
 
 Hofi« Life .^ound the VJorlA 
 
 Houston Mifflin Co* 
 
 Sehvsris 
 
 Grasshopper Green’s Garden 
 
 Little Brown & Co. 
 
 Sehvaz*tz 
 
 i^lldsmess Babies 
 
 
 Segur 
 
 Sophie 
 
 >D • C * Heath 
 
 ^sselhoeft 
 
 Jack the Fire Dog 
 
 • Little Brown & Co* 
 
 ^iaggin 
 
 Story of Patsy 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co* 
 
 Warren 
 
 King Arthur and His Knights 
 
 Rand Mo?lflly & Co. 
 
 ^S^rren 
 
 Robin lk»od and His Merry Men 
 
 Rand McNally lb Co* 
 
 Cook 
 
 Story of Ulysses 
 
 • 
 
 Fifth Grade 
 
 
 Aleoti 
 
 Little loosen 
 
 Little Brown & Of* 
 
 Austin 
 
 The Basket Tknsan 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 Bactear 
 
 Great Inventors and Their Inven- 
 tions 
 
 ^Uaerican Book Co* 
 
 Baker and Thorndike 
 
 jiveryday Classics, Book $ 
 
 Macmillan 
 
 Dodge 
 
 Bans Brinker 
 
 Ginn k Co* 
 
 Hyde 
 
 Favorite Greek L^hs 
 
 D. C. Heath 
 
 ^pling 
 
 Just So Stories 
 
 Century Co* 
 
 Long 
 
 Wood Folk at School 
 
 Ginn & Co* 
 
 Set.n 
 
 Krag and Jolinny Bear 
 
 Scribner 
 
 Gale 
 
 Achillea and Hector 
 
 Rand McNally k Co* 
 
 Stevenson 
 
 Children’s Classics in Dramatic 
 Form, Book 4 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Go* 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 Golden Fleece 
 
 American Book Co* 
 
 Harris 
 
 Little I’r; Thicible finger 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 Spyri 
 
 Uoni, The Goat Boy 
 
 (H.nn & Co* 
 
 Skinner 
 
 Tales and Plays of Robin Rood 
 Sixth Grade 
 
 Anericar* Book Co* 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 American Book of Golden Deads 
 
 American Book Co* 
 
 Carter 
 
 Stories of Brave Dogs 
 
 
 Paris 
 
 Makers of Our History 
 
 
 Hill 
 
 Figliting a Fire 
 
 
 Lagorlof 
 
 Wonderful Adventures of Nils 
 
 Grosset & Dunlap 
 
 Lang 
 
 Story of Joan of :%rc 
 
 
 lloore 
 
 Story of Christopher Columbus 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co* 
 
 Roosevelt 
 
 Stories of the Great West 
 
 Century Co* 
 
 TTlggin £ jiaith 
 
 The Posy Ring 
 
 Doubleday 
 
 ipyri 
 
 Heidi 
 
 Ginn k Co* 
 
 t$able 
 
 Horse Stories 
 
 Rand McNally k Co* 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 Old Greek Stories 
 
 American Book Go* 
 
 Church 
 
 Story of the 11 Had 
 
 Macmillan 
 
 Chtxreh 
 
 Story of the Odyssey 
 
 Macmillan 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 Thirty More Famous Stories Retold 
 
 iUaeriean Book Co* 
 

 Savefith (ft* ad© 
 
 AXdrich 
 
 Story of a Bad Boy , 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 Bakor & Thomdik© 
 
 Everyday Classics, Book ^ 
 
 Ma<ardllan 
 
 Barrie 
 
 pater and (lOndy 
 
 
 Brooks 
 
 Story of King Arthur 
 
 Penn Publishing COt 
 
 Fit*-Hush 
 
 Boy’s Book of Scouts 
 
 CroTsrell Co. 
 
 Hale • 
 
 Man without a Country 
 
 Little Brown & Co. 
 
 Jordan 
 
 The Story of Matka 
 
 
 ilace 
 
 Life of Idncoln 
 
 Rand, McHally & Co. 
 
 Pierce 
 
 Great Inventors and Dis- 
 coverers 
 
 Charles S, Morrill Co 
 
 Sanford & Owen 
 
 Modem teoricans 
 
 Laurel Book Co* 
 
 Stoddard 
 
 Red Mustang 
 
 Harper 
 
 Seioa 
 
 Trail of the Sandhill Stag 
 
 
 Jeed 
 
 Bird Life Stories 
 
 Rand Mc!;ally & Co* 
 
 Williams 
 
 Gome Successful ^m&ricsn» 
 
 Ginn & Co. 
 
 Stevenson 
 
 Children’s Classics in Drama- 
 tic Form, Book 5 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co* 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 Heroic Ballads 
 
 Ginn & Co. 
 
 Jighih Grad© 
 
 Baker & Thorndike 
 
 .^eryday Classics, Book 8 
 
 MacmilXan 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 Fifty Fsisous Rides 
 
 
 Chapin 
 
 Story of the Rhine go Id 
 
 
 Cooper 
 
 Last of the Mohicans 
 
 
 D’A^eis 
 
 HesTt of a Boy 
 
 Rand McHally & Ce.: 
 
 Sastman 
 
 An Indian Boyhood 
 
 
 Fabra 
 
 Insect Adventures 
 
 Dodd Head ft Co. 
 
