Univ. of 111. Library Si w International k. Correspondence Schools SCRANTON. PA. Instruction Paper WITH EXAMINATION QUESTIONS WATER CLOSETS INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY SCRANTON, PA. ADVICE TO THE STUDENT Study a few pages at a time — do not skip from one section of the Paper to another. If examples are given in the text, compare the solutions carefully with the rules, formulas, or other text matter relating to them. If there are Examples for Practice, some or all may be worked, also; but this work need not be sent to the Schools for correction. If you meet with any difficulty, write us for help — using the “Information Blank.” If there are any statements you do not understand, let us know and we will explain them in detail. Pay particular attention to the definitions; a correct understanding of them is essential. Review the entire subject; then write out your answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Paper and send your work to us for examination and correction. Your answers should occur in the same order as the questions are printed. Do not write out the questions — merely write their numbers. If you are unable to answer some question, write ns, on an Information Blank, for assistance. If you need lielp in your studies, ask for it. If neces- sary we will assign to you a Special Instructor, who will give you personal attention and assist you in mastering the subject. It is our aim to come into as close touch with our students as possible, and we therefore request you to keep us informed at all times regarding your progress and any difficulties you may meet with in your studies. International Correspondence Schools. Copyright, 1905, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Sta- tioners’ Hall, London. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States. Properly of tfie Dep’t of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering, University of Illinois, WATER CLOSETS WATER-CLOSET CONSTRUCTION INTRODUCTION PURPOSE AND REQUIREMENTS 1. Water closets are made in many styles, and are con- structed to operate in many ways. They are made of poi'Celain in one piece, or partly of porcelain and partly of iron, or entirely of iron. The iron is either plain or enam- eled. Porcelain closets are made either plain white or in colors, and are embossed and decorated to any degree desired. 2 . The duty of water closets is to thoroughly remove all excreta and paper that may be deposited in them. They must be free from odors, and must prevent the escape of drain air from the soil pipe into the building. To meet these requirements, every closet must fulfil the following conditions : 1. The water used for cleansing must be applied in such a manner that it thoroughly washes all the interior surface of the bowl. 2. The current must have sufficient force to detach all filth from the surface of the bowl. 3. The water must be of sufficient quantity to wash out all the contents of the bowl and carry it beyond the trap and into the soil pipe. § 21 For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 2 WATER CLOSETS §21 4. When the flushing operation has ceased, the closet bowl and trap must be properly filled with fresh water, the foul water being entirely removed. 3. There have been extensive changes made in the types of water closets manufactured during the last 20 years. The old styles proved unsanitary and are now condemned by health departments. They are not used in new build- ings, but are yet found in many old buildings. SINGLE CLOSETS PAN CLOSET 4. The pan closet, which is now obsolete as a market article, being generally prohibited by plumbing rules and regulations, is shown in Fig. 1. It has a hopper or conical bowl to receive the excreta; the lower end is closed by a pan that is swung on a hinge by means of a lever and pull. This pan catches and retains enough of the flushing water to seal the mouth of the bowl. The porcelain bowl a is. set on a cast-iron trunk b that is secured to the floor c. A lead safe d is usually set under the closet, and is erroneously connected to the closet trap by a safe pipe e. The copper pan f seals the basin and receives the excreta. When the closet handle is raised, the pan drops and takes the position shown by the dotted lines and discharges its contents into the trunk, while at the same moment a volume of foul air enters the room from the trunk. It has WATER CLOSETS 3 §21 many other serious imperfections too numerous to mention, and is a very imperfect apparatus. It should always be replaced with a closet of modern construction. Pan closets are universally condemned by all health authorities. PLUNGER CLOSET 5 . Construction of Closet. — The plunger closet is a closet condemned by health authorities, although its imper- fections are not so pronounced as those of the pan closet. A vertical section through a plunger closet is shown in Fig. 2. In this form, the emptying of the bowl is con- trolled by a valve, or plunger, a. This plunger is provided with a rubber ring b , which seats on a brass ring c and makes a water-tight joint with it. The plunger also acts as an overflow, because if the water rises higher in the bowl than the top of the plunger, it will flow over and down through the inside, past the valve, and into the trap. 6. The principal objection to the plunger closet is that the chamber in which the plunger works is imperfectly 4 WATER CLOSETS § 21 cleaned and becomes foul. Unless the plunger is lifted well up when emptying the bowl, pieces of paper or matches, etc. are likely to stick between the rubber ring and the valve seat and thus prevent the closing of the valve. This allows the water to leak out of the bowl, leaving it dry if the closet is supplied by a self-closing valve or by a small tank overhead. If the closet is used when the bowl is dry, the excreta will adhere so strongly that the amount of water usually furnished by the flushing apparatus will be insuffi- cient to remove it, and, as the water again leaks away, it will remain in the bowl and become a nuisance. If the closet is supplied by a ball-cock placed in the plunger chamber, a uniform water-line will be maintained in the bowl, and if the plunger valve should leak, a waste of water would be the result, which cannot well be detected. This kind of closet is constructed either of one piece of porcelain or partly of iron, as shown. Usually all the iron parts, including the plunger, are porcelain-lined. This closet is practically obsolete as a market article in the United States, although it is still in use in many buildings. 7. Flushing Device. A closet float- valve flushing device com- monly used for flushing plunger closets is shown in Fig. 3. This is a cross-section through the plunger valve, at right angles to the view given in Fig. 2, and it shows a ball-cock d that is controlled by the float e. The water rises to the same height in the chamber / that it does in the bowl g, Figs. 2 and 3, and the float is adjusted to maintain the water at the proper level. §31 WATER CLOSETS 5 8. Plunger closets may be flushed with water by means of a closet spring valve on the service pipe, which, when opened, will remain open for a short period of time and will automatically close itself after permitting a quan- t i t y of water 'to pass that is suffi- cient to properly flush the bowl. A valve designed for this purpose is shown in Fig. 4. The valve a is held up to its seat by the spring b. The supply water enters the space between the valve and the piston c. The valve spindle is loose in the valve, and has a conical head at d that fits in a corresponding seat in the piston c. A small hole e permits the water to pass slowly to the under side of the piston. When the valve stem is pushed down by the hand lever f t the valve d opens and allows the water in the lower chamber to escape through the central hole into the outlet g. The area of the piston being larger than that of the valve a , the water pressure drives the piston downwards until it is arrested by the valve d. The pressure on the opposite sides of the piston being now balanced and the lever being released, the spring b pushes the piston upwards and gradually closes the valve a. This upward motion is gradual, because the water required to fill the lower chamber must pass through the small hole and the spring is not strong enough to drive the piston upwards so rapidly as to form a vacuum behind it. The waterways in this valve should equal the area of 1-inch or 1^-inch pipe for water-closet service. The end of the lever usually engages with the plunger rod h of the closet. These valves are not reliable, as they are too apt to get out of order. 6 WATER CLOSETS 21 9 . If it can be avoided, ordinary water closets should never be supplied with water direct from city mains. Unless exposed to frost, they should in all cases be flushed from tanks. HOPPER CLOSETS 10 . Long-Hopper Closet. — One of the simplest forms of a water closet is shown in Fig. 5. This form, which is known to the trade as a long-hop- per closet, and also as a Philadel- phia hopper, has a long closet bowl curved as shown in the illustration. It is provided with a 4-inch outlet horn a passing through the floor, and a floor flange b that serves as a base to support the closet on the floor. The water used for flushing the bowl enters through the inlet horn c. The inlet horn of the long hopper shown in Fig. 5 is obliquely attached to the bowl, so that the water on entering the bowl will swirl around on the inside. 11 . A spreader, or fan, a , Fig 6, which is a piece of sheet metal placed over the inlet or mouth of the horn, is sometimes used to spread the water over the surface of the bowl, as shown by the arrows. The general direction of the flow is nearly hori- zontal. 12 . Sometimes the rim of the closet is hollow, as shown at a in Fig. 7. The horn discharges into the rim, Fig 6. Fig. 5 §21 WATER CLOSETS 7 Fig. 8 diameter. The closet trap a and flushing valve b are thus located below the frost line. A rod c extends above the closet floor and touches the under side of the closet seat d, which is raised about 1 inch in front by a spring in b when the seat is not occupied. When the closet is being used, and a number of perforations on the under side of the rim permit a series of small streams to flow all over the surface of the bowl, as shown by the arrows, their general direction being downwards. This is called a perforated flushing rim. Fig. 7 13 . Antifreezing Hopper Closet. — Fig. 8 shows an antifreezing closet. It is simply a long hopper set over a manhole dug about 4 or 5 feet deep and about 3 feet in 8 WATER CLOSETS 21 the seat is pressed down, which automatically opens the flushing valve b. Water immediately flows through e and flushes the closet. When the weight is removed from the seat, the closet continues to flush until the valve in b reaches its seat. To prevent the water from remaining in the valve b is provided with a small waste hole through which the water in e is allowed to escape through a waste tube h after the valve is closed. Hence the pipe e cannot freeze. The pipe f is a connection from the city mains or other source. Since the valve b is liable to require occa- sional repairs, it is necessary to place a stop-cock at g. A loose cover or trap door i is provided in the floor for access to the manhole or pit under the closet. An arrangement of this character, although not strictly sanitary, is sometimes necessarily required, and there are many in use. 14 . If the supply pipe is smaller than f inch, or is unusually long, it is often necessary to attach a large air chamber to store water under pressure and allow it to dis- charge into the bowl in a large volume when the closet is being flushed. Few of these closets are on the market. They are patented combinations and are handled as specialties. 15 . A long hopper is suitable only for outdoor situations. Hopper closets are seldom supplied with enough water to keep them reasonably clean, and they should be thoroughly scrubbed periodically. A pailful of water should be occa- sionally thrown down the hopper to forcibly relieve the trap of the accumulation of paper and filth, which, if allowed to remain, would eventually choke it. 16 . Short-Hopper Closets. — A short-hopper closet is composed of a bowl and trap above the floor, as shown in Fig. 9. This specific form is generally defined as a short hopper and trap, because the hopper bowl a is separate from the trap b, and they are fitted together on the job. Presumably this is the cheapest water closet on the market. The bowl is made of enameled iron or porcelain. The trap WATER CLOSETS 9 §21 is usually made of cast iron and enameled on the inside. It is superior to the pan closet or plunger closet in every Fig. 9 respect, and if provided with a good flushing rim and an ample supply of water at a good pressure, is a fairly sanitary fixture. The socket shown on top of the trap is for a 2-inch cast-iron vent connection to prevent siphonage of the trap. 17 . Fig. 10 shows a section through the short hopper shown in Fig. 9. The cast-iron trap is connected to the soil 10 WATER CLOSETS §21 pipe a by a calked joint above the floor and the back-vent horn is connected by a calked joint to the back-vent pipe b. These are good solid closet connections, and are reliable. The trap is shown filled with water at c. When this closet is flushed, the water-line will rise inside the bowl probably to the height of the dotted line d. If the water rises slowly, owing to a slow inflow of the flushing water, paper is liable to float on top and will not be driven through the trap. Hence, the flushing should be done rapidly. A 3-gallon flush delivered through a lj-inch flush pipe from a small tank located about 6 feet above the closet is generally suffi- cient to force out the closet contents each time. 18 . The chief objection to the ordinary short hopper and trap is that the bowl becomes foul, because it is dry when the closet is being used. The excreta falls on the dry sur- face, adheres thereto, and cannot be entirely washed off with an ordinary flush. 19 . The short hopper and trap closet is commonly used in workshops, cheap tenements, etc., where appearance is not an important factor. 20 . Pedestal -Hopper Closets. — In Fig. 11 is shown a form of hopper closet that is usually made entirely of porce- lain, and is known to the trade as a pedestal-hopper closet, although it is sometimes called a combined hopper and trap. It is provided with a flushing rim a , which is supplied from a flush pipe that connects to the horn b. A lip is formed at c to cause a jet of water to be ejected down into the trap, as shown by arrows. This causes the paper and solids in the closet to be driven down and quickly pass through the trap. 21 WATER CLOSETS 11 This closet has the objection of having a large amount of dry fouling surface in the bowl. Pedestal-hopper closets are sometimes called wash-down closets, which is a misnomer, as all closets flush downwards. 21 . A pedestal hopper with outlet above the floor is shown in Fig. 12. It has the least possible amount of foul- ing surface in the bowl. The area of water in the bowl is large, so that solids will drop into the water. The surface of the bowl is thus protected against filth, but if the flush is weak, paper is liable to stay in the bowl. It is necessary to have a strong flush for this closet, in order to obtain perfect results. The form of trap shown is known as a P trap. When the trap terminates at the floor, as in Fig. 11, it is called an S trap. The P trap permits connections to be made above the floor, as shown. A special fitting a is used 12 . WATER CLOSETS § 21 to connect the trap by means of a bolted flange joint and rubber gasket at b to the soil pipe c. A socket or tapping at d is furnished for a connection to the back-vent pipe e y which is shown con- nected up. FIG. 13 22. Occasionally it is necessary to con- nect a row of closets to a nearly horizontal soil pipe a , running at the back of the closets, as shown in Fig. 13. The ped- estal hopper with P trap is then very desirable. Fig. 13 shows how such a closet appears when connected up com- plete, except that the water -supply pipe to the tank b is not shown. The flush pipe c is lj-inch nickel-plated brass about 6 feet long. The chain pull d , when pulled down, operates a mecha- nism inside the tank b and allows the con- tents of the tank to flush the closet. In setting these closets, great care must be taken to make a perfect gas-tight joint at e, and also to thoroughly support the soil pipes so that they will not settle and break the porcelain. 21 WATER CLOSETS ^3 WASHOUT CLOSETS 23. Construction. — A washout closet is shown in Fig. 14. It is composed of a bowl and trap. The bottom of the bowl has a large area and is comparatively shallow. The depth of water remaining in the bowl should be li to If inches at the deepest point. Water is supplied to the closet bowl through the lf-inch flush pipe a and the perforated flushing rim b, the larger volume entering the bowl at the back. If the basin is deeper, the fresh water may pass under the solid excreta and fail to remove it before the flush is exhausted ; and if the basin is shallower, the excreta may adhere so strongly that it cannot all be washed away without using more water than can be allowed. The soil-pipe branch and trap was formerly ventilated by a back-vent connection made to a porcelain horn situated at c, but this has been dispensed with because the porcelain horn 14 WATER CLOSETS 21 would break too easily. The bowl may be ventilated by attaching a pipe to the local- vent connection d. This, how- ever, is seldom done unless the pipe can be run inside or near a warm chim- ney. The lip e forming the seal of the trap f should dip into the standing water in the trap not less than 1 f inches nor more than If inches. If it is submerged to a greater depth, the excreta, paper, etc. will require a larger and more forcible supply of water than can be allowed to carry them down under the lip and expel them. If the submergence of the lip is less than If inches, there is danger, at times, of its failing to prop- erly seal the trap. The closet shown is called a front- on 1 1 e t washout water closet; washout closets are also made with the outlet at the side or at the back, as desired. They are also constructed with the bowl separate from the trap, the bowl being of porce- lain and the trap of iron. This permits the trap to be 21 WATER CLOSETS 15 firmly calked into the cast-iron soil pipe, insuring a strong joint at that point. 24. Fig. 15 shows a front-outlet washout water closet and overhead flushing tank fitted up complete, excepting the water-supply connection to the tank. The closet has a floor connection to the soil pipe. It has no back-vent con. nection to the porcelain. There may or may not be a local- vent connection to the bowl; usually there is none. The closet is shown bolted down with four closet expansion bolts a and washers to a marble safe b. If the closet is set on a wood floor, the two front fastenings are usually brass lagscrews, the rear fastenings being bolts attached to a brass floor flange under the porcelain closet flange. Fig. 15 illustrates a thoroughly sanitary fixture that gives satisfactory results if the bowl is scoured out occasionally with a scrubbing brush to remove traces of solid matter that may adhere to it. 25. Vent Connection. — Practical experience of recent years has taught the plumbing trade that the porcelain vent horns of water closets are so easily cracked, or broken off, that it is not advisable to back-vent any form of water closet from a porcelain horn. This defect has been so pro- nounced that many plumbing rules and regulations prohibit the use of porcelain back-vent horns. Theoretically, a back-vent connection should be made to the top of the trap, but in practice it must be made on the metallic pipe near the floor flange connection to the closet. 26. Advantages and Disadvantages. — The washout closet is quite noisy in its operation, and the space over the trap inlet is liable to become foul. These are the principal objections to this form of closet. But, it has an advantage, which, for family use, entirely overbalances the disadvan- tages; namely, it holds the contents open to view for inspec- tion, as mothers and nurses usually desire to carefully watch the passages of children. Besides, should children throw such things as dolls, etc., into a washout water closet, they can 16 WATER CLOSETS § 21 easily be observed before the closet is flushed. Such things, if dropped into other style closets, may sink into the trap and be accidentally flushed through the closet and into the soil pipe, when they may choke the closet or the drainage system. If the objection to noise is not an important factor, it is quite proper to install front-outlet washout closets for family use. SIPHON-JET CLOSETS 27. Advantages.— The siphon-jet closet is a form of closet that has become quite popular. If properly flushed, it gives excellent results. It is clean, ejects the solid contents quickly, has a good depth of water into which the solids fall and thus instantly become partially deodorized, and is self- cleansing, or as nearly so as any water closet yet put in public use. With the exception of its liability to chokage, it is considered to be the best form of closet on the market. But, it must be supplied from a flushing tank that is espe- cially constructed to discharge the proper amount of water, preferably a siphon cistern; otherwise, the siphon closet will be just as bad as, or worse than, the poorest form in use. 28. Early Form. — One of the first siphon-jet closets placed on the market is shown in Fig. 16. It clearly illus- trates the genera] principle on which this type of closet operates. The contents of the bowl are sucked out by the siphon, which is formed by the two tubes a and b. Some of the water that enters the flushing rim c rushes down the tube d , forming a jet that drives the water in a Up into the space e and fills the tube b . As b is longer than a , the two pas- sages act as a siphon until the water in the bowl falls below the lip y, when air enters and stops siphonage. The closet outlet horn g is attached to the soil-pipe branch. The bacl^-vent pipe k ventilates the closet branch and prevents the bowl from being siphoned by the discharge of other fixtures into the same stack. §21 WATER CLOSETS 17 In the latest forms of siphon closets the back-vent horn h is dispensed with altogether, and instead of the back-vent connection being made to the porcelain, it is made to the soil-pipe branch under the floor and as near to the closet as possible. 29. Modern Forms. — There are now many different makes of siphon closets in the market, but, in a general way, they are all about alike. Fig. 17 shows a common modern form. The closet is composed of one solid piece of porcelain. The back strip a of the seat is secured to the bowl by means of lagscrews, as shown. Many seats are secured with through bolts instead. A cover b is shown hinged to a , which is very suitable for closets in private dwellings, particularly in bathrooms, but in public build- ings it is seldom advisable to use hinged covers over the seats. The flush pipe c connects to the closet horn with a slip-joint attachment which, although water-tight, allows the flush pipe to be jarred without breaking the horn. A water channel extends down the side of the closet, as shown by dotted lines, and terminates at a f-inch or -|-inch aperture d 18 WATER CLOSETS 21 J I gf. at the bottom of the closet; the horn also has a water channel that delivers into the flushing rim. When the closet chain is pulled, and water falls down the flush pipe, part of it flows into the bowl through the flushing rim and part of it is ejected in the form of a jet from d. The jet throws a large volume of water from the trap into the out- let channel e, which acts like the long leg of a siphon, and rapidly siphons the bowl nearly empty. The illustration shows the bowl siphoned nearly empty and air being sucked in under the lip /, which stops siphonage. The capacity of the flushing tank should be so arranged that the flush will stop when the bowl is filled again. The Municipal and Sanitary Engineering, water Uniysrsifys of Illinois, 19 pipe.^' shown at the left of the flush pipe is a £-inch, nickel-plated, brass water-supply pipe for the closet tank. A stop-cock li is placed in it to shut off the water from the tank when repairs are required. 30. Another siphon-jet closet is shown in Fig. 18. The jet is concealed from view. It is located at the back of the lip a that forms the seal. The water channel b that supplies the jet is formed between the bowl and the inlet leg of the siphon. 31. Some siphon-jet closets are furnished with a refill- ing 1 chamber in the form of a bulge or swelling on the side of the closet, as shown by dotted lines at c in Fig. 18; the two small holes shown in b are used to refill the seal at the lip and thus prevent drain air from coming into the building through the flushing rim or through the flush pipe if the closet seal should not be properly replaced after a siphonic discharge. The closet seat attachment is of brass and rigidly bolted through the porcelain, which is reinforced by an extra 20 WATER CLOSETS §21 thickness at that point. This makes a very strong and clean seat attachment, every part of which can be easily cleaned. 32, A plain siplion closet, or wash-down siplion, as it is commonly called by its manufacturers, is a cheap form of siphon closet. It has the same construction as the siphon-jet type, excepting that it has no jet to produce a quick discharge of the bowl. When such a closet is flushed, the water in the bowl simply overflows into the outlet leg, as shown in Fig. 19, and is wasted. The solid matter and paper remain at or near the surface of the water in the bowl, until the siphon leg becomes so completely charged with water as to start siphonage, when the bowl will be emptied. But as siphonage usually does not start until the flush is nearly exhausted, solids in the short leg a of the siphon fre- quently fall back and return to the bowl. Although the flush should continue until all the contents of the bowl were thrown over the lip b, this form of closet would yet be defective, because most of the water leaves the clo'set in advance of the solid matter. In such a case, the solids ejected from the bowl remain in the house-drainage system WATER CLOSETS 21 § 21 until the closet is flushed again ; it is only then that the solid matter is conveyed beyond the house-drainage system. It is different with a well-made siphon-jet closet that dis- charges the contents of the bowl quickly ; here the latter part of the flush is used to convey the solids to the sewer. The plain siphon closet, therefore, is not to be recommended unless the closet is supplied with a quick-acting and very strong flush. When combined with a low-down tank, the ordinary plain siphon closet gives trouble by chokage and waste of water. LOW -DOWN TANK CLOSETS * 33. Low-down tank closets are becoming quite popular, because of their marked quietness in action and their adapt- ability to places where overhead tanks cannot be in- stalled. They are particularly suited for sp a c e s under stairs, etc., where there is too little headroom for ordi- nary tank closets, and are often placed in toilet rooms ad- joining sick cham- bers. Fig. 20 shows a favorite arrange- ment. The tank a, which contains about 5 or 6 gallons of water, is located fig. 20 immediately at the back of the closet. The mechanism in the tank is similar to that in overhead tanks, the chief difference being that the flush pipe b is much larger. The valve in the tank is from 3 to 4 inches in diameter. 22 WATER CLOSETS §21 34. In Fig. 20, the low-down tank is supplied with water through the bottom by a ^-inch nickel-plated brass supply pipe c having a shut-off valve or stop-cock attached to it above the floor for convenience in shutting off the water from the tank when it needs repairs. A chain pull d is used to operate the flush. A push button or other means may, however, be employed to operate the flush. 35. The chief objection to the ordinary forms of low- down tank closets is that the flush is weak, due to the low head of the flush. In attempting to overcome this objec- tion, the closet outlet is often contracted so much that it becomes easily choked. Another objection is that a larger amount of water is required to produce a perfect flush than when the tank is high up. This also is due to lack of head for flushing. DIRECT-FLUSH CLOSETS 36. Installation. — Direct-flush closets, i. e., those that are flushed by a direct connection to the city mains or to the general plumbing system in a building, ap- pear to be in demand for special places or special work. The chief advan- tages claimed for them are the reduced cost of installation and the small amount of space they occupy. Fig. 21 shows one of these closets con- nected up complete. It is essentially composed of an ordinary siphon-jet closet, the horn of which is connected to a lever- handle valve attachment, as shown at* <2, and which is supplied with water from the regular house service pipes. WATER CLOSETvS 23 § 21 37. Flushing 1 Apparatus. — Fig. 22 shows, in section, the valve attachment mentioned in the previous article. It is known to the trade as the Flushometer, which is the name applied to it by the manufacturer. This valve is principally composed of an outer casing, an inner casing, two valves, and a lever handle. The outer casing is tapped 1^ inches or 1J inches at a , to connect to an iron water- supply pipe. The outer casing above the valve seat b is therefore subject to the full water pressure when the closet is not in use. The inner chamber c is screwed over the valve seat. A number of holes (about ^ inch diameter) are 24 WATER CLOSETS §21 drilled all around this chamber at d, to allow water to flow from the outer chamber into the inner chamber; a regula- ting ring e is arranged to screw down over the port holes at d , and thus regulate the volume of the flush. The coup- ling f connects to the closet with a slip joint. When the handle g is pulled toward the closet, a lever arm raises the valve stem /*, thus opening a small relief valve i before the large, or flush, valve /, is opened by a crosshead k engaging the hollow stem /. The relief valve allows water in c to freely escape to the closet bowl when j is raised quickly. When the large valve is raised off its seat, water flows freely from a through f to the flushing rim and siphon- jet channel of the closet. When the handle has been pulled over as far as it will go, the plunger in and the two valves are raised to the top of the chamber c , and the water in c has been displaced by the plunger. As soon as the hand is removed from the handle g, the relief valve closes automatic- ally, and as the plunger fits the inner chamber closely, the large valve falls to its seat with a speed that varies with the size of the opening that allows water to enter c and occupy the space that the plunger is vacating as it falls. 38. To regulate the falling speed of the plunger, which also means to regulate the length of time that the closet will be flushed, a regulating screw n is provided; this has a tapering slot cut on the thread. By unscrewing n , the small water passage is increased and the duration of the flush is shortened. By screwing down n , the aperture is closed more and the duration of the flush is increased. To insure a refilling of the closet bowl before the flush stops, i. e., to cause the latter part of the flush to flow slowly into the closet bowl and thus refill it without danger of another siphonic action in the closet, a ring or controller o is loosely fitted around /. When the valve is raised, this allows water to come easily to the closet at first, but when the valve is raised about one-quarter of its range, the ring o is also raised above the level of the valve seat and the full volume of the flush goes to the closet. If this ring were omitted, §21 WATER CLOSETS 25 the flush (from a high-pressure source) would come to the closet with such speed as to jar the fixture and make a dis- agreeable noise. If the flushometer is properly adjusted to suit the conditions under which it operates, a nearly noise- less and thorough flush can be obtained. 39 . Flushometers are made to operate under high or low pressure, but as a rule they are not suitable for pressures less than 10 pounds by the gauge. 40 . If the service pipe that supplies the closet valve is sufficiently large to insure an abundant supply of water for flushing, the form of closet shown in Fig. 21 will give satisfactory results. But, if the pipes are small and the supply not abun- dant, the closets will not flush satisfactorily no matter what pres- sure may be in the pipes. If the service pipe that supplies a building with water from a street main is j inch or less, it is practically impossible to obtain a direct flush of sufficient vol- ume and force. In such a case it is nec- essary to use a tank a , Fig. 23, in the attic or elsewhere, to supply the closets. The tank should contain from 5 to 6 gallons 26 WATER CLOSETS* 21 of water for each closet supplied from it. A downward supply pipe b, whose size will depend on the number of closets that are likely to be flushed at the same time, is used to supply all the closets. In the illustration, the sizes given should produce good results. Fig. 23 illustrates how the direct-flushing closet is par- ticularly adapted to be placed under windows, as at c; under stairs, as at d\ or on platforms where there is no headroom for an ordinary flushing tank, as at e.. 41 . If a tank is not used, and if the service pipe from the street main is small (say 1 inch or less), a direct-flushing' valve a , Fig. 24, may be used in combination with an air chamber b. A f-inch pipe c connecting to the city mains delivers water into the base of the air chamber, but above the flushing valve. The street pressure compresses the air in b, and thus fills it with water to a height commensurate with the pressure. Thus a consid- erable volume of water is stored in b under full city pressure. The instant the handle d of the valve is pulled down and the flush valve opened, the water in b is swiftly discharged into the closet by the ex- panding compressed air in the chamber b. As soon as the air has expanded to a low pressure, the flush Fig. 24 21 WATER CLOSETS 27 becomes too weak to be effective; it is useful then only to refill the bowl. Hence the necessity of a large air chamber. Since air chambers lose air by its absorption in the water, the chambers should be occasionally replenished. Hence the tank-supply system has an advantage over the street- pressure system with air compression chambers. 4 2 , The flushometer should take from 7 to 12 seconds to flush properly. In fitting up these fixtures, the plumber must be careful that no red lead or other cement used in making up the joints is allowed to get into the inner chamber, as this may prevent the valve falling to its seat. 43. To determine whether a flushometer can be success- fully operated from a street supply, first disconnect the serv- ice pipe, then turn on the water full force and allow it to run for 10 seconds. If the volume of water discharged in that time is not equal to or greater than 5 gallons, it may safely be decided that the water supply is not sufficient for a direct flush. PNEUMATIC SIPHON CLOSETS 44. Pneumatic siplion closets have two traps and an air chamber between. The lower trap is usually located under the floor, being separated from the closet proper. A |-inch or |-inch tube connects the air chamber to an air ejector located inside the flush pipe just under the tank. As the water falls down the flush pipe from the overhead tank to the flushing rim of the closet, it draws air from the chamber between the traps and thus starts siphonage of the bowl. This form of closet is not so popular as the siphon-jet closet. It has the disadvantage of discharging, along with the water, the foul air from the trap chamber through the flushing rim, whence it is liberated into the rooms; 28 WATER CLOSETS §21 therefore, from a sanitary point of view, it is not so desirable as the siphon-jet or front-outlet washout closets. Besides, it has more parts to become choked or otherwise impaired by usage. LOCAL- VENT CLOSETS 45 . Closet Construction. — There are a large number of water closets constructed with connections for local vents, but usually the horns are too small for natural draft ventilation, being only about 2 inches in diameter. A closet especially con- structed with large local- vent openings is shown in Fig. 25. Two large vent openings a , a in the form of a horseshoe are molded in- side the porcelain body, a 4-inch outlet being made at the back of the closet to connect to a 4-inch local- vent pipe b , that runs up in- side the walls against which the closet is set. The inlet openings for the local vent in the bowl are above the water-line of the bowl, and the closet is so constructed that, while being flushed, water cannot back into the local-vent openings. The local-vent pipe b should be continued to a permanently hot flue, and either connected to the flue or run up to and through the roof alongside of the flue in such a manner that it will be heated by the flue. This is necessary in order to insure a positive upward current in the local-vent pipe at all times. 46 . Venting Mechanism. — In places where it is impos sible to obtain the aid of a permanently heated flue, it is Fig. 25 21 WATER CLOSETS 29 necessary to insure a positive ventilation by means of mech- anism. For example, a fan a operated by a small electric motor b may be used, as shown in Fig. 26, but as this is an expensive installation, it is very seldom used except in hotels or other such buildings where the local vent from a large number of closets can be connected together and joined to the fan inlet, as shown. The discharge pipe c from the fan delivers the foul air into the outer atmosphere, preferably above the roof. Local-vent pipes may be made of No. 26 or 28 galvanized sheet iron; joints and seams should be riveted and soldered or otherwise made air-tight. If a local-vent pipe is taken from a closet and run up through the roof away from a heated flue, there will be times when a down draft will occur. This is decidedly objectionable and renders the local-vent pipe more danger- ous than useful. 30 WATER CLOSETS §21 47 . Fig. 27 shows a sectional view of a small ventilator for local venting a closet by mechanical means; it is oper- ated automatically, and can be connected to any closet having the seat attached to the bowl. When the seat is being used, the push button a is pressed down, opening the valve b by the lever c. This allows the water to flow Property ot tlw Dep’t ot Municipal and Sanitary Engineering, §31 water cyijfogrgjty ct ISSinnis. 31 through the pipe d into the nipple plate e , which has a small hole through which the water plays on the blade f of an impulse wheel operating the fan g y which is connected to the waterwheel shaft, as shown. The revolving fan draws the foul air from the closet bowl h through a special inlet i located under the seat, and ejects it to the outer atmos- phere through the vent pipe j\ as shown by the arrows. After the water passes the wheel, it flows back to the closet along the bottom of the vent tube. 48. Fig. 28 shows the ventilator connected to a low-down tank siphon-jet water closet. All parts visible have been lettered the same as the corresponding parts in Fig. 27 ; the water-supply pipe k is connected to the house service. 21 WATER CLOSETS 33 WATER-CLOSET RANGES TROUGH CLOSETS 49 . A trough closet, or closet range, as it is commonly called, is simply a long narrow water-supplied trough pro- vided with an outlet at its lower end, the trough being sur- mounted by a row of water-closet seats with or without partitions between them. They are used chiefly in cheap schoolhouses, barracks, workshops, etc. , and for public places, such as in the streets, squares, and parks of cities, where closets receive the worst usage. If they are in charge of a janitor or other attendant, they may be provided with any suitable form of hand-flushing device. But, if there is liability of neglect in attention, they should be flushed automatically. 50 . Fig. 29 (a) shows an automatic siphon water-closet range in common use. A cross-section through the trough is shown in detail in Fig. 29 ( b ). The trough a is made of cast iron, which should be enameled white inside. The bottom pitches slightly down to the discharge opening b. Two traps, c and d , are placed on the drain that conveys the contents of the trough to the sewer. The space between c and d is air-tight. A j-inch or 1-inch air pipe c connects with the water in the tank yin such a manner that when the water is being discharged from the tank a strong suction is produced that draws air from the space g. A large pipe h (usually 4-inch or 5-inch) connects the bottom of the tank to a large fan or spreader i , and to two perforated flush pipes y‘,y running the full length of the trough under the closet seats. The tank is of the automatic class, and the trough operates on the pneumatic discharge principle. Par- titions are shown between the closets. The spaces between the partitions are known as stalls. A ventilating extension is placed at the discharge end of the trough, and its collar k is fitted with a sheet-metal flue /, which is continued up to and through the roof, alongside or 34 WATER CLOSETS § 21 inside of a warm flue. This is a local vent that carries off odors from the trough, as shown by the arrows. 51 . The operation of this' apparatus is simple. Water from the city mains or house tank enters /"through a |-inch or f-inch pipe m, the stop-cock being regulated so that the tank will fill about once each hour or longer, according to existing conditions. At the proper time, the tank begins to discharge its contents through /;, i, and j. At the same time a partial vacuum is produced in g that causes the water in c to immediately flow into g and start a siphonage of the trough. The water coming from the inlet i pushes all solids toward the outlet. The tubes /, j cleanse the sides of the trough. When the siphonage stops, the trap d retains its seal and the trough is refilled from the tank to about the level shown. LATRINES 52 . Latrines are a series of strong stoneware or cast-iron pans or closet bowls, usually porcelain-lined, connected at a their bottom by a large pipe that forms part of them and that has a gentle fall to the outlet end. Fig. 30 shows a form that is flushed by hand. The bowls a, a , etc. are furnished with flushing rims. A plunger b , which also acts as an overflow, is seated water-tight in the plunger chamber. There are many different ways of flush- ing the bowls. The one shown is similar in principle to the method of flushing the plunger closet in Figs. 2 and 3. The valve c is opened or closed by the ball float falling or rising with the water in the plunger chamber, which, of course, §21 WATER CLOSETS 35 corresponds with the water-line of the closet bowls. The branches that connect to the flushing rims of the bowls are smaller than the main flush pipe d. Latrines, although superior to trough closets, are not very desirable fixtures. In this particular style, the entire row must be flushed in order to cleanse any one bowl. A more sanitary arrange- ment can be obtained by simply using individual closets separately trapped and flushed from separate tanks overhead. Probably the greatest objection to the latrine shown here is that, should a partial vacuum be formed in the supply pipe foul air in the closet bowls may be sucked into e when the plunger b is raised and thereby contaminate the water sup- ply to other outlets. If the latrines are arranged to be flushed from a large tank overhead, this danger will be overcome. Latrines are used chiefly in public places, schools, railroad stations, factories, barracks, etc., and are usually under the control of a janitor. 53. Fig. 31 shows a set of modern automatic latrines fitted up complete. It is composed of a number of 36 WATER CLOSETS §21 enameled cast-iron bowls a , a , etc., each furnished with a flushing rim. A double-trap pneumatic siphon arrange- ment similar to that shown in Fig. 29 is located at b. The cast-iron flushing tank c operates automatically, and is sup- ported on the partitions d, d. The flush pipe branches off at its base with a twin elbow, shown by dotted lines at e. This splits the flush and diverts it equally to the two hori- zontal pipes f, f. Branches are taken from these pipes, as shown by dotted lines, to flush the bowls, and the extreme end of each pipe /'returns and joins the higher ends of the trunk lines g, g, as shown at h. The return bends h , h thus flush g, g t while the smaller branches i flush the bowls. The air pipe j connects to the top of the flush pipe and acts the same as e in Fig. 29. 54. The dimensions best adapted to latrine stalls for schools are about 2 feet between stalls; 16 inches to top of seat; 5 feet to 5 feet 0 inches from floor to top of partitions; about 8 feet from the floor to the top of the tank; diameter of outlet, 5 inches. 55. When a set consists of 5 latrines or less, the outlet section is placed at the end. When it consists of more than 5 and up to 10 latrines, the outlet section is placed in the center, as shown. When it is desired to have more than 10 latrines in a battery, they should be set back to back in the middle of the floor. This will allow 20 latrines in one battery, which are supplied from one tank over the center. WATER-CLOSET STALLS 56. Water-closet stalls, or closet apartments, are usually constructed with marble partitions, nickel-plated brass fastenings, and special doors. The walls against which the closets are set are generally covered with glazed tiles, slate, or marble slabs, and the floors of the stalls are commonly of the same material. The stalls are generally § 21 WATER CLOSETS 37 arranged side by side against one of the walls of the toilet room in which they are located. 57. Fig. 32 shows marble or slate stalls in which water closets a , a , are located. These closets are flushed by tanks b , b , b. The stall partitions c, c, c and stiles d , d , are separate slabs supported on nickel-plated brass legs, or standards, e, e. They are braced on top by nickel-plated brass pillars f, f \ f and a pipe railing g. The dimensions 38 WATER CLOSETS §21 of each stall are about 3 feet 6 inches wide; 5 feet 8 inches from front to rear, and 6 feet 6 inches high. These dimen- sions are not arbitrary, for the stalls can be made any size. The rear ends of the partitions are let into the wall about 1^ or 2 inches for support and secured with nickel-plated brass brackets. The doors are usually hinged to the stiles with spring hinges. The only locking attachment required is a bolt inside, and it is advisable that the lock be so con- structed that when closed a sign will be moved on the front of the door to indicate whether the stall is occupied or not. The thickness of the marble should be at least 1J inches, which, if the marble is good, is sufficiently strong for ordi- nary service. The partitions and doors should never extend to the floor. There should be a clear space of about 1 foot for ventilation and for convenience in scrubbing the floor. 58 . Fig. 33 (a) shows a good form of corner standard, and Fig. 33 (b) a common intermediate standard to sup- ra; (b) Fig. 33 port a stile with the recess a and a partition with the recess b. After the slabs are set in their respective places, holes are drilled through them to mateh the holes c in the standards and other fixings; then screw bolts, similar to that shown in Fig. 33 (c), are used. The part a is the nut. It is tapped to fit the bolt and has a half-round head with a slot in it. This makes a very neat bolt and nut for marble work. 21 WATER CLOSETS 39 WATER-CLOSET DETAILS WATER-CLOSET SEATS WALL-ATTACHED SEATS 59 . Water-closet seats are given many forms, but very few of them have a proper shape. Several state boards of health have settled on the shape shown in Fig. 34 as the best form, and recommend its general use. They say: “The hole in the seat should be long from front to back, but narrow from side to side. It should never be made circular, as carpenters will do unless otherwise instructed. The proper dimensions are 11 inches by 4 inches. The edges should be moderately beveled. This shape will make the act of relief much easier and tend greatly to prevent that painful disease, hemorrhoids.” Fig. 34 60 . Fig. 35 shows a wall -attached seat a , cover b , and back c. A bracket d is screwed to the under side of the strip e near each end. The brackets are then screwed to the wall at such a height that the seat will be level when it rests on the closet, and in such a position that the center of the seat will be over the center of the closet. A notch is cut in the middle of e , to allow space for the flush pipe f. The back c is hollow, being in the form of a box. A neat hole is cut on top of c to fit the flush pipe. This makes a strong seat that is independent of the closet. Being rigidly secured to the wall, the closet cannot be shaken and the floor joint consequently loosened by an ordinary use of the closet; this 40 WATER CLOSETS - § 21 is an advantage. But, a disadvantage that is greater than the advantage condemns this attachment from a sanitary standpoint. There is too much woodwork in this seat to become foul, and the space behind c is a lodging place for filth and vermin. The back c only makes a neat finish at the base of the flush pipe. 61 . A more sanitary form of wall-attached seat is shown in Fig. 36. The seat is hinged to brackets a, a that are Fig. 36 rigidly screwed to the wall. This construction has a mini- mum amount of woodwork. The cover may or may not be used. Property of ffie Dep’t of Municipal and Sanitary Enginsorini?, § 21 WATER (iflbeisifysof Hiinnis. « For public places, it is advisable to omit the cover and use only the plain seat. Covers are useful in private bath- rooms, because they allow the closet to be used as a chair. CLOSET- ATTACHED SEATS 63. A closet-attachedL seat of the common form is shown in plan in Fig. 37. It is made of hardwood, generally oak, ash, walnut, or mahogany. The distance from the wall to the front of a closet seat varies, but is usually somewhere between 22 and 24 inches. In Fig. 37, the back part a is firmly bolted to the closet, and the front part is hinged to the back part; the flush pipe b comes up between the closet and wall. The common form of hole in the seat is shown by this illustration; the objection to this form is that it proves uncomfortable for many people. 3. A dislied-out closet seat is shown in Fig. 38. The dimensions are taken from one of the best and most comfort- fig. 38 able closet seats made. The upper surface of the seat is 42 WATER CLOSETS §21 nicely countersunk, or dished out. The sectional views are shown projected from the plan so that an accurate idea of the curves may be obtained. 64. Closet seats should be so made, and the grain of the wood so arranged, that the wood will not warp, sliver, or fall to pieces. Quartered oak in two or three layers crossed, or in one piece with dowels and cross-strips, seems to be the best material. SEAT BUFFERS 65. Seat buffers are small cushions of rubber used to prevent the seat from striking the porcelain rim of the closet and also to prevent the cover from scratching the seat. Four buffers, or buttons, as they are some- times called, should be attached to the under side of the seat, and four to the under side of the cover. A buffer should also be attached to the flush pipe if the seat or cover folds back against it. The proper location for buffers is shown by dotted circles, as c , in Fig. 37. A buffer ion a flush-pipe strap is shown in Fig. 17. Fig. 39 shows a good form of buffer. The shank is let into a hole bored in the wood, and a f-inch brass screw holds the buffer in its place. The head of the screw must be set well into the rubber, to prevent its striking the porcelain when the rubber is compressed. Fig. 39 WATER-CLOSET CONNECTIONS BACK- VENT CONNECTIONS 66. Owing to the fact that rigid connections to porce- lain closets invariably break the porcelain, all leading health departments forbid back-venting closets from the porcelain. Fig. 40 shows how the back-vent connections are usually made. A 2-inch back-vent pipe a is wiped to the inner 21 WATER CLOSETS 43 curve of the 4-inch lead bend b, as shown. The horizontal part of the vent pipe is inclined, so that any water backed up into it may drain out into b. The conical top c on the bend shows how the open end above the floor is drawn in with the dresser; it is then soldered tight, so that it may successfully resist the pressure of a water test. SOIL-PIPE CONNECTIONS 67. The soil-pipe connection, that is, the joint between the outlet of the water closet,, or trap, and the soil pipe where it passes through the floor, as at c, in Fig. 40, is a matter of great importance. The common joint, which is made with putty, the porcelain flange being secured to the floor by screws, is rarely air-tight or gas-tight, although it may not leak water. 68. Porcelain closets are commonly attached by means of a brass floor-plate joint, as shown in Fig. 41. The soil- pipe branch a , if of lead, is soldered to a brass flange b, which is secured to the floor. A rubber gasket c is put between the flanges, and the porcelain closet flange d is 44 WATER CLOSETS §21 screwed down on it by three or four screws or bolts, which should be of substantial size and be provided with washers, as at e . The porcelain flange has but little strength and is easily broken; therefore, great care should be taken in screwing up the joint to avoid breakage. Sometimes the lead pipe is flanged over on the floor and the porcelain flange is set on it with a bedding of putty. Such a joint will not remain gas-tight ; it is worthless, and should not be allowed. The best plan is to have only the fig. 41 bowl made of porcelain, and to have the trap made of iron porcelain-lined or of other metal; this can then be calked into the hub of the soil pipe and a secure joint made. The joint between porcelain and metal, which every porce- lain fixture must have, should be on the house side of the seal of the trap. Joints between metal and porcelain are weak and unreliable, and should not be subjected to sewer gas. The porcelain flange shown in Fig. 41 is weak and liable to be broken if the closet receives a jar or rough usage. A closet with a strong broad base should, therefore, be selected. 09. Fig. 42 ( a ) shows in plan, and Fig. 42 ( b ) in section, a strong and secure method of setting a porcelain water closet on a marble slab. The top of the lead bend a is §21 WATER CLOSETS 45 soldered to a brass floor flange b. The closet is then set temporarily and the holes are marked on the marble for the expansion bolts c , c , etc., which are located at each corner of the closet base, as shown in the plan. The closet is then removed, and the four bolt holes are drilled in the marble. The expansion bolts are next secured in position, and the closet is set permanently, a soft rubber gasket being employed, as shown at d , to make the joint gas-tight, and plaster of Paris, or, better still, Keene’s cement, being used to fill the space e and thereby cement the base solid to the marble. If a porcelain closet is set in this manner, there will be no danger of the gasket joint leaking by the closet being jarred, or of horns being broken from the same cause. 46 WATER CLOSETS 21 70. The ordinary brass-bolted floor flange makes a good connection, but if it should ever become imperfect there is no suitable means of knowing the fact without applying a smoke test. Closet connections are the weakest points of a drainage system, and are often dangerously defective. They, therefore, require thoughtful consideration as well as' very careful work in making them. 71. One of the best floor connections is shown in Fig. 43. This is a water-sealed floor connection. The pipe a is continued 1^ inches above the finished floor, the end being rounded and free from burrs. The floor is countersunk to receive a support- ing flange b , which is attached to the pipe. A brass flange c compresses the rubber gasket d against the porcelain when the bolts e are drawn up; an annular space is thus formed around the neck of the pipe which fills with water at the first operation of the closet, thus sealing the connection. If the connection leaks, this water will run out on the floor; if it does not, gas cannot escape. This con- nection, therefore, is self-testing. III mm JL. rastiil Immd! HBH i c "I -J fig. 44 72. A threaded floor connection is shown in section in Fig. 44. It is calked with lead at a and cemented into the base b of the closet by the manufacturer. The joint thus §21 WATER CLOSETS 47 formed makes the brass connection equivalent to an inte- gral part of the closet, and the porcelain is liable to break before this connection loosens. The chief advantage of this connection is its metal-to-metal bearing, which avoids the use of rubber or other gaskets. The brass coupling, or brass ring c, which is threaded inside, is wiped to the lead bend d in such a manner that when the closet is screwed down it will sit flat on the floor and be in its exact position when the thread is screwed up tight; otherwise, the bend will be twisted in making the last turn of the closet. Lugs may be formed on the bend and secured to the floor by screws, if desired, to positively prevent the bend from being twisted. 73. Great care must be taken to have the face of the ring parallel with the plane of the floor; therefore, the use of a gauge, as shown at a in Fig. 45, is advised. The ring should be screwed up on the closet first by hand, and the front marked so that it will not be soldered in wrong. FLUSH-PIPE CONNECTIONS 74. The flush-pipe connection, that is, the connection between the inlet horn and the flushing pipe, is commonly made in the older forms of closets by a screw coupling, as shown in Fig. 46. The brass nipple a is sometimes put in place before the porcelain is baked, and it becomes loose during the baking process. To tighten it, a locknut b and a rubber gasket c are used^ as shown. This joint is rigid. If the flush pipe d is rigidly attached to the walls, and there is any settlement of the building after the attachment to the closet is made, or if the closet is jarred much, a great strain 48 WATER CLOSETS § 21 is brought on the coupling, which frequently breaks off the horn at e , e. 75 . Another way to make the connection is shown in Fig. 47. A rubber collar a is molded to fit the outside of the horn and the flush pipe b. It is secured to both by winding with copper wire at c and d. If the rub- ber is of good qual- ity, this joint will be durable and will ac- commodate itself to any ordinary settle- ment of the building or jarring of the fixture. Should there be danger of an extraordinary settlement, the flush pipe b should be connected to the horn by a rubber elbow or bend. It has been found, however, that this attachment is not durable. 70 . Brass flush-pipe connections to closet horns should be made with a slip joint, as at j in Fig. 17. This form of joint has proved to be quite reliable for ordinarily well-con- structed buildings. The strongest and presumably best WATER CLOSETS 49 §21 form of connection, however, is that in which the flush pipe a enters the top of the porcelain, as in Fig. 48. A thick soft-rubber gasket b is pressed against the flush pipe and the shoulder of the brass casting c , which makes the joint water-tight. The flush pipe, however, has freedom to move without affecting the strength or tightness of the joint. This form of flush-pipe connection is recommended. FLUSHING TANKS INTRODUCTION 77. Classification. — A flushing: tank is a tank or cis- tern intended to contain or store water for the purpose of flushing, i. e., washing out water closets, urinals, slop sinks, drains, sewers, etc. A flushing tank is therefore intermittent in its action ; that is to say, its contents are discharged at intervals. There are two general classes of flushing tanks: (1) that class whose discharging depends on the action of some person who may operate either a chain pull, move the 50 WATER CLOSETS §21 closet seat, a floor treadle, a door, or some other device. The discharges from such a tank, which is called a non- automatic flushing tank, are irregular, according to the usage of the fixture to be flushed ; (2) that class whose dis- charging depends on the action of the water flowing into or from the tank. This kind is automatic, discharging with- out the aid of any person ; the discharge is at regular inter- vals, if the volume of the supply to the tank does not change. A tank of this class is called an automatic flush- ing tank. 78. The mechanism employed in operating flushing tanks is varied, each tank manufacturer having his own special combination of valves and levers, which is usually protected by letters patent. 79. Purpose of Flushing Apparatus. — The purpose of a flushing apparatus is to thoroughly detach and remove all excreta, etc. from a water-closet bowl, etc., and drive it through and beyond the trap. If the excreta can be driven out of the water-closet branch into the main soil pipe or main drain, it should be done, provided the water is abun- dant and not expensive; but it should invariably be driven out of the trap. A small stream of water, as from a J-inch pipe, although it may have a high pressure and be spread out by means of a fan or deflector, will not clean the bowl and remove solids from the bowl and trap as well as an equivalent volume of water that is delivered with a rush through lj-inch pipe and is spread out by means of a flushing rim. The small stream of water will frequently fail to make the solid matter, paper, etc. dive under the lip or bend of the trap, but the larger stream causes a rush of water that drives it through very effectively. The efficiency of a flushing apparatus can be readily tested by coloring the water in the closet bowl with ink, throwing in some pieces of crumpled paper, and then starting the apparatus. The flush may be considered satisfactory if no trace of ink or paper remains in the bowl, and if the trap 21 WATER CLOSETS 51 and basin contain a proper quantity of clean water after the flush is over. To secure a proper flush, a flushing tank should contain from 4 to 6 gallons of water, and it should be elevated at least 6 feet above the water-closet bowl. NON- AUTOMATIC FLUSHING TANKS 80. Plain Flushing Tank. — A common kind of flushing tank is shown in Fig. 49. The valve a is pulled open by means of the lever b and hand chain attached at c. The overflow d opens into the flush pipe e beneath the seat of the valve. The water rushes down the flush pipe only while the valve a is held open. The amount of water sent down may be too little to do the work properly, or the water may be wasted by holding the valve open longer than is necessary. The former trouble is most likely to occur, because very few people consider the amount of water that should be delivered in a flush when they pull the chain. Op OF ILL 113. 52 WATER CLOSETS 21 n 81 . Siphon Flushing Tank. — To remedy the defect mentioned in the preceding article, the siphon tank is used, which derives its name from the fact that it is emptied by siphonage. The construction of a siphon valve is shown in Fig. 50. It consists of an inner tube a and outer tube b, which are united at the top by an air-tight cap c. The inner tube is provided with a rubber ring d , which forms the valve, and is seated on the seat ring e. The two tubes thus form a siphon, the inner tube being the long leg. It is started into operation by lifting the valve off its seat. The water rushes down the flush pipe and draws the air out of a and quickly fills both a and b with water. The valve is dropped back to its seat, and the dis- charge continues through a and b until the level of the water falls below the lower end of b. Thus, if the valve be opened only a moment, or long enough to start the siphon, the tank will empty to the same point, and the same amount of water will be delivered on every occasion. The device shown in Fig. 49 can be easily modified to accomplish the same result. The overflow pipe d may be prolonged and bent over, as shown by the dotted lines, thus forming a siphon. Fig. 50 82. Service-Box Tank. — A kind of flush tank, known as a service-box tank, is employed either to furnish a large flush first and a smaller one immediately after, or in some other way to allow a certain volume of water to fall into the bowl and thereby refill the same after the tank valve is closed. A service-box tank, or, as some people call it, an after-flnsb tank, is shown in Fig. 51. The tank is divided into upper and lower chambers a and b. The valve c is made about 4 inches in diameter, and when it is opened it passes water much faster than the flush pipe d can Property at the Dep’t of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering, §21 water University of iiiinnis. 53 discharge it. The surplus fills the chamber, or service box, b. When c is closed the large flush ceases and the light flow continues until the chamber b is emptied. The overflow for the chamber a is at d. This tank may be made large enough to contain any desired number of flushes, while the ordinary siphon tank contains only one flush. 83. Flushing: Cisterns. — Fig. 52 shows a plain valve cistern commonly used for wash-down closets and hoppers. Its dimensions are FlG - 52 about 23 in. X 12 in. x 10 in. It is provided with a ball- cock a and an outlet valve b , which is operated by a lever c bolted to a cross-bar d , the lever being worked by a chain pull. The flush pipe is shown at e. A deafen- ing pipe f deadens the noise of the incoming water. The 54 WATER CLOSETS §21 tube g forms an overflow that discharges into the flush pipe e. The volume of flush from this tank is irregular, depending on the time the valve b is held up. 84 . Fig. 53 shows a siphon cistern particularly adapted for washout closets as well as wash downs and hoppers. Its dimensions are about 19 in. X 9 in. X 10 in. A momen- tary retention of the pull opens the valve a and starts the siphon formed by the shell b suspended over, and attached to, an inner stand- ing tube that is secured to the valve, as in Fig. 50. A refilling of the bowl is ob- tained by a slot cut in the lower end of the siphon tube b , which causes the siphon to break, that is, to stop working gradually. 85 . A refill float-valve cistern especially suitable for siphon-jet closets and other closets requiring a refilling of the bowl is shown in Fig. 54. When the float a is raised, it re- mains buoyed up until sufficient water has passed through the closet, when it returns gradually to its seat. The pipe b serves as an overflow and at the same time insures an abundant refilling of the bowl. These cisterns are remark- ably quiet in action. They are made in two sizes. 86. Automatic Operating Devices. — The flushing apparatus is generally operated by means of a chain or lever pulled by hand. It can also be operated automatically by § 31 WATER CLOSETS 55 connecting it to a hinged seat or platform that sustains the weight of the person using it. The seat is counter- balanced by means of a spring or weight that holds it up off its bearings. When the seat is in use, it yields an inch or so, and by means of suitable connections to the chain a , Fig. 55, it opens the valve b and closes the valve c. This fills the service box d with water from the tank. When not in use, the seat is raised, thus closing the supply valve b and opening the discharge valve c , the entire contents of the flushing chamber d are then sent quickly down the flush pipe e. This device is frequently used in railroad stations and other places where people are liable to go away and neglect flushing the closets. It is especially suitable where a number of closets arranged side by side are flushed from one long storage tank. Each separate flush box d should contain about 5 gallons of water when porce- lain bowls are used. 56 WATER CLOSETS §21 When the water-closet space is closed by a door, an attachment may be fitted to the door that will operate the flushing apparatus every time that the door is opened. 87. Points on Installation. — Cisterns with valves away from the edges are preferable, because the wood is liable to warp and cause the locknuts to cut the copper lining. 88. The ordinary valve connection to the bottom of a tank has a leather washer between the brass flange and the copper lining. The locknut under the tank compresses the leather, and makes a temporarily water-tight joint. But, the wood shrinks and the connection is then loosened by the jarring of the valve; this rapidly produces a leak, which, however slight, soon soaks the woodwork of the tank and causes it to warp or tear apart. To avoid this common trouble, every valve flange should be soldered to the lining. If it is necessary to remove them for repairs, the solder can easily be melted with a gasoline torch. 89. AUTOMATIC FLUSHING TANKS Tilting Tank. — Automatic flushing tanks are con- structed in many different ways. They are all designed for automatically flushing urinals, etc. at regular in- tervals. The form shown in Fig. 56 is called a tilt- ing tank. A tank a is divided by a partition into two equal chambers. It rocks on an axle b, and thus brings either chamber under the supply cock c. As the chamber fills, the center of gravity of the FlG - 56 tilting tank a gradually changes until it passes over the axle b , when the tank tilts WATER CLOSETS 57 § 21 over, emptying one chamber and bringing the other into position for filling. The water being emptied suddenly, a rapid flow is produced, which is well suited for flushing purposes. Sheet-metal shields f,f prevent water from splashing over the sides when the tilting tank a is discharged. When a number of urinals or closets are to be flushed from the same tank, it should be deep enough to contain the desired quantity of water, i. e., from 1 to 2 gallons per urinal, and the flush-pipe opening should be provided with a siphon that can be started automatically when enough water is emptied into the receiver. 90. Automatic Siphon Cistern. — A type of automatic flushing tank that is in common use is shown in Fig. 57, and is known by the trade name of auto- matic float-valve siphon cistern. A J-inch pipe a passing up through the bot- tom of the tank sup- plies water in a small stream to the tank through a common ground key cock b that is regulated to pass the proper quan- tity of water. The outlet to the tank is composed of a simple annular siphon, like that shown in Fig. 50. The outer siphon tube is surrounded by and attached to an air-tight chamber c . When water enters the tank, it rises slowly, because the valve d is closed, and continues to rise until it is about to overflow into the Fig. 57 58 WATER CLOSETS §21 top of the inner tube e, when the buoyancy of the float will lift the siphon valve d off its seat and as high as it can go. The water in the tank then rushes down the flush pipe f to the closets or urinals. The buoyancy of the float holds up the valve until the tank is about half empty, when the siphon valve will fall on its seat and the remaining water will be discharged by siphonage. The valve will remain closed and the tank will refill slowly for another discharge; an automatic action is thus obtained. 91 . Conditions Governing; the Installation. — Auto- matic flushing tanks are desirable only when the closets are arranged in ranges or latrines for use of school children or other people that are liable to neglect flushing the closet when they have finished using it. Automatic flushing tanks are desirable for flushing urinals only when the water sup- ply is abundant, as they waste an enormous amount of water; this makes their installation very expensive in many places. Plain overhead tanks with chain pull, or self-closing cocks working on the flushometer principle, are commonly used instead. WATER CLOSETS EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (1) What are, briefly, the essential requirements of a sanitary water closet ? (2) What is the principal objection to the pan closet? (3) Mention the principal objections to the plunger closet. (4) Briefly describe the difference between a long-hopper closet and a short-hopper closet, and state under what con- ditions they are commonly used. (5) Distinguish between a pedestal-hopper water closet and a short hopper and trap. (6) What important point must be considered in securing soil pipes that connect to pedestal-hopper closets with P traps ? (7) Briefly describe the advantages and disadvantages of a front-outlet washout water closet, and state for what class of work it is particularly adapted. (8) Briefly describe the operation of the siphon-jet water closet. (9) Distinguish between a siphon-jet closet and a siphon wash-down closet and state which is best. Give your reasons. (10) Briefly describe the construction of a low-down tank- closet combination, and state for what class of work it is particularly suited. 21 2 WATER CLOSETS § 21 (11) What are the chief objections to ordinary forms of low-down tank closets ? (12) How can the length of the flush, obtained by the flushometer, be regulated ? (13) Suppose that a building is furnished with water by a f-inch, galvanized-iron service pipe 60 feet long under a gauge pressure of 50 pounds; is it advisable to connect the flushometer closet to this pipe ? Give your reasons. (14) What is the objection to installing a flushometer closet with an air chamber to a small service pipe ? (15) Suppose that you are called upon to give an opinion as to whether or not it will be advisable to connect a flushometer to a cold-water supply system in a building hav- ing a service pipe under ground, the size of which is unknown, how would you proceed to determine whether the flush- ometer can be successfully operated from the street supply ? (16) Briefly describe the principle of the operation of pneumatic siphon closets. (17) What do you understand by the local ventilation of water closets ? (18) Briefly describe how a closet can be local vented by a positive draft obtained by a fan. (19) What is the best way to apply the flush to a set of latrines constructed on the pneumatic-siphon principle ? (20) Which is the better form of closet-seat attachment, that screwed to the bowl, or that screwed to the wall ? Give your reasons. (21) The porcelain of a water closet is connected to a metallic soil pipe; which is the better place to have the joint, at the sewer side of the trap, or on the house side of the trap ? (22) Briefly describe a self-testing floor-flange connection for a water closet, and explain its merits. (23) Briefly describe the strongest and most simple form of a flush-pipe connection to a porcelain bowl of a water closet. 21 WATER CLOSETS 3 (24) How can the efficiency of a water-closet flush be readily determined ? (25) Give some of the chief objections to a plain flush tank. (26) Describe the operation of a siphon flushing tank. (27) Briefly describe a refilling float-valve cistern espe- cially adapted for siphon-jet closets and other closets requir- ing a refilling of the bowl. (28) What is the chief objection to connecting a cistern valve to the bottom of a wooden flush tank by using a leather washer between the brass flange and the copper lining ? (29) Under what conditions is it desirable to use auto- matic flushing tanks in connection with closets ? SUPPLIES FOR STUDENTS In order to do good work, it is very necessary for our students to secure the best materials, instruments, etc. used in their Courses. We have often found that inexperienced students have paid exorbitant prices for inferior supplies, and their progress has been greatly retarded thereby. To insure our students against such errors, arrangements have been made with the Technical Supply Company, of Scranton, Pa., to furnish such as desire them with all the supplies necessary in the different Courses. The supplies listed below are first quality and the prices are reasonable. LIGHT-WEIGHT ANSWER PAPER RULED— Size, 8K" X 14" Price 500 Sheets* ~ . $1.50 500 Sheetsf . . 2.25 250 Sheets* .75 250 Sheetsf f. 1 5 100 Sheetsf 45 Samples sent on application “ T. S. 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