 Grenfel 
 
 Adrift on an |§e Pan 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 Mace 
 
 Life of G-shington 
 
 Rand McHally ft Co. 
 
 Madden 
 
 linemy Lou 
 
 
 Rice 
 
 Mrs. ‘^ggs of the Cabbage 
 
 
 
 Patch 
 
 
 Scott 
 
 Talisman 
 
 
 l^ompeon 
 
 Scouting vdth Daniel Boone 
 
 Doubledf^ 
 
 
 Western Frontier Stories 
 
 Century 
 
 YTiggin & Smith 
 
 Golden Hiaabaro 
 
 Doubleday 
 
 Tennyson ft ethers 
 
 Poems of Knightly Adventure 
 
 Hews 
 
 Titles 
 
 for Silent Reading ’^umished by the Conference at the 
 University of Illinois, /tpril 12, 1919 
 Third Grade 
 
 Blaisdsll 
 
 Bunny Rabbit *o Diary 
 
 Little Brovm ft Co. 
 
 Craik 
 
 Bow-wow and Mew-mew 
 
 Char las Merrill Co 
 
 Lucia 
 
 Peter and Polly in Spring 
 
 American Book Ce. 
 
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 I>eier and Polly ir riveariOT' 
 
 Amorioijfn Book Co* 
 
 lioeia 
 
 Fotar Qud Tolly in v<3,jiioir 
 
 /Ksorlfinn Be k Oo« 
 
 Varney 
 
 Rohia lt»ader» first roa<lor 
 
 liciibner 
 
 
 VOur&h Crodo 
 
 
 
 Fatioiful Slower 
 
 U.ttX© Brcfvw A' Oo* 
 
 Blshaaa 
 
 lierry /a^joal tlalos 
 
 Llttl® B*W! Oo* 
 
 Bry«d 
 
 Uiat’a Ctoriss? 
 
 
 
 Third 
 
 !>♦ C, IJOnth 
 
 !i»lbrook 
 
 Book of ikituro kytlm 
 
 Jlou^ttan MiffUn Co, 
 
 Buraesso 
 
 ttothar <iosh :»ind ‘*Uc»^ Otorlo© 
 
 Uttlo Bnr^fn d Oo. 
 
 dwr^B9 
 
 y&idsQr idxi^ **'tS3^ Star loo 
 
 Little Brown i Co, 
 
 BUTgO0« 
 
 lft>Uior ^si Cliildron 
 
 Little BroMW & Go# 
 
 Bnrge&o 
 
 lioUior 0ost ■I'MmX 
 
 Little Brovm ^ Ce* 
 
 yriet;d& 
 
 
 Burgeci. 
 
 liothor Wind* a Kcl^bore 
 
 Little Brwwi * Co# 
 
 Hcyauua & Han*en 
 
 TfatiiKiil TSsird 
 
 Serlbnor 
 
 Seiwaris 
 
 drasaiK>pry»r Gemn^n ?»ard)«a 
 
 Little Brosn & Co# 
 
 Bcudcier 
 
 Book of Fables and Folk 
 
 Hou^ttan 
 
 
 storioo 
 
 with 
 
 Sskliscr Wfcoriee 
 
 Bond itei'ally k Co* 
 
 Xr<»<jdifaII & Free 
 
 R»&dine*HUltorutxirf> » Flrot md 
 
 Row# Fotereoa 
 
 
 Sooond Eeadero 
 
 
 
 fifth Grado 
 
 
 
 Btorioo cf .;-i,3airtLoaaa for 
 
 Anraricferr, Book Co* 
 
 i 
 
 Little 
 
 
 Lerenaix^i 
 
 Finoocd'do 
 
 Qio» S Co* 
 
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VITA 
 
 JoJm Antiioixy 0*Brien, son of Jolin F* and Elizabeth 0*Brion, 
 i?ae l)om in Peoria^ Illinois, January 20, 1893* He reoeivod his secondary 
 education at Spalding Institute, Peoria, Illinois, •whence he gi'aduated in 
 1910* His collegiate work ■was done at Holy Cross College, Tvoi'oestor, liass^ 
 and at St# Viator College, Kankakee, Illinois. Froci the latter institution 
 lie gra^htated with the degree. Bachelor of ;^rts, in 1913* He attended the 
 University of Chicago during tli© suiaraer of 1914. /J!t©r ti7o years of post- 
 graduate work ot St# Viator College, that institution conferred upon him 
 the degree, Master of Arts, in 1915# 
 
 He attended the graduate school of thQ Catliolio University of 
 Arerioa, Washington, D. C* in 1916— 17. \?hilo there, follo'wed courses 
 in edioetion, psychology end sociology, under Professor T. E# Shields, 
 Professor E. A# Pace, Professor T# V# lioore, and Professor W. J, Kirby. 
 
 In 1917 he entered the graduate school of the University of Illinois. For 
 three years he followed courses in tli© sane subjects under Dean W. W. 
 Charters, Professor G. M. Whipple, Professor D« S. Hill, Professor B. H. 
 Bode, Professor C. A# Ruckuich, and Professor E« C. Hayes. His researoh 
 investigation of the factors in the development of s^joed in silent reading 
 covering a period of t'wo years, "was done \mder tlie inaaediato supervision 
 of Professor B. R. Buckingham, Eirootor of tl’t© Bureau of Educational 
 Research at tli® University of Illinois